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diff --git a/40617-8.txt b/40617-0.txt index 3f78959..da132cf 100644 --- a/40617-8.txt +++ b/40617-0.txt @@ -1,41 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Teaching and Cultivation of the French -Language in England during Tudor and Stuart Times, by Kathleen Lambley - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Teaching and Cultivation of the French Language in England during Tudor and Stuart Times - With an Introductory Chapter on the Preceding Period - -Author: Kathleen Lambley - -Release Date: August 29, 2012 [EBook #40617] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TEACHING AND CULTIVATION *** - - - - -Produced by Ian Deane, Ethan Kent, Eleni Christofaki and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/American -Libraries.) - - - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40617 *** Transcriber's Notes: @@ -183,7 +146,7 @@ TABLE OF CONTENTS THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 26 - Triumph of continental French over Anglo-French--"Doux françois de + Triumph of continental French over Anglo-French--"Doux françois de Paris" a foreign language--Standard of French taught in England--_Femina_--Treatises on Grammar--Barton's _Donait_--Epistolaries--Books of conversation in French--The @@ -206,11 +169,11 @@ TABLE OF CONTENTS first place--Its use in correspondence and in official documents--The French of Henry VIII., his courtiers, and the ladies--Of Anne Boleyn and the other Queens--Of the royal family, Edward, Mary, and - Elizabeth--French tutors--Bernard André--French Grammars--Alexander + Elizabeth--French tutors--Bernard André--French Grammars--Alexander Barclay's _Introductory_--Practice and Theory--Pierre Valence, tutor to the Earl of Lincoln--His _Introductions in French_--Fragment of a Grammar at Lambeth--French Humanists as Language masters--Bourbon and - Denisot--England and the _Pléiade_. + Denisot--England and the _Pléiade_. CHAPTER II @@ -297,7 +260,7 @@ TABLE OF CONTENTS _Janitrix_--French grammars written in Latin--Antonio de Corro--John Sanford--Wye Saltonstall--Henry Leighton--French grammarians and teachers at Oxford--Robert Farrear--Pierre Bense--French teachers at - Cambridge--Gabriel du Grès at Cambridge and Oxford--On the teaching + Cambridge--Gabriel du Grès at Cambridge and Oxford--On the teaching of French--French at the Universities at the time of the Restoration--The French of the Universities and of the fashionable world--French at the Inns of Court--One-sidedness of the University @@ -317,7 +280,7 @@ TABLE OF CONTENTS of French--Dallington and Moryson--Study of French before travel--French 'by rote'--Language masters for travellers--French grammars for travellers--Charles Maupas of Blois and his son--Antoine - Oudin--Other grammars--Père Chiflet--The 'exercises'--Travellers at + Oudin--Other grammars--Père Chiflet--The 'exercises'--Travellers at the Universities--At the Protestant Academies--Geneva--Isaac Casaubon--The 'idle traveller'--The 'beau'--Affectations of newly returned travellers--Commendation and censure of travel. @@ -381,7 +344,7 @@ TABLE OF CONTENTS writings--Life in London--Teaches English--Mauger's method of teaching--Mauger at Paris--The demand for his grammar abroad--Paul Festeau--His French and English grammars--Editions and - contents--Pierre Lainé--His French grammar--Encouragement of the + contents--Pierre Lainé--His French grammar--Encouragement of the study of French literature. CHAPTER IV @@ -390,7 +353,7 @@ TABLE OF CONTENTS LANGUAGE 319 Vogue of French romances in England--Dorothy Osborne--Pepys on French - literature--His French books--French text-books and the _précieux_ + literature--His French books--French text-books and the _précieux_ spirit--William Herbert--His criticism of the French teaching profession--Rivalry among teachers--Need for protection--Herbert's later works--His early career in England--Quarrels with a minister of @@ -433,10 +396,10 @@ TABLE OF CONTENTS THE TEACHING OF FRENCH AND ITS POPULARITY AFTER THE RESTORATION 381 - French grammars after the Restoration--Pierre de Lainé, tutor to the + French grammars after the Restoration--Pierre de Lainé, tutor to the children of the Duke of York--The _Princely Way to the French - Tongue_--Guy Miège--His Dictionaries--His French Grammars--His method - of teaching--Rote and grammar--Miège's other works--Other French + Tongue_--Guy Miège--His Dictionaries--His French Grammars--His method + of teaching--Rote and grammar--Miège's other works--Other French Grammars--Pierre Berault--The universality of French--Supremacy over Latin in the world of fashion and diplomacy--Position of French in the educational world--The classics read in French--'All learning now @@ -479,7 +442,7 @@ CHAPTER I The first important grammar of the French language was printed in England and written by an Englishman. This enterprising student was John -Palsgrave, "natyf de Londres et gradué de Paris," whose work, entitled +Palsgrave, "natyf de Londres et gradué de Paris," whose work, entitled _L'Esclarcissement de la langue francoyse_, was published in 1530. It is an enormous quarto of over a thousand pages, full of elaborate, detailed and often obscure rules, written in English in spite of the French @@ -601,7 +564,7 @@ complete,[17] and that at the same time French was very popular on the Continent undoubtedly helped to make its position in England stronger. It was then that the Italian Brunetto Latini wrote his _Livres dou Tresor_ (1265), in French rather than in his native tongue, because -French was "plus delitable et plus commune à toutes gens." During the +French was "plus delitable et plus commune à toutes gens." During the same century French came to be used in correspondence on both sides of the Channel.[18] Little by little it was recognized as the most convenient medium for official uses, and the language most generally @@ -841,12 +804,12 @@ life, he finally gives a description of the building of a house and various domestic arrangements, ending with a description of an old English feast with its familiar dish, the boar's head: - Au primer fust apporté + Au primer fust apporté _a boris heued_ - La teste de un sengler tot armé, + La teste de un sengler tot armé, _the snout_ _wit baneres of flurs_ E au groyn le colere en banere; - E pus veneysoun, ou la fourmenté; + E pus veneysoun, ou la fourmenté; Assez par my la mesoun _tahen of gres tyme_ De treste du fermeyson. @@ -855,19 +818,19 @@ English feast with its familiar dish, the boar's head: _Cranes_, _pokokes_, _swannes_ Grues, pounes, e cygnes, _Wilde ges_, _gryses_ (_porceaus_), _hennes_, - Owes, rosées, porceus, gelyns; - Au tercez cours avient conyns en gravé, - Et viaunde de Cypre enfundré, - De maces, e quibibes, e clous de orré, - Vyn blanc e vermayl a graunt plenté. + Owes, rosées, porceus, gelyns; + Au tercez cours avient conyns en gravé, + Et viaunde de Cypre enfundré, + De maces, e quibibes, e clous de orré, + Vyn blanc e vermayl a graunt plenté. _wodekok_ Pus avoyunt fesauns, assez, et perdriz, _Feldefares larkes_ Grives, alowes, e pluviers ben rostez; E braoun, e crispes, e fritune; Ke soucre roset poudra la temprune. - Apres manger avyunt a graunt plenté - Blaunche poudre, ou la grosse dragé, + Apres manger avyunt a graunt plenté + Blaunche poudre, ou la grosse dragé, Et d'autre nobleie a fusoun, Ensi vous fynys ceo sermoun; Kar de fraunceis i ad assez, @@ -950,7 +913,7 @@ and early in the fourteenth century guides to letter-writing in French, in the form of epistolaries or collections of model letters, were produced.[47] The letters themselves are given in French, but the accompanying rules and instructions for composing them are in Latin. -French and Latin have changed rôles; in earlier times Latin had been +French and Latin have changed rôles; in earlier times Latin had been explained to school children by means of French. Forms for addressing members of the different grades of society are supplied, from epistles to the king and high state and ecclesiastical dignitaries down to @@ -964,7 +927,7 @@ nature possess a greater attraction, and throw light on the family life of the age. A letter from a mother to her son at school may be quoted:[48] - Salut avesque ma beniçon, tres chier filz. Sachiez que je desire + Salut avesque ma beniçon, tres chier filz. Sachiez que je desire grandement de savoir bons nouelles de vous et de vostre estat: car vostre pere et moy estions a la faisance de ces lettres en bon poynt le Dieu merci. Et sachiez que je vous envoie par le portour @@ -974,7 +937,7 @@ quoted:[48] mye mauvaise compagnie, car si vous le faitez il vous fera grant damage, avant que vous l'aperceiverez. Et je vous aiderai selon mon pooir oultre ce que vostre pere vous donnra. Dieus vous doint sa - beniçon, car je vous donne la mienne. . . . + beniçon, car je vous donne la mienne. . . . From about the middle of the fourteenth century a feeling of discontent with the prerogative of the French language in England becomes @@ -1015,7 +978,7 @@ remarkable way by the literature of the period. Those who had received special educational advantages, or had travelled on the Continent, spoke and wrote French correctly; others used forms which contrasted pitiably with continental French. Moreover, the fourteenth century saw the -triumph of the Île de France dialect in France; the other dialects +triumph of the ÃŽle de France dialect in France; the other dialects ceased, as a rule, to be used in literature,[52] and this change was not without effect on Anglo-French, which shared their degradation. Chaucer lets us know the poor opinion he had of the French of England; his @@ -1031,19 +994,19 @@ French. Nor were their excuses superfluous in many cases; William of Wadington, the author of the _Manuel des Pechiez_, for example, wrote:[54] - De le françois ne del rimer + De le françois ne del rimer Ne me doit nuls hom blamer, - Car en Engleterre fu né - Et nurri lenz et ordiné. + Car en Engleterre fu né + Et nurri lenz et ordiné. Such apologies became all the more necessary as time went on. Even Gower, whose French was comparatively pure,[55] owing no doubt to travel in France in early life, deemed it advisable to explain that he wrote in French for "tout le monde en general," and to ask pardon if he has not -"de François la faconde": +"de François la faconde": Jeo suis Englois si quier par tiele voie - Estre excusé. + Estre excusé. At about the same time the anonymous author of the _Testament of Love_ finds fault with the English for their persistence in writing in bad @@ -1059,7 +1022,7 @@ of Edward III., many of the English nobility resided in that country with their families. Montaigne refers to traces of the English in Guyenne, which still remained in the sixteenth century: "Il est une nation," he writes in one of his Essays, "a laquelle ceux de mon -quartier ont eu autrefois si privée accointance qu'il reste encore en ma +quartier ont eu autrefois si privée accointance qu'il reste encore en ma maison aucune trace de leur ancien cousinage."[57] The opinions formed by the French of the English were naturally anything but flattering. We find them expressed in songs of the time.[58] But the recriminations @@ -1069,8 +1032,8 @@ indiscriminately: Franche dogue dit un Anglois. Vous ne faites que boire vin, - Si faisons bien dist le François, - Mais vous buvez le lunnequin. (bière.)[59] + Si faisons bien dist le François, + Mais vous buvez le lunnequin. (bière.)[59] Even in the _Roman de Renart_ we come across traces of familiarity with English ways, and also of the English language.[60] @@ -1080,7 +1043,7 @@ France, especially when we remember that already in the thirteenth century the provincial accents of the different parts of France herself had been the object of some considerable amount of raillery.[61] The English, says Froissart, a good judge, for he spent many years in -England, "disoient bien que le françois que ils avoient apris chies eulx +England, "disoient bien que le françois que ils avoient apris chies eulx d'enfance n'estoit pas de telle nature et condition que celluy de France estoit."[62] And this 'condition' was soon recognized as a plentiful store for facetious remarks and parodies of all kinds. In the _Roman de @@ -1097,7 +1060,7 @@ And Ysengrin answers: Et dex saut vos, bau dous amis! Dont estes vos? de quel pais? - Vous n'estes mie nés de France, + Vous n'estes mie nés de France, Ne de la nostre connoissance. A _fabliau_ of the fourteenth century[64] pictures the dilemma of two @@ -1147,7 +1110,7 @@ estimates the value of the three languages of the English Law:[67] And Latin vilest of the three. At about the same time as Swift wrote, the 'frenchified' Lady, then in -fashion, who prided herself on her knowledge of the "language à la mode" +fashion, who prided herself on her knowledge of the "language à la mode" is described as being able to "keep the field against a whole army of Lawyers, and that in their own language, French gibberish."[68] And long after French ceased to be used in the Law many law terms and legal and @@ -1258,9 +1221,9 @@ Herbert Ames's _Typographical Antiquities_, 1819, iii. p. 365. [2] The grammar of Jacques Sylvius or Dubois appeared in 1531, a year after Palsgrave's. No attempt at a theoretical treatment of the French language appeared in France in the Middle Ages. There are, however, two -Provençal ones extant. (F. Brunot, "Le Français à l'étranger," in L. -Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la langue et de la littérature -française_, ii. p. 528.) +Provençal ones extant. (F. Brunot, "Le Français à l'étranger," in L. +Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la langue et de la littérature +française_, ii. p. 528.) [3] One of the chief effects of the Conquest in the schools is said to have been the substitution of Norman for English schoolmasters (Leach, @@ -1279,18 +1242,18 @@ Oxford, 1895, ii. p. 603. [6] Adam du Petit Pont (_d._ 1150) wrote an epistle in Latin, many words of which were glossed in French. But there is no evidence that it was -used in England. It was published by E. Scheler in his _Trois traités de -lexicographie latine du 12e et 13e siècles_, Leipzig, 1867. +used in England. It was published by E. Scheler in his _Trois traités de +lexicographie latine du 12e et 13e siècles_, Leipzig, 1867. [7] Ed. T. Wright, _Volume of Vocabularies_, i. 96, and Scheler, _op. cit._ Both editions are deemed unsatisfactory by Paul Meyer (_Romania_, xxxvi. 482). [8] It has been published five times: (1) At Caen by Vincent Correr in -1508 (_Romania_, _ut supra_); (2) H. Géraud, in _Documents inédits sur -l'histoire de France_: "Paris sous Philippe le Bel d'après les documents +1508 (_Romania_, _ut supra_); (2) H. Géraud, in _Documents inédits sur +l'histoire de France_: "Paris sous Philippe le Bel d'après les documents originaux," 1837; (3) Kervyn de Lettenhove, 1851; (4) T. Wright, _Volume -of Vocabularies_, i. pp. 120 _sqq._; (5) Scheler, _Trois traités de +of Vocabularies_, i. pp. 120 _sqq._; (5) Scheler, _Trois traités de lexicographie latine_. [9] Wright, _op. cit._ pp. 139-141. @@ -1314,7 +1277,7 @@ Cambridge_, 1841, p. 4. [15] Rashdall, _op. cit._ i. pp. 319 _et seq._ Later the English nation was known as the German; it included all students from the north and east of Europe. On the English in the University of Paris see Ch. -Thurot, _De l'organisation de l'enseignement dans l'Université de +Thurot, _De l'organisation de l'enseignement dans l'Université de Paris_, Paris, 1850; and J. E. Sandys, "English Scholars of Paris, and Franciscans of Oxford," in _The Cambridge History of English Literature_, i., 1908, chap. x. pp. 183 _et seq._ @@ -1326,8 +1289,8 @@ intellectuelles entre la France et l'Angleterre_, Paris, 1856, p. 11. Normans and who English ("Dialogus de Scaccario": Stubbs, _Select Charters_, 4th ed., 1881, p. 168). -[18] "Discours sur l'état des lettres au 13e siècle," in the _Histoire -littéraire de la France_, xvi. p. 168. +[18] "Discours sur l'état des lettres au 13e siècle," in the _Histoire +littéraire de la France_, xvi. p. 168. [19] D. Behrens, in H. Paul's _Grundiss der germanischen Philologie_, Strassbourg, 1901, pp. 953-55; Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, v. 1876, pp. @@ -1342,8 +1305,8 @@ _Collectanea_, 1st series, 1885, pp. 8 _sqq._). [21] Maitland, _Collected Papers_, 1911, ii. p. 437. -[22] Such are Bozon's _Contes moralisés_ (_c._ 1320), ed. P. Meyer, in -the _Anciens Textes Français_, 1889. In his Introduction Meyer lays +[22] Such are Bozon's _Contes moralisés_ (_c._ 1320), ed. P. Meyer, in +the _Anciens Textes Français_, 1889. In his Introduction Meyer lays stress on the widespread use of French in England at this time, and its chance of becoming the national language of England, an eventuality which, he thinks, might have been a benefit to humanity. @@ -1354,7 +1317,7 @@ which, he thinks, might have been a benefit to humanity. xxxii. p. 65). [25] There are four MSS. extant. These have been collated and published -by J. Sturzinger in the _Altfranzösische Bibliothek_, vol. viii., +by J. Sturzinger in the _Altfranzösische Bibliothek_, vol. viii., Heilbronn, 1884; cp. _Romania_, xiv. p. 60. The earliest MS. is in the Record Office, and was published by T. Wright in Haupt and Hoffman's _Altdeutsche Blaetter_ (ii. p. 193). Diez quoted from this edition in @@ -1362,7 +1325,7 @@ his _Grammaire des langues romanes_, 3rd ed. i. pp. 415, 418 _sqq._ The three other MSS. are in the Brit. Mus., Camb. Univ. Libr. and Magdalen Col. Oxon., and belong to the three succeeding centuries. Portions of the Magdalen Col. MS. are quoted by A. J. Ellis, in his _Early English -Pronunciation_, pp. 836-839, and by F. Génin, in his preface to the +Pronunciation_, pp. 836-839, and by F. Génin, in his preface to the French Government reprint of Palsgrave's Grammar, 1852. It is the British Museum copy, made in the reign of Edward III., which contains the French commentary. @@ -1384,7 +1347,7 @@ _habet_, should be written without _d_; that _aura_, _en array_ should be written without _e_ in the middle, and sounded without _u_, as _aray_, _en array_, though the English include the _e_. -[29] Published by Stengel, in the _Zeitschrift für neufranzösische +[29] Published by Stengel, in the _Zeitschrift für neufranzösische Sprache und Literatur_, 1879, pp. 16-22. [30] Miss Pope, _ut supra_. @@ -1413,7 +1376,7 @@ best-known edition of the vocabulary is that of T. Wright, _Volume of Vocabularies_, i. pp. 142-174, which is the one here quoted, and which reproduces Arundel MS. 220, collated with Sloane MS. 809. P. Meyer has given a critical edition of the first eighty-six lines in his _Recueil -d'anciens textes--partie française_, No. 367 (cp. _Romania_, xiii. p. +d'anciens textes--partie française_, No. 367 (cp. _Romania_, xiii. p. 500). [37] In the vocabularies written in imitation of Bibbesworth at later @@ -1474,8 +1437,8 @@ to their gender: fourteenth century. These epistolaries are found in the following MSS.: Harleian 4971 and 3988, Addit. 17716, in the Brit. Mus.; Ee 4, 20 in Cantab. Univ. Library; B 14. 39, 40 in Trinity Col. Camb.; 182 at All -Souls, Oxford, and 188 Magdalen Col. Oxford (cp. Stürzinger, -_Altfranzösiche Bibliothek_), viii. pp. xvii-xix. The Introductions to +Souls, Oxford, and 188 Magdalen Col. Oxford (cp. Stürzinger, +_Altfranzösiche Bibliothek_), viii. pp. xvii-xix. The Introductions to these letters were edited in a Griefswald Dissertation (1898), by W. Uerkvitz. @@ -1487,12 +1450,12 @@ Uerkvitz. Cambridge, 1896, pp. 635 _sqq._ [51] L. Menger, _Anglo-Norman Dialect_; Behrens, _art. cit._ pp. 960 -_sqq._; Brunot, _Histoire de la langue française_, i. pp. 319 _sqq._, +_sqq._; Brunot, _Histoire de la langue française_, i. pp. 319 _sqq._, 369. [52] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 331. -[53] Jusserand, _Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, 1896. p. 240 n. +[53] Jusserand, _Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, 1896. p. 240 n. [54] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 369. @@ -1520,7 +1483,7 @@ Brunot, _op. cit._ p. 369 n. [63] Ed. E. Martin, 1882, l. 2351 _sqq._ -[64] _Recueil général et complet des fabliaux_, ed. Montaiglon et +[64] _Recueil général et complet des fabliaux_, ed. Montaiglon et Raynaud, ii. p. 178. [65] Maitland, _Collected Papers_, 1911, ii. p. 436; Freeman, _op. cit._ @@ -1535,7 +1498,7 @@ Register_. [68] [H. Dell], _The Frenchified Lady never in Paris_, London, 1757. [69] Pepys in his Diary notes the use of French in such phrases, and the -Abbé Le Blanc (_Lettres d'un Français sur les Anglais_, à la Haye, 1745) +Abbé Le Blanc (_Lettres d'un Français sur les Anglais_, à la Haye, 1745) was also struck by the custom. [70] Bateson, _Mediaeval England_, p. 342; Warton, _History of English @@ -1543,7 +1506,7 @@ Poetry_, p. 10 n. [71] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series, 1846, i. p. xi. -[72] M. A. E. Green (_née_ Wood), _Letters of Royal and Illustrious +[72] M. A. E. Green (_née_ Wood), _Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies_, London, 1846; _The Paston Letters_, new edition by J. Gairdner, 3 vols., London, 1872-75; H. Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series, London, 1846; J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, _Letters of the Kings of @@ -1553,7 +1516,7 @@ _Literature of Europe_, 6th ed., London, 1860, i. p. 54. [73] "Que tout seigneur, baron, chevalier et honestes hommes de bonnes villes mesissent cure et dilligence de estruire et apprendre leurs -enfans le langhe françoise, par quoy il en fuissent plus avec et plus +enfans le langhe françoise, par quoy il en fuissent plus avec et plus costumier ens leurs gherres" (Froissart, quoted by Behrens, _op. cit._ p. 957 n.). @@ -1581,23 +1544,23 @@ reputation in England before the arrival of the invaders,[75] and had already made some progress towards becoming the language which the English loved and cultivated above all modern foreign tongues, and to which they devoted for a great many years more care than they did to -their own. "Doulz françois," writes an Englishman at the end of the +their own. "Doulz françois," writes an Englishman at the end of the fourteenth century in a treatise for teaching the language,[76] is the most beautiful and gracious language in the world, after the Latin of -the schools,[77] "et de tous gens mieulx prisée et amée que nul autre; +the schools,[77] "et de tous gens mieulx prisée et amée que nul autre; quar Dieu le fist se doulce et amiable principalement a l'oneur et loenge de luy mesmes. Et pour ce il peut bien comparer au parler des -angels du ciel, pour la grant doulceur et biaultée d'icel"--a more +angels du ciel, pour la grant doulceur et biaultée d'icel"--a more eloquent tribute even than the more famous lines of Brunetto Latini. Another writer of the same period informs us that "les bones gens du Roiaume d'Engleterre sont embrasez a scavoir lire et escrire, entendre -et parler droit François," and that he himself thinks it is very -necessary for the English to know the "droict nature de François," for +et parler droit François," and that he himself thinks it is very +necessary for the English to know the "droict nature de François," for many reasons.[78] For instance, that they may enjoy intercourse with their neighbours, the good folk of the kingdom of France; that they may better understand the laws of England, of which a great many are still written in French; and also because "beaucoup de bones choses sont misez -en François," and the lords and ladies of England are very fond of +en François," and the lords and ladies of England are very fond of writing to each other in the same tongue.[79] As a result of the altered circumstances which were modifying the @@ -1605,7 +1568,7 @@ attitude of the English, there is a corresponding change in the standard of the French which the manuals for teaching that language sought to attain. All the best text-books of the end of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries endeavour with few exceptions to impart a knowledge -of the French of Paris, "doux françois de Paris" or "la droite language +of the French of Paris, "doux françois de Paris" or "la droite language de Paris," as it was called, in contrast with the French of Stratford-atte-Bowe and other parts of England. Those authors of treatises for teaching French of whose lives we have any details, had @@ -1683,9 +1646,9 @@ Cap: primum docet rethorice loqui de assimilitudine bestiarum. Spekep alway as man ys tauth And not as man untauth. - Parlez imprimer de tout assemblé + Parlez imprimer de tout assemblé n o - Dez bestez que Dieu ad formé. + Dez bestez que Dieu ad formé. Spekep fyrst of manere assemble alle Of bestes that God hath y maked. @@ -1747,7 +1710,7 @@ understand the French ("cum expositione earundem in Latinis"). The two most considerable of these works known add many verbs to the list mentioned above. Of these the first, the _Liber Donati_,[87] gives examples of law French rather than literary French;[88] but the other, -written in French, endeavours to teach "douce françois de Paris"--_cy +written in French, endeavours to teach "douce françois de Paris"--_cy comence le Donait soloum douce franceis de Paris_.[89] The _Donait_ belongs to the fifteenth century, and is the work of one R. Dove, who also wrote some _Regulae de Orthographia Gallica_ in Latin,[90] which @@ -1795,7 +1758,7 @@ comprehensive grammar is the _Liber Donati_, which includes observations on the orthography and pronunciation, on verbs and pronouns, and lists of adverbs, conjunctions, and numerals. But there appeared at the beginning of the fifteenth century, before 1409, a more comprehensive -treatise of some real value--the _Donait françois pur briefment +treatise of some real value--the _Donait françois pur briefment entroduyr les Anglois en la droit langue du Paris et de pais la d'entour_,[95] a work which but for its very many anglicisms might be placed on a level with some of the similar grammars of the sixteenth @@ -1809,7 +1772,7 @@ short but communicative preface, the work was intended mainly for the use of young people--the "chers enfants" and "tres douces pucelles," 'hungering' to learn French: "Pur ce, mes chiers enfantz et tresdoulcez puselles," he writes, "que avez fam d'apprendre cest Donait scachez -qu'il est divisé en belcoup de chapiters si come il apperera cy avale." +qu'il est divisé en belcoup de chapiters si come il apperera cy avale." Barton then retires to make way for his 'clerks,' whose remarks are entirely confined to grammatical teaching and who, like Barton, write in French. @@ -1848,11 +1811,11 @@ their pronunciation, set forth, like the rest of the grammar, in a series of questions and answers: Quantez letters est il? Vint. Quellez? Cinq voielx et quinse - consonantez. Quelx sont les voielx et ou seroit ils sonnés? Le - premier vouyel est _a_ et serra sonné en la poetrine, la seconde - est _e_ et serra sonné en la gorge, le tiers est _i_ et serra sonné - entre les joues, le quart est _o_ et serra sonné du palat de la - bouche, le quint est _u_ et serra sonné entre les levres. + consonantez. Quelx sont les voielx et ou seroit ils sonnés? Le + premier vouyel est _a_ et serra sonné en la poetrine, la seconde + est _e_ et serra sonné en la gorge, le tiers est _i_ et serra sonné + entre les joues, le quart est _o_ et serra sonné du palat de la + bouche, le quint est _u_ et serra sonné entre les levres. To these observations on the vowels are added a few on the consonants, and "belcoup de bones rieules" (six in all) treating the avoidance of @@ -1888,7 +1851,7 @@ were lost and soon forgotten. In the fifteenth century, instruction in French epistolary style of all degrees continued to be supplied in collections of model letters; and at the end of the fourteenth century a new kind of book for teaching French -appeared--the _Manière de Langage_ or model conversation book, intended +appeared--the _Manière de Langage_ or model conversation book, intended for the use of travellers, merchants, and others desiring a conversational and practical rather than a thorough and grammatical knowledge of French. Contrary to the custom, prevalent at this later @@ -1910,27 +1873,27 @@ then much frequented by the English and other foreigners, especially law students. He may have been Canon M. T. Coyfurelly, Doctor of Law of Orleans,[105] and author of the contemporary recasting of T. H.'s treatise on French orthography. The author tells us he undertook his -task at the request of a "tres honoré et tres gentil sire"; that he had +task at the request of a "tres honoré et tres gentil sire"; that he had learnt French "es parties la mere," and that he wrote according to the knowledge he acquired there, which, he admits, may not be perfect. Indeed his French is full of anglicisms; _que homme_ is written for 'that man'; _oeuvrer_ for 'worker'; _que_ for 'why,' and so on; there are also many grammatical mistakes such as wrong genders, _au homme_, -_de les_ for _des_, _de le_ for _du_. This "manière" must have enjoyed a +_de les_ for _des_, _de le_ for _du_. This "manière" must have enjoyed a very considerable popularity, judging from the number of manuscripts, of various dates, still in existence. And, in modern times, it presents a greater interest to the reader than any of the treatises mentioned -before, partly from the naïveté and quaintness of its style, partly +before, partly from the naïveté and quaintness of its style, partly owing to the vivid picture it gives us of the life of the time at which it was written. It opens in a religious strain, with a prayer that the students of the book may have "sens naturel" to learn to speak, pronounce, and write -"doulz françois": +"doulz françois": A noster commencement nous dirons ainsi: en nom du pere, filz et Saint Esperit, amen. Ci comence la Maniere de Language qui - t'enseignera bien a droit parler et escrire doulz françois selon + t'enseignera bien a droit parler et escrire doulz françois selon l'usage et la coustume de France. Primiers, au commencement de nostre fait et besogne nous prierons Dieu devoutement et nostre Dame la benoite vierge Marie sa tres douce mere, et toute la @@ -1938,9 +1901,9 @@ book may have "sens naturel" to learn to speak, pronounce, and write mette ses amis et ses eslus, de quoi vient toute science, sapience, grace et entendement et tous manieres vertuz, qu'il luy plaist de sa grande misericorde et grace tous les escoliers estudianz en cest - livre ainsi abruver et enluminer de la rousée de sa haute sapience + livre ainsi abruver et enluminer de la rousée de sa haute sapience et entendement, qu'ils pouront avoir sens naturel d'aprendre a - parler, bien soner et a droit escrire doulz françois. + parler, bien soner et a droit escrire doulz françois. Then, because man is the noblest of all created things, the author proceeds to give a list of the parts of his body, which recalls the old @@ -1961,11 +1924,11 @@ journey, the reader accompanies the lord and his page through an imaginary journey in France. Dialogue and narrative alternate, and the lord talks with his page Janyn or whiles away the time with songs: - Et quant il aura achevée sa chanson il comencera a parler a son + Et quant il aura achevée sa chanson il comencera a parler a son escuier ou a ses escuiers, ainsi disant: "Mes amys, il est bien pres de nuyt," vel sic: "Il sera par temps nuyt." Doncques respont Janyn au son signeur bien gentilment en cest maniere: "Vrayement mon - seigneur, vous ditez verité"; vel sic: "vous ditez voir"; vel sic: + seigneur, vous ditez verité"; vel sic: "vous ditez voir"; vel sic: "vous dites vray"--"Je panse bien qu'il feroit mieux pour nous d'arester en ce ville que d'aller plus avant maishuy. Coment vous est avis?"--"Ainsi comme vous vuillez, mon seigneur." "Janyn!"--"Mon @@ -1977,9 +1940,9 @@ lord talks with his page Janyn or whiles away the time with songs: The page then proceeds to make hasty preparations for the coming of his master to the inn, and we next assist at the arrival of the lord and his evening meal and diversions--another opportunity for the introduction of -songs--and his departure in the morning towards Étampes and Orleans. +songs--and his departure in the morning towards Étampes and Orleans. -More humble characters appear in the next chapter: "Un autre manière de +More humble characters appear in the next chapter: "Un autre manière de parler de pietalle, comme des labourers et oeuvrers de mestiers." Here we have conversations between members of the working classes. A gardener and a ditcher discuss their respective earnings, describe their work, @@ -1988,23 +1951,23 @@ gives us the names of the chief things used in his trade, just as the gardener gave a list of flowers and fruits. A merchant scolds his apprentice for various misdemeanours, and then sends him off to market: - Doncques l'apprentiz s'en vait au marchié pour vendre les danrées de + Doncques l'apprentiz s'en vait au marchié pour vendre les danrées de son maistre et la vienment grant cop des gens de divers pais de les achater: et apprentiz leur dit tout courtoisement en cest maniere,--'Mes amis venez vous ciens et je vous monstrerai de aussi bon drap comme vous trouverez en tout ce ville, et vous en aurez de - aussi bon marché comme nul autre. Ore regardez, biau sire, comment + aussi bon marché comme nul autre. Ore regardez, biau sire, comment vous est avis; vel sic: comment vous plaist il; and after some bargaining he sells his goods. -In the next "manière de parler" a servant brings a torn doublet to a +In the next "manière de parler" a servant brings a torn doublet to a mender of old clothes, and enlists his services. A chapter of more interest and importance is that dealing with greetings and salutations to be used at different times of the day to members of the various ranks of society: - Quant un homme encontrera aucun au matinée il luy dira tout + Quant un homme encontrera aucun au matinée il luy dira tout courtoisement ainsi: "Mon signour Dieux vous donne boun matin et bonne aventure," vel sic: "Sire Dieux vous doint boun matin et bonne estraine, Mon amy, Dieux vous doint bon jour et bonne encontre." Et @@ -2026,7 +1989,7 @@ comfort him, and when a poor man asks you for alms, you shall answer, From this we return to subjects more suited to merchants and wayfarers--how to inquire the road, and to go on a pilgrimage to the -tomb of St. Thomas-à-Becket. The work closes with a gathering of +tomb of St. Thomas-à -Becket. The work closes with a gathering of companions in an inn, which, like the rest of the chapters, is full of life and interest. Last of all, a sort of supplement is added in the form of a short poem on the drawbacks of poverty: @@ -2037,7 +2000,7 @@ and a _fatrasie_ in prose. Another treatise of the same kind, written about three years later, was intended chiefly for the use of children, _Un petit livre pour enseigner -les enfantz de leur entreparler comun françois_.[106] It was not the +les enfantz de leur entreparler comun françois_.[106] It was not the first of its kind. The metrical vocabularies of Bibbesworth and his successors were chiefly intended for the use of children. There is also some evidence to show that the grammatical treatises were used by @@ -2048,10 +2011,10 @@ puselles," as those whom his grammar particularly concerns. In the _Petit livre_, however, the teaching is of the simplest kind, and specially suited to children. The dialogue lacks the interest of the -earlier 'manière,' and inclines, in places, to become a list of phrases +earlier 'manière,' and inclines, in places, to become a list of phrases pure and simple. The work opens abruptly with the words: "Pour ce sachez -premierement que le an est divisé en deux, c'est asscavoir le yver et -la esté. Le yver a six mois et la esté atant, que vallent douse," and so +premierement que le an est divisé en deux, c'est asscavoir le yver et +la esté. Le yver a six mois et la esté atant, que vallent douse," and so on to the other divisions of the year and time. The children are then taught the numbers in French, the names of the coins, and those of the persons and things with which they come into daily contact. Then follow @@ -2066,16 +2029,16 @@ the chatter on the events of the day there occurs a passage which enables us to date the work. The traveller tells the hostess of the captivity of Richard II. as a recent event: - "Dieu, dame, j'ay ouy dire que le roy d'Angleterre est osté."--"Quoy + "Dieu, dame, j'ay ouy dire que le roy d'Angleterre est osté."--"Quoy desioie!"--"Par ma alme voir."--"Et les Anglois n'ont ils point de roy donques?"--"Marie, ouy, et que celuy que fust duc de Lancastre, - que est nepveu a celluy que est osté."--"Voire?"--"Voire + que est nepveu a celluy que est osté."--"Voire?"--"Voire vraiement."--"Et le roygne que fera elle?"--"Par dieu dame, je ne - sçay, je n'ay pas esté en conceille."--"Et le roy d'Angleterre ou - fust il coronné?"--"A Westmynstre."--"Fustez vous la + sçay, je n'ay pas esté en conceille."--"Et le roy d'Angleterre ou + fust il coronné?"--"A Westmynstre."--"Fustez vous la donques?"--"Marie, oy, il y avoit tant de presse que par un pou que ne mouru quar a paine je eschapey a vie."--"Et ou serra il a - nouvel?"--"Par ma foy je ne sçay, mais l'en dit qu'il serra en + nouvel?"--"Par ma foy je ne sçay, mais l'en dit qu'il serra en Escoce." The authorship is not so easy to ascertain. The manual may be due to @@ -2118,16 +2081,16 @@ It is likely that in the fifteenth century these conversational manuals supplanted, to a considerable extent, the earlier type of practical manual for teaching French--the metrical vocabulary--with which they had something in common. At any rate, there is no copy of such nomenclatures -extant after _Femina_ (1415). The 'manières' provided in their dialogues +extant after _Femina_ (1415). The 'manières' provided in their dialogues much of the material found in the vocabularies, giving, wherever possible, groups of words on the same topics--the body, its clothing, houses, and men's occupations. Further, the vocabularies, which had never departed from the type instituted by Bibbesworth in the thirteenth century, dealt more with the feudal and agricultural life of the Middle -Ages, and so had fallen behind the times. The 'Manières de Langage' were +Ages, and so had fallen behind the times. The 'Manières de Langage' were more in keeping with the new conditions. Towards the end of the century (and perhaps at the beginning of the sixteenth century) we come to a -manual,[110] which, while resembling the 'manières' in most points, +manual,[110] which, while resembling the 'manières' in most points, reproduces some of the distinctive external marks of the vocabularies. For instance, the French is arranged in short lines, which, however, do not rime, and vary considerably in the number of syllables they contain; @@ -2191,7 +2154,7 @@ careless work on the part of the scribe. Merchants thus appear to have been one of the chief classes among which there was a demand for instruction in French. In addition to the large -part assigned to them in the 'Manières de Langage,' and in the +part assigned to them in the 'Manières de Langage,' and in the epistolaries, where letters of a commercial nature are a usual feature, there exist collections of model forms for drawing up bills, indentures, receipts and other documents of similar import. They are usually called @@ -2207,7 +2170,7 @@ de primes en Latyn et puis en Franceys." More emphasis is laid on the demand for instruction in French among the merchant class by the fact that the earliest printed text-books were designed chiefly for their use. The first of these may be classed with -the new development of the 'Manières de Langage,' comprising dialogues +the new development of the 'Manières de Langage,' comprising dialogues in French and English, although it does not exactly answer to this description.[114] It was issued from the press of William Caxton in about 1483, and at least one other edition appeared at a later @@ -2228,12 +2191,12 @@ rich to become." Caxton thus recommends the book to the learner: Et ordonner ung livre, And ordeyne this book, Par le quel on pourra By the which men shall mowe Raysonnablement entendre Resonably understande - Françoys et Anglois, Frenssh and Englissh, + Françoys et Anglois, Frenssh and Englissh, Du tant comme cest escript Of as moche as this writing Pourra contenir et estendre, Shall conteyne & stratche, Car il ne peut tout comprendre. For he may not all comprise. Mais ce qu'on n'y trouvera But that which cannot be founden - Declairé en cestui Declared in this + Declairé en cestui Declared in this Pourra on trouver ailleurs Shall be founde somwhere els En aultres livres. In other bookes. Mais sachies pour voir But knowe for truthe @@ -2245,9 +2208,9 @@ rich to become." Caxton thus recommends the book to the learner: Bien pourra entreprendre May well enterprise Merchandises d'un pays a Marchandise fro one land to l'autre, anoothir, - Et cognoistre maintes denrées And to know many wares + Et cognoistre maintes denrées And to know many wares Que lui seroient bon Which to him shall be good to be - achetés bought + achetés bought Ou vendues pour riche devenir. Or sold for rich to become. Aprendes ce livre diligement, Lerne this book diligently, Grande prouffyt y gyst vrayement. Grete prouffyt lieth therein truly. @@ -2260,7 +2223,7 @@ inhabitants, which introduces the subject of degrees of kinship: Je vous dirai maintenant Dune autre matere La quele ie commence. - Se vous estes mariés + Se vous estes mariés Et vous avez femme Et vous ayez marye, Se vous maintiens paisiblement @@ -2268,7 +2231,7 @@ inhabitants, which introduces the subject of degrees of kinship: De vous fors que bien: Ce seroit vergoigne. Se vous aves pere et mere, - Si les honnourés tousiours; + Si les honnourés tousiours; Faictes leur honneur;. . . Si vous aves enfans, Si les instrues @@ -2282,7 +2245,7 @@ which affords an opportunity of bringing in the different shops to which they are sent and of specifying the meat and drink they purchase there. We then pass to buying, selling, and bargaining in general, and to merchandise of all kinds, with a list of coins, popular fairs, and -fête-days. +fête-days. After an enumeration of the great persons of the earth comes the main chapter of the work, giving a fairly complete list of crafts and trades. @@ -2319,10 +2282,10 @@ those who study it may persevere sufficiently to profit by it: Cy fine ceste doctrine, Here endeth this doctrine, A Westmestre les Loundres At Westmestre by London - En formes impressée, In fourmes enprinted, + En formes impressée, In fourmes enprinted, En le quelle ung chaucun In the whiche one everish Pourra briefment aprendre May shortly lerne - François et Engloys. French and English. + François et Engloys. French and English. La grace de sainct esperit The grace of the holy ghosst Veul enluminer les cures Wylle enlyghte the hertes De ceulx qui le aprendront, Of them that shall lerne it, @@ -2365,7 +2328,7 @@ probably, added the English column to the _Livre des Mestiers_, his knowledge of French had not yet reached that state of thoroughness which was to enable him to translate such a remarkable number of French works into English. He himself tells us in the prologue to the _Recuyell of -the Histories of Troy_ of Raoul le Fèvre (Bruges, 1475)--the first of +the Histories of Troy_ of Raoul le Fèvre (Bruges, 1475)--the first of his translations from the French, and, indeed, the first book to be printed in English--that his knowledge of French was not by any means perfect. With the exception of the introductory and closing sentences, @@ -2384,11 +2347,11 @@ dialogue it is identical with the Cambridge conversation book, except that the English lines come before the French, and not the French before the English.[118] The four subjects round which the dialogue turns, namely, salutations, buying and selling, inquiring the way, and -conversation at the inn, were all favourites in the early "Manières de +conversation at the inn, were all favourites in the early "Manières de Langage." For the rest it follows in the steps of its English predecessors in confining itself to dialogue pure and simple, while Caxton's 'doctrine' adopted the narrative form. In one point, however, -the work differs from the latest development of the old "Manière de +the work differs from the latest development of the old "Manière de Langage," as preserved in the Cambridge Dialogues in French and English; the dialogues are followed by a vocabulary, then a reprint of one of the old books on courtesy and demeanour for children, with a French version @@ -2445,19 +2408,19 @@ and a list of ordinary mercantile phrases. The opening passage is very much like that written by Caxton for his work: Here is a good boke to lerne to speke Frenshe. - Vecy ung bon livre apprendre parler françoys. + Vecy ung bon livre apprendre parler françoys. In the name of the fader and the sone En nom du pere et du filz And of the holy goost, I wyll begynne Et du saint esperit, je vueil commencer To lerne to speke Frensshe, - A apprendre a parler françoys, + A apprendre a parler françoys, Soo that I maye doo my marchandise Affin que je puisse faire ma marchandise In Fraunce & elles where in other londes, En France et ailieurs en aultre pays, There as the folk speke Frensshe. - La ou les gens parlent françoys. + La ou les gens parlent françoys. And fyrst I wylle lerne to reken by lettre. Et premierement je veux aprendre a compter par lettre. . . . @@ -2480,7 +2443,7 @@ Then follows another "manner of speeche" in a list of salutations arranged in dialogue form: Other maner of speche in frensshe. - Autre magniere de langage en françoys. + Autre magniere de langage en françoys. Syr, God gyve you good daye. Sire, Dieu vous doint bon iour. Syr, God gyve you goode evyn. @@ -2563,7 +2526,7 @@ as in the first treatise of 1396, the scene is laid in France: There is a ryght good one. Il en y a ung tres bon. Ye shall be there ryght well lodged, - Vous serez tres bien logé, + Vous serez tres bien logé, Ye & also your horse. Vous et aussi vostre chevaul. My frende, God yelde it you, @@ -2580,7 +2543,7 @@ traveller's arrival at the inn, his entertainment there, and his departure: Dame, shall I be here well lodged? - Dame, seroy ie icy bien logé? + Dame, seroy ie icy bien logé? Ye syr, ryght well. Ouy sire, tres bien. Nowe doo me have a good chambre @@ -2590,9 +2553,9 @@ departure: And doo that my horse Et faites que mon chevaul Maye be well governed, - Puisse estre bien gouverné, + Puisse estre bien gouverné, And gyve hym good hay and good otes. - Et lui donnés bon foin et bon avoine. + Et lui donnés bon foin et bon avoine. Dame, is all redy for to dyne? Dame, est tout prest pour aller digner? Ye syr, whan it please you. @@ -2614,13 +2577,13 @@ departure: Do my horse come to me. Or me faittz venir mon cheval. Is he sadled and redy for to ryde? - Est il sellé et appointé pour chevaucher? + Est il sellé et appointé pour chevaucher? Ye syr, all redy. Ouy sire, tout prest. Now fare well and gramercy. Or adiu et grandmercy. -Here the 'manière de langage' ends. It is followed by a list of nouns +Here the 'manière de langage' ends. It is followed by a list of nouns arranged under headings. The enumeration begins with the parts of the body,[125] followed by the clothing and armour--a list containing valuable information on the fashions of the time; then come the natural @@ -2673,12 +2636,12 @@ letters the English comes first: hertes desyre. No more wryte I to you at this tyme but God have you in hys protectyon. Wryten hastely the XIX daye of this moneth. - Tres honnoré sire, ie me recommande a vous tant comme je puis, et - plaise vous savoir que ie suis en tres bonne santé la marcy Dieu au + Tres honnoré sire, ie me recommande a vous tant comme je puis, et + plaise vous savoir que ie suis en tres bonne santé la marcy Dieu au quel ie prie que ainsi soit il de vous et de tous vos bons amys. Quant pour la matiere pour la quelle vous me envoiastes a Parys, - g'ay parlé avec l'advocat du roy le quel m'a dit quil me fault - aller au roy et advertir sa royalle maiesté de ce et ay un specyal + g'ay parlé avec l'advocat du roy le quel m'a dit quil me fault + aller au roy et advertir sa royalle maiesté de ce et ay un specyal commandement. Pource consyderant le temps que j'ay attendu a Paris en cest poursuite et lez granz costz et despens faitz par cause de ce. Plaise vous savoir que pour poursuir ceste matiere au roy, le @@ -2766,7 +2729,7 @@ school-books described above. But these do not form a vital part of the work itself, and are mere supplements, added probably with the intention of increasing the public to which the book would appeal. The children who used it, we may assume, would probably be of the class of the boy, -"John, enfant beal et sage," who appears in the 'manière' of 1415, and +"John, enfant beal et sage," who appears in the 'manière' of 1415, and learns French that he may the more quickly achieve his end of being apprenticed to a London merchant. To such children the apprentice's letter quoted above would be of much interest. @@ -2792,16 +2755,16 @@ great popularity at the time they were written, when to speak French fluently was an all-important matter. The difficulty of this accomplishment was realised to the full. We find it expressed in a few disconnected sentences added in French probably at the beginning of the -sixteenth century, at the end of the 'manière de langage' of 1396: "We +sixteenth century, at the end of the 'manière de langage' of 1396: "We need very long practice before we are able to speak French perfectly," says the anonymous writer, evidently an Englishman, "for the French and English do not correspond word for word, and the fine distinctions are difficult to seize." He proceeds to urge the necessity of a glib tongue in making progress in French, and quotes the case of an unfortunate man, good fellow though he might otherwise be, who lacked this faculty: "Il -ne luy avient plus a parler franceis qu'à une vache de porter une selle, -a cause que sa langue n'est pas bien afilée, et pour cela n'entremette -il pas à parler entre les fraunceis." +ne luy avient plus a parler franceis qu'à une vache de porter une selle, +a cause que sa langue n'est pas bien afilée, et pour cela n'entremette +il pas à parler entre les fraunceis." In the early part of the sixteenth century, however, French began to be studied with more thoroughness in England. Communication with France and @@ -2823,20 +2786,20 @@ FOOTNOTES: [75] Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, ii., 1868, pp. 16 _sqq._, 28 _sqq._ -[76] _Manière de Langage_, 1396; cp. _infra_, p. 35. +[76] _Manière de Langage_, 1396; cp. _infra_, p. 35. -[77] "Doulz françois qu'est la plus bel et la plus gracious language et +[77] "Doulz françois qu'est la plus bel et la plus gracious language et plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole, qui soit au monde." -[78] Jehan Barton, _Donait François_, _c._ 1400. +[78] Jehan Barton, _Donait François_, _c._ 1400. [79] "Afin qu'ils puissent entrecomuner bonement ove lour voisin c'est a dire les bones gens du roiaume de France, et ainsi pour ce que les leys d'Engleterre pour le graigneur partie et ainsi beaucoup de bones choses -sont misez en François, et aussi bien pres touz les sirs et toutes les +sont misez en François, et aussi bien pres touz les sirs et toutes les dames en mesme roiaume d'Engleterre volentiers s'entrescrivent en romance--tresnecessaire je cuide estre aus Englois de scavoir la nature -de François." +de François." [80] Which no doubt became more numerous, as English, rather than Latin, became the medium through which French was learnt. Thus we find _pour @@ -2858,8 +2821,8 @@ infra patebit." [84] The English spelling, very corrupt in the original, is here modernized. -[85] These MSS. have been described and classified by J. Stürzinger, -_Altfranzösische Bibliothek_, viii. pp. v-x. +[85] These MSS. have been described and classified by J. Stürzinger, +_Altfranzösische Bibliothek_, viii. pp. v-x. [86] Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 4971; Addit. MS. 11716, and Camb. Univ. Libr. MS. Ee 4, 20. @@ -2890,9 +2853,9 @@ Souls, Oxford. [96] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 376. [97] "A le honneur de Dieu et de sa tresdoulce miere et toutz les -saintez de paradis, je Johan Barton, escolier de Paris, née et nourie -toutes foiez d'Engleterre en la conté de Cestre, j'ey baillé aus -avantdiz Anglois un Donait françois pur les briefment entroduyr en la +saintez de paradis, je Johan Barton, escolier de Paris, née et nourie +toutes foiez d'Engleterre en la conté de Cestre, j'ey baillé aus +avantdiz Anglois un Donait françois pur les briefment entroduyr en la droit language du Paris et de pais la d'entour la quelle language en Engleterre on appelle doulce France. Et cest Donat je le fis la fair a mes despenses et tres grande peine par pluseurs bons clercs du language @@ -2900,7 +2863,7 @@ avantdite." [98] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 376. -[99] "Cy endroit il fault prendre garde qu'en parlant François on ne +[99] "Cy endroit il fault prendre garde qu'en parlant François on ne mette pas une personne pour une aultre si come font les sottez gens, disantz ainsi _je ferra_ pour _je ferray_. . . ." @@ -2914,7 +2877,7 @@ the parts of speech; the four indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections) are merely mentioned. Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns receive some attention, but the chief subject is the verb: "Cy maintenant nous vous baillerons un exemple coment vous -fourmeres touz les verbs françois du monde, soient-ils actifez, +fourmeres touz les verbs françois du monde, soient-ils actifez, soient-ils passivez, en quelque meuf ou temps qu'ils soient. Et ceste exemple serra pour cest verbe _jeo aime_. . . ." But the verbs are not classified, and only a few of the best known are conjugated as examples. @@ -2956,7 +2919,7 @@ prest_. [112] Such collections exist in MSS. Harl. 4971 and Addit. 17716, Brit. Mus.; and in Ee 4, 20, Camb. Univ. Libr. -[113] Harl. 4971; cp. Stürzinger, _op. cit._ p. xvi. +[113] Harl. 4971; cp. Stürzinger, _op. cit._ p. xvi. [114] Early bibliographers seem to have been uncertain as to what category it belonged to: for some time it was called a _Book for @@ -2973,9 +2936,9 @@ other edition, of which a fragment exists in the Bodleian, was probably printed by Wynkyn de Worde (W. C. Hazlitt, _Handbook ... to the Literature of Great Britain_, 1867, p. 631). -[116] Published from a MS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale, by M. -Michelant: _Le Livre des Mestiers, dialogues français-flamands, composés -au 14e siècle par un maître d'école de la ville de Bruges_. Paris, 1875. +[116] Published from a MS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale, by M. +Michelant: _Le Livre des Mestiers, dialogues français-flamands, composés +au 14e siècle par un maître d'école de la ville de Bruges_. Paris, 1875. [117] H. Bradley: Introduction to the edition of Caxton's _Dialogues_. @@ -3082,7 +3045,7 @@ than French. By the sixteenth century French was an entirely foreign language at the English Court, and it was round the Court circles that developed the new and more serious study of the language which then arose--a study which led to the production of so important a work as -John Palsgrave's _L'Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse_. It will +John Palsgrave's _L'Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse_. It will therefore be well to consider the extent to which French was used among the nobility and gentry of the time. @@ -3219,7 +3182,7 @@ remarks[150] that, for the most part, the English use the French language, besides having a great admiration for everything else French--an observation which cannot safely be taken as referring to any other class than the nobility, as his relations would be almost wholly -restricted to that class. When the Duke of Württemberg visited the court +restricted to that class. When the Duke of Württemberg visited the court of Elizabeth, where he found ample occasion to exercise his own admirable knowledge of French, he left on record the fact that many English courtiers understood and spoke French very well. The spread of @@ -3237,12 +3200,12 @@ the two countries corresponded with each other, and, though Englishmen never wrote in their native tongue, Frenchmen did occasionally use their own language rather than Latin. Bacon wrote in French to the Marquis of Effiat, and Hotman, on the other hand, in French to Camden: "Me sentant -detraqué de l'usage de la langue latine, je vous escris cette lettre en -françois pour renouveller avec vous notre amitié ancienne et +detraqué de l'usage de la langue latine, je vous escris cette lettre en +françois pour renouveller avec vous notre amitié ancienne et correspondance."[152] John Calvin corresponded with Edward VI. and Protector Somerset in French, and Henry IV. of France carried on a voluminous correspondence in his own language with his "tres chere et -tres aimée bonne soeur," Elizabeth, as well as with her chief +tres aimée bonne soeur," Elizabeth, as well as with her chief ministers.[153] [Header: FRENCH REGARDED WITH SPECIAL FAVOUR] French was thus more than a mere accomplishment for the English gentleman, and soon became an absolute necessity for all those who desired employment under @@ -3276,7 +3239,7 @@ language or the king will be ill served when he is left alone.[156] The Tudors appear to have regarded the study of French with much favour. The first king of this line had lived for many years in France and was strongly imbued with French tastes.[157] He encouraged Frenchmen to -visit England, and appointed one of them, Bernard André, his Poet +visit England, and appointed one of them, Bernard André, his Poet Laureate and Historiographer as well as tutor to his sons. There were also troupes of French comedians and minstrels who performed at Court from time to time.[158] The king always received with favour at his @@ -3391,7 +3354,7 @@ greater desire to speak French well.[171] Anne stayed in France several years, first in the service of Mary during the few months she was Queen of France, then in that of her successor, Queen Claude, consort of Francis I., and finally in the more lively household of Margaret of -Alençon, afterwards Queen of Navarre. On her return to the English Court +Alençon, afterwards Queen of Navarre. On her return to the English Court she became maid of honour to Queen Katherine, and her skill in dress and her French manners[172] did much to promote the taste for French fashions. The famous Elizabethan antiquary Camden asserts that Anne's @@ -3405,9 +3368,9 @@ from the Court: Ma Maitresse et amie, moy et mon coeur s'en remettent en vos mains, vous suppliant les avoir pour recommander a votre bonne grace, et - que par absence votre affection ne leur soit diminué. Car pur - augmenter leur peine ce seroit grande pitié, car l'absence leur fait - assez, et plus que jamais je n'eusse pensé . . . vous asseurant que + que par absence votre affection ne leur soit diminué. Car pur + augmenter leur peine ce seroit grande pitié, car l'absence leur fait + assez, et plus que jamais je n'eusse pensé . . . vous asseurant que de ma part l'ennuye de l'absence deja m'est trop grande. Et quand je pense a l'augmentation d'iceluy que par force faut que je soufre il m'est presque intollerable, s'il n'estoit le ferme espoir que j'aye @@ -3415,7 +3378,7 @@ from the Court: rementevoir alcune fois cela, et voyant que personellement je ne puis estre en votre presence, chose la plus approchante a cela qui m'est possible au present, je vous envoye, c'est-a-dire ma picture - mise en braisselettes a toute la devise que deja sçavez, me + mise en braisselettes a toute la devise que deja sçavez, me souhaitant en leur place quant il vous plairoit. C'est de la main de--Votre serviteur et amy, @@ -3478,7 +3441,7 @@ Her accent is reported to have been harsh and unpleasing; she spoke with a drawl, and, according to M. Drizanval, resident in London for the French king,[185] she constantly repeated the phrase "_paar Dieu, paar maa foi_" in a ridiculous tone. Another visitor, the Duke of -Württemberg, records that he once heard her deliver an appropriate +Württemberg, records that he once heard her deliver an appropriate speech in French,[186] which, as usual, was the language in which he addressed her. Towards the end of her reign the queen still practised the use of French and Italian. In 1598 the German Hentzner, travelling @@ -3488,9 +3451,9 @@ then to another (whether foreign ministers or those who attend for different reasons) in English, French, and Italian."[187] She also wrote French with some ease. One of her earliest literary efforts was a translation from the French of Margaret of Navarre's _Miroir de l'Ame -pécheresse_. She likewise composed devotions and prayers in French--a +pécheresse_. She likewise composed devotions and prayers in French--a habit which she retained after she had been queen for many years. At the -time when her marriage with the Duke of Alençon, her "little frog," as +time when her marriage with the Duke of Alençon, her "little frog," as she calls him, was under discussion, the queen compiled a curious little volume, containing six prayers, written on vellum in a very neat hand; in addition to devotions in French and English there are others in @@ -3512,7 +3475,7 @@ its midst; and as, at this time, the Court became a powerful factor in English social life, and the chief means of entering the service of the State, noblemen and gentlemen wishing to figure on the social stage endeavoured to adapt themselves to Court requirements. French tutors -were to be found in all the chief families of the time. Étienne Pasquier +were to be found in all the chief families of the time. Étienne Pasquier remarks that there was no noble family in England without its French tutor to instruct the children in the French language.[189] This condition of things was still further developed a few years later when @@ -3523,18 +3486,18 @@ anything is known were, for the most part, either the authors of manuals for teaching French, or had won repute as writers or Humanists before leaving their native land. -One of these Humanists was Bernard André, familiarly called "Master +One of these Humanists was Bernard André, familiarly called "Master Barnard," the blind poet--an infirmity to which he frequently refers. He was a native of Toulouse, and probably came to England with Henry VII., his patron.[190] It is a curious fact that soon after his accession Henry appointed this Frenchman, author of verses in French and Latin but never a line in English, Poet Laureate of England. In addition to this -he bestowed on him repeated marks of favour. For a time André was +he bestowed on him repeated marks of favour. For a time André was engaged as a tutor at Oxford, and in 1496 was chosen as governor to Prince Arthur, and probably had much to do with the education of his brother, afterwards Henry VIII. Appointed Historiographer Royal, he began in this capacity to write his patron's life. Like so many other -men of education, André was in Holy Orders; he received preferment from +men of education, André was in Holy Orders; he received preferment from time to time, and was finally presented to the living of Guisnes near Calais, which he resigned in 1521, having attained an "extreme old age." @@ -3594,7 +3557,7 @@ excellent and myghty prynce, Th. duke of Northfolke_. The printer, Robert Coplande, himself a good French scholar, composed some lines on the coat of arms of the Duke in French, and printed them at the beginning of the book; at the end he placed a translation of Lambert -Danneau's _Traité des Danses_, also from his own pen.[193] +Danneau's _Traité des Danses_, also from his own pen.[193] Barclay's endeavour is to make his grammar as short and concise as possible; his rules, so far as they go, are stated very clearly; he @@ -3623,7 +3586,7 @@ of teaching provincial forms. Palsgrave, on the other hand, deals only with the French spoken between the Seine and the Loire, which he regarded as the only pure French. Barclay's attitude to dialectal forms may possibly be explained by the fact that he transcribed freely from -the mediaeval treatises, especially the _Donait françois_ of John +the mediaeval treatises, especially the _Donait françois_ of John Barton. His debt was early noted by Palsgrave, who wrote: "I have sene an olde boke written in parchment, in all thynges lyke to his sayd _Introductory_, whiche, by conjecture, was not unwritten this hundred @@ -3688,9 +3651,9 @@ waye,"[205] and Gregory Cromwell, whom he also counted among his pupils, is reported to have made good progress under his direction. [Header: PIERRE VALENCE, TEACHER OF FRENCH] Pierre Valence was one of the natives of Normandy, so numerous in England at this time that the fact -was commented on by Étienne Perlin, a French priest who visited England +was commented on by Étienne Perlin, a French priest who visited England at the end of the reign of Edward VI. He describes them as being "du -tout tres mechans et mauditz François," worse than all the English, +tout tres mechans et mauditz François," worse than all the English, which, according to him, is a very grave charge.[206] The date at which Valence came to England is unknown, but he is said to have studied at Cambridge in or about 1515.[207] He was in all probability a refugee for @@ -3705,7 +3668,7 @@ are several points of contact between this man and his greater contemporary, John Palsgrave: both were students at Cambridge, possibly at the same time, though Palsgrave was the senior; both had as their pupil the son of Mr. Secretary Cromwell--the one for French and the -other for Latin; both were protégés of the Dowager Queen of France +other for Latin; both were protégés of the Dowager Queen of France (sister of Henry VIII. and Palsgrave's pupil for French) and of her husband the Duke of Suffolk. In 1535 Valence received a grant of letters of denization,[208] and ultimately became domestic chaplain and almoner @@ -3787,7 +3750,7 @@ Anne Boleyn. At a somewhat later date, 1547, the elegant poet and artist Nicolas Denisot arrived in England, driven from Paris by an unfortunate love affair.[216] His nephew, Jacques Denisot, declares he was "fort bien -accueilliz dans la cour d'Angleterre où son estime et sa reputation +accueilliz dans la cour d'Angleterre où son estime et sa reputation estoit deja cogneue." He mixed with the writers and politicians[217] of the day, and attracted the notice of the Court by writing verses in honour of the young king, Edward VI.[218] He soon found himself in the @@ -3810,16 +3773,16 @@ master, who welcomed them with enthusiasm, and published them in 1550. In the following year the verses appeared again, accompanied by French, Italian, and Greek translations, and verses from the pen of Ronsard, Du Bellay, and other literary friends of Denisot.[220] It is a striking -fact that before the Pléiade was fully known in France, the fame of some +fact that before the Pléiade was fully known in France, the fame of some of its members had reached England, where a particular interest would be taken in this development of the work of the three princesses. Ronsard, Denisot's intimate friend, wrote one of his earliest odes in honour of Denisot's pupils, in which he celebrates the intellectual union of -France and England: [Header: THE PLÉIADE IN ENGLAND] +France and England: [Header: THE PLÉIADE IN ENGLAND] - Denisot se vante heuré - D'avoir oublié sa terre - Et passager demeuré + Denisot se vante heuré + D'avoir oublié sa terre + Et passager demeuré Trois ans en Angleterre. . . . . les espritz D'Angleterre et de la France @@ -3854,7 +3817,7 @@ _passim_. Duke of Norfolk. [136] _Remains_, Parker Society, p. 470. Quoted by J. J. Jusserand, -_Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, Paris, 1904, p. 86, n. 3. +_Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, Paris, 1904, p. 86, n. 3. [137] _The Correspondence of Sir Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet_, ed. W. A. Bradly, Boston, 1912, pp. 41 and 112. @@ -3903,8 +3866,8 @@ tonge, give honourable testimonye." Best known of these learned observers was Scaliger (_Scaligeriana_, Cologne, 1695, p. 134). Similar eulogies in verse were left by French poets: Ronsard, _Elegies, Mascarades et Bergeries_ (1561), reproduced in _Le Bocage royal_ (1567); -Jacques Grévin, _Chant du cygne_; Du Bartas, _Second Week_; and Agrippa -d'Aubigné; also by John Florio, _First Frutes_, 1578, ch. xiii. +Jacques Grévin, _Chant du cygne_; Du Bartas, _Second Week_; and Agrippa +d'Aubigné; also by John Florio, _First Frutes_, 1578, ch. xiii. [145] _First Frutes_, 1578, ch. i. @@ -3912,7 +3875,7 @@ d'Aubigné; also by John Florio, _First Frutes_, 1578, ch. xiii. [147] _Merchant of Venice_, Act I. Scene 2. -[148] Cp. Brunot, _Histoire de la langue française_, ii. pp. 2 _sqq._ +[148] Cp. Brunot, _Histoire de la langue française_, ii. pp. 2 _sqq._ Dallington in his _View of France_ remarks on the same neglect. In _The Abbot and the Learned Woman_, Erasmus praises the latter for studying the classics and not, as was usual, confining herself to French @@ -3924,12 +3887,12 @@ p. 129. [150] _The Second Book of the Travels of Nicander Nucius_, Camden Soc., 1841, p. 14. -[151] _Dialogue de l'ortografe et pronunciacion françoese departi en +[151] _Dialogue de l'ortografe et pronunciacion françoese departi en deus livres_, Lyon, 1558. [152] Peiresc wrote in French to the scholars Selden and Camden, who answered in Latin. Other French scholars who maintained a correspondence -with Englishmen are de Thou, Jérôme Bignon, Duchesne, du Plessis Mornay, +with Englishmen are de Thou, Jérôme Bignon, Duchesne, du Plessis Mornay, H. Estienne, Hubert Languet, Pibrac, and the Sainte-Marthe brothers. [153] _Lettres missives de Henri IV_, 9 tom., Paris, 1843. For an @@ -3966,7 +3929,7 @@ VIII._, Oxford, 1912. Barclay says in his _Eclogues_ that French minstrels and singers were highly favoured at Court. Jamieson, _Life and Writings of Barclay_, 1874, p. 44. -[163] "Je serai à [vous] toujours et tant que je vivrai autre n'aimerai +[163] "Je serai à [vous] toujours et tant que je vivrai autre n'aimerai que vous." [164] _Henry VIII._, Act I. Scene 4. @@ -4004,19 +3967,19 @@ England_, London, 1884, ii. pp. 179, 181. [171] Ellis, _Orig. Letters_, 2nd series, vol. ii. p. 11. Anne's French spelling is curious and suggests that, like Henry VIII., she learnt French mainly by ear: "Mons. Je antandue par vre lettre que aves envy -que tout onnete feme quan je vindre à la courte et ma vertisses que Rene +que tout onnete feme quan je vindre à la courte et ma vertisses que Rene prendra la pein de devisser a vecc moy, de quoy me regoy bien fort de pensser parler a vecc ung personne tante sage et onnete, cela me ferra a voyr plus grante anvy de continuer a parler bene franssais." [172] A French poem of the time, preserved in MS. and quoted by Rathery, -_op. cit._ p. 21, celebrates Anne's French accomplishments--_Traité pour +_op. cit._ p. 21, celebrates Anne's French accomplishments--_Traité pour feue dame Anne de Boulant, jadis royne d'Angleterre, l'an 1533_: "La tellement ses graces amenda - Que ne l'eussiez oncques jugée Angloise - En ses fachons, ains naïve Françhoise. - Elle sçavoit bien danser et chanter, + Que ne l'eussiez oncques jugée Angloise + En ses fachons, ains naïve Françhoise. + Elle sçavoit bien danser et chanter, Et ses propos sagement agencer, Sonner du luth et d'autres instrumens Pour divertir les tristes pensemens." @@ -4067,13 +4030,13 @@ the King of France nor the Queen of England could speak Dutch (p. 341). [188] The MS. was reproduced in facsimile in 1893. The prayers in French begin thus: "Mon Dieu et mon pere puis qu'il t'a pleu desployer les tresors de ta grande misericorde envers moy ta tres humble servante, -m'ayant de bon matin retirée des profonds abismes de l'ignorance +m'ayant de bon matin retirée des profonds abismes de l'ignorance naturelle et des superstitions damnables pour me faire iouir de ce grand soleil de justice . . . etc." [189] _Lettres_, Amsterdam, 1723, liv. i. p. 5. -[190] An account of the little that is known of André's life is given in +[190] An account of the little that is known of André's life is given in Gairdner's _Memorials of Henry VII._, pp. viii _et seq._ [191] Of foreign countries, the Netherlands seem to have come next to @@ -4093,12 +4056,12 @@ Barclay a work called _De pronuntiatione linguae gallicae_. This suggests that possibly the _Introductory_ was first written in Latin. [194] Time after time he mentions the usages of different parts of the -country, as _piecha_ for _pieça_ in certain districts; _jeo_ and _ceo_ +country, as _piecha_ for _pieça_ in certain districts; _jeo_ and _ceo_ for _je_ and _ce_ in Picard and Gascon; the writing of the names of dignitaries and officers in the plural instead of the singular, as _luy papes de Rome_. -[195] _L'Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse_, bk. i. ch. xxxv. +[195] _L'Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse_, bk. i. ch. xxxv. [196] "There is a boke which goeth about in this realme, intitled _The Introductory to write and pronounce French_, compyled by Alexander @@ -4120,7 +4083,7 @@ _s_ or _z_." Such is the rule for the formation of the plural. As for the genders, he gives a few isolated examples and converts them into rules. -[200] On folio 8vº. +[200] On folio 8vº. [201] Folios 9-14. The vocabulary begins with the letter M, and after proceeding to the end of the alphabet, resumes at the beginning--an @@ -4135,7 +4098,7 @@ a grain of wheat, and the second may explain itself: And he the whiche it ledeth. Primierement hairois la terre, Firste ere the grounde, - Apres semer le blé ou l'orge. + Apres semer le blé ou l'orge. After sow the whete or barley. Les herces doivent venir apres, The harrowes must come after, @@ -4171,9 +4134,9 @@ Archiepiscopal Library at Lambeth_, 1843, pp. 290 _et seq._ verbe in Latin, _habeo_, as hereafter ye may see." [212] "Sur toultes choses doibuit noter gentz Englois que leur fault -accustomer de pronuncer la derniere lettre du mot françois quelque mot -que ce soit (rime exceptée) ce que la langue engleshe ne permet, car la -ou l'anglois dit 'goode breade,' le françois diroit 'goode' iii sillebes +accustomer de pronuncer la derniere lettre du mot françois quelque mot +que ce soit (rime exceptée) ce que la langue engleshe ne permet, car la +ou l'anglois dit 'goode breade,' le françois diroit 'goode' iii sillebes et 'breade' iii sillebes." [213] J. A. Jacquot, _Notice sur Nicolas Bourbon de Vandoeuvre_, Troyes @@ -4183,12 +4146,12 @@ his Latin verses. On his return from England, Queen Margaret of Navarre entrusted to him the education of her daughter, Jeanne, who was the mother of Henry IV. -[214] _Nicolai Borbonii vandoperani Lingonenis_ [Greek: Paidagôgeion], +[214] _Nicolai Borbonii vandoperani Lingonenis_ [Greek: Paidagôgeion], Lugduni, 1536. [215] J. H. Marsden, _Philomorus_, 2nd ed., 1878, p. 261. -[216] Clement Jugé, _Nicolas Denisot du Mans, 1515-1559_, Paris and Le +[216] Clement Jugé, _Nicolas Denisot du Mans, 1515-1559_, Paris and Le Mans, 1907. [217] He also began his work as a secret agent in the service of France, @@ -4198,11 +4161,11 @@ plan which Denisot submitted to the Duc de Guise. [218] There was a MS. copy of Latin poems by Denisot in the Library of Edward VI. (Nichols, _Literary Remains_, 1857.) -[219] J. Bonnet, _Récits du seizième siècle_, 1864, p. 348. +[219] J. Bonnet, _Récits du seizième siècle_, 1864, p. 348. [220] _Le Tombeau de Marguerite de Navarre faict premierement en Distiques latins par les trois soeurs, Princesses en Angleterre: Depuis -Traduits, en Grec, Italien et François par plusieurs des excellentz +Traduits, en Grec, Italien et François par plusieurs des excellentz Poetes de la France. Avecques plusieurs Odes, Hymnes, Cantiques, Epitaphes sur le mesme subiect._ Paris, 1551. @@ -4223,11 +4186,11 @@ enjoyed a greater popularity in his own day. He had been teaching French at the English Court for over ten years when Palsgrave received his first appointment there, as French tutor to the king's "most dere and entierly beloved" sister Mary, afterwards Queen of France. Both teachers -were protégés of Henry VIII., and taught in the royal family--Duwes was +were protégés of Henry VIII., and taught in the royal family--Duwes was tutor to the king himself; and both were authors of grammars of the French language. That of Palsgrave has been mentioned already. It appeared in 1530 under the title of _L'Esclarcissement de la langue -françoyse_. Duwes's was not published till three years later +françoyse_. Duwes's was not published till three years later approximately, at the request of his pupil, Princess Mary, afterwards Queen of England. It was called _An Introductorie for to learne to rede, to prononce and to speke French trewly, compyled for the rigid high @@ -4504,7 +4467,7 @@ the king. In 1523, Palsgrave had planned the whole of the three books, for in that year he made a contract with the printer, Richard Pynson, in which it is stipulated that "the sayd Richarde, his executors and assignes shall imprint or cause to be imprynted on boke callyd 'lez -lesclarcissement de la langue Françoys,' contayning iii sondrye bokes, +lesclarcissement de la langue Françoys,' contayning iii sondrye bokes, where in is shewyd howe the saide tong schould be pronownsyd in reding and speking, and allso syche gramaticall rules as concerne the perfection of the saide tong, with ii vocabulistes, oone begynnyng with @@ -4769,22 +4732,22 @@ husband." Duwes spent a great deal of his time with his pupil, and his other reason kept him from her. In one of the dialogues she is shown rebuking him for his absence one evening: - _Mary._ Comment Giles, vous montrés bien qu'avés grant cure et - soing de m'aprendre quand vous vous absentés ainsy de moy. + _Mary._ Comment Giles, vous montrés bien qu'avés grant cure et + soing de m'aprendre quand vous vous absentés ainsy de moy. _Gyles._ Certes madame, il me semble que suis continuellement ici. - _Mary._ Voire, et ou estiés vous hier a soupper je vous prie. + _Mary._ Voire, et ou estiés vous hier a soupper je vous prie. _Gyles._ Veritablement, madame, vous avez raison, car je m'entroubliay ersoir a cause de compagnie et de communication. - _Mary._ Je vous prie, beau sire, faictes nous parçonniere de + _Mary._ Je vous prie, beau sire, faictes nous parçonniere de vostre communication, car j'estime quelle estoit de quelque bon purpos. _Gyles._ Certes, madame, elle estoit de la paix, laquelle (come on - disoit) est proclamée par tout ce royaume. . . . + disoit) est proclamée par tout ce royaume. . . . Then master and pupil are pictured discussing at length the subject of peace. Love, the nature of the soul, and the meaning of the celebration @@ -4848,7 +4811,7 @@ to the king. In November 1514 the Queen of France wrote to Wolsey to beg his favour on behalf of Palsgrave that he may continue at "school."[252] From this we may conclude that Palsgrave was continuing the studies he had begun at an earlier date at the University of Paris. He calls -himself "gradué de Paris" in 1530, and no doubt also, his work on the +himself "gradué de Paris" in 1530, and no doubt also, his work on the French language was making headway. How long he remained in France is uncertain, but we are told that on his @@ -4864,7 +4827,7 @@ natural son, Henry Fitzroy, Duke of Richmond, in 1525, when his "worldly jewel," as Henry called the young duke, was made Lieutenant-General of the North, the king entrusted Palsgrave with the charge of bringing him up "in virtue & learning."[255] Palsgrave was allowed three servants and -an annual stipend of £13:6:8. He took great pains with his young pupil's +an annual stipend of £13:6:8. He took great pains with his young pupil's education, and the king seems to have approved of his method.[256] Such was not the case with Gregory Cromwell, who, it appears, shared the lessons of the duke. When Gregory went to Cambridge under John Cheking's @@ -4876,7 +4839,7 @@ friend, Sir Thomas More, lent him money, and Palsgrave begged him to continue to help him to "tread underfoot" that horrible monster poverty. He also petitions his constant patroness the Dowager Queen of France and her husband the Duke of Suffolk. All he has to live by and pay his debts -and maintain his poor mother is little more than £50.[259] +and maintain his poor mother is little more than £50.[259] Among Palsgrave's other pupils of note were Thomas Howard, brother to the Earl of Surrey; my Lord Gerald, probably the brother of the fair @@ -4988,7 +4951,7 @@ JEAN BELLEMAIN] The other is to Elizabeth, who, it appears, had written to him in French, inviting him to reply in the same language. He takes her advice: - Puisque vous a pleu me rescrire, tres chere et bien aymée soeur, je + Puisque vous a pleu me rescrire, tres chere et bien aymée soeur, je vous mercie de bien bon cuer, et non seullement de vostre lettre, mais aussy de vostre bonne exhortation et example, laquelle, ainsy que j'espere, me servira d'esperon pour vous suivre en apprenant. @@ -4998,12 +4961,12 @@ her advice: EDWARDUS. PRINCE. a ma treschere et bien - aymée soeur Elizabeth.[273] + aymée soeur Elizabeth.[273] We see from the date of this letter that Edward had been learning French nearly three months when it was written. -Bellemain's salary as French tutor to the king was £6:12:4 per quarter. +Bellemain's salary as French tutor to the king was £6:12:4 per quarter. In 1546 he received an annuity of fifty marks for life; in 1550 a lease for twenty-one years of the parsonages of Minehead and Cotcombe, county Somerset; in 1553 a lease of the manor of Winchfield in Hampshire;[274] @@ -5059,7 +5022,7 @@ so that it is extremely likely that Bellemain had been teaching her for several years before he was appointed French tutor to Edward, perhaps owing to his success with Elizabeth. At any rate there does not seem to be any trace of any other French tutor to the princess, and the fact -that he received an annuity of £50 for life suggests that he had already +that he received an annuity of £50 for life suggests that he had already rendered some service in the royal family. The scholar Leland praised Elizabeth's skill in French and Latin when he @@ -5082,8 +5045,8 @@ written in English by the queen, Katharine Parr, into Latin, French, and Italian, and dedicated them to her father.[284] Of greater interest is a little book the princess wrote in French, and also offered to the king--a translation into French of the _Dialogus Fidei_ of Erasmus, thus -inscribed: "A Treshaut Trespuissant et Redoubté Prince Henry VIII de ce -nom, Roy d'Angleterre, de France et d'Irlande, défenseur de la foy, +inscribed: "A Treshaut Trespuissant et Redoubté Prince Henry VIII de ce +nom, Roy d'Angleterre, de France et d'Irlande, défenseur de la foy, Elizabeth sa Treshumble fille rend salut et obedience." This treatise, composed before the death of the king in 1547,[285] was preserved in the Library at Whitehall, and often attracted the attention of foreign @@ -5126,8 +5089,8 @@ FOOTNOTES: [221] First edition. Printed at London, by Th. Godfray, _c._ 1534. Sig. A-Ea in fours. -[222] Both these grammars were reprinted by Génin, in the _Collection -des documents inédits sur l'Histoire de France_. II. _Histoire des +[222] Both these grammars were reprinted by Génin, in the _Collection +des documents inédits sur l'Histoire de France_. II. _Histoire des lettres et sciences_. Paris, 1852. [223] By Andrew Baynton, in a letter prefixed to Palsgrave's grammar. @@ -5135,12 +5098,12 @@ lettres et sciences_. Paris, 1852. [224] Palsgrave in his grammar. [225] Both Palsgrave's and Duwes's observations on the pronunciation of -French are utilized by M. Thurot: _De la prononciation française depuis -le commencement du_ 16e _siècle d'après les témoignages des +French are utilized by M. Thurot: _De la prononciation française depuis +le commencement du_ 16e _siècle d'après les témoignages des grammairiens_. 2 tom. Paris, 1881. For further treatment of Palsgrave's grammar, see A. Benoist, _De la -syntaxe française entre Palsgrave et Vaugelas_. Paris, 1877. +syntaxe française entre Palsgrave et Vaugelas_. Paris, 1877. [226] The second book begins on folio xxxi. and ends on folio lix. In the third book the pagination begins anew: folio 1 to folio 473. @@ -5157,7 +5120,7 @@ tenses of _Je ay_ have a relatyve before them or governe an accusative case eyther of a pronoune or substantyve, the participle for the most part shall agree with the sayd accusatyve cases in gendre and nombre, and in such sentences not remayne unchaunged. Helas, I have loved her, -_helas je l'ay aimée_ ..." etc. +_helas je l'ay aimée_ ..." etc. [229] Duwes's plan is as comprehensive as Palsgrave's, as is seen by the following table: @@ -5183,27 +5146,27 @@ p. 55. [232] _Ibid._ iv. 4560. -[233] ". . . m'a comandé et enchargé de reduire et mectre en escript la -maniere coment g'ay procedé envers ses dictz progeniteurs et +[233] ". . . m'a comandé et enchargé de reduire et mectre en escript la +maniere coment g'ay procedé envers ses dictz progeniteurs et predecesseurs, coe celle aussi y la quelle ie l'ay (tellement quellement) instruit et instruis iournellment. . . ." [234] _Privy purse expenses of the Princess Mary_, ed. F. Madden, 1831, pp. xli-xliii. -[235] "Duwes avait d'une main leste et sure esquissé la petite grammaire -de Lhomond: Palsgrave avait laborieusement compilé la grammaire des -grammaires: L'in-folio fut étouffé par l'in-8vo. Cela se voit souvent -dans la littérature où le quatrain de St. Aulaire triomphe de la Pucelle -de Chapelain" (Génin's Introduction). +[235] "Duwes avait d'une main leste et sure esquissé la petite grammaire +de Lhomond: Palsgrave avait laborieusement compilé la grammaire des +grammaires: L'in-folio fut étouffé par l'in-8vo. Cela se voit souvent +dans la littérature où le quatrain de St. Aulaire triomphe de la Pucelle +de Chapelain" (Génin's Introduction). -It seems an exaggeration to use the word "étouffer." At any rate the +It seems an exaggeration to use the word "étouffer." At any rate the victory was not final. Palsgrave's work is not forgotten to-day, like that of Duwes. [236] There are copies of all three editions in the Bodleian. The British Museum contains one copy of Bourman's edition, and two of -Waley's (the third). Génin used Godfray's edition in his reprint. +Waley's (the third). Génin used Godfray's edition in his reprint. [237] E. G. Duff, _A Century of the English Book Trade_, Bibliog. Society, 1905. @@ -5212,7 +5175,7 @@ Society, 1905. extant than of Duwes's three. This is, no doubt, because its size and value prevented it from being used with the lack of respect with which school-books are usually treated. There is a copy of the -_Esclarcissement_ in the Bibliothèque Mazarine at Paris; two in the +_Esclarcissement_ in the Bibliothèque Mazarine at Paris; two in the British Museum; one in the Bodleian, one in Cambridge University Library, and one in the Rylands Library. @@ -5242,19 +5205,19 @@ of Henry VIII._ xiii. pt. ii. No. 882. [245] "O devotz amateurs de bonnes lettres pleust a Dieu que quelque noble coeur s'employast a mettre et ordonner par regle nostre langaige -françois! Ce seroit moyen que maints milliers d'hommes se evertueroient -a souvent user de belles et bonnes paroles. S'il n'y est mis et ordonné -on trouvera que de cinquante en cinquante ans la langue françoise pour -la plus grande part sera changée et pervertie" (folio 1, verso). Tory +françois! Ce seroit moyen que maints milliers d'hommes se evertueroient +a souvent user de belles et bonnes paroles. S'il n'y est mis et ordonné +on trouvera que de cinquante en cinquante ans la langue françoise pour +la plus grande part sera changée et pervertie" (folio 1, verso). Tory sketched a plan of a great work on the language to which his _Champ fleury_ was intended only as an introduction. -[246] Génin is 'certain' that the date given on the frontispiece of +[246] Génin is 'certain' that the date given on the frontispiece of Palsgrave's work is a year earlier than that on which it actually appeared. He draws this conclusion from the date of the king's privilege, twenty-second year of Henry VIII., who came to the throne in 1509; 9 + 22 = 31. This leaves Palsgrave a longer period to gather what -he could from Tory's work, says Génin. But the twenty-second year of the +he could from Tory's work, says Génin. But the twenty-second year of the reign of Henry VIII. began in April 1530, and the printing of Palsgrave's work was completed on the 18th of July. @@ -5319,14 +5282,14 @@ R 7, 31, of the second in the Brit. Mus. Addit. MS. 9000, and of the third at Biblio. Pub. Cantab. Dd 12, 59, and Brit. Mus. Addit. 5464. Nichols uses the text of the first of these. -[267] "Apres avoir noté en ma Bible en Anglois plusieurs sentences qui +[267] "Apres avoir noté en ma Bible en Anglois plusieurs sentences qui contredisent a toute ydolatrie, a celle fin de m'apprendre et exercer en -l'ecriture Françoise, je me suis amusé a les translater en ladite langue -Françoise, puis les ay fait rescrire en ce petit livret, lequel de tres +l'ecriture Françoise, je me suis amusé a les translater en ladite langue +Françoise, puis les ay fait rescrire en ce petit livret, lequel de tres bon coeur je vous offre" (_Literary Remains ..._, p. 144). -[268] "Lettre inédite de Bellemain": _Bulletin de la Soc. de l'Hist. du -Protestantisme Français_, vol. xv., 1866, pp. 203-5. +[268] "Lettre inédite de Bellemain": _Bulletin de la Soc. de l'Hist. du +Protestantisme Français_, vol. xv., 1866, pp. 203-5. [269] It was, however, translated into English and published in 1681 (two copies in the Brit. Mus.), and reprinted by Rev. J. Duncan in 1811 @@ -5359,7 +5322,7 @@ attached. The dedication continues: le temps auquel ie peusse trouver et inventer chose digne de presenter a vostre excellence, certes, madame, i'estime que ce ne seroit de long temps: car quelle chose est ce qu'on pourroit monstrer de nouveau a -celle a qui rien n'est caché, soit en langue grecque ou latine ou en la +celle a qui rien n'est caché, soit en langue grecque ou latine ou en la plus part des autres langues vulgaires de l'Europe: soit en la congnoissance des histoires ecrites en icelles ou en philosophie et autres liberales sciences. Puis donc qu'ainsy est que peu de livres @@ -5376,15 +5339,15 @@ estans les causes qui plus nous donnent occasion de bien vivre. . . ." [277] Sylvius (1530) had proposed a new system of orthography based on etymology and pronunciation. Meigret, however, was the chief exponent of the reformers, who sought to make orthography tally with pronunciation -(in his _Traité touchant le comun usage de l'escriture françoise_, 1542 +(in his _Traité touchant le comun usage de l'escriture françoise_, 1542 and 1545, and other works). Meigret was supported by Peletier du Mans -(_Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciation françoese_, 1549) and others, +(_Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciation françoese_, 1549) and others, and bitterly attacked by the opposing party. The question, once opened, continued to be discussed until the decision of the Academy (founded 1649) settled the matter. Brunot, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 93 _sqq._ [278] "Ie vous ay escrit ce petit avertissement de paour que -paraventure, en lisant tant de diversitéz d'impressions comme pourriez +paraventure, en lisant tant de diversitéz d'impressions comme pourriez faire en ceste langue, ne sceussiez laquelle devriez suivre en ecrivant; mais il sera bon de suivre la plus part des modernes qui s'accordent quant a cela." @@ -5395,7 +5358,7 @@ takes it for granted that Bellemain was Elizabeth's tutor in French. [280] Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_, 1884: Life of Elizabeth, iii. pp. 9, 13. -[281] First printed at Alençon, 1531. +[281] First printed at Alençon, 1531. [282] This is at present in the Bodleian Library. It has an embroidered cover, probably by the princess herself. See Cyril Davenport, _English @@ -5546,10 +5509,10 @@ ready wit. Riots such as those of Evil May Day (1517) were directed mainly against foreign traders, but all foreigners, especially Frenchmen, were a continual butt for the insults of the mob. Nicander Nucius remarks that the common people in England do not entertain one -kindly sentiment towards the French. "Ennemis du françois" is one of the +kindly sentiment towards the French. "Ennemis du françois" is one of the epithets applied to the English by De la Porte in his collection of epithets (Paris, 1571) on the different nations. The French priest, -Étienne Perlin, who was in England during the last two years of the +Étienne Perlin, who was in England during the last two years of the reign of Edward VI., and thoroughly hated the country, calling it "la peste d'un pays et ruine," speaks bitterly of the contrast between the courteous reception the English receive in France, and the greeting of @@ -5596,7 +5559,7 @@ by the English _bourgeoisie_. One French teacher of the time, G. de la Mothe, says that so great was the affection of the English nobility and gentry for the French that few of them were without a Frenchman in their houses. Thus Pierre Baro, a -native of Étampes and student of civil law who came to England at the +native of Étampes and student of civil law who came to England at the time of the St. Bartholomew massacre, was "kindly entertained in the family of Lord Burghley, who admitted him to eat at his own table." Subsequently he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, and became Lady @@ -5667,8 +5630,8 @@ before the queen, probably in 1570. Although this scheme was never carried out, it is of great interest as showing what were the subjects most likely to be taught. Gilbert's plan is very extensive. French, of course, is included in the curriculum--"also there shall be one Teacher -of the French tongue which shall be yearly allowed for the same £26. -Also he shall be allowed one usher, of the yearly wage of £10." Gilbert +of the French tongue which shall be yearly allowed for the same £26. +Also he shall be allowed one usher, of the yearly wage of £10." Gilbert urges also the teaching of other modern languages--Italian, to which he assigns about as large a place as to French, and Spanish and High Dutch, to which less importance is attached.[317] @@ -5712,7 +5675,7 @@ persevere." Veron manifested his interest in the teaching of Latin and French by publishing a Latin, French, and English dictionary in 1552, the first dictionary, published in England, in which a place is given to French. It is based on the Latin-French Dictionary of Robert -Éstienne,[322] with the addition of a column in English, and entitled +Éstienne,[322] with the addition of a column in English, and entitled _Dictionariolum puerorum tribus linguis Latina, Anglica, et Gallica conscriptum cui anglicam interpretionem adjecit Joannes Veron_.[323] @@ -5739,10 +5702,10 @@ its contents and the excellent method employed by his tutor, the author, was a very good form of self-advertisement, freely used by the French teachers of the time. Among patrons of French grammars were Edward VI. and particularly Elizabeth, who is, says one of these writers, "le vray -port de retraite et asyle asseuré de ceux qui, faisans profession de +port de retraite et asyle asseuré de ceux qui, faisans profession de l'Evangile, souffrent ores persecution soubs la Tyrannie de l'Antichrist"; another adds that she has "des estrangers les coeurs a -volonté." Lord Burghley, Sir Henry Wallop, Sir Philip Wharton, and other +volonté." Lord Burghley, Sir Henry Wallop, Sir Philip Wharton, and other influential men of the time also figure among the patrons of French teachers. @@ -5783,7 +5746,7 @@ a share in the intellectual distinctions of their social betters. "As for gentlemen, they be made good cheap in England," writes Sir Thomas Smith,[326] in reference to the democratic movement. In this new class of Englishman, the teachers of French recruited a large number of their -pupils. And so the French teacher who visited a clientèle of pupils +pupils. And so the French teacher who visited a clientèle of pupils became a familiar figure in the London of the later sixteenth century. The numerous French-speaking inhabitants of London, occupied in various @@ -5818,15 +5781,15 @@ in French, and is here quoted for convenience' sake:[332] (Enter _Katharine_ and _Alice_.) - _Kath._ Alice, tu as esté en Angleterre, et tu parles bien le + _Kath._ Alice, tu as esté en Angleterre, et tu parles bien le langage. _Alice._ Un peu, madame. - _Kath._ Je te prie, m'enseignez; il fault que j'apprenne à + _Kath._ Je te prie, m'enseignez; il fault que j'apprenne à parler. Comment appellez-vous la main en Anglois? - _Alice._ La main? elle est appellée de hand. + _Alice._ La main? elle est appellée de hand. _Kath._ De hand. Et les doigts? @@ -5835,7 +5798,7 @@ in French, and is here quoted for convenience' sake:[332] ouy, de fingres. _Kath._ La main, de hand; les doigts, de fingres. Je pense que je - suis le bon escholier. J'ay gagné deux mots d'Anglois vistement. + suis le bon escholier. J'ay gagné deux mots d'Anglois vistement. Comment appellez-vous les ongles? _Alice._ Les ongles? nous les appellons, de nails. @@ -5853,8 +5816,8 @@ in French, and is here quoted for convenience' sake:[332] _Alice._ D'elbow. - _Kath._ D'elbow. Je m'en fais la répétition de tous les mots que - vous m'avez appris dès à present. + _Kath._ D'elbow. Je m'en fais la répétition de tous les mots que + vous m'avez appris dès à present. _Alice._ Il est trop difficile, madame, comme je pense. @@ -5874,15 +5837,15 @@ in French, and is here quoted for convenience' sake:[332] _Kath._ De sin. Le col, de nick: le menton, de sin. - _Alice._ Ouy. Saulve vostre honneur, en vérité vous prononcez les + _Alice._ Ouy. Saulve vostre honneur, en vérité vous prononcez les mots aussi droict que les natifs d'Angleterre. _Kath._ Je ne doubte poinct d'apprendre, par la grace Dieu, et en peu de temps. - _Alice._ N'avez vous pas desjà oublié ce que je vous ay enseigné? + _Alice._ N'avez vous pas desjà oublié ce que je vous ay enseigné? - _Kath._ Non, je réciteray a vous promptement. De hand, de fingre, + _Kath._ Non, je réciteray a vous promptement. De hand, de fingre, de mails-- _Alice._ De nails, madame. @@ -5900,12 +5863,12 @@ in French, and is here quoted for convenience' sake:[332] maulvais, corruptible, gros, et impudique, et non pour les dames d'honneur d'user. Je ne vouldrois prononcer cez mots devant les Seigneurs de France, pour tout le monde. Il fault de foot, et de - coun, neant-moins. Je reciteray une aultre fois ma leçon ensemble: + coun, neant-moins. Je reciteray une aultre fois ma leçon ensemble: de hand, de fingre, de nails, de nick, de sin, de foot, de coun. _Alice._ Excellent, madame! - _Kath._ C'est assez pour une fois; allons-nous à disner. + _Kath._ C'est assez pour une fois; allons-nous à disner. It is not surprising, remembering Shakespeare's friendship with the Huguenots, to find him quoting from the Genevan Bible in the same @@ -5979,7 +5942,7 @@ PRIVATE FRENCH SCHOOLS] The earliest of these owed their origin to the refugees, both professional schoolmasters and others. St. Paul's Churchyard, the busy centre of city life, was the quarter round which many of these schools were grouped. There they were most likely to get a -good clientèle, partly, it may be, among those boys attending St. Paul's +good clientèle, partly, it may be, among those boys attending St. Paul's School who desired, like Sir Philip Sidney, to extend their studies. In St. Paul's Churchyard, also, lived the chief booksellers, who generally seem to have cultivated friendly relations with French teachers, @@ -6036,7 +5999,7 @@ with the joviality and conviviality of the host. Sir, you make no good chere. Mons., vous ne faictes pas bonne chere. You say nothing. Vous ne dictes rien. What sholde I say? Que diroys-ie? - I cannot speake frenche. Je ne sais pas parler françois. + I cannot speake frenche. Je ne sais pas parler françois. I understande you not. Je ne vous entens pas. O God, what say you? O Dieu, que dictes-vous? You speake as well as I doo Vous parlez aussy bien que je fais @@ -6091,7 +6054,7 @@ any English rendering, "pour gens de finance": Toy qui est receveur du Roy Je te prie entens et me croy. - Reçoy avant que tu escripves, + Reçoy avant que tu escripves, Escriptz avant que tu delivres, De recevoir faitz diligence Et fais tardifve delivrance. @@ -6108,7 +6071,7 @@ Du Ploich seems to have brought with him to England a Genevan "A B C," or book of elementary instruction and prayers for children, such as was common in France as well as in England. The next section of his treatise treats of the French A B C in words identical with those of an _A B C -françois_ printed at Geneva in 1551. This is followed by a few very +françois_ printed at Geneva in 1551. This is followed by a few very slight rules in English, which tell us not to pronounce the last letter of a French word, except _s_, _t_, and _p_, when the next word begins with a consonant; to neglect a vowel at the end of a word when the @@ -6224,19 +6187,19 @@ studies. These dialogues are given in French and English arranged on opposite pages. Their dramatic interest may be gathered from the opening passage, where we listen to the servant hurrying the boy off to school: - Hau François, levez vous et allez Ho Francis, arise and go to + Hau François, levez vous et allez Ho Francis, arise and go to a l'eschole: vous serez battu, schoole: you shall be beaten, - car il est sept heures passées: for it is past seven: + car il est sept heures passées: for it is past seven: abillez vous vistement. make you ready quickly. Dites voz prieres, puis vous Say your prayers, then you aurez vostre desiuner: shall have your breakfast: sus, remuez vous. go to, stirre. Marguerite, baillez moy mes chausses. Margaret, give me my hosen. - Despeschez vous ie vous prie: où est Dispatch I pray you: where is + Despeschez vous ie vous prie: où est Dispatch I pray you: where is mon pourpoint? apportez me iartieres my doublet? bring my garters et mes souliers: and my shoes: donnez moy ce chausse-pied. give me that shooing-horne. - Que faites vous là? What do you there? + Que faites vous là ? What do you there? que ne vous hastez vous? why make you no haste? Prenez premierement une chemise blanche, Take first a cleane shirt, car la vostre est trop sale: for yours is too foule: @@ -6294,7 +6257,7 @@ the same subjects,[359] only, as we read them we do not forget, as we were inclined to do in the earlier book, that we are reading exercises intended for school use. Then follow proverbs, golden sayings, prayers, the creed, the fifth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, a treatise on -the iniquity of dancing (_Traité des Danses_), and finally a vocabulary +the iniquity of dancing (_Traité des Danses_), and finally a vocabulary less comprehensive and of less value than that of the _French Schoolemaister_. @@ -6317,26 +6280,26 @@ travellers and merchants will show how Holyband applied his method: x A Londres To London - à la foire de la Berthelemy. to Barthelomews faire. + à la foire de la Berthelemy. to Barthelomews faire. x - Je vay au Landi à Paris, je vay I go to Landi to Paris, - à Rouen. to Rouen. + Je vay au Landi à Paris, je vay I go to Landi to Paris, + à Rouen. to Rouen. Et moy aussi: allons ensemble: And I also: let us go together: x je suy bien aise I am very glad - d'avoir trouvé compagnie. to have found company. + d'avoir trouvé compagnie. to have found company. Allons de par Dieu: Let us go in God's name: x picquons un peu, let us pricke a littell, - j'ay pour que nous ne venions pas là I fear we shall not come thither + j'ay pour que nous ne venions pas là I fear we shall not come thither x x x de jour, car le soleil by daylight: the sunne x s'en va coucher. goeth downe. - Mais où logerons nous? où est But where shall we lodge? where is + Mais où logerons nous? où est But where shall we lodge? where is x x x le meilleur logis? la meilleure the best lodging? the best x @@ -6344,15 +6307,15 @@ travellers and merchants will show how Holyband applied his method: Ne vous souciez pas de cela: Care you not for that: it is x x - c'est au grand marché a l'enseigne at the great market, at the sign + c'est au grand marché a l'enseigne at the great market, at the sign x x - de la fleur de lis, vis à vis of the flower Deluce, right over + de la fleur de lis, vis à vis of the flower Deluce, right over de la croix. against the crosse. - Je suy joyeux d'estre arrivé, car I am glad that I am arrived, for + Je suy joyeux d'estre arrivé, car I am glad that I am arrived, for x x certes g'ay bon appetit: truly I have a good stomacke: - J'espère de faire à ce soir I hope to make to-night + J'espère de faire à ce soir I hope to make to-night x souper de marchant. a marchauntes supper. @@ -6379,7 +6342,7 @@ travellers and merchants will show how Holyband applied his method: medecins font les cymetieres phisitions make the churchardes x bossus crooked - et vieux procureurs, procès tortus: and old attornies sutes to go awry, + et vieux procureurs, procès tortus: and old attornies sutes to go awry, x x mais au but on the contraire que jeunes procureurs et contrary that young lawyers, @@ -6428,7 +6391,7 @@ to keep order by means of a birch, and one of the many offences which called it into action was the speaking of English. [Header: HOLYBAND'S FRENCH SCHOOL] In this little school of his, Holyband appears to have laboured at the task he set himself of leading the English nation "comme -par la main au cabinet de (nostre) langue françoyse," under excellent +par la main au cabinet de (nostre) langue françoyse," under excellent conditions. The whole atmosphere seems to have been French. The curriculum, however, was not confined to this one language. Holyband had to safeguard his interests by instructing his pupils in the subjects @@ -6545,7 +6508,7 @@ university in May.[366] Zouche then travelled to Frankfort, Basle returning to England in 1593.[367] After the publication of this last of his works in 1593, we lose sight -of Holyband in his rôle of teacher of French. He was, however, still in +of Holyband in his rôle of teacher of French. He was, however, still in England in 1597, when he dedicated a new edition of his _French Littleton_ to a new patron, Lord Herbert of Swansea. Thereafter he is not mentioned, and subsequent editions of his most popular works--the @@ -6725,7 +6688,7 @@ teachers, they were required to be of sober life, and members of the French Church. They had to be appointed by the minister and presented to the bishop. They also were required to give the minister an account of the books they read to the children, and of the methods followed, and be -willing to adopt the advice of their superiors "sans rien entreprendre à +willing to adopt the advice of their superiors "sans rien entreprendre à leur fantaisie." Further, it was their duty to conduct the children to church on Sunday for the catechism.[381] Such were the regulations laid down in the second Discipline, drawn up on the restoration of the French @@ -6851,7 +6814,7 @@ it until he caught another in the same fault.[399] [Header: FRENCH SCHOOL AT SOUTHAMPTON] Two Englishmen, who later became well known as translators, acquired their knowledge of French in this school. One was Joshua Sylvester, famous for his translation of Du Bartas, and the other -Robert Ashley, who turned Louis le Roy's _De la Vicissitude ou Variété +Robert Ashley, who turned Louis le Roy's _De la Vicissitude ou Variété des choses de l'univers_ (1579) into English (1594). Sylvester informs us that he learnt his French at Saravia's school "in three poor years, at three times three years old"; "I have never been in France," he @@ -6868,20 +6831,20 @@ the sonnet with which he offered to James I. his translation of the works of Du Bartas, a poet for whom the king had a great admiration, will show his skill in a difficult art: - Voy, sire, ton Saluste habillé en Anglois + Voy, sire, ton Saluste habillé en Anglois (Anglois, encore plus de coeur que de langage:) - Qui, connaissant loyall ton Royale héritage, + Qui, connaissant loyall ton Royale héritage, En ces beaux Liz Dorez au sceptre des Gaulois - (Comme au vray souverain des vrays subjects françois), - Cy à tes pieds sacrez te fait ton sainct Hommage - (De ton Heur et Grandeur éternal temoinage). + (Comme au vray souverain des vrays subjects françois), + Cy à tes pieds sacrez te fait ton sainct Hommage + (De ton Heur et Grandeur éternal temoinage). Miroir de touts Heros, miracle de tous Roys, Voy (sire) ton Saluste, ou (pour le moins) son ombre, Ou l'ombre (pour le moins) de ses Traicts plus divins Qui, ores trop noyrcis par mon pinceau trop sombre, S'esclairciront aux Raiz de tes yeux plus benins. Doncques d'oeil benin et d'un accueil auguste, - Reçoy ton cher Bartas, et Voy, sire, Saluste.[400] + Reçoy ton cher Bartas, et Voy, sire, Saluste.[400] Another of Sylvester's contemporaries at Saravia's school was Sir Thomas Lake,[401] who became Secretary of State in the reign of James I., and @@ -7014,7 +6977,7 @@ of the Walloon and Huguenot Church at Canterbury_ (Introduction). [292] L. Humphrey, _The Nobles or of Nobilitye_, London, 1563, 2nd book. -[293] See A. Rahlenbeck, "Les Réfugiés belges au 16me siècle en +[293] See A. Rahlenbeck, "Les Réfugiés belges au 16me siècle en Angleterre," in the _Revue Trimestrielle_, Oct. 1865. [294] The following numbers show the proportion of the Netherlanders to @@ -7036,12 +6999,12 @@ such as that of succession to and bequeathment of real property, was in general of more advantage to Englishmen born abroad than to foreigners. [300] On the French churches in England, see F. de Schickler, _Les -Églises du refuge en Angleterre_, 3 tom., Paris, 1892. +Églises du refuge en Angleterre_, 3 tom., Paris, 1892. -[301] The first ministers appointed to the French church were François -Pérussel, dit la Rivière, and Richard Vauville. Perlin visited the -French church: "La prechoit un nommé maistre Françoys homme blond, et un -autre nommé maistre Richard, homme ayant barbe noire" (_Description des +[301] The first ministers appointed to the French church were François +Pérussel, dit la Rivière, and Richard Vauville. Perlin visited the +French church: "La prechoit un nommé maistre Françoys homme blond, et un +autre nommé maistre Richard, homme ayant barbe noire" (_Description des royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse_, Paris, 1558, p. 11). Perlin was one of the few Frenchmen who came to England at this time. @@ -7109,7 +7072,7 @@ dictionaries. [323] Printed by T. Wolfe. [324] The first French grammar for teaching French to the Germans, -mentioned in Stengel's _Chronologisches Verzeichniss französischer +mentioned in Stengel's _Chronologisches Verzeichniss französischer Grammatiken_ (Oppeln, 1890), was the work of a Frenchman Du Vivier, schoolmaster at Cologne, and was published in 1566. @@ -7144,7 +7107,7 @@ Anders, _Shakespeare's Books_, Berlin, 1904, p. 203. [334] Often what appear to be mistakes to-day are due to change in pronunciation; as when Pistol takes the French soldier's "bras" ('arm') for English 'brass,' a possibility at this period when the final _s_ was -still sounded (Thurot, _Prononciation française_, ii. pp. 35-36; Anders, +still sounded (Thurot, _Prononciation française_, ii. pp. 35-36; Anders, _op. cit._ pp. 50-51.) [335] Anders, _op. cit._ p. 51 _et seq._ @@ -7203,7 +7166,7 @@ Remains_, p. cccxxxiv. [353] "Et je ne suis pas si presumptueux de vouloir dire que celuy livre je soye suffissant a translater du tout en englois, a cause que je ne -l'ay de nature. Mais a mon simple entendement, ayant l'opportunité et le +l'ay de nature. Mais a mon simple entendement, ayant l'opportunité et le loisir, l'ensuivray au plus pres que ie pourray." [354] _Returns of Aliens in London_, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. @@ -7235,7 +7198,7 @@ he is said to have been five years in England, and to be a native of Barowe in Brabant and nineteen years old. In 1582 one of the same name was living in Blackfriars and had two servants (Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt i. p. 322; pt. ii. pp. 91, 253). In 1579 a John Hendricke from the dominion -of the Bishop of Liége received letters of denization (Hug. Soc. Pub. +of the Bishop of Liége received letters of denization (Hug. Soc. Pub. viii. ad nom.). It does not seem likely that Holyband employed one of the Walloons, whose accent he taught his pupils to avoid. @@ -7243,12 +7206,12 @@ the Walloons, whose accent he taught his pupils to avoid. [363] Farrer, _op. cit._ p. 1. -[364] C. Livet, _La Grammaire française et les grammairiens du 16e -siècle_, Paris, 1859, pp. 500 _et seq._ +[364] C. Livet, _La Grammaire française et les grammairiens du 16e +siècle_, Paris, 1859, pp. 500 _et seq._ [365] For his sources, etc., see Farrer, _op. cit._ pp. 73 _et seq._ -[366] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, i. p. 358. +[366] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, i. p. 358. [367] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. @@ -7271,7 +7234,7 @@ much the same, only less quaintly worded. [373] Holyband was the author of a work for teaching Italian: _The Italian Schoolmaster_, 1583, and again in 1591, 1597, and 1608. -[374] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, iii. pp. 167-171. The members of +[374] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, iii. pp. 167-171. The members of the Church attended to the interests of the schools, and donations were made from time to time. Cp. for instance, Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 123. @@ -7282,11 +7245,11 @@ made from time to time. Cp. for instance, Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. [377] _Registers of Threadneedle Street, London_, Hug. Soc. Pub. ix. -[378] _Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub. +[378] _Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv., 1890. In 1584 three baptisms were performed by Mr. Hopkins, an English minister. -[379] _Registre de l'Église de Cantorbéry_, Hug. Soc. Pub. v. pt. i., +[379] _Registre de l'Église de Cantorbéry_, Hug. Soc. Pub. v. pt. i., 1890. [380] W. J. C. Moens (_The Walloons and their Church at Norwich_, Hug. @@ -7325,7 +7288,7 @@ Cooper, _Lists of Foreign Protestants and Aliens resident in England, [392] G. H. Overend, _Strangers at Dover_, p. 166; and D. Cooper, _Lists of Foreign Protestants_. -[393] _Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv. +[393] _Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv. [394] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. 25. @@ -7346,7 +7309,7 @@ _Works_, ed. Grosart, 1880, i. p. x. [401] 1567?-1630. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. -[402] _Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub. +[402] _Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv., 1890. [403] J. S. Davids, _History of Southampton_, Southampton, 1883, p. 311. @@ -7359,9 +7322,9 @@ the study of French. [405] Authorities for the use of French in Scotch schools are: J. Strong, _Secondary Education in Scotland_, Oxford, 1909, pp. 44 _et seq._, 76, 142; T. P. Young, _Histoire de l'enseignement primaire et -secondaire en Écosse_, Paris, 1907, pp. 12 _et seq._, pp. 64 _et seq._; +secondaire en Écosse_, Paris, 1907, pp. 12 _et seq._, pp. 64 _et seq._; J. Grant, _Burgh Schools of Scotland_, London and Glasgow, 1876, pp. 64, -404; F. Michel, _Les Écossais en France et les Français en Écosse_, +404; F. Michel, _Les Écossais en France et les Français en Écosse_, 1862, ii. p. 78. [406] _Autobiography and Diary of Mr. James Melville, minister of @@ -7397,7 +7360,7 @@ schoolmasters; others joined the profession on their arrival, through force of circumstances, or as a means of repaying hospitality. The lot of such teachers varied considerably. Some lived and taught in gentlemen's families; others thrived by waiting on a private -aristocratic clientèle; others gained a more precarious livelihood under +aristocratic clientèle; others gained a more precarious livelihood under less powerful patronage; and yet others opened private schools, often with decided success. Many of these teachers[410] were denizens, and had long teaching careers, chiefly in London; a certain Abraham Bushell, for @@ -7482,17 +7445,17 @@ doing." This second book treats of the accidence. In the third we pass to the consideration of syntax with the following warning: Dire, _sy ay_ (quoy qu'usage on en face) - N'est point parlé en courtois et bien nay: + N'est point parlé en courtois et bien nay: Bien seant n'est aussy, dire, _non ay_: _Sauf votre honneur_, ou bien _sauf votre grace_ - Seroient trouvéz de trop meilleure grace. - _Je ne l'ay fait_, est trop desordonné: - _Pardonnez moy_, seroit mieux ordonné, + Seroient trouvéz de trop meilleure grace. + _Je ne l'ay fait_, est trop desordonné: + _Pardonnez moy_, seroit mieux ordonné, Car grand fureur douce parolle efface. _Nous estions_, _Nous y pensons_, faut dire, Non, _J'estions_, on ne s'en fait que rire, Ne _J'y pensons_, tout cela est repris. - Les bons François ne parlent point ainsy. + Les bons François ne parlent point ainsy. Acunement pris ne doit estre aussy _Petit_, pour _peu_, ny _peu_ pour _petit_ pris. @@ -7507,12 +7470,12 @@ forms of poems, such as the "chant royal," the "ballade," the sonnet, rondeau, "dixain," and so on, each accompanied by an example, by way of illustration. The various forms of rime are next described and exemplified; and some of the complicated forms dear to the -"rhétoriqueurs" find a place here. This is followed by a description of +"rhétoriqueurs" find a place here. This is followed by a description of the various kinds of metres, again with examples; and finally rhythm, -colour or "lizière," the caesura, elision, the "coupe féminine," and the +colour or "lizière," the caesura, elision, the "coupe féminine," and the use of the apostrophe are treated. Such is this little treatise on the "French poeme," which shows incidentally that Bellot had not yet learned -the lesson enforced by the _Pléiade_ more than twenty years before he +the lesson enforced by the _Pléiade_ more than twenty years before he wrote. What strikes one most, perhaps, in Bellot's Grammar is that he makes no @@ -7554,11 +7517,11 @@ distinctly supercilious. He prided himself on belonging to the "noblesse instruite et de Savoir," and had the reputation of teaching elegant French. -In 1580 he dedicated to no less a person than François de Valois,[414] +In 1580 he dedicated to no less a person than François de Valois,[414] brother to Henry III., a work for teaching English to foreigners. Like Holyband, he gave his book the title of "Schoolmaster": _Maistre -d'Escole Anglois pour les naturelz françois, et autre estrangers qui ont -la langue françoyse, pour parvenir a la vraye prononciation de la langue +d'Escole Anglois pour les naturelz françois, et autre estrangers qui ont +la langue françoyse, pour parvenir a la vraye prononciation de la langue Angloise_.[415] The work contains rules of pronunciation and grammar, given in opposite columns in French and English; it was evidently written in French in the first place, and then somewhat carelessly @@ -7588,12 +7551,12 @@ book with six French sonnets in honour of Her Majesty, celebrating her generous reception of strangers, not omitting to beg her protection for the "garden": - Reçoy donc ce jardin: te plaise a l'appuyer + Reçoy donc ce jardin: te plaise a l'appuyer De ta faveur Royalle: et pren le jardinier En ta protection contre la gent hargneuse: Alors il tachera (sans appouvrir la France) L'Angleterre enrichir d'oeuvres d'autre importance, - Pour façonner l'Anglois au Françoys, en son estre, + Pour façonner l'Anglois au Françoys, en son estre, Alors il chantera tes vertus en tout lieu. . . . The whole of the _Jardin_ is printed in French and English; each maxim @@ -7607,17 +7570,17 @@ example: un degasteur, un rioteux et a wastefull, a riotious and un excessif depenseur, an outrageous spender, un consomme-tout, qui degaste a spendall that will lavishe - et depense où il n'en est and spende where + et depense où il n'en est and spende where nul besoin et a l'endroit de it needeth not and upon whom qui n'en a besoin. it needeth not. Memoire est:-- Memory is:-- - une souvenance, une resconte pensée, a remembrance, and having in minde, + une souvenance, une resconte pensée, a remembrance, and having in minde, une chose non mise en oubly. a not forgetting. Le Moral:-- The meaning:-- - La renommée et fame du The prodigall mans fame and renown + La renommée et fame du The prodigall mans fame and renown prodigue ne dure ny continue long endureth nor continueth temps: si tost qu'il est mort not long; as sone as he is gone - et passé il est oublié and dead he is forgotten + et passé il est oublié and dead he is forgotten et hors de toute souvenance. and out of all remembrance. Cicero en Paradox dit:-- Cicero in Paradox saith:-- Les prodigues employent et Prodigall men employ and @@ -7695,7 +7658,7 @@ Evangelist in Fleet Street, beneath the Conduit, where lived the printer and bookseller Hugh Jackson, commissioned to sell the book--further instances of the friendly relations between the French teachers and the printers and booksellers of the time, through whom these teachers would, -no doubt, get a large proportion of their clientèle. The Huguenot +no doubt, get a large proportion of their clientèle. The Huguenot sympathies of many of the printers, such as Vautrollier and Field, account in part for this cordial feeling. @@ -7724,7 +7687,7 @@ dialogues between master and pupil: Sir, will it please you do me Monsieur, vous plaist il me faire so much favour (or would tant de faveur (ou voudriez you take the pain) to vous prendre la peine) de - teach me to speak French? m'apprendre a parler François? + teach me to speak French? m'apprendre a parler François? With all my heart, if Tres volontiers, si vous you have a desire to it. en avez envie. I desire nothing more. Je ne desire rien plus. @@ -7746,8 +7709,8 @@ dialogues between master and pupil: And the next lesson takes the following form: [Header: HIS FRENCH ALPHABET] - Sir, can you say your lesson? Monsieur, sçaves vous vostre leçon? - Have you learnt to pronounce your Avés vous apprins a prononcer vos + Sir, can you say your lesson? Monsieur, sçaves vous vostre leçon? + Have you learnt to pronounce your Avés vous apprins a prononcer vos letters? lettres? Yea, as well as I can. Ouy, le mieux qu'il m'est possible. I have done nothing but study it Je n'ay fait autre chose qu'estudier. @@ -7772,10 +7735,10 @@ ALPHABET] Before we go any further Devant que passer oultre you must il faut que vous pronounce perfectly your letters. prononciez vos lettres parfaitement. - Now that you can tell your letters Maintenant que vous sçavez vos + Now that you can tell your letters Maintenant que vous sçavez vos well, lettres, learne your syllables, apprenez vos syllables, - say after me. dictes après moy. + say after me. dictes après moy. After dealing with the sounds of the French language, De la Mothe passes to more general considerations. He touches on the much-discussed @@ -7795,20 +7758,20 @@ life--as follows: _For to aske the way._ _Pour demander le chemin._ - How many miles to London? Combien y a il d'icy à Londres? + How many miles to London? Combien y a il d'icy à Londres? Ten leagues, twenty miles. Dix lieues, vingt mil. What way must we keep? Quel chemin faut il tenir? - Which is the shortest Où est le plus court - way to goe to Rye? chemin d'icy à Rye? + Which is the shortest Où est le plus court + way to goe to Rye? chemin d'icy à Rye? Keepe alwayes the great way. Suyvez tousjours le grand chemin. - Do not stray neither to the right Ne vous fourvoyez ny à dextre - nor to the left hand. ny à sinestre. + Do not stray neither to the right Ne vous fourvoyez ny à dextre + nor to the left hand. ny à sinestre. What doe I owe you now? Combien vous doy-je maintenant? - Two shillings. Here it is. Deux sols. Les voylà. + Two shillings. Here it is. Deux sols. Les voylà . Bring me my horse. Amenez moy mon cheval. - Will you take horse? Vous plaist il monter à cheval? + Will you take horse? Vous plaist il monter à cheval? Yea, I hope I shall not alight Ouy, j'espere que je ne descendrez - till I be come to London. que je ne soys arrivé à Londres. + till I be come to London. que je ne soys arrivé à Londres. God be with you. Farewell. Adieu. Bonne vie et longue. At the end of these dialogues comes the second part of De la Mothe's @@ -8024,7 +7987,7 @@ boisterous spirits and a lover of good wine--a taste which he had acquired in France, where he had lived many years. There, if the dialogue he wrote for the help of students of French may be taken as autobiographical, he had spent three years in the College of Montagu at -Paris, taught for a year in the Collège des Africains at Orleans, lived +Paris, taught for a year in the Collège des Africains at Orleans, lived for ten months at Lyons, and spent a year amongst the Benedictine monks. On the murder of Henri III. in 1589, Eliote returned to England, strongly imbued with a love for the country in which he had lived so @@ -8203,13 +8166,13 @@ dialogue: dors tu dortu slepeth thou vilain? debout, veelein? deboo, villain? up, debout, ie te deboo, ie te up, I shall - reveilleray tantost reue-lheré tant-tot shall wake thee soon + reveilleray tantost reue-lheré tant-tot shall wake thee soon avec un bon baton. tavec-keun boon batoon. with a good cudgell. - Je me leve, monsieur. Ie me léveh moonseewr. I rise sir. + Je me leve, monsieur. Ie me léveh moonseewr. I rise sir. Quelle heure est-il? Qel-heur et-til? What o'clock is it? - Il est six heures. Il-é see-zewres. It is six o'clock. - Donnez moy mes Donné moe' mes Give me my - chausses de velours shosséh de veloor my green velvet + Il est six heures. Il-é see-zewres. It is six o'clock. + Donnez moy mes Donné moe' mes Give me my + chausses de velours shosséh de veloor my green velvet verd. vert. breeches. Lesquelles? Le-keles? Which? C'est tout un; mes Set-toot-tewn; mes It is all one; my @@ -8249,9 +8212,9 @@ St. Paul's, "prattling, chatting, and babbling." The arrangement is the same as in the previous dialogues, and the work closes with a quotation from Du Bartas's praise of France: - O mille et mille fois terre heureuse et féconde, + O mille et mille fois terre heureuse et féconde, O perle de l'Europe! O Paradis du monde! - France je te salue, O mère des guerriers. + France je te salue, O mère des guerriers. In his dialogue called _The Scholar_, incorporated in the first part of the _Ortho-Epia_, Eliote explains his 'new' method of learning @@ -8304,7 +8267,7 @@ in London_; vols. viii., xviii., _Letters of Denization_. [411] Evrard Erail, Onias Ganeur, Charles Bod, Robert Fontaine, Charles Darvil d'Arras, Jean Vaquerie, Baudouin Mason, and Adrian Tresol -(Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, i. p. 124). Of these names only that of +(Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, i. p. 124). Of these names only that of Robert Fontaine is found in the _Returns of Aliens_. Charles Darvil and Adrian Tresol are again mentioned in connexion with the Church in 1564. Baudouin Mason received letters of denization in 1565, and Adrian @@ -8317,47 +8280,47 @@ mentioned in the _Returns of Aliens_. [413] _Returns of Aliens_, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. ii. pp. 228, 335. -[414] Duc d'Alençon, who died in 1584. +[414] Duc d'Alençon, who died in 1584. [415] Printed by Henry Dizlie for Thomas Purfoote. Reprinted by T. Spiro -in the _Neudrucke frühneuenglischer Grammatiken, herausgegeben von R. +in the _Neudrucke frühneuenglischer Grammatiken, herausgegeben von R. Brotanek_, Bd. 7, Halle, 1912. It contains 75 pages, 8vo. [416] Bellot's name does not occur in the Registers (vol. i., Lymington, 1908). -[417] 16º, pp. 80. +[417] 16º, pp. 80. [418] _Stationers' Register_, 19th February 1588. [419] Hazlitt, _Handbook_, 1867, p. 36. -[420] Perhaps he was a member of the La Motte Fouqué family whose name +[420] Perhaps he was a member of the La Motte Fouqué family whose name became so closely connected with the Protestant cause in France. In 1551 -René La Motte left Saintonge and went to Normandy, where he died, +René La Motte left Saintonge and went to Normandy, where he died, leaving two sons and three daughters. Cp. Crottet, _History of the Reformed Church in Saintonge_, quoted by T. F. Sanxay, _The Sanxay Family_, 1907. -[421] "Estant donc refugié a l'ombre favorable du Sceptre de sa -serenissime majesté, qui est le vray port de retraicte et asyle asseuré +[421] "Estant donc refugié a l'ombre favorable du Sceptre de sa +serenissime majesté, qui est le vray port de retraicte et asyle asseuré de ceux qui faisans profession de l'Evangile souffrent ores persecution -soubs la Tyrannie de l'Antichrist, j'ay tasché de tout mon pouvoir de +soubs la Tyrannie de l'Antichrist, j'ay tasché de tout mon pouvoir de faire en sorte par mes labeurs que ceste noble Nation qui maintenant nous sert de mere et de nourrice peust tirer quelque proffit d'iceux, afin que par ce moyen je peusse eviter le vice enorme de l'ingratitude. . . . Or entre toutes les belles et rares vertus dont la Noblesse -angloise se rend tant renommée par tout le monde, admirée des -estrangiers, et honorée en son pays, est l'Estude des bonnes lettres, et +angloise se rend tant renommée par tout le monde, admirée des +estrangiers, et honorée en son pays, est l'Estude des bonnes lettres, et cognoissance des langues, qui leur sont si familieres et communes qu'il s'en trouve peu parmi eux, non seulement entre les Seigneurs et Gentilhommes, qui n'en parlent trois ou quatre pour le moins, mais aussi entre les Dames et Damoiselles, exercise veritablement louable, par lequel toute vertu s'honore et se rend immortelle et sans lequel nulle -autre n'est parfait ni digne d'estre aucunement estimé. Or c'est ce qui, +autre n'est parfait ni digne d'estre aucunement estimé. Or c'est ce qui, outre la singuliere affection que naturellement ils portent aux estrangers et la grande courtoisie dont ils ont a coustume de les -traicter, leur faict faire tant d'estat des François, si bien qu'il y en +traicter, leur faict faire tant d'estat des François, si bien qu'il y en a fort peu qui n'en ait un avec soy." [422] Who first went to Oxford in 1587. Foster, _Alumni Oxonienses_, ad @@ -8368,8 +8331,8 @@ Apothegmes and Golden sayings of the most excellent French Authors as well Poets as Orators._ [424] Arber, _Register of the Company of Stationers_, ii. 614. Miss -Farrer in her book on Holyband takes this entry, _l'Alphabet François -avec le Tresor de la langue françoise_, to refer to another edition of +Farrer in her book on Holyband takes this entry, _l'Alphabet François +avec le Tresor de la langue françoise_, to refer to another edition of Holyband's _Treasurie_, which, she assumes, was prevented and superseded by the publication of his dictionary in 1592. @@ -8394,40 +8357,40 @@ with the description of Holyband's rules on p. 142, _supra_. heed garde how they do pronounce _minion_ ... comment ils prononcent minion, onion, companion, - it will be more easy for them to il leur sera plus aisé de + it will be more easy for them to il leur sera plus aisé de pronounce it: for though we le prononcer: car encore que nous do write the selfesame words escrivions ces mesmes mots with gn, par gn, neverthelesse there is small neantmoins il y a peu de difference between difference de their pronunciation and ours: leur prononciation a la nostre: - let them take heed only seulement qu'ils prennent garde à + let them take heed only seulement qu'ils prennent garde à to sound g mettre g in the same syllable that n is, en la mesme syllable que n, and then they et ils - shall not finde any hardnesse ne trouveront aucune difficulté + shall not finde any hardnesse ne trouveront aucune difficulté in his pronunciation, en sa prononciation, as mignon ... mi-gnon. comme mi-gnon. . . . -[430] "Et pourroit a bon droict estre comparé a quelques vieilles -masures d'un bastiment où il a tant creu de ronces et espines, qu'à +[430] "Et pourroit a bon droict estre comparé a quelques vieilles +masures d'un bastiment où il a tant creu de ronces et espines, qu'à grand peine il apert que jamais il y ait eu de maisons. Car devant qu'on -eust trouvé l'imprimerie, on l'a tant de fois coppié, et chaque écrivain -l'escrivant à la fantaisie et ne retenant l'orthographe françoise, que -maintenant il semble qu'il n'y ait presque langage plus esloigné du vray -François que ce François de vos loix." +eust trouvé l'imprimerie, on l'a tant de fois coppié, et chaque écrivain +l'escrivant à la fantaisie et ne retenant l'orthographe françoise, que +maintenant il semble qu'il n'y ait presque langage plus esloigné du vray +François que ce François de vos loix." [431] Bellot frequently refers to the _gent hargneuse_ and the -"aiguillons envenimez des langues qui se plaisent à detracter les -oeuvres d'autruy et qui deprisent tout ce qui n'est tiré de leurs -boutiques, iaçoit que souvente fois leur estofe ne soit que biffes et +"aiguillons envenimez des langues qui se plaisent à detracter les +oeuvres d'autruy et qui deprisent tout ce qui n'est tiré de leurs +boutiques, iaçoit que souvente fois leur estofe ne soit que biffes et hapelourdes." [432] _Returns of Aliens_, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. i. pp. xii, xiv. -[433] And again: "Or vous noterés qu'en tous les noms terminés en _ent_, -_t_ n'est pas exprimé en la fin: quant aux verbes, il est prononcé, mais -bien doucement: donnés vous donc garde d'ensuivre en ceci les +[433] And again: "Or vous noterés qu'en tous les noms terminés en _ent_, +_t_ n'est pas exprimé en la fin: quant aux verbes, il est prononcé, mais +bien doucement: donnés vous donc garde d'ensuivre en ceci les Bourgignons qui expriment leur _t_ si fort que de deux syllabes ilz en font trois: comme quand nous disons _ils mangent_ . . . le Walon dira; _ilz mangete_." And yet again: "Sounde _ch_ as _sh_ in English: you @@ -8510,8 +8473,8 @@ Eliote gives some information concerning the fees charged by French teachers in the later part of the sixteenth century. He asserts that the usual charge was a shilling a week,[449] but we are left in doubt as to how many lessons this entitled the student to. He affirms, probably not -seriously, that he would charge a gentleman £10 a year, and a lord from -£20 to £30. +seriously, that he would charge a gentleman £10 a year, and a lord from +£20 to £30. We are indebted to him also for an account, very prejudiced, no doubt, of the usual method employed by French teachers generally. This @@ -8745,7 +8708,7 @@ handwriting of his brother, afterwards Charles I., and a manuscript dedication to the younger prince in that of the translator.[471] The quatrains appeared again with the subsequent editions of Sylvester's works. About this time Prince Henry made Sylvester a Groom of his -Chamber, and gave him a small pension of £20 a year.[472] The story goes +Chamber, and gave him a small pension of £20 a year.[472] The story goes that the prince valued him so highly that he made him his first "poet pensioner," and it seems that Sylvester took advantage of his position to encourage his royal patron's French studies. Many other works of the @@ -8857,7 +8820,7 @@ relationship between French-Latin and French-English dictionaries. French is first found side by side with English, in one of these French-Latin dictionaries--that of Veron; and in subsequent years the French-English dictionaries are mostly based on one or other of the -French-Latin lexicons. Those due to Robert Éstienne and to Thierry were +French-Latin lexicons. Those due to Robert Éstienne and to Thierry were probably the sources from which the author of the French-English dictionary of 1571 drew his material; while Holyband based his _Treasurie_ (1580), and his Dictionary (1593), respectively, on the @@ -8891,7 +8854,7 @@ Register_ Cotgrave's is entered as a dictionary in French and English first collected by Holyband, and since augmented and altered by Cotgrave.[487] But the work which no doubt was of most help to Cotgrave was another French-Latin dictionary, Aimar de Ranconnet's _Tresor de la -Langue Françoise_, revised by Nicot (1606).[488] He had, moreover, read +Langue Françoise_, revised by Nicot (1606).[488] He had, moreover, read all sorts of books, old and new, in all dialects, where he found words not heard of for hundreds of years, which he included in his book, to be used or left as the reader thought fit. J. L'Oiseau de Tourval,[489] a @@ -8911,7 +8874,7 @@ good Lord and Maister," whose secretary he was. He declares that he would have produced a more substantial work to offer to his patron had not his eyes failed him and forced him "to spend much of their vigour on this bundle of words." He also offered a copy to the eldest son of James -I., Prince Henry, and received from him a gift of £10.[491] The price of +I., Prince Henry, and received from him a gift of £10.[491] The price of the dictionary seems to have been 11s. Cotgrave sent two copies to M. Beaulieu at Paris, and wrote requesting payment of 22s., which they cost him; for, he says, "I have not been provident enough to reserve any of @@ -8936,9 +8899,9 @@ was still alive. The only change in this issue is the addition of a "most copious Dictionarie of the English set before the French by R. S. L." This R. S. L. was Robert Sherwood, Londoner, who taught French and English in London, and also had a French school for a time. He gave his -dictionary the title of _Dictionarie Anglois et François pour l'utilité +dictionary the title of _Dictionarie Anglois et François pour l'utilité de tous ceux qui sont desireux de deux langues_,[493] and addressed it -to the "favorables lecteurs françois, alemans et autres." The English +to the "favorables lecteurs françois, alemans et autres." The English reader he advises to look for fuller information as to "the gender of all French nouns, and the conjugation of all French verbs" in Cotgrave's dictionary; the small space to which he was limited did not allow him to @@ -8993,7 +8956,7 @@ knowing persons, true lovers of the French," who were invited to enter on the blank pages any word they came across in their reading which was not in the dictionary; by means of this plan several hundred additional words were gathered together, many being "new invented terms, which the -admired Mons. Scudéry, and other late Romancers have so happily publisht +admired Mons. Scudéry, and other late Romancers have so happily publisht in their printed volumes." After Howell's death there appeared yet another issue of his edition of Cotgrave, in 1673.[497] The printer employed the same means to increase the number of words as had been so @@ -9052,13 +9015,13 @@ Pierre Boaystuau, as the best and the most elegant writer of our tongue. His workes be _le Theatre du monde_, the tragicall histories, the prodigious histories. Sleidan's commentaries in frenche be excellently translated. Philippe de Commins, when he is corrected is very profitable -and wise." The _Nouveau Testament_ of de Bèze, Boiasteau's _Théâtre du +and wise." The _Nouveau Testament_ of de Bèze, Boiasteau's _Théâtre du monde_, and Sleidan's _Commentaries_[506] were all books well known in England, and Holyband himself prepared an edition of Boiasteau.[507] An additional reason, according to him, for retaining the unsounded consonants was to facilitate the reading of the older monuments of the French language. He also advised the perusal of Marot's works, of the -_Amadis_ of Herberay des Essarts, of François de Belleforest's _Histoire +_Amadis_ of Herberay des Essarts, of François de Belleforest's _Histoire Universelle du monde_, of the _Vies et Morales de Plutarque_, in Amyot's version, and of the collection of stories, on the plan of the _Decameron_, which its author, Jacques Yver, had entitled _Le Printemps_ @@ -9069,7 +9032,7 @@ extent by his religious sympathies. It is curious that he makes no mention of Ronsard, who was much read in England, and one of the favourite authors of the Queen. Bellot in his Grammar had similar if not identical ambitions. He sought to enable his pupils to read the _Amadis_ -of Des Essarts, Marot, de Bèze, du Bellay's lyrics, Froissart, Ronsard, +of Des Essarts, Marot, de Bèze, du Bellay's lyrics, Froissart, Ronsard, Collet[509] and Jodelle "racontans l'un l'amour et l'autre la guerre cruelle." Pibrac and Du Bartas have already been mentioned as favourite authors. It was to encourage his pupils to take delight in the "profound @@ -9084,7 +9047,7 @@ mouth hath tasted of the sharpe sower." Naturally writings of a religious character were much in favour with these teachers. [Header: AUTHORS USUALLY READ] Holyband advised the -reading of de Bèze's New Testament, and several times we hear of "the +reading of de Bèze's New Testament, and several times we hear of "the French Bible" being printed in England.[510] The Liturgy in French[511] was also printed, and would be useful to English students of French attending the French Church. @@ -9297,8 +9260,8 @@ translation from French of so popular a work as Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ [499] The _Histoire tragi-comique de nostre temps sous les noms de Lysandre et de Caliste_ (1615) was the work of d'Audigier. -[500] Thus the _Préau des Fleurs meslées, contenant plusieurs et -differentz discours_ of François Voilleret, sieur de Florizel, was +[500] Thus the _Préau des Fleurs meslées, contenant plusieurs et +differentz discours_ of François Voilleret, sieur de Florizel, was printed in London in 1600 (?), and dedicated to the Prince of Wales. In 1620 it was licensed to be printed in French and English, provided the English translation be approved. In 1619 a French translation of Bacon's @@ -9336,7 +9299,7 @@ Society, 1913. reipublicae Carolo Quinto Caesare_, appeared in Latin in 1555, and in French in 1557. -[507] _Le théâtre du monde . . . revue et corrigé par C. de Sainliens_, +[507] _Le théâtre du monde . . . revue et corrigé par C. de Sainliens_, 1595. Printed by George Bishop and dedicated to "the Scotch Ambassador, Jacques de Betoun, Archevesque de Glasco." @@ -9396,7 +9359,7 @@ bonne vie et en la Fin la Joye de Paradise." In similar 'schools' to be present on commencement day: "Nostre Seigneur Doctor, une parolle sil vous Plaist, nostres Peres de nostres Seigneurs Commencens vous prient que vous estes demayn a son commencement en -l'église de nostre Dame." And throughout the ceremonies[518] in Arts and +l'église de nostre Dame." And throughout the ceremonies[518] in Arts and Theology similar French formulae, often interspersed with Latin, were frequently used, though they had probably passed out of use by the beginning of the eighteenth century. But even at that time the summons @@ -9437,7 +9400,7 @@ promoted to positions in the University,[520] on which they had a very beneficial influence, just as others received preferment in the English Church. The French tutors were among the humbler and more numerous exiles who "taught privately," as the seventeenth-century historian of -the University, Anthony à Wood, tells us. Apart from those who actually +the University, Anthony à Wood, tells us. Apart from those who actually taught French, the presence of considerable numbers of Frenchmen[521] cannot have been without some indirect influence on the study of French at Cambridge, as well as at Oxford. @@ -9467,7 +9430,7 @@ profession." Shortly after, he removed to London, where he enjoyed favour at Court. Of more importance, however, is the group of private tutors who settled -at Oxford, found a clientèle among the University students, and +at Oxford, found a clientèle among the University students, and frequently wrote and published French grammars for the use of their pupils. There was evidently some demand for instruction in French at Oxford early in the sixteenth century. The bookseller John Donne enters @@ -9508,13 +9471,13 @@ grammars were likewise produced by Englishmen resident at Oxford, and teaching the French language. Among others was John Sanford, or Sandford, chaplain of Magdalen College, and the author of the French grammar which succeeded Morlet's. Sanford wrote in Latin, and entitled -his work _Le Guichet François, sive Janicula et Brevis Introductio ad +his work _Le Guichet François, sive Janicula et Brevis Introductio ad Linguam Gallicam_. It was published by Joseph Barnes in 1604,[529] and dedicated to Dr. Bond, president of Magdalen. Sanford compiled his observations on the pronunciation and parts of speech from the various French grammars published in both France and England; he drew largely on Morlet, as well as Bellot and Holyband; and made equally free with de -Bèze, Pillot, and Ramus. +Bèze, Pillot, and Ramus. He varied his duties as chaplain by giving lessons in French. In 1605 he was teaching French to that "hopefull young gentleman Mr. William Grey, @@ -9582,7 +9545,7 @@ In the meantime other grammars had appeared from the pens of French sojourners at Oxford. One, Robert Farrear, a teacher of French, wrote a grammar in English for the use of his pupils, _The Brief Direction to the French Tongue_, printed at Oxford in 1618. Nothing further is known -of its author. Anthony à Wood[536] informs us that in the title of the +of its author. Anthony à Wood[536] informs us that in the title of the book Farrear inscribed himself M.A., but "whether he took that degree or was incorporated therein in Oxford" he could not discover. @@ -9603,12 +9566,12 @@ the French, Italian and Spanish tongues." For the rest we must be content to add with Wood: "What other things he hath written I know not, nor any thing else of the author."[538] -[Header: GABRIEL DU GRÈS] +[Header: GABRIEL DU GRÈS] As yet no French grammars had appeared at Cambridge, and French teachers do not seem to have made their presence felt there.[539] In 1631, however, one of the best known of this group of university French tutors -arrived at Cambridge--Gabriel Du Grès, a native of Saumur, and a member +arrived at Cambridge--Gabriel Du Grès, a native of Saumur, and a member of a good family from Angers. He arrived in England as a refugee on account of his Protestant faith, received a warm welcome at Cambridge, and taught French to several of the students in various colleges.[540] @@ -9619,10 +9582,10 @@ work on the same lines and of about the same dimensions as that of Morlet.[541] It is preceded by Latin verses addressed to the author by members of different colleges, and is dedicated to the students of the University, especially those engaged in the study of French. This -grammar of Du Grès appears to be the only work of its kind printed at +grammar of Du Grès appears to be the only work of its kind printed at Cambridge before the eighteenth century.[542] -Shortly after its publication Du Grès joined the group of French tutors +Shortly after its publication Du Grès joined the group of French tutors at Oxford,[543] and this removal points to the more ready openings offered there to those of his profession. When he published his _Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini_[544] at Oxford in 1639, he was teaching French @@ -9641,28 +9604,28 @@ each French letter, and followed by a few general rules for reading French and a table of the auxiliary and regular verbs. This little book, which has more in common with the productions of the London teachers than with the Oxford manuals, enjoyed a greater popularity than those of -Du Grès's rivals. In 1660 a third edition appeared, without the +Du Grès's rivals. In 1660 a third edition appeared, without the additions found in the second. He was also the author of an interesting little work in English on the -Duke of Richelieu,[545] printed in London in 1643. Probably Du Grès had +Duke of Richelieu,[545] printed in London in 1643. Probably Du Grès had removed to London at that date; in the second edition of his grammar, printed, like the first, by Leonard Lichfield at Oxford, he describes himself as "late teacher of the same in Oxford." -In his dialogues Du Grès gives some account of his ideas on the teaching +In his dialogues Du Grès gives some account of his ideas on the teaching of French:[546] - Commençons à l'abécé. + Commençons à l'abécé. Escusez moy. Entendez moy, oyez moy, prononcer les lettres. Remarquez bien comment je prononce les voyelles, et principalement _u_, car il est - bien malaisé a prononcer à vous autres mm. les Anglois, comme aussi + bien malaisé a prononcer à vous autres mm. les Anglois, comme aussi _e_ entre les consonnes. Prononcez apres moy. - Voilà qui va bien. + Voilà qui va bien. Prononce-je bien? @@ -9673,7 +9636,7 @@ of French:[546] Il ne sauroit tant vous en donner que votre _th_ ou _ch_ nous en donne. - Il est malaisé d'avoir la proprieté de votre langue. + Il est malaisé d'avoir la proprieté de votre langue. L'exercice et la lecture des bons autheurs vous apprendront avec le temps, etc. @@ -9686,11 +9649,11 @@ thought practice of more avail than rules. It is possible, he admits, to learn French by rote, without any grammar rules. But it is not the best way in his opinion. Without grammar rules the student cannot distinguish good French from bad, nor can he translate, write letters, or read; and -reading, thought Du Grès, was an essential condition if the cultivation +reading, thought Du Grès, was an essential condition if the cultivation of French in England was to be maintained. [Header: FRENCH AT CAMBRIDGE] Those who learn by ear are at a loss as soon as they no longer hear French spoken daily. As for those who promise to teach -French in a short time, they are nothing but mountebanks. Du Grès held +French in a short time, they are nothing but mountebanks. Du Grès held that a man of moderate intellect could, with hard work, learn to understand an ordinary French author in three or four months. He had had, he declares, some pupils at Cambridge who learnt to read and speak @@ -9832,7 +9795,7 @@ literature. Mullinger, _History of the University of Cambridge_, ii. p. 351. [520] One, Jean Verneuil, became underlibrarian of the Bodleian in 1625. -Cp. Schickler, _Les Églises du Refuge_, i. p. 424; Foster Watson, +Cp. Schickler, _Les Églises du Refuge_, i. p. 424; Foster Watson, _Religious Refugees and English Education_, Hug. Soc. Proceedings, 1911; Agnew, _Protestant Exiles_, i. ch. v. and pp. 137, 147, 148, 156, 163; ii. pp. 260, 274, 388; Smiles, _The Huguenots_, ch. xiv. @@ -9850,7 +9813,7 @@ University of Edinburgh; cp. Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 366. [526] 8vo, pp. 92. -[527] E. Stengel, _Chronologisches Verzeichnis französischer +[527] E. Stengel, _Chronologisches Verzeichnis französischer Grammatiken_, Oppeln, 1890. [528] F. Madan, _Oxford Books, 1468-1640_, 1895-1912, i. p. 22; ii. p. @@ -9872,7 +9835,7 @@ nom. [533] Wood, _Fasti Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 29, 30; _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. -[534] 12º, pp. 31. +[534] 12º, pp. 31. [535] In the copy in the Cambridge Univ. Library these are accompanied by a MS. translation into Latin. Some additional rules in Latin are @@ -9880,7 +9843,7 @@ written on the last blank leaf. [536] _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 277. -[537] Printed by William Turner, 8º, pp. 72. +[537] Printed by William Turner, 8º, pp. 72. [538] _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 624. @@ -9894,7 +9857,7 @@ Cambridge early in the sixteenth century. [542] Cp. R. Bowes, _Catalogue of Books printed at Cambridge, 1521-1893_. -[543] The statement of Wood (_Athenae Oxon._ iii. 184), that Du Grès had +[543] The statement of Wood (_Athenae Oxon._ iii. 184), that Du Grès had studied at Oxford before going to Cambridge, is probably incorrect. [544] 8vo, pp. 195, printed by Leonard Lichfield. @@ -9919,8 +9882,8 @@ in the election of Fellows; cp. _supra_, p. 6. [550] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1660-61_, p. 162. -[551] "Autobiographie de Pierre du Moulin," _Bulletin de la Société de -l'histoire du Protestantisme Français_, vii. pp. 343 _sqq._ +[551] "Autobiographie de Pierre du Moulin," _Bulletin de la Société de +l'histoire du Protestantisme Français_, vii. pp. 343 _sqq._ [552] Mullinger, _History of the University of Cambridge_, 1911, iii. p. 300. @@ -9959,8 +9922,8 @@ English ... with notes by Selden_, new ed., 1771, p. 172. [562] Perlin says of the English in the middle of the sixteenth century, referring no doubt to the nobility: "Ceux du pays ne courent gaire ou -bien peu aux deux universités, et ne se donnent point beaucoup aux -lettres, sinon qu'à toute marchandise et à toute vanité" (_Description +bien peu aux deux universités, et ne se donnent point beaucoup aux +lettres, sinon qu'à toute marchandise et à toute vanité" (_Description des royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse_, p. 11). [563] _Letters_ (1638), Camden Soc., 1854, p. 8. Nearly half a century @@ -10000,7 +9963,7 @@ in 1583 to report on his progress in the language.[566] Both ministers in their turn were patrons to numerous young travellers in France. A certain Charles Danvers wrote to Walsingham from Paris, in French, to show his progress and thank him for his favours.[567] And Burghley gave -one Andrew Bussy a monthly allowance of £5 to enable him to study French +one Andrew Bussy a monthly allowance of £5 to enable him to study French at Orleans, where, according to his own account, he took great pains to make good progress so as to serve his patron the better on his return.[568] It was generally held that travel was "useful to useful @@ -10287,7 +10250,7 @@ time of his life. He visited France, Germany, and Italy. For a time he left the Cavendishes to act as tutor to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, with whom he remained eighteen months in Paris. It was while travelling with his pupils that Hobbes became known in the philosophic circles of -Paris.[610] Addison was offered a salary of £100 to be tutor to the Duke +Paris.[610] Addison was offered a salary of £100 to be tutor to the Duke of Somerset, who desired him "to be more of a companion than a Governor," but did not accept the offer.[611] In some cases the travelling tutor had several pupils. Thus Mr. Cordell, the friend of Sir @@ -10515,8 +10478,8 @@ Travellers)."[639] Maupas bears stronger testimony to his pupil's attainments in the French language, and some years later he gratefully dedicated to the Duke his French grammar, first issued publicly in 1618. -Maupas's _Grammaire françoise contenant reigles tres certaines et -adresse tres asseurée a la naïve connoissance et pur usage de nostre +Maupas's _Grammaire françoise contenant reigles tres certaines et +adresse tres asseurée a la naïve connoissance et pur usage de nostre langue. En faveur des estrangers qui en seront desireux_, was first privately printed in 1607.[640] He had not originally intended it for publication. The work grew out of the notes and observations he compiled @@ -10554,12 +10517,12 @@ Maupas died in 1625, when a new edition of his grammar was in preparation. His son, who assisted him in teaching, saw the work through the press, and invited students to transfer to him the favours they had bestowed on his father. Apparently the younger Charles Maupas continued -to teach his father's clientèle for some time. [Header: CHARLES MAUPAS +to teach his father's clientèle for some time. [Header: CHARLES MAUPAS OF BLOIS] In 1626 he gave further proof of his zeal for the cause in editing and publishing a comedy which both he and his father had frequently read with pupils not advanced enough for more serious matter. We are told vaguely that this comedy, entitled _Les Desguisez: Comedie -Françoise avec l'explication des proverbes et mots difficiles par +Françoise avec l'explication des proverbes et mots difficiles par Charles Maupas a Bloys_, was the work of one of the _beaux esprits_ of the period.[642] Maupas, however, only had one copy, and knew not where to procure more. He was induced to have it printed on seeing the great @@ -10567,7 +10530,7 @@ labour and time expended by many of his pupils in making copies of it for their own use. For the benefit of students who had no tutor, he added an explanatory vocabulary of proverbs and difficult words. -Maupas's _Grammaire et syntaxe françoise_ is still looked on with +Maupas's _Grammaire et syntaxe françoise_ is still looked on with respect.[643] The reputation it enjoyed in the seventeenth century is the more remarkable in that it was the work of a provincial who had no relations with the Court, then the supreme arbiter in matters of @@ -10577,7 +10540,7 @@ by foreign students of French as long as the language was held in esteem was not to be fulfilled. His Grammar was superseded by that of Antoine Oudin--_Grammaire -Françoise rapportée au langage du temps_, Paris, 1632. Oudin's original +Françoise rapportée au langage du temps_, Paris, 1632. Oudin's original intention had been merely to enlarge the grammar of his predecessor. But as his work advanced he found "force antiquailles" and many mistakes, besides much confusion, repetition, and pedantry. He felt no compunction @@ -10586,18 +10549,18 @@ borrowed from Maupas--although he is careful to note that he has no intention of damaging his rival's reputation, and is proud to share his opinion on several points. He had a great advantage over Maupas in having spent all his life in close connexion with the Court; his father, -César, had been interpreter to the French king, and Antoine succeeded +César, had been interpreter to the French king, and Antoine succeeded him in that office. He also appears to have had continual relations with foreigners, and he tells us on one occasion that he received from them "very considerable benefits." His grammar was certainly much used by foreign students, although it does not seem to have enjoyed as great a -popularity in England as that of Maupas. Oudin's _Curiositez Françoises_ +popularity in England as that of Maupas. Oudin's _Curiositez Françoises_ (1640) was also addressed "aux estrangers," and his aim was to show his gratitude by attempting to call attention to the mistakes which had made their way into grammars drawn up for their instruction.[644] -_L'Eschole Françoise pour apprendre a bien parler et escrire selon -l'usage de ce temps et pratique des bons autheurs, divisée en deux +_L'Eschole Françoise pour apprendre a bien parler et escrire selon +l'usage de ce temps et pratique des bons autheurs, divisée en deux livres dont l'un contient les premiers elements, l'autre les parties de l'oraison_ (Paris, 1604), by Jean Baptiste du Val, avocat en Parlement at Paris and French tutor to Marie de Medicis, was also intended partly @@ -10612,7 +10575,7 @@ anything that resembled a provincial accent; better no teacher at all than one with a provincial accent. Among other grammars of similar purport is that of Masset in French and -Latin, _Exact et tres facile acheminement a la langue Françoyse, mis en +Latin, _Exact et tres facile acheminement a la langue Françoyse, mis en Latin par le meme autheur pour le soulagement des estrangers_ (1606);[645] and to the same category belongs also the _Praecepta gallici sermonis ad pleniorem perfectioremque eius linguae cognitionem @@ -10621,7 +10584,7 @@ who, after teaching French for many years in Germany, settled down at Orleans, his native town, as a language tutor.[646] Another work widely used by travellers, and well known in England, was -the _Nouvelle et Parfaite Grammaire Françoise_ (1659) of Laurent +the _Nouvelle et Parfaite Grammaire Françoise_ (1659) of Laurent Chiflet, the zealous Jesuit and missionary, which continued to be reprinted until the eighteenth century, and enjoyed for many years the highest reputation among foreign students of French. [Header: FRENCH @@ -10630,7 +10593,7 @@ were inquiring for some books at one of the booksellers of the Palais, the centre of the trade; and how the bookseller answered them civilly and tried to find what they desired, until his wife interfered, crying, "Ne voiez vous pas que ce sont des etrangers qui ne savent ce qu'ils -demandent? Donnez leur la grammaire de Chiflet, c'est là ce qu'il leur +demandent? Donnez leur la grammaire de Chiflet, c'est là ce qu'il leur faut."[647] Chiflet is very explicit in his advice to foreign students. In the first @@ -10659,12 +10622,12 @@ academies or engaged private tutors; and "every master of exercise," it was felt, served as a kind of language master.[649] We are indebted to Dallington[650] for an account of the cost of such a course abroad. "Money," he says, "is the soule of travell. If he travel without a -servant £80 sterling is a competent proportion, except he learn to ride: -if he maintain both these charges, he can be allowed no less than £150: -and to allow above £200 were superfluous and to his hurt. The ordinary +servant £80 sterling is a competent proportion, except he learn to ride: +if he maintain both these charges, he can be allowed no less than £150: +and to allow above £200 were superfluous and to his hurt. The ordinary rate of his expense is 10 gold crowns a month his fencing, as much his dancing, no less his reading, and 10 crowns monthly his riding except in -the heat of the year. The remainder of his £150, I allow him for +the heat of the year. The remainder of his £150, I allow him for apparell, books, travelling charges, tennis play, and other extraordinary expenses." @@ -10673,7 +10636,7 @@ French universities. John Palsgrave and John Eliote, the two best known English teachers of French in the sixteenth century, had both followed this course. Palsgrave was a graduate of Paris, and John Eliote, after spending three years at the College of Montague in Paris, taught for a -year in the Collège des Africains at Orleans. The religious question had +year in the Collège des Africains at Orleans. The religious question had much influence in determining the plan of study in France. The university towns of Rheims and Douay were the special resorts of English Catholics.[651] On the suppression of the religious houses in England @@ -10685,13 +10648,13 @@ matriculated at the University of Douay. On the other hand, the schools,[652] colleges,[653] and academies[654] founded by the Huguenots offered many attractions to Protestant England. -The colleges had much in common with the modern French lycée, and the +The colleges had much in common with the modern French lycée, and the chief subjects taught were the classical languages. They did not take boarders, with the exception of that at Metz, and the students lived _en pension_ with families in the town. The same is true of the academies, institutions of university standing. They were eight in number, and -situated at Nîmes, Montpellier, Saumur, Montauban, Die, Sedan, Orthez -(in the principality of Béarn[655]), and Geneva. Some Englishmen and +situated at Nîmes, Montpellier, Saumur, Montauban, Die, Sedan, Orthez +(in the principality of Béarn[655]), and Geneva. Some Englishmen and many Scotchmen[656] held positions in the Protestant colleges and academies. [Header: BRITISH STUDENTS AT FRENCH UNIVERSITIES] Many English Protestants, during their enforced sojourn on the Continent @@ -10700,7 +10663,7 @@ or other of the Protestant academies, as well as to perfect their knowledge of French. A great number flocked to Geneva, including the Protestant author Michael Cope, who frequently preached in French.[657] -Of the colleges, that of Nîmes attracted a large number of foreigners. +Of the colleges, that of Nîmes attracted a large number of foreigners. Montpellier likewise was very popular during the short period at the beginning of the seventeenth century when the town was Protestant. Among the academies in France, Saumur, Montauban,[658] and Sedan were much @@ -10722,17 +10685,17 @@ drove many students to Geneva, their influence in all directions was still more strongly felt. Some years before, in 1654, the regents were enjoined to see to it that their pupils "ne parlent savoyard et ne jurent ou diabloyent," but in 1691 Poulain de la Barre, a doctor of the -Sorbonne, could say that "à Geneve on prononce incomparablement mieux +Sorbonne, could say that "à Geneve on prononce incomparablement mieux que l'on ne fait en plusieurs provinces de France."[660] The Protestant academies usually consisted of faculties of Arts and Theology. At Geneva[661] there were lectures in Law, Theology, Philosophy, Philology, and Literature; the teaching was chiefly in Latin, but sometimes in French. At the end of the sixteenth century a -riding school, known as the _Manège de la Courature_, on the same lines +riding school, known as the _Manège de la Courature_, on the same lines as the polite academies of France, was started. The instruction given at Geneva was on broader lines than that of the less popular academies. -Nîmes and Montpellier, for instance, were mainly theological.[662] +Nîmes and Montpellier, for instance, were mainly theological.[662] Of the many Englishmen who went to Geneva, as to other Protestant centres, not all attended lectures at the Academies. Some went merely to @@ -10746,7 +10709,7 @@ others. Thomas Bodley, the celebrated founder of the Oxford Library, followed all the courses at the University in 1559. It was considered a great honour to lodge in the house of one or other of the professors; Anthony Bacon, the elder brother of the great Bacon, had the good -fortune to be received into the house of de Bèze. Casaubon likewise +fortune to be received into the house of de Bèze. Casaubon likewise received into his house certain young gentlemen who came to the town with a special recommendation to him. These included the young Henry Wotton, then on the long tour on the Continent, during which he acquired @@ -10881,7 +10844,7 @@ tongue, speaks French and Italian.[682] He censures England's language and fashions "by countenances and shrugs," and will choke rather than confess beer a good drink. In time the _beau_ forgot what little he had learnt of Italian, and in the seventeenth century was generally known as -the _English monsieur_, or the _gentleman à la mode_. +the _English monsieur_, or the _gentleman à la mode_. There were two very different attitudes towards the journey to France, as there were two types of traveller, the serious and the flippant. The @@ -10934,7 +10897,7 @@ schoolmasters. Gentlemen were driven to evade this restriction by sending their sons to France in the care of what they considered suitable tutors. The Assembly then tried to assert its power by granting passports only to those whose tutors they approved. See Young, _Histoire -de l'Enseignement en Écosse_, p. 52. +de l'Enseignement en Écosse_, p. 52. [573] _Copy Book of Sir Amias Poulet's Letters_, Roxburghe Club, 1866, pp. 16, 231. @@ -11040,7 +11003,7 @@ Hawthornden_ (1619), Shakespeare Soc., 1842, pp. 21, 47. He frequently quotes Boileau, Racine, Corneille, and also Bouhours and Lebossu. His _Tragedy of Cato_ is closely modelled on the French pattern. See A. Beljame, _Le Public et les hommes de lettres en -Angleterre au 18e siècle_, 1897, p. 316. +Angleterre au 18e siècle_, 1897, p. 316. [612] _Memoirs of the Verney Family_, 1892, iii. p. 36. @@ -11107,7 +11070,7 @@ Papers_. [628] It appears from a deleted note in the MS. of Defoe's _Compleat English Gentleman_ that travel was not always considered necessary for -younger sons (ed. K. Bülbring, London, 1890). +younger sons (ed. K. Bülbring, London, 1890). [629] _French Alphabet_, 1592: "Car la plus part de ceux qui vont en France apprennent par routine, sans reigles, et sans art, de sorte qu'il @@ -11115,23 +11078,23 @@ leur est impossible d'apprendre, sinon avec une grande longueur de temps. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent en Angleterre, s'ils apprennent d'un qui ait bonne methode, il ne se peut faire qu'ils n'apprennent en bref. D'avantage ce qu'ils apprennent est beaucoup meilleur que le -françois qu'on apprend en France par routine. Car nous ne pouvons parler +françois qu'on apprend en France par routine. Car nous ne pouvons parler ce que nous n'avons apris et que nous ignorons. Ceux qui apprennent du -vulgaire ne peuvent parler que vulgairement . . . d'un françois +vulgaire ne peuvent parler que vulgairement . . . d'un françois corrompu. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent par livres, parlent selon ce qu'ils apprennent: or est il que les termes et phrases des livres sont -le plus pur et naif françois (bien qu'il y ayt distinction de livres); +le plus pur et naif françois (bien qu'il y ayt distinction de livres); il ne se peut donc qu'ils ne parlent plus purement et naivement (comme j'ay dict) que les autres." [630] Wodroeph, _Spared houres of a souldier_, 1623. -[631] Livet, _La Grammaire française et les grammairiens au 16e siècle_, +[631] Livet, _La Grammaire française et les grammairiens au 16e siècle_, 1859, p. 2. [632] _In linguam gallicam Isagoge_, 1531. -[633] _Le Traité touchant le commun usage de l'escriture françoise_, +[633] _Le Traité touchant le commun usage de l'escriture françoise_, 1542, 1545; cp. Livet, _op. cit._ pp. 49 _sqq._ [634] _Gallicae linguae institutio Latino sermone conscripta_ (1550, @@ -11140,7 +11103,7 @@ j'ay dict) que les autres." [635] _Institutio gallicae linguae in usum iuventutis germanicae_ (1558, 1580, 1591, 1593). -[636] _Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciacion françoese, departi en +[636] _Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciacion françoese, departi en deus livres_, 1555. [637] "J'ay tousiours eu plus ordinaire hantise, plus de biens et @@ -11152,7 +11115,7 @@ age of thirteen he had been taught at home by private tutors. [639] _Reliquiae Wottonianae_, London, 1657, p. 76. -[640] 12º, pp. 386. +[640] 12º, pp. 386. [641] @@ -11164,8 +11127,8 @@ age of thirteen he had been taught at home by private tutors. [642] It differs from _Les Desguisez_, a comedy written by Godard in 1594. -[643] E. Winkler, "La Doctrine grammaticale d'après Maupas et Oudin," in -_Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie_, Heft 38, 1912. +[643] E. Winkler, "La Doctrine grammaticale d'après Maupas et Oudin," in +_Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie_, Heft 38, 1912. [644] Towards the end of his career, Oudin was appointed to teach Louis XIV. Spanish and Italian; he was the author of several manuals for @@ -11173,18 +11136,18 @@ teaching these languages, and it is worthy of note that sometimes the German language is included. [645] Printed with Nicot's edition of Aimar de Ranconnet's _Thresor de -la langue françoyse_, Paris, 1606. +la langue françoyse_, Paris, 1606. [646] Garnier was also the author of familiar dialogues, published in French, Spanish, Italian, and German in 1656. -[647] _Lettres sur les Anglais et sur les Français_ (end of seventeenth +[647] _Lettres sur les Anglais et sur les Français_ (end of seventeenth century), 1725, p. 305. [648] Another grammar specially intended for the use of strangers was -_Le vray orthographe françois contenant les reigles et preceptes +_Le vray orthographe françois contenant les reigles et preceptes infallibles pour se rendre certain, correct et parfait a bien parler -françois, tres utile et necessaire tant aux françois qu'estrangers. Par +françois, tres utile et necessaire tant aux françois qu'estrangers. Par le sieur de Palliot secretaire ordinaire de la chambre du roy._ 1608. [649] Gailhard, _op. cit._ p. 33. @@ -11193,18 +11156,18 @@ le sieur de Palliot secretaire ordinaire de la chambre du roy._ 1608. [651] _Records of the English Catholics_, i. pp. 275 _et sqq._; F. C. Petre, _English Colleges and Convents established on the Continent ..._, -Norwich, 1849; G. Cardon, _La Fondation de l'Université de Douai_, +Norwich, 1849; G. Cardon, _La Fondation de l'Université de Douai_, Paris, 1802. [652] Cp. p. 343 _infra_. -[653] Cp. account by M. Nicolas, in _Bulletin de la société de -l'Histoire du Protestantisme Français_, iv. pp. 503 _sqq._ and pp. 582 +[653] Cp. account by M. Nicolas, in _Bulletin de la société de +l'Histoire du Protestantisme Français_, iv. pp. 503 _sqq._ and pp. 582 _sqq._ Twenty-five such colleges are named. [654] _Bulletin_, i. p. 301; ii. pp. 43, 303, 354 _sqq._; also articles -in vols. iii., iv., v., vi., ix., and Bourchenin's _Études sur les -Académies Protestantes_. +in vols. iii., iv., v., vi., ix., and Bourchenin's _Études sur les +Académies Protestantes_. [655] Suppressed as early as 1620. @@ -11217,20 +11180,20 @@ Biog._). [657] He composed in French _A faithful and familiar exposition of Ecclesiastes_, Geneva, 1557; cp. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. -[658] Cp. Nicolas, _Histoire de l'ancienne Académie de Montauban_, +[658] Cp. Nicolas, _Histoire de l'ancienne Académie de Montauban_, Montauban, 1885. [659] There was an early Academy at Lausanne which emigrated to Geneva -and assured the latter's success (1559); cp. H. Vuilleumier, _L'Académie +and assured the latter's success (1559); cp. H. Vuilleumier, _L'Académie de Lausanne_, Lausanne, 1891. -[660] _Essai de remarques particulières sur la langue françoise pour la -ville de Genève_, 1691. Quoted by Borgeaud, _Histoire de l'Université de -Genève_, 1900, p. 445. +[660] _Essai de remarques particulières sur la langue françoise pour la +ville de Genève_, 1691. Quoted by Borgeaud, _Histoire de l'Université de +Genève_, 1900, p. 445. [661] C. Borgeaud, _op. cit._ -[662] They were united at Nîmes in 1617, and finally suppressed in 1644. +[662] They were united at Nîmes in 1617, and finally suppressed in 1644. [663] Pattison, _Isaac Casaubon_, Oxford, 1892, pp. 40-42, 155. On the English at Geneva, cp. _ibid._ p. 20. @@ -11371,18 +11334,18 @@ however, no such compunction was felt, and some manuals composed there made their way to England. At an early date one was reprinted in London. Holyband, the chief of the group of Huguenot teachers, was quickly up in arms against it. "Je ne diray rien," he writes in 1573, "d'un nouveau -livre venu d'Anvers, et dernierement imprimé à Londres, à cause que, ne +livre venu d'Anvers, et dernierement imprimé à Londres, à cause que, ne gardant ryme ne raison, soit en son parler, phrase, orthographe, maniere de converser et communiquer entre gens d'estat; et cependant qu'il pindarise en son iargon il monstre de quel cru il est sorti, que si nos chartiers d'Orleans, Bourges ou de Bloys avoyent oui gazouiller l'autheur d'icelluy, ilz le renvoyeroient bailler entre ses geais, apres -luy avoir donné cinquante coups de leur fouet sur ses échines." Let this +luy avoir donné cinquante coups de leur fouet sur ses échines." Let this writer teach his jargon to the Flemings, the Burgundians, and the people of Hainault; it is a true saying that a good Burgundian was never a good -Frenchman. "Lesquelles choses considerées," concludes the irate +Frenchman. "Lesquelles choses considerées," concludes the irate Holyband, "i'espere que l'autheur de ce beau livre ne nous contraindra -point de manger ses glands, ayans trouvé le pur froment." +point de manger ses glands, ayans trouvé le pur froment." What was this book newly come from Antwerp? Probably an edition of a very popular collection of phrases and conversations, written originally @@ -11399,7 +11362,7 @@ adaptations of the Flemish handbook, and either may have been the "book from Anvers" reviled by Holyband. Another English edition of the work was issued in 1578, a few years after Holyband's attack, by George Bishop, who received licence to print a _Dictionarie colloques ou -dialogues en quattre langues, Fflamen, Ffrançoys, Espaignol et Italien_, +dialogues en quattre langues, Fflamen, Ffrançoys, Espaignol et Italien_, "with the Englishe to be added thereto."[692] This vocabulary of Barlement probably enjoyed considerable popularity in @@ -11409,9 +11372,9 @@ addition of English to its columns; and they would, no doubt, bring copies back with them from the Netherlands. The earliest edition in which English has a place was probably that of 1576, entitled _Colloques or Dialogues avec un Dictionaire en six langues, Flamen, Anglois, -Alleman, François, Espagnol et Italien. Tres util a tous Marchands ou +Alleman, François, Espagnol et Italien. Tres util a tous Marchands ou autres de quelque estat qu'ils soyent, le tout avec grande diligence et -labeur corrigé et mis ensemble. A Anvers 1576_. By the end of the +labeur corrigé et mis ensemble. A Anvers 1576_. By the end of the century a seventh and finally an eighth language were added. There are copies of two further editions of the work issued in England in the first half of the seventeenth century. The first included four languages @@ -11451,17 +11414,17 @@ in varying form in several of the early manuals produced in England: prosper in vertue. prosperer en bien. I thanke you cousen. Je vous remercie cousin. Doth he not goe to schoole? Ne va-il point a l'escole? - Yes, he learneth to speake French. Ouy, il apprend a parler François. + Yes, he learneth to speake French. Ouy, il apprend a parler François. Doth he? Fait-il? It is very well done. C'est tres bien fait. - John can you Jean sçavez vous bien - speake good French? parler françois? + John can you Jean sçavez vous bien + speake good French? parler françois? Not very well, cousen, Ne point fort bien, mon cousin, but I learne. mais ie l'apprends. Where go you to schoole? Ou allez vous a l'escole? In the Lombarde Street. En la rue de Lombarts. Have you gone Avez vous longuement - long to schoole? allé à l'escole? + long to schoole? allé à l'escole? About halfe a yeare. Environ un demy an. Learn you also to write? Apprenez vous aussi a escrire? Yea, cousen. Ouy, mon cousin. @@ -11490,7 +11453,7 @@ and will be found extremely useful for beginners." The second part of the work, although mentioned in the table of contents, is omitted. A similar polyglot manual, which was probably less well known in -England, was the _Vocabulaire de six langues, Latin, François, +England, was the _Vocabulaire de six langues, Latin, François, Espagniol, Italien, Anglois et Aleman_, printed at Venice, probably in 1540--an enlarged edition of a vocabulary in five languages (Antwerp, 1534, and Venice, 1537) in which English had no place. This handbook @@ -11514,7 +11477,7 @@ in about 1530. But for many years he taught languages--French, Spanish, Flemish, and Italian--at Antwerp, which had by this time supplanted Bruges as the chief trading centre of the Low Countries. His pupils were largely merchants, and his first work on the language, the _Grammaire -françoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres et necessaires +françoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres et necessaires pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte Langue_, 1557,[694] was dedicated to "Messeigneurs et Maistres, les gouverneurs et marchans Anglois." [Header: GABRIEL MEURIER] In 1563 was issued at Antwerp @@ -11564,7 +11527,7 @@ published in England, and had some influence on the dialogues of the English manuals of French. The debt, however, was not all on one side. Holyband's _French Schoolemaister_, for instance, was adapted to the use of Flemings and printed at Rotterdam in 1606,[699] and in 1647 was -published at the end of the _Grammaire flamende et françoise_ (Rouen) of +published at the end of the _Grammaire flamende et françoise_ (Rouen) of Jan Louis d'Arsy. Moreover, the grammar of the seventeenth-century French teacher whose popularity equalled that of Holyband in the sixteenth century--Claude Mauger--was published in the Low Countries at @@ -11711,7 +11674,7 @@ Wodroeph wrote French, both verse and prose, with remarkable ease. In addition to the poems already mentioned, there are many others scattered through his works. One of these, "Chanson Spirituelle de la vie des vertueux hommes," is written to the tune of Desportes' song, "O nuit, -jalouse nuit, contre moy conjurée." He tells us that whenever possible +jalouse nuit, contre moy conjurée." He tells us that whenever possible he used French in correspondence in preference to English. He spoke the language with equal fluency, and assures us that he did so with greater facility than English. He had not acquired this mastery of the language @@ -11755,14 +11718,14 @@ that they make the Frenches take their sport at them, even as the English do at the Welshes ... taking sometyme the male for the female, and the hand for the foote; applying to the woman that which should apply to the man: and to the leg which ought apply to the arme: as _la -garçon_, _le femme_, _ma sieur_, and _mon dame_: ... O what language -this is in the eares of the Frenches! I think truely it should make Père +garçon_, _le femme_, _ma sieur_, and _mon dame_: ... O what language +this is in the eares of the Frenches! I think truely it should make Père Coton him selfe to laugh at it, who said in a sermon (the King and Queen present), that hee had neither sinned nor laughed in fiftene yeares tyme, yea and any man else." Verbs are a special difficulty, and there "be many that can never speake true French for lack of knowing their methode. For where it ought to be spoken thus: _Il y eut_ or _il y avait -un homme là_, some will say _il fut_, _il estoit un homme là_. Fine +un homme là _, some will say _il fut_, _il estoit un homme là _. Fine French! And so will the ignorant speake through all the moodes and tenses, whereat the Frenches take often their sport." Thus those who have learnt no grammar "go wallowing in the painefull and muddy mire of @@ -11780,21 +11743,21 @@ ou en bien ou en mal." To make progress "il vous faut frequenter, hanter, accoynter, accoster, discourir, babiller, caquetter, baiser, lecher, parler hardiment et discretement, aymer, rire, gausser, jouer, vous rejouir, et jouir de leurs bonnes faveurs et graces: et -principalement ès compagnies honestes: asçavoir, parmi les seigneurs et +principalement ès compagnies honestes: asçavoir, parmi les seigneurs et Dames, Damoiselles honestes, pudiques matrones, femmes et filles de -vertu et d'honneur; captaines et dignes chefs de guerre, là où il y a +vertu et d'honneur; captaines et dignes chefs de guerre, là où il y a tousiours quelque chose a esplucher, si c'est de leurs prouesses, entreprises, ou de leurs faicts heroiques et memorables . . . sans vous esbahir pour le bruit non plus que fait le bon cheval de trompette." Wodroeph doubtless based his advice on his own experience. Moreover, a bold and enterprising spirit has much to do with the successful study of French: "si vous n'estes hardi prompt, diligent, et vigilent, vous -n'apprendrez pas la langue françoise par songe . . . mais cela vient par +n'apprendrez pas la langue françoise par songe . . . mais cela vient par grande peine, diligence et priere a Dieu. Certes, . . . si un homme -estoit marié a une femme françoise . . . il me semble qu'il apprendroit +estoit marié a une femme françoise . . . il me semble qu'il apprendroit plustost en disant, Mme, ou m'amie, permettez moy que ie vous recerche en tout honeur et mariage . . . a celle fin de vous faire ma chere -moitié, et fidele espouse: que par ce moyen, ie puisse et avoir vostre +moitié, et fidele espouse: que par ce moyen, ie puisse et avoir vostre alliance et apprendre vostre language, autrement, madame, il me cousteroit beaucoup plus de temps, de peine et de mes moyens." @@ -11868,7 +11831,7 @@ subordinates; for, whenever occasion arises, Wodroeph introduces military talk. This section of the work closes with a list of the proper terms in which to address the higher and lower classes. -Next come the dialogues taken from _Le verger des Colloques recréatifs_, +Next come the dialogues taken from _Le verger des Colloques recréatifs_, offered by a Walloon to Prince Henry of Nassau, for his furtherance in the same tongue in his younger years. Wodroeph claims to have purified this book, written in "scurvie Wallons language." It had already been @@ -11939,8 +11902,8 @@ Museum, Harl. MSS. 5936. [688] Arber, _Transcript of the Stationers' Register_, iii. 413; iv. 152 and 459. -[689] _Vocabulaire de nouveau ordonné et derechief recorigé pour -aprendre legierement a bien lire, escripre, et parler françoys et +[689] _Vocabulaire de nouveau ordonné et derechief recorigé pour +aprendre legierement a bien lire, escripre, et parler françoys et flameng_, Anvers, 1511 (E. Stengel, _Chronologisches Verzeichnis_, p. 22 n.; and Michelant, _Livre des Mestiers_, Introduction). @@ -11951,11 +11914,11 @@ n.; and Michelant, _Livre des Mestiers_, Introduction). [692] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, ii. 338. [693] Cp. Ch. Beaulieux, "Liste de Dictionnaires, Lexicographes et -vocabulaires français antérieurs au Thrésor de Nicot" (1606), in -_Mélanges de Philologie offerts à Ferdinand Brunot_, Paris, 1904. +vocabulaires français antérieurs au Thrésor de Nicot" (1606), in +_Mélanges de Philologie offerts à Ferdinand Brunot_, Paris, 1904. -[694] Cp. E. Stengel, "Über einige seltene französische Grammatiken," in -_Mélanges de Philologie romane dédiés à Carl Wahlund_. Macon, 1896, pp. +[694] Cp. E. Stengel, "Ãœber einige seltene französische Grammatiken," in +_Mélanges de Philologie romane dédiés à Carl Wahlund_. Macon, 1896, pp. 181 _sqq._ [695] Of similar import, no doubt, were the _Boke of Copyes Englesshe, @@ -11963,7 +11926,7 @@ Ffrynshe and Italion_, licensed to Vautrollier in 1569-70 (_Stationers' Register_, i. 417); and the _Bills of Lading English, French, Italian, Dutch_, licensed to Master Bourne in 1636 (_ibid._ iv. 364). -[696] H. Vaganey, _Le Vocabulaire français du seizième siècle_, Paris, +[696] H. Vaganey, _Le Vocabulaire français du seizième siècle_, Paris, 1906, pp. 2 _sqq._ [697] _Advice to a Son_, 1656, p. 83. @@ -11971,10 +11934,10 @@ Dutch_, licensed to Master Bourne in 1636 (_ibid._ iv. 364). [698] Cp. _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1666-67_, pp. 57, 104. At a later date A. de la Barre, a schoolmaster of Leyden, published a _Methode ou Instruction nouvelle pour les etrangers qui desirent apprendre la -manière de composer ou écrire a la mode du temps et scavoir la vraye -prononciation de la langue françoise_, Leyden, 1642. In 1644 he issued, +manière de composer ou écrire a la mode du temps et scavoir la vraye +prononciation de la langue françoise_, Leyden, 1642. In 1644 he issued, also at Leyden, a book probably intended as reading material for his -pupils, and called _Les Leçons publiques du sieur de la Barre, prises +pupils, and called _Les Leçons publiques du sieur de la Barre, prises sur les questions curieuses et problematiques des plus beaux esprits de ce temps_. @@ -12032,7 +11995,7 @@ His Majesty's chair and conversed with him. James requested Du Moulin to write an answer to Cardinal Du Perron's pamphlet concerning the power of the Pope over monarchs, in which he had been attacked. Du Moulin complied, and his work was printed at London in 1615 as the _Declaration -du Sérénissme Roy Jacques I_. He also preached in French before James at +du Sérénissme Roy Jacques I_. He also preached in French before James at the Chapel Royal at Greenwich, and received marks of distinction from the University of Cambridge, which conferred the degree of D.D. upon him.[711] @@ -12050,14 +12013,14 @@ French in England was hastened too by its growing popularity all over Europe. The Flemish Mellema, in his Flemish-French Dictionary of 1591, says French is used everywhere in Europe and the East.[712] To be unacquainted with French was accounted a great deficiency in a -gentleman. It was said of the language that _qui langue a jusqu'à Rome +gentleman. It was said of the language that _qui langue a jusqu'à Rome va_,[713] and in England the general conviction was that "No nobleman, gentleman, soldier, or man of action in business between Nation and Nation can well be without it."[714] James seems to have acquired his knowledge of French chiefly by means of intercourse with the many Frenchmen at the Scottish Court, one of whom, -Jérôme Grelot, was among the young noblemen who shared his studies.[715] +Jérôme Grelot, was among the young noblemen who shared his studies.[715] He also read much French literature, however, and later took a great interest in the language studies of his children. They were constantly required to send him letters in French and Latin to allow him to judge @@ -12067,7 +12030,7 @@ of their progress. "L'esperance que j'ay de vous voir bien tost et d'avoir l'honneur de recepvoir voz commandemens m'empeschera de vous faire ma lettre plus longue que pour baiser tres humblement les mains de vostre - Majesté."[716] + Majesté."[716] The king's eldest son, Henry, made acquaintance with French at a very early age. In 1600, when only seven years old, he addressed a letter in @@ -12097,8 +12060,8 @@ give ecclesiastical preferment to his tutor, Mr. Adam Newton, he quotes one of them as appropriate:[723] Tu ne saurois d'assez ample salaire - Recompenser celui qui t'a soigné - En ton enfance et qui t'a enseigné + Recompenser celui qui t'a soigné + En ton enfance et qui t'a enseigné A bien parler et sur tout a bien faire. Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., seems to have been the most @@ -12237,7 +12200,7 @@ however, Erondell claims to make an observation "never noted before in any book." This had to do with the change in pronunciation of the diphthong _oi_.[741] "Whereas our countrymen were wonte to pronounce these words _connoistre_ ... as it is written by _oi_ or _oy_; now since -fewe yeeres they pronounce it as if it were written thus, _conètre_." +fewe yeeres they pronounce it as if it were written thus, _conètre_." Erondell reduces the grammar rules to the smallest possible number. "He wishes the student to learn by heart" the first two verbs _avoir_ and @@ -12296,7 +12259,7 @@ This is how the lesson opens: fetch our bookes, bring our allez querir nos livres, apportez French Garden, and all our nostre jardin Francois, et tous other bookes: nos aultres livres: - now in the name of God let us begin. or ça commençons au nom de Dieu. + now in the name of God let us begin. or ça commençons au nom de Dieu. Mistres Fleurimond read first: Mlle. F. lisez premierement: speake somewhat louder parlez un peu plus haut to th' end I may heare afin que j'oye @@ -12306,7 +12269,7 @@ This is how the lesson opens: that s? cette s la? Doe you not knowe that it must be ne savez vous pas qu'il la faut left? Well, it is well said, laisser? Et bien, c'est bien dit, - read with more facilitie, lisez avec plus de facilité, + read with more facilitie, lisez avec plus de facilité, without taking such paines. sans tant vous peiner. Construe me that, what is that? Traduisez moy cela, qu'est cela? Do you understand that? tell me Entendez vous cela? dites m'en @@ -12347,14 +12310,14 @@ For a time Erondell had been tutor in the Barkley family, and dedicated the _Garden_ to the Lady Elizabeth Barkley, with an expression of his gratitude for the many favours he had received from her. The verses on the Centurion are dedicated to Thomas Norton, of Norwood, whom he calls -his "très intime et très honoré amy." As was usual at this time, +his "très intime et très honoré amy." As was usual at this time, Erondell's book is preceded by commendatory poems, including lines by William Herbert, author of _Cadwallader_, and by Nicholas Breton. There -is also a sonnet by the "Sieur de Mont Chrestien, Gentilhomme françois," -possibly the famous Antoine de Montchrétien, who in about 1605 was +is also a sonnet by the "Sieur de Mont Chrestien, Gentilhomme françois," +possibly the famous Antoine de Montchrétien, who in about 1605 was forced to leave France on account of a duel, and visited both England and Holland. Erondell appears to have been many years in England before -he produced his _Garden_. At this date he had a large clientèle, +he produced his _Garden_. At this date he had a large clientèle, including "many honourable ladies and gentlemen of great worth and worship." In about 1613 he engaged an assistant to help him, one John Fabre, a Frenchman, "born in the precinct of Guyand, a town of Turnon"; @@ -12409,7 +12372,7 @@ gave further stimulus to the already strong French influence at the Court. When she came she knew no English, and for many years after her arrival waywardly refused to study the language. Her numerous suite of French ladies and gentlemen, including Mme. Georges, the Duc and -Duchesse de Chevreuse, and Père Sancy, shared her ignorance, as indeed +Duchesse de Chevreuse, and Père Sancy, shared her ignorance, as indeed did practically all foreigners. The English Court was thus called upon to exercise its French to the uttermost. The small French colony in London managed to make itself very unpopular, not only with the King but @@ -12450,10 +12413,10 @@ time under the special patronage of the Queen.[753] They first played before Her Majesty, who recommended them to the King. Through his influence they were allowed the use of the Cockpit Theatre in Whitehall. There, on the 17th of February, they presented a French comedy called -_Mélise_--either Corneille's _Mélite_, or more probably Du Rocher's -comic pastoral, _La Mélize, ou les Princes Reconnus_.[754] The King, +_Mélise_--either Corneille's _Mélite_, or more probably Du Rocher's +comic pastoral, _La Mélize, ou les Princes Reconnus_.[754] The King, Queen, and Court were present. The acting met with approval and the -players received £10. There was no repetition of the riotous behaviour +players received £10. There was no repetition of the riotous behaviour which had characterised the performances of 1629, probably because there were no women in the company, and also because the players were specially patronised by the Court and the aristocracy. A few days after @@ -12470,14 +12433,14 @@ The French actors now enjoyed increasing popularity. When, at the end of Lent, they had to relinquish the Cockpit, Drury Lane, to the English players, their services were still in demand. On Easter Monday they acted before the Court in a play called _Le Trompeur puny_, no doubt the -tragi-comedy of that name by Georges de Scudéry.[755] Their success was -even greater than on the occasion of the Court performance of _Mélise_, +tragi-comedy of that name by Georges de Scudéry.[755] Their success was +even greater than on the occasion of the Court performance of _Mélise_, and on the 16th of April following, they presented _Alcimedor_,[756] under the same circumstances, and "with good approbation." These three plays acted at the Court are the only part of their repertoire that is named in the record of the Master of the Revels. On the 10th of May they -received £30 for three plays acted at the Cockpit, probably that in -Whitehall, where they first acted _Mélise_ before the Court, nearly four +received £30 for three plays acted at the Cockpit, probably that in +Whitehall, where they first acted _Mélise_ before the Court, nearly four months earlier, and not the Cockpit, Drury Lane, where they had played during Lent. @@ -12496,7 +12459,7 @@ established in the city, and its presence must have had considerable effect. The French company under Floridor again appeared before the Court, in December 1635; we do not know what they played, beyond the fact that it was a tragedy. On the twenty-first of the same month, the -Pastoral of _Florimène_ was acted in French at Whitehall by the French +Pastoral of _Florimène_ was acted in French at Whitehall by the French ladies who attended the Queen. The King, the Queen, Prince Charles, and the Elector Palatine, were present, and the performance was a great success. @@ -12525,8 +12488,8 @@ Vayer, who married a Scotchwoman, and also perhaps Regnier Desmarais, who draws a few comparisons with it in his grammar.[760] But these were isolated exceptions. Among the languages in which Panurge addresses Pantagruel on their first meeting, English has a place, but is hardly -recognisable in its Scottish dress.[761] And the Maréchal de Villars -relates in his memoirs[762] that the Duc de la Ferté, "quand il avait un +recognisable in its Scottish dress.[761] And the Maréchal de Villars +relates in his memoirs[762] that the Duc de la Ferté, "quand il avait un peu bu," would break out in English to the great astonishment and amusement of all who were present. There is a tradition that Corneille kept a copy of the English translation of the _Cid_, which he showed to @@ -12540,11 +12503,11 @@ music had much to do with their success, and the clown probably took advantage of his position to offer interpretations from time to time. However, the actors soon learnt some German by mixing with German actors. A band of English acrobats had performed at Paris in 1583. Some -years later, in 1598, a troupe of English comedians hired the Hôtel de -Bourgogne,[764] the only theatre in Paris, from the _Confrérie de la +years later, in 1598, a troupe of English comedians hired the Hôtel de +Bourgogne,[764] the only theatre in Paris, from the _Confrérie de la Passion_, who usually played there. The English actors, at whose head -was one Jehan Sehais, got into trouble for playing outside the Hôtel, -contrary to the privileges of the _Confrérie_, and had to pay an +was one Jehan Sehais, got into trouble for playing outside the Hôtel, +contrary to the privileges of the _Confrérie_, and had to pay an indemnity. How much these actors made use of their language for attracting an audience is not certain. At a somewhat later date, another company played at Fontainebleau before Henry IV. and his son, afterwards @@ -12563,7 +12526,7 @@ literature, and a few translations of prose works appeared, though English poetry and drama remained unnoticed. The first French version of an English work was that of Bishop Hall's _Characters of Vertues and Vices_ which appeared in 1610, and again in 1612 and 1619, and may have -had some influence on La Bruyère's _Caractères_. [Header: NEGLECT OF +had some influence on La Bruyère's _Caractères_. [Header: NEGLECT OF ENGLISH] It is also interesting to note that this enterprising translator was no other than J. L'Oiseau de Tourval, Parisien, who wrote so enthusiastically of Cotgrave's dictionary, which appeared in the @@ -12611,8 +12574,8 @@ countries conjointly, and so strengthened the new bond between them. In England appeared a new edition of Du Bartas, in French and English, for teaching "an Englishman French, or a Frenchman English." Wodroeph's _Marrow of the French Tongue_ (1625), which saw the light at the same -time, was said to be "aussi utile pour le François d'apprendre l'Anglois -que pour l'Anglois d'apprendre le François," though only the dialogues +time, was said to be "aussi utile pour le François d'apprendre l'Anglois +que pour l'Anglois d'apprendre le François," though only the dialogues in French and English could serve this purpose, as, indeed, they might in any other French text-book.[773] This notice is evidently added merely as a concession to topical events; it had not figured in the @@ -12621,10 +12584,10 @@ earlier edition (1623). In France, on the other hand, was published a work in which English was treated more seriously. This was a _Grammaire Angloise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la langue angloise. Qui peut aussi aider aux -Anglois pour apprendre la langue Françoise: Alphabet Anglois contenant +Anglois pour apprendre la langue Françoise: Alphabet Anglois contenant la pronunciation des lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons_, dedicated to Henrietta Maria, and probably arranged by one of the -professors of the Collège de Navarre, from which it is dated. We are +professors of the Collège de Navarre, from which it is dated. We are informed that the princess, and those intending to accompany her to her new home, studied English daily. These lessons, if they were really given, were no doubt a matter of form, and we may judge from the results @@ -12713,7 +12676,7 @@ of the merchants in London skilled in the French tongue, wrote a _Grammaire Angloise, contenant reigles bien exactes et certaines de la Prononciation, Orthographie et construction de nostre langue, en faveur des estrangers qui en sont desireux_, but especially, he tells us, for -the use of "noz françois tant a leur arrivée en ce pais, que en leur +the use of "noz françois tant a leur arrivée en ce pais, que en leur demeure en iceluy." This English grammar[781] is written in French, and gives rules for pronunciation and the parts of speech. It is followed by dialogues[782] in French and English, in the usual style, bearing much @@ -12760,10 +12723,10 @@ time. In addition to the Paris issue on the occasion of the marriage of Henrietta Maria with Charles I. (1625), editions appeared at Rouen in 1639, 1668, 1670, 1679, and most probably at other dates also; another was issued at London, 1677. Perhaps the first book for teaching English -printed in France was a _Traicté pour apprendre a parler Françoys et +printed in France was a _Traicté pour apprendre a parler Françoys et Anglois_, published at Rouen in 1553, apparently an early edition of -Meurier's work, printed at Rouen in 1563 as a _Traité pour apprendre a -parler françois et anglois, ensemble faire missives, obligations,_ etc., +Meurier's work, printed at Rouen in 1563 as a _Traité pour apprendre a +parler françois et anglois, ensemble faire missives, obligations,_ etc., and again at Rouen in 1641. It was long before English won recognition from foreigners other than @@ -12783,22 +12746,22 @@ FOOTNOTES: [709] Rye, _op. cit._ p. 153. [710] "Autobiographie," _Bull. de la Soc. de l'Hist. du Protestantisme -Français_, vii. pp. 343 _sqq._ +Français_, vii. pp. 343 _sqq._ [711] Another famous Frenchman at the Court of James I. was Theodore Mayerne the Court Doctor (cp. _Table Talk of Bishop Hurd_, Ox. Hist. Soc. Collectanea, ser. 2, p. 390); also Jean de Schelandre and -Montchrétien among men of letters. James refused to give audience to the -poet Théophile de Viau, exiled for his daring satires. Boisrobert, St. +Montchrétien among men of letters. James refused to give audience to the +poet Théophile de Viau, exiled for his daring satires. Boisrobert, St. Amant, Voiture, likewise visited England at this period. -[712] Thurot, _Prononciation française_, i. p. xiv. +[712] Thurot, _Prononciation française_, i. p. xiv. [713] Gerbier, _Interpreter of the Academy_, 1648. [714] Aufeild: Translation of Maupas's _Grammar_, 1634. -[715] Young, _L'Enseignement en Écosse_, p. 78. +[715] Young, _L'Enseignement en Écosse_, p. 78. [716] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 1st series, iii. 89. @@ -12823,8 +12786,8 @@ _Athen. Oxon._ (Bliss). [724] Rye, _op. cit._ p. 155. -[725] _Mémoires de Madame de Motteville_, in Petitot et Monmerqué, -_Collection des Mémoires relatifs à l'Histoire de France_, tom. 37, +[725] _Mémoires de Madame de Motteville_, in Petitot et Monmerqué, +_Collection des Mémoires relatifs à l'Histoire de France_, tom. 37, 1824, pp. 122-3. [726] _Cal. State Papers, 1660-61_, p. 162; cp. p. 207, _supra_. @@ -12865,7 +12828,7 @@ p. 57). [740] De la Mothe devoted a short chapter to enumerating women's clothing. -[741] Thurot, _Prononciation française_, pp. 374, 376. +[741] Thurot, _Prononciation française_, pp. 374, 376. [742] _Treatise for Declining French Verbs_, 1580, 1599, and 1641. @@ -12909,7 +12872,7 @@ _Histriomastrix_, 1633, p. 114. [754] The former was first acted in France in 1629 and the latter in 1633; cf. Upham, _French Influence in English Literature_, p. 373. -[755] Scudéry's work is in verse; a king and queen of England figure +[755] Scudéry's work is in verse; a king and queen of England figure among the characters. It was first performed in France in 1631. [756] Probably a tragi-comedy by Du Ryer, acted in 1634; Upham, _op. @@ -12919,11 +12882,11 @@ cit._ p. 373. Stage_, in an edition of Shakespeare's works, completed by Boswell, 1821, iii. pp. 120, 122. Herbert makes many of his entries in French. -[758] Meurier, _Communications familières_, 1563. +[758] Meurier, _Communications familières_, 1563. [759] While the English visited France in great numbers, very few Frenchmen came to England, except those engaged on diplomatic missions, -or exiles. Thus, Ronsard, Jacques Grévin, Brantôme, Bodin, in the +or exiles. Thus, Ronsard, Jacques Grévin, Brantôme, Bodin, in the sixteenth century; Schelandre, d'Assoucy, Boisrobert, Le Pays, Pavillon, Voiture, Malleville, and a few others in the early seventeenth century, spent a short time in England. Among scholars, Peiresc, Henri Estienne, @@ -12941,14 +12904,14 @@ l'Angleterre_, pp. 22-23, 48 sqq. schal biff be naturall rehutht tholb suld of me pety have for natur ..." (_Oeuvres de Rabelais_, ed. C. Marty Laveaux, i. 261). -[762] Petitot et Monmerqué, _Collection des Mémoires_, tom. 68, Paris, +[762] Petitot et Monmerqué, _Collection des Mémoires_, tom. 68, Paris, 1828. [763] A. Cohn, _Shakespeare in Germany in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries_, London, 1865, pp. xxviii, cxxxiv, cxxxv. [764] Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, 1899, pp. 51 _sqq._; E. -Soulié, _Recherches sur Molière_, Paris, 1863, p. 153. +Soulié, _Recherches sur Molière_, Paris, 1863, p. 153. [765] _Journal de Jean Hervard sur l'enfance et la jeunesse de Louis XIII, 1601-28_, Paris, 1868. Quoted by Jusserand, _op. cit._ p. 57 n. @@ -12968,7 +12931,7 @@ who studied at Edinburgh in 1597. [769] Gerbier, _Interpreter of the Academy_, 1648. [770] T. B. Squire, in Simon Daines's _Orthoepia Anglicana_, reprinted -by R. Brotanek in _Neudrucke frühneuenglischer Grammatiken_, Bd. iii., +by R. Brotanek in _Neudrucke frühneuenglischer Grammatiken_, Bd. iii., 1908. [771] By the end of the sixteenth century it was quite a usual thing for @@ -12976,13 +12939,13 @@ learned subjects to be treated in English. Ascham apologised for using English in his _Toxophilus_ (1545), but in his _Scholemaster_ (1570) he used it as a matter of course. -[772] Jusserand, _Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, 1904, p. 316. +[772] Jusserand, _Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, 1904, p. 316. [773] Florio makes the same claim in his _First Frutes_ for teaching Italian and English. -[774] _Grammaire Angloise et Françoise pour facilement et promptement -apprendre la Langue angloise et françoise._ A Rouen, chez la veuve +[774] _Grammaire Angloise et Françoise pour facilement et promptement +apprendre la Langue angloise et françoise._ A Rouen, chez la veuve Oursel, 1595, 8vo. The Brit. Mus. copy contains MS. notes of a French student. @@ -13037,7 +13000,7 @@ French, German, Danish, and Flemish nobles and gentlemen who visited London. To these distinguished visitors he dedicated his dictionary in 1632, as well as the second edition of his French grammar in 1634, expressing the hope that he would soon be able to produce an English -grammar "toute entière," for only the practical exercises in French and +grammar "toute entière," for only the practical exercises in French and English could be of use to them in their study of English. His French grammar was intended "for the furtherance and practice of gentlemen, scollers and others desirous of the said language." We gather that @@ -13090,7 +13053,7 @@ years abroad as [Header: WILLIAM COLSON] travelling companion to young English gentlemen, "as well learning as teaching such laudable arts and qualities as are most fitting for a gentleman's exercise." Seemingly he spent some time in the Low Countries, and he may have found his pupils -among the English troops serving there, as in 1603 he published at Liége +among the English troops serving there, as in 1603 he published at Liége a book in French on arithmetic which also provides military information. Before 1612 he had returned to London, where he composed a similar work in English, dedicated to the Lords of the Privy Council.[787] He tells @@ -13115,16 +13078,16 @@ letter its usual name, and then its special name according to his own scheme, as follows: A E' E O I Y V | H | S Z X I | L R N M | - a é e o i y u | éh | és éz éx éi | él ér én ém | + a é e o i y u | éh | és éz éx éi | él ér én ém | proper names | | | | - speciall names | he | sé zé xé ié | lé ré né mé | + speciall names | he | sé zé xé ié | lé ré né mé | \_____________/ \__________________________/ Aspiration 8 semivowels F [^] B P : D T G K | C Q - éf é[^] éb ép : éd ét ég ék | éc éq + éf é[^] éb ép : éd ét ég ék | éc éq | - fé [^]é bé pé : dé té gé ké | cé qé + fé [^]é bé pé : dé té gé ké | cé qé \________________________________/ 10 mutes \______________________________/ @@ -13296,7 +13259,7 @@ In the meantime the production of French grammars in England continued uninterruptedly. _The Flower de Luce planted in England_ was the title of a grammar which appeared in 1619. This work was due to one Laur Du Terme, of whom nothing is known beyond the fact that he was a Frenchman -and a protégé of Bacon, then Lord Chancellor. Du Terme had evidently +and a protégé of Bacon, then Lord Chancellor. Du Terme had evidently been in England long enough to acquire some knowledge of English, in which he wrote his grammar. After imploring his patron to water his 'flower' with a few drops of favourable approbation, he proceeds to @@ -13373,7 +13336,7 @@ regular and a few irregular verbs, are fully conjugated at the end of the book, being arranged in sentence form, as in many modern text-books: J'ay bien dormi ceste nuit. - Tu as trop mangé. + Tu as trop mangé. Il a trop bu, etc. The practical exercises, which fill the next three hundred pages, @@ -13526,7 +13489,7 @@ versatile translator of the time, for the Latin and French. At least two other editions appeared in 1687 and 1703. Another favourite author was published in the same three languages at a later date--the _Thoughts of Cicero ... on (1) Religion, and (2) Man.... Published in Latin and -French by the Abbé Olivet, to which is now added an English translation, +French by the Abbé Olivet, to which is now added an English translation, with notes_ (_by A. Wishart_) (1750 and 1773). Of these few examples of Latin and French text-books, two are known only by hearsay. It is likely that others, adapted to the same purpose, have disappeared without @@ -13591,10 +13554,10 @@ Grave makes a point of omitting all the compound tenses usually introduced into French verbs on the model of the Latin ones, as such forms can only be expressed by means of paraphrases or of the verbs _avoir_ and _estre_; thus French rather than Latin was in the author's -mind: "Or m'a semblé qu'il ne fallait pas charger au commencement la +mind: "Or m'a semblé qu'il ne fallait pas charger au commencement la memoire des petits enfants de choses desquelles le maistre diligent et -industrieux, pourveu qu'il soit homme lettré et bien entendu en la -grammaire françoise, pourra instiller peu à peu en leur esprit, plus par +industrieux, pourveu qu'il soit homme lettré et bien entendu en la +grammaire françoise, pourra instiller peu à peu en leur esprit, plus par diligente pratique que par cette facheuse et prolixe circonlocution qui n'apporte aucun profit." He agreed with most of the French teachers of the time that few rules and much practice under the guidance of a good @@ -13773,12 +13736,12 @@ century. [801] R. Clavell, _Catalogue of Books printed in London, 1666-1680_. -[802] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, i. 409. His name occurs frequently +[802] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, i. 409. His name occurs frequently in the _Threadneedle Street Church Registers_, Hug. Soc. Pub. ix. and xiii. [803] _The Constitution of the Museum Minervae_, 1636. Charles I. -granted £100 from the Treasury, and Kynaston himself provided books and +granted £100 from the Treasury, and Kynaston himself provided books and other material. [804] _The Interpreter of the Academy for forrain languages and all @@ -13800,34 +13763,34 @@ Travels_, ed. A. Ivatt, London, 1904, p. xv. [809] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1655-56_, p. 76. On the Restoration, Wolley enjoyed ecclesiastical preferment, and finally became Bishop of Clonfert. He published an English translation from the French of -Scudéry's _Curia Politiae_, in 1546, and other works in English, of no +Scudéry's _Curia Politiae_, in 1546, and other works in English, of no special interest. See _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. [810] _Memoirs of the Verney Family_, iii. p. 361. [811] He usually wrote home in French. In the following extract he asks for a taper, then in fashion among his school-mates: "Je vous prie de -m'anvoier de la chandelle de cirre entortillée, car tous les garçons en +m'anvoier de la chandelle de cirre entortillée, car tous les garçons en ont pour brullay (_sic_) et moy ie n'en ay point pour moy." [812] Two parents discuss the school in a dialogue: - Où allez vous? Whither are you going? + Où allez vous? Whither are you going? Je m'en vais voir ma fille. I am going to see my daughter. En quel lieu? In what place? A Maribone. At Maribone. - Que fait elle là? What doth she do there? - Comment, ne sçavez vous pas What, do you not know that I + Que fait elle là ? What doth she do there? + Comment, ne sçavez vous pas What, do you not know that I que je l'ay mise en pension? have put her at a Boording school? Chez qui? With whom? - Chez un nommé Mons. de la At one Mons. de la Mare that - Mare qui tient escole Françoise. keeps a French school. - Vrayement, je n'en sçavois rien. Truly, I did not know it. - Qu'apprend elle là? What does she learn there? - Elle apprend à écrire, à lire, She learns to write, to read, - à parler françois, à chanter, to speak French, to sing, - à danser, à jouer de la guitare, to dance, to play on the guitar, - et de l'épinette. and the spinette. + Chez un nommé Mons. de la At one Mons. de la Mare that + Mare qui tient escole Françoise. keeps a French school. + Vrayement, je n'en sçavois rien. Truly, I did not know it. + Qu'apprend elle là ? What does she learn there? + Elle apprend à écrire, à lire, She learns to write, to read, + à parler françois, à chanter, to speak French, to sing, + à danser, à jouer de la guitare, to dance, to play on the guitar, + et de l'épinette. and the spinette. @@ -13904,30 +13867,30 @@ as instructing their mistresses in the French language as well as in French fashions. It is no doubt Mrs. Kilvert's Academy that is referred to in the following dialogue: - Mon père, je vous prie, donnés moy I pray, Father, give me - vostre bénédiction. your blessing. - Ma fille, soyés la bien revenue. Daughter, you are welcome home. + Mon père, je vous prie, donnés moy I pray, Father, give me + vostre bénédiction. your blessing. + Ma fille, soyés la bien revenue. Daughter, you are welcome home. Comment se porte How does - Mme. votre Maîtresse? your mistress? + Mme. votre Maîtresse? your mistress? Mons. elle se porte bien. She is very well, Sir. - N'avés vous point oublié votre Have you not forgot your + N'avés vous point oublié votre Have you not forgot your Anglois? English quite? - Non, mon père. No, sir. - Je croy que vous parlés extrêmement I suppose you speak French + Non, mon père. No, sir. + Je croy que vous parlés extrêmement I suppose you speak French bien. excellently well by this time? J'entends beaucoup mieux que I understand it better than je ne parle. I can speak it. - Laquelle est la plus sçavante de vous Which of you two is the best + Laquelle est la plus sçavante de vous Which of you two is the best deux? proficient? C'est ma soeur.--Je ne pense pas. My sister, Sir.--I don't believe that. - Expliqués moy ce livre là en Render me some of that book back - François. into French. - Que signifie cela en François? What's that in French? - Entendés vous cette sentence là? Do you understand that sentence? + Expliqués moy ce livre là en Render me some of that book back + François. into French. + Que signifie cela en François? What's that in French? + Entendés vous cette sentence là ? Do you understand that sentence? Ouy, Mons. Yes, Sir. - Vous avez bien profité. . . . You have made good proficiency.... - Sçavez vous travailler en ouvrages? Have you learnt any needlework + Vous avez bien profité. . . . You have made good proficiency.... + Sçavez vous travailler en ouvrages? Have you learnt any needlework there? Vostre luth n'est pas d'accord. . . . Your lute is out of tune.... Et vous, ma fille, vous ne dites But you, daughter, have you @@ -13935,35 +13898,35 @@ to in the following dialogue: J'attendois vos ordres. I expect your commands. Qu'avez vous appris? What have you learnt? Approchez vous de moy. Come nearer to me. - Dancés une courante. Dance me a Courante. + Dancés une courante. Dance me a Courante. In another dialogue a French gentleman compliments an English lady on her French: - Où avés vous appris à parler François, Mademoiselle? + Où avés vous appris à parler François, Mademoiselle? - Monsieur, je ne parle pas, je ne fais que bégayer. + Monsieur, je ne parle pas, je ne fais que bégayer. - Je vous proteste que d'abord j'ay creu que vous fussiés Françoise. + Je vous proteste que d'abord j'ay creu que vous fussiés Françoise. - Il est impossible à une Angloise de posséder vostre langue. + Il est impossible à une Angloise de posséder vostre langue. - Vous m'excuserés, il s'en trouve beaucoup. + Vous m'excuserés, il s'en trouve beaucoup. J'eus l'honneur il y a quelque temps d'entretenir une Dame qui - parle aussi nettement qu'une Françoise. + parle aussi nettement qu'une Françoise. - Je voy que vous avez inclination pour le François. + Je voy que vous avez inclination pour le François. Fort grande. Vous avez l'accent fort pur et net. - De qui apprenés vous? + De qui apprenés vous? - D'un François nouvellement arrivé qui est de Blois. + D'un François nouvellement arrivé qui est de Blois. - Il est vray que la pureté du langage se trouve là, non pas + Il est vray que la pureté du langage se trouve là , non pas seulement l'accent, mais la vraye phrase. Tout le monde le dit. @@ -14037,23 +14000,23 @@ In following years the dialogues become more numerous; they number eighty in the sixth edition (1670). Each new issue promises additions, "of the last concern to the reader." A new feature in the sixth and seventh editions is a versified rendering of the grammar rules, entitled -_Le Parterre de la langue françoise_. The verses were written at the +_Le Parterre de la langue françoise_. The verses were written at the request of the Duke of Mecklenburg, his former pupil, and arranged in the form of a dialogue between Mauger and the Duke, who first addresses his master: - Le Langage françois est si plein de merveilles + Le Langage françois est si plein de merveilles Que ses charmans appas, ravissans nos oreilles, Nous jettent sur vos bords pour gouster ses douceurs, - Et pour en admirer les beautéz et les fleurs. - Mais, pour nous l'acquérir il faut tant d'artifice, - Qu'en ses difficultés il estreint nos delices, + Et pour en admirer les beautéz et les fleurs. + Mais, pour nous l'acquérir il faut tant d'artifice, + Qu'en ses difficultés il estreint nos delices, Estouffe nos desseins, traverse le plaisir - Qui flatoit nostre espoir d'y pouvoir réussir. + Qui flatoit nostre espoir d'y pouvoir réussir. Les articles _de la_, _de_, _du_, sont difficiles. Si vous ne les monstrez par vos reigles utiles, - Ils nous font bégayer presques à tous momens, - Et ternissent l'éclat de nos raisonnemens. + Ils nous font bégayer presques à tous momens, + Et ternissent l'éclat de nos raisonnemens. And Mauger answers him with an invitation to take what he will from the "parterre." @@ -14084,26 +14047,26 @@ Mauger also published a collection of letters in French and English, which he considered "a great help to the learner of the French tongue," for "those who understand it with the help of the English, are capable of explaining afterwards any French author, being written on several -subjects." The _Lettres Françoises et Angloises de Claude Mauger sur +subjects." The _Lettres Françoises et Angloises de Claude Mauger sur Toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres_ were dedicated to Sir William Pulteney. They were first issued in 1671, and again in 1676, with the addition of fifty letters. Many are addressed to gentlemen of note who had been his students at Blois, and continued to correspond -with him for the purpose of practice in French. "Puisque vous désirez -que je continue à vous écrire des Lettres Françoises," he wrote to the +with him for the purpose of practice in French. "Puisque vous désirez +que je continue à vous écrire des Lettres Françoises," he wrote to the Count of Praghen in 1668, "pour vous exercer en cette langue qui est -tant usitée dans toutes les cours de l'Europe, je reçois vos ordres avec +tant usitée dans toutes les cours de l'Europe, je reçois vos ordres avec joye." Others are addressed to pupils in London, including some of his -large clientèle of ladies. [Header: MAUGER'S FRENCH AND ENGLISH LETTERS] +large clientèle of ladies. [Header: MAUGER'S FRENCH AND ENGLISH LETTERS] For instance, he writes to a certain Mrs. Gregorie: - Ayant ouï dire que vous estes allée a la campagne pour quinze - jours, durant cette belle saison en laquele la nature déploye ce - qu'elle a de plus beau, j'ay pris la hardiesse de vous écrire cette - lettre en François pour vous exercer en cette langue que vous + Ayant ouï dire que vous estes allée a la campagne pour quinze + jours, durant cette belle saison en laquele la nature déploye ce + qu'elle a de plus beau, j'ay pris la hardiesse de vous écrire cette + lettre en François pour vous exercer en cette langue que vous apprenez avec tant de diligence. Je suis bien aise que vous vous y - adonniez si bien, car, comme vous avez la mémoire admirable, vous - en viendriez bien tost à bout. + adonniez si bien, car, comme vous avez la mémoire admirable, vous + en viendriez bien tost à bout. He seems to have made a regular practice of exercising his pupils' French by writing to them in the language.[815] Among his young English @@ -14111,16 +14074,16 @@ pupils was William Penn, the Quaker, to whom he wrote a letter dated 1670: Je n'entendrois pas bien mes interests si Dieu m'ayant fait si - heureux de vous monstrer le François que vous apprenez si bien, je - n'en témoignois de la joye, en faisant voir à tout le Monde, que + heureux de vous monstrer le François que vous apprenez si bien, je + n'en témoignois de la joye, en faisant voir à tout le Monde, que l'honneur que vous me faites de vous servir de moy, pour vous - l'acquérir est tres grand. En effet monsieur, n'est-ce pas un + l'acquérir est tres grand. En effet monsieur, n'est-ce pas un bon-heur? Car je perdrois mon credit si Dieu ne me suscitoit de tems en tems des personnes comme vous, qui par leur diligence et - capacité avec l'aide de ma méthode le soutiennent. . . . J'ay bien - de la satisfaction qu'elle [_i.e._ l'Angleterre] sçache que vous + capacité avec l'aide de ma méthode le soutiennent. . . . J'ay bien + de la satisfaction qu'elle [_i.e._ l'Angleterre] sçache que vous m'avez choisy pour vous donner la connaissance d'une langue qui - vous manquoit, qui est si estimée, et si usitée par toute la Terre. + vous manquoit, qui est si estimée, et si usitée par toute la Terre. Terre. . . . Whether these letters were ever actually sent to his pupils is a @@ -14147,7 +14110,7 @@ Street, next door to the strong water shop," in 1670. Before 1673 he had moved to "within two doors of Master Longland, a Farrier in Little Queen St., over against the Guy of Warwick near the King's Gate in Holborn"; and in 1676 to "Shandois Street, over against the Three Elmes, at Master -Saint André's." It was probably about the year 1670 that he began to +Saint André's." It was probably about the year 1670 that he began to teach English to foreigners visiting England. He had the honour "of helping a little to the English tongue both the French ambassadors, Ladyes, ambassadresses and several great Lords, who come daily from the @@ -14174,50 +14137,50 @@ well, because it is a natural thing for him to do. But you needs must confesse that a Latine schollar, who hath been acquainted with all such rules of grammar, speaketh better than such a one." Mauger would have the student first master his rules, and then begin "by all means" to -read, "pour joindre la pratique à la speculation des règles." [Header: +read, "pour joindre la pratique à la speculation des règles." [Header: MAUGER'S METHOD OF TEACHING] He no doubt intended the student to attempt to speak at the outset with the guidance of a French master, whom he held absolutely indispensable. The following talk between two students throws light on the practical methods advocated: - Apprenez-vous encore le françois? Do you learn French still? + Apprenez-vous encore le françois? Do you learn French still? Ouy, je n'y suis pas encore parfait. Yes, I am not yet perfect in it. Et moi je continue aussi. And I continue also. - Je commence à l'entendre. I begin to understand it. + Je commence à l'entendre. I begin to understand it. J'entens tout ce que je lis. I understand all I read. - Avez vous un valet de pié françois? Have you a French foot boy? + Avez vous un valet de pié françois? Have you a French foot boy? Ouy, monsieur. Yes, Sir. L'entendez-vous bien? Do you understand him well? Fort bien. Very well. Quel Autheur lisez vous? What author do you read? Je lis l'_Histoire de France_. I read the _French History_. - L'avez-vous leüe? Have you read it? - Je l'ay leüe en Anglois. I have read it in English. + L'avez-vous leüe? Have you read it? + Je l'ay leüe en Anglois. I have read it in English. Je l'acheteray. I will buy it. Ou la pourray-je trouver? Where shall I find it? Partout. Everywhere. - Avez-vous leüe l'_Illustre Have you read the _Illustrious + Avez-vous leüe l'_Illustre Have you read the _Illustrious Parisienne_? Parisien_? Allez-vous au sermon? Do you go to sermon? Ouy, Monsieur. Yes, Sir. - Qui est-ce qui prêche? Who preaches? + Qui est-ce qui prêche? Who preaches? C'est un habile homme. 'Tis an able man. - Avez-vous le Dictionnaire de Miège?[818] Have you Miège's Dictionary? + Avez-vous le Dictionnaire de Miège?[818] Have you Miège's Dictionary? Ouy, je l'ay. Yes, I have it. - Voulez-vous me le prêter? Will you lend it me? - Il est à votre service. It is at your service. + Voulez-vous me le prêter? Will you lend it me? + Il est à votre service. It is at your service. Je vous remercie. I thank you. - La langue françoise n'est-elle pas Is not the French tongue + La langue françoise n'est-elle pas Is not the French tongue belle? fine? Je l'aime fort. I love it extreamly. - Elle est fort à la mode. 'Tis very modish. + Elle est fort à la mode. 'Tis very modish. "My dialogues," writes Mauger, "are so useful and so fit to learn to speak, that one may easily attain the French tongue by the assistance of a Master, if he will take a little pains on his side." He also advises his pupils to read the lengthy heroical romances so popular at the -time--_L'Astrée_, and the enormous folios of De Gomberville, La -Calprenède, Mlle. de Scudéry, and other romances of the same type--as +time--_L'Astrée_, and the enormous folios of De Gomberville, La +Calprenède, Mlle. de Scudéry, and other romances of the same type--as well as the works of Corneille, Balzac, and Le Grand. With Antoine le Grand, Mauger claims personal acquaintance, and recommends his works with special emphasis, giving his pupils notice of a book newly @@ -14254,20 +14217,20 @@ earlier date he had acknowledged that "after Blois the best pronunciation is got at Orleans, Saumur, Tours, and the Court," and in 1676 he writes, "Je suys exactement le plus beau stile de la Cour," and tells us that he had daily intercourse with French courtiers "tant -ambassadeurs qu'autres grands seigneurs, à qui j'ay aussi l'honneur de +ambassadeurs qu'autres grands seigneurs, à qui j'ay aussi l'honneur de monstrer la langue angloise." He also read all the latest books, and carried on a correspondence with learned men in Paris, among others Antoine le Grand. But in the same year that he was praising the French of Paris, he wrote, encouraging a noble Englishman to take up the study of French in England: [Header: MAUGER IN PARIS] "Si vos affaires ne -vous permettent pas d'aller à Paris, pour vous y adonner, de quoy vous +vous permettent pas d'aller à Paris, pour vous y adonner, de quoy vous souciez-vous si vous avez Blois dans Londres qui est la source? En effet -sa prononciation ne change jamais: de plus à cause du commerce qu'il y a -entre les deux cours, l'une communique à l'autre sa pureté. Et je dy -assurément qu'il y a icy quantité de personnes qui parlent aussi bien à +sa prononciation ne change jamais: de plus à cause du commerce qu'il y a +entre les deux cours, l'une communique à l'autre sa pureté. Et je dy +assurément qu'il y a icy quantité de personnes qui parlent aussi bien à la mode qu'au Faubourg Saint Germain. Et comme les fonteines font couler leurs eaux bien loin par de bons canaux sans se corrompre, vous -trouverez des Maîtres en cette ville qui vous enseigneront aussi +trouverez des Maîtres en cette ville qui vous enseigneront aussi purement que sur les lieux." However, when he had himself spent two years in Paris, he gave up praising the merits of Blois, and always describes himself as "late professor of languages at Paris," which he @@ -14322,8 +14285,8 @@ for the fifteenth, both at the Hague. It was usually published with an English grammar of more importance than the short one added by Mauger to the English editions--that of Festeau, Mauger's friend and fellow-townsman. Their combined work was known as the _Nouvelle double -grammaire Françoise-Angloise et Angloise-Françoise par messieurs Claude -Mauger et Paul Festeau, Professeurs de Langues à Paris et à Londres_. +grammaire Françoise-Angloise et Angloise-Françoise par messieurs Claude +Mauger et Paul Festeau, Professeurs de Langues à Paris et à Londres_. The two grammars are followed by Mauger's dialogues and a collection of twenty-one "plaisantes et facetieuses Histoires pour rire," in French and English, entitled _l'Ecole pour rire_. The growing popularity of @@ -14338,7 +14301,7 @@ Paul Festeau was the author of a French as well as an English grammar,[821] and, like Mauger, he taught English to foreign visitors in London, as well as French to English people. Indeed his career bears a close resemblance to that of Mauger, of whom he seems to have been a -sort of protégé. Like Mauger he had taught at Blois, and the two +sort of protégé. Like Mauger he had taught at Blois, and the two teachers probably came to England together; at any rate they arrived at much the same time. He enjoyed a greater popularity than Mauger as a teacher of English, and was also looked upon with respect as a teacher @@ -14374,7 +14337,7 @@ otherwise they could never attain to the capacity of joyning words together. Beside when a master doth teach his scholar, he must not ask him a whole long phrase at once, he must divide it in parts according to the distinction of points. As for instance, if I will ask this long -phrase of a child | Quand on a gaigné une fois | le jeu attire +phrase of a child | Quand on a gaigné une fois | le jeu attire insensiblement | en esperance de gaigner davantage |. I will ask it him at three several times." Festeau gives the pupil the English in three separate phrases, and requires him to give the French rendering. "Them @@ -14401,7 +14364,7 @@ that it sells pretty well. If some other former grammars have had more editions, it cannot be inferred thence that this comes short of them: we can buy nothing at market but what is to be sold, and when this hath been in the light as long, no doubt but (especially being better known) -it may have as many editions." [Header: PIERRE LAINÉ] Possibly he was +it may have as many editions." [Header: PIERRE LAINÉ] Possibly he was referring to Mauger's popularity, and the two friends may have become rivals during the latter part of their stay in England. On similar grounds he claimed that the sixth edition might be called the tenth, as @@ -14440,9 +14403,9 @@ idea thereof." Another French tutor who flourished at the same time as Mauger, and who wrote a French grammar which, like his, appeared during the -Commonwealth, was Peter Lainé. Lainé is not very communicative as +Commonwealth, was Peter Lainé. Lainé is not very communicative as regards himself; he does not even tell us from what part of France he -came. All we know of him is that he was a protégé of Robert Paston, to +came. All we know of him is that he was a protégé of Robert Paston, to whom he dedicated his book, and who, no doubt, had been his pupil for French. Of his grammar he writes, "I here expose to thy view a work which might rather be counted an Errata than a book"--a state of things @@ -14469,7 +14432,7 @@ that Peletier, and other earlier writers, had, on the contrary, retained the etymological consonants of the old orthography, with the idea that the foreigner's Latin would thereby be of greater service to him. -Lainé's _Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue, teaching with +Lainé's _Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue, teaching with much ease, facility and delight, how to attain briefly and most exactly to the true and modern pronunciation thereof_, is very similar to Mauger's grammar in the distribution of the matter. Rules for the @@ -14477,8 +14440,8 @@ pronunciation, which as usual are briefly explained by means of comparison with English sounds, are followed by observations on each part of speech in turn;[823] finally come familiar phrases "to be used at the first learning of French," ten long dialogues, and a vocabulary, -all in French and English. [Header: LAINÉ'S DIALOGUES] The book closes -with what Lainé calls "an alphabetical rule for the true and modern +all in French and English. [Header: LAINÉ'S DIALOGUES] The book closes +with what Lainé calls "an alphabetical rule for the true and modern orthography of that French now spoken, being a catalogue of very necessary words never before printed"--an alphabetical list of words. The grammatical section of the work is written in English. In the @@ -14497,12 +14460,12 @@ French, talk and guidance for travellers in France, etc. The following specimen is from a dialogue between an English gentleman and his language master: - Quel beau livre est-ce là? What fine book is that? + Quel beau livre est-ce là ? What fine book is that? Mons., c'est le romant comique. Sir, it is the comic romance. Qui en est l'autheur? Who is the author of it? Mons. C'est Mons. Scarron. Sir, it is Mr. Scarron. - Est-il fort célèbre? Is he very famed? - Est il fort estimé? Is he much esteemed? + Est-il fort célèbre? Is he very famed? + Est il fort estimé? Is he much esteemed? Mons., c'est un esprit sublime et Sir, it is a sublime and transcendant. transcendant wit. De quoi traite cet ouvrage? What doth this work deal on? @@ -14514,12 +14477,12 @@ language master: Prononcez hardiment; Pronounce boldly; Observez vos accents. Observe your accents. Ne prenez point de mauvaise habitude. Take no ill habit. - Lisés distinctement. Read distinctly. - Vou lisez trop vîte. You read too fast. + Lisés distinctement. Read distinctly. + Vou lisez trop vîte. You read too fast. Notre langue est ennemi de la Our tongue is enemy to - précipitation. precipitation. + précipitation. precipitation. -Lainé evidently intended that the dialogues, at least some of them, +Lainé evidently intended that the dialogues, at least some of them, should be committed to memory, as well as read and translated; "after that," he continues, "as his sufficiency shall permit, he may proceed to Reading any Histories, among which the Holy Writ ought to have the @@ -14528,15 +14491,15 @@ dictated it, purposely rejected the affected smoothness and polishedness of the style." We recall, as we reflect on this strange reason for rejecting the Holy Scriptures as reading material, the unenviable reputation the refugees themselves had as regards literary style. As the -Bible is left us "for divine study only," Lainé advises his pupils to +Bible is left us "for divine study only," Lainé advises his pupils to make use of moral histories for purposes of reading. Many, he says, have been produced of late years. Nor did he limit his pupils' choice to these; he encouraged them to read the heroic romances so popular at the -time--_Artamène ou le grand Cyrus_ and _Clélie_ by Mlle. de Scudéry, -_Cassandre_ and _Cléopâtre_ by La Calprenède; also the _Poésies +time--_Artamène ou le grand Cyrus_ and _Clélie_ by Mlle. de Scudéry, +_Cassandre_ and _Cléopâtre_ by La Calprenède; also the _Poésies spirituelles_ of Corneille, the commentaries of Caesar in French, and Scarron's _Roman comique_. Lighter fare could be found in the _Gazette -françoise_. +françoise_. FOOTNOTES: @@ -14572,15 +14535,15 @@ advertised in 1678 (Arber, _Term Catalogues_, i. 323). [822] - "De tous les professeurs de la langue françoyse, + "De tous les professeurs de la langue françoyse, Festeau c'est de toi seul dont je fais plus de cas. - Si tu es éloquent dans nostre langue angloise, + Si tu es éloquent dans nostre langue angloise, Dans la tienne, pourquoy ne le serois-tu pas?" Thus wrote one of his pupils, Mr. P. Hume, probably the famous statesman and Covenanter. -[823] Pp. 48-130. Lainé retains the usual six Latin cases; the verbs are +[823] Pp. 48-130. Lainé retains the usual six Latin cases; the verbs are divided into four conjugations; the indeclinables are given in lists. A vocabulary of nouns which have two meanings according as they are masculine or feminine is included. @@ -14601,7 +14564,7 @@ in the original. Their importance in the eyes of the French teachers may also have increased their vogue. They were especially affected by Charles I.; and when on the eve of his death, he was distributing a few of his favourite possessions among his friends, he left the volumes of -La Calprenède's _Cassandre_ to the Earl of Lindsey.[825] Later on, Pope +La Calprenède's _Cassandre_ to the Earl of Lindsey.[825] Later on, Pope describing, in his _Rape of the Lock_, the adventurous baron in quest of the much-coveted lock, pictures him imploring Love for help, and declares he @@ -14623,12 +14586,12 @@ of spelling and grammar: Je n'ay guere plus dormie que vous et mes songes n'ont pas estres moins confuse, au rest une bande de violons que sont venue jouer - sous ma fennestre m'ont tourmentés de tel façon que je doubt fort + sous ma fennestre m'ont tourmentés de tel façon que je doubt fort si je pourrois jamais les souffrire encore; je ne suis pourtant pas en fort mauvaise humeur et je m'en voy ausi tost que je serai - habillée voire ce qu'il est posible de faire pour vostre - satisfaction; apres je viendré vous rendre conte de nos affairs et - quoy qu'il en sera vous ne sçaurois jamais doubté que je ne vous + habillée voire ce qu'il est posible de faire pour vostre + satisfaction; apres je viendré vous rendre conte de nos affairs et + quoy qu'il en sera vous ne sçaurois jamais doubté que je ne vous ayme plus que toutes les choses du monde.[826] The French romances were Dorothy's constant companions, and her letters @@ -14636,8 +14599,8 @@ are full of criticisms of and references to her favourite passages. She sent the volumes to Temple by instalments,[827] as she finished them, pressing him for his opinion. _Le Grand Cyrus_ seems to have been her favourite. She had also a great admiration for _Ibraham ou l'Illustre -Bassa_, which, like _Polexandre et Cléopâtre_ and the four volumes of -_Prazimène_, was her "old acquaintance." _Parthenissa_, the English +Bassa_, which, like _Polexandre et Cléopâtre_ and the four volumes of +_Prazimène_, was her "old acquaintance." _Parthenissa_, the English romance in the French style by Lord Broghill, did not meet with her approval. "But," she confides to Temple, "perhaps I like it worse for having a piece of _Cyrus_ by me that I am highly pleased with, and that @@ -14679,7 +14642,7 @@ Bassa_ the plot of yesterday's play, which is exactly the same." His French books seem to have been a great source of interest to Pepys, and to have served him on many occasions. Being ill, "taking physique all day," he beguiled the time by reading "little French romances." He -appears to have been particularly attracted by Sorbière's _Voyage en +appears to have been particularly attracted by Sorbière's _Voyage en Angleterre_, which on its appearance caused some indignation at the English Court. Pepys read the book in the year of its publication (1664).[831] Unfortunately he has not left us a very full account of the @@ -14688,7 +14651,7 @@ he went "by water to Redriffe, reading a new French book my Lord Bruncker did give me to-day, _L'Histoire Amoureuse des Gaules_" [by the Comte de Bussy], "being a pretty libel against the amours of the Court of France." Another volume which pleased Pepys was a "pretty" work, _La -Nouvelle allégorique_, "upon the strife between rhetorique and its +Nouvelle allégorique_, "upon the strife between rhetorique and its enemies, very pleasant." His choice of French literature was wide, ranging from Du Bartas, which he judged "very fine as anything he had seen," to Helot's "idle roguish book," _L'Eschole des Filles_, which he @@ -14712,7 +14675,7 @@ a time to look them over ... but my eyes are now too much out of tune to look upon them with any pleasure." And when his failing eyesight prevented him from reading with ease, his wife, Batelier, and his brother-in-law, Balty St. Michel, would read to him in French as well as -in English. He got Balty to read to him out of Sorbière's _Voyage en +in English. He got Balty to read to him out of Sorbière's _Voyage en Angleterre_, and under the date the 30th of January 1668-9 we find this entry: "I spent all the afternoon with my wife and Will Batelier talking, and then making them read, and particularly made an end of Mr. @@ -14724,7 +14687,7 @@ read a French discourse which he hath brought over with him for me." No doubt the polite French literature which the French teachers recommended so strongly to their pupils had some influence on the character of the dialogues which form part of their manuals. Mauger, -Festeau, and Lainé all include polite conversations in their dialogues, +Festeau, and Lainé all include polite conversations in their dialogues, and leave the old familiar subjects of buying and selling, wayside and tavern talk. Polite conversation was the fashion, and coteries for fostering it grew up in England on the model of those in France. Mrs. @@ -14737,7 +14700,7 @@ affected by the adherents of the Parisian salons. "Orinda" was of course a great reader of French literature, and knew French perfectly. She is chiefly remembered for her translations of some of Corneille's plays into English.[838] French books of conversation, such as Mlle. de -Scudéry's _Conversations sur divers sujets_[839] or the similar volume +Scudéry's _Conversations sur divers sujets_[839] or the similar volume by Clerombault, which was rendered into English by a "person of honour" [1672], also give some clue to the tastes and tendencies of the time, though they had no direct influence on the dialogues specially written @@ -14758,7 +14721,7 @@ delightful method then any yet extant_. The thirty-four dialogues contained in this collection are all, with the exception of the first which is autobiographical, written in the -_précieux_ style, full of points and conceits,[840] and all, with the +_précieux_ style, full of points and conceits,[840] and all, with the same exception, are very alike and a little wearisome. Herbert says he does not write for every one, but for "les plus subtils." And in his first dialogue, which gives a free account of his condition and @@ -14767,48 +14730,48 @@ and English dialogues. A stranger addresses a friend of the author: Pourquoi ne parle-t-il point de vendre et d'acheter? - Parce qu'il n'a rien à vendre et que fort peu d'argent pour - acheter; et que les autres faiseurs de livres François en ce pais - ont tout vendu et tout acheté avant qu'il allât au marché. + Parce qu'il n'a rien à vendre et que fort peu d'argent pour + acheter; et que les autres faiseurs de livres François en ce pais + ont tout vendu et tout acheté avant qu'il allât au marché. Pourquoi ne dit-il rien du Manger et du Boire? - Pour tant qu'il y prend fort peu de plaisir, faute d'appétit, et - que quelques-uns de ceux qui l'ont precédé l'ont fait pour lui, - nommant fidèlement toutes les viandes qu'ils ont portées à la table - de leurs maîtres. Qui lèche les plats, en peut bien parler. + Pour tant qu'il y prend fort peu de plaisir, faute d'appétit, et + que quelques-uns de ceux qui l'ont precédé l'ont fait pour lui, + nommant fidèlement toutes les viandes qu'ils ont portées à la table + de leurs maîtres. Qui lèche les plats, en peut bien parler. Pourquoi ne parle-t-il point des Habits, et de La Mode, du Lever et du Coucher, de la Chambre et du Lit? - Parce que nos maîtres, qui ont été valets de chambre ou laquais, - lui ont épargné ce travail, comme leur étant plus propre qu'à lui. + Parce que nos maîtres, qui ont été valets de chambre ou laquais, + lui ont épargné ce travail, comme leur étant plus propre qu'à lui. Pourquoi se tait-il des Merciers, des Tailleurs et des Cordonniers? Parce qu'ils aiment mieux argent contant que des paroles et que - n'étant point dans leurs livres il ne se souvient guère d'eux et + n'étant point dans leurs livres il ne se souvient guère d'eux et s'en soucie encore moins. - Pourquoi laisse-t-il les Ministres, les Médecins et les + Pourquoi laisse-t-il les Ministres, les Médecins et les Jurisconsultes, sans faire attention d'eux? Parce qu'ils ont assez d'esprit pour ne s'oublier pas: et assez de - langue pour parler pour eux-mêmes. Et toutefois il en parle à la - dérobée, sans leur donner un discours à part, quoiqu'il honore ces - professions-là, et aime fort passionément plusieurs personnes de - ces trois états, pour leurs rares mérites. + langue pour parler pour eux-mêmes. Et toutefois il en parle à la + dérobée, sans leur donner un discours à part, quoiqu'il honore ces + professions-là , et aime fort passionément plusieurs personnes de + ces trois états, pour leurs rares mérites. N'a-t-il rien des Apoticaires, des Chirurgiens et des Barbiers? Pas un seul mot, monsieur, parce qu'il se sert rarement des - premiers, et que, par la grâce de Dieu, il n'a ni playes ni ulcères - ni vérole pour les seconds, et que, les derniers le tenant à la + premiers, et que, par la grâce de Dieu, il n'a ni playes ni ulcères + ni vérole pour les seconds, et que, les derniers le tenant à la gorge, il n'oseroit parler. - Il pourroit dire quelque chose des Parens et des Alliéz. + Il pourroit dire quelque chose des Parens et des Alliéz. - Qu'en diroit-il, les siens lui étant si peu courtois? S'il parloit + Qu'en diroit-il, les siens lui étant si peu courtois? S'il parloit d'eux, ce seroit moyen de renouveler ses douleurs. [Header: STATE OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION] @@ -14819,8 +14782,8 @@ unwilling member of the profession. He does not style himself "Professor of the French Language" on the title-page of his dialogues, although he taught both in his house and away from home, because few people care to boast of their cross, and his cross was--to be reduced to belong to a -profession "que tant de valets, de mécaniques, et d'ignorants rendent -tous les jours méprisable." He draws a far from flattering picture of +profession "que tant de valets, de mécaniques, et d'ignorants rendent +tous les jours méprisable." He draws a far from flattering picture of the common sort of French teacher. He is a "brouillon," a shuffling fellow, who boasts, dresses well, and intrudes everywhere, cringing and offering his services at a cheaper price than the genuine teachers. He @@ -14923,10 +14886,10 @@ Herbert also took a great interest in the foreign churches of London. He dedicated his _Quadripartit Devotion_ of 1648 to the "learned, pious, and reverend Pastors, Elders, and Deacons of all the French and Dutch congregations in England." At a later date he published a biting -pamphlet against a French Pastor, Jean Despagne,--the _Réponse aux -Questions de Mr. Despagne adressées à l'Eglise Françoise de Londres_ +pamphlet against a French Pastor, Jean Despagne,--the _Réponse aux +Questions de Mr. Despagne adressées à l'Eglise Françoise de Londres_ (1657), accusing "le ridicule Despagne" of blasphemy and immorality, as -well as criticising his French. In this work Herbert agrees with Lainé +well as criticising his French. In this work Herbert agrees with Lainé in omitting a number of superfluous letters, with the intention of facilitating reading for foreigners, though he was opposed to too many changes, for fear of offending the partisans of the old orthography. The @@ -15089,7 +15052,7 @@ exile in France. An example of the opportunities of acquiring a knowledge of French, "in any leisure hour," as Milton said of Italian, is found in the Letters of -Robert Loveday, the translator of part of La Calprenède's _Cléopâtre_. +Robert Loveday, the translator of part of La Calprenède's _Cléopâtre_. Loveday lived during the Commonwealth as a dependent in the house of Lady Clinton at Nottingham, where, he says, French "was familiarly spoken by the best sort of the family."[854] He therefore had every @@ -15105,7 +15068,7 @@ any other."[855] Loveday hoped by this means to give "larger scope to (his) narrow condition" at Nottingham. One of his first enterprises was the translation of a "mad fantastick Dream" he met with in Sorel's _Francion_, which he sent to his brother; but his chief work was a -rendering of the first three parts of _Cléopâtre_, which was hardly of +rendering of the first three parts of _Cléopâtre_, which was hardly of the "indifferent size" he writes of. The several parts appeared in 1652, 1654, and 1655 respectively, under the title of _Hymen's Praeludia, or Love's Masterpiece_, and were dedicated to his "ever-honoured lady" Lady @@ -15354,7 +15317,7 @@ Oct. 13, 1664, ed. Wheatley, 1904). [832] _Diary_, Jan. 13, Feb. 8 and 9, 1667-8. -[833] _L'Hydrographie contenant la théorie et la pratique de toutes les +[833] _L'Hydrographie contenant la théorie et la pratique de toutes les parties de la navigation_, 1643. [834] He read Descartes's _Musicae Compendium_, but did not think much @@ -15367,7 +15330,7 @@ not agree to with me, though I know myself in the right as to the sense of the word, and almost angry we were, and were an houre and more upon the dispute, till at last broke up not satisfied, and so home." -[836] _Les Résolutions Politiques ou Maximes d'État_, par Jean de +[836] _Les Résolutions Politiques ou Maximes d'État_, par Jean de Marnix, Baron de Potes, Bruxelles, 1612. [837] Cp. E. Gosse, _Seventeenth Century Studies_, 1897; J. J. @@ -15383,32 +15346,32 @@ Jan. 31, 1663). [839] Fifth ed., Amsterdam, 1686. Translated into English by F. Spence, London, 1683. Queen Henrietta Maria had done much to foster the spirit -of the _Astrée_ and the Hôtel de Rambouillet in England: cp. J. B. -Fletcher, "Précieuses at the Court of Charles I.," in the _Journal of +of the _Astrée_ and the Hôtel de Rambouillet in England: cp. J. B. +Fletcher, "Précieuses at the Court of Charles I.," in the _Journal of Comparative Philology_, vol. i. 1903. [840] Between ladies and "cavaliers." Herbert explains that by "cavalier" he means _galant homme_. Here is a specimen of their style: -"_Cavalier_: La voilà, je la vois.--_Dame_: Que voyez-vous, mons.?--Je -vois la Gloire du beau sexe, l'Ornement de ce siècle, et l'Objet de mes +"_Cavalier_: La voilà , je la vois.--_Dame_: Que voyez-vous, mons.?--Je +vois la Gloire du beau sexe, l'Ornement de ce siècle, et l'Objet de mes affections.--Vous voyez ici bien des choses.--Toutes ces choses sont en -une.--C'est donc une merveille.--Dites, ma chère Dame, la merveille des -merveilles.--Je le pourrois dire après vous, car votre bel esprit ne se +une.--C'est donc une merveille.--Dites, ma chère Dame, la merveille des +merveilles.--Je le pourrois dire après vous, car votre bel esprit ne se sauroit tromper.--Il se peut bien tromper, mais non pas en ceci.--Je veux qu'il soit infaillible en ceci: il faut pourtant que je voye cette Gloire, cet Ornement et cet Objet, pour en pouvoir juger.--Vous ne les -sauriez voir que par réflexion.--Je ne vous entens pas.--Approchez-vous +sauriez voir que par réflexion.--Je ne vous entens pas.--Approchez-vous de ce miroir, et vous verrez ce que je dis. Qu'y voyez-vous, ma -Belle?--Je vous y vois, monsieur.--Voilà une belle réponse.--Belle ou +Belle?--Je vous y vois, monsieur.--Voilà une belle réponse.--Belle ou laide, elle est vraye.--Elle l'est effectivement: mais n'y voyez-vous rien que moi?--Je m'y vois aussi bien que vous.--Vous voyez donc cette illustre merveille, etc." -[841] "Il y a des particuliers qui ne sont pas dans mes intérêts, qui -les (_i.e._ his works) décrient hautement, non pas tant par malice que -par jalousie, quelques-uns étant des personnes intéressées qui sont de -ma profession, ou des critiques ignorans qui trouvent à redire à tout ce -que les autres font, pour faire paroître ce qu'ils n'ont point, +[841] "Il y a des particuliers qui ne sont pas dans mes intérêts, qui +les (_i.e._ his works) décrient hautement, non pas tant par malice que +par jalousie, quelques-uns étant des personnes intéressées qui sont de +ma profession, ou des critiques ignorans qui trouvent à redire à tout ce +que les autres font, pour faire paroître ce qu'ils n'ont point, s'imaginant qu'on les prend pour des hommes d'esprit, quand on les entend reprendre les choses les mieux faites." @@ -15416,10 +15379,10 @@ entend reprendre les choses les mieux faites." [843] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, iv. 333. -[844] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, ii. pp. 148-9, and 153. Despagne +[844] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, ii. pp. 148-9, and 153. Despagne became a denizen in 1655 (Hug. Soc. Pub. xviii.). Cp. also Haag, _La -France protestante_, ad nom., and the _Bulletin de la société de -l'Histoire du Protestantisme français_, viii. pp. 369 _et seq._ He died +France protestante_, ad nom., and the _Bulletin de la société de +l'Histoire du Protestantisme français_, viii. pp. 369 _et seq._ He died in 1658. [845] _Harmony of the Old and New Testament_, 1682, Brown's preface. @@ -15432,7 +15395,7 @@ in 1658. shown by the following passage from Mauger; a stranger questions one of his pupils: - Entendez-vous tout ce que vous lisés? + Entendez-vous tout ce que vous lisés? J'en entends une partie. Entendez-vous bien le sens? Fort bien, monsieur. @@ -15501,7 +15464,7 @@ Schools_, p. 296. [860] _An Essay to Revive the Antient Education of Gentlewomen_, London, 1673 (by Mrs. Makin or Mark Lewis). -[861] G. Miège, _A New French Grammar_, 1678, p. 377. +[861] G. Miège, _A New French Grammar_, 1678, p. 377. [862] _Appeale to Truth_, 1622, p. 41. @@ -15529,7 +15492,7 @@ grammar school in London, also proposes that Latin should be learnt by speaking and hearing it spoken, and attributes the unsatisfactory knowledge of the language to the too frequent use of English in schools (_New Discoverie of the old art of Teaching Schooll_, 1660). The French -teacher Miège suggests that Latin should be taught in special schools, +teacher Miège suggests that Latin should be taught in special schools, on the same lines as French was taught in the French ones (_French Grammar_, 1678). In 1685 was published _The Way of Teaching the Latin Tongue by use to those that have already learn'd their Mother Tongue_; @@ -15628,7 +15591,7 @@ education of the boys was entrusted to the Protestant pastor, M. Testard, who received foreign pupils. The young students worked hard at Latin and French under the minister's supervision. Testard reported of Edmund, the elder, "Il fait merveille. . . . Je luy raconte une histoire -en français, il me la rend extempore en Latin."[885] And one day Mme. +en français, il me la rend extempore en Latin."[885] And one day Mme. Testard found the young John hard at work in bed in the early morning with two books in French and Latin. The children wrote in French to their mother when she was absent in England making valiant and finally @@ -15637,16 +15600,16 @@ estate. And when, after her death, Sir Ralph sought to divert his mind by travelling in Italy, Edmund,[886] then aged thirteen, wrote this letter--which shows clearly the dangers of a purely oral method: - Plust à Dieu qu'il vous donnast la pensée de retourner à Blois. Les - jours me semblent des années tant il m'ennuye d'ettre icy comme + Plust à Dieu qu'il vous donnast la pensée de retourner à Blois. Les + jours me semblent des années tant il m'ennuye d'ettre icy comme dans un desert de solitude; car quoy est cequi me peut desormais plaire dans cette ville, comment est ceque cette lumiere de la vie, et cette respiration de l'air me peuvent-elle estre agreeables, puisqu'y ayant perdu cequi m'estoit le plus au Monde et qu'il - m'interesse plus q'une seule personne dont je suis privé de + m'interesse plus q'une seule personne dont je suis privé de l'honneur de sa presence, au reste, graces a Dieu, nous nous porte fort bien et pourcequi et de moy je vous asseure que je ne - manqueray jamais à mon devoir, c'espourquoy finissant je demeure et + manqueray jamais à mon devoir, c'espourquoy finissant je demeure et demeureray aternellement, Votre tres humble et fidel fils, @@ -15669,7 +15632,7 @@ in England; but his son Edmund thought the advantage of learning to speak French fluently did not compensate for the loss of English public school life, which he himself had never enjoyed. Sir Ralph soon became a versatile source of information to parents desiring details of the cost -of living and education in France. He considered £200 a year a proper +of living and education in France. He considered £200 a year a proper allowance for an English youth to be boarded in a good French family, and that homes in which there were children were best, on account of the continual prattle of the young inmates. The families of French pastors @@ -15795,7 +15758,7 @@ it is not to be expected he should be a Master before he hath been a scholar." The language master should teach his pupil to read, write and spell correctly, and to speak properly. [Header: GUIDE-BOOKS FOR TRAVELLERS] The material for reading must be carefully chosen; romances, -such as those of Scudéry, are often dangerous; it is better to use books +such as those of Scudéry, are often dangerous; it is better to use books which give instruction in such subjects as history, morality, and politics. Every evening there should be a repetition of what has been learnt during the day. Gailhard also draws attention to the necessity of @@ -15821,7 +15784,7 @@ England. All strongly advise their pupils to go to France, and most of them add directions for travel in their text-books.[903] Mauger's dialogues include "most exact instructions for travel, very useful and necessary for all gentlemen that intend to travel into France," and -Lainé's grammar is "enriched with choice dialogues useful for persons of +Lainé's grammar is "enriched with choice dialogues useful for persons of quality that intend to travel into France, leading them as by the hand to the most noted and principal places of the kingdom." @@ -15855,8 +15818,8 @@ their geographical positions, or notices on their history and antiquities.[908] In time, however, they assumed a character more particularly adapted to strangers.[909] [Header: ROUTES USUALLY FOLLOWED] One of the best known and most popular was _Le Voyage de -France, dressé pour l'instruction et commodité tant des Français que des -étrangers_, first published in 1639. The author, C. de Varennes, gives +France, dressé pour l'instruction et commodité tant des Français que des +étrangers_, first published in 1639. The author, C. de Varennes, gives directions for the study of French. He thinks Oudin's Grammar the most profitable, on account of the manner in which it deals with the chief difficulties of foreigners, and Paris and Orleans the best towns for @@ -15864,8 +15827,8 @@ study. For the rest, the help of a tutor should be enlisted, and the student should converse as much as possible with children, and with persons of learning and ability; he should also read widely, preferably dialogues in familiar style and the latest novels; and write French, for -which exercise he will find much help in the _Secrétaire de la Cour_ and -the _Secrétaire à la mode_,[910] collections of letters and +which exercise he will find much help in the _Secrétaire de la Cour_ and +the _Secrétaire à la mode_,[910] collections of letters and "compliments," which, we may say incidentally, enjoyed a popularity greatly exceeding their merit. @@ -15874,7 +15837,7 @@ advanced, and many were content to spend the whole of their sojourn abroad there, without undertaking the longer continental tour. Others went to France to prepare themselves for the longer tour. Naturally the tour in France alone engaged the attention of French teachers. We are -told that the cost of a tour of three months need not be more than £50. +told that the cost of a tour of three months need not be more than £50. "If you take a friend with you 'twill make you miss a thousand opportunities of following your end: you go to get French, and it would be best if you could avoid making an acquaintance with any Englishman @@ -15913,11 +15876,11 @@ many distractions it offered and of the great number of English people resident there. It therefore became customary with the more serious-minded to retire for a time to some quiet provincial town where the accent was good. The French teacher Wodroeph tells us as much: -"Mais, Monsieur, je vois bien que vous estes estranger et vous allez à -la cour à Paris pour y apprendre nostre langue françoise. Mais mieux il -vous vaut d'aller à Orleans plustost que d'y aller pour hanter la cour +"Mais, Monsieur, je vois bien que vous estes estranger et vous allez à +la cour à Paris pour y apprendre nostre langue françoise. Mais mieux il +vous vaut d'aller à Orleans plustost que d'y aller pour hanter la cour et baiser les Dames et Damoiselles. . . . Parquoy je vous conseille -mieux vous en esloigner et d'aller à Orleans là où vous apprendrez la +mieux vous en esloigner et d'aller à Orleans là où vous apprendrez la vraye methode de la langue vulgaire."[915] The towns in the valley of the Loire were favourite resorts for purposes of study.[916] Orleans, Blois, and Saumur seem to have been the most popular. [Header: LOIRE @@ -15940,7 +15903,7 @@ diligently for nineteen weeks. While studying in one or other of these towns, English travellers usually lodged in hotels, _auberges_, or _pensions_,[920] and sometimes with French families. One of their chief difficulties appears to have -been to avoid their fellow-countrymen in such places. Gabriel Du Grès +been to avoid their fellow-countrymen in such places. Gabriel Du Grès suggests that when English students are thus thrown together they should come to an agreement that any one who spoke his native tongue should pay a fine. A further though less serious impediment was the speaking of @@ -15948,13 +15911,13 @@ Latin, still considered necessary to the traveller by scholars such as John Brinsley.[921] For this reason travellers "for language" are advised to frequent the company of women and children, and "polite" society, rather than that of scholars. It is a great inconvenience, -observes Du Grès, if your landlord can speak Latin. The majority of +observes Du Grès, if your landlord can speak Latin. The majority of travellers, however, do not appear to have experienced any embarrassment in this respect; on the contrary, those with little previous knowledge of French found their Latin of use in their first French lessons if they studied the language "grammatically" with a master. French teachers in England usually recommended suitable _pensions_ to their students. -Gabriel Du Grès, for instance, gives a list of such lodgings at Saumur, +Gabriel Du Grès, for instance, gives a list of such lodgings at Saumur, his native town; Mauger, of those of Blois, Orleans, and other towns in the Loire valley.[922] In like manner they addressed their pupils to recommendable academies for instruction in the polite accomplishments @@ -15963,7 +15926,7 @@ pupils to go to private masters, who would attend to their French as well as the "exercises." The house of M. Doux, who had a riding school at Blois, was considered a particularly appropriate residence for those desiring to learn French, on account of his daughters, who spoke -"wondrously well," as was also that of a certain M. Dechaussé, who kept +"wondrously well," as was also that of a certain M. Dechaussé, who kept an academy for teaching young gentlemen to ride. What is more, French teachers in England, no longer regarding their @@ -15980,8 +15943,8 @@ tutor in England; Clarendon significantly states that in France "we quickly _renew_ the acquaintance we have had with the language by the practice and custom of speaking it." Students going abroad for purposes of study are therefore addressed to M. Nicolas, an excellent master at -Paris, M. le Fèvre, an _avocat en parlement_ at Orleans, and others. We -are also informed that _abbés_ were fond of teaching their language to +Paris, M. le Fèvre, an _avocat en parlement_ at Orleans, and others. We +are also informed that _abbés_ were fond of teaching their language to strangers, especially the English.[923] Moreover, several French teachers in England had previously exercised their profession in France. The most popular of all, Claude Mauger, had spent seven years teaching @@ -16003,12 +15966,12 @@ foreigners. There were, however, several well-known teachers of languages at Paris who wrote grammars specially for their use. Alcide de St. Maurice, the author of the _Guide fidelle des estrangers dans le voyage de France_ (1672), composed a grammar called _Remarques sur les -principales difficultez de la langue françoise_ (1674), which has little -value, and is compiled chiefly from Vaugelas and Ménage. His chief aim +principales difficultez de la langue françoise_ (1674), which has little +value, and is compiled chiefly from Vaugelas and Ménage. His chief aim was to overcome the usual difficulties--pronunciation and orthography. Several years previously he had written a collection of short stories inspired by the _Decameron_. The _Fleurs, Fleurettes et passetemps ou -les divers caractères de l'amour honneste_, as he called them, were +les divers caractères de l'amour honneste_, as he called them, were published at Paris in 1666, and were no doubt intended as reading matter for his pupils. @@ -16029,9 +15992,9 @@ taught French there. He also corresponded with Pepys, the famous diarist. Vairasse had a particular affection for his English pupils, and they appear to have been in the majority. He was a strong advocate of the study of grammar, and condemned attempts to learn French "by -imitation" alone. His _Grammaire Méthodique contenant en abrégé les +imitation" alone. His _Grammaire Méthodique contenant en abrégé les principes de cet art et les regles les plus necessaires de la langue -françoise dans un ordre claire et naturelle_ appeared at Paris in +françoise dans un ordre claire et naturelle_ appeared at Paris in 1682.[925] In it he criticizes severely all the French grammars for the use of strangers produced either in France or in foreign countries. Shortly afterwards the grammar was abridged and translated into English @@ -16040,11 +16003,11 @@ for the particular benefit of the English_, printed at Paris in 1683. This French grammar published in English at Paris is a striking testimony to the importance of the English as students of French. -René Milleran, like Vairasse d'Allais, taught English as well as French. +René Milleran, like Vairasse d'Allais, taught English as well as French. He was a native of Saumur, but spent most of his life at Paris teaching languages, and for a time acted as interpreter to the king. He composed for the use of his pupils a French grammar entitled _La Nouvelle -Grammaire Françoise, avec le Latin à coté des exemples devisée en deux +Grammaire Françoise, avec le Latin à coté des exemples devisée en deux parties_ (Marseilles, 1692), which is no doubt a first edition of his _Les deux Gramaires Fransaizes_ (Marseilles, 1694), in which he expounds his new system of orthography. His collection of letters, _Lettres @@ -16066,13 +16029,13 @@ more familiar side neglected: there are numerous letters to and from students of French, reporting on their progress in the language, with mutual congratulations on improvement in style, etc. It is said of Milleran's compositions that their chief merit is their scarcity, and -few will agree with De Linière, the satirist and enemy of Boileau, who +few will agree with De Linière, the satirist and enemy of Boileau, who wrote in praise of Milleran: - Cet homme en sa Grammaire étale - Autant de sçavoir que Varron, - Et dans ses Lettres il égale - Balzac, Voiture et Cicéron. + Cet homme en sa Grammaire étale + Autant de sçavoir que Varron, + Et dans ses Lettres il égale + Balzac, Voiture et Cicéron. Not a few English travellers dispensed with the services of a tutor in France. Among these was James Howell, who studied French at Paris, @@ -16080,9 +16043,9 @@ Orleans, and Poissy, where he endangered his health by too close application; he acted for a time as travelling tutor to the son of Baron Altham. He put his knowledge of French to the test by translating his own first literary production, _Dodona's Grove_. This, he says, he -submitted to the new _Académie des beaux esprits_, founded by Richelieu, +submitted to the new _Académie des beaux esprits_, founded by Richelieu, which gave it a public expression of approbation.[926] The translation -was printed at Paris in 1641 under the title of _Dendrologie ou la Forêt +was printed at Paris in 1641 under the title of _Dendrologie ou la Forêt de Dodone_. Howell left instructions for travellers, based on his own experience of study abroad, and typical of the theories current at the time. He advises[927] the student who has settled in some quiet town to @@ -16091,7 +16054,7 @@ language"; to keep a diary during the day, and in the evening to write an essay from this material, "for the penne maketh the deepest furrowes, and doth fertilize and enrich the memory more than anything else." He should avoid the company of his countrymen, "the greatest bane of -English Gentlemen abroad," and frequent cafés and ordinaries,[928] and +English Gentlemen abroad," and frequent cafés and ordinaries,[928] and engage a French page-boy "to parley and chide withal, whereof he shall have occasion enough."[929] Howell strongly felt the necessity of travelling in France at an early age in order to gain a good @@ -16116,7 +16079,7 @@ from the Latine to dispute in the vulgar tongue." He should also combine the study of grammar--that of Maupas is the best--with his practical exercises, and begin a course of reading, making notes as he goes on. The most suitable books are those dealing with the history of France, -such as Serres and D'Aubigné. Much judgment is needed in the choice of +such as Serres and D'Aubigné. Much judgment is needed in the choice of books on other subjects, "especially when there is such a confusion of them as in France, which, as Africk, produceth always something new, for I never knew week pass in Paris, but it brought forth some new kinds of @@ -16124,7 +16087,7 @@ authors: but let him take heed of tumultuary and disjointed Authors, as well as of the frivolous and pedantique." However, "there be some French poets will affoord excellent entertainment specially Du Bartas, and 'twere not amisse to give a slight salute to Ronsard and Desportes, and -the late Théophile.[930] And touching poets, they must be used like +the late Théophile.[930] And touching poets, they must be used like flowers, some must only be smelt into, but some are good to be thrown into a limbique to be Distilled." @@ -16279,7 +16242,7 @@ three months in the house of a Papist (_Cal. State Papers, Dom., [885] _Memoirs of the Verney Family_, i. pp. 477, 497. [886] Among the books he read were Monluc's _Commentaires_, the -_Secrétaire à la mode_, and the _Secrétaire de la cour_ (_Memoirs of the +_Secrétaire à la mode_, and the _Secrétaire de la cour_ (_Memoirs of the Verney Family_, iii. p. 80). [887] _Memoirs_, iii. p. 66. @@ -16288,12 +16251,12 @@ Verney Family_, iii. p. 80). French pastors to two. [889] An account of the schools of the French Protestants is given by M. -Nicolas in the _Bulletin de l'Histoire du Protestantisme français_, vol. +Nicolas in the _Bulletin de l'Histoire du Protestantisme français_, vol. iv. pp. 497 _et seq._ [890] Cp. pp. 233 _sqq._, _supra_. The names of many famous families are found in the registers of Geneva University--the Pembrokes, Montagus, -Cavendishes, Cecils, etc. Borgeaud, _L'Académie de Genève_, p. 442. +Cavendishes, Cecils, etc. Borgeaud, _L'Académie de Genève_, p. 442. [891] _Memoirs_, i. p. 358. @@ -16332,7 +16295,7 @@ more educational and guide-like and less descriptive form. [904] Lister, _A Journey to Paris in the year 1698_, p. 2. Lister had previously visited France in about 1668. In 1698 he visited the aged -Mlle. de Scudéry and the Daciers, and frequented the French theatres. +Mlle. de Scudéry and the Daciers, and frequented the French theatres. [905] Second edition, 1657. @@ -16348,21 +16311,21 @@ public inscriptions. Lately undertaken by a Person of Quality_). Cp. pp. 220 _sqq._, supra. [908] For instance: _Le Guide des chemins pour aller et venir par tous -les pays et contrées du Royaume de France . . . par C. Estienne_, Paris, +les pays et contrées du Royaume de France . . . par C. Estienne_, Paris, 1552, 1553; Lyons, 1556. _Les Antiquitez et Recherches des Villes, -chasteaux, et places plus remarquables de toute la France_, 6e éd., -1631. L. Coulon, _Le fidèle conducteur pour le voyage de France montrant +chasteaux, et places plus remarquables de toute la France_, 6e éd., +1631. L. Coulon, _Le fidèle conducteur pour le voyage de France montrant exactement les Routes et choses remarquables qui se trouvent en chaque -ville, et les distances d'icelles avec un dénombrement des Batailles qui -s'y sont données_, Paris, 1654. +ville, et les distances d'icelles avec un dénombrement des Batailles qui +s'y sont données_, Paris, 1654. -[909] As _Le Guide Fidelle des étrangers dans le voyage de France_, -Paris, 1672 (by Aloide de St. Maurice); _Les Délices de la France ou +[909] As _Le Guide Fidelle des étrangers dans le voyage de France_, +Paris, 1672 (by Aloide de St. Maurice); _Les Délices de la France ou description des provinces et villes capitales d'icelles_, Leyde, 1685; -_Le Gentilhomme étranger voyageant en France, par le baron G.D.N._, +_Le Gentilhomme étranger voyageant en France, par le baron G.D.N._, 1699--borrowed, without acknowledgement, from _Le Guide Fidelle_ of 1672. Cp. A. Babeau, _Les Voyageurs en France depuis la Renaissance -jusqu'à la Révolution_, Paris, 1885, chapter v. +jusqu'à la Révolution_, Paris, 1885, chapter v. [910] By La Serre. The former, which first appeared in 1625, went through fifty editions. @@ -16404,15 +16367,15 @@ to travel, Factors for merchants, and the like." by a certain Mr. Madde; at Dieppe, Madame Godard's house was very popular; at Paris, the best hotel was the "Ville de Venize." At Orleans, good lodging was found at the "Croix Blanche," kept by one M. Richard, -and at the house of M. Marishall Laisné. +and at the house of M. Marishall Laisné. -[923] J. Rutledge, _Mémoire sur le caractère, et les moeurs des Français -comparés à ceux des Anglais_, 1776, p. 55. +[923] J. Rutledge, _Mémoire sur le caractère, et les moeurs des Français +comparés à ceux des Anglais_, 1776, p. 55. [924] Vairasse was born _c._ 1630, probably at Allais. [925] Another grammar of similar intent was that of Ruau, _La vraie -methode d'enseigner la langue françoise aux estrangers expliquée en +methode d'enseigner la langue françoise aux estrangers expliquée en Latin_, Paris, 1687. [926] _Epistolae Ho-Elianae_, 9th ed., 1726, p. 283. @@ -16426,9 +16389,9 @@ countrymen, and diet in such places where there is a good company of the nation where he travaileth" (_Essay on Travel_). [929] A Huguenot boy of about sixteen was considered a suitable valet -(Lainé, _French Grammar_, 1650). +(Lainé, _French Grammar_, 1650). -[930] _I.e._ Théophile de Viau. +[930] _I.e._ Théophile de Viau. [931] St. Maurice, _Guide Fidelle_, 1672. @@ -16471,7 +16434,7 @@ CHAPTER VI The French teachers of London at the time of the Restoration, chief -amongst whom were Claude Mauger, Paul Festeau, Pierre Lainé, and +amongst whom were Claude Mauger, Paul Festeau, Pierre Lainé, and Guillaume Herbert, all urged students to travel in France as a means of completing the knowledge of French acquired in England; yet at the same time they naturally and in their own interests lay emphasis on the @@ -16527,7 +16490,7 @@ remained in the service of the queen during her exile in France. see a great improvement in his speaking of the language at the time of his return from the expedition into Scotland, and the fatal battle of Worcester. He forgot his shyness and spoke French well, relating to her -the thrilling story of his escape, and how he was "furieusement ennuyé" +the thrilling story of his escape, and how he was "furieusement ennuyé" in Scotland, where they think it a sin to listen to a violin. He was also able to make the princess very pretty compliments in French, and on these occasions, she remarks, he spoke the language particularly @@ -16581,9 +16544,9 @@ Men of letters formed a considerable section of the English colony in France. Waller, Denham, Cowley, Davenant, Hobbes, Killigrew, Shirley, Fanshawe, Crashaw, etc., and later Roscommon, Rochester, Buckingham, Wycherley, Vanbrugh, and others lived in France, and some mixed freely -in French literary circles, then centring round the Hôtel de +in French literary circles, then centring round the Hôtel de Rambouillet, and such names as those of Malherbe, Vaugelas, Corneille, -Bossuet, Scudéry, La Calprenède. English literature of the Restoration +Bossuet, Scudéry, La Calprenède. English literature of the Restoration gives ample proof of their familiarity with both the language and literature of their hosts.[956] Waller, for instance, after spending some time at Rouen, moved to Paris, where he lived "in great splendour @@ -16593,7 +16556,7 @@ Jermyn, afterwards Earl of St. Albans, and deciphered the letters which passed between the king and queen of England. The dramatist Davenant was twice in France, where he remained several years on his second visit. Hobbes, who for many years acted as a travelling tutor, made his mark in -the philosophic circles of Paris, and knew Mersenne, Sorbière, and +the philosophic circles of Paris, and knew Mersenne, Sorbière, and Gassendi. He fled to Paris during the civil wars, and for a time was engaged in teaching arithmetic to the Prince of Wales.[958] @@ -16620,12 +16583,12 @@ in the light vein[961]--and of the well-known life of his gallant brother-in-law, the Comte de Grammont, which gives a vivid picture of the life at the Court of Charles II. Hamilton has been placed second only to Voltaire as a representative of the _esprit -français_.[962] +français_.[962] At the Restoration, Hamilton returned to England with the rest of the English emigrants, together with a considerable number of Frenchmen who had attached themselves to the English Court. He was followed two years -later by the hero of his _Mémoires_,[963] the Comte de Grammont, who +later by the hero of his _Mémoires_,[963] the Comte de Grammont, who pronounced the English Court so like that of France in manners and conversation that he could hardly realize he was in another country.[964] French was the language freely used by the English @@ -16655,7 +16618,7 @@ At the numerous festivities held in honour of De Grammont, St. Evremond[967] was almost invariably one of the guests. He soon became the centre of a _coterie_, half English and half French, including his literary companion the Dutchman Vossius, Canon of Windsor, the French -doctor Le Fèvre, professor of chemistry to Charles II.,[968] and the +doctor Le Fèvre, professor of chemistry to Charles II.,[968] and the learned Huguenot Henri Justel, who had charge of the royal library at St. James's. What contributed most to reconcile St. Evremond to his life in England, however, was the arrival of Hortense Mancini, Duchesse de @@ -16672,10 +16635,10 @@ Evremond, and others; at one time there was a possibility of La Fontaine joining her circle. La Fontaine seems to have felt some interest in England and the English, who, he says, - pensent profondément; - Leur esprit, en cela, suit leur tempérament, - Creusant dans les sujets, et forts d'expériences, - Ils étendent partout l'empire des sciences. + pensent profondément; + Leur esprit, en cela, suit leur tempérament, + Creusant dans les sujets, et forts d'expériences, + Ils étendent partout l'empire des sciences. To Mrs. Harvey, sister of Lord Montagu and friend of the Duchess of Mazarin, he dedicated his fable _Le Renard Anglais_. @@ -16731,24 +16694,24 @@ author, "but French fashions, French dancing, French songs, French servants, French wines, French kickshaws, and now and then French sawce come in among them, and so no doubt but French doctors may be in esteem too."[979] In almost every book written at the time there is some -reference to the mania for French fashions. And some time later the Abbé +reference to the mania for French fashions. And some time later the Abbé Le Blanc relates how, on one occasion in England, a self-satisfied Englishman taunted him thus: "Il faut que votre pays soit bien pauvre, -puisque tant de gens sont obligés de le quitter pour chercher à vivre en -celui-ci. C'est vous qui nous fournissez de Maîtres à danser, de +puisque tant de gens sont obligés de le quitter pour chercher à vivre en +celui-ci. C'est vous qui nous fournissez de Maîtres à danser, de Perruquiers, de Tailleurs, et de Valets de chambre: et nous vous devons -cette justice, pour la Frisure ou pour le Menuet, les François +cette justice, pour la Frisure ou pour le Menuet, les François l'emportent sur toutes les autres Nations. Je ne comprens pas comment on -aime si fort la Danse dans un Pays où l'on a si peu sujet de rire. +aime si fort la Danse dans un Pays où l'on a si peu sujet de rire. N'est-il pas triste, par exemple, de ne cultiver vos Vignes que pour nous?"[980] Regarding the French _valets_ and _femmes de chambre_ in London, the -Abbé writes: "Il n'est pas étonnant que l'on trouve en Angleterre tant -de Domestiques François. A Londres on se plaît à parler notre Langue, on +Abbé writes: "Il n'est pas étonnant que l'on trouve en Angleterre tant +de Domestiques François. A Londres on se plaît à parler notre Langue, on copie nos usages, on imite nos moeurs: ils entretiennent du moins dans -nos manières ceux qui les aiment: et les Anglois les payent à -proportion de l'utilité qu'ils en retirent."[981] We are told that the +nos manières ceux qui les aiment: et les Anglois les payent à +proportion de l'utilité qu'ils en retirent."[981] We are told that the French lackey was "as mischievous all the year as a London apprentice on Shrove Tuesday";[982] yet he was indispensable: @@ -16878,15 +16841,15 @@ The ladies of the Court were equally well versed in the language. When De Grammont, who had made the acquaintance of most of the courtiers in France, came to make that of the ladies, he needed no interpreter, for all knew French--"assez pour s'expliquer et toutes entendaient le -françois assez bien pour ce qu'on avait à leur dire."[1006] Amongst them +françois assez bien pour ce qu'on avait à leur dire."[1006] Amongst them was Miss Hamilton, Anthony's sister, who became De Grammont's wife,[1007] and was much admired at the Court of Louis XIV. The accomplishments of Miss Stuart may be quoted as typical of the rest: -"elle avoit de la grâce, dansoit bien, parloit françois mieux que sa -langue naturelle: elle étoit polie, possédoit cet air de parure après -lequel on court et qu'on n'attrappe guères à moins de l'avoir pris en -France dès sa jeunesse."[1008] The least gifted lady of the Court was -Miss Blake, who "n'entendoit presque point le françois." When the +"elle avoit de la grâce, dansoit bien, parloit françois mieux que sa +langue naturelle: elle étoit polie, possédoit cet air de parure après +lequel on court et qu'on n'attrappe guères à moins de l'avoir pris en +France dès sa jeunesse."[1008] The least gifted lady of the Court was +Miss Blake, who "n'entendoit presque point le françois." When the Countess of Berkshire recommended one of her near relatives as one of the queen's dressers, the fact that she had been twelve years in France, and could speak French exceedingly well, was mentioned as her chief @@ -16909,7 +16872,7 @@ ladies, as is frequently pictured in the drama of the time.[1013] A Frenchified lady would have a French maid, "born and bred in France, who could speak English but brokenly," with whom she would talk a mixture of broken French and English; while many a one like Melantha of Dryden's -_Marriage à-la-mode_,[1014] doted on any new French word: "as fast as +_Marriage à -la-mode_,[1014] doted on any new French word: "as fast as any bullion comes out of France, she coins it into English, and runs mad in new French words."[1015] [Header: THE FRENCHIFIED LADY] She importunes those returned from the tour in France, or who have @@ -16925,14 +16888,14 @@ Her maid supplies her daily with a store of French words: _Melantha._ _Sottises, bon._ That's an excellent word to begin withal: as for example, he or she said a thousand _sottises_ to me. Proceed. - _Philotis._ _Figure_: as what a _Figure_ of a man is there! _Naïve_ - and _Naïveté_. + _Philotis._ _Figure_: as what a _Figure_ of a man is there! _Naïve_ + and _Naïveté_. - _Melantha._ _Naïve!_ as how? + _Melantha._ _Naïve!_ as how? _Philotis._ Speaking of a thing that was naturally said: it was so - _naïve_. Or such an innocent piece of simplicity: 'twas such a - _Naïveté_. + _naïve_. Or such an innocent piece of simplicity: 'twas such a + _Naïveté_. And as Melantha becomes excited with her new acquisitions, she bestows gifts on her maid at each new word. @@ -16940,7 +16903,7 @@ gifts on her maid at each new word. A new catechism[1016] for the ladies was invented on these lines: --Of what Nation are you? - --English by birth: my education _à la mode de France_. + --English by birth: my education _à la mode de France_. --Who confirms you? --Mademoiselle the French Mantua maker. @@ -16951,13 +16914,13 @@ tells us, "I was taught to jabber French: and learnt to dance before I could go: in short I danced French dances at 8, sang French at 10, spoke it at 13, and before 15 could talk nothing else." -Among the gentlemen _à la mode_, "to speak French like a magpie" was +Among the gentlemen _à la mode_, "to speak French like a magpie" was also the fashion: We shortly must our native speech forget And every man appear a French coquett. Upon the Tongue our English sounds not well, - But--oh, monsieur, la langue françoise est belle;[1017] + But--oh, monsieur, la langue françoise est belle;[1017] wrote a satirist of the time. And so the Francomaniacs, designated as _beaux_ or English _monsieurs_, became the subject for satire and @@ -16998,9 +16961,9 @@ part on one side, and his looks are more languishing than a lady's when she lolls at stretch in her coach, or leans her head carelessly against the side of a box in the playhouse." He judges everything according to what is done at Paris, and English music and dancing make him shudder. -And as it was _à la mode_ to be +And as it was _à la mode_ to be - Attended by a young petit garçon + Attended by a young petit garçon Who from his cradle was an arch Fripon,[1024] he walks about with a train of French valets. Mr. Frenchlove of James @@ -17018,7 +16981,7 @@ them with "more such stuff, as how he, simple fellow as he seems to be, had interpreted between the French King and the Emperor." Or, if his accomplishments will not stand this strain, "flings some fragments of French or small parcels of Italian about the table."[1026] He may then -take the promenade or _Tour à la Mode_, where he salutes with _bon +take the promenade or _Tour à la Mode_, where he salutes with _bon meen_, and has a hundred _jolly rancounters_ on the way.[1027] He usually ended his day at the play. @@ -17031,19 +16994,19 @@ and other French characters introduced so freely into the plays, offered ample opportunity for the use of French words.[1030] Dryden, alone, is responsible for the introduction of more than a hundred such words.[1031] As literature was fashionable at the time, most of the -dramatic authors were themselves gentlemen _à la mode_ with strong +dramatic authors were themselves gentlemen _à la mode_ with strong French tastes. Sedley, for instance, had a great reputation in the world of fashion. Wycherley and Vanbrugh had both been educated in France. Etherege had probably resided many years in Paris. Cibber, who always played the part of the fop in his own plays, went twice to France -specially to study the airs and graces of the French _petit-maître_,--at -no better place, however, than a _table d'Auberge_, the Abbé Le Blanc -tells us:[1032] "Il faut lui pardonner ses erreurs sur ses modèles, il -n'étoit à portée d'en voir d'autres: si même il n'a pas aussi bien imité -ceux-ci que les Anglois se le sont persuadé, je n'en suis pas surpris: -il m'a avoué de bonne foi qu'il n'entend pas assez notre langue pour +specially to study the airs and graces of the French _petit-maître_,--at +no better place, however, than a _table d'Auberge_, the Abbé Le Blanc +tells us:[1032] "Il faut lui pardonner ses erreurs sur ses modèles, il +n'étoit à portée d'en voir d'autres: si même il n'a pas aussi bien imité +ceux-ci que les Anglois se le sont persuadé, je n'en suis pas surpris: +il m'a avoué de bonne foi qu'il n'entend pas assez notre langue pour suivre la conversation." It is unlikely, however, that Cibber's French -was as scanty as the _abbé_ reports. At any rate his daughter Charlotte, +was as scanty as the _abbé_ reports. At any rate his daughter Charlotte, afterwards Mrs. Clarke, tells us that she understood the alphabet in French before she was able to speak English.[1033] @@ -17056,7 +17019,7 @@ _Constant Couple_: Vat have you of grand plaisir in dis towne, Vidout it come from France, dat will go down? Picquet, basset: your vin, your dress, your dance, - 'Tis all, you zee, tout à-la-mode de France. + 'Tis all, you zee, tout à -la-mode de France. [Header: FRENCH PLAYS IN LONDON] @@ -17088,7 +17051,7 @@ ladies. The English Court and its followers had evidently acquired a taste for French plays during their sojourn abroad. Immediately after the Restoration a French company settled in London, and the king became -their special patron and protector. In 1661 he made a grant of £300 to +their special patron and protector. In 1661 he made a grant of £300 to Jean Channoveau to be distributed among the French comedians,[1036] and in 1663 they obtained permission to bring from France their stage decorations and scenery. It seems to have always been the king's @@ -17118,7 +17081,7 @@ of the French plays,[1041] at which his mistress, Louise de Kerouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth, Mme. Mazarin, the French ambassador, and many courtiers were always present. In 1684 the "Prince's French players" were again expected in England,[1042] no doubt the same troupe, directed -by Pitel and known as _Les comédiens de son Altesse sérénissime M. le +by Pitel and known as _Les comédiens de son Altesse sérénissime M. le Prince_. @@ -17129,12 +17092,12 @@ published at the time. [944] Evelyn, _Diary_, Sept. 1, 1650. -[945] In the _Journal de voyage de deux jeunes Hollandais à Paris, -1656-58_ (ed. A. P. Faugère, 2nd ed., Paris, 1899), there is some -information concerning the exiled Court. The teacher Lainé mentions a +[945] In the _Journal de voyage de deux jeunes Hollandais à Paris, +1656-58_ (ed. A. P. Faugère, 2nd ed., Paris, 1899), there is some +information concerning the exiled Court. The teacher Lainé mentions a lady in the suite of the exiled queen in his _Dialogues_. -[946] _Mémoires_, 4 vols., Paris, 1859, i. pp. 102, 137, 225, etc. +[946] _Mémoires_, 4 vols., Paris, 1859, i. pp. 102, 137, 225, etc. [947] _Supra_, pp. 262 _sqq._ @@ -17149,16 +17112,16 @@ retorted that many of them spoke French as well as English. Cp. J. J. Jusserand, _A French Ambassador at the Court of Charles II._, London, 1892, p. 143. -[949] "Il me disoit des douceurs, à ce que m'ont dit les gens qui nous -écoutoient et parloit si bien françois, en tenant ces propos-là, qu'il -n'y a personne qui ne doive convenir que l'Amour étoit plutôt françois +[949] "Il me disoit des douceurs, à ce que m'ont dit les gens qui nous +écoutoient et parloit si bien françois, en tenant ces propos-là , qu'il +n'y a personne qui ne doive convenir que l'Amour étoit plutôt françois que de toute autre nation. Car, quand le roi parloit sa langue (la langue de l'amour) il oublioit la sienne et n'en perdoit l'accent -qu'avec moi: car les autres ne l'entendirent pas si bien" (_Mémoires_, +qu'avec moi: car les autres ne l'entendirent pas si bien" (_Mémoires_, _ed. cit._ i. p. 322). -[950] _Lettre de M. de L'Angle à un de ses amis touchant la religion du -sérénissime roy d'Angleterre_, Geneva?, 1660, p. 18. +[950] _Lettre de M. de L'Angle à un de ses amis touchant la religion du +sérénissime roy d'Angleterre_, Geneva?, 1660, p. 18. [951] Evelyn was in France in 1643, on his way to study anatomy at Padua, and again in 1646-7 on his return, and yet again in 1649. @@ -17166,7 +17129,7 @@ Padua, and again in 1646-7 on his return, and yet again in 1649. [952] Lord High Treasurer Cottington, Sir Ed. Hyde, etc.; cp. _Diary_, Aug. 1 and 18, Sept. 7, 12, 13, Oct. 2, 7, 1649, etc. -[953] Thus the King invited the Prince of Condé to supper at St. Cloud +[953] Thus the King invited the Prince of Condé to supper at St. Cloud ... "where I saw a famous (tennis) match betwixt Mons. Saumaurs and Colonel Cooke, and so returned to Paris." Evelyn, _Diary_, Sept. 13, 1649. @@ -17178,7 +17141,7 @@ pp. 359 _sqq._, supra). [955] Sir Henry Craike, _Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon_, 1911, ii. pp. 321 _sqq._ -[956] W. Harvey-Jellie, _Les Sources du Théâtre anglais à l'époque de la +[956] W. Harvey-Jellie, _Les Sources du Théâtre anglais à l'époque de la Restauration_, Paris, 1906, pp. 37 _sqq._ [957] Evelyn visited Waller several times. @@ -17187,38 +17150,38 @@ Restauration_, Paris, 1906, pp. 37 _sqq._ [959] Dennis, _Original Letters, familiar, moral and critical_, London, 1723, i. p. 215. At a later date he was again in France for reasons of -health. The king gave him £500 to pay the expenses of a journey to the +health. The king gave him £500 to pay the expenses of a journey to the South of France. He was at Montpellier from the winter of 1678 to the spring of 1679. -[960] ". . . cette langue dont il savait toutes les plus délicates -ressources en grâce, en malice plaisante et en ironie." Cf. Sayous, -_Histoire de la littérature française à l'étranger_. +[960] ". . . cette langue dont il savait toutes les plus délicates +ressources en grâce, en malice plaisante et en ironie." Cf. Sayous, +_Histoire de la littérature française à l'étranger_. [961] "Hamilton dans le conte (says Sayous, _op. cit._) l'emporte sur -Voltaire qui eut été le premier, si au lieu de se jeter dans les -allégories philosophiques il s'était abandonné, comme notre Écossais, au +Voltaire qui eut été le premier, si au lieu de se jeter dans les +allégories philosophiques il s'était abandonné, comme notre Écossais, au plaisir plus innocent de laisser courir son imagination et sa plume." -[962] The Scotch Chevalier de Ramsay (1686-1743), the friend of Fénelon, +[962] The Scotch Chevalier de Ramsay (1686-1743), the friend of Fénelon, also wrote French with remarkable purity. His best known work is _Les Voyages de Cyrus avec un discours sur la mythologie_ (Paris, 1727; London, 1730). At a later date Thomas Hales (1740?-1780), known as -d'Hèle, d'Hell, or Dell, a French dramatist of English birth, also made +d'Hèle, d'Hell, or Dell, a French dramatist of English birth, also made himself a name in French literature (Sylvain van de Weyer, _Les Anglais -qui ont écrit en français_, Miscellanies, Philobiblon Soc., 1854, vol. +qui ont écrit en français_, Miscellanies, Philobiblon Soc., 1854, vol. i.). -[963] Hamilton, _Mémoires du Comte de Grammont. Histoire amoureuse de +[963] Hamilton, _Mémoires du Comte de Grammont. Histoire amoureuse de la Cour de Charles II_, ed. B. Pifteau, Paris, 1876, Preface. Voltaire -often quoted the beginning of _Le Bélier_ as a model of style. +often quoted the beginning of _Le Bélier_ as a model of style. -[964] "Il trouvoit si peu de différence aux manières et à la +[964] "Il trouvoit si peu de différence aux manières et à la conversation de ceux qu'il voyoit le plus souvent, qu'il ne lui -paroissoit pas qu'il eut changé de pais. Tout ce qui peut occuper un +paroissoit pas qu'il eut changé de pais. Tout ce qui peut occuper un homme de son humeur s'offroit partout aux divers penchans qui l'entrainoient, come si les plaisirs de la cour de France l'eussent -quitté pour l'accompagner dans son exil" (_Mémoires_, _ed. cit._ p. 83). +quitté pour l'accompagner dans son exil" (_Mémoires_, _ed. cit._ p. 83). Grammont had been banished from the French Court on account of a presumptuous love affair. @@ -17238,7 +17201,7 @@ each ingredient. [970] J. J. Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, London, 1899, pp. 132, 135, 136. Mme. d'Aulnoy, the fairy-tale writer and authoress of the -_Mémoires de la cour d'Angleterre_, was also among the French ladies in +_Mémoires de la cour d'Angleterre_, was also among the French ladies in London at this time. [971] St. Evremond was buried at Westminster at the age of ninety-one. @@ -17249,21 +17212,21 @@ The Duchess died at Chelsea in 1699. [973] Evelyn's Diary, likewise, is full of mentions of meetings with Frenchmen. -[974] Sorbière, _Relation d'un voyage en Angleterre . . ._, Paris, 1664, +[974] Sorbière, _Relation d'un voyage en Angleterre . . ._, Paris, 1664, p. 32. -[975] Cp. Ch. Bastide, _Anglais et Français du 17e siècle_, Paris, 1912. +[975] Cp. Ch. Bastide, _Anglais et Français du 17e siècle_, Paris, 1912. [976] Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, p. 136, note 2. [977] _Les Voyages de M. Payen_, Paris, 1667. [978] Mauger calls London "une des merveilles du monde. On y vient de -tous côtez, pour admirer sa magnificence." +tous côtez, pour admirer sa magnificence." [979] _The Ladies' Catechism_, 1703. -[980] J. B. Le Blanc, _Lettres d'un Français_, à La Haye, 1745, iii. p. +[980] J. B. Le Blanc, _Lettres d'un Français_, à La Haye, 1745, iii. p. 67. [981] _Ibid._ i. p. 145. Mrs. Pepys assisted Lady Sandwich to find a @@ -17286,7 +17249,7 @@ remembers the time when some well-bred Englishwomen kept a _valet de chambre_ "because, forsooth, they were more handy than one of their own sex." -[983] _Satire on the French_, 1691. Reprinted as the _Baboon à la Mode_, +[983] _Satire on the French_, 1691. Reprinted as the _Baboon à la Mode_, 1701. [984] _Satirical Reflections_, 1707, 3rd pt. @@ -17299,7 +17262,7 @@ sex." [987] Flecknoe, _Characters_, p. 12. Pepys describes a French dance at Court (_Diary_, Nov. 15, 1666), which was "not extraordinarily pleasing." He much admired the dancing of the young Princess Mary, -taught by a Frenchman (_Diary_, March 2, 1669). The _maîtres d'armes_ +taught by a Frenchman (_Diary_, March 2, 1669). The _maîtres d'armes_ were often Italians and Spaniards. There were protests against the French and Italian singing and dancing "taught by the dregs of Italy and France" (_Satirical Reflections_, 1707). @@ -17323,7 +17286,7 @@ Pepys went to the French pewterer's (March 13, 1667-8). [993] Vincent, _Young Gallants' Academy_, 1674. [994] Cp. Sedley, _Mulberry Garden_ (Sir J. Everyoung: "Which is the -most à la mode right revered spark? points or laces? girdle or shoulder +most à la mode right revered spark? points or laces? girdle or shoulder belts? What say your letters out of France?"). There is hardly a comedy of the time without some such references to French fashions; cp. Etherege, _Sir Fopling Flutter_; Shadwell, _Humours of the Army_, etc. @@ -17337,7 +17300,7 @@ whiche soone happen'd, but it was an identity that I could not but take notice of" (_Diary_, Oct. 18 and 30, 1666). [996] Butler, _Satire on our ridiculous imitation of the French_; "A -l'étranger on prend plaisir à enchérir sur toutes les Nouveautez qui +l'étranger on prend plaisir à enchérir sur toutes les Nouveautez qui leur viennent de France. . . ." Muralt (_Lettres_, 1725). [997] _French Conjuror_, 1678. @@ -17356,7 +17319,7 @@ _Constant Couple_, iv. 2. [1002] Acted 1671; Act II. Sc. 2. -[1003] _Mémoires_, _ed. cit._ pp. 51-52. +[1003] _Mémoires_, _ed. cit._ pp. 51-52. [1004] _Ibid._ p. 143. @@ -17369,15 +17332,15 @@ p. 4). [1007] The story goes that Grammont was leaving England without marrying Miss Hamilton, when her brother overtook him and told him he had forgotten something, whereat he realized his oversight and returned to -repair it. It is said that this incident supplied Molière with the -subject of his _Mariage forcé_. +repair it. It is said that this incident supplied Molière with the +subject of his _Mariage forcé_. [1008] Hamilton, _op. cit._ p. 82. [1009] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1661-62_, p. 28. [1010] Two grammars for teaching Portuguese greeted the new queen. One -was a _Portuguese Grammar_ in French and English by Mr. La Mollière, a +was a _Portuguese Grammar_ in French and English by Mr. La Mollière, a French gentleman, 1662 (_Register of the Company of Stationers_, ii. 307); and the other, J. Howell's _Grammar for the Spanish or Castilian tongue with some special remarks on the Portuguese Dialect_, with a @@ -17385,7 +17348,7 @@ description of Spain and Portugal by way of guide. It was dedicated to the queen. [1011] Fragment of the Journal of the Convent of Chaillot, in the secret -archives of France, Hôtel de Soubise. Quoted by Strickland in _Lives of +archives of France, Hôtel de Soubise. Quoted by Strickland in _Lives of the Queens_, 1888, iv. p. 383. [1012] Cp. Sedley, _Mulberry Garden_. @@ -17443,8 +17406,8 @@ _Character of the Town Gallant_, 1675. [1027] Flecknoe, _Characters_, 1673. The 1665 edition of his _Aenigmatical Characters ..._, 1665, contains a description in French of -the _Tour à la Mode_: ". . . C'est une bataille bien rangée où l'on ne -tire que des coups d'Oeillades, et où les premiers ayant fait leur +the _Tour à la Mode_: ". . . C'est une bataille bien rangée où l'on ne +tire que des coups d'Oeillades, et où les premiers ayant fait leur descharge, ilz s'en vont pour donner place aux autres" . . ., etc. (p. 21). @@ -17455,7 +17418,7 @@ French before them." Pepys saw many of the French plays acted in English. Cp. H. McAfee, _Pepys on the Restoration Stage ..._, Yale Univ. Press, 1916. -[1029] A. Beljame, _Le Public et les hommes de lettres au 18e siècle_, +[1029] A. Beljame, _Le Public et les hommes de lettres au 18e siècle_, Paris, 1897, p. 139. [1030] As in Etherege's _Comical Revenge or Love in a Tub_, _Sir Fopling @@ -17465,16 +17428,16 @@ Defeated_, 1700?, etc. [1031] A. Beljame, _Quae e Gallicis verbis in Anglicam linguam Johannes Dryden introduxerit_, Paris, 1881. On French influence in Restoration -Drama, see Charlanne, _L'Influence française en Angleterre_, pp. 64 +Drama, see Charlanne, _L'Influence française en Angleterre_, pp. 64 _sqq._ -[1032] _Lettre à M. de la Chaussée_: _Lettres_, 1745, ii. p. 240. +[1032] _Lettre à M. de la Chaussée_: _Lettres_, 1745, ii. p. 240. [1033] _Narrative of her Life, written by Herself_, pub. in series of Autobiographies, London, 1826, vol. vii. p. 12. Most of the writers of the time were able to write some French. Flecknoe, for instance, wrote some of his _Characters_ in the language, and wrote a French dedication -of his Poems (1652), "à la plus excellente de son sexe." +of his Poems (1652), "à la plus excellente de son sexe." [1034] Dryden, "Prologue spoken at the opening of the new house, 26 March, 1674," _Works_, ed. Scott and Saintsbury, x. p. 320. @@ -17492,8 +17455,8 @@ directed the King's company acting at Drury Lane, and the other to Sir William Davenant, who directed the Duke's company. The rival companies united in 1682. -[1039] Chardon, _La troupe du roman comique dévoilée et les comédiens de -la campagne au 17e siècle_, Le Mans, 1876, p. 47. +[1039] Chardon, _La troupe du roman comique dévoilée et les comédiens de +la campagne au 17e siècle_, Le Mans, 1876, p. 47. [1040] Chardon, _op. cit._ p. 98. @@ -17517,8 +17480,8 @@ considerable numbers.[1043] So plentiful were they that there was "scarce anything to be seen anywhere but French grammars." The manuals of Mauger and Festeau were still in vogue, and that of Mauger was frequently reedited. Among new grammarians figures the tutor to the -children of the Duke of York (James II.), Pierre de Lainé, who may -possibly have been identical with the Pierre Lainé who published a +children of the Duke of York (James II.), Pierre de Lainé, who may +possibly have been identical with the Pierre Lainé who published a grammar in 1655.[1044] His French grammar, written in the first place for the Lady Mary (afterwards Mary II.), was published in 1667,[1045] when the princess was about five years old. It was subsequently placed @@ -17528,10 +17491,10 @@ as it was first compiled for the use of her Highness the Lady Mary and since taught her royal sister the Lady Anne etc. by P. D. L. Tutor for the French to both their Highnesses_.[1046] -"Before you begin anything of Letters or rules," says Lainé, "you may +"Before you begin anything of Letters or rules," says Lainé, "you may Learn how to call in French these few things following. - Ma Tête, say maw tate my Head + Ma Tête, say maw tate my Head Mes Cheveuz, say maysheveu my Hair," and so on for the parts of the body, the numbers, days, and months, with @@ -17547,10 +17510,10 @@ Aesop put into "burlesque French" for the use of her Highness the Lady Mary when a child, and models of letters suitable for children, and accompanied by answers. -In later years Lainé spent some time at Paris as secretary[1047] to Sir +In later years Lainé spent some time at Paris as secretary[1047] to Sir Henry Savile, the English envoy at the French Court, who did so much to prepare a favourable reception in England for the refugees at the time -of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.[1048] Lainé was the first +of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.[1048] Lainé was the first teacher to receive a grant of letters of denization under the Order in Council of the 28th July 1681.[1049] Shortly afterwards the same privilege was bestowed on Francis Cheneau, whose _French Grammar, @@ -17565,19 +17528,19 @@ next door to the Faulcon in London," where could be seen his short grammars for Latin, Italian, and English. The most versatile compiler of French manuals at this period was Guy -Miège, a native of Lausanne, who came to England at the time of the +Miège, a native of Lausanne, who came to England at the time of the Restoration. For two years he was employed in the household of Lord Elgin, and was then appointed under-secretary to the Earl of Carlisle, ambassador extraordinary to Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. After spending three years abroad with the embassy, he travelled in France on his own account from 1665 till 1668, preparing a _Relation of the Three Embassies_ in which he had taken part. [Header: THE DICTIONARIES OF GUY -MIÈGE] His book was published in 1669, on his return to London. He then +MIÈGE] His book was published in 1669, on his return to London. He then settled in England as a teacher of French and geography, and wrote many works for teaching the language. The first was _A New Dictionary French and English and English and French_ (1677), dedicated to Charles Lennox, Duke of Richmond. As usual, this French-English Dictionary is based on a -French-Latin one--in this case that of Pomey. Miège was also closely +French-Latin one--in this case that of Pomey. Miège was also closely acquainted with Howell's edition of Cotgrave's dictionary, last published in 1670; but he held it very defective in retaining so many obsolete words, and in not being adapted to the "present use and modern @@ -17599,7 +17562,7 @@ after their respective primitives; that nothing might be wanting, however, he placed them in their alphabetic order also, with a reference to the necessary primitive. -Miège's innovation in excluding all obsolete terms from his dictionary +Miège's innovation in excluding all obsolete terms from his dictionary raised such a storm at its first appearance[1052] that he felt himself bound to yield to public opinion by making a separate collection of such words, which he called _A Dictionary of barbarous French or A @@ -17609,7 +17572,7 @@ additions_. It was, he said, "performed for the satisfaction of such as read old French." By the time of its publication in 1679, however, the storm raised by his first work had died away. -Miège continued his lexicographical labours. In 1684 appeared _A Short +Miège continued his lexicographical labours. In 1684 appeared _A Short French Dictionary English and French, with another in French and English_, a work of no ambitious aims, containing a list of words pure and simple, with no descriptions or observations, intended for @@ -17621,7 +17584,7 @@ editions appeared at the Hague in 1691, 1701 (the fifth), and 1703;[1053] another was issued at Rotterdam as late as 1728. For the use of English students and those desiring to study either -language more thoroughly, Miège prepared, during many years of hard +language more thoroughly, Miège prepared, during many years of hard work, an enlarged edition of his first French dictionary of 1677, which, he tells us, was compiled under great disadvantages; "the Publick was in haste for a French Dictionary, and they had it accordingly, hurried from @@ -17631,26 +17594,26 @@ Dictionary, in two parts_, and published in 1688, eleven years after the appearance of its nucleus, the _New French Dictionary_ (1677). It gives words according to both their old and modern orthography, "by which means the reader is fitted for any sort of French book," and, writes -Miège, "although I am not fond of obsolete and barbarous words, yet I +Miège, "although I am not fond of obsolete and barbarous words, yet I thought fit to intersperse the most remarkable of them, lest they should be missed by such as read old Books." Each word is accompanied by explanations, proverbs, phrases, "and as the first part does, here and there, give a prospect into the constitution of the kingdom of France, so the second does afford to foreiners what they have hitherto very much wanted, to wit, an Insight into the Constitution of England...." In the -_Great Dictionary_ Miège abandoned his plan of arranging the derivatives +_Great Dictionary_ Miège abandoned his plan of arranging the derivatives under their primitives, because it had made his former work "swarm with uneasy references"; he followed the alphabetical order strictly, "but in such a manner that, where a derivative is remote from its primitive, I -show its extraction within a Parenthesis." [Header: MIÈGE'S FRENCH +show its extraction within a Parenthesis." [Header: MIÈGE'S FRENCH GRAMMARS] Each of the two sections of the _Great Dictionary_ is preceded by a grammar of the language concerned. First comes the _Grounds of the French Tongue_, before the French-English Dictionary, and then a -_Méthode abrégée pour apprendre l'Anglois_. This French grammar was a -reprint of one of those which Miège had compiled while working at his +_Méthode abrégée pour apprendre l'Anglois_. This French grammar was a +reprint of one of those which Miège had compiled while working at his dictionaries. -In 1684 Miège tells us that he had "put forth two French grammars, both +In 1684 Miège tells us that he had "put forth two French grammars, both of them well approved by all unprejudiced persons. The one is short and concise, fitted for all sorts of learners, but especially new beginners; the other is a large and complete piece, giving a curious and full @@ -17671,7 +17634,7 @@ against the grain," he included such exercises, "exceeding even Mr. Mauger's in number." The one hundred and fifteen familiar dialogues are followed by four more advanced ones in French alone, "for proficient learners to turn into English." The first deals with the education of -children, and the others with geography, a subject Miège taught in +children, and the others with geography, a subject Miège taught in either French or English "as might be most convenient." The elementary grammar had been issued about 1682[1054] as _A short and @@ -17682,7 +17645,7 @@ earlier grammar were, each of them, issued separately, probably to facilitate their use with this second grammar. In 1687 appeared the _Grounds of the French Tongue or a new French -Grammar_,[1055] which Miège incorporated in his _Great French +Grammar_,[1055] which Miège incorporated in his _Great French Dictionary_ in the following year. In general outline its contents resemble those of the grammar which had appeared ten years before. It is, however, an entirely new work. Most of the rules differ,[1056] and @@ -17691,16 +17654,16 @@ tradition of introducing the Latin declension of nouns into French grammars.[1057] The _Grounds of the French Tongue_ is about a hundred pages shorter than the grammar of 1678, and on the whole it is less interesting from the point of view of the student of French. The second -part, called the _Nouvelle Nomenclature Françoise et Angloise_, which +part, called the _Nouvelle Nomenclature Françoise et Angloise_, which might be obtained apart from the grammar, had originally appeared in -1685 as part of Miège's _Nouvelle méthode pour apprendre +1685 as part of Miège's _Nouvelle méthode pour apprendre l'Anglois_.[1058] Consequently the dialogues are more suited to the student of English than to the student of French, as they deal chiefly with life in England and the impressions of a Frenchman in London, including an account of the coffee-houses, the penny post, the churches, English food and drink, and so forth. -Lastly, in about 1698,[1059] appeared _Miège's last and best French +Lastly, in about 1698,[1059] appeared _Miège's last and best French Grammar, or a new Method to learn French, containing the Quintessence of all other Grammars, with such plain and easie rules as will make one speedily perfect in that famous language_. A second edition was issued @@ -17708,7 +17671,7 @@ in 1705. The work was based on his first grammar (1678), which thus benefited by his long experience as a writer on the French language and teacher of that tongue. -Miège held that French was best learnt by a combination of the methods +Miège held that French was best learnt by a combination of the methods of rote and grammar, either being insufficient without the other; as for attempting to learn foreign languages at home by rote, "'tis properly building in the air. [Header: BEST METHOD OF STUDY] For whatever @@ -17738,7 +17701,7 @@ when all is done, "there is an art in teaching not to be found amongst all men of knowledge." Thus the right use of a grammar depends much on the skill and judgement -of the teacher. Miège declares against overburdening the memory with +of the teacher. Miège declares against overburdening the memory with abstruse and difficult rules. In most cases it is enough if the learner understands the rule; there is no need to confine him to the author's words or to make him learn long lists of exceptions. "The best thing to @@ -17759,7 +17722,7 @@ make good at last his Proficiency that Way, with the help of a choice Grammar. And then the Rules will appear to him very plain, easy and delectable." -In 1678 Miège was receiving pupils for French and geography at his +In 1678 Miège was receiving pupils for French and geography at his lodging in Penton Street, Leicester Square, and we are told that in 1693 he was taking in _pensionnaires_ in Dean's Yard, near Westminster Abbey. Towards the end of his teaching career in England he appears to have @@ -17767,7 +17730,7 @@ been on very friendly terms with another teacher of French, Francesco Casparo Colsoni, an Italian minister, who also taught Italian and English. Colsoni wrote a book for teaching the three languages,[1062] called _The New Trismagister_ (1688), in which he drew freely from the -works of Mauger, Festeau, and his friend Miège. In the meantime other +works of Mauger, Festeau, and his friend Miège. In the meantime other manuals appeared, including a translation of a grammar which was first published at Paris in 1672[1063]--_A French Grammar, teaching the knowledge of that language.... Published by the Academy for the @@ -17817,7 +17780,7 @@ scholar: Fort bien pour vous servir. Do you teach the French tongue? - Enseignez-vous la langue Françoise? + Enseignez-vous la langue Françoise? Yes sir, and the Latin also. Ouy, monsieur, et aussi la Latine. @@ -17831,7 +17794,7 @@ scholar: * * * * * What method do you hold? - Quel méthode voulez-vous tenir? + Quel méthode voulez-vous tenir? Because you understand Latin Parce que vous entendez la langue Latine @@ -17840,7 +17803,7 @@ scholar: Je commenceray par la prononciation Which you can learn in two lessons. - Que vous pouvez apprendre en deux leçons. + Que vous pouvez apprendre en deux leçons. Then I will teach you the nouns, Puis je vous enseigneray les noms, @@ -17849,10 +17812,10 @@ scholar: Pronoms, verbes et autres parties d'oraison. And afterwards the rules of syntax. - Et ensuite les règles de Composition. + Et ensuite les règles de Composition. How long will I be in learning all that? - Combien seray-je à apprendre tout cela? + Combien seray-je à apprendre tout cela? But little time if you will follow me. Peu de temps si vous voulez me suivre. @@ -17880,7 +17843,7 @@ Europe there were people who spoke and wrote French as purely as the French themselves, and that in many foreign towns all the men and women of quality and many of the common people spoke French with ease. Writers of the time are unanimous in describing French as the universal -language; and most French teachers write in the style of Guy Miège to +language; and most French teachers write in the style of Guy Miège to the effect that "the French tongue is in a manner grown universal in Europe ... and of all the parts of Europe next to France none is more fond of it than England." @@ -17889,20 +17852,20 @@ Thus, in the second half of the seventeenth century, French was in a position to dispute its ground with Latin. France herself set the example. French was the language used at Court, while Latin was used only by scholars. Significant it is that in 1676 Louis XIV., in -consequence of Charpentier's _Défense de la langue françoise pour +consequence of Charpentier's _Défense de la langue françoise pour l'inscription de l'arc de Triomphe_, replaced the Latin inscriptions on his triumphal arches by others in French. Replying to Charpentier's essay, a Jesuit, P. Lucus, wrote a treatise in defence of Latin.[1071] Charpentier retorted by two laboured volumes, _De l'excellence de la -langue françoise_ (1683), and finally won the day. In this he refers to +langue françoise_ (1683), and finally won the day. In this he refers to the universality of French, and draws attention to the advantages which would result to science if it were studied in that language. The long Quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns, which first reached England from France, also shows the spirit of the times. And Bayle asserts as evidence of the supremacy of French that: "Veut-on qu'un libelle courre -bien le monde, aussitôt on le traduit en françois, lors même que +bien le monde, aussitôt on le traduit en françois, lors même que l'original est en Latin: tant il est vrai que le latin n'est pas si -commun en Europe aujourd'hui que la Langue françoise."[1072] +commun en Europe aujourd'hui que la Langue françoise."[1072] In England French had long been a rival to Latin as the most commonly used foreign tongue, and after the Restoration it was generally @@ -17999,16 +17962,16 @@ read them in this form, if at all. Sedley implies that to read Terence in Latin was a mark of ill-breeding.[1084] The fashionable Etherege, who knew neither Latin nor Greek, had a large number of French translations of classical plays amongst his books.[1085] And at a somewhat later date -the Abbé Le Blanc remarks[1086] that the English have become so fond of +the Abbé Le Blanc remarks[1086] that the English have become so fond of French that they prefer to read even Cicero in that language. He writes to tell Olivet how eagerly his translations are received in England. "Celle des Tusculanes que vous venez de publier de concert avec M. Le -Père Bouhour a été goûtée en Angleterre de tous ceux qui sont en état de -juger des Beautés de l'Original et de la fidélité avec laquelle chacun +Père Bouhour a été goûtée en Angleterre de tous ceux qui sont en état de +juger des Beautés de l'Original et de la fidélité avec laquelle chacun de vous les a rendues." The readiness with which the English read French books also attracted -the Abbé's attention.[1087] [Header: PROPOSALS FOR REFORMED SCHOOLS] It +the Abbé's attention.[1087] [Header: PROPOSALS FOR REFORMED SCHOOLS] It was no new thing for French literature to be widely appreciated in England. But before the Restoration it had received but little recognition as a profitable subject of study, except for students of @@ -18086,7 +18049,7 @@ vocabulary of similar words in the three languages--"a verbal eccho repeating words thrice and that without any considerable variation"--which occupies the main part of the work.[1098] It is preceded by rules for pronouncing French, taken, without acknowledgement, -chiefly from Wodroeph, and followed by selections from Pierre de Lainé's +chiefly from Wodroeph, and followed by selections from Pierre de Lainé's _Royal French Grammar_ of 1667. Learners of French are advised to master the pronunciation first, and to engage a French master. A collection of familiar phrases and commendatory and other French verses, some @@ -18110,7 +18073,7 @@ grammar of the English Tongue, that they may easily keep what they have learned, and recover what they shall lose." Those wishing to pursue their studies further could learn other languages, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, or Spanish, or could study astronomy, geography, and other -subjects. The usual fee was £20 a year, but more was charged if the +subjects. The usual fee was £20 a year, but more was charged if the pupil made good progress. Parents were advised to apply for details at Mr. Mason's Coffee House in Cornhill, near the Royal Exchange, on Tuesday, or on Thursdays at the Bolt and Tun in Fleet Street, from three @@ -18171,7 +18134,7 @@ themselves chiefly to the exercises. But even then the atmosphere was French. Such was the academy opened in London in 1682 by M. Foubert, a Frenchman lately come from Paris. He was helped by a royal grant, and seems to have been fairly successful. On his arrival his goods were -delivered at the house of M. Lainé,[1105] probably the French teacher of +delivered at the house of M. Lainé,[1105] probably the French teacher of that name. As time went on such schools became more and more numerous and the @@ -18211,7 +18174,7 @@ and the grammar which appeared about twelve years later. [1046] Cp. Arber, _Term Catalogues_, i. 269. Anne was three years younger than Mary. -[1047] Schickler, _Les Églises du Refuge_, ii. p. 311. +[1047] Schickler, _Les Églises du Refuge_, ii. p. 311. [1048] _Savile Correspondence_, Camden Society, 1856, _passim_. @@ -18247,7 +18210,7 @@ improper and needless a thing? For the distinction of cases is come from the variable termination of one and the same noun. A thing incident (I confess) to the Latine tongue, but not to our vulgar speech." -[1058] A second edition of Miège's English Grammar appeared in 1691. +[1058] A second edition of Miège's English Grammar appeared in 1691. [1059] Arber, _Term Catalogues_, iii. 67, 487. @@ -18277,26 +18240,26 @@ etc._ (1700). Berault calls himself a French minister, and he served as chaplain on several of His Majesty's ships during the war with France at the end of the century. -[1068] _Le Véritable et assuré Chemin du Ciel en François et en Anglois_ -(1681), and the _Bouquet ou un Amas de plusieurs veritez Théologiques_ +[1068] _Le Véritable et assuré Chemin du Ciel en François et en Anglois_ +(1681), and the _Bouquet ou un Amas de plusieurs veritez Théologiques_ (1685), dedicated to Anne Stuart, afterwards queen. [1069] Berault is behind the times in retaining most of the Latin cases and tenses. His grammar, on the whole, is fuller and more detailed than most of its kind. -[1070] _Le Théâtre françois_ (1674). ed. Monval, 1876, p. 62. Jean +[1070] _Le Théâtre françois_ (1674). ed. Monval, 1876, p. 62. Jean Blaeu, in translating from English into French Ed. Chamberlain's _Present State of England_ (1669), states: "Je ne l'ay pas sitost veu en -Anglois que j'ay jugé qu'il méritoit de paroistre dans la langue -françoise, comme estant plus universelle dans la chrestienté qu'aucune +Anglois que j'ay jugé qu'il méritoit de paroistre dans la langue +françoise, comme estant plus universelle dans la chrestienté qu'aucune autre" (1671). Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, p. 20, note. [1071] _De monumentis publicis latine inscribendis._ Goujet, -_Bibliothèque françoise_ (1740-56), i. p. 13. +_Bibliothèque françoise_ (1740-56), i. p. 13. [1072] Bayle, _Oeuvres_, iv. p. 190, quoted by Charlanne, _L'Influence -française en Angleterre_, pt. ii. p. 202. +française en Angleterre_, pt. ii. p. 202. [1073] F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, p. 312. @@ -18326,13 +18289,13 @@ pamphlet _On Education_, 1734. [1082] Evelyn, _Diary_, Dec. 6, 1681. -[1083] _The Compleat Gentleman_ (1728), ed. K. D. Bülbring, 1890. +[1083] _The Compleat Gentleman_ (1728), ed. K. D. Bülbring, 1890. [1084] Epilogue to _Bellamira_. [1085] _Works_, ed. A. Wilson, Verity, London, 1888, Preface. -[1086] Le Blanc, _Lettres d'un Français_, à la Haye, 1745, ii. p. 1. +[1086] Le Blanc, _Lettres d'un Français_, à la Haye, 1745, ii. p. 1. [1087] He tells Maupertuis of the great success of his _De la Figure de la Terre_ (1738) in England, where it was awaited with impatience and @@ -18343,7 +18306,7 @@ Makin or Mark Lewis). [1089] French no doubt often reached grammar school boys indirectly. Thus Charles Hoole in 1660 (_A New Discoverie of the old Art of Teaching -School_) recommends the Dialogues of Du Grès for their private reading; +School_) recommends the Dialogues of Du Grès for their private reading; perhaps, however, he was thinking more of the Latin than of the French part. @@ -18353,8 +18316,8 @@ part. [1092] Th. Sheridan, _Plan of Education_, 1769, p. 42. -[1093] M. Misson, _Mémoires et Observations d'un voyageur en -Angleterre_, à la Haye, 1698, p. 99. +[1093] M. Misson, _Mémoires et Observations d'un voyageur en +Angleterre_, à la Haye, 1698, p. 99. [1094] Information supplied by J. Potter Briscoe, Esq., of Nottingham. @@ -18426,13 +18389,13 @@ _A. Manuscripts_ * Tractatus Orthographiae of T. H. Parisii Studentis (ed. M. K. Pope, "Modern Language Review," April 1910). - _c._ 1300 * Orthographia Gallica (ed. J. Stürzinger, - "Altfranzösische Bibliothek," viii., Heilbronn, 1884). + _c._ 1300 * Orthographia Gallica (ed. J. Stürzinger, + "Altfranzösische Bibliothek," viii., Heilbronn, 1884). Edward II. and Edward III. (1307-1377): Commentaries in French on the Orthographia Gallica - (ed. Stürzinger, _ut supra_). + (ed. Stürzinger, _ut supra_). Epistolaries, or Collections of model letters (MSS. Harl. 4971, Harl. 3988, Addit. 17716 Brit. Mus.; Ee 4, @@ -18454,8 +18417,8 @@ _A. Manuscripts_ Richard II. (1377-1399): Tractatus Orthographiae of Coyfurelly, Doctor in Law - of Orleans (ed. Stengel, "Zeitschrift für - neufranzösische Sprache und Literatur," vol. i., 1878). + of Orleans (ed. Stengel, "Zeitschrift für + neufranzösische Sprache und Literatur," vol. i., 1878). 1396 * Maniere de Language (ed. P. Meyer, "Revue critique," 1873). @@ -18532,9 +18495,9 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1553? DU PLOICH. A Treatise in English and Frenche.... - 1553? Traicté pour apprendre a parler françoys et angloys. + 1553? Traicté pour apprendre a parler françoys et angloys. - 1557 G. MEURIER. La Grammaire Françoise. . . . + 1557 G. MEURIER. La Grammaire Françoise. . . . 1557 (BARLEMENT.) A Boke intituled Italion, Frynsshe, Englysshe Latin. @@ -18607,7 +18570,7 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1593 ELIOTE. Ortho-Epia Gallica. - 1595 E. A. Grammaire Angloise et Françoise. + 1595 E. A. Grammaire Angloise et Françoise. 1595 DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet. @@ -18624,7 +18587,7 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1602 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - 1604 SANFORD. Le Guichet François. + 1604 SANFORD. Le Guichet François. 1605 SANFORD. A Briefe Extract of the former grammar ... in English. @@ -18668,7 +18631,7 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1625 L'ISLE. Part of Du Bartas, French and English. - 1625 Grammaire Angloise et Françoise. + 1625 Grammaire Angloise et Françoise. 1630 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. @@ -18699,7 +18662,7 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1636 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - 1636 DU GRÈS. Breve et accuratum grammaticae gallicae Compendium. + 1636 DU GRÈS. Breve et accuratum grammaticae gallicae Compendium. 1637 (BARLEMENT.) The English, Latine, French, Dutch Scholemaster. @@ -18712,9 +18675,9 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1639 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - 1639 Grammaire Angloise et Françoise. + 1639 Grammaire Angloise et Françoise. - 1639 DU GRÈS. Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini. + 1639 DU GRÈS. Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini. 1639 ANCHORAN. Comenius's Janua. @@ -18740,13 +18703,13 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1651 COGNEAU. Sure Guide. - 1652 DU GRÈS. Dialogi ... + 1652 DU GRÈS. Dialogi ... 1653 MAUGER. True Advancement of the French Tongue. 1655 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - 1655 LAINÉ. A Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue. + 1655 LAINÉ. A Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue. 1656 MAUGER. French Grammar, 2nd ed. @@ -18756,7 +18719,7 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1659 LEIGHTON. Linguae Gallicae addiscendae Regulae. - 1660 DU GRÈS. Dialogi ... + 1660 DU GRÈS. Dialogi ... 1660 COTGRAVE. Dictionary. @@ -18766,9 +18729,9 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1662 MAUGER. French Grammar, 4th ed. - 1662 LEIGHTON. ... Regulæ. + 1662 LEIGHTON. ... Regulæ. - 1666 Æsop's Fables in English, French and Latine. + 1666 Æsop's Fables in English, French and Latine. ? Castellion's Sacred Dialogues ... French and English. @@ -18776,17 +18739,17 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1667 FESTEAU. French Grammar. - 1667 DE LAINÉ. Princely Way to the French Tongue. + 1667 DE LAINÉ. Princely Way to the French Tongue. 1668 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - 1668 Grammaire Françoise et Angloise. + 1668 Grammaire Françoise et Angloise. - 1668 Grammaire Françoise et Angloise. + 1668 Grammaire Françoise et Angloise. 1670 MAUGER. Grammar, 6th ed. - 1671 MAUGER. Lettres françoises et angloises. + 1671 MAUGER. Lettres françoises et angloises. 1671 FESTEAU. Grammar, 2nd ed. @@ -18808,21 +18771,21 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1676 MAUGER. Lettres, 2nd ed. - 1677 DE LAINÉ. Princely Way, 2nd ed. + 1677 DE LAINÉ. Princely Way, 2nd ed. - 1677 Grammaire françoise et angloise. + 1677 Grammaire françoise et angloise. - 1677 MIÈGE. A New Dictionary, French and English. + 1677 MIÈGE. A New Dictionary, French and English. - 1678 MIÈGE. A New French Grammar. + 1678 MIÈGE. A New French Grammar. 1679 MAUGER. Grammar, 8th ed. 1679 FESTEAU. Grammar, 4th ed. - 1679 Grammaire Françoise et Angloise. + 1679 Grammaire Françoise et Angloise. - 1679 MIÈGE. Dictionary of Barbarous French. + 1679 MIÈGE. Dictionary of Barbarous French. 1680 VILLIERS. Vocabularium Analogicum. @@ -18830,13 +18793,13 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1682 MAUGER. Grammar, 10th ed. - 1682 MIÈGE. Short and Easie French Grammar. + 1682 MIÈGE. Short and Easie French Grammar. 1683 VAIRESSE D'ALLAIS. Short and Methodical Introduction. - 1684 MIÈGE. A Short French Dictionary. + 1684 MIÈGE. A Short French Dictionary. - 1684 KERHUEL. Grammaire Françoise. + 1684 KERHUEL. Grammaire Françoise. 1684 MAUGER. Grammar, 11th ed. @@ -18848,11 +18811,11 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1686 MAUGER. Grammar, 12th ed. - 1687 Æsop's Fables in English, French and Latine. + 1687 Æsop's Fables in English, French and Latine. - 1687 MIÈGE. Grounds of the French Tongue. + 1687 MIÈGE. Grounds of the French Tongue. - 1688 MIÈGE. Great French Dictionary. + 1688 MIÈGE. Great French Dictionary. 1688 BERAULT. New ... French and English Grammar. @@ -18860,13 +18823,13 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1689 MAUGER. Grammar, 13th ed. - 1690 MIÈGE. Short French Dictionary, 3rd ed. + 1690 MIÈGE. Short French Dictionary, 3rd ed. 1690 MAUGER. Grammar, 14th ed. 1690 COLSONI. A new Grammar of three languages. - 1691 MIÈGE. Short French Dictionary. + 1691 MIÈGE. Short French Dictionary. 1691 BERAULT. Grammar, 2nd ed. @@ -18886,7 +18849,7 @@ TUDOR AND STUART TIMES 1695 COLSONI. New and Accurate Grammar [new edition]. - 1698 MIÈGE. Last and Best French Grammar. + 1698 MIÈGE. Last and Best French Grammar. 1698 BERAULT. French and English Grammar. @@ -18912,14 +18875,14 @@ APPENDIX II A., E.: - Grammaire Angloise et Françoise pour facilement et promptement - aprendre la langue Angloise et Françoise. Revûë et corrigée tout de - nouveau d'une quantité de fautes qui étoient aux précédentes - impressions par E. A. Augmentée en cette dernière édition d'un - vocabulaire Anglois et François. Rouen, 1595. Cp. sub "Anonymous - Works," Grammaire Angloise et Françoise. + Grammaire Angloise et Françoise pour facilement et promptement + aprendre la langue Angloise et Françoise. Revûë et corrigée tout de + nouveau d'une quantité de fautes qui étoient aux précédentes + impressions par E. A. Augmentée en cette dernière édition d'un + vocabulaire Anglois et François. Rouen, 1595. Cp. sub "Anonymous + Works," Grammaire Angloise et Françoise. -ÆSOP: Cp. CODRINGTON. +ÆSOP: Cp. CODRINGTON. ANCHORAN, J. A.: @@ -18951,7 +18914,7 @@ ANONYMOUS WORKS (Arranged chronologically): London, John Alde, 1569. Another ed.: Dictionaire, Colloques ou Dialogues en Quattre - langues, Flamen, Ffrançoys, Espaignel et Italien, with the Englishe + langues, Flamen, Ffrançoys, Espaignel et Italien, with the Englishe to be added thereto. George Bishop, 1578. Another ed.: @@ -18983,12 +18946,12 @@ ANONYMOUS WORKS (Arranged chronologically): Corderius. Dialogues in French and English. John Wyndet, 1591. - Grammaire Angloise et Françoise . . . Revûë et corrigée . . . par + Grammaire Angloise et Françoise . . . Revûë et corrigée . . . par E. A. (_q.v. sub_ A., E.) Another ed.: Grammaire Angloise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la langue angloise. Qui peut aussi aider aux Anglois pour - apprendre la langue Françoise. Alphabet anglois contenant la + apprendre la langue Françoise. Alphabet anglois contenant la prononciation des Lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons. Paris, 1625. @@ -19003,14 +18966,14 @@ ANONYMOUS WORKS (Arranged chronologically): The Necessary, fit and convenient Education of a young Gentlewoman, Italian, French and English. Adam Islip, 1598. - A Short Syntaxis in the French Tongue. 12º. London, 1602. + A Short Syntaxis in the French Tongue. 12º. London, 1602. The French A. B. C. Licensed to Rd. Field, 1615. The Declining of Frenche Verbes. Rd. Field, 1615 (another edition of Holyband's Treatise for declining of Verbs?). - (Sébastien Châteillon.) Sacred Dialogues translated out of Latin + (Sébastien Châteillon.) Sacred Dialogues translated out of Latin into French and English for the benefit of youth. Sold by R. Hom and J. Sims. (Date unknown, between 1666 and 1668?) @@ -19089,7 +19052,7 @@ BELLOT, JACQUES: Le jardin de vertu et bonnes moeurs, plain de plusieurs belles fleurs et riches sentences avec le sens d'icelles recueillies de plusieurs autheurs, et mises en lumiere par J. B. gent. Cadomois. - Imprimé à Londres par Th. Vautrollier, 1581. + Imprimé à Londres par Th. Vautrollier, 1581. The French Methode. London, 1588. @@ -19099,7 +19062,7 @@ BENSE, PIERRE: Concordans trium linguarum Gallicae, Hispanicae et Italicae. Unde innotescat, quantum quaque a Romanae linguae, unde ortum duxere, idiomate deflexerit; earum quoque ratio et natura dilucide et - succinte delineantur. Operâ et studio Petri Bense, Parisini, apud + succinte delineantur. Operâ et studio Petri Bense, Parisini, apud Oxon. has linguas profitentis. Oxoniae. Excudebat Guilielmus Turner impensis authoris, 1637. @@ -19133,26 +19096,26 @@ BERAULT, PIERRE: Minister, lately chaplain of Her Majesty's ships Kent, Victory, Scarborough, and Dunkirk. London, 1707. - Le Véritable et assuré chemin du ciel en François et en Anglois. + Le Véritable et assuré chemin du ciel en François et en Anglois. London, 1680. - Bouquet ou un amas de plusieurs veritez théologiques propres pour + Bouquet ou un amas de plusieurs veritez théologiques propres pour instruire toutes sortes de personnes, particulierement pour consoler une ame dans ses Troubles. London, 1685. BEYER, GUILLAUME: - La vraye instruction des trois langues la Françoise, l'Angloise et - la Flamende. Proposée en des règles fondamentales et succinctes. Un - assemblage des mots les plus usités, et des colloques utiles et - récréatifs; où hormis d'autres discours curieus, le gouvernement de - la France se réduit. Historiquement et Politiquement mise en trois - langues. Seconde ed. augmentée. Dordrecht, 1681. (Date of first + La vraye instruction des trois langues la Françoise, l'Angloise et + la Flamende. Proposée en des règles fondamentales et succinctes. Un + assemblage des mots les plus usités, et des colloques utiles et + récréatifs; où hormis d'autres discours curieus, le gouvernement de + la France se réduit. Historiquement et Politiquement mise en trois + langues. Seconde ed. augmentée. Dordrecht, 1681. (Date of first edition unknown.) -CHÂTEILLON (or CASTELLION), S. Cp. entry under "Anonymous Works." +CHÂTEILLON (or CASTELLION), S. Cp. entry under "Anonymous Works." -CHENEAU, FRANÇOIS: +CHENEAU, FRANÇOIS: Francis Cheneau's French Grammar, enrich'd with a compendious and easie way to learne the French Tongue in a very short time. @@ -19170,7 +19133,7 @@ CHENEAU, FRANÇOIS: CODRINGTON, ROBERT: - Æsop's Fables, With his life in English, French and Latine. The + Æsop's Fables, With his life in English, French and Latine. The English by Tho. Philipott, Esq., the French and Latine by Rob. Codrington, M.A. Illustrated with one hundred and ten sculptures. By Francis Barlow, and are to be sold at his House, The Golden @@ -19330,14 +19293,14 @@ DE LA PICHONNAYE, LEDOYEN: DE SAINLIENS, CLAUDE. Cf. HOLYBAND. -DU GRÈS, GABRIEL: +DU GRÈS, GABRIEL: Breve et Accuratum grammaticae Gallicae Compendium in quo superflua - rescinduntur et necessaria non omittuntur, per Gabrielem du Grès, + rescinduntur et necessaria non omittuntur, per Gabrielem du Grès, Gallum, eandem linguam in celeberrima Cantabrigiensi Academia - edocentem. Cantabrigiae. Impensis Authoris amicorum gratiâ. 1636. + edocentem. Cantabrigiae. Impensis Authoris amicorum gratiâ. 1636. - Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini, per Gabrielem Dugrès Linguam + Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini, per Gabrielem Dugrès Linguam Gallicam in illustrissima et famosissima Oxoniensi Academia (haud ita pridem privatim) edocentem. Oxoniae, L. Lichfield, 1639. @@ -19353,7 +19316,7 @@ DU PLOICH, PIERRE: same dwelling in Trinitie lane at the signe of the Rose. Richard Grafton, [1553?] - Another ed. Imprimé à Londre par Jean Kingston, La xiiii. Auvril, + Another ed. Imprimé à Londre par Jean Kingston, La xiiii. Auvril, 1578. DU TERME, LAUR: @@ -19587,7 +19550,7 @@ HOLYBAND, CLAUDE, or DE SAINLIENS: Another ed. London, 1641. De Pronuntiatione. Claudii a Sancto Vinculo de pronuntiatione - linguæ Gallicæ libri duo. Ad illustrissimam simulq doctissimam + linguæ Gallicæ libri duo. Ad illustrissimam simulq doctissimam Elizabetham Anglorum Reginam. T. Vautrollerius; Londoni. 1580. The Treasurie of the French Tong: teaching the waye to varie all @@ -19620,11 +19583,11 @@ HULOET. Cf. HIGGINS. KERHUEL, JEAN DE: - Grammaire Françoise, composée par Jean de Kerhuel, Professeur de la + Grammaire Françoise, composée par Jean de Kerhuel, Professeur de la ditte Langue. A French Grammar.... 8vo. Printed for J. Wickins at the Miter in Fleet Street, 1684. -LAINÉ, PIERRE: +LAINÉ, PIERRE: A compendious Introduction to the French Tongue. Teaching with much ease, facility and delight, how to attain and most exactly to the @@ -19634,19 +19597,19 @@ LAINÉ, PIERRE: hand, to the most noted and principal places of that Kingdom. Whereunto is annexed an alphabetical Rule for the true and modern orthography of that French now spoken, being a catalogue of very - necessary words never before printed. By Peter Lainé, a teacher of + necessary words never before printed. By Peter Lainé, a teacher of the said tongue now in London. London. Printed by T. N. for Anthony Williamson at the Queen's Arms in St. Paul's Churchyard, near the West End. 1655. -LAINÉ, PIERRE DE: +LAINÉ, PIERRE DE: The Princely way to the French Tongue, as it was first compiled for the use of her Highness the Lady Mary and since taught her royal sister the Lady Anne. To which is added a Chronological abridgement of the sacred scriptures by way of dialogue. Together with a longer explication of the French Grammar, Choice fables of - Æsop in Burlesque French, and lastly some models of letters French + Æsop in Burlesque French, and lastly some models of letters French and English, by P.D.L. 2nd ed. London. Printed by J. Macock for H. Herrington etc., 1677. @@ -19654,7 +19617,7 @@ LAINÉ, PIERRE DE: LEIGHTON, HENRY: - Linguæ Gallicæ addiscendæ regulæ. Collectæ opera et industria H. + Linguæ Gallicæ addiscendæ regulæ. Collectæ opera et industria H. Leighton, A.M. Hanc linguam in celeberrima Academia Oxoniensi edocentis. Oxoniae, 1659. @@ -19716,16 +19679,16 @@ MAUGER, CLAUDE: at the sign of the bell, and James Allestry at the Rose and Crown in Paul's Churchyard, 1670. - Another ed.: La Grammaire françoise de Claude Mauger expliquée en - Anglois, Latin et en François, enrichie de regles plus courtes et + Another ed.: La Grammaire françoise de Claude Mauger expliquée en + Anglois, Latin et en François, enrichie de regles plus courtes et plus substantielles qu'auparavant, comme du regime des verbes, de la conjugaison de tous les irreguliers par toutes leurs personnes, - d'un Traité de l'accent etc. Et à la fin, d'un abrégé des regles - generales de la Langue Angloise, en dialogues françois, outre ce - qui étoit dans la sixième édition. La 7e. éd. Reveue et corrigée - par l'autheur . . . à Londres. Londres. Imprimée par T. Roycroft - pour Jean Martin et se vendent à l'enseigne de la cloche au - cymitière de Sainct Paul. 1673. Claudius Mauger's French Grammar, + d'un Traité de l'accent etc. Et à la fin, d'un abrégé des regles + generales de la Langue Angloise, en dialogues françois, outre ce + qui étoit dans la sixième édition. La 7e. éd. Reveue et corrigée + par l'autheur . . . à Londres. Londres. Imprimée par T. Roycroft + pour Jean Martin et se vendent à l'enseigne de la cloche au + cymitière de Sainct Paul. 1673. Claudius Mauger's French Grammar, etc. Another ed., with additions: The "English Edition." London, Printed @@ -19738,16 +19701,16 @@ MAUGER, CLAUDE: Eleventh ed. London, T. Harrison, c. 1683. - Twelfth ed. . . . avec des augmentations de Mots à la Mode d'une + Twelfth ed. . . . avec des augmentations de Mots à la Mode d'une nouvelle Methode et de tout ce qu'on peut souhaiter pour s'acquirir - ce beau Language comme on le parle à present à la cour de France. - Où on voit un ordre extraordinaire et methodique pour l'acquisition - de cette langue, sçavoir, une très parfaite pronuntiation, la + ce beau Language comme on le parle à present à la cour de France. + Où on voit un ordre extraordinaire et methodique pour l'acquisition + de cette langue, sçavoir, une très parfaite pronuntiation, la conjugaison de tous les Verbes irreguliers, des Regles courtes et substantielles, ausquelles sont ajoutez un Vocabulaire et une - nouvelle Grammaire Angloise pour l'utilité de tant d'estrangers qui - ont envie de l'apprendre. La douzième édition exactement corrigée - par l'autheur à present Professeur des Langues à Paris. Londres. R. + nouvelle Grammaire Angloise pour l'utilité de tant d'estrangers qui + ont envie de l'apprendre. La douzième édition exactement corrigée + par l'autheur à present Professeur des Langues à Paris. Londres. R. E. pour R. Bently et S. Magnes demeurant dans Russel St. au Covent Gardin. 1686. @@ -19778,52 +19741,52 @@ MAUGER, CLAUDE: author, formerly professor of French at Bloys, now at London. London, 1671. - Another ed.: Lettres Françoises et Angloises de Claud Mauger sur + Another ed.: Lettres Françoises et Angloises de Claud Mauger sur Toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres avec augmentation de 50 - lettres nouvelles, dont il y en a plusieurs sur les dernières et - grandes Revolutions de l'Europe. Très exactement corrigée, polies - et écrites, dans le plus nouveau stile de la cour, dans lesquelles - la pureté et l'élégance des deux langues s'accordent mieux - qu'auparavant. Très utiles à ceux qui aspirent au beau language, et - sont curieux de sçavoir de quelle manière ils doivent parler aux - personnes de quelque qualité qu'elles soient. Outre Quantité de - Billets à la fin du Livre, qui sont très necessaires pour le - commerce. La seconde édition. Londres, imprimée par Tho. Roycroft - et se vendent chez Samuel Lowndes vis à vis de l'Hostel d'Exeter + lettres nouvelles, dont il y en a plusieurs sur les dernières et + grandes Revolutions de l'Europe. Très exactement corrigée, polies + et écrites, dans le plus nouveau stile de la cour, dans lesquelles + la pureté et l'élégance des deux langues s'accordent mieux + qu'auparavant. Très utiles à ceux qui aspirent au beau language, et + sont curieux de sçavoir de quelle manière ils doivent parler aux + personnes de quelque qualité qu'elles soient. Outre Quantité de + Billets à la fin du Livre, qui sont très necessaires pour le + commerce. La seconde édition. Londres, imprimée par Tho. Roycroft + et se vendent chez Samuel Lowndes vis à vis de l'Hostel d'Exeter dans la Strand. 1676. MEURIER, GABRIEL: - La Grammaire Françoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres + La Grammaire Françoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres et necessaires pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte langue par Gabriel Meurier. . . . Anvers, 1557. - Traicté pour apprendre a parler Françoys et Angloys. Rouen, Etienne + Traicté pour apprendre a parler Françoys et Angloys. Rouen, Etienne Colas, 1553. Communications familieres non moins propres que tresutiles a la - nation Angloise desireuse et diseteuse du langage François, par G. + nation Angloise desireuse et diseteuse du langage François, par G. Meurier. Familiare Communications no leasse proppre then verrie proffytable to the Inglis nation desirous and nedinge the ffrenche language, by Gabriel Meurier. En Anvers. . . . Chez Pierre de Keerberghe sus le Cemitiere nostre Dame a la Croix d'or. 1563. - Another ed.: Traité pour apprendre a parler François et Anglois: + Another ed.: Traité pour apprendre a parler François et Anglois: ensemble un Formulaire de faire missives, obligations, Quittances, Lettres de Change, necessaire a tous marchands qui veulent trafiquer. A Treatise for to learne to speake Frenshe and Englische, together with a form of making letters, indentures, and obligations, quittances, letters of exchange, verie necessarie for all Marchants that do occupy trade of Marchandise. A Rouen, chez - Jacques Cailloué, tenant sa boutique dans la Court du Palais. 1641. + Jacques Cailloué, tenant sa boutique dans la Court du Palais. 1641. -MIÈGE, GUY: +MIÈGE, GUY: A New Dictionary French and English with another English and French according to the present use and modern orthography of the French, inrich'd with new words, choice phrases and apposite proverbs. Digested into a most accurate method and contrived for the use of - both English and Foreiners, by Guy Miège, Gent. London. Printed by + both English and Foreiners, by Guy Miège, Gent. London. Printed by T. Dawks for T. Basset at the George near Clifford's Inn in Fleet Street, 1677. @@ -19831,7 +19794,7 @@ MIÈGE, GUY: Tongue. To which are added for a help to young beginners a large vocabulary, and a store of familiar Dialogues, besides Four curious discourses of Cosmography in French for proficient learners to turn - into English. By Guy Miège, Gent., author of the New French + into English. By Guy Miège, Gent., author of the New French Dictionary, professor of the French Tongue and of Geography. London. Th. Basset.... 1678. @@ -19839,7 +19802,7 @@ MIÈGE, GUY: of Obsolete, Provincial, Misspelt and Made Words in French. Taken out of Cotgrave's Dictionary with some additions. A work much desired and now performed for the satisfaction of such as read old - French. By Guy Miège, Gent., author of the New French Dictionary. + French. By Guy Miège, Gent., author of the New French Dictionary. London, for Th. Basset, 1679.[1108] A Short and Easie French Grammar, fitted for all sorts of learners: @@ -19855,7 +19818,7 @@ MIÈGE, GUY: A Short French Dictionary, English and French with another in French and English, according to the present use and modern - orthography, by Guy Miège, Gent. London, for Th. Basset, 1684. + orthography, by Guy Miège, Gent. London, for Th. Basset, 1684. Another ed. London, 1690. @@ -19879,10 +19842,10 @@ MIÈGE, GUY: figurative are orderly digested, and illustrated with apposite phrases and proverbs. The hard words explained: and the proprieties adjusted. To which are prefixed the Grounds of both Languages in - two Discourses, the one English, the other French, by Guy Miège, + two Discourses, the one English, the other French, by Guy Miège, Gent. London, for Th. Basset, 1688. - Miège's last and best French Grammar, or a new Method to learn + Miège's last and best French Grammar, or a new Method to learn French, containing the Quintessence of all other Grammars, with such plain and easie rules as will make one speedily perfect in that famous language.... London, W. Freeman and A. Roper, 1698. @@ -19917,7 +19880,7 @@ SALTONSTALL, WYE: SANFORD, JOHN: - Le Guichet François. Sive janicula et brevis introductio ad linguam + Le Guichet François. Sive janicula et brevis introductio ad linguam Gallicam. Oxoniae. Excudebat Josephus Barnesius, 1604. A briefe extract of the former Latin Grammar, done into English for @@ -19937,7 +19900,7 @@ SHERWOOD, ROBERT: corrected and enlarged by Robert Sherwood, Londoner. London, Printed by Robert Young, 1634. - Dictionnaire Anglois-François. 1632. Cf. COTGRAVE. + Dictionnaire Anglois-François. 1632. Cf. COTGRAVE. SMITH, J.: @@ -19976,7 +19939,7 @@ VILLIERS, JACOB: digested. With new and easy directions for the attaining of the French tongue, comprehended in rules of pronouncing, rules of accenting and the like. To which is added the explanation of - Mounsieur de Lainé's French Grammar by way of dialogue set forth + Mounsieur de Lainé's French Grammar by way of dialogue set forth for the special use and encouragement of such as desire to be proficients in the same language. The like not extant. By Jacob Villiers, Master of a French School in Nottingham. London, printed @@ -19999,9 +19962,9 @@ WODROEPH, JOHN: Theames, Letters missives, and sentences proverbiales: so orderly, plain and pertinent, as hath not (formerly) beene seene in the most famous Ile of great Britaine. By John Wodroephe, Gent. Les - Heures de relasche. . . . Imprimé à Dort, Par Nicolas Vincentz, - Pour George Waters, Marchant Libraire, demeurant près le Marché au - Poisson, à l'Enseigne des Manchettes dorées. 1623. + Heures de relasche. . . . Imprimé à Dort, Par Nicolas Vincentz, + Pour George Waters, Marchant Libraire, demeurant près le Marché au + Poisson, à l'Enseigne des Manchettes dorées. 1623. Second edition: The Marrow of the French Tongue, containing: @@ -20021,8 +19984,8 @@ collected and compiled by the great paines and industry of M. John Wodroephe, that the meanest capacity either French or Englishman, that can but reade, may in a short time by his owne industry without the helpe of any Teacher attaine to the perfection of both languages. Ce -livre est aussi utile pour le François d'apprendre l'Anglois que pour -l'Anglois d'apprendre le François. The second edition. Reviewed and +livre est aussi utile pour le François d'apprendre l'Anglois que pour +l'Anglois d'apprendre le François. The second edition. Reviewed and purged of much gross English, and divers errors committed in the former edition printed at Dort. London. Printed for Rd. Meighen at the signe of the Leg in the Strand, and in St. Dunstan's Churchyard in Fleet Street, @@ -20056,7 +20019,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ _A B C for Scottes men_, 154 - Académie française, 110 _n._, 192, 193, 305, 354, 355, 357, 388 + Académie française, 110 _n._, 192, 193, 305, 354, 355, 357, 388 Academies, 120 _sq._, 231, 296 _sq._, 345, 397 _sq._; academies in France, 352, 357, 363 _sq._; @@ -20084,7 +20047,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Ancients and Moderns, quarrel of, 391 - *André, Bernard, 68, 75, 76 + *André, Bernard, 68, 75, 76 Angers, 205, 346, 351 @@ -20104,7 +20067,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Astell, Mary, 395, 398 - Aubigné, Agrippa d', 65 _n._, 197, 356 + Aubigné, Agrippa d', 65 _n._, 197, 356 *Aufeild, Wm., 260 _n._, 284 _sq._, 292 @@ -20159,7 +20122,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Belleau, Remi, 174 - Belleforest, François de, 196 + Belleforest, François de, 196 *Bellemain, Jean, 107 _sq._, 112, 113 @@ -20174,11 +20137,11 @@ marked with an asterisk._ *Berault, Pierre, 300, 388 _sq._ - Bèze, Théodore de, 196, 197, 202, 234 + Bèze, Théodore de, 196, 197, 202, 234 *Bibbesworth, Walter de, 11 _sq._, 16, 28, 38, 40, 264 - Bignon, Jérôme, 66 _n._, 273 + Bignon, Jérôme, 66 _n._, 273 Blois, 218, 227 _sq._, 235, 241, 282, 284, 301 _sq._, 325, 342, 344, 350, 351, 352, 359 @@ -20203,7 +20166,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Bossuet, 364 - Bouhours, le Père, 220 _n._, 394 + Bouhours, le Père, 220 _n._, 394 Bouillon, Duchesse de, 367 @@ -20217,7 +20180,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Bozon, Nicolas, 8 _n._ - Brantôme, 273 _n._ + Brantôme, 273 _n._ Bretons: teach French, 325, 326 @@ -20342,7 +20305,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Colet, John, 62, 182, 183, 215 - Collège de Navarre, 213, 276 + Collège de Navarre, 213, 276 Colleges: in France, 357; English Roman Catholic, in France, 232; @@ -20493,7 +20456,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ *Du Buisson, 148 - *Du Grès, Gabriel, 205 _sq._, 351, 352, 395 _n._ + *Du Grès, Gabriel, 205 _sq._, 351, 352, 395 _n._ Du Moulin, Pierre, senior, 207, 259 @@ -20598,7 +20561,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ *Fabre, John, 268 - *Fabri, Philémon, 207 + *Fabri, Philémon, 207 Farquhar, George, 208, 372 _n._, 374 _n._, 376 _n._, 378, 380 _n._ @@ -20636,9 +20599,9 @@ marked with an asterisk._ _France, Survey of_, 177 - François I. of France, 68, 69, 71, 73, 93 + François I. of France, 68, 69, 71, 73, 93 - François de Valois, 159 + François de Valois, 159 _Frans and Englis_, 201 @@ -20734,11 +20697,11 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Greene, Rt., 178, 194 _n._, 215, 275 - Grelot, Jérôme, 260 + Grelot, Jérôme, 260 Grenville, Fulke, 128 - Grévin, Jacques, 65 _n._, 273 _n._ + Grévin, Jacques, 65 _n._, 273 _n._ Grey, Lady Jane, 64 _n._, 73 _n._ @@ -20830,7 +20793,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Hoole, Charles, 182 _n._, 186, 189, 334, 337 _n._, 395 _n._ - Hotman, François, 66 + Hotman, François, 66 *Hotman, Jean, 200 @@ -20878,7 +20841,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Jermyn, Lord, Earl of St. Albans, 362, 365 - Jodelle, Étienne, 196 + Jodelle, Étienne, 196 Jonson, Ben, 220, 237, 278 @@ -20900,15 +20863,15 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Kynaston, Sir Francis, 296 - La Bruyère, 275 + La Bruyère, 275 - La Calprenède, 309, 318, 320, 321, 333, 364 + La Calprenède, 309, 318, 320, 321, 333, 364 La Fontaine, 338, 367 - *Lainé, Pierre, 315 _sq._, 323, 328, 347, 355 _n._, 361, 362 _n._ + *Lainé, Pierre, 315 _sq._, 323, 328, 347, 355 _n._, 361, 362 _n._ - *Lainé, Pierre de, 381 _sq._, 397, 399 + *Lainé, Pierre de, 381 _sq._, 397, 399 Lake, Sir Th., 151 @@ -20940,11 +20903,11 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Law French, 22, 30, 61, 64, 165, 321 - Le Blanc, Abbé, 23 _n._, 369, 378, 394 + Le Blanc, Abbé, 23 _n._, 369, 378, 394 - Le Fèvre (chemist), 367 + Le Fèvre (chemist), 367 - Le Fèvre, Raoul, 46 + Le Fèvre, Raoul, 46 Le Grand, Antoine, 309, 310 @@ -21033,7 +20996,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Malpet, John, 351 - _Manière de Langage_, 26 _n._, 35 _sq._, 38, 39, 40, 42, 47, 52 + _Manière de Langage_, 26 _n._, 35 _sq._, 38, 39, 40, 42, 47, 52 Margaret of Navarre, 71, 74, 84, 111 @@ -21045,7 +21008,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Marillac (ambassador), 72, 73 - Marot, Clément, 83, 174, 196 + Marot, Clément, 83, 174, 196 Marseilles, 357 @@ -21082,7 +21045,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Maupertuis, 395 _n._ - Mayerne, Théodore, 259 _n._ + Mayerne, Théodore, 259 _n._ Mazarin, Duchesse de, 367, 380 @@ -21094,7 +21057,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Melville, Sir James, 73, 212 _n._ - Ménage, Gilles, 353 + Ménage, Gilles, 353 Merchants: study of French by, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41 _sq._, 49, 50, 53, 55, 124, 137, 141, 169 _n._, 239 _sq._, 253, 299, 400 @@ -21113,9 +21076,9 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Middleton, Th., 263 _n._ - *Miège, Guy, 309, 334 _n._, 337 _n._, 382 _sq._, 388, 391 + *Miège, Guy, 309, 334 _n._, 337 _n._, 382 _sq._, 388, 391 - *Milleran, René, 354 _sq._ + *Milleran, René, 354 _sq._ Milton, 64, 194, 214, 264, 298, 333, 334 _n._, 392 @@ -21123,7 +21086,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Misson, M., 396 _n._ - Molière, 373 + Molière, 373 Monluc, 197, 342 _n._ @@ -21133,7 +21096,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Montausier, Mme. de., 365 - Montchrétien, 259, 268 + Montchrétien, 259, 268 Montjoy, Christopher, 125, 162 @@ -21181,7 +21144,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Nicot, 189, 190, 230 _n._, 244 _n._ - Nîmes, 232, 233, 234 + Nîmes, 232, 233, 234 _Nomenclator_, of Adrian Junius, 189 @@ -21214,7 +21177,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ *Oudin, Antoine, 229 _sq._, 249 - Oudin, César, 229 + Oudin, César, 229 Overbury, Sir Th., 221, 237 _n._, 238 _n._ @@ -21236,7 +21199,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Pasqualigo, Piero, 68 - Pasquier, Étienne, 75, 154 _n._, 192 + Pasquier, Étienne, 75, 154 _n._, 192 Passports, 215, 216, 219 _n._ @@ -21263,7 +21226,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Pepys, Mrs., 209, 321, 380 - Perlin, Étienne, 81, 116 _n._, 117, 118 _n._, 210 _n._ + Perlin, Étienne, 81, 116 _n._, 117, 118 _n._, 210 _n._ Pettie, George, 237 _n._ @@ -21279,7 +21242,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Pillot, 202, 227 - Pléiade, 84, 158 + Pléiade, 84, 158 Poitiers, 344, 345, 357 @@ -21297,7 +21260,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Prayers in French, 130, 135, 137, 153, 268, 295, 310, 382, 389 - Précieuses, 323, 324 + Précieuses, 323, 324 *Preste, John, 156 _n._ @@ -21329,7 +21292,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Rambouillet, Mlle. de, 365 - Rambouillet, Hôtel de, 364 + Rambouillet, Hôtel de, 364 Ramus, Petrus, 175, 202 @@ -21347,7 +21310,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Register of aliens, 159, 163, 170 - Régnier-Desmarais, 273 + Régnier-Desmarais, 273 Religious Houses: use of French in, 23, 61 @@ -21357,7 +21320,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Rheims, 232 - Rhétoriqueurs, 158 + Rhétoriqueurs, 158 Richelieu, Cardinal, 192, 206, 357 @@ -21409,7 +21372,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Saint Gelais, Octovian de, 101 - Saint Évremond, 366, 367 _sq._ + Saint Évremond, 366, 367 _sq._ Saint Malo, 341 @@ -21461,9 +21424,9 @@ marked with an asterisk._ tutors, 212 _n._; French Grammars in Scotland, 154, 288 - Scudéry, Georges de, 193, 271, 299 _n._ + Scudéry, Georges de, 193, 271, 299 _n._ - Scudéry, Mlle, de, 309, 318, 320, 321, 323, 347, 348 _n._, 364 + Scudéry, Mlle, de, 309, 318, 320, 321, 323, 347, 348 _n._, 364 Sedley, Ch., 371 _n._, 374 _n._, 376 _n._, 377 _n._, 378, 392 _n._, 394 @@ -21505,7 +21468,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Somerset, Protector, 66, 84, 105, 107, 112 - Sorbière: _Voyage en Angleterre_, 321, 322, 364, 368 _n._ + Sorbière: _Voyage en Angleterre_, 321, 322, 364, 368 _n._ Sorel: _Francion_, 333 @@ -21625,9 +21588,9 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Versification, French, 158 - Viau, Théophile de, 259 _n._, 356 + Viau, Théophile de, 259 _n._, 356 - Villars, Maréchal de, 273 + Villars, Maréchal de, 273 *Villiers, Jacob, 388, 396 _sq._ @@ -21702,7 +21665,7 @@ marked with an asterisk._ Wroth, Sir Th., 157 - Würtemberg, Duke of, 66, 74 + Würtemberg, Duke of, 66, 74 Wycherley, 364, 365, 370 _n._, 376, 377 _n._, 378 @@ -21730,7 +21693,7 @@ FRENCH MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY FRENCH SERIES -No. I. LES OEUVRES DE GUIOT DE PROVINS. POÈTE LYRIQUE ET SATIRIQUE +No. I. LES OEUVRES DE GUIOT DE PROVINS. POÈTE LYRIQUE ET SATIRIQUE Edited by JOHN ORR, M.A., _Professor of French Language, University of Manchester_. Demy 8vo. =10s. 6d. net.= @@ -21744,16 +21707,16 @@ No. I. LES OEUVRES DE GUIOT DE PROVINS. POÈTE LYRIQUE ET SATIRIQUE wealth of illustrative commentary."--Professor T. A. JENKINS, Chicago, in _Modern Philology_. -No. II. OEUVRES POÉTIQUES DE JEAN DE LINGENDES +No. II. OEUVRES POÉTIQUES DE JEAN DE LINGENDES Edited by E. T. GRIFFITHS, M.A., _Late Lecturer in French Language and Literature in the University of Manchester_. Crown 8vo. Cloth. =6s. net.= - "Cette réimpression fait honneur aux publications de l'Université - de Manchester, et l'exécution typographique mérite les mêmes éloges - que l'information savante de l'éditeur."--L. ROUSTAN in _Revue - critique d'histoire et de littérature_. + "Cette réimpression fait honneur aux publications de l'Université + de Manchester, et l'exécution typographique mérite les mêmes éloges + que l'information savante de l'éditeur."--L. ROUSTAN in _Revue + critique d'histoire et de littérature_. No. III. THE TEACHING AND CULTIVATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE IN ENGLAND DURING TUDOR AND STUART TIMES, WITH AN INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ON THE @@ -21780,24 +21743,24 @@ _FRENCH SERIES_ ROUSSEAU. DU CONTRAT SOCIAL. Edited by Emeritus Professor C. E. VAUGHAN, M.A. Paper, 5s. net; cloth, 6s. net. -ALFRED DE VIGNY. POÈMES CHOISIS. Edited by E. ALLISON PEERS, M.A. Paper, +ALFRED DE VIGNY. POÈMES CHOISIS. Edited by E. ALLISON PEERS, M.A. Paper, 3s. 6d. net; cloth, 4s. 6d. net. PASCAL. LETTRES PROVINCIALES. Edited by H. F. STEWART, D.D. Paper, 7s. 6d. net; cloth, 8s. 6d. net. _Also an edition de luxe on hand-made paper._ 21s. net. -B. CONSTANT. ADOLPHE. Edited by Professor G. RUDLER, D. ès L. Paper, 6s. +B. CONSTANT. ADOLPHE. Edited by Professor G. RUDLER, D. ès L. Paper, 6s. net; cloth, 7s. 6d. net. _Also an edition de luxe on hand-made paper._ 21s. net. -LE MYSTÈRE D'ADAM. Edited by Professor PAUL STUDER, M.A., D.Litt. Paper, +LE MYSTÈRE D'ADAM. Edited by Professor PAUL STUDER, M.A., D.Litt. Paper, 4s. 6d. net; cloth, 5s. 6d. net. AUCASSIN ET NICOLETE. (_Third edition._) Edited by F. W. BOURDILLON, M.A. Paper, 4s. 6d. net; cloth 5s. 6d. net. -A. DUMAS père. HENRI III. Edited by J. G. ANDERSON, B.A. [In Preparation. +A. DUMAS père. HENRI III. Edited by J. G. ANDERSON, B.A. [In Preparation. PAUL-LOUIS COURIER. A SELECTION FROM THE WORKS. Edited by Professor E. WEEKLEY, M.A. Paper, 5s. net; cloth, 6s. net. @@ -21809,7 +21772,7 @@ E. VERHAEREN. SELECTIONS FROM THE POEMS. Edited by Dr. F. POLDERMANN. [_In Preparation._ LAMARTINE. A SELECTION FROM THE POEMS. Edited by Professor A. BARBIER, -L. ès L. [_In Preparation._ +L. ès L. [_In Preparation._ GUIBERT D'ANDRENAS. A CHANSON DE GESTE OF THE CYCLE DE GUILLAUME. Edited by JESSIE CROSLAND, M.A. [_In Preparation._ @@ -21862,8 +21825,8 @@ the second the corrected text. p. 37: il dira tout courtoisenent il dira tout courtoisement. - p. 39: le roy d'Angliterre est osté - le roy d'Angleterre est osté. + p. 39: le roy d'Angliterre est osté + le roy d'Angleterre est osté. p. 39: Maris, oy, il y avoit tant de presse Marie, oy, il y avoit tant de presse. @@ -21886,8 +21849,8 @@ the second the corrected text. p. 239: For instance Sir Willam Petty For instance Sir William Petty. - p. 241: Lesquelles choses considererées - Lesquelles choses considerées. + p. 241: Lesquelles choses considererées + Lesquelles choses considerées. p. 252: de leurs prouesses, entreprinses de leurs prouesses, entreprises. @@ -21902,10 +21865,10 @@ the second the corrected text. of Nacsia and Paros in the Archipelago. p. 414: ou hormis d'autres discours curieus - où hormis d'autres discours curieus. + où hormis d'autres discours curieus. p. 423: se vendent a l'enseigne - se vendent à l'enseigne. + se vendent à l'enseigne. n. 126: E. J. Furnival E. J. Furnivall. @@ -21933,7 +21896,7 @@ the second the corrected text. quotation does not always correspond to modern pronunciation. The original has been retained. - p. 283, n. 361: Liége should be Liège. + p. 283, n. 361: Liége should be Liège. p. 293: "to read an script" should be "to read a script." @@ -21949,367 +21912,4 @@ the second the corrected text. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Teaching and Cultivation of the French Language in England during Tudor and Stuart Times - With an Introductory Chapter on the Preceding Period - -Author: Kathleen Lambley - -Release Date: August 29, 2012 [EBook #40617] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TEACHING AND CULTIVATION *** - - - - -Produced by Ian Deane, Ethan Kent, Eleni Christofaki and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/American -Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40617 ***</div> <div class='tnote'><h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3> @@ -325,7 +284,7 @@ official documents and correspondence—Decline in use of French.</p> <p class="right">26</p> <p class="noi">Triumph of continental French over Anglo-French—"Doux -françois de Paris" a foreign language—Standard of French +françois de Paris" a foreign language—Standard of French taught in England—<i>Femina</i>—Treatises on Grammar—Barton's <i>Donait</i>—Epistolaries—Books of conversation in French—The Cambridge manuscript in French and English—First printed @@ -350,11 +309,11 @@ holds the first place—Its use in correspondence and in official documents—The French of Henry VIII., his courtiers, and the ladies—Of Anne Boleyn and the other Queens—Of the royal family, Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth—French tutors—Bernard -André—French Grammars—Alexander Barclay's <i>Introductory</i>—Practice +André—French Grammars—Alexander Barclay's <i>Introductory</i>—Practice and Theory—Pierre Valence, tutor to the Earl of Lincoln—His <i>Introductions in French</i>—Fragment of a Grammar at Lambeth—French Humanists as Language masters—Bourbon -and Denisot—England and the <i>Pléiade</i>.</p> +and Denisot—England and the <i>Pléiade</i>.</p> <h3> <a href="#CHAPTER_II_PART_II">CHAPTER II</a></h3> @@ -453,7 +412,7 @@ from 'severer studies'—French tutors and French grammars—Morlet's <i>Janitrix</i>—French grammars written in Latin—Antonio de Corro—John Sanford—Wye Saltonstall—Henry Leighton—French grammarians and teachers at Oxford—Robert Farrear—Pierre -Bense—French teachers at Cambridge—Gabriel du Grès +Bense—French teachers at Cambridge—Gabriel du Grès at Cambridge and Oxford—On the teaching of French—French at the Universities at the time of the Restoration—The French of the Universities and of the fashionable world—French at the @@ -474,7 +433,7 @@ without a governor—Books on travel—'Methods' of travel—The study of French—Dallington and Moryson—Study of French before travel—French 'by rote'—Language masters for travellers—French grammars for travellers—Charles Maupas -of Blois and his son—Antoine Oudin—Other grammars—Père +of Blois and his son—Antoine Oudin—Other grammars—Père Chiflet—The 'exercises'—<ins title="original: Travelers">Travellers</ins> at the Universities—At the Protestant Academies—Geneva—Isaac Casaubon—The 'idle traveller'—The 'beau'—Affectations of newly returned travellers—Commendation @@ -543,7 +502,7 @@ French grammar—Its popularity and development—Mauger's Letters—Other writings—Life in London—Teaches English—Mauger's method of teaching—Mauger at Paris—The demand for his grammar abroad—Paul Festeau—His French and English -grammars—Editions and contents—Pierre Lainé—His French +grammars—Editions and contents—Pierre Lainé—His French grammar—Encouragement of the study of French literature.</p> <h3><a href="#CHAPTER_IV_PART_III">CHAPTER IV</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">-xii-</a></span></h3> @@ -554,7 +513,7 @@ studying the Language</span></h4> <p class="noi">Vogue of French romances in England—Dorothy Osborne—Pepys on French literature—His French books—French text-books -and the <i>précieux</i> spirit—William Herbert—His criticism of the +and the <i>précieux</i> spirit—William Herbert—His criticism of the French teaching profession—Rivalry among teachers—Need for protection—Herbert's later works—His early career in England—Quarrels with a minister of the French church—English @@ -601,10 +560,10 @@ in London.</p> Restoration</span></h4> <p class="right">381</p> -<p class="noi">French grammars after the Restoration—Pierre de Lainé, tutor +<p class="noi">French grammars after the Restoration—Pierre de Lainé, tutor to the children of the Duke of York—The <i>Princely Way to the -French Tongue</i>—Guy Miège—His Dictionaries—His French -Grammars—His method of teaching—Rote and grammar—Miège's +French Tongue</i>—Guy Miège—His Dictionaries—His French +Grammars—His method of teaching—Rote and grammar—Miège's other works—Other French Grammars—Pierre Berault—The universality of French—Supremacy over Latin in the world of fashion and diplomacy—Position of French in the educational @@ -649,7 +608,7 @@ of the Stuart Period</span></h4> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">-3-</a></span> printed in England and written by an Englishman. This enterprising student was John Palsgrave, "natyf de Londres -et gradué de Paris," whose work, entitled <i>L'Esclarcissement +et gradué de Paris," whose work, entitled <i>L'Esclarcissement de la langue francoyse</i>, was published in 1530. It is an enormous quarto of over a thousand pages, full of elaborate, detailed and often obscure rules, written in English in spite @@ -793,7 +752,7 @@ French was very popular on the Continent undoubtedly helped to make its position in England stronger. It was then that the Italian Brunetto Latini wrote his <i>Livres dou Tresor</i> (1265), in French rather than in his native tongue, because French -was "plus delitable et plus commune à toutes gens." During +was "plus delitable et plus commune à toutes gens." During the same century French came to be used in correspondence on both sides of the Channel.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Little by little it was recognized as the most convenient medium for official uses, @@ -1071,12 +1030,12 @@ arrangements, ending with a description of an old English feast with its familiar dish, the boar's head:</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">Au primer fust apporté<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Au primer fust apporté<br /></span> <span class="i7"><i>a boris heued</i><br /></span> -<span class="i2">La teste de un sengler tot armé,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">La teste de un sengler tot armé,<br /></span> <span class="i4"><i>the snout</i> <i>wit baneres of flurs</i><br /></span> <span class="i2">E au groyn le colere en banere;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">E pus veneysoun, ou la fourmenté;<br /></span> +<span class="i2">E pus veneysoun, ou la fourmenté;<br /></span> <span class="i2">Assez par my la mesoun<br /></span> <span class="i6"><i>tahen of gres tyme</i><br /></span> <span class="i2">De treste du fermeyson.<br /></span> @@ -1085,19 +1044,19 @@ feast with its familiar dish, the boar's head:</p> <span class="i2"><i>Cranes</i>, <i>pokokes</i>, <i>swannes</i><br /></span> <span class="i2">Grues, pounes, e cygnes,<br /></span> <span class="i2"><i>Wilde ges</i>, <i>gryses</i> (<i>porceaus</i>), <i>hennes</i>,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Owes, rosées, porceus, gelyns;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Au tercez cours avient conyns en gravé,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Et viaunde de Cypre enfundré,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">De maces, e quibibes, e clous de orré,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Vyn blanc e vermayl a graunt plenté.<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Owes, rosées, porceus, gelyns;<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Au tercez cours avient conyns en gravé,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Et viaunde de Cypre enfundré,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">De maces, e quibibes, e clous de orré,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Vyn blanc e vermayl a graunt plenté.<br /></span> <span class="i11"><i>wodekok</i><br /></span> <span class="i2">Pus avoyunt fesauns, assez, et perdriz,<br /></span> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">-15-</a></span><span class="i2"><i>Feldefares larkes</i><br /></span> <span class="i2">Grives, alowes, e pluviers ben rostez;<br /></span> <span class="i2">E braoun, e crispes, e fritune;<br /></span> <span class="i2">Ke soucre roset poudra la temprune.<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Apres manger avyunt a graunt plenté<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Blaunche poudre, ou la grosse dragé,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Apres manger avyunt a graunt plenté<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Blaunche poudre, ou la grosse dragé,<br /></span> <span class="i2">Et d'autre nobleie a fusoun,<br /></span> <span class="i2">Ensi vous fynys ceo sermoun;<br /></span> <span class="i2">Kar de fraunceis i ad assez,<br /></span> @@ -1193,7 +1152,7 @@ century guides to letter-writing in French, in the form of epistolaries or collections of model letters, were produced.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> The letters themselves are given in French, but the accompanying rules and instructions for composing them are in -Latin. French and Latin have changed rôles; in earlier times +Latin. French and Latin have changed rôles; in earlier times Latin had been explained to school children by means of French. Forms for addressing members of the different grades of society are supplied, from epistles to the king and high @@ -1208,7 +1167,7 @@ of the day, but those of a more private nature possess a greater attraction, and throw light on the family life of the age. A letter from a mother to her son at school may be quoted:<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> -<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">-18-</a></span>Salut avesque ma beniçon, tres chier filz. Sachiez que je desire grandement +<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">-18-</a></span>Salut avesque ma beniçon, tres chier filz. Sachiez que je desire grandement de savoir bons nouelles de vous et de vostre estat: car vostre pere et moy estions a la faisance de ces lettres en bon poynt le Dieu merci. Et sachiez que je vous envoie par le portour de ces lettres demy marc pur @@ -1217,7 +1176,7 @@ Et vous pri cherement, beau tres doulz filz, que vous laissez tous mals et folyes et ne hantez mye mauvaise compagnie, car si vous le faitez il vous fera grant damage, avant que vous l'aperceiverez. Et je vous aiderai selon mon pooir oultre ce que vostre pere vous donnra. Dieus vous doint sa -beniçon, car je vous donne la mienne. . . .</p></div></div> +beniçon, car je vous donne la mienne. . . .</p></div></div> <p>From about the middle of the fourteenth century a feeling of discontent with the prerogative of the French language in @@ -1266,7 +1225,7 @@ who had received special educational advantages, or had travelled on the Continent, spoke and wrote French correctly; others used forms which contrasted pitiably with continental French. Moreover, the fourteenth century saw the triumph -of the Île de France dialect in France; the other dialects +of the ÃŽle de France dialect in France; the other dialects ceased, as a rule, to be used in literature,<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> and this change was not without effect on Anglo-French, which shared their degradation. Chaucer lets us know the poor opinion @@ -1286,22 +1245,22 @@ superfluous in many cases; William of Wadington, the author of the <i>Manuel des Pechiez</i>, for example, wrote:<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">De le françois ne del rimer<br /></span> +<span class="i0">De le françois ne del rimer<br /></span> <span class="i0">Ne me doit nuls hom blamer,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Car en Engleterre fu né<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Et nurri lenz et ordiné.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Car en Engleterre fu né<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Et nurri lenz et ordiné.<br /></span> </div></div> <p class="noi">Such apologies became all the more necessary as time went on. Even Gower, whose French was comparatively pure,<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> owing no doubt to travel in France in early life, deemed it advisable to explain that he wrote in French for "tout le monde en -general," and to ask pardon if he has not "de François la +general," and to ask pardon if he has not "de François la faconde":</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> <span class="i0">Jeo suis Englois si quier par tiele voie<br /></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">-20-</a></span> -<span class="i0">Estre excusé.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Estre excusé.<br /></span> </div></div> <p class="noi">At about the same time the anonymous author of the <i>Testament @@ -1320,7 +1279,7 @@ Edward III., many of the English nobility resided in that country with their families. Montaigne refers to traces of the English in Guyenne, which still remained in the sixteenth century: "Il est une nation," he writes in one of his Essays, -"a laquelle ceux de mon quartier ont eu autrefois si privée +"a laquelle ceux de mon quartier ont eu autrefois si privée accointance qu'il reste encore en ma maison aucune trace de leur ancien cousinage."<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> The opinions formed by the French of the English were naturally anything but flattering. We @@ -1332,8 +1291,8 @@ most other foreigners indiscriminately:</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> <span class="i0">Franche dogue dit un Anglois.<br /></span> <span class="i0">Vous ne faites que boire vin,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Si faisons bien dist le François,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Mais vous buvez le lunnequin. (bière.)<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a><br /></span> +<span class="i0">Si faisons bien dist le François,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Mais vous buvez le lunnequin. (bière.)<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a><br /></span> </div></div> <p class="noi">Even in the <i>Roman de Renart</i> we come across traces of @@ -1346,7 +1305,7 @@ already in the thirteenth century the provincial accents of the different parts of France herself had been the object of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">-21-</a></span>some considerable amount of raillery.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> The English, says Froissart, a good judge, for he spent many years in England, -"disoient bien que le françois que ils avoient apris chies eulx +"disoient bien que le françois que ils avoient apris chies eulx d'enfance n'estoit pas de telle nature et condition que celluy de France estoit."<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> And this 'condition' was soon recognized as a plentiful store for facetious remarks and parodies @@ -1367,7 +1326,7 @@ pretend he is an Englishman:<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> <span class="i0">Et dex saut vos, bau dous amis!<br /></span> <span class="i0">Dont estes vos? de quel pais?<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Vous n'estes mie nés de France,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Vous n'estes mie nés de France,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Ne de la nostre connoissance.<br /></span> </div></div> @@ -1429,7 +1388,7 @@ Law:<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" c <p class="noi">At about the same time as Swift wrote, the 'frenchified' Lady, then in fashion, who prided herself on her knowledge of the -"language à la mode" is described as being able to "keep the +"language à la mode" is described as being able to "keep the field against a whole army of Lawyers, and that in their own language, French gibberish."<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> And long after French ceased to be used in the Law many law terms and legal and official @@ -1553,9 +1512,9 @@ Antiquities</i>, 1819, iii. p. 365.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The grammar of Jacques Sylvius or Dubois appeared in 1531, a year after Palsgrave's. No attempt at a theoretical treatment of the French language appeared in -France in the Middle Ages. There are, however, two Provençal ones extant. (F. -Brunot, "Le Français à l'étranger," in L. Petit de Julleville's <i>Histoire de la langue -et de la littérature française</i>, ii. p. 528.)</p></div> +France in the Middle Ages. There are, however, two Provençal ones extant. (F. +Brunot, "Le Français à l'étranger," in L. Petit de Julleville's <i>Histoire de la langue +et de la littérature française</i>, ii. p. 528.)</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> One of the chief effects of the Conquest in the schools is said to have been the substitution of Norman for English schoolmasters (Leach, <i>Schools of Mediaeval England</i>, @@ -1572,16 +1531,16 @@ Europe in the Middle Ages</i>, Oxford, 1895, ii. p. 603.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Adam du Petit Pont (<i>d.</i> 1150) wrote an epistle in Latin, many words of which were glossed in French. But there is no evidence that it was used in England. It -was published by E. Scheler in his <i>Trois traités de lexicographie latine du 12<sup>e</sup> et 13<sup>e</sup> -siècles</i>, Leipzig, 1867.</p></div> +was published by E. Scheler in his <i>Trois traités de lexicographie latine du 12<sup>e</sup> et 13<sup>e</sup> +siècles</i>, Leipzig, 1867.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Ed. T. Wright, <i>Volume of Vocabularies</i>, i. 96, and Scheler, <i>op. cit.</i> Both editions are deemed unsatisfactory by Paul Meyer (<i>Romania</i>, xxxvi. 482).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> It has been published five times: (1) At Caen by Vincent Correr in 1508 (<i>Romania</i>, -<i>ut supra</i>); (2) H. Géraud, in <i>Documents inédits sur l'histoire de France</i>: "Paris sous -Philippe le Bel d'après les documents originaux," 1837; (3) Kervyn de Lettenhove, -1851; (4) T. Wright, <i>Volume of Vocabularies</i>, i. pp. 120 <i>sqq.</i>; (5) Scheler, <i>Trois traités +<i>ut supra</i>); (2) H. Géraud, in <i>Documents inédits sur l'histoire de France</i>: "Paris sous +Philippe le Bel d'après les documents originaux," 1837; (3) Kervyn de Lettenhove, +1851; (4) T. Wright, <i>Volume of Vocabularies</i>, i. pp. 120 <i>sqq.</i>; (5) Scheler, <i>Trois traités de lexicographie latine</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Wright, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 139-141.</p></div> @@ -1603,7 +1562,7 @@ the Statutes of the University of Cambridge</i>, 1841, p. 4.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Rashdall, <i>op. cit.</i> i. pp. 319 <i>et seq.</i> Later the English nation was known as the German; it included all students from the north and east of Europe. On the English in the University of Paris see Ch. Thurot, <i>De l'organisation de l'enseignement dans -l'Université de Paris</i>, Paris, 1850; and J. E. Sandys, "English Scholars of Paris, +l'Université de Paris</i>, Paris, 1850; and J. E. Sandys, "English Scholars of Paris, and Franciscans of Oxford," in <i>The Cambridge History of English Literature</i>, i., 1908, chap. x. pp. 183 <i>et seq.</i></p></div> @@ -1613,7 +1572,7 @@ et l'Angleterre</i>, Paris, 1856, p. 11.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> A writer of about 1180 says it was impossible to tell who were Normans and who English ("Dialogus de Scaccario": Stubbs, <i>Select Charters</i>, 4th ed., 1881, p. 168).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> "Discours sur l'état des lettres au 13<sup>e</sup> siècle," in the <i>Histoire littéraire de la +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> "Discours sur l'état des lettres au 13<sup>e</sup> siècle," in the <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, xvi. p. 168.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> D. Behrens, in H. Paul's <i>Grundiss der germanischen Philologie</i>, Strassbourg, 1901, @@ -1628,8 +1587,8 @@ and petitions were often drawn up in French (Oxford Hist. Soc., <i>Collectanea</ <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Maitland, <i>Collected Papers</i>, 1911, ii. p. 437.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Such are Bozon's <i>Contes moralisés</i> (<i>c.</i> 1320), ed. P. Meyer, in the <i>Anciens Textes -Français</i>, 1889. In his Introduction Meyer lays stress on the widespread use of French +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Such are Bozon's <i>Contes moralisés</i> (<i>c.</i> 1320), ed. P. Meyer, in the <i>Anciens Textes +Français</i>, 1889. In his Introduction Meyer lays stress on the widespread use of French in England at this time, and its chance of becoming the national language of England, an eventuality which, he thinks, might have been a benefit to humanity.</p></div> @@ -1638,12 +1597,12 @@ an eventuality which, he thinks, might have been a benefit to humanity.</p></div <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Paul Meyer calls it the work of a true grammarian (<i>Romania</i>, xxxii. p. 65).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> There are four MSS. extant. These have been collated and published by J. -Sturzinger in the <i>Altfranzösische Bibliothek</i>, vol. viii., Heilbronn, 1884; cp. <i>Romania</i>, +Sturzinger in the <i>Altfranzösische Bibliothek</i>, vol. viii., Heilbronn, 1884; cp. <i>Romania</i>, xiv. p. 60. The earliest MS. is in the Record Office, and was published by T. Wright in Haupt and Hoffman's <i>Altdeutsche Blaetter</i> (ii. p. 193). Diez quoted from this edition in his <i>Grammaire des langues romanes</i>, 3rd ed. i. pp. 415, 418 <i>sqq.</i> The three other MSS. are in the Brit. Mus., Camb. Univ. Libr. and Magdalen Col. Oxon., and belong to the three succeeding centuries. -Portions of the Magdalen Col. MS. are quoted by A. J. Ellis, in his <i>Early English Pronunciation</i>, pp. 836-839, and by F. Génin, in his +Portions of the Magdalen Col. MS. are quoted by A. J. Ellis, in his <i>Early English Pronunciation</i>, pp. 836-839, and by F. Génin, in his preface to the French Government reprint of Palsgrave's Grammar, 1852. It is the British Museum copy, made in the reign of Edward III., which contains the French commentary.</p></div> @@ -1663,7 +1622,7 @@ when they come from the Latin <i>habet</i>, should be written without <i>d</i>; array</i> should be written without <i>e</i> in the middle, and sounded without <i>u</i>, as <i>aray</i>, <i>en array</i>, though the English include the <i>e</i>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Published by Stengel, in the <i>Zeitschrift für neufranzösische Sprache und Literatur</i>, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Published by Stengel, in the <i>Zeitschrift für neufranzösische Sprache und Literatur</i>, 1879, pp. 16-22.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Miss Pope, <i>ut supra</i>.</p></div> @@ -1690,7 +1649,7 @@ and one in the Library of Sir Th. Phillips at Cheltenham. The best-known edition of the vocabulary is that of T. Wright, <i>Volume of Vocabularies</i>, i. pp. 142-174, which is the one here quoted, and which reproduces Arundel MS. 220, collated with Sloane MS. 809. P. Meyer has given a critical edition of the first eighty-six lines in his <i>Recueil -d'anciens textes—partie française</i>, No. 367 (cp. <i>Romania</i>, xiii. p. 500).</p></div> +d'anciens textes—partie française</i>, No. 367 (cp. <i>Romania</i>, xiii. p. 500).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> In the vocabularies written in imitation of Bibbesworth at later dates, the English gloss is fuller, and in the latest one complete, as French became more and more a @@ -1753,8 +1712,8 @@ the difference in the meaning of some words according to their gender: <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The earliest of these MSS. dates from the second decade of the fourteenth century. These epistolaries are found in the following MSS.: Harleian 4971 and 3988, Addit. 17716, in the Brit. Mus.; Ee 4, 20 in Cantab. Univ. Library; B 14. 39, 40 in Trinity -Col. Camb.; 182 at All Souls, Oxford, and 188 Magdalen Col. Oxford (cp. Stürzinger, -<i>Altfranzösiche Bibliothek</i>), viii. pp. xvii-xix. The Introductions to these letters were +Col. Camb.; 182 at All Souls, Oxford, and 188 Magdalen Col. Oxford (cp. Stürzinger, +<i>Altfranzösiche Bibliothek</i>), viii. pp. xvii-xix. The Introductions to these letters were edited in a Griefswald Dissertation (1898), by W. Uerkvitz.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Stengel, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 8-10.</p></div> @@ -1765,11 +1724,11 @@ edited in a Griefswald Dissertation (1898), by W. Uerkvitz.</p></div> pp. 635 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> L. Menger, <i>Anglo-Norman Dialect</i>; Behrens, <i>art. cit.</i> pp. 960 <i>sqq.</i>; Brunot, -<i>Histoire de la langue française</i>, i. pp. 319 <i>sqq.</i>, 369.</p></div> +<i>Histoire de la langue française</i>, i. pp. 319 <i>sqq.</i>, 369.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Brunot, <i>op. cit.</i> i. p. 331.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Jusserand, <i>Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais</i>, 1896. p. 240 n.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Jusserand, <i>Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais</i>, 1896. p. 240 n.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Brunot, <i>op. cit.</i> i. p. 369.</p></div> @@ -1795,7 +1754,7 @@ ridiculed in France, and Englishmen represented as talking a sort of gibberish; <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Ed. E. Martin, 1882, l. 2351 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i>Recueil général et complet des fabliaux</i>, ed. Montaiglon et Raynaud, ii. p. 178.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i>Recueil général et complet des fabliaux</i>, ed. Montaiglon et Raynaud, ii. p. 178.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Maitland, <i>Collected Papers</i>, 1911, ii. p. 436; Freeman, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 536; Brunot, <i>op. cit.</i> i. p. 373.</p></div> @@ -1807,15 +1766,15 @@ There are numerous entries of such works in the <i>Stationers' Register</i>.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> [H. Dell], <i>The Frenchified Lady never in Paris</i>, London, 1757.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Pepys in his Diary notes the use of French in such phrases, and the Abbé Le -Blanc (<i>Lettres d'un Français sur les Anglais</i>, à la Haye, 1745) was also struck by +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Pepys in his Diary notes the use of French in such phrases, and the Abbé Le +Blanc (<i>Lettres d'un Français sur les Anglais</i>, à la Haye, 1745) was also struck by the custom.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Bateson, <i>Mediaeval England</i>, p. 342; Warton, <i>History of English Poetry</i>, p. 10 n.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Ellis, <i>Original Letters</i>, 3rd series, 1846, i. p. xi.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> M. A. E. Green (<i>née</i> Wood), <i>Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies</i>, London, 1846; +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> M. A. E. Green (<i>née</i> Wood), <i>Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies</i>, London, 1846; <i>The Paston Letters</i>, new edition by J. Gairdner, 3 vols., London, 1872-75; H. Ellis, <i>Original Letters</i>, 3rd series, London, 1846; J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, <i>Letters of the Kings of England</i>, London, 1846; C. L. Kingsford, <i>English Historical Literature in @@ -1823,7 +1782,7 @@ the Fifteenth Century</i>, Oxford, 1893, pp. 193 <i>et seq.</i>; Hallam, <i>Lite 6th ed., London, 1860, i. p. 54.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> "Que tout seigneur, baron, chevalier et honestes hommes de bonnes villes mesissent -cure et dilligence de estruire et apprendre leurs enfans le langhe françoise, par quoy il en fuissent +cure et dilligence de estruire et apprendre leurs enfans le langhe françoise, par quoy il en fuissent plus avec et plus costumier ens leurs gherres" (Froissart, quoted by Behrens, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 957 n.).</p></div> @@ -1851,25 +1810,25 @@ of the invaders,<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footn becoming the language which the English loved and cultivated above all modern foreign tongues, and to which they devoted for a great many years more care than they did -to their own. "Doulz françois," writes an Englishman at +to their own. "Doulz françois," writes an Englishman at the end of the fourteenth century in a treatise for teaching the language,<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> is the most beautiful and gracious language in the world, after the Latin of the schools,<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> "et de tous gens -mieulx prisée et amée que nul autre; quar Dieu le fist se +mieulx prisée et amée que nul autre; quar Dieu le fist se doulce et amiable principalement a l'oneur et loenge de luy mesmes. Et pour ce il peut bien comparer au parler des -angels du ciel, pour la grant doulceur et biaultée d'icel"—a +angels du ciel, pour la grant doulceur et biaultée d'icel"—a more eloquent tribute even than the more famous lines of Brunetto Latini. Another writer of the same period informs <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">-27-</a></span>us that "les bones gens du Roiaume d'Engleterre sont embrasez a scavoir lire et escrire, entendre et parler droit -François," and that he himself thinks it is very necessary for -the English to know the "droict nature de François," for +François," and that he himself thinks it is very necessary for +the English to know the "droict nature de François," for many reasons.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> For instance, that they may enjoy intercourse with their neighbours, the good folk of the kingdom of France; that they may better understand the laws of England, of which a great many are still written in French; and also -because "beaucoup de bones choses sont misez en François," +because "beaucoup de bones choses sont misez en François," and the lords and ladies of England are very fond of writing to each other in the same tongue.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> @@ -1879,7 +1838,7 @@ change in the standard of the French which the manuals for teaching that language sought to attain. All the best text-books of the end of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries endeavour with few exceptions to impart a knowledge of the French of -Paris, "doux françois de Paris" or "la droite language de +Paris, "doux françois de Paris" or "la droite language de Paris," as it was called, in contrast with the French of Stratford-atte-Bowe and other parts of England. Those authors of treatises for teaching French of whose lives we have any @@ -1965,9 +1924,9 @@ learn French that he may speak fairly before wise men, for <div><span class="i0">Spekep alway as man ys tauth</span></div> <div><span class="i0">And not as man untauth.</span></div> </div><div> -<div lang="fr"><span class="i0">Parlez imprimer de tout assemblé</span></div> +<div lang="fr"><span class="i0">Parlez imprimer de tout assemblé</span></div> <div><span class="i2a"> n o </span></div> -<div lang="fr"><span class="i0">Dez bestez que Dieu ad formé.</span></div> +<div lang="fr"><span class="i0">Dez bestez que Dieu ad formé.</span></div> <div><span class="i0">Spekep fyrst of manere assemble alle</span></div> <div><span class="i0">Of bestes that God hath y maked.</span></div> </div></blockquote> @@ -2040,7 +1999,7 @@ The two most considerable of these works known add many verbs to the list mentioned above. Of these the first, the <i>Liber Donati</i>,<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> gives examples of law French rather than literary French;<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> but the other, written in French, endeavours -to teach "douce françois de Paris"—<i>cy comence le Donait +to teach "douce françois de Paris"—<i>cy comence le Donait <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">-31-</a></span>soloum douce franceis de Paris</i>.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> The <i>Donait</i> belongs to the fifteenth century, and is the work of one R. Dove, who also wrote some <i>Regulae de Orthographia Gallica</i> in Latin,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> which @@ -2093,7 +2052,7 @@ which includes observations on the orthography and pronunciation, on verbs and pronouns, and lists of adverbs, conjunctions, and numerals. But there appeared at the beginning of the fifteenth century, before 1409, a more comprehensive -treatise of some real value—the <i>Donait françois +treatise of some real value—the <i>Donait françois pur briefment entroduyr les Anglois en la droit langue du Paris et de pais la d'entour</i>,<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> a work which but for its very many anglicisms might be placed on a level with some of @@ -2109,7 +2068,7 @@ preface, the work was intended mainly for the use of young people—the "chers enfants" and "tres douces pucelles," 'hungering' to learn French: "Pur ce, mes chiers enfantz et tresdoulcez puselles," he writes, "que avez fam d'apprendre -cest Donait scachez qu'il est divisé en belcoup de chapiters si +cest Donait scachez qu'il est divisé en belcoup de chapiters si come il apperera cy avale." Barton then retires to make way for his 'clerks,' whose remarks are entirely confined to grammatical teaching and who, like Barton, write in French.</p> @@ -2155,10 +2114,10 @@ their pronunciation, set forth, like the rest of the grammar, in a series of questions and answers:</p> <div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Quantez letters est il? Vint. Quellez? Cinq voielx et quinse consonantez. -Quelx sont les voielx et ou seroit ils sonnés? Le premier -vouyel est <i>a</i> et serra sonné en la poetrine, la seconde est <i>e</i> et serra sonné en -la gorge, le tiers est <i>i</i> et serra sonné entre les joues, le quart est <i>o</i> et serra -sonné du palat de la bouche, le quint est <i>u</i> et serra sonné entre les levres.</p></div> +Quelx sont les voielx et ou seroit ils sonnés? Le premier +vouyel est <i>a</i> et serra sonné en la poetrine, la seconde est <i>e</i> et serra sonné en +la gorge, le tiers est <i>i</i> et serra sonné entre les joues, le quart est <i>o</i> et serra +sonné du palat de la bouche, le quint est <i>u</i> et serra sonné entre les levres.</p></div> </div> <p class="noi"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">-34-</a></span>To these observations on the vowels are added a few on the consonants, and "belcoup de bones rieules" (six in all) @@ -2198,7 +2157,7 @@ these rules, we may surmise, were lost and soon forgotten.</p> <p>In the fifteenth century, instruction in French epistolary style of all degrees continued to be supplied in collections of model letters; and at the end of the fourteenth century a new -kind of book for teaching French appeared—the <i>Manière de +kind of book for teaching French appeared—the <i>Manière de Langage</i> or model conversation book, intended for the use of travellers, merchants, and others desiring a conversational and practical rather than a thorough and grammatical knowledge @@ -2225,37 +2184,37 @@ law students. He may have been Canon M. T. Coyfurelly, Doctor of Law of Orleans,<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> and author of the contemporary recasting of T. H.'s treatise on French orthography. The author tells us he undertook his task at the request of a -"tres honoré et tres gentil sire"; that he had learnt French +"tres honoré et tres gentil sire"; that he had learnt French "es parties la mere," and that he wrote according to the knowledge he acquired there, which, he admits, may not be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">-36-</a></span>perfect. Indeed his French is full of anglicisms; <i>que homme</i> is written for 'that man'; <i>œuvrer</i> for 'worker'; <i>que</i> for 'why,' and so on; there are also many grammatical mistakes such as wrong genders, <i>au homme</i>, <i>de les</i> for <i>des</i>, <i>de le</i> for <i>du</i>. -This "manière" must have enjoyed a very considerable +This "manière" must have enjoyed a very considerable popularity, judging from the number of manuscripts, of various dates, still in existence. And, in modern times, it presents a greater interest to the reader than any of the -treatises mentioned before, partly from the naïveté and quaintness +treatises mentioned before, partly from the naïveté and quaintness of its style, partly owing to the vivid picture it gives us of the life of the time at which it was written.</p> <p>It opens in a religious strain, with a prayer that the students of the book may have "sens naturel" to learn to speak, -pronounce, and write "doulz françois":</p> +pronounce, and write "doulz françois":</p> <div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>A noster commencement nous dirons ainsi: en nom du pere, filz et Saint Esperit, amen. Ci comence la Maniere de Language qui t'enseignera -bien a droit parler et escrire doulz françois selon l'usage et la coustume +bien a droit parler et escrire doulz françois selon l'usage et la coustume de France. Primiers, au commencement de nostre fait et besogne nous prierons Dieu devoutement et nostre Dame la benoite vierge Marie sa tres douce mere, et toute la glorieuse compaigne du Saint reaume de Paradis celeste, ou Dieux mette ses amis et ses eslus, de quoi vient toute science, sapience, grace et entendement et tous manieres vertuz, qu'il luy plaist de sa grande misericorde et grace tous les escoliers estudianz en cest livre -ainsi abruver et enluminer de la rousée de sa haute sapience et entendement, +ainsi abruver et enluminer de la rousée de sa haute sapience et entendement, qu'ils pouront avoir sens naturel d'aprendre a parler, bien soner et a droit -escrire doulz françois.</p></div></div> +escrire doulz françois.</p></div></div> <p>Then, because man is the noblest of all created things, the author proceeds to give a list of the parts of his body, which @@ -2279,10 +2238,10 @@ and his page through an imaginary journey in France. Dialogue and narrative alternate, and the lord talks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">-37-</a></span> with his page Janyn or whiles away the time with songs:</p> -<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Et quant il aura achevée sa chanson il comencera a parler a son escuier +<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Et quant il aura achevée sa chanson il comencera a parler a son escuier ou a ses escuiers, ainsi disant: "Mes amys, il est bien pres de nuyt," vel sic: "Il sera par temps nuyt." Doncques respont Janyn au son signeur bien -gentilment en cest maniere: "Vrayement mon seigneur, vous ditez verité"; +gentilment en cest maniere: "Vrayement mon seigneur, vous ditez verité"; vel sic: "vous ditez voir"; vel sic: "vous dites vray"—"Je panse bien qu'il feroit mieux pour nous d'arester en ce ville que d'aller plus avant maishuy. Coment vous est avis?"—"Ainsi comme vous vuillez, mon @@ -2295,10 +2254,10 @@ en cest maniere. "Hosteler, hosteler," etc.</p></div></div> coming of his master to the inn, and we next assist at the arrival of the lord and his evening meal and diversions—another opportunity for the introduction of songs—and his -departure in the morning towards Étampes and Orleans.</p> +departure in the morning towards Étampes and Orleans.</p> <p>More humble characters appear in the next chapter: "Un -autre manière de parler de pietalle, comme des labourers et +autre manière de parler de pietalle, comme des labourers et œuvrers de mestiers." Here we have conversations between members of the working classes. A gardener and a ditcher discuss their respective earnings, describe their work, and @@ -2308,23 +2267,23 @@ just as the gardener gave a list of flowers and fruits. A merchant scolds his apprentice for various misdemeanours, and then sends him off to market:</p> -<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Doncques l'apprentiz s'en vait au marchié pour vendre les danrées de +<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Doncques l'apprentiz s'en vait au marchié pour vendre les danrées de son maistre et la vienment grant cop des gens de divers pais de les achater: et apprentiz leur dit tout courtoisement en cest maniere,—'Mes amis venez vous ciens et je vous monstrerai de aussi bon drap comme vous trouverez -en tout ce ville, et vous en aurez de aussi bon marché comme nul autre. +en tout ce ville, et vous en aurez de aussi bon marché comme nul autre. Ore regardez, biau sire, comment vous est avis; vel sic: comment vous plaist il;</p></div></div> <p class="noi">and after some bargaining he sells his goods.</p> -<p>In the next "manière de parler" a servant brings a torn +<p>In the next "manière de parler" a servant brings a torn doublet to a mender of old clothes, and enlists his services. A chapter of more interest and importance is that dealing with greetings and salutations to be used at different times of the day to members of the various ranks of society:</p> -<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Quant un homme encontrera aucun au matinée il luy dira tout courtoisement +<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Quant un homme encontrera aucun au matinée il luy dira tout courtoisement ainsi: "Mon signour Dieux vous donne boun matin et bonne aventure," vel sic: "Sire Dieux vous doint boun matin et bonne estraine, Mon amy, Dieux vous doint bon jour et bonne encontre." Et a midi vous parlerez @@ -2347,7 +2306,7 @@ tres volantiers. . . ."</p> <p>From this we return to subjects more suited to merchants and wayfarers—how to inquire the road, and to go on a -pilgrimage to the tomb of St. Thomas-à-Becket. The work +pilgrimage to the tomb of St. Thomas-à -Becket. The work closes with a gathering of companions in an inn, which, like the rest of the chapters, is full of life and interest. Last of all, a sort of supplement is added in the form of a short poem @@ -2362,7 +2321,7 @@ on the drawbacks of poverty:</p> <p>Another treatise of the same kind, written about three years later, was intended chiefly for the use of children, <i>Un petit livre pour enseigner les enfantz de leur entreparler comun -françois</i>.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> It was not the first of its kind. The metrical +françois</i>.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> It was not the first of its kind. The metrical vocabularies of Bibbesworth and his successors were chiefly intended for the use of children. There is also some evidence to show that the grammatical treatises were used by children; @@ -2374,11 +2333,11 @@ grammar particularly concerns.</p> <p>In the <i>Petit livre</i>, however, the teaching is of the simplest kind, and specially suited to children. The dialogue -lacks the interest of the earlier 'manière,' and inclines, in +lacks the interest of the earlier 'manière,' and inclines, in places, to become a list of phrases pure and simple. The work opens abruptly with the words: "Pour ce sachez -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">-39-</a></span>premierement que le an est divisé en deux, c'est asscavoir -le yver et la esté. Le yver a six mois et la esté atant, que +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">-39-</a></span>premierement que le an est divisé en deux, c'est asscavoir +le yver et la esté. Le yver a six mois et la esté atant, que vallent douse," and so on to the other divisions of the year and time. The children are then taught the numbers in French, the names of the coins, and those of the @@ -2395,15 +2354,15 @@ class. In the chatter on the events of the day there occurs a passage which enables us to date the work. The traveller tells the hostess of the captivity of Richard II. as a recent event:</p> -<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>"Dieu, dame, j'ay ouy dire que le roy d'<ins title="original: Angliterre">Angleterre</ins> est osté."—"Quoy +<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>"Dieu, dame, j'ay ouy dire que le roy d'<ins title="original: Angliterre">Angleterre</ins> est osté."—"Quoy desioie!"—"Par ma alme voir."—"Et les Anglois n'ont ils point de roy donques?"—"Marie, ouy, et que celuy que fust duc de Lancastre, que est -nepveu a celluy que est osté."—"Voire?"—"Voire vraiement."—"Et le -roygne que fera elle?"—"Par dieu dame, je ne sçay, je n'ay pas esté en -conceille."—"Et le roy d'Angleterre ou fust il coronné?"—"A Westmynstre."—"Fustez +nepveu a celluy que est osté."—"Voire?"—"Voire vraiement."—"Et le +roygne que fera elle?"—"Par dieu dame, je ne sçay, je n'ay pas esté en +conceille."—"Et le roy d'Angleterre ou fust il coronné?"—"A Westmynstre."—"Fustez vous la donques?"—"<ins title="original: Maris">Marie</ins>, oy, il y avoit tant de presse que par un pou que ne mouru quar a paine je eschapey a vie."—"Et -ou serra il a nouvel?"—"Par ma foy je ne sçay, mais l'en dit qu'il serra en +ou serra il a nouvel?"—"Par ma foy je ne sçay, mais l'en dit qu'il serra en Escoce."</p></div></div> <p>The authorship is not so easy to ascertain. The manual @@ -2453,18 +2412,18 @@ manuals supplanted, to a considerable extent, the earlier type of practical manual for teaching French—the metrical vocabulary—with which they had something in common. At any rate, there is no copy of such nomenclatures extant after -<i>Femina</i> (1415). The 'manières' provided in their dialogues +<i>Femina</i> (1415). The 'manières' provided in their dialogues much of the material found in the vocabularies, giving, wherever possible, groups of words on the same topics—the body, its clothing, houses, and men's occupations. Further, the vocabularies, which had never departed from the type instituted by Bibbesworth in the thirteenth century, dealt more with the feudal and agricultural life of the Middle -Ages, and so had fallen behind the times. The 'Manières +Ages, and so had fallen behind the times. The 'Manières de Langage' were more in keeping with the new conditions. Towards the end of the century (and perhaps at the beginning <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">-41-</a></span>of the sixteenth century) we come to a manual,<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> which, while -resembling the 'manières' in most points, reproduces some +resembling the 'manières' in most points, reproduces some of the distinctive external marks of the vocabularies. For instance, the French is arranged in short lines, which, however, do not rime, and vary considerably in the number of @@ -2536,7 +2495,7 @@ part of the scribe.</p> <p>Merchants thus appear to have been one of the chief classes among which there was a demand for instruction in French. -In addition to the large part assigned to them in the 'Manières +In addition to the large part assigned to them in the 'Manières de Langage,' and in the epistolaries, where letters of a commercial nature are a usual feature, there exist collections of model forms for drawing up bills, indentures, receipts and @@ -2555,7 +2514,7 @@ a de primes en Latyn et puis en Franceys."</p> French among the merchant class by the fact that the earliest printed text-books were designed chiefly for their use. The first of these may be classed with the new development of -the 'Manières de Langage,' comprising dialogues in French +the 'Manières de Langage,' comprising dialogues in French and English, although it does not exactly answer to this description.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> It was issued from the press of William Caxton in about 1483, and at least one other edition appeared at a @@ -2600,7 +2559,7 @@ Briefment fransoys et engloys.</span></td> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Raysonnablement entendre</span></td> <td>Resonably understande</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Françoys et Anglois,</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Françoys et Anglois,</span></td> <td>Frenssh and Englissh,</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Du tant comme cest escript</span></td> @@ -2615,7 +2574,7 @@ Briefment fransoys et engloys.</span></td> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Mais ce qu'on n'y trouvera</span></td> <td>But that which cannot be founden</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Declairé en cestui</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Declairé en cestui</span></td> <td>Declared in this</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Pourra on trouver ailleurs</span></td> @@ -2648,10 +2607,10 @@ Briefment fransoys et engloys.</span></td> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Merchandises d'un pays a l'autre,</span></td> <td>Marchandise fro one land to anoothir,</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Et cognoistre maintes denrées</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Et cognoistre maintes denrées</span></td> <td>And to know many wares</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Que lui seroient bon achetés</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Que lui seroient bon achetés</span></td> <td>Which to him shall be good to be bought</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Ou vendues pour riche devenir.</span></td> @@ -2674,7 +2633,7 @@ degrees of kinship:</p> <span class="i0">Je vous dirai maintenant<br /></span> <span class="i0">Dune autre matere<br /></span> <span class="i0">La quele ie commence.<br /></span> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">-44-</a></span><span class="i0">Se vous estes mariés<br /></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">-44-</a></span><span class="i0">Se vous estes mariés<br /></span> <span class="i0">Et vous avez femme<br /></span> <span class="i0">Et vous ayez marye,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Se vous maintiens paisiblement<br /></span> @@ -2682,7 +2641,7 @@ degrees of kinship:</p> <span class="i0">De vous fors que bien:<br /></span> <span class="i0">Ce seroit vergoigne.<br /></span> <span class="i0">Se vous aves pere et mere,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Si les honnourés tousiours;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Si les honnourés tousiours;<br /></span> <span class="i0">Faictes leur honneur;. . .<br /></span> <span class="i0">Si vous aves enfans,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Si les instrues<br /></span> @@ -2697,7 +2656,7 @@ occupations, which affords an opportunity of bringing in the different shops to which they are sent and of specifying the meat and drink they purchase there. We then pass to buying, selling, and bargaining in general, and to merchandise of all -kinds, with a list of coins, popular fairs, and fête-days.</p> +kinds, with a list of coins, popular fairs, and fête-days.</p> <p>After an enumeration of the great persons of the earth comes the main chapter of the work, giving a fairly complete @@ -2753,10 +2712,10 @@ by it:</p> <span lang="fr">Cy fine ceste doctrine,</span></td><td>Here endeth this doctrine,</td></tr> <tr><td> </td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">A Westmestre les Loundres</span></td><td>At Westmestre by London</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">En formes impressée,</span></td><td>In fourmes enprinted,</td></tr> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">En formes impressée,</span></td><td>In fourmes enprinted,</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">En le quelle ung chaucun</span></td><td>In the whiche one everish</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Pourra briefment aprendre</span></td><td>May shortly lerne</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">François et Engloys.</span></td><td>French and English.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">François et Engloys.</span></td><td>French and English.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">La grace de sainct esperit</span></td><td>The grace of the holy ghosst</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Veul enluminer les cures</span></td><td>Wylle enlyghte the hertes</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">De ceulx qui le aprendront,</span></td><td>Of them that shall lerne it,</td></tr> @@ -2806,7 +2765,7 @@ column to the <i>Livre des Mestiers</i>, his knowledge of French had not yet reached that state of thoroughness which was to enable him to translate such a remarkable number of French works into English. He himself tells us in the prologue -to the <i>Recuyell of the Histories of Troy</i> of Raoul le Fèvre +to the <i>Recuyell of the Histories of Troy</i> of Raoul le Fèvre (Bruges, 1475)—the first of his translations from the French, and, indeed, the first book to be printed in English—that his knowledge of French was not by any means perfect. With @@ -2829,12 +2788,12 @@ book, except that the English lines come before the French, and not the French before the English.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> The four subjects <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">-47-</a></span>round which the dialogue turns, namely, salutations, buying and selling, inquiring the way, and conversation at the inn, -were all favourites in the early "Manières de Langage." +were all favourites in the early "Manières de Langage." For the rest it follows in the steps of its English predecessors in confining itself to dialogue pure and simple, while Caxton's 'doctrine' adopted the narrative form. In one point, however, the work differs from the latest development of the -old "Manière de Langage," as preserved in the Cambridge +old "Manière de Langage," as preserved in the Cambridge Dialogues in French and English; the dialogues are followed by a vocabulary, then a reprint of one of the old books on courtesy and demeanour for children, with a French version @@ -2902,19 +2861,19 @@ that written by Caxton for his work:</p> <blockquote class="interlinear"> <div><div> Here is a good boke to lerne to speke Frenshe.</div> -<div lang="fr">Vecy ung bon livre apprendre parler françoys.</div></div> +<div lang="fr">Vecy ung bon livre apprendre parler françoys.</div></div> <div><div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">-49-</a></span>In the name of the fader and the sone</div> <div lang="fr">En nom du pere et du filz</div></div> <div><div>And of the holy goost, I wyll begynne</div> <div lang="fr">Et du saint esperit, je vueil commencer</div></div> <div><div>To lerne to speke Frensshe,</div> -<div lang="fr">A apprendre a parler françoys,</div></div> +<div lang="fr">A apprendre a parler françoys,</div></div> <div><div>Soo that I maye doo my marchandise</div> <div lang="fr">Affin que je puisse faire ma marchandise</div></div> <div><div>In Fraunce & elles where in other londes,</div> <div lang="fr">En France et ailieurs en aultre pays,</div></div> <div><div>There as the folk speke Frensshe.</div> -<div lang="fr">La ou les gens parlent françoys.</div></div> +<div lang="fr">La ou les gens parlent françoys.</div></div> <div><div>And fyrst I wylle lerne to reken by lettre.</div> <div lang="fr">Et premierement je veux aprendre a compter par lettre. . . . </div></div></blockquote> @@ -2942,7 +2901,7 @@ salutations arranged in dialogue form:</p> <blockquote class="interlinear"> <div><div>Other maner of speche in frensshe.</div> -<div lang="fr">Autre magniere de langage en françoys.</div></div> +<div lang="fr">Autre magniere de langage en françoys.</div></div> <div><div>Syr, God gyve you good daye.</div> <div lang="fr">Sire, Dieu vous doint bon iour.</div></div> <div><div>Syr, God gyve you goode evyn.</div> @@ -3029,7 +2988,7 @@ next "manner of speech," where, as in the first treatise of <div><div>There is a ryght good one.</div> <div lang="fr">Il en y a ung tres bon.</div></div> <div><div>Ye shall be there ryght well lodged,</div> -<div lang="fr">Vous serez tres bien logé,</div></div> +<div lang="fr">Vous serez tres bien logé,</div></div> <div><div>Ye & also your horse.</div> <div lang="fr">Vous et aussi vostre chevaul.</div></div> <div><div>My frende, God yelde it you,</div> @@ -3047,7 +3006,7 @@ there, and his departure:</p> <blockquote class="interlinear"> <div><div>Dame, shall I be here well lodged?</div> -<div lang="fr">Dame, seroy ie icy bien logé?</div></div> +<div lang="fr">Dame, seroy ie icy bien logé?</div></div> <div><div>Ye syr, ryght well.</div> <div lang="fr">Ouy sire, tres bien.</div></div> <div><div>Nowe doo me have a good chambre</div> @@ -3057,9 +3016,9 @@ there, and his departure:</p> <div><div>And doo that my horse</div> <div lang="fr">Et faites que mon chevaul</div></div> <div><div>Maye be well governed,</div> -<div lang="fr">Puisse estre bien gouverné,</div></div> +<div lang="fr">Puisse estre bien gouverné,</div></div> <div><div>And gyve hym good hay and good otes.</div> -<div lang="fr">Et lui donnés bon foin et bon avoine.</div></div> +<div lang="fr">Et lui donnés bon foin et bon avoine.</div></div> <div><div>Dame, is all redy for to dyne?</div> <div lang="fr">Dame, est tout prest pour aller digner?</div></div> <div><div>Ye syr, whan it please you.</div> @@ -3081,13 +3040,13 @@ there, and his departure:</p> <div><div>Do my horse come to me.</div> <div lang="fr">Or me faittz venir mon cheval.</div></div> <div><div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">-52-</a></span>Is he sadled and redy for to ryde?</div> -<div lang="fr">Est il sellé et appointé pour chevaucher?</div></div> +<div lang="fr">Est il sellé et appointé pour chevaucher?</div></div> <div><div>Ye syr, all redy.</div> <div lang="fr">Ouy sire, tout prest.</div></div> <div><div>Now fare well and gramercy.</div> <div lang="fr">Or adiu et grandmercy.</div></div></blockquote> -<p>Here the 'manière de langage' ends. It is followed by +<p>Here the 'manière de langage' ends. It is followed by a list of nouns arranged under headings. The enumeration begins with the parts of the body,<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> followed by the clothing and armour—a list containing valuable information on the @@ -3143,11 +3102,11 @@ with the grace of God I shalle do suche dylygence that I shall gete your hertes desyre. No more wryte I to you at this tyme but God have you in hys protectyon. Wryten hastely the XIX daye of this moneth.</p> -<p>Tres honnoré sire, ie me recommande a vous tant comme je puis, et -plaise vous savoir que ie suis en tres bonne santé la marcy Dieu au quel ie +<p>Tres honnoré sire, ie me recommande a vous tant comme je puis, et +plaise vous savoir que ie suis en tres bonne santé la marcy Dieu au quel ie prie que ainsi soit il de vous et de tous vos bons amys. Quant pour la matiere -pour la quelle vous me envoiastes a Parys, g'ay parlé avec l'advocat du roy -le quel m'a dit quil me fault aller au roy et advertir sa royalle maiesté de ce +pour la quelle vous me envoiastes a Parys, g'ay parlé avec l'advocat du roy +le quel m'a dit quil me fault aller au roy et advertir sa royalle maiesté de ce et ay un specyal commandement. Pource consyderant le temps que j'ay attendu a Paris en cest poursuite et lez granz costz et despens faitz par cause de ce. Plaise vous savoir que pour poursuir ceste matiere au roy, le @@ -3253,7 +3212,7 @@ supplements, added probably with the intention of increasing the public to which the book would appeal. The children who used it, we may assume, would probably be of the class of the boy, "John, enfant beal et sage," who appears in the -'manière' of 1415, and learns French that he may the more +'manière' of 1415, and learns French that he may the more quickly achieve his end of being apprenticed to a London merchant. To such children the apprentice's letter quoted above would be of much interest.</p> @@ -3283,7 +3242,7 @@ were written, when to speak French fluently was an all-important matter. The difficulty of this accomplishment was realised to the full. We find it expressed in a few disconnected sentences added in French probably at the beginning -of the sixteenth century, at the end of the 'manière de +of the sixteenth century, at the end of the 'manière de langage' of 1396: "We need very long practice before we are able to speak French perfectly," says the anonymous writer, evidently an Englishman, "for the French and English @@ -3292,9 +3251,9 @@ are difficult to seize." He proceeds to urge the necessity of a glib tongue in making progress in French, and quotes the case of an unfortunate man, good fellow though he might otherwise be, who lacked this faculty: "Il ne luy avient plus a -parler franceis qu'à une vache de porter une selle, a cause que -sa langue n'est pas bien afilée, et pour cela n'entremette il pas -à parler entre les fraunceis."</p> +parler franceis qu'à une vache de porter une selle, a cause que +sa langue n'est pas bien afilée, et pour cela n'entremette il pas +à parler entre les fraunceis."</p> <p>In the early part of the sixteenth century, however, French began to be studied with more thoroughness in England. @@ -3318,19 +3277,19 @@ oblivion.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Freeman, <i>Norman Conquest</i>, ii., 1868, pp. 16 <i>sqq.</i>, 28 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> <i>Manière de Langage</i>, 1396; cp. <i>infra</i>, p. 35.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> <i>Manière de Langage</i>, 1396; cp. <i>infra</i>, p. 35.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> "Doulz françois qu'est la plus bel et la plus gracious language et plus noble +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> "Doulz françois qu'est la plus bel et la plus gracious language et plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole, qui soit au monde."</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Jehan Barton, <i>Donait François</i>, <i>c.</i> 1400.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Jehan Barton, <i>Donait François</i>, <i>c.</i> 1400.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> "Afin qu'ils puissent entrecomuner bonement ove lour voisin c'est a dire les bones gens du roiaume de France, et ainsi pour ce que les leys d'Engleterre pour le -graigneur partie et ainsi beaucoup de bones choses sont misez en François, et aussi +graigneur partie et ainsi beaucoup de bones choses sont misez en François, et aussi bien pres touz les sirs et toutes les dames en mesme roiaume d'Engleterre volentiers s'entrescrivent en romance—tresnecessaire je cuide estre aus Englois de scavoir la -nature de François."</p></div> +nature de François."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Which no doubt became more numerous, as English, rather than Latin, became the medium through which French was learnt. Thus we find <i>pour honte</i> written for @@ -3350,7 +3309,7 @@ sic docet iste liber iuvenes rethorice loqui Gallicum prout infra patebit."</p>< <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> The English spelling, very corrupt in the original, is here modernized.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> These MSS. have been described and classified by J. Stürzinger, <i>Altfranzösische +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> These MSS. have been described and classified by J. Stürzinger, <i>Altfranzösische Bibliothek</i>, viii. pp. v-x.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 4971; Addit. MS. 11716, and Camb. Univ. Libr. MS. Ee @@ -3380,15 +3339,15 @@ Magdalen College, MS. 188, and All Souls, MS. 182.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Brunot, <i>op. cit.</i> i. p. 376.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> "A le honneur de Dieu et de sa tresdoulce miere et toutz les saintez de paradis, -je Johan Barton, escolier de Paris, née et nourie toutes foiez d'Engleterre en la conté -de Cestre, j'ey baillé aus avantdiz Anglois un Donait françois pur les briefment entroduyr +je Johan Barton, escolier de Paris, née et nourie toutes foiez d'Engleterre en la conté +de Cestre, j'ey baillé aus avantdiz Anglois un Donait françois pur les briefment entroduyr en la droit language du Paris et de pais la d'entour la quelle language en Engleterre on appelle doulce France. Et cest Donat je le fis la fair a mes despenses et tres grande peine par pluseurs bons clercs du language avantdite."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Brunot, <i>op. cit.</i> i. p. 376.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> "Cy endroit il fault prendre garde qu'en parlant François on ne mette pas une +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> "Cy endroit il fault prendre garde qu'en parlant François on ne mette pas une personne pour une aultre si come font les sottez gens, disantz ainsi <i>je ferra</i> pour <i>je ferray</i>. . . ."</p></div> @@ -3400,7 +3359,7 @@ which we return to the verbs, and their moods and tenses. The following sections deal with the parts of speech; the four indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections) are merely mentioned. Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns receive some attention, but the chief subject is the verb: "Cy maintenant nous vous -baillerons un exemple coment vous fourmeres touz les verbs françois du monde, soient-ils +baillerons un exemple coment vous fourmeres touz les verbs françois du monde, soient-ils actifez, soient-ils passivez, en quelque meuf ou temps qu'ils soient. Et ceste exemple serra pour cest verbe <i>jeo aime</i>. . . ." But the verbs are not classified, and only a few of the best known are conjugated as examples. In the list of impersonal verbs @@ -3439,7 +3398,7 @@ and in the Brit. Mus. (Addit. 17716).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Such collections exist in MSS. Harl. 4971 and Addit. 17716, Brit. Mus.; and in Ee 4, 20, Camb. Univ. Libr.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Harl. 4971; cp. Stürzinger, <i>op. cit.</i> p. xvi.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Harl. 4971; cp. Stürzinger, <i>op. cit.</i> p. xvi.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Early bibliographers seem to have been uncertain as to what category it belonged to: for some time it was called a <i>Book for Travellers</i>; then a <i>Vocabulary in French @@ -3454,8 +3413,8 @@ series lxxix.). The other edition, of which a fragment exists in the Bodleian, w probably printed by Wynkyn de Worde (W. C. Hazlitt, <i>Handbook ... to the Literature of Great Britain</i>, 1867, p. 631).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Published from a MS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale, by M. Michelant: <i>Le Livre -des Mestiers, dialogues français-flamands, composés au 14<sup>e</sup> siècle par un maître d'école de +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Published from a MS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale, by M. Michelant: <i>Le Livre +des Mestiers, dialogues français-flamands, composés au 14<sup>e</sup> siècle par un maître d'école de la ville de Bruges</i>. Paris, 1875.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> H. Bradley: Introduction to the edition of Caxton's <i>Dialogues</i>.</p></div> @@ -3561,7 +3520,7 @@ it was round the Court circles that developed the new and more serious study of the language which then arose—a study which led to the production of so important a work as John Palsgrave's <i>L'Esclarcissement de la langue -françoyse</i>. It will therefore be well to consider the extent +françoyse</i>. It will therefore be well to consider the extent to which French was used among the nobility and gentry of the time.</p> @@ -3720,7 +3679,7 @@ for the most part, the English use the French language, besides having a great admiration for everything else French—an observation which cannot safely be taken as referring to any other class than the nobility, as his relations would be almost -wholly restricted to that class. When the Duke of Württemberg +wholly restricted to that class. When the Duke of Württemberg visited the court of Elizabeth, where he found ample occasion to exercise his own admirable knowledge of French, he left on record the fact that many English courtiers understood @@ -3741,12 +3700,12 @@ Englishmen never wrote in their native tongue, Frenchmen did occasionally use their own language rather than Latin. Bacon wrote in French to the Marquis of Effiat, and Hotman, on the other hand, in French to Camden: "Me sentant -detraqué de l'usage de la langue latine, je vous escris cette -lettre en françois pour renouveller avec vous notre amitié +detraqué de l'usage de la langue latine, je vous escris cette +lettre en françois pour renouveller avec vous notre amitié ancienne et correspondance."<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> John Calvin corresponded with Edward VI. and Protector Somerset in French, and Henry IV. of France carried on a voluminous correspondence -in his own language with his "tres chere et tres aimée bonne +in his own language with his "tres chere et tres aimée bonne <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">-67-</a></span> <span class="sidenote">FRENCH REGARDED WITH SPECIAL FAVOUR</span>sœur," Elizabeth, as well as with her chief ministers.<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> French @@ -3789,7 +3748,7 @@ served when he is left alone.<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></ with much favour. The first king of this line had lived for <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">-68-</a></span>many years in France and was strongly imbued with French tastes.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> He encouraged Frenchmen to visit England, and -appointed one of them, Bernard André, his Poet Laureate and +appointed one of them, Bernard André, his Poet Laureate and Historiographer as well as tutor to his sons. There were also troupes of French comedians and minstrels who performed at Court from time to time.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> The king always received with @@ -3923,7 +3882,7 @@ inspire her with a still greater desire to speak French well.<a name="FNanchor_1 Anne stayed in France several years, first in the service of Mary during the few months she was Queen of France, then in that of her successor, Queen Claude, consort of Francis I., -and finally in the more lively household of Margaret of Alençon, +and finally in the more lively household of Margaret of Alençon, afterwards Queen of Navarre. On her return to the English Court she became maid of honour to Queen Katherine, and her skill in dress and her French manners<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> did much @@ -3940,16 +3899,16 @@ make from the Court:</p> <div class="blockquot"><p>Ma Maitresse et amie, moy et mon cœur s'en remettent en vos mains, vous suppliant les avoir pour recommander a votre bonne grace, et que par -absence votre affection ne leur soit diminué. Car pur augmenter leur peine -ce seroit grande pitié, car l'absence leur fait assez, et plus que jamais je -n'eusse pensé . . . vous asseurant que de ma part l'ennuye de l'absence +absence votre affection ne leur soit diminué. Car pur augmenter leur peine +ce seroit grande pitié, car l'absence leur fait assez, et plus que jamais je +n'eusse pensé . . . vous asseurant que de ma part l'ennuye de l'absence deja m'est trop grande. Et quand je pense a l'augmentation d'iceluy que par force faut que je soufre il m'est presque intollerable, s'il n'estoit le ferme espoir que j'aye de votre indissoluble affection vers moi, et pour le vous rementevoir alcune fois cela, et voyant que personellement je ne puis estre en votre presence, chose la plus approchante a cela qui m'est possible au present, je vous envoye, c'est-a-dire ma picture mise en braisselettes a toute la -devise que deja sçavez, me souhaitant en leur place quant il vous plairoit. +devise que deja sçavez, me souhaitant en leur place quant il vous plairoit. C'est de la main de—Votre serviteur et amy,</p> <p class="right"> @@ -4021,7 +3980,7 @@ Her accent is reported to have been harsh and unpleasing; she spoke with a drawl, and, according to M. Drizanval, resident in London for the French king,<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> she constantly repeated the phrase "<i>paar Dieu, paar maa foi</i>" in a -ridiculous tone. Another visitor, the Duke of Württemberg, +ridiculous tone. Another visitor, the Duke of Württemberg, records that he once heard her deliver an appropriate speech in French,<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> which, as usual, was the language in which he addressed her. Towards the end of her reign the queen still @@ -4033,10 +3992,10 @@ to another (whether foreign ministers or those who attend for different reasons) in English, French, and Italian."<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> She also wrote French with some ease. One of her earliest literary efforts was a translation from the French of Margaret of -Navarre's <i>Miroir de l'Ame pécheresse</i>. She likewise composed +Navarre's <i>Miroir de l'Ame pécheresse</i>. She likewise composed devotions and prayers in French—a habit which she retained after she had been queen for many years. At the time when -her marriage with the Duke of Alençon, her "little frog," as +her marriage with the Duke of Alençon, her "little frog," as she calls him, was under discussion, the queen compiled a curious little volume, containing six prayers, written on vellum in a very neat hand; in addition to devotions in @@ -4062,7 +4021,7 @@ English social life, and the chief means of entering the service of the State, noblemen and gentlemen wishing to figure on the social stage endeavoured to adapt themselves to Court requirements. French tutors were to be found in all the chief -families of the time. Étienne Pasquier remarks that there +families of the time. Étienne Pasquier remarks that there was no noble family in England without its French tutor to instruct the children in the French language.<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> This condition of things was still further developed a few years later when @@ -4074,7 +4033,7 @@ the most part, either the authors of manuals for teaching French, or had won repute as writers or Humanists before leaving their native land.</p> -<p>One of these Humanists was Bernard André, familiarly +<p>One of these Humanists was Bernard André, familiarly called "Master Barnard," the blind poet—an infirmity to which he frequently refers. He was a native of Toulouse, and probably came to England with Henry VII., his @@ -4082,12 +4041,12 @@ patron.<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_1 Henry appointed this Frenchman, author of verses in French and Latin but never a line in English, Poet Laureate of England. In addition to this he bestowed on him repeated -marks of favour. For a time André was engaged as a tutor +marks of favour. For a time André was engaged as a tutor at Oxford, and in 1496 was chosen as governor to Prince Arthur, and probably had much to do with the education of his brother, afterwards Henry VIII. Appointed Historiographer Royal, he began in this capacity to write his patron's -life. Like so many other men of education, André was in +life. Like so many other men of education, André was in Holy Orders; he received preferment from time to time, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">-76-</a></span>was finally presented to the living of Guisnes near Calais, which he resigned in 1521, having attained an "extreme old age."</p> @@ -4157,7 +4116,7 @@ excellent and myghty prynce, Th. duke of Northfolke</i>. The printer, Robert Coplande, himself a good French scholar, composed some lines on the coat of arms of the Duke in French, and printed them at the beginning of the book; at the -end he placed a translation of Lambert Danneau's <i>Traité des +end he placed a translation of Lambert Danneau's <i>Traité des Danses</i>, also from his own pen.<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></p> <p>Barclay's endeavour is to make his grammar as short and @@ -4191,7 +4150,7 @@ the other hand, deals only with the French spoken between the Seine and the Loire, which he regarded as the only pure French. Barclay's attitude to dialectal forms may possibly be explained by the fact that he transcribed freely from the -mediaeval treatises, especially the <i>Donait françois</i> of John +mediaeval treatises, especially the <i>Donait françois</i> of John Barton. His debt was early noted by Palsgrave, who wrote: "I have sene an olde boke written in parchment, in all thynges lyke to his sayd <i>Introductory</i>, whiche, by conjecture, was not @@ -4268,9 +4227,9 @@ to have made good progress under his direction. Pierre <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">-81-</a></span> <span class="sidenote">PIERRE VALENCE, TEACHER OF FRENCH</span>Valence was one of the natives of Normandy, so numerous in England at this time that the fact was commented on by -Étienne Perlin, a French priest who visited England at the +Étienne Perlin, a French priest who visited England at the end of the reign of Edward VI. He describes them as being -"du tout tres mechans et mauditz François," worse than +"du tout tres mechans et mauditz François," worse than all the English, which, according to him, is a very grave charge.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> The date at which Valence came to England is unknown, but he is said to have studied at Cambridge in or @@ -4288,7 +4247,7 @@ contemporary, John Palsgrave: both were students at Cambridge, possibly at the same time, though Palsgrave was the senior; both had as their pupil the son of Mr. Secretary Cromwell—the one for French and the other for Latin; -both were protégés of the Dowager Queen of France (sister +both were protégés of the Dowager Queen of France (sister of Henry VIII. and Palsgrave's pupil for French) and of her husband the Duke of Suffolk. In 1535 Valence received a grant of letters of denization,<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> and ultimately became domestic @@ -4383,7 +4342,7 @@ Boleyn.</p> Nicolas Denisot arrived in England, driven from Paris by an unfortunate love affair.<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> His nephew, Jacques Denisot, declares he was "fort bien accueilliz dans la cour d'Angleterre -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">-84-</a></span>où son estime et sa reputation estoit deja cogneue." He mixed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">-84-</a></span>où son estime et sa reputation estoit deja cogneue." He mixed with the writers and politicians<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> of the day, and attracted the notice of the Court by writing verses in honour of the young king, Edward VI.<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> He soon found himself in the @@ -4410,7 +4369,7 @@ them in 1550. In the following year the verses appeared again, accompanied by French, Italian, and Greek translations, and verses from the pen of Ronsard, Du Bellay, and other literary friends of Denisot.<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> It is a striking fact that before -the Pléiade was fully known in France, the fame of some of +the Pléiade was fully known in France, the fame of some of its members had reached England, where a particular interest would be taken in this development of the work of the three princesses. Ronsard, Denisot's intimate friend, wrote one @@ -4418,10 +4377,10 @@ of his earliest odes in honour of Denisot's pupils, in which he celebrates the intellectual union of France and England:</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"><span lang="fr"> -<span class="i0">Denisot se vante heuré<br /></span> -<span class="i0">D'avoir oublié sa terre<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Denisot se vante heuré<br /></span> +<span class="i0">D'avoir oublié sa terre<br /></span> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">-85-</a></span> -<span class="sidenote">THE PLÉIADE IN ENGLAND</span><span class="i0">Et passager demeuré<br /></span> +<span class="sidenote">THE PLÉIADE IN ENGLAND</span><span class="i0">Et passager demeuré<br /></span> <span class="i0">Trois ans en Angleterre.<br /></span> <span class="i0">. . . . les espritz<br /></span> <span class="i0">D'Angleterre et de la France<br /></span> @@ -4453,7 +4412,7 @@ till 1582, when his <i>Elementarie</i> was published.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> Translation of Sallust's <i>Bellum Jugurthinum</i>: Dedication to the Duke of Norfolk.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <i>Remains</i>, Parker Society, p. 470. Quoted by J. J. Jusserand, <i>Histoire littéraire +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <i>Remains</i>, Parker Society, p. 470. Quoted by J. J. Jusserand, <i>Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais</i>, Paris, 1904, p. 86, n. 3.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> <i>The Correspondence of Sir Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet</i>, ed. W. A. Bradly, @@ -4497,8 +4456,8 @@ witness, but also strangers, men of great learninge, in their books set out in L give honourable testimonye." Best known of these learned observers was Scaliger (<i>Scaligeriana</i>, Cologne, 1695, p. 134). Similar eulogies in verse were left by French poets: Ronsard, <i>Elegies, Mascarades et Bergeries</i> (1561), reproduced in <i>Le Bocage -royal</i> (1567); Jacques Grévin, <i>Chant du cygne</i>; Du Bartas, <i>Second Week</i>; and -Agrippa d'Aubigné; also by John Florio, <i>First Frutes</i>, 1578, ch. xiii.</p></div> +royal</i> (1567); Jacques Grévin, <i>Chant du cygne</i>; Du Bartas, <i>Second Week</i>; and +Agrippa d'Aubigné; also by John Florio, <i>First Frutes</i>, 1578, ch. xiii.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> <i>First Frutes</i>, 1578, ch. i.</p></div> @@ -4506,7 +4465,7 @@ Agrippa d'Aubigné; also by John Florio, <i>First Frutes</i>, 1578, ch. xiii.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> <i>Merchant of Venice</i>, Act I. Scene 2.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Cp. Brunot, <i>Histoire de la langue française</i>, ii. pp. 2 <i>sqq.</i> Dallington in his <i>View +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Cp. Brunot, <i>Histoire de la langue française</i>, ii. pp. 2 <i>sqq.</i> Dallington in his <i>View of France</i> remarks on the same neglect. In <i>The Abbot and the Learned Woman</i>, Erasmus praises the latter for studying the classics and not, as was usual, confining herself to French (<i>Colloquia</i>, Leiden, 1519).</p></div> @@ -4515,11 +4474,11 @@ French (<i>Colloquia</i>, Leiden, 1519).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> <i>The Second Book of the Travels of Nicander Nucius</i>, Camden Soc., 1841, p. 14.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> <i>Dialogue de l'ortografe et pronunciacion françoese departi en deus livres</i>, Lyon, 1558.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> <i>Dialogue de l'ortografe et pronunciacion françoese departi en deus livres</i>, Lyon, 1558.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Peiresc wrote in French to the scholars Selden and Camden, who answered in Latin. Other French scholars who maintained a correspondence with Englishmen -are de Thou, Jérôme Bignon, Duchesne, du Plessis Mornay, H. Estienne, Hubert +are de Thou, Jérôme Bignon, Duchesne, du Plessis Mornay, H. Estienne, Hubert Languet, Pibrac, and the Sainte-Marthe brothers.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> <i>Lettres missives de Henri IV</i>, 9 tom., Paris, 1843. For an example of Elizabeth's @@ -4550,7 +4509,7 @@ Rawdon Brown, <i>Four Years at the Court of Henry VIII.</i>, 1854, vol. i. pp. 7 1912. Barclay says in his <i>Eclogues</i> that French minstrels and singers were highly favoured at Court. Jamieson, <i>Life and Writings of Barclay</i>, 1874, p. 44.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> "Je serai à [vous] toujours et tant que je vivrai autre n'aimerai que vous."</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> "Je serai à [vous] toujours et tant que je vivrai autre n'aimerai que vous."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> <i>Henry VIII.</i>, Act I. Scene 4.</p></div> @@ -4583,20 +4542,20 @@ ii. pp. 179, 181.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> Ellis, <i>Orig. Letters</i>, 2nd series, vol. ii. p. 11. Anne's French spelling is curious and suggests that, like Henry VIII., she learnt French mainly by ear: "Mons. Je -antandue par v<sup>re</sup> lettre que aves envy que tout onnete feme quan je vindre à la courte +antandue par v<sup>re</sup> lettre que aves envy que tout onnete feme quan je vindre à la courte et ma vertisses que Rene prendra la pein de devisser a vecc moy, de quoy me regoy bien fort de pensser parler a vecc ung personne tante sage et onnete, cela me ferra a voyr plus grante anvy de continuer a parler bene franssais."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> A French poem of the time, preserved in MS. and quoted by Rathery, <i>op. cit.</i> -p. 21, celebrates Anne's French accomplishments—<i>Traité pour feue dame Anne de +p. 21, celebrates Anne's French accomplishments—<i>Traité pour feue dame Anne de Boulant, jadis royne d'Angleterre, l'an 1533</i>: </p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"><span lang="fr"> <span class="i0">"La tellement ses graces amenda<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Que ne l'eussiez oncques jugée Angloise<br /></span> -<span class="i0">En ses fachons, ains naïve Françhoise.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Elle sçavoit bien danser et chanter,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Que ne l'eussiez oncques jugée Angloise<br /></span> +<span class="i0">En ses fachons, ains naïve Françhoise.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Elle sçavoit bien danser et chanter,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Et ses propos sagement agencer,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Sonner du luth et d'autres instrumens<br /></span> <span class="i0">Pour divertir les tristes pensemens."<br /></span></span> @@ -4644,13 +4603,13 @@ Queen of England could speak Dutch (p. 341).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> The MS. was reproduced in facsimile in 1893. The prayers in French begin thus: "Mon Dieu et mon pere puis qu'il t'a pleu desployer les tresors de ta grande misericorde -envers moy ta tres humble servante, m'ayant de bon matin retirée des profonds abismes +envers moy ta tres humble servante, m'ayant de bon matin retirée des profonds abismes de l'ignorance naturelle et des superstitions damnables pour me faire iouir de ce grand soleil de justice . . . etc."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> <i>Lettres</i>, Amsterdam, 1723, liv. i. p. 5.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> An account of the little that is known of André's life is given in Gairdner's +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> An account of the little that is known of André's life is given in Gairdner's <i>Memorials of Henry VII.</i>, pp. viii <i>et seq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> Of foreign countries, the Netherlands seem to have come next to England in @@ -4668,11 +4627,11 @@ linguae gallicae</i>. This suggests that possibly the <i>Introductory</i> was fi written in Latin.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> Time after time he mentions the usages of different parts of the country, as -<i>piecha</i> for <i>pieça</i> in certain districts; <i>jeo</i> and <i>ceo</i> for <i>je</i> and <i>ce</i> in Picard and Gascon; the +<i>piecha</i> for <i>pieça</i> in certain districts; <i>jeo</i> and <i>ceo</i> for <i>je</i> and <i>ce</i> in Picard and Gascon; the writing of the names of dignitaries and officers in the plural instead of the singular, as <i>luy papes de Rome</i>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> <i>L'Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse</i>, bk. i. ch. xxxv.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> <i>L'Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse</i>, bk. i. ch. xxxv.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> "There is a boke which goeth about in this realme, intitled <i>The Introductory to write and pronounce French</i>, compyled by Alexander Barclay. I suppose it is sufficient @@ -4691,7 +4650,7 @@ Engl. Text Soc., 1869, etc., pt. iii. pp. 804 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> Such is the rule for the formation of the plural. As for the genders, he gives a few isolated examples and converts them into rules.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> On folio 8vº.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> On folio 8vº.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> Folios 9-14. The vocabulary begins with the letter M, and after proceeding to the end of the alphabet, resumes at the beginning—an arrangement probably due to @@ -4707,7 +4666,7 @@ and the second may explain itself:</p> <div>And he the whiche it ledeth.</div></div> <div><div lang="fr">Primierement hairois la terre,</div> <div>Firste ere the grounde,</div></div> -<div><div lang="fr">Apres semer le blé ou l'orge.</div> +<div><div lang="fr">Apres semer le blé ou l'orge.</div> <div>After sow the whete or barley.</div></div> <div><div lang="fr">Les herces doivent venir apres,</div> <div>The harrowes must come after,</div></div> @@ -4741,8 +4700,8 @@ at Lambeth</i>, 1843, pp. 290 <i>et seq.</i></p></div> <i>habeo</i>, as hereafter ye may see."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> "Sur toultes choses doibuit noter gentz Englois que leur fault accustomer de -pronuncer la derniere lettre du mot françois quelque mot que ce soit (rime exceptée) -ce que la langue engleshe ne permet, car la ou l'anglois dit 'goode breade,' le françois +pronuncer la derniere lettre du mot françois quelque mot que ce soit (rime exceptée) +ce que la langue engleshe ne permet, car la ou l'anglois dit 'goode breade,' le françois diroit 'goode' iii sillebes et 'breade' iii sillebes."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> J. A. Jacquot, <i>Notice sur Nicolas Bourbon de Vandœuvre</i>, Troyes et Paris, 1857. @@ -4751,11 +4710,11 @@ him in his native town a reputation won by his Latin verses. On his return from England, Queen Margaret of Navarre entrusted to him the education of her daughter, Jeanne, who was the mother of Henry IV.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> <i>Nicolai Borbonii vandoperani Lingonenis</i> <span lang="el" title="Greek: Paidagôgeion">Παιδαγωγειον</span>, Lugduni, 1536.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> <i>Nicolai Borbonii vandoperani Lingonenis</i> <span lang="el" title="Greek: Paidagôgeion">Παιδαγωγειον</span>, Lugduni, 1536.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> J. H. Marsden, <i>Philomorus</i>, 2nd ed., 1878, p. 261.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> Clement Jugé, <i>Nicolas Denisot du Mans, 1515-1559</i>, Paris and Le Mans, 1907.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> Clement Jugé, <i>Nicolas Denisot du Mans, 1515-1559</i>, Paris and Le Mans, 1907.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> He also began his work as a secret agent in the service of France, and it is said that Calais was recovered by the French in 1558, from a plan which Denisot submitted @@ -4764,10 +4723,10 @@ to the Duc de Guise.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> There was a MS. copy of Latin poems by Denisot in the Library of Edward VI. (Nichols, <i>Literary Remains</i>, 1857.)</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> J. Bonnet, <i>Récits du seizième siècle</i>, 1864, p. 348.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> J. Bonnet, <i>Récits du seizième siècle</i>, 1864, p. 348.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> <i>Le Tombeau de Marguerite de Navarre faict premierement en Distiques latins par -les trois sœurs, Princesses en Angleterre: Depuis Traduits, en Grec, Italien et François +les trois sœurs, Princesses en Angleterre: Depuis Traduits, en Grec, Italien et François par plusieurs des excellentz Poetes de la France. Avecques plusieurs Odes, Hymnes, Cantiques, Epitaphes sur le mesme subiect.</i> Paris, 1551.</p></div> </div> @@ -4788,11 +4747,11 @@ teaching French at the English Court for over ten years when Palsgrave received his first appointment there, as French tutor to the king's "most dere and entierly beloved" sister Mary, afterwards Queen of France. Both teachers were -protégés of Henry VIII., and taught in the royal family—Duwes +protégés of Henry VIII., and taught in the royal family—Duwes was tutor to the king himself; and both were authors of grammars of the French language. That of Palsgrave has been mentioned already. It appeared in 1530 under the title -of <i>L'Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse</i>. Duwes's was not +of <i>L'Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse</i>. Duwes's was not published till three years later approximately, at the request of his pupil, Princess Mary, afterwards Queen of England. It was called <i>An Introductorie for to learne to rede, to prononce and to @@ -5114,7 +5073,7 @@ had planned the whole of the three books, for in that year he made a contract with the printer, Richard Pynson, in which it is stipulated that "the sayd Richarde, his executors and assignes shall imprint or cause to be imprynted on boke callyd 'lez -lesclarcissement de la langue Françoys,' contayning iii sondrye +lesclarcissement de la langue Françoys,' contayning iii sondrye bokes, where in is shewyd howe the saide tong schould be pronownsyd in reding and speking, and allso syche gramaticall rules as concerne the perfection of the saide tong, with ii @@ -5426,21 +5385,21 @@ appears to have become impatient when his gout or any other reason kept him from her. In one of the dialogues she is shown rebuking him for his absence one evening:</p> -<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Mary.</i> Comment Giles, vous montrés bien qu'avés grant cure et soing -de m'aprendre quand vous vous absentés ainsy de moy.</p> +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Mary.</i> Comment Giles, vous montrés bien qu'avés grant cure et soing +de m'aprendre quand vous vous absentés ainsy de moy.</p> <p><i>Gyles.</i> Certes madame, il me semble que suis continuellement ici.</p> -<p><i>Mary.</i> Voire, et ou estiés vous hier a soupper je vous prie.</p> +<p><i>Mary.</i> Voire, et ou estiés vous hier a soupper je vous prie.</p> <p><i>Gyles.</i> Veritablement, madame, vous avez raison, car je m'entroubliay ersoir a cause de compagnie et de communication.</p> -<p><i>Mary.</i> Je vous prie, beau sire, faictes nous parçonniere de vostre communication, +<p><i>Mary.</i> Je vous prie, beau sire, faictes nous parçonniere de vostre communication, car j'estime quelle estoit de quelque bon purpos.</p> <p><i>Gyles.</i> Certes, madame, elle estoit de la paix, laquelle (come on disoit) -est proclamée par tout ce royaume. . . .</p></div> +est proclamée par tout ce royaume. . . .</p></div> <p class="noi">Then master and pupil are pictured discussing at length the subject of peace. Love, the nature of the soul, and the meaning @@ -5516,7 +5475,7 @@ the Queen of France wrote to Wolsey to beg his favour on behalf of Palsgrave that he may continue at "school."<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> From this we may conclude that Palsgrave was continuing the studies he had begun at an earlier date at the University -of Paris. He calls himself "gradué de Paris" in +of Paris. He calls himself "gradué de Paris" in 1530, and no doubt also, his work on the French language was making headway.</p> @@ -5536,7 +5495,7 @@ when his "worldly jewel," as Henry called the young duke, was made Lieutenant-General of the North, the king entrusted Palsgrave with the charge of bringing him up "in virtue & learning."<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> Palsgrave was allowed three servants and an -annual stipend of £13:6:8. He took great pains with his +annual stipend of £13:6:8. He took great pains with his young pupil's education, and the king seems to have approved of his method.<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> Such was not the case with Gregory Cromwell, who, it appears, shared the lessons of the duke. When @@ -5551,7 +5510,7 @@ help him to "tread underfoot" that horrible monster poverty. He also petitions his constant patroness the Dowager Queen of France and her husband the Duke of Suffolk. All he has to live by and pay his debts and maintain his poor mother is -little more than £50.<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a></p> +little more than £50.<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a></p> <p>Among Palsgrave's other pupils of note were Thomas Howard, brother to the Earl of Surrey; my Lord Gerald, @@ -5685,7 +5644,7 @@ is to Elizabeth, who, it appears, had written to him in French, inviting him to reply in the same language. He takes her advice:</p> -<div class="blockquot"><p>Puisque vous a pleu me rescrire, tres chere et bien aymée sœur, je vous +<div class="blockquot"><p>Puisque vous a pleu me rescrire, tres chere et bien aymée sœur, je vous mercie de bien bon cuer, et non seullement de vostre lettre, mais aussy de vostre bonne exhortation et example, laquelle, ainsy que j'espere, me servira d'esperon pour vous suivre en apprenant. Priant Dieu vous avoir @@ -5696,13 +5655,13 @@ en sa garde. De Titenhanger, 18 jour de decembre et l'an de nostre seigneur, <span class="i8"><span class="smcap">Edwardus. Prince</span>.</span></p> <p class="noi"> a ma treschere et bien<br /> -aymée sœur Elizabeth.<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> +aymée sœur Elizabeth.<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> </p></div> <p class="noi">We see from the date of this letter that Edward had been learning French nearly three months when it was written.</p> -<p>Bellemain's salary as French tutor to the king was £6:12:4 +<p>Bellemain's salary as French tutor to the king was £6:12:4 per quarter. In 1546 he received an annuity of fifty marks for life; in 1550 a lease for twenty-one years of the parsonages of Minehead and Cotcombe, county Somerset; in 1553 a @@ -5766,7 +5725,7 @@ extremely likely that Bellemain had been teaching her for several years before he was appointed French tutor to Edward, perhaps owing to his success with Elizabeth. At any rate there does not seem to be any trace of any other French tutor to -the princess, and the fact that he received an annuity of £50 +the princess, and the fact that he received an annuity of £50 for life suggests that he had already rendered some service in the royal family.</p> @@ -5793,9 +5752,9 @@ Latin, French, and Italian, and dedicated them to her father.<a name="FNanchor_2 Of greater interest is a little book the princess wrote in French, and also offered to the king—a translation into French of the <i>Dialogus Fidei</i> of Erasmus, thus inscribed: -"A Treshaut Trespuissant et Redoubté Prince Henry VIII +"A Treshaut Trespuissant et Redoubté Prince Henry VIII de ce nom, Roy d'Angleterre, de France et d'Irlande, -défenseur de la foy, Elizabeth sa Treshumble fille rend +défenseur de la foy, Elizabeth sa Treshumble fille rend salut et obedience." This treatise, composed before the death of the king in 1547,<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> was preserved in the Library at Whitehall, and often attracted the attention of foreign visitors @@ -5839,19 +5798,19 @@ their pupils.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> First edition. Printed at London, by Th. Godfray, <i>c.</i> 1534. Sig. A-Ea in fours.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> Both these grammars were reprinted by Génin, in the <i>Collection des documents -inédits sur l'Histoire de France</i>. II. <i>Histoire des lettres et sciences</i>. Paris, 1852.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> Both these grammars were reprinted by Génin, in the <i>Collection des documents +inédits sur l'Histoire de France</i>. II. <i>Histoire des lettres et sciences</i>. Paris, 1852.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> By Andrew Baynton, in a letter prefixed to Palsgrave's grammar.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> Palsgrave in his grammar.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> Both Palsgrave's and Duwes's observations on the pronunciation of French are -utilized by M. Thurot: <i>De la prononciation française depuis le commencement du</i> 16<sup>e</sup> -<i>siècle d'après les témoignages des grammairiens</i>. 2 tom. Paris, 1881. +utilized by M. Thurot: <i>De la prononciation française depuis le commencement du</i> 16<sup>e</sup> +<i>siècle d'après les témoignages des grammairiens</i>. 2 tom. Paris, 1881. </p><p> For further treatment of Palsgrave's grammar, see A. Benoist, <i>De la syntaxe -française entre Palsgrave et Vaugelas</i>. Paris, 1877.</p></div> +française entre Palsgrave et Vaugelas</i>. Paris, 1877.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> The second book begins on folio xxxi. and ends on folio lix. In the third book the pagination begins anew: folio 1 to folio 473.</p></div> @@ -5866,7 +5825,7 @@ followeth the tenses of <i>Je ay</i>, it is not ever generall that he shall rema but ... yf the tenses of <i>Je ay</i> have a relatyve before them or governe an accusative case eyther of a pronoune or substantyve, the participle for the most part shall agree with the sayd accusatyve cases in gendre and nombre, and in such sentences not -remayne unchaunged. Helas, I have loved her, <i>helas je l'ay aimée</i> ..." etc.</p></div> +remayne unchaunged. Helas, I have loved her, <i>helas je l'ay aimée</i> ..." etc.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> Duwes's plan is as comprehensive as Palsgrave's, as is seen by the following table: @@ -5891,22 +5850,22 @@ ioinyng 2 verbes together."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> iv. 4560.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> ". . . m'a comandé et enchargé de reduire et mectre en escript la maniere -coment g'ay procedé envers ses dictz progeniteurs et predecesseurs, coe celle aussi y +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> ". . . m'a comandé et enchargé de reduire et mectre en escript la maniere +coment g'ay procedé envers ses dictz progeniteurs et predecesseurs, coe celle aussi y la quelle ie l'ay (tellement quellement) instruit et instruis iournellment. . . ."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> <i>Privy purse expenses of the Princess Mary</i>, ed. F. Madden, 1831, pp. xli-xliii.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> "Duwes avait d'une main leste et sure esquissé la petite grammaire de Lhomond: -Palsgrave avait laborieusement compilé la grammaire des grammaires: L'in-folio -fut étouffé par l'in-8vo. Cela se voit souvent dans la littérature où le quatrain de St. -Aulaire triomphe de la Pucelle de Chapelain" (Génin's Introduction). +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> "Duwes avait d'une main leste et sure esquissé la petite grammaire de Lhomond: +Palsgrave avait laborieusement compilé la grammaire des grammaires: L'in-folio +fut étouffé par l'in-8vo. Cela se voit souvent dans la littérature où le quatrain de St. +Aulaire triomphe de la Pucelle de Chapelain" (Génin's Introduction). </p><p> -It seems an exaggeration to use the word "étouffer." At any rate the victory was +It seems an exaggeration to use the word "étouffer." At any rate the victory was not final. Palsgrave's work is not forgotten to-day, like that of Duwes.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> There are copies of all three editions in the Bodleian. The British Museum -contains one copy of Bourman's edition, and two of Waley's (the third). Génin used +contains one copy of Bourman's edition, and two of Waley's (the third). Génin used Godfray's edition in his reprint.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> E. G. Duff, <i>A Century of the English Book Trade</i>, Bibliog. Society, 1905.</p></div> @@ -5914,7 +5873,7 @@ Godfray's edition in his reprint.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> There are, however, a larger number of Palsgrave's one edition extant than of Duwes's three. This is, no doubt, because its size and value prevented it from being used with the lack of respect with which school-books are usually treated. There is -a copy of the <i>Esclarcissement</i> in the Bibliothèque Mazarine at Paris; two in the British +a copy of the <i>Esclarcissement</i> in the Bibliothèque Mazarine at Paris; two in the British Museum; one in the Bodleian, one in Cambridge University Library, and one in the Rylands Library.</p></div> @@ -5941,18 +5900,18 @@ asseyed here and my little knowledge of French well exercised" (Brussels, Nov. 2 1538), <i>Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII.</i> xiii. pt. ii. No. 882.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> "O devotz amateurs de bonnes lettres pleust a Dieu que quelque noble cœur -s'employast a mettre et ordonner par regle nostre langaige françois! Ce seroit moyen +s'employast a mettre et ordonner par regle nostre langaige françois! Ce seroit moyen que maints milliers d'hommes se evertueroient a souvent user de belles et bonnes -paroles. S'il n'y est mis et ordonné on trouvera que de cinquante en cinquante ans la -langue françoise pour la plus grande part sera changée et pervertie" (folio 1, verso). +paroles. S'il n'y est mis et ordonné on trouvera que de cinquante en cinquante ans la +langue françoise pour la plus grande part sera changée et pervertie" (folio 1, verso). Tory sketched a plan of a great work on the language to which his <i>Champ fleury</i> was intended only as an introduction.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Génin is 'certain' that the date given on the frontispiece of Palsgrave's work +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Génin is 'certain' that the date given on the frontispiece of Palsgrave's work is a year earlier than that on which it actually appeared. He draws this conclusion from the date of the king's privilege, twenty-second year of Henry VIII., who came to the throne in 1509; 9 + 22 = 31. This leaves Palsgrave a longer period to gather -what he could from Tory's work, says Génin. But the twenty-second year of the +what he could from Tory's work, says Génin. But the twenty-second year of the reign of Henry VIII. began in April 1530, and the printing of Palsgrave's work was completed on the 18th of July.</p></div> @@ -6011,13 +5970,13 @@ The MS. of the first is at Trin. Col. Cantab. R 7, 31, of the second in the Brit Addit. MS. 9000, and of the third at Biblio. Pub. Cantab. Dd 12, 59, and Brit. Mus. Addit. 5464. Nichols uses the text of the first of these.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> "Apres avoir noté en ma Bible en Anglois plusieurs sentences qui contredisent -a toute ydolatrie, a celle fin de m'apprendre et exercer en l'ecriture Françoise, je me -suis amusé a les translater en ladite langue Françoise, puis les ay fait rescrire en ce +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> "Apres avoir noté en ma Bible en Anglois plusieurs sentences qui contredisent +a toute ydolatrie, a celle fin de m'apprendre et exercer en l'ecriture Françoise, je me +suis amusé a les translater en ladite langue Françoise, puis les ay fait rescrire en ce petit livret, lequel de tres bon cœur je vous offre" (<i>Literary Remains ...</i>, p. 144).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> "Lettre inédite de Bellemain": <i>Bulletin de la Soc. de l'Hist. du Protestantisme -Français</i>, vol. xv., 1866, pp. 203-5.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> "Lettre inédite de Bellemain": <i>Bulletin de la Soc. de l'Hist. du Protestantisme +Français</i>, vol. xv., 1866, pp. 203-5.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> It was, however, translated into English and published in 1681 (two copies in the Brit. Mus.), and reprinted by Rev. J. Duncan in 1811 (no copy known), and by @@ -6047,7 +6006,7 @@ continues: ". . . S'ainsy estoit (Tresnoble et Tresillustre Dame) que i'attendisse le temps auquel ie peusse trouver et inventer chose digne de presenter a vostre excellence, certes, madame, i'estime que ce ne seroit de long temps: car quelle chose est ce qu'on pourroit -monstrer de nouveau a celle a qui rien n'est caché, soit en langue grecque ou latine ou +monstrer de nouveau a celle a qui rien n'est caché, soit en langue grecque ou latine ou en la plus part des autres langues vulgaires de l'Europe: soit en la congnoissance des histoires ecrites en icelles ou en philosophie et autres liberales sciences. Puis donc qu'ainsy est que peu de livres antiques se peuent trouver que n'ayez leuz ou au moins @@ -6061,15 +6020,15 @@ estans les causes qui plus nous donnent occasion de bien vivre. . . ."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> Sylvius (1530) had proposed a new system of orthography based on etymology and pronunciation. Meigret, however, was the chief exponent of the reformers, who -sought to make orthography tally with pronunciation (in his <i>Traité touchant le comun -usage de l'escriture françoise</i>, 1542 and 1545, and other works). Meigret was supported -by Peletier du Mans (<i>Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciation françoese</i>, 1549) and others, +sought to make orthography tally with pronunciation (in his <i>Traité touchant le comun +usage de l'escriture françoise</i>, 1542 and 1545, and other works). Meigret was supported +by Peletier du Mans (<i>Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciation françoese</i>, 1549) and others, and bitterly attacked by the opposing party. The question, once opened, continued to be discussed until the decision of the Academy (founded 1649) settled the matter. Brunot, <i>op. cit.</i> ii. pp. 93 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> "Ie vous ay escrit ce petit avertissement de paour que paraventure, en lisant -tant de diversitéz d'impressions comme pourriez faire en ceste langue, ne sceussiez +tant de diversitéz d'impressions comme pourriez faire en ceste langue, ne sceussiez laquelle devriez suivre en ecrivant; mais il sera bon de suivre la plus part des modernes qui s'accordent quant a cela."</p></div> @@ -6078,7 +6037,7 @@ that Bellemain was Elizabeth's tutor in French.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> Strickland, <i>Lives of the Queens of England</i>, 1884: Life of Elizabeth, iii. pp. 9, 13.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> First printed at Alençon, 1531.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> First printed at Alençon, 1531.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> This is at present in the Bodleian Library. It has an embroidered cover, probably by the princess herself. See Cyril Davenport, <i>English Embroidered Bookbindings</i>, @@ -6239,10 +6198,10 @@ were directed mainly against foreign traders, but all foreigners, especially Frenchmen, were a continual butt for the insults of the mob. Nicander Nucius remarks that the common people in England do not entertain one kindly sentiment -towards the French. "Ennemis du françois" is one of the +towards the French. "Ennemis du françois" is one of the epithets applied to the English by De la Porte in his collection of epithets (Paris, 1571) on the different nations. The -French priest, Étienne Perlin, who was in England during +French priest, Étienne Perlin, who was in England during the last two years of the reign of Edward VI., and thoroughly hated the country, calling it "la peste d'un pays et ruine," speaks bitterly of the contrast between the courteous reception @@ -6298,7 +6257,7 @@ measures demanded from time to time by the English <p>One French teacher of the time, G. de la Mothe, says that so great was the affection of the English nobility and gentry for the French that few of them were without a Frenchman -in their houses. Thus Pierre Baro, a native of Étampes and +in their houses. Thus Pierre Baro, a native of Étampes and student of civil law who came to England at the time of the St. Bartholomew massacre, was "kindly entertained in the family of Lord Burghley, who admitted him to eat at his own @@ -6381,8 +6340,8 @@ out, it is of great interest as showing what were the subjects most likely to be taught. Gilbert's plan is very extensive. French, of course, is included in the curriculum—"also there shall be one Teacher of the French tongue which shall be -yearly allowed for the same £26. Also he shall be allowed -one usher, of the yearly wage of £10." Gilbert urges also the +yearly allowed for the same £26. Also he shall be allowed +one usher, of the yearly wage of £10." Gilbert urges also the teaching of other modern languages—Italian, to which he assigns about as large a place as to French, and Spanish and High Dutch, to which less importance is attached.<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id="FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a></p> @@ -6432,7 +6391,7 @@ interest in the teaching of Latin and French by publishing a Latin, French, and English dictionary in 1552, the first dictionary, published in England, in which a place is given to French. It is based on the Latin-French Dictionary of -Robert Éstienne,<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> with the addition of a column in English, +Robert Éstienne,<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> with the addition of a column in English, and entitled <i>Dictionariolum puerorum tribus linguis Latina, Anglica, et Gallica conscriptum cui anglicam interpretionem adjecit Joannes Veron</i>.<a name="FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a></p> @@ -6465,10 +6424,10 @@ his tutor, the author, was a very good form of self-advertisement, freely used by the French teachers of the time. Among patrons of French grammars were Edward VI. and particularly Elizabeth, who is, says one of these writers, "le vray port de -retraite et asyle asseuré de ceux qui, faisans profession de +retraite et asyle asseuré de ceux qui, faisans profession de l'Evangile, souffrent ores persecution soubs la Tyrannie de l'Antichrist"; another adds that she has "des estrangers -les cœurs a volonté." Lord Burghley, Sir Henry Wallop, +les cœurs a volonté." Lord Burghley, Sir Henry Wallop, Sir Philip Wharton, and other influential men of the time also figure among the patrons of French teachers.</p> @@ -6515,7 +6474,7 @@ a share in the intellectual distinctions of their social betters. writes Sir Thomas Smith,<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> in reference to the democratic movement. In this new class of Englishman, the teachers of French recruited a large number of their pupils. And so -the French teacher who visited a clientèle of pupils became +the French teacher who visited a clientèle of pupils became a familiar figure in the London of the later sixteenth century.</p> <p>The numerous French-speaking inhabitants of London, @@ -6555,14 +6514,14 @@ convenience' sake:<a name="FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href=" <div class="blockquot"><p>(Enter <i>Katharine</i> and <i>Alice</i>.)</p> -<p><i>Kath.</i> Alice, tu as esté en Angleterre, et tu parles bien le langage.</p> +<p><i>Kath.</i> Alice, tu as esté en Angleterre, et tu parles bien le langage.</p> <p><i>Alice.</i> Un peu, madame.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">-126-</a></span><i>Kath.</i> Je te prie, m'enseignez; il fault que j'apprenne à parler. +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">-126-</a></span><i>Kath.</i> Je te prie, m'enseignez; il fault que j'apprenne à parler. Comment appellez-vous la main en Anglois?</p> -<p><i>Alice.</i> La main? elle est appellée de hand.</p> +<p><i>Alice.</i> La main? elle est appellée de hand.</p> <p><i>Kath.</i> De hand. Et les doigts?</p> @@ -6570,7 +6529,7 @@ Comment appellez-vous la main en Anglois?</p> Les doigts? je pense y qu'ils sont appellez de fingres; ouy, de fingres.</p> <p><i>Kath.</i> La main, de hand; les doigts, de fingres. Je pense que je suis -le bon escholier. J'ay gagné deux mots d'Anglois vistement. Comment +le bon escholier. J'ay gagné deux mots d'Anglois vistement. Comment appellez-vous les ongles?</p> <p><i>Alice.</i> Les ongles? nous les appellons, de nails.</p> @@ -6588,8 +6547,8 @@ fingres, et de nails.</p> <p><i>Alice.</i> D'elbow.</p> -<p><i>Kath.</i> D'elbow. Je m'en fais la répétition de tous les mots que vous -m'avez appris dès à present.</p> +<p><i>Kath.</i> D'elbow. Je m'en fais la répétition de tous les mots que vous +m'avez appris dès à present.</p> <p><i>Alice.</i> Il est trop difficile, madame, comme je pense.</p> @@ -6609,15 +6568,15 @@ le col?</p> <p><i>Kath.</i> De sin. Le col, de nick: le menton, de sin.</p> -<p><i>Alice.</i> Ouy. Saulve vostre honneur, en vérité vous prononcez les mots +<p><i>Alice.</i> Ouy. Saulve vostre honneur, en vérité vous prononcez les mots aussi droict que les natifs d'Angleterre.</p> <p><i>Kath.</i> Je ne doubte poinct d'apprendre, par la grace Dieu, et en peu de temps.</p> -<p><i>Alice.</i> N'avez vous pas desjà oublié ce que je vous ay enseigné?</p> +<p><i>Alice.</i> N'avez vous pas desjà oublié ce que je vous ay enseigné?</p> -<p><i>Kath.</i> Non, je réciteray a vous promptement. De hand, de fingre, de +<p><i>Kath.</i> Non, je réciteray a vous promptement. De hand, de fingre, de mails—</p> <p><i>Alice.</i> De nails, madame.</p> @@ -6635,12 +6594,12 @@ le pied and la robbe?</p> maulvais, corruptible, gros, et impudique, et non pour les dames d'honneur d'user. Je ne vouldrois prononcer cez mots devant les Seigneurs de France, pour tout le monde. Il fault de foot, et de coun, neant-moins. Je reciteray -une aultre fois ma leçon ensemble: de hand, de fingre, de nails, de nick, +une aultre fois ma leçon ensemble: de hand, de fingre, de nails, de nick, de sin, de foot, de coun.</p> <p><i>Alice.</i> Excellent, madame!</p> -<p><i>Kath.</i> C'est assez pour une fois; allons-nous à disner.</p></div> +<p><i>Kath.</i> C'est assez pour une fois; allons-nous à disner.</p></div> <p>It is not surprising, remembering Shakespeare's friendship with the Huguenots, to find him quoting from the Genevan @@ -6725,7 +6684,7 @@ received special attention. The earliest of these owed their origin to the refugees, both professional schoolmasters and others. St. Paul's Churchyard, the busy centre of city life, was the quarter round which many of these schools were -grouped. There they were most likely to get a good clientèle, +grouped. There they were most likely to get a good clientèle, partly, it may be, among those boys attending St. Paul's School who desired, like Sir Philip Sidney, to extend their studies. In St. Paul's Churchyard, also, lived the chief @@ -6798,7 +6757,7 @@ interfere with the joviality and conviviality of the host.</p> </tr> <tr><td>What sholde I say?</td><td><span lang="fr">Que diroys-ie?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>I cannot speake frenche.</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Je ne sais pas parler françois.</span></td> +<td><span lang="fr">Je ne sais pas parler françois.</span></td> </tr> <tr><td>I understande you not.</td> <td><span lang="fr">Je ne vous entens pas.</span></td> @@ -6883,7 +6842,7 @@ without any English rendering, "pour gens de finance":</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> <span lang="fr"><span class="i0">Toy qui est receveur du Roy<br /></span> <span class="i0">Je te prie entens et me croy.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Reçoy avant que tu escripves,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Reçoy avant que tu escripves,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Escriptz avant que tu delivres,<br /></span> <span class="i0">De recevoir faitz diligence<br /></span> <span class="i0">Et fais tardifve delivrance.<br /></span> @@ -6902,7 +6861,7 @@ a Genevan "A B C," or book of elementary instruction and prayers for children, such as was common in France as well as in England. The next section of his treatise treats of the French A B C in words identical with those of an <i>A B C -françois</i> printed at Geneva in 1551. This is followed by a few +françois</i> printed at Geneva in 1551. This is followed by a few very slight rules in English, which tell us not to pronounce the last letter of a French word, except <i>s</i>, <i>t</i>, and <i>p</i>, when the next word begins with a consonant; to neglect a vowel at the end of @@ -7038,8 +6997,8 @@ to school:</p> <div class="table"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Holyband's treatise"> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Hau François, levez vous et allez a l'eschole: vous serez battu, car il est -sept heures passées: abillez vous vistement.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Hau François, levez vous et allez a l'eschole: vous serez battu, car il est +sept heures passées: abillez vous vistement.</span></td> <td>Ho Francis, arise and go to schoole: you shall be beaten, for it is past seven: make you ready quickly.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Dites voz prieres, puis vous aurez vostre desiuner: sus, remuez vous.</span></td> @@ -7047,11 +7006,11 @@ sept heures passées: abillez vous vistement.</span></td> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Marguerite, baillez moy mes chausses.</span></td> <td>Margaret, give me my hosen.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Despeschez vous ie vous prie: où est mon pourpoint? apportez me iartieres +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Despeschez vous ie vous prie: où est mon pourpoint? apportez me iartieres et mes souliers: donnez moy ce chausse-pied.</span></td> <td>Dispatch I pray you: where is my doublet? bring my garters and my shoes: give me that shooing-horne.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Que faites vous là? que ne vous hastez vous?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Que faites vous là ? que ne vous hastez vous?</span></td> <td>What do you there? why make you no haste?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Prenez premierement une chemise blanche, car la vostre est trop sale: n'est elle pas?</span></td> <td>Take first a cleane shirt, for yours is too foule: is it not?</td></tr> @@ -7119,7 +7078,7 @@ we do not forget, as we were inclined to do in the earlier book, that we are reading exercises intended for school use. Then follow proverbs, golden sayings, prayers, the creed, the fifth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, a treatise on the iniquity -of dancing (<i>Traité des Danses</i>), and finally a vocabulary less +of dancing (<i>Traité des Danses</i>), and finally a vocabulary less comprehensive and of less value than that of the <i>French Schoolemaister</i>.</p> @@ -7146,30 +7105,30 @@ his method:</p> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Monsieur ou pikez<span class="belowb">x</span> vous si bellement?</span></td> <td>Sir whither ride you so softly?</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">A Londres à la foire de la Berth<span class="belowb">x</span>elemy.</span> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">A Londres à la foire de la Berth<span class="belowb">x</span>elemy.</span> </td> <td>To London to Barthelomews faire.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Je vay au Landi à Paris, je vay à Rouen.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Je vay au Landi à Paris, je vay à Rouen.</span></td> <td>I go to Landi to Paris, to Rouen.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Et<span class="belowb">x</span> moy aussi: allons ensemble: je suy</span></td> <td>And I also: let us go together: I am</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">bien aise d'avoir trouvé compagnie.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">bien aise d'avoir trouvé compagnie.</span></td> <td>very glad to have found company.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Allons<span class="belowb">x</span> de par Dieu: picquons un peu,</span></td> <td>Let us go in God's name: let us pricke a littell,</td></tr> <tr> -<td><span lang="fr">j'ay pour que nous<span class="belowb">x</span> ne venions<span class="belowb">x</span> pas<span class="belowb">x</span> là</span></td> +<td><span lang="fr">j'ay pour que nous<span class="belowb">x</span> ne venions<span class="belowb">x</span> pas<span class="belowb">x</span> là </span></td> <td>I fear we shall not come thither</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">de jour, car le sol<span class="belowb">x</span>eil s'en va coucher.</span></td> <td>by daylight: the sunne goeth downe.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Mais où logerons<span class="belowb">x</span> nous? où e<span class="belowb">x</span>st<span class="belowb">x</span> le</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Mais où logerons<span class="belowb">x</span> nous? où e<span class="belowb">x</span>st<span class="belowb">x</span> le</span></td> <td>But where shall we lodge? where is the</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">meilleur logis? la meilleure<span class="belowb">x</span> hostelerie?</span></td> @@ -7178,18 +7137,18 @@ his method:</p> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Ne vous souciez<span class="belowb">x</span> pas<span class="belowb">x</span> de cela:</span></td> <td>Care you not for that: it is</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">c'es<span class="belowb">x</span>t au grand<span class="belowb">x</span> marché a l'enseigne de la</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">c'es<span class="belowb">x</span>t au grand<span class="belowb">x</span> marché a l'enseigne de la</span></td> <td>at the great market, at the sign of the</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">fleur de lis, vis à vis de la croix.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">fleur de lis, vis à vis de la croix.</span></td> <td>flower Deluce, right over against the crosse.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Je suy joyeux<span class="belowb">x</span> d'es<span class="belowb">x</span>tre arrivé, car</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Je suy joyeux<span class="belowb">x</span> d'es<span class="belowb">x</span>tre arrivé, car</span></td> <td>I am glad that I am arrived, for</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">certes g'ay bon appetit: J'espère de</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">certes g'ay bon appetit: J'espère de</span></td> <td>truly I have a good stomacke: I hope to</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">faire<span class="belowb">x</span> à ce soir souper de marchant.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">faire<span class="belowb">x</span> à ce soir souper de marchant.</span></td> <td>make to-night a marchauntes supper.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Nous<span class="belowb">x</span> disons en nos<span class="belowb">x</span>tre pais que desiuner</span></td> @@ -7213,7 +7172,7 @@ his method:</p> <tr><td><span lang="fr">medecins font<span class="belowb">x</span> les cymetieres bossus</span></td> <td>phisitions make the churchardes crooked</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">et<span class="belowb">x</span> vieux<span class="belowb">x</span> procureurs, procès tortus: mais</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">et<span class="belowb">x</span> vieux<span class="belowb">x</span> procureurs, procès tortus: mais</span></td> <td>and old attornies sutes to go awry, but</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">au contraire que jeunes<span class="belowb">x</span> procureurs et</span></td> @@ -7271,7 +7230,7 @@ one of the many offences which called it into action was <span class="sidenote">HOLYBAND'S FRENCH SCHOOL</span>In this little school of his, Holyband appears to have laboured at the task he set himself of leading the English nation "comme par la main au -cabinet de (nostre) langue françoyse," under excellent conditions. +cabinet de (nostre) langue françoyse," under excellent conditions. The whole atmosphere seems to have been French. The curriculum, however, was not confined to this one language. Holyband had to safeguard his interests by instructing @@ -7408,7 +7367,7 @@ and thence to Vienna (1591), and on to Verona, returning to England in 1593.<a name="FNanchor_367_367" id="FNanchor_367_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a></p> <p>After the publication of this last of his works in 1593, we -lose sight of Holyband in his rôle of teacher of French. He +lose sight of Holyband in his rôle of teacher of French. He was, however, still in England in 1597, when he dedicated a new edition of his <i>French Littleton</i> to a new patron, Lord Herbert of Swansea. Thereafter he is not mentioned, and @@ -7617,7 +7576,7 @@ Church. They had to be appointed by the minister and presented to the bishop. They also were required to give the minister an account of the books they read to the children, and of the methods followed, and be willing to adopt the -advice of their superiors "sans rien entreprendre à leur +advice of their superiors "sans rien entreprendre à leur fantaisie." Further, it was their duty to conduct the children to church on Sunday for the catechism.<a name="FNanchor_381_381" id="FNanchor_381_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> Such were the regulations laid down in the second Discipline, drawn up on @@ -7762,7 +7721,7 @@ fool's cap at meals, and continue to wear it until he caught became well known as translators, acquired their knowledge of French in this school. One was Joshua Sylvester, famous for his translation of Du Bartas, and the other Robert Ashley, -who turned Louis le Roy's <i>De la Vicissitude ou Variété des +who turned Louis le Roy's <i>De la Vicissitude ou Variété des choses de l'univers</i> (1579) into English (1594). Sylvester informs us that he learnt his French at Saravia's school "in three poor years, at three times three years old"; "I have @@ -7783,20 +7742,20 @@ for whom the king had a great admiration, will show his skill in a difficult art:</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">Voy, sire, ton Saluste habillé en Anglois<br /></span> +<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">Voy, sire, ton Saluste habillé en Anglois<br /></span> <span class="i0">(Anglois, encore plus de cœur que de langage:)<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Qui, connaissant loyall ton Royale héritage,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Qui, connaissant loyall ton Royale héritage,<br /></span> <span class="i0">En ces beaux Liz Dorez au sceptre des Gaulois<br /></span> -<span class="i0">(Comme au vray souverain des vrays subjects françois),<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Cy à tes pieds sacrez te fait ton sainct Hommage<br /></span> -<span class="i0">(De ton Heur et Grandeur éternal temoinage).<br /></span> +<span class="i0">(Comme au vray souverain des vrays subjects françois),<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Cy à tes pieds sacrez te fait ton sainct Hommage<br /></span> +<span class="i0">(De ton Heur et Grandeur éternal temoinage).<br /></span> <span class="i0">Miroir de touts Heros, miracle de tous Roys,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Voy (sire) ton Saluste, ou (pour le moins) son ombre,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Ou l'ombre (pour le moins) de ses Traicts plus divins<br /></span> <span class="i0">Qui, ores trop noyrcis par mon pinceau trop sombre,<br /></span> <span class="i0">S'esclairciront aux Raiz de tes yeux plus benins.<br /></span> <span class="i0">Doncques d'œil benin et d'un accueil auguste,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Reçoy ton cher Bartas, et Voy, sire, Saluste.<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a><br /></span> +<span class="i0">Reçoy ton cher Bartas, et Voy, sire, Saluste.<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a><br /></span> </span></div></div> <p>Another of Sylvester's contemporaries at Saravia's school @@ -7945,7 +7904,7 @@ Huguenot Church at Canterbury</i> (Introduction).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> L. Humphrey, <i>The Nobles or of Nobilitye</i>, London, 1563, 2nd book.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> See A. Rahlenbeck, "Les Réfugiés belges au 16<sup>me</sup> siècle en Angleterre," in the +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> See A. Rahlenbeck, "Les Réfugiés belges au 16<sup>me</sup> siècle en Angleterre," in the <i>Revue Trimestrielle</i>, Oct. 1865.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> The following numbers show the proportion of the Netherlanders to the French: @@ -7966,12 +7925,12 @@ Aliens in England</i>, 1509-1603, ed. W. Page.</p></div> of succession to and bequeathment of real property, was in general of more advantage to Englishmen born abroad than to foreigners.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> On the French churches in England, see F. de Schickler, <i>Les Églises du refuge en +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> On the French churches in England, see F. de Schickler, <i>Les Églises du refuge en Angleterre</i>, 3 tom., Paris, 1892.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> The first ministers appointed to the French church were François Pérussel, dit -la Rivière, and Richard Vauville. Perlin visited the French church: "La prechoit un -nommé maistre Françoys homme blond, et un autre nommé maistre Richard, homme +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> The first ministers appointed to the French church were François Pérussel, dit +la Rivière, and Richard Vauville. Perlin visited the French church: "La prechoit un +nommé maistre Françoys homme blond, et un autre nommé maistre Richard, homme ayant barbe noire" (<i>Description des royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse</i>, Paris, 1558, p. 11). Perlin was one of the few Frenchmen who came to England at this time.</p></div> @@ -8031,7 +7990,7 @@ Literature in England of the Tudors</i>, New York, 1899.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> Printed by T. Wolfe.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> The first French grammar for teaching French to the Germans, mentioned in -Stengel's <i>Chronologisches Verzeichniss französischer Grammatiken</i> (Oppeln, 1890), +Stengel's <i>Chronologisches Verzeichniss französischer Grammatiken</i> (Oppeln, 1890), was the work of a Frenchman Du Vivier, schoolmaster at Cologne, and was published in 1566.</p></div> @@ -8064,7 +8023,7 @@ Berlin, 1904, p. 203.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> Often what appear to be mistakes to-day are due to change in pronunciation; as when Pistol takes the French soldier's "bras" ('arm') for English 'brass,' a possibility at this period when the final <i>s</i> was still sounded (Thurot, <i>Prononciation -française</i>, ii. pp. 35-36; Anders, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 50-51.)</p></div> +française</i>, ii. pp. 35-36; Anders, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 50-51.)</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> Anders, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 51 <i>et seq.</i></p></div> @@ -8117,7 +8076,7 @@ signature A3.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> "Et je ne suis pas si presumptueux de vouloir dire que celuy livre je soye suffissant a translater du tout en englois, a cause que je ne l'ay de nature. Mais a mon -simple entendement, ayant l'opportunité et le loisir, l'ensuivray au plus pres que ie +simple entendement, ayant l'opportunité et le loisir, l'ensuivray au plus pres que ie pourray."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> <i>Returns of Aliens in London</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. x.</p></div> @@ -8146,7 +8105,7 @@ in St. Mary Alchurch Parish, when he is said to have been five years in England, to be a native of Barowe in Brabant and nineteen years old. In 1582 one of the same name was living in Blackfriars and had two servants (Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt i. p. 322; pt. ii. pp. 91, 253). In 1579 a John Hendricke from the dominion of the Bishop of -Liége received letters of denization (Hug. Soc. Pub. viii. ad nom.). It does not seem +Liége received letters of denization (Hug. Soc. Pub. viii. ad nom.). It does not seem likely that Holyband employed one of the Walloons, whose accent he taught his pupils to avoid.</p></div> @@ -8154,12 +8113,12 @@ to avoid.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> Farrer, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 1.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> C. Livet, <i>La Grammaire française et les grammairiens du 16e siècle</i>, Paris, 1859, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> C. Livet, <i>La Grammaire française et les grammairiens du 16e siècle</i>, Paris, 1859, pp. 500 <i>et seq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> For his sources, etc., see Farrer, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 73 <i>et seq.</i></p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> Schickler, <i>Églises du Refuge</i>, i. p. 358.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> Schickler, <i>Églises du Refuge</i>, i. p. 358.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_367_367" id="Footnote_367_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a> <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>, ad nom.</p></div> @@ -8180,7 +8139,7 @@ only less quaintly worded.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> Holyband was the author of a work for teaching Italian: <i>The Italian Schoolmaster</i>, 1583, and again in 1591, 1597, and 1608.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> Schickler, <i>Églises du Refuge</i>, iii. pp. 167-171. The members of the Church attended +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> Schickler, <i>Églises du Refuge</i>, iii. pp. 167-171. The members of the Church attended to the interests of the schools, and donations were made from time to time. Cp. for instance, Schickler, <i>op. cit.</i> i. p. 123.</p></div> @@ -8190,10 +8149,10 @@ instance, Schickler, <i>op. cit.</i> i. p. 123.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> <i>Registers of Threadneedle Street, London</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. ix.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> <i>Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv., 1890. In 1584 +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> <i>Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv., 1890. In 1584 three baptisms were performed by Mr. Hopkins, an English minister.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> <i>Registre de l'Église de Cantorbéry</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. v. pt. i., 1890.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> <i>Registre de l'Église de Cantorbéry</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. v. pt. i., 1890.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> W. J. C. Moens (<i>The Walloons and their Church at Norwich</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. i., 1887-8, p. 58) enumerates eighteen sons of strangers at Norwich who went to the @@ -8227,7 +8186,7 @@ of Foreign Protestants and Aliens resident in England, 1618-1688</i>, Camden Soc <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_392_392" id="Footnote_392_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a> G. H. Overend, <i>Strangers at Dover</i>, p. 166; and D. Cooper, <i>Lists of Foreign Protestants</i>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> <i>Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> <i>Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_394_394" id="Footnote_394_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a> Schickler, <i>op. cit.</i> i. 25.</p></div> @@ -8246,7 +8205,7 @@ Protestants</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_401_401" id="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a> 1567?-1630. <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>, ad nom.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> <i>Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv., 1890.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> <i>Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv., 1890.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> J. S. Davids, <i>History of Southampton</i>, Southampton, 1883, p. 311.</p></div> @@ -8256,9 +8215,9 @@ But there is nothing to show that he encouraged the study of French.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> Authorities for the use of French in Scotch schools are: J. Strong, <i>Secondary Education in Scotland</i>, Oxford, 1909, pp. 44 <i>et seq.</i>, 76, 142; T. P. Young, <i>Histoire de l'enseignement -primaire et secondaire en Écosse</i>, Paris, 1907, pp. 12 <i>et seq.</i>, pp. 64 <i>et seq.</i>; +primaire et secondaire en Écosse</i>, Paris, 1907, pp. 12 <i>et seq.</i>, pp. 64 <i>et seq.</i>; J. Grant, <i>Burgh Schools of Scotland</i>, London and Glasgow, 1876, pp. 64, 404; F. Michel, -<i>Les Écossais en France et les Français en Écosse</i>, 1862, ii. p. 78.</p></div> +<i>Les Écossais en France et les Français en Écosse</i>, 1862, ii. p. 78.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_406_406" id="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a> <i>Autobiography and Diary of Mr. James Melville, minister of Kilrenny and Professor of Theology in the University of St. Andrews</i>, ed. R. Pitcairn (Wodrow @@ -8291,7 +8250,7 @@ on their arrival, through force of circumstances, or as a means of repaying hospitality. The lot of such teachers varied considerably. Some lived and taught in gentlemen's families; others thrived by waiting on a private aristocratic -clientèle; others gained a more precarious livelihood under +clientèle; others gained a more precarious livelihood under less powerful patronage; and yet others opened private schools, often with decided success. Many of these teachers<a name="FNanchor_410_410" id="FNanchor_410_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> were denizens, and had long teaching careers, chiefly in London; @@ -8391,17 +8350,17 @@ of syntax with the following warning:</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> <span lang="fr"><span class="i0">Dire, <i>sy ay</i> (quoy qu'usage on en face)<br /></span> -<span class="i0">N'est point parlé en courtois et bien nay:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">N'est point parlé en courtois et bien nay:<br /></span> <span class="i0">Bien seant n'est aussy, dire, <i>non ay</i>:<br /></span> <span class="i0"><i>Sauf votre honneur</i>, ou bien <i>sauf votre grace</i><br /></span> -<span class="i0">Seroient trouvéz de trop meilleure grace.<br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>Je ne l'ay fait</i>, est trop desordonné:<br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>Pardonnez moy</i>, seroit mieux ordonné,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Seroient trouvéz de trop meilleure grace.<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Je ne l'ay fait</i>, est trop desordonné:<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Pardonnez moy</i>, seroit mieux ordonné,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Car grand fureur douce parolle efface.<br /></span> <span class="i0"><i>Nous estions</i>, <i>Nous y pensons</i>, faut dire,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Non, <i>J'estions</i>, on ne s'en fait que rire,<br /></span> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">-158-</a></span><span class="i0">Ne <i>J'y pensons</i>, tout cela est repris.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Les bons François ne parlent point ainsy.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Les bons François ne parlent point ainsy.<br /></span> <span class="i0">Acunement pris ne doit estre aussy<br /></span> <span class="i0"><i>Petit</i>, pour <i>peu</i>, ny <i>peu</i> pour <i>petit</i> pris.<br /></span></span> </div></div> @@ -8418,14 +8377,14 @@ of poems, such as the "chant royal," the "ballade," the sonnet, rondeau, "dixain," and so on, each accompanied by an example, by way of illustration. The various forms of rime are next described and exemplified; and some of the complicated -forms dear to the "rhétoriqueurs" find a place +forms dear to the "rhétoriqueurs" find a place here. This is followed by a description of the various kinds of metres, again with examples; and finally rhythm, colour -or "lizière," the caesura, elision, the "coupe féminine," and +or "lizière," the caesura, elision, the "coupe féminine," and the use of the apostrophe are treated. Such is this little treatise on the "French poeme," which shows incidentally that Bellot had not yet learned the lesson enforced by the -<i>Pléiade</i> more than twenty years before he wrote.</p> +<i>Pléiade</i> more than twenty years before he wrote.</p> <p>What strikes one most, perhaps, in Bellot's Grammar is that he makes no attempt to deal with the difficulties which @@ -8473,11 +8432,11 @@ type of French teacher is distinctly supercilious. He prided himself on belonging to the "noblesse instruite et de Savoir," and had the reputation of teaching elegant French.</p> -<p>In 1580 he dedicated to no less a person than François de +<p>In 1580 he dedicated to no less a person than François de Valois,<a name="FNanchor_414_414" id="FNanchor_414_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> brother to Henry III., a work for teaching English to foreigners. Like Holyband, he gave his book the title of "Schoolmaster": <i>Maistre d'Escole Anglois pour les naturelz -françois, et autre estrangers qui ont la langue françoyse, pour +françois, et autre estrangers qui ont la langue françoyse, pour parvenir a la vraye prononciation de la langue Angloise</i>.<a name="FNanchor_415_415" id="FNanchor_415_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a> The work contains rules of pronunciation and grammar, given in opposite columns in French and English; it was evidently @@ -8512,12 +8471,12 @@ her generous reception of strangers, not omitting to beg her protection for the "garden":</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">Reçoy donc ce jardin: te plaise a l'appuyer<br /></span> +<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">Reçoy donc ce jardin: te plaise a l'appuyer<br /></span> <span class="i0">De ta faveur Royalle: et pren le jardinier<br /></span> <span class="i0">En ta protection contre la gent hargneuse:<br /></span> <span class="i0">Alors il tachera (sans appouvrir la France)<br /></span> <span class="i0">L'Angleterre enrichir d'œuvres d'autre importance,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Pour façonner l'Anglois au Françoys, en son estre,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Pour façonner l'Anglois au Françoys, en son estre,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Alors il chantera tes vertus en tout lieu. . . .<br /></span></span> </div></div> @@ -8535,17 +8494,17 @@ and definitions, as in the following example:</p> <tr><td> </td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Prodigue est:—</span> </td> <td>Prodigal is:—</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">un degasteur, un rioteux et un excessif depenseur, un consomme-tout, qui degaste et depense où il n'en est nul besoin et a l'endroit de qui n'en a besoin.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">un degasteur, un rioteux et un excessif depenseur, un consomme-tout, qui degaste et depense où il n'en est nul besoin et a l'endroit de qui n'en a besoin.</span></td> <td>a wastefull, a riotious and <ins title="original: and an">an</ins> outrageous spender, a spendall that will lavishe and spende where it needeth not and upon whom it needeth not.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Memoire est:—</span></td> <td>Memory is:—</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">une souvenance, une resconte pensée, une chose non mise en oubly.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">une souvenance, une resconte pensée, une chose non mise en oubly.</span></td> <td>a remembrance, and having in minde, a not forgetting.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Le Moral:—</span></td> <td>The meaning:—</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">La renommée et fame du prodigue ne dure ny continue long temps: si tost qu'il est mort et passé il est oublié et hors de toute souvenance.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">La renommée et fame du prodigue ne dure ny continue long temps: si tost qu'il est mort et passé il est oublié et hors de toute souvenance.</span></td> <td>The prodigall mans fame and renown endureth nor continueth not long; as sone as he is gone and dead he is forgotten and out of all remembrance.</td></tr> <tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">-161-</a></span> @@ -8635,7 +8594,7 @@ bookseller Hugh Jackson, commissioned to sell the book—further instances of the friendly relations between the French teachers and the printers and booksellers of the time, through whom these teachers would, no doubt, get a large proportion -of their clientèle. The Huguenot sympathies of many of the +of their clientèle. The Huguenot sympathies of many of the printers, such as Vautrollier and Field, account in part for this cordial feeling.</p> @@ -8666,7 +8625,7 @@ the form of dialogues between master and pupil:</p> <div class="table"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="French alphabet"> <tr><td>Sir, will it please you do me so much favour (or would you take the pain) to teach me to speak French?</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Monsieur, vous plaist il me faire tant de faveur (ou voudriez vous prendre la peine) de m'apprendre a parler François?</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Monsieur, vous plaist il me faire tant de faveur (ou voudriez vous prendre la peine) de m'apprendre a parler François?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>With all my heart, if you have a desire to it.</td> <td><span lang="fr">Tres volontiers, si vous en avez envie.</span></td></tr> @@ -8693,9 +8652,9 @@ the form of dialogues between master and pupil:</p> <div class="table"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="french alphabet continued"> <tr><td>Sir, can you say your lesson?</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Monsieur, sçaves vous vostre leçon?</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Monsieur, sçaves vous vostre leçon?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Have you learnt to pronounce your letters?</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Avés vous apprins a prononcer vos lettres?</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Avés vous apprins a prononcer vos lettres?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Yea, as well as I can.</td> <td><span lang="fr">Ouy, le mieux qu'il m'est possible.</span></td></tr> @@ -8732,7 +8691,7 @@ the form of dialogues between master and pupil:</p> <td><span lang="fr">Devant que passer oultre il faut que vous prononciez vos lettres parfaitement.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Now that you can tell your letters well, learne your syllables, say after me.</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Maintenant que vous sçavez vos lettres, apprenez vos syllables, dictes après moy.</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Maintenant que vous sçavez vos lettres, apprenez vos syllables, dictes après moy.</span></td></tr> </table></div> <p>After dealing with the sounds of the French language, @@ -8759,29 +8718,29 @@ of daily life—as follows:</p> <td class="tdi2"><i><span lang="fr">Pour demander le chemin.</span></i></td> </tr> <tr><td>How many miles to London?</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Combien y a il d'icy à Londres?</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Combien y a il d'icy à Londres?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Ten leagues, twenty miles.</td> <td><span lang="fr">Dix lieues, vingt mil.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>What way must we keep?</td> <td><span lang="fr">Quel chemin faut il tenir?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Which is the shortest way to goe to Rye?</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Où est le plus court chemin d'icy à Rye?</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Où est le plus court chemin d'icy à Rye?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Keepe alwayes the great way.</td> <td><span lang="fr">Suyvez tousjours le grand chemin.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Do not stray neither to the right nor to the left hand.</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Ne vous fourvoyez ny à dextre ny à sinestre.</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Ne vous fourvoyez ny à dextre ny à sinestre.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>What doe I owe you now?</td> <td><span lang="fr">Combien vous doy-je maintenant?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Two shillings. Here it is.</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Deux sols. Les voylà.</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Deux sols. Les voylà .</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Bring me my horse.</td> <td><span lang="fr">Amenez moy mon cheval.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Will you take horse?</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Vous plaist il monter à cheval?</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Vous plaist il monter à cheval?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Yea, I hope I shall not alight till I be come to London.</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Ouy, j'espere que je ne descendrez que je ne soys arrivé à Londres.</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Ouy, j'espere que je ne descendrez que je ne soys arrivé à Londres.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>God be with you. Farewell.</td> <td><span lang="fr">Adieu. Bonne vie et longue.</span></td></tr> @@ -9034,7 +8993,7 @@ of good wine—a taste which he had acquired in France, where he had lived many years. There, if the dialogue he wrote for the help of students of French may be taken as autobiographical, he had spent three years in the College of Montagu -at Paris, taught for a year in the Collège des Africains at +at Paris, taught for a year in the Collège des Africains at Orleans, lived for ten months at Lyons, and spent a year amongst the Benedictine monks. On the murder of Henri III. in 1589, Eliote returned to England, strongly imbued with @@ -9222,21 +9181,21 @@ the first dialogue:</p> <div class="table"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Eliote's dialogue"> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Hau Garcon dors tu vilain? debout, debout, ie te reveilleray tantost avec un bon baton.</span></td> -<td>Ho Garssoon dortu veelein? deboo, deboo, ie te reue-lheré tant-tot tavec-keun boon batoon.</td> +<td>Ho Garssoon dortu veelein? deboo, deboo, ie te reue-lheré tant-tot tavec-keun boon batoon.</td> <td>What boy slepeth thou villain? up, up, I shall shall wake thee soon with a good cudgell.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Je me leve, monsieur.</span></td> -<td>Ie me léveh moonseewr.</td> +<td>Ie me léveh moonseewr.</td> <td>I rise sir.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Quelle heure est-il?</span></td> <td><ins title="original: Qe">Qel</ins>-heur et-til?</td> <td>What o'clock is it?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Il est six heures.</span></td> -<td>Il-é see-zewres.</td> +<td>Il-é see-zewres.</td> <td>It is six o'clock.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Donnez moy mes chausses de velours verd.</span></td> -<td>Donné moe' mes shosséh de veloor vert.</td> +<td>Donné moe' mes shosséh de veloor vert.</td> <td>Give me my my green velvet breeches.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Lesquelles?</span></td> @@ -9286,9 +9245,9 @@ previous dialogues, and the work closes with a quotation from Du Bartas's praise of France:</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">O mille et mille fois terre heureuse et féconde,<br /></span> +<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">O mille et mille fois terre heureuse et féconde,<br /></span> <span class="i0">O perle de l'Europe! O Paradis du monde!<br /></span> -<span class="i0">France je te salue, O mère des guerriers.<br /></span></span> +<span class="i0">France je te salue, O mère des guerriers.<br /></span></span> </div></div> <p>In his dialogue called <i>The Scholar</i>, incorporated in the @@ -9345,7 +9304,7 @@ to have been schoolmasters or private tutors; cp. Huguenot Society Publications, vol. x., <i>Returns of Aliens dwelling in London</i>; vols. viii., xviii., <i>Letters of Denization</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> Evrard Erail, Onias Ganeur, Charles Bod, Robert Fontaine, Charles Darvil -d'Arras, Jean Vaquerie, Baudouin Mason, and Adrian Tresol (Schickler, <i>Églises du +d'Arras, Jean Vaquerie, Baudouin Mason, and Adrian Tresol (Schickler, <i>Églises du Refuge</i>, i. p. 124). Of these names only that of Robert Fontaine is found in the <i>Returns of Aliens</i>. Charles Darvil and Adrian Tresol are again mentioned in connexion with the Church in 1564. Baudouin Mason received letters of denization in 1565, and @@ -9357,42 +9316,42 @@ or Inglish. All these, however, are mentioned in the <i>Returns of Aliens</i>.</ <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_413_413" id="Footnote_413_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a> <i>Returns of Aliens</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. ii. pp. 228, 335.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> Duc d'Alençon, who died in 1584.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> Duc d'Alençon, who died in 1584.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_415_415" id="Footnote_415_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a> Printed by Henry Dizlie for Thomas Purfoote. Reprinted by T. Spiro in the -<i>Neudrucke frühneuenglischer Grammatiken, herausgegeben von R. Brotanek</i>, Bd. 7, +<i>Neudrucke frühneuenglischer Grammatiken, herausgegeben von R. Brotanek</i>, Bd. 7, Halle, 1912. It contains 75 pages, 8vo.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_416_416" id="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a> Bellot's name does not occur in the Registers (vol. i., Lymington, 1908).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_417_417" id="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a> 16º, pp. 80.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_417_417" id="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a> 16º, pp. 80.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_418_418" id="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a> <i>Stationers' Register</i>, 19th February 1588.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_419_419" id="Footnote_419_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a> Hazlitt, <i>Handbook</i>, 1867, p. 36.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_420_420" id="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a> Perhaps he was a member of the La Motte Fouqué family whose name became -so closely connected with the Protestant cause in France. In 1551 René La Motte +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_420_420" id="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a> Perhaps he was a member of the La Motte Fouqué family whose name became +so closely connected with the Protestant cause in France. In 1551 René La Motte left Saintonge and went to Normandy, where he died, leaving two sons and three daughters. Cp. Crottet, <i>History of the Reformed Church in Saintonge</i>, quoted by T. F. Sanxay, <i>The Sanxay Family</i>, 1907.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> "Estant donc refugié a l'ombre favorable du Sceptre de sa serenissime majesté, -qui est le vray port de retraicte et asyle asseuré de ceux qui faisans profession de -l'Evangile souffrent ores persecution soubs la Tyrannie de l'Antichrist, j'ay tasché +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> "Estant donc refugié a l'ombre favorable du Sceptre de sa serenissime majesté, +qui est le vray port de retraicte et asyle asseuré de ceux qui faisans profession de +l'Evangile souffrent ores persecution soubs la Tyrannie de l'Antichrist, j'ay tasché de tout mon pouvoir de faire en sorte par mes labeurs que ceste noble Nation qui maintenant nous sert de mere et de nourrice peust tirer quelque proffit d'iceux, afin que par ce moyen je peusse eviter le vice enorme de l'ingratitude. . . . Or entre toutes -les belles et rares vertus dont la Noblesse angloise se rend tant renommée par tout le -monde, admirée des estrangiers, et honorée en son pays, est l'Estude des bonnes lettres, +les belles et rares vertus dont la Noblesse angloise se rend tant renommée par tout le +monde, admirée des estrangiers, et honorée en son pays, est l'Estude des bonnes lettres, et cognoissance des langues, qui leur sont si familieres et communes qu'il s'en trouve peu parmi eux, non seulement entre les Seigneurs et Gentilhommes, qui n'en parlent trois ou quatre pour le moins, mais aussi entre les Dames et Damoiselles, exercise veritablement louable, par lequel toute vertu s'honore et se rend immortelle et sans -lequel nulle autre n'est parfait ni digne d'estre aucunement estimé. Or c'est ce qui, +lequel nulle autre n'est parfait ni digne d'estre aucunement estimé. Or c'est ce qui, outre la singuliere affection que naturellement ils portent aux estrangers et la grande courtoisie dont ils ont a coustume de les traicter, leur faict faire tant d'estat des -François, si bien qu'il y en a fort peu qui n'en ait un avec soy."</p></div> +François, si bien qu'il y en a fort peu qui n'en ait un avec soy."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_422_422" id="Footnote_422_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a> Who first went to Oxford in 1587. Foster, <i>Alumni Oxonienses</i>, ad nom.</p></div> @@ -9400,7 +9359,7 @@ François, si bien qu'il y en a fort peu qui n'en ait un avec soy."</p></div> Golden sayings of the most excellent French Authors as well Poets as Orators.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_424_424" id="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a> Arber, <i>Register of the Company of Stationers</i>, ii. 614. Miss Farrer in her book on -Holyband takes this entry, <i>l'Alphabet François avec le Tresor de la langue françoise</i>, to +Holyband takes this entry, <i>l'Alphabet François avec le Tresor de la langue françoise</i>, to refer to another edition of Holyband's <i>Treasurie</i>, which, she assumes, was prevented and superseded by the publication of his dictionary in 1592.</p></div> @@ -9425,27 +9384,27 @@ of Holyband's rules on p. 142, <i>supra</i>. <td><span lang="fr">Gn se prononce difficilement par les Anglois.</span></td></tr> <tr> <td>Notwithstanding if they will take heed how they do pronounce <i>minion</i> ... it will be more easy for them to pronounce it: for though we do write the selfesame words with gn, neverthelesse there is small difference between their pronunciation and ours: let them take heed only to sound g in the same syllable that n is, and then they shall not finde any hardnesse in his pronunciation, as mignon ... mi-gnon.</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Toutesfois s'ils veulent prendre garde comment ils prononcent minion, onion, companion, il leur sera plus aisé de le prononcer: car encore que nous escrivions ces mesmes mots par gn, neantmoins il y a peu de difference de leur prononciation a la nostre: seulement qu'ils prennent garde à mettre g en la mesme syllable que n, et ils ne trouveront aucune difficulté en sa prononciation, comme mi-gnon. . . .</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Toutesfois s'ils veulent prendre garde comment ils prononcent minion, onion, companion, il leur sera plus aisé de le prononcer: car encore que nous escrivions ces mesmes mots par gn, neantmoins il y a peu de difference de leur prononciation a la nostre: seulement qu'ils prennent garde à mettre g en la mesme syllable que n, et ils ne trouveront aucune difficulté en sa prononciation, comme mi-gnon. . . .</span></td></tr> </table> </div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> "Et pourroit a bon droict estre comparé a quelques vieilles masures d'un bastiment -où il a tant creu de ronces et espines, qu'à grand peine il apert que jamais il y -ait eu de maisons. Car devant qu'on eust trouvé l'imprimerie, on l'a tant de fois -coppié, et chaque écrivain l'escrivant à la fantaisie et ne retenant l'orthographe françoise, -que maintenant il semble qu'il n'y ait presque langage plus esloigné du vray -François que ce François de vos loix."</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> "Et pourroit a bon droict estre comparé a quelques vieilles masures d'un bastiment +où il a tant creu de ronces et espines, qu'à grand peine il apert que jamais il y +ait eu de maisons. Car devant qu'on eust trouvé l'imprimerie, on l'a tant de fois +coppié, et chaque écrivain l'escrivant à la fantaisie et ne retenant l'orthographe françoise, +que maintenant il semble qu'il n'y ait presque langage plus esloigné du vray +François que ce François de vos loix."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_431_431" id="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a> Bellot frequently refers to the <i>gent hargneuse</i> and the "aiguillons envenimez des -langues qui se plaisent à detracter les œuvres d'autruy et qui deprisent tout ce qui -n'est tiré de leurs boutiques, iaçoit que souvente fois leur estofe ne soit que biffes et +langues qui se plaisent à detracter les œuvres d'autruy et qui deprisent tout ce qui +n'est tiré de leurs boutiques, iaçoit que souvente fois leur estofe ne soit que biffes et hapelourdes."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> <i>Returns of Aliens</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. i. pp. xii, xiv.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> And again: "Or vous noterés qu'en tous les noms terminés en <i>ent</i>, <i>t</i> n'est pas exprimé -en la fin: quant aux verbes, il est prononcé, mais bien doucement: donnés vous donc +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> And again: "Or vous noterés qu'en tous les noms terminés en <i>ent</i>, <i>t</i> n'est pas exprimé +en la fin: quant aux verbes, il est prononcé, mais bien doucement: donnés vous donc garde d'ensuivre en ceci les Bourgignons qui expriment leur <i>t</i> si fort que de deux syllabes ilz en font trois: comme quand nous disons <i>ils mangent</i> . . . le Walon dira; <i>ilz mangete</i>." And yet again: "Sounde <i>ch</i> as <i>sh</i> in English: you shall not follow in this @@ -9522,7 +9481,7 @@ by French teachers in the later part of the sixteenth century. He asserts that the usual charge was a shilling a week,<a name="FNanchor_449_449" id="FNanchor_449_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> but we are left in doubt as to how many lessons this entitled the student to. He affirms, probably not seriously, that he would -charge a gentleman £10 a year, and a lord from £20 to £30.</p> +charge a gentleman £10 a year, and a lord from £20 to £30.</p> <p>We are indebted to him also for an account, very prejudiced, no doubt, of the usual method employed by French @@ -9796,7 +9755,7 @@ and a manuscript dedication to the younger prince in that of the translator.<a name="FNanchor_471_471" id="FNanchor_471_471"></a><a href="#Footnote_471_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a> The quatrains appeared again with the subsequent editions of Sylvester's works. About this time Prince Henry made Sylvester a Groom of his Chamber, and -gave him a small pension of £20 a year.<a name="FNanchor_472_472" id="FNanchor_472_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a> The story goes that +gave him a small pension of £20 a year.<a name="FNanchor_472_472" id="FNanchor_472_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a> The story goes that the prince valued him so highly that he made him his first "poet pensioner," and it seems that Sylvester took advantage of his position to encourage his royal patron's French studies. @@ -9929,7 +9888,7 @@ dictionaries. French is first found side by side with English, in one of these French-Latin dictionaries—that of Veron; and in subsequent years the French-English dictionaries are mostly based on one or other of the French-Latin lexicons. -Those due to Robert Éstienne and to Thierry were probably +Those due to Robert Éstienne and to Thierry were probably the sources from which the author of the French-English dictionary of 1571 drew his material; while Holyband based his <i>Treasurie</i> (1580), and his Dictionary (1593), respectively, @@ -9968,7 +9927,7 @@ in French and English first collected by Holyband, and since augmented and altered by Cotgrave.<a name="FNanchor_487_487" id="FNanchor_487_487"></a><a href="#Footnote_487_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a> But the work which no doubt was of most help to Cotgrave was another French-Latin dictionary, Aimar de Ranconnet's <i>Tresor de la -Langue Françoise</i>, revised by Nicot (1606).<a name="FNanchor_488_488" id="FNanchor_488_488"></a><a href="#Footnote_488_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a> He had, moreover, +Langue Françoise</i>, revised by Nicot (1606).<a name="FNanchor_488_488" id="FNanchor_488_488"></a><a href="#Footnote_488_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a> He had, moreover, read all sorts of books, old and new, in all dialects, where he found words not heard of for hundreds of years, which he included in his book, to be used or left as the @@ -9993,7 +9952,7 @@ more substantial work to offer to his patron had not his eyes failed him and forced him "to spend much of their vigour on this bundle of words." He also offered a copy to the eldest son of James I., Prince Henry, and received -from him a gift of £10.<a name="FNanchor_491_491" id="FNanchor_491_491"></a><a href="#Footnote_491_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a> The price of the dictionary seems +from him a gift of £10.<a name="FNanchor_491_491" id="FNanchor_491_491"></a><a href="#Footnote_491_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a> The price of the dictionary seems to have been 11s. Cotgrave sent two copies to M. Beaulieu at Paris, and wrote requesting payment of 22s., which they cost him; for, he says, "I have not been provident enough @@ -10021,9 +9980,9 @@ of the English set before the French by R. S. L." This R. S. L. was Robert Sherwood, Londoner, who taught French and English in London, and also had a French school for a time. He gave his dictionary the title of <i>Dictionarie -Anglois et François pour l'utilité de tous ceux qui sont desireux +Anglois et François pour l'utilité de tous ceux qui sont desireux de deux langues</i>,<a name="FNanchor_493_493" id="FNanchor_493_493"></a><a href="#Footnote_493_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a> and addressed it to the "favorables lecteurs -françois, alemans et autres." The English reader he advises +françois, alemans et autres." The English reader he advises to look for fuller information as to "the gender of all French nouns, and the conjugation of all French verbs" in Cotgrave's dictionary; the small space to which he was limited did @@ -10087,7 +10046,7 @@ of the French," who were invited to enter on the blank pages any word they came across in their reading which was not in the dictionary; by means of this plan several hundred additional words were gathered together, many being "new -invented terms, which the admired Mons. Scudéry, and +invented terms, which the admired Mons. Scudéry, and other late Romancers have so happily publisht in their printed volumes." After Howell's death there appeared yet another issue of his edition of Cotgrave, in 1673.<a name="FNanchor_497_497" id="FNanchor_497_497"></a><a href="#Footnote_497_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a> The printer @@ -10157,14 +10116,14 @@ elegant writer of our tongue. His workes be <i>le Theatre du monde</i>, the tragicall histories, the prodigious histories. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">-196-</a></span>Sleidan's commentaries in frenche be excellently translated. Philippe de Commins, when he is corrected is very profitable -and wise." The <i>Nouveau Testament</i> of de Bèze, Boiasteau's -<i>Théâtre du monde</i>, and Sleidan's <i>Commentaries</i><a name="FNanchor_506_506" id="FNanchor_506_506"></a><a href="#Footnote_506_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a> were all books +and wise." The <i>Nouveau Testament</i> of de Bèze, Boiasteau's +<i>Théâtre du monde</i>, and Sleidan's <i>Commentaries</i><a name="FNanchor_506_506" id="FNanchor_506_506"></a><a href="#Footnote_506_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a> were all books well known in England, and Holyband himself prepared an edition of Boiasteau.<a name="FNanchor_507_507" id="FNanchor_507_507"></a><a href="#Footnote_507_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a> An additional reason, according to him, for retaining the unsounded consonants was to facilitate the reading of the older monuments of the French language. He also advised the perusal of Marot's works, of the <i>Amadis</i> -of Herberay des Essarts, of François de Belleforest's <i>Histoire +of Herberay des Essarts, of François de Belleforest's <i>Histoire Universelle du monde</i>, of the <i>Vies et Morales de Plutarque</i>, in Amyot's version, and of the collection of stories, on the plan of the <i>Decameron</i>, which its author, Jacques Yver, had @@ -10177,7 +10136,7 @@ is curious that he makes no mention of Ronsard, who was much read in England, and one of the favourite authors of the Queen. Bellot in his Grammar had similar if not identical ambitions. He sought to enable his pupils to read the <i>Amadis</i> -of Des Essarts, Marot, de Bèze, du Bellay's lyrics, Froissart, +of Des Essarts, Marot, de Bèze, du Bellay's lyrics, Froissart, Ronsard, Collet<a name="FNanchor_509_509" id="FNanchor_509_509"></a><a href="#Footnote_509_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a> and Jodelle "racontans l'un l'amour et l'autre la guerre cruelle." Pibrac and Du Bartas have already been mentioned as favourite authors. It was to @@ -10195,7 +10154,7 @@ hath tasted of the sharpe sower."</p> <p>Naturally writings of a religious character were much in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">-197-</a></span>favour with these teachers. <span class="sidenote">AUTHORS USUALLY READ</span>Holyband advised the reading of -de Bèze's New Testament, and several times we hear of "the +de Bèze's New Testament, and several times we hear of "the French Bible" being printed in England.<a name="FNanchor_510_510" id="FNanchor_510_510"></a><a href="#Footnote_510_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> The Liturgy in French<a name="FNanchor_511_511" id="FNanchor_511_511"></a><a href="#Footnote_511_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a> was also printed, and would be useful to English students of French attending the French Church.</p> @@ -10396,8 +10355,8 @@ a work as Ovid's <i>Metamorphoses</i> (<i>Stationers' Register</i>, iii. 489).</ <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_499_499" id="Footnote_499_499"></a><a href="#FNanchor_499_499"><span class="label">[499]</span></a> The <i>Histoire tragi-comique de nostre temps sous les noms de Lysandre et de Caliste</i> (1615) was the work of d'Audigier.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_500_500" id="Footnote_500_500"></a><a href="#FNanchor_500_500"><span class="label">[500]</span></a> Thus the <i>Préau des Fleurs meslées, contenant plusieurs et differentz discours</i> of -François Voilleret, sieur de Florizel, was printed in London in 1600 (?), and dedicated +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_500_500" id="Footnote_500_500"></a><a href="#FNanchor_500_500"><span class="label">[500]</span></a> Thus the <i>Préau des Fleurs meslées, contenant plusieurs et differentz discours</i> of +François Voilleret, sieur de Florizel, was printed in London in 1600 (?), and dedicated to the Prince of Wales. In 1620 it was licensed to be printed in French and English, provided the English translation be approved. In 1619 a French translation of Bacon's <i>Essays</i> was published at London, and in 1623 Field received a licence to print a French @@ -10433,7 +10392,7 @@ Thomas Gaultier. <i>Handlist of Books</i>, Bibliographical Society, 1913.</p></d <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_506_506" id="Footnote_506_506"></a><a href="#FNanchor_506_506"><span class="label">[506]</span></a> The German historian's commentary, <i>De Statu religionis et reipublicae Carolo Quinto Caesare</i>, appeared in Latin in 1555, and in French in 1557.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_507_507" id="Footnote_507_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a> <i>Le théâtre du monde . . . revue et corrigé par C. de Sainliens</i>, 1595. Printed by +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_507_507" id="Footnote_507_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a> <i>Le théâtre du monde . . . revue et corrigé par C. de Sainliens</i>, 1595. Printed by George Bishop and dedicated to "the Scotch Ambassador, Jacques de Betoun, Archevesque de Glasco."</p></div> @@ -10495,7 +10454,7 @@ French they summoned the lecturers in the 'schools' to be present on commencement day: "Nostre Seigneur Doctor, une parolle sil vous Plaist, nostres Peres de nostres Seigneurs Commencens vous prient que vous estes demayn a son commencement -en l'église de nostre Dame." And throughout +en l'église de nostre Dame." And throughout the ceremonies<a name="FNanchor_518_518" id="FNanchor_518_518"></a><a href="#Footnote_518_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a> in Arts and Theology similar French formulae, often interspersed with Latin, were frequently used, though they had probably passed out of use by the beginning @@ -10543,7 +10502,7 @@ in the University,<a name="FNanchor_520_520" id="FNanchor_520_520"></a><a href=" just as others received preferment in the English Church. The French tutors were among the humbler and more numerous exiles who "taught privately," as the seventeenth-century -historian of the University, Anthony à Wood, +historian of the University, Anthony à Wood, tells us. Apart from those who actually taught French, the presence of considerable numbers of Frenchmen<a name="FNanchor_521_521" id="FNanchor_521_521"></a><a href="#Footnote_521_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a> cannot have been without some indirect influence on the study of French @@ -10577,7 +10536,7 @@ are told, a "very useful man in his profession." Shortly after, he removed to London, where he enjoyed favour at Court.</p> <p>Of more importance, however, is the group of private tutors -who settled at Oxford, found a clientèle among the University +who settled at Oxford, found a clientèle among the University students, and frequently wrote and published French grammars for the use of their pupils. There was evidently some demand for instruction in French at Oxford early in the sixteenth @@ -10624,14 +10583,14 @@ produced by Englishmen resident at Oxford, and teaching the French language. Among others was John Sanford, or Sandford, chaplain of Magdalen College, and the author of the French grammar which succeeded Morlet's. Sanford -wrote in Latin, and entitled his work <i>Le Guichet François, +wrote in Latin, and entitled his work <i>Le Guichet François, sive Janicula et Brevis Introductio ad Linguam Gallicam</i>. It was published by Joseph Barnes in 1604,<a name="FNanchor_529_529" id="FNanchor_529_529"></a><a href="#Footnote_529_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a> and dedicated to Dr. Bond, president of Magdalen. Sanford compiled his observations on the pronunciation and parts of speech from the various French grammars published in both France and England; he drew largely on Morlet, as well as Bellot and -Holyband; and made equally free with de Bèze, Pillot, +Holyband; and made equally free with de Bèze, Pillot, and Ramus.</p> <p>He varied his duties as chaplain by giving lessons in French. @@ -10709,7 +10668,7 @@ pens of French sojourners at Oxford. One, Robert Farrear, a teacher of French, wrote a grammar in English for the use of his pupils, <i>The Brief Direction to the French Tongue</i>, printed at Oxford in 1618. Nothing further is known of its -author. Anthony à Wood<a name="FNanchor_536_536" id="FNanchor_536_536"></a><a href="#Footnote_536_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> informs us that in the title of the +author. Anthony à Wood<a name="FNanchor_536_536" id="FNanchor_536_536"></a><a href="#Footnote_536_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> informs us that in the title of the book Farrear inscribed himself M.A., but "whether he took that degree or was incorporated therein in Oxford" he could not discover.</p> @@ -10735,13 +10694,13 @@ Wood: "What other things he hath written I know not, nor any thing else of the author."<a name="FNanchor_538_538" id="FNanchor_538_538"></a><a href="#Footnote_538_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a></p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">-205-</a></span> -<span class="sidenote">GABRIEL DU GRÈS</span> +<span class="sidenote">GABRIEL DU GRÈS</span> As yet no French grammars had appeared at Cambridge, and French teachers do not seem to have made their presence felt there.<a name="FNanchor_539_539" id="FNanchor_539_539"></a><a href="#Footnote_539_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a> In 1631, however, one of the best known of this group of university French tutors arrived at Cambridge—Gabriel -Du Grès, a native of Saumur, and a member of a good +Du Grès, a native of Saumur, and a member of a good family from Angers. He arrived in England as a refugee on account of his Protestant faith, received a warm welcome at Cambridge, and taught French to several of the students in @@ -10753,11 +10712,11 @@ same lines and of about the same dimensions as that of Morlet.<a name="FNanchor_ It is preceded by Latin verses addressed to the author by members of different colleges, and is dedicated to the students of the University, especially those engaged in the -study of French. This grammar of Du Grès appears to be +study of French. This grammar of Du Grès appears to be the only work of its kind printed at Cambridge before the eighteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_542_542" id="FNanchor_542_542"></a><a href="#Footnote_542_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a></p> -<p>Shortly after its publication Du Grès joined the group of +<p>Shortly after its publication Du Grès joined the group of French tutors at Oxford,<a name="FNanchor_543_543" id="FNanchor_543_543"></a><a href="#Footnote_543_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a> and this removal points to the more ready openings offered there to those of his profession. When he published his <i>Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini</i><a name="FNanchor_544_544" id="FNanchor_544_544"></a><a href="#Footnote_544_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a> at Oxford in @@ -10779,29 +10738,29 @@ equivalent of the sound of each French letter, and of the auxiliary and regular verbs. This little book, which has more in common with the productions of the London teachers than with the Oxford manuals, enjoyed a greater popularity -than those of Du Grès's rivals. In 1660 a third edition +than those of Du Grès's rivals. In 1660 a third edition appeared, without the additions found in the second.</p> <p>He was also the author of an interesting little work in English on the Duke of Richelieu,<a name="FNanchor_545_545" id="FNanchor_545_545"></a><a href="#Footnote_545_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a> printed in London in 1643. -Probably Du Grès had removed to London at that date; in +Probably Du Grès had removed to London at that date; in the second edition of his grammar, printed, like the first, by Leonard Lichfield at Oxford, he describes himself as "late teacher of the same in Oxford."</p> -<p>In his dialogues Du Grès gives some account of his ideas +<p>In his dialogues Du Grès gives some account of his ideas on the teaching of French:<a name="FNanchor_546_546" id="FNanchor_546_546"></a><a href="#Footnote_546_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a></p> -<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Commençons à l'abécé.</p> +<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Commençons à l'abécé.</p> <p>Escusez moy.</p> <p>Entendez moy, oyez moy, prononcer les lettres. Remarquez bien comment je prononce les voyelles, et principalement <i>u</i>, car il est bien -malaisé a prononcer à vous autres mm. les Anglois, comme aussi <i>e</i> entre +malaisé a prononcer à vous autres mm. les Anglois, comme aussi <i>e</i> entre les consonnes. Prononcez apres moy.</p> -<p>Voilà qui va bien.</p> +<p>Voilà qui va bien.</p> <p>Prononce-je bien?</p> @@ -10811,7 +10770,7 @@ les consonnes. Prononcez apres moy.</p> <p>Il ne sauroit tant vous en donner que votre <i>th</i> ou <i>ch</i> nous en donne.</p> -<p>Il est malaisé d'avoir la proprieté de votre langue.</p> +<p>Il est malaisé d'avoir la proprieté de votre langue.</p> <p>L'exercice et la lecture des bons autheurs vous apprendront avec le temps, etc.</p></div></div> @@ -10826,13 +10785,13 @@ It is possible, he admits, to learn French by rote, without any grammar rules. But it is not the best way in his opinion. Without grammar rules the student cannot distinguish good French from bad, nor can he translate, write -letters, or read; and reading, thought Du Grès, was an essential +letters, or read; and reading, thought Du Grès, was an essential condition if the cultivation of French in England was to be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">-207-</a></span>maintained. <span class="sidenote">FRENCH AT CAMBRIDGE</span>Those who learn by ear are at a loss as soon as they no longer hear French spoken daily. As for those who promise to teach French in a short time, they are nothing but mountebanks. -Du Grès held that a man of moderate intellect could, +Du Grès held that a man of moderate intellect could, with hard work, learn to understand an ordinary French author in three or four months. He had had, he declares, some pupils at Cambridge who learnt to read and speak fairly well in four @@ -10985,7 +10944,7 @@ in French, Spanish, and Italian literature. Mullinger, <i>History of the Univers of Cambridge</i>, ii. p. 351.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_520_520" id="Footnote_520_520"></a><a href="#FNanchor_520_520"><span class="label">[520]</span></a> One, Jean Verneuil, became underlibrarian of the Bodleian in 1625. Cp. Schickler, -<i>Les Églises du Refuge</i>, i. p. 424; Foster Watson, <i>Religious Refugees and English +<i>Les Églises du Refuge</i>, i. p. 424; Foster Watson, <i>Religious Refugees and English Education</i>, Hug. Soc. Proceedings, 1911; Agnew, <i>Protestant Exiles</i>, i. ch. v. and pp. 137, 147, 148, 156, 163; ii. pp. 260, 274, 388; Smiles, <i>The Huguenots</i>, ch. xiv.</p></div> @@ -11002,7 +10961,7 @@ Edinburgh; cp. Schickler, <i>op. cit.</i> i. p. 366.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_526_526" id="Footnote_526_526"></a><a href="#FNanchor_526_526"><span class="label">[526]</span></a> 8vo, pp. 92.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_527_527" id="Footnote_527_527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_527_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a> E. Stengel, <i>Chronologisches Verzeichnis französischer Grammatiken</i>, Oppeln, 1890.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_527_527" id="Footnote_527_527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_527_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a> E. Stengel, <i>Chronologisches Verzeichnis französischer Grammatiken</i>, Oppeln, 1890.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_528_528" id="Footnote_528_528"></a><a href="#FNanchor_528_528"><span class="label">[528]</span></a> F. Madan, <i>Oxford Books, 1468-1640</i>, 1895-1912, i. p. 22; ii. p. 24. Another Spanish Grammar, by d'Oyly, had appeared at Oxford in 1590.</p></div> @@ -11020,7 +10979,7 @@ p. xxviii; <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>, ad nom.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_533_533" id="Footnote_533_533"></a><a href="#FNanchor_533_533"><span class="label">[533]</span></a> Wood, <i>Fasti Oxon.</i> (Bliss), ii. 29, 30; <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>, ad nom.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_534_534" id="Footnote_534_534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_534_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a> 12º, pp. 31.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_534_534" id="Footnote_534_534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_534_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a> 12º, pp. 31.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_535_535" id="Footnote_535_535"></a><a href="#FNanchor_535_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a> In the copy in the Cambridge Univ. Library these are accompanied by a MS. translation into Latin. Some additional rules in Latin are written on the last blank @@ -11028,7 +10987,7 @@ leaf.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_536_536" id="Footnote_536_536"></a><a href="#FNanchor_536_536"><span class="label">[536]</span></a> <i>Athenae Oxon.</i> (Bliss), ii. 277.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_537_537" id="Footnote_537_537"></a><a href="#FNanchor_537_537"><span class="label">[537]</span></a> Printed by William Turner, 8º, pp. 72.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_537_537" id="Footnote_537_537"></a><a href="#FNanchor_537_537"><span class="label">[537]</span></a> Printed by William Turner, 8º, pp. 72.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_538_538" id="Footnote_538_538"></a><a href="#FNanchor_538_538"><span class="label">[538]</span></a> <i>Athenae Oxon.</i> (Bliss), ii. 624.</p></div> @@ -11041,7 +11000,7 @@ the sixteenth century.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_542_542" id="Footnote_542_542"></a><a href="#FNanchor_542_542"><span class="label">[542]</span></a> Cp. R. Bowes, <i>Catalogue of Books printed at Cambridge, 1521-1893</i>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_543_543" id="Footnote_543_543"></a><a href="#FNanchor_543_543"><span class="label">[543]</span></a> The statement of Wood (<i>Athenae Oxon.</i> iii. 184), that Du Grès had studied +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_543_543" id="Footnote_543_543"></a><a href="#FNanchor_543_543"><span class="label">[543]</span></a> The statement of Wood (<i>Athenae Oxon.</i> iii. 184), that Du Grès had studied at Oxford before going to Cambridge, is probably incorrect.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_544_544" id="Footnote_544_544"></a><a href="#FNanchor_544_544"><span class="label">[544]</span></a> 8vo, pp. 195, printed by Leonard Lichfield.</p></div> @@ -11065,8 +11024,8 @@ election of Fellows; cp. <i>supra</i>, p. 6.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_550_550" id="Footnote_550_550"></a><a href="#FNanchor_550_550"><span class="label">[550]</span></a> <i>Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1660-61</i>, p. 162.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_551_551" id="Footnote_551_551"></a><a href="#FNanchor_551_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a> "Autobiographie de Pierre du Moulin," <i>Bulletin de la Société de l'histoire du -Protestantisme Français</i>, vii. pp. 343 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_551_551" id="Footnote_551_551"></a><a href="#FNanchor_551_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a> "Autobiographie de Pierre du Moulin," <i>Bulletin de la Société de l'histoire du +Protestantisme Français</i>, vii. pp. 343 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_552_552" id="Footnote_552_552"></a><a href="#FNanchor_552_552"><span class="label">[552]</span></a> Mullinger, <i>History of the University of Cambridge</i>, 1911, iii. p. 300.</p></div> @@ -11104,9 +11063,9 @@ notes by Selden</i>, new ed., 1771, p. 172.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_561_561" id="Footnote_561_561"></a><a href="#FNanchor_561_561"><span class="label">[561]</span></a> Higford, <i>The Institution of a Gentleman</i>, 1660, p. 88.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_562_562" id="Footnote_562_562"></a><a href="#FNanchor_562_562"><span class="label">[562]</span></a> Perlin says of the English in the middle of the sixteenth century, referring no -doubt to the nobility: "Ceux du pays ne courent gaire ou bien peu aux deux universités, -et ne se donnent point beaucoup aux lettres, sinon qu'à toute marchandise -et à toute vanité" (<i>Description des royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse</i>, p. 11).</p></div> +doubt to the nobility: "Ceux du pays ne courent gaire ou bien peu aux deux universités, +et ne se donnent point beaucoup aux lettres, sinon qu'à toute marchandise +et à toute vanité" (<i>Description des royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse</i>, p. 11).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_563_563" id="Footnote_563_563"></a><a href="#FNanchor_563_563"><span class="label">[563]</span></a> <i>Letters</i> (1638), Camden Soc., 1854, p. 8. Nearly half a century later, Chancellor Clarendon wrote: "I doubt our Universities are defective in providing for those @@ -11146,7 +11105,7 @@ ministers in their turn were patrons to numerous young travellers in France. A certain Charles Danvers wrote to Walsingham from Paris, in French, to show his progress and thank him for his favours.<a name="FNanchor_567_567" id="FNanchor_567_567"></a><a href="#Footnote_567_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a> And Burghley gave one Andrew -Bussy a monthly allowance of £5 to enable him to study +Bussy a monthly allowance of £5 to enable him to study French at Orleans, where, according to his own account, he took great pains to make good progress so as to serve his patron the better on his return.<a name="FNanchor_568_568" id="FNanchor_568_568"></a><a href="#Footnote_568_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a> It was generally held that @@ -11482,7 +11441,7 @@ For a time he left the Cavendishes to act as tutor to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, with whom he remained eighteen months in Paris. It was while travelling with his pupils that Hobbes became known in the philosophic circles of Paris.<a name="FNanchor_610_610" id="FNanchor_610_610"></a><a href="#Footnote_610_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a> Addison -was offered a salary of £100 to be tutor to the Duke of Somerset, +was offered a salary of £100 to be tutor to the Duke of Somerset, who desired him "to be more of a companion than a Governor," but did not accept the offer.<a name="FNanchor_611_611" id="FNanchor_611_611"></a><a href="#Footnote_611_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a> In some cases the travelling tutor had several pupils. Thus Mr. Cordell, the @@ -11746,8 +11705,8 @@ Maupas bears stronger testimony to his pupil's attainments in the French language, and some years later he gratefully dedicated to the Duke his French grammar, first issued publicly in 1618.</p> -<p>Maupas's <i>Grammaire françoise contenant reigles tres certaines -et adresse tres asseurée a la naïve connoissance et pur usage de +<p>Maupas's <i>Grammaire françoise contenant reigles tres certaines +et adresse tres asseurée a la naïve connoissance et pur usage de nostre langue. En faveur des estrangers qui en seront desireux</i>, was first privately printed in 1607.<a name="FNanchor_640_640" id="FNanchor_640_640"></a><a href="#Footnote_640_640" class="fnanchor">[640]</a> He had not originally <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">-228-</a></span>intended it for publication. The work grew out of the notes @@ -11791,12 +11750,12 @@ was in preparation. His son, who assisted him in teaching, saw the work through the press, and invited students to transfer to him the favours they had bestowed on his father. Apparently the younger Charles Maupas continued to teach -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">-229-</a></span>his father's clientèle for some time. <span class="sidenote">CHARLES MAUPAS OF BLOIS</span>In 1626 he gave further +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">-229-</a></span>his father's clientèle for some time. <span class="sidenote">CHARLES MAUPAS OF BLOIS</span>In 1626 he gave further proof of his zeal for the cause in editing and publishing a comedy which both he and his father had frequently read with pupils not advanced enough for more serious matter. We are told vaguely that this comedy, entitled <i>Les Desguisez: -Comedie Françoise avec l'explication des proverbes et mots difficiles +Comedie Françoise avec l'explication des proverbes et mots difficiles par Charles Maupas a Bloys</i>, was the work of one of the <i>beaux esprits</i> of the period.<a name="FNanchor_642_642" id="FNanchor_642_642"></a><a href="#Footnote_642_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a> Maupas, however, only had one copy, and knew not where to procure more. He was induced @@ -11805,7 +11764,7 @@ by many of his pupils in making copies of it for their own use. For the benefit of students who had no tutor, he added an explanatory vocabulary of proverbs and difficult words.</p> -<p>Maupas's <i>Grammaire et syntaxe françoise</i> is still looked on +<p>Maupas's <i>Grammaire et syntaxe françoise</i> is still looked on with respect.<a name="FNanchor_643_643" id="FNanchor_643_643"></a><a href="#Footnote_643_643" class="fnanchor">[643]</a> The reputation it enjoyed in the seventeenth century is the more remarkable in that it was the work of a provincial who had no relations with the Court, then the @@ -11816,7 +11775,7 @@ by foreign students of French as long as the language was held in esteem was not to be fulfilled.</p> <p>His Grammar was superseded by that of Antoine Oudin—<i>Grammaire -Françoise rapportée au langage du temps</i>, Paris, +Françoise rapportée au langage du temps</i>, Paris, 1632. Oudin's original intention had been merely to enlarge the grammar of his predecessor. But as his work advanced he found "force antiquailles" and many mistakes, besides much @@ -11826,21 +11785,21 @@ had borrowed from Maupas—although he is careful to note that he has no intention of damaging his rival's reputation, and is proud to share his opinion on several points. He had a great advantage over Maupas in having spent all his life -in close connexion with the Court; his father, César, had been +in close connexion with the Court; his father, César, had been interpreter to the French king, and Antoine succeeded him in that office. He also appears to have had continual relations with foreigners, and he tells us on one occasion that he received from them "very considerable benefits." His grammar was certainly much used by foreign students, although <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">-230-</a></span>it does not seem to have enjoyed as great a popularity in -England as that of Maupas. Oudin's <i>Curiositez Françoises</i> +England as that of Maupas. Oudin's <i>Curiositez Françoises</i> (1640) was also addressed "aux estrangers," and his aim was to show his gratitude by attempting to call attention to the mistakes which had made their way into grammars drawn up for their instruction.<a name="FNanchor_644_644" id="FNanchor_644_644"></a><a href="#Footnote_644_644" class="fnanchor">[644]</a></p> -<p><i>L'Eschole Françoise pour apprendre a bien parler et escrire -selon l'usage de ce temps et pratique des bons autheurs, divisée +<p><i>L'Eschole Françoise pour apprendre a bien parler et escrire +selon l'usage de ce temps et pratique des bons autheurs, divisée en deux livres dont l'un contient les premiers elements, l'autre les parties de l'oraison</i> (Paris, 1604), by Jean Baptiste du Val, avocat en Parlement at Paris and French tutor to Marie de @@ -11858,7 +11817,7 @@ than one with a provincial accent.</p> <p>Among other grammars of similar purport is that of Masset in French and Latin, <i>Exact et tres facile acheminement -a la langue Françoyse, mis en Latin par le meme autheur pour +a la langue Françoyse, mis en Latin par le meme autheur pour le soulagement des estrangers</i> (1606);<a name="FNanchor_645_645" id="FNanchor_645_645"></a><a href="#Footnote_645_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a> and to the same category belongs also the <i>Praecepta gallici sermonis ad pleniorem perfectioremque eius linguae cognitionem necessaria tum suevissima @@ -11867,7 +11826,7 @@ French for many years in Germany, settled down at Orleans, his native town, as a language tutor.<a name="FNanchor_646_646" id="FNanchor_646_646"></a><a href="#Footnote_646_646" class="fnanchor">[646]</a></p> <p>Another work widely used by travellers, and well known in -England, was the <i>Nouvelle et Parfaite Grammaire Françoise</i> +England, was the <i>Nouvelle et Parfaite Grammaire Françoise</i> (1659) of Laurent Chiflet, the zealous Jesuit and missionary, which continued to be reprinted until the eighteenth century, and enjoyed for many years the highest reputation among @@ -11877,7 +11836,7 @@ booksellers of the Palais, the centre of the trade; and how the bookseller answered them civilly and tried to find what they desired, until his wife interfered, crying, "Ne voiez vous pas que ce sont des etrangers qui ne savent ce qu'ils demandent? -Donnez leur la grammaire de Chiflet, c'est là ce qu'il leur faut."<a name="FNanchor_647_647" id="FNanchor_647_647"></a><a href="#Footnote_647_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a></p> +Donnez leur la grammaire de Chiflet, c'est là ce qu'il leur faut."<a name="FNanchor_647_647" id="FNanchor_647_647"></a><a href="#Footnote_647_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a></p> <p>Chiflet is very explicit in his advice to foreign students. In the first place the pronunciation should be learnt by reading @@ -11909,14 +11868,14 @@ engaged private tutors; and "every master of exercise," it was felt, served as a kind of language master.<a name="FNanchor_649_649" id="FNanchor_649_649"></a><a href="#Footnote_649_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a> We are indebted to Dallington<a name="FNanchor_650_650" id="FNanchor_650_650"></a><a href="#Footnote_650_650" class="fnanchor">[650]</a> for an account of the cost of such a course abroad. "Money," he says, "is the soule of travell. -If he travel without a servant £80 sterling is a competent +If he travel without a servant £80 sterling is a competent proportion, except he learn to ride: if he maintain both these -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">-232-</a></span>charges, he can be allowed no less than £150: and to allow -above £200 were superfluous and to his hurt. The ordinary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">-232-</a></span>charges, he can be allowed no less than £150: and to allow +above £200 were superfluous and to his hurt. The ordinary rate of his expense is 10 gold crowns a month his fencing, as much his dancing, no less his reading, and 10 crowns monthly his riding except in the heat of the year. The remainder of his -£150, I allow him for apparell, books, travelling charges, tennis +£150, I allow him for apparell, books, travelling charges, tennis play, and other extraordinary expenses."</p> <p>Some of the more studious travellers resorted to one or other @@ -11925,7 +11884,7 @@ the two best known English teachers of French in the sixteenth century, had both followed this course. Palsgrave was a graduate of Paris, and John Eliote, after spending three years at the College of Montague in Paris, taught for a year in the -Collège des Africains at Orleans. The religious question had +Collège des Africains at Orleans. The religious question had much influence in determining the plan of study in France. The university towns of Rheims and Douay were the special resorts of English Catholics.<a name="FNanchor_651_651" id="FNanchor_651_651"></a><a href="#Footnote_651_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a> On the suppression of the @@ -11939,13 +11898,13 @@ students who matriculated at the University of Douay.</p> <p>On the other hand, the schools,<a name="FNanchor_652_652" id="FNanchor_652_652"></a><a href="#Footnote_652_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a> colleges,<a name="FNanchor_653_653" id="FNanchor_653_653"></a><a href="#Footnote_653_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a> and academies<a name="FNanchor_654_654" id="FNanchor_654_654"></a><a href="#Footnote_654_654" class="fnanchor">[654]</a> founded by the Huguenots offered many attractions to Protestant England. The colleges had much in common -with the modern French lycée, and the chief subjects taught +with the modern French lycée, and the chief subjects taught were the classical languages. They did not take boarders, with the exception of that at Metz, and the students lived <i>en pension</i> with families in the town. The same is true of the academies, institutions of university standing. They were -eight in number, and situated at Nîmes, Montpellier, Saumur, -Montauban, Die, Sedan, Orthez (in the principality of Béarn<a name="FNanchor_655_655" id="FNanchor_655_655"></a><a href="#Footnote_655_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a>), +eight in number, and situated at Nîmes, Montpellier, Saumur, +Montauban, Die, Sedan, Orthez (in the principality of Béarn<a name="FNanchor_655_655" id="FNanchor_655_655"></a><a href="#Footnote_655_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a>), and Geneva. Some Englishmen and many Scotchmen<a name="FNanchor_656_656" id="FNanchor_656_656"></a><a href="#Footnote_656_656" class="fnanchor">[656]</a> held <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">-233-</a></span>positions in the Protestant colleges and academies. <span class="sidenote">BRITISH STUDENTS AT FRENCH UNIVERSITIES</span>Many @@ -11956,7 +11915,7 @@ as well as to perfect their knowledge of French. A great number flocked to Geneva, including the Protestant author Michael Cope, who frequently preached in French.<a name="FNanchor_657_657" id="FNanchor_657_657"></a><a href="#Footnote_657_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a></p> -<p>Of the colleges, that of Nîmes attracted a large number +<p>Of the colleges, that of Nîmes attracted a large number of foreigners. Montpellier likewise was very popular during the short period at the beginning of the seventeenth century when the town was Protestant. Among the academies in @@ -11982,18 +11941,18 @@ all directions was still more strongly felt. Some years before, in 1654, the regents were enjoined to see to it that their pupils "ne parlent savoyard et ne jurent ou diabloyent," but in 1691 Poulain de la Barre, a doctor of the Sorbonne, could say that -"à Geneve on prononce incomparablement mieux que l'on ne +"à Geneve on prononce incomparablement mieux que l'on ne fait en plusieurs provinces de France."<a name="FNanchor_660_660" id="FNanchor_660_660"></a><a href="#Footnote_660_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a></p> <p>The Protestant academies usually consisted of faculties of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">-234-</a></span>Arts and Theology. At Geneva<a name="FNanchor_661_661" id="FNanchor_661_661"></a><a href="#Footnote_661_661" class="fnanchor">[661]</a> there were lectures in Law, Theology, Philosophy, Philology, and Literature; the teaching was chiefly in Latin, but sometimes in French. At the end -of the sixteenth century a riding school, known as the <i>Manège +of the sixteenth century a riding school, known as the <i>Manège de la Courature</i>, on the same lines as the polite academies of France, was started. The instruction given at Geneva was on broader lines than that of the less popular academies. -Nîmes and Montpellier, for instance, were mainly theological.<a name="FNanchor_662_662" id="FNanchor_662_662"></a><a href="#Footnote_662_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a></p> +Nîmes and Montpellier, for instance, were mainly theological.<a name="FNanchor_662_662" id="FNanchor_662_662"></a><a href="#Footnote_662_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a></p> <p>Of the many Englishmen who went to Geneva, as to other Protestant centres, not all attended lectures at the Academies. @@ -12010,7 +11969,7 @@ all the courses at the University in 1559. It was considered a great honour to lodge in the house of one or other of the professors; Anthony Bacon, the elder brother of the great Bacon, had the good fortune to be received into the house of -de Bèze. Casaubon likewise received into his house certain +de Bèze. Casaubon likewise received into his house certain young gentlemen who came to the town with a special recommendation to him. These included the young Henry Wotton, then on the long tour on the Continent, during which he @@ -12174,7 +12133,7 @@ language and fashions "by countenances and shrugs," and will choke rather than confess beer a good drink. In time the <i>beau</i> forgot what little he had learnt of Italian, and in the seventeenth century was generally known as the <i>English -monsieur</i>, or the <i>gentleman à la mode</i>.</p> +monsieur</i>, or the <i>gentleman à la mode</i>.</p> <p>There were two very different attitudes towards the journey to France, as there were two types of traveller, the serious and @@ -12225,7 +12184,7 @@ assumed the power of approving private tutors as well as schoolmasters. Gentleme were driven to evade this restriction by sending their sons to France in the care of what they considered suitable tutors. The Assembly then tried to assert its power by granting passports only to those whose tutors they approved. See Young, -<i>Histoire de l'Enseignement en Écosse</i>, p. 52.</p></div> +<i>Histoire de l'Enseignement en Écosse</i>, p. 52.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_573_573" id="Footnote_573_573"></a><a href="#FNanchor_573_573"><span class="label">[573]</span></a> <i>Copy Book of Sir Amias Poulet's Letters</i>, Roxburghe Club, 1866, pp. 16, 231.</p></div> @@ -12324,7 +12283,7 @@ betimes to prevent his being hardened in any evil course.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_611_611" id="Footnote_611_611"></a><a href="#FNanchor_611_611"><span class="label">[611]</span></a> Addison was well acquainted with French literature and criticism. He frequently quotes Boileau, Racine, Corneille, and also Bouhours and Lebossu. His <i>Tragedy of Cato</i> is closely modelled on the French pattern. See A. Beljame, <i>Le Public et les -hommes de lettres en Angleterre au 18<sup>e</sup> siècle</i>, 1897, p. 316.</p></div> +hommes de lettres en Angleterre au 18<sup>e</sup> siècle</i>, 1897, p. 316.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_612_612" id="Footnote_612_612"></a><a href="#FNanchor_612_612"><span class="label">[612]</span></a> <i>Memoirs of the Verney Family</i>, 1892, iii. p. 36.</p></div> @@ -12382,36 +12341,36 @@ in his <i>Advice to a Son</i> (1656).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_627_627" id="Footnote_627_627"></a><a href="#FNanchor_627_627"><span class="label">[627]</span></a> <i>Positions</i>, 1581.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_628_628" id="Footnote_628_628"></a><a href="#FNanchor_628_628"><span class="label">[628]</span></a> It appears from a deleted note in the MS. of Defoe's <i>Compleat English Gentleman</i> -that travel was not always considered necessary for younger sons (ed. K. Bülbring, +that travel was not always considered necessary for younger sons (ed. K. Bülbring, London, 1890).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_629_629" id="Footnote_629_629"></a><a href="#FNanchor_629_629"><span class="label">[629]</span></a> <i>French Alphabet</i>, 1592: "Car la plus part de ceux qui vont en France apprennent par routine, sans reigles, et sans art, de sorte qu'il leur est impossible d'apprendre, sinon avec une grande longueur de temps. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent en Angleterre, s'ils apprennent d'un qui ait bonne methode, il ne se peut faire qu'ils n'apprennent -en bref. D'avantage ce qu'ils apprennent est beaucoup meilleur que le françois +en bref. D'avantage ce qu'ils apprennent est beaucoup meilleur que le françois qu'on apprend en France par routine. Car nous ne pouvons parler ce que nous n'avons apris et que nous ignorons. Ceux qui apprennent du vulgaire ne peuvent parler que -vulgairement . . . d'un françois corrompu. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent par +vulgairement . . . d'un françois corrompu. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent par livres, parlent selon ce qu'ils apprennent: or est il que les termes et phrases des -livres sont le plus pur et naif françois (bien qu'il y ayt distinction de livres); il ne se +livres sont le plus pur et naif françois (bien qu'il y ayt distinction de livres); il ne se peut donc qu'ils ne parlent plus purement et naivement (comme j'ay dict) que les autres."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_630_630" id="Footnote_630_630"></a><a href="#FNanchor_630_630"><span class="label">[630]</span></a> Wodroeph, <i>Spared houres of a souldier</i>, 1623.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_631_631" id="Footnote_631_631"></a><a href="#FNanchor_631_631"><span class="label">[631]</span></a> Livet, <i>La Grammaire française et les grammairiens au 16<sup>e</sup> siècle</i>, 1859, p. 2.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_631_631" id="Footnote_631_631"></a><a href="#FNanchor_631_631"><span class="label">[631]</span></a> Livet, <i>La Grammaire française et les grammairiens au 16<sup>e</sup> siècle</i>, 1859, p. 2.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_632_632" id="Footnote_632_632"></a><a href="#FNanchor_632_632"><span class="label">[632]</span></a> <i>In linguam gallicam Isagoge</i>, 1531.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_633_633" id="Footnote_633_633"></a><a href="#FNanchor_633_633"><span class="label">[633]</span></a> <i>Le Traité touchant le commun usage de l'escriture françoise</i>, 1542, 1545; cp. Livet, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_633_633" id="Footnote_633_633"></a><a href="#FNanchor_633_633"><span class="label">[633]</span></a> <i>Le Traité touchant le commun usage de l'escriture françoise</i>, 1542, 1545; cp. Livet, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 49 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_634_634" id="Footnote_634_634"></a><a href="#FNanchor_634_634"><span class="label">[634]</span></a> <i>Gallicae linguae institutio Latino sermone conscripta</i> (1550, 1551, 1555, 1558, etc.).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_635_635" id="Footnote_635_635"></a><a href="#FNanchor_635_635"><span class="label">[635]</span></a> <i>Institutio gallicae linguae in usum iuventutis germanicae</i> (1558, 1580, 1591, 1593).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_636_636" id="Footnote_636_636"></a><a href="#FNanchor_636_636"><span class="label">[636]</span></a> <i>Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciacion françoese, departi en deus livres</i>, 1555.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_636_636" id="Footnote_636_636"></a><a href="#FNanchor_636_636"><span class="label">[636]</span></a> <i>Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciacion françoese, departi en deus livres</i>, 1555.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_637_637" id="Footnote_637_637"></a><a href="#FNanchor_637_637"><span class="label">[637]</span></a> "J'ay tousiours eu plus ordinaire hantise, plus de biens et d'honneur et de civile conversation de la nation Angloise que de nul aultre."</p></div> @@ -12421,7 +12380,7 @@ thirteen he had been taught at home by private tutors.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_639_639" id="Footnote_639_639"></a><a href="#FNanchor_639_639"><span class="label">[639]</span></a> <i>Reliquiae Wottonianae</i>, London, 1657, p. 76.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_640_640" id="Footnote_640_640"></a><a href="#FNanchor_640_640"><span class="label">[640]</span></a> 12º, pp. 386.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_640_640" id="Footnote_640_640"></a><a href="#FNanchor_640_640"><span class="label">[640]</span></a> 12º, pp. 386.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_641_641" id="Footnote_641_641"></a><a href="#FNanchor_641_641"><span class="label">[641]</span></a> </p> @@ -12435,24 +12394,24 @@ thirteen he had been taught at home by private tutors.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_642_642" id="Footnote_642_642"></a><a href="#FNanchor_642_642"><span class="label">[642]</span></a> It differs from <i>Les Desguisez</i>, a comedy written by Godard in 1594.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_643_643" id="Footnote_643_643"></a><a href="#FNanchor_643_643"><span class="label">[643]</span></a> E. Winkler, "La Doctrine grammaticale d'après Maupas et Oudin," in <i>Beihefte -zur Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie</i>, Heft 38, 1912.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_643_643" id="Footnote_643_643"></a><a href="#FNanchor_643_643"><span class="label">[643]</span></a> E. Winkler, "La Doctrine grammaticale d'après Maupas et Oudin," in <i>Beihefte +zur Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie</i>, Heft 38, 1912.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_644_644" id="Footnote_644_644"></a><a href="#FNanchor_644_644"><span class="label">[644]</span></a> Towards the end of his career, Oudin was appointed to teach Louis XIV. Spanish and Italian; he was the author of several manuals for teaching these languages, and it is worthy of note that sometimes the German language is included.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_645_645" id="Footnote_645_645"></a><a href="#FNanchor_645_645"><span class="label">[645]</span></a> Printed with Nicot's edition of Aimar de Ranconnet's <i>Thresor de la langue françoyse</i>, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_645_645" id="Footnote_645_645"></a><a href="#FNanchor_645_645"><span class="label">[645]</span></a> Printed with Nicot's edition of Aimar de Ranconnet's <i>Thresor de la langue françoyse</i>, Paris, 1606.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_646_646" id="Footnote_646_646"></a><a href="#FNanchor_646_646"><span class="label">[646]</span></a> Garnier was also the author of familiar dialogues, published in French, Spanish, Italian, and German in 1656.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_647_647" id="Footnote_647_647"></a><a href="#FNanchor_647_647"><span class="label">[647]</span></a> <i>Lettres sur les Anglais et sur les Français</i> (end of seventeenth century), 1725, p. 305.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_647_647" id="Footnote_647_647"></a><a href="#FNanchor_647_647"><span class="label">[647]</span></a> <i>Lettres sur les Anglais et sur les Français</i> (end of seventeenth century), 1725, p. 305.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_648_648" id="Footnote_648_648"></a><a href="#FNanchor_648_648"><span class="label">[648]</span></a> Another grammar specially intended for the use of strangers was <i>Le vray orthographe -françois contenant les reigles et preceptes infallibles pour se rendre certain, correct -et parfait a bien parler françois, tres utile et necessaire tant aux françois qu'estrangers. +françois contenant les reigles et preceptes infallibles pour se rendre certain, correct +et parfait a bien parler françois, tres utile et necessaire tant aux françois qu'estrangers. Par le sieur de Palliot secretaire ordinaire de la chambre du roy.</i> 1608.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_649_649" id="Footnote_649_649"></a><a href="#FNanchor_649_649"><span class="label">[649]</span></a> Gailhard, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 33.</p></div> @@ -12461,15 +12420,15 @@ Par le sieur de Palliot secretaire ordinaire de la chambre du roy.</i> 1608.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_651_651" id="Footnote_651_651"></a><a href="#FNanchor_651_651"><span class="label">[651]</span></a> <i>Records of the English Catholics</i>, i. pp. 275 <i>et sqq.</i>; F. C. Petre, <i>English Colleges and Convents established on the Continent ...</i>, Norwich, 1849; G. Cardon, <i>La Fondation -de l'Université de Douai</i>, Paris, 1802.</p></div> +de l'Université de Douai</i>, Paris, 1802.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_652_652" id="Footnote_652_652"></a><a href="#FNanchor_652_652"><span class="label">[652]</span></a> Cp. p. 343 <i>infra</i>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_653_653" id="Footnote_653_653"></a><a href="#FNanchor_653_653"><span class="label">[653]</span></a> Cp. account by M. Nicolas, in <i>Bulletin de la société de l'Histoire du Protestantisme -Français</i>, iv. pp. 503 <i>sqq.</i> and pp. 582 <i>sqq.</i> Twenty-five such colleges are named.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_653_653" id="Footnote_653_653"></a><a href="#FNanchor_653_653"><span class="label">[653]</span></a> Cp. account by M. Nicolas, in <i>Bulletin de la société de l'Histoire du Protestantisme +Français</i>, iv. pp. 503 <i>sqq.</i> and pp. 582 <i>sqq.</i> Twenty-five such colleges are named.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_654_654" id="Footnote_654_654"></a><a href="#FNanchor_654_654"><span class="label">[654]</span></a> <i>Bulletin</i>, i. p. 301; ii. pp. 43, 303, 354 <i>sqq.</i>; also articles in vols. iii., iv., v., vi., -ix., and Bourchenin's <i>Études sur les Académies Protestantes</i>.</p></div> +ix., and Bourchenin's <i>Études sur les Académies Protestantes</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_655_655" id="Footnote_655_655"></a><a href="#FNanchor_655_655"><span class="label">[655]</span></a> Suppressed as early as 1620.</p></div> @@ -12481,18 +12440,18 @@ English Liturgy into the Scottish churches. Robert Monteith, author of the <i>Hi <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_657_657" id="Footnote_657_657"></a><a href="#FNanchor_657_657"><span class="label">[657]</span></a> He composed in French <i>A faithful and familiar exposition of Ecclesiastes</i>, Geneva, 1557; cp. <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>, ad nom.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_658_658" id="Footnote_658_658"></a><a href="#FNanchor_658_658"><span class="label">[658]</span></a> Cp. Nicolas, <i>Histoire de l'ancienne Académie de Montauban</i>, Montauban, 1885.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_658_658" id="Footnote_658_658"></a><a href="#FNanchor_658_658"><span class="label">[658]</span></a> Cp. Nicolas, <i>Histoire de l'ancienne Académie de Montauban</i>, Montauban, 1885.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_659_659" id="Footnote_659_659"></a><a href="#FNanchor_659_659"><span class="label">[659]</span></a> There was an early Academy at Lausanne which emigrated to Geneva and assured -the latter's success (1559); cp. H. Vuilleumier, <i>L'Académie de Lausanne</i>, Lausanne, +the latter's success (1559); cp. H. Vuilleumier, <i>L'Académie de Lausanne</i>, Lausanne, 1891.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_660_660" id="Footnote_660_660"></a><a href="#FNanchor_660_660"><span class="label">[660]</span></a> <i>Essai de remarques particulières sur la langue françoise pour la ville de Genève</i>, 1691. -Quoted by Borgeaud, <i>Histoire de l'Université de Genève</i>, 1900, p. 445.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_660_660" id="Footnote_660_660"></a><a href="#FNanchor_660_660"><span class="label">[660]</span></a> <i>Essai de remarques particulières sur la langue françoise pour la ville de Genève</i>, 1691. +Quoted by Borgeaud, <i>Histoire de l'Université de Genève</i>, 1900, p. 445.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_661_661" id="Footnote_661_661"></a><a href="#FNanchor_661_661"><span class="label">[661]</span></a> C. Borgeaud, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_662_662" id="Footnote_662_662"></a><a href="#FNanchor_662_662"><span class="label">[662]</span></a> They were united at Nîmes in 1617, and finally suppressed in 1644.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_662_662" id="Footnote_662_662"></a><a href="#FNanchor_662_662"><span class="label">[662]</span></a> They were united at Nîmes in 1617, and finally suppressed in 1644.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_663_663" id="Footnote_663_663"></a><a href="#FNanchor_663_663"><span class="label">[663]</span></a> Pattison, <i>Isaac Casaubon</i>, Oxford, 1892, pp. 40-42, 155. On the English at Geneva, cp. <i>ibid.</i> p. 20.</p></div> @@ -12638,20 +12597,20 @@ At an early date one was reprinted in London. Holyband, the chief of the group of Huguenot teachers, was quickly up in arms against it. "Je ne diray rien," he writes in 1573, "d'un nouveau livre venu d'Anvers, et dernierement -imprimé à Londres, à cause que, ne gardant ryme ne raison, +imprimé à Londres, à cause que, ne gardant ryme ne raison, soit en son parler, phrase, orthographe, maniere de converser et communiquer entre gens d'estat; et cependant qu'il pindarise en son iargon il monstre de quel cru il est sorti, que si nos chartiers d'Orleans, Bourges ou de Bloys avoyent oui gazouiller l'autheur d'icelluy, ilz le renvoyeroient bailler -entre ses geais, apres luy avoir donné cinquante coups de leur -fouet sur ses échines." Let this writer teach his jargon to +entre ses geais, apres luy avoir donné cinquante coups de leur +fouet sur ses échines." Let this writer teach his jargon to the Flemings, the Burgundians, and the people of Hainault; it is a true saying that a good Burgundian was never a good -Frenchman. "Lesquelles choses <ins title="original: considererées">considerées</ins>," concludes +Frenchman. "Lesquelles choses <ins title="original: considererées">considerées</ins>," concludes the irate Holyband, "i'espere que l'autheur de ce beau livre ne nous contraindra point de manger ses glands, ayans -trouvé le pur froment."</p> +trouvé le pur froment."</p> <p>What was this book newly come from Antwerp? Probably an edition of a very popular collection of phrases and conversations, @@ -12671,7 +12630,7 @@ and either may have been the "book from Anvers" reviled by Holyband. Another English edition of the work was issued in 1578, a few years after Holyband's attack, by George Bishop, who received licence to print a <i>Dictionarie colloques -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">-242-</a></span>ou dialogues en quattre langues, Fflamen, Ffrançoys, Espaignol +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">-242-</a></span>ou dialogues en quattre langues, Fflamen, Ffrançoys, Espaignol et Italien</i>, "with the Englishe to be added thereto."<a name="FNanchor_692_692" id="FNanchor_692_692"></a><a href="#Footnote_692_692" class="fnanchor">[692]</a></p> <p>This vocabulary of Barlement probably enjoyed considerable @@ -12682,9 +12641,9 @@ to its columns; and they would, no doubt, bring copies back with them from the Netherlands. The earliest edition in which English has a place was probably that of 1576, entitled <i>Colloques or Dialogues avec un Dictionaire en six langues, -Flamen, Anglois, Alleman, François, Espagnol et Italien. +Flamen, Anglois, Alleman, François, Espagnol et Italien. Tres util a tous Marchands ou autres de quelque estat qu'ils -soyent, le tout avec grande diligence et labeur corrigé et mis +soyent, le tout avec grande diligence et labeur corrigé et mis ensemble.</i> <i>A Anvers 1576</i>. By the end of the century a seventh and finally an eighth language were added. There are copies of two further editions of the work issued in @@ -12734,16 +12693,16 @@ several of the early manuals produced in England:</p> <tr><td>I thanke you cousen.</td><td><span lang="fr">Je vous remercie cousin.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Doth he not goe to schoole?</td><td><span lang="fr">Ne va-il point a l'escole?</span></td></tr> -<tr><td>Yes, he learneth to speake French.</td><td><span lang="fr">Ouy, il apprend a parler François.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>Yes, he learneth to speake French.</td><td><span lang="fr">Ouy, il apprend a parler François.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Doth he?</td><td><span lang="fr">Fait-il?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>It is very well done.</td><td><span lang="fr">C'est tres bien fait.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td>John can you speake good French?</td><td><span lang="fr">Jean sçavez vous bien parler françois?</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>John can you speake good French?</td><td><span lang="fr">Jean sçavez vous bien parler françois?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Not very well, cousen, but I learne.</td><td><span lang="fr">Ne point fort bien, mon cousin, mais ie l'apprends.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Where go you to schoole?</td><td><span lang="fr">Ou allez vous a l'escole?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>In the Lombarde Street.</td><td><span lang="fr">En la rue de Lombarts.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td>Have you gone long to schoole?</td><td><span lang="fr">Avez vous longuement allé à l'escole?</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>Have you gone long to schoole?</td><td><span lang="fr">Avez vous longuement allé à l'escole?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>About halfe a yeare.</td><td><span lang="fr">Environ un demy an.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Learn you also to write?</td><td><span lang="fr">Apprenez vous aussi a escrire?</span></td></tr> @@ -12779,7 +12738,7 @@ in the table of contents, is omitted.</p> <p>A similar polyglot manual, which was probably less well known in England, was the <i>Vocabulaire de six langues, Latin, -François, Espagniol, Italien, Anglois et Aleman</i>, printed at +François, Espagniol, Italien, Anglois et Aleman</i>, printed at Venice, probably in 1540—an enlarged edition of a vocabulary in five languages (Antwerp, 1534, and Venice, 1537) in which English had no place. This handbook passed through several @@ -12805,7 +12764,7 @@ for many years he taught languages—French, Spanish, Flemish, and Italian—at Antwerp, which had by this time supplanted Bruges as the chief trading centre of the Low Countries. His pupils were largely merchants, and his first -work on the language, the <i>Grammaire françoise contenante +work on the language, the <i>Grammaire françoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres et necessaires pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte Langue</i>, 1557,<a name="FNanchor_694_694" id="FNanchor_694_694"></a><a href="#Footnote_694_694" class="fnanchor">[694]</a> was dedicated to "Messeigneurs et Maistres, les gouverneurs et marchans @@ -12864,7 +12823,7 @@ influence on the dialogues of the English manuals of French. The debt, however, was not all on one side. Holyband's <i>French Schoolemaister</i>, for instance, was adapted to the use of Flemings and printed at Rotterdam in 1606,<a name="FNanchor_699_699" id="FNanchor_699_699"></a><a href="#Footnote_699_699" class="fnanchor">[699]</a> and in 1647 was -published at the end of the <i>Grammaire flamende et françoise</i> +published at the end of the <i>Grammaire flamende et françoise</i> (Rouen) of Jan Louis d'Arsy. Moreover, the grammar of the seventeenth-century French teacher whose popularity equalled that of Holyband in the sixteenth century—Claude @@ -13040,7 +12999,7 @@ remarkable ease. In addition to the poems already mentioned, there are many others scattered through his works. One of these, "Chanson Spirituelle de la vie des vertueux hommes," is written to the tune of Desportes' song, "O nuit, -jalouse nuit, contre moy conjurée." He tells us that whenever +jalouse nuit, contre moy conjurée." He tells us that whenever possible he used French in correspondence in preference to English. He spoke the language with equal fluency, and assures us that he did so with greater facility than @@ -13091,16 +13050,16 @@ that they make the Frenches take their sport at them, even as the English do at the Welshes ... taking sometyme the male for the female, and the hand for the foote; applying to the woman that which should apply to the man: and to the -leg which ought apply to the arme: as <i>la garçon</i>, <i>le femme</i>, +leg which ought apply to the arme: as <i>la garçon</i>, <i>le femme</i>, <i>ma sieur</i>, and <i>mon dame</i>: ... O what language this is in the eares of the Frenches! I think truely it should make -Père Coton him selfe to laugh at it, who said in a sermon (the +Père Coton him selfe to laugh at it, who said in a sermon (the King and Queen present), that hee had neither sinned nor laughed in fiftene yeares tyme, yea and any man else." Verbs are a special difficulty, and there "be many that can never speake true French for lack of knowing their methode. For where it ought to be spoken thus: <i>Il y eut</i> or <i>il y avait -un homme là</i>, some will say <i>il fut</i>, <i>il estoit un homme là</i>. Fine +un homme là </i>, some will say <i>il fut</i>, <i>il estoit un homme là </i>. Fine French! And so will the ignorant speake through all the moodes and tenses, whereat the Frenches take often their <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">-252-</a></span>sport." Thus those who have learnt no grammar "go @@ -13120,23 +13079,23 @@ says, "soit-il ou en bien ou en mal." To make progress "il vous faut frequenter, hanter, accoynter, accoster, discourir, babiller, caquetter, baiser, lecher, parler hardiment et discretement, aymer, rire, gausser, jouer, vous rejouir, et jouir de -leurs bonnes faveurs et graces: et principalement ès compagnies -honestes: asçavoir, parmi les seigneurs et Dames, +leurs bonnes faveurs et graces: et principalement ès compagnies +honestes: asçavoir, parmi les seigneurs et Dames, Damoiselles honestes, pudiques matrones, femmes et filles de -vertu et d'honneur; captaines et dignes chefs de guerre, là -où il y a tousiours quelque chose a esplucher, si c'est de leurs +vertu et d'honneur; captaines et dignes chefs de guerre, là +où il y a tousiours quelque chose a esplucher, si c'est de leurs prouesses, <ins title="original: entreprinses">entreprises</ins>, ou de leurs faicts heroiques et memorables . . . sans vous esbahir pour le bruit non plus que fait le bon cheval de trompette." Wodroeph doubtless based his advice on his own experience. Moreover, a bold and enterprising spirit has much to do with the successful study of French: "si vous n'estes hardi prompt, diligent, et vigilent, -vous n'apprendrez pas la langue françoise par songe . . . mais +vous n'apprendrez pas la langue françoise par songe . . . mais cela vient par grande peine, diligence et priere a Dieu. Certes, . . . -si un homme estoit marié a une femme françoise . . . +si un homme estoit marié a une femme françoise . . . il me semble qu'il apprendroit plustost en disant, Mme, ou m'amie, permettez moy que ie vous recerche en tout honeur -et mariage . . . a celle fin de vous faire ma chere moitié, et +et mariage . . . a celle fin de vous faire ma chere moitié, et fidele espouse: que par ce moyen, ie puisse et avoir vostre alliance et apprendre vostre language, autrement, madame, il me cousteroit beaucoup plus de temps, de peine et de mes @@ -13223,7 +13182,7 @@ work closes with a list of the proper terms in which to address the higher and lower classes.</p> <p>Next come the dialogues taken from <i>Le verger des Colloques -recréatifs</i>, offered by a Walloon to Prince Henry of Nassau, +recréatifs</i>, offered by a Walloon to Prince Henry of Nassau, for his furtherance in the same tongue in his younger years. Wodroeph claims to have purified this book, written in "scurvie Wallons language." It had already been adapted to the @@ -13298,8 +13257,8 @@ MSS. 5936.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_688_688" id="Footnote_688_688"></a><a href="#FNanchor_688_688"><span class="label">[688]</span></a> Arber, <i>Transcript of the Stationers' Register</i>, iii. 413; iv. 152 and 459.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_689_689" id="Footnote_689_689"></a><a href="#FNanchor_689_689"><span class="label">[689]</span></a> <i>Vocabulaire de nouveau ordonné et derechief recorigé pour aprendre legierement a -bien lire, escripre, et parler françoys et flameng</i>, Anvers, 1511 (E. Stengel, <i>Chronologisches +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_689_689" id="Footnote_689_689"></a><a href="#FNanchor_689_689"><span class="label">[689]</span></a> <i>Vocabulaire de nouveau ordonné et derechief recorigé pour aprendre legierement a +bien lire, escripre, et parler françoys et flameng</i>, Anvers, 1511 (E. Stengel, <i>Chronologisches Verzeichnis</i>, p. 22 n.; and Michelant, <i>Livre des Mestiers</i>, Introduction).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_690_690" id="Footnote_690_690"></a><a href="#FNanchor_690_690"><span class="label">[690]</span></a> Arber, <i>Stationers' Register</i>, i. 343.</p></div> @@ -13309,27 +13268,27 @@ Verzeichnis</i>, p. 22 n.; and Michelant, <i>Livre des Mestiers</i>, Introductio <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_692_692" id="Footnote_692_692"></a><a href="#FNanchor_692_692"><span class="label">[692]</span></a> Arber, <i>Stationers' Register</i>, ii. 338.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_693_693" id="Footnote_693_693"></a><a href="#FNanchor_693_693"><span class="label">[693]</span></a> Cp. Ch. Beaulieux, "Liste de Dictionnaires, Lexicographes et vocabulaires -français antérieurs au Thrésor de Nicot" (1606), in <i>Mélanges de Philologie offerts à +français antérieurs au Thrésor de Nicot" (1606), in <i>Mélanges de Philologie offerts à Ferdinand Brunot</i>, Paris, 1904.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_694_694" id="Footnote_694_694"></a><a href="#FNanchor_694_694"><span class="label">[694]</span></a> Cp. E. Stengel, "Über einige seltene französische Grammatiken," in <i>Mélanges -de Philologie romane dédiés à Carl Wahlund</i>. Macon, 1896, pp. 181 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_694_694" id="Footnote_694_694"></a><a href="#FNanchor_694_694"><span class="label">[694]</span></a> Cp. E. Stengel, "Ãœber einige seltene französische Grammatiken," in <i>Mélanges +de Philologie romane dédiés à Carl Wahlund</i>. Macon, 1896, pp. 181 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_695_695" id="Footnote_695_695"></a><a href="#FNanchor_695_695"><span class="label">[695]</span></a> Of similar import, no doubt, were the <i>Boke of Copyes Englesshe, Ffrynshe and Italion</i>, licensed to Vautrollier in 1569-70 (<i>Stationers' Register</i>, i. 417); and the <i>Bills of Lading English, French, Italian, Dutch</i>, licensed to Master Bourne in 1636 (<i>ibid.</i> iv. 364).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_696_696" id="Footnote_696_696"></a><a href="#FNanchor_696_696"><span class="label">[696]</span></a> H. Vaganey, <i>Le Vocabulaire français du seizième siècle</i>, Paris, 1906, pp. 2 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_696_696" id="Footnote_696_696"></a><a href="#FNanchor_696_696"><span class="label">[696]</span></a> H. Vaganey, <i>Le Vocabulaire français du seizième siècle</i>, Paris, 1906, pp. 2 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_697_697" id="Footnote_697_697"></a><a href="#FNanchor_697_697"><span class="label">[697]</span></a> <i>Advice to a Son</i>, 1656, p. 83.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_698_698" id="Footnote_698_698"></a><a href="#FNanchor_698_698"><span class="label">[698]</span></a> Cp. <i>Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1666-67</i>, pp. 57, 104. At a later date A. de la Barre, a schoolmaster of Leyden, published a <i>Methode ou Instruction nouvelle pour les etrangers -qui desirent apprendre la manière de composer ou écrire a la mode du temps et scavoir -la vraye prononciation de la langue françoise</i>, Leyden, 1642. In 1644 he issued, also at +qui desirent apprendre la manière de composer ou écrire a la mode du temps et scavoir +la vraye prononciation de la langue françoise</i>, Leyden, 1642. In 1644 he issued, also at Leyden, a book probably intended as reading material for his pupils, and called <i>Les -Leçons publiques du sieur de la Barre, prises sur les questions curieuses et problematiques +Leçons publiques du sieur de la Barre, prises sur les questions curieuses et problematiques des plus beaux esprits de ce temps</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_699_699" id="Footnote_699_699"></a><a href="#FNanchor_699_699"><span class="label">[699]</span></a> Farrer, <i>La Vie et les œuvres de Claude de Sainliens</i>, Bibliography.</p></div> @@ -13384,7 +13343,7 @@ chair and conversed with him. James requested Du Moulin to write an answer to Cardinal Du Perron's pamphlet concerning the power of the Pope over monarchs, in which he had been attacked. Du Moulin complied, and his work was -printed at London in 1615 as the <i>Declaration du Sérénissme +printed at London in 1615 as the <i>Declaration du Sérénissme Roy Jacques I</i>. He also preached in French before James at the Chapel Royal at Greenwich, and received marks of distinction from the University of Cambridge, which conferred @@ -13406,14 +13365,14 @@ Mellema, in his Flemish-French Dictionary of 1591, says French is used everywhere in Europe and the East.<a name="FNanchor_712_712" id="FNanchor_712_712"></a><a href="#Footnote_712_712" class="fnanchor">[712]</a> To be unacquainted with French was accounted a great deficiency in a gentleman. It was said of the language that <i>qui -langue a jusqu'à Rome va</i>,<a name="FNanchor_713_713" id="FNanchor_713_713"></a><a href="#Footnote_713_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a> and in England the general +langue a jusqu'à Rome va</i>,<a name="FNanchor_713_713" id="FNanchor_713_713"></a><a href="#Footnote_713_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a> and in England the general conviction was that "No nobleman, gentleman, soldier, or man of action in business between Nation and Nation can well be without it."<a name="FNanchor_714_714" id="FNanchor_714_714"></a><a href="#Footnote_714_714" class="fnanchor">[714]</a></p> <p>James seems to have acquired his knowledge of French chiefly by means of intercourse with the many Frenchmen -at the Scottish Court, one of whom, Jérôme Grelot, was among +at the Scottish Court, one of whom, Jérôme Grelot, was among the young noblemen who shared his studies.<a name="FNanchor_715_715" id="FNanchor_715_715"></a><a href="#Footnote_715_715" class="fnanchor">[715]</a> He also read much French literature, however, and later took a great interest in the language studies of his children. They were @@ -13423,7 +13382,7 @@ to allow him to judge of their progress.</p> <div class="blockquot"><p>"Sir," wrote the Princess Elizabeth, afterwards Queen of Bohemia, "L'esperance que j'ay de vous voir bien tost et d'avoir l'honneur de recepvoir voz commandemens m'empeschera de vous faire ma lettre plus longue -que pour baiser tres humblement les mains de vostre Majesté."<a name="FNanchor_716_716" id="FNanchor_716_716"></a><a href="#Footnote_716_716" class="fnanchor">[716]</a></p></div> +que pour baiser tres humblement les mains de vostre Majesté."<a name="FNanchor_716_716" id="FNanchor_716_716"></a><a href="#Footnote_716_716" class="fnanchor">[716]</a></p></div> <p>The king's eldest son, Henry, made acquaintance with French at a very early age. In 1600, when only seven years @@ -13458,8 +13417,8 @@ Mr. Adam Newton, he quotes one of them as appropriate:<a name="FNanchor_723_723" <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> <span lang="fr"><span class="i0">Tu ne saurois d'assez ample salaire<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Recompenser celui qui t'a soigné<br /></span> -<span class="i0">En ton enfance et qui t'a enseigné<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Recompenser celui qui t'a soigné<br /></span> +<span class="i0">En ton enfance et qui t'a enseigné<br /></span> <span class="i0">A bien parler et sur tout a bien faire.<br /></span></span> </div></div> @@ -13622,7 +13581,7 @@ do with the change in pronunciation of the diphthong <i>oi</i>.<a name="FNanchor "Whereas our countrymen were wonte to pronounce these words <i>connoistre</i> ... as it is written by <i>oi</i> or <i>oy</i>; now since fewe yeeres they pronounce it as if it were written thus, -<i>conètre</i>."</p> +<i>conètre</i>."</p> <p>Erondell reduces the grammar rules to the smallest possible number. "He wishes the student to learn by heart" @@ -13689,13 +13648,13 @@ conjugate certain French verbs. This is how the lesson opens:</p> <div class="table"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="10" summary="Erondell's dialogue"> <tr><td>Sister Charlotte I pray you goe fetch our bookes, bring our French Garden, and all our other bookes: now in the name of God let us begin.</td> -<td><span lang="fr">Ma sœur Charlotte, Je vous prie allez querir nos livres, apportez nostre jardin Francois, et tous nos aultres livres: or ça commençons au nom de Dieu.</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">Ma sœur Charlotte, Je vous prie allez querir nos livres, apportez nostre jardin Francois, et tous nos aultres livres: or ça commençons au nom de Dieu.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Mistres Fleurimond read first: speake somewhat louder to th' end I may heare if you pronounce well: say that worde againe. Wherefore do you sounde that s?</td> <td><span lang="fr">Mlle. F. lisez premierement: parlez un peu plus haut afin que j'oye si vous prononcez bien: dites ce mot la derechef. Pourquoy prononcez vous cette s la?</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Doe you not knowe that it must be left? Well, it is well said, read with more facilitie, without taking such paines.</td> -<td><span lang="fr">ne savez vous pas qu'il la faut laisser? Et bien, c'est bien dit, lisez avec plus de facilité, sans tant vous peiner.</span></td></tr> +<td><span lang="fr">ne savez vous pas qu'il la faut laisser? Et bien, c'est bien dit, lisez avec plus de facilité, sans tant vous peiner.</span></td></tr> <tr><td>Construe me that, what is that?</td><td>Traduisez moy cela, qu'est cela?</td></tr> <tr><td>Do you understand that? tell me the signification in English—Truly Sir I cannot tell it, I understand it not, I beseech you tell it me, and I will remember it against another time—Give me your paper and I will write it, to th' end you forget it not ... etc.</td> @@ -13736,16 +13695,16 @@ and dedicated the <i>Garden</i> to the Lady Elizabeth Barkley, with an expression of his gratitude for the many favours he had received from her. The verses on the Centurion are dedicated to Thomas Norton, of Norwood, whom he calls -his "très intime et très honoré amy." As was usual at this +his "très intime et très honoré amy." As was usual at this time, Erondell's book is preceded by commendatory poems, including lines by William Herbert, author of <i>Cadwallader</i>, and by Nicholas Breton. There is also a sonnet by the "Sieur de -Mont Chrestien, Gentilhomme françois," possibly the famous -Antoine de Montchrétien, who in about 1605 was forced to +Mont Chrestien, Gentilhomme françois," possibly the famous +Antoine de Montchrétien, who in about 1605 was forced to leave France on account of a duel, and visited both England and Holland. Erondell appears to have been many years in England before he produced his <i>Garden</i>. At this date he had -a large clientèle, including "many honourable ladies and +a large clientèle, including "many honourable ladies and gentlemen of great worth and worship." In about 1613 he engaged an assistant to help him, one John Fabre, a Frenchman, "born in the precinct of Guyand, a town of Turnon"; @@ -13807,7 +13766,7 @@ French influence at the Court. When she came she knew no English, and for many years after her arrival waywardly <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">-270-</a></span>refused to study the language. Her numerous suite of French ladies and gentlemen, including Mme. Georges, the Duc and -Duchesse de Chevreuse, and Père Sancy, shared her ignorance, +Duchesse de Chevreuse, and Père Sancy, shared her ignorance, as indeed did practically all foreigners. The English Court was thus called upon to exercise its French to the uttermost. The small French colony in London managed to make itself @@ -13856,11 +13815,11 @@ of the Queen.<a name="FNanchor_753_753" id="FNanchor_753_753"></a><a href="#Foot recommended them to the King. Through his influence they were allowed the use of the Cockpit Theatre in Whitehall. There, on the 17th of February, they presented a French -comedy called <i>Mélise</i>—either Corneille's <i>Mélite</i>, or more -probably Du Rocher's comic pastoral, <i>La Mélize, ou les +comedy called <i>Mélise</i>—either Corneille's <i>Mélite</i>, or more +probably Du Rocher's comic pastoral, <i>La Mélize, ou les Princes Reconnus</i>.<a name="FNanchor_754_754" id="FNanchor_754_754"></a><a href="#Footnote_754_754" class="fnanchor">[754]</a> The King, Queen, and Court were present. The acting met with approval and the players -received £10. There was no repetition of the riotous +received £10. There was no repetition of the riotous behaviour which had characterised the performances of 1629, probably because there were no women in the company, and also because the players were specially patronised by the @@ -13881,15 +13840,15 @@ When, at the end of Lent, they had to relinquish the Cockpit, Drury Lane, to the English players, their services were still in demand. On Easter Monday they acted before the Court in a play called <i>Le Trompeur puny</i>, no doubt the tragi-comedy -of that name by Georges de Scudéry.<a name="FNanchor_755_755" id="FNanchor_755_755"></a><a href="#Footnote_755_755" class="fnanchor">[755]</a> Their success was +of that name by Georges de Scudéry.<a name="FNanchor_755_755" id="FNanchor_755_755"></a><a href="#Footnote_755_755" class="fnanchor">[755]</a> Their success was even greater than on the occasion of the Court performance -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">-272-</a></span>of <i>Mélise</i>, and on the 16th of April following, they presented +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">-272-</a></span>of <i>Mélise</i>, and on the 16th of April following, they presented <i>Alcimedor</i>,<a name="FNanchor_756_756" id="FNanchor_756_756"></a><a href="#Footnote_756_756" class="fnanchor">[756]</a> under the same circumstances, and "with good approbation." These three plays acted at the Court are the only part of their repertoire that is named in the record of the -Master of the Revels. On the 10th of May they received £30 +Master of the Revels. On the 10th of May they received £30 for three plays acted at the Cockpit, probably that in Whitehall, -where they first acted <i>Mélise</i> before the Court, nearly +where they first acted <i>Mélise</i> before the Court, nearly four months earlier, and not the Cockpit, Drury Lane, where they had played during Lent.</p> @@ -13910,7 +13869,7 @@ in the city, and its presence must have had considerable effect. The French company under Floridor again appeared before the Court, in December 1635; we do not know what they played, beyond the fact that it was a tragedy. On the twenty-first -of the same month, the Pastoral of <i>Florimène</i> was acted +of the same month, the Pastoral of <i>Florimène</i> was acted in French at Whitehall by the French ladies who attended the Queen. The King, the Queen, Prince Charles, and the Elector Palatine, were present, and the performance was a @@ -13946,8 +13905,8 @@ with it in his grammar.<a name="FNanchor_760_760" id="FNanchor_760_760"></a><a h exceptions. Among the languages in which Panurge addresses Pantagruel on their first meeting, English has a place, but is hardly recognisable in its Scottish dress.<a name="FNanchor_761_761" id="FNanchor_761_761"></a><a href="#Footnote_761_761" class="fnanchor">[761]</a> And the -Maréchal de Villars relates in his memoirs<a name="FNanchor_762_762" id="FNanchor_762_762"></a><a href="#Footnote_762_762" class="fnanchor">[762]</a> that the Duc -de la Ferté, "quand il avait un peu bu," would break out +Maréchal de Villars relates in his memoirs<a name="FNanchor_762_762" id="FNanchor_762_762"></a><a href="#Footnote_762_762" class="fnanchor">[762]</a> that the Duc +de la Ferté, "quand il avait un peu bu," would break out in English to the great astonishment and amusement of all who were present. There is a tradition that Corneille kept a copy of the English translation of the <i>Cid</i>, which he showed @@ -13963,12 +13922,12 @@ probably took advantage of his position to offer interpretations from time to time. However, the actors soon learnt some German by mixing with German actors. A band of English acrobats had performed at Paris in 1583. Some years later, -in 1598, a troupe of English comedians hired the Hôtel de -Bourgogne,<a name="FNanchor_764_764" id="FNanchor_764_764"></a><a href="#Footnote_764_764" class="fnanchor">[764]</a> the only theatre in Paris, from the <i>Confrérie +in 1598, a troupe of English comedians hired the Hôtel de +Bourgogne,<a name="FNanchor_764_764" id="FNanchor_764_764"></a><a href="#Footnote_764_764" class="fnanchor">[764]</a> the only theatre in Paris, from the <i>Confrérie de la Passion</i>, who usually played there. The English actors, at whose head was one Jehan Sehais, got into trouble for -playing outside the Hôtel, contrary to the privileges of the -<i>Confrérie</i>, and had to pay an indemnity. How much these +playing outside the Hôtel, contrary to the privileges of the +<i>Confrérie</i>, and had to pay an indemnity. How much these actors made use of their language for attracting an audience is not certain. At a somewhat later date, another company played at Fontainebleau before Henry IV. and his son, afterwards @@ -13991,7 +13950,7 @@ first French version of an English work was that of Bishop Hall's <i>Characters of Vertues and Vices</i> which appeared in 1610, and again in 1612 and 1619, and may have had some influence <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">-275-</a></span>on -<span class="sidenote">NEGLECT OF ENGLISH</span>La Bruyère's <i>Caractères</i>. It is also interesting to note that +<span class="sidenote">NEGLECT OF ENGLISH</span>La Bruyère's <i>Caractères</i>. It is also interesting to note that this enterprising translator was no other than J. L'Oiseau de Tourval, Parisien, who wrote so enthusiastically of Cotgrave's dictionary, which appeared in the following year @@ -14047,8 +14006,8 @@ appeared a new edition of Du Bartas, in French and English, for teaching "an Englishman French, or a Frenchman English." Wodroeph's <i>Marrow of the French Tongue</i> (1625), which saw the light at the same time, was said to be "aussi -utile pour le François d'apprendre l'Anglois que pour l'Anglois -d'apprendre le François," though only the dialogues in French +utile pour le François d'apprendre l'Anglois que pour l'Anglois +d'apprendre le François," though only the dialogues in French and English could serve this purpose, as, indeed, they might in any other French text-book.<a name="FNanchor_773_773" id="FNanchor_773_773"></a><a href="#Footnote_773_773" class="fnanchor">[773]</a> This notice is evidently added merely as a concession to topical events; it had not @@ -14058,10 +14017,10 @@ figured in the earlier edition (1623).</p> English was treated more seriously. This was a <i>Grammaire Angloise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la langue angloise. Qui peut aussi aider aux Anglois pour apprendre -la langue Françoise: Alphabet Anglois contenant la pronunciation +la langue Françoise: Alphabet Anglois contenant la pronunciation des lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons</i>, dedicated to Henrietta Maria, and probably arranged by one of the -professors of the Collège de Navarre, from which it is dated. +professors of the Collège de Navarre, from which it is dated. We are informed that the princess, and those intending to accompany her to her new home, studied English daily. These lessons, if they were really given, were no doubt a @@ -14164,8 +14123,8 @@ of the merchants in London skilled in the French tongue, wrote a <i>Grammaire Angloise, contenant reigles bien exactes et certaines de la Prononciation, Orthographie et construction de nostre langue, en faveur des estrangers qui en sont desireux</i>, but -especially, he tells us, for the use of "noz françois tant a leur -arrivée en ce pais, que en leur demeure en iceluy." This +especially, he tells us, for the use of "noz françois tant a leur +arrivée en ce pais, que en leur demeure en iceluy." This English grammar<a name="FNanchor_781_781" id="FNanchor_781_781"></a><a href="#Footnote_781_781" class="fnanchor">[781]</a> is written in French, and gives rules for pronunciation and the parts of speech. It is followed by dialogues<a name="FNanchor_782_782" id="FNanchor_782_782"></a><a href="#Footnote_782_782" class="fnanchor">[782]</a> in French and English, in the usual style, bearing @@ -14219,10 +14178,10 @@ marriage of Henrietta Maria with Charles I. (1625), editions appeared at Rouen in 1639, 1668, 1670, 1679, and most probably at other dates also; another was issued at London, 1677. Perhaps the first book for teaching English printed in -France was a <i>Traicté pour apprendre a parler Françoys et +France was a <i>Traicté pour apprendre a parler Françoys et Anglois</i>, published at Rouen in 1553, apparently an early edition of Meurier's work, printed at Rouen in 1563 as a -<i>Traité pour apprendre a parler françois et anglois, ensemble +<i>Traité pour apprendre a parler françois et anglois, ensemble faire missives, obligations,</i> etc., and again at Rouen in 1641.</p> <p>It was long before English won recognition from foreigners @@ -14241,22 +14200,22 @@ French, the most universal language at that time.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_709_709" id="Footnote_709_709"></a><a href="#FNanchor_709_709"><span class="label">[709]</span></a> Rye, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 153.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_710_710" id="Footnote_710_710"></a><a href="#FNanchor_710_710"><span class="label">[710]</span></a> "Autobiographie," <i>Bull. de la Soc. de l'Hist. du Protestantisme Français</i>, vii. +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_710_710" id="Footnote_710_710"></a><a href="#FNanchor_710_710"><span class="label">[710]</span></a> "Autobiographie," <i>Bull. de la Soc. de l'Hist. du Protestantisme Français</i>, vii. pp. 343 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_711_711" id="Footnote_711_711"></a><a href="#FNanchor_711_711"><span class="label">[711]</span></a> Another famous Frenchman at the Court of James I. was Theodore Mayerne the Court Doctor (cp. <i>Table Talk of Bishop Hurd</i>, Ox. Hist. Soc. Collectanea, ser. 2, -p. 390); also Jean de Schelandre and Montchrétien among men of letters. James -refused to give audience to the poet Théophile de Viau, exiled for his daring satires. +p. 390); also Jean de Schelandre and Montchrétien among men of letters. James +refused to give audience to the poet Théophile de Viau, exiled for his daring satires. Boisrobert, St. Amant, Voiture, likewise visited England at this period.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_712_712" id="Footnote_712_712"></a><a href="#FNanchor_712_712"><span class="label">[712]</span></a> Thurot, <i>Prononciation française</i>, i. p. xiv.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_712_712" id="Footnote_712_712"></a><a href="#FNanchor_712_712"><span class="label">[712]</span></a> Thurot, <i>Prononciation française</i>, i. p. xiv.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_713_713" id="Footnote_713_713"></a><a href="#FNanchor_713_713"><span class="label">[713]</span></a> Gerbier, <i>Interpreter of the Academy</i>, 1648.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_714_714" id="Footnote_714_714"></a><a href="#FNanchor_714_714"><span class="label">[714]</span></a> Aufeild: Translation of Maupas's <i>Grammar</i>, 1634.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_715_715" id="Footnote_715_715"></a><a href="#FNanchor_715_715"><span class="label">[715]</span></a> Young, <i>L'Enseignement en Écosse</i>, p. 78.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_715_715" id="Footnote_715_715"></a><a href="#FNanchor_715_715"><span class="label">[715]</span></a> Young, <i>L'Enseignement en Écosse</i>, p. 78.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_716_716" id="Footnote_716_716"></a><a href="#FNanchor_716_716"><span class="label">[716]</span></a> Ellis, <i>Original Letters</i>, 1st series, iii. 89.</p></div> @@ -14280,8 +14239,8 @@ New Sk. Soc., 1842.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_724_724" id="Footnote_724_724"></a><a href="#FNanchor_724_724"><span class="label">[724]</span></a> Rye, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 155.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_725_725" id="Footnote_725_725"></a><a href="#FNanchor_725_725"><span class="label">[725]</span></a> <i>Mémoires de Madame de Motteville</i>, in Petitot et Monmerqué, <i>Collection des -Mémoires relatifs à l'Histoire de France</i>, tom. 37, 1824, pp. 122-3.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_725_725" id="Footnote_725_725"></a><a href="#FNanchor_725_725"><span class="label">[725]</span></a> <i>Mémoires de Madame de Motteville</i>, in Petitot et Monmerqué, <i>Collection des +Mémoires relatifs à l'Histoire de France</i>, tom. 37, 1824, pp. 122-3.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_726_726" id="Footnote_726_726"></a><a href="#FNanchor_726_726"><span class="label">[726]</span></a> <i>Cal. State Papers, 1660-61</i>, p. 162; cp. p. 207, <i>supra</i>.</p></div> @@ -14318,7 +14277,7 @@ cit.</i> p. 6.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_740_740" id="Footnote_740_740"></a><a href="#FNanchor_740_740"><span class="label">[740]</span></a> De la Mothe devoted a short chapter to enumerating women's clothing.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_741_741" id="Footnote_741_741"></a><a href="#FNanchor_741_741"><span class="label">[741]</span></a> Thurot, <i>Prononciation française</i>, pp. 374, 376.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_741_741" id="Footnote_741_741"></a><a href="#FNanchor_741_741"><span class="label">[741]</span></a> Thurot, <i>Prononciation française</i>, pp. 374, 376.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_742_742" id="Footnote_742_742"></a><a href="#FNanchor_742_742"><span class="label">[742]</span></a> <i>Treatise for Declining French Verbs</i>, 1580, 1599, and 1641.</p></div> @@ -14357,7 +14316,7 @@ French into English; cp. p. 277, note 2, <i>infra</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_754_754" id="Footnote_754_754"></a><a href="#FNanchor_754_754"><span class="label">[754]</span></a> The former was first acted in France in 1629 and the latter in 1633; cf. Upham, <i>French Influence in English Literature</i>, p. 373.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_755_755" id="Footnote_755_755"></a><a href="#FNanchor_755_755"><span class="label">[755]</span></a> Scudéry's work is in verse; a king and queen of England figure among the +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_755_755" id="Footnote_755_755"></a><a href="#FNanchor_755_755"><span class="label">[755]</span></a> Scudéry's work is in verse; a king and queen of England figure among the characters. It was first performed in France in 1631.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_756_756" id="Footnote_756_756"></a><a href="#FNanchor_756_756"><span class="label">[756]</span></a> Probably a tragi-comedy by Du Ryer, acted in 1634; Upham, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 373.</p></div> @@ -14366,11 +14325,11 @@ characters. It was first performed in France in 1631.</p></div> of Shakespeare's works, completed by Boswell, 1821, iii. pp. 120, 122. Herbert makes many of his entries in French.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_758_758" id="Footnote_758_758"></a><a href="#FNanchor_758_758"><span class="label">[758]</span></a> Meurier, <i>Communications familières</i>, 1563.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_758_758" id="Footnote_758_758"></a><a href="#FNanchor_758_758"><span class="label">[758]</span></a> Meurier, <i>Communications familières</i>, 1563.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_759_759" id="Footnote_759_759"></a><a href="#FNanchor_759_759"><span class="label">[759]</span></a> While the English visited France in great numbers, very few Frenchmen came to England, except those engaged on diplomatic missions, or exiles. Thus, Ronsard, -Jacques Grévin, Brantôme, Bodin, in the sixteenth century; Schelandre, d'Assoucy, +Jacques Grévin, Brantôme, Bodin, in the sixteenth century; Schelandre, d'Assoucy, Boisrobert, Le Pays, Pavillon, Voiture, Malleville, and a few others in the early seventeenth century, spent a short time in England. Among scholars, Peiresc, Henri Estienne, Justel, Bochart, and Casaubon visited our country. St. Amant @@ -14387,13 +14346,13 @@ pp. 8, 129.</p></div> rehutht tholb suld of me pety have for natur ..." (<i>Œuvres de Rabelais</i>, ed. C. Marty Laveaux, i. 261).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_762_762" id="Footnote_762_762"></a><a href="#FNanchor_762_762"><span class="label">[762]</span></a> Petitot et Monmerqué, <i>Collection des Mémoires</i>, tom. 68, Paris, 1828.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_762_762" id="Footnote_762_762"></a><a href="#FNanchor_762_762"><span class="label">[762]</span></a> Petitot et Monmerqué, <i>Collection des Mémoires</i>, tom. 68, Paris, 1828.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_763_763" id="Footnote_763_763"></a><a href="#FNanchor_763_763"><span class="label">[763]</span></a> A. Cohn, <i>Shakespeare in Germany in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries</i>, London, 1865, pp. xxviii, cxxxiv, cxxxv.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_764_764" id="Footnote_764_764"></a><a href="#FNanchor_764_764"><span class="label">[764]</span></a> Jusserand, <i>Shakespeare in France</i>, 1899, pp. 51 <i>sqq.</i>; E. Soulié, <i>Recherches sur -Molière</i>, Paris, 1863, p. 153.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_764_764" id="Footnote_764_764"></a><a href="#FNanchor_764_764"><span class="label">[764]</span></a> Jusserand, <i>Shakespeare in France</i>, 1899, pp. 51 <i>sqq.</i>; E. Soulié, <i>Recherches sur +Molière</i>, Paris, 1863, p. 153.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_765_765" id="Footnote_765_765"></a><a href="#FNanchor_765_765"><span class="label">[765]</span></a> <i>Journal de Jean Hervard sur l'enfance et la jeunesse de Louis XIII, 1601-28</i>, Paris, 1868. Quoted by Jusserand, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 57 n. One of Louis's tutors was an @@ -14412,18 +14371,18 @@ in 1597.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_769_769" id="Footnote_769_769"></a><a href="#FNanchor_769_769"><span class="label">[769]</span></a> Gerbier, <i>Interpreter of the Academy</i>, 1648.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_770_770" id="Footnote_770_770"></a><a href="#FNanchor_770_770"><span class="label">[770]</span></a> T. B. Squire, in Simon Daines's <i>Orthoepia Anglicana</i>, reprinted by R. Brotanek -in <i>Neudrucke frühneuenglischer Grammatiken</i>, Bd. iii., 1908.</p></div> +in <i>Neudrucke frühneuenglischer Grammatiken</i>, Bd. iii., 1908.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_771_771" id="Footnote_771_771"></a><a href="#FNanchor_771_771"><span class="label">[771]</span></a> By the end of the sixteenth century it was quite a usual thing for learned subjects to be treated in English. Ascham apologised for using English in his <i>Toxophilus</i> (1545), but in his <i>Scholemaster</i> (1570) he used it as a matter of course.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_772_772" id="Footnote_772_772"></a><a href="#FNanchor_772_772"><span class="label">[772]</span></a> Jusserand, <i>Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais</i>, 1904, p. 316.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_772_772" id="Footnote_772_772"></a><a href="#FNanchor_772_772"><span class="label">[772]</span></a> Jusserand, <i>Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais</i>, 1904, p. 316.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_773_773" id="Footnote_773_773"></a><a href="#FNanchor_773_773"><span class="label">[773]</span></a> Florio makes the same claim in his <i>First Frutes</i> for teaching Italian and English.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_774_774" id="Footnote_774_774"></a><a href="#FNanchor_774_774"><span class="label">[774]</span></a> <i>Grammaire Angloise et Françoise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la -Langue angloise et françoise.</i> A Rouen, chez la veuve Oursel, 1595, 8vo. The Brit. +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_774_774" id="Footnote_774_774"></a><a href="#FNanchor_774_774"><span class="label">[774]</span></a> <i>Grammaire Angloise et Françoise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la +Langue angloise et françoise.</i> A Rouen, chez la veuve Oursel, 1595, 8vo. The Brit. Mus. copy contains MS. notes of a French student.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_775_775" id="Footnote_775_775"></a><a href="#FNanchor_775_775"><span class="label">[775]</span></a> In 1586 he translated three letters of Henry of Navarre, and in following years @@ -14476,7 +14435,7 @@ and Flemish nobles and gentlemen who visited London. To these distinguished visitors he dedicated his dictionary in 1632, as well as the second edition of his French grammar in 1634, expressing the hope that he would soon be able to produce -an English grammar "toute entière," for only the practical +an English grammar "toute entière," for only the practical exercises in French and English could be of use to them in their study of English. His French grammar was intended "for the furtherance and practice of gentlemen, scollers and others @@ -14539,7 +14498,7 @@ well learning as teaching such laudable arts and qualities as are most fitting for a gentleman's exercise." Seemingly he spent some time in the Low Countries, and he may have found his pupils among the English troops serving -there, as in 1603 he published at Liége a book in French on +there, as in 1603 he published at Liége a book in French on arithmetic which also provides military information. Before 1612 he had returned to London, where he composed a similar work in English, dedicated to the Lords of the Privy Council.<a name="FNanchor_787_787" id="FNanchor_787_787"></a><a href="#Footnote_787_787" class="fnanchor">[787]</a> @@ -14571,11 +14530,11 @@ scheme, as follows:</p> <tr><td>A</td><td>E'</td><td>E</td><td>O</td><td>I</td><td>Y</td><td class="tdbr">V</td><td class="tdbr">H</td><td>S</td><td>Z</td><td>X</td><td class="tdbr">I</td><td>L</td><td>R</td><td>N</td> <td class="tdbr">M</td><td> </td> <td>F</td><td>Λ</td><td>B</td><td>P</td><td>:</td><td>D</td><td>T</td><td>G</td><td class="tdbr">K</td><td>C</td><td>Q</td></tr> -<tr><td>a</td><td>é</td><td>e</td><td>o</td><td>i</td><td>y</td><td class="tdbr">u</td><td class="tdbr">éh</td><td>és</td> -<td>éz</td><td>éx</td><td class="tdbr">éi</td><td>él</td><td>ér</td><td>én</td><td class="tdbr">ém</td> +<tr><td>a</td><td>é</td><td>e</td><td>o</td><td>i</td><td>y</td><td class="tdbr">u</td><td class="tdbr">éh</td><td>és</td> +<td>éz</td><td>éx</td><td class="tdbr">éi</td><td>él</td><td>ér</td><td>én</td><td class="tdbr">ém</td> <td> </td> -<td>éf</td><td>éΛ</td><td>éb</td><td>ép</td><td>:</td><td>éd</td><td>ét</td><td>ég</td> -<td class="tdbr">ék</td><td>éc</td><td>éq</td></tr> +<td>éf</td><td>éΛ</td><td>éb</td><td>ép</td><td>:</td><td>éd</td><td>ét</td><td>ég</td> +<td class="tdbr">ék</td><td>éc</td><td>éq</td></tr> <tr><td colspan="7" class="tdbr">proper names</td><td class="tdbr"> </td> <td colspan="4" class="tdbr"> </td> <td colspan="4" class="tdbr"> </td><td> </td> @@ -14586,14 +14545,14 @@ scheme, as follows:</p> <td colspan="9" class="tdbr"> </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="7"> </td><td class="tdbr">he</td> -<td class="tbb">sé</td><td class="tbb">zé</td><td class="tbb">xé</td> -<td class="tdbrbb">ié</td> -<td class="tbb">lé</td><td class="tbb">ré</td><td class="tbb">né</td> -<td class="tdbrbb">mé</td><td> </td><td class="tbb">fé</td><td class="tbb">Λé</td> -<td class="tbb">bé</td> -<td class="tbb">pé</td><td class="tbb">:</td><td class="tbb">dé</td> -<td class="tbb">té</td><td class="tbb">gé</td><td class="tdbrbb">ké</td> -<td class="tbb">cé</td><td class="tbb">qé</td></tr></table> +<td class="tbb">sé</td><td class="tbb">zé</td><td class="tbb">xé</td> +<td class="tdbrbb">ié</td> +<td class="tbb">lé</td><td class="tbb">ré</td><td class="tbb">né</td> +<td class="tdbrbb">mé</td><td> </td><td class="tbb">fé</td><td class="tbb">Λé</td> +<td class="tbb">bé</td> +<td class="tbb">pé</td><td class="tbb">:</td><td class="tbb">dé</td> +<td class="tbb">té</td><td class="tbb">gé</td><td class="tdbrbb">ké</td> +<td class="tbb">cé</td><td class="tbb">qé</td></tr></table> <table border="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Eliote's method"> <tr><td class="tdi6">Aspiration</td> <td class="tdr"> ↓</td> @@ -14801,7 +14760,7 @@ England continued uninterruptedly. <i>The Flower de Luce planted in England</i> was the title of a grammar which appeared in 1619. This work was due to one Laur Du Terme, of whom nothing is known beyond the fact that he was a Frenchman -and a protégé of Bacon, then Lord Chancellor. Du Terme +and a protégé of Bacon, then Lord Chancellor. Du Terme had evidently been in England long enough to acquire some knowledge of English, in which he wrote his grammar. After imploring his patron to water his 'flower' with a few drops @@ -14892,7 +14851,7 @@ being arranged in sentence form, as in many modern text-books:</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> <span lang="fr"><span class="i0">J'ay bien dormi ceste nuit.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Tu as trop mangé.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Tu as trop mangé.<br /></span> <span class="i0">Il a trop bu, etc.<br /></span></span> </div></div> @@ -15064,7 +15023,7 @@ two other editions appeared in 1687 and 1703. Another favourite author was published in the same three languages at a later date—the <i>Thoughts of Cicero ... on (1) Religion, and (2) Man.... Published in Latin and French by the -Abbé Olivet, to which is now added an English translation, with +Abbé Olivet, to which is now added an English translation, with notes</i> (<i>by A. Wishart</i>) (1750 and 1773). Of these few examples of Latin and French text-books, two are known only by hearsay. It is likely that others, adapted to the same purpose, have disappeared @@ -15138,11 +15097,11 @@ point of omitting all the compound tenses usually introduced into French verbs on the model of the Latin ones, as such forms can only be expressed by means of paraphrases or of the verbs <i>avoir</i> and <i>estre</i>; thus French rather than Latin -was in the author's mind: "Or m'a semblé qu'il ne fallait pas +was in the author's mind: "Or m'a semblé qu'il ne fallait pas charger au commencement la memoire des petits enfants de choses desquelles le maistre diligent et industrieux, pourveu -qu'il soit homme lettré et bien entendu en la grammaire -françoise, pourra instiller peu à peu en leur esprit, plus par +qu'il soit homme lettré et bien entendu en la grammaire +françoise, pourra instiller peu à peu en leur esprit, plus par diligente pratique que par cette facheuse et prolixe circonlocution qui n'apporte aucun profit." He agreed with most of the French teachers of the time that few rules and much @@ -15336,10 +15295,10 @@ printed in London as late as the eighteenth century.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_801_801" id="Footnote_801_801"></a><a href="#FNanchor_801_801"><span class="label">[801]</span></a> R. Clavell, <i>Catalogue of Books printed in London, 1666-1680</i>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_802_802" id="Footnote_802_802"></a><a href="#FNanchor_802_802"><span class="label">[802]</span></a> Schickler, <i>Églises du Refuge</i>, i. 409. His name occurs frequently in the <i>Threadneedle +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_802_802" id="Footnote_802_802"></a><a href="#FNanchor_802_802"><span class="label">[802]</span></a> Schickler, <i>Églises du Refuge</i>, i. 409. His name occurs frequently in the <i>Threadneedle Street Church Registers</i>, Hug. Soc. Pub. ix. and xiii.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_803_803" id="Footnote_803_803"></a><a href="#FNanchor_803_803"><span class="label">[803]</span></a> <i>The Constitution of the Museum Minervae</i>, 1636. Charles I. granted £100 from +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_803_803" id="Footnote_803_803"></a><a href="#FNanchor_803_803"><span class="label">[803]</span></a> <i>The Constitution of the Museum Minervae</i>, 1636. Charles I. granted £100 from the Treasury, and Kynaston himself provided books and other material.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_804_804" id="Footnote_804_804"></a><a href="#FNanchor_804_804"><span class="label">[804]</span></a> <i>The Interpreter of the Academy for forrain languages and all noble sciences and @@ -15359,42 +15318,42 @@ London, 1904, p. xv.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_809_809" id="Footnote_809_809"></a><a href="#FNanchor_809_809"><span class="label">[809]</span></a> <i>Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1655-56</i>, p. 76. On the Restoration, Wolley enjoyed ecclesiastical preferment, and finally became Bishop of Clonfert. He published an -English translation from the French of Scudéry's <i>Curia Politiae</i>, in 1546, and other +English translation from the French of Scudéry's <i>Curia Politiae</i>, in 1546, and other works in English, of no special interest. See <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>, ad nom.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_810_810" id="Footnote_810_810"></a><a href="#FNanchor_810_810"><span class="label">[810]</span></a> <i>Memoirs of the Verney Family</i>, iii. p. 361.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_811_811" id="Footnote_811_811"></a><a href="#FNanchor_811_811"><span class="label">[811]</span></a> He usually wrote home in French. In the following extract he asks for a taper, then in fashion among his school-mates: "Je vous prie de m'anvoier de la chandelle -de cirre entortillée, car tous les garçons en ont pour brullay (<i>sic</i>) et moy ie n'en ay +de cirre entortillée, car tous les garçons en ont pour brullay (<i>sic</i>) et moy ie n'en ay point pour moy."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_812_812" id="Footnote_812_812"></a><a href="#FNanchor_812_812"><span class="label">[812]</span></a> Two parents discuss the school in a dialogue: </p> <div class="table"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="school dialogue"> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Où allez vous?</span></td><td>Whither are you going?</td></tr> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Où allez vous?</span></td><td>Whither are you going?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Je m'en vais voir ma fille.</span></td> <td>I am going to see my daughter.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">En quel lieu?</span></td> <td>In what place?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">A Maribone.</span></td> <td>At Maribone.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Que fait elle là?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Que fait elle là ?</span></td> <td>What doth she do there?</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Comment, ne sçavez vous pas que je l'ay mise en pension?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Comment, ne sçavez vous pas que je l'ay mise en pension?</span></td> <td>What, do you not know that I have put her at a Boording school?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Chez qui?</span></td> <td>With whom?</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Chez un nommé Mons. de la Mare qui tient escole Françoise.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Chez un nommé Mons. de la Mare qui tient escole Françoise.</span></td> <td>At one Mons. de la Mare that keeps a French school.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Vrayement, je n'en sçavois rien.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Vrayement, je n'en sçavois rien.</span></td> <td>Truly, I did not know it.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Qu'apprend elle là?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Qu'apprend elle là ?</span></td> <td>What does she learn there?</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Elle apprend à écrire, à lire, à parler françois, à chanter, à danser, à jouer de la guitare, and the spinette.</span></td> -<td>She learns to write, to read, to speak French, to sing, to dance, to play on the guitar, et de l'épinette.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Elle apprend à écrire, à lire, à parler françois, à chanter, à danser, à jouer de la guitare, and the spinette.</span></td> +<td>She learns to write, to read, to speak French, to sing, to dance, to play on the guitar, et de l'épinette.</td></tr> </table></div> </div> @@ -15485,37 +15444,37 @@ It is no doubt Mrs. Kilvert's Academy that is referred to in the following dialogue:</p> <div class="table"><table summary="Mauger's dialogue"> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Mon père, je vous prie, donnés moy vostre bénédiction.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Mon père, je vous prie, donnés moy vostre bénédiction.</span></td> <td>I pray, Father, give me your blessing.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Ma fille, soyés la bien revenue.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Ma fille, soyés la bien revenue.</span></td> <td>Daughter, you are welcome home.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Comment se porte Mme. votre Maîtresse?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Comment se porte Mme. votre Maîtresse?</span></td> <td>How does your mistress?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Mons. elle se porte bien.</span></td> <td>She is very well, Sir.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">N'avés vous point oublié votre Anglois?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">N'avés vous point oublié votre Anglois?</span></td> <td>Have you not forgot your English quite?</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Non, mon père.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Non, mon père.</span></td> <td>No, sir.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Je croy que vous parlés extrêmement bien.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Je croy que vous parlés extrêmement bien.</span></td> <td>I suppose you speak French excellently well by this time?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">J'entends beaucoup mieux que je ne parle.</span></td> <td>I understand it better than I can speak it.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Laquelle est la plus sçavante de vous deux?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Laquelle est la plus sçavante de vous deux?</span></td> <td>Which of you two is the best proficient?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">C'est ma sœur.—Je ne pense pas.</span></td> <td>My sister, Sir.—I don't believe that.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Expliqués moy ce livre là en François.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Expliqués moy ce livre là en François.</span></td> <td>Render me some of that book back into French.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Que signifie cela en François?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Que signifie cela en François?</span></td> <td>What's that in French?</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Entendés vous cette sentence là?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Entendés vous cette sentence là ?</span></td> <td>Do you understand that sentence?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Ouy, Mons.</span></td> <td>Yes, Sir.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Vous avez bien profité. . . .</span> </td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Vous avez bien profité. . . .</span> </td> <td>You have made good proficiency....</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Sçavez vous travailler en ouvrages?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Sçavez vous travailler en ouvrages?</span></td> <td>Have you learnt any needlework there?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Vostre luth n'est pas d'accord. . . .</span></td> <td>Your lute is out of tune....</td></tr> @@ -15527,37 +15486,37 @@ the following dialogue:</p> <td>What have you learnt?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Approchez vous de moy.</span></td> <td>Come nearer to me.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Dancés une courante.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Dancés une courante.</span></td> <td>Dance me a Courante.</td></tr> </table></div> <p>In another dialogue a French gentleman compliments an English lady on her French:</p> -<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Où avés vous appris à parler François, Mademoiselle?</p> +<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Où avés vous appris à parler François, Mademoiselle?</p> -<p>Monsieur, je ne parle pas, je ne fais que bégayer.</p> +<p>Monsieur, je ne parle pas, je ne fais que bégayer.</p> -<p>Je vous proteste que d'abord j'ay creu que vous fussiés Françoise.</p> +<p>Je vous proteste que d'abord j'ay creu que vous fussiés Françoise.</p> -<p>Il est impossible à une Angloise de posséder vostre langue.</p> +<p>Il est impossible à une Angloise de posséder vostre langue.</p> -<p>Vous m'excuserés, il s'en trouve beaucoup.</p> +<p>Vous m'excuserés, il s'en trouve beaucoup.</p> <p>J'eus l'honneur il y a quelque temps d'entretenir une Dame qui parle -aussi nettement qu'une Françoise.</p> +aussi nettement qu'une Françoise.</p> -<p>Je voy que vous avez inclination pour le François.</p> +<p>Je voy que vous avez inclination pour le François.</p> <p>Fort grande.</p> <p>Vous avez l'accent fort pur et net.</p> -<p>De qui apprenés vous?</p> +<p>De qui apprenés vous?</p> -<p>D'un François nouvellement arrivé qui est de Blois.</p> +<p>D'un François nouvellement arrivé qui est de Blois.</p> -<p>Il est vray que la pureté du langage se trouve là, non pas seulement +<p>Il est vray que la pureté du langage se trouve là , non pas seulement l'accent, mais la vraye phrase.</p> <p>Tout le monde le dit.</p> @@ -15642,24 +15601,24 @@ they number eighty in the sixth edition (1670). Each new issue promises additions, "of the last concern to the reader." A new feature in the sixth and seventh editions is a versified rendering of the grammar rules, entitled <i>Le Parterre de la -langue françoise</i>. The verses were written at the request of +langue françoise</i>. The verses were written at the request of the Duke of Mecklenburg, his former pupil, and arranged in the form of a dialogue between Mauger and the Duke, who first addresses his master:</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">Le Langage françois est si plein de merveilles<br /></span> +<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">Le Langage françois est si plein de merveilles<br /></span> <span class="i0">Que ses charmans appas, ravissans nos oreilles,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Nous jettent sur vos bords pour gouster ses douceurs,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Et pour en admirer les beautéz et les fleurs.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Mais, pour nous l'acquérir il faut tant d'artifice,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Qu'en ses difficultés il estreint nos delices,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Et pour en admirer les beautéz et les fleurs.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Mais, pour nous l'acquérir il faut tant d'artifice,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Qu'en ses difficultés il estreint nos delices,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Estouffe nos desseins, traverse le plaisir<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Qui flatoit nostre espoir d'y pouvoir réussir.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Qui flatoit nostre espoir d'y pouvoir réussir.<br /></span> <span class="i0">Les articles <i>de la</i>, <i>de</i>, <i>du</i>, sont difficiles.<br /></span> <span class="i0">Si vous ne les monstrez par vos reigles utiles,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Ils nous font bégayer presques à tous momens,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Et ternissent l'éclat de nos raisonnemens.<br /></span></span> +<span class="i0">Ils nous font bégayer presques à tous momens,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Et ternissent l'éclat de nos raisonnemens.<br /></span></span> </div></div> <p class="noi"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">-306-</a></span>And Mauger answers him with an invitation to take what he @@ -15696,27 +15655,27 @@ English, which he considered "a great help to the learner of the French tongue," for "those who understand it with the help of the English, are capable of explaining afterwards any French author, being written on several subjects." The -<i>Lettres Françoises et Angloises de Claude Mauger sur Toutes +<i>Lettres Françoises et Angloises de Claude Mauger sur Toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres</i> were dedicated to Sir William Pulteney. They were first issued in 1671, and again in 1676, with the addition of fifty letters. Many are addressed to gentlemen of note who had been his students at Blois, and continued to correspond with him for the purpose of practice -in French. "Puisque vous désirez que je continue à vous -écrire des Lettres Françoises," he wrote to the Count of Praghen -in 1668, "pour vous exercer en cette langue qui est tant usitée -dans toutes les cours de l'Europe, je reçois vos ordres avec +in French. "Puisque vous désirez que je continue à vous +écrire des Lettres Françoises," he wrote to the Count of Praghen +in 1668, "pour vous exercer en cette langue qui est tant usitée +dans toutes les cours de l'Europe, je reçois vos ordres avec joye." Others are addressed to pupils in London, including -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">-307-</a></span>some of his large clientèle of ladies. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">-307-</a></span>some of his large clientèle of ladies. <span class="sidenote">MAUGER'S FRENCH AND ENGLISH LETTERS</span>For instance, he writes to a certain Mrs. Gregorie:</p> -<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Ayant ouï dire que vous estes allée a la campagne pour quinze jours, -durant cette belle saison en laquele la nature déploye ce qu'elle a de plus -beau, j'ay pris la hardiesse de vous écrire cette lettre en François pour vous +<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Ayant ouï dire que vous estes allée a la campagne pour quinze jours, +durant cette belle saison en laquele la nature déploye ce qu'elle a de plus +beau, j'ay pris la hardiesse de vous écrire cette lettre en François pour vous exercer en cette langue que vous apprenez avec tant de diligence. Je suis -bien aise que vous vous y adonniez si bien, car, comme vous avez la mémoire -admirable, vous en viendriez bien tost à bout.</p></div></div> +bien aise que vous vous y adonniez si bien, car, comme vous avez la mémoire +admirable, vous en viendriez bien tost à bout.</p></div></div> <p class="noi">He seems to have made a regular practice of exercising his pupils' French by writing to them in the language.<a name="FNanchor_815_815" id="FNanchor_815_815"></a><a href="#Footnote_815_815" class="fnanchor">[815]</a> Among @@ -15724,15 +15683,15 @@ his young English pupils was William Penn, the Quaker, to whom he wrote a letter dated 1670:</p> <div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Je n'entendrois pas bien mes interests si Dieu m'ayant fait si heureux -de vous monstrer le François que vous apprenez si bien, je n'en témoignois -de la joye, en faisant voir à tout le Monde, que l'honneur que vous me -faites de vous servir de moy, pour vous l'acquérir est tres grand. En effet +de vous monstrer le François que vous apprenez si bien, je n'en témoignois +de la joye, en faisant voir à tout le Monde, que l'honneur que vous me +faites de vous servir de moy, pour vous l'acquérir est tres grand. En effet monsieur, n'est-ce pas un bon-heur? Car je perdrois mon credit si Dieu ne me suscitoit de tems en tems des personnes comme vous, qui par leur -diligence et capacité avec l'aide de ma méthode le soutiennent. . . . J'ay -bien de la satisfaction qu'elle [<i>i.e.</i> l'Angleterre] sçache que vous m'avez +diligence et capacité avec l'aide de ma méthode le soutiennent. . . . J'ay +bien de la satisfaction qu'elle [<i>i.e.</i> l'Angleterre] sçache que vous m'avez choisy pour vous donner la connaissance d'une langue qui vous manquoit, -qui est si estimée, et si usitée par toute la Terre. . . .</p></div></div> +qui est si estimée, et si usitée par toute la Terre. . . .</p></div></div> <p class="noi">Whether these letters were ever actually sent to his pupils is a question of some uncertainty, which we are inclined to @@ -15762,7 +15721,7 @@ Before 1673 he had moved to "within two doors of Master Longland, a Farrier in Little Queen St., over against the Guy of Warwick near the King's Gate in Holborn"; and in 1676 to "Shandois Street, over against the Three Elmes, at -Master Saint André's." It was probably about the year 1670 +Master Saint André's." It was probably about the year 1670 that he began to teach English to foreigners visiting England. He had the honour "of helping a little to the English tongue both the French ambassadors, Ladyes, ambassadresses and @@ -15795,7 +15754,7 @@ must confesse that a Latine schollar, who hath been acquainted with all such rules of grammar, speaketh better than such a one." Mauger would have the student first master his rules, and then begin "by all means" to read, "pour joindre la -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">-309-</a></span>pratique à la speculation des règles." +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">-309-</a></span>pratique à la speculation des règles." <span class="sidenote">MAUGER'S METHOD OF TEACHING</span>He no doubt intended the student to attempt to speak at the outset with the guidance of a French master, whom he held absolutely indispensable. @@ -15803,17 +15762,17 @@ The following talk between two students throws light on the practical methods advocated:</p> <div class="table"><table summary="mauger's talk"> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Apprenez-vous encore le françois?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Apprenez-vous encore le françois?</span></td> <td>Do you learn French still?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Ouy, je n'y suis pas encore parfait.</span></td> <td><span lang="fr">Yes, I am not yet perfect in it.</span></td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Et moi je continue aussi.</span></td> <td>And I continue also.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Je commence à l'entendre.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Je commence à l'entendre.</span></td> <td>I begin to understand it.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">J'entens tout ce que je lis.</span></td> <td>I understand all I read.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Avez vous un valet de pié françois?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Avez vous un valet de pié françois?</span></td> <td>Have you a French foot boy?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Ouy, monsieur.</span></td> <td>Yes, Sir.</td></tr> @@ -15825,9 +15784,9 @@ practical methods advocated:</p> <td>What author do you read?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Je lis l'<i>Histoire de France</i>.</span></td> <td>I read the <i>French History</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">L'avez-vous leüe?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">L'avez-vous leüe?</span></td> <td>Have you read it?</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Je l'ay leüe en Anglois.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Je l'ay leüe en Anglois.</span></td> <td>I have read it in English.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Je l'acheteray.</span></td> <td>I will buy it.</td></tr> @@ -15835,31 +15794,31 @@ practical methods advocated:</p> <td>Where shall I find it?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Partout.</span></td> <td>Everywhere.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Avez-vous leüe l' <i>Illustre Parisienne</i>?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Avez-vous leüe l' <i>Illustre Parisienne</i>?</span></td> <td>Have you read the <i>Illustrious Parisien</i>?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Allez-vous au sermon?</span></td> <td>Do you go to sermon?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Ouy, Monsieur.</span></td> <td>Yes, Sir.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Qui est-ce qui prêche?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Qui est-ce qui prêche?</span></td> <td>Who preaches?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">C'est un habile homme.</span></td> <td>'Tis an able man.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Avez-vous le Dictionnaire de Miège?</span><a name="FNanchor_818_818" id="FNanchor_818_818"></a><a href="#Footnote_818_818" class="fnanchor">[818]</a></td> -<td>Have you Miège's Dictionary?</td></tr> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Avez-vous le Dictionnaire de Miège?</span><a name="FNanchor_818_818" id="FNanchor_818_818"></a><a href="#Footnote_818_818" class="fnanchor">[818]</a></td> +<td>Have you Miège's Dictionary?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Ouy, je l'ay.</span></td> <td>Yes, I have it.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Voulez-vous me le prêter?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Voulez-vous me le prêter?</span></td> <td>Will you lend it me?</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Il est à votre service.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Il est à votre service.</span></td> <td>It is at your service.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Je vous remercie.</span></td> <td>I thank you.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">La langue françoise n'est-elle pas belle?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">La langue françoise n'est-elle pas belle?</span></td> <td>Is not the French tongue fine?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Je l'aime fort.</span></td> <td>I love it extreamly.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Elle est fort à la mode.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Elle est fort à la mode.</span></td> <td>'Tis very modish.</td></tr> </table></div> @@ -15867,9 +15826,9 @@ practical methods advocated:</p> learn to speak, that one may easily attain the French tongue by the assistance of a Master, if he will take a little pains on his side." He also advises his pupils to read the lengthy -heroical romances so popular at the time—<i>L'Astrée</i>, and the -enormous folios of De Gomberville, La Calprenède, Mlle. de -Scudéry, and other romances of the same type—as well as +heroical romances so popular at the time—<i>L'Astrée</i>, and the +enormous folios of De Gomberville, La Calprenède, Mlle. de +Scudéry, and other romances of the same type—as well as the works of Corneille, Balzac, and Le Grand. With Antoine le Grand, Mauger claims personal acquaintance, and recommends his works with special emphasis, giving his pupils @@ -15913,23 +15872,23 @@ Blois accent. At an earlier date he had acknowledged that Tours, and the Court," and in 1676 he writes, "Je suys exactement le plus beau stile de la Cour," and tells us that he had daily intercourse with French courtiers "tant ambassadeurs -qu'autres grands seigneurs, à qui j'ay aussi l'honneur de +qu'autres grands seigneurs, à qui j'ay aussi l'honneur de monstrer la langue angloise." He also read all the latest books, and carried on a correspondence with learned men in Paris, among others Antoine le Grand. But in the same year that he was praising the French of Paris, he wrote, encouraging a noble Englishman to take up the study of French in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">-311-</a></span>England: -<span class="sidenote">MAUGER IN PARIS</span>"Si vos affaires ne vous permettent pas d'aller à +<span class="sidenote">MAUGER IN PARIS</span>"Si vos affaires ne vous permettent pas d'aller à Paris, pour vous y adonner, de quoy vous souciez-vous si vous avez Blois dans Londres qui est la source? En effet sa -prononciation ne change jamais: de plus à cause du commerce -qu'il y a entre les deux cours, l'une communique à -l'autre sa pureté. Et je dy assurément qu'il y a icy quantité -de personnes qui parlent aussi bien à la mode qu'au Faubourg +prononciation ne change jamais: de plus à cause du commerce +qu'il y a entre les deux cours, l'une communique à +l'autre sa pureté. Et je dy assurément qu'il y a icy quantité +de personnes qui parlent aussi bien à la mode qu'au Faubourg Saint Germain. Et comme les fonteines font couler leurs eaux bien loin par de bons canaux sans se corrompre, vous -trouverez des Maîtres en cette ville qui vous enseigneront aussi +trouverez des Maîtres en cette ville qui vous enseigneront aussi purement que sur les lieux." However, when he had himself spent two years in Paris, he gave up praising the merits of Blois, and always describes himself as "late professor of @@ -15994,9 +15953,9 @@ Hague. It was usually published with an English grammar of more importance than the short one added by Mauger to the English editions—that of Festeau, Mauger's friend and fellow-townsman. Their combined work was known as the -<i>Nouvelle double grammaire Françoise-Angloise et Angloise-Françoise +<i>Nouvelle double grammaire Françoise-Angloise et Angloise-Françoise par messieurs Claude Mauger et Paul Festeau, Professeurs -de Langues à Paris et à Londres</i>. The two grammars +de Langues à Paris et à Londres</i>. The two grammars are followed by Mauger's dialogues and a collection of twenty-one "plaisantes et facetieuses Histoires pour rire," in French and English, entitled <i>l'Ecole pour rire</i>. The growing @@ -16012,7 +15971,7 @@ French.</p> <span class="sidenote">PAUL FESTEAU</span>and, like Mauger, he taught English to foreign visitors in London, as well as French to English people. Indeed his career bears a close resemblance to that of Mauger, -of whom he seems to have been a sort of protégé. Like +of whom he seems to have been a sort of protégé. Like Mauger he had taught at Blois, and the two teachers probably came to England together; at any rate they arrived at much the same time. He enjoyed a greater popularity than Mauger @@ -16056,7 +16015,7 @@ words together. Beside when a master doth teach his scholar, he must not ask him a whole long phrase at once, he must divide it in parts according to the distinction of points. As for instance, if I will ask this long phrase of a child | Quand -on a gaigné une fois | le jeu attire insensiblement | en esperance +on a gaigné une fois | le jeu attire insensiblement | en esperance de gaigner davantage |. I will ask it him at three several times." Festeau gives the pupil the English in three separate phrases, and requires him to give the French @@ -16087,7 +16046,7 @@ have had more editions, it cannot be inferred thence that this comes short of them: we can buy nothing at market but what is to be sold, and when this hath been in the light as long, no doubt but (especially being better known) it may -have as many editions." <span class="sidenote">PIERRE LAINÉ</span>Possibly he was referring to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">-315-</a></span> +have as many editions." <span class="sidenote">PIERRE LAINÉ</span>Possibly he was referring to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">-315-</a></span> Mauger's popularity, and the two friends may have become rivals during the latter part of their stay in England. On similar grounds he claimed that the sixth edition might be @@ -16129,10 +16088,10 @@ mathematics, and giving "a clear and fair idea thereof."</p> <p>Another French tutor who flourished at the same time as Mauger, and who wrote a French grammar which, like his, -appeared during the Commonwealth, was Peter Lainé. Lainé +appeared during the Commonwealth, was Peter Lainé. Lainé is not very communicative as regards himself; he does not even tell us from what part of France he came. All we know -of him is that he was a protégé of Robert Paston, to whom he +of him is that he was a protégé of Robert Paston, to whom he <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">-316-</a></span>dedicated his book, and who, no doubt, had been his pupil for French. Of his grammar he writes, "I here expose to thy view a work which might rather be counted an Errata than @@ -16164,7 +16123,7 @@ had, on the contrary, retained the etymological consonants of the old orthography, with the idea that the foreigner's Latin would thereby be of greater service to him.</p> -<p>Lainé's <i>Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue, +<p>Lainé's <i>Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue, teaching with much ease, facility and delight, how to attain briefly and most exactly to the true and modern pronunciation thereof</i>, is very similar to Mauger's grammar in the distribution of the @@ -16174,7 +16133,7 @@ are followed by observations on each part of speech in turn;<a name="FNanchor_82 finally come familiar phrases "to be used at the first learning of French," ten long dialogues, and a vocabulary, all in French <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">-317-</a></span>and English. -<span class="sidenote">LAINÉ'S DIALOGUES</span>The book closes with what Lainé calls "an +<span class="sidenote">LAINÉ'S DIALOGUES</span>The book closes with what Lainé calls "an alphabetical rule for the true and modern orthography of that French now spoken, being a catalogue of very necessary words never before printed"—an alphabetical list of words. The @@ -16197,7 +16156,7 @@ specimen is from a dialogue between an English gentleman and his language master:</p> <div class="table"><table summary="Festeau's dialogue"> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Quel beau livre est-ce là?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Quel beau livre est-ce là ?</span></td> <td>What fine book is that?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Mons., c'est le romant comique.</span></td> <td>Sir, it is the comic romance.</td></tr> @@ -16205,7 +16164,7 @@ and his language master:</p> <td>Who is the author of it?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Mons. C'est Mons. Scarron.</span></td> <td>Sir, it is Mr. Scarron.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Est-il fort célèbre? Est il fort estimé?</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Est-il fort célèbre? Est il fort estimé?</span></td> <td>Is he very famed? Is he much esteemed?</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Mons., c'est un esprit sublime et transcendant.</span></td> <td>Sir, it is a sublime and transcendant wit.</td></tr> @@ -16222,15 +16181,15 @@ and his language master:</p> <td>Observe your accents.</td></tr> <tr><td><span lang="fr">Ne prenez point de mauvaise habitude.</span></td> <td>Take no ill habit.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Lisés distinctement.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Lisés distinctement.</span></td> <td>Read distinctly.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Vou lisez trop vîte.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Vou lisez trop vîte.</span></td> <td>You read too fast.</td></tr> -<tr><td><span lang="fr">Notre langue est ennemi de la précipitation.</span></td> +<tr><td><span lang="fr">Notre langue est ennemi de la précipitation.</span></td> <td>Our tongue is enemy to precipitation.</td></tr> </table></div> -<p class="noi">Lainé evidently intended that the dialogues, at least some +<p class="noi">Lainé evidently intended that the dialogues, at least some of them, should be committed to memory, as well as read and translated; "after that," he continues, "as his sufficiency shall permit, he may proceed to Reading any Histories, among @@ -16241,15 +16200,15 @@ of the style." We recall, as we reflect on this strange reason for rejecting the Holy Scriptures as reading material, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">-318-</a></span> unenviable reputation the refugees themselves had as regards literary style. As the Bible is left us "for divine study only," -Lainé advises his pupils to make use of moral histories for +Lainé advises his pupils to make use of moral histories for purposes of reading. Many, he says, have been produced of late years. Nor did he limit his pupils' choice to these; he encouraged them to read the heroic romances so popular at -the time—<i>Artamène ou le grand Cyrus</i> and <i>Clélie</i> by Mlle. de -Scudéry, <i>Cassandre</i> and <i>Cléopâtre</i> by La Calprenède; also -the <i>Poésies spirituelles</i> of Corneille, the commentaries of +the time—<i>Artamène ou le grand Cyrus</i> and <i>Clélie</i> by Mlle. de +Scudéry, <i>Cassandre</i> and <i>Cléopâtre</i> by La Calprenède; also +the <i>Poésies spirituelles</i> of Corneille, the commentaries of Caesar in French, and Scarron's <i>Roman comique</i>. Lighter -fare could be found in the <i>Gazette françoise</i>.</p> +fare could be found in the <i>Gazette françoise</i>.</p> <div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> @@ -16283,16 +16242,16 @@ Street Church, but none can be connected with Claude.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_822_822" id="Footnote_822_822"></a><a href="#FNanchor_822_822"><span class="label">[822]</span></a> </p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">"De tous les professeurs de la langue françoyse,<br /></span> +<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">"De tous les professeurs de la langue françoyse,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Festeau c'est de toi seul dont je fais plus de cas.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Si tu es éloquent dans nostre langue angloise,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Si tu es éloquent dans nostre langue angloise,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Dans la tienne, pourquoy ne le serois-tu pas?"<br /></span></span> </div></div> <p class="noi"> Thus wrote one of his pupils, Mr. P. Hume, probably the famous statesman and Covenanter.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_823_823" id="Footnote_823_823"></a><a href="#FNanchor_823_823"><span class="label">[823]</span></a> Pp. 48-130. Lainé retains the usual six Latin cases; the verbs are divided into +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_823_823" id="Footnote_823_823"></a><a href="#FNanchor_823_823"><span class="label">[823]</span></a> Pp. 48-130. Lainé retains the usual six Latin cases; the verbs are divided into four conjugations; the indeclinables are given in lists. A vocabulary of nouns which have two meanings according as they are masculine or feminine is included.</p></div> </div> @@ -16313,7 +16272,7 @@ Their importance in the eyes of the French teachers may also have increased their vogue. They were especially affected by Charles I.; and when on the eve of his death, he was distributing a few of his favourite possessions among -his friends, he left the volumes of La Calprenède's <i>Cassandre</i> +his friends, he left the volumes of La Calprenède's <i>Cassandre</i> to the Earl of Lindsey.<a name="FNanchor_825_825" id="FNanchor_825_825"></a><a href="#Footnote_825_825" class="fnanchor">[825]</a> Later on, Pope describing, in his <i>Rape of the Lock</i>, the adventurous baron in quest of the much-coveted lock, pictures him imploring Love for help, and @@ -16340,11 +16299,11 @@ disregard of spelling and grammar:</p> <div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Je n'ay guere plus dormie que vous et mes songes n'ont pas estres moins confuse, au rest une bande de violons que sont venue jouer sous ma fennestre -m'ont tourmentés de tel façon que je doubt fort si je pourrois jamais les +m'ont tourmentés de tel façon que je doubt fort si je pourrois jamais les souffrire encore; je ne suis pourtant pas en fort mauvaise humeur et je m'en -voy ausi tost que je serai habillée voire ce qu'il est posible de faire pour -vostre satisfaction; apres je viendré vous rendre conte de nos affairs et quoy -qu'il en sera vous ne sçaurois jamais doubté que je ne vous ayme plus que +voy ausi tost que je serai habillée voire ce qu'il est posible de faire pour +vostre satisfaction; apres je viendré vous rendre conte de nos affairs et quoy +qu'il en sera vous ne sçaurois jamais doubté que je ne vous ayme plus que toutes les choses du monde.<a name="FNanchor_826_826" id="FNanchor_826_826"></a><a href="#Footnote_826_826" class="fnanchor">[826]</a></p></div> </div> <p>The French romances were Dorothy's constant companions, @@ -16353,8 +16312,8 @@ her favourite passages. She sent the volumes to Temple by instalments,<a name="FNanchor_827_827" id="FNanchor_827_827"></a><a href="#Footnote_827_827" class="fnanchor">[827]</a> as she finished them, pressing him for his opinion. <i>Le Grand Cyrus</i> seems to have been her favourite. She had also a great admiration for <i>Ibraham ou l'Illustre Bassa</i>, -which, like <i>Polexandre et Cléopâtre</i> and the four volumes of -<i>Prazimène</i>, was her "old acquaintance." <i>Parthenissa</i>, the +which, like <i>Polexandre et Cléopâtre</i> and the four volumes of +<i>Prazimène</i>, was her "old acquaintance." <i>Parthenissa</i>, the English romance in the French style by Lord Broghill, did not meet with her approval. "But," she confides to Temple, "perhaps I like it worse for having a piece of <i>Cyrus</i> by me @@ -16403,7 +16362,7 @@ the plot of yesterday's play, which is exactly the same."</p> interest to Pepys, and to have served him on many occasions. Being ill, "taking physique all day," he beguiled the time by reading "little French romances." He appears to have been -particularly attracted by Sorbière's <i>Voyage en Angleterre</i>, +particularly attracted by Sorbière's <i>Voyage en Angleterre</i>, which on its appearance caused some indignation at the English Court. Pepys read the book in the year of its publication (1664).<a name="FNanchor_831_831" id="FNanchor_831_831"></a><a href="#Footnote_831_831" class="fnanchor">[831]</a> Unfortunately he has not left us a very full @@ -16413,7 +16372,7 @@ reading a new French book my Lord Bruncker did give me to-day, <i>L'Histoire Amoureuse des Gaules</i>" [by the Comte de Bussy], "being a pretty libel against the amours of the Court of France." Another volume which pleased Pepys was -a "pretty" work, <i>La Nouvelle allégorique</i>, "upon the strife +a "pretty" work, <i>La Nouvelle allégorique</i>, "upon the strife <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">-322-</a></span>between rhetorique and its enemies, very pleasant." His choice of French literature was wide, ranging from Du Bartas, which he judged "very fine as anything he had seen," to @@ -16441,7 +16400,7 @@ tune to look upon them with any pleasure." And when his failing eyesight prevented him from reading with ease, his wife, Batelier, and his brother-in-law, Balty St. Michel, would read to him in French as well as in English. He got -Balty to read to him out of Sorbière's <i>Voyage en Angleterre</i>, +Balty to read to him out of Sorbière's <i>Voyage en Angleterre</i>, and under the date the 30th of January 1668-9 we find this entry: "I spent all the afternoon with my wife and Will Batelier talking, and then making them read, and particularly @@ -16455,7 +16414,7 @@ which he hath brought over with him for me."</p> No doubt the polite French literature which the French teachers recommended so strongly to their pupils had some influence on the character of the dialogues which form part -of their manuals. Mauger, Festeau, and Lainé all include +of their manuals. Mauger, Festeau, and Lainé all include polite conversations in their dialogues, and leave the old familiar subjects of buying and selling, wayside and tavern talk. Polite conversation was the fashion, and coteries for @@ -16470,7 +16429,7 @@ by the adherents of the Parisian salons. "Orinda" was of course a great reader of French literature, and knew French perfectly. She is chiefly remembered for her translations of some of Corneille's plays into English.<a name="FNanchor_838_838" id="FNanchor_838_838"></a><a href="#Footnote_838_838" class="fnanchor">[838]</a> French books -of conversation, such as Mlle. de Scudéry's <i>Conversations sur +of conversation, such as Mlle. de Scudéry's <i>Conversations sur divers sujets</i><a name="FNanchor_839_839" id="FNanchor_839_839"></a><a href="#Footnote_839_839" class="fnanchor">[839]</a> or the similar volume by Clerombault, which was rendered into English by a "person of honour" [1672], also give some clue to the tastes and tendencies of the time, @@ -16494,7 +16453,7 @@ more exact and delightful method then any yet extant</i>.</p> <p>The thirty-four dialogues contained in this collection are all, with the exception of the first which is autobiographical, -written in the <i>précieux</i> style, full of points and conceits,<a name="FNanchor_840_840" id="FNanchor_840_840"></a><a href="#Footnote_840_840" class="fnanchor">[840]</a> and all, +written in the <i>précieux</i> style, full of points and conceits,<a name="FNanchor_840_840" id="FNanchor_840_840"></a><a href="#Footnote_840_840" class="fnanchor">[840]</a> and all, with the same exception, are very alike and a little wearisome. Herbert says he does not write for every one, but for "les plus subtils." And in his first dialogue, which gives a free account @@ -16504,48 +16463,48 @@ stranger addresses a friend of the author:</p> <div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Pourquoi ne parle-t-il point de vendre et d'acheter?</p> -<p>Parce qu'il n'a rien à vendre et que fort peu d'argent pour acheter; et -que les autres faiseurs de livres François en ce pais ont tout vendu et tout -acheté avant qu'il allât au marché.</p> +<p>Parce qu'il n'a rien à vendre et que fort peu d'argent pour acheter; et +que les autres faiseurs de livres François en ce pais ont tout vendu et tout +acheté avant qu'il allât au marché.</p> <p>Pourquoi ne dit-il rien du Manger et du Boire?</p> -<p>Pour tant qu'il y prend fort peu de plaisir, faute d'appétit, et que quelques-uns -de ceux qui l'ont precédé l'ont fait pour lui, nommant fidèlement toutes -les viandes qu'ils ont portées à la table de leurs maîtres. Qui lèche les +<p>Pour tant qu'il y prend fort peu de plaisir, faute d'appétit, et que quelques-uns +de ceux qui l'ont precédé l'ont fait pour lui, nommant fidèlement toutes +les viandes qu'ils ont portées à la table de leurs maîtres. Qui lèche les plats, en peut bien parler.</p> <p>Pourquoi ne parle-t-il point des Habits, et de La Mode, du Lever et du Coucher, de la Chambre et du Lit?</p> -<p>Parce que nos maîtres, qui ont été valets de chambre ou laquais, lui ont -épargné ce travail, comme leur étant plus propre qu'à lui.</p> +<p>Parce que nos maîtres, qui ont été valets de chambre ou laquais, lui ont +épargné ce travail, comme leur étant plus propre qu'à lui.</p> <p>Pourquoi se tait-il des Merciers, des Tailleurs et des Cordonniers?</p> -<p>Parce qu'ils aiment mieux argent contant que des paroles et que n'étant -point dans leurs livres il ne se souvient guère d'eux et s'en soucie encore +<p>Parce qu'ils aiment mieux argent contant que des paroles et que n'étant +point dans leurs livres il ne se souvient guère d'eux et s'en soucie encore moins.</p> -<p>Pourquoi laisse-t-il les Ministres, les Médecins et les Jurisconsultes, +<p>Pourquoi laisse-t-il les Ministres, les Médecins et les Jurisconsultes, sans faire attention d'eux?</p> <p>Parce qu'ils ont assez d'esprit pour ne s'oublier pas: et assez de langue -pour parler pour eux-mêmes. Et toutefois il en parle à la dérobée, sans leur -donner un discours à part, quoiqu'il honore ces professions-là, et aime fort -passionément plusieurs personnes de ces trois états, pour leurs rares mérites.</p></div></div> +pour parler pour eux-mêmes. Et toutefois il en parle à la dérobée, sans leur +donner un discours à part, quoiqu'il honore ces professions-là , et aime fort +passionément plusieurs personnes de ces trois états, pour leurs rares mérites.</p></div></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">-325-</a></span> <span class="sidenote">STATE OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION</span></p> <div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>N'a-t-il rien des Apoticaires, des Chirurgiens et des Barbiers?</p> <p>Pas un seul mot, monsieur, parce qu'il se sert rarement des premiers, et -que, par la grâce de Dieu, il n'a ni playes ni ulcères ni vérole pour les seconds, -et que, les derniers le tenant à la gorge, il n'oseroit parler.</p> +que, par la grâce de Dieu, il n'a ni playes ni ulcères ni vérole pour les seconds, +et que, les derniers le tenant à la gorge, il n'oseroit parler.</p> -<p>Il pourroit dire quelque chose des Parens et des Alliéz.</p> +<p>Il pourroit dire quelque chose des Parens et des Alliéz.</p> -<p>Qu'en diroit-il, les siens lui étant si peu courtois? S'il parloit d'eux, +<p>Qu'en diroit-il, les siens lui étant si peu courtois? S'il parloit d'eux, ce seroit moyen de renouveler ses douleurs.</p></div></div> <p>Herbert, it will be seen, had not a very high opinion of the @@ -16555,8 +16514,8 @@ not style himself "Professor of the French Language" on the title-page of his dialogues, although he taught both in his house and away from home, because few people care to boast of their cross, and his cross was—to be reduced to -belong to a profession "que tant de valets, de mécaniques, -et d'ignorants rendent tous les jours méprisable." He draws +belong to a profession "que tant de valets, de mécaniques, +et d'ignorants rendent tous les jours méprisable." He draws a far from flattering picture of the common sort of French teacher. He is a "brouillon," a shuffling fellow, who boasts, dresses well, and intrudes everywhere, cringing and offering @@ -16675,11 +16634,11 @@ of London. He dedicated his <i>Quadripartit Devotion</i> of 1648 to the "learned, pious, and reverend Pastors, Elders, and Deacons of all the French and Dutch congregations in England." At a later date he published a biting pamphlet against a -French Pastor, Jean Despagne,—the <i>Réponse aux Questions -de Mr. Despagne adressées à l'Eglise Françoise de Londres</i> +French Pastor, Jean Despagne,—the <i>Réponse aux Questions +de Mr. Despagne adressées à l'Eglise Françoise de Londres</i> (1657), accusing "le ridicule Despagne" of blasphemy and immorality, as well as criticising his French. In this work -Herbert agrees with Lainé in omitting a number of superfluous +Herbert agrees with Lainé in omitting a number of superfluous letters, with the intention of facilitating reading for foreigners, though he was opposed to too many changes, for fear of offending the partisans of the old orthography. The <i>Dialogues</i> @@ -16870,7 +16829,7 @@ Henrietta Maria, and accompanied her in her exile in France.</p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">-333-</a></span> <span class="sidenote">FRENCH BY CONVERSATION</span>of French, "in any leisure hour," as Milton said of Italian, is found in the Letters of Robert Loveday, the translator of -part of La Calprenède's <i>Cléopâtre</i>. Loveday lived during +part of La Calprenède's <i>Cléopâtre</i>. Loveday lived during the Commonwealth as a dependent in the house of Lady Clinton at Nottingham, where, he says, French "was familiarly spoken by the best sort of the family."<a name="FNanchor_854_854" id="FNanchor_854_854"></a><a href="#Footnote_854_854" class="fnanchor">[854]</a> He therefore had @@ -16889,7 +16848,7 @@ scope to (his) narrow condition" at Nottingham. One of his first enterprises was the translation of a "mad fantastick Dream" he met with in Sorel's <i>Francion</i>, which he sent to his brother; but his chief work was a rendering of the first -three parts of <i>Cléopâtre</i>, which was hardly of the "indifferent +three parts of <i>Cléopâtre</i>, which was hardly of the "indifferent size" he writes of. The several parts appeared in 1652, 1654, and 1655 respectively, under the title of <i>Hymen's Praeludia, or Love's Masterpiece</i>, and were dedicated to his "ever-honoured @@ -17173,7 +17132,7 @@ an English translation of it before 1709 (Pepys's <i>Diary</i>, Oct. 13, 1664, e <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_832_832" id="Footnote_832_832"></a><a href="#FNanchor_832_832"><span class="label">[832]</span></a> <i>Diary</i>, Jan. 13, Feb. 8 and 9, 1667-8.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_833_833" id="Footnote_833_833"></a><a href="#FNanchor_833_833"><span class="label">[833]</span></a> <i>L'Hydrographie contenant la théorie et la pratique de toutes les parties de la navigation</i>, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_833_833" id="Footnote_833_833"></a><a href="#FNanchor_833_833"><span class="label">[833]</span></a> <i>L'Hydrographie contenant la théorie et la pratique de toutes les parties de la navigation</i>, 1643.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_834_834" id="Footnote_834_834"></a><a href="#FNanchor_834_834"><span class="label">[834]</span></a> He read Descartes's <i>Musicae Compendium</i>, but did not think much of it.</p></div> @@ -17184,7 +17143,7 @@ twenty to one against him, which he would not agree to with me, though I know my in the right as to the sense of the word, and almost angry we were, and were an houre and more upon the dispute, till at last broke up not satisfied, and so home."</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_836_836" id="Footnote_836_836"></a><a href="#FNanchor_836_836"><span class="label">[836]</span></a> <i>Les Résolutions Politiques ou Maximes d'État</i>, par Jean de Marnix, Baron de +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_836_836" id="Footnote_836_836"></a><a href="#FNanchor_836_836"><span class="label">[836]</span></a> <i>Les Résolutions Politiques ou Maximes d'État</i>, par Jean de Marnix, Baron de Potes, Bruxelles, 1612.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_837_837" id="Footnote_837_837"></a><a href="#FNanchor_837_837"><span class="label">[837]</span></a> Cp. E. Gosse, <i>Seventeenth Century Studies</i>, 1897; J. J. Jusserand, <i>The English @@ -17198,28 +17157,28 @@ of my Lord Orrery's the second" (<i>Letters of Orinda to Poliarchus</i>, London, dated Jan. 31, 1663).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_839_839" id="Footnote_839_839"></a><a href="#FNanchor_839_839"><span class="label">[839]</span></a> Fifth ed., Amsterdam, 1686. Translated into English by F. Spence, London, -1683. Queen Henrietta Maria had done much to foster the spirit of the <i>Astrée</i> and the -Hôtel de Rambouillet in England: cp. J. B. Fletcher, "Précieuses at the Court of +1683. Queen Henrietta Maria had done much to foster the spirit of the <i>Astrée</i> and the +Hôtel de Rambouillet in England: cp. J. B. Fletcher, "Précieuses at the Court of Charles I.," in the <i>Journal of Comparative Philology</i>, vol. i. 1903.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_840_840" id="Footnote_840_840"></a><a href="#FNanchor_840_840"><span class="label">[840]</span></a> Between ladies and "cavaliers." Herbert explains that by "cavalier" he means -<i>galant homme</i>. Here is a specimen of their style: "<i>Cavalier</i>: La voilà, je la vois.—<i>Dame</i>: +<i>galant homme</i>. Here is a specimen of their style: "<i>Cavalier</i>: La voilà , je la vois.—<i>Dame</i>: Que voyez-vous, mons.?—Je vois la Gloire du beau sexe, l'Ornement de -ce siècle, et l'Objet de mes affections.—Vous voyez ici bien des choses.—Toutes ces -choses sont en une.—C'est donc une merveille.—Dites, ma chère Dame, la merveille -des merveilles.—Je le pourrois dire après vous, car votre bel esprit ne se sauroit tromper.—Il +ce siècle, et l'Objet de mes affections.—Vous voyez ici bien des choses.—Toutes ces +choses sont en une.—C'est donc une merveille.—Dites, ma chère Dame, la merveille +des merveilles.—Je le pourrois dire après vous, car votre bel esprit ne se sauroit tromper.—Il se peut bien tromper, mais non pas en ceci.—Je veux qu'il soit infaillible en ceci: il faut pourtant que je voye cette Gloire, cet Ornement et cet Objet, pour en pouvoir -juger.—Vous ne les sauriez voir que par réflexion.—Je ne vous entens pas.—Approchez-vous +juger.—Vous ne les sauriez voir que par réflexion.—Je ne vous entens pas.—Approchez-vous de ce miroir, et vous verrez ce que je dis. Qu'y voyez-vous, ma Belle?—Je vous -y vois, monsieur.—Voilà une belle réponse.—Belle ou laide, elle est vraye.—Elle l'est +y vois, monsieur.—Voilà une belle réponse.—Belle ou laide, elle est vraye.—Elle l'est effectivement: mais n'y voyez-vous rien que moi?—Je m'y vois aussi bien que vous.—Vous voyez donc cette illustre merveille, etc."</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_841_841" id="Footnote_841_841"></a><a href="#FNanchor_841_841"><span class="label">[841]</span></a> "Il y a des particuliers qui ne sont pas dans mes intérêts, qui les (<i>i.e.</i> his works) -décrient hautement, non pas tant par malice que par jalousie, quelques-uns étant des -personnes intéressées qui sont de ma profession, ou des critiques ignorans qui trouvent -à redire à tout ce que les autres font, pour faire paroître ce qu'ils n'ont point, s'imaginant +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_841_841" id="Footnote_841_841"></a><a href="#FNanchor_841_841"><span class="label">[841]</span></a> "Il y a des particuliers qui ne sont pas dans mes intérêts, qui les (<i>i.e.</i> his works) +décrient hautement, non pas tant par malice que par jalousie, quelques-uns étant des +personnes intéressées qui sont de ma profession, ou des critiques ignorans qui trouvent +à redire à tout ce que les autres font, pour faire paroître ce qu'ils n'ont point, s'imaginant qu'on les prend pour des hommes d'esprit, quand on les entend reprendre les choses les mieux faites."</p></div> @@ -17227,9 +17186,9 @@ les mieux faites."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_843_843" id="Footnote_843_843"></a><a href="#FNanchor_843_843"><span class="label">[843]</span></a> Arber, <i>Stationers' Register</i>, iv. 333.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_844_844" id="Footnote_844_844"></a><a href="#FNanchor_844_844"><span class="label">[844]</span></a> Schickler, <i>Églises du Refuge</i>, ii. pp. 148-9, and 153. Despagne became a denizen +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_844_844" id="Footnote_844_844"></a><a href="#FNanchor_844_844"><span class="label">[844]</span></a> Schickler, <i>Églises du Refuge</i>, ii. pp. 148-9, and 153. Despagne became a denizen in 1655 (Hug. Soc. Pub. xviii.). Cp. also Haag, <i>La France protestante</i>, ad nom., and -the <i>Bulletin de la société de l'Histoire du Protestantisme français</i>, viii. pp. 369 <i>et seq.</i> +the <i>Bulletin de la société de l'Histoire du Protestantisme français</i>, viii. pp. 369 <i>et seq.</i> He died in 1658.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_845_845" id="Footnote_845_845"></a><a href="#FNanchor_845_845"><span class="label">[845]</span></a> <i>Harmony of the Old and New Testament</i>, 1682, Brown's preface.</p></div> @@ -17242,7 +17201,7 @@ He died in 1658.</p></div> following passage from Mauger; a stranger questions one of his pupils: </p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Entendez-vous tout ce que vous lisés?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Entendez-vous tout ce que vous lisés?<br /></span> <span class="i0">J'en entends une partie.<br /></span> <span class="i0">Entendez-vous bien le sens?<br /></span> <span class="i0">Fort bien, monsieur.<br /></span> @@ -17305,7 +17264,7 @@ Hume. Cp. Watson, <i>Grammar Schools</i>, p. 296.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_860_860" id="Footnote_860_860"></a><a href="#FNanchor_860_860"><span class="label">[860]</span></a> <i>An Essay to Revive the Antient Education of Gentlewomen</i>, London, 1673 (by Mrs. Makin or Mark Lewis).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_861_861" id="Footnote_861_861"></a><a href="#FNanchor_861_861"><span class="label">[861]</span></a> G. Miège, <i>A New French Grammar</i>, 1678, p. 377.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_861_861" id="Footnote_861_861"></a><a href="#FNanchor_861_861"><span class="label">[861]</span></a> G. Miège, <i>A New French Grammar</i>, 1678, p. 377.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_862_862" id="Footnote_862_862"></a><a href="#FNanchor_862_862"><span class="label">[862]</span></a> <i>Appeale to Truth</i>, 1622, p. 41.</p></div> @@ -17330,7 +17289,7 @@ Subjects</i>, p. 482). Ch. Hoole, teacher at a private grammar school in London, proposes that Latin should be learnt by speaking and hearing it spoken, and attributes the unsatisfactory knowledge of the language to the too frequent use of English in schools (<i>New Discoverie of the old art of Teaching Schooll</i>, 1660). The French teacher -Miège suggests that Latin should be taught in special schools, on the same lines as +Miège suggests that Latin should be taught in special schools, on the same lines as French was taught in the French ones (<i>French Grammar</i>, 1678). In 1685 was published <i>The Way of Teaching the Latin Tongue by use to those that have already learn'd their Mother Tongue</i>; and in 1669 had appeared a work translated from the French, called @@ -17427,7 +17386,7 @@ to the Protestant pastor, M. Testard, who received foreign pupils. The young students worked hard at Latin and French under the minister's supervision. Testard reported of Edmund, the elder, "Il fait merveille. . . . Je luy -raconte une histoire en français, il me la rend extempore en +raconte une histoire en français, il me la rend extempore en Latin."<a name="FNanchor_885_885" id="FNanchor_885_885"></a><a href="#Footnote_885_885" class="fnanchor">[885]</a> And one day Mme. Testard found the young John hard at work in bed in the early morning with two books in French and Latin. The children wrote in French to their @@ -17438,15 +17397,15 @@ sought to divert his mind by travelling in Italy, Edmund,<a name="FNanchor_886_8 then aged thirteen, wrote this letter—which shows clearly the dangers of a purely oral method:</p> -<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Plust à Dieu qu'il vous donnast la pensée de retourner à Blois. Les -jours me semblent des années tant il m'ennuye d'ettre icy comme dans un +<div class="blockquot"><div lang="fr"><p>Plust à Dieu qu'il vous donnast la pensée de retourner à Blois. Les +jours me semblent des années tant il m'ennuye d'ettre icy comme dans un desert de solitude; car quoy est cequi me peut desormais plaire dans cette ville, comment est ceque cette lumiere de la vie, et cette respiration de l'air me peuvent-elle estre agreeables, puisqu'y ayant perdu cequi m'estoit le plus au Monde et qu'il m'interesse plus q'une seule personne dont je suis -privé de l'honneur de sa presence, au reste, graces a Dieu, nous nous porte +privé de l'honneur de sa presence, au reste, graces a Dieu, nous nous porte fort bien et pourcequi et de moy je vous asseure que je ne manqueray -jamais à mon devoir, c'espourquoy finissant je demeure et demeureray +jamais à mon devoir, c'espourquoy finissant je demeure et demeureray aternellement,</p> <p class="signature"> @@ -17475,7 +17434,7 @@ compensate for the loss of English public school life, which he himself had never enjoyed. Sir Ralph soon became a versatile source of information to parents desiring details of the cost of living and education in France. He considered -£200 a year a proper allowance for an English youth to be +£200 a year a proper allowance for an English youth to be boarded in a good French family, and that homes in which there were children were best, on account of the continual prattle of the young inmates. The families of French pastors @@ -17622,7 +17581,7 @@ he hath been a scholar." The language master should teach his pupil to read, write and spell correctly, and to speak <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">-347-</a></span>properly. <span class="sidenote">GUIDE-BOOKS FOR TRAVELLERS</span>The material for reading must be carefully -chosen; romances, such as those of Scudéry, are often +chosen; romances, such as those of Scudéry, are often dangerous; it is better to use books which give instruction in such subjects as history, morality, and politics. Every evening there should be a repetition of what has been learnt @@ -17652,7 +17611,7 @@ their pupils to go to France, and most of them add directions for travel in their text-books.<a name="FNanchor_903_903" id="FNanchor_903_903"></a><a href="#Footnote_903_903" class="fnanchor">[903]</a> Mauger's dialogues include "most exact instructions for travel, very useful and necessary for all gentlemen that intend to travel into France," and -Lainé's grammar is "enriched with choice dialogues useful +Lainé's grammar is "enriched with choice dialogues useful for persons of quality that intend to travel into France, leading them as by the hand to the most noted and principal places of the kingdom."</p> @@ -17690,8 +17649,8 @@ positions, or notices on their history and antiquities.<a name="FNanchor_908_908 time, however, they assumed a character more particularly adapted to strangers.<a name="FNanchor_909_909" id="FNanchor_909_909"></a><a href="#Footnote_909_909" class="fnanchor">[909]</a> One of the best known and most <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">-349-</a></span> -<span class="sidenote">ROUTES USUALLY FOLLOWED</span>popular was <i>Le Voyage de France, dressé pour l'instruction et -commodité tant des Français que des étrangers</i>, first published +<span class="sidenote">ROUTES USUALLY FOLLOWED</span>popular was <i>Le Voyage de France, dressé pour l'instruction et +commodité tant des Français que des étrangers</i>, first published in 1639. The author, C. de Varennes, gives directions for the study of French. He thinks Oudin's Grammar the most profitable, on account of the manner in which it deals with @@ -17701,8 +17660,8 @@ be enlisted, and the student should converse as much as possible with children, and with persons of learning and ability; he should also read widely, preferably dialogues in familiar style and the latest novels; and write French, for -which exercise he will find much help in the <i>Secrétaire de -la Cour</i> and the <i>Secrétaire à la mode</i>,<a name="FNanchor_910_910" id="FNanchor_910_910"></a><a href="#Footnote_910_910" class="fnanchor">[910]</a> collections of letters and +which exercise he will find much help in the <i>Secrétaire de +la Cour</i> and the <i>Secrétaire à la mode</i>,<a name="FNanchor_910_910" id="FNanchor_910_910"></a><a href="#Footnote_910_910" class="fnanchor">[910]</a> collections of letters and "compliments," which, we may say incidentally, enjoyed a popularity greatly exceeding their merit.</p> @@ -17712,7 +17671,7 @@ whole of their sojourn abroad there, without undertaking the longer continental tour. Others went to France to prepare themselves for the longer tour. Naturally the tour in France alone engaged the attention of French teachers. We are told that -the cost of a tour of three months need not be more than £50. +the cost of a tour of three months need not be more than £50. "If you take a friend with you 'twill make you miss a thousand opportunities of following your end: you go to get French, and it would be best if you could avoid making an acquaintance @@ -17759,11 +17718,11 @@ became customary with the more serious-minded to retire for a time to some quiet provincial town where the accent was good. The French teacher Wodroeph tells us as much: "Mais, Monsieur, je vois bien que vous estes -estranger et vous allez à la cour à Paris pour y apprendre -nostre langue françoise. Mais mieux il vous vaut d'aller à +estranger et vous allez à la cour à Paris pour y apprendre +nostre langue françoise. Mais mieux il vous vaut d'aller à Orleans plustost que d'y aller pour hanter la cour et baiser les Dames et Damoiselles. . . . Parquoy je vous conseille -mieux vous en esloigner et d'aller à Orleans là où vous apprendrez +mieux vous en esloigner et d'aller à Orleans là où vous apprendrez la vraye methode de la langue vulgaire."<a name="FNanchor_915_915" id="FNanchor_915_915"></a><a href="#Footnote_915_915" class="fnanchor">[915]</a> The towns in the valley of the Loire were favourite resorts for purposes of study.<a name="FNanchor_916_916" id="FNanchor_916_916"></a><a href="#Footnote_916_916" class="fnanchor">[916]</a> Orleans, Blois, and Saumur seem to @@ -17790,7 +17749,7 @@ diligently for nineteen weeks.</p> travellers usually lodged in hotels, <i>auberges</i>, or <i>pensions</i>,<a name="FNanchor_920_920" id="FNanchor_920_920"></a><a href="#Footnote_920_920" class="fnanchor">[920]</a> and sometimes with French families. One of their chief difficulties appears to have been to avoid their fellow-countrymen -in such places. Gabriel Du Grès suggests +in such places. Gabriel Du Grès suggests that when English students are thus thrown together they should come to an agreement that any one who spoke his native tongue should pay a fine. A further though @@ -17799,14 +17758,14 @@ considered necessary to the traveller by scholars such as John Brinsley.<a name="FNanchor_921_921" id="FNanchor_921_921"></a><a href="#Footnote_921_921" class="fnanchor">[921]</a> For this reason travellers "for language" are advised to frequent the company of women and children, and "polite" society, rather than that of scholars. It is a -great inconvenience, observes Du Grès, if your landlord can +great inconvenience, observes Du Grès, if your landlord can speak Latin. The majority of travellers, however, do not appear to have experienced any embarrassment in this respect; on the contrary, those with little previous knowledge of French found their Latin of use in their first French lessons if they studied the language "grammatically" with a master. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">-352-</a></span>French teachers in England usually recommended suitable -<i>pensions</i> to their students. Gabriel Du Grès, for instance, gives +<i>pensions</i> to their students. Gabriel Du Grès, for instance, gives a list of such lodgings at Saumur, his native town; Mauger, of those of Blois, Orleans, and other towns in the Loire valley.<a name="FNanchor_922_922" id="FNanchor_922_922"></a><a href="#Footnote_922_922" class="fnanchor">[922]</a> In like manner they addressed their pupils to recommendable @@ -17817,7 +17776,7 @@ their French as well as the "exercises." The house of M. Doux, who had a riding school at Blois, was considered a particularly appropriate residence for those desiring to learn French, on account of his daughters, who spoke "wondrously -well," as was also that of a certain M. Dechaussé, who kept +well," as was also that of a certain M. Dechaussé, who kept an academy for teaching young gentlemen to ride.</p> <p>What is more, French teachers in England, no longer @@ -17836,9 +17795,9 @@ Clarendon significantly states that in France "we quickly <i>renew</i> the acquaintance we have had with the language by the practice and custom of speaking it." Students going abroad for purposes of study are therefore addressed to M. -Nicolas, an excellent master at Paris, M. le Fèvre, an <i>avocat +Nicolas, an excellent master at Paris, M. le Fèvre, an <i>avocat en parlement</i> at Orleans, and others. We are also informed -that <i>abbés</i> were fond of teaching their language to strangers, +that <i>abbés</i> were fond of teaching their language to strangers, especially the English.<a name="FNanchor_923_923" id="FNanchor_923_923"></a><a href="#Footnote_923_923" class="fnanchor">[923]</a> Moreover, several French teachers in England had previously exercised their profession in France. The most popular of all, Claude Mauger, had spent seven years @@ -17862,12 +17821,12 @@ teachers of languages at Paris who wrote grammars specially for their use. Alcide de St. Maurice, the author of the <i>Guide fidelle des estrangers dans le voyage de France</i> (1672), composed a grammar called <i>Remarques sur les principales -difficultez de la langue françoise</i> (1674), which has little -value, and is compiled chiefly from Vaugelas and Ménage. His +difficultez de la langue françoise</i> (1674), which has little +value, and is compiled chiefly from Vaugelas and Ménage. His chief aim was to overcome the usual difficulties—pronunciation and orthography. Several years previously he had written a collection of short stories inspired by the <i>Decameron</i>. The -<i>Fleurs, Fleurettes et passetemps ou les divers caractères de l'amour +<i>Fleurs, Fleurettes et passetemps ou les divers caractères de l'amour honneste</i>, as he called them, were published at Paris in 1666, and were no doubt intended as reading matter for his pupils.</p> @@ -17891,8 +17850,8 @@ there. He also corresponded with Pepys, the famous diarist. they appear to have been in the majority. He was a strong advocate of the study of grammar, and condemned attempts to learn French "by imitation" alone. His <i>Grammaire -Méthodique contenant en abrégé les principes de cet art et les -regles les plus necessaires de la langue françoise dans un ordre +Méthodique contenant en abrégé les principes de cet art et les +regles les plus necessaires de la langue françoise dans un ordre claire et naturelle</i> appeared at Paris in 1682.<a name="FNanchor_925_925" id="FNanchor_925_925"></a><a href="#Footnote_925_925" class="fnanchor">[925]</a> In it he criticizes severely all the French grammars for the use of strangers produced either in France or in foreign countries. Shortly @@ -17903,12 +17862,12 @@ printed at Paris in 1683. This French grammar published in English at Paris is a striking testimony to the importance of the English as students of French.</p> -<p>René Milleran, like Vairasse d'Allais, taught English as +<p>René Milleran, like Vairasse d'Allais, taught English as well as French. He was a native of Saumur, but spent most of his life at Paris teaching languages, and for a time acted as interpreter to the king. He composed for the use of his pupils a French grammar entitled <i>La Nouvelle Grammaire -Françoise, avec le Latin à coté des exemples devisée en deux +Françoise, avec le Latin à coté des exemples devisée en deux parties</i> (Marseilles, 1692), which is no doubt a first edition of his <i>Les deux Gramaires Fransaizes</i> (Marseilles, 1694), in which he expounds his new system of orthography. His @@ -17934,14 +17893,14 @@ letters to and from students of French, reporting on their progress in the language, with mutual congratulations on improvement in style, etc. It is said of Milleran's compositions that their chief merit is their scarcity, and few will agree -with De Linière, the satirist and enemy of Boileau, who wrote +with De Linière, the satirist and enemy of Boileau, who wrote in praise of Milleran:</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">Cet homme en sa Grammaire étale<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Autant de sçavoir que Varron,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Et dans ses Lettres il égale<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Balzac, Voiture et Cicéron.<br /></span></span> +<span lang="fr"><span class="i0">Cet homme en sa Grammaire étale<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Autant de sçavoir que Varron,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Et dans ses Lettres il égale<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Balzac, Voiture et Cicéron.<br /></span></span> </div></div> <p>Not a few English travellers dispensed with the services @@ -17951,10 +17910,10 @@ his health by too close application; he acted for a time as travelling tutor to the son of Baron Altham. He put his knowledge of French to the test by translating his own first literary production, <i>Dodona's Grove</i>. This, he says, he -submitted to the new <i>Académie des beaux esprits</i>, founded by +submitted to the new <i>Académie des beaux esprits</i>, founded by Richelieu, which gave it a public expression of approbation.<a name="FNanchor_926_926" id="FNanchor_926_926"></a><a href="#Footnote_926_926" class="fnanchor">[926]</a> The translation was printed at Paris in 1641 under the title -of <i>Dendrologie ou la Forêt de Dodone</i>. Howell left instructions +of <i>Dendrologie ou la Forêt de Dodone</i>. Howell left instructions for travellers, based on his own experience of study abroad, and typical of the theories current at the time. He advises<a name="FNanchor_927_927" id="FNanchor_927_927"></a><a href="#Footnote_927_927" class="fnanchor">[927]</a> the student who has settled in some quiet town to choose a @@ -17964,7 +17923,7 @@ evening to write an essay from this material, "for the penne maketh the deepest furrowes, and doth fertilize and enrich the memory more than anything else." He should avoid the company of his countrymen, "the greatest bane of English -Gentlemen abroad," and frequent cafés and ordinaries,<a name="FNanchor_928_928" id="FNanchor_928_928"></a><a href="#Footnote_928_928" class="fnanchor">[928]</a> and +Gentlemen abroad," and frequent cafés and ordinaries,<a name="FNanchor_928_928" id="FNanchor_928_928"></a><a href="#Footnote_928_928" class="fnanchor">[928]</a> and engage a French page-boy "to parley and chide withal, whereof he shall have occasion enough."<a name="FNanchor_929_929" id="FNanchor_929_929"></a><a href="#Footnote_929_929" class="fnanchor">[929]</a> Howell strongly felt the necessity of travelling in France at an early age in @@ -17993,7 +17952,7 @@ vulgar tongue." He should also combine the study of grammar—that of Maupas is the best—with his practical exercises, and begin a course of reading, making notes as he goes on. The most suitable books are those dealing with -the history of France, such as Serres and D'Aubigné. Much +the history of France, such as Serres and D'Aubigné. Much judgment is needed in the choice of books on other subjects, "especially when there is such a confusion of them as in France, which, as Africk, produceth always something new, @@ -18003,7 +17962,7 @@ and disjointed Authors, as well as of the frivolous and pedantique." However, "there be some French poets will affoord excellent entertainment specially Du Bartas, and 'twere not amisse to give a slight salute to Ronsard and -Desportes, and the late Théophile.<a name="FNanchor_930_930" id="FNanchor_930_930"></a><a href="#Footnote_930_930" class="fnanchor">[930]</a> And touching poets, +Desportes, and the late Théophile.<a name="FNanchor_930_930" id="FNanchor_930_930"></a><a href="#Footnote_930_930" class="fnanchor">[930]</a> And touching poets, they must be used like flowers, some must only be smelt into, but some are good to be thrown into a limbique to be Distilled."</p> @@ -18178,8 +18137,8 @@ licence and living three months in the house of a Papist (<i>Cal. State Papers, <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_885_885" id="Footnote_885_885"></a><a href="#FNanchor_885_885"><span class="label">[885]</span></a> <i>Memoirs of the Verney Family</i>, i. pp. 477, 497.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_886_886" id="Footnote_886_886"></a><a href="#FNanchor_886_886"><span class="label">[886]</span></a> Among the books he read were Monluc's <i>Commentaires</i>, the <i>Secrétaire à la mode</i>, -and the <i>Secrétaire de la cour</i> (<i>Memoirs of the Verney Family</i>, iii. p. 80).</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_886_886" id="Footnote_886_886"></a><a href="#FNanchor_886_886"><span class="label">[886]</span></a> Among the books he read were Monluc's <i>Commentaires</i>, the <i>Secrétaire à la mode</i>, +and the <i>Secrétaire de la cour</i> (<i>Memoirs of the Verney Family</i>, iii. p. 80).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_887_887" id="Footnote_887_887"></a><a href="#FNanchor_887_887"><span class="label">[887]</span></a> <i>Memoirs</i>, iii. p. 66.</p></div> @@ -18187,11 +18146,11 @@ and the <i>Secrétaire de la cour</i> (<i>Memoirs of the Verney Family</i>, iii. to two.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_889_889" id="Footnote_889_889"></a><a href="#FNanchor_889_889"><span class="label">[889]</span></a> An account of the schools of the French Protestants is given by M. Nicolas in the -<i>Bulletin de l'Histoire du Protestantisme français</i>, vol. iv. pp. 497 <i>et seq.</i></p></div> +<i>Bulletin de l'Histoire du Protestantisme français</i>, vol. iv. pp. 497 <i>et seq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_890_890" id="Footnote_890_890"></a><a href="#FNanchor_890_890"><span class="label">[890]</span></a> Cp. pp. 233 <i>sqq.</i>, <i>supra</i>. The names of many famous families are found in the registers of Geneva University—the Pembrokes, Montagus, Cavendishes, Cecils, etc. -Borgeaud, <i>L'Académie de Genève</i>, p. 442.</p></div> +Borgeaud, <i>L'Académie de Genève</i>, p. 442.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_891_891" id="Footnote_891_891"></a><a href="#FNanchor_891_891"><span class="label">[891]</span></a> <i>Memoirs</i>, i. p. 358.</p></div> @@ -18227,7 +18186,7 @@ the middle of the century such dialogues assume a more educational and guide-lik and less descriptive form.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_904_904" id="Footnote_904_904"></a><a href="#FNanchor_904_904"><span class="label">[904]</span></a> Lister, <i>A Journey to Paris in the year 1698</i>, p. 2. Lister had previously visited -France in about 1668. In 1698 he visited the aged Mlle. de Scudéry and the Daciers, +France in about 1668. In 1698 he visited the aged Mlle. de Scudéry and the Daciers, and frequented the French theatres.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_905_905" id="Footnote_905_905"></a><a href="#FNanchor_905_905"><span class="label">[905]</span></a> Second edition, 1657.</p></div> @@ -18242,18 +18201,18 @@ the Grand Tour of France and Italy lately performed by a person of quality</i> ( with many public inscriptions. Lately undertaken by a Person of Quality</i>). Cp. pp. 220 <i>sqq.</i>, supra.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_908_908" id="Footnote_908_908"></a><a href="#FNanchor_908_908"><span class="label">[908]</span></a> For instance: <i>Le Guide des chemins pour aller et venir par tous les pays et contrées +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_908_908" id="Footnote_908_908"></a><a href="#FNanchor_908_908"><span class="label">[908]</span></a> For instance: <i>Le Guide des chemins pour aller et venir par tous les pays et contrées du Royaume de France . . . par C. Estienne</i>, Paris, 1552, 1553; Lyons, 1556. <i>Les Antiquitez et Recherches des Villes, chasteaux, et places plus remarquables de toute la -France</i>, 6<sup>e</sup> éd., 1631. L. Coulon, <i>Le fidèle conducteur pour le voyage de France montrant +France</i>, 6<sup>e</sup> éd., 1631. L. Coulon, <i>Le fidèle conducteur pour le voyage de France montrant exactement les Routes et choses remarquables qui se trouvent en chaque ville, et les distances -d'icelles avec un dénombrement des Batailles qui s'y sont données</i>, Paris, 1654.</p></div> +d'icelles avec un dénombrement des Batailles qui s'y sont données</i>, Paris, 1654.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_909_909" id="Footnote_909_909"></a><a href="#FNanchor_909_909"><span class="label">[909]</span></a> As <i>Le Guide Fidelle des étrangers dans le voyage de France</i>, Paris, 1672 (by Aloide -de St. Maurice); <i>Les Délices de la France ou description des provinces et villes capitales -d'icelles</i>, Leyde, 1685; <i>Le Gentilhomme étranger voyageant en France, par le baron G.D.N.</i>, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_909_909" id="Footnote_909_909"></a><a href="#FNanchor_909_909"><span class="label">[909]</span></a> As <i>Le Guide Fidelle des étrangers dans le voyage de France</i>, Paris, 1672 (by Aloide +de St. Maurice); <i>Les Délices de la France ou description des provinces et villes capitales +d'icelles</i>, Leyde, 1685; <i>Le Gentilhomme étranger voyageant en France, par le baron G.D.N.</i>, 1699—borrowed, without acknowledgement, from <i>Le Guide Fidelle</i> of 1672. Cp. A. -Babeau, <i>Les Voyageurs en France depuis la Renaissance jusqu'à la Révolution</i>, Paris, +Babeau, <i>Les Voyageurs en France depuis la Renaissance jusqu'à la Révolution</i>, Paris, 1885, chapter v.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_910_910" id="Footnote_910_910"></a><a href="#FNanchor_910_910"><span class="label">[910]</span></a> By La Serre. The former, which first appeared in 1625, went through fifty @@ -18292,15 +18251,15 @@ and the like."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_922_922" id="Footnote_922_922"></a><a href="#FNanchor_922_922"><span class="label">[922]</span></a> He tells us that at Rouen the English usually went to an inn kept by a certain Mr. Madde; at Dieppe, Madame Godard's house was very popular; at Paris, the best hotel was the "Ville de Venize." At Orleans, good lodging was found at the -"Croix Blanche," kept by one M. Richard, and at the house of M. Marishall Laisné.</p></div> +"Croix Blanche," kept by one M. Richard, and at the house of M. Marishall Laisné.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_923_923" id="Footnote_923_923"></a><a href="#FNanchor_923_923"><span class="label">[923]</span></a> J. Rutledge, <i>Mémoire sur le caractère, et les mœurs des Français comparés à ceux +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_923_923" id="Footnote_923_923"></a><a href="#FNanchor_923_923"><span class="label">[923]</span></a> J. Rutledge, <i>Mémoire sur le caractère, et les mœurs des Français comparés à ceux des Anglais</i>, 1776, p. 55.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_924_924" id="Footnote_924_924"></a><a href="#FNanchor_924_924"><span class="label">[924]</span></a> Vairasse was born <i>c.</i> 1630, probably at Allais.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_925_925" id="Footnote_925_925"></a><a href="#FNanchor_925_925"><span class="label">[925]</span></a> Another grammar of similar intent was that of Ruau, <i>La vraie methode d'enseigner -la langue françoise aux estrangers expliquée en Latin</i>, Paris, 1687.</p></div> +la langue françoise aux estrangers expliquée en Latin</i>, Paris, 1687.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_926_926" id="Footnote_926_926"></a><a href="#FNanchor_926_926"><span class="label">[926]</span></a> <i>Epistolae Ho-Elianae</i>, 9th ed., 1726, p. 283.</p></div> @@ -18311,10 +18270,10 @@ la langue françoise aux estrangers expliquée en Latin</i>, Paris, 1687.</p></div places where there is a good company of the nation where he travaileth" (<i>Essay on Travel</i>).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_929_929" id="Footnote_929_929"></a><a href="#FNanchor_929_929"><span class="label">[929]</span></a> A Huguenot boy of about sixteen was considered a suitable valet (Lainé, <i>French +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_929_929" id="Footnote_929_929"></a><a href="#FNanchor_929_929"><span class="label">[929]</span></a> A Huguenot boy of about sixteen was considered a suitable valet (Lainé, <i>French Grammar</i>, 1650).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_930_930" id="Footnote_930_930"></a><a href="#FNanchor_930_930"><span class="label">[930]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i> Théophile de Viau.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_930_930" id="Footnote_930_930"></a><a href="#FNanchor_930_930"><span class="label">[930]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i> Théophile de Viau.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_931_931" id="Footnote_931_931"></a><a href="#FNanchor_931_931"><span class="label">[931]</span></a> St. Maurice, <i>Guide Fidelle</i>, 1672.</p></div> @@ -18355,7 +18314,7 @@ the journey more pleasant by singing, and made it less so.</p></div> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">The</span> French teachers of London at the time of the Restoration, chief amongst whom were Claude Mauger, Paul Festeau, -Pierre Lainé, and Guillaume Herbert, all urged students to +Pierre Lainé, and Guillaume Herbert, all urged students to travel in France as a means of completing the knowledge of French acquired in England; yet at the same time they naturally and in their own interests lay emphasis on the @@ -18421,7 +18380,7 @@ queen during her exile in France. But the princess was language at the time of his return from the expedition into Scotland, and the fatal battle of Worcester. He forgot his shyness and spoke French well, relating to her the thrilling -story of his escape, and how he was "furieusement ennuyé" +story of his escape, and how he was "furieusement ennuyé" in Scotland, where they think it a sin to listen to a violin. He was also able to make the princess very pretty compliments in French, and on these occasions, she remarks, he spoke @@ -18484,9 +18443,9 @@ colony in France. Waller, Denham, Cowley, Davenant, Hobbes, Killigrew, Shirley, Fanshawe, Crashaw, etc., and later Roscommon, Rochester, Buckingham, Wycherley, Vanbrugh, and others lived in France, and some mixed freely in French -literary circles, then centring round the Hôtel de Rambouillet, +literary circles, then centring round the Hôtel de Rambouillet, and such names as those of Malherbe, Vaugelas, Corneille, -Bossuet, Scudéry, La Calprenède. English literature of the +Bossuet, Scudéry, La Calprenède. English literature of the Restoration gives ample proof of their familiarity with both the language and literature of their hosts.<a name="FNanchor_956_956" id="FNanchor_956_956"></a><a href="#Footnote_956_956" class="fnanchor">[956]</a> Waller, for instance, after spending some time at Rouen, moved to Paris, @@ -18499,7 +18458,7 @@ England. The dramatist Davenant was twice in France, where he remained several years on his second visit. Hobbes, who for many years acted as a travelling tutor, made his mark in the philosophic circles of Paris, and knew Mersenne, -Sorbière, and Gassendi. He fled to Paris during the civil +Sorbière, and Gassendi. He fled to Paris during the civil wars, and for a time was engaged in teaching arithmetic to the Prince of Wales.<a name="FNanchor_958_958" id="FNanchor_958_958"></a><a href="#Footnote_958_958" class="fnanchor">[958]</a></p> @@ -18529,13 +18488,13 @@ vein<a name="FNanchor_961_961" id="FNanchor_961_961"></a><a href="#Footnote_961_ <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">-366-</a></span>the Comte de Grammont, which gives a vivid picture of the life at the Court of Charles II. Hamilton has been placed second only to Voltaire as a representative of the <i>esprit -français</i>.<a name="FNanchor_962_962" id="FNanchor_962_962"></a><a href="#Footnote_962_962" class="fnanchor">[962]</a></p> +français</i>.<a name="FNanchor_962_962" id="FNanchor_962_962"></a><a href="#Footnote_962_962" class="fnanchor">[962]</a></p> <p>At the Restoration, Hamilton returned to England with the rest of the English emigrants, together with a considerable number of Frenchmen who had attached themselves to the English Court. He was followed two years later by the hero -of his <i>Mémoires</i>,<a name="FNanchor_963_963" id="FNanchor_963_963"></a><a href="#Footnote_963_963" class="fnanchor">[963]</a> the Comte de Grammont, who pronounced +of his <i>Mémoires</i>,<a name="FNanchor_963_963" id="FNanchor_963_963"></a><a href="#Footnote_963_963" class="fnanchor">[963]</a> the Comte de Grammont, who pronounced the English Court so like that of France in manners and conversation that he could hardly realize he was in another country.<a name="FNanchor_964_964" id="FNanchor_964_964"></a><a href="#Footnote_964_964" class="fnanchor">[964]</a> French was the language freely used by the @@ -18569,7 +18528,7 @@ entertainments in the Parisian style.</p> St. Evremond<a name="FNanchor_967_967" id="FNanchor_967_967"></a><a href="#Footnote_967_967" class="fnanchor">[967]</a> was almost invariably one of the guests. He soon became the centre of a <i>coterie</i>, half English and half French, including his literary companion the Dutchman -Vossius, Canon of Windsor, the French doctor Le Fèvre, professor +Vossius, Canon of Windsor, the French doctor Le Fèvre, professor of chemistry to Charles II.,<a name="FNanchor_968_968" id="FNanchor_968_968"></a><a href="#Footnote_968_968" class="fnanchor">[968]</a> and the learned Huguenot Henri Justel, who had charge of the royal library at St. James's. What contributed most to reconcile St. Evremond to his life @@ -18590,10 +18549,10 @@ of La Fontaine joining her circle. La Fontaine seems to have felt some interest in England and the English, who, he says,</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span lang="fr"><span class="i8">pensent profondément;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Leur esprit, en cela, suit leur tempérament,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Creusant dans les sujets, et forts d'expériences,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Ils étendent partout l'empire des sciences.<br /></span></span> +<span lang="fr"><span class="i8">pensent profondément;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Leur esprit, en cela, suit leur tempérament,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Creusant dans les sujets, et forts d'expériences,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Ils étendent partout l'empire des sciences.<br /></span></span> </div></div> <p class="noi">To Mrs. Harvey, sister of Lord Montagu and friend of the @@ -18660,25 +18619,25 @@ and then French sawce come in among them, and so no doubt but French doctors may be in esteem too."<a name="FNanchor_979_979" id="FNanchor_979_979"></a><a href="#Footnote_979_979" class="fnanchor">[979]</a> In almost every book written at the time there is some reference to the mania for French fashions. And some time later the -Abbé Le Blanc relates how, on one occasion in England, a self-satisfied +Abbé Le Blanc relates how, on one occasion in England, a self-satisfied Englishman taunted him thus: "Il faut que votre -pays soit bien pauvre, puisque tant de gens sont obligés de le -quitter pour chercher à vivre en celui-ci. C'est vous qui nous -fournissez de Maîtres à danser, de Perruquiers, de Tailleurs, +pays soit bien pauvre, puisque tant de gens sont obligés de le +quitter pour chercher à vivre en celui-ci. C'est vous qui nous +fournissez de Maîtres à danser, de Perruquiers, de Tailleurs, et de Valets de chambre: et nous vous devons cette justice, -pour la Frisure ou pour le Menuet, les François l'emportent +pour la Frisure ou pour le Menuet, les François l'emportent sur toutes les autres Nations. Je ne comprens pas comment -on aime si fort la Danse dans un Pays où l'on a si peu sujet +on aime si fort la Danse dans un Pays où l'on a si peu sujet de rire. N'est-il pas triste, par exemple, de ne cultiver vos Vignes que pour nous?"<a name="FNanchor_980_980" id="FNanchor_980_980"></a><a href="#Footnote_980_980" class="fnanchor">[980]</a></p> <p>Regarding the French <i>valets</i> and <i>femmes de chambre</i> in -London, the Abbé writes: "Il n'est pas étonnant que l'on -trouve en Angleterre tant de Domestiques François. A -Londres on se plaît à parler notre Langue, on copie nos usages, +London, the Abbé writes: "Il n'est pas étonnant que l'on +trouve en Angleterre tant de Domestiques François. A +Londres on se plaît à parler notre Langue, on copie nos usages, on imite nos mœurs: ils entretiennent du moins dans nos -manières ceux qui les aiment: et les Anglois les payent à -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">-370-</a></span>proportion de l'utilité qu'ils en retirent."<a name="FNanchor_981_981" id="FNanchor_981_981"></a><a href="#Footnote_981_981" class="fnanchor">[981]</a> We are told that the +manières ceux qui les aiment: et les Anglois les payent à +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">-370-</a></span>proportion de l'utilité qu'ils en retirent."<a name="FNanchor_981_981" id="FNanchor_981_981"></a><a href="#Footnote_981_981" class="fnanchor">[981]</a> We are told that the French lackey was "as mischievous all the year as a London apprentice on Shrove Tuesday";<a name="FNanchor_982_982" id="FNanchor_982_982"></a><a href="#Footnote_982_982" class="fnanchor">[982]</a> yet he was indispensable:</p> @@ -18827,17 +18786,17 @@ alone excepted.</p> language. When De Grammont, who had made the acquaintance of most of the courtiers in France, came to make that of the ladies, he needed no interpreter, for all knew French—"assez -pour s'expliquer et toutes entendaient le françois assez -bien pour ce qu'on avait à leur dire."<a name="FNanchor_1006_1006" id="FNanchor_1006_1006"></a><a href="#Footnote_1006_1006" class="fnanchor">[1006]</a> Amongst them was +pour s'expliquer et toutes entendaient le françois assez +bien pour ce qu'on avait à leur dire."<a name="FNanchor_1006_1006" id="FNanchor_1006_1006"></a><a href="#Footnote_1006_1006" class="fnanchor">[1006]</a> Amongst them was Miss Hamilton, Anthony's sister, who became De Grammont's wife,<a name="FNanchor_1007_1007" id="FNanchor_1007_1007"></a><a href="#Footnote_1007_1007" class="fnanchor">[1007]</a> and was much admired at the Court of Louis XIV. The accomplishments of Miss Stuart may be quoted as typical -of the rest: "elle avoit de la grâce, dansoit bien, parloit -françois mieux que sa langue naturelle: elle étoit polie, -possédoit cet air de parure après lequel on court et qu'on -n'attrappe guères à moins de l'avoir pris en France dès sa +of the rest: "elle avoit de la grâce, dansoit bien, parloit +françois mieux que sa langue naturelle: elle étoit polie, +possédoit cet air de parure après lequel on court et qu'on +n'attrappe guères à moins de l'avoir pris en France dès sa <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">-374-</a></span>jeunesse."<a name="FNanchor_1008_1008" id="FNanchor_1008_1008"></a><a href="#Footnote_1008_1008" class="fnanchor">[1008]</a> The least gifted lady of the Court was Miss -Blake, who "n'entendoit presque point le françois." When +Blake, who "n'entendoit presque point le françois." When the Countess of Berkshire recommended one of her near relatives as one of the queen's dressers, the fact that she had been twelve years in France, and could speak French exceedingly @@ -18865,7 +18824,7 @@ of the time.<a name="FNanchor_1013_1013" id="FNanchor_1013_1013"></a><a href="#F maid, "born and bred in France, who could speak English but brokenly," with whom she would talk a mixture of broken French and English; while many a one like Melantha of -Dryden's <i>Marriage à-la-mode</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1014_1014" id="FNanchor_1014_1014"></a><a href="#Footnote_1014_1014" class="fnanchor">[1014]</a> doted on any new French word: +Dryden's <i>Marriage à -la-mode</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1014_1014" id="FNanchor_1014_1014"></a><a href="#Footnote_1014_1014" class="fnanchor">[1014]</a> doted on any new French word: "as fast as any bullion comes out of France, she coins it into <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">-375-</a></span>English, and runs mad in new French words."<a name="FNanchor_1015_1015" id="FNanchor_1015_1015"></a><a href="#Footnote_1015_1015" class="fnanchor">[1015]</a> <span class="sidenote">THE FRENCHIFIED LADY</span>She importunes @@ -18883,13 +18842,13 @@ at this rate I cannot last till night! Come read your words....</p> <p><i>Melantha.</i> <i>Sottises, bon.</i> That's an excellent word to begin withal: as for example, he or she said a thousand <i>sottises</i> to me. Proceed.</p> -<p><i>Philotis.</i> <i>Figure</i>: as what a <i>Figure</i> of a man is there! <i>Naïve</i> and -<i>Naïveté</i>.</p> +<p><i>Philotis.</i> <i>Figure</i>: as what a <i>Figure</i> of a man is there! <i>Naïve</i> and +<i>Naïveté</i>.</p> -<p><i>Melantha.</i> <i>Naïve!</i> as how?</p> +<p><i>Melantha.</i> <i>Naïve!</i> as how?</p> -<p><i>Philotis.</i> Speaking of a thing that was naturally said: it was so <i>naïve</i>. -Or such an innocent piece of simplicity: 'twas such a <i>Naïveté</i>.</p></div> +<p><i>Philotis.</i> Speaking of a thing that was naturally said: it was so <i>naïve</i>. +Or such an innocent piece of simplicity: 'twas such a <i>Naïveté</i>.</p></div> <p class="noi">And as Melantha becomes excited with her new acquisitions, she bestows gifts on her maid at each new word.</p> @@ -18898,7 +18857,7 @@ she bestows gifts on her maid at each new word.</p> <div class="blockquot1"><p class="noi"> —Of what Nation are you?</p> -<p class="noi">—English by birth: my education <i>à la mode de France</i>.</p> +<p class="noi">—English by birth: my education <i>à la mode de France</i>.</p> <p class="noi">—Who confirms you?</p> <p class="noi">—Mademoiselle the French Mantua maker. </p></div> @@ -18911,14 +18870,14 @@ to jabber French: and learnt to dance before I could go: in short I danced French dances at 8, sang French at 10, spoke it at 13, and before 15 could talk nothing else."</p> -<p>Among the gentlemen <i>à la mode</i>, "to speak French like a +<p>Among the gentlemen <i>à la mode</i>, "to speak French like a magpie" was also the fashion:</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> <span class="i0">We shortly must our native speech forget<br /></span> <span class="i0">And every man appear a French coquett.<br /></span> <span class="i0">Upon the Tongue our English sounds not well,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">But—oh, monsieur, la langue françoise est belle;<a name="FNanchor_1017_1017" id="FNanchor_1017_1017"></a><a href="#Footnote_1017_1017" class="fnanchor">[1017]</a><br /></span> +<span class="i0">But—oh, monsieur, la langue françoise est belle;<a name="FNanchor_1017_1017" id="FNanchor_1017_1017"></a><a href="#Footnote_1017_1017" class="fnanchor">[1017]</a><br /></span> </div></div> <p class="noi">wrote a satirist of the time. And so the Francomaniacs, @@ -18967,11 +18926,11 @@ one side, and his looks are more languishing than a lady's when she lolls at stretch in her coach, or leans her head carelessly against the side of a box in the playhouse." He judges everything according to what is done at Paris, and English -music and dancing make him shudder. And as it was <i>à la +music and dancing make him shudder. And as it was <i>à la mode</i> to be</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Attended by a young petit garçon<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Attended by a young petit garçon<br /></span> <span class="i0">Who from his cradle was an arch Fripon,<a name="FNanchor_1024_1024" id="FNanchor_1024_1024"></a><a href="#Footnote_1024_1024" class="fnanchor">[1024]</a><br /></span> </div></div> @@ -18991,7 +18950,7 @@ such stuff, as how he, simple fellow as he seems to be, had interpreted between the French King and the Emperor." Or, if his accomplishments will not stand this strain, "flings some fragments of French or small parcels of Italian about the table."<a name="FNanchor_1026_1026" id="FNanchor_1026_1026"></a><a href="#Footnote_1026_1026" class="fnanchor">[1026]</a> -He may then take the promenade or <i>Tour à la Mode</i>, where he +He may then take the promenade or <i>Tour à la Mode</i>, where he salutes with <i>bon meen</i>, and has a hundred <i>jolly rancounters</i> on the way.<a name="FNanchor_1027_1027" id="FNanchor_1027_1027"></a><a href="#Footnote_1027_1027" class="fnanchor">[1027]</a> He usually ended his day at the play.</p> @@ -19005,21 +18964,21 @@ introduced so freely into the plays, offered ample opportunity for the use of French words.<a name="FNanchor_1030_1030" id="FNanchor_1030_1030"></a><a href="#Footnote_1030_1030" class="fnanchor">[1030]</a> Dryden, alone, is responsible for the introduction of more than a hundred such words.<a name="FNanchor_1031_1031" id="FNanchor_1031_1031"></a><a href="#Footnote_1031_1031" class="fnanchor">[1031]</a> As literature was fashionable at the time, most of the dramatic -authors were themselves gentlemen <i>à la mode</i> with strong +authors were themselves gentlemen <i>à la mode</i> with strong French tastes. Sedley, for instance, had a great reputation in the world of fashion. Wycherley and Vanbrugh had both been educated in France. Etherege had probably resided many years in Paris. Cibber, who always played the part of the fop in his own plays, went twice to France specially to -study the airs and graces of the French <i>petit-maître</i>,—at no -better place, however, than a <i>table d'Auberge</i>, the Abbé +study the airs and graces of the French <i>petit-maître</i>,—at no +better place, however, than a <i>table d'Auberge</i>, the Abbé Le Blanc tells us:<a name="FNanchor_1032_1032" id="FNanchor_1032_1032"></a><a href="#Footnote_1032_1032" class="fnanchor">[1032]</a> "Il faut lui pardonner ses erreurs sur -ses modèles, il n'étoit à portée d'en voir d'autres: si même -il n'a pas aussi bien imité ceux-ci que les Anglois se le sont -persuadé, je n'en suis pas surpris: il m'a avoué de bonne foi +ses modèles, il n'étoit à portée d'en voir d'autres: si même +il n'a pas aussi bien imité ceux-ci que les Anglois se le sont +persuadé, je n'en suis pas surpris: il m'a avoué de bonne foi qu'il n'entend pas assez notre langue pour suivre la conversation." It is unlikely, however, that Cibber's French was as -scanty as the <i>abbé</i> reports. At any rate his daughter Charlotte, +scanty as the <i>abbé</i> reports. At any rate his daughter Charlotte, afterwards Mrs. Clarke, tells us that she understood the alphabet in French before she was able to speak English.<a name="FNanchor_1033_1033" id="FNanchor_1033_1033"></a><a href="#Footnote_1033_1033" class="fnanchor">[1033]</a></p> @@ -19033,7 +18992,7 @@ speaks the epilogue in Farquhar's <i>Constant Couple</i>:</p> <span class="i0">Vat have you of grand plaisir in dis towne,<br /></span> <span class="i0">Vidout it come from France, dat will go down?<br /></span> <span class="i0">Picquet, basset: your vin, your dress, your dance,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">'Tis all, you zee, tout à-la-mode de France.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">'Tis all, you zee, tout à -la-mode de France.<br /></span> </div></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">-379-</a></span> @@ -19074,7 +19033,7 @@ the cue to the ladies.</p> a taste for French plays during their sojourn abroad. Immediately after the Restoration a French company settled in London, and the king became their special patron and -protector. In 1661 he made a grant of £300 to Jean Channoveau +protector. In 1661 he made a grant of £300 to Jean Channoveau to be distributed among the French comedians,<a name="FNanchor_1036_1036" id="FNanchor_1036_1036"></a><a href="#Footnote_1036_1036" class="fnanchor">[1036]</a> and in 1663 they obtained permission to bring from France their stage decorations and scenery. It seems to have always been @@ -19109,7 +19068,7 @@ Duchess of Portsmouth, Mme. Mazarin, the French ambassador, and many courtiers were always present. In 1684 the "Prince's French players" were again expected in England,<a name="FNanchor_1042_1042" id="FNanchor_1042_1042"></a><a href="#Footnote_1042_1042" class="fnanchor">[1042]</a> no doubt the same troupe, directed by Pitel and known as -<i>Les comédiens de son Altesse sérénissime M. le Prince</i>.</p> +<i>Les comédiens de son Altesse sérénissime M. le Prince</i>.</p> <div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> @@ -19118,11 +19077,11 @@ time.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_944_944" id="Footnote_944_944"></a><a href="#FNanchor_944_944"><span class="label">[944]</span></a> Evelyn, <i>Diary</i>, Sept. 1, 1650.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_945_945" id="Footnote_945_945"></a><a href="#FNanchor_945_945"><span class="label">[945]</span></a> In the <i>Journal de voyage de deux jeunes Hollandais à Paris, 1656-58</i> (ed. A. P. -Faugère, 2nd ed., Paris, 1899), there is some information concerning the exiled Court. -The teacher Lainé mentions a lady in the suite of the exiled queen in his <i>Dialogues</i>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_945_945" id="Footnote_945_945"></a><a href="#FNanchor_945_945"><span class="label">[945]</span></a> In the <i>Journal de voyage de deux jeunes Hollandais à Paris, 1656-58</i> (ed. A. P. +Faugère, 2nd ed., Paris, 1899), there is some information concerning the exiled Court. +The teacher Lainé mentions a lady in the suite of the exiled queen in his <i>Dialogues</i>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_946_946" id="Footnote_946_946"></a><a href="#FNanchor_946_946"><span class="label">[946]</span></a> <i>Mémoires</i>, 4 vols., Paris, 1859, i. pp. 102, 137, 225, etc.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_946_946" id="Footnote_946_946"></a><a href="#FNanchor_946_946"><span class="label">[946]</span></a> <i>Mémoires</i>, 4 vols., Paris, 1859, i. pp. 102, 137, 225, etc.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_947_947" id="Footnote_947_947"></a><a href="#FNanchor_947_947"><span class="label">[947]</span></a> <i>Supra</i>, pp. 262 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> @@ -19135,13 +19094,13 @@ He offered the same excuse for his Council, but Courtin retorted that many of th spoke French as well as English. Cp. J. J. Jusserand, <i>A French Ambassador at the Court of Charles II.</i>, London, 1892, p. 143.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_949_949" id="Footnote_949_949"></a><a href="#FNanchor_949_949"><span class="label">[949]</span></a> "Il me disoit des douceurs, à ce que m'ont dit les gens qui nous écoutoient et -parloit si bien françois, en tenant ces propos-là, qu'il n'y a personne qui ne doive convenir -que l'Amour étoit plutôt françois que de toute autre nation. Car, quand le roi parloit +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_949_949" id="Footnote_949_949"></a><a href="#FNanchor_949_949"><span class="label">[949]</span></a> "Il me disoit des douceurs, à ce que m'ont dit les gens qui nous écoutoient et +parloit si bien françois, en tenant ces propos-là , qu'il n'y a personne qui ne doive convenir +que l'Amour étoit plutôt françois que de toute autre nation. Car, quand le roi parloit sa langue (la langue de l'amour) il oublioit la sienne et n'en perdoit l'accent qu'avec -moi: car les autres ne l'entendirent pas si bien" (<i>Mémoires</i>, <i>ed. cit.</i> i. p. 322).</p></div> +moi: car les autres ne l'entendirent pas si bien" (<i>Mémoires</i>, <i>ed. cit.</i> i. p. 322).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_950_950" id="Footnote_950_950"></a><a href="#FNanchor_950_950"><span class="label">[950]</span></a> <i>Lettre de M. de L'Angle à un de ses amis touchant la religion du sérénissime roy +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_950_950" id="Footnote_950_950"></a><a href="#FNanchor_950_950"><span class="label">[950]</span></a> <i>Lettre de M. de L'Angle à un de ses amis touchant la religion du sérénissime roy d'Angleterre</i>, Geneva?, 1660, p. 18.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_951_951" id="Footnote_951_951"></a><a href="#FNanchor_951_951"><span class="label">[951]</span></a> Evelyn was in France in 1643, on his way to study anatomy at Padua, and again @@ -19150,7 +19109,7 @@ in 1646-7 on his return, and yet again in 1649.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_952_952" id="Footnote_952_952"></a><a href="#FNanchor_952_952"><span class="label">[952]</span></a> Lord High Treasurer Cottington, Sir Ed. Hyde, etc.; cp. <i>Diary</i>, Aug. 1 and 18, Sept. 7, 12, 13, Oct. 2, 7, 1649, etc.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_953_953" id="Footnote_953_953"></a><a href="#FNanchor_953_953"><span class="label">[953]</span></a> Thus the King invited the Prince of Condé to supper at St. Cloud ... "where +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_953_953" id="Footnote_953_953"></a><a href="#FNanchor_953_953"><span class="label">[953]</span></a> Thus the King invited the Prince of Condé to supper at St. Cloud ... "where I saw a famous (tennis) match betwixt Mons. Saumaurs and Colonel Cooke, and so returned to Paris." Evelyn, <i>Diary</i>, Sept. 13, 1649.</p></div> @@ -19159,7 +19118,7 @@ ed. J. J. Cartwright, London, 1875, pp. 26, 42 (cp. pp. 359 <i>sqq.</i>, supra). <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_955_955" id="Footnote_955_955"></a><a href="#FNanchor_955_955"><span class="label">[955]</span></a> Sir Henry Craike, <i>Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon</i>, 1911, ii. pp. 321 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_956_956" id="Footnote_956_956"></a><a href="#FNanchor_956_956"><span class="label">[956]</span></a> W. Harvey-Jellie, <i>Les Sources du Théâtre anglais à l'époque de la Restauration</i>, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_956_956" id="Footnote_956_956"></a><a href="#FNanchor_956_956"><span class="label">[956]</span></a> W. Harvey-Jellie, <i>Les Sources du Théâtre anglais à l'époque de la Restauration</i>, Paris, 1906, pp. 37 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_957_957" id="Footnote_957_957"></a><a href="#FNanchor_957_957"><span class="label">[957]</span></a> Evelyn visited Waller several times.</p></div> @@ -19168,33 +19127,33 @@ Paris, 1906, pp. 37 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_959_959" id="Footnote_959_959"></a><a href="#FNanchor_959_959"><span class="label">[959]</span></a> Dennis, <i>Original Letters, familiar, moral and critical</i>, London, 1723, i. p. 215. At a later date he was again in France for reasons of health. The king gave him -£500 to pay the expenses of a journey to the South of France. He was at Montpellier +£500 to pay the expenses of a journey to the South of France. He was at Montpellier from the winter of 1678 to the spring of 1679.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_960_960" id="Footnote_960_960"></a><a href="#FNanchor_960_960"><span class="label">[960]</span></a> ". . . cette langue dont il savait toutes les plus délicates ressources en grâce, en -malice plaisante et en ironie." Cf. Sayous, <i>Histoire de la littérature française à l'étranger</i>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_960_960" id="Footnote_960_960"></a><a href="#FNanchor_960_960"><span class="label">[960]</span></a> ". . . cette langue dont il savait toutes les plus délicates ressources en grâce, en +malice plaisante et en ironie." Cf. Sayous, <i>Histoire de la littérature française à l'étranger</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_961_961" id="Footnote_961_961"></a><a href="#FNanchor_961_961"><span class="label">[961]</span></a> "Hamilton dans le conte (says Sayous, <i>op. cit.</i>) l'emporte sur Voltaire qui eut -été le premier, si au lieu de se jeter dans les allégories philosophiques il s'était abandonné, -comme notre Écossais, au plaisir plus innocent de laisser courir son imagination et sa +été le premier, si au lieu de se jeter dans les allégories philosophiques il s'était abandonné, +comme notre Écossais, au plaisir plus innocent de laisser courir son imagination et sa plume."</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_962_962" id="Footnote_962_962"></a><a href="#FNanchor_962_962"><span class="label">[962]</span></a> The Scotch Chevalier de Ramsay (1686-1743), the friend of Fénelon, also wrote +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_962_962" id="Footnote_962_962"></a><a href="#FNanchor_962_962"><span class="label">[962]</span></a> The Scotch Chevalier de Ramsay (1686-1743), the friend of Fénelon, also wrote French with remarkable purity. His best known work is <i>Les Voyages de Cyrus avec un discours sur la mythologie</i> (Paris, 1727; London, 1730). At a later date Thomas -Hales (1740?-1780), known as d'Hèle, d'Hell, or Dell, a French dramatist of English +Hales (1740?-1780), known as d'Hèle, d'Hell, or Dell, a French dramatist of English birth, also made himself a name in French literature (Sylvain van de Weyer, <i>Les -Anglais qui ont écrit en français</i>, Miscellanies, Philobiblon Soc., 1854, vol. i.).</p></div> +Anglais qui ont écrit en français</i>, Miscellanies, Philobiblon Soc., 1854, vol. i.).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_963_963" id="Footnote_963_963"></a><a href="#FNanchor_963_963"><span class="label">[963]</span></a> Hamilton, <i>Mémoires du Comte de Grammont. Histoire amoureuse de la Cour de +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_963_963" id="Footnote_963_963"></a><a href="#FNanchor_963_963"><span class="label">[963]</span></a> Hamilton, <i>Mémoires du Comte de Grammont. Histoire amoureuse de la Cour de Charles II</i>, ed. B. Pifteau, Paris, 1876, Preface. Voltaire often quoted the beginning -of <i>Le Bélier</i> as a model of style.</p></div> +of <i>Le Bélier</i> as a model of style.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_964_964" id="Footnote_964_964"></a><a href="#FNanchor_964_964"><span class="label">[964]</span></a> "Il trouvoit si peu de différence aux manières et à la conversation de ceux qu'il -voyoit le plus souvent, qu'il ne lui paroissoit pas qu'il eut changé de pais. Tout ce +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_964_964" id="Footnote_964_964"></a><a href="#FNanchor_964_964"><span class="label">[964]</span></a> "Il trouvoit si peu de différence aux manières et à la conversation de ceux qu'il +voyoit le plus souvent, qu'il ne lui paroissoit pas qu'il eut changé de pais. Tout ce qui peut occuper un homme de son humeur s'offroit partout aux divers penchans qui -l'entrainoient, come si les plaisirs de la cour de France l'eussent quitté pour l'accompagner -dans son exil" (<i>Mémoires</i>, <i>ed. cit.</i> p. 83). Grammont had been banished from +l'entrainoient, come si les plaisirs de la cour de France l'eussent quitté pour l'accompagner +dans son exil" (<i>Mémoires</i>, <i>ed. cit.</i> p. 83). Grammont had been banished from the French Court on account of a presumptuous love affair.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_965_965" id="Footnote_965_965"></a><a href="#FNanchor_965_965"><span class="label">[965]</span></a> <i>Institution of a Gentleman</i>, London, 1660, p. 88. The book first appeared as @@ -19211,7 +19170,7 @@ discourse in French on the nature of each ingredient.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_969_969" id="Footnote_969_969"></a><a href="#FNanchor_969_969"><span class="label">[969]</span></a> <i>Revue Historique</i>, xxix., Sept.-Oct. 1885, p. 25.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_970_970" id="Footnote_970_970"></a><a href="#FNanchor_970_970"><span class="label">[970]</span></a> J. J. Jusserand, <i>Shakespeare in France</i>, London, 1899, pp. 132, 135, 136. Mme. -d'Aulnoy, the fairy-tale writer and authoress of the <i>Mémoires de la cour d'Angleterre</i>, +d'Aulnoy, the fairy-tale writer and authoress of the <i>Mémoires de la cour d'Angleterre</i>, was also among the French ladies in London at this time.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_971_971" id="Footnote_971_971"></a><a href="#FNanchor_971_971"><span class="label">[971]</span></a> St. Evremond was buried at Westminster at the age of ninety-one. The Duchess @@ -19221,20 +19180,20 @@ died at Chelsea in 1699.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_973_973" id="Footnote_973_973"></a><a href="#FNanchor_973_973"><span class="label">[973]</span></a> Evelyn's Diary, likewise, is full of mentions of meetings with Frenchmen.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_974_974" id="Footnote_974_974"></a><a href="#FNanchor_974_974"><span class="label">[974]</span></a> Sorbière, <i>Relation d'un voyage en Angleterre . . .</i>, Paris, 1664, p. 32.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_974_974" id="Footnote_974_974"></a><a href="#FNanchor_974_974"><span class="label">[974]</span></a> Sorbière, <i>Relation d'un voyage en Angleterre . . .</i>, Paris, 1664, p. 32.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_975_975" id="Footnote_975_975"></a><a href="#FNanchor_975_975"><span class="label">[975]</span></a> Cp. Ch. Bastide, <i>Anglais et Français du 17<sup>e</sup> siècle</i>, Paris, 1912.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_975_975" id="Footnote_975_975"></a><a href="#FNanchor_975_975"><span class="label">[975]</span></a> Cp. Ch. Bastide, <i>Anglais et Français du 17<sup>e</sup> siècle</i>, Paris, 1912.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_976_976" id="Footnote_976_976"></a><a href="#FNanchor_976_976"><span class="label">[976]</span></a> Jusserand, <i>Shakespeare in France</i>, p. 136, note 2.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_977_977" id="Footnote_977_977"></a><a href="#FNanchor_977_977"><span class="label">[977]</span></a> <i>Les Voyages de M. Payen</i>, Paris, 1667.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_978_978" id="Footnote_978_978"></a><a href="#FNanchor_978_978"><span class="label">[978]</span></a> Mauger calls London "une des merveilles du monde. On y vient de tous côtez, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_978_978" id="Footnote_978_978"></a><a href="#FNanchor_978_978"><span class="label">[978]</span></a> Mauger calls London "une des merveilles du monde. On y vient de tous côtez, pour admirer sa magnificence."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_979_979" id="Footnote_979_979"></a><a href="#FNanchor_979_979"><span class="label">[979]</span></a> <i>The Ladies' Catechism</i>, 1703.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_980_980" id="Footnote_980_980"></a><a href="#FNanchor_980_980"><span class="label">[980]</span></a> J. B. Le Blanc, <i>Lettres d'un Français</i>, à La Haye, 1745, iii. p. 67.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_980_980" id="Footnote_980_980"></a><a href="#FNanchor_980_980"><span class="label">[980]</span></a> J. B. Le Blanc, <i>Lettres d'un Français</i>, à La Haye, 1745, iii. p. 67.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_981_981" id="Footnote_981_981"></a><a href="#FNanchor_981_981"><span class="label">[981]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> i. p. 145. Mrs. Pepys assisted Lady Sandwich to find a French maid (<i>Diary</i>, Nov. 15, 1660), and was herself very desirous of one. @@ -19252,7 +19211,7 @@ French Puppydogs for <i>Valets de Chambre</i>" (<i>French Conjuror</i>, 1678). A No. 45) says he remembers the time when some well-bred Englishwomen kept a <i>valet de chambre</i> "because, forsooth, they were more handy than one of their own sex."</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_983_983" id="Footnote_983_983"></a><a href="#FNanchor_983_983"><span class="label">[983]</span></a> <i>Satire on the French</i>, 1691. Reprinted as the <i>Baboon à la Mode</i>, 1701.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_983_983" id="Footnote_983_983"></a><a href="#FNanchor_983_983"><span class="label">[983]</span></a> <i>Satire on the French</i>, 1691. Reprinted as the <i>Baboon à la Mode</i>, 1701.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_984_984" id="Footnote_984_984"></a><a href="#FNanchor_984_984"><span class="label">[984]</span></a> <i>Satirical Reflections</i>, 1707, 3rd pt.</p></div> @@ -19264,7 +19223,7 @@ de chambre</i> "because, forsooth, they were more handy than one of their own se <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_987_987" id="Footnote_987_987"></a><a href="#FNanchor_987_987"><span class="label">[987]</span></a> Flecknoe, <i>Characters</i>, p. 12. Pepys describes a French dance at Court (<i>Diary</i>, Nov. 15, 1666), which was "not extraordinarily pleasing." He much admired the dancing of the young Princess Mary, taught by a Frenchman (<i>Diary</i>, March 2, 1669). -The <i>maîtres d'armes</i> were often Italians and Spaniards. There were protests +The <i>maîtres d'armes</i> were often Italians and Spaniards. There were protests against the French and Italian singing and dancing "taught by the dregs of Italy and France" (<i>Satirical Reflections</i>, 1707).</p></div> @@ -19284,7 +19243,7 @@ not like the "French airs" (<i>Diary</i>, July 27, 1661; June 18, 1666).</p></di <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_993_993" id="Footnote_993_993"></a><a href="#FNanchor_993_993"><span class="label">[993]</span></a> Vincent, <i>Young Gallants' Academy</i>, 1674.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_994_994" id="Footnote_994_994"></a><a href="#FNanchor_994_994"><span class="label">[994]</span></a> Cp. Sedley, <i>Mulberry Garden</i> (Sir J. Everyoung: "Which is the most à la +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_994_994" id="Footnote_994_994"></a><a href="#FNanchor_994_994"><span class="label">[994]</span></a> Cp. Sedley, <i>Mulberry Garden</i> (Sir J. Everyoung: "Which is the most à la mode right revered spark? points or laces? girdle or shoulder belts? What say your letters out of France?"). There is hardly a comedy of the time without some such references to French fashions; cp. Etherege, <i>Sir Fopling Flutter</i>; Shadwell, <i>Humours @@ -19297,8 +19256,8 @@ clothing. This he had presented to the king: "I do not impute to this discourse the change whiche soone happen'd, but it was an identity that I could not but take notice of" (<i>Diary</i>, Oct. 18 and 30, 1666).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_996_996" id="Footnote_996_996"></a><a href="#FNanchor_996_996"><span class="label">[996]</span></a> Butler, <i>Satire on our ridiculous imitation of the French</i>; "A l'étranger on -prend plaisir à enchérir sur toutes les Nouveautez qui leur viennent de France. . . ." +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_996_996" id="Footnote_996_996"></a><a href="#FNanchor_996_996"><span class="label">[996]</span></a> Butler, <i>Satire on our ridiculous imitation of the French</i>; "A l'étranger on +prend plaisir à enchérir sur toutes les Nouveautez qui leur viennent de France. . . ." Muralt (<i>Lettres</i>, 1725).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_997_997" id="Footnote_997_997"></a><a href="#FNanchor_997_997"><span class="label">[997]</span></a> <i>French Conjuror</i>, 1678.</p></div> @@ -19320,7 +19279,7 @@ Couple</i>, iv. 2.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1002_1002" id="Footnote_1002_1002"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1002_1002"><span class="label">[1002]</span></a> Acted 1671; Act II. Sc. 2.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1003_1003" id="Footnote_1003_1003"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1003_1003"><span class="label">[1003]</span></a> <i>Mémoires</i>, <i>ed. cit.</i> pp. 51-52.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1003_1003" id="Footnote_1003_1003"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1003_1003"><span class="label">[1003]</span></a> <i>Mémoires</i>, <i>ed. cit.</i> pp. 51-52.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1004_1004" id="Footnote_1004_1004"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1004_1004"><span class="label">[1004]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 143.</p></div> @@ -19332,21 +19291,21 @@ to the French tongue (<i>Cal. of State Papers, 1661-62</i>, p. 4).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1007_1007" id="Footnote_1007_1007"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1007_1007"><span class="label">[1007]</span></a> The story goes that Grammont was leaving England without marrying Miss Hamilton, when her brother overtook him and told him he had forgotten something, whereat he realized his oversight and returned to repair it. It is said that this incident -supplied Molière with the subject of his <i>Mariage forcé</i>.</p></div> +supplied Molière with the subject of his <i>Mariage forcé</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1008_1008" id="Footnote_1008_1008"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1008_1008"><span class="label">[1008]</span></a> Hamilton, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 82.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1009_1009" id="Footnote_1009_1009"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1009_1009"><span class="label">[1009]</span></a> <i>Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1661-62</i>, p. 28.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1010_1010" id="Footnote_1010_1010"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1010_1010"><span class="label">[1010]</span></a> Two grammars for teaching Portuguese greeted the new queen. One was a -<i>Portuguese Grammar</i> in French and English by Mr. La Mollière, a French gentleman, +<i>Portuguese Grammar</i> in French and English by Mr. La Mollière, a French gentleman, 1662 (<i>Register of the Company of Stationers</i>, ii. 307); and the other, J. Howell's <i>Grammar for the Spanish or Castilian tongue with some special remarks on the Portuguese Dialect</i>, with a description of Spain and Portugal by way of guide. It was dedicated to the queen.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1011_1011" id="Footnote_1011_1011"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1011_1011"><span class="label">[1011]</span></a> Fragment of the Journal of the Convent of Chaillot, in the secret archives of -France, Hôtel de Soubise. Quoted by Strickland in <i>Lives of the Queens</i>, 1888, iv. +France, Hôtel de Soubise. Quoted by Strickland in <i>Lives of the Queens</i>, 1888, iv. p. 383.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1012_1012" id="Footnote_1012_1012"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1012_1012"><span class="label">[1012]</span></a> Cp. Sedley, <i>Mulberry Garden</i>.</p></div> @@ -19402,8 +19361,8 @@ house. Cp. <i>Character of the Town Gallant</i>, 1675.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1026_1026" id="Footnote_1026_1026"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1026_1026"><span class="label">[1026]</span></a> Vincent, <i>Young Gallants' Academy</i>, 1674, p. 44.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1027_1027" id="Footnote_1027_1027"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1027_1027"><span class="label">[1027]</span></a> Flecknoe, <i>Characters</i>, 1673. The 1665 edition of his <i>Aenigmatical Characters ...</i>, -1665, contains a description in French of the <i>Tour à la Mode</i>: ". . . C'est une bataille -bien rangée où l'on ne tire que des coups d'Œillades, et où les premiers ayant fait leur +1665, contains a description in French of the <i>Tour à la Mode</i>: ". . . C'est une bataille +bien rangée où l'on ne tire que des coups d'Œillades, et où les premiers ayant fait leur descharge, ilz s'en vont pour donner place aux autres" . . ., etc. (p. 21).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1028_1028" id="Footnote_1028_1028"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1028_1028"><span class="label">[1028]</span></a> Charles II. openly avowed his preference for the French drama. Dryden wrote @@ -19412,7 +19371,7 @@ censure of those who unjustly prefer the French before them." Pepys saw many of the French plays acted in English. Cp. H. McAfee, <i>Pepys on the Restoration Stage ...</i>, Yale Univ. Press, 1916.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1029_1029" id="Footnote_1029_1029"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1029_1029"><span class="label">[1029]</span></a> A. Beljame, <i>Le Public et les hommes de lettres au 18<sup>e</sup> siècle</i>, Paris, 1897, p. 139.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1029_1029" id="Footnote_1029_1029"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1029_1029"><span class="label">[1029]</span></a> A. Beljame, <i>Le Public et les hommes de lettres au 18<sup>e</sup> siècle</i>, Paris, 1897, p. 139.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1030_1030" id="Footnote_1030_1030"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1030_1030"><span class="label">[1030]</span></a> As in Etherege's <i>Comical Revenge or Love in a Tub</i>, <i>Sir Fopling Flutter</i>, and the plays of Cibber, Vanbrugh, Mrs. Behn, Shadwell, Farquhar, Wycherley, etc.; <i>The @@ -19420,14 +19379,14 @@ French Conjuror</i>, 1678; <i>The Beau Defeated</i>, 1700?, etc.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1031_1031" id="Footnote_1031_1031"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1031_1031"><span class="label">[1031]</span></a> A. Beljame, <i>Quae e Gallicis verbis in Anglicam linguam Johannes Dryden introduxerit</i>, Paris, 1881. On French influence in Restoration Drama, see Charlanne, -<i>L'Influence française en Angleterre</i>, pp. 64 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> +<i>L'Influence française en Angleterre</i>, pp. 64 <i>sqq.</i></p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1032_1032" id="Footnote_1032_1032"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1032_1032"><span class="label">[1032]</span></a> <i>Lettre à M. de la Chaussée</i>: <i>Lettres</i>, 1745, ii. p. 240.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1032_1032" id="Footnote_1032_1032"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1032_1032"><span class="label">[1032]</span></a> <i>Lettre à M. de la Chaussée</i>: <i>Lettres</i>, 1745, ii. p. 240.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1033_1033" id="Footnote_1033_1033"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1033_1033"><span class="label">[1033]</span></a> <i>Narrative of her Life, written by Herself</i>, pub. in series of Autobiographies, London, 1826, vol. vii. p. 12. Most of the writers of the time were able to write some French. Flecknoe, for instance, wrote some of his <i>Characters</i> in the language, and wrote a French -dedication of his Poems (1652), "à la plus excellente de son sexe."</p></div> +dedication of his Poems (1652), "à la plus excellente de son sexe."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1034_1034" id="Footnote_1034_1034"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1034_1034"><span class="label">[1034]</span></a> Dryden, "Prologue spoken at the opening of the new house, 26 March, 1674," <i>Works</i>, ed. Scott and Saintsbury, x. p. 320.</p></div> @@ -19443,8 +19402,8 @@ vii.), p. 1444.</p></div> King's company acting at Drury Lane, and the other to Sir William Davenant, who directed the Duke's company. The rival companies united in 1682.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1039_1039" id="Footnote_1039_1039"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1039_1039"><span class="label">[1039]</span></a> Chardon, <i>La troupe du roman comique dévoilée et les comédiens de la campagne -au 17<sup>e</sup> siècle</i>, Le Mans, 1876, p. 47.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1039_1039" id="Footnote_1039_1039"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1039_1039"><span class="label">[1039]</span></a> Chardon, <i>La troupe du roman comique dévoilée et les comédiens de la campagne +au 17<sup>e</sup> siècle</i>, Le Mans, 1876, p. 47.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1040_1040" id="Footnote_1040_1040"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1040_1040"><span class="label">[1040]</span></a> Chardon, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 98.</p></div> @@ -19467,8 +19426,8 @@ that there was "scarce anything to be seen anywhere but French grammars." The manuals of Mauger and Festeau were still in vogue, and that of Mauger was frequently reedited. Among new grammarians figures the tutor to the -children of the Duke of York (James II.), Pierre de Lainé, -who may possibly have been identical with the Pierre Lainé +children of the Duke of York (James II.), Pierre de Lainé, +who may possibly have been identical with the Pierre Lainé who published a grammar in 1655.<a name="FNanchor_1044_1044" id="FNanchor_1044_1044"></a><a href="#Footnote_1044_1044" class="fnanchor">[1044]</a> His French grammar, written in the first place for the Lady Mary (afterwards Mary II.), was published in 1667,<a name="FNanchor_1045_1045" id="FNanchor_1045_1045"></a><a href="#Footnote_1045_1045" class="fnanchor">[1045]</a> when the princess was @@ -19480,12 +19439,12 @@ Highness the Lady Mary and since taught her royal sister the Lady Anne etc. by P. D. L. Tutor for the French to both their Highnesses</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1046_1046" id="FNanchor_1046_1046"></a><a href="#Footnote_1046_1046" class="fnanchor">[1046]</a></p> -<p>"Before you begin anything of Letters or rules," says Lainé, +<p>"Before you begin anything of Letters or rules," says Lainé, "you may Learn how to call in French these few things following.</p> <div class="table"><table cellspacing="2" summary="Laine"> -<tr><td>Ma Tête, say</td> +<tr><td>Ma Tête, say</td> <td>maw tate</td> <td>my Head</td></tr> <tr><td>Mes Cheveuz, say</td> @@ -19508,11 +19467,11 @@ French" for the use of her Highness the Lady Mary when a child, and models of letters suitable for children, and accompanied by answers.</p> -<p>In later years Lainé spent some time at Paris as secretary<a name="FNanchor_1047_1047" id="FNanchor_1047_1047"></a><a href="#Footnote_1047_1047" class="fnanchor">[1047]</a> +<p>In later years Lainé spent some time at Paris as secretary<a name="FNanchor_1047_1047" id="FNanchor_1047_1047"></a><a href="#Footnote_1047_1047" class="fnanchor">[1047]</a> to Sir Henry Savile, the English envoy at the French Court, who did so much to prepare a favourable reception in England for the refugees at the time of the Revocation of the Edict -of Nantes.<a name="FNanchor_1048_1048" id="FNanchor_1048_1048"></a><a href="#Footnote_1048_1048" class="fnanchor">[1048]</a> Lainé was the first teacher to receive a grant of +of Nantes.<a name="FNanchor_1048_1048" id="FNanchor_1048_1048"></a><a href="#Footnote_1048_1048" class="fnanchor">[1048]</a> Lainé was the first teacher to receive a grant of letters of denization under the Order in Council of the 28th July 1681.<a name="FNanchor_1049_1049" id="FNanchor_1049_1049"></a><a href="#Footnote_1049_1049" class="fnanchor">[1049]</a> Shortly afterwards the same privilege was bestowed on Francis Cheneau, whose <i>French Grammar, enrich'd with a @@ -19528,7 +19487,7 @@ St. next door to the Faulcon in London," where could be seen his short grammars for Latin, Italian, and English.</p> <p>The most versatile compiler of French manuals at this -period was Guy Miège, a native of Lausanne, who came to +period was Guy Miège, a native of Lausanne, who came to England at the time of the Restoration. For two years he was employed in the household of Lord Elgin, and was then appointed under-secretary to the Earl of Carlisle, ambassador @@ -19537,14 +19496,14 @@ spending three years abroad with the embassy, he travelled in France on his own account from 1665 till 1668, preparing a <i>Relation of the Three Embassies</i> in which he had taken part. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">-383-</a></span> -<span class="sidenote">THE DICTIONARIES OF GUY MIÈGE</span>His book was published in 1669, on his return to London. +<span class="sidenote">THE DICTIONARIES OF GUY MIÈGE</span>His book was published in 1669, on his return to London. He then settled in England as a teacher of French and geography, and wrote many works for teaching the language. The first was <i>A New Dictionary French and English and English and French</i> (1677), dedicated to Charles Lennox, Duke of Richmond. As usual, this French-English Dictionary is based on a French-Latin one—in this case that of Pomey. -Miège was also closely acquainted with Howell's edition of +Miège was also closely acquainted with Howell's edition of Cotgrave's dictionary, last published in 1670; but he held it very defective in retaining so many obsolete words, and in not being adapted to the "present use and modern orthography—which @@ -19569,7 +19528,7 @@ that nothing might be wanting, however, he placed them in their alphabetic order also, with a reference to the necessary primitive.</p> -<p>Miège's innovation in excluding all obsolete terms from +<p>Miège's innovation in excluding all obsolete terms from his dictionary raised such a storm at its first appearance<a name="FNanchor_1052_1052" id="FNanchor_1052_1052"></a><a href="#Footnote_1052_1052" class="fnanchor">[1052]</a> that he felt himself bound to yield to public opinion by making a separate collection of such words, which he called @@ -19580,7 +19539,7 @@ It was, he said, "performed for the satisfaction of such as <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">-384-</a></span>read old French." By the time of its publication in 1679, however, the storm raised by his first work had died away.</p> -<p>Miège continued his lexicographical labours. In 1684 +<p>Miège continued his lexicographical labours. In 1684 appeared <i>A Short French Dictionary English and French, with another in French and English</i>, a work of no ambitious aims, containing a list of words pure and simple, with no @@ -19594,7 +19553,7 @@ the Hague in 1691, 1701 (the fifth), and 1703;<a name="FNanchor_1053_1053" id="F was issued at Rotterdam as late as 1728.</p> <p>For the use of English students and those desiring to study -either language more thoroughly, Miège prepared, during +either language more thoroughly, Miège prepared, during many years of hard work, an enlarged edition of his first French dictionary of 1677, which, he tells us, was compiled under great disadvantages; "the Publick was in haste for @@ -19606,7 +19565,7 @@ published in 1688, eleven years after the appearance of its nucleus, the <i>New French Dictionary</i> (1677). It gives words according to both their old and modern orthography, "by which means the reader is fitted for any sort of French book," -and, writes Miège, "although I am not fond of obsolete and +and, writes Miège, "although I am not fond of obsolete and barbarous words, yet I thought fit to intersperse the most remarkable of them, lest they should be missed by such as read old Books." Each word is accompanied by explanations, @@ -19614,21 +19573,21 @@ proverbs, phrases, "and as the first part does, here and there, give a prospect into the constitution of the kingdom of France, so the second does afford to foreiners what they have hitherto very much wanted, to wit, an Insight into the Constitution -of England...." In the <i>Great Dictionary</i> Miège abandoned +of England...." In the <i>Great Dictionary</i> Miège abandoned his plan of arranging the derivatives under their primitives, because it had made his former work "swarm with uneasy references"; he followed the alphabetical order strictly, "but in such a manner that, where a derivative is remote from its primitive, I show its extraction within a Parenthesis." <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">-385-</a></span> -<span class="sidenote">MIÈGE'S FRENCH GRAMMARS</span>Each of the two sections of the <i>Great Dictionary</i> is preceded +<span class="sidenote">MIÈGE'S FRENCH GRAMMARS</span>Each of the two sections of the <i>Great Dictionary</i> is preceded by a grammar of the language concerned. First comes the <i>Grounds of the French Tongue</i>, before the French-English -Dictionary, and then a <i>Méthode abrégée pour apprendre +Dictionary, and then a <i>Méthode abrégée pour apprendre l'Anglois</i>. This French grammar was a reprint of one of those -which Miège had compiled while working at his dictionaries.</p> +which Miège had compiled while working at his dictionaries.</p> -<p>In 1684 Miège tells us that he had "put forth two French +<p>In 1684 Miège tells us that he had "put forth two French grammars, both of them well approved by all unprejudiced persons. The one is short and concise, fitted for all sorts of learners, but especially new beginners; the other is a large @@ -19653,7 +19612,7 @@ Mauger's in number." The one hundred and fifteen familiar dialogues are followed by four more advanced ones in French alone, "for proficient learners to turn into English." The first deals with the education of children, and the others with -geography, a subject Miège taught in either French or English +geography, a subject Miège taught in either French or English "as might be most convenient."</p> <p>The elementary grammar had been issued about 1682<a name="FNanchor_1054_1054" id="FNanchor_1054_1054"></a><a href="#Footnote_1054_1054" class="fnanchor">[1054]</a> @@ -19666,7 +19625,7 @@ their use with this second grammar.</p> <p>In 1687 appeared the <i>Grounds of the French Tongue or a new French Grammar</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1055_1055" id="FNanchor_1055_1055"></a><a href="#Footnote_1055_1055" class="fnanchor">[1055]</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">-386-</a></span>which Miège incorporated in his <i>Great +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">-386-</a></span>which Miège incorporated in his <i>Great French Dictionary</i> in the following year. In general outline its contents resemble those of the grammar which had appeared ten years before. It is, however, an entirely new @@ -19677,16 +19636,16 @@ grammars.<a name="FNanchor_1057_1057" id="FNanchor_1057_1057"></a><a href="#Foot hundred pages shorter than the grammar of 1678, and on the whole it is less interesting from the point of view of the student of French. The second part, called the <i>Nouvelle Nomenclature -Françoise et Angloise</i>, which might be obtained apart +Françoise et Angloise</i>, which might be obtained apart from the grammar, had originally appeared in 1685 as part -of Miège's <i>Nouvelle méthode pour apprendre l'Anglois</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1058_1058" id="FNanchor_1058_1058"></a><a href="#Footnote_1058_1058" class="fnanchor">[1058]</a> Consequently +of Miège's <i>Nouvelle méthode pour apprendre l'Anglois</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1058_1058" id="FNanchor_1058_1058"></a><a href="#Footnote_1058_1058" class="fnanchor">[1058]</a> Consequently the dialogues are more suited to the student of English than to the student of French, as they deal chiefly with life in England and the impressions of a Frenchman in London, including an account of the coffee-houses, the penny post, the churches, English food and drink, and so forth.</p> -<p>Lastly, in about 1698,<a name="FNanchor_1059_1059" id="FNanchor_1059_1059"></a><a href="#Footnote_1059_1059" class="fnanchor">[1059]</a> appeared <i>Miège's last and best +<p>Lastly, in about 1698,<a name="FNanchor_1059_1059" id="FNanchor_1059_1059"></a><a href="#Footnote_1059_1059" class="fnanchor">[1059]</a> appeared <i>Miège's last and best French Grammar, or a new Method to learn French, containing the Quintessence of all other Grammars, with such plain and easie rules as will make one speedily perfect in that famous @@ -19695,7 +19654,7 @@ was based on his first grammar (1678), which thus benefited by his long experience as a writer on the French language and teacher of that tongue.</p> -<p>Miège held that French was best learnt by a combination +<p>Miège held that French was best learnt by a combination of the methods of rote and grammar, either being insufficient without the other; as for attempting to learn foreign languages at home by rote, "'tis properly building in the air. @@ -19731,7 +19690,7 @@ passages need not at all be learnt." But, when all is done, of knowledge."</p> <p>Thus the right use of a grammar depends much on the skill -and judgement of the teacher. Miège declares against overburdening +and judgement of the teacher. Miège declares against overburdening the memory with abstruse and difficult rules. In most cases it is enough if the learner understands the rule; there is no need to confine him to the author's words or to @@ -19756,7 +19715,7 @@ good at last his Proficiency that Way, with the help of a choice Grammar. And then the Rules will appear to him very plain, easy and delectable."</p> -<p>In 1678 Miège was receiving pupils for French and geography +<p>In 1678 Miège was receiving pupils for French and geography at his lodging in Penton Street, Leicester Square, and we are told that in 1693 he was taking in <i>pensionnaires</i> in Dean's Yard, near Westminster Abbey. Towards the end @@ -19766,7 +19725,7 @@ Francesco Casparo Colsoni, an Italian minister, who also taught Italian and English. Colsoni wrote a book for teaching the three languages,<a name="FNanchor_1062_1062" id="FNanchor_1062_1062"></a><a href="#Footnote_1062_1062" class="fnanchor">[1062]</a> called <i>The New Trismagister</i> (1688), in which he drew freely from the works of Mauger, Festeau, and -his friend Miège. In the meantime other manuals appeared, +his friend Miège. In the meantime other manuals appeared, including a translation of a grammar which was first published at Paris in 1672<a name="FNanchor_1063_1063" id="FNanchor_1063_1063"></a><a href="#Footnote_1063_1063" class="fnanchor">[1063]</a>—<i>A French Grammar, teaching the knowledge of that language.... Published by the Academy @@ -19824,7 +19783,7 @@ scholar:</p> </div></blockquote> <blockquote class="interlinear"><div> <div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">-390-</a></span>Do you teach the French tongue?</div> -<div lang="fr">Enseignez-vous la langue Françoise?</div> +<div lang="fr">Enseignez-vous la langue Françoise?</div> </div></blockquote> <blockquote class="interlinear"><div> <div>Yes sir, and the Latin also.</div> @@ -19841,7 +19800,7 @@ scholar:</p> <blockquote class="interlinear"> <div><div>What method do you hold?</div> -<div lang="fr">Quel méthode voulez-vous tenir?</div> +<div lang="fr">Quel méthode voulez-vous tenir?</div> </div></blockquote> <blockquote class="interlinear"> <div> @@ -19854,7 +19813,7 @@ scholar:</p> </div></blockquote> <blockquote class="interlinear"><div> <div>Which you can learn in two lessons.</div> -<div lang="fr">Que vous pouvez apprendre en deux leçons.</div> +<div lang="fr">Que vous pouvez apprendre en deux leçons.</div> </div></blockquote> <blockquote class="interlinear"><div> <div>Then I will teach you the nouns,</div> @@ -19866,11 +19825,11 @@ scholar:</p> </div></blockquote> <blockquote class="interlinear"><div> <div>And afterwards the rules of syntax.</div> -<div lang="fr">Et ensuite les règles de Composition.</div> +<div lang="fr">Et ensuite les règles de Composition.</div> </div></blockquote> <blockquote class="interlinear"><div> <div>How long will I be in learning all that?</div> -<div lang="fr">Combien seray-je à apprendre tout cela?</div> +<div lang="fr">Combien seray-je à apprendre tout cela?</div> </div></blockquote> <blockquote class="interlinear"><div> <div>But little time if you will follow me.</div> @@ -19905,7 +19864,7 @@ and that in many foreign towns all the men and women of quality and many of the common people spoke French with ease. Writers of the time are unanimous in describing French as the universal language; and most French teachers -write in the style of Guy Miège to the effect that "the French +write in the style of Guy Miège to the effect that "the French tongue is in a manner grown universal in Europe ... and of all the parts of Europe next to France none is more fond of it than England."</p> @@ -19915,22 +19874,22 @@ was in a position to dispute its ground with Latin. France herself set the example. French was the language used at Court, while Latin was used only by scholars. Significant it is that in 1676 Louis XIV., in consequence of Charpentier's -<i>Défense de la langue françoise pour l'inscription de l'arc de +<i>Défense de la langue françoise pour l'inscription de l'arc de Triomphe</i>, replaced the Latin inscriptions on his triumphal arches by others in French. Replying to Charpentier's essay, a Jesuit, P. Lucus, wrote a treatise in defence of Latin.<a name="FNanchor_1071_1071" id="FNanchor_1071_1071"></a><a href="#Footnote_1071_1071" class="fnanchor">[1071]</a> Charpentier retorted by two laboured volumes, <i>De -l'excellence de la langue françoise</i> (1683), and finally won the +l'excellence de la langue françoise</i> (1683), and finally won the day. In this he refers to the universality of French, and draws attention to the advantages which would result to science if it were studied in that language. The long Quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns, which first reached England from France, also shows the spirit of the times. And Bayle asserts as evidence of the supremacy of French that: "Veut-on -qu'un libelle courre bien le monde, aussitôt on le traduit en -françois, lors même que l'original est en Latin: tant il est +qu'un libelle courre bien le monde, aussitôt on le traduit en +françois, lors même que l'original est en Latin: tant il est vrai que le latin n'est pas si commun en Europe aujourd'hui -que la Langue françoise."<a name="FNanchor_1072_1072" id="FNanchor_1072_1072"></a><a href="#Footnote_1072_1072" class="fnanchor">[1072]</a></p> +que la Langue françoise."<a name="FNanchor_1072_1072" id="FNanchor_1072_1072"></a><a href="#Footnote_1072_1072" class="fnanchor">[1072]</a></p> <p>In England French had long been a rival to Latin as the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">-392-</a></span>most commonly used foreign tongue, and after the Restoration @@ -20043,17 +20002,17 @@ all. Sedley implies that to read Terence in Latin was a mark of ill-breeding.<a name="FNanchor_1084_1084" id="FNanchor_1084_1084"></a><a href="#Footnote_1084_1084" class="fnanchor">[1084]</a> The fashionable Etherege, who knew neither Latin nor Greek, had a large number of French translations of classical plays amongst his books.<a name="FNanchor_1085_1085" id="FNanchor_1085_1085"></a><a href="#Footnote_1085_1085" class="fnanchor">[1085]</a> And at a somewhat -later date the Abbé Le Blanc remarks<a name="FNanchor_1086_1086" id="FNanchor_1086_1086"></a><a href="#Footnote_1086_1086" class="fnanchor">[1086]</a> that the English have +later date the Abbé Le Blanc remarks<a name="FNanchor_1086_1086" id="FNanchor_1086_1086"></a><a href="#Footnote_1086_1086" class="fnanchor">[1086]</a> that the English have become so fond of French that they prefer to read even Cicero in that language. He writes to tell Olivet how eagerly his translations are received in England. "Celle des Tusculanes que vous venez de publier de concert avec M. Le -Père Bouhour a été goûtée en Angleterre de tous ceux qui -sont en état de juger des Beautés de l'Original et de la fidélité +Père Bouhour a été goûtée en Angleterre de tous ceux qui +sont en état de juger des Beautés de l'Original et de la fidélité avec laquelle chacun de vous les a rendues."</p> <p>The readiness with which the English read French books -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">-395-</a></span>also attracted the Abbé's attention.<a name="FNanchor_1087_1087" id="FNanchor_1087_1087"></a><a href="#Footnote_1087_1087" class="fnanchor">[1087]</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">-395-</a></span>also attracted the Abbé's attention.<a name="FNanchor_1087_1087" id="FNanchor_1087_1087"></a><a href="#Footnote_1087_1087" class="fnanchor">[1087]</a> <span class="sidenote">PROPOSALS FOR REFORMED SCHOOLS</span>It was no new thing for French literature to be widely appreciated in England. But before the Restoration it had received but little recognition @@ -20147,7 +20106,7 @@ eccho repeating words thrice and that without any considerable variation"—which occupies the main part of the work.<a name="FNanchor_1098_1098" id="FNanchor_1098_1098"></a><a href="#Footnote_1098_1098" class="fnanchor">[1098]</a> It is preceded by rules for pronouncing French, taken, without acknowledgement, chiefly from Wodroeph, -and followed by selections from Pierre de Lainé's <i>Royal +and followed by selections from Pierre de Lainé's <i>Royal French Grammar</i> of 1667. Learners of French are advised to master the pronunciation first, and to engage a French master. A collection of familiar phrases and commendatory @@ -20175,7 +20134,7 @@ that they may easily keep what they have learned, and recover what they shall lose." Those wishing to pursue their studies further could learn other languages, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, or Spanish, or could study astronomy, geography, and other -subjects. The usual fee was £20 a year, but more was charged if +subjects. The usual fee was £20 a year, but more was charged if the pupil made good progress. Parents were advised to apply for details at Mr. Mason's Coffee House in Cornhill, near the Royal Exchange, on Tuesday, or on Thursdays at the Bolt and @@ -20244,7 +20203,7 @@ exercises. But even then the atmosphere was French. Such was the academy opened in London in 1682 by M. Foubert, a Frenchman lately come from Paris. He was helped by a royal grant, and seems to have been fairly successful. On -his arrival his goods were delivered at the house of M. Lainé,<a name="FNanchor_1105_1105" id="FNanchor_1105_1105"></a><a href="#Footnote_1105_1105" class="fnanchor">[1105]</a> +his arrival his goods were delivered at the house of M. Lainé,<a name="FNanchor_1105_1105" id="FNanchor_1105_1105"></a><a href="#Footnote_1105_1105" class="fnanchor">[1105]</a> probably the French teacher of that name.</p> <p>As time went on such schools became more and more @@ -20285,7 +20244,7 @@ which appeared about twelve years later.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1046_1046" id="Footnote_1046_1046"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1046_1046"><span class="label">[1046]</span></a> Cp. Arber, <i>Term Catalogues</i>, i. 269. Anne was three years younger than Mary.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1047_1047" id="Footnote_1047_1047"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1047_1047"><span class="label">[1047]</span></a> Schickler, <i>Les Églises du Refuge</i>, ii. p. 311.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1047_1047" id="Footnote_1047_1047"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1047_1047"><span class="label">[1047]</span></a> Schickler, <i>Les Églises du Refuge</i>, ii. p. 311.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1048_1048" id="Footnote_1048_1048"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1048_1048"><span class="label">[1048]</span></a> <i>Savile Correspondence</i>, Camden Society, 1856, <i>passim</i>.</p></div> @@ -20318,7 +20277,7 @@ the learned with so improper and needless a thing? For the distinction of cases come from the variable termination of one and the same noun. A thing incident (I confess) to the Latine tongue, but not to our vulgar speech."</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1058_1058" id="Footnote_1058_1058"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1058_1058"><span class="label">[1058]</span></a> A second edition of Miège's English Grammar appeared in 1691.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1058_1058" id="Footnote_1058_1058"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1058_1058"><span class="label">[1058]</span></a> A second edition of Miège's English Grammar appeared in 1691.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1059_1059" id="Footnote_1059_1059"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1059_1059"><span class="label">[1059]</span></a> Arber, <i>Term Catalogues</i>, iii. 67, 487.</p></div> @@ -20346,23 +20305,23 @@ wrote a <i>Discourse of the Trinitie ... etc.</i> (1700). Berault calls himself minister, and he served as chaplain on several of His Majesty's ships during the war with France at the end of the century.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1068_1068" id="Footnote_1068_1068"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1068_1068"><span class="label">[1068]</span></a> <i>Le Véritable et assuré Chemin du Ciel en François et en Anglois</i> (1681), and the -<i>Bouquet ou un Amas de plusieurs veritez Théologiques</i> (1685), dedicated to Anne Stuart, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1068_1068" id="Footnote_1068_1068"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1068_1068"><span class="label">[1068]</span></a> <i>Le Véritable et assuré Chemin du Ciel en François et en Anglois</i> (1681), and the +<i>Bouquet ou un Amas de plusieurs veritez Théologiques</i> (1685), dedicated to Anne Stuart, afterwards queen.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1069_1069" id="Footnote_1069_1069"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1069_1069"><span class="label">[1069]</span></a> Berault is behind the times in retaining most of the Latin cases and tenses. His grammar, on the whole, is fuller and more detailed than most of its kind.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1070_1070" id="Footnote_1070_1070"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1070_1070"><span class="label">[1070]</span></a> <i>Le Théâtre françois</i> (1674). ed. Monval, 1876, p. 62. Jean Blaeu, in translating +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1070_1070" id="Footnote_1070_1070"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1070_1070"><span class="label">[1070]</span></a> <i>Le Théâtre françois</i> (1674). ed. Monval, 1876, p. 62. Jean Blaeu, in translating from English into French Ed. Chamberlain's <i>Present State of England</i> (1669), states: -"Je ne l'ay pas sitost veu en Anglois que j'ay jugé qu'il méritoit de paroistre dans la -langue françoise, comme estant plus universelle dans la chrestienté qu'aucune autre" +"Je ne l'ay pas sitost veu en Anglois que j'ay jugé qu'il méritoit de paroistre dans la +langue françoise, comme estant plus universelle dans la chrestienté qu'aucune autre" (1671). Jusserand, <i>Shakespeare in France</i>, p. 20, note.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1071_1071" id="Footnote_1071_1071"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1071_1071"><span class="label">[1071]</span></a> <i>De monumentis publicis latine inscribendis.</i> Goujet, <i>Bibliothèque françoise</i> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1071_1071" id="Footnote_1071_1071"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1071_1071"><span class="label">[1071]</span></a> <i>De monumentis publicis latine inscribendis.</i> Goujet, <i>Bibliothèque françoise</i> (1740-56), i. p. 13.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1072_1072" id="Footnote_1072_1072"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1072_1072"><span class="label">[1072]</span></a> Bayle, <i>Œuvres</i>, iv. p. 190, quoted by Charlanne, <i>L'Influence française en +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1072_1072" id="Footnote_1072_1072"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1072_1072"><span class="label">[1072]</span></a> Bayle, <i>Œuvres</i>, iv. p. 190, quoted by Charlanne, <i>L'Influence française en Angleterre</i>, pt. ii. p. 202.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1073_1073" id="Footnote_1073_1073"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1073_1073"><span class="label">[1073]</span></a> F. Watson, <i>Grammar Schools</i>, p. 312.</p></div> @@ -20390,13 +20349,13 @@ Young Nobleman</i>, 1723, p. 18; and the author of a pamphlet <i>On Education</i <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1082_1082" id="Footnote_1082_1082"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1082_1082"><span class="label">[1082]</span></a> Evelyn, <i>Diary</i>, Dec. 6, 1681.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1083_1083" id="Footnote_1083_1083"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1083_1083"><span class="label">[1083]</span></a> <i>The Compleat Gentleman</i> (1728), ed. K. D. Bülbring, 1890.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1083_1083" id="Footnote_1083_1083"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1083_1083"><span class="label">[1083]</span></a> <i>The Compleat Gentleman</i> (1728), ed. K. D. Bülbring, 1890.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1084_1084" id="Footnote_1084_1084"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1084_1084"><span class="label">[1084]</span></a> Epilogue to <i>Bellamira</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1085_1085" id="Footnote_1085_1085"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1085_1085"><span class="label">[1085]</span></a> <i>Works</i>, ed. A. Wilson, Verity, London, 1888, Preface.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1086_1086" id="Footnote_1086_1086"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1086_1086"><span class="label">[1086]</span></a> Le Blanc, <i>Lettres d'un Français</i>, à la Haye, 1745, ii. p. 1.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1086_1086" id="Footnote_1086_1086"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1086_1086"><span class="label">[1086]</span></a> Le Blanc, <i>Lettres d'un Français</i>, à la Haye, 1745, ii. p. 1.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1087_1087" id="Footnote_1087_1087"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1087_1087"><span class="label">[1087]</span></a> He tells Maupertuis of the great success of his <i>De la Figure de la Terre</i> (1738) in England, where it was awaited with impatience and received with acclamation (<i>Lettres</i>, @@ -20406,7 +20365,7 @@ ii. 244).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1089_1089" id="Footnote_1089_1089"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1089_1089"><span class="label">[1089]</span></a> French no doubt often reached grammar school boys indirectly. Thus Charles Hoole in 1660 (<i>A New Discoverie of the old Art of Teaching School</i>) recommends the -Dialogues of Du Grès for their private reading; perhaps, however, he was thinking +Dialogues of Du Grès for their private reading; perhaps, however, he was thinking more of the Latin than of the French part.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1090_1090" id="Footnote_1090_1090"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1090_1090"><span class="label">[1090]</span></a> <i>Miscellaneous Works</i>, 1751, pp. 320-1.</p></div> @@ -20415,7 +20374,7 @@ more of the Latin than of the French part.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1092_1092" id="Footnote_1092_1092"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1092_1092"><span class="label">[1092]</span></a> Th. Sheridan, <i>Plan of Education</i>, 1769, p. 42.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1093_1093" id="Footnote_1093_1093"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1093_1093"><span class="label">[1093]</span></a> M. Misson, <i>Mémoires et Observations d'un voyageur en Angleterre</i>, à la Haye, 1698, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1093_1093" id="Footnote_1093_1093"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1093_1093"><span class="label">[1093]</span></a> M. Misson, <i>Mémoires et Observations d'un voyageur en Angleterre</i>, à la Haye, 1698, p. 99.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1094_1094" id="Footnote_1094_1094"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1094_1094"><span class="label">[1094]</span></a> Information supplied by J. Potter Briscoe, Esq., of Nottingham.</p></div> @@ -20492,8 +20451,8 @@ langwage (ed. T. Wright, "Volume of Vocabularies," (ed. M. K. Pope, "Modern Language Review," April 1910).</td> </tr> <tr><td class="w4"> -<i>c.</i> 1300</td><td class="tdr">* Orthographia Gallica (ed. J. Stürzinger, -"Altfranzösische Bibliothek," viii., Heilbronn, 1884).</td> +<i>c.</i> 1300</td><td class="tdr">* Orthographia Gallica (ed. J. Stürzinger, +"Altfranzösische Bibliothek," viii., Heilbronn, 1884).</td> </tr> </table></div> @@ -20503,7 +20462,7 @@ langwage (ed. T. Wright, "Volume of Vocabularies," <table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="Manuscripts"> <tr> <td class="w4"> </td> -<td class="tdr">Commentaries in French on the Orthographia Gallica (ed. Stürzinger, <i>ut supra</i>).</td> +<td class="tdr">Commentaries in French on the Orthographia Gallica (ed. Stürzinger, <i>ut supra</i>).</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="w4"> </td> @@ -20538,8 +20497,8 @@ Philological Soc.," 1903-1906).</td> <td class="w4"> </td> <td class="tdr"> Tractatus Orthographiae of Coyfurelly, Doctor in Law -of Orleans (ed. Stengel, "Zeitschrift für -neufranzösische Sprache und Literatur," vol. i., 1878).</td></tr> +of Orleans (ed. Stengel, "Zeitschrift für +neufranzösische Sprache und Literatur," vol. i., 1878).</td></tr> <tr><td class="w4"> 1396</td><td class="tdr">* Maniere de Language (ed. P. Meyer, "Revue critique," 1873).</td></tr> @@ -20652,10 +20611,10 @@ frenche.</td> <td><span class="smcap">Du Ploich.</span> A Treatise in English and Frenche....</td> </tr> <tr> -<td>1553?</td><td>Traicté pour apprendre a parler françoys et angloys.</td> +<td>1553?</td><td>Traicté pour apprendre a parler françoys et angloys.</td> </tr> <tr> -<td>1557</td><td><span class="smcap">G. Meurier.</span> La Grammaire Françoise....</td> +<td>1557</td><td><span class="smcap">G. Meurier.</span> La Grammaire Françoise....</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1557</td><td>(<span class="smcap">Barlement.</span>) A Boke intituled Italion, Frynsshe, Englysshe Latin.</td> @@ -20758,7 +20717,7 @@ frenche.</td> <tr> <td>1593</td><td><span class="smcap">Eliote.</span> Ortho-Epia Gallica.</td></tr> <tr> -<td>1595</td><td>E. A. Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.</td></tr> +<td>1595</td><td>E. A. Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.</td></tr> <tr> <td>1595</td><td><span class="smcap">De la Mothe.</span> French Alphabet.</td></tr> <tr> @@ -20776,7 +20735,7 @@ frenche.</td> <tr> <td>1602</td><td><span class="smcap">Holyband.</span> French Littleton.</td></tr> <tr> -<td>1604</td><td><span class="smcap">Sanford.</span> Le Guichet François.</td></tr> +<td>1604</td><td><span class="smcap">Sanford.</span> Le Guichet François.</td></tr> <tr> <td>1605</td><td><span class="smcap">Sanford.</span> A Briefe Extract of the former grammar ... in English.</td> </tr> @@ -20814,7 +20773,7 @@ frenche.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1625</td><td><span class="smcap">L'Isle.</span> Part of Du Bartas, French and English.</td> </tr> -<tr><td>1625</td><td>Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.</td> +<tr><td>1625</td><td>Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1630</td><td><span class="smcap">Holyband.</span> French Littleton.</td> </tr> @@ -20857,7 +20816,7 @@ frenche.</td> <td><span class="smcap">Holyband.</span> French Schoolemaister.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1636</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Du Grès.</span> Breve et accuratum grammaticae gallicae +<td><span class="smcap">Du Grès.</span> Breve et accuratum grammaticae gallicae Compendium.</td></tr> <tr><td>1637</td> <td>(<span class="smcap">Barlement.</span>) The English, Latine, French, Dutch Scholemaster.</td></tr> @@ -20873,10 +20832,10 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Holyband.</span> French Littleton.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1639</td> -<td>Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.</td> +<td>Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1639</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Du Grès.</span> Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Du Grès.</span> Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1639</td> <td><span class="smcap">Anchoran.</span> Comenius's Janua.</td> @@ -20915,7 +20874,7 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Cogneau.</span> Sure Guide.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1652</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Du Grès.</span> Dialogi ...</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Du Grès.</span> Dialogi ...</td> </tr> <tr><td>1653</td> <td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> True Advancement of the French Tongue.</td> @@ -20924,7 +20883,7 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Holyband.</span> French Schoolemaister.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1655</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Lainé.</span> A Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Lainé.</span> A Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1656</td> <td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> French Grammar, 2nd ed.</td> @@ -20939,7 +20898,7 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Leighton.</span> Linguae Gallicae addiscendae Regulae.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1660</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Du Grès.</span> Dialogi ...</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Du Grès.</span> Dialogi ...</td> </tr> <tr><td>1660</td> <td><span class="smcap">Cotgrave.</span> Dictionary.</td> @@ -20954,10 +20913,10 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> French Grammar, 4th ed.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1662 </td> -<td><span class="smcap">Leighton.</span> ... Regulæ.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Leighton.</span> ... Regulæ.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1666</td> -<td>Æsop's Fables in English, French and Latine.</td> +<td>Æsop's Fables in English, French and Latine.</td> </tr> <tr><td class="center">?</td> <td>Castellion's Sacred Dialogues ... French and English.</td> @@ -20969,22 +20928,22 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Festeau.</span> French Grammar.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1667</td> -<td><span class="smcap">De Lainé.</span> Princely Way to the French Tongue.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">De Lainé.</span> Princely Way to the French Tongue.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1668</td> <td><span class="smcap">Holyband.</span> French Schoolemaister.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1668</td> -<td>Grammaire Françoise et Angloise.</td> +<td>Grammaire Françoise et Angloise.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1668</td> -<td>Grammaire Françoise et Angloise.</td> +<td>Grammaire Françoise et Angloise.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1670</td> <td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> Grammar, 6th ed.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1671</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> Lettres françoises et angloises.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> Lettres françoises et angloises.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1671</td> <td><span class="smcap">Festeau.</span> Grammar, 2nd ed.</td> @@ -21017,16 +20976,16 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> Lettres, 2nd ed.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1677</td> -<td><span class="smcap">De Lainé.</span> Princely Way, 2nd ed.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">De Lainé.</span> Princely Way, 2nd ed.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1677</td> -<td>Grammaire françoise et angloise.</td> +<td>Grammaire françoise et angloise.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1677</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> A New Dictionary, French and English.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> A New Dictionary, French and English.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1678</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> A New French Grammar.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> A New French Grammar.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1679</td> <td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> Grammar, 8th ed.</td> @@ -21035,10 +20994,10 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Festeau.</span> Grammar, 4th ed.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1679</td> -<td>Grammaire Françoise et Angloise.</td> +<td>Grammaire Françoise et Angloise.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1679</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Dictionary of Barbarous French.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Dictionary of Barbarous French.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1680</td> <td><span class="smcap">Villiers.</span> Vocabularium Analogicum.</td> @@ -21050,16 +21009,16 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> Grammar, 10th ed.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1682</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Short and Easie French Grammar.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Short and Easie French Grammar.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1683</td> <td><span class="smcap">Vairesse d'Allais.</span> Short and Methodical Introduction.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1684</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> A Short French Dictionary.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> A Short French Dictionary.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1684</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Kerhuel.</span> Grammaire Françoise.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Kerhuel.</span> Grammaire Françoise.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1684</td> <td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> Grammar, 11th ed.</td> @@ -21077,13 +21036,13 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> Grammar, 12th ed.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1687</td> -<td>Æsop's Fables in English, French and Latine.</td> +<td>Æsop's Fables in English, French and Latine.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1687</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Grounds of the French Tongue.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Grounds of the French Tongue.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1688</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Great French Dictionary.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Great French Dictionary.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1688</td> <td><span class="smcap">Berault.</span> New ... French and English Grammar.</td></tr> @@ -21094,13 +21053,13 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> Grammar, 13th ed.</td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">-409-</a></span>1690</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Short French Dictionary, 3rd ed.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Short French Dictionary, 3rd ed.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1690</td><td><span class="smcap">Mauger.</span> Grammar, 14th ed.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1690</td><td><span class="smcap">Colsoni.</span> A new Grammar of three languages.</td> </tr> -<tr><td>1691</td><td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Short French Dictionary.</td> +<tr><td>1691</td><td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Short French Dictionary.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1691</td><td><span class="smcap">Berault.</span> Grammar, 2nd ed.</td> </tr> @@ -21126,7 +21085,7 @@ Compendium.</td></tr> <td><span class="smcap">Colsoni.</span> New and Accurate Grammar [new edition].</td> </tr> <tr><td>1698</td> -<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Last and Best French Grammar.</td> +<td><span class="smcap">Miège.</span> Last and Best French Grammar.</td> </tr> <tr><td>1698</td> <td><span class="smcap">Berault.</span> French and English Grammar.</td> @@ -21158,14 +21117,14 @@ PERIOD</p> <p class="noi">A., E.:</p> -<div class="blockquot1"><p>Grammaire Angloise et Françoise pour facilement et promptement -aprendre la langue Angloise et Françoise. Revûë et corrigée -tout de nouveau d'une quantité de fautes qui étoient aux précédentes -impressions par E. A. Augmentée en cette dernière -édition d'un vocabulaire Anglois et François. Rouen, 1595. Cp. -sub "Anonymous Works," Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.</p></div> +<div class="blockquot1"><p>Grammaire Angloise et Françoise pour facilement et promptement +aprendre la langue Angloise et Françoise. Revûë et corrigée +tout de nouveau d'une quantité de fautes qui étoient aux précédentes +impressions par E. A. Augmentée en cette dernière +édition d'un vocabulaire Anglois et François. Rouen, 1595. Cp. +sub "Anonymous Works," Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.</p></div> -<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Æsop:</span> Cp. <span class="smcap">CODRINGTON</span>.</p> +<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Æsop:</span> Cp. <span class="smcap">CODRINGTON</span>.</p> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Anchoran, J. A.:</span></p> @@ -21198,7 +21157,7 @@ and Laten. London, Ed. Sutton, 1557.</p> London, John Alde, 1569.</p> <p>Another ed.: Dictionaire, Colloques ou Dialogues en Quattre -langues, Flamen, Ffrançoys, Espaignel et Italien, with the Englishe +langues, Flamen, Ffrançoys, Espaignel et Italien, with the Englishe to be added thereto. George Bishop, 1578.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">-411-</a></span> @@ -21234,12 +21193,12 @@ unknown).</p> <p>Corderius. Dialogues in French and English. John Wyndet, 1591.</p> -<p>Grammaire Angloise et Françoise . . . Revûë et corrigée . . . +<p>Grammaire Angloise et Françoise . . . Revûë et corrigée . . . par E. A. (<i>q.v. sub</i> A., E.)</p> <p>Another ed.: Grammaire Angloise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la langue angloise. Qui peut <ins title="original: aissi">aussi</ins> aider aux -Anglois pour apprendre la langue Françoise. Alphabet anglois +Anglois pour apprendre la langue Françoise. Alphabet anglois contenant la prononciation des Lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons. Paris, 1625.</p> @@ -21254,14 +21213,14 @@ conjugaisons. Paris, 1625.</p> <p>The Necessary, fit and convenient Education of a young Gentlewoman, Italian, French and English. Adam Islip, 1598.</p> -<p>A Short Syntaxis in the French Tongue. 12º. London, 1602.</p> +<p>A Short Syntaxis in the French Tongue. 12º. London, 1602.</p> <p>The French A. B. C. Licensed to Rd. Field, 1615.</p> <p>The Declining of Frenche Verbes. Rd. Field, 1615 (another edition of Holyband's Treatise for declining of Verbs?).</p> -<p>(Sébastien Châteillon.) Sacred Dialogues translated out of Latin +<p>(Sébastien Châteillon.) Sacred Dialogues translated out of Latin into French and English for the benefit of youth. Sold by R. Hom and J. Sims. (Date unknown, between 1666 and 1668?)</p> @@ -21343,8 +21302,8 @@ Marshe, 1578.</p> <p>Le jardin de vertu et bonnes mœurs, plain de plusieurs belles fleurs et riches sentences avec le sens d'icelles recueillies de plusieurs -autheurs, et mises en lumiere par J. B. gent. Cadomois. Imprimé -à Londres par Th. Vautrollier, 1581.</p> +autheurs, et mises en lumiere par J. B. gent. Cadomois. Imprimé +à Londres par Th. Vautrollier, 1581.</p> <p>The French Methode. London, 1588.</p></div> @@ -21354,7 +21313,7 @@ autheurs, et mises en lumiere par J. B. gent. Cadomois. Imprimé Concordans trium linguarum Gallicae, Hispanicae et Italicae. Unde innotescat, quantum quaque a Romanae linguae, unde ortum duxere, idiomate deflexerit; earum quoque ratio et natura dilucide -et succinte delineantur. Operâ et studio Petri Bense, Parisini, +et succinte delineantur. Operâ et studio Petri Bense, Parisini, apud Oxon. has linguas profitentis. Oxoniae. Excudebat Guilielmus Turner impensis authoris, 1637.</p></div> @@ -21388,26 +21347,26 @@ Persons that have a desire to learn either Language, by Peter <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">-414-</a></span>Berault, French Minister, lately chaplain of Her Majesty's ships Kent, Victory, Scarborough, and Dunkirk. London, 1707.</p> -<p>Le Véritable et assuré chemin du ciel en François et en Anglois. +<p>Le Véritable et assuré chemin du ciel en François et en Anglois. London, 1680.</p> -<p>Bouquet ou un amas de plusieurs veritez théologiques propres +<p>Bouquet ou un amas de plusieurs veritez théologiques propres pour instruire toutes sortes de personnes, particulierement pour consoler une ame dans ses Troubles. London, 1685.</p></div> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Beyer, Guillaume:</span></p> -<div class="blockquot1"><p>La vraye instruction des trois langues la Françoise, l'Angloise -et la Flamende. Proposée en des règles fondamentales et succinctes. -Un assemblage des mots les plus usités, et des colloques utiles et -récréatifs; <ins title="original: ou">où</ins> hormis d'autres discours curieus, le gouvernement -de la France se réduit. Historiquement et Politiquement mise en -trois langues. Seconde ed. augmentée. Dordrecht, 1681. (Date +<div class="blockquot1"><p>La vraye instruction des trois langues la Françoise, l'Angloise +et la Flamende. Proposée en des règles fondamentales et succinctes. +Un assemblage des mots les plus usités, et des colloques utiles et +récréatifs; <ins title="original: ou">où</ins> hormis d'autres discours curieus, le gouvernement +de la France se réduit. Historiquement et Politiquement mise en +trois langues. Seconde ed. augmentée. Dordrecht, 1681. (Date of first edition unknown.)</p></div> -<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Châteillon</span> (or <span class="smcap">Castellion</span>), S. Cp. entry under "Anonymous Works."</p> +<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Châteillon</span> (or <span class="smcap">Castellion</span>), S. Cp. entry under "Anonymous Works."</p> -<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Cheneau, François:</span></p> +<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Cheneau, François:</span></p> <div class="blockquot1"><p>Francis Cheneau's French Grammar, enrich'd with a compendious and easie way to learne the French Tongue in a very @@ -21425,7 +21384,7 @@ after the same way. W. Botham for the author. London, 1716.</p></div> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Codrington, Robert:</span></p> -<div class="blockquot1"><p>Æsop's Fables, With his life in English, French and Latine. +<div class="blockquot1"><p>Æsop's Fables, With his life in English, French and Latine. The English by Tho. Philipott, Esq., the French and Latine by Rob. Codrington, M.A. Illustrated with one hundred and ten sculptures. By Francis Barlow, and are to be sold at his House, @@ -21587,15 +21546,15 @@ London, H. Denham, 1576.</p></div> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">De Sainliens, Claude</span>. Cf. <span class="smcap">Holyband</span>.</p> -<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Du Grès, Gabriel</span>:</p> +<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Du Grès, Gabriel</span>:</p> <div class="blockquot1"><p>Breve et Accuratum grammaticae Gallicae Compendium in quo superflua rescinduntur et necessaria non omittuntur, per Gabrielem -du Grès, Gallum, eandem linguam in celeberrima Cantabrigiensi +du Grès, Gallum, eandem linguam in celeberrima Cantabrigiensi Academia edocentem. Cantabrigiae. Impensis Authoris amicorum -gratiâ. 1636.</p> +gratiâ. 1636.</p> -<p>Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini, per Gabrielem Dugrès Linguam +<p>Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini, per Gabrielem Dugrès Linguam Gallicam in illustrissima et famosissima Oxoniensi Academia (haud ita pridem privatim) edocentem. Oxoniae, L. Lichfield, 1639.</p> @@ -21611,7 +21570,7 @@ the ende of this boke), made by Peter du Ploiche, teacher of the same dwelling in Trinitie lane at the signe of the Rose. Richard Grafton, [1553?]</p> -<p>Another ed. Imprimé à Londre par Jean Kingston, La xiiii. +<p>Another ed. Imprimé à Londre par Jean Kingston, La xiiii. Auvril, 1578.</p></div> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Du Terme, Laur</span>:</p> @@ -21851,7 +21810,7 @@ Church Yarde. London, 1580.</p> <p>Another ed. London, 1641.</p> <p>De Pronuntiatione. Claudii a Sancto Vinculo de pronuntiatione -linguæ Gallicæ libri duo. Ad illustrissimam simulq doctissimam +linguæ Gallicæ libri duo. Ad illustrissimam simulq doctissimam Elizabetham Anglorum Reginam. T. Vautrollerius; Londoni. 1580.</p> @@ -21885,11 +21844,11 @@ Cornelius Bee at the King's Arms in Little Brittaine, 1660.</p> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Kerhuel, Jean de:</span></p> -<div class="blockquot1"><p>Grammaire Françoise, composée par Jean de Kerhuel, Professeur +<div class="blockquot1"><p>Grammaire Françoise, composée par Jean de Kerhuel, Professeur de la ditte Langue. A French Grammar.... 8vo. Printed for J. Wickins at the Miter in Fleet Street, 1684.</p></div> -<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Lainé, Pierre:</span></p> +<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Lainé, Pierre:</span></p> <div class="blockquot1"><p>A compendious Introduction to the French Tongue. Teaching with much ease, facility and delight, how to attain and most @@ -21900,18 +21859,18 @@ as by the hand, to the most noted and principal places of that Kingdom. Whereunto is annexed an alphabetical Rule for the true and modern orthography of that French now spoken, being a catalogue of very necessary words never before printed. By -Peter Lainé, a teacher of the said tongue now in London. London. +Peter Lainé, a teacher of the said tongue now in London. London. Printed by T. N. for Anthony Williamson at the Queen's Arms in St. Paul's Churchyard, near the West End. 1655.</p></div> -<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Lainé, Pierre de:</span></p> +<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Lainé, Pierre de:</span></p> <div class="blockquot1"><p>The Princely way to the French Tongue, as it was first compiled <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">-422-</a></span>for the use of her Highness the Lady Mary and since taught her royal sister the Lady Anne. To which is added a Chronological abridgement of the sacred scriptures by way of dialogue. Together with a longer explication of the French Grammar, Choice -fables of Æsop in Burlesque French, and lastly some models of +fables of Æsop in Burlesque French, and lastly some models of letters French and English, by P.D.L. 2nd ed. London. Printed by J. Macock for H. Herrington etc., 1677.</p> @@ -21919,7 +21878,7 @@ by J. Macock for H. Herrington etc., 1677.</p> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Leighton, Henry:</span></p> -<div class="blockquot1"><p>Linguæ Gallicæ addiscendæ regulæ. Collectæ opera et industria +<div class="blockquot1"><p>Linguæ Gallicæ addiscendæ regulæ. Collectæ opera et industria H. Leighton, A.M. Hanc linguam in celeberrima Academia Oxoniensi edocentis. Oxoniae, 1659.</p> @@ -21982,16 +21941,16 @@ Sixth ed. Exactly corrected by the author.... London. Printed for J. Martin at the sign of the bell, and James Allestry at the Rose and Crown in Paul's Churchyard, 1670.</p> -<p>Another ed.: La Grammaire françoise de Claude Mauger expliquée -en Anglois, Latin et en François, enrichie de regles plus +<p>Another ed.: La Grammaire françoise de Claude Mauger expliquée +en Anglois, Latin et en François, enrichie de regles plus courtes et plus substantielles qu'auparavant, comme du regime des verbes, de la conjugaison de tous les irreguliers par toutes -leurs personnes, d'un Traité de l'accent etc. Et à la fin, d'un abrégé -des regles generales de la Langue Angloise, en dialogues françois, -outre ce qui étoit dans la sixième édition. La 7e. éd. Reveue et -corrigée par l'autheur . . . à Londres. Londres. Imprimée par -T. Roycroft pour Jean Martin et se vendent <ins title="original: a">à</ins> l'enseigne de la -cloche au cymitière de Sainct Paul. 1673. Claudius Mauger's +leurs personnes, d'un Traité de l'accent etc. Et à la fin, d'un abrégé +des regles generales de la Langue Angloise, en dialogues françois, +outre ce qui étoit dans la sixième édition. La 7e. éd. Reveue et +corrigée par l'autheur . . . à Londres. Londres. Imprimée par +T. Roycroft pour Jean Martin et se vendent <ins title="original: a">à </ins> l'enseigne de la +cloche au cymitière de Sainct Paul. 1673. Claudius Mauger's French Grammar, etc.</p> <p>Another ed., with additions: The "English Edition." London, @@ -22004,16 +21963,16 @@ Languages at Paris. London, 1682.</p> <p>Eleventh ed. London, T. Harrison, c. 1683.</p> -<p>Twelfth ed. . . . avec des augmentations de Mots à la Mode +<p>Twelfth ed. . . . avec des augmentations de Mots à la Mode d'une nouvelle Methode et de tout ce qu'on peut souhaiter pour -s'acquirir ce beau Language comme on le parle à present à la cour -de France. Où on voit un ordre extraordinaire et methodique -pour l'acquisition de cette langue, sçavoir, une très parfaite pronuntiation, +s'acquirir ce beau Language comme on le parle à present à la cour +de France. Où on voit un ordre extraordinaire et methodique +pour l'acquisition de cette langue, sçavoir, une très parfaite pronuntiation, la conjugaison de tous les Verbes irreguliers, des Regles courtes et substantielles, ausquelles sont ajoutez un Vocabulaire -et une nouvelle Grammaire Angloise pour l'utilité de tant d'estrangers -qui ont envie de l'apprendre. La douzième édition exactement -corrigée par l'autheur à present Professeur des Langues à Paris. +et une nouvelle Grammaire Angloise pour l'utilité de tant d'estrangers +qui ont envie de l'apprendre. La douzième édition exactement +corrigée par l'autheur à present Professeur des Langues à Paris. Londres. R. E. pour R. Bently et S. Magnes demeurant dans Russel St. au Covent Gardin. 1686.</p> @@ -22046,52 +22005,52 @@ a desire to learn the French Tongue. Corrected and Revised by the author, formerly professor of French at Bloys, now at London. London, 1671.</p> -<p>Another ed.: Lettres Françoises et Angloises de Claud Mauger +<p>Another ed.: Lettres Françoises et Angloises de Claud Mauger sur Toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres avec augmentation -de 50 lettres nouvelles, dont il y en a plusieurs sur les dernières et -grandes Revolutions de l'Europe. Très exactement corrigée, polies -et écrites, dans le plus nouveau stile de la cour, dans lesquelles -la pureté et l'élégance des deux langues s'accordent mieux qu'auparavant. -Très utiles à ceux qui aspirent au beau language, et -sont curieux de sçavoir de quelle manière ils doivent parler aux -personnes de quelque qualité qu'elles soient. Outre Quantité -de Billets à la fin du Livre, qui sont très necessaires pour le commerce. -La seconde édition. Londres, imprimée par Tho. Roycroft -et se vendent chez Samuel Lowndes vis à vis de l'Hostel +de 50 lettres nouvelles, dont il y en a plusieurs sur les dernières et +grandes Revolutions de l'Europe. Très exactement corrigée, polies +et écrites, dans le plus nouveau stile de la cour, dans lesquelles +la pureté et l'élégance des deux langues s'accordent mieux qu'auparavant. +Très utiles à ceux qui aspirent au beau language, et +sont curieux de sçavoir de quelle manière ils doivent parler aux +personnes de quelque qualité qu'elles soient. Outre Quantité +de Billets à la fin du Livre, qui sont très necessaires pour le commerce. +La seconde édition. Londres, imprimée par Tho. Roycroft +et se vendent chez Samuel Lowndes vis à vis de l'Hostel d'Exeter dans la Strand. 1676.</p></div> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Meurier, Gabriel:</span></p> -<div class="blockquot1"><p>La Grammaire Françoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles +<div class="blockquot1"><p>La Grammaire Françoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres et necessaires pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte langue par Gabriel Meurier. . . . Anvers, 1557.</p> -<p>Traicté pour apprendre a parler Françoys et Angloys. Rouen, +<p>Traicté pour apprendre a parler Françoys et Angloys. Rouen, Etienne Colas, 1553.</p> <p>Communications familieres non moins propres que tresutiles a la -nation Angloise desireuse et diseteuse du langage François, par +nation Angloise desireuse et diseteuse du langage François, par G. Meurier. Familiare Communications no leasse proppre then verrie proffytable to the Inglis nation desirous and nedinge the ffrenche language, by Gabriel Meurier. En Anvers. . . . Chez Pierre de Keerberghe sus le Cemitiere nostre Dame a la Croix d'or. 1563.</p> -<p>Another ed.: Traité pour apprendre a parler François et Anglois: +<p>Another ed.: Traité pour apprendre a parler François et Anglois: ensemble un Formulaire de faire missives, obligations, Quittances, Lettres de Change, necessaire a tous marchands qui veulent trafiquer. A Treatise for to learne to speake Frenshe and Englische, together with a form of making letters, indentures, and obligations, quittances, letters of exchange, verie necessarie for all Marchants that do occupy trade of Marchandise. A Rouen, chez Jacques -Cailloué, tenant sa boutique dans la Court du Palais. 1641.</p></div> +Cailloué, tenant sa boutique dans la Court du Palais. 1641.</p></div> -<p class="noi"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">-425-</a></span><span class="smcap">Miège, Guy:</span></p> +<p class="noi"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">-425-</a></span><span class="smcap">Miège, Guy:</span></p> <div class="blockquot1"><p>A New Dictionary French and English with another English and French according to the present use and modern orthography of the French, inrich'd with new words, choice phrases and apposite proverbs. Digested into a most accurate method and contrived -for the use of both English and Foreiners, by Guy Miège, Gent. +for the use of both English and Foreiners, by Guy Miège, Gent. London. Printed by T. Dawks for T. Basset at the George near Clifford's Inn in Fleet Street, 1677.</p> @@ -22099,7 +22058,7 @@ Clifford's Inn in Fleet Street, 1677.</p> French Tongue. To which are added for a help to young beginners a large vocabulary, and a store of familiar Dialogues, besides Four curious discourses of Cosmography in French for proficient learners -to turn into English. By Guy Miège, Gent., author of the New +to turn into English. By Guy Miège, Gent., author of the New French Dictionary, professor of the French Tongue and of Geography. London. Th. Basset.... 1678.</p> @@ -22107,7 +22066,7 @@ London. Th. Basset.... 1678.</p> Alphabet of Obsolete, Provincial, Misspelt and Made Words in French. Taken out of Cotgrave's Dictionary with some additions. A work much desired and now performed for the satisfaction of -such as read old French. By Guy Miège, Gent., author of the New +such as read old French. By Guy Miège, Gent., author of the New French Dictionary. London, for Th. Basset, 1679.<a name="FNanchor_1108_1108" id="FNanchor_1108_1108"></a><a href="#Footnote_1108_1108" class="fnanchor">[1108]</a></p> <p>A Short and Easie French Grammar, fitted for all sorts of @@ -22123,7 +22082,7 @@ for the use of learners. London, Th. Basset, 1682.</p> <p>A Short French Dictionary, English and French with another in French and English, according to the present use and modern -orthography, by Guy Miège, Gent. London, for Th. Basset, +orthography, by Guy Miège, Gent. London, for Th. Basset, 1684.</p> <p>Another ed. London, 1690.</p> @@ -22149,10 +22108,10 @@ of words both proper and figurative are orderly digested, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">-426-</a></span>illustrated with apposite phrases and proverbs. The hard words explained: and the proprieties adjusted. To which are prefixed the Grounds of both Languages in two Discourses, the one -English, the other French, by Guy Miège, Gent. London, for +English, the other French, by Guy Miège, Gent. London, for Th. Basset, 1688.</p> -<p>Miège's last and best French Grammar, or a new Method to +<p>Miège's last and best French Grammar, or a new Method to learn French, containing the Quintessence of all other Grammars, with such plain and easie rules as will make one speedily perfect in that famous language.... London, W. Freeman and A. Roper, @@ -22188,7 +22147,7 @@ Anchoran's Comenius.)</p></div> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Sanford, John:</span></p> -<div class="blockquot1"><p>Le Guichet François. Sive janicula et brevis introductio ad +<div class="blockquot1"><p>Le Guichet François. Sive janicula et brevis introductio ad linguam Gallicam. Oxoniae. Excudebat Josephus Barnesius, 1604.</p> @@ -22210,7 +22169,7 @@ Schollers and others desirous of the said language. Second ed. carefully corrected and enlarged by Robert Sherwood, Londoner. London, Printed by Robert Young, 1634.</p> -<p>Dictionnaire Anglois-François. 1632. Cf. <span class="smcap">Cotgrave</span>.</p></div> +<p>Dictionnaire Anglois-François. 1632. Cf. <span class="smcap">Cotgrave</span>.</p></div> <p class="noi"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">-427-</a></span><span class="smcap">Smith, J.:</span></p> @@ -22250,7 +22209,7 @@ or affinity betwixt the English, French and Latin. Alphabetically digested. With new and easy directions for the attaining of the French tongue, comprehended in rules of pronouncing, rules of accenting and the like. To which is added the explanation of -Mounsieur de Lainé's French Grammar by way of dialogue set +Mounsieur de Lainé's French Grammar by way of dialogue set forth for the special use and encouragement of such as desire to be proficients in the same language. The like not extant. By Jacob Villiers, Master of a French School in Nottingham. London, @@ -22273,10 +22232,10 @@ ancient and Moderne Philosophers of our Tyme. With many Godly songs, sonets, Theames, Letters missives, and sentences proverbiales: so orderly, plain and pertinent, as hath not (formerly) <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">-428-</a></span>beene seene in the most famous Ile of great Britaine. By John -Wodroephe, Gent. Les Heures de relasche. . . . Imprimé à Dort, +Wodroephe, Gent. Les Heures de relasche. . . . Imprimé à Dort, Par Nicolas Vincentz, Pour George Waters, Marchant Libraire, -demeurant près le Marché au Poisson, à l'Enseigne des Manchettes -dorées. 1623.</p> +demeurant près le Marché au Poisson, à l'Enseigne des Manchettes +dorées. 1623.</p> <p>Second edition: The Marrow of the French Tongue, containing:</p> @@ -22297,8 +22256,8 @@ of M. John Wodroephe, that the meanest capacity either French or Englishman, that can but reade, may in a short time by his owne industry without the helpe of any Teacher attaine to the perfection of both languages. Ce livre est aussi utile pour le -François d'apprendre l'Anglois que pour l'Anglois d'apprendre le -François. The second edition. Reviewed and purged of much +François d'apprendre l'Anglois que pour l'Anglois d'apprendre le +François. The second edition. Reviewed and purged of much gross English, and divers errors committed in the former edition printed at Dort. London. Printed for Rd. Meighen at the signe of the Leg in the Strand, and in St. Dunstan's Churchyard in @@ -22327,7 +22286,7 @@ Woodcock by Harrison's widow, 1578 (<i>ibid.</i> ii. 331).</p></div> <li><i>A B C for Scottes men</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> -<li>Académie française, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li> +<li>Académie française, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li> <li><a name="Academies" id="Academies"></a>Academies, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> <li class="tdr">academies in France, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a> <i>sq.</i>;</li> @@ -22355,7 +22314,7 @@ Woodcock by Harrison's widow, 1578 (<i>ibid.</i> ii. 331).</p></div> <li>Ancients and Moderns, quarrel of, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li> -<li>*André, Bernard, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li>*André, Bernard, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> <li>Angers, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> @@ -22375,7 +22334,7 @@ Woodcock by Harrison's widow, 1578 (<i>ibid.</i> ii. 331).</p></div> <li>Astell, Mary, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></li> -<li>Aubigné, Agrippa d', <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> +<li>Aubigné, Agrippa d', <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> <li>*Aufeild, Wm., <a href="#Page_260">260</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> @@ -22428,7 +22387,7 @@ Woodcock by Harrison's widow, 1578 (<i>ibid.</i> ii. 331).</p></div> <li>Belleau, Remi, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> -<li>Belleforest, François de, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> +<li>Belleforest, François de, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> <li>*Bellemain, Jean, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> @@ -22442,11 +22401,11 @@ Woodcock by Harrison's widow, 1578 (<i>ibid.</i> ii. 331).</p></div> <li>*Berault, Pierre, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a> <i>sq.</i></li> -<li>Bèze, Théodore de, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> +<li>Bèze, Théodore de, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> <li>*Bibbesworth, Walter de, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> -<li>Bignon, Jérôme, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> +<li>Bignon, Jérôme, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> <li>Blois, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li> @@ -22470,7 +22429,7 @@ Woodcock by Harrison's widow, 1578 (<i>ibid.</i> ii. 331).</p></div> <li>Bossuet, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li> -<li>Bouhours, le Père, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li> +<li>Bouhours, le Père, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li> <li>Bouillon, Duchesse de, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li> @@ -22484,7 +22443,7 @@ Woodcock by Harrison's widow, 1578 (<i>ibid.</i> ii. 331).</p></div> <li>Bozon, Nicolas, <a href="#Page_8">8</a> <i>n.</i></li> -<li>Brantôme, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Brantôme, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>n.</i></li> <li>Bretons: teach French, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> @@ -22602,7 +22561,7 @@ Woodcock by Harrison's widow, 1578 (<i>ibid.</i> ii. 331).</p></div> <li>Colet, John, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> -<li>Collège de Navarre, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> +<li>Collège de Navarre, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> <li><a name="Colleges" id="Colleges"></a>Colleges: in France, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li> <li class="tdr">English Roman Catholic, in France, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> @@ -22742,7 +22701,7 @@ Cornwallis, Sir Wm., <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></l <li>*Du Buisson, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li>*Du Grès, Gabriel, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>*Du Grès, Gabriel, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a> <i>n.</i></li> <li>Du Moulin, Pierre, senior, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> @@ -22837,7 +22796,7 @@ English literature, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_274">2 <li>*Fabre, John, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> -<li>*Fabri, Philémon, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> +<li>*Fabri, Philémon, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> <li>Farquhar, George, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a> <i>n.</i></li> @@ -22873,9 +22832,9 @@ English literature, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_274">2 <li><i>France, Survey of</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> -<li>François I. of France, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li>François I. of France, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li>François de Valois, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +<li>François de Valois, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> <li><i>Frans and Englis</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> @@ -22967,11 +22926,11 @@ English literature, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_274">2 <li>Greene, Rt., <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">-433-</a></span> -Grelot, Jérôme, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> +Grelot, Jérôme, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> <li>Grenville, Fulke, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li>Grévin, Jacques, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Grévin, Jacques, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>n.</i></li> <li>Grey, Lady Jane, <a href="#Page_64">64</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> <i>n.</i></li> @@ -23057,7 +23016,7 @@ Grelot, Jérôme, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> <li>Hoole, Charles, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a> <i>n.</i></li> -<li>Hotman, François, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Hotman, François, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> <li>*Hotman, Jean, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> @@ -23097,7 +23056,7 @@ Grelot, Jérôme, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> <li>Jermyn, Lord, Earl of St. Albans, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li> -<li>Jodelle, Étienne, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> +<li>Jodelle, Étienne, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> <li>Jonson, Ben, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> @@ -23119,16 +23078,16 @@ Grelot, Jérôme, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> <li>Kynaston, Sir Francis, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> <li><hr /></li> -<li>La Bruyère, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> +<li>La Bruyère, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> -<li>La Calprenède, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li> +<li>La Calprenède, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li> <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">-434-</a></span> La Fontaine, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li> -<li>*Lainé, Pierre, <a href="#Page_315">315</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>*Lainé, Pierre, <a href="#Page_315">315</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a> <i>n.</i></li> -<li>*Lainé, Pierre de, <a href="#Page_381">381</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li> +<li>*Lainé, Pierre de, <a href="#Page_381">381</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li> <li>Lake, Sir Th., <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> @@ -23154,11 +23113,11 @@ La Fontaine, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li> <li>Law French, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> -<li>Le Blanc, Abbé, <a href="#Page_23">23</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li> +<li>Le Blanc, Abbé, <a href="#Page_23">23</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li> -<li>Le Fèvre (chemist), <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li> +<li>Le Fèvre (chemist), <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li> -<li>Le Fèvre, Raoul, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Le Fèvre, Raoul, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> <li>Le Grand, Antoine, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> @@ -23245,7 +23204,7 @@ La Fontaine, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li> <li>Malpet, John, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> -<li><i>Manière de Langage</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li><i>Manière de Langage</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> <li>Margaret of Navarre, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> @@ -23257,7 +23216,7 @@ La Fontaine, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li> <li>Marillac (ambassador), <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> -<li>Marot, Clément, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> +<li>Marot, Clément, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> <li>Marseilles, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li> @@ -23291,7 +23250,7 @@ La Fontaine, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li> <li>Maupertuis, <a href="#Page_395">395</a> <i>n.</i></li> -<li>Mayerne, Théodore, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Mayerne, Théodore, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> <i>n.</i></li> <li>Mazarin, Duchesse de, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li> @@ -23304,7 +23263,7 @@ Melville, James, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> <li>Melville, Sir James, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>n.</i></li> -<li>Ménage, Gilles, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li> +<li>Ménage, Gilles, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li> <li><a name="Merchants" id="Merchants"></a>Merchants: study of French by, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a></li> @@ -23318,9 +23277,9 @@ Melville, James, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> <li>Middleton, Th., <a href="#Page_263">263</a> <i>n.</i></li> -<li>*Miège, Guy, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li> +<li>*Miège, Guy, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li> -<li>*Milleran, René, <a href="#Page_354">354</a> <i>sq.</i></li> +<li>*Milleran, René, <a href="#Page_354">354</a> <i>sq.</i></li> <li>Milton, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></li> @@ -23328,7 +23287,7 @@ Melville, James, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> <li>Misson, M., <a href="#Page_396">396</a> <i>n.</i></li> -<li>Molière, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li> +<li>Molière, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li> <li>Monluc, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a> <i>n.</i></li> @@ -23338,7 +23297,7 @@ Melville, James, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> <li>Montausier, Mme. de., <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li> -<li>Montchrétien, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> +<li>Montchrétien, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> <li>Montjoy, Christopher, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> @@ -23382,7 +23341,7 @@ Melville, James, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> <li>Nicot, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> <i>n.</i></li> -<li>Nîmes, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> +<li>Nîmes, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> <li><i>Nomenclator</i>, of Adrian Junius, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> @@ -23413,7 +23372,7 @@ Melville, James, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> <li>*Oudin, Antoine, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> -<li>Oudin, César, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> +<li>Oudin, César, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> <li>Overbury, Sir Th., <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a> <i>n.</i></li> <li><hr /></li> @@ -23434,7 +23393,7 @@ Melville, James, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> <li>Pasqualigo, Piero, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> -<li>Pasquier, Étienne, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li>Pasquier, Étienne, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> <li>Passports, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a> <i>n.</i></li> @@ -23460,7 +23419,7 @@ Melville, James, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> <li>Pepys, Mrs., <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li> -<li>Perlin, Étienne, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Perlin, Étienne, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a> <i>n.</i></li> <li>Pettie, George, <a href="#Page_237">237</a> <i>n.</i></li> @@ -23477,7 +23436,7 @@ Petty, Sir. Wm., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>n.< <li>Pillot, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> -<li>Pléiade, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> +<li>Pléiade, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> <li>Poitiers, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li> @@ -23495,7 +23454,7 @@ Petty, Sir. Wm., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>n.< <li><a name="Prayers" id="Prayers"></a>Prayers in French, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li> -<li>Précieuses, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> +<li>Précieuses, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> <li>*Preste, John, <a href="#Page_156">156</a> <i>n.</i></li> @@ -23524,7 +23483,7 @@ Petty, Sir. Wm., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>n.< <li>Rambouillet, Mlle. de, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li> -<li>Rambouillet, Hôtel de, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li> +<li>Rambouillet, Hôtel de, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li> <li>Ramus, Petrus, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> @@ -23540,7 +23499,7 @@ Petty, Sir. Wm., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>n.< <li>Register of aliens, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> -<li>Régnier-Desmarais, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> +<li>Régnier-Desmarais, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> <li>Religious Houses: use of French in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> @@ -23550,7 +23509,7 @@ Petty, Sir. Wm., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>n.< <li>Rheims, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> -<li>Rhétoriqueurs, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> +<li>Rhétoriqueurs, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> <li>Richelieu, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li> @@ -23601,7 +23560,7 @@ Petty, Sir. Wm., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>n.< <li>Saint Gelais, Octovian de, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li>Saint Évremond, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a> <i>sq.</i></li> +<li>Saint Évremond, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a> <i>sq.</i></li> <li>Saint Malo, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> @@ -23648,9 +23607,9 @@ Scotland: French in schools of Scotland, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <i>sq.</i>; <li class="tdr"> tutors, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> <li class="tdr"> French Grammars in Scotland, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> -<li>Scudéry, Georges de, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Scudéry, Georges de, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> <i>n.</i></li> -<li>Scudéry, Mlle, de, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li> +<li>Scudéry, Mlle, de, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li> <li>Sedley, Ch., <a href="#Page_371">371</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li> @@ -23690,7 +23649,7 @@ Scotland: French in schools of Scotland, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <i>sq.</i>; <li>Somerset, Protector, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li>Sorbière: <i>Voyage en Angleterre</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>,</li> +<li>Sorbière: <i>Voyage en Angleterre</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>,</li> <li>322, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a> <i>n.</i></li> <li>Sorel: <i>Francion</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> @@ -23803,9 +23762,9 @@ Scotland: French in schools of Scotland, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <i>sq.</i>; <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">-438-</a></span> Versification, French, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> -<li>Viau, Théophile de, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> +<li>Viau, Théophile de, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> -<li>Villars, Maréchal de, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> +<li>Villars, Maréchal de, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> <li>*Villiers, Jacob, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a> <i>sq.</i></li> @@ -23877,7 +23836,7 @@ Versification, French, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> <li>Wroth, Sir Th., <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li>Würtemberg, Duke of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Würtemberg, Duke of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> <li>Wycherley, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li> @@ -23901,7 +23860,7 @@ Versification, French, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Manchester University French Series</span></p> <p class="noi">No. I. LES ŒUVRES DE GUIOT DE PROVINS. - <span class="smcap">Poète Lyrique et Satirique</span></p> + <span class="smcap">Poète Lyrique et Satirique</span></p> <p>Edited by <span class="smcap">John Orr</span>, M.A., <i>Professor of French Language, University of Manchester</i>. Demy 8vo. <b>10s. 6d. net.</b></p> @@ -23914,16 +23873,16 @@ believe, of this importance, nor any edited with this degree of thoroughness or wealth of illustrative commentary."—Professor <span class="smcap">T. A. Jenkins</span>, Chicago, in <i>Modern Philology</i>.</p></div> -<p class="noi">No. II. ŒUVRES POÉTIQUES DE JEAN DE +<p class="noi">No. II. ŒUVRES POÉTIQUES DE JEAN DE LINGENDES</p> <p>Edited by <span class="smcap">E. T. Griffiths</span>, M.A., <i>Late Lecturer in French Language and Literature in the University of Manchester</i>. Crown 8vo. Cloth. <b>6s. net.</b></p> -<div class="blockquot"><p>"Cette réimpression fait honneur aux publications de l'Université de Manchester, -et l'exécution typographique mérite les mêmes éloges que l'information savante de -l'éditeur."—<span class="smcap">L. Roustan</span> in <i>Revue critique d'histoire et de littérature</i>.</p></div> +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Cette réimpression fait honneur aux publications de l'Université de Manchester, +et l'exécution typographique mérite les mêmes éloges que l'information savante de +l'éditeur."—<span class="smcap">L. Roustan</span> in <i>Revue critique d'histoire et de littérature</i>.</p></div> <p class="noi">No. III. THE TEACHING AND CULTIVATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE IN ENGLAND @@ -23951,24 +23910,24 @@ LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY<br /> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Rousseau.</span> DU CONTRAT SOCIAL. Edited by Emeritus Professor <span class="smcap">C. E. Vaughan</span>, M.A. Paper, 5s. net; cloth, 6s. net.</p> -<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Alfred de Vigny.</span> POÈMES CHOISIS. Edited by <span class="smcap">E. Allison +<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Alfred de Vigny.</span> POÈMES CHOISIS. Edited by <span class="smcap">E. Allison Peers</span>, M.A. Paper, 3s. 6d. net; cloth, 4s. 6d. net.</p> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Pascal.</span> LETTRES PROVINCIALES. Edited by <span class="smcap">H. F. Stewart</span>, D.D. Paper, 7s. 6d. net; cloth, 8s. 6d. net. <i>Also an edition de luxe on hand-made paper.</i> 21s. net.</p> -<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">B. Constant.</span> ADOLPHE. Edited by Professor <span class="smcap">G. Rudler</span>, D. ès L. +<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">B. Constant.</span> ADOLPHE. Edited by Professor <span class="smcap">G. Rudler</span>, D. ès L. Paper, 6s. net; cloth, 7s. 6d. net. <i>Also an edition de luxe on hand-made paper.</i> 21s. net.</p> -<p class="noi">LE MYSTÈRE D'ADAM. Edited by Professor <span class="smcap">Paul Studer</span>, M.A., +<p class="noi">LE MYSTÈRE D'ADAM. Edited by Professor <span class="smcap">Paul Studer</span>, M.A., D.Litt. Paper, 4s. 6d. net; cloth, 5s. 6d. net.</p> <p class="noi">AUCASSIN ET NICOLETE. (<i>Third edition.</i>) Edited by <span class="smcap">F. W. Bourdillon</span>, M.A. Paper, 4s. 6d. net; cloth 5s. 6d. net.</p> -<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">A. Dumas</span> père. HENRI III. Edited by <span class="smcap">J. G. Anderson</span>, B.A. <span class="120">[In Preparation.</span></p> +<p class="noi"><span class="smcap">A. Dumas</span> père. HENRI III. Edited by <span class="smcap">J. G. Anderson</span>, B.A. <span class="120">[In Preparation.</span></p> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Paul-Louis Courier.</span> A SELECTION FROM THE WORKS. Edited by Professor <span class="smcap">E. Weekley</span>, M.A. Paper, 5s. net; cloth, 6s. net.</p> @@ -23982,7 +23941,7 @@ Dr. <span class="smcap">F. Poldermann</span>. <span class="i20">[<i>In Preparation.</i></span></p> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Lamartine.</span> A SELECTION FROM THE POEMS. Edited by -Professor <span class="smcap">A. Barbier</span>, L. ès L. +Professor <span class="smcap">A. Barbier</span>, L. ès L. <span class="i20">[<i>In Preparation.</i></span></p> <p class="noi"><span class="smcap">Guibert D'Andrenas.</span> A CHANSON DE GESTE OF THE @@ -24039,8 +23998,8 @@ LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY<br /> <li>il dira tout courtoisement.</li> <li>p. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>:</li> -<li>le roy d'Angliterre est osté</li> -<li>le roy d'Angleterre est osté.</li> +<li>le roy d'Angliterre est osté</li> +<li>le roy d'Angleterre est osté.</li> <li>p. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>:</li> <li>Maris, oy, il y avoit tant de presse</li> <li>Marie, oy, il y avoit tant de presse.</li> @@ -24064,8 +24023,8 @@ LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY<br /> <li>For instance Sir Willam Petty</li> <li>For instance Sir William Petty.</li> <li>p. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>:</li> -<li>Lesquelles choses considererées</li> -<li>Lesquelles choses considerées.</li> +<li>Lesquelles choses considererées</li> +<li>Lesquelles choses considerées.</li> <li>p. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>:</li> <li>de leurs prouesses, entreprinses</li> @@ -24081,11 +24040,11 @@ LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY<br /> <li>of Nacsia and Paros in the Archipelago.</li> <li>p. <a href="#Page_414">414</a>:</li> <li>ou hormis d'autres discours curieus</li> -<li>où hormis d'autres discours curieus.</li> +<li>où hormis d'autres discours curieus.</li> <li>p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a>:</li> <li>se vendent a l'enseigne</li> -<li>se vendent à l'enseigne.</li> +<li>se vendent à l'enseigne.</li> <li>n. <a href="#FNanchor_126_126">126</a>:</li> <li>E. J. Furnival</li> <li>E. J. Furnivall.</li> @@ -24110,7 +24069,7 @@ Thomas More, writing to Erasmus in 1517."</li> <li>p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>: the small cross below the unsounded letters in the quotation does not always correspond to modern pronunciation. The original has been retained. </li> -<li>p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, n. <a href="#FNanchor_361_361">361</a>: Liége should be Liège.</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, n. <a href="#FNanchor_361_361">361</a>: Liége should be Liège.</li> <li>p. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>: "to read an script" should be "to read a script."</li> <li>n. <a href="#FNanchor_126_126">126</a>, <a href="#FNanchor_313_313">313</a>: Author "E. J. Furnivall" should be "F. J. Furnivall."</li> @@ -24120,388 +24079,6 @@ pronunciation. The original has been retained. </li> </ul> </div> - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Teaching and Cultivation of the -French Language in England during Tudor and Stuart Times, by Kathleen Lambley - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TEACHING AND CULTIVATION *** - -***** This file should be named 40617-h.htm or 40617-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/6/1/40617/ - -Produced by Ian Deane, Ethan Kent, Eleni Christofaki and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/American -Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - -</pre> - +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40617 ***</div> </body> </html> diff --git a/40617.txt b/40617.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f3469e0..0000000 --- a/40617.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22315 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Teaching and Cultivation of the French -Language in England during Tudor and Stuart Times, by Kathleen Lambley - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Teaching and Cultivation of the French Language in England during Tudor and Stuart Times - With an Introductory Chapter on the Preceding Period - -Author: Kathleen Lambley - -Release Date: August 29, 2012 [EBook #40617] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TEACHING AND CULTIVATION *** - - - - -Produced by Ian Deane, Ethan Kent, Eleni Christofaki and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/American -Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - Transcriber's Notes: - -Minor punctuation inconsistencies have been silently corrected. A list -of other changes made can be found at the end of the book. Footnotes -were sequentially numbered and placed at the end of each chapter. The -page headers of the book on the odd numbered pages have been marked as -[Header]. For this text version, diacritical marks that cannot be -represented in plain text are shown in the following manner: - - Ligature [oe] is encoded as oe. - p. 87: [O] o with macron above (dOucement). - [E] e with macron above (doucemEnt). - p. 283: [^] upside down V. - - Mark up: _italics_ - =bold= - - - - -PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER - - -FRENCH SERIES No. III - - -THE FRENCH LANGUAGE IN ENGLAND - - - - - Published by the University of Manchester at THE UNIVERSITY PRESS (H. - M. McKECHNIE, Secretary) 12 LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD, MANCHESTER - - LONGMANS, GREEN & CO. - - LONDON: 39 Paternoster Row - - NEW YORK: 443-449 Fourth Avenue and Thirtieth Street - - CHICAGO: Prairie Avenue and Thirty-fifth Street - - BOMBAY: 8 Hornby Road - - CALCUTTA: 6 Old Court House Street - - MADRAS: 167 Mount Road - - - - - THE TEACHING AND CULTIVATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE IN ENGLAND DURING - TUDOR AND STUART TIMES - - WITH AN INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ON THE PRECEDING PERIOD - - BY - - KATHLEEN LAMBLEY, M.A. - - _Lecturer in French in the University of Durham_ - - _Sometime Assistant Lecturer in French in the University of Manchester_ - - - MANCHESTER - AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS - 12 LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD - LONGMANS, GREEN & CO. - LONDON, NEW YORK, BOMBAY, ETC. - 1920 - - - - - PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER No. CXXIX - - -_All rights reserved._ - - - - -PREFACE - - -The present work, begun during the author's tenure of a Faulkner -Fellowship in the University of Manchester, and completed in subsequent -years, is an endeavour to trace the history of the teaching and use of -French in England during a given epoch, ending with the Revocation of -the Edict of Nantes and the Revolution of 1689, which events mark the -beginning of a new period in the study of the French language in this -country. No attempt has been made to treat the wider topic of French -influence in England in its literary and social aspects (this has -already been done by competent hands), though this side of the question -is naturally touched upon occasionally by way of reference or -illustration. - -I gladly take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude to Professor -L. E. Kastner, at whose suggestion this investigation was undertaken, -for his generous assistance, and the unfailing interest he has shown in -my work during the whole course of its preparation. I am likewise -considerably indebted to Dr. Phoebe Sheavyn for helpful criticism and -advice, to Professor Tout for kindly reading through the introductory -chapter, and to Mr. J. Marks for a careful revision of the proofs and -many useful indications. I owe a great deal to my father also, whose -sympathetic advice and encouragement did much to lighten my task. Nor -can I close this list of acknowledgments without recording my obligation -to the Secretary of the Press, Mr. H. M. McKechnie, for the valuable -assistance he has so freely given me during the progress of this volume -through the Press. - - KATHLEEN LAMBLEY. - - DURHAM, _January 1920_. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PART I - - INTRODUCTORY - - CHAPTER I PAGE - - THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES 3 - - French grammars in mediaeval England--The use of the French - language--Latin, French, and English vocabularies--French at the - Universities--Popularity of French in the thirteenth century--Ceases - to be a vernacular in England--Treatises for teaching French--A - treatise on French verbs--The _Orthographia Gallica_--The _Tractatus - Orthographiae_--T. H. Parisiis studentis--Walter de - Bibbesworth--French in the schools and Universities--The fourteenth - century--Treatises on French--The _Nominale_--Model letters--Recovery - of English in the second half of the fourteenth - century--Deterioration of Anglo-French--English in official documents - and correspondence--Decline in use of French. - - CHAPTER II - - THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 26 - - Triumph of continental French over Anglo-French--"Doux francois de - Paris" a foreign language--Standard of French taught in - England--_Femina_--Treatises on Grammar--Barton's - _Donait_--Epistolaries--Books of conversation in French--The - Cambridge manuscript in French and English--First printed books for - teaching French--Dialogues in French and English--Caxton, Wynkyn de - Worde, and Pynson--French by conversation--Approaching improvement in - the standard of French taught in England--Palsgrave's Grammar. - - PART II - - TUDOR TIMES - - CHAPTER I - - THE FRENCH LANGUAGE AT COURT AND AMONG THE NOBILITY 61 - - French at the Court of the Tudors--English neglected by - foreigners--Latin a spoken language--Defective pronunciation of the - English--Interest in modern languages awakened--French holds the - first place--Its use in correspondence and in official documents--The - French of Henry VIII., his courtiers, and the ladies--Of Anne Boleyn - and the other Queens--Of the royal family, Edward, Mary, and - Elizabeth--French tutors--Bernard Andre--French Grammars--Alexander - Barclay's _Introductory_--Practice and Theory--Pierre Valence, tutor - to the Earl of Lincoln--His _Introductions in French_--Fragment of a - Grammar at Lambeth--French Humanists as Language masters--Bourbon and - Denisot--England and the _Pleiade_. - - CHAPTER II - - FRENCH TUTORS AT COURT--GILES DUWES--JOHN PALSGRAVE--JEAN BELLEMAIN 86 - - French tutors at Court--John Palsgrave and Giles Duwes--Palsgrave's - _Esclarcissement_--The pronunciation of French--His second and third - books--The vocabulary--The _Introductorie_ of Duwes--His - Dialogues--The methods of the two teachers--Dates of composition and - editions--Attitude of the two teachers to each other--Duwes on - English teachers of French--Palsgrave's claims--Palsgrave's - acquaintance with French literature--Incidents in Duwes's career in - England--His royal pupils--Palsgrave's teaching career--Mary Tudor - his pupil--The Duke of Richmond, Gregory Cromwell, etc.--Palsgrave in - the North, at Oxford, and in London--Jean Bellemain, tutor to Edward - VI.--The King's French exercises--Intercourse with Calvin--Bellemain - on French orthography--French tutor to Elizabeth--Her translations - from the French--A. R. Chevallier. - - CHAPTER III - - THE INFLUENCE OF RELIGIOUS REFUGEES ON THE TEACHING OF FRENCH IN - ENGLAND--OPENINGS FOR THEM AS TEACHERS--DEMAND FOR TEXT-BOOKS--FRENCH - SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND 114 - - Effects of the persecution of the Protestants on the teaching of - French in England--Protestant refugees--Registers and returns of - aliens--French churches in London--Reception and treatment of - foreigners--Incivility of the common people--Courtesy of the - gentry--Refugees received into English families--French in polite - education--French tutors and text-books--Converse with - foreigners--Shakespeare's French--Professional schoolmasters--No - opening in the grammar schools--French schools--Du Ploich's - school--His Treatise in French and English and method of - teaching--His works in manuscript--Claude Holyband--His _French - Schoolemaister_ and _French Littleton_--His French school--Holyband - as private tutor--His method of teaching--Schools in connection with - the French churches--Schools at Canterbury and elsewhere--Saravia's - school at Southampton--Joshua Sylvester--Place of French in the - public schools of Scotland--In the parish and private schools--No - French grammars produced in Scotland. - - CHAPTER IV - - HUGUENOT TEACHERS OF FRENCH--OTHER CLASSES OF FRENCH TEACHERS--RIVALRIES - IN THE PROFESSION--THE "DUTCH" AND ENGLISH TEACHERS 155 - - Importance of the Huguenot teachers in London--St. Paul's Churchyard - the centre of the profession--The group of Normans--Robert - Fontaine--Jacques Bellot--His French and English grammars, and - _Jardin de Vertu_--The _French Methode_--G. de La Mothe--His French - Alphabet and method of teaching--French teachers from the - Netherlands--Roman Catholic schoolmasters--Objections raised against - French teachers--The right of the English to teach French--John - Eliote--His attack on French teachers--His love of Rabelais and debt - to French literature--His 'merrie vaine'--The _Ortho-Epia Gallica_ - and his other works. - - CHAPTER V - - METHODS OF TEACHING FRENCH--LATIN AND FRENCH--FRENCH AND ENGLISH - DICTIONARIES--STUDY OF FRENCH LITERATURE 179 - - Usual methods of learning French--Reading and - translation--Pronunciation--Rules of grammar--Importance of - 'practice'--Latin and French text-books--Contrast of methods--Grammar - and Practice--Books in French and English--French by - translation--French dictionaries--Holyband's Dictionaries--Dictionary - printed by Harrison--A place given to French in some Latin - dictionaries--Veron--Baret--John Higgins--French-Latin - dictionaries--Cotgrave's great French-English Dictionary--Sherwood's - English-French Dictionary--Howell's editions of Cotgrave--The reading - of French literature--Attitude of French teachers--Favourite - authors--Histories and Memoirs of military life for soldiers and - statesmen. - - CHAPTER VI - - FRENCH AT THE UNIVERSITIES 198 - - Latin the language of the Universities--Retention of the use of - French formulae--Modern languages read--French a relaxation from - 'severer studies'--French tutors and French grammars--Morlet's - _Janitrix_--French grammars written in Latin--Antonio de Corro--John - Sanford--Wye Saltonstall--Henry Leighton--French grammarians and - teachers at Oxford--Robert Farrear--Pierre Bense--French teachers at - Cambridge--Gabriel du Gres at Cambridge and Oxford--On the teaching - of French--French at the Universities at the time of the - Restoration--The French of the Universities and of the fashionable - world--French at the Inns of Court--One-sidedness of the University - curriculum--Steps taken to supplement it. - - CHAPTER VII - - THE STUDY OF FRENCH BY ENGLISH TRAVELLERS ABROAD 211 - - Travel in France and on the Continent--In the suite of - ambassadors--Children in France--Course of studies--Girls in - France--Objections to children being sent to France--France and - Italy--Protests against travel--Prejudices against travel--Preference - for France--Necessity of the French language--The travelling - tutor--The age for travel--Literati as travelling tutors--Travel - without a governor--Books on travel--'Methods' of travel--The study - of French--Dallington and Moryson--Study of French before - travel--French 'by rote'--Language masters for travellers--French - grammars for travellers--Charles Maupas of Blois and his son--Antoine - Oudin--Other grammars--Pere Chiflet--The 'exercises'--Travellers at - the Universities--At the Protestant Academies--Geneva--Isaac - Casaubon--The 'idle traveller'--The 'beau'--Affectations of newly - returned travellers--Commendation and censure of travel. - - CHAPTER VIII - - THE STUDY OF FRENCH AMONG MERCHANTS AND SOLDIERS 239 - - Merchants and the study of French--Text-books for - merchants--Relations with the Netherlands--The 'book from - Anvers'--Barlement's book of dialogues--Meurier's manuals for - teaching French to the English in Antwerp--The study of French in the - Netherlands--French for soldiers--The Verneys--John Wodroeph--The - difficulty of the French language--Necessity of rules as well as - practice--_The Marrow of the French Tongue_. - - PART III - - STUART TIMES - - CHAPTER I - - FRENCH AT THE COURTS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I.--FRENCH STUDIED BY THE - LADIES--FRENCH PLAYERS IN LONDON--ENGLISH GENERALLY IGNORED BY - FOREIGNERS 259 - - The French language in England in the time of the early Stuarts--In - the royal family--French tutors--John Florio--Guy Le - Moyne--Massonet--Sir Robert Le Grys--French among the - ladies--Erondelle's _French Garden_ for English ladies--His - dialogues--His career as a teacher--His earlier works--The French - Queen of England--French plays in London--The English language - neglected by foreigners--English literature ignored in - France--English players abroad--The study of English--English - grammars for foreigners in England--French teachers and merchants - further the study of English--Provision for teaching English in the - Netherlands and in France. - - CHAPTER II - - FRENCH GRAMMARS--BOOKS FOR TEACHING LATIN AND FRENCH--FRENCH IN PRIVATE - INSTITUTIONS 281 - - Robert Sherwood, teacher of French and English--His school and - _French Tutour_--William Colson, another English teacher--His - 'method' and writings--Maupas's French grammar in England--William - Aufeild--How to study French--The _Flower de Luce_--Laur du Terme on - the teaching of French--Paul Cogneau's French grammar--His - method--Continued use of the sixteenth-century French grammars--Latin - and French--Latin school-books adapted to teaching French--Books for - teaching Latin and French together--The _Janua_ of Comenius--Wye - Saltonstall--De Grave--French in private institutions--The _Museum - Minervae_--Gerbier's Academy--French in schools for ladies. - - CHAPTER III - - THE "LITTLE BLOIS" IN LONDON 301 - - The Blois group of French teachers--Claude Mauger and his French - grammar--Its popularity and development--Mauger's Letters--Other - writings--Life in London--Teaches English--Mauger's method of - teaching--Mauger at Paris--The demand for his grammar abroad--Paul - Festeau--His French and English grammars--Editions and - contents--Pierre Laine--His French grammar--Encouragement of the - study of French literature. - - CHAPTER IV - - THE FRENCH TEACHING PROFESSION AND METHODS OF STUDYING THE - LANGUAGE 319 - - Vogue of French romances in England--Dorothy Osborne--Pepys on French - literature--His French books--French text-books and the _precieux_ - spirit--William Herbert--His criticism of the French teaching - profession--Rivalry among teachers--Need for protection--Herbert's - later works--His early career in England--Quarrels with a minister of - the French church--English gentry at the French church--Pepys a - regular attender--French teachers encourage the practice--The method - of 'grammar and rote'--French 'by rote'--Examples of how French was - studied--Latin by grammar--Calls for reform--The case against - grammar--French taught on the 'right method'--Attempts to teach Latin - on the same lines as French--Contrast between the learning of Latin - in England 'by grammar' and of French in France 'by rote.' - - CHAPTER V - - THE TOUR IN FRANCE 341 - - The Protestant schools and Academies--A group of English students at - Saumur--Travellers at the French Universities--A method of - travel--Attitude of the French teachers to the tour in France--Guide - books--Routes followed--Favourite resorts for study--_Auberges_ and - _pensions_--Language masters in France--Grammars for - travellers--Howell's instructions for travellers--Suitable books for - students--The 'Grand' and 'Petit' Tour in - France--Paris--Inexperienced young travellers--Sir John Reresby in - France. - - CHAPTER VI - - GALLOMANIA AFTER THE RESTORATION 361 - - Gallomania in England after the Restoration--The royal family in - France--Their knowledge of the language--English courtiers and gentry - in France--Men of letters in France--French and the French at the - English court after the Restoration--French 'salons' London--French - valets, cooks, dancing masters, tailors--The French language--French - among the ladies--The 'Frenchified' lady--The 'beaux' or English - 'monsieurs'--French influence at the theatre--Popularity of French - actors in London. - - CHAPTER VII - - THE TEACHING OF FRENCH AND ITS POPULARITY AFTER THE RESTORATION 381 - - French grammars after the Restoration--Pierre de Laine, tutor to the - children of the Duke of York--The _Princely Way to the French - Tongue_--Guy Miege--His Dictionaries--His French Grammars--His method - of teaching--Rote and grammar--Miege's other works--Other French - Grammars--Pierre Berault--The universality of French--Supremacy over - Latin in the world of fashion and diplomacy--Position of French in - the educational world--The classics read in French--'All learning now - in French'--French recognized by writers on education--Projects for - reformed schools--Numerous French schools in and about - London--Villiers' school at Nottingham--Academies for - ladies--Academies for training gentlemen in the necessary social - accomplishments and for business--Effects of the Revocation of the - Edict of Nantes. - - APPENDICES - - I - - CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF MANUALS AND GRAMMARS FOR TEACHING FRENCH TO THE - ENGLISH 403 - - II - - BIBLIOGRAPHY, ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY, OF MANUALS FOR TEACHING THE - FRENCH LANGUAGE TO THE ENGLISH, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH - CENTURY TO THE END OF THE STUART PERIOD 410 - - INDEX 429 - - - - -PART I - -INTRODUCTORY - - - - -CHAPTER I - - THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES - - -The first important grammar of the French language was printed in -England and written by an Englishman. This enterprising student was John -Palsgrave, "natyf de Londres et gradue de Paris," whose work, entitled -_L'Esclarcissement de la langue francoyse_, was published in 1530. It is -an enormous quarto of over a thousand pages, full of elaborate, detailed -and often obscure rules, written in English in spite of the French -title. It was no doubt the solid value and exhaustiveness of Palsgrave's -work which won for it the reputation of being the earliest grammar of -the French language.[1] Yet Palsgrave himself informs us that such was -not the case, though he claims to be the first to lay down 'absolute' -rules for the language. - -The kings of England, he declares, have never ceased to encourage "suche -clerkes as were in theyr tymes, to prove and essay what they by theyr -dylygence in this matter myght do." "This like charge," he continues, -"have dyvers others had afore my dayes ... many sondrie clerkes have for -their tyme taken theyr penne in hande.... Some thyng have they in -writing lefte behynde them concerning into this mater, for the ease and -furtheraunce as well of suche as shilde in lyke charge after them -succede, as of them whiche from tyme to tyme in that tong were to be -instructed ... takyng light and erudition of theyr studious labours -whiche in this matter before me have taken paynes to write.... I dyd my -effectuall devoire to ensertche out suche bokes as had by others of this -mater before my tyme ben compyled, of which undouted, after enquery and -ensertche made for them dyvers came into my handes as well suche whose -authors be yet amongst us lyveng, as suche whiche were of this mater by -other sondrie persons longe afore my dayes composed." - -The living predecessors to whom Palsgrave refers--authors of short works -of small philological value, but of great interest to-day as evidence of -the wide use of the French language in England--were likewise acquainted -with earlier works on the subject. Giles Duwes, tutor in French to Henry -VIII. and other members of the royal family, frequently invokes the -authority of the 'olde grammar.' The poet Alexander Barclay, in his -French Grammar of 1521, informs us that "the said treatyse hath ben -attempted of dyvers men before my dayes," and that he had "sene the -draughtes of others" made before his time; moreover, in times past, the -French language "hath ben so moche set by in England that who hath ben -ignorant in the same language hath not ben reputed to be of gentyll -blode. In so moche that, as the cronycles of englande recorde, in all -the gramer scoles throughout englande small scolars expounded theyr -construccyons bothe in Frenche and Englysshe." - -Thus the French grammarians in England in the early sixteenth century -were acquainted with, and to some extent indebted to, a series of -mediaeval treatises on the French language,--a type of work which, even -at the time they wrote, was unknown on the Continent.[2] That England, -before other countries, took on herself the study of the French -language, was the result of events which followed the Conquest. From -that time French had taken its place by the side of English as a -vernacular. It was the language of the upper classes and landed gentry, -the cultivated and educated; English was used by the masses, while all -who read and wrote knew Latin, the language of clerks and scholars. For -nearly three centuries after the Conquest almost all writings of any -literary value produced in England were in French, though the bulk of -composition was in Latin; English never ceased to be written, but was -used in minor works for the most part. - -It is not surprising, therefore, to find that from an early date Latin -was at times construed or translated into French[3] as well as English -in the grammar schools, both languages serving as vernaculars. There are -still extant examples of this custom,[4] dating from the twelfth -century; for instance, a version of the psalter, in which the French -words are placed above the Latin without any regard to the order of the -French sentence.[5] Others are found in some of the first vocabularies -written for the purpose of teaching Latin,[6] which consist of lists of -words grouped round subjects and arranged, as a rule, in sentence form. -Two of these works seem to have been particularly well known, judging -from the number of manuscripts still in existence--those of the English -scholars, Alexander Neckam (1157-1217) and John de Garlande, both of -whom were indebted to France for most of their learning. Neckam, who in -1180 had attained celebrity as a Professor of the University of Paris, -was the author of a Latin Vocabulary--_De Utensilibus_--which was -glossed in Anglo-French.[7] In this he enumerates the various parts of a -house and the occupations and callings of men, and gives scenes from -feudal and agricultural life. The _Dictionarius_ (_c._ 1220) of John de -Garlande, a student of Oxford and Paris, and one of the first professors -of Toulouse University, deals roughly with the same topics.[8] It is -glossed in both French and English--the sign of a later period--as was -also a Latin vocabulary or _nominale_ of the names of plants,[9] dating -from a little later in the same century, though probably existing in -earlier manuscripts. - -At the universities a decided preference for French was shown in the -rare occasions on which the use of a vernacular was allowed. The -speaking of French was encouraged in some of the colleges at both Oxford -and Cambridge, chiefly those belonging to the second set of -foundations.[10] The scholars and fellows of Oriel could use either -Latin or French in their familiar conversation and at meals. Similar -injunctions were in force at Exeter and Queen's. Among the Cambridge -colleges[11] the statutes of Peterhouse allow French to be used for -"just and reasonable cause"; at King's it was permitted on occasion, and -at Clare Hall French was countenanced only if foreigners were present as -visitors. At Pembroke, founded by a Frenchwoman, Mary de Valence, -special favour was shown to Frenchmen in the election of Fellows, -provided that their total number did not exceed a quarter of the whole -body.[12] The cosmopolitanism of the mediaeval centres of learning -encouraged a number of such French students to come to England. In 1259, -for instance, owing to the disturbed state of the University of Paris, -Henry III. invited the Paris students to come to England and take up -their abode wheresoever they pleased;[13] no doubt those who accepted -his invitation settled at one or other of the two English universities. -We also find in the Treaty of Bretigny (1360) a clause to the effect -that the subjects of the French and English kings should henceforth be -free to resume their intercourse and to enjoy mutually the privileges of -the universities of the two countries, "comme ils povoient faire avant -ces presentes guerres et comme ils font a present."[14] On the other -hand, the English frequented the French universities in large numbers; -at Paris in the thirteenth century they formed one of the four nations -which composed the University.[15] The authors of the early Latin -vocabularies, Alexander Neckam and John de Garlande, were both -connected with the University of Paris, while most of the other English -scholars of the period were indebted for much of their learning to the -same great centre. Many, no doubt, could have written with Garlande: - - Anglia cui mater fuerat, cui Gallia nutrix - Matri nutricem praefero mente meam.[16] - -In the thirteenth century French was still widely used in England. The -fact that the fusion between conquerors and conquered was then -complete,[17] and that at the same time French was very popular on the -Continent undoubtedly helped to make its position in England stronger. -It was then that the Italian Brunetto Latini wrote his _Livres dou -Tresor_ (1265), in French rather than in his native tongue, because -French was "plus delitable et plus commune a toutes gens." During the -same century French came to be used in correspondence on both sides of -the Channel.[18] Little by little it was recognized as the most -convenient medium for official uses, and the language most generally -known in these sections of society which had to administer justice.[19] -In the second half of the thirteenth century Robert of Gloucester -complained that there was no land "that holdeth not to its kindly speech -save Englonde only," admitting at the same time, however, that ignorance -of French was a serious disadvantage. An idea of the extent to which the -language was current in England may be gathered from the fact that in -1301 Edward I. caused letters from the Pope to be translated into French -so that they might be understood by the whole army,[20] and in the -previous year the author of the _Miroir des Justices_ wrote in French as -being the language "le plus entendable de la comun people." French, -indeed, appears to have been used among all classes, save the very -poorest;[21] some of the French literature of the time was addressed -more particularly to the middle classes.[22] - -Nevertheless, as the thirteenth century advanced, French began to hold -its own with some difficulty. While it was in the unusual position of a -vernacular gradually losing its power as such, there appeared the -earliest extant treatise on the language. This, and those that followed -it, were to some extent lessons in the vernacular; yet not entirely, as -may be judged from the fact that they are set forth and explained in -Latin, the language of all scholarship. The first work on the French -language, dating from not later than the middle of the thirteenth -century, is in the form of a short Latin treatise on French -conjugations,[23] in which a comparison of the French with the Latin -tenses is instituted.[24] As it appeared at a time when French was -becoming the literary language of the law, and was being used freely in -correspondence, it may have been intended mainly for the use of clerks. -A treatise of considerably more importance composed towards the end of -the century, appears to have had the same purpose. That he did not -intend it exclusively for clerks, however, the author showed by adding -rules for pronunciation, syntax and even morphology as well as for -orthography. Like most of the early grammatical writings on the French -language, this _Orthographia Gallica_ is in Latin. The obscurity of many -of its rules, however, called forth commentaries in French which -appeared during the fourteenth century, and exceed the size of the -original work. The _Orthographia_ was a very popular work, as the number -of manuscripts extant and the French commentary prove. The different -copies vary considerably, and there is a striking increase in the number -of rules given; from being about thirty in the earliest manuscript, they -number about a hundred in the latest.[25] - -It opens with a rule that when the first or middle syllable of a French -word contains a short _e_, _i_ must be placed before the _e_, as in -_bien_, _rien_, etc.--a curious, fumbling attempt to explain the -development of Latin free short _e_ before nasals and oral consonants -into _ie_. On the other hand, continues the author, _e_ acute need not -be preceded by _i_, as _tenez_. It is not surprising that these early -writers, in spite of much patient observation, should almost always have -failed to grasp fundamental laws, and group a series of corresponding -facts into the form of a general rule. We continually find rules drawn -up for a few isolated examples, with no general application. The most -striking feature in the treatment of French orthography in this work is -the continual reference to Latin roots, and the clear statement of the -principle that, wherever possible, the spelling of French words should -be based on that of Latin. - -The _Orthographia_ does not by any means limit its observations to -spelling; there are also rules for pronunciation, a subject which in -later times naturally held a very important place in French grammars -written for the use of Englishmen, while orthography became one of the -chief concerns of French grammarians. That orthography received so much -attention at this early period in this country, is explained by the fact -that these manuals were partly intended for "clerks," who would -frequently have to write in French. As to the pronunciation, we find, -amongst others, the familiar rule that when a French word ending in a -consonant comes before another word beginning with a consonant, the -first consonant is not pronounced. An _s_ occurring after a vowel and -before an _m_, writes the author, in another rule, is not pronounced, as -in _mandasmes_, and _l_ coming after _a_, _e_, or _o_, and followed by a -consonant is pronounced like _u_, as in _m'almi_, _loialment_, and the -like. A list of synonyms[26] is also given, which throws some light on -the English pronunciation of French at this period, and there are also a -few hints for the translation of both Latin and English into French. - -Nor are syntax and morphology neglected; rules concerning these are -scattered among those on orthography and pronunciation, with the lack of -orderly arrangement characteristic of the whole work. Thus we are told -to use _me_ in the accusative case, and _moy_ in all other cases; that -we should form the plural of verbs ending in _t_ in the singular by -adding _z_, as _il amet_, _il list_ become _vous amez_, _vous lisez_; -that when we ask any one for something, we may say _vous pri_ without -_je_, but that, when we do this, we should write _pri_ with a _y_, as -_pry_, and so on. - -The claim of the _Orthographia Gallica_ to be the first extant work on -French orthography, has been disputed by another treatise, also written -in Latin, and known as the _Tractatus Orthographiae_. More methodically -arranged than the _Orthographia_, this work deals more particularly with -pronunciation and orthography.[27] It opens with a short introduction -announcing that here are the means for the youth of the time to make -their way in the world speedily and learn French pronunciation and -orthography. Each letter of the alphabet is first treated in turn,[28] -and then come a few more general observations. Like the author of the -_Orthographia_, the writer of the _Tractatus_ would have the spelling of -French words based on that of Latin whenever possible. He claims that -his own French is "secundum dulce Gallicum" and "secundum usum et modum -modernorum tam partibus transmarinis quam cismarinis." Though he -apparently places the French of England and the French of France on the -same footing, it is noteworthy that he carefully distinguishes between -the two. - -The _Tractatus Orthographiae_ bears a striking resemblance to another -work of like nature, which is better known--the _Tractatus Orthographiae_ -of Canon M. T. Coyfurelly, doctor in Law of Orleans[29]--and for some -time it was thought to be merely a rehandling of Coyfurelly's treatise -which did not appear till somewhere about the end of the fourteenth -century, if not later. But Coyfurelly admits that his work was based on -the labours of one 'T. H. Parisii Studentis,' and there appears, on -examination,[30] to be no doubt as to the priority of the anonymous -_Tractatus_ described above, which, on the contrary, is evidently the -treatise rehandled by Coyfurelly, and the work of 'T. H. Student of -Paris.' Besides being the original which Coyfurelly recast in his -_Tractatus_, it also appears that T. H. may reasonably dispute with the -author of the _Orthographia Gallica_, the honour of being the first in -the field. His work shows no advance on the rules given for -pronunciation in the _Orthographia_, while the orthography is of a -decidedly older stamp. - -At about the same time as these two treatises on orthography, probably a -few years earlier, there was composed a work of similar purpose but very -different character. It is of particular interest, and shows that, -towards the end of the thirteenth century, French was beginning to be -treated as a foreign language; the French is accompanied by a partial -English gloss, and the author states that "touz dis troverez-vous primes -le Frauncois et pus le Engleys suaunt." The author, Gautier or Walter de -Bibbesworth,[31] was an Englishman, and appears to have mixed with the -best society of the day. He was a friend of the celebrated statesman of -the reign of Edward I., Henry de Lacy, Earl of Lincoln. The only work by -which his name is known to-day, in addition to the treatise in question, -is a short piece of Anglo-Norman verse,[32] written on the occasion of -the expedition of Edward I. to the Holy Land in 1270, shortly before he -came to the throne. We gather from letters of protection granted him in -that year that Bibbesworth himself took part in this venture. In this -poem he is pictured discussing the Crusade with Lacy, and trying to -persuade his friend to take part in it. The name of Bibbesworth also -occurs several times[33] in official documents of no special interest, -and as late as 1302 a writ of Privy Seal was addressed to the Chancellor -suing for a pardon under the Great Seal to W. de Bibbesworth, in -consideration of his good services rendered in Scotland, for a breach of -the park of Robert de Seales at Ravenhall, and of the king's prison at -Colchester.[34] - -Bibbesworth, however, interests us less as a crusader or a disturber of -public order, than as the author of a treatise for teaching the French -language, entitled _Le Treytyz qe mounsire Gauter de Bibelesworthe fist -a ma dame Dyonisie de Mounchensy[35] pur aprise de langwage_. The large -number of manuscripts still in existence[36] suggest that it was a -popular text-book among the children of the higher classes of society. -The treatise reproduces, as might be expected, the chief characteristics -of the vocabularies for teaching Latin. In addition to giving a -collection of words and phrases arranged in the form of a narrative, it -also incidentally aims at imparting some slight grammatical information. -Its contents are of a very practical character, and deal exclusively -with the occurrences and occupations of daily life. Beginning with the -new-born child, it tells in French verses how it is to be nursed and -fed. Rime was no doubt introduced to aid the memory, as the pupil would, -in all probability, have to learn the whole by heart. The French is -accompanied by a partial interlinear English gloss, giving the -equivalent of the more difficult French words. This may, perhaps, be -taken as an indication of the extent to which French was regarded as a -foreign language.[37] - -After describing the life of the child during its earliest infancy, -Bibbesworth goes on to tell how it is to be taught French as soon as it -can speak, "that it may be better learned in speach and held up to scorn -by none": - - Quaunt le enfes ad tel age - Ke il set entendre langage, - Primes en Fraunceys ly devez dire - Coment soun cors deyt descrivere, - Pur le ordre aver de moun et ma, - Toun et ta, soun et sa, - _better lered_ - Ke en parlole seyt meut apris - _scorned_ - E de nul autre escharnys. - -In accordance with this programme the parts of the human body, which -almost invariably forms the central theme in this type of manual, are -enumerated. Special care is taken to distinguish the genders and cases, -to teach the children "Kaunt deivunt dire _moun_ et _ma_, _soun_ et -_sa_, _le_ et _la_, _moy_ et _jo_ . . .," and to explain how the meaning -of words of similar sound often depends on their gender: - - _lippe and an hare_ - Vous avet la levere et le levere, - _a pound_ _a book_ - Et la livere et le livere. - La levere si enclost les dens; - Le levere en boys se tent dedens; - La livere sert en marchaundye; - Le livere nous aprent clergye. - -Throughout Bibbesworth seizes every opportunity to point out -distinctions of gender of this kind, regardless, it appears, of the -difference between the definite and indefinite articles. When the pupil -can describe his body, the teacher proceeds to give him an account of -"all that concerns it both inside and out" ("kaunt ke il apent dedens et -deores"), that is of its clothing and food: - - Vestet vos draps mes chers enfauns, - Chaucez vos brays, soulers, e gauns; - Mettet le chaperoun, covrez le chef, etc. - ---a passage which illustrates the practical nature of the treatise, -Bibbesworth's aim being to teach children to know the properties of the -things they see ("les propretez des choses ke veyunt"). - -When the child is clothed, Bibbesworth next feeds him, giving a full -account of the meals and the food which is provided, and, by way of -variety, at the end of the dinner, he teaches his pupil the names given -to groups of different animals, and of the verbs used to describe their -various cries. ("Homme parle, cheval hennist," etc.). By this time the -child is ready to observe Nature, and to learn the terms of -husbandry,[38] and the processes by which his food is produced. From the -fields he passes to the woods and the river, where he learns to hunt and -to fish, subjects which naturally lead to the introduction of the French -names of the seasons, and of the beasts and birds that are supposed to -present themselves to his view. - -During the whole of this long category the verse form is maintained, and -the intention of avoiding a vocabulary pure and simple is manifest. How -superior this method was to the more modern lists of words separated -from the context is also evident. Besides giving a description of all -the objects with which the child comes in contact, and of all the -actions he has to perform, as well as examples for the distinctions of -genders and of _moy_ and _jo_--difficulties for which he makes no -attempts to draw up rules--Bibbesworth claims for his work that it -provides gentlemen with adequate instruction for conversational purposes -("tot le ordre en parler e respoundre ke checun gentyshomme covent -saver"). And as he did not wish to neglect any of the items of daily -life, he finally gives a description of the building of a house and -various domestic arrangements, ending with a description of an old -English feast with its familiar dish, the boar's head: - - Au primer fust apporte - _a boris heued_ - La teste de un sengler tot arme, - _the snout_ _wit baneres of flurs_ - E au groyn le colere en banere; - E pus veneysoun, ou la fourmente; - Assez par my la mesoun - _tahen of gres tyme_ - De treste du fermeyson. - Pus avyent diversetez en rost, - Eit checun autre de cost, - _Cranes_, _pokokes_, _swannes_ - Grues, pounes, e cygnes, - _Wilde ges_, _gryses_ (_porceaus_), _hennes_, - Owes, rosees, porceus, gelyns; - Au tercez cours avient conyns en grave, - Et viaunde de Cypre enfundre, - De maces, e quibibes, e clous de orre, - Vyn blanc e vermayl a graunt plente. - _wodekok_ - Pus avoyunt fesauns, assez, et perdriz, - _Feldefares larkes_ - Grives, alowes, e pluviers ben rostez; - E braoun, e crispes, e fritune; - Ke soucre roset poudra la temprune. - Apres manger avyunt a graunt plente - Blaunche poudre, ou la grosse drage, - Et d'autre nobleie a fusoun, - Ensi vous fynys ceo sermoun; - Kar de fraunceis i ad assez, - De meynte manere dyversetez, - Dount le vous fynys, seynurs, ataunt - A filz Dieu vous comaund. - Ici finest la doctrine monsire Gauter De Byblesworde. - -As time went on a conscious effort was made to retain the use of the -French language in England. Higden, writing at about the middle of the -fourteenth century,[39] informs us that English was then neglected for -two reasons: "One is bycause that children than gon to schole lerne to -speke first Englysshe and then ben compelled constrewe ther lessons in -Frenssh"; "Also gentilmens children ben lerned and taught from theyr -yougthe to speke frenssh.[40] And uplandish men will counterfete and -likene them self to gentilmen and arn besy to speke frensshe for to be -more sette by. Wherefor it is sayd by a common proverbe Jack wold be a -gentilmen if he coude speke frensshe." - -At the University of Oxford, likewise, the Grammar masters were enjoined -to teach the boys to construe in English and in French, "so that the -latter language be not forgotten."[41] The same university gave some -slight encouragement to the study of French. There were special teachers -who, although not enjoying the privileges of those lecturing in the -usual academic subjects, were none the less recognised by the -University. They had to observe the Statutes, and to promise not to give -their lessons at times which would interfere with the ordinary lectures -in arts. The French teachers were under the superintendence of the -masters of grammar, and had to pay thirteen shillings a year to the -Masters in Arts to compensate them for any disadvantage they might -suffer from any loss of pupils; if there was only one teacher of French -he had to pay the whole amount himself. As for those learning "to -write, to compose, and speak French," they had to attend lectures in -rhetoric and grammar--the courses most akin to their studies[42]--and to -contribute to the maintenance of the lecturers in these subjects, there -being no ordinary lectures in French. - -In the meantime, more treatises for teaching French appeared; -Bibbesworth's book soon found imitators, and early in the new century an -anonymous author, clearly an Englishman, made free use of Bibbesworth in -a treatise called _The Nominale sive Verbale in Gallicis cum expositione -ejusdem in Anglicis_.[43] This anonymous writer[44] however, thought it -necessary to make the interlinear English gloss much fuller than -Bibbesworth had done, which shows that French had become more of a -foreign language in the interval between the two works. He also placed -the English rendering after the French, instead of above it. The later -work differs further from the earlier in the order of the subject -headings, as well as by the introduction of a few new topics. -Enumerating the parts of the body,[45] as Bibbesworth had done, the -author proceeds to make his most considerable addition to the subjects -introduced by Bibbesworth in describing "la noyse et des faitz que homme -naturalment fait": - - Homme parle et espire: - _Man spekyth & vndyth._ - Femme teinge et suspire: - _Woman pantyth & syketh._ - Homme bale et babeie: - _Man dravelith & wlaffyth._ - Femme bale et bleseie: - _Woman galpyth & wlispyth._ - -He then describes all the daily actions and occupations of men: - - Homme va a la herce: - _Man goth at the harewe._ - Femme bercelet berce: - _Woman childe in cradel rokkith...._ - Enfant sa lessone reherce: - _His lessone recordeth_, - -and so on for about 350 lines. Other additions are of little -importance, and, for the rest, the author treats subjects first -introduced by Bibbesworth, though the wording often differs to a certain -extent.[46] - -When, towards the end of the thirteenth century, French began to be used -in correspondence, need for instruction in French epistolary art arose; -and early in the fourteenth century guides to letter-writing in French, -in the form of epistolaries or collections of model letters, were -produced.[47] The letters themselves are given in French, but the -accompanying rules and instructions for composing them are in Latin. -French and Latin have changed roles; in earlier times Latin had been -explained to school children by means of French. Forms for addressing -members of the different grades of society are supplied, from epistles -to the king and high state and ecclesiastical dignitaries down to -commercial letters for merchants, and familiar ones for private -individuals. Women, too, were not forgotten; we find similar examples -covering the same range--from the queen and the ladies of the nobility -to her more humble subjects. Each letter is almost invariably followed -by its answer, likewise in French. Some contain interesting references -to the great men or events of the day, but those of a more private -nature possess a greater attraction, and throw light on the family life -of the age. A letter from a mother to her son at school may be -quoted:[48] - - Salut avesque ma benicon, tres chier filz. Sachiez que je desire - grandement de savoir bons nouelles de vous et de vostre estat: car - vostre pere et moy estions a la faisance de ces lettres en bon - poynt le Dieu merci. Et sachiez que je vous envoie par le portour - de ces lettres demy marc pur diverses necessaires que vous en avez - a faire sans escient de vostre pere. Et vous pri cherement, beau - tres doulz filz, que vous laissez tous mals et folyes et ne hantez - mye mauvaise compagnie, car si vous le faitez il vous fera grant - damage, avant que vous l'aperceiverez. Et je vous aiderai selon mon - pooir oultre ce que vostre pere vous donnra. Dieus vous doint sa - benicon, car je vous donne la mienne. . . . - -From about the middle of the fourteenth century a feeling of discontent -with the prerogative of the French language in England becomes -prominent. The loss of the greater part of the French possessions, and -the continued state of hostilities with France during the reign of -Edward III. brought home forcibly to the English mind the fact that the -French were a distinct nation, and French a foreign tongue. This tardy -recovery is sufficient proof of the strong resistance which had to be -overcome. Chaucer is the greatest representative of the new movement. -"Let Frenchmen endite their quaint terms in French," he exclaims, "for -it is kindly to their mouths, but let us show our fantaisies in suche -words as we learned from our dames' tongues." His contemporary, Gower, -was less quick to discern the signs of the times. Of the four volumes of -his works, two are in Latin, one in French, and one in English; but the -order in which he uses these languages is instructive--first French, -then Latin, and lastly English. Some writers made a compromise by -employing a mixture of French and English.[49] French, however, -continued to hold an important place in prose writings until the middle -of the fifteenth century; but such works are of little literary value. -The reign of French as the literary language of England, as Chaucer had -been quick to discern, was approaching its end. - -The same period is marked by a growing disrespect for Anglo-French as -compared with the French of France. The French of England, cut off from -the living source, had developed apart, and often with more rapidity -than the other French dialects on the Continent. What is more, the -language brought by the invaders was not a pure form of the Norman -dialect; men from various parts of France had joined in William's -expedition. The invaders, always called 'French' by their contemporaries, -brought in a strong Picard element; and in the twelfth century there -was a similar Angevin influence. Moreover, during Norman and Angevin -times, craftsmen and others immigrated to England, each bringing with -him the dialectal peculiarities of his own province.[50] Thus no regular -development of Anglo-French was possible, and it can hardly be regarded -as an ordinary dialect, notwithstanding its literary importance.[51] -This disparity in the quality of Anglo-French is illustrated in a -remarkable way by the literature of the period. Those who had received -special educational advantages, or had travelled on the Continent, spoke -and wrote French correctly; others used forms which contrasted pitiably -with continental French. Moreover, the fourteenth century saw the -triumph of the Ile de France dialect in France; the other dialects -ceased, as a rule, to be used in literature,[52] and this change was not -without effect on Anglo-French, which shared their degradation. Chaucer -lets us know the poor opinion he had of the French of England; his -Prioress speaks French "full fayre and fetisly," but - - After the scole of Stratford atte Bowe, - For French of Paris was to her unknowe. - -William Langland admits that he knew "no frenche in feith, but of the -ferthest ende of Norfolke."[53] As early as the thirteenth century -English writers had felt bound to apologize as Englishmen for their -French. Nor were their excuses superfluous in many cases; William of -Wadington, the author of the _Manuel des Pechiez_, for example, -wrote:[54] - - De le francois ne del rimer - Ne me doit nuls hom blamer, - Car en Engleterre fu ne - Et nurri lenz et ordine. - -Such apologies became all the more necessary as time went on. Even -Gower, whose French was comparatively pure,[55] owing no doubt to travel -in France in early life, deemed it advisable to explain that he wrote in -French for "tout le monde en general," and to ask pardon if he has not -"de Francois la faconde": - - Jeo suis Englois si quier par tiele voie - Estre excuse. - -At about the same time the anonymous author of the _Testament of Love_ -finds fault with the English for their persistence in writing in bad -French, "of which speech the Frenchmen have as good a fantasy as we have -in hearing of Frenchmen's English."[56] - -The notoriety of the French of Englishmen reached France. Indeed this -was a time when the English were more generally known in France than -they were to be for several hundreds of years afterwards--until the -eighteenth century. Englishmen filled positions in their possessions in -France, and during the long wars between the two countries in the reign -of Edward III., many of the English nobility resided in that country -with their families. Montaigne refers to traces of the English in -Guyenne, which still remained in the sixteenth century: "Il est une -nation," he writes in one of his Essays, "a laquelle ceux de mon -quartier ont eu autrefois si privee accointance qu'il reste encore en ma -maison aucune trace de leur ancien cousinage."[57] The opinions formed -by the French of the English were naturally anything but flattering. We -find them expressed in songs of the time.[58] But the recriminations -were mutual, and the English had already hit upon the epithet which for -centuries they applied to Frenchmen, and most other foreigners -indiscriminately: - - Franche dogue dit un Anglois. - Vous ne faites que boire vin, - Si faisons bien dist le Francois, - Mais vous buvez le lunnequin. (biere.)[59] - -Even in the _Roman de Renart_ we come across traces of familiarity with -English ways, and also of the English language.[60] - -It is not surprising, then, that Anglo-French was a subject of remark in -France, especially when we remember that already in the thirteenth -century the provincial accents of the different parts of France herself -had been the object of some considerable amount of raillery.[61] The -English, says Froissart, a good judge, for he spent many years in -England, "disoient bien que le francois que ils avoient apris chies eulx -d'enfance n'estoit pas de telle nature et condition que celluy de France -estoit."[62] And this 'condition' was soon recognized as a plentiful -store for facetious remarks and parodies of all kinds. In the _Roman de -Jehan et Blonde_, the young Frenchman's rival, the Duke of Gloucester, -is made to appear ridiculous by speaking bad French; and one of the -tricks played by Renart on Ysengrin, in the _Roman de Renart_, is to -pretend he is an Englishman:[63] - - Ez vos Renart qui le salue: - "Godehelpe," fait il, "bel Sire! - Non saver point ton reson dire." - -And Ysengrin answers: - - Et dex saut vos, bau dous amis! - Dont estes vos? de quel pais? - Vous n'estes mie nes de France, - Ne de la nostre connoissance. - -A _fabliau_ of the fourteenth century[64] pictures the dilemma of two -Englishmen trying to make their French understood in France; one of them -is ill and would have some lamb: - - Si tu avez un anel cras - Mi porra bien mengier ce croi. - -His friend sets out to try to get the 'anel' or 'lamb'; but no one -understands him, and he becomes the laughing-stock of the villagers. At -last some one gives him a 'small donkey' instead of the desired 'agnel,' -and out of this he makes a dish for the invalid who finds the bones -rather large. In the face of a reputation such as this it is no wonder -that the English found additional encouragement to abandon the foreign -language and cultivate their own tongue. - -English was also beginning to make its way into official documents.[65] -In 1362 the King's Speech at the opening of Parliament was pronounced -in English, and in the following year it was directed that all pleas in -the courts of justice should be pleaded and judged in English, because -French was "trope desconue en ledit realme." Despite that, the act was -very tardily obeyed, and English progressed but slowly, French -continuing to be written long after it ceased to be spoken in the Law -Courts. There were a few public documents issued in English at the end -of the century, but the Acts and Records of Parliament continued to be -written in French for many years subsequently. English first made its -way into the operative parts of the Statutes, and till 1503 the formal -parts were still written in French and Latin. Protests were made to -Henry VIII. against the continued use of French, "as thereby ys -testyfied our subjectyon to the Normannys"; yet it was not before the -eighteenth century that English was exclusively used in the Law Courts, -and for many years French, in its corrupt form, remained the literary -language of the English law. Till the seventeenth century works on -jurisprudence and reports on cases were mainly written in French. _Les -Cases de Gray's Inn_ shows French in accounts of discussions on -difficult legal cases as late as 1680.[66] Sir John Fortescue -(1394?-1476), Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench, in his _De -Laudibus Legum Angliae_, suggests that this Law French is more correct -at bottom than ordinary spoken French, which, he contends, is much -"altered by common use, whereas Law French is more often writ than -spoken." In later times no such illusions prevailed. Swift thus -estimates the value of the three languages of the English Law:[67] - - Then from the bar harangues the bench, - In English vile, and viler French, - And Latin vilest of the three. - -At about the same time as Swift wrote, the 'frenchified' Lady, then in -fashion, who prided herself on her knowledge of the "language a la mode" -is described as being able to "keep the field against a whole army of -Lawyers, and that in their own language, French gibberish."[68] And long -after French ceased to be used in the Law many law terms and legal and -official phrases remained, and are still in use to-day.[69] -Anglo-French also lingered in some of the religious houses after it had -fallen into discredit elsewhere, and continued to do so in some cases -till the time of their dissolution. The rules and accounts of the -nunneries were more often in French than not.[70] And John ap Rhys, -visitor of monasteries in the reign of Henry VIII., wrote to Cromwell -regarding the monastery of Laycock in Wiltshire, that he had observed -one thing "worthy th'advertisement; the ladies have their Rule, -th'institutes of their Religion and the ceremonies of the same written -in the Frenche tongue, which they understand well and are very perfyt in -the same, albeit that it varieth from vulgar Frenche that is now used, -and is moche like the Frenche that the common Lawe is written in."[71] - -During this same period English began to be used occasionally in -correspondence; but here again its progress was slow. Some idea of the -extent to which French was utilized for that purpose may be gathered -from the fact that three extant letters of William de Wykeham, addressed -to Englishmen, are all in that tongue. Not till the second and third -decades of the fifteenth century were English and French employed in -correspondence to an almost equal extent, and during the following -years, especially in the reign of Henry VI., English gradually became -predominant.[72] French remained in use longer in correspondence of a -public and official nature, but became more and more restricted to -foreign diplomacy. - -Towards the middle of the fourteenth century, at the beginning of the -long wars with France, French lost ground in England in yet another -direction. Edward III. is said to have found it necessary to proclaim -that all lords, barons, knights, burgesses, should see that their -children learn French for political and military reasons;[73] and when -Trevisa translated Higden's _Polychronicon_, he wrote in correction of -the earlier chronicler's description of the teaching of French in the -grammar schools of England:[74] "This maner was moche used before the -grete deth (1349). But syth it is somdele chaunged. Now (_i.e._ 1387) -they leave all Frensch in scholes, and use all construction in Englisch. -Wherin they have advantage on way that they lerne the soner ther gramer. -And in another disadvantage. For nowe they lerne no Frenssh ne can none, -whiche is hurte for them that shall passe the see," and thus children of -the grammar schools know "no more French than knows their lefte heele." - -Thus the custom of translating Latin into French passed out of use early -in the second half of the fourteenth century. No doubt there had been -signs of the approaching change in the preceding period, and it is of -interest here to notice that while Neckham's Latin vocabulary, which -dates from the second half of the twelfth century, is glossed in French -alone, that of Garlande, which belongs approximately to the third decade -of the following century, is accompanied by translations in both French -and English. In the universities, however, where French had been slower -in gaining a foothold, it remained longer; in the fifteenth century -teachers of French were still allowed to lecture there as they had done -previously, but it is to be noticed that in all the colleges founded -after the Black Death (1349), from which the change in the grammar -schools is dated, the regulations encouraging the speaking of French in -Hall are absent. The change appears also to have affected the higher -classes, who did not usually frequent the grammar schools and -universities, but depended on more private methods of instruction. -Trevisa here again adds a correction to the earlier chronicle, and -informs us that "gentylmen haveth now myche lefte for to teach their -children Frensch." - -We thus witness the gradual disappearance of the effects of the Norman -Conquest in the history of the use of the French language in England. -The Conquest had made Norman-French the language of the Court, and to -some extent, of the Church; it had brought with it a French literature -which nearly smothered the national literature and replaced it -temporarily; it had led to the system of translating Latin into French -as well as into English in the schools. In the later fourteenth century -French was no longer the chief language of the Court, and the king spoke -English and was addressed in the same tongue. In the Church the -employment of French had been restricted and transitory, though, as has -been mentioned, it lingered in some of the monasteries until the -sixteenth century; yet Latin never found in it a serious rival in this -sphere, and the ecclesiastical department of the law never followed the -civil in the adoption of the use of French. How French lost ground in -the other spheres has already been traced: in all these cases its -employment may be regarded as a direct result of the Conquest. - -This great event had also indirect results. French became the official -language of England, and the favourite medium of correspondence in the -thirteenth century, when the fusion between the two races was complete. -But it is highly improbable that French would have spread in these -directions if the Conquest had not in the first place made French the -vernacular of a considerable portion of Englishmen, and that the most -influential. With its use in official documents and in correspondence, -may be classed the slight encouragement French received at Oxford. In -all these spheres it remained longer than it had done where its status -had been a more direct result of the Conquest. - -Meanwhile the desire to cultivate and imitate the French of France had -been growing stronger and stronger; and when, towards the end of the -fourteenth century, the older influences were getting feebler, and in -some cases had passed away, the influence of the continental French, -especially the French of Paris, now supreme over the other dialects, -became more and more marked. And it is this language which henceforth -Englishmen strove to learn, gradually relinquishing the corrupt idiom -with which for so long their name had been associated. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] This was the opinion of Ames: "This seems to be the first grammar of -the French language in our own country, if not in Europe." Dibdin, -Herbert Ames's _Typographical Antiquities_, 1819, iii. p. 365. - -[2] The grammar of Jacques Sylvius or Dubois appeared in 1531, a year -after Palsgrave's. No attempt at a theoretical treatment of the French -language appeared in France in the Middle Ages. There are, however, two -Provencal ones extant. (F. Brunot, "Le Francais a l'etranger," in L. -Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la langue et de la litterature -francaise_, ii. p. 528.) - -[3] One of the chief effects of the Conquest in the schools is said to -have been the substitution of Norman for English schoolmasters (Leach, -_Schools of Mediaeval England_, 1915, p. 103). - -[4] The majority of early Latin vocabularies extant, however, are -accompanied by English translations (cp. T. Wright, _Volume of -Vocabularies_, 2 vols., 1857), as was also the comparatively well-known -_Promptorium Parvulorum_ (_c._ 1440), Camden Soc., 1865. - -[5] The text is given in L. E. Menger's _Anglo-Norman Dialect_, Columbia -University Press, 1904, p. 14. The psalms, together with Cato, Ovid, or -possibly Virgil, formed the usual reading material in the Grammar -Schools. Cp. Rashdall, _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, -Oxford, 1895, ii. p. 603. - -[6] Adam du Petit Pont (_d._ 1150) wrote an epistle in Latin, many words -of which were glossed in French. But there is no evidence that it was -used in England. It was published by E. Scheler in his _Trois traites de -lexicographie latine du 12e et 13e siecles_, Leipzig, 1867. - -[7] Ed. T. Wright, _Volume of Vocabularies_, i. 96, and Scheler, _op. -cit._ Both editions are deemed unsatisfactory by Paul Meyer (_Romania_, -xxxvi. 482). - -[8] It has been published five times: (1) At Caen by Vincent Correr in -1508 (_Romania_, _ut supra_); (2) H. Geraud, in _Documents inedits sur -l'histoire de France_: "Paris sous Philippe le Bel d'apres les documents -originaux," 1837; (3) Kervyn de Lettenhove, 1851; (4) T. Wright, _Volume -of Vocabularies_, i. pp. 120 _sqq._; (5) Scheler, _Trois traites de -lexicographie latine_. - -[9] Wright, _op. cit._ pp. 139-141. - -[10] _Statutes of the Colleges of Oxford_, 3 vols., Oxford and London, -1853; A. Clark, _Colleges of Oxford_, 1891, p. 140; H. C. Maxwell Lyte, -_History of the University of Oxford_, 1880, pp. 140-151. - -[11] _Documents relating to the Universities and Colleges of Cambridge_, -1852, ii. p. 33; J. Bass Mullinger, _The University of Cambridge_, 1873; -G. Peacock, _Observations on the Statutes of the University of -Cambridge_, 1841, p. 4. - -[12] J. Heywood, _Early Cambridge University and College Statutes_, -1885, ii. p. 182. - -[13] C. H. Cooper, _Annals of Cambridge_, Cambridge, 1852, i. p. 40. - -[14] Rashdall, _op. cit._ ii. p. 519 _n._ - -[15] Rashdall, _op. cit._ i. pp. 319 _et seq._ Later the English nation -was known as the German; it included all students from the north and -east of Europe. On the English in the University of Paris see Ch. -Thurot, _De l'organisation de l'enseignement dans l'Universite de -Paris_, Paris, 1850; and J. E. Sandys, "English Scholars of Paris, and -Franciscans of Oxford," in _The Cambridge History of English -Literature_, i., 1908, chap. x. pp. 183 _et seq._ - -[16] Quoted, E. J. B. Rathery, _Les Relations sociales et -intellectuelles entre la France et l'Angleterre_, Paris, 1856, p. 11. - -[17] A writer of about 1180 says it was impossible to tell who were -Normans and who English ("Dialogus de Scaccario": Stubbs, _Select -Charters_, 4th ed., 1881, p. 168). - -[18] "Discours sur l'etat des lettres au 13e siecle," in the _Histoire -litteraire de la France_, xvi. p. 168. - -[19] D. Behrens, in H. Paul's _Grundiss der germanischen Philologie_, -Strassbourg, 1901, pp. 953-55; Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, v. 1876, pp. -528 _sqq._; Maitland, "Anglo-French Law Language," in the _Cambridge -History of English Literature_, i. pp. 407 _sqq._, _History of English -Law_, 1895, pp. 58 _sqq._, and _Collected Papers_, 1911, ii. p. 436. At -the universities, where Latin was the usual language of correspondence, -letters and petitions were often drawn up in French (Oxford Hist. Soc., -_Collectanea_, 1st series, 1885, pp. 8 _sqq._). - -[20] Bateson, _Mediaeval England_, 1903, p. 319. - -[21] Maitland, _Collected Papers_, 1911, ii. p. 437. - -[22] Such are Bozon's _Contes moralises_ (_c._ 1320), ed. P. Meyer, in -the _Anciens Textes Francais_, 1889. In his Introduction Meyer lays -stress on the widespread use of French in England at this time, and its -chance of becoming the national language of England, an eventuality -which, he thinks, might have been a benefit to humanity. - -[23] MS. at Trinity Col. Cambridge (R. 3. 56). - -[24] Paul Meyer calls it the work of a true grammarian (_Romania_, -xxxii. p. 65). - -[25] There are four MSS. extant. These have been collated and published -by J. Sturzinger in the _Altfranzoesische Bibliothek_, vol. viii., -Heilbronn, 1884; cp. _Romania_, xiv. p. 60. The earliest MS. is in the -Record Office, and was published by T. Wright in Haupt and Hoffman's -_Altdeutsche Blaetter_ (ii. p. 193). Diez quoted from this edition in -his _Grammaire des langues romanes_, 3rd ed. i. pp. 415, 418 _sqq._ The -three other MSS. are in the Brit. Mus., Camb. Univ. Libr. and Magdalen -Col. Oxon., and belong to the three succeeding centuries. Portions of -the Magdalen Col. MS. are quoted by A. J. Ellis, in his _Early English -Pronunciation_, pp. 836-839, and by F. Genin, in his preface to the -French Government reprint of Palsgrave's Grammar, 1852. It is the -British Museum copy, made in the reign of Edward III., which contains -the French commentary. - -[26] Early English writers on the French tongue were fond of drawing -attention to the opportunities for punning afforded by the language. - -[27] Edited by Miss M. K. Pope in the _Modern Language Review_ (vol. v., -1910, pt. ii. pp. 188 _sqq._), from the Brit. Mus. Addit. MS. 17716, ff. -88-91; it also exists at All Souls, Oxford (MS. 182 f. 340), and at -Trinity Col. Cambridge (MS. B 14. 39, 40); in the last MS. the -introduction of the two preceding ones is lacking (cp. Meyer, _Romania_, -xxxii. p. 59). - -[28] For instance, we are told that _a_ is sounded almost like _e_ as in -_savez vous faire un chauncoun . . ._; that the phrases _a_, _en a_, _i -a_ which mean one and the same thing when they come from the Latin -_habet_, should be written without _d_; that _aura_, _en array_ should -be written without _e_ in the middle, and sounded without _u_, as -_aray_, _en array_, though the English include the _e_. - -[29] Published by Stengel, in the _Zeitschrift fuer neufranzoesische -Sprache und Literatur_, 1879, pp. 16-22. - -[30] Miss Pope, _ut supra_. - -[31] His name has provoked some discussion as to its correct form. It is -frequently written as Biblesworth, and one MS. gives it the form of -Bithesway; the correct form, however, is Bibbesworth, the name of a -manor in the parish of Kempton (Herts), of which Walter was the owner -(P. Meyer, _Romania_, xv. p. 312, and xxx. p. 44 _n._; W. Aldis Wright, -_Notes and Queries_, 1877, 4th Series, viii. p. 64). - -[32] Printed from the MS. in the Bodleian, in Wright and Halliwell's -_Reliquiae Antiquae_, i. p. 134. - -[33] _Calendar of Patent Rolls, 1247-58_, pp. 58, 103, 187. He received -exemption from being put on assizes or juries in 1249. - -[34] _Calendar of Patent Rolls, 1301-1307_, p. 39. - -[35] She died in 1304; her father was one of the leaders on the king's -side at the battle of Lewes (1264). - -[36] There are many MSS. in the British Museum; others at Oxford and -Cambridge, and one in the Library of Sir Th. Phillips at Cheltenham. The -best-known edition of the vocabulary is that of T. Wright, _Volume of -Vocabularies_, i. pp. 142-174, which is the one here quoted, and which -reproduces Arundel MS. 220, collated with Sloane MS. 809. P. Meyer has -given a critical edition of the first eighty-six lines in his _Recueil -d'anciens textes--partie francaise_, No. 367 (cp. _Romania_, xiii. p. -500). - -[37] In the vocabularies written in imitation of Bibbesworth at later -dates, the English gloss is fuller, and in the latest one complete, as -French became more and more a foreign language. - -[38] "Pus to le frauncoys com il en court en age de husbonderie, com pur -arer, rebiner, waretter, semer, sarcher, syer, faucher, carier, batre, -moudre, pestrer, briser," etc. - -[39] _Polychronicon_, lib. 1, cap. 59 (ed. Babington and Lumly, Rolls -Publications, 41, 1865-66, vol. ii. pp. 159 _sqq._). - -[40] Cp. the thirteenth-century romance in which Jehan de Dammartin -teaches French to Blonde of Oxford (ed. Le Roux de Lincy, Camden Soc., -1858). - -[41] F. Anstey, _Monumenta Academica_, 1868, p. 438. - -[42] Anstey, _op. cit._, 1868, p. 302. - -[43] Published from a MS. in Cambridge University Library (Ee 4, 20), by -Skeat, in the _Transactions of the Philological Society_ (1903-1906). - -[44] The MS. in which the work is preserved dates from about 1340, but -is probably copied from an earlier one. - -[45] - - "Corps teste et hanapel - _Body heuede and heuedepanne_ - Et peil cresceant sur la peal. - _And here growende on the skyn_," etc. - -[46] How close the resemblance is between the two works may be judged by -the following quotations: - - Par le gel nous avons glas, - Et de glas vient verglas. (NOMINALE.) - - Pur le gel vous avomus glas, - Et pluvye e gele fount vereglas. (BIBBESWORTH.) - -And it is in words almost identical with those of Bibbesworth that the -author describes the difference in the meaning of some words according -to their gender: - - La levere deit clore les dentz. - _The lippe._ - Le levere en boys se tient de deynz. - _The hare._ - La livre sert a marchauntz. - _The pounde._ - Le livere aprent nous enfauntz. - _The boke._ - -[47] The earliest of these MSS. dates from the second decade of the -fourteenth century. These epistolaries are found in the following MSS.: -Harleian 4971 and 3988, Addit. 17716, in the Brit. Mus.; Ee 4, 20 in -Cantab. Univ. Library; B 14. 39, 40 in Trinity Col. Camb.; 182 at All -Souls, Oxford, and 188 Magdalen Col. Oxford (cp. Stuerzinger, -_Altfranzoesiche Bibliothek_), viii. pp. xvii-xix. The Introductions to -these letters were edited in a Griefswald Dissertation (1898), by W. -Uerkvitz. - -[48] Stengel, _op. cit._ pp. 8-10. - -[49] _Romania_, iv. p. 381, xxxii. p, 22. - -[50] W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_, -Cambridge, 1896, pp. 635 _sqq._ - -[51] L. Menger, _Anglo-Norman Dialect_; Behrens, _art. cit._ pp. 960 -_sqq._; Brunot, _Histoire de la langue francaise_, i. pp. 319 _sqq._, -369. - -[52] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 331. - -[53] Jusserand, _Histoire litteraire du peuple anglais_, 1896. p. 240 n. - -[54] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 369. - -[55] P. Meyer commends Gower's French (_Romania_, xxxii. p. 43). - -[56] T. R. Lounsbury, _Studies in Chaucer_, London, 1892, p. 458. - -[57] Livre ii. ch. xii. - -[58] As in those of Olivier Basselin. - -[59] Eustache Deschamps, _Oeuvres_, ed. Crapelet, p. 91, quoted by -Rathery, _op. cit._ p. 181 (cp. also _English Political Songs_, ed. T. -Wright. Camden Soc., 1839). - -[60] Jusserand, _op. cit._ p. 153 n. The fourteenth branch of the -_Roman_ is specially mentioned: cp. Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 369, n. 4. - -[61] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. 330. It is not rare to find English -pronunciation of French ridiculed in France, and Englishmen represented -as talking a sort of gibberish; cp. _Romania_, xiv. pp. 99, 279, and -Brunot, _op. cit._ p. 369 n. - -[62] Behrens, _op. cit._ p. 957. - -[63] Ed. E. Martin, 1882, l. 2351 _sqq._ - -[64] _Recueil general et complet des fabliaux_, ed. Montaiglon et -Raynaud, ii. p. 178. - -[65] Maitland, _Collected Papers_, 1911, ii. p. 436; Freeman, _op. cit._ -p. 536; Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 373. - -[66] F. Watson, _Religious Refugees and English Education_, London, -1911, p. 6. There are numerous entries of such works in the _Stationers' -Register_. - -[67] Answer to Dr. Lindsey's epigram, _Works_, ed. 1841, i. p. 634. - -[68] [H. Dell], _The Frenchified Lady never in Paris_, London, 1757. - -[69] Pepys in his Diary notes the use of French in such phrases, and the -Abbe Le Blanc (_Lettres d'un Francais sur les Anglais_, a la Haye, 1745) -was also struck by the custom. - -[70] Bateson, _Mediaeval England_, p. 342; Warton, _History of English -Poetry_, p. 10 n. - -[71] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series, 1846, i. p. xi. - -[72] M. A. E. Green (_nee_ Wood), _Letters of Royal and Illustrious -Ladies_, London, 1846; _The Paston Letters_, new edition by J. Gairdner, -3 vols., London, 1872-75; H. Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series, -London, 1846; J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, _Letters of the Kings of -England_, London, 1846; C. L. Kingsford, _English Historical Literature -in the Fifteenth Century_, Oxford, 1893, pp. 193 _et seq._; Hallam, -_Literature of Europe_, 6th ed., London, 1860, i. p. 54. - -[73] "Que tout seigneur, baron, chevalier et honestes hommes de bonnes -villes mesissent cure et dilligence de estruire et apprendre leurs -enfans le langhe francoise, par quoy il en fuissent plus avec et plus -costumier ens leurs gherres" (Froissart, quoted by Behrens, _op. cit._ -p. 957 n.). - -[74] Higden, _ut supra_. - - - - -CHAPTER II - - THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY - - -These great changes which took place in the status of French in England -did not, however, affect fundamentally the popularity of the language: -they had to do with Anglo-French alone. French, as distinct from this -and as a foreign language, received more attention than ever before, -especially from the higher classes, and from travellers and merchants. -It was the language of politeness and refinement in the eyes of -Englishmen, not only as a result of the Conquest, but for its inherent -qualities; and so it retained this position when it gave way to English -or Latin in other spheres where its predominance had been due, either -directly or indirectly, to the Conquest. French had enjoyed a social -reputation in England before the arrival of the invaders,[75] and had -already made some progress towards becoming the language which the -English loved and cultivated above all modern foreign tongues, and to -which they devoted for a great many years more care than they did to -their own. "Doulz francois," writes an Englishman at the end of the -fourteenth century in a treatise for teaching the language,[76] is the -most beautiful and gracious language in the world, after the Latin of -the schools,[77] "et de tous gens mieulx prisee et amee que nul autre; -quar Dieu le fist se doulce et amiable principalement a l'oneur et -loenge de luy mesmes. Et pour ce il peut bien comparer au parler des -angels du ciel, pour la grant doulceur et biaultee d'icel"--a more -eloquent tribute even than the more famous lines of Brunetto Latini. -Another writer of the same period informs us that "les bones gens du -Roiaume d'Engleterre sont embrasez a scavoir lire et escrire, entendre -et parler droit Francois," and that he himself thinks it is very -necessary for the English to know the "droict nature de Francois," for -many reasons.[78] For instance, that they may enjoy intercourse with -their neighbours, the good folk of the kingdom of France; that they may -better understand the laws of England, of which a great many are still -written in French; and also because "beaucoup de bones choses sont misez -en Francois," and the lords and ladies of England are very fond of -writing to each other in the same tongue.[79] - -As a result of the altered circumstances which were modifying the -attitude of the English, there is a corresponding change in the standard -of the French which the manuals for teaching that language sought to -attain. All the best text-books of the end of the fourteenth and -fifteenth centuries endeavour with few exceptions to impart a knowledge -of the French of Paris, "doux francois de Paris" or "la droite language -de Paris," as it was called, in contrast with the French of -Stratford-atte-Bowe and other parts of England. Those authors of -treatises for teaching French of whose lives we have any details, had -studied French in France, at Paris, Orleans, or some other University -town. The fact that many of their productions still contain numbers of -words belonging to the Norman and other dialects does not diminish the -importance and significance of their more ambitious aims. These pioneer -works on the French language, written in England by Englishmen without -the guidance of any similar work produced in France, were bound to -contain archaisms as well as anglicisms.[80] - -Fluency in speaking French was the chief need of the classes of society -in which the demand for instruction was greatest. Correctness in detail -was only of secondary importance, and grammar, though desirable, was not -considered indispensable. The importance of speaking French naturally -brought the subject of pronunciation to the fore. No doubt most of the -early teachers shared the opinions of their successors, that rules and -theoretical information were of little avail in teaching the sounds of -the language, compared with the practice of imitation and repetition; -nevertheless, many of them attempted to supply some information on the -subject. When, in the second decade of the fifteenth century, another -writer based a new treatise for teaching French on the vocabulary of -Bibbesworth, which had then been current for well over a century, the -chief point in which it differed from its original was precisely in the -provision of guidance to facilitate pronunciation. - -This new treatise was styled _Femina_,[81] because just as the mother -teaches her young child to speak his native tongue, so does this work -teach children to speak French naturally.[82] It covers almost exactly -the same ground as the vocabulary of Bibbesworth, but, as in the case of -the earlier imitation of the same work, the _Nominale_, the order of -arrangement varies, and the whole is permeated with a lively humour -which makes it at least equal in interest to the work on which it is -based. The French lines are octosyllabic and arranged in distichs, each -pair being followed by an English translation, which is given in full, -contrary to the practice in the earlier works of the same kind. The -author endeavours to teach the French of France[83] as distinguished -from that of England, and, although he lavishes provincialisms from the -local dialects of France--Norman, Picard, Walloon--in the main they are -French provincialisms, and many of them may be due to errors on the part -of the scribe. To assist pronunciation notes are provided at the bottom -of the page, giving pseudo-English equivalents of the sounds of words -written otherwise in the text. - -The treatise opens with an exhortation to the child to learn French that -he may speak fairly before wise men, for "heavy is he that is not -taught": - -Cap: primum docet rethorice loqui de assimilitudine bestiarum. - - a b - Beau enfaunt pur apprendre - c d - En franceis devez bien entendre - Ffayre chyld for to lerne - In french ye schal wel understande - - e - Coment vous parlerez bealment, - Et devaunt les sagez naturalment. - How ye schal speke fayre, - And afore ye wysemen kyndly. - - f g - Ceo est veir que vous dy, - h i - Hony est il qui n'est norry. - That ys soth that y yow say - Hevy ys he that ys not taugth - - k l - Parlez tout ditz com affaites - m - Et nenny come dissafaites - Spekep alway as man ys tauth - And not as man untauth. - - Parlez imprimer de tout assemble - n o - Dez bestez que Dieu ad forme. - Spekep fyrst of manere assemble alle - Of bestes that God hath y maked. - - (_a_) beau debet legi bev, (_b_) enfaunt, (_c_) fraunceys, (_d_) bein, - (_e_) belement, (_f_) ce, (_g_) cet vel eyztt, (_h_) Iil, (_i_) neot, - (_k_) toutdiz, (_l_) afetes, (_m_) dissafetes, (_n_) beetez, (_o_) dv - et non Dieu. - -The subsequent chapters deal with the same subjects as in Bibbesworth, -and sometimes the wording is almost identical. The concluding chapter, -"De moribus infantis," is taken from another source, and gives -admonitions for discreet behaviour, quoting the moral treatise of the -pseudo-Cato, the Proverbs of Solomon, and the like. The passage in which -_Femina_ deals with the upbringing of the child may be of interest, as -showing how the later author repeats the earlier, while altering the -wording; and as throwing some light on the way French was then learnt: - - Et quaunt il court en graunt age - Mettez ly apprendre langage. - And when he runs in great age[84] - Put him to learn language. - - En fraunceys a luy vous devez dire - Comez il doit soun corps discrire. - In French to him ye shall say - How first he shall his body describe. - - Et pur ordre garder de moun et ma, - Toun et ta, son et sa, masculino et feminino. - And for order to kepe of mon and ma, - Toun and ta, soun and sa, for ma souneth. - - Quia ma sonat feminino moun masculino. - To femynyn gender and moun to masculyn. - - Cy que en parle soit bien apris, - Et de nule homme escharnis. - So that in speach he be well learned, - And of no man scorned. - -At the end is a 'calendar,' or table of words arranged alphabetically in -three parallel columns. The first gives the orthography of the word, the -second the pronunciation, and the third the explanation of its meaning -and construction, which usually takes the form of an English equivalent. - -In the meanwhile the grammatical study of French was not neglected. -There are still extant numerous small treatises[85] dealing with -different aspects of French grammar, chiefly the flexions, and belonging -to the end of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The conjugation of -verbs receives special attention, and there are several manuscripts -providing paradigms and lists of the chief parts of speech--often very -incorrect, and of more value as showing the interest taken in French in -England than as illustrating any development in the history of the -conjugations of French verbs. The usual verbs described in these -fragmentary works[86] are _amo_, _habeo_, _sum_, _volo_, _facio_, and -the French paradigms are generally accompanied by Latin ones, on which -they are naturally based, and which were intended to help the student to -understand the French ("cum expositione earundem in Latinis"). The two -most considerable of these works known add many verbs to the list -mentioned above. Of these the first, the _Liber Donati_,[87] gives -examples of law French rather than literary French;[88] but the other, -written in French, endeavours to teach "douce francois de Paris"--_cy -comence le Donait soloum douce franceis de Paris_.[89] The _Donait_ -belongs to the fifteenth century, and is the work of one R. Dove, who -also wrote some _Regulae de Orthographia Gallica_ in Latin,[90] which -show considerable resemblance to those of the earlier _Orthographia -Gallica_. The same is true of some of the rules devoted to orthography -in the _Liber Donati_, which also owes something to the work of 'T. H., -Student of Paris,' either in the original form, or, more probably, in -the recast, due to Canon Coyfurelly. In this respect, Coyfurelly -continues the efforts of the earlier writer to purify English spelling -of French--efforts which at this time would meet with more success than -was the case earlier.[91] - -Another topic touched on in the _Regulae_ of R. Dove is the formation of -the plural of nouns, and of the feminine of adjectives. The substance of -one of these rules may be quoted, as an example of the failure of these -early writers to grasp general principles. All nouns ending in _ge_, -like _lange_, says the grammarian, take _s_ in the plural, as _langes_; -all nouns ending in _urc_, as _bourc_, have _z_ or _s_ in the plural and -drop the _c_, as _bours_; all nouns ending in _nyn_, as _conyn_, take -_s_ in the plural, as _chemyns_; all nouns ending in _eyn_, as _peyn_, -form their plural by adding _s_, as _peyns_. Such is the rule for the -formation of the plural of nouns, and that for the feminine of -adjectives, which follows, is on the same lines. Pronouns also received -some attention from these early grammarians. The _Liber Donati_[92] -contains a few remarks on the personal, demonstrative and possessive -pronouns, giving the different forms for the singular and plural and the -various cases; thus it tells us that _jeo_ and sometimes _moy_ are used -for _I_ (_ego_) in the nominative case, and in other cases _moy_ or _me_ -in the singular, while _nous_ is used for the plural in all cases, and -so forth. - -We thus see that the verbs, nouns and pronouns received consideration, -varying in degree, at the hands of these pioneers in French grammar. -Neither were the indeclinable parts of speech neglected; at the end of -the _Liber Donati_ there is a list of some of these as well as of the -ordinal and cardinal numbers in both Latin and French, while the -_Donait_ gives the numbers only. Some manuscripts contain lists of -adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions in Latin and French.[93] Others -give lists of the cardinal and ordinal numbers in French, and one adds -to these a nomenclature of the different colours.[94] The names of the -days, months, and feast-days were another favourite subject. - -Of these small treatises that which nearest approaches the form of a -comprehensive grammar is the _Liber Donati_, which includes observations -on the orthography and pronunciation, on verbs and pronouns, and lists -of adverbs, conjunctions, and numerals. But there appeared at the -beginning of the fifteenth century, before 1409, a more comprehensive -treatise of some real value--the _Donait francois pur briefment -entroduyr les Anglois en la droit langue du Paris et de pais la -d'entour_,[95] a work which but for its very many anglicisms might be -placed on a level with some of the similar grammars of the sixteenth -century.[96] The origin of this _Donait_ is interesting. A certain -Englishman, John Barton, born and bred in the county of Cheshire, but a -student of Paris, and a passionate lover of the French language, engaged -some good clerks to compose the _Donait_, at his own great cost and -trouble, for the benefit of the English, who are so eager ("embrasez") -to learn French.[97] Judging from the lines with which Barton closes his -short but communicative preface, the work was intended mainly for the -use of young people--the "chers enfants" and "tres douces pucelles," -'hungering' to learn French: "Pur ce, mes chiers enfantz et tresdoulcez -puselles," he writes, "que avez fam d'apprendre cest Donait scachez -qu'il est divise en belcoup de chapiters si come il apperera cy avale." -Barton then retires to make way for his 'clerks,' whose remarks are -entirely confined to grammatical teaching and who, like Barton, write in -French. - -Most of the early treatises on French grammar which appeared in England -are written in Latin. Latin appears to have been the medium through -which French was learnt and explained to a large extent, although in the -case of the riming vocabularies English was used for teaching the young -children for whom these nomenclatures were chiefly written. But grammar, -probably intended to be learnt by older students, was usually studied in -Latin, which was also found to be a help in learning French. Students -are told to base French orthography on that of Latin, and there are -constant references from French words to their Latin originals. The -_Donait soloum douce franceis de Paris_ is apparently the only work of -any importance written in French before that of Barton. English was not -used for this purpose before the sixteenth century, when it was almost -invariably employed, even by Frenchmen. A grammar such as Barton's -would, no doubt, be read and translated with the help of a tutor; and it -is highly probable that the children for whom it was intended would have -previously acquired some practical knowledge of French from some such -elementary treatise as Bibbesworth's vocabulary. Moreover, French was so -generally in use in the higher classes of society, and had been for so -long a kind of semi-national tongue, that it would hardly be approached -as an entirely foreign language, as in later times. In writing a French -grammar in French, Barton and those who followed the same course merely -adopted for the teaching of French a method in common use in the -teaching of Latin. The advisability of writing French grammars in French -was a question, as we shall see, much discussed in the sixteenth and -seventeenth centuries as well as in much more recent times. - -The clerks employed by Barton made free use of the observations on -French grammar which had appeared previously. But their work had an -additional value; the rules are stated with considerable clearness and -are usually correct.[98] The opening chapters deal with the letters and -their pronunciation, set forth, like the rest of the grammar, in a -series of questions and answers: - - Quantez letters est il? Vint. Quellez? Cinq voielx et quinse - consonantez. Quelx sont les voielx et ou seroit ils sonnes? Le - premier vouyel est _a_ et serra sonne en la poetrine, la seconde - est _e_ et serra sonne en la gorge, le tiers est _i_ et serra sonne - entre les joues, le quart est _o_ et serra sonne du palat de la - bouche, le quint est _u_ et serra sonne entre les levres. - -To these observations on the vowels are added a few on the consonants, -and "belcoup de bones rieules" (six in all) treating the avoidance of -hiatus between two consonants and the effects of certain vowels and -consonants on each other's pronunciation. Next come a few observations -on the parts of speech; for "apres le Chapitre des lettres il nous fault -dire des accidens." Instead of giving a number of isolated instances as -rules for the formation of the plural, the general rule for the addition -of _s_ to the singular is evolved and emphasized by this advice: "Pour -ceo gardez vous que vous ne mettez pas le singuler pour le pulier -(pluriel) ne a contraire, si come font les sots." Further, we must avoid -imitating the 'sottez gens,' to whom frequent reference is made, in -using one person of a tense for another, and saying _je ferra_ for _je -ferray_.[99] In this section of the work the rules follow each other -without any orderly arrangement.[100] - -At about the same time an English poet is said to have written a French -grammar, as another poet, Alexander Barclay, actually did later. An -early bibliographer[101] includes in his list of Lydgate's works one -entitled _Praeceptiones Linguae Gallicae_, in one book, of which no -further trace remains to-day. Lydgate, however, was well acquainted with -French; he made the customary foreign tour, besides visiting Paris again -on a later occasion in attendance on noble patrons, and put his -knowledge of the language to the test by translating or adapting several -works from the French, like most contemporary writers.[102] The same -early authority informs us that, as soon as Lydgate returned from his -travels, he opened a school for the sons of noblemen, possibly at Bury -St. Edmunds. Probably Lydgate wrote a French grammar for the use of -these young noblemen, who would certainly have to learn the language; -and, after serving their immediate purpose, these rules, we may surmise, -were lost and soon forgotten. - -In the fifteenth century, instruction in French epistolary style of all -degrees continued to be supplied in collections of model letters; and at -the end of the fourteenth century a new kind of book for teaching French -appeared--the _Maniere de Langage_ or model conversation book, intended -for the use of travellers, merchants, and others desiring a -conversational and practical rather than a thorough and grammatical -knowledge of French. Contrary to the custom, prevalent at this later -period, of providing English translations, the earliest of these contain -no English gloss, but simply the French text without any attempt at even -the slight grammatical instruction provided in the vocabularies. Their -sole purpose was to give the traveller or wayfarer a supply of phrases -and expressions on the customary topics; grammatical instruction could -be sought elsewhere. - -The earliest of these[103] is the first work for teaching French to -which a definite date can be assigned. A sort of dedication at the end -is dated from Bury St. Edmunds, "la veille du Pentecote, 1396." We have -not the same definite information as to the author.[104] The anglicisms -make it clear that he was an Englishman, while the references to Orleans -and its university, and the trouble there between the students and the -townspeople in 1389, suggest that he was a student of that university, -then much frequented by the English and other foreigners, especially law -students. He may have been Canon M. T. Coyfurelly, Doctor of Law of -Orleans,[105] and author of the contemporary recasting of T. H.'s -treatise on French orthography. The author tells us he undertook his -task at the request of a "tres honore et tres gentil sire"; that he had -learnt French "es parties la mere," and that he wrote according to the -knowledge he acquired there, which, he admits, may not be perfect. -Indeed his French is full of anglicisms; _que homme_ is written for -'that man'; _oeuvrer_ for 'worker'; _que_ for 'why,' and so on; there -are also many grammatical mistakes such as wrong genders, _au homme_, -_de les_ for _des_, _de le_ for _du_. This "maniere" must have enjoyed a -very considerable popularity, judging from the number of manuscripts, of -various dates, still in existence. And, in modern times, it presents a -greater interest to the reader than any of the treatises mentioned -before, partly from the naivete and quaintness of its style, partly -owing to the vivid picture it gives us of the life of the time at which -it was written. - -It opens in a religious strain, with a prayer that the students of the -book may have "sens naturel" to learn to speak, pronounce, and write -"doulz francois": - - A noster commencement nous dirons ainsi: en nom du pere, filz et - Saint Esperit, amen. Ci comence la Maniere de Language qui - t'enseignera bien a droit parler et escrire doulz francois selon - l'usage et la coustume de France. Primiers, au commencement de - nostre fait et besogne nous prierons Dieu devoutement et nostre - Dame la benoite vierge Marie sa tres douce mere, et toute la - glorieuse compaigne du Saint reaume de Paradis celeste, ou Dieux - mette ses amis et ses eslus, de quoi vient toute science, sapience, - grace et entendement et tous manieres vertuz, qu'il luy plaist de - sa grande misericorde et grace tous les escoliers estudianz en cest - livre ainsi abruver et enluminer de la rousee de sa haute sapience - et entendement, qu'ils pouront avoir sens naturel d'aprendre a - parler, bien soner et a droit escrire doulz francois. - -Then, because man is the noblest of all created things, the author -proceeds to give a list of the parts of his body, which recalls the old -riming vocabularies. This, however, is the only portion in which -conversation is sacrificed to vocabulary. In the rest of the work, -though the vocabulary is increased by alternative phrases wherever -possible, it is never allowed to encroach too much on the conversation. - -The second chapter presents a scene between a lord and his page, in -which the page receives minute instructions for commissions to the -draper, the mercer, and upholsterer--an excellent opportunity of -introducing a large choice of words. Conversation for travellers is the -subject of the third chapter, the most important, and certainly the most -interesting in the whole book. It tells, "Coment un homme chivalchant ou -cheminant se doit contenir et parler sur son chemin qui voult aler bien -loin hors de son pais." After witnessing the preparations for the -journey, the reader accompanies the lord and his page through an -imaginary journey in France. Dialogue and narrative alternate, and the -lord talks with his page Janyn or whiles away the time with songs: - - Et quant il aura achevee sa chanson il comencera a parler a son - escuier ou a ses escuiers, ainsi disant: "Mes amys, il est bien pres - de nuyt," vel sic: "Il sera par temps nuyt." Doncques respont Janyn - au son signeur bien gentilment en cest maniere: "Vrayement mon - seigneur, vous ditez verite"; vel sic: "vous ditez voir"; vel sic: - "vous dites vray"--"Je panse bien qu'il feroit mieux pour nous - d'arester en ce ville que d'aller plus avant maishuy. Coment vous - est avis?"--"Ainsi comme vous vuillez, mon seigneur." "Janyn!"--"Mon - signeur?"--"Va devant et prennez nostre hostel par temps."--"Si - ferai-je, mon seigneur." Et s'en vait tout droit en sa voie, et - quant il sera venu a l'ostel il dira tout courtoisement en cest - maniere. "Hosteler, hosteler," etc. - -The page then proceeds to make hasty preparations for the coming of his -master to the inn, and we next assist at the arrival of the lord and his -evening meal and diversions--another opportunity for the introduction of -songs--and his departure in the morning towards Etampes and Orleans. - -More humble characters appear in the next chapter: "Un autre maniere de -parler de pietalle, comme des labourers et oeuvrers de mestiers." Here -we have conversations between members of the working classes. A gardener -and a ditcher discuss their respective earnings, describe their work, -and finally go and dine together; a baker talks with his servant, and so -gives us the names of the chief things used in his trade, just as the -gardener gave a list of flowers and fruits. A merchant scolds his -apprentice for various misdemeanours, and then sends him off to market: - - Doncques l'apprentiz s'en vait au marchie pour vendre les danrees de - son maistre et la vienment grant cop des gens de divers pais de les - achater: et apprentiz leur dit tout courtoisement en cest - maniere,--'Mes amis venez vous ciens et je vous monstrerai de aussi - bon drap comme vous trouverez en tout ce ville, et vous en aurez de - aussi bon marche comme nul autre. Ore regardez, biau sire, comment - vous est avis; vel sic: comment vous plaist il; - -and after some bargaining he sells his goods. - -In the next "maniere de parler" a servant brings a torn doublet to a -mender of old clothes, and enlists his services. A chapter of more -interest and importance is that dealing with greetings and salutations -to be used at different times of the day to members of the various ranks -of society: - - Quant un homme encontrera aucun au matinee il luy dira tout - courtoisement ainsi: "Mon signour Dieux vous donne boun matin et - bonne aventure," vel sic: "Sire Dieux vous doint boun matin et bonne - estraine, Mon amy, Dieux vous doint bon jour et bonne encontre." Et - a midi vous parlerez en cest maniere: "Monsieur Dieux vous donne bon - jour et bonnes heures"; vel sic: "Sire, Dieu vous beneit et la - compaignie!" A peitaille vous direz ainsi: "Dieux vous gart!" . . . - Et as oeuvrers et labourers vous direz ainsi: "Dieux vous ait, mon - amy," - -and so on. One traveller asks another whence he comes and where he was -born, and the other says he comes from Orleans, where there is a fierce -quarrel between the students and the townspeople; and was born in -Hainaut, where they love the English well, and there is a saying that -"qui tient un Henner (Hennuyer) par la main, tient un Englois par le -cuer." We are next taught how to speak to children: "Quant vous verez un -enfant plorer et gemir, vous direz ainsi: Qu'as tu, mon enfant," and -comfort him, and when a poor man asks you for alms, you shall answer, -"Mon amy, se je pourroi je vous aidasse tres volantiers. . . ." - -From this we return to subjects more suited to merchants and -wayfarers--how to inquire the road, and to go on a pilgrimage to the -tomb of St. Thomas-a-Becket. The work closes with a gathering of -companions in an inn, which, like the rest of the chapters, is full of -life and interest. Last of all, a sort of supplement is added in the -form of a short poem on the drawbacks of poverty: - - Il est hony qui pouveres est, - -and a _fatrasie_ in prose. - -Another treatise of the same kind, written about three years later, was -intended chiefly for the use of children, _Un petit livre pour enseigner -les enfantz de leur entreparler comun francois_.[106] It was not the -first of its kind. The metrical vocabularies of Bibbesworth and his -successors were chiefly intended for the use of children. There is also -some evidence to show that the grammatical treatises were used by -children; the commentary was added to the _Orthographica Gallica_ -because the rules were somewhat obscure "pour jeosne gentz," and Barton, -in his introduction, mentions the "chiers enfantz" and "tresdoulez -puselles," as those whom his grammar particularly concerns. - -In the _Petit livre_, however, the teaching is of the simplest kind, and -specially suited to children. The dialogue lacks the interest of the -earlier 'maniere,' and inclines, in places, to become a list of phrases -pure and simple. The work opens abruptly with the words: "Pour ce sachez -premierement que le an est divise en deux, c'est asscavoir le yver et -la este. Le yver a six mois et la este atant, que vallent douse," and so -on to the other divisions of the year and time. The children are then -taught the numbers in French, the names of the coins, and those of the -persons and things with which they come into daily contact. Then follow -appropriate terms for addressing and greeting different persons, and the -author even goes so far as to provide the child with a stock of -insulting terms for use in quarrels. The rest of the treatise does not -appear to be intended for children. There are conversations in a tavern, -lists of salutations, familiar talk for the wayside and for buying and -selling, all of which has little special interest, and is designed -apparently to meet the needs of merchants more than any other class. In -the chatter on the events of the day there occurs a passage which -enables us to date the work. The traveller tells the hostess of the -captivity of Richard II. as a recent event: - - "Dieu, dame, j'ay ouy dire que le roy d'Angleterre est oste."--"Quoy - desioie!"--"Par ma alme voir."--"Et les Anglois n'ont ils point de - roy donques?"--"Marie, ouy, et que celuy que fust duc de Lancastre, - que est nepveu a celluy que est oste."--"Voire?"--"Voire - vraiement."--"Et le roygne que fera elle?"--"Par dieu dame, je ne - scay, je n'ay pas este en conceille."--"Et le roy d'Angleterre ou - fust il coronne?"--"A Westmynstre."--"Fustez vous la - donques?"--"Marie, oy, il y avoit tant de presse que par un pou que - ne mouru quar a paine je eschapey a vie."--"Et ou serra il a - nouvel?"--"Par ma foy je ne scay, mais l'en dit qu'il serra en - Escoce." - -The authorship is not so easy to ascertain. The manual may be due to -Canon T. Coyfurelly, probable author of the earlier and better-known -work also.[107] The many mistakes and anglicisms, such as _quoy_ for -_quelle_ ('what') and the exclamatory 'Marie' in the quotation just -given, show it to be the work of an Englishman. - -Another book of conversation appeared in 1415,[108] as may be gathered -from its first two chapters, in which a person fresh from the wars in -France tells of the siege of Harfleur and the battle of Agincourt, and -announces the return of the victorious English army. The rest of the -dialogues are represented as taking place in and about Oxford. There is -the usual tavern scene. Travellers from Tetsworth arrive at an Oxford -inn, and are present at the evening meal and diversions. The hostess -describes the fair at Woodstock and the articles bought and sold there; -her son, a boy of twelve years, wants to be apprenticed in London; he -goes to the school of Will Kyngesmylle, where writing, counting, and -French are taught. One of the merchants calls the lad and questions him -as to his knowledge of French: "Et que savez vous en fraunceys -dire?--Sir je say moun noun et moun corps bien descrire.--Ditez moy -qu'avez a noun.--J'ay a noun Johan, bon enfant, beal et sage et bien -parlant engleys, fraunceys et bon normand, beneyt soit la verge que -chastie l'enfant et le bon maistre qui me prist taunt! Je pri a Dieu -tout puissant nous graunte le joye tous diz durant!" The lad then -proceeds to give proof of his knowledge by naming the parts of his body -and his clothing, always, it appears, the first things learnt. - -This reference to the teaching of French in the school of an Oxford -pedagogue shows that, though French had at this time lost all -standing in the Grammar Schools, it was still taught in private -establishments.[109] It seems highly probable that Will Kyngesmylle was -the author of this work, and that he used his text-book as a means of -self-advertisement, a method very common among later teachers of French. -At the close comes a chapter belonging to another work of the same type, -which is only preserved in this fragment; no doubt other such works -existed and have been entirely lost. - -It is likely that in the fifteenth century these conversational manuals -supplanted, to a considerable extent, the earlier type of practical -manual for teaching French--the metrical vocabulary--with which they had -something in common. At any rate, there is no copy of such nomenclatures -extant after _Femina_ (1415). The 'manieres' provided in their dialogues -much of the material found in the vocabularies, giving, wherever -possible, groups of words on the same topics--the body, its clothing, -houses, and men's occupations. Further, the vocabularies, which had -never departed from the type instituted by Bibbesworth in the thirteenth -century, dealt more with the feudal and agricultural life of the Middle -Ages, and so had fallen behind the times. The 'Manieres de Langage' were -more in keeping with the new conditions. Towards the end of the century -(and perhaps at the beginning of the sixteenth century) we come to a -manual,[110] which, while resembling the 'manieres' in most points, -reproduces some of the distinctive external marks of the vocabularies. -For instance, the French is arranged in short lines, which, however, do -not rime, and vary considerably in the number of syllables they contain; -and these are followed by a full interlinear English gloss, as in the -later vocabularies. The subject matter, however, is similar to that of -the early conversation books. First comes gossip at taverns and by the -wayside: - - Ditez puisse ie savement aler? - Saie may I saufly goo? - Ye sir le chemyn est sure assez. - Yes sir the wey is sure inough. - Mes il convent que vous hastez. - But it behoveth to spede you. - Sir dieu vous donne bon aventure. - Sir god geve you good happe. - Sir a dieu vous commaunde. - Sir to god I you betake. - - Sir dieu vous esploide. - Sir god spede you. - Sir bon aventure avez vous. - Sir good chaunce have ye. - Sir par saint Marie cy est bon servise. - Sir by saint Marie her is good ale. - Sir pernes le hanappe, vous comenceres. - Sir take the coppe, ye shal beginne. - Dame ie ne feray point devaunt vous. - Dame I wil not doo bifor you. - Sir vous ferrez verrement. - Sir ye shal sothely. - -After some disconnected discourse on inquiring the time, asking the way, -etc., we again return to the tavern: - - Dame dieu vous donne bon jour. - Dame god geve you good daie. - Dame avez hostel pour nous trois compaignons? - Dame have ye hostel for us iij felowes? - Sir quant longement voudrez demourer? - Sir how long wol ye abide? - Dame nous ne savons point. - Dame we wote not. - Et que vouldrez donner le iour pour vostre table? - And what wil ye geve a daie for your table? - Dame que vouldrez prendr pour le iour? - Dame what wol ye take for the daie? - Sir non meynns que vj deniers le iour. - Sir noo lesse thenne vj d. the day ... etc. - -Next comes the usual scene between buyers and sellers, followed by -another inn scene of greater length. After attending to their horses, -the travellers sup and spend the night at the inn, and set out the next -morning after reckoning with their hostess. The manuscript ends abruptly -in the midst of a list of salutations. The nature of the French[111] -betrays the author's nationality; he was evidently an Englishman. As to -the English, the quaint turn given to many of the phrases is usually -explained by the writer's desire to give a literal translation of the -French; many of the inaccuracies in both versions are probably due to -careless work on the part of the scribe. - -Merchants thus appear to have been one of the chief classes among which -there was a demand for instruction in French. In addition to the large -part assigned to them in the 'Manieres de Langage,' and in the -epistolaries, where letters of a commercial nature are a usual feature, -there exist collections of model forms for drawing up bills, indentures, -receipts and other documents of similar import. They are usually called -'cartularies,' are accompanied by explanations in Latin, and may be -looked upon as the first text-books of commercial French.[112] One -author explains their origin and aim by this introductory remark:[113] -"Pour ceo qe j'estoie requis par ascunz prodeshommez de faire un -chartuarie pour lour enfantz enformer de faire chartours, endenturs, -obligations, defesance, acquitancez, contuaries, salutaries, en Latin et -Franceys ensemblement . . . fesant les chartours, escripts munimentz a -de primes en Latyn et puis en Franceys." - -More emphasis is laid on the demand for instruction in French among the -merchant class by the fact that the earliest printed text-books were -designed chiefly for their use. The first of these may be classed with -the new development of the 'Manieres de Langage,' comprising dialogues -in French and English, although it does not exactly answer to this -description.[114] It was issued from the press of William Caxton in -about 1483, and at least one other edition appeared at a later -date.[115] In form it is a sort of narrative in French, with an English -translation opposite. The aim of the work is stated clearly in an -introductory passage which informs the reader that "who this book shall -learn may well enterprise merchandise from one land to another and to -know many wares which to him shall be good to be bought, or sold for -rich to become." Caxton thus recommends the book to the learner: - - Tres bonne doctrine Rygt good lernyng - Pour aprendre For to lerne - Briefment fransoys et engloys. Shortly frenssh & englyssh. - Au nom du pere In the name of the fadre - Et du filz And of the soone - Et du sainte esperite And of the holy ghost - Veul comnencier I wyll begynne - Et ordonner ung livre, And ordeyne this book, - Par le quel on pourra By the which men shall mowe - Raysonnablement entendre Resonably understande - Francoys et Anglois, Frenssh and Englissh, - Du tant comme cest escript Of as moche as this writing - Pourra contenir et estendre, Shall conteyne & stratche, - Car il ne peut tout comprendre. For he may not all comprise. - Mais ce qu'on n'y trouvera But that which cannot be founden - Declaire en cestui Declared in this - Pourra on trouver ailleurs Shall be founde somwhere els - En aultres livres. In other bookes. - Mais sachies pour voir But knowe for truthe - Que es lignes de cest aucteur That in the lynes of this auctour - Sount plus de parolles et de raysons Ben moo wordes & reasons - Comprinses, et de responses Comprised, & of answers - Que en moult d'aultres livres. Than in many other bookes. - Qui ceste livre vouldra aprendre Who this booke shall wylle lerne - Bien pourra entreprendre May well enterprise - Merchandises d'un pays a Marchandise fro one land to - l'autre, anoothir, - Et cognoistre maintes denrees And to know many wares - Que lui seroient bon Which to him shall be good to be - achetes bought - Ou vendues pour riche devenir. Or sold for rich to become. - Aprendes ce livre diligement, Lerne this book diligently, - Grande prouffyt y gyst vrayement. Grete prouffyt lieth therein truly. - -The 'doctrine' itself opens with a list of salutations with the -appropriate answers. A house and all its contents come next, then its -inhabitants, which introduces the subject of degrees of kinship: - - Or entendes petys et grands, - Je vous dirai maintenant - Dune autre matere - La quele ie commence. - Se vous estes maries - Et vous avez femme - Et vous ayez marye, - Se vous maintiens paisiblement - Que vos voisins ne disent - De vous fors que bien: - Ce seroit vergoigne. - Se vous aves pere et mere, - Si les honnoures tousiours; - Faictes leur honneur;. . . - Si vous aves enfans, - Si les instrues - De bonnes meurs; - Le temps qu'ilz soient josnes - Les envoyes a l'escole - Aprendre lire et escripre. . . . - -At the end of the category come the servants and their occupations, -which affords an opportunity of bringing in the different shops to which -they are sent and of specifying the meat and drink they purchase there. -We then pass to buying, selling, and bargaining in general, and to -merchandise of all kinds, with a list of coins, popular fairs, and -fete-days. - -After an enumeration of the great persons of the earth comes the main -chapter of the work, giving a fairly complete list of crafts and trades. -This takes the form of an alphabetical list of Christian names, each of -which is made to represent one of the trades, beginning with Adam the -ostler: "For this that many words shall fall or may fall which be not -plainly heretofore written, so shall I write you from henceforth divers -matters of all things, first of one thing, then of another, in which -chapter I will conclude the names of men and women after the order of a, -b, c." The baker may be selected as a fair example: - - Ferin le boulengier Fierin the baker - Vend blanc pain et brun. Selleth whit brede and brown. - Il a sour son grenier gisant He hath upon his garner lieng - Cent quartiers de bled. One hundred quarters of corn. - Il achete a temps et a heure, He byeth in tyme and at hour, - Si qu'il n'a point So that he hath not - Du chier marchiet. Of the dere chepe (high buying prices). - -At last the author, "all weary of so many names to name, of so many -crafts, so many offices, so many services," finds relief in certain -considerations of a religious order: "God hath made us unto the likeness -of himself, he will reward those who do well and punish those who do not -repent of their sins, and attend the holy services: If ye owe any -pilgrimages, so pay them hastily; when you be moved for to go your -journey, and ye know not the waye, so axe it thus." The usual -directions for inquiring the way follow with the description of the -arrival at an inn, and the customary gossip. The reckoning and departure -on the following morning afford an opportunity of including a further -list of Flemish and English coins together with the numerals; and Caxton -concludes his work by commending it to the reader with a prayer that -those who study it may persevere sufficiently to profit by it: - - Cy fine ceste doctrine, Here endeth this doctrine, - - A Westmestre les Loundres At Westmestre by London - En formes impressee, In fourmes enprinted, - En le quelle ung chaucun In the whiche one everish - Pourra briefment aprendre May shortly lerne - Francois et Engloys. French and English. - La grace de sainct esperit The grace of the holy ghosst - Veul enluminer les cures Wylle enlyghte the hertes - De ceulx qui le aprendront, Of them that shall lerne it, - Et nous doinst perseverance And us gyve perseverans - En bonnes operacions, In good werkes, - Et apres cest vie transitorie And after lyf transitorie - La pardurable ioye et glorie! The everlasting ioye and glorie! - -The short introduction and epilogue were most probably the composition -of Caxton himself. The rest of the book is drawn from a set of dialogues -in French and Flemish, first written at the beginning of the fourteenth -century, called _Le Livre des Mestiers_ in reference to its main -chapter.[116] This would possibly be known to merchants trading with -Bruges and other centres of the Low Countries; and when we notice the -numerous points of resemblance between it and the English manuals of -conversation, the first of which did not appear before the end of the -same century, it seems very probable that the Flemish original had some -influence on the works produced in England. Caxton was a silk mercer of -London, and his business took him to the towns of the Low Countries, -especially Bruges, where the English merchants had a large commercial -connexion. There, no doubt, he became acquainted with the _Livre des -Mestiers_, and probably improved his knowledge of French by its help, -for he studied and read the language a good deal during his long sojourn -abroad. There also he probably added an English column to his copy of -the French-Flemish phrase-book, as a sort of exercise rather than with -any serious intention of publication; and when he had set up his press -at Westminster, remembering the need he had felt for French, in his own -commercial experience, and the little book which had assisted him, he -would decide to print it. Caxton's copy of the _Livre des Mestiers_ -belonged, no doubt, to a later date than the one extant to-day,[117] -probably to the beginning of the fifteenth century. It must have been -fuller, and have had different names attached to the characters, so -that, as the names are still arranged in alphabetical order, it is -difficult, at a glance, to distinguish the identity of the two texts. - -Caxton's rendering of the French is often inaccurate, owing perhaps to -the influence of the Flemish version from which he seems to have made -his translation.[117] Moreover, at the early date at which Caxton, -probably, added the English column to the _Livre des Mestiers_, his -knowledge of French had not yet reached that state of thoroughness which -was to enable him to translate such a remarkable number of French works -into English. He himself tells us in the prologue to the _Recuyell of -the Histories of Troy_ of Raoul le Fevre (Bruges, 1475)--the first of -his translations from the French, and, indeed, the first book to be -printed in English--that his knowledge of French was not by any means -perfect. With the exception of the introductory and closing sentences, -Caxton made few additions to his original. He did indeed supply the -names of English towns, coins, bishoprics, and so on; but, on the whole, -the setting of the work is foreign; Bruges, not London, is the centre of -the action, and no doubt the place where the original was composed. - -Not long after the publication of Caxton's doctrine another work of like -character and purpose appeared. It claims to be "a good book to learn to -speak French for those who wish to do merchandise in France, and -elsewhere in other lands where the folk speak French." The atmosphere is -entirely English, and consequently its contents bear a closer -resemblance to its English predecessors. In the arrangement of the -dialogue it is identical with the Cambridge conversation book, except -that the English lines come before the French, and not the French before -the English.[118] The four subjects round which the dialogue turns, -namely, salutations, buying and selling, inquiring the way, and -conversation at the inn, were all favourites in the early "Manieres de -Langage." For the rest it follows in the steps of its English -predecessors in confining itself to dialogue pure and simple, while -Caxton's 'doctrine' adopted the narrative form. In one point, however, -the work differs from the latest development of the old "Maniere de -Langage," as preserved in the Cambridge Dialogues in French and English; -the dialogues are followed by a vocabulary, then a reprint of one of the -old books on courtesy and demeanour for children, with a French version -added, and finally commercial letters in French and English. The work is -thus made much more comprehensive than any of its type which had as yet -appeared, and includes samples, so to speak, of all the practical -treatises for teaching French which had appeared in the Middle Ages. - -It was printed separately by the two chief printers of the time, both -foreigners: Richard Pynson, a native of Normandy and student of Paris, -who came to England and began printing on his own account about -1590-1591; and Wynkyn de Worde, a native of Alsace, and apprentice to -Caxton, with whom he probably came to England from Bruges in 1476, and -to whose business he succeeded in 1491.[119] Although neither of the -printers dated their work, it seems probable that the earliest edition -was issued by Pynson. There is a unique copy of his edition in the -British Museum; it is without title-page, pagination, or catch-words, -and the colophon reads simply "Per me Ricardum Pynson." The colophon of -Wynkyn's work, of which there is a complete copy in the Grenville -Library (British Museum),[120] and a fragment of two leaves in the -Bodleian, is slightly more instructive and runs as follows: "Here endeth -a lytyll treatyse for to lern Englyshe and Frensshe. Emprynted at -Westmynster by my Wynken de Worde." Now as Wynkyn moved from Westminster -in 1500 to set up his shop in the centre of the trade in Fleet Street, -opposite to that of his rival Pynson, his edition of the work must have -appeared before that date, because it was issued from what had been -Caxton's house in Westminster. On the other hand, the type used by -Pynson is archaic,[121] and the work is evidently one of the earliest -issued from his press. It is inferior to Wynkyn's edition from the -technical point of view. A headline is all there is by way of title; -while in Wynkyn's copy we find a separate title-page, containing the -words, "Here begynneth a lytell treatyse for to lern Englishe and -Frensshe," and a woodcut of a schoolmaster seated in a large chair, with -a large birch-rod in his left hand, and, on a stool at his feet, three -small boys holding open books. This particular woodcut was a favourite -in school-books of the period;[122] it appears, for instance, in a -little treatise entitled _Pervula_, giving instructions for turning -English into Latin, which Wynkyn de Worde printed about 1495.[123] -Moreover, each page of Wynkyn's edition has a descriptive headline, -"Englysshe and Frensshe," which is not found in Pynson's. The text also -is in many places more accurate than that of the Norman printer, and -gives the impression of having been corrected here and there. It is -therefore probable that Pynson first printed the treatise shortly after -1490,[124] and that another edition was issued by Wynkyn de Worde during -the period intervening between the date of the issue of Pynson's edition -and the end of the century. A remnant, consisting of one page of yet -another edition, is preserved in the British Museum, and shows some -variations in spelling from the two other texts. - -This little book, then, seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity -during its short life. On the whole it is more elementary in character -than the 'doctrine' of Caxton. The first things taught are the numbers -and a list of ordinary mercantile phrases. The opening passage is very -much like that written by Caxton for his work: - - Here is a good boke to lerne to speke Frenshe. - Vecy ung bon livre apprendre parler francoys. - In the name of the fader and the sone - En nom du pere et du filz - And of the holy goost, I wyll begynne - Et du saint esperit, je vueil commencer - To lerne to speke Frensshe, - A apprendre a parler francoys, - Soo that I maye doo my marchandise - Affin que je puisse faire ma marchandise - In Fraunce & elles where in other londes, - En France et ailieurs en aultre pays, - There as the folk speke Frensshe. - La ou les gens parlent francoys. - And fyrst I wylle lerne to reken by lettre. - Et premierement je veux aprendre a compter par lettre. . . . - -Next come the cardinal numbers and a vocabulary of words "goode for -suche as use marchaundyse": - - Of gold & sylver. - D'or et d'argent. - Of cloth of golde. - De drap d'or. - Of perles & precyous stones. - De perles et Pieres precieuses. - Of velvet & damaskes. - De velours et damas etc. . . . - -and so on for nearly a page, in which the names of various cloths, -spices, and wines are provided. - -Then follows another "manner of speeche" in a list of salutations -arranged in dialogue form: - - Other maner of speche in frensshe. - Autre magniere de langage en francoys. - Syr, God gyve you good daye. - Sire, Dieu vous doint bon iour. - Syr, God gyve you goode evyn. - Sire, Dieu vous doint bon vespere. - Syr, God gyve you goode nyght & goode reste. - Sire, Dieu vous doint bon nuyt et bon repos. - Syr, how fare ye? - Sire, comment vous portez vous? - Well at your commaundement. - Bien a vostre commandement. - How fare my lorde & my lady? - Coment se porte mon seigneur et ma dame? - Ryght well blessyd be God. - Tres bien benoit soit Dieu. - - Syr, whan go ye agayne to my lorde, - Sire, quant retournez vous a mon seigneour, - I praye you that ye wyll recommaunde me unto hym, - Je vous prie que me recomandez a lui, - And also to my lady his wyfe. - Et aussi a ma dame sa femme. - Syr, God be wyth you. - Sire, Dieu soit avecques vous. - -Yet another favourite subject is next introduced--a conversation on -buying and selling: - - Other maner of speche to bye and selle. - Aultre magniere de langage pour vendre et achatter. - Syr, God spede you. - Sire, Dieu vous garde. - Syr, have ye not good cloth to sell? - Sire, n'avez vous point de bon drapt a vendre? - Ye syr ryght good. - Ouy sire tres bon. - Now lette me see it and it please you. - Or le me laisses voir s'il vous plest. - I shall doo it with a good wyll. - Je le feray voulentiers. - Holde, here it is. - Tenez sire, le veez cy. - Now saye how moche the yerde is worthe - Or me dites combyen l'aune vault. - Ten shelynges. - Dix solz. - Forsothe ye set it to dere. - Vrayment vous le faictez trop cher. - I shall gyve you eyght shelynges. - Je vous en donneray huyt soulz. - I wyll not, it is to lytell. - Non feroy, cest trop pou. - The yerde shall coste you nyne shelynges, - L'aune vous coustra neuf soulz, - Yf that ye have it. - Si vous l'airez. - Ye shall have it for no lasse. - Vous ne l'avrez pour riens mains. - -The merchant has also to be able to ask for directions on his way, and -to gossip with the landlady of the wayside inn; the phrases necessary -for these purposes are recorded in the next "manner of speech," where, -as in the first treatise of 1396, the scene is laid in France: - - For to aske the waye. - Pour demander le chemin. - Frende, God save you. - Amy, Dieu vous sauve. - Whiche is the ryght waye - Quelle est la voye droite - For to goo from hens to Parys? - Pour aller d'icy a Paris? - Syr, ye muste holde the waye on the ryght hande. - Sire, il vous fault tenir le chemin a la droite main. - Now saye me, my frende, - Or me ditez, mon amy, - Yf that any good lodginge - Y a il point de bon logis - Be betwixt this and the next vyllage? - Entre cy et ce prochayn village? - There is a ryght good one. - Il en y a ung tres bon. - Ye shall be there ryght well lodged, - Vous serez tres bien loge, - Ye & also your horse. - Vous et aussi vostre chevaul. - My frende, God yelde it you, - Mon ami, Dieu vous le rende, - And I shall doo an other tyme - Et ie feraye ung aultre foiz - As moche for you and I maye. - Autant pour vous se ie puis. - God be with you. - Dieu soit avecques vous. - -The passage proceeds to describe, always in the form of a dialogue, the -traveller's arrival at the inn, his entertainment there, and his -departure: - - Dame, shall I be here well lodged? - Dame, seroy ie icy bien loge? - Ye syr, ryght well. - Ouy sire, tres bien. - Nowe doo me have a good chambre - Or me faites avoir ungue bonne chambre - And a good fyre, - Et bon feu, - And doo that my horse - Et faites que mon chevaul - Maye be well governed, - Puisse estre bien gouverne, - And gyve hym good hay and good otes. - Et lui donnes bon foin et bon avoine. - Dame, is all redy for to dyne? - Dame, est tout prest pour aller digner? - Ye syr, whan it please you. - Oui sire, quant il vous plaise. - Syr, moche good do it you. - Sire, bon preu vous face. - I praye you make good chere - Je vous prie faictez bonne chere - And be mery, I drynke to you. - Et soyez ioieux, ie boy a vous. - Now, hostes, saye me how moche have we spende at this dyner. - Hostesse, or me dites combien nous avons despendu a ce digner. - I shall tell you with a good wyll. - Je vous le diray voulentiers. - Ye have in alle eyght shelyngs. - Vous avez en tout huyt solz. - Nowe well holde your sylver and gramercy. - Or bien tenez vostre argent et grandmercy. - Do my horse come to me. - Or me faittz venir mon cheval. - Is he sadled and redy for to ryde? - Est il selle et appointe pour chevaucher? - Ye syr, all redy. - Ouy sire, tout prest. - Now fare well and gramercy. - Or adiu et grandmercy. - -Here the 'maniere de langage' ends. It is followed by a list of nouns -arranged under headings. The enumeration begins with the parts of the -body,[125] followed by the clothing and armour--a list containing -valuable information on the fashions of the time; then come the natural -phenomena, the sun, the stars, water, the winds, and so on; the products -of the earth and the food they supply, and finally, the names of the -days of the week. With the exception of the last page, each word is -preceded by a possessive adjective or an article indicating its gender. -The English rendering is sometimes placed above the French word, -sometimes opposite. - -After the vocabulary, which covers nearly five pages, comes the courtesy -book in English and French, occupying the next seven pages. It is a -reprint of the _Lytylle Chyldrenes Lytil Boke_,[126] which contains a -set of maxims for discreet behaviour at meals, in which children are -told not to snatch meat from the table before grace is said; not to -throw bones on the floor; nor pick their teeth with their knife; nor do -many other things, which, when we remember that such books were intended -for the instruction of the gentry, throw interesting sidelights on -contemporary manners. The inclusion of such precepts for children in a -text-book for teaching French was not without precedent; in the last of -the series of riming vocabularies, _Femina_ (1415), there is a -collection of moral maxims taken, in this instance, from the ancient -writers, and printed in Latin, French, and English. - -In conclusion, the author reverts to the more strictly commercial side -of the treatise, with two letters, given in both French and English. One -is from an apprentice who writes to his master reporting on some -business he is transacting at Paris, and asking for more money. In the -second a merchant communicates to his 'gossip' the news of the arrival -at London and Southampton of ships laden with rich merchandise, and -proposes that they should "find means and ways in this that their shops -shall be well stuffed of all manner of merchandise." In both these -letters the English comes first: - - _A prentyse wryteth to his mayster, fyrste in Englysshe and after - in frensshe._[127] - - Ryght worshypful syr, I recommaunde me unto you as moche as I may, - and please you wete that I am in ryght goode helth thanked be God. - To whome I praye that so it may be of you and of all your good - frendes. As for the mater for the whiche ye sent me to Parys, I - have spoken with kynges advocate the which sayd to me I must go to - the kynge and enfourme his royalle majeste thereof, and have - specyal commaundement. Therfore consyderynge the tyme I have taryed - at Parys in the pursute of this and the grete coste and expence - done bycause of this. Please you for to knowe that for to pursue - that mater unto the kyng, the which is at Monthason next Tours, and - for to go thyder it is nedefull to sende me some monye and with the - grace of God I shalle do suche dylygence that I shall gete your - hertes desyre. No more wryte I to you at this tyme but God have you - in hys protectyon. Wryten hastely the XIX daye of this moneth. - - Tres honnore sire, ie me recommande a vous tant comme je puis, et - plaise vous savoir que ie suis en tres bonne sante la marcy Dieu au - quel ie prie que ainsi soit il de vous et de tous vos bons amys. - Quant pour la matiere pour la quelle vous me envoiastes a Parys, - g'ay parle avec l'advocat du roy le quel m'a dit quil me fault - aller au roy et advertir sa royalle maieste de ce et ay un specyal - commandement. Pource consyderant le temps que j'ay attendu a Paris - en cest poursuite et lez granz costz et despens faitz par cause de - ce. Plaise vous savoir que pour poursuir ceste matiere au roy, le - qyel est a Monthason pres Tours, et pour aller la il est mestier de - m'enuoyer de l'argent. Et avecques la grace de Dieu je feray telle - diligence que aurez ce que vostre cueur desire. Aultre chos ne vous - escripz a ceste foiz mays que Dieu vous ayt en sa protection. - Escript hastivement le dixneufieme jour du moys. - -And so ends this interesting little book.[128] The texts of the two -complete editions are in the main identical. The arrangement of the -matter on the pages is different, and the spelling of the words, both -French and English, varies considerably. Slips which occur in Pynson's -text, such as the rendering of 'neuf' by 'ten,' or the accidental -omission of a word in the French version, are sometimes corrected in -Wynkyn's version. On the other hand, similar mistakes, though much fewer -in number, are found in Wynkyn's edition and not in Pynson's; while yet -others are common to both the printers. Dialect forms are scattered -through the two editions with equal capriciousness. Both texts contain -a few anglo-normanisms. Pynson's shows numerous characteristics of the -North-Eastern dialects, Picard or Lorrain, but at times there is a -Picard form in Wynkyn's version, where the pure French form occurs in -the other. Apart from such variations, the wording of the two editions -is usually similar. In cases where it differs, the improvements are -found in Wynkyn's edition, in spite of the fact that, as a general rule, -the output of Pynson's press reaches a higher literary level than that -of the more business-like Alsatian. This exception may, no doubt, be -explained by the fact that Pynson was the first to print the _Good Book -to learn to speak French_.[129] Yet here again mistakes are sometimes -common to both texts, as, for instance, the rendering of the lines: - - For the clerks that the seven arts can - Sythen that courtesy from heaven came, - -by the French: - - Pour les clers qui les sept arts savent - Puisque courtoisie de paradis vint, - -in which the wrong interpretation of the English 'for' (conjunction) and -'sythen' (taken as meaning 'since,' not 'say') destroys the sense. - -On the whole, the impression conveyed by the perusal of the two editions -is that the work is a compilation of treatises already in existence in -manuscript. Neither the letters nor the vocabulary present any -strikingly new features. The origin of the courtesy book is known, and -it is even possible that the fragment of one leaf preserved belongs, not -to another edition of the _Good Book to learn to speak French_, but to -an earlier edition of the courtesy book in French and English, printed -probably by Caxton, with the intention of imparting a knowledge of -polite behaviour and of the favourite language of polite society at the -same time. The fact that it reproduces the original courtesy book more -fully than does either of the complete texts of Wynkyn and Pynson, -suggests that it belonged to some such edition, or to an edition of the -_Good Book_ earlier than either of these. As to the dialogues, they may -have belonged to the group of conversational manuals, which were, no -doubt, fairly numerous. Caxton, while maintaining that his 'doctrine' -contains more than "many other books," adds: "That which cannot be found -declared in it, shall be found elsewhere in other books." That such -practical little books shared the fate of the great majority of school -manuals is not surprising. - -The hypothesis that the work is a compilation of older treatises would, -moreover, explain the variations in the quality of the French. The -dialogues and letters, it would appear, were in the first place written -by Englishmen. Pynson corrected them here and there, without, however, -eliminating all the anglicisms, archaisms, and provincial forms; and -when they passed through the hands of Wynkyn they underwent still -further emendation. The English version contains gallicisms, just as the -French contains anglicisms,[130] which were, however, probably due to a -desire to make the English tally with the French. This same supposition -also makes it easier to understand how it came about that the treatise -was printed by the two rival printers within the space of a few years, -and explains how it was they repeated the same obvious mistakes. - -Thus, of the matter found in the mediaeval treatises for teaching -French, grammar rules alone are unrepresented in this _Good Book_. Its -aim is entirely practical. It seeks to teach those who wish to "lerne to -_speke_ Frensshe" for practical purposes, that is, "to do their -merchaundise," and there is no mention of any deeper or wider knowledge -of the language. That the work was intended for the use of children as -well as for merchants is shown by the introduction of the courtesy book, -and, in the later edition, of the favourite frontispiece for children's -school-books described above. But these do not form a vital part of the -work itself, and are mere supplements, added probably with the intention -of increasing the public to which the book would appeal. The children -who used it, we may assume, would probably be of the class of the boy, -"John, enfant beal et sage," who appears in the 'maniere' of 1415, and -learns French that he may the more quickly achieve his end of being -apprenticed to a London merchant. To such children the apprentice's -letter quoted above would be of much interest. - -Grammar did not hold a very large place in the teaching of French at -this time. Practice and conversation were the usual methods of acquiring -a knowledge of spoken French, and no doubt such books as those of Caxton -and of Pynson and Wynkyn de Worde found many eager students. The two -editions of the first and the three editions of the second with which we -are acquainted, all of which probably appeared in the course of the last -decade of the fifteenth century, bear testimony to this. Reference has -already been made to the probable existence of numerous works of a -similar scope in manuscript, and later in print. Such were the "little -pages, set in print, with no precepts," to which Claude Holyband, the -most popular French teacher of London in the second half of the -sixteenth century, refers with contempt; he accuses them of wandering -from the 'true phrase' of the language, and of teaching nothing of the -reading and pronunciation, "which is the chiefest point to be considered -in that behalf," and hence of serving but little to the "furtherance of -the knowledge of the French tongue." Yet, though such was the case in -all these early works, they seem, without exception, to have enjoyed -great popularity at the time they were written, when to speak French -fluently was an all-important matter. The difficulty of this -accomplishment was realised to the full. We find it expressed in a few -disconnected sentences added in French probably at the beginning of the -sixteenth century, at the end of the 'maniere de langage' of 1396: "We -need very long practice before we are able to speak French perfectly," -says the anonymous writer, evidently an Englishman, "for the French and -English do not correspond word for word, and the fine distinctions are -difficult to seize." He proceeds to urge the necessity of a glib tongue -in making progress in French, and quotes the case of an unfortunate man, -good fellow though he might otherwise be, who lacked this faculty: "Il -ne luy avient plus a parler franceis qu'a une vache de porter une selle, -a cause que sa langue n'est pas bien afilee, et pour cela n'entremette -il pas a parler entre les fraunceis." - -In the early part of the sixteenth century, however, French began to be -studied with more thoroughness in England. Communication with France and -the tour in France were no longer fraught with the same dangers and -difficulties, and favoured the use of a purer form of French. Fluent was -no longer sufficient without correct pronunciation and grammar. The -standard of French taught was also raised by the arrival of numerous -Frenchmen, who made the teaching of their language the business of their -lives. Further, the spread of the art of printing had rendered French -literature more accessible, and supplied a rich material from which the -rules of the language might be deduced. And so it became possible for -John Palsgrave, the London teacher and student of Paris, to complete the -first great work on the French language, in which, however, he did not -forget to render due homage to his humble predecessors,[131] then fast -passing into oblivion. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[75] Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, ii., 1868, pp. 16 _sqq._, 28 _sqq._ - -[76] _Maniere de Langage_, 1396; cp. _infra_, p. 35. - -[77] "Doulz francois qu'est la plus bel et la plus gracious language et -plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole, qui soit au monde." - -[78] Jehan Barton, _Donait Francois_, _c._ 1400. - -[79] "Afin qu'ils puissent entrecomuner bonement ove lour voisin c'est a -dire les bones gens du roiaume de France, et ainsi pour ce que les leys -d'Engleterre pour le graigneur partie et ainsi beaucoup de bones choses -sont misez en Francois, et aussi bien pres touz les sirs et toutes les -dames en mesme roiaume d'Engleterre volentiers s'entrescrivent en -romance--tresnecessaire je cuide estre aus Englois de scavoir la nature -de Francois." - -[80] Which no doubt became more numerous, as English, rather than Latin, -became the medium through which French was learnt. Thus we find _pour -honte_ written for 'for shame'; _il est haut temps_, for 'it is high -time'; _quoi_ ('why') for _pourquoi_; _de les_ for _des_, and so on. - -[81] Edited from a unique MS. in Trinity College, Cambridge, by W. Aldis -Wright, for the Roxburghe Club, 1909 (Camb. Univ. Press). G. Hickes -published part of the first chapter, with remarks on its philological -value, in his _Linguarum Veterum Septentrionalium Thesaurus -Grammatico-Criticus et Archaeologicus_, Oxford, 1705, i. pp. 144-151. - -[82] "Liber iste vocatur femina quia sicut femina docet infantem loqui -maternam, sic docet iste liber iuvenes rethorice loqui Gallicum prout -infra patebit." - -[83] P. Meyer, _Romania_, xxxii. pp. 43 _et seq._ - -[84] The English spelling, very corrupt in the original, is here -modernized. - -[85] These MSS. have been described and classified by J. Stuerzinger, -_Altfranzoesische Bibliothek_, viii. pp. v-x. - -[86] Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 4971; Addit. MS. 11716, and Camb. Univ. Libr. -MS. Ee 4, 20. - -[87] Camb. Univ. Libr. MSS. Dd 12, 23. and Gg 6, 44. - -[88] P. Meyer, _Romania_, xv. p. 262. - -[89] Brit. Mus. Sloane MS. 513, pp. 135-138. - -[90] Brit. Mus. Sloane MS. 513, fol. 139. - -[91] There is a fragment, very indistinct, on French pronunciation in -the Brit. Mus. MS. Harl. 4971: _Modus pronunciandi dictiones in -Gallicis_. - -[92] Cp. also the Brit. Mus. Addit MS. 17716, fol. 100. - -[93] Camb. Univ. Libr. MS., Ee 4, 20; Oxford, All Souls, MS. 182. - -[94] Brit. Mus. MS. Harl. 4971; MS. Addit. 17716 (preceding the -observations on pronouns and verbs mentioned above); Camb. Univ. Libr., -Ee 4, 20; Oxford Magdalen College, MS. 188, and All Souls, MS. 182. - -[95] Published by Stengel, _op. cit._ pp. 25-40, from MS. 182 of All -Souls, Oxford. - -[96] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 376. - -[97] "A le honneur de Dieu et de sa tresdoulce miere et toutz les -saintez de paradis, je Johan Barton, escolier de Paris, nee et nourie -toutes foiez d'Engleterre en la conte de Cestre, j'ey baille aus -avantdiz Anglois un Donait francois pur les briefment entroduyr en la -droit language du Paris et de pais la d'entour la quelle language en -Engleterre on appelle doulce France. Et cest Donat je le fis la fair a -mes despenses et tres grande peine par pluseurs bons clercs du language -avantdite." - -[98] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 376. - -[99] "Cy endroit il fault prendre garde qu'en parlant Francois on ne -mette pas une personne pour une aultre si come font les sottez gens, -disantz ainsi _je ferra_ pour _je ferray_. . . ." - -[100] We pass from the numbers of nouns to the person of verbs, then to -the genders and kinds (proper, appellative) of nouns and their cases, -six in number on the analogy of Latin, which is naturally the basis of -the terminology of this work and all others for many years after; then -come observations on the degrees of comparison, after which we return to -the verbs, and their moods and tenses. The following sections deal with -the parts of speech; the four indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, -conjunctions, and interjections) are merely mentioned. Nouns, -adjectives, and pronouns receive some attention, but the chief subject -is the verb: "Cy maintenant nous vous baillerons un exemple coment vous -fourmeres touz les verbs francois du monde, soient-ils actifez, -soient-ils passivez, en quelque meuf ou temps qu'ils soient. Et ceste -exemple serra pour cest verbe _jeo aime_. . . ." But the verbs are not -classified, and only a few of the best known are conjugated as examples. -In the list of impersonal verbs which closes the treatise, English is -sometimes used to explain their meaning: "Me est avis, _Me seemth_." - -[101] J. Bale, _Illustrium Maioris Britanniae scriptorum summarium_. -Ipswich, 1548, p. 203. - -[102] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[103] Preserved in a considerable number of MSS.: Brit. Mus. (Harl. -3988, Addit. 17716), Oxford (All Souls, 182), Camb. Univ. Libr. (Bd 12, -23), and in Sir Thomas Philipps's Library at Cheltenham (MS. No. 8188). -The earliest (Harl. 3988) was published by P. Meyer in the _Revue -Critique_, 1873, pp. 373-408. - -[104] The name of Kirmington, which occurs at the end, is no doubt that -of the copyist. - -[105] _Athenaeum_, Oct. 5, 1878: article by Stengel. - -[106] Published by Stengel, _op. cit._ pp. 12-15. - -[107] Stengel, _Athenaeum_, Oct. 5, 1878. Coyfurelly also rehandled the -_Tractatus Orthographiae_ of 'T. H., Student of Paris.' - -[108] Ed. Paul Meyer, _Romania_, xxxii. pp. 49-58. It exists in three -MSS.; at the end of _Femina_ in Camb. Univ. Libr. (Dd 12, 23), at -Trinity Col. Camb. (B 14. 39, 40), and in the Brit. Mus. (Addit. 17716). - -[109] French, however, still had some standing at Oxford at this date. - -[110] Preserved in Cambridge University Library. - -[111] Containing such anglicisms as the rendering of 'already' by _tout -prest_. - -[112] Such collections exist in MSS. Harl. 4971 and Addit. 17716, Brit. -Mus.; and in Ee 4, 20, Camb. Univ. Libr. - -[113] Harl. 4971; cp. Stuerzinger, _op. cit._ p. xvi. - -[114] Early bibliographers seem to have been uncertain as to what -category it belonged to: for some time it was called a _Book for -Travellers_; then a _Vocabulary in French and English_ (Blades, _Life -and Typography of Wm. Caxton_, 1861-63), and finally by the more -appropriate title of _Dialogues in French and English_. - -[115] Caxton's edition contains ff. 24, with about 24 lines on a page. -There are three complete texts extant (at Ripon Cathedral, Rylands -Library, and Bamborough Castle), and one fragmentary one (in the Duke of -Devonshire's Library). The Ripon copy was reprinted for the Early -English Text Society in 1900, by H. Bradley (extra series lxxix.). The -other edition, of which a fragment exists in the Bodleian, was probably -printed by Wynkyn de Worde (W. C. Hazlitt, _Handbook ... to the -Literature of Great Britain_, 1867, p. 631). - -[116] Published from a MS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale, by M. -Michelant: _Le Livre des Mestiers, dialogues francais-flamands, composes -au 14e siecle par un maitre d'ecole de la ville de Bruges_. Paris, 1875. - -[117] H. Bradley: Introduction to the edition of Caxton's _Dialogues_. - -[118] Caxton's arrangement of the French and English in opposite columns -is no doubt accounted for by the fact that he wrote the English version -by the side of the French in his copy of the original phrase book. - -[119] E. G. Duff, _A Century of the English Book Trade_, Bibliographical -Soc., 1905; and _Handlists of Books Printed by London Printers_, -Bibliog. Soc., 1913, ad nom. The work is here given the inappropriate -title of a "Vocabulary in French and English." - -[120] It was to have been reprinted by H. B. Wheatley in a collection of -early grammars, for the Early English Text Society. - -[121] W. C. Hazlitt, _Bibliographical Collections and Notes_, 3rd -series, London, 1887, p. 293. - -[122] For instance, the _Cato cum commento_ (1514), _Stans puer ad -mensam_ (1516), and _Vulgaria Stanbrigi_ (_c._ 1520). - -[123] "What shalt thou do when thou haste an englyssh to be made in -Latine? I shall reherce myn englyssh fyrst, ones, twyces, and loke out -my princypal verbe, and aske hym this questyon _who_ or _what_. And that -worde that answeryth to the questyon shall be the nomynatif case to the -verbe." - -[124] In the British Museum Catalogue Wynkyn's edition is dated 1493? -and Pynson's 1500?; the year 1500? is also put forward as the date for -the fragmentary edition. W. C. Hazlitt dates Wynkyn's edition at about -the year 1498, and Pynson's at about 1492-3 (_Bibliographical -Collections_, _ut supra_, and _Handbook_, London, 1867, p. 210). - -[125] - - My heres. - Mes cheveulx. - My browes. - Mez sourcieulx. - Myn eres. - Mez oreilles. - Myn teeth. - Mez dens. - My forhede. - Mon front. - Myn eyen. - Mez yeulx. - My nose. - Mon nez. - My tong. - Ma langue . . . etc. - -[126] Published by E. J. Furnivall, _Manners and Meals in Olden Time_, -1868, pp. 16 _sqq._ The MS. used by the compiler of the French manual -was no doubt of a later date than the one here printed. - -[127] Pp. 19-20 _in fine_. - -[128] It contains 11 quarto leaves, of the size of the time, with -usually 29 lines to a page. - -[129] Thus in Pynson's edition the order of the personal pronouns before -the verb is often inverted ("le vous diray," "le vous rende"), while it -is correct in Wynkyn's; and some lines of the French version of the -courtesy book are almost unintelligible, whereas their meaning is -clearly expressed by Wynkyn. - -[130] Such phrases as "say me my friend" for _dites-moi mon ami_; "do me -have a good chamber" for _faites-moi avoir une bonne chambre_. - -[131] In addition to the works already mentioned, some reference to -these mediaeval treatises is also found in an article by H. Oelsner, in -the _Athenaeum_ (Feb. 11, 1905); in A. Way's edition of the _Promptorium -Parvulorum_ (Camden Soc., 1865, No. 89; Appendix, pp. xxvii _sqq._ and -pp. lxxi _sqq._); Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series, ii. p. 208. - - - - -PART II - -TUDOR TIMES - - - - -CHAPTER I - - THE FRENCH LANGUAGE AT COURT AND AMONG THE NOBILITY - - -At the beginning of the sixteenth century the gradual changes which -brought about the extinction of Anglo-French were complete to all -intents and purposes; this corrupt form of the language lingered only in -a few religious houses and the law courts. The French spoken at the -English Court in the Middle Ages had remained purer than elsewhere; for -centuries the kings of England were as much attached to France as to -England; they had spent much of their time in France and fought for the -French crown as their natural right, not as Englishmen in strife with -Frenchmen. From the thirteenth century, however, English was understood, -though not widely spoken, at Court. It progressed gradually until, two -centuries later, in the reign of Henry VI., it was used more frequently -than French. By the sixteenth century French was an entirely foreign -language at the English Court, and it was round the Court circles that -developed the new and more serious study of the language which then -arose--a study which led to the production of so important a work as -John Palsgrave's _L'Esclarcissement de la langue francoyse_. It will -therefore be well to consider the extent to which French was used among -the nobility and gentry of the time. - -The personal ascendancy of the Tudors and the pomp of their Court began -to attract the attention of foreigners, and to excite their curiosity. -Consequently numerous travellers made their way to the English capital; -and later in the same period religious persecution, raging on the -Continent, drove many Protestants, frequently men of distinction, to -seek refuge in England. What language would these visitors employ in -their intercourse with their hosts? English is excluded from the -purview, because at this time, and indeed for some time after, our -language received no recognition, and certainly no homage from any -foreigner, and but scant deference from English scholars themselves.[132] -Several foreign visitors in London have left an account of their -impressions on hearing this entirely unknown and strange language -spoken. Thus Nicander Nucius, the Greek Envoy at the Court of Henry -VIII., says of the English that "they possess a peculiar language, -differing in some measure from all others"; although it is "barbarous," -he finds in it a certain charm and attraction, and judges it "sweeter" -than German or Flemish.[133] Others formed a less favourable -opinion.[134] The physician Girolamo Cordano, for instance, when he -first heard Englishmen speaking, thought they were Italians gone mad and -raving, "for they inflect the tongue upon the palate, twist words in the -mouth, and maintain a sort of gnashing with the teeth." The Dutchman, -Immanuel von Meteren, gathered the impression that English is broken -German, "not spoken from the heart as the latter, but only prattling -with the tongue." - -We have, however, to recollect that, among the learned, Latin was in -general use as a spoken language; it was the ideal of the Humanists to -make Latin the universal language of the educated world. Erasmus was -able to live several years in England, and in familiar intercourse with -Englishmen, without feeling the necessity for learning English or using -any other modern language; but he mingled almost entirely with scholars, -such as Grocyn, Linacre, Latimer, Colet, and More--men with whom Henry -VIII. loved to surround himself. Still, the great Dutchman was an -exception even amongst Humanists, who nearly all, at some period in -their lives, forsook Latin for their native tongue. Moreover, Latin was -not fluently or colloquially spoken by the majority of the English -nobility and gentry. The poet, Alexander Barclay, tells us that "the -understandyne of Latyn," in the early years of the sixteenth century, -was "almost contemned by Gentylmen."[135] [Header: THE SPEAKING OF -LATIN] "I have not these twenty years used any Latin tongue,"[136] said -Latimer at his trial for heresy in 1554--a striking testimony on the -lips of one whose natural sympathies were towards Humanism. Some years -later the great Huguenot scholar, Hubert Languet, wrote to his young -English friend, Sir Philip Sidney--then newly returned from continental -travel--to express his apprehension lest the young man should forget all -his Latin at the English Court and entirely give up the practice of it; -he urges him to do his best to prevent this, and maintain his Latin -along with his French. Languet affirms that he has never heard Sidney -pronounce a syllable of French incorrectly, and wishes his pronunciation -of Latin were as perfect.[137] Sidney, however, does not appear to have -considered Latin of as much importance to a courtier as French: "So you -can speake and write Latine not barbarously," he wrote to his brother -Robert in 1580,[138] "I never require great study ordinarily in -Ciceronianisme, the cheife abuse of Oxford." No doubt Sidney voices a -general sentiment in this verdict. It is increasingly clear that the -supremacy of Latin was beginning to be questioned on all sides, and, -while Latin remained to a large extent the language of scholars, it was -not generally employed in society. - -Further, when the English did speak Latin, foreigners had considerable -difficulty in understanding them, on account of their notoriously bad -pronunciation. The great scholar Scaliger, who was in England in 1590, -tells that he once listened to an Englishman talking Latin for a quarter -of an hour, and at last excused himself, saying that he did not -understand English![139] To the same effect is the observation of Tom -Coryat, the traveller, who, on his journey on the Continent,[140] found -his Latin so little understood, that he had to modify his pronunciation. -At a later date, when the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cosmo III., visited the -two English Universities,[141] he was unable to understand the Latin -speeches and orations with which he was greeted. A Latin comedy which -the Cambridge students performed in his honour was equally -unintelligible to him. "To smatter Latin with an English mouth," wrote -Milton in a well-known passage, "is as ill a hearing as Law French." - -At the same time a quickened interest in modern languages generally was -felt in England as in other countries. Two of these, Italian and -Spanish, entered the arena to challenge the supremacy of French in the -world of fashion and intellect. The real issue of the contest, however, -was never in doubt. The Renaissance and the new Humanism appeared for a -time to favour the Italian rival,[142] but the inherent merits of -French, with its particular genius for precision and clarity, easily won -the day. Those circles--often very brilliant circles--of distinguished -men and women for whom the Renaissance was as the dawn of a new day, -often made Italian a more serious object of study than French; but -though it was widely learned for the sake of its literature, it was -never so widely spoken or so universally popular as French. Italian, and -to a minor degree Spanish, were indeed seriously cultivated by the Tudor -group of distinguished linguists,[143] and so became a sort of fashion, -which, spreading to more frivolous circles, soon degenerated into mere -affectation. These dilettanti had been at a great feast of languages and -stolen the scraps, to use Shakespeare's words. Such affectation was -naturally felt to be dangerous. While Roger Ascham renders due homage to -the linguistic attainments of his queen,[144] he finds it necessary to -reproach the young gentlemen of the day with their deficiency in this -respect. [Header: INTEREST IN MODERN LANGUAGES] Professional teachers of -modern languages likewise complain of the lack of seriousness on the -part of many of their pupils. John Florio,[145] for example, bewails the -fact that when they have learned two words of Spanish, three words of -French, and four words of Italian, they think they have enough, and will -study no more; and a French teacher[146] expresses the same thought in -almost identical terms; according to him they learn a little French one -day, then a bit of Italian and a snatch of Spanish, and think themselves -qualified for an embassy to the Grand Turk. Shakespeare's Falconbridge, -the young baron of England, may be taken as a fair example of such -dilettantism.[147] - -Thus Italian was never a really dangerous rival to French, which had -struck its roots deep into the English soil long before Italian -influence reached our shores. Not only was this the case, but French was -also widely known throughout Europe. Even in the early years of this -period, the poet Alexander Barclay, himself the author of a French -grammar, affirms that French was spoken even by the Turks and Saracens. -The French themselves are said to have been in love with their own -language, and, as a result, to have neglected Latin;[148] when the -English ambassador at Paris, Sir Amias Poulet, sent to England for a -chaplain for his household, he wrote: "Yt were to be wished that he had -at the least some understandinge in the French tongue for his better -conference with the Frenche ministers, whereof many are not best able to -utter there mynde in Lattyn."[149] - -We may therefore safely conclude that French was the language commonly -spoken by Englishmen in their intercourse with foreigners, although -Latin was sometimes used in conversation, and Italians were occasionally -addressed in their own tongue. English was so little used in the Court -and its circles that foreigners were apt to forget that England had a -language of her own; one of them considers it a merit in Henry VIII. -that he was able to speak English! In London, indeed, the use of French -was so common that several foreign observers deemed the fact worthy of -note. Nicander Nucius, the Greek envoy who visited London in 1545, -remarks[150] that, for the most part, the English use the French -language, besides having a great admiration for everything else -French--an observation which cannot safely be taken as referring to any -other class than the nobility, as his relations would be almost wholly -restricted to that class. When the Duke of Wuerttemberg visited the court -of Elizabeth, where he found ample occasion to exercise his own -admirable knowledge of French, he left on record the fact that many -English courtiers understood and spoke French very well. The spread of -French at the English Court attracted the attention of Frenchmen also, -and several years after Nicander's account, Peletier du Mans states that -in England, at least among the princes and their courts, French is -spoken on all occasions.[151] - -French was also not infrequently used in correspondence. Apart from such -diplomatic correspondence as exists, numerous examples of the -interchange of private letters in French among the English nobility have -come down to us. Even among scholars Latin was by no means the only -medium of communication. In the sixteenth century the chief scholars of -the two countries corresponded with each other, and, though Englishmen -never wrote in their native tongue, Frenchmen did occasionally use their -own language rather than Latin. Bacon wrote in French to the Marquis of -Effiat, and Hotman, on the other hand, in French to Camden: "Me sentant -detraque de l'usage de la langue latine, je vous escris cette lettre en -francois pour renouveller avec vous notre amitie ancienne et -correspondance."[152] John Calvin corresponded with Edward VI. and -Protector Somerset in French, and Henry IV. of France carried on a -voluminous correspondence in his own language with his "tres chere et -tres aimee bonne soeur," Elizabeth, as well as with her chief -ministers.[153] [Header: FRENCH REGARDED WITH SPECIAL FAVOUR] French was -thus more than a mere accomplishment for the English gentleman, and soon -became an absolute necessity for all those who desired employment under -the Crown. It is true that an interpreter might be had, but the practice -was looked upon with great disfavour as very unsuitable where private -negotiations had to be conducted. The necessity for a knowledge of -French on the part of a minister of state may be gathered from the large -number of petitions and other documents addressed to them in that -language and preserved among the State Papers.[154] A rather curious -instance of the favour with which the use of French was regarded in -official circles is supplied by the case of a Scotch prisoner in London, -who, when he desired leave on parole, on the ground of ill-health, was -advised to make his application in French, "to shew his -scholarship."[155] Copies of proclamations, issued in foreign countries, -were frequently translated into French before being sent to the English -Government; and time after time we find a lack of knowledge of French -regarded as a serious disqualification for diplomatic or other public -service. One young gentleman regrets that he "cannot be engaged on any -work of importance as he does not know French." The drawbacks arising -from an inadequate knowledge of the language appear from the case of a -certain Thomas Thyrleby who writes from Valance to Wriothesly in 1538 -telling him how much discouraged he is concerning his knowledge of -French. He says he went with the Bishop of Winchester and Brian to the -Constable that morning at eight o'clock, and that he could understand -them, but not the Grand Master's answer, except by conjecture, guessing -at a word here and there; after dinner he had audience of the French -king and bore away never one word but "l'empereur, l'empereur" often -rehearsed; and he feels he must diligently apply himself to learn the -language or the king will be ill served when he is left alone.[156] - -The Tudors appear to have regarded the study of French with much favour. -The first king of this line had lived for many years in France and was -strongly imbued with French tastes.[157] He encouraged Frenchmen to -visit England, and appointed one of them, Bernard Andre, his Poet -Laureate and Historiographer as well as tutor to his sons. There were -also troupes of French comedians and minstrels who performed at Court -from time to time.[158] The king always received with favour at his -Court those who were fluent in the French tongue. No doubt Stephen Hawes -secured the king's patronage partly by his facility in the use of this -language, and partly from his really profound knowledge of French -literature, of which the king also was an eager student. Yet this first -of the Tudor kings belongs rather to the Middle Ages and the Old -Learning than to the Renaissance. - -Not until we reach the period of Henry VIII., a distinct favourer of the -New Learning, do we enter fully into the spirit of the new movement. In -a true sense Henry may be called the first King of England, for England -was his real home, and while using the ancient title "King of France," -he had no truly filial attachment to the country. He may thus be taken -as a fair example of the attitude of the cultivated English noble -towards foreign languages. He spoke French fluently though he had never -been in France, and also conversed in Latin with ease; Italian he -understood, but made no attempt to speak. He always addressed foreigners -in either French or Latin.[159] An admirer of French fashions, he copied -in such matters his friend and rival, the French king, even allowing his -beard to grow when he heard that Francis wore one, and having his hair -dressed "short and straight after the French fashion." When the Venetian -ambassador, Piero Pasqualigo, came from Paris to London in 1515, Henry -eagerly seized the opportunity to institute a comparison between himself -and the French king. Pasqualigo, meeting Henry at Greenwich, writes how -he on one occasion beheld his majesty mounted on a bay Frieslander, and -dressed entirely in green velvet; directly the envoy came in sight, he -began to make his horse to curvet and perform such feats, that -Pasqualigo says he thought himself looking upon Mars. He came into our -tent, the narrator continues, and, addressing me in French, said, "Talk -with me a while."[160] [Header: HENRY VIII.'S KNOWLEDGE OF FRENCH] -Henry then proceeded to question him about Francis and to induce him to -draw comparisons between himself and the French king. The ambassador -remarks that Henry spoke French "very well indeed." The campaign of 1513 -supplies another example of the ease with which Henry spoke French. The -English king was accompanied by Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, who later -incurred the royal anger by his presumption in marrying Henry's sister -Mary, the Dowager of France. On the present occasion, however, the -king's knowledge of French was of great service to Suffolk, who found -some difficulty in pressing his suit with the Lady Margaret of Savoy, -owing to his ignorance of that language. The Duke had half seriously -removed a ring from the lady's finger, and, as she particularly desired -to reclaim it, and he refused to return it, she called him a thief; but -he could not understand the word "larron," so she was forced to call -upon the king to explain.[161] - -There are extant several examples of Henry's compositions in French. -Much of his private correspondence was written in this tongue; and he -also essayed to write verses in French, possibly in imitation of Francis -I. Their quality may be judged from the following specimens:[162] - - Adieu madam et ma mastres, - Adieu mon solas et mon joy, - Adieu jusque vous revoy, - Adieu vous diz par graunt tristesse. - -or: - - Helas madam cel qe je metant [j'eme tant], - soffre qe soie voutre humble svant [servant]; - ie seray [vous] a tousiours e tant que ie - vivray alt n'airay qe vous.[163] - -We gather from Henry's spelling of French that he had learnt the -language chiefly by ear. - -There is a curious example of the fluency with which the king and his -courtiers spoke French, in a scene described by Wolsey's gentleman usher -and afterwards dramatized by Shakespeare.[164] The cardinal was among -the few at the Court of Henry VIII. who did not speak French with ease. -During a banquet he was giving at the palace of Whitehall, Henry and a -band of courtiers landed unexpectedly at the Whitehall Stairs, disguised -as foreign noblemen. Wolsey sent the Lord Chancellor to bid them -welcome, because he could not speak French himself.[165] The visitors -were introduced, and passed for a time as foreigners, the Lord -Chancellor acting as their interpreter to Wolsey. At last the royal -joker and his companions disclosed their identity amidst a tumult of -exclamations, and then joined in the festivities.[166] - -The ladies of the Court rivalled the noblemen in their knowledge of -French. When the French ambassadors with their brilliant suite, who had -come to England for the ratification of peace in 1514, were entertained -in great state at Greenwich, all the ladies and gentlewomen were able to -converse in good French with their French partners, "which delighted -them much to heare the Ladies speake to them in their owne -language."[167] It is not surprising, therefore, to find French holding -an important place in the education of women of high birth. The princess -Mary Tudor, one of the most attractive figures at the English Court, -had, like the king her brother, been early initiated in the difficulties -of the French language.[168] At the age of twelve she pronounced in -French her betrothal vows to the Prince of Castile (1513); and when it -fell to her lot to marry Louis XII. of France, she continued still more -to apply herself to the study of the language. She was able to write to -her future husband in his own tongue,[169] and even occasionally made -use of it in her correspondence with her brother, the English king. - -[Header: FRENCH AMONG THE LADIES] - -Henry's first queen did little to forward French tastes and never -modified her natural preference for all things Spanish, but with the -advent of Queen Anne Boleyn French acquired a powerful and enthusiastic -patroness. Anne was entirely French by education and tastes. She had -been brought up by a French governess,[170] and had from an early age -used the French language in her correspondence with her father during -his absences at the Court and elsewhere. It was her fluency in this -language which led to her rapid advancement on her arrival at Court. She -was soon chosen to accompany the king's sister Mary to France, and just -before her appointment wrote to her father in French, telling him that -the presence of the Queen of France would inspire her with a still -greater desire to speak French well.[171] Anne stayed in France several -years, first in the service of Mary during the few months she was Queen -of France, then in that of her successor, Queen Claude, consort of -Francis I., and finally in the more lively household of Margaret of -Alencon, afterwards Queen of Navarre. On her return to the English Court -she became maid of honour to Queen Katherine, and her skill in dress and -her French manners[172] did much to promote the taste for French -fashions. The famous Elizabethan antiquary Camden asserts that Anne's -French jollity first attracted to her the notice of Henry. At any rate -the courtship was largely carried on in French. Out of the seventeen -love letters of Henry to Anne Boleyn, which are preserved in the Vatican -Library, more than half are in French.[173] One of these may be quoted -as an example of the English king's powers in French prose. It was -written to Anne during one of the absences she deemed expedient to make -from the Court: - - Ma Maitresse et amie, moy et mon coeur s'en remettent en vos mains, - vous suppliant les avoir pour recommander a votre bonne grace, et - que par absence votre affection ne leur soit diminue. Car pur - augmenter leur peine ce seroit grande pitie, car l'absence leur fait - assez, et plus que jamais je n'eusse pense . . . vous asseurant que - de ma part l'ennuye de l'absence deja m'est trop grande. Et quand je - pense a l'augmentation d'iceluy que par force faut que je soufre il - m'est presque intollerable, s'il n'estoit le ferme espoir que j'aye - de votre indissoluble affection vers moi, et pour le vous - rementevoir alcune fois cela, et voyant que personellement je ne - puis estre en votre presence, chose la plus approchante a cela qui - m'est possible au present, je vous envoye, c'est-a-dire ma picture - mise en braisselettes a toute la devise que deja scavez, me - souhaitant en leur place quant il vous plairoit. C'est de la main - de--Votre serviteur et amy, - - H. R. - -Of Henry's other queens, Jane Seymour and Katherine Howard were both -ardent admirers of the French language. The former had, like Anne -Boleyn, completed her education at the French Court. Henry's chief -objection to Anne of Cleves was her lack of French refinements. We know -from the French ambassador Marillac that Henry was ill pleased at Anne's -German costume and made her dress in the French style,[174] which, -according to the same authority, had been favoured by Queen Katherine -Howard and all her ladies. Moreover, the new queen could speak neither -French[175] nor English, and her own language was displeasing to the -king's ears; consequently he refused to converse much with her by means -of an interpreter.[176] As for Katharine Parr, she was one of the most -distinguished linguists of her time, and did much to encourage the -studies of the royal family. - -French was one of the principal studies of Henry VIII.'s children. It -appears to have been the only modern foreign language with which Edward -VI. was acquainted; he is said to have been "in the French and Latin -Tongues singularly perfect."[177] Mary, on the other hand, knew Spanish -as well as she did French. This is, however, accounted for by the fact -that she was early destined to become the wife of the Emperor Charles -V. [Header: FRENCH STUDIED IN THE ROYAL FAMILY] The emperor had even -tried to persuade Henry to allow his daughter to be brought up in Spain. -His request was refused, but a promise was given that the princess -should be educated in all points as a Spanish lady.[178] In addition to -this, her mother, Katherine of Aragon, superintended her early -education, and her attendants were all Spanish. Thus Spanish was for a -time almost her native tongue. Yet French was by no means neglected, -especially after the Spanish marriage was broken off. Fresh impetus was -given to this study by the possibility of a French match, when in 1518 -negotiations for a union with the Dauphin, son of Francis I., were set -on foot. On the testimony of Marillac, Mary spoke and wrote French well; -the ambassador had seen letters of hers written in French at the time of -her mother's divorce.[179] The princess was also well acquainted with -Latin, and understood Italian, though, like many others, she did not -attempt to speak it.[180] - -Elizabeth alone of the royal family spoke Italian with almost as much -ease as she did French.[181] "French and Italian she speaks like -English," wrote her tutor, Roger Ascham, "Latin with fluency, propriety, -and judgment"; and in addition she had some knowledge of Greek. When -queen, she retained her early fancy for Italian, and prided herself on -using no other language in the presence of Italians.[182] The Scotch -ambassador, Sir James Melville, a very competent judge, remarks that she -spoke it "raisonable weill."[183] French, however, was her usual means -of intercourse with other foreigners, even when, like Melville, they -spoke English. The queen commended Melville's French. "She said my -French was gud," he writes in his memoirs, where he likewise gives his -own opinion of the queen's attainments in the language: "hir Maiestie -culd speak as gud Frenche as any that had never bene out of the -contrie, but yet she laiketh the use of the Frenche court language, -quhilk was frank and schort and had oft tymes twa significations, quhilk -discreit and famylier frendes tok always in the best part."[184] If not -idiomatic, the queen's French is generally allowed to have been fluent. -Her accent is reported to have been harsh and unpleasing; she spoke with -a drawl, and, according to M. Drizanval, resident in London for the -French king,[185] she constantly repeated the phrase "_paar Dieu, paar -maa foi_" in a ridiculous tone. Another visitor, the Duke of -Wuerttemberg, records that he once heard her deliver an appropriate -speech in French,[186] which, as usual, was the language in which he -addressed her. Towards the end of her reign the queen still practised -the use of French and Italian. In 1598 the German Hentzner, travelling -in England, describes how he saw Elizabeth "as she went along in all her -State and magnificence," and how "she spoke very graciously first to one -then to another (whether foreign ministers or those who attend for -different reasons) in English, French, and Italian."[187] She also wrote -French with some ease. One of her earliest literary efforts was a -translation from the French of Margaret of Navarre's _Miroir de l'Ame -pecheresse_. She likewise composed devotions and prayers in French--a -habit which she retained after she had been queen for many years. At the -time when her marriage with the Duke of Alencon, her "little frog," as -she calls him, was under discussion, the queen compiled a curious little -volume, containing six prayers, written on vellum in a very neat hand; -in addition to devotions in French and English there are others in -Italian, Latin, and Greek. In the front of this work there is a -miniature of the Duke, and at the end, one of Elizabeth.[188] Other -examples of her compositions in French are found in her correspondence, -where this language holds a considerable place. - -It thus appears that the majority of the English nobility and gentry -spoke and understood French at least tolerably well. [Header: FRENCH -TUTORS AND FRENCH GRAMMARS] We are led to ask how they came by their -knowledge, and what facilities there were in England for learning -French, seeing that many of them never visited France. In the sixteenth -century private tuition played a large part in the education of the -gentry; and the professional tutor was, in many cases, a Frenchman, who -would naturally further the study of his native tongue. The Court itself -encouraged the custom of employing French tutors by engaging several in -its midst; and as, at this time, the Court became a powerful factor in -English social life, and the chief means of entering the service of the -State, noblemen and gentlemen wishing to figure on the social stage -endeavoured to adapt themselves to Court requirements. French tutors -were to be found in all the chief families of the time. Etienne Pasquier -remarks that there was no noble family in England without its French -tutor to instruct the children in the French language.[189] This -condition of things was still further developed a few years later when -religious persecution in France and the Netherlands drove increasingly -large numbers of Protestant refugees to take asylum in England. All -traces of the majority of these tutors have been lost; those of whom -anything is known were, for the most part, either the authors of manuals -for teaching French, or had won repute as writers or Humanists before -leaving their native land. - -One of these Humanists was Bernard Andre, familiarly called "Master -Barnard," the blind poet--an infirmity to which he frequently refers. He -was a native of Toulouse, and probably came to England with Henry VII., -his patron.[190] It is a curious fact that soon after his accession -Henry appointed this Frenchman, author of verses in French and Latin but -never a line in English, Poet Laureate of England. In addition to this -he bestowed on him repeated marks of favour. For a time Andre was -engaged as a tutor at Oxford, and in 1496 was chosen as governor to -Prince Arthur, and probably had much to do with the education of his -brother, afterwards Henry VIII. Appointed Historiographer Royal, he -began in this capacity to write his patron's life. Like so many other -men of education, Andre was in Holy Orders; he received preferment from -time to time, and was finally presented to the living of Guisnes near -Calais, which he resigned in 1521, having attained an "extreme old age." - -In the early sixteenth century, as in the Middle Ages, England took the -initiative in the production of French grammars.[191] The numbers which -appeared are so many testimonies to Englishmen's interest in the French -language. The chief and best known of these grammars is the great work -of John Palsgrave (1530), already mentioned, which stands out in -contrast with the slight treatises which had previously appeared on the -subject in England. Considering the time when it was written and the -irregular and unsettled condition of the language with which it deals, -it is truly remarkable for its fulness and comprehensiveness. Almost -alone of its predecessors and its immediate successors, it answered more -than a merely temporary and professional purpose, and is still of very -great value to the student of the English and French languages at that -time, and a great storehouse of obsolete words in both languages. -Perhaps the very reason which makes it so valuable to the student of -to-day hindered its success in the sixteenth century; most students of -French then preferred the shorter and more practical manuals. Palsgrave -had a very exalted idea of the French tongue; he desired to place it on -a level with the "three perfect tonges"--Latin, Greek, and Hebrew--and -to make it a fourth and classical tongue, by drawing up "absolute" rules -for its use. - -Palsgrave's grammar acquires additional importance from the fact that no -similar work had been produced in France. It is the first systematized -attempt to formulate rules for the French language, or indeed for any -modern tongue. Only one year later, however, Sylvius or Dubois published -his _In Linguam Gallicam Eisagoge_ (1531). In the address to Henry -VIII., which precedes his work, Palsgrave speaks of the "great nombre of -clerkes, whiche before season of this mater have written nowe sithe the -beginnyng of your most fortunate and most prosperous raigne." All these -"clerkes," he says, have treated chiefly of two things, which they -judged specially useful to the English--the pronunciation of French, and -"wherein the true analogie of the two tongues did rest." [Header: -BARCLAY'S "INTRODUCTORY"] No doubt many of these treatises were in -manuscript and are among the lost treasures of the sixteenth century. -Yet some have come down to us. Palsgrave mentions three writers by name, -Alexander Barclay, Petrus Vallensys, and Giles Duwes, copies of whose -works are still in existence. - -The earliest of these grammars--so far as is known the first French -grammar ever printed--was the work of Alexander Barclay, well known as a -prolific writer and poet, who devoted much of his time to translation -and did much to make contemporary French literature known in England. -Barclay had spent a time "full of foly and unprofytable stody" at some -university, possibly Paris; he had travelled, and was well acquainted -with French; from his youth upwards, he says, he had been exercised in -the two languages of French and English. It was late in his literary -career, when he had "withdrawen" his pen from its "olde dylygence," that -he undertook to compose a grammar of the French language, at the request -of the Duke of Norfolk, Lord Treasurer of England, and of "certain other -gentlemen." The work appeared in 1521[192] under the title of _Here -begynneth the introductory to wryte and to pronounce frenche compyled by -Alexander Barclay, compendiously at the commandement of the right hye -excellent and myghty prynce, Th. duke of Northfolke_. The printer, -Robert Coplande, himself a good French scholar, composed some lines on -the coat of arms of the Duke in French, and printed them at the -beginning of the book; at the end he placed a translation of Lambert -Danneau's _Traite des Danses_, also from his own pen.[193] - -Barclay's endeavour is to make his grammar as short and concise as -possible; his rules, so far as they go, are stated very clearly; he -plunges straight away into his subject without any preliminary -observations: "_je_ in frenche," he begins, "is as moche to say in -english as I, _tu_, thou, _il_, he, _nous_, _vous_, _ilz_ or _els_: we -may use sometyme _ceux_ for this worde _ilz_. If we answere to a -question by this worde 'I' usynynge no verbe withall then shall not -'_ie_' be set for 'I' but '_moy_,' as in this example, '_qui fist ce -livre_' ... If I sholde answere saynge I, addynge no verbe withall, I -must say '_moy_,' and not '_ie_.'" After giving similar rules for the -second person singular, he proceeds to explain how, when the words -_nous_, _vous_, _ilz_ are placed before a verb beginning with a -consonant, their last consonant is not pronounced, although it remains -in the spelling; but if they come before a verb beginning with a vowel, -the consonants are pronounced. He then turns to the conjugation of the -two auxiliaries and some of the most common irregular verbs, to show -"how these pronouns are ioyned with verbes." On the back of folio 4 he -begins his "introductory of orthography or true wrytynge wherby the -diligent reder may be infourmed truly and perfytely to wryte and -pronounce the Frenche tunge after the dyvers customes of many contress -of France." Barclay, then, does not adopt an exclusive attitude towards -provincial accents; he rather calls attention to them,[194] though -probably merely stating facts and drawing distinctions with no intention -of teaching provincial forms. Palsgrave, on the other hand, deals only -with the French spoken between the Seine and the Loire, which he -regarded as the only pure French. Barclay's attitude to dialectal forms -may possibly be explained by the fact that he transcribed freely from -the mediaeval treatises, especially the _Donait francois_ of John -Barton. His debt was early noted by Palsgrave, who wrote: "I have sene -an olde boke written in parchment, in all thynges lyke to his sayd -_Introductory_, whiche, by conjecture, was not unwritten this hundred -yeares."[195] So freely, indeed, and so carelessly did Barclay use his -sources, that he did not even trouble to modernize the spelling, which -contains many obsolete forms; in this connexion Palsgrave, who -criticizes Barclay very severely when occasion arises,[196] remarks on -his use of _k_ for _c_. - -Having exemplified the pronunciation of some of the French letters by -comparison with English sounds,[197] Barclay suddenly[198] passes to the -consideration of the number and gender of nouns,[199] besides supplying -a short list of nouns beginning with the first two letters of the -alphabet. After this digression he concludes his observations on the -pronunciation,[200] and proceeds to give an alphabetical vocabulary of -nouns,[201] adjectives and verbs, apparently the earliest known attempt -at an alphabetical French-English vocabulary; the earlier method of -arranging words under headings is discarded, though it continued to be -the usual form adopted in most French grammars until the end of the -eighteenth century. Barclay's vocabulary consists of a list of words -pure and simple, with no indication of gender or flexions. The -_Introductory_ ends with lists of ordinal numerals, days, seasons, and -so on, together with words of learned origin common to both languages -"amonge eloquent men," and, last of all, pieces of prose composition in -both French and English, arranged in alternate lines.[202] - -As is usual in these early grammars, there is an obvious lack of orderly -arrangement, and the work, as a whole, gives the impression of being a -collection of rough notes rather than a carefully planned treatise. -Barclay does not, however, make any claim to completeness, nor pretend -to lay down "absolute" rules as Palsgrave claimed to do. He shared the -opinion, common at that time among Frenchmen, that it was impossible to -formulate anything like adequate rules for the French language. The -sketchy nature of his rules may be judged by that given for the position -of the objective pronoun: "oft times that thynge whiche cometh before -the verbe in Englyshe commyth after it in frenche as il m'a fait -tort . . . je ne me puis lever." He was of opinion that rules were not -of much use in learning French: that language is best learnt by "custome -and use of redynge and spekynge, by often enquirynge and frequentynge of -company of frenchmen and of suche as have perfytnes in spekynge the sayd -language." This opinion prevailed throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries in England, and, as a result, rules are reduced to a minimum -in manuals for teaching French. - -"Who so desyreth to knowe more of the sayd language, must provyde for mo -bokes made for the same intent," Barclay notes at the end of his short -and interesting treatise. Charles, Duke of Suffolk, the husband of Mary, -sister to Henry VIII. and Dowager Queen of France, was soon to make the -necessary provision. This "syngular good lorde," says Palsgrave, "by -cause that my poore labours required a longe tracte of tyme, hath also -in the meane season encouraged maister Petrus Vallensys, scole maister -to his excellent yong sonne the Erle of Lyncolne to shewe his lernynge -and opinion on this behalfe." Such was the origin of the _Introductions -in Frensche for Henry the Yonge Erle of Lyncoln (childe of greate -esperaunce) sonne of the most noble and excellent princesse Mary (by the -grace of God, queen of France etc.)_,[203] which is undated and -anonymous, but clearly the work of Petrus Vallensys or Pierre Valence, -French tutor to the Earl of Lincoln, and must have been written sometime -in the third decade of the century.[204] Valence is said to have taught -French after a "wonderesly compendious facile prompte and ready -waye,"[205] and Gregory Cromwell, whom he also counted among his pupils, -is reported to have made good progress under his direction. [Header: -PIERRE VALENCE, TEACHER OF FRENCH] Pierre Valence was one of the -natives of Normandy, so numerous in England at this time that the fact -was commented on by Etienne Perlin, a French priest who visited England -at the end of the reign of Edward VI. He describes them as being "du -tout tres mechans et mauditz Francois," worse than all the English, -which, according to him, is a very grave charge.[206] The date at which -Valence came to England is unknown, but he is said to have studied at -Cambridge in or about 1515.[207] He was in all probability a refugee for -religious reasons. He is known to have held Lutheran opinions, and, -whilst at Cambridge, caused a disturbance by defacing a copy of the -Pope's general indulgence, which had been set up over the gates of the -schools. Vigorous but ineffectual attempts were made to discover the -writer, against whom the Chancellor pronounced sentence of -excommunication. Valence is alleged finally to have acknowledged the act -as his, to have expressed contrition, and to have been absolved. There -are several points of contact between this man and his greater -contemporary, John Palsgrave: both were students at Cambridge, possibly -at the same time, though Palsgrave was the senior; both had as their -pupil the son of Mr. Secretary Cromwell--the one for French and the -other for Latin; both were proteges of the Dowager Queen of France -(sister of Henry VIII. and Palsgrave's pupil for French) and of her -husband the Duke of Suffolk. In 1535 Valence received a grant of letters -of denization,[208] and ultimately became domestic chaplain and almoner -to Dr. Goodrich, Bishop of Ely, and appears to have maintained this -position under the bishop's successor. He was still living in 1555, -since, in that year, he visited some heretics in Ely jail, and conjured -them to stand loyally by the truth of the Gospel.[209] - -Among the works of "dyvers clerkes" on the French language, to which -Palsgrave refers, is probably to be reckoned a short treatise bearing -the date 1528. This work is only known by a fragment consisting of two -leaves now preserved in the library at Lambeth.[210] These pages are of -quarto size and bear the signature "B. B." The right-hand page is in -French, the left in English; the former is in Roman characters, the -latter in black letter. Although these two pages contain the date, and -the last is not full, they do not appear to be the end of the work, as -the writer refers to what is to come hereafter.[211] One gathers from -internal evidence that the author was a foreigner--no doubt a Frenchman. -He speaks, for instance, of the "gentz Englois" as though he was not one -of them; and it appears to be quite certain that the work was originally -composed in French, and translated into English rather carelessly, and -probably by another hand, for in the version it is rendered almost -unintelligible by the translation of the French illustrative examples as -well as the text itself. - -The contents are of a light and entertaining character. The author holds -that many rules do but "trouble and marre" the understanding. He -counsels students rather to follow the example of good writers as likely -to be more helpful. - -He treats entirely of the pronunciation, and devotes special attention -to the difficulties of the English,[212] laying emphasis on the -importance of placing the accent on the right syllable. The rules are -put in an amusing way, thus: "_a_ should be pronounced fro the botom of -the stomake and all openly, _e_ a lytell higher in the throte there -properly where the Englishman soundeth his _e_; _i_, in the roundnesse -of the lippes; _u_, in puttynge a lytell of wynde out of the mouthe." -Further uses of the vowel _a_ are thus set forth: it may be placed -before all verbs, in the infinitive mood, and before all manner of nouns -and pronouns, as "to Robert," "to May," and so on. Again, "it betokeneth -'have' when it cometh of the Latin verb _habeo_." The consonants are -next dealt with and disposed of in much the same way. Some attention is -also given to the question, then much discussed, whether the -etymological consonants in the words where they are not pronounced -should be retained or not. The author's opinion was that every letter in -a word ought to be sounded, yet he feels himself utterly unable to -struggle against custom, and falls back on the rule "go as you please": -[Header: TWO FRENCH POETS TEACH FRENCH] "Pronounce ech one as he shal -please, for to difficyl it is to correct olde errours." - -Among the French teachers in England at this time were also two -Frenchmen of considerable literary distinction--Nicolas Bourbon, the -Latin poet and well-known scholar, friend of Rabelais and Marot; and -Nicolas Denisot, who likewise held an important place among French -humanists, and finished his literary education under Daurat, the famous -Hellenist. - -Bourbon came to England under the protection of Anne Boleyn, who appears -to have taken a special interest in him;[213] she had, he tells us, -procured his liberation from imprisonment. Bourbon was for some time a -private tutor in Paris, and soon after he regained his freedom he -crossed to England, intending to continue his work there. He had a -cordial welcome, and invariably speaks of his stay and treatment in -London with gratitude. His Latin verses[214] show him to be acquainted -with the chief Englishmen who gathered round the Court, where he -occupied his leisure by writing satirical verses against the queen's -enemies, especially Sir Thomas More,[215] and in eulogizing Cromwell, -Cranmer, and the Reform Party then in power. It was on the -recommendation of the king and queen, he informs us, that he was engaged -as French tutor in several families of distinction, including the -Carews, Norrisses, and Harveys. John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, was -one of his patrons, and from him Robert Dudley, afterwards Earl of -Leicester, together with his brothers, learnt French as children. -Bourbon left England in 1535, on hearing of the death of his father. He -had probably been in the country at least two years, and, perhaps -happily for himself, left it a year before the fall of his patroness -Anne Boleyn. - -At a somewhat later date, 1547, the elegant poet and artist Nicolas -Denisot arrived in England, driven from Paris by an unfortunate love -affair.[216] His nephew, Jacques Denisot, declares he was "fort bien -accueilliz dans la cour d'Angleterre ou son estime et sa reputation -estoit deja cogneue." He mixed with the writers and politicians[217] of -the day, and attracted the notice of the Court by writing verses in -honour of the young king, Edward VI.[218] He soon found himself in the -distinguished position of French and Latin tutor to the three daughters -of the Protector Somerset,--Anne, Margaret, and Jane,--who were destined -shortly to become famous in Paris as his pupils, and to form an -important link in the literary relations of the two countries. Calvin -corresponded with one of Denisot's pupils, the Lady Anne; and in 1549 he -wrote requesting her to use her knowledge of French in transmitting to -her mother an expression of his gratitude for a ring he had received -from that lady, he being unable to do so, on account of his ignorance of -English.[219] In this same year, 1549, Denisot's engagement in the house -of Somerset came to an end rather abruptly, probably on account of some -misunderstanding with the duke. He returned to France after spending -three years in England, and thence kept up a friendly correspondence -with his former pupils. On the death of Queen Margaret of Navarre, whom, -no doubt, Denisot had taught them to admire, the sisters composed four -hundred Latin distichs in her honour, and sent them to their former -master, who welcomed them with enthusiasm, and published them in 1550. -In the following year the verses appeared again, accompanied by French, -Italian, and Greek translations, and verses from the pen of Ronsard, Du -Bellay, and other literary friends of Denisot.[220] It is a striking -fact that before the Pleiade was fully known in France, the fame of some -of its members had reached England, where a particular interest would be -taken in this development of the work of the three princesses. Ronsard, -Denisot's intimate friend, wrote one of his earliest odes in honour of -Denisot's pupils, in which he celebrates the intellectual union of -France and England: [Header: THE PLEIADE IN ENGLAND] - - Denisot se vante heure - D'avoir oublie sa terre - Et passager demeure - Trois ans en Angleterre. - . . . . les espritz - D'Angleterre et de la France - Bandez d'une ligue ont pris - Le fer contre l'ignorance, - Et (que) nos Roys se sont faitz - D'ennemys amys parfaitz - Tuans la guerre cruelle - Par une paix mutuelle. - -Herberay des Essarts, the translator of the famous _Amadis_, wrote a -letter in praise of the princesses, which was printed at the beginning -of Margaret's "tombeau." With full justice has Denisot been called the -"ambassador" of the French Renaissance in England. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[132] It was, however, an English scholar, Richard Mulcaster, Headmaster -of Merchant Taylors' School (1561) and of St. Paul's School (1596), who -boldly urged that the English language was a subject worthy of study by -Englishmen, though this was not till 1582, when his _Elementarie_ was -published. - -[133] _The Second Book of the Travels of Nicander Nucius_, 1545, Camden -Society, London, 1841, p. 13. - -[134] W. B. Rye, _England as seen by Foreigners_, London, 1865, -_passim_. - -[135] Translation of Sallust's _Bellum Jugurthinum_: Dedication to the -Duke of Norfolk. - -[136] _Remains_, Parker Society, p. 470. Quoted by J. J. Jusserand, -_Histoire litteraire du peuple anglais_, Paris, 1904, p. 86, n. 3. - -[137] _The Correspondence of Sir Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet_, ed. -W. A. Bradly, Boston, 1912, pp. 41 and 112. - -[138] _Sidney Papers_, ed. A. Collins, in _Letters and Memorials of -State_, 2 vols., London, 1746, vol. i. pp. 283-5. - -[139] _Letters of Descartes_, quoted by E. J. B. Rathery, _Les Relations -sociales et intellectuelles entre la France et l'Angleterre . . ._ -Paris, 1856. - -[140] Which provided the material for that "bonnie bouncing book," as -Ben Jonson called it--Coryat's _Crudities: Hastily gobled up in Five -Months' Travells in France_, etc. 1611. - -[141] Rye, _op. cit._ pp. xxxv-xxxvii. - -[142] L. Einstein, _The Italian Renaissance in England_, New York, 1907. - -[143] The Tudor group of distinguished linguists includes the names of -many women. The chronicler Harrison remarks that it is a rare thing to -hear of a courtier that has but his own language, and to tell how many -ladies are skilled in French, Spanish, and Italian is beyond his power -(_Holinshed's Chronicle_, 1586, i. p. 196). Nicholas Udal writes in the -same strain in his dedication to Queen Katherine Parr of his translation -of Erasmus's _Paraphrase of the Gospels_; we are told that a great -number of noble women at that time in England were given to the study of -human sciences and of strange tongues; and that it was a common thing to -see "young virgins so nouzled and trained in the study of letters that -thei willingly set all other vain pastymes at nought for learnynge's -sake." Amongst the most accomplished of such "Queens and Ladies of high -estate and progeny" were Queen Katherine Parr and Lady Jane Grey. -Mulcaster in his _Positions_ (1581) praises English ladies for their -fondness of serious study, and so does the Italian teacher Torriano in -his _Italian reviv'd_ (1673), p. 99. Many examples of fluent linguists -are found in Ballard's _Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain_, 2nd -ed., 1775. - -[144] Elizabeth's command of foreign languages was constantly a subject -of remark. Dr. William Turner in the dedication of his _Herbal_ (1568) -to the queen, addresses her thus: "As to your knowledge of Latin and -Greek, French, Italian, and others also, not only your own faythful -subiectes, beynge far from all suspicion of flattery, bear witness, but -also strangers, men of great learninge, in their books set out in Latin -tonge, give honourable testimonye." Best known of these learned -observers was Scaliger (_Scaligeriana_, Cologne, 1695, p. 134). Similar -eulogies in verse were left by French poets: Ronsard, _Elegies, -Mascarades et Bergeries_ (1561), reproduced in _Le Bocage royal_ (1567); -Jacques Grevin, _Chant du cygne_; Du Bartas, _Second Week_; and Agrippa -d'Aubigne; also by John Florio, _First Frutes_, 1578, ch. xiii. - -[145] _First Frutes_, 1578, ch. i. - -[146] John Eliote, _Ortho-Epia Gallica_, 1596. - -[147] _Merchant of Venice_, Act I. Scene 2. - -[148] Cp. Brunot, _Histoire de la langue francaise_, ii. pp. 2 _sqq._ -Dallington in his _View of France_ remarks on the same neglect. In _The -Abbot and the Learned Woman_, Erasmus praises the latter for studying -the classics and not, as was usual, confining herself to French -(_Colloquia_, Leiden, 1519). - -[149] _Copy Book of Sir Amias Poulet's Letters_, Roxburghe Club, 1866, -p. 129. - -[150] _The Second Book of the Travels of Nicander Nucius_, Camden Soc., -1841, p. 14. - -[151] _Dialogue de l'ortografe et pronunciacion francoese departi en -deus livres_, Lyon, 1558. - -[152] Peiresc wrote in French to the scholars Selden and Camden, who -answered in Latin. Other French scholars who maintained a correspondence -with Englishmen are de Thou, Jerome Bignon, Duchesne, du Plessis Mornay, -H. Estienne, Hubert Languet, Pibrac, and the Sainte-Marthe brothers. - -[153] _Lettres missives de Henri IV_, 9 tom., Paris, 1843. For an -example of Elizabeth's French in her intercourse with her neighbours, -see Rathery, _Les Relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la France -et l'Angleterre_, Paris, 1856, p. 31 n.; _Unton Correspondence_, -Roxburghe Club, 1847, _passim_. - -[154] See the _Calendars of State Papers_ for the period. - -[155] _Calendar of State Papers_, Domestic, 1595-97, p. 328. - -[156] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, vol xiii. pt. i. -No. 977. - -[157] Henry VII.'s mother, the Countess of Richmond, was also an -accomplished French scholar; she translated several works from the -French, and encouraged others to follow her example. - -[158] J. P. Collier, _Annals of the English Stage_, 1831, vol. i. pp. -48, 51, 53. - -[159] Cp. Rye, _op. cit._ pp. 76, 79. - -[160] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, ed. Brewer, vol. -ii. No. 411; Rawdon Brown, _Four Years at the Court of Henry VIII._, -1854, vol. i. pp. 76-79 and 86. - -[161] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, vol. i. p. -xxiii. - -[162] _Songs, Ballads, and Instrumental Pieces composed by King Henry -VIII._, Oxford, 1912. Barclay says in his _Eclogues_ that French -minstrels and singers were highly favoured at Court. Jamieson, _Life and -Writings of Barclay_, 1874, p. 44. - -[163] "Je serai a [vous] toujours et tant que je vivrai autre n'aimerai -que vous." - -[164] _Henry VIII._, Act I. Scene 4. - -[165] Wolsey spoke Latin well. Like Charles II. he considered it -diplomatic to affect ignorance of French at times. Such is his advice to -those who accompanied him on his embassy to France: "The nature of the -Frenchmen is such that at their first meeting they will be as familiar -with you as if they had knowne you by long acquaintance, and will -commune with you in their French Tongue as if you knew every word. -Therefore use them in a kind manner, and bee as familiar with them as -they are with you: if they speake to you in their natural tongue, speake -to them in English, for if you understand not them, no more shall they -you." Puttenham, in his _Arte of English Poesie_, advises ambassadors -and messengers not to use foreign languages of which they have not -perfect command, lest they commit blunders similar to that of the -courtier who said of a French lady, "Elle chevauche bien,"--blunders -which might have serious results in diplomatic transactions. - -[166] _The Negociations of Th. Wolsey, The Great Cardinal of England, -containing his Life and Death. Composed by one of his own servants, -being his gentleman usher_ (G. Cavendish?), London, 1641. - -[167] _Negociations of Th. Wolsey_, _ut supra_. - -[168] M. E. A. Green, _Lives of the Princesses of England_, 1849-1855, -v. p. 20. - -[169] Green's _Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies_, 1846. See also -Ellis, _Original Letters_, 1st series, vol. i. p. 115. - -[170] _Life of Anne Boleyn_, in Strickland's _Lives of the Queens of -England_, London, 1884, ii. pp. 179, 181. - -[171] Ellis, _Orig. Letters_, 2nd series, vol. ii. p. 11. Anne's French -spelling is curious and suggests that, like Henry VIII., she learnt -French mainly by ear: "Mons. Je antandue par vre lettre que aves envy -que tout onnete feme quan je vindre a la courte et ma vertisses que Rene -prendra la pein de devisser a vecc moy, de quoy me regoy bien fort de -pensser parler a vecc ung personne tante sage et onnete, cela me ferra a -voyr plus grante anvy de continuer a parler bene franssais." - -[172] A French poem of the time, preserved in MS. and quoted by Rathery, -_op. cit._ p. 21, celebrates Anne's French accomplishments--_Traite pour -feue dame Anne de Boulant, jadis royne d'Angleterre, l'an 1533_: - - "La tellement ses graces amenda - Que ne l'eussiez oncques jugee Angloise - En ses fachons, ains naive Franchoise. - Elle scavoit bien danser et chanter, - Et ses propos sagement agencer, - Sonner du luth et d'autres instrumens - Pour divertir les tristes pensemens." - -[173] Pub., with English translation, in the _Harleian Miscellany_, vol. -iii., 1745, pp. 52-62. - -[174] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, xv. 179, and -xvi. 12. - -[175] Ellis, _Orig. letters_, series 1, vol. ii. p. 122. - -[176] Strickland, _Lives of the Queens_, 1884, ii. p. 299. - -[177] This is the testimony of Girolamo Cordano, a physician and -astrologer of Milan who was called upon to exercise his art on the young -king of England in 1552. Rye, _England as seen by Foreigners_, pp. -lxviii _sqq._ - -[178] Strickland, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 477-8. - -[179] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, xvi. No. 1253. - -[180] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series, ii. p. 236. - -[181] One of Elizabeth's Italian masters was Baptista Castiglione, a -religious refugee in 1557. Elizabeth, however, had acquired some -knowledge of Italian before 1544; in that year she addressed a letter in -Italian to Queen Katharine Parr (printed in G. Howard's _Lady Jane Grey -and her Times_, 1822). Other Italian letters of the queen are published -in Green's _Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies_, 1846. - -[182] Account of the Venetian ambassador at the Court of Mary--Michel -Giovanni. Rye, _op. cit._ p. 266. - -[183] _Memoirs of his own Life, 1549-93_, Bannatyne Club, 1827, p. 125. -Elizabeth's Dutch he pronounces "not gud," and later says that neither -the King of France nor the Queen of England could speak Dutch (p. 341). - -[184] _Memoirs of his own Life, 1549-93_, Bannatyne Club, 1827, p. 117. - -[185] J. Nichols, _Progresses of Queen Elizabeth_, 1788-1821, i. p. x. - -[186] Rye, _op. cit._ p. 12. - -[187] Rye, _op. cit._ p. 104. - -[188] The MS. was reproduced in facsimile in 1893. The prayers in French -begin thus: "Mon Dieu et mon pere puis qu'il t'a pleu desployer les -tresors de ta grande misericorde envers moy ta tres humble servante, -m'ayant de bon matin retiree des profonds abismes de l'ignorance -naturelle et des superstitions damnables pour me faire iouir de ce grand -soleil de justice . . . etc." - -[189] _Lettres_, Amsterdam, 1723, liv. i. p. 5. - -[190] An account of the little that is known of Andre's life is given in -Gairdner's _Memorials of Henry VII._, pp. viii _et seq._ - -[191] Of foreign countries, the Netherlands seem to have come next to -England in zeal for the study of French, and Germany takes the next -place. Countries in which sister Romance tongues were spoken, Italy and -Spain, were apparently entirely dependent on practice for learning -French. - -[192] The printing was completed by Robert Coplande on the 22nd March -1521. The book consists of sixteen leaves of the folio size of the time, -in black letter, with signatures A-B in sixes and C in fours. There is a -unique copy in the Bodleian. - -[193] Bale, _Scriptorum Britanniae Summarium_, 1548, p. 723, and Pits, -_Relationes Historicae de rebus Anglicis_, 1619, p. 745, attribute to -Barclay a work called _De pronuntiatione linguae gallicae_. This -suggests that possibly the _Introductory_ was first written in Latin. - -[194] Time after time he mentions the usages of different parts of the -country, as _piecha_ for _pieca_ in certain districts; _jeo_ and _ceo_ -for _je_ and _ce_ in Picard and Gascon; the writing of the names of -dignitaries and officers in the plural instead of the singular, as _luy -papes de Rome_. - -[195] _L'Esclarcissement de la langue francoyse_, bk. i. ch. xxxv. - -[196] "There is a boke which goeth about in this realme, intitled _The -Introductory to write and pronounce French_, compyled by Alexander -Barclay. I suppose it is sufficient to warne the lerner that I have red -over that boke at length, and what my opinion is therein it shall well -apeare in my boke's self, though I make thereof no further expresse -mencion." - -[197] Thus the vowel _a_ is sometimes a letter, sometimes a word. In the -former case it is often sounded like English _a_; when it is a word _d_ -should not be added. This section of the work is reprinted in A. J. -Ellis's _Early English Pronunciation_, Early Engl. Text Soc., 1869, -etc., pt. iii. pp. 804 _sqq._ - -[198] On the back of folio 5. - -[199] "Howsoever the singular number end, the plural number must end in -_s_ or _z_." Such is the rule for the formation of the plural. As for -the genders, he gives a few isolated examples and converts them into -rules. - -[200] On folio 8vº. - -[201] Folios 9-14. The vocabulary begins with the letter M, and after -proceeding to the end of the alphabet, resumes at the beginning--an -arrangement probably due to some blunder on the part of the printer. - -[202] Both deal with agricultural subjects; the first gives the life of -a grain of wheat, and the second may explain itself: - - "Dieu sauve la charue, - God save the ploughe, - Et celui qui la mane. - And he the whiche it ledeth. - Primierement hairois la terre, - Firste ere the grounde, - Apres semer le ble ou l'orge. - After sow the whete or barley. - Les herces doivent venir apres, - The harrowes must come after, - Le chaclir oster l'ordure. - The hoke to take away wedes, - En Aoust le foyer ou faucher, - In August reap it or mowe it, - D'une faucille ou d'une faux." - -There is no English rendering of the last line. - -[203] In the Library of the Marquis of Bath. - -[204] The Earl was born in 1516. - -[205] Ellis, _Orig. Letters_, 1st series, i. pp. 341-43. - -[206] _Description des royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse_, Paris, -1558. - -[207] C. H. and T. Cooper, _Athenae Cantabrigienses_, vol. i., 1858, p. -155. - -[208] _List of Denizations, 1509-1603_, Huguenot Society Publications -VIII. - -[209] _Athenae Cantab._ _ut supra_. - -[210] S. R. Maitland, _List of some of the early printed books in the -Archiepiscopal Library at Lambeth_, 1843, pp. 290 _et seq._ - -[211] "'_a_' also betokeneth 'have' or 'has,' when it cometh of this -verbe in Latin, _habeo_, as hereafter ye may see." - -[212] "Sur toultes choses doibuit noter gentz Englois que leur fault -accustomer de pronuncer la derniere lettre du mot francois quelque mot -que ce soit (rime exceptee) ce que la langue engleshe ne permet, car la -ou l'anglois dit 'goode breade,' le francois diroit 'goode' iii sillebes -et 'breade' iii sillebes." - -[213] J. A. Jacquot, _Notice sur Nicolas Bourbon de Vandoeuvre_, Troyes -et Paris, 1857. Bourbon was born in 1503, and died in 1550. He went to -Paris in 1531, leaving behind him in his native town a reputation won by -his Latin verses. On his return from England, Queen Margaret of Navarre -entrusted to him the education of her daughter, Jeanne, who was the -mother of Henry IV. - -[214] _Nicolai Borbonii vandoperani Lingonenis_ [Greek: Paidagogeion], -Lugduni, 1536. - -[215] J. H. Marsden, _Philomorus_, 2nd ed., 1878, p. 261. - -[216] Clement Juge, _Nicolas Denisot du Mans, 1515-1559_, Paris and Le -Mans, 1907. - -[217] He also began his work as a secret agent in the service of France, -and it is said that Calais was recovered by the French in 1558, from a -plan which Denisot submitted to the Duc de Guise. - -[218] There was a MS. copy of Latin poems by Denisot in the Library of -Edward VI. (Nichols, _Literary Remains_, 1857.) - -[219] J. Bonnet, _Recits du seizieme siecle_, 1864, p. 348. - -[220] _Le Tombeau de Marguerite de Navarre faict premierement en -Distiques latins par les trois soeurs, Princesses en Angleterre: Depuis -Traduits, en Grec, Italien et Francois par plusieurs des excellentz -Poetes de la France. Avecques plusieurs Odes, Hymnes, Cantiques, -Epitaphes sur le mesme subiect._ Paris, 1551. - - - - -CHAPTER II - - FRENCH TUTORS AT COURT--GILES DUWES--JOHN PALSGRAVE--JEAN BELLEMAIN - - -The two most popular French tutors at the Court of Henry VIII. were -undoubtedly Giles Duwes and John Palsgrave. Palsgrave is the only one of -these early French tutors who is well known to-day as a writer on the -French tongue. He was a Londoner, and received his education at -Cambridge and Paris. Giles Duwes was a Frenchman and seems to have -enjoyed a greater popularity in his own day. He had been teaching French -at the English Court for over ten years when Palsgrave received his -first appointment there, as French tutor to the king's "most dere and -entierly beloved" sister Mary, afterwards Queen of France. Both teachers -were proteges of Henry VIII., and taught in the royal family--Duwes was -tutor to the king himself; and both were authors of grammars of the -French language. That of Palsgrave has been mentioned already. It -appeared in 1530 under the title of _L'Esclarcissement de la langue -francoyse_. Duwes's was not published till three years later -approximately, at the request of his pupil, Princess Mary, afterwards -Queen of England. It was called _An Introductorie for to learne to rede, -to prononce and to speke French trewly, compyled for the rigid high -excellent and most vertuous Lady Mary of Englande, daughter to our most -gracious soveraign, Lorde Kyng Henry the Eight_.[221] His treatise is a -small quarto of 102 leaves, forming a striking contrast to Palsgrave's -enormous folio[222] of over 1000 pages. - -The contents and style of the two books are as different as their size. -[Header: JOHN PALSGRAVE'S FRENCH GRAMMAR] Like all the French -grammarians of the time, Palsgrave opens his work with rules for the -pronunciation, and the whole of the first book is devoted to an -elaborate study of this subject. Earlier writers had treated it very -slightly, if at all, trusting that the student would find some -opportunity of learning the sounds of the language by mixing with those -who spoke it. We are told[223] that as a result there was no means of -acquiring a good pronunciation, save in early youth by practice and use -for a year or two. And it came to be supposed in a manner a thing -impossible; "in so much that whereas there be hundreds in this realm, -which with a little labour and the aid of Latin, do so perfectly -understand this tongue that they be able to translate at the first sight -anything out of the French tongue into ours, yet have they thought the -thing so strange to leave the consonants unsounded whiche they saw -written in such books as they studied, that they have utterly neglected -the Frenchmen's manner of pronunciation, and so read French as their -fantasy or opinion did lead them and, by that means, perceiving in -themselves a want and swerving from the truth, which they wot not how to -amend, utterly leave to speak or exercise the language as a thing which -they despair of."[224] One of the chief difficulties of these early -students then was the numerous consonants found in French words for -etymological reasons, and which were not pronounced. Other difficulties -were found in the accentuation of vowel sounds. The English were in the -habit of placing the accent on the wrong syllable, saying _doUcement_ -instead of _doucemEnt_, and of not giving the vowel its full and pure -sound, both mistakes being due to peculiarities of their native tongue. -"We must leave that kind of reading and pronouncing if we will sound the -French Tongue aright," says Palsgrave, "for the French in their -pronunciation do chiefly regard three things: to be armonious in theyr -speking, to be brefe and sodayne in soundyng of theyr words, avoydyng -all manner of harshenesse in theyr pronunciation, and thirdly to gyve -every worde that they abyde and reste upon theyr most audible sounde." -There is something solemn about his assurance of the successful results -to be attained by the study of his rules: "whereas nowe the very grounde -and consyderation of the Frenchmen in this behalf ones knowen, it hath -been proved by experience that it is but a senyghts labour, or, at the -most, a fournyghtes to lerne this poynt concernyng to theyr -pronounciatyon an to be sure herof for ever." - -Palsgrave devotes attention to each letter of the alphabet in turn, and -seeks to elucidate the value of the sounds by reference to contemporary -English or Italian, and by attempting to give the position of the vocal -organs.[225] _A_, he says, has two diverse sounds. "Sometimes he is -sounded as in English, and sometimes like the diphthong _au_ and a -little in the nose. The most usual pronunciation given it by the French, -is the same as those who speak the best English, that is like the -Italian sound _a_, or those of the English who sound the Latin tongue -aright. When _m_ or _n_ follow the vowel it is pronounced as _au_ and -somewhat in the nose, _chambre_ being sounded _chaumbre_," etc. More -general topics are also touched on--the accent, the length of vowels, -and the intonation which is so "brief, so sudden and so hard." - -In his second book,[226] Palsgrave treats what he calls the second -difficulty of the French tongue--the accidence of the nine parts of -speech. Throughout, constant reference is made to the third book, -"whiche is a very comment expositour unto my second." This last book -deals with the more syntactical side of the subject, and was added on -the model of Theodore Gaza's Greek grammar. It occupies by far the -largest portion of the whole work,[227] and besides giving elaborate and -often obscure rules to govern every French inflexion,[228] includes an -English-French alphabetical vocabulary which reaches the size of a -dictionary. This vocabulary is arranged according to the parts of -speech, and numerous phrases and idioms illustrative of different uses -of the words are freely given. [Header: THE "INTRODUCTORIE" OF GILES -DUWES] Nothing like it in dimensions had yet appeared, and, contrary to -custom, the English is placed before the French. - -Duwes's manual, on the other hand, opens with an acrostich in French -with an interlinear English translation containing the author's -name--Giles Duwes or de Vadis,--followed by a short address in verse to -the Princess Mary, "filleule a saincte Marie" (also in French, -accompanied by an English interlinear version), and lists of French -words beginning with each of the letters of his royal pupil's name. The -grammar itself is written in English, for Duwes was one of the few -Frenchmen of the time who knew English; neither Bourbon nor Denisot, -though they lived in England some years, and taught French to English -pupils, knew our language; and no doubt they helped to continue the -long-standing relation between the teaching of Latin and the teaching of -French. Duwes's work is divided into two books, the first of which is -devoted to rules of grammar. He dismisses the pronunciation with seven -short and inadequate rules, and proceeds to give his pupil a copious -vocabulary of words and phrases, in which the English word is printed -over the French one. The headings with which the earlier vocabularies -have made us familiar are again utilized, though with variety in detail, -and many passages are reminiscent of the mediaeval nomenclatures. After -his pupil has gained a knowledge of pronunciation, and acquired a good -vocabulary, Duwes proceeds to give him an insight into the grammar of -the language. He treats the parts of speech, with the exception of the -verb, in a very summary fashion; thus, with regard to the gender of -pronouns, all he has to say is that those ending in _a_ are feminine, -and those ending in _on_ or _e_ are masculine. "But there be certain -names of the feminine, which do require the pronouns masculine, that -must be accepted (excepted), as _mon ame_; _me_ and _se_ be -indifferent." He devotes nearly the whole of his space to a lengthy and -elaborate treatment of the French verb, which he divides into two -conjugations, according as there is not or is an _s_ before the -termination _-ons_ of the first person plural, present indicative! Thus -the forms _aimons_, _avons_, _batons_, _donons_ prove the verbs _aimer_, -_avoir_, _batir_, _donner_ to belong to the first conjugation; and -similarly the forms _baisons_, _taisons_, etc., indicate that these -verbs belong to the second conjugation--an arrangement not at all -conducive to lucidity. A considerable part of his work is occupied by -the conjugation of verbs of all sorts, in a variety of forms and both -negatively and interrogatively. He usually adopts the practice, frequent -in modern text-books, of attaching words to the verbs as he conjugates -them, and so providing them with a context. Thus he writes _j'ai grand -desir_, and not simply the verb form _j'ai_. A knowledge of French verbs -was, in Duwes's opinion, the key to the knowledge of the French -language.[229] - -The second book occupies more than half the volume. It contains -practical exercises in the form of "letters missive in prose and in -rime, also diverse communications by way of dialogue, to receive a -messenger from the emperor, the French King or any other prince, also -other communications of the propriety of meat, of love, of peace, of -wars, of the exposition of the mass, and what man's soul is, with the -division of time and other conceits." Each exercise is provided with an -interlinear English translation, and all, as may be gathered from their -subject matter, were in the first place written specially for the use of -the Princess Mary. They deal with the daily events of her life, and, -though occasionally public affairs are touched on, these exercises are -of greatest interest in disclosing the affectionate relations existing -between Mary and her tutor. Whenever possible, Duwes introduces -alternative phrases as well as variations of number and gender, and this -attention to his pupil's vocabulary and knowledge of the flexions often -encumbers his sentences. As for the English version, it gives a -word-for-word rendering of the French, without regard to the natural -order of words in an English sentence. - -The methods of the two teachers seem to have been as different as their -works. Everything tends to prove that Duwes's manner of teaching was -practical, light, and entertaining, and at the same time efficient--a -rare combination of good qualities. [Header: HIS METHOD] Henry VIII.'s -skill in French has already been noticed, and Duwes's other pupils seem -to have been equally accomplished. In his opinion, a good vocabulary and -a thorough knowledge of the verbs were the two essentials in teaching -French. To learn French quickly, he thinks, the student must practise -turning the verbs in all possible ways, affirmatively, negatively, and -interrogatively--a principle of repetition. In this way he acquires -fluency of speech and is able to "make diverse and many sentences with -one word, and perconsequent come shortly to the French speach." For -instance, thirty-six variations may be got in one tense, by turning each -person in six different ways, "that is to say, the affirmative three -ways, and the negative likewise." Duwes reaches this large total by -giving the following forms of each person: "I have, have I?, why have -I?" for the singular of affirmation, "I have not, have I not?, why have -I not?" for the singular of negation, and so on with other persons and -the corresponding plural forms. He further counsels the student to -practise 108 similar variations in the same tense, by means of the use -of the pronouns _me_, _te_, _se_; "for the first person, I have me, I -have thee, I have him, and we turn it, we shall have, Have I me, have I -thee, have I him. Then putting why before it we shall have, Why have I -me," etc., and so on, on lines exactly similar to the example for -thirty-six variations. Apparently such exercises were the mainstay of -his grammatical instruction, for rules of grammar are reduced to a -minimum. Practice held a higher place than theory in Duwes's estimation, -and his attitude towards attempts to draw up rules for the French -language was very sceptical; to be complete, the numbers of such rules -would be infinite, and, what is more, rules are of more use to the -teacher than to the learner. - -Palsgrave, on the contrary, had a firm belief in the value and soundness -of grammar rules. He seems to have been the first to advocate the -learning of French chiefly by means of grammar. The earliest treatises -had been intended more to correct the French of those who read them than -to teach the language; and though in later times the rules were intended -to impart a knowledge of the language, they were not put in the first -place, and it was always felt that they were very secondary to "custom -and the use of reading and speaking." Before Palsgrave's grammar -appeared, declares his enthusiastic pupil Andrew Baynton, Englishmen did -in a manner despair of learning French except by an "importune and long -continued exercise and that begun in young and tender age." Sir Thomas -Elyot in _The Boke of the Governour_, which appeared a year after -Palsgrave's grammar, seems to regret this interference with -long-standing custom, by means of which French was "brought into as many -rules and figures and as long a grammar as is Latin or Greek."[230] He -was afraid that the "sparkes of fervent desire of learnynge" should be -"extincte with the burdone of grammar, lyke as a lytell fyre is sone -quenched with a great heape of small stickes: so that it can never come -to the principale logges where it shuld longe bourne in a great -pleasaunt fire." Many years elapsed, however, before the deadening -effect of too much grammar, apprehended by Elyot, was felt in the -teaching of French. - -Palsgrave's method of teaching, therefore, was the reverse of that of -his fellow-worker, although he professes a desire to induce his pupils -not only to love their studies, but to be merry over them.[231] It -appears that he was fond of making his pupils learn rules by heart,[232] -while the dynamic of his method was translation from English into -French--an exercise not very popular amongst teachers at this time. So -great was his faith in his rules that he felt that the student might, -with their aid, even dispense with the assistance of a teacher. By an -attentive study of the first book the reader "shal undouted attayne to -the right and naturall pronunciation of this sayde tonge." And he -assures the student that by reading the general information in the -introduction to his first two books, and by learning by heart the three -perfect verbs in his second book (_Je parle_, _Je convertis_, _Je fais_, -representatives of the three conjugations into which Palsgrave arranges -French verbs) and the three irregulars (_J'ai_, _Je suis_, and _Je m'en -vais_), he will know French tolerably well, and be able, with the help -of the vocabulary in the third book, to translate from English into -French, and "so incontinente accustome hym to have theyr common -speache"; and, again using the vocabulary, he will be able to read any -French author by his own study, without help or teacher, if he knows the -second book perfectly. [Header: HIS DIALOGUES IN FRENCH AND ENGLISH] -However, he advises those who desire to attain perfection, or to -qualify themselves for foreign service, to read and study the whole of -the three books. - -Palsgrave seems to assign the priority to Duwes by mentioning him as one -of his immediate predecessors, although Duwes's work was not published -until after Palsgrave's. Yet it is improbable that the debt on either -side was anything but trifling. Duwes had been teaching many years -before we first hear of Palsgrave. As he taught he drew up grammatical -rules for the use of his pupils; and when he was tutor to the Princess -Mary, she requested him to collect together and publish the material he -had used in teaching the king, her father, as well as other members of -the royal family.[233] According to Palsgrave, diverse noblemen -supported the princess's request. Thus most of the rules published in -Duwes's grammar had been composed very many years before they were -published, for Duwes had then been teaching for over thirty years. And -no doubt Palsgrave, who was also employed at Court, had opportunities of -seeing them in manuscript. As to the dialogues and other practical -exercises, they were all specially written for the use of the princess, -and so are of later date than most of the rules. Duwes had doubtless -composed for the benefit of his earlier pupils similar exercises, which -remained in manuscript form and were lost. Some idea of the dates at -which the dialogues were written and of the period during which Duwes -was engaged in teaching the princess may be gathered from references to -topical events which occur in the text. For instance, mention is made of -a peace newly proclaimed throughout the kingdoms of France and England, -which was, no doubt, that of 1525, when England joined with France to -counteract the excessive power of Spain. We also find a somewhat vague -reference to a possible marriage for the princess with a "king or -emperor," and remember that it was in 1525 that negotiations for her -marriage with Charles V. were broken off, and others for an alliance -with the French king, Francis I., begun. Another circumstance points to -this same period. One of the dialogues takes place at Tewkesbury Park; -it was in 1526 that Mary was created Princess of Wales, and sent to -Ludlow to hold her Court there, and in November of the same year six of -her Council addressed a letter to Wolsey from Tewkesbury. Duwes is not -mentioned by name in a list of the princess's household appointed on -this occasion, probably because he was already in her service; and it is -interesting to note that the Countess of Salisbury, her lady governess, -had instructions "without fatigacion or weariness to intende to her -learninge of Latine tongue and French," as well as her music, dancing -and diet.[234] In May 1527, Mary had returned to London, and took part -in the festivities given at Greenwich in honour of the French -ambassadors who had come to ask for her hand on behalf of the French -king's second son, Henry, Duke of Orleans. We may therefore conclude -that Duwes's grammar rules were composed at various dates from the -beginning of the century, and the dialogues probably between the years -1524 and 1527. - -Palsgrave, on the other hand, began his great work when Henry VIII. -appointed him French tutor to his sister Mary, the future Queen of -France, in 1512. He had "conceyved some lyttle hope and confidence" by -receiving such a noble charge, and thought it a convenient occasion for -showing his gratitude by means of his works. Several years later he -completed "two sondrie bookes" on the subject, which he offered in -manuscript to his former pupil, the Dowager Queen of France, and her -husband the Duke of Suffolk. On their advice and encouragement he -undertook to enlarge these and to add a third, and present the whole to -the king. In 1523, Palsgrave had planned the whole of the three books, -for in that year he made a contract with the printer, Richard Pynson, in -which it is stipulated that "the sayd Richarde, his executors and -assignes shall imprint or cause to be imprynted on boke callyd 'lez -lesclarcissement de la langue Francoys,' contayning iii sondrye bokes, -where in is shewyd howe the saide tong schould be pronownsyd in reding -and speking, and allso syche gramaticall rules as concerne the -perfection of the saide tong, with ii vocabulistes, oone begynnyng with -English nownes and verbes expownded in frenshe, and a general vocabulist -contayning all the wordes off the frenshe tong expound in Englishe." -Pynson undertook to begin at once and to print every whole working day, -at the rate of a sheet a day, interrupting the work for nothing save a -royal order. [Header: POPULARITY OF DUWES] The third book was not fully - written when the first two passed into the hands of the printer, as -Palsgrave constantly refers in it to the mistakes made already by the -printer in his second book,--mistakes unavoidable in so "newe and -unaccustomed worke." He also seems to have modified his plan for the -vocabulary; in that which actually appeared in the third book there is a -separate English-French dictionary for each part of speech--noun, -adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, and interjection. In the meantime, -Pynson died, and the book was completed by John Hawkins, this being the -only known production of his press. The two writers, then, were both -engaged on their work for a great many years. Duwes was the first in the -field, but he wrote with no view to publication, merely to satisfy the -needs of his pupils. Palsgrave, on the other hand, from the very first -intended to publish his work, and had great ambitions. Although he no -doubt saw some of Duwes's manuscript, his debt was of the slightest -character, if it can be called a debt at all. The respective size of the -two volumes is enough to prove this. - -Duwes's small treatise, however, seems to have enjoyed a greater -popularity than that of Palsgrave;[235] the latter did not reach a -second edition, whereas the former went through three in rapid -succession. This was no doubt largely due to its conciseness and -practical nature, which would appeal to the student, discouraged at the -sight of Palsgrave's immense work. The first edition (as far as is -known) of Duwes's _Introductorie_ must have appeared at least three -years after Palsgrave's _Esclarcissement_. The first two editions, -printed, one by Thomas Godfray, and the other by Nicholas Bourman for -John Reyns at the sign of the George in Paul's Churchyard, were -published during the years when Anne Boleyn was queen, and after the -birth of the Princess Elizabeth, as they both contain a "laude and -prayse" of the King, Queen Anne, and her daughter. This leaves a period -of under three years for the publication of the two editions, seeing -that Elizabeth was born in September 1533, and Anne was put to death on -the 19th of May 1536, Jane Seymour becoming queen in her stead on the -20th. The third edition[236] appeared after Duwes's death in 1535, as -perhaps the second edition may have done also. The dedication to Anne is -omitted, and a new one inserted, addressed to Henry alone. The second -part is here said to be "newly corrected and amended"; but it is -difficult to find in what the corrections consist, for, with the -exception of slight variations of spelling, the edition is identical -with the two earlier ones. It was issued from the press of John Waley, -who began to practise his trade as printer in about the year 1546.[237] -Most probably, then, this edition appeared in the last months of the -reign of Henry VIII. (1547), and was one of the earliest works issued -from Waley's press. It is hardly likely that he would have inserted the -"laude and prayse" of the king if the work had appeared after his -Majesty's death. - -Several reasons combine to explain how it was that Palsgrave's work does -not appear to have been as widely used as that of Duwes.[238] While his -book was still in the press, alarming rumours as to its size began to -circulate, and caused the great demand there had been for the work -previously to diminish noticeably. Some of Palsgrave's pupils made -efforts to stop the report, one of whom was Andrew Baynton, already -mentioned, a favourite courtier of Henry VIII. and vice-chamberlain to -three of his queens. "The labour needed to master the book is not in -proportion to his size!" he wrote indignantly to three distinguished -fellow-students, who helped him to contradict the rumour. On the -contrary, he argues, it may rather be thought too small; it is as -complete as can be expected when we consider that it is the first of its -kind: clerks have laboured for years at Latin grammar and still find -something new; French grammar, then, cannot be expected to attain -completeness in this first attempt. But "he that will seek, may find and -in a brief time attain to his utterest desire." Palsgrave deemed it wise -to publish this letter as a prefatory notice to his grammar; it may, -indeed, have been written in the first place with that object in view. -[Header: SALE OF PALSGRAVE'S GRAMMAR] He also judged it expedient to -explain how students, not wishing to study the whole, might learn enough -French to serve their purpose by selecting and learning certain sections -of the grammar.[239] - -Moreover, Palsgrave himself restricted the sale of his book. On account -of "his great labours, the ample largeness of the matter, and the great -difficulty of the enterprise," as well as its "great costs and charges" -(for he had the work printed at his own expense), he was anxious to keep -his grammar for himself, his friends, and his pupils, "lest his profit -by teaching the French tongue might be minished by the sale of the same -to such persons as besides him were disposed to study the French -tongue." His chief aim was to keep his book out of the hands of rival -teachers, who might use it for their own ends. Yet this attitude -conflicts strangely with Palsgrave's generous declaration in his epistle -to the king, expressing the hope that by means of his poor labours on -this occasion "the frenche tongue may hereafter by others the more -easely be taught, and also be attayned unto by suche as for their tyme -therof shal be desyrous." Nor was this the only precaution taken by -Palsgrave to ensure safety and fair dealing for his grammar. He obtained -from Henry VIII., to whom he dedicated the work, a privilege for seven -years,[240] the king being greatly "moved and stirred by due -consideration of his said long time and great diligence about this good -and very necessary purpose employed." The fact that Palsgrave altered -his original contract with Pynson twice[241] shows how careful he was in -all his proceedings. He wished to be sure of having complete control of -the 750 copies which were printed. He did not trust the "sayd Richarde" -further than he could help, and intended to see that Pynson "used good -faith" in his dealings with him. Pynson was to give Palsgrave six copies -to present to the king and his friends. The rest were to be left at -Pynson's house, in a room of which Palsgrave kept the key, and to be -sold only to such as Palsgrave desired. When Pynson had paid -himself,[242] the remaining books were to be given to Palsgrave, either -to take away or leave, as he willed. A striking example of the -difficulty there was in obtaining Palsgrave's grammar is illustrated by -the case of Stephen Vaughan. Again and again he begged Palsgrave to let -him have a copy, but Palsgrave would not grant this favour at any price; -and it is easy to form an idea, from Vaughan's persistence, of the great -value attached to the grammar among serious students; so great and -unparalleled a work was credited with almost supernatural powers. -Finally, in despair, Vaughan wrote to his patron Cromwell, asking him to -use his influence with the French teacher in obtaining this -"jewell."[243] Cromwell had received one of Palsgrave's presentation -copies, and, as a last resort, Vaughan begs him to let him have this. It -is to be hoped that the young man succeeded in getting a copy. At any -rate he seems to have made good progress in the French language.[244] - -It is not surprising to find that the fashionable Court tutors were -personally acquainted with each other. Palsgrave seems to have had a -great respect for Duwes, and to have set a high value on the opinions of -"that singular clerk." He feels he "cannot too much praise his judgment -concerning the French Tongue." And he quotes Duwes's authority on the -subject of mean verbs, a matter about which he had consulted him -personally. We thus see that Palsgrave probably was more indebted to -Duwes in this direct way, than by any help he received from such -manuscripts as came into his hands. "Maister Gyles," who was librarian -to the king, also showed Palsgrave a very old text of the _Roman de la -Rose_ in the Guildhall, "to shewe the difference betweene tholde Romant -tong and the right french tong." The _Roman de la Rose_ was a text -frequently quoted by Palsgrave in support and illustration of his rules. - -Thus Palsgrave has nothing but praise for Duwes, and no doubt Duwes took -a friendly interest in his younger rival, though he could not bring -himself to excuse what seemed to him his presumption in attempting to -write rules for a language not his own. [Header: DUWES ON ENGLISH -TEACHERS OF FRENCH] Like many Frenchmen of the time, Duwes firmly -believed that it was not possible to draw up anything like infallible -rules for the French language, and that Englishmen should presume, not -only to teach it, but to do this also, appeared to him preposterous. -Would it not seem strange, he cries, to see a Frenchman endeavouring to -teach the Germans their own language? Why should it be considered less -strange for Englishmen to teach French and lay down rules and principles -for the French language, a thing very few of those who have the language -"by nature" are able to do? That these presumptuous Englishmen may be -well read, and possess a good knowledge of French--"au moins pour non -estre natif du territoire et pais"--does not alter the case; for Art, -though it follow Nature closely, can never overtake her. Duwes himself, -he tells us, had been teaching his language for over thirty years, he -had searched and worked hard, but had never been able to find these -so-called infallible rules--for it is not possible to do so. Yet there -are Englishmen who claim to have done this great thing, though they have -been studying French for but a short time. With Greek and Latin the -matter is different. The rules of these languages have grown up through -the ages, and are the common property of all nations. This tirade -against English writers on the French language is evidently aimed at -Palsgrave and his predecessors, all those who since the beginning of -Henry's "well-fortuned reign of this thing had written"--but above all -at Palsgrave and his ambitious aspirations. - -Duwes's half-ironical assumption of humility as to the value of his own -rules, although the fruit of over thirty years' experience in teaching, -is probably meant as a rebuke to Palsgrave, who claimed to have "reduced -the French tongue under a rule and grammar certain," and to have laid -down "rules certain and precepts grammatical like as the other three -perfect tongues." And when Duwes expresses, time after time, his -intention of avoiding all prolixity and 'super-fluity' of words, we are -also led to think that he is perhaps directing his remarks at -Palsgrave's wordy rules and the size of his work. Duwes may have been a -little annoyed at being anticipated in publication by his younger rival. -But it is still more likely he resented, as a Frenchman, that the honour -of having first produced a great work on the French language should be -generally ascribed to an Englishman. - -For Palsgrave, with very natural and just pride, laid claim to this -honour, and was supported by his contemporaries. Andrew Baynton, in the -letter already mentioned, speaks of his "master" as being "the first -author of our nation or of the french mennes selfe that hath so farre -waded in all maner thinges necessary to reduce that tong under rules -certayne." The French, it is true, were beginning to take some interest -in their own language, and a French writer of the time, Geoffrey Tory of -Bourges, had urged the necessity of reducing the French language to -rules in his _Champ fleury_ (1529). "Would to God," he cried, "that some -noble soul would busy himself in drawing up and writing rules for our -French tongue!"[245] Palsgrave was acquainted with Tory's work, and -thought he had realized Tory's ideal and "done the thynge which by the -testimony of the excellent clerke, maister Geffroy Tory de Bourges (a -late writer of the French nation) in his boke entituled _Champ fleury_, -was never yet amongst them of that contraes self hetherto so moche as -ones effectually attempted." Leonard Coxe, the Principal of Reading -College, a popular philological writer of the time, also connects the -names of Tory and Palsgrave in some Latin verses that were printed at -the beginning of the grammar. The short interval which elapsed between -the appearance of the two volumes renders it impossible for Palsgrave to -have got his first suggestion from Tory, and makes it very improbable -that Tory had even the smallest influence on his work.[246] Tory had -begun his work in 1522. Before this date Palsgrave had already completed -two books of his Grammar. He notes, however, as a coincidence, that Tory -and himself quote the same French authors. [Header: PUPILS OF DUWES] -Throughout his Grammar, Palsgrave continually alludes to the authority -of French authors, for he studied French a great deal in books. It would -not indeed have been possible to produce so comprehensive a work in -England without constant reference to French writers, who, owing to the -spread of printing, were becoming more and more accessible. Palsgrave -refers most frequently to Alain Chartier and Jean Lemaire de Belges, -while Guillaume de Lorris (_Roman de la Rose_), Octovian de St. Gelais, -Jean Meschinot, Guillaume Alexis, and Froissart are all consulted and -quoted--a list in which, it will be noticed, the name of no contemporary -French poet figures. Palsgrave was not content with simply referring to -his authorities; he sought to awake an interest in French literature by -quoting selections in verse and prose, with guides for pronunciation. - -Apparently Duwes's attack on Palsgrave was only one of many. Much before -this Palsgrave had complained of unreasonable opposition from his -contemporaries, and the "unpleasantness" to which he had to submit. One -should not, however, attach too much importance to such complaints, for -they seem to have been more or less habitual among writers of the day. -Duwes appears to have suffered in a similar way, judging by the acrostic -which closes his first book, and contains an unusually vehement attack -on the "correcteurs et de toutes oeuvres repreveurs," those "grosses -gens de rudes affections, ivrognes bannis de vray sentement." It is hard -to imagine whence came such severe criticism; probably from other French -teachers, but most certainly not from Court circles, where both these -teachers enjoyed the greatest popularity. - -Nearly all the members of the royal family for two generations learnt -French from Duwes. He counted among his pupils Henry VIII. when prince, -his elder brother Arthur, his sister Margaret, who became Queen of -Scotland, and his daughter Mary, afterwards Queen of England, besides -many English noblemen. There is also evidence that Henry's favourite -sister Mary, afterwards Queen of France, learnt the first principles of -French from Duwes before she became the pupil of Palsgrave. His -favourite scholar, however, appears to have been the Princess Mary, -afterwards queen, at whose request he published his observations on the -French language. When Duwes began to teach her he was an old man, and a -little inclined to melancholy. He was beginning to feel the effects of -the English climate and complains bitterly of his chief enemies, -December and January: - - Par luy (Decembre) ay fait pleurs et soupirs mains, - Ja ne sera que ne m'en remembre, - luy et Janvier mont tollu ung membre - qui me fera que tant que je vivray - en grant doulleur doresavant iray; - pourquoy je crains qu'en grant melancolie, - en fin fauldra que j'en perde la vie. - -Gout, his chief affliction, often nailed him to his chair, and prevented -him from attending his pupil--a greater sorrow, he says, than to suffer -sickness and danger. On one occasion he was so ill that he feared he -would not see the princess again, and sent a letter, asking pardon if -ever he had rebuked her in his lessons. His whole consolation "lies in -the hope that Spring, seeing him in such a piteous state, will take pity -on him." - -Mary seems to have returned fully the affection of her old master. He -was her almoner and treasurer, and she playfully called him her "adopted -husband." Duwes spent a great deal of his time with his pupil, and his -"adopted wife" appears to have become impatient when his gout or any -other reason kept him from her. In one of the dialogues she is shown -rebuking him for his absence one evening: - - _Mary._ Comment Giles, vous montres bien qu'aves grant cure et - soing de m'aprendre quand vous vous absentes ainsy de moy. - - _Gyles._ Certes madame, il me semble que suis continuellement ici. - - _Mary._ Voire, et ou esties vous hier a soupper je vous prie. - - _Gyles._ Veritablement, madame, vous avez raison, car je - m'entroubliay ersoir a cause de compagnie et de communication. - - _Mary._ Je vous prie, beau sire, faictes nous parconniere de - vostre communication, car j'estime quelle estoit de quelque bon - purpos. - - _Gyles._ Certes, madame, elle estoit de la paix, laquelle (come on - disoit) est proclamee par tout ce royaume. . . . - -Then master and pupil are pictured discussing at length the subject of -peace. Love, the nature of the soul, and the meaning of the celebration -of Mass were other topics on which they had long conversations; and they -would accompany their supper--for the princess begged her master to dine -with her as often as possible, in order to talk French--by discourse on -health and diet, in the course of which Duwes gave the princess much -friendly advice. [Header: QUEEN MARY'S FRENCH STUDIES] His eloquence on -the subject suggests that when he calls himself a "doctor" he means a -doctor of medicine. Thus Mary's practice in the language was not by any -means limited to regular lessons, and these lessons were always kept in -close contact with her daily life. She is taught how to receive a -messenger from the king, her father, or from any foreign potentate, in -French, or how to accept presents from noble friends. Duwes sometimes -used his lessons as a means of conveying to Mary messages from different -members of her household. Lady Maltravers exhorts her to study French -seriously that reports of her ability may not be belied, and that she -may be able to speak French with the king her father, and her future -husband, "whether king or emperor"; and her carver, John ap Morgan, -writes to her when she is ill, to express his hopes for her speedy -recovery. When Duwes's gout prevented him from waiting on the princess, -he would send her a poem of his own composition, in French with an -interlinear English version--Duwes wrote singularly crude and -inharmonious verses--which the princess learnt by heart by way of -lesson. Or he would excuse his absence in a letter, which, he assures -her, "will not be of small profit" to her if she learns it. - -Such were the relations of Duwes with his favourite pupil. Little else -is known of his life beyond the fact that he taught French for nearly -forty years in the highest ranks of English society. He himself tells us -that he was a Frenchman, and in all probability he was a native of -Picardy, for his name is of Picard origin, and there are a few traces of -picardisms in his work. We also know that he was librarian to both Henry -VII. and Henry VIII.,[247] and that in 1533 he was appointed a gentleman -waiter in the Princess Mary's household, and his wife one of the -ladies-in-waiting;[248] that, curiously enough, he was a student of -alchemy and wrote a Latin dialogue, _Inter Naturam et Filium -Philosophiae_, dated from the library at Richmond (1521), and dedicated -to his friend "N. S. P. D.";[249] that he died in 1535, about two years -after the publication of his _Introductorie_; and that he was buried in -the Parish Church of St. Olave in Old Jury, where he was inscribed as -"servant to Henry VII. and Henry VIII., clerke to their libraries, and -schoolmaster of the French Tongue to Prince Arthur, and to the Ladie -Mary"--a by no means complete list of his illustrious pupils. - -Among Duwes's earliest pupils had been Henry's sister Mary, afterwards -Queen of France. This princess, however, was to continue her study of -the language under John Palsgrave, and the first we hear of Palsgrave as -a teacher of French is on the occasion of his appointment by Henry VIII. -as tutor to his sister, probably towards the end of 1512, when -negotiations for the princess's marriage with the Prince of Castile, -afterwards Charles V., were in progress.[250] And when at last it fell -to the lot of the princess to marry, not the emperor, but the French -king, Louis XII., in 1514, Palsgrave remained in her service, and -accompanied her to France in the capacity of almoner. Like the majority -of her English followers, he was soon dismissed from her service. Yet -Mary did not forget her former tutor. From time to time she wrote to -Wolsey, seeking to obtain preferment for him;[251] like many other men -of his standing, Palsgrave was in Holy Orders, and became later chaplain -to the king. In November 1514 the Queen of France wrote to Wolsey to beg -his favour on behalf of Palsgrave that he may continue at "school."[252] -From this we may conclude that Palsgrave was continuing the studies he -had begun at an earlier date at the University of Paris. He calls -himself "gradue de Paris" in 1530, and no doubt also, his work on the -French language was making headway. - -How long he remained in France is uncertain, but we are told that on his -return he was in great demand as a teacher of French and Latin to the -young English nobility and gentry.[253] Sir Thomas More, writing to -Erasmus in 1617, mentions that Palsgrave is about to go to Louvain to -study there. This second sojourn at a foreign university was not of long -duration, for Erasmus, in a letter dated July the same year, informs -Tunstall that Palsgrave had started for England.[254] Palsgrave was soon -to receive from the king a second important appointment as tutor. -[Header: PALSGRAVE'S PUPILS] On the formation of the household of his -natural son, Henry Fitzroy, Duke of Richmond, in 1525, when his "worldly -jewel," as Henry called the young duke, was made Lieutenant-General of -the North, the king entrusted Palsgrave with the charge of bringing him -up "in virtue & learning."[255] Palsgrave was allowed three servants and -an annual stipend of L13:6:8. He took great pains with his young pupil's -education, and the king seems to have approved of his method.[256] Such -was not the case with Gregory Cromwell, who, it appears, shared the -lessons of the duke. When Gregory went to Cambridge under John Cheking's -care, the latter wrote to Cromwell that he had to unteach his charge all -he had learnt, and that if such be Palsgrave's style of teaching, he -does not think he will ever make a scholar.[257] Palsgrave declares that -he suffered much, when in the North, from poverty and calumny.[258] His -friend, Sir Thomas More, lent him money, and Palsgrave begged him to -continue to help him to "tread underfoot" that horrible monster poverty. -He also petitions his constant patroness the Dowager Queen of France and -her husband the Duke of Suffolk. All he has to live by and pay his debts -and maintain his poor mother is little more than L50.[259] - -Among Palsgrave's other pupils of note were Thomas Howard, brother to -the Earl of Surrey; my Lord Gerald, probably the brother of the fair -Geraldine, the object of Lord Surrey's passionate sonnets; Charles -Blount, son and heir of Lord Montjoie; Thomas Arundel, who later lost -his head for conspiring with the Duke of Somerset against -Northumberland, and Andrew Baynton, who has been mentioned already: all -students of French, who were acquainted with his book before it was -published, and knew his "hole intente and consyderation therein," and -who called Palsgrave "our mayster" with a certain amount of pride. - -The year after the publication of his grammar, Palsgrave went to Oxford, -where he was incorporated M.A. and took the degree of B.D.[260] He was, -however, back in London in the following year, taking pupils into his -house and visiting others daily. He had, for instance, promised to serve -Mr. Baynton and Mr. Dominico in the house of the latter till Candlemas. -Of the pupils who were "with him," the "best sped child for his age" was -William St. Loe, afterwards Sir William and captain of Elizabeth's -Guard. Palsgrave seems to have suffered much from interruptions in his -pupils' studies caused by visits to their mothers, or by their leaving -London on account of the unhealthiness of the city. He writes to William -St. Loe's father that if he takes his son away for either of these -reasons the child will not "recover this three years what he has lost in -one," and moreover he will have "killed a schoolmaster," for Palsgrave -vows he will never teach any more. He also writes that after spending a -little time at Cambridge, where he could take the degree of D.D., he -intends to keep school in Black Friars, and have with him Mr. St. Loe's -son, Mr. Russell's son (who is a good example of what results from -interruption of studies by a visit home), the younger brother of Mr. -Andrew Baynton, and Mr. Norice's son, of the Privy Chamber.[261] At -Cambridge, also, he would be able to get an assistant, as at present the -strenuous and continuous application to teaching is ruining his health. -Nothing else is known of Palsgrave's teaching career. He seems to have -spent a good deal of time towards the end of his life at one or other of -the rectories[262] to which he was collated by Archbishop Cranmer, and -where, no doubt, he continued to receive pupils till the time of his -death in 1554. - -Palsgrave's great French Grammar was not his only professional work. He -also published a text-book for the use of students of Latin. This was a -Latin comedy, Acolastus,[263] which had made its way into English -schools. Palsgrave added an English translation of his own, and the -whole appeared in 1540, with a dedication to the king. He says it is a -translation according to the method of teaching Latin in grammar -schools, "first word for word, and then according to the sense." -[Header: EDWARD VI.'S FRENCH EXERCISES] Palsgrave had also announced his -intention of publishing a book of French proverbs; he had written in his -grammar: "There is no tongue more aboundante of adages or darke -sentences comprehendyng great wysdome. But of them I differ at this time -to speake any more, intendyng by Goddes grace to make of thes adages a -booke aparte." There is, however, nothing to show that he ever realized -this intention, even partially. - -Another French teacher in the royal family was Jean Bellemain, tutor to -Edward VI. Edward refers to his French master in the passage in his -diary[264] in which he gives an account of his education. Speaking of -himself in the third person, he writes: "He was brought up until he came -to six years old among the women. At the sixth year of his age he was -brought up in learning by master Dr. Cox, who was after his almoner, and -John Chepe, M.A., two well-learned men, who sought to bring him up in -learning of Tongues, of scripture, philosophy and all liberal sciences: -also John Belmaine, French man, did teach him the French language." It -appears from a letter of Dr. Cox to Secretary Paget, that the prince had -his first lesson in French on October 1, 1546.[265] His teacher was a -zealous Protestant, a friend and correspondent of Calvin, and he had -probably some influence on the religious opinions of his pupil. - -The three French exercises in the king's hand which are still in -existence show that he made rapid progress in the language.[266] They -all bear on religious subjects, showing how carefully Bellemain -attracted the attention of his young pupil to this matter. All were -written after his accession to the throne (1547), and were dedicated to -his uncle, Protector Somerset. The first two are very similar in -composition. Edward made a collection of texts out of the Bible in -English, bearing on two subjects, Idolatry and Faith. He then proceeded -to turn these from English into French as an exercise in translation. -After they had been corrected by his master, the king had them -transcribed into a paper book--the first consisting of twenty pages, -the second of thirty-five--and sent them to the Protector.[267] The -first was written when Edward had been learning French for about a year -(in 1547), and the second shortly afterwards. - -The third exercise is much longer than the two earlier ones, and differs -from them in being not a translation, but a composition of Edward's own -in French. It is entitled, _A l'encontre des abus du Monde_, and was -begun on December 13, 1548, and finished on March 14 of the following -year, so that its composition occupied Edward for over three months. The -manuscript is corrected throughout by Bellemain, who makes the -interesting entry at the end, that the young king, who was then not yet -twelve, had written the whole without the help of any living person. -Bellemain seems to have been very proud of his pupil's performance; he -sent a copy of it to Calvin as "flowers whose fruit would be seen in due -season."[268] Calvin in turn sent Bellemain observations on the -composition for him to transmit to his pupil, and advised its -publication, which Edward would not hear of.[269] Bellemain remarks that -Edward took great delight in Calvin's works, and from time to time the -French tutor acted as a medium of communication between the two, as in -the case just mentioned. Calvin did not scruple to give the young -monarch advice on religious subjects,[270] while Cranmer invited him to -write to the young king. Bellemain himself made a translation of the -English Liturgy of 1552, and sent it to Calvin to have his opinion on -it.[271] - -Besides these three exercises, two of Edward's French letters have also -survived. One is addressed to Queen Katharine Parr and the other to the -Princess Elizabeth. In the former he compliments the queen, whom he more -usually addressed in Latin, on her beautiful handwriting.[272] [Header: -JEAN BELLEMAIN] The other is to Elizabeth, who, it appears, had written -to him in French, inviting him to reply in the same language. He takes -her advice: - - Puisque vous a pleu me rescrire, tres chere et bien aymee soeur, je - vous mercie de bien bon cuer, et non seullement de vostre lettre, - mais aussy de vostre bonne exhortation et example, laquelle, ainsy - que j'espere, me servira d'esperon pour vous suivre en apprenant. - Priant Dieu vous avoir en sa garde. De Titenhanger, 18 jour de - decembre et l'an de nostre seigneur, 1548.--Vostre frere, - - EDWARDUS. PRINCE. - - a ma treschere et bien - aymee soeur Elizabeth.[273] - -We see from the date of this letter that Edward had been learning French -nearly three months when it was written. - -Bellemain's salary as French tutor to the king was L6:12:4 per quarter. -In 1546 he received an annuity of fifty marks for life; in 1550 a lease -for twenty-one years of the parsonages of Minehead and Cotcombe, county -Somerset; in 1553 a lease of the manor of Winchfield in Hampshire;[274] -and in 1551 a grant of letters of denization.[275] He stayed in England -until the king's death in 1553, and was present at his funeral. No -doubt, with his religious sympathies, he would find the England of -Mary's time an uncongenial home, and leave it at as early a date as -possible. - -Bellemain did not compose any treatise on the French language. He says -that he had long nourished the hope of writing some rules for French -pronunciation and orthography; but he changed his mind, thinking it mere -folly to attempt to give rules for that which was not yet fixed and -certain. In a translation into French of the Greek Epistle of Basil the -Great to St. Gregory upon solitary life, which he dedicated to the -Princess Elizabeth,[276] he expresses his opinion upon the new style of -French orthography, then promoted by certain writers, with whom he did -not agree on most points. These writers[277] wished to make the -orthography tally with the pronunciation and to discard the letters -which are not pronounced; they would thus change the spelling still used -for the most part by scholars and courtiers, and which in Bellemain's -opinion is preferable to that proposed by the so-called reformers. He -argues that an alteration of the spelling of French would necessitate a -corresponding change in Latin, where the letters have the same sound and -meaning, a thing which appears ridiculous to the merest observer. -Besides, the derivative consonants are useful, as they serve to -distinguish words of identical sound but different meaning and -derivation, and to indicate the length of the preceding vowel. On the -other hand, letters have been added by versifiers merely to suit their -rimes, and these writers have done more than any others to corrupt -French orthography. Of what avail is it, asks Bellemain, to compose -rules on a subject so much in dispute? For these reasons he abstained -from increasing the number of works on the French language produced in -England. - -In the dedication to Elizabeth of his translation of Basil the Great's -Epistle to St. Gregory, Bellemain shows that he was familiar with the -books which the princess read, and also expresses his desire that she -will not let her French be corrupted by the so-called reformed -orthography she may meet in some of these books.[278] Thus Bellemain -took an interest in Elizabeth's French, and it is highly probable that -he was her tutor in that language.[279] [Header: QUEEN ELIZABETH'S -KNOWLEDGE OF FRENCH] In the year 1546, when he began to teach Edward -French, the Princess Elizabeth shared for some time her brother's -studies. It is said that they began with religious instruction in the -morning, and the rest of the forenoon, breakfast alone excepted, was -devoted to the languages, science, and moral learning. Edward then went -to his outdoor exercises and Elizabeth to her lute or viol.[280] No -doubt, then, she received lessons from the French tutor until she left -her brother in December. Elizabeth, however, had made considerable -progress in the language some years before this date, and before 1544, -so that it is extremely likely that Bellemain had been teaching her for -several years before he was appointed French tutor to Edward, perhaps -owing to his success with Elizabeth. At any rate there does not seem to -be any trace of any other French tutor to the princess, and the fact -that he received an annuity of L50 for life suggests that he had already -rendered some service in the royal family. - -The scholar Leland praised Elizabeth's skill in French and Latin when he -saw her at Ampthill with her brother, and already in 1544 she had -completed the first composition in which she exerted her early activity -in the French language. This was a translation of Margaret of Navarre's -_Miroir de l'ame pecheresse_,[281] which she called _The Miroir or -Glasse of the Synneful Soul_, and dedicated to Queen Katharine -Parr.[282] It was published in 1564 under the title, _A godly meditacyon -of the Christian soule concerning a love towards God and Hys Christe, -compyled in Frenche by Lady Margarete, Quene of Naver, and aptly -translated into Englysh by the right vertuous lady Elizabeth, daughter -of our late Soverayne Kynge Henri the VIII._[283] The translation itself -is not very good, and the style is awkward. But Elizabeth was only -eleven years old when she undertook it, and observes apologetically that -she "joyned the sentences together as well as the capacite of (her) -symple witte and small lerning coulde expende themselves." In the -following year (1545) she translated some prayers and meditations -written in English by the queen, Katharine Parr, into Latin, French, and -Italian, and dedicated them to her father.[284] Of greater interest is a -little book the princess wrote in French, and also offered to the -king--a translation into French of the _Dialogus Fidei_ of Erasmus, thus -inscribed: "A Treshaut Trespuissant et Redoubte Prince Henry VIII de ce -nom, Roy d'Angleterre, de France et d'Irlande, defenseur de la foy, -Elizabeth sa Treshumble fille rend salut et obedience." This treatise, -composed before the death of the king in 1547,[285] was preserved in the -Library at Whitehall, and often attracted the attention of foreign -visitors in London.[286] - -Thus Elizabeth was well accomplished in French before the reign of -Edward VI. It was while her brother was king that the great Hebrew -scholar, Antony Rudolph Chevallier, commonly called Monsieur Antony, was -for a short time her tutor in French. Chevallier was a Norman who had -studied Hebrew under Vatable at Paris, and had been forced to take -refuge in England on account of his religious opinions. He studied at -Cambridge and lived for a year in the house of Archbishop Cranmer,[287] -who brought him to the notice of the young king (then famous for his -patronage of foreign scholars of the Reform) and of Protector Somerset, -who appointed him tutor to the Princess Elizabeth.[288] - -On the death of Edward VI., Chevallier, like Bellemain, left England. He -taught Hebrew at Strasburg and Geneva, where he came into contact with -English student refugees under the reign of Mary I., and made the -acquaintance of Calvin. He returned to England in the reign of Elizabeth -(1568) to solicit the queen's help for the French Protestants. He -received a good welcome, and in 1569 was made a lecturer in Hebrew at -Cambridge, where "he was accounted second to none in the realme." He -returned to France before the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1570), and -died as a result of the hardships he suffered in making his escape. - -[Header: RELIGIOUS OPINIONS OF FRENCH TUTORS] - -It is a curious fact that the religious opinions of the French tutors in -Henry VIII.'s family were reflected in the reigns of their pupils--the -Protestant Edward VI., the Roman Catholic Mary, and the Protestant -Elizabeth. Both Duwes and Bellemain allowed the subject of religion to -make its way into their lessons, and they probably exercised some -influence, differing in degree, on the religious convictions of their -pupils. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[221] First edition. Printed at London, by Th. Godfray, _c._ 1534. Sig. -A-Ea in fours. - -[222] Both these grammars were reprinted by Genin, in the _Collection -des documents inedits sur l'Histoire de France_. II. _Histoire des -lettres et sciences_. Paris, 1852. - -[223] By Andrew Baynton, in a letter prefixed to Palsgrave's grammar. - -[224] Palsgrave in his grammar. - -[225] Both Palsgrave's and Duwes's observations on the pronunciation of -French are utilized by M. Thurot: _De la prononciation francaise depuis -le commencement du_ 16e _siecle d'apres les temoignages des -grammairiens_. 2 tom. Paris, 1881. - -For further treatment of Palsgrave's grammar, see A. Benoist, _De la -syntaxe francaise entre Palsgrave et Vaugelas_. Paris, 1877. - -[226] The second book begins on folio xxxi. and ends on folio lix. In the -third book the pagination begins anew: folio 1 to folio 473. - -[227] Four hundred and seventy-three folios, while the first and second -books together occupy only fifty-nine folios. - -[228] The fulness, originality, and exhaustive character of the work may -be illustrated by the treatment of such a point as the agreement of the -past participle with its subject, when used with the auxiliary _avoir_. -"... yet when the participle present followeth the tenses of _Je ay_, it -is not ever generall that he shall remain unchaunged, but ... yf the -tenses of _Je ay_ have a relatyve before them or governe an accusative -case eyther of a pronoune or substantyve, the participle for the most -part shall agree with the sayd accusatyve cases in gendre and nombre, -and in such sentences not remayne unchaunged. Helas, I have loved her, -_helas je l'ay aimee_ ..." etc. - -[229] Duwes's plan is as comprehensive as Palsgrave's, as is seen by the -following table: - -"In the first part shal be treated of rules, that is to say, howe the -fyve vowelles must be pronounced in redynge frenche, and what letters -shal be left unsounde, and the course thereof. - -"The second part shal be of nounes, pronounes, adverbes, participles, -with verbes, propositions, and coniunctions. - -"Also certayne rules for coniugation. - -"Item fyve or syx maners of coniugations with one verbe. - -"Item coniugations with two pronounes and with thre and finally -combining or ioinyng 2 verbes together." - -[230] _The Boke of the Governour ..._ ed. H. H. S. Croft, 1883, vol. i. -p. 55. - -[231] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ iv. 5806. - -[232] _Ibid._ iv. 4560. - -[233] ". . . m'a comande et encharge de reduire et mectre en escript la -maniere coment g'ay procede envers ses dictz progeniteurs et -predecesseurs, coe celle aussi y la quelle ie l'ay (tellement -quellement) instruit et instruis iournellment. . . ." - -[234] _Privy purse expenses of the Princess Mary_, ed. F. Madden, 1831, -pp. xli-xliii. - -[235] "Duwes avait d'une main leste et sure esquisse la petite grammaire -de Lhomond: Palsgrave avait laborieusement compile la grammaire des -grammaires: L'in-folio fut etouffe par l'in-8vo. Cela se voit souvent -dans la litterature ou le quatrain de St. Aulaire triomphe de la Pucelle -de Chapelain" (Genin's Introduction). - -It seems an exaggeration to use the word "etouffer." At any rate the -victory was not final. Palsgrave's work is not forgotten to-day, like -that of Duwes. - -[236] There are copies of all three editions in the Bodleian. The -British Museum contains one copy of Bourman's edition, and two of -Waley's (the third). Genin used Godfray's edition in his reprint. - -[237] E. G. Duff, _A Century of the English Book Trade_, Bibliog. -Society, 1905. - -[238] There are, however, a larger number of Palsgrave's one edition -extant than of Duwes's three. This is, no doubt, because its size and -value prevented it from being used with the lack of respect with which -school-books are usually treated. There is a copy of the -_Esclarcissement_ in the Bibliotheque Mazarine at Paris; two in the -British Museum; one in the Bodleian, one in Cambridge University -Library, and one in the Rylands Library. - -[239] _Supra_, p. 92. - -[240] Dated September 2, twenty-second year of his reign (_i.e._ 1530). - -[241] There were three drafts of the indenture with Pynson, _Letters and -Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ iii. 3680, iv. 39. The first two -were probably drawn up in 1523. The last is dated January 18, 1524. The -first two were printed by Dr. Furnivall for the Philological Society, -1868. The third draft is in Cromwell's hand, corrected by Palsgrave. -There is a clause that Pynson shall not print more than the given -number--750--until that number is sold. Pynson seems to have printed -only the first two parts of 59 leaves. After this there comes a third -part, with a fresh numbering of leaves from 1 to 473. The printing was -finished July 18, 1530, by J. Hawkins. - -[242] At the rate of 6s. 8d. a ream. - -[243] Ellis, _Orig. Letters_, 3rd series, vol. ii. p. 214. - -[244] He found it useful in diplomatic service. He writes to his patron: -"I am well asseyed here and my little knowledge of French well -exercised" (Brussels, Nov. 20, 1538), _Letters and Papers of the Reign -of Henry VIII._ xiii. pt. ii. No. 882. - -[245] "O devotz amateurs de bonnes lettres pleust a Dieu que quelque -noble coeur s'employast a mettre et ordonner par regle nostre langaige -francois! Ce seroit moyen que maints milliers d'hommes se evertueroient -a souvent user de belles et bonnes paroles. S'il n'y est mis et ordonne -on trouvera que de cinquante en cinquante ans la langue francoise pour -la plus grande part sera changee et pervertie" (folio 1, verso). Tory -sketched a plan of a great work on the language to which his _Champ -fleury_ was intended only as an introduction. - -[246] Genin is 'certain' that the date given on the frontispiece of -Palsgrave's work is a year earlier than that on which it actually -appeared. He draws this conclusion from the date of the king's -privilege, twenty-second year of Henry VIII., who came to the throne in -1509; 9 + 22 = 31. This leaves Palsgrave a longer period to gather what -he could from Tory's work, says Genin. But the twenty-second year of the -reign of Henry VIII. began in April 1530, and the printing of -Palsgrave's work was completed on the 18th of July. - -[247] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ i. Nos. 513 and -3094. - -[248] _Ibid._ vi. No. 1199. Duwes also received numerous grants of money -and licences to import Gascon wine. - -[249] Printed in _Theatrum Chemicum_, Ursel, 1602, vol. ii. pp. 95-123, -and reprinted in J. J. Manget's _Bibliotheca Chemica_, Geneva, 1702, -vol. ii. Two copies of an English translation are in the Bodleian -(Ashmole MSS.). See _Dict. Nat. Biog._ - -[250] He is called "schoolmaster to my Lady Princess of Castile," in the -Book of Payments, March 1513, _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry -VIII._ ii. No. 1460. - -[251] _Ibid._ ii. 295. - -[252] _Ibid._ i. 5582. - -[253] Bale, _Britanniae Scriptorum_, 1548, fol. 219. - -[254] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ ii. pt. 2, 1107. - -[255] J. G. Nichols, _Memoir of the Duke of Richmond_, 1855, Camden -Society, _Miscellany_, iii. pp. xxiii-xxiv; also _Letters and Papers of -the Reign of Henry VIII._ iv. 5806, and v. 1596, 1793, 2069, 2081. - -[256] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ iv. 5806. - -[257] _Ibid._ iv. 4560: Letter dated July 27, 1528. - -[258] _Ibid._ iv. 5806, 5807. - -[259] "Instructions for Syr Wm. Stevynson, what he shall do for one John -Palsgrave with the Frenche Queenes Grace and the Duke of Suffolk her -espouse": _ibid._ v. 5808. - -[260] Wood, _Athen. Oxon._ ed. Bliss, i. 121. - -[261] _Letters and Papers_, v. 621-622: Letter dated Oct. 18, 1532. - -[262] Palsgrave received ecclesiastical preferment from time to time. -Amongst others, he was collated to the prebend of Portpoole in St. -Paul's Cathedral by Bishop Fitzjames in 1514, and to the Rectory of St. -Dunstan-in-the-East by Cranmer in 1533, and to that of Wadenhoe, -Northamptonshire, in 1545, by the same Archbishop. (Thompson Cooper in -the _Dict. Nat. Biog._) - -[263] Written by a Dutch contemporary, Fullonius, in 1529. - -[264] J. G. Nichols, _Literary Remains of Edward VI._, Roxburghe Club, -1857, p. 210. - -[265] _Ibid._ p. lxxviii. - -[266] These have been printed by J. G. Nichols in his _Literary -Remains_, p. 144 _et seq._ The MS. of the first is at Trin. Col. Cantab. -R 7, 31, of the second in the Brit. Mus. Addit. MS. 9000, and of the -third at Biblio. Pub. Cantab. Dd 12, 59, and Brit. Mus. Addit. 5464. -Nichols uses the text of the first of these. - -[267] "Apres avoir note en ma Bible en Anglois plusieurs sentences qui -contredisent a toute ydolatrie, a celle fin de m'apprendre et exercer en -l'ecriture Francoise, je me suis amuse a les translater en ladite langue -Francoise, puis les ay fait rescrire en ce petit livret, lequel de tres -bon coeur je vous offre" (_Literary Remains ..._, p. 144). - -[268] "Lettre inedite de Bellemain": _Bulletin de la Soc. de l'Hist. du -Protestantisme Francais_, vol. xv., 1866, pp. 203-5. - -[269] It was, however, translated into English and published in 1681 -(two copies in the Brit. Mus.), and reprinted by Rev. J. Duncan in 1811 -(no copy known), and by the Religious Tract Soc., _Vol. of Writings of -Ed. VI._, etc. - -[270] Calvin wrote to Edward VI. in French: "C'est grand chose d'estre -roy, mesme d'un tel pays. Toutesfois je ne doubte pas que vous n'estimez -sans comparaison mieux d'estre chrestien. C'est doncq un privilege -inestimable que Dieu vous a faict, Sire, que vous soiez roy chrestien, -voire que luy servez de lieutenant pour ordonner et maintenir le -royaulme de J. Christ en Angleterre" (_Bulletin_, _ut supra_). - -[271] There is a copy of this in Brit. Mus. Royal MSS. 20, A xiv. - -[272] Ellis, _Orig. Letters_, ser. 1, vol. i. p. 132, and translated in -Halliwell's _Letters of the Kings of England_, ii. 33. - -[273] J. C. Nichols, _Literary Remains_, p. 32. - -[274] _Ibid._ p. li. - -[275] Huguenot Soc. Publications, vol. viii. ad nom. - -[276] Brit. Mus. Royal MSS. 16, E 1. The whole consists of only eighteen -small leaves, of which five are occupied by the dedication. No date is -attached. The dedication continues: - -". . . S'ainsy estoit (Tresnoble et Tresillustre Dame) que i'attendisse -le temps auquel ie peusse trouver et inventer chose digne de presenter a -vostre excellence, certes, madame, i'estime que ce ne seroit de long -temps: car quelle chose est ce qu'on pourroit monstrer de nouveau a -celle a qui rien n'est cache, soit en langue grecque ou latine ou en la -plus part des autres langues vulgaires de l'Europe: soit en la -congnoissance des histoires ecrites en icelles ou en philosophie et -autres liberales sciences. Puis donc qu'ainsy est que peu de livres -antiques se peuent trouver que n'ayez leuz ou au moins desquels n'ayez -ouy aucunement parler, ioint aussy qu'estes maintenant comme en lieu -solitaire, ie vous vueil seulement ramentevoir une epistre de Basile le -grand que i'estime qu'avez autres fois leue: en laquelle il recommande -fort la vie solitaire ou au moins exempte des cures et solicitudes de ce -monde: et ce a intention de pouoir induire celuy a qui il l'envoioit a -la contemplation de Dieu et de la vie future: qui sont les choses -ausquelles devons le plus penser durant que sommes en ce monde comme -estans les causes qui plus nous donnent occasion de bien vivre. . . ." - -[277] Sylvius (1530) had proposed a new system of orthography based on -etymology and pronunciation. Meigret, however, was the chief exponent of -the reformers, who sought to make orthography tally with pronunciation -(in his _Traite touchant le comun usage de l'escriture francoise_, 1542 -and 1545, and other works). Meigret was supported by Peletier du Mans -(_Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciation francoese_, 1549) and others, -and bitterly attacked by the opposing party. The question, once opened, -continued to be discussed until the decision of the Academy (founded -1649) settled the matter. Brunot, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 93 _sqq._ - -[278] "Ie vous ay escrit ce petit avertissement de paour que -paraventure, en lisant tant de diversitez d'impressions comme pourriez -faire en ceste langue, ne sceussiez laquelle devriez suivre en ecrivant; -mais il sera bon de suivre la plus part des modernes qui s'accordent -quant a cela." - -[279] Stevenson, _Cal. of State Papers_, foreign series, 1558-9, p. xxv, -takes it for granted that Bellemain was Elizabeth's tutor in French. - -[280] Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_, 1884: Life of -Elizabeth, iii. pp. 9, 13. - -[281] First printed at Alencon, 1531. - -[282] This is at present in the Bodleian Library. It has an embroidered -cover, probably by the princess herself. See Cyril Davenport, _English -Embroidered Bookbindings_, London, 1899, p. 32. It was reprinted in -1897. - -[283] There are two copies of this rare little volume in the Brit. Mus. -Another edition, varying considerably from the first, occurs in -Bentley's _Monuments of the Nations_, iv., London, 1582 (Stevenson, _ut -supra_, p. xxvi). It was republished in 1897. - -[284] See Davenport, _ut supra_, p. 33. The original is in the Brit. -Mus. - -[285] This little work appears to have been lost. - -[286] Such as Hentzer the German, in 1598; Justus Zinzerling, 1610; -Peter Eisenburg the Dane, 1614. See Rye, _England as Seen by -Foreigners_, pp. 133, 171, 268, 282. - -[287] D. C. A. Agnew, _Protestant Exiles from France ..._, 3rd ed., -1886, vol. i. p. 45. - -[288] Haag, _La France Protestante_, and Cooper, _Athen. Cant._ i. 306. -Agnew, _op. cit._, does not mention that Chevallier was tutor to -Elizabeth. - - - - -CHAPTER III - - THE INFLUENCE OF RELIGIOUS REFUGEES ON THE TEACHING OF FRENCH - IN ENGLAND--OPENINGS FOR THEM AS TEACHERS--DEMAND FOR - TEXT-BOOKS--FRENCH SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND - - -Religion, the question of all questions in the sixteenth century, was -destined, incidentally, to exercise a great influence on the teaching of -French in England. The conflicts resulting from the fierce hatreds -aroused by the Reformation compelled many Protestants to seek asylum -from the triumphant Catholic reaction abroad, and England was the land -to which many of them fled.[289] Among these refugees were many who took -upon themselves the task of teaching their native tongue to the English. -The second half of the sixteenth century was the time when this -influence was most strongly felt, although it is not altogether -negligible in the years immediately preceding. In France the Reformation -had at first been favourably received at Court, but in the third decade -of the century persecution began to drive some Protestants from their -native land. They made their way to England with some trepidation at -this early date,[290] for Henry VIII., in spite of his breach with Rome, -had but little sympathy with the Protestants, although he refused on -several occasions to surrender fugitive heretics to the French -king.[291] [Header: FOREIGNERS IN ENGLAND] On the accession of Edward -VI. in 1547, however, England became a more hospitable abode for the -Protestants, driven from France in increasing numbers by the -persecutions sanctioned by Henry II., whose reign coincided with that of -Edward. When Mary came to the throne all protection extended to these -fugitives was withdrawn, and we find many of their protectors fleeing in -their turn "to the Church and Christian congregation, then dispersed in -foreine realmes, as to the safest bay."[292] - -The return of the English Government to Protestantism in the reign of -Elizabeth coincided with the period of increased persecution on the -Continent. Refugees arrived in great numbers, not only Huguenots from -France, but also subjects of Philip II., Dutch, Flemings, and Walloons, -fleeing from the cruelties of Alva.[293] These inhabitants of the Low -Countries came to England in greater numbers than the Huguenots.[294] -Many of them, such as the Walloons and Burgundians, spoke French; and, -while the chief teachers of the time were drawn from the Huguenots, a -large group of these French-speaking Netherlanders also joined the -profession. To these two classes of French teachers must be added a -third, the Roman Catholics, who formed the largest proportion of the -foreigners in England.[295] - -The number of foreigners, augmented by the arrival of the refugee Dutch -and French, created a situation which required serious consideration. -These foreigners now formed a large fraction of the general -population--probably about one in twenty of the inhabitants of -London.[296] It became indispensable to keep some record of them, -especially as there was a danger that spies and Roman Catholic -emissaries might enter the country under the guise of refugees, and the -overcrowding resulting from the arrival of so many aliens was becoming a -serious matter. In earlier reigns the names of strangers in London had -been registered; but in the time of Elizabeth a census, both numerical -and religious, was taken more systematically, and at more and more -frequent intervals. In these returns of aliens dwelling in London,[297] -the names of many French teachers are preserved. Frequently their -profession is stated, and we are told what church they attended and -whether or not they were denizens, as well as the part of London in -which they dwelt, and, in the lay subsidies, the amount they had to pay -towards the heavy taxes levied on strangers. - -Other names are preserved in the lists of the grants of letters of -denization.[298] This grant made the precarious position of foreigners -in England more secure. Denization became almost indispensable to any -one wishing to exercise a craft or trade. These letters gave the -recipient much the same privileges as a native, except that he was still -subject to special taxation.[299] Only those intending to settle in -England would trouble to take out letters of denization; and that many -of these foreigners' stay in England was only temporary is shown by the -fact that, when the number of strangers was greatest, as after the St. -Bartholomew massacre, there is no marked increase in the number of -denizations granted. - -Means for registering the Protestant section of the community of -foreigners were provided through the Dutch and French churches in -London.[300] In 1550, Edward VI. had granted the dissolved monastery of -the Austin Friars to the foreigners as a place of worship; some months -later, owing to their increase in numbers, they were allowed the use of -another building--St. Antony's Hospital in Threadneedle Street. The -congregation was divided, the Dutch part remaining in the original -church, while the French and the Walloons and other French-speaking -refugees moved to Threadneedle Street. Both churches, each with two -pastors,[301] were under the control of a Superintendent. But when, in -the time of Elizabeth, the churches rose to new life, after their -suppression in the reign of Mary, the Superintendent was replaced by the -Archbishop of Canterbury. [Header: RECEPTION OF REFUGEES IN ENGLAND] -This change, however, did not prevent the refugee congregations from -enjoying many of their former liberties, for in the time of Elizabeth -the Archbishops, who had themselves experienced the hardships of exile -in the reign of Mary, took a particular interest in the cause of the -refugees. The English, indeed, complained, not entirely without reason, -that the foreigners were allowed greater religious freedom than they -themselves. - -As French and Dutch refugees settled in different parts of the country, -similar churches arose in these settlements. By the end of the reign of -Elizabeth there were French-Walloon churches in existence at Canterbury, -Glastonbury, Sandwich, Southampton, Rye, and Norwich. In 1552 all -strangers were ordered to repair either to their own church or to the -English parish church. These injunctions were renewed in the time of -Elizabeth and became a useful means of checking the number of refugees -in London. From time to time, during this reign, the Archbishop -requested the ministers of the foreign churches to send him a list of -their communicants. Foreigners who did not attend any church were not -allowed to apply for the privilege of letters of denization. - -Thus the aliens who arrived in England in such large numbers in the -second part of the sixteenth century had many restrictions placed upon -them, especially if they were engaged in any craft or trade which might -arouse the commercial jealousy of the English. In the teaching -profession such rivalry would not be felt to the same extent, though it -did actually exist. In any circumstance, however, all the exiles had to -endure the hatred and insults of the common people, from which, nearly -two centuries later, Voltaire only escaped without injury thanks to his -ready wit. Riots such as those of Evil May Day (1517) were directed -mainly against foreign traders, but all foreigners, especially -Frenchmen, were a continual butt for the insults of the mob. Nicander -Nucius remarks that the common people in England do not entertain one -kindly sentiment towards the French. "Ennemis du francois" is one of the -epithets applied to the English by De la Porte in his collection of -epithets (Paris, 1571) on the different nations. The French priest, -Etienne Perlin, who was in England during the last two years of the -reign of Edward VI., and thoroughly hated the country, calling it "la -peste d'un pays et ruine," speaks bitterly of the contrast between the -courteous reception the English receive in France, and the greeting of -the French in England with the cry, "French dogue": "it pleaseth me not -that these churls being in their own country spit in our faces, and they -being in France are treated with honour, as if they were little -gods."[302] All foreign visitors to England are at one in their -complaints of the lack of courtesy among the people. The great scholar -Casaubon says he was more insulted in London than he ever was in Paris; -stones were thrown at his window day and night, and once he was wounded -in the street on his way to pay his respects at Court.[303] - -All these visitors, nevertheless, recognize that the English nobility -and gentry and those in authority are "replete with benevolence and good -order," and as courteous and affable as the people are uncivil.[304] And -thus we find foreigners, especially refugees, welcomed to chairs at the -English universities, and foreign students having their fees refunded on -showing they had suffered "for religion," and receiving ecclesiastical -preferment.[305] Most of the chief families in the realm, we are told, -received refugees into their midst. Laurence Humphrey[306] exhorts these -noble families to fulfil the sacred duty of hospitality towards -strangers, especially religious exiles, whose sufferings many of them -had themselves experienced in the reign of Mary, and to provide them -with necessary livings, admit them to fellowships, and allow them yearly -stipends. "Which well I wot, the noblest Prince Edward of happy memory -most liberally did both in London and either university, whom some -Dukes, Nobles, and Bishops imitated, chiefly the reverend Father and -late Primate of England ... Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury.... -Amongst the Nobles not the least praise earned Henry Gray, Marquis of -Dorset, and Duke of Suffolk now a noble citizen of Heaven, who liberally -relieved many learned exiles. The like may be said of many others." - -Cranmer had entertained at Lambeth Pierre Alexandre and "diverse other -pious Frenchmen," including Antony Rudolph Chevallier, who was tutor to -Elizabeth for a short time. [Header: TUTORS IN PRIVATE FAMILIES] Matthew -Parker, his successor to the see in the time of Elizabeth, followed his -example and declared it to be a Christian duty to befriend "these gentle -and profitable strangers." Cecil, Walsingham, and other dignitaries of -the time also became their protectors, and, recognizing the advantages, -both intellectual and commercial, which accrued to the country, sought -by all means to ward off the hostile measures demanded from time to time -by the English _bourgeoisie_. - -One French teacher of the time, G. de la Mothe, says that so great was -the affection of the English nobility and gentry for the French that few -of them were without a Frenchman in their houses. Thus Pierre Baro, a -native of Etampes and student of civil law who came to England at the -time of the St. Bartholomew massacre, was "kindly entertained in the -family of Lord Burghley, who admitted him to eat at his own table." -Subsequently he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, and became Lady -Margaret Professor of Divinity at that university on the recommendation -of his patron, besides being admitted to the degrees of Bachelor and -Licentiate of Civil Law, and Doctor of Divinity (1576).[307] Lord -Buckhurst had for a time in his house Claude de Sainliens or Holyband, -the most popular French teacher of the time, and several other -strangers; while Sir Nicholas Throckmorton gave shelter to two -Burgundians, one Dutchman, and four Frenchmen, "whose names cannot be -learned."[308] - -In many instances we know that these refugees taught French when thus -received into noble families, and it is extremely probable that such was -almost always the case, for French was one of the chief studies of the -higher classes of society and held an important place in the courtly -education of the time. This partiality for the language was called one -of the rare vocations which distinguished the English nobility. An idea -of the intellectual accomplishments necessary to a young gentleman of -the time may be gathered from the programme drawn up for Gregory, the -son of Mr. Secretary Cromwell;[309] this comprises "French, Latin, -writing, playing at weapons, casting of accounts, pastimes of -instruments." Wilson, the author of the earliest treatise on rhetoric in -English,[310] varies this scheme slightly; he commends the gentleman -"for his skill in French, or Italian, or cosmography, Laws, Histories of -all countries, gifts of inditing, playing on instruments, painting, and -drawing." Lord Ossory, Duke of Ormond, for example, rode very well, was -a good tennis-player, fencer, and dancer, understood music and played -well on the guitar and on the lute; French he spoke elegantly, while he -read Italian with ease--a careful and significant distinction between -the two languages--and, in addition, he was a good historian and well -versed in romances.[311] - -Thus a place had to be assigned to French in the education of gentlemen. -Thomas Cranmer,[312] for instance, wrote to Cromwell in 1539, making -suggestions for the establishment of a College in the Cathedral Church -at Canterbury, to provide for the instruction of forty students "in the -tongues, in sciences, and in French"--a proposal which came to nothing, -but is none the less important, as being the first attempt to reinstate -French in an educational institution. - -In the sixteenth century the long-standing custom among gentlemen of -sending their sons to the houses of noblemen for education was still -practised to some extent, and French was taught in these little -communities.[313] The usual subjects of study were reading, probably -writing, and languages, chiefly Latin and French. Sir Thomas More and -Roger Ascham were both educated in this way. More, at the age of three, -was sent to the house of John Morton, the chancellor, where he learnt -French, Latin, Greek, and music. Ascham spent his early years in the -house of Sir Humphrey Wingfield, who "ever loved and used to have many -children in his house."[314] Sir Henry Wotton was "pleased constantly to -breed up one or more hopeful youths which he picked out of Eton School, -and took into his own domestic care."[315] It was also customary for -young peers to become royal wards. In 1561 Sir Nicholas Bacon devised a -plan for their "bringing up in virtue and learning" which he submitted -to Cecil. [Header: FRENCH IN EDUCATION OF GENTRY] According to these -articles,[316] the wards were to attend divine service at six in the -morning, then to study Latin till eleven; nothing is said of breakfast, -but an hour is allowed for dinner; from noon till two o'clock they were -to be with the music master, from two to three with the French master, -and from three to five with the Latin and Greek masters. The rest of the -evening was devoted to prayers, honest pastimes, and music under the -direction of a master. No doubt Cecil put this advice into practice. -Some years later, Sir Humphrey Gilbert drew up an admirable scheme for -the "erection of an Academy in London for the education of her majesty's -wards, and others, the youth of Nobility and Gentlemen," which was laid -before the queen, probably in 1570. Although this scheme was never -carried out, it is of great interest as showing what were the subjects -most likely to be taught. Gilbert's plan is very extensive. French, of -course, is included in the curriculum--"also there shall be one Teacher -of the French tongue which shall be yearly allowed for the same L26. -Also he shall be allowed one usher, of the yearly wage of L10." Gilbert -urges also the teaching of other modern languages--Italian, to which he -assigns about as large a place as to French, and Spanish and High Dutch, -to which less importance is attached.[317] - -French, then, was a recognized part of the education of the nobility and -gentry. Italian, it will be noticed, was also considered desirable, but -chiefly for reading purposes.[318] In the Elizabethan era Italian -literature had perhaps more influence on English writers than that of -France, although it not infrequently reached England through a French -medium. But when the first enthusiasm of the early days of the -Renaissance had burnt itself out, Italian was not cultivated generally, -except by those specially interested in literature or by those who had -special reasons for learning it. Nor was Spanish much studied, except -for practical purposes and the government services; Richard Perceval, -for instance, put his excellent knowledge of the language at the -disposal of Lord Burghley for the purpose of deciphering the packets -containing the first intelligence of the Armada.[319] Neither language -could be a dangerous rival to French, which alone was studied generally, -and by ever-increasing numbers. - -It was in private tuition that those Frenchmen desirous of teaching -their language, or driven to do so by stress of circumstances, would -find the readiest opening and the largest demand for their services. -Turning to the various registers of aliens, the earliest notices we find -of French tutors are in the grant of letters of denization for the year -1544.[320] In that year one, John Verone, a French and Latin tutor to -the children of William Morris, a gentleman usher to the king, received -the grant, as did also a certain Honorie Ballier, a Frenchman who had -been ten years in England, and was engaged in teaching his language to -the children of the Lord Admiral, Lord Lisle, Duke of Northumberland. -Yet another teacher received the same privilege in this year--John -Veron, one of the "eminentest preachers" of the time, and the author of -various religious controversial works. He gained considerable preferment -in the Anglican Church, and once preached before the queen at the Cross -in St. Paul's Churchyard,--"a bold as well as an eloquent man," and a -perfect master of the English tongue.[321] In the earlier part of his -life in England, where he arrived about 1536, Veron had been engaged in -teaching gentlemen's children; a task in which, say his letters of -denization (1544), he "doth yet continue with intent ever so to -persevere." Veron manifested his interest in the teaching of Latin and -French by publishing a Latin, French, and English dictionary in 1552, -the first dictionary, published in England, in which a place is given to -French. It is based on the Latin-French Dictionary of Robert -Estienne,[322] with the addition of a column in English, and entitled -_Dictionariolum puerorum tribus linguis Latina, Anglica, et Gallica -conscriptum cui anglicam interpretionem adjecit Joannes Veron_.[323] - -The impetus imparted to the teaching of French by the arrival of these -large numbers of refugees naturally led to an increased production of -books for teaching the language. [Header: TEXT-BOOKS FOR TEACHING -FRENCH] Nearly all the grammars written in the second half of the -sixteenth century are the work of Frenchmen,[324] the English, after -their first initiative, soon giving place to the French writers on the -language, although not without some protest. Some of these teachers no -doubt made use of one or other of the grammars which had appeared in -French; many of them taught without any such help, and a few were able -to use one or other of the grammars which had already been published in -England, while yet others set to work to compile text-books of their -own. As many of them were, or had been, employed in noblemen's houses, -and had composed their grammars from material used in teaching in these -noble families, it was easy for most of them to find patrons for their -works,[325] and thus secure a greater measure of success by offering -them to the public under the protection of some well-known and powerful -name, which would "shadow these tender plants" from the "over violent -rays of reproachful censurings." To dedicate a grammar to some famous -pupil, with praise of his rare knowledge of French acquired by means of -its contents and the excellent method employed by his tutor, the author, -was a very good form of self-advertisement, freely used by the French -teachers of the time. Among patrons of French grammars were Edward VI. -and particularly Elizabeth, who is, says one of these writers, "le vray -port de retraite et asyle asseure de ceux qui, faisans profession de -l'Evangile, souffrent ores persecution soubs la Tyrannie de -l'Antichrist"; another adds that she has "des estrangers les coeurs a -volonte." Lord Burghley, Sir Henry Wallop, Sir Philip Wharton, and other -influential men of the time also figure among the patrons of French -teachers. - -These French grammars which appeared in the second half of the sixteenth -century are of a decidedly more popular kind than those of Palsgrave and -Duwes, and appeal to a larger public. The earlier grammars were written -for the special use of royalty and the highest ranks of the nobility. -Barclay, however, differs from his rivals in having a wider aim; his -grammar is intended for the "pleasure of all englysshe men as well -gentylmen marchauntes, as other common people that are not expert in the -sayd langage." Palsgrave also, by way of epilogue, expresses the hope -that the "nobility of the realm and all other persons, of whatever state -and condition whatsoever, may in their tender age, by means of it the -sooner acquire a knowledge of French by their great pains and study"; -but it is clear that the size and price of his book, not to mention the -restrictions he placed on its sale, would prevent it from fulfilling any -such aim. - -In this new series of French text-books there appeared nothing which -could compare in importance with the great work of Palsgrave; they were -all the hasty product of teachers, and intended to meet a pressing -practical demand. The authors had not the time, even if they had had the -ability, to produce any comprehensive study of the language, and, -consequently, their works are of more value as showing how French was -taught in England, and its popularity here, than as a store of -philological material for the historical grammarian. Rules of grammar -are usually reduced to as small a compass as possible; and the largest -part of the volumes is occupied by dialogues in French and English, -which give lively and often dramatic pictures of contemporary family -life, and of the busy London streets of the time. A place is also given -to familiar phrases, collections of proverbs, and golden sayings. - -The public to which such text-books appealed was wider, including -merchants and commoners, as well as the gentry. Nor was the demand for -tutors in the language confined to the higher classes. At this time the -great middle classes were rising to wealth and prominence, and demanding -a share in the intellectual distinctions of their social betters. "As -for gentlemen, they be made good cheap in England," writes Sir Thomas -Smith,[326] in reference to the democratic movement. In this new class -of Englishman, the teachers of French recruited a large number of their -pupils. And so the French teacher who visited a clientele of pupils -became a familiar figure in the London of the later sixteenth century. - -The numerous French-speaking inhabitants of London, occupied in various -trades and crafts in the city, were, so to speak, his unconscious -collaborators, for the proportion of such foreigners in London was large -enough to have some influence on the spread of the knowledge of French. -[Header: SHAKESPEARE'S KNOWLEDGE OF FRENCH] We have an instance of this -indirect influence in the case of Shakespeare. From 1598 he lodged for -about six years, and possibly longer, in the house of a Huguenot, one -Christopher Montjoy, who lived in Silver Street, Cripplegate[327]--a -well-to-do neighbourhood, and the resort of many foreigners. Montjoy was -one of the French head-dressers who were in such demand at that time. -His wife, daughter, and also his apprentice, Stephen Bellot, formed the -rest of the household, with whom Shakespeare seems to have lived on -fairly intimate terms; he acted as a mediator in arranging a marriage -between Montjoy's daughter and Bellot, and, some years later, was drawn -into a family quarrel concerning a dowry which Bellot claimed and -Montjoy refused to pay; in 1612 Bellot took the matter into the Court of -Requests, and Shakespeare was one of the witnesses summoned. Finally the -matter was referred to the consistory of the French Church, which -decided in Bellot's favour.[328] It was no doubt during his sojourn in -the house of this Huguenot family that he improved his knowledge of -French, of which he gives evidence in his works.[329] The two plays in -which he uses the language most freely--_Henry V._ and _The Merry Wives -of Windsor_--were produced during the early time of his residence with -Montjoy, whose name is given to a French Herald in _Henry V._ In _The -Merry Wives_ the French physician, Doctor Caius, speaks a mixture of -broken English and French,[330] and in _Henry V._ French is introduced -freely into a number of the scenes,[331] while one, in which Katharine -of France receives a lesson in English from her French maid, is entirely -in French, and is here quoted for convenience' sake:[332] - - (Enter _Katharine_ and _Alice_.) - - _Kath._ Alice, tu as este en Angleterre, et tu parles bien le - langage. - - _Alice._ Un peu, madame. - - _Kath._ Je te prie, m'enseignez; il fault que j'apprenne a - parler. Comment appellez-vous la main en Anglois? - - _Alice._ La main? elle est appellee de hand. - - _Kath._ De hand. Et les doigts? - - _Alice._ Les doigts? ma foy, j'oublie les doigts; mais je me - soubviendra. Les doigts? je pense y qu'ils sont appellez de fingres; - ouy, de fingres. - - _Kath._ La main, de hand; les doigts, de fingres. Je pense que je - suis le bon escholier. J'ay gagne deux mots d'Anglois vistement. - Comment appellez-vous les ongles? - - _Alice._ Les ongles? nous les appellons, de nails. - - _Kath._ De nails. Escoutez: dites-moy, si ie parle bien: de hand, - de fingres, et de nails. - - _Alice._ C'est bien dict, madame; il est fort bon Anglois. - - _Kath._ Dites-moi l'anglois pour le bras. - - _Alice._ De arm, madame. - - _Kath._ Et le coude. - - _Alice._ D'elbow. - - _Kath._ D'elbow. Je m'en fais la repetition de tous les mots que - vous m'avez appris des a present. - - _Alice._ Il est trop difficile, madame, comme je pense. - - _Kath._ Excusez-moy, Alice; escoutez: de hand, de fingre, de - nails, de arm, de bilbow. - - _Alice._ De elbow, madame. - - _Kath._ O Seigneur Dieu! je m'en oublie; de elbow. Comment - appelez-vous le col? - - _Alice._ De nick, madame. - - _Kath._ De nick: et le menton? - - _Alice._ De chin. - - _Kath._ De sin. Le col, de nick: le menton, de sin. - - _Alice._ Ouy. Saulve vostre honneur, en verite vous prononcez les - mots aussi droict que les natifs d'Angleterre. - - _Kath._ Je ne doubte poinct d'apprendre, par la grace Dieu, et en - peu de temps. - - _Alice._ N'avez vous pas desja oublie ce que je vous ay enseigne? - - _Kath._ Non, je reciteray a vous promptement. De hand, de fingre, - de mails-- - - _Alice._ De nails, madame. - - _Kath._ De nails, de arme, de ilbow. - - _Alice._ Saulve vostre honneur, de elbow. - - _Kath._ Ainsi dis-je; de elbow, de nick, et de sin: comment - appelez-vous le pied and la robbe? - - _Alice._ De foot, madame; et de coun. - - _Kath._ De foot, et de coun? O Seigneur Dieu! ce sont mots de son - maulvais, corruptible, gros, et impudique, et non pour les dames - d'honneur d'user. Je ne vouldrois prononcer cez mots devant les - Seigneurs de France, pour tout le monde. Il fault de foot, et de - coun, neant-moins. Je reciteray une aultre fois ma lecon ensemble: - de hand, de fingre, de nails, de nick, de sin, de foot, de coun. - - _Alice._ Excellent, madame! - - _Kath._ C'est assez pour une fois; allons-nous a disner. - -It is not surprising, remembering Shakespeare's friendship with the -Huguenots, to find him quoting from the Genevan Bible in the same -play.[333] [Header: FRENCH NEGLECTED IN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS] When he -composed it, he must have had a strong inclination to write French, as -he sometimes uses the language rather inconsistently, making the -Dauphin, for instance, speak French one moment and English the next. - -On the whole, Shakespeare's French seems to have been fairly correct -grammatically, if not quite idiomatic.[334] It contains just enough -mistakes and anglicisms to make it extremely unlikely that he received -help from any Frenchman; for example, we find the Princess Katharine of -France saying, "Je suis semblable _a les_ anges." On other occasions, -when Englishmen are speaking, Shakespeare purposely makes their French -incorrect and clumsy. That he could read French is shown by the fact -that some of the originals on which he based his plays were not -translated into English.[335] Moreover, he probably read Montaigne in -the original, unless, like Cornwallis, Florio allowed him to see his -translation in manuscript--a rather remote possibility, as the French -would be easier of access. No doubt many others besides Shakespeare owed -a good deal of their knowledge of French to direct intercourse with -Frenchmen, a means of improvement strongly advocated by the professional -teachers of the time. "Get you acquainted with some Frenchman" is their -cry. - -In addition to the refugees, students or men belonging to no particular -craft or profession who took up the teaching of their language on their -arrival in England, there were also professional schoolmasters--French, -Flemish, and Walloon. Many of the latter, we may surmise, were no doubt -driven from their country by the edict issued by Margaret, Duchess of -Parma, in 1567. One clause was particularly directed against -schoolmasters who might teach any error or false doctrine. None of these -teachers, however, would find any opening in the grammar schools, which -were then "little nurseries of the Latin tongue." The memorizing of -Latin grammar, with the study of rhetoric in the Latin writers, both in -verse and prose, formed almost the whole of the curriculum.[336] In the -books on education of the time the study of French was equally ignored. -These works, however, are mainly from the pen of pedants, and have but -little bearing on practical education.[337] For them French was not a -'learned' tongue, in spite of the efforts of Palsgrave to secure its -recognition as such. - -But it is not difficult to reconcile the general prevalence of the study -of French with its absence from the grammar schools. At this time, and -throughout the seventeenth century, there was a great division between -scholastic education and social requirements.[338] The school and -educational writers, in refusing to recognize French, held aloof from -the social needs of the day: "non vitae sed scholae discimus"; and in -retaining the cosmopolitan atmosphere of the Middle Ages they ignored -the new spirit of nationalism which called modern languages into -prominence. The school had little, if any, effect in retarding the -progress of French, which came to be looked upon in the light of an -'extra,' to be studied privately and with the help of tutors. Many -scholars of the public or grammar schools had a private tutor who would -teach them French when occasion served. Such, for instance, was the case -with Sir Philip Sidney. Fulke Grenville and Sidney both entered -Shrewsbury School at the age of ten, in the year 1564. Two years later a -letter of Sir Henry Sidney informs us that he had received two letters -from his son, one in Latin and the other in French, "whiche I take in -good parte, and will you to exercise that Practice and Learning often: -For that will stand you in most steade, in that profession of lyf that -you are born to live in."[339] Apparently, then, Sidney had received -lessons in French either at home or out of school hours. He had also, in -all probability, had a French tutor before he went to Shrewsbury. - -French, however, was not entirely neglected in all schools. As the -grammar schools were "Latin" schools, there arose in the second half of -the sixteenth century a considerable number of private "French" -schools, where this language received special attention. [Header: -PRIVATE FRENCH SCHOOLS] The earliest of these owed their origin to the -refugees, both professional schoolmasters and others. St. Paul's -Churchyard, the busy centre of city life, was the quarter round which -many of these schools were grouped. There they were most likely to get a -good clientele, partly, it may be, among those boys attending St. Paul's -School who desired, like Sir Philip Sidney, to extend their studies. In -St. Paul's Churchyard, also, lived the chief booksellers, who generally -seem to have cultivated friendly relations with French teachers, -especially those whose books they were commissioned to sell. Frequently -they acted as agents for the teachers, who in their grammars advise -prospective pupils to "inquire" at the bookseller's. And, at this time, -when indications of address were given by reference to the nearest place -of importance, printers' signs are frequently used to locate the -situation of French schools. At least one of these schools seems to have -been very well known, for in 1590 the printer W. Wright, senior, gave as -his address, "neare to the French School."[340] - -All of them, however, did not owe their origin to the French refugees. -We hear, for instance, of a certain John Love, an Englishman, son of the -steward of the Jesuit college founded by the English Catholics at Douay, -who had a French school near St. Paul's, at the end of the century. But -he was suspect, as it was feared he might be an "intelligenceer."[341] -Among the earliest, however, if not the first of these French schools, -was that of Peter Du Ploich, a Frenchman, and no doubt a refugee; at any -rate the text-book for teaching French which he published shows his -strong sympathy with the Protestants. This was entitled _A Treatise in -English and Frenche right necessary and profitable for al young -children_, and was first issued in about 1553 from the press of Richard -Grafton, who had "privilege de l'imprimer seul."[342] Of this -schoolmaster's life little is known.[343] From his little French -text-book, "right necessary to come to the knowledge of the same," we -learn that he kept his school at the sign of the Rose in Trinity -Street; that he was married, and probably received some of his pupils -into his house; and that he taught French, Latin, and writing. Probably -religious instruction also formed part of the curriculum, as it did in -the other schools of the time; both Henry VIII. and Edward VI. issued -orders that the Paternoster, the Ten Commandments, and the Apostles' -Creed should be taught to children.[344] Not only Du Ploich but other -French teachers of the time provided religious formularies in their -books for teaching the language, and in 1559-1560 the printer William -Griffith received a licence to print a Catechism in Latin, French, and -English.[345] - -The Catechism, Litany, Suffrages, and prayers occupy a large part of Du -Ploich's _Treatise_, which is of quarto size, and consists of about -fifty leaves.[346] All these formularies are given in both French and -English, arranged in two columns on each page.[347] Then come three -familiar dialogues which constitute the third, fourth, and fifth -chapters of the book. The first of these gives us a lively picture of -family life at the time. From the street, where we meet friends and are -taught how to greet and address them, we pass into the house, where we -are spectators of the family repast and of the arrival of the guests, -and hear conversation on many subjects in which Du Ploich finds an -opportunity for self-advertisement by mentioning his school and address. -A child reads a passage from the New Testament, and the meal is preceded -and followed by lengthy thanksgivings, which, however, do not interfere -with the joviality and conviviality of the host. - - Sir, you make no good chere. Mons., vous ne faictes pas bonne chere. - You say nothing. Vous ne dictes rien. - What sholde I say? Que diroys-ie? - I cannot speake frenche. Je ne sais pas parler francois. - I understande you not. Je ne vous entens pas. - O God, what say you? O Dieu, que dictes-vous? - You speake as well as I doo Vous parlez aussy bien que je fais - and better. et mieus aussy. - Pardon me. Pardonnez moy. - It pleaseth you to say so. Il vous plaist de dire ainsy . . . etc. - -[Header: PETER DU PLOICH] - -The next two dialogues deal with subjects characteristic of these books -for teaching French--asking the way, the arrival and entertainment at an -inn, and finally, buying, selling, and bargaining--all topics useful for -merchants and merchants' apprentices, from whose ranks Du Ploich -probably recruited a number of his pupils. "L'aprentif" is the word he -uses in speaking of his pupils, though there is no proof to show that he -employed it in any special sense. Then comes a fifth chapter containing -the following headings: "Pour demander le chemin," "Aultre communication -en chevauchant," "Pour aller coucher," "Pour soy descoucher," and -beginning thus: - - Sir, we be oute of Monsieur, nous somes hors de - our way. nostre chemin. - We be not. Non sommes. - But we be. Si sommes. - We go well. Nous allons bien. - We doo not. Non faisons. - But we doo, abyde. Si faisons, attendez. - Beholde there cometh a woman. Voyla une femme qui vient. - We will aske her Nous voulons lui demander - whiche is the way. ou est le droict chemin. - Good wife, shew me M'amie, monstre moy - the ryghte way le droict chemin d'icy - here hence to the nexte towne. au prochain village. - Streyghte before you. Tousiours devant vous. - Upon whiche hande? A quelle main? - On the lefte hande. A la main gauche, etc. - -In the sixth chapter the merchants leave the inn in the early morning to -transact their business: - - Wil we go see if we Voulons nous aller veoir sy nous - can bye some thyng? pourrons acheter quelque chose? - That shold be wel done, Ce seroit bien faict, - but it is yet too tymely. mais il est encore trop tempre. - By your licence it is tyme. Pardonnez moy il est temps. - Have you any Eglyshe cloth? Avez vous dez draps d'Engleterre? - Ye, what colour. Ouy, quelle couleur . . . etc. - -At the end come the names of the figures, necessary for such -transactions, and finally information and advice in verse form, without -any English rendering, "pour gens de finance": - - Toy qui est receveur du Roy - Je te prie entens et me croy. - Recoy avant que tu escripves, - Escriptz avant que tu delivres, - De recevoir faitz diligence - Et fais tardifve delivrance. - En tes clers pas tant ne te fie - Que veoir te fais souvent oublie. - Regarde souvent en ton papier - Quant, quoy, combien il fault payer. - Prens lettres quy soyent vaillables, - Aye parrolles amiables, - Et soys diligent de compter. - Ainsy pourras plus hault monter. - -Du Ploich seems to have brought with him to England a Genevan "A B C," -or book of elementary instruction and prayers for children, such as was -common in France as well as in England. The next section of his treatise -treats of the French A B C in words identical with those of an _A B C -francois_ printed at Geneva in 1551. This is followed by a few very -slight rules in English, which tell us not to pronounce the last letter -of a French word, except _s_, _t_, and _p_, when the next word begins -with a consonant; to neglect a vowel at the end of a word when the -following word begins with another vowel; also that the accusative -precedes the verb; that after _au_, _ou_, _i_, and _eu_, _l_ is not -sounded; that the consonants _sp_, _st_, and _ct_ should not be -separated in pronunciation; and that the negative is formed by placing -_ne_ before the verb and _pas_ or _point_ after it. To this scanty -grammatical information, which bears considerable resemblance to that -contained in some previous works,[348] the eighth and last chapter adds -the conjugation of the two auxiliaries in Latin, English, and French. -The treatise closes with a Latin poem addressed to "preceptor noster Du -Ploich" by John Alexander, one of his pupils, and with a table of -contents. - -No doubt French was the basis of the whole of the instruction given by -Du Ploich in his school. His pupils learnt to write from this French -text-book, and memorized the Latin verbs with the French verbs. The fact -that Du Ploich places his few grammar rules at the end of the work, and -after the practical reading-exercises, shows what slight importance he -attached to them. He would, we may assume, refer his pupils to them as -occasion arose, but practical exercises and conversation formed the -chief part of his lessons. He made free use of English in explaining the -meaning of the French, and throughout his book he sacrifices the English -phrase in order to render more closely the meaning of the French, for -which he duly apologizes: "that none blame or reprove this sayd -translacion thus made in Englishe because that it is a litle corrupt. -[Header: DU PLOICH'S METHOD OF TEACHING] For the author hath done it for -the better declaryng of the diversitie of one tounge to the other, and -it is turned almost worde for worde and lyne for lyne, that it may be to -his young scholars more easy and lyght." - -Du Ploich was thoughtful for his young pupils. "A little at a time, and -that done well" was his motto. On this method, he says, the child will -learn more in a week than he would do in two months by attempting a -great deal at the beginning. The master should repeat the lesson two or -three times before allowing the child to say it, and be ready to explain -difficulties, and not wait for the child to guess. If not, the pupil -will lose patience and the little courage he possesses. Du Ploich would -have the verbs learnt on the plan already advocated on a larger scale by -Duwes, that is, he advises the student to practise them negatively and -interrogatively as well as in the usual affirmative form. - -Some time later, probably after Du Ploich's death, or when he had left -England, there appeared another edition of his grammar. This was printed -by John Kingston, and finished on the fourteenth day of April 1578.[349] -An important change in the arrangement of the chapters distinguishes it -from the edition of 1553; in the later edition the chapter on the -alphabet and grammar is placed at the beginning, although in both issues -the chapter on the two auxiliaries closes the work. Kingston--for he was -probably responsible for the change--thus yielded to the tendency, which -became stronger and stronger as time advanced, of placing theoretical -before practical instruction. In addition to slight variations, other -differences between the two works are the omission of the verses for -"gens de finance," and of the Latin poem addressed to Du Ploich by one -of his pupils. - -_The Little Treatise in English and French_ was not the only work -produced by Du Ploich during his residence in England. On its completion -he turned his attention to the composition of a work on the estate of -princes, which he called a _Petit Recueil tresutile et tresnecessaire de -l'Etat dez Princes, dez Seigneurs temporelz et du commun peuple, faict -par Pierre Du Ploych_.[350] This _Recueil_ is written in French. Its -subject matter is not of much interest, but the Latin verses with which -it closes inform us that Du Ploich had a law degree (Licentiatus Legum). -He dedicated the manuscript, which is not dated, to the "Roy tres -puissant Eduard sixieme de ce nom," who graciously received it and -rewarded Du Ploich's industry by a generous gift.[351] This favourable -reception encouraged the French teacher to present another work to his -"Soverain lord and master" in the course of the following year. This -second manuscript is shorter than the earlier _Recueil_;[352] it bears -the title of _Petit Recueil des homaiges, honneurs et recognoissances -deubz par les hommes a Dieu le createur, avec certaines prieres en la -recognoissance de soy mesme_. At the end occurs a passage of some -interest in which Du Ploich expresses his intention of providing the -work, unworthy as it is, with an English translation, as soon as he -finds time and opportunity for such an undertaking, for he has not -English "de nature."[353] This rendering, he says, will be "mot pour mot -et ligne pour ligne, affin d'augmenter les couraiges des professeurs." -We may infer from this that he thought of having the work printed in -French and English for the use of students. - -A French school very similar to that of Du Ploich, but of which we have -more details, was kept by Claude de Sainliens, De Sancto Vinculo, or, as -he anglicized it, Holyband. A native of Moulins and a Huguenot, Holyband -probably sought refuge in England from the persecutions. In 1571 he is -said to have been in England seven years;[354] hence he must have begun -his long career in London as a teacher of French in the year 1564. In -1566 he took out letters of denization.[355] Holyband was not exactly a -scholar, but rather a man of broad interests, sustained by extraordinary -vitality, and before he had been in England three years he had published -two books for teaching French, which became very popular, and continued -to be reprinted for nearly a century. There is no extant copy of the -earliest edition of the first of these, but it appeared most probably -in 1565. [Header: CLAUDE HOLYBAND] The earliest copy known is dated -1573, and bears the title, _The French Schoolemaister, wherin is most -plainlie shewed the true and most perfect way of pronouncinge of the -French Tongue_. The contents of this little book are of the kind which -became characteristic of works for teaching French. It opens with rules -for pronunciation and grammar in English, of little value or -originality, and purposely made as concise as possible. These are -followed by dialogues, collections of proverbs, golden sayings, prayers, -and graces before meat, and a large vocabulary. The dialogues are by far -the most interesting portion of the work. Like those of Du Ploich, they -show a close connexion between the teaching of French and the daily -concerns of life. They give us a picture of the busy London of the time, -and especially of St. Paul's Churchyard, as well as lively family -scenes, together with the usual wayside and tavern conversation. We see -the boy setting off to school in the morning, threading his way through -the busy streets, and again see him return to the hearty and hospitable -family dinner, during which he finds occasion to speak of his French -studies. These dialogues are given in French and English arranged on -opposite pages. Their dramatic interest may be gathered from the opening -passage, where we listen to the servant hurrying the boy off to school: - - Hau Francois, levez vous et allez Ho Francis, arise and go to - a l'eschole: vous serez battu, schoole: you shall be beaten, - car il est sept heures passees: for it is past seven: - abillez vous vistement. make you ready quickly. - Dites voz prieres, puis vous Say your prayers, then you - aurez vostre desiuner: shall have your breakfast: - sus, remuez vous. go to, stirre. - Marguerite, baillez moy mes chausses. Margaret, give me my hosen. - Despeschez vous ie vous prie: ou est Dispatch I pray you: where is - mon pourpoint? apportez me iartieres my doublet? bring my garters - et mes souliers: and my shoes: - donnez moy ce chausse-pied. give me that shooing-horne. - Que faites vous la? What do you there? - que ne vous hastez vous? why make you no haste? - Prenez premierement une chemise blanche, Take first a cleane shirt, - car la vostre est trop sale: for yours is too foule: - n'est elle pas? is it not? - Hastez vous donc, Make haste then, - car ie demeure trop. for I do tarry too long. - Elle est encore moite, attendez un peu It is moist yet, tarry a litle - que ie la seiche au feu: that I may drie it by the fire: - i'auray tost fait. I will have soone done. - Je ne sauroye tarder si longuement. I cannot tarry so long. - Allez vous en, ie n'en veux point. Go your way, I will none of it. - Vostre mere me tancera Your mother will chide me - si vous allez a l'eschole if you go to school - sans vostre chemise blanche. without your clean shirt. - -And after quarrelling with Margaret, and using rather bad language, -Francis receives his parents' blessing, and starts off to school. -Unfortunately we are not spectators of his doings there. - -Whether Holyband had opened his French school or not when he composed -the _French Schoolemaister_ is uncertain; but the school was evidently -in full swing at the time his second work appeared, about a year later, -in 1566. The contents of the new work, _The French Littleton, a most -easie, perfect, and absolute way to learn the French tongue_, are much -the same as those of the _French Schoolemaister_. There is, however, one -important difference between the two works. In the _Schoolemaister_ the -rules precede the practical exercises, but this order is reversed in the -_Littleton_. In the first work Holyband does not appear to have fully -evolved his method of teaching French. By the time he wrote the _French -Littleton_ he was able to lay down principles, based, no doubt, on -experience, and consequently he attached a higher value to the second of -his works, and used it himself in teaching. The _French Schoolemaister_ -was intended more for the use of private pupils. It was described as a -"perfect way" of learning French without any "helpe of Maister or -teacher,[356] set foorthe for the furtherance of all those whiche doo -studie privately in their own study or houses." Holyband himself does -not seem to have given it much attention after its first appearance. -Nevertheless it enjoyed as great a popularity and went through as many -editions, or nearly so, as its author's more favoured work. Other French -teachers made up for Holyband's neglect by editing it themselves in the -early seventeenth century. So great indeed was its success that in 1600 -a tax of 20 per cent was levied on each edition for the benefit of the -poor.[357] We may perhaps conclude from this that those who studied -French privately were numerous. - -The value of the _French Littleton_ is more educational; it expounds all -the favourite theories of its author. The name is taken from the popular -work on English law, the text-book for all law-students, Littleton's -_Tenures_. While the _French Schoolemaister_ was a small octavo, the -_Littleton_ was printed to the size of a tiny pocket-book, in 16mo. -[Header: HOLYBAND'S FRENCH GRAMMARS] First come practical exercises in -the form of dialogues in French and English,[358] but of less lively -interest than those of the _Schoolemaister_. They deal, however, with -the same subjects,[359] only, as we read them we do not forget, as we -were inclined to do in the earlier book, that we are reading exercises -intended for school use. Then follow proverbs, golden sayings, prayers, -the creed, the fifth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, a treatise on -the iniquity of dancing (_Traite des Danses_), and finally a vocabulary -less comprehensive and of less value than that of the _French -Schoolemaister_. - -The _French Littleton_ derives additional interest from the fact that in -it Holyband sets forth a new system for rendering the pronunciation of -French easier to the English. He realized the difficulties placed in -their way by the many unsounded letters present in certain French words. -He had no desire, however, to join the extremists, who advocated the -omission of all such consonants in orthography as well as in -pronunciation. Holyband considered such letters an essential part of the -word, and often a useful indication of the pronunciation of vowels and -of the derivation. He therefore proposed a compromise which he thought -would please both parties: he retains the unsounded letters, but -distinguishes them from those which were pronounced by placing a small -cross below them,[360] a device adopted in later editions of the _French -Schoolemaister_ also. A short quotation from the conversation for -travellers and merchants will show how Holyband applied his method: - - Monsieur ou pikez vous si bellement? Sir whither ride you so softly? - x - - A Londres To London - a la foire de la Berthelemy. to Barthelomews faire. - x - Je vay au Landi a Paris, je vay I go to Landi to Paris, - a Rouen. to Rouen. - - Et moy aussi: allons ensemble: And I also: let us go together: - x - je suy bien aise I am very glad - d'avoir trouve compagnie. to have found company. - - Allons de par Dieu: Let us go in God's name: - x - picquons un peu, let us pricke a littell, - j'ay pour que nous ne venions pas la I fear we shall not come thither - x x x - de jour, car le soleil by daylight: the sunne - x - s'en va coucher. goeth downe. - - Mais ou logerons nous? ou est But where shall we lodge? where is - x x x - le meilleur logis? la meilleure the best lodging? the best - x - hostelerie? inne? - - Ne vous souciez pas de cela: Care you not for that: it is - x x - c'est au grand marche a l'enseigne at the great market, at the sign - x x - de la fleur de lis, vis a vis of the flower Deluce, right over - de la croix. against the crosse. - - Je suy joyeux d'estre arrive, car I am glad that I am arrived, for - x x - certes g'ay bon appetit: truly I have a good stomacke: - J'espere de faire a ce soir I hope to make to-night - x - souper de marchant. a marchauntes supper. - - Nous disons en nostre pais We say in our country, - x x - que desiuner that hunters - de chasseurs, disner d'advocats, breakefast, lawyers dinner, - x x x - souper de supper of - marchants et collacion de moynes marchauntes, and monkes drinking - x x - est is - xx - la meilleure chere qu'on sauroit the best cheere that one can - x x - faire, make, - et pour vivre en epicurien. and to live like an epicure. - x - - Et on dit en nostre paroisse And they say in our parish - x x - que jeunes that young - x - medecins font les cymetieres phisitions make the churchardes - x - bossus crooked - et vieux procureurs, proces tortus: and old attornies sutes to go awry, - x x - mais au but on the - contraire que jeunes procureurs et contrary that young lawyers, - x - vieux medecins, jeune chair, olde phisitions, young flesh, - x - et vieil poisson sont les meilleurs. and old fishe be the best. - x x x x x - - Or bien, irons nous acheter Well shall we go and buy - ce qu'il that whiche - nous faut? Nous demourons trop. we doe lack? We tarie to long. - x x - - Roland que ne te leves-tu? ouvre Roland, why doest thou not rise? - x - ouvre open - la boutique: est tu encore au lit? the shop: are you yet a bed? - x x - - Tu aimes bien la plume: si mon Thou loveth the fethers well: if my - x - maistre descend, et qu'il ne treuve maister commeth downe and find not - x x x - la boutique ouverte, the shop opened, - x - il se courroucera. he will be angry. - - Messieurs, monsieur, madame, Sirs, sir, my lady, - mesdames, mademoiselle, maistres, gentlewoman, - que demandez vous? que cerchez vous? what lack you? what seek you? - x x - - Qu'acheteriez vous volontiers? What would you buy willingly?... - x x - -The most interesting of the dialogues in the _French Littleton_, -however, is that in which we have a picture of Holyband's school, which -was first opened in St. Paul's Churchyard at the sign of Lucrece--the -shop of the printer Thomas Purfoote. Here we see children arriving for -their lessons early in the morning, each with his own books and other -materials. The schoolroom seems to have been a lively place; the -scholars are represented as fighting, pulling each other's hair, tearing -their books, and indulging in other pranks of the kind. Holyband sought -to keep order by means of a birch, and one of the many offences which -called it into action was the speaking of English. [Header: HOLYBAND'S -FRENCH SCHOOL] In this little school of his, Holyband appears to have -laboured at the task he set himself of leading the English nation "comme -par la main au cabinet de (nostre) langue francoyse," under excellent -conditions. The whole atmosphere seems to have been French. The -curriculum, however, was not confined to this one language. Holyband had -to safeguard his interests by instructing his pupils in the subjects -taught in the ordinary English schools, and so we find him teaching -Latin, writing, and counting, as well as French, and probably by means -of French. With some of his pupils Holyband studied Terence, Vergil, -Horace, the _Offices_ of Cicero, and with others, Cato, the _Pueriles -Confabulatiunculae_, and Latin grammar, according to their capacity. Yet -others learnt reading, writing, and French only. Morning school, which -closed with prayer at eleven, was devoted chiefly to the study of Latin. -The afternoon was given over entirely to French; and it does not seem -unreasonable to suppose that other scholars came then specially for -instruction in French. The pupils returned for afternoon work at -mid-day, and began by translating French into English and then -retranslated the English back into French, using, we may be sure, -Holyband's _French Littleton_. Next came a little practice in -vocabulary, in which "maister Claude" asked them the French for various -English words. Grammar was not neglected, but questions concerning it do -not appear to have been invited until some difficulty in the text -rendered it necessary. The pupils were also required to decline various -nouns and verbs which occurred in the text. The auxiliaries they were -expected to learn by heart. Not until five o'clock did the long French -lesson draw to a close, and then the scholars lit their torches or -lanterns and set off home after being dismissed with evening prayers. -Before their departure, they received instructions to read the lesson -for the following day six or seven times after supper. By doing this, -their master assured them, it would appear easy on the morrow, and be -learnt without effort. - -Holyband informs us that his charges were one shilling a week or fifty -shillings a year. He allows that this was more than the fees asked for -in most schools, but justifies the higher charge by the superior -instruction imparted. At any rate his school was very prosperous. In -1568, when it had been in existence for at least two, and perhaps three -years, we find him assisted by an usher, one John Henrycke, said to be -a Frenchman.[361] He was, no doubt, the Jehan Henry "Maistre d'Eschole," -who wrote a dizain in praise of Holyband's _French Schoolemaister_ -(1573), where, in rather questionable French, he summoned the students -of France to devote all their attention to "ce poli et belle oeuvre," -and not to read - - Des ravaudeurs le reste, - Qui souloyent quelques regles escrire, - Mais, au vray indignes de les lire. - -Holyband, as we have noticed, was a very active and somewhat restless -person, never staying long in one place, and it is difficult to follow -him in his frequent changes of residence. For a time he removed his -school to Lewisham, then outside London. Here, sometime before 1573, he -had an interview with Queen Elizabeth, who perhaps visited his school as -she passed through the village, for the head boy, Harry Edmondes, -pronounced a discourse before Her Majesty. - -In 1576 Holyband had given up his French school, and entered the ranks -of French private tutors, living in the house of a patron. He was one of -the aliens dwelling in Salisbury Court, the residence of Lord Buckhurst, -and, no doubt, was engaged in teaching French to the younger children of -his protector. He had previously come into contact with this noble -family, and had probably received some assistance from this quarter on -his arrival in England, and may have taught French to the eldest son, -Robert Sackville, now at Oxford,[362] to whom he dedicated both his -early works. - -When we first hear of Holyband he was already married and had children. -His wife died probably before he went to Salisbury Court. Two years -later he married an Englishwoman, Anne Smith,[363] and had resumed his -French school in St. Paul's Churchyard, but his address was now at the -sign of the Golden Bell, for the printer Thomas Purfoote had moved his -sign to Newgate Market. [Header: HOLYBAND'S TEACHING CAREER] Here he -remained for some time, until 1581 at the earliest, and probably -somewhat later. He also attended the French Church. At this period of -his life he again turned his attention to writing on the French -language, and collecting together notes which he had no doubt compiled -in past years. In 1580 three new works on French appeared from his pen. -One was a _Treatise for Declining Verbs_--a subject which he calls "the -second chiefest worke of the Frenche tongue"--written at the request of -several gentlemen and merchants. The book itself is of little value, and -did not by any means share the popularity of his earliest books. Still, -two other editions appeared, one in 1599 and the other much later, in -1641. The second of these works, dealing with French pronunciation on -much the same lines as the _French Littleton_, was even less popular. It -was intended for the "learned," and consequently written in Latin--_De -Pronuntiatione linguae gallicae_.[364] Holyband was also becoming more -ambitious in his dedications; probably through Lord Buckhurst, the -queen's cousin on his mother's side, he was able to dedicate his -treatise "ad illustrissimam simulque doctissimam Elizabetham Anglorum -Reginam." At the end Holyband added a dialogue in three different kinds -of spelling--the new, the old, and his own--as well as a Latin sermon on -the Resurrection. A French-English Dictionary was the third of these -works, published in 1580, with the title: _The Treasurie of the French -Tong, Teaching the way to varie all sorts of Verbs, Enriched so -plentifully with Wordes and Phrases (for the benefit of the studious in -that language), as the like hath not before bin published._ Many years -later, in 1593, Holyband again gave proof of his deep interest in French -lexicography by the publication of his _Dictionarie French and English, -published for the benefit of the studious in that language_, based on -his earlier work, but on a much larger scale.[365] - -Meanwhile he had had an opportunity to extend his knowledge and to -refresh his mind by a long journey on the Continent. Once more he had -yielded to his love of change and movement, and entered the service of -another powerful patron, Lord Zouche, to whom he dedicated his -dictionary of 1593. In the dedication we are told how he had undertaken -a "long, lointain, penible et dangereux voyage" with his noble -protector, who was to him "plutot pere ou baston de vieillesse que non -pas maistre, Seigneur ou commandeur." Thus we may conclude that, when -Lord Zouche crossed to Hamburg by sea in March 1587, intending to -qualify himself for public service on the Continent, as well as to "live -cheaply," Holyband accompanied him, and, no doubt, found many -opportunities for serious study. They proceeded to Heidelberg, where -their names were inscribed on the matriculation register of the -university in May.[366] Zouche then travelled to Frankfort, Basle -(1588), Altdorf (1590), and thence to Vienna (1591), and on to Verona, -returning to England in 1593.[367] - -After the publication of this last of his works in 1593, we lose sight -of Holyband in his role of teacher of French. He was, however, still in -England in 1597, when he dedicated a new edition of his _French -Littleton_ to a new patron, Lord Herbert of Swansea. Thereafter he is -not mentioned, and subsequent editions of his most popular works--the -_Schoolemaister_ and _French Littleton_--were issued without his -supervision. Probably he had returned to his native country, for in the -last of his published works he assumes the title of "gentilhomme -bourbonnais," which suggests that he had come into the possession of -some property in his native province, where his name was still known in -the seventeenth century.[368] Certain it is that he did not remain in -England. There is no further trace of his children, of whom he had at -least four.[369] Thus silently, as if forgetful of his former habits, he -slipped out of sight after he had spent nearly forty years teaching his -language in England. He won the praise of the scholar Richard Mulcaster, -soon to be appointed Head of St. Paul's School, near which Holyband had -so long had his own modest establishment; and the poet George Gascoigne -wrote a sonnet in his honour: [Header: HOLYBAND'S METHOD OF TEACHING -FRENCH] - - The pearl of price which Englishmen have sought - So farre abroade, and cost them there so dere, - Is now founde out within our country here, - And better cheape amongst us may be bought. - I mean the French that pearle of pleasant speech, - Which some sought for, and bought it with their lives, - With sicknesse some, yea some with bolts and gives, - But all with payne this peerlesse pearle did seeke. - Now Holyband, a friendly French indeede, - Hath tane such paynes, for everie English ease, - That here at home we may this language learne, - And for the price he craveth no more meede - But thankfull harts to whome his pearles may please. - Oh, thank him then, that so much thanke dothe earne. - -Holyband, like his predecessor Du Ploich, was an advocate of the -practical teaching of languages. A perfect knowledge of French, in his -eyes, consisted in being able to read and pronounce the language -accurately. Thus the first thing to be done by those desiring to study -the language is to begin to read at once. The learner must not "entangle -himself at the first brunte" with rules; but, "after he hath read them -over, let him take in hand the dialogues, and as occasion requireth he -shall examine the rules, applying their use unto his purpose."[370] He -must first "frame his tongue by reading them aloud, noting carefully -which letters are not pronounced, looking for the reasons why they are -lefte in the rules of pronunciation," so that "when he shall happen -uppon other bookes printed without these caracters he may remember which -letters ought to be uttered and which ought not." In these rules[371] -Holyband endeavours to explain French sounds by comparison with English -sounds. His treatment of the letter _a_ may be given as an example of -his method. "Sound our _a_," he says,[372] "as you sound the first -sillable in Laurence, or Augustine in English. When _a_ is joined with -_in_ it loseth his sound, or at the least it is very little heard: as -_pain_, _hautain_.... Pronounce then as if they were written thus: -_pin_, _hautin_.... But if _e_ followeth _n_, then _i_ goeth more -towards _n_, thus: _balaine_, _semaine_ ...," and then he proceeds to -describe in like fashion the sounds of the diphthong _ai_. His treatment -of the sound _gn_ is quaint and interesting. "When you find any word -written with _gn_, remember how you pronounce these English words, -_onion_, _minion_, _companion_, and such like: so melting _g_, and -touching smoothly the roofe of the mouth with the flat of the tongue, -say: _mignon_, _oignon_, _compagnon_; say then, _cam-pa-gne_, -_campa-gnie_, and not _cam-pag-ne_, _campag-nie_, separating _g_ from -_n_; but rather sound them as if they were written thus in your English -tongue, _campaine_, _campanie_." - -Such rules alone, however, were of little value in Holyband's opinion, -and we cheerfully agree with him. The reader must be very circumspect in -his use of them, and his teacher a very skilful Frenchman, "or else all -will go to wracke." He seems to have thought that much more depended on -the tutor than on rules. No doubt he fully shared the opinion stated -earlier by Duwes, that rules are of more use to the teacher than the -learner. "Oh how busie is this tongue," he says of French, "and into -what maze doth the learner enter which doth take it in hand: therefore -let his tutor be sevenfold skilfull." We are prepared, then, to find -Holyband agreeing with Henry VIII.'s tutor on another point--the -teaching of French and writing of French grammars by the English. To him -it appeared obvious that "it is not the part of a stranger, except he be -learned and of a long continuance in France, to give precepts concerning -the pronunciation of the (French) tongue: yea neither of the best -Frenchmen, be he never so learned or eloquent in the same, except he -hath practised the premises by teaching or otherwise by a long and -diligent observation." There can be no question of committing rules to -memory; they merely serve to throw light on the reading matter. Yet the -practice of memorizing is not neglected. There were two purposes for -which it was called into use, the verbs, chiefly the two auxiliaries, -and vocabulary, to which Holyband attached much importance. - -According to Holyband himself, his method had excellent results. He was -especially proud of the pronunciation of his pupils. In teaching this he -followed a plan which strikes the modern reader as curious, but which -had already been employed in an early sixteenth-century grammar, that of -the poet Alexander Barclay. According to this plan he taught his -scholars the main characteristics of the different dialects of France, -as well as the pure French in which they were encouraged to speak. His -reason for doing so was to put them on their guard against the variety -of dialects, chiefly Picard and Walloon, spoken by the numerous refugees -scattered all over London. [Header: FRENCH CHURCH SCHOOLS] When new -scholars came to his school from "other French schools," he assures us -that on hearing them speak and pronounce any letter incorrectly, his own -pupils "spie the faultes as soone as I, yea they cannot abide it: and -which is more they will discerne whether the maister which taught them -first was a Burgonian, a Norman, or a Houyet." - -The reading, which Holyband made the basis of his language teaching, was -always explained by means of English renderings. In his dialogues he -makes no attempt to retain the purity of the English phrase. English for -him was merely a vehicle for interpreting to his young scholars the -meaning of the French, "for I do not pretend to teach them any other -thing then the French tongue," and so he begs his readers not to "muse" -at the English of his book, but to take the French with such goodwill as -it is offered. It will be noticed that on this point, as on many -others--placing the rules after the practical exercises, for -instance--Holyband resembles Du Ploich, and no doubt he was acquainted -with the _Treatise_ of his less well known fellow-teacher. The points of -resemblance between the dialogues of the two works are sufficient proof -of this, although Du Ploich's cannot compare with Holyband's in -interest. Another work which had some influence on his dialogues was the -_Linguae Latinae Exercitatio_ of the great Spanish scholar and -educationist Vives--a book containing Latin dialogues, dealing with the -life of the schoolboy at home and at school, at work and at play. This -was a very popular school-book in the sixteenth century, and was most -likely used by Holyband in the Latin lessons at his own school. He also -incorporated the Latin dialogues of Vives in a work which he called the -_Campo di Fior, or flowery field of four languages, Italian, Latin, -French and English_, giving the dialogues in these four languages. This -work appeared in 1583, when he was probably still teaching in St. Paul's -Churchyard.[373] - -Besides these French schools kept by private individuals, there were -others in connexion with the French churches. After the foundation of -the French Church in Threadneedle Street, other churches had arisen in -different parts of the country. The education of the children attending -these institutions had to be seen to, and very soon schools were -established under the supervision of the churches themselves.[374] -Although these schools were primarily intended for the instruction of -the children of the refugees, they also undertook to teach those "who -would wish to learn the French language." Just as some English attended -the services of the French Church, so also some sent their children to -the school associated with it. And it must be remembered that to some -Englishmen the French Church presented greater attractions than the -English Church did at that time; for there naturally grew up a bond of -sympathy between the Protestant refugees and the English Nonconformists, -many of whom sought in the French Church, with its Genevan discipline, a -form of worship not sanctioned by the English Church. Others attended -these churches for the same reason as the "Italianate gentleman," -censured by Roger Ascham,[375] went to the Italian Church: "to heare the -(French) tongue naturally spoken, not to heare God's doctrine trewly -preached." This was a practice strongly advocated by many of the French -teachers of the time. The number of Englishmen of both kinds must have -been considerable. In 1573 Elizabeth issued an Order forbidding the -French Church to give communion to those English who, by curiosity or -dislike for their own ceremonies, wished to receive it in the French -Church. The church in Threadneedle Street took steps to limit the number -of its English adherents. These were required to produce evidence of a -sober life, and of loyalty to their own church, before they were allowed -to communicate.[376] English names are not uncommon in the Threadneedle -Street Registers. Even members of the nobility stood as sponsors to the -children of the French strangers, for instance, the Marquis of Hamilton, -the Earl of Pembroke, and the Countess of Bedford, in the year -1624.[377] The French Church at Southampton also had numerous English -members and communicants,[378] while at Canterbury a rule was made that -all the English connected with the church should know French; on one -occasion, a person was refused as a sponsor on account of his ignorance -of that tongue.[379] [Header: FRENCH SCHOOL AT CANTERBURY] Considering -the esteem in which the French churches were held by many Englishmen, -we may assume that some of the latter were glad to take advantage of the -willingness of the French Church to receive their children into its -schools. The refugees, on their part, did not always send their children -to their own schools. The sons of the wealthier strangers would go to -the English grammar schools, and thence, in many cases, to the -University.[380] - -The subjects taught in these French church schools were, no doubt, much -the same as those of the private French schools, including religious -instruction, writing, reading, arithmetic, and possibly music. The -curriculum appears to have been of quite an elementary nature. As to the -teachers, they were required to be of sober life, and members of the -French Church. They had to be appointed by the minister and presented to -the bishop. They also were required to give the minister an account of -the books they read to the children, and of the methods followed, and be -willing to adopt the advice of their superiors "sans rien entreprendre a -leur fantaisie." Further, it was their duty to conduct the children to -church on Sunday for the catechism.[381] Such were the regulations laid -down in the second Discipline, drawn up on the restoration of the French -Church after the accession of Elizabeth. When this was revised some -years later, in 1588, a few changes were made. The presentation to the -bishop was dispensed with, and the teachers were no longer obliged to -conduct the children to the catechism: they had only to prepare them to -answer it. And the ministers, on their side, were required to visit the -schools, accompanied by the elders and deacons, at least four times a -year; their attention was specially called to "those who teach -languages."[382] - -The French teachers attached to the Church at Canterbury are those of -whom we have most detailed information. In one of the articles of a -petition, which the group of refugees there addressed to the city -authorities, in the reign of Elizabeth, they crave that permission may -be given to the schoolmaster whom they have brought with them to teach -both their own youth and also other children who desire to learn the -French tongue.[383] Their request appears to have been well received, -as a French church and school were established not long after. Among the -names of the petitioners was that of Vincent Primont, teacher of youth, -who seems to have been the first schoolmaster of this little community. -He was a refugee from Normandy, and arrived at Rye in 1572.[384] To the -office of schoolmaster, which he held for many years, was added that of -Reader to the congregation--a post he resigned in 1584, owing to some -action of the consistory which did not meet with his approval. The last -mention we have of him, as schoolmaster, occurs in December 1583, when a -member of the congregation was reproved for allowing his workmen to set -a bad example to Master Vincent's scholars. He probably filled his -position for some time after this date. In August 1581, however, another -teacher, Nicholas du Buisson, obtained permission "to go from house to -house to teach children," and in 1583 received a small quarterly -allowance for taking charge of the children at the services in the -Temple.[385] The demand for teachers apparently increased considerably -at this time; in 1582 we hear of a third schoolmaster, Paul Le Pipre, -who had already been teaching for some time previous to this date. Le -Pipre several times took steps to defend his monopoly and prevent the -admission of other schoolmasters. In 1582 he opposed the application of -Jan Roboem or Jean Robone, who sought permission to hold school. Roboem, -who had been Reader in the French Protestant Church at Dieppe, fled -thence to Rye in 1572, in company with his wife and two children.[386] -He was in very poor estate on arriving at Canterbury, and the consistory -of the French Church at last prevailed on Le Pipre to agree to his -admission, promising him that if any disadvantage accrued to him thereby -it should be remedied. Roboem was therefore told he might put his notice -on the door of the Temple--the usual form of advertisement--whenever he -pleased.[387] He did not, however, keep it there long, moving to London -in the same year. He is no doubt to be identified with the John Robonin, -"schoolmaster of the French tongue," who was living in the "Warde of -Chepe," and attending the French Church, at the end of 1582.[388] - -[Header: PAUL LE PIPRE] - -Paul Le Pipre was again approached in 1583 with regard to the -appointment of another schoolmaster, probably a successor to Robonin. He -was told that another teacher was necessary, and that one had come -forward, a destitute refugee, who wished for permission to teach in -order to earn his living. Le Pipre replied "that he held to his -agreement with the Church, namely that he could not leave without giving -three months' notice." Ultimately it was decided "that the aforesaid -should not be permitted to keep school, both on account of the agreement -and because he was not as yet sufficiently known to be of the religion." -This teacher, whose name is not given, was, however, allowed to instruct -"certain married people, and others grown up and over fourteen years of -age who did not go to Paul's school, in consideration of his -poverty."[389] - -Paul Le Pipre retained the position he was so unwilling to share with a -colleague, for many years after this. The last we hear of him is in -September 1597, when he was censured by the consistory for holding -school on Sunday. - -French schools likewise arose in other provincial towns, where French -Churches had been established. There were also, it appears, similar -private schools, with the primary object of teaching French to the -English, and unconnected with the churches. At any rate, French and -Walloon schoolmasters arrived in some of these towns. At Rye in 1572, -for instance, we come across Nicholas Curlew and Martin Martin, -fugitives from Dieppe,[390] though probably, like Vincent Primont and -John Robone, they did not settle in the town. At Norwich, in 1568, was a -Pierre de Rieu of Lille who had arrived ten months before, and in 1622 -Francis Boy and John Cokele.[391] At Dover, in the same year, Francis -Rowland and Nicholas Rowsignoll, both French schoolmasters, had "come -out of France by reason of the late troubles yet continuing."[392] And -lastly, at Southampton, we hear in 1576 of Nicholas Chemin, who, in -1578, was refused communion at the church on account of his causing some -disturbance in the congregation; of a M. Du Plantin, dit Antoine Ylot, -in 1576, and of a Pierre de la Motte, 'mestre d'escolle,' in 1577.[393] -No doubt most of these schoolmasters taught under the auspices of the -French Churches. - -M. Du Plantin was one of a large number of ministers who took refuge in -England, and his school was probably a French Church school, for seven -of his young scholars are mentioned as communicants. Many French pastors -like him, no doubt, took to the teaching profession during their stay in -England, their numbers being far in excess of the ministers needed in -the churches. The famous reformer, John Utenhove of Ghent, was in 1549 -tutor to the son of a London gentleman.[394] Valerand Poullain, a -converted priest, who, after being pastor at Strasburg, came to England, -for a time held a similar post in the household of the Earl of -Derby;[395] he afterwards became minister of the French Church at -Glastonbury on the recommendation of Utenhove. Another minister, Jean -Louveau, Sieur de la Porte, spent the time of exile from his Church of -Roche Bernard, after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, in teaching -languages in London, and there were many others in like case.[396] - -At Southampton there was a French school of special interest. Its -teacher, like Du Plantin, was a pastor, though the school does not seem -to have had any close connexion with the French Church. This -schoolmaster and divine was the once famous Dr. Adrian Saravia, a -learned refugee from Flanders. He became later Professor of Divinity at -Leyden and an intimate friend of Casaubon; and when he took refuge in -England for a second time in 1587, he enjoyed some ecclesiastical -preferment, and was one of the translators of the Authorised Version of -the Bible.[397] During his first sojourn in England, however, he was -engaged on a more humble task. He first arrived at Southampton in about -1567,[398] after having been for some years headmaster of a grammar -school in Guernsey. Saravia's school at Southampton was limited to -sixteen or twenty youths of good family. It was a rule that all the -scholars should speak French. Any one who used English, "though only a -word," was obliged to wear a fool's cap at meals, and continue to wear -it until he caught another in the same fault.[399] [Header: FRENCH -SCHOOL AT SOUTHAMPTON] Two Englishmen, who later became well known as -translators, acquired their knowledge of French in this school. One was -Joshua Sylvester, famous for his translation of Du Bartas, and the other -Robert Ashley, who turned Louis le Roy's _De la Vicissitude ou Variete -des choses de l'univers_ (1579) into English (1594). Sylvester informs -us that he learnt his French at Saravia's school "in three poor years, -at three times three years old"; "I have never been in France," he -writes to his uncle, William Plumb, "whereby I might become so perfect." -Elsewhere he expresses his affection for his master and his debt of -gratitude to him: - - My Saravia, to whose revered name - Mine owes the honour of Du Bartas' fame. - -Sylvester did not put his knowledge of French into practice only by -translations into English. He also wrote some original verses in French; -the sonnet with which he offered to James I. his translation of the -works of Du Bartas, a poet for whom the king had a great admiration, -will show his skill in a difficult art: - - Voy, sire, ton Saluste habille en Anglois - (Anglois, encore plus de coeur que de langage:) - Qui, connaissant loyall ton Royale heritage, - En ces beaux Liz Dorez au sceptre des Gaulois - (Comme au vray souverain des vrays subjects francois), - Cy a tes pieds sacrez te fait ton sainct Hommage - (De ton Heur et Grandeur eternal temoinage). - Miroir de touts Heros, miracle de tous Roys, - Voy (sire) ton Saluste, ou (pour le moins) son ombre, - Ou l'ombre (pour le moins) de ses Traicts plus divins - Qui, ores trop noyrcis par mon pinceau trop sombre, - S'esclairciront aux Raiz de tes yeux plus benins. - Doncques d'oeil benin et d'un accueil auguste, - Recoy ton cher Bartas, et Voy, sire, Saluste.[400] - -Another of Sylvester's contemporaries at Saravia's school was Sir Thomas -Lake,[401] who became Secretary of State in the reign of James I., and -is said to have read Latin and French to Queen Elizabeth towards the end -of her reign. His French accent, unlike that of his schoolfellows, seems -to have left much to be desired. In 1612 he incurred much ridicule by -reading the French contract of marriage at the wedding of the Princess -Elizabeth to the Elector with a very bad accent. - -Saravia, it seems, encouraged his pupils to attend the French Church. -Two of their names occur in the registers of the Church for the year -1576, viz. Nicholas Essard and Nicholas Carye, both probably Englishmen. -Saravia himself and his wife were also regular attenders; in 1571 and -again in 1576 he stood godfather at baptisms. The latest mention of him -occurs in 1577. Usually the descriptive title "minister" is added after -his name.[402] He is mentioned in the town records under the year 1576 -as Master of the Grammar School, and in the following year the town paid -36s. "for four yardes of broade cloth for a gowne for Mr. Adrian Saravia -the schoolmaster at 9s. the yarde."[403] Apparently he had abandoned his -private school, although it is very likely that he continued to take -private pupils into his house, and that the grammar school scholars had -ample opportunity to learn French; but it is hardly probable that he -introduced the language into the grammar school curriculum, where, no -doubt, Latin retained its usual supremacy.[404] - -Thus we see that in the England of the sixteenth century French had no -footing in the ordinary schools, but was taught in a growing number of -small private schools kept by Frenchmen, French-speaking refugees from -the Netherlands, and sometimes by Englishmen. - -In Scotland, on the other hand, French received more recognition in the -grammar schools, although it did not form part of the ordinary -curriculum, which was based on Latin, as in England. Yet in several -schools its use was distinctly encouraged on lines which, we may -conclude, were followed at Southampton grammar school in Saravia's time. -For instance, the boys of Aberdeen grammar school, in the middle of the -sixteenth century, were enjoined to address each other in French, while -the use of the vernacular was forbidden. In the famous grammar school of -Perth, when John Rowe, the reformer, was master there, and many of the -scholars boarded with him, we are informed that "as they spake nothing -in the schoole and fields but Latine so nothing was spoken in his house -but French." It is of interest to note that in this school French is put -side by side with the ancient tongues, as Palsgrave had wished. -[Header: FRENCH IN THE SCHOOLS OF SCOTLAND] After meals a selection from -the Bible was read; if from the Old Testament, in Hebrew, if from the -New Testament, in Latin, Greek, or French.[405] - -Turning to the more elementary education, we find French holding a still -larger place in some of the parish schools of Scotland, where it was -taught as part of the regular course by the side of Latin. An -interesting account of one of these schools has been left by James -Melville, in his diary.[406] He records that in 1566, at the age of -seven, he, together with his elder brother, was sent to a school kept by -a kinsman, minister at Logie, a few miles from Montrose. This "guid, -lerned, kind man" attended to the children's education, while his sister -was "a verie loving mother" to them, and to a "guid number of gentle and -honest mens berns of the country about," who also were at the school. -"Ther we lerned," he continues, "to reid the catechisme, prayers and -scripture, to rehers the catechisme and prayers par coeur.... We lerned -ther the Rudiments of the Latin grammar, with the vocables in Latin and -French, also divers speitches in Frenche, with the reading and right -pronunciation of that toung." Melville also assures us that his master -had "a verie guid and profitable form of resolving the authors," and -that he treated them "grammaticallie, bothe according to etymologie and -syntaxe"; but, unfortunately, he gives us no further details on the -teaching of French. After spending five years at this school, where, he -admits, he learnt but little, "for his understanding was yet dark," he -went to the grammar school at Montrose. There, although he had a French -Protestant refugee, Pierre de Marsilliers, to teach him Greek, he does -not appear to have had occasion to continue his study of the French -tongue. - -In Scotland, as in England, there were also special schools for teaching -French. For instance, the French schoolmaster Nicholas Langlois, or -Inglishe, who came to England in 1569, and in 1571 was installed in -Blackfriars, London, with his wife and two children,[407] moved to -Scotland in about 1574. He opened a French school in Edinburgh, which -was subsidized by the Town Council, and where he taught French, -arithmetic and accounts until the time of his death in 1611. The Town -Council of Aberdeen also showed itself favourable to French schools; in -1635 it granted to a certain Alexander Rolland a licence "to teach a -French school," and allowed him "for that effect to put up one brod or -signe befoir his schoole door." - -Yet in spite of the fact that French received greater recognition in the -schools of Scotland than it did in those of England, there is nothing to -show that the same general interest was taken in the study of the -language. While in England large numbers of grammars and other -text-books were published, there is only one notice of the production of -a similar work in Scotland during the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries. This solitary work, which a certain William Nudrye received a -licence to print in 1559,[408] was entitled _Ane A B C for Scottes men -to read the frenche toung, with an exhortation to the nobles of Scotland -to favour their old friends_. The plea that French was learnt by the -help of French grammars imported from France, or on conversational -methods, or yet again in France by direct intercourse with Frenchmen, -may be applied with as much force to England as to Scotland, though it -is not improbable that in Scotland such methods were relied on to a -greater extent; the friendly relations which existed between Scotland -and France from the thirteenth century onwards encouraged large numbers -of Scots to seek instruction in France, just as it led some Frenchmen to -the Scottish centres of learning.[409] French tutors were said to be as -common in Scotland as in England; a Spanish ambassador reported to -Ferdinand and Isabella as early as 1498 that "there is a good deal of -French education in Scotland, and many speak the French language." Yet -the fact remains that while one small French A B C appears to have been -the only work on the language issued in Scotland, there was a whole -series of such works published in England. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[289] Sources for the History of the Persecutions: L. Batiffol, _The -Century of the Renaissance_, London, 1916; D. C. A. Agnew, _Protestant -Exiles from France_, 3rd ed., 1886, vol. i.; J. S. Burn, _The History of -the French, Walloon, Dutch, and other Foreign Protestant Refugees -settled in England_, London, 1846; S. Smiles, _The Huguenots, their -Settlements, Churches, and Industries in England and Ireland_, London, -1867. - -[290] Early refugees also came in small numbers from Italy where the -Inquisition was established in 1542; and a few others from Spain, where -it was set up in 1588. Their arrival in England imparted some slight -impetus to the study of their respective languages; cp. F. Watson, _The -Beginnings of the Teaching of Modern Subjects in England_, London, 1909, -chapters xii. and xiii. - -[291] _Huguenot Society Publications_, xv., 1898; F. W. Cross, _History -of the Walloon and Huguenot Church at Canterbury_ (Introduction). - -[292] L. Humphrey, _The Nobles or of Nobilitye_, London, 1563, 2nd book. - -[293] See A. Rahlenbeck, "Les Refugies belges au 16me siecle en -Angleterre," in the _Revue Trimestrielle_, Oct. 1865. - -[294] The following numbers show the proportion of the Netherlanders to -the French: in 1567, 3838 Flemish to 512 French; in 1586, 5225 to 1119. - -[295] _Huguenot Soc. Pub._ i., 1887-88; O. J. W. Moens, _The Walloons -and their Church at Norwich_, ch. ix. - -[296] W. Besant, _London in the Time of the Tudors_, London, 1904, pp. -80, 200, 203. The population of London is taken as about 120,000. - -[297] _Hug. Soc. Pub._ x., 1900-1908, 4 parts. - -[298] _Hug. Soc. Pub._ viii., 1893: _Letters of Denization and Acts of -Naturalisation for Aliens in England_, 1509-1603, ed. W. Page. - -[299] Naturalization by Act of Parliament, which gave additional rights, -such as that of succession to and bequeathment of real property, was in -general of more advantage to Englishmen born abroad than to foreigners. - -[300] On the French churches in England, see F. de Schickler, _Les -Eglises du refuge en Angleterre_, 3 tom., Paris, 1892. - -[301] The first ministers appointed to the French church were Francois -Perussel, dit la Riviere, and Richard Vauville. Perlin visited the -French church: "La prechoit un nomme maistre Francoys homme blond, et un -autre nomme maistre Richard, homme ayant barbe noire" (_Description des -royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse_, Paris, 1558, p. 11). Perlin was -one of the few Frenchmen who came to England at this time. - -[302] _Op. cit._ p. 11. Perlin also says that the English tried several -times to set fire to the French church. - -[303] See accounts in Rye, _England as seen by Foreigners_. - -[304] This was naturally not without exceptions. For instance, Sir -Nicholas Bacon, father of Francis, was noted for his support of the -attempt to drive all the French from the country after the St. -Bartholomew massacre (_Archaeologia_, xxxvi. p. 339). - -[305] F. Foster Watson, "Religious Refugees and English Education," -_Proceedings of the Huguenot Society_, London, 1911. - -[306] _The Nobles or of Nobilitye_, _ut supra_. - -[307] _Athenae Cantab._ ii. 274. A certain L. T. attacked Baro about a -sermon of his on the text in the third chapter of the Epistle to the -Romans, twenty-eighth verse (Brit. Mus. Catalogue). - -[308] _Hug. Soc. Pub._ x. pt. iii. p. 360. - -[309] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 1st series, i. pp. 341-3. - -[310] _Arte of Rhetorique_ (1553), ed. G. H. Mair, 1909, p. 13. - -[311] _Lord Herbert of Cherbury's Autobiography_, ed. Sir S. Lee (2nd -ed. 1906), p. 37, n. - -[312] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, xiv. pt. ii. No. -601; and _Works_, Parker Society, i. p. 396. - -[313] E. J. Furnivall, _Manners and Meals in Olden Time_, pp. ix et seq. - -[314] Ascham, _Toxophilus_, quoted by Nichols: _Literary Remains ..._, -p. xl. - -[315] _Reliquiae Wottoniae_, London, 1657 ("Life of Sir Henry Wotton"), -n.p. - -[316] J. Payne Collier, in _Archaeologia_, vol. xxxvi. pp. 339 _et seq._ - -[317] _Queene Elizabeth's Academy_, ed. Furnivall, Early English Text -Society, 1869. - -[318] This purpose is expressly stated in the earliest grammar for -teaching Italian to the English, dated 1550: _The Principal Rules of -Italian Grammar, with a Dictionary for the better Understandynge of -Boccace, Petrarcha, and Dante_ (also in 1562 and 1567). Cp. F. Watson, -_Modern Subjects_, chapter xii. - -[319] Cp. F. Watson, _Modern Subjects_, chapter xiii.; and J. G. -Underhill, _Spanish Literature in England of the Tudors_, New York, -1899. - -[320] _Hug. Soc. Pub._ viii.: List of Denizations. - -[321] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[322] _Thesaurus Linguae Latinae_, 1532, the first of Latin-French -dictionaries. - -[323] Printed by T. Wolfe. - -[324] The first French grammar for teaching French to the Germans, -mentioned in Stengel's _Chronologisches Verzeichniss franzoesischer -Grammatiken_ (Oppeln, 1890), was the work of a Frenchman Du Vivier, -schoolmaster at Cologne, and was published in 1566. - -[325] Cp. Ph. Sheavyn, _The Literary Profession in the Elizabethan Age_, -Manchester, 1909, chap. i. - -[326] _De Republica Anglorum_, ed. L. Alston, Camb., 1906, p. 139. - -[327] C. W. Wallace, "New Shakespeare Discoveries," _Harper's Magazine_, -1910, and _University Studies_, Nebraska, U.S.A.; Sir S. Lee, _Life of -Shakespeare ..._, new ed., London, 1915, pp. 17, 276. - -[328] Unfortunately the registers of the Threadneedle Street Church, -previous to 1600, have been lost. It would have been interesting to have -found Shakespeare brought into contact with this church by his Huguenot -friends. - -[329] A list of French words and phrases used by Shakespeare is given in -A. Schmidt's _Shakespeare Lexicon_, 2 vols., Berlin, 1902, p. 1429. - -[330] Act I. Sc. 4; Act II. Sc. 3; and other Scenes in which the Doctor -appears. - -[331] Act III. Sc. 6; Act IV. Sc. 2, Sc. 4, Sc. 5; Act V. Sc. 2. - -[332] Act III. Sc. 4. - -[333] Act III. Sc. 6. The quotation from 2 Peter ii. 22 bears closest -resemblance to the edition of the Bible issued at Geneva, 1550; H. R. D. -Anders, _Shakespeare's Books_, Berlin, 1904, p. 203. - -[334] Often what appear to be mistakes to-day are due to change in -pronunciation; as when Pistol takes the French soldier's "bras" ('arm') -for English 'brass,' a possibility at this period when the final _s_ was -still sounded (Thurot, _Prononciation francaise_, ii. pp. 35-36; Anders, -_op. cit._ pp. 50-51.) - -[335] Anders, _op. cit._ p. 51 _et seq._ - -[336] Cp. A. F. Leach, _English Grammar Schools of the Reformation_, -1896: F. Watson, _The English Grammar Schools up to 1660_, Cambridge, -1908, and _The Curriculum and Text-Books of English Schools in the First -Half of the Seventeenth Century_, Bibliog. Soc., 1906. - -[337] The author of the _Institution of a Gentleman_, 1555 and 1560, -mentions the "knowledge of tongues as necessary to gentlemen," but he -does not seem to have meant modern languages. William Kemp, in his -_Education of Children in Learning_, 1588, names the ancient tongues, -especially Latin, and other writers do the same. For a list of similar -works, cp. Watt, _Bibliotheca Britannica_, under "Education." - -[338] Cp. J. W. Adamson, _Pioneers in Modern Education_, Cambridge, -1905, pp. 178 _sqq._ - -[339] _Sidney Papers_, ed. A. Collins; _Letters and Memorials of State_, -vol. i. p. 8. - -[340] E. Arber, _Transcript of the Registers of the Company of -Stationers, 1554-1640_, v. p. 162. - -[341] _Calendar of State Papers, Domestic: Addenda, 1580-1625_, p. 413. - -[342] _Handlists of Books printed by London Printers, 1501-56_, Bibliog. -Soc., 1913: Grafton, p. 13. - -[343] There is no trace of Du Ploich's name in any of the registers of -aliens published by the Hug. Soc. The only trace of a name resembling -his is that of Peter de Ploysse, butcher, in Breadstreet Ward (Lay -Subsidies, 1549). - -[344] F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, pp. 69 _et seq._ - -[345] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, i. p. 126. - -[346] Sig. A-N in fours. - -[347] French in Roman type, English in black letter. - -[348] Especially the Lambeth fragment, and the _Introductorie_ of Duwes. - -[349] Sig. A-I in fours. Like the first edition, this is preserved in a -unique volume in the Brit. Mus. The copy of Kingston's edition is not -complete, wanting all before signature A3. - -[350] Brit. Mus. Royal MSS. 16, E xxxvii., 63 quarto leaves. - -[351] Edward had the MS. placed in his Library. Nichols, _Literary -Remains_, p. cccxxxiv. - -[352] Royal MSS. 16, E xxiii., 29 quarto leaves. - -[353] "Et je ne suis pas si presumptueux de vouloir dire que celuy livre -je soye suffissant a translater du tout en englois, a cause que je ne -l'ay de nature. Mais a mon simple entendement, ayant l'opportunite et le -loisir, l'ensuivray au plus pres que ie pourray." - -[354] _Returns of Aliens in London_, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. - -[355] _Lists of Denizations_, Hug. Soc. Pub., ad nom. (a Sancto -Vinculo). Other details of his life are given in Miss L. E. Farrer's _La -vie et les oeuvres de Claude de Sainliens_, Paris, 1907. - -[356] Yet in this work Holyband refers several times to the necessity of -having a good tutor. - -[357] Farrer, _op. cit._ p. 21. - -[358] As in the _French Schoolemaister_, French and English are arranged -on opposite pages, the French in Roman characters, and the English in -black letter. - -[359] Des escholiers et l'eschole--Pour voyageurs--Du Logis, Du Poidz, -Vendre et acheter, Pour marchans. - -[360] Sylvius (1530) had placed a small vertical line over final -unsounded consonants. - -[361] Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. iii. p. 400. The name John Henricke occurs -frequently in the registers of aliens. There was a John Henryke, a -"Dutchman," who, in 1567, was living in Broadstreet Ward, and had been -three weeks in England; and, in 1571, in St. Mary Alchurch Parish, when -he is said to have been five years in England, and to be a native of -Barowe in Brabant and nineteen years old. In 1582 one of the same name -was living in Blackfriars and had two servants (Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt i. -p. 322; pt. ii. pp. 91, 253). In 1579 a John Hendricke from the dominion -of the Bishop of Liege received letters of denization (Hug. Soc. Pub. -viii. ad nom.). It does not seem likely that Holyband employed one of -the Walloons, whose accent he taught his pupils to avoid. - -[362] Foster, _Alumni Oxonienses_, ad nom. - -[363] Farrer, _op. cit._ p. 1. - -[364] C. Livet, _La Grammaire francaise et les grammairiens du 16e -siecle_, Paris, 1859, pp. 500 _et seq._ - -[365] For his sources, etc., see Farrer, _op. cit._ pp. 73 _et seq._ - -[366] Schickler, _Eglises du Refuge_, i. p. 358. - -[367] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[368] Farrer, _op. cit._ p. 16. Miss Farrer suggests that Holyband was -connected with the family of Thuillier de Saint Lyens of Moulins (_op. -cit._ pp. 8, 9). - -[369] Latin poem in the _Campo di Fior_, 1583. - -[370] In the _Schoolemaister_, on the contrary, the exercises follow the -rules, "to the end that I may teache by experience and practice that -which I have shewed by arte." - -[371] The philological side of Holyband's work has been fully treated by -Farrer, _op. cit._ - -[372] In the _Schoolemaister_. The rules of the _French Littleton_ are -much the same, only less quaintly worded. - -[373] Holyband was the author of a work for teaching Italian: _The -Italian Schoolmaster_, 1583, and again in 1591, 1597, and 1608. - -[374] Schickler, _Eglises du Refuge_, iii. pp. 167-171. The members of -the Church attended to the interests of the schools, and donations were -made from time to time. Cp. for instance, Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. -123. - -[375] _The Scholemaster_, ed. Arber, 1869, p. 82. - -[376] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 211. - -[377] _Registers of Threadneedle Street, London_, Hug. Soc. Pub. ix. - -[378] _Registre de l'Eglise wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub. -iv., 1890. In 1584 three baptisms were performed by Mr. Hopkins, an -English minister. - -[379] _Registre de l'Eglise de Cantorbery_, Hug. Soc. Pub. v. pt. i., -1890. - -[380] W. J. C. Moens (_The Walloons and their Church at Norwich_, Hug. -Soc. Pub. i., 1887-8, p. 58) enumerates eighteen sons of strangers at -Norwich who went to the Grammar School and thence to Cambridge. - -[381] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 106. - -[382] _Ibid._ p. 346. - -[383] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 281; F. W. Cross, _History of the -Walloon and Huguenot Church at Cantuar_, Hug. Soc. Pub. xv., 1898, p. -15. - -[384] W. J. Hardy, _Foreign Refugees at Rye_, Proceedings Hug. Soc. ii., -1887-8, p. 574. - -[385] Cross, _op. cit._ p. 53. - -[386] Hardy, _op. cit._ p. 570 (cp. Durrant Cooper, _Refugees in -Sussex_, Sussex Archaeological Collections, xiii., 1861). The name is -here written John Robone. - -[387] F. W. Cross, _ut supra_. - -[388] Cross, _ut supra_; Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 283. - -[389] Hug. Soc. Pub. x. - -[390] Hardy, _op. cit._ p. 572. - -[391] Moens, _The Walloons and their Church at Norwich_; W. Durrant -Cooper, _Lists of Foreign Protestants and Aliens resident in England, -1618-1688_, Camden Soc., 1862. - -[392] G. H. Overend, _Strangers at Dover_, p. 166; and D. Cooper, _Lists -of Foreign Protestants_. - -[393] _Registre de l'Eglise wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv. - -[394] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. 25. - -[395] _Ibid._ i. 59. - -[396] For example, John Veron, J. R. Chevallier, mentioned above. - -[397] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[398] In 1568 letters of denization were granted him (Hug. Soc. Pub. -viii., ad nom.). - -[399] MS. Memoir of Robert Ashley (Sloane, 2105); cp. Sylvester's -_Works_, ed. Grosart, 1880, i. p. x. - -[400] _Works_, ed. Grosart, i. p. 4. See also i. p. lvii, and ii. pp. -52, 301, 322. - -[401] 1567?-1630. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[402] _Registre de l'Eglise wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub. -iv., 1890. - -[403] J. S. Davids, _History of Southampton_, Southampton, 1883, p. 311. - -[404] Another Fleming, Thomas Hylocomius, a native of Brabant, was -master of St. Alban's Grammar School, 1570-1596 (Watson, _Protestant -Refugees_, pp. 137-139). But there is nothing to show that he encouraged -the study of French. - -[405] Authorities for the use of French in Scotch schools are: J. -Strong, _Secondary Education in Scotland_, Oxford, 1909, pp. 44 _et -seq._, 76, 142; T. P. Young, _Histoire de l'enseignement primaire et -secondaire en Ecosse_, Paris, 1907, pp. 12 _et seq._, pp. 64 _et seq._; -J. Grant, _Burgh Schools of Scotland_, London and Glasgow, 1876, pp. 64, -404; F. Michel, _Les Ecossais en France et les Francais en Ecosse_, -1862, ii. p. 78. - -[406] _Autobiography and Diary of Mr. James Melville, minister of -Kilrenny and Professor of Theology in the University of St. Andrews_, -ed. R. Pitcairn (Wodrow Soc., Edinburgh, 1842), pp. 16 _et seq._ - -[407] His daughter Esther, who married a Scotch minister Kello, became -famous for her calligraphy. Some of her work, preserved in the Bodleian, -was admired by Hearne (_Collections and Recollections_, Oxf. Hist. Soc., -1885, i. p. 38). - -[408] D. Murray, _Some Early Grammars, etc., in use in Scotland_, in the -Proceedings of the Royal Philos. Soc. of Glasgow, xxxvii. pp. 267-8. In -the _List of Books printed in Scotland before 1700_, by H. G. Aldis -(Edinburgh Bibliog. Soc., 1904), there is not one book on the French -language amongst the 3919 titles recorded. - -[409] Pasquier, _Letters_, Amsterdam, 1723, lib. i. p. 5. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - - HUGUENOT TEACHERS OF FRENCH--OTHER CLASSES OF FRENCH - TEACHERS--RIVALRIES IN THE PROFESSION--THE "DUTCH" AND ENGLISH - TEACHERS - - -We have seen that some of the refugees who came to England as a result -of the persecutions in France and the Netherlands were professional -schoolmasters; others joined the profession on their arrival, through -force of circumstances, or as a means of repaying hospitality. The lot -of such teachers varied considerably. Some lived and taught in -gentlemen's families; others thrived by waiting on a private -aristocratic clientele; others gained a more precarious livelihood under -less powerful patronage; and yet others opened private schools, often -with decided success. Many of these teachers[410] were denizens, and had -long teaching careers, chiefly in London; a certain Abraham Bushell, for -instance, a native of "Rotchell," had been a "schoolmaster of the French -tongue" in London for twenty-two years in 1618, during which time he had -attended the French Church. Many other French teachers were members of -the French Church, which naturally, seeing that it fostered a French -school itself, took a particular interest in the French schoolmasters -generally. Thus in 1560 all French schoolmasters having schools in -London were summoned before the consistory, which was seeking to -ascertain how many belonged to the Church, and also what book they used -in teaching the children. Eight were ready to conform to the Church and -its discipline;[411] a ninth, one Gilles Berail, refused to conform, on -the plea that he attended the English parish church and understood -English as well as French. - -With the exception of Holyband, the chief Huguenot teachers who gathered -round St. Paul's Churchyard would seem to have been Normans. One of -these was Robert Fontaine, a friend of Holyband. He had a long and -varied career in England as a teacher of French. Arriving in 1550, he -remained in England during the reign of Mary, modifying his religious -convictions to suit the exigencies of the time. He returned to his -former faith early in the reign of Elizabeth, and expressed contrition -for his "falling off to idolatry."[412] He attended the French Church -faithfully in the early time of its revival, but he appears to have gone -more frequently to the Anglican Church in later years, and possibly his -sympathies were more in that direction. The favourite neighbourhood, St. -Paul's Churchyard, was the scene of his activities, and there he lived -for many years with one of his countrymen, Mr. Bowry, a purse-maker. In -1571 he had been living seventeen years in the vicinity of the -Cathedral, and in 1582, the latest mention of him in the returns of -aliens, he was still in the same district, and appears to have been very -prosperous. - -Some of this group of Normans added to their activities that of writing -books for teaching French--an occupation for which Fontaine, presumably, -had not time or inclination. One such author was Jacques Bellot, a -"gentleman of the city of Caen in Normandie," who came to England in -1578, or the end of 1577, probably driven from his native land by the -persecutions. He was received into the household of Sir Philip Wharton, -third baron of that name, and in a surprisingly short time produced a -French Grammar, which he dedicated to his patron, with an expression of -his gratitude. Bellot, it appears, had already a considerable connexion. -His work is preceded by numerous commendatory poems, after the fashion -of the time. The poet Thomas Newton of Chester wrote two of these, one -in Latin and the other in English, laying stress on the debt due by his -countrymen to these French grammarians: - -[Header: JACQUES BELLOT] - - Thankes therefore great and threefold thankes are due - By right to those, whose travaile, toyle and penne - Dothe breake the yce for others to ensue, - By rules and practice for us Englishmen, - An easye way, a methode most in use - Amonge the Learn'de t' enduce to knowledge sure. - -Other verses are written in French by John and William Wroth, no doubt -two of the numerous sons of the politician Sir Thomas Wroth. - -This new work, entitled _The French Grammar, or An Introduction orderly -and Methodically by ready rules, playne preceptes and evident examples, -teachinge the French Tongue_, differs from the popular books of -Holyband, and also from most other French manuals, in that it deals with -grammar alone. It opens with the usual observations on pronunciation. -Each letter is taken in turn, and the position of the organs necessary -to produce it is given. The author makes no attempt to compare the -French sounds with the English equivalents. He had probably not yet had -time to master the intricacies of English pronunciation, although the -whole book is written in English; and he also, no doubt, made free use -of grammars written in France. He tells us, for instance, that "_c_ -ought to be pronounced with the tongue against the roof of the mouth, -and the mouth somewhat open"; that "_f_ is pronounced holding the nether -lip against the upward teeth"; and that "_h_ is but aspiration, which -loseth his sound after _e_ feminine, and also after every consonant." -Then, after a few general observations and lists of numbers, months, and -other familiar words, we reach the second part of the Grammar, which -deals with the eight parts of speech. Each is defined and commented on -in turn. The wording is often quaint; for instance, verbs are defined as -"words which be declined with Modes and tenses, and are betokenynge -doing." This second book treats of the accidence. In the third we pass -to the consideration of syntax with the following warning: - - Dire, _sy ay_ (quoy qu'usage on en face) - N'est point parle en courtois et bien nay: - Bien seant n'est aussy, dire, _non ay_: - _Sauf votre honneur_, ou bien _sauf votre grace_ - Seroient trouvez de trop meilleure grace. - _Je ne l'ay fait_, est trop desordonne: - _Pardonnez moy_, seroit mieux ordonne, - Car grand fureur douce parolle efface. - _Nous estions_, _Nous y pensons_, faut dire, - Non, _J'estions_, on ne s'en fait que rire, - Ne _J'y pensons_, tout cela est repris. - Les bons Francois ne parlent point ainsy. - Acunement pris ne doit estre aussy - _Petit_, pour _peu_, ny _peu_ pour _petit_ pris. - -This part of the work is not extensive, and consists of a miscellaneous -collection of observations; we are, for instance, told that the -antecedent governs its relative, that the adjective agrees with its -noun, and we are supplied also with rules for the gender and number, the -negative, and so on. To this Bellot adds a fourth book, which is perhaps -the most curious part of the work. It deals with French versification. -We are first favoured with a description of the structure of various -forms of poems, such as the "chant royal," the "ballade," the sonnet, -rondeau, "dixain," and so on, each accompanied by an example, by way of -illustration. The various forms of rime are next described and -exemplified; and some of the complicated forms dear to the -"rhetoriqueurs" find a place here. This is followed by a description of -the various kinds of metres, again with examples; and finally rhythm, -colour or "liziere," the caesura, elision, the "coupe feminine," and the -use of the apostrophe are treated. Such is this little treatise on the -"French poeme," which shows incidentally that Bellot had not yet learned -the lesson enforced by the _Pleiade_ more than twenty years before he -wrote. - -What strikes one most, perhaps, in Bellot's Grammar is that he makes no -attempt to deal with the difficulties which the French language presents -to the English in particular. No comparison of the two languages is -instituted; no emphasis is laid on points in which they differ. Were it -not written in English, it might be taken for a study of the language on -the model of those produced in France. Considering that the work was -published in the year of his arrival in England, it seems almost certain -that he had begun his study before his arrival, and translated it -himself, or had it translated into English. This would account for its -unusual character. - -Bellot opens and closes his Grammar with apologies. He repudiates all -claim to completeness, and writes, he says, merely to provoke the -"learned" to do better. "Yet the worke is not so leane and voide of -fruite, but there is in it some taste. The bee gathereth honey from the -smallest flowers, and so may the wise man from this small work." - -Some time after the publication of his Grammar, he joined the group of -French teachers dwelling in the neighbourhood of St. Paul's Churchyard. -He was there in 1582, and made the acquaintance of Holyband, who had -then resumed his French school in that locality. In the following year -he wrote a quatrain and a sonnet in praise of Holyband's latest work, -the _Campo di Fior_ (1583): - - Goustez Anglois, Gent bien heureuse, - Les fleurs qu'en vostre Isle argenteuse - Vous donne Holybande pour un gage. - -It is not certain how Bellot employed his time there. He may have had a -school, or have taught privately. In any case he was a member of the -French Church, and in the returns of aliens he calls himself a -"schoolmaster" and a "teacher of children."[413] But the title on which -he is most insistent is that of "gentleman." He is a "gentilhomme -cadomois," or a gentleman of Caen, and usually attaches the abbreviation -G.C. to his name. His attitude to the usual type of French teacher is -distinctly supercilious. He prided himself on belonging to the "noblesse -instruite et de Savoir," and had the reputation of teaching elegant -French. - -In 1580 he dedicated to no less a person than Francois de Valois,[414] -brother to Henry III., a work for teaching English to foreigners. Like -Holyband, he gave his book the title of "Schoolmaster": _Maistre -d'Escole Anglois pour les naturelz francois, et autre estrangers qui ont -la langue francoyse, pour parvenir a la vraye prononciation de la langue -Angloise_.[415] The work contains rules of pronunciation and grammar, -given in opposite columns in French and English; it was evidently -written in French in the first place, and then somewhat carelessly -translated into English, for in the English column the illustrative -examples are given in French. This produces a curious effect, and -involves such statements as: "_quand_ should be pronounced as _Houen_" -(when), etc. In the dedication he refers to his "misfortune," by which, -presumably, he means his exile.[416] - -Bellot was busily occupied in the production of other text-books also -during his residence in Paul's Churchyard. The _Maistre d'Escole -Anglois_ appeared in January 1580, and in 1581 was followed by a third -work, in the form of a collection of moral dicta, entitled _Le Jardin de -vertu et bonnes moeurs plain de plusieurs belles fleurs et riches -sentences, avec le sens d'icelles, recueillies de plusieurs -autheurs_,[417] and intended to be used as a "reader." It was published -by the French refugee printer Thomas Vautrollier, who, at the same time, -issued a new edition of Holyband's _French Littleton_. The works of the -two friends were of the same size, and are bound together in the copy -preserved in the British Museum. - -Holyband, with his long-standing reputation, may have been able to -further Bellot's interests. In 1580 he had dedicated his Latin work on -French pronunciation to the queen, and in the following year Bellot -obtained the same favour for his little work. He accordingly opened his -book with six French sonnets in honour of Her Majesty, celebrating her -generous reception of strangers, not omitting to beg her protection for -the "garden": - - Recoy donc ce jardin: te plaise a l'appuyer - De ta faveur Royalle: et pren le jardinier - En ta protection contre la gent hargneuse: - Alors il tachera (sans appouvrir la France) - L'Angleterre enrichir d'oeuvres d'autre importance, - Pour faconner l'Anglois au Francoys, en son estre, - Alors il chantera tes vertus en tout lieu. . . . - -The whole of the _Jardin_ is printed in French and English; each maxim -or saying is accompanied by explanations of the most difficult words, by -means of synonyms, paraphrases, and definitions, as in the following -example: - - La memoire du prodigue est nulle. Of the prodigall ther is no memory. - - Prodigue est:-- Prodigal is:-- - un degasteur, un rioteux et a wastefull, a riotious and - un excessif depenseur, an outrageous spender, - un consomme-tout, qui degaste a spendall that will lavishe - et depense ou il n'en est and spende where - nul besoin et a l'endroit de it needeth not and upon whom - qui n'en a besoin. it needeth not. - Memoire est:-- Memory is:-- - une souvenance, une resconte pensee, a remembrance, and having in minde, - une chose non mise en oubly. a not forgetting. - Le Moral:-- The meaning:-- - La renommee et fame du The prodigall mans fame and renown - prodigue ne dure ny continue long endureth nor continueth - temps: si tost qu'il est mort not long; as sone as he is gone - et passe il est oublie and dead he is forgotten - et hors de toute souvenance. and out of all remembrance. - Cicero en Paradox dit:-- Cicero in Paradox saith:-- - Les prodigues employent et Prodigall men employ and - degastent leurs biens en wast their goods upon - choses dont ils ne peuvent thinges whereof they can not - laisser qu'une courte memoire leave but a short memory - de eux, ou point du tout. of them, or none at all. - -[Header: NORMANS IN ENGLAND] - -It will be noticed that Bellot had not fully mastered the English idiom, -although he had written an English grammar. The rest of the "beautiful -flowers of vertue" which he planted in his "garden" are similar in -character and treatment. He characteristically closes his little book -with a prayer, which he quaintly compares to a fence to keep the "goats" -from harming the "flowers." - -In 1583 Bellot was still living near St. Paul's Churchyard. But after -this date we lose all trace of him until 1588, when the printer Robert -Robinson received a licence to print "a booke intytuled a grammar in -Frenche and Englishe, the auttour is James Bellot."[418] This second -French Grammar was known as _The French Methode_.[419] - -To the numerous band of Normans in England also belonged, perhaps, G. De -la Mothe, who wrote the letter "N" after his name. De la Mothe was -another refugee for the sake of religion, and he speaks with gratitude -of the generous welcome he received in England.[420] He tells us that -the cruel civil wars in France had "burnt the wings of his studies" and -ruined his fortune.[421] On his arrival in England, he began his career -as a teacher of French in the same way as many others; he became a -tutor in a noble family, and shortly after produced a book for teaching -French. He was first appointed French tutor to the son of Sir Henry -Wallop, Lord Chief Justice of Ireland and a prominent patron of the -refugees, on the return of his lordship to England in 1589. De la Mothe -was also received, at some date before 1592, into the midst of another -important English family, the Wenmans, of Thame Park, Oxfordshire. He -taught French to the girls, and early in 1592, if not before, was at -Oxford with the eldest son, Richard Wenman,[422] afterwards Sir Richard, -and his brothers. - -De la Mothe had in the meantime written a French text-book which he -called _The French Alphabet, Teaching in a very short time by a most -easie way, to pronounce French naturally, to read it perfectly, to unite -it truly, and to speak it accordingly, Together with a Treasure of the -French Tongue_.[423] He divided it into two parts, which he dedicated to -each of his patrons--the first to Sir Henry Wallop and the second to Sir -Richard Wenman's mother, at whose request he had undertaken the work. De -la Mothe acknowledges his debt of gratitude to both, and also to the -country which had received him so hospitably, in terms which contain -something more than the usual trite expressions. - -The _French Alphabet_ was licensed to the printer Richard Field in -1592,[424] but no copy of this earliest edition has been preserved. -Field succeeded to Vautrollier's successful business, and in this same -year showed his friendship for his fellow-townsman[425] Shakespeare, by -printing the first work he published, _Venus and Adonis_. It is of -course pure conjecture to suggest that Shakespeare saw and even read the -little book printed by his friend. Whether this be so or not, it was -perhaps through Field and his Huguenot connexions--he had married -Vautrollier's widow--that Shakespeare became acquainted with the family -of Christopher Montjoy. - -[Header: G. DE LA MOTHE, N.] - -A new edition of the _Alphabet_ appeared in 1595, from the press of -Edward Alde. At this date De la Mothe had joined the group of teachers -in St. Paul's Churchyard. He taught at the "Signe of the Helmet," and -"there you shall finde him ever willing to show you any favour or -curtesie he may; and most ready to endeavour himselfe to satisfie you in -all that can be possible for hime to doe." The Sign of the Helmet was -the address of the bookseller Thomas Chard.[426] Any one desirous of -becoming acquainted with the author for his better furtherance in the -French tongue could also make enquiries at the Sign of St. John the -Evangelist in Fleet Street, beneath the Conduit, where lived the printer -and bookseller Hugh Jackson, commissioned to sell the book--further -instances of the friendly relations between the French teachers and the -printers and booksellers of the time, through whom these teachers would, -no doubt, get a large proportion of their clientele. The Huguenot -sympathies of many of the printers, such as Vautrollier and Field, -account in part for this cordial feeling. - -After the 1595 edition of his work we hear nothing further of De la -Mothe. Although the name occurs frequently in the returns of aliens, -none can be identified with him. He probably seized an early opportunity -of returning to his native land. His manual, however, did not disappear -with him. Second in popularity only to the works of Holyband in the -sixteenth century, it enjoyed numerous editions in the seventeenth.[427] -Excepting the omission of De la Mothe's advertisement, all the later -editions are identical. They were issued from the press of Field's -successor, George Miller.[428] It is difficult to understand how the -1595 edition came to be printed by Edward Alde, though his work was -evidently countenanced by De la Mothe. - -The _French Alphabet_ is a very practical little work. It contains rules -for pronunciation and familiar dialogues in the usual style. The whole -is given in French and English arranged on opposite pages. His treatment -of pronunciation is much the same as Holyband's, and he sometimes -transcribes freely from his active contemporary's work.[429] He -explains the sounds chiefly by comparison with English, giving the -nearest equivalent to each letter. After the letters he deals with the -syllables and then the words. The rules are arranged in the form of -dialogues between master and pupil: - - Sir, will it please you do me Monsieur, vous plaist il me faire - so much favour (or would tant de faveur (ou voudriez - you take the pain) to vous prendre la peine) de - teach me to speak French? m'apprendre a parler Francois? - With all my heart, if Tres volontiers, si vous - you have a desire to it. en avez envie. - I desire nothing more. Je ne desire rien plus. - If you desire it you Si vous le desirez vous - shall learn it quickly, l'apprendez bien, - if you please to take s'il vous plaist de prendre - some pain. un peu de peine. - There is nothing though never so hard Il n'y a rien si difficile - but by labour it may be made easie. qui par labeur ne soit facile. - You say true, Vous dites vray, - I believe you. je vous en croy. . . . - How do you pronounce Comment prononcez vous - the letter a? la lettre a? - A is pronounced plaine and long as A se prononce ouvert et long comme - this English word awe, to be in awe, ce mot Anglois awe, to be in awe, - as ma, ta, sa, la, comme ma, ta, sa, la, - bat, part, blanc, etc. bat, part, blanc, etc. - -And the next lesson takes the following form: [Header: HIS FRENCH -ALPHABET] - - Sir, can you say your lesson? Monsieur, scaves vous vostre lecon? - Have you learnt to pronounce your Aves vous apprins a prononcer vos - letters? lettres? - Yea, as well as I can. Ouy, le mieux qu'il m'est possible. - I have done nothing but study it Je n'ay fait autre chose qu'estudier. - since you did heare me yesterday depuis que vous me feistes dire hier. - It is very well done, C'est tresbien fait, - I am glad then. i'en suis bien aise. - Go to, let me heare you how you do Or aus, que je voye comment vous - pronounce. prononcez. - I will, I am content. Je le veux, i'en suis content. - Say then, begin, speak Dites, doncq, commencez, parlez - aloud. haut. - Pronounce distinctly. Softly, Prononcez distinctement. Tout beau, - make no haste, open your ne vous hastez point, ouvrez la - mouth. bouche. - That is very well, that is well Voyla qui est bien, cela est bien - said. dit. - Repeat it once again. Repetez encore une fois derechef. - Do I pronounce it well? Yea, Prononce-je bien? Ouy, - you pronounce well. vous prononcez bien. - Help me, I pray you. Aydez moy, je vous prie. - How do you pronounce that letter? Comment se prononce ceste lettre? - Before we go any further Devant que passer oultre - you must il faut que vous - pronounce perfectly your letters. prononciez vos lettres parfaitement. - Now that you can tell your letters Maintenant que vous scavez vos - well, lettres, - learne your syllables, apprenez vos syllables, - say after me. dictes apres moy. - -After dealing with the sounds of the French language, De la Mothe passes -to more general considerations. He touches on the much-discussed -question of the reform of the orthography, and expresses his strong -disapproval of all attempts to make it tally with the pronunciation. -Then he deals with the pronunciation of the Law French of the -English,[430] which he puts down to such fanciful experiments. Lawyers -write their French as they pronounce it, and pronounce it as they write -it, so that it is now quite corrupt. He next proceeds to give his pupils -a short history of the chief Romance tongues, French, Italian, and -Spanish, and finally of the English language. - -The remainder of the first part of the _Alphabet_ is occupied by short -familiar dialogues on the usual subjects--greetings, the weather, the -divisions of time, buying and selling, and the occurrences of daily -life--as follows: - - _For to aske the way._ _Pour demander le chemin._ - - How many miles to London? Combien y a il d'icy a Londres? - Ten leagues, twenty miles. Dix lieues, vingt mil. - What way must we keep? Quel chemin faut il tenir? - Which is the shortest Ou est le plus court - way to goe to Rye? chemin d'icy a Rye? - Keepe alwayes the great way. Suyvez tousjours le grand chemin. - Do not stray neither to the right Ne vous fourvoyez ny a dextre - nor to the left hand. ny a sinestre. - What doe I owe you now? Combien vous doy-je maintenant? - Two shillings. Here it is. Deux sols. Les voyla. - Bring me my horse. Amenez moy mon cheval. - Will you take horse? Vous plaist il monter a cheval? - Yea, I hope I shall not alight Ouy, j'espere que je ne descendrez - till I be come to London. que je ne soys arrive a Londres. - God be with you. Farewell. Adieu. Bonne vie et longue. - -At the end of these dialogues comes the second part of De la Mothe's -book, entitled the _Treasure of the French Tongue_. It consists of a -collection of French and English proverbs and golden sayings, -"diligently gathered and faithfully set in order after the Alphabeticall -manner, for those that are desirous of the French tongue." These early -teachers of French were fond of such collections. They usually included -proverbs in their grammar books, and Palsgrave, as we have seen, hoped -to publish a separate work on them. His intention seems to have been -first fully realised by De la Mothe, although Holyband had included a -smaller list in both his popular text-books. - -From De la Mothe's _French Alphabet_, more than from any other of these -early works, we can form a fairly adequate idea of the method of -teaching French prevalent at the time. Much importance was attached to -pronunciation and to reading, which were made the first subject of -study. Rules were felt to be desirable for learning the sounds, but more -stress was laid on the services of a good teacher; "for do not think," -says De la Mothe, "that my book is by itself to make thee a good -Frenchman." His own method was to make his pupils repeat the sounds -after him. He believed that the acquirement of a good pronunciation -depended on a mastery of each separate sound in the language. According -to him, any one who can pronounce each letter correctly must, perforce, -enunciate words correctly, and on the same plan, sentences also; a -rather questionable theory this, but we must remember that De la Mothe -took for granted the daily attendance of a French tutor. The -understanding of the language De la Mothe regards as the second stage in -the pupil's progress. This he considers a natural consequence of a -perfect command of the pronunciation and reading of the language. Lastly -comes the speaking of the language, which, according to him, results -from understanding it. - -De la Mothe does not only expound his theories; he also gives fairly -detailed information as to how they may be put into practice. After -engaging a good teacher, the student should learn to pronounce his -letters and syllables perfectly. Then he may begin to read, very slowly -at first, at the rate of from three to four lines a day, "or more or -less according as your capacity can reach or your patience permit." -[Header: HIS METHOD FOR LEARNING FRENCH] Each word should be spelt four -or five times, and in the spelling and reading the pupil should "not let -passe any letter or syllable without bringing them to the trial of his -rules." When you can "read truly and pronounce perfectly, then go about -to English it." First translate the French passages into English, with -the help of the word for word translation provided, then copy out the -French into a book provided for the purpose, close the _Alphabet_ and -attempt to translate your copy into English at sight, correcting the -version by referring again to the _Alphabet_. Next proceed to -retranslate the English back into French on a similar method. "Continue -this order for a month, every day repeating three or four times, both -your letters and your syllables, and reading and Englishing as many -times your old from the beginning till your latter lesson." ... "Being -once able to reade and pronounce perfectly with your rules, two or three -leaves of your book, at most, I can assure you that there is not any -French book though never so hard, but you shall be able to reade it and -pronounce it as truly as can be wished. For in less than one leaf of -your book, all your rules are to be observed, three or four times at -least. For there is not a word but in it is one or two rules to be -noted." - -When the learner has thus fully mastered the rules of pronunciation, he -may go forward speedily, translating from English into French, and from -French into English, and revising constantly. "This is the only ready -way to learn to read and pronounce, to write and speak French." Not a -single day should be allowed to pass without exercises of this kind, and -"you shall find in less than five or six weeks your labour and dilegence -afford you much profit, and advancement, that you will wonder at it, and -much greater than I dare promise you." - -Those who have made some progress in the language, De la Mothe advises -to make the acquaintance of some Frenchman, if possible, "to the end -that you may practice with him by daily conference together, in speech -and talk, what you have learned. And if you be in place where the -Frenchmen have a Church for themselves, as they do in London, get you a -French Bible or a New Testament, and every day go both to their lectures -and Sermons. The one will confirm and strengthen your pronunciation, and -the other cause you to understand when one doth speak." And, finally, if -you wish to understand the hardest and most "eloquent" French, and to -speak it naturally, you must not neglect reading, but provide yourself -with a French Dictionary, and the hardest book you can find, and set -about translating it, on the method already described. If the student -will not take the pains to translate the book, he should at least read -it carefully, and write out a list of the hardest words and of -appropriate phrases "to serve his turn, either to speak or write when he -has need of them." - -Although De la Mothe makes no mention of grammar, when he describes his -method of teaching, he did not consider it unnecessary. Indeed he -declares it is not possible to speak French perfectly without such -rules, which he no doubt used for purposes of reference, as he did the -rules of pronunciation. He even promises to produce shortly a _French -Tutor_, "that will teach you in so short and easie a way as may be, both -by the perfect knowledge of the parts of your speeches, and syntaxe, not -only to speak perfectly, but also to know if one doth not speak well, to -reprove him when he doth speak ill, and to teach him to amend his bad -speech: a thing which yet before has never been taught. The promise is -great, but the performance shall not be less if this be acceptable to -you." Unfortunately this promise does not seem to have been kept. That -his _Alphabet_ did not prove "acceptable" cannot be the reason. Most -probably De la Mothe left England before he had time to show his -gratitude to the English nobility by the production of this second book. - -We have seen that these teachers of French did not always look upon each -other as rivals. Bellot wrote verses in honour of Holyband, who was a -friend of Fontaine, another of the group of French teachers in St. -Paul's Churchyard. But such friendly relations were not general. The -teachers just mentioned belonged to what formed, no doubt, the highest -rank of the profession. Bellot calls himself a "gentilhomme," and so -does Holyband; and both refer to criticism and attacks upon them by -other French teachers.[431] Holyband calls attention to the -unscrupulousness of many of them, who take money in advance and do -nothing to earn it; and expresses his contempt for his critics--Frenchmen -ignorant of English, Burgundians, or Englishmen who do not know -French thoroughly. [Header: FRIENDSHIPS AND RIVALRIES] The many -French-speaking schoolmasters from the Netherlands--chiefly -Walloons and Burgundians--and the English teachers of French formed -separate groups apart from the Huguenots. Yet another group was -recruited from the ranks of the Roman Catholics. - -The Burgundians, who did not come from Burgundy, but from that portion -of the Netherlands which had been under the rule of the House of -Burgundy, formed a very considerable proportion of the foreign -population of London. In 1567 there were only forty-four of them in -London, but by 1571 their number had risen to four hundred and -twenty-four--almost as many as the total number of French in the -city.[432] The Walloons were still more numerous, and no doubt -outnumbered the French. Such instructors were an obstacle in the way of -those desirous of raising the standard of the French taught in England. -Against the peculiarities of the French spoken in the Netherlands, -Holyband is constantly warning his pupils. "You shall know them," he -says, "at the pronunciation of _c_, as the proper mark of their -language," for they sound it as the English _sh_ or the French _ch_, -saying _shela_ for _cela_.[433] Warnings were also given against the -barbarisms of the Picard dialect. - -Of the many "Dutch" teachers in London--an epithet which usually -includes the Flemings and Walloons--it is impossible to say which -actually taught French.[434] Apparently those who attended the French -Church taught that language; a certain Gouvert Hawmells, for example, a -native of Antwerp, who came to England in 1568--"for religion"--is -specially mentioned as a teacher of the French language; in 1571 he was -living with his family in the house of one Thomas Grimes in St. -Margaret's parish. He attended the French Church and was not a -denizen.[435] Apparently his case was not an exceptional one. What is -more, there were in London French schoolmistresses from the Low -Countries. Marry Lemaire, "by trade a French schoolmistress," was a -native of Antwerp and came to England in 1578; for over forty years she -kept school in Southwick. Another French schoolmistress, Anness Deger, -born in Tournay, came to England some ten years earlier, and in 1618 was -still practising her "trade" in Tenter Abbey. Her qualifications were -not of the first order; in the Register of Aliens she was unable to sign -her name, for which she substituted a cross. There was also a "goodwife -Frances schoolmistress, in Popinjay Alley," mentioned in 1598 and 1599, -but whether she taught French or not is not specified. - -Although the chief French teachers who were responsible for the manuals -of the second half of the sixteenth century were Huguenots, it is -extremely probable that Roman Catholic teachers were in the majority. -When a census of the foreigners dwelling in London was taken in 1563, -only 712 out of a total of 4534 had come to England on religious -grounds.[436] Naturally the proportion of Protestants greatly increased -as the persecutions grew more severe, until the passing of the Edict of -Nantes in their favour in 1598. Then it probably again decreased; in the -time of Charles I. there were at least five French papists to one French -Protestant.[437] These Roman Catholic teachers were as a matter of -course regarded as suspect by those in authority, and Jesuit priests -teaching in noble English families, or those conversant with them, were -carefully watched.[438] The suspicions aroused by the John Love who had -a French school in St. Paul's Churchyard have already been noticed. This -feeling became particularly strong after the Gunpowder Plot (1605). In -the "Constitutions, Laws, Statutes, Decrees and Ordinances" of the Bury -St. Edmunds Town Council of 1607 an article was inserted "to prevent the -infectinge of youth in Poperie by Schoolmasters."[439] [Header: CLASSES -OF FRENCH TEACHERS] The constables of every ward in the borough had to -certify the Aldermen, Recorder, and Justices of the Peace, of the names -of all persons "that do keep any school for the teaching of youth to -write, read, or understand the English, Latin, French, Italian and -Spanish Tongues, upon pain to forfeit for every default 6s. 8d." This -notification had to be made quarterly. Others than the master or usher -of the free grammar school, wishing to teach any of these languages, had -to obtain special licence; and any one sending his children to a school -kept by a teacher who had no licence was liable to forfeit for every -week the sum of 6s. 8d. - -Fear of proselytism was not the only incentive which aroused the -animosity of certain sections of the English public. Many young -Englishmen received much of their education from French tutors, -frequently refugees, who taught them the usual subjects as well as -French. One objection raised against them was that they corrupted their -pupils' English if they spoke and wrote English themselves, as they did -almost without exception. Thus they "pul downe with one hand more than -they can build with the other," wrote Th. Morrice in 1619.[440] Such -complaints, however, cannot have been very general or have had much -effect on the lot of French teachers. - -A further attack was to come from another quarter. In the early years of -the sixteenth century, as in the Middle Ages, Englishmen had held an -important place in the French teaching profession. They had been called -to important positions as tutors, and had written grammars of the -language. After the appearance of Palsgrave's Grammar, however, we hear -no more of these English teachers of French, driven into the background, -no doubt, by the great invasion of French teachers. Probably Duwes's -earlier attack had helped either to turn public favour from the native -teachers or to discourage them. Holyband, too, had endorsed the opinion -of Duwes somewhat later, and expressed the little importance he attached -to their criticisms. To acquire the true French pronunciation and idiom, -he declares, it is necessary to learn from a Frenchman. - -Towards the end of the sixteenth century, however, an English teacher of -French came forward, and energetically took up the defence of his -fellow-teachers of English birth. This was John Eliote, a man of -boisterous spirits and a lover of good wine--a taste which he had -acquired in France, where he had lived many years. There, if the -dialogue he wrote for the help of students of French may be taken as -autobiographical, he had spent three years in the College of Montagu at -Paris, taught for a year in the College des Africains at Orleans, lived -for ten months at Lyons, and spent a year amongst the Benedictine monks. -On the murder of Henri III. in 1589, Eliote returned to England, -strongly imbued with a love for the country in which he had lived so -long. - - "Surely for my part," he writes, "France I love well, Frenchmen I - hate not, and unto you I sweare by S. Scobe cap de Gascongne, that - I love a cup of new Gascon or old Orleans wine, as well as the best - French of you all. Which love, you must know, was engendered in the - sweet soile of Fraunce, where I paissed like a bon companion, with - a steele at my girdle, till the Friars (a canker of the cursed - Convent) fell to drawing of naked knives, and kild indeed the good - King Henrie of France, the more the pitye. Since which time I - retired myself among the merrie muses, and by the worke of my pen - and inke, have dezinkhornifistibulated a fantasticall Rapsody of - dialoguisme, to the end that I would not be found an idle drone - among so many famous teachers and professors of noble languages, - who are very busy daily in devising and setting forth new bookes & - instructing our English gentry in this honourable citie of London." - -This "fantasticall rapsody" was published in 1593, and entitled the -_Ortho-Epia Gallica. Eliot's Fruits for the French enriched with a -double new invention, which teacheth to speake truly, speedily, voluably -the French tongue. Pend for the practice, pleasure and profit of all -English gentlemen, who will endevour by their owne paine, study, and -diligence, to attain the naturall accent, the true pronunciation and -swift and glib Grace of this noble, famous and courtly Language._[441] - -It was dedicated to the young Sir Robert Dudley,[442] son of the famous -Earl of Leicester, whom Eliote possibly instructed in the French tongue. -Eliote had taken up the teaching of French, "that most ticklish of all -tongues," on his return to England, and in his book he speaks of his -long practice in learning and teaching the language. He proceeds, in the -first place, to make fun of the "learned Professors of the French Tongue -in the city of London." [Header: ENGLISH TEACHERS OF FRENCH] He -burlesques the dedicatory epistles of his predecessors, especially that -of Bellot,[443] and declares he is fully aware that, to be in the -fashion, he ought to "dilate in some good speeches of the dignitie of -the French tongue, and then show what ease this book of mine shall bring -to the learning of the French, more than other bookes have done -heretofore." But he must first ask pardon for his presumption in writing -on this subject. - - "Do no blame me," he says, addressing the "gentle doctors of - Gaule," as he called them, "if because I would not be found a - loyterer in mine own countrie, amongst so many virtuously occupied, - I have put my pen to paper: if I have bene busie, labourd, sweat, - dropt, studied, devised, fought, bought, borrowed, turned, - translated, mined, fined, refined, interlined, glossed, composed, - and taken intollerable toil to shew an easie entrance and - introduction to my deare countrimen, in your curious and courtesan - French tongue, to the end to advance them as much as may bee, in - the knowledge of all virtuous and noble qualities, to the which - they are all naturally adicted." - -He is quite ready to have his book criticised as the work of an -Englishman, and challenges these "gentle doctors" "to be ready quickly -to cavill at his booke." - - "I beseech you," he continues, "heartily calumniate my doings with - speede, I request you humbly controll my method as soone as you - may, I earnestly entreat you hisse at my inventions, I desire you - to peruse my periodicall punctuations, find fault with my pricks, - nicks, and tricks, prove them not worth a pin, not a point, not a - pish: argue me a fond, foolish, frivolous, and phantasicall author, - and persuade every one that you meet, that my booke is a false, - fained, slight, confused, absurd, barbarous, lame, imperfect, - single, uncertaine, childish, piece of work, and not able to teach - and why so? Forsooth because it is not your owne but an - Englishman's doing. Faile you not to do so, if you love me, and - would have me do the like for you another time." - -While admitting that there may be a few good French teachers amongst the -refugees, he outlines a picture of the ordinary type which is far from -flattering; and we gather that he had himself studied French with -several refugees. He implies that the French teachers receive money in -advance, and then do nothing else but "take their eases and, as the -renowned poet saith, - - Saulter, dancer, faire les tours, - Boire vin blanc et vermeil, - Et ne rien faire tous les jours - Que conter escuz au soleil. - -Mercurie the god of Cunning, and Dis the Father of French crowns are -their deities." They care nothing for the progress of their scholars; -all they do is to give them a short lesson of half an hour, in which -they read and construe about half a page of French. They are equally -indifferent to the troubled state of their country, provided they -themselves are comfortable and well provided with French wines. - - "Messires, what newes from France, can you tell?" he asks them, - "still warres, warres. A heavy hearing truly, yet if you be in good - health, have many scholars, get good store of crowns, and drink - good wine, I doubt not but you shall do well, and I desire the good - God of Heaven to continue it so still. Have they had a fruitful - vintage in France this year, or no? me thinks our Bordeaux wines - are very deare, and in good faith I am very sorry for it. But they - will be at a more reasonable reckoning, if these same loftie - Leaguers would once crouch and come to some good composition ... - that we may safely fetch their deifying liquer, which dieth quickly - our flegmaticke faces into a pure sanguine complexion." - -The style of the introduction is maintained throughout the rest of the -book. Eliote says he wrote the whole "in a merrie phantasicall vaine to -confirme and stir up the wit and memorie of the learner," and -"diversified it with a varietie of stories no lesse authenticall than -the devices of Lucian's dialogues." He admits that he had turned over -some French authors, and where he "espied any pretie example that might -quicken the capacitie of the learner," he "presumed to make a peece of -it flie this way, to set together the frame of (his) fantasticall -comedie ... and out of every one (he) had some share for the better -ornament of (his) worke." Eliote was well acquainted with French -literature. He considered Marot the best poet, and gave Ronsard the -second place only. He also read Du Bartas, Belleau, Desportes, and other -sixteenth-century writers. But most of his admiration was reserved for -Rabelais, "that merrie grig," and it is clear that he modelled his style -on that of the great French humorist. Like Rabelais, he occasionally -affects a sort of gibberish, coins words, and, like him also, he strings -words together and is fond of exaggeration. Numerous passages in the -_Ortho-Epia Gallica_ are reminiscent of famous incidents in _Gargantua_ -and _Pantagruel_. Like Panurge, he defends debts and debtors: - - "Quoy! Debtes! O chose rare et antiquaire. Il n'est bon chrestien - qui ne doibt rien," and, in the style of Rabelais, he assures us - that his book contains "profound and deep mysteries, ... and very - worthie the reading, and such as I thinke you have not had - performed in any other book that is yet extant.... Doest thou see - what a sea, what a gulfe there is? Thou hadst need of Theseus' - thread to guide thee out of that Labyrinth." - -The _Ortho-Epia Gallica_ forms a striking contrast to Palsgrave's rather -austere _Esclarcissement_, the last work on the French language composed -by an Englishman before that of Eliote. [Header: JOHN ELIOTE] The -dialogues occupy nearly the whole volume. The first few pages, however, -contain a table of French sounds with their pseudo-English equivalents. -The pronunciation was, in Eliote's opinion, one of the chief -difficulties of this difficult language, "deemed a jewel, so dearly -bought, and so much desired by all"; and he considered that, with the -help of Ramus and Peletier for the pronunciation, he had succeeded in -reducing "the gulf of difficulties into a small stream" by "sounding the -French by our English alphabet." - -He arranges his dialogues, which he calls _Le parlement de Babillards, -id est, The Parlaiment of Prattlers_, into three groups. The first of -these consists of three long dialogues on the method of learning foreign -languages, on the excellence of writers in both ancient and modern -tongues, and on travel through the chief towns of Europe. The first -dialogue ends with the quotation from Du Bartas in praise of Queen -Elizabeth and her accomplishments, accompanied by a translation in -English verse by Eliote himself. - -The second part, styled "_M. Eliote's first booke_," is of a much more -elementary character than the one just described. Eliote had referred -elsewhere to a work entitled _The Scholler_, in which he propounded a -"general method of learning and teaching all languages contrived by -nature and art, conformable to the precepts of Aristotle." This, or part -of it, evidently formed the first part of the _Ortho-Epia Gallica_, -where it is separately paged.[444] - -In his first and second books, which thus form the second and third -parts of the work, he expounds "his double new invention, which teacheth -Englishmen to speake truly, speedily and volubly the French tong." The -first part of this "invention" consists in placing by the side of the -French and English a third column, giving the French in pseudo-English -equivalents--"the true pronunciation of each word wholly and certain -little stripes (called approches) between the sillables that are to be -spoken roundly and glib in one breath." The twelve dialogues of Eliote's -first book are fairly simple in character, and some of them were -probably suggested by Vives's _Exercitatio_. Their subject matter does -not differ much from earlier dialogues, but their treatment is -decidedly original. The following quotation is taken from the first -dialogue: - - Hau Garcon Ho Garssoon What boy - dors tu dortu slepeth thou - vilain? debout, veelein? deboo, villain? up, - debout, ie te deboo, ie te up, I shall - reveilleray tantost reue-lhere tant-tot shall wake thee soon - avec un bon baton. tavec-keun boon batoon. with a good cudgell. - Je me leve, monsieur. Ie me leveh moonseewr. I rise sir. - Quelle heure est-il? Qel-heur et-til? What o'clock is it? - Il est six heures. Il-e see-zewres. It is six o'clock. - Donnez moy mes Donne moe' mes Give me my - chausses de velours shosseh de veloor my green velvet - verd. vert. breeches. - Lesquelles? Le-keles? Which? - C'est tout un; mes Set-toot-tewn; mes It is all one; my - chausses rondes de shosseh roondeh de round red - satin rouge. . . . sateen roz-eh. . . . satin ones, etc. - -There are twelve dialogues in all, but only each alternate one is -accompanied by this curious guide to pronunciation.[445] - -In the second book and third part the dialogues are longer and more -numerous, dealing with the different trades and occupations--"les devis -familiers des mesters fort delectables a lyre." They do not, however, -confine themselves to the characters usually introduced into similar -dialogues; besides the mercer, the draper, the shoemaker, the innkeeper, -and so on, we have the armourer, the robber, the debtor, the apothecary, -and other characters which offer ample scope for treatment in the -Rabelaisian vein, of which Eliote was so fond. Some suggest that Eliote -was acquainted with Holyband's works. This book contains the second part -of his "double new invention." The French and English are printed on -opposite pages, and in the margin the sounds of the most difficult -French letters are indicated, thus: - - _ai_ sound _e_ - _ay_ sound _e_ - _am_ sound _ein_ - _aine_ sound _eineh_, and so on. - -This table he describes "as Mercurie's finger to direct thee in thy -progress of learning," and he repeats it on the margin of every pair of -opposite pages. - -[Header: THE "ORTHO-EPIA GALLICA"] - -After these twenty dialogues comes the "Conclusion of the parlaiment of -prattlers," which depicts a group of friends walking by the Thames and -St. Paul's, "prattling, chatting, and babbling." The arrangement is the -same as in the previous dialogues, and the work closes with a quotation -from Du Bartas's praise of France: - - O mille et mille fois terre heureuse et feconde, - O perle de l'Europe! O Paradis du monde! - France je te salue, O mere des guerriers. - -In his dialogue called _The Scholar_, incorporated in the first part of -the _Ortho-Epia_, Eliote explains his 'new' method of learning -languages, by nature and art. By "nature" he means the acquirement of a -vocabulary of all created things, by use and common practice; and by -"art" the rules and precepts for combining these into sentences, and -also the authority of learned men. Such rules chiefly concern nouns, -verbs, and pronunciation, "in which the greatest mystery of all -languages consists." Thus, although he gives no grammatical information -in his _Ortho-Epia Gallica_, he recognized its importance. - -Before introducing his pupils to the method of "Nature and Art," Eliote -would have them well grounded in nouns and verbs, and able to translate -dialogues, comedies in verse, and prose writings. He attached much -importance to translation from English into French, just as Palsgrave -did. He directs the student to make out the meaning of the French first -by comparing it with the English column, and then to cover over the -French version, and attempt to translate the English into French. "This -I have learned by long experience to be the readiest way to attaine the -knowledge of any language, that we of Englishmen make French, and not of -French learn English." As to the theory of "Nature and Art," it seems to -have been little more than the method, common at the time, of making -practice the basis of the study of French, and confirming this by rules -as need for them arose. - -In addition to the _Ortho-Epia Gallica_,[446] Eliote also wrote a -_Survey or topographical description of France_, collected from sundry -approved authors. This was published in 1592, and dedicated to Sir John -Pickering, Keeper of the Privy Seal. He also translated from French -into English[447] a number of unimportant works, mostly of topical -interest, one of them being dedicated to Robert, Earl of Essex. Little -else is known of him, except that he was born in Warwickshire in 1562, -and entered Brasenose College, Oxford, on the 12th of December 1580, at -the age of eighteen years.[448] He tells us that he held the degree of -Doctor of Divinity, but there is no record of his having taken any such -degree there. Robert Greene was among his friends, and he wrote a sonnet -in questionable French on Greene's _Perimedes or the Black Smith_, with -which it was published in 1588. These are all the details we possess -concerning this amusing and striking figure among the French teachers of -the sixteenth century. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[410] The names of many have been lost, owing to the incompleteness of -the records, or to the fact that no profession is indicated. A few are -known from other sources to have been schoolmasters or private tutors; -cp. Huguenot Society Publications, vol. x., _Returns of Aliens dwelling -in London_; vols. viii., xviii., _Letters of Denization_. - -[411] Evrard Erail, Onias Ganeur, Charles Bod, Robert Fontaine, Charles -Darvil d'Arras, Jean Vaquerie, Baudouin Mason, and Adrian Tresol -(Schickler, _Eglises du Refuge_, i. p. 124). Of these names only that of -Robert Fontaine is found in the _Returns of Aliens_. Charles Darvil and -Adrian Tresol are again mentioned in connexion with the Church in 1564. -Baudouin Mason received letters of denization in 1565, and Adrian -Tresol, a Netherlander, in 1562. In 1571 there were three other -schoolmasters connected with the Church: Adrian Tressel, John Preste of -Rouen, and Nicolas Langlois or Inglish. All these, however, are -mentioned in the _Returns of Aliens_. - -[412] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 182. - -[413] _Returns of Aliens_, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. ii. pp. 228, 335. - -[414] Duc d'Alencon, who died in 1584. - -[415] Printed by Henry Dizlie for Thomas Purfoote. Reprinted by T. Spiro -in the _Neudrucke fruehneuenglischer Grammatiken, herausgegeben von R. -Brotanek_, Bd. 7, Halle, 1912. It contains 75 pages, 8vo. - -[416] Bellot's name does not occur in the Registers (vol. i., Lymington, -1908). - -[417] 16º, pp. 80. - -[418] _Stationers' Register_, 19th February 1588. - -[419] Hazlitt, _Handbook_, 1867, p. 36. - -[420] Perhaps he was a member of the La Motte Fouque family whose name -became so closely connected with the Protestant cause in France. In 1551 -Rene La Motte left Saintonge and went to Normandy, where he died, -leaving two sons and three daughters. Cp. Crottet, _History of the -Reformed Church in Saintonge_, quoted by T. F. Sanxay, _The Sanxay -Family_, 1907. - -[421] "Estant donc refugie a l'ombre favorable du Sceptre de sa -serenissime majeste, qui est le vray port de retraicte et asyle asseure -de ceux qui faisans profession de l'Evangile souffrent ores persecution -soubs la Tyrannie de l'Antichrist, j'ay tasche de tout mon pouvoir de -faire en sorte par mes labeurs que ceste noble Nation qui maintenant -nous sert de mere et de nourrice peust tirer quelque proffit d'iceux, -afin que par ce moyen je peusse eviter le vice enorme de l'ingratitude. -. . . Or entre toutes les belles et rares vertus dont la Noblesse -angloise se rend tant renommee par tout le monde, admiree des -estrangiers, et honoree en son pays, est l'Estude des bonnes lettres, et -cognoissance des langues, qui leur sont si familieres et communes qu'il -s'en trouve peu parmi eux, non seulement entre les Seigneurs et -Gentilhommes, qui n'en parlent trois ou quatre pour le moins, mais aussi -entre les Dames et Damoiselles, exercise veritablement louable, par -lequel toute vertu s'honore et se rend immortelle et sans lequel nulle -autre n'est parfait ni digne d'estre aucunement estime. Or c'est ce qui, -outre la singuliere affection que naturellement ils portent aux -estrangers et la grande courtoisie dont ils ont a coustume de les -traicter, leur faict faire tant d'estat des Francois, si bien qu'il y en -a fort peu qui n'en ait un avec soy." - -[422] Who first went to Oxford in 1587. Foster, _Alumni Oxonienses_, ad -nom. - -[423] _Containing the rarest Sentences, Proverbs, Parables, Similies, -Apothegmes and Golden sayings of the most excellent French Authors as -well Poets as Orators._ - -[424] Arber, _Register of the Company of Stationers_, ii. 614. Miss -Farrer in her book on Holyband takes this entry, _l'Alphabet Francois -avec le Tresor de la langue francoise_, to refer to another edition of -Holyband's _Treasurie_, which, she assumes, was prevented and superseded -by the publication of his dictionary in 1592. - -[425] Field was born at Stratford in the same year as Shakespeare; cp. -S. Lee, _Life of Shakespeare_, pp. 42 _et seq._ - -[426] _A Dictionary of Printers and Booksellers, 1557-1640_, Bibliog. -Soc., 1910: Index of London Addresses. - -[427] 1625, 1631, 1633, 1639, 1647. - -[428] In 1626 the work was made over to Miller by Field's widow. Arber, -_Transcript_, iv. 157. - -[429] How closely, may be judged by comparing the following selection -with the description of Holyband's rules on p. 142, _supra_. - - How do you pronounce g before n? Comment prononcez vous g devant n? - Gn is hardly pronounced by Gn se prononce difficilement par - Englishmen. les Anglois. - Notwithstanding if they will take Toutesfois s'ils veulent prendre - heed garde - how they do pronounce _minion_ ... comment ils prononcent minion, - onion, companion, - it will be more easy for them to il leur sera plus aise de - pronounce it: for though we le prononcer: car encore que nous - do write the selfesame words escrivions ces mesmes mots - with gn, par gn, - neverthelesse there is small neantmoins il y a peu de - difference between difference de - their pronunciation and ours: leur prononciation a la nostre: - let them take heed only seulement qu'ils prennent garde a - to sound g mettre g - in the same syllable that n is, en la mesme syllable que n, - and then they et ils - shall not finde any hardnesse ne trouveront aucune difficulte - in his pronunciation, en sa prononciation, - as mignon ... mi-gnon. comme mi-gnon. . . . - -[430] "Et pourroit a bon droict estre compare a quelques vieilles -masures d'un bastiment ou il a tant creu de ronces et espines, qu'a -grand peine il apert que jamais il y ait eu de maisons. Car devant qu'on -eust trouve l'imprimerie, on l'a tant de fois coppie, et chaque ecrivain -l'escrivant a la fantaisie et ne retenant l'orthographe francoise, que -maintenant il semble qu'il n'y ait presque langage plus esloigne du vray -Francois que ce Francois de vos loix." - -[431] Bellot frequently refers to the _gent hargneuse_ and the -"aiguillons envenimez des langues qui se plaisent a detracter les -oeuvres d'autruy et qui deprisent tout ce qui n'est tire de leurs -boutiques, iacoit que souvente fois leur estofe ne soit que biffes et -hapelourdes." - -[432] _Returns of Aliens_, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. i. pp. xii, xiv. - -[433] And again: "Or vous noteres qu'en tous les noms termines en _ent_, -_t_ n'est pas exprime en la fin: quant aux verbes, il est prononce, mais -bien doucement: donnes vous donc garde d'ensuivre en ceci les -Bourgignons qui expriment leur _t_ si fort que de deux syllabes ilz en -font trois: comme quand nous disons _ils mangent_ . . . le Walon dira; -_ilz mangete_." And yet again: "Sounde _ch_ as _sh_ in English: you -shall not follow in this the Picard or Bourgignions, for they doo -pronounce _ch_ like _k_, say _kien_ for _chien_." - -[434] French was widely used in the Spanish Netherlands, and there was -hardly any opening for the teaching of any of the Germanic languages in -England at this early time, when they were only learnt in exceptional -cases. There were no doubt a few such teachers, here and there. We are -told that in London "there be also teachers and professors of the Holy -or Hebrew language, of the Caldean, Syriack or Arabicke or Tartary -Languages, of the Italian, Spanish, French, Dutch and Polish Tongues. -And here be they which can speake the Persian and the Morisco, and the -Turkish and the Muscovian Language, and also the Sclavonian tongue, -which passeth through seventeen nations. And in divers other languages -fit for Ambassadors and Orators, and Agents for Merchants, and for -Travaylors and necessarie for all commerce or Negociation whatsoever." -Buck, _The Third Universitie of England_, 1619, ch. xxxvii. "Of -Languages." The earliest work for teaching Dutch to Englishmen was -probably the _Dutch Tutor_ of 1660; cp. F. Watson, _Modern Subjects_, -ch. xv. John Minsheu taught a number of languages in London, and wrote a -_Ductor in Linguas_ (1617), in eleven languages. - -[435] Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. ii. p. 81. - -[436] _Returns of Aliens_, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. i. p. xi. - -[437] Moens, _The Walloons and their Church at Norwich_, Hug. Soc. Pub. -i. p. 90. - -[438] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., Addenda, 1580-1625_, p. 294. - -[439] _Victoria County Histories: Suffolk_, ii. p. 317. - -[440] _Apologie for Schoolmasters._ - -[441] Sm. 4to, pp. 1-60, and 17-173. Printed by J. Wolfe. Licence dated -18 Dec. 1592. Preface dated 18 April 1593. - -[442] Born 1574; at Oxford in 1588. - -[443] Bellot, in his quality of "gentleman," compares his labours to -those of Diogenes rolling his tub up and down a hill, in order not to be -idle while the Corinthians were busy preparing to defend their city -against Philip of Macedon. Eliote takes up the theme and turns it to -ridicule. - -[444] The first part is paged from 1 to 60, and has signatures A-L in -fours. In _Eliote's first booke_ the pagination begins afresh at p. 17 -and continues to p. 175 at the end of the work: it has signatures _c-y_ -in fours. - -[445] Palsgrave had accompanied his French quotations with similar -indications: - - "Au diziesme an de mon doulant exil - Avdiziemavndemoundoulauntezil." - -[446] He announces his intention of producing a book called _De Natura -et Arte Linguae Gallicae_. - -[447] _Advice given by a Catholike gentleman to the Nobilitie & Commons -of France_, Lond., 1589; _Newes sent unto the Lady Princesse of Orange_, -1589; _Discourses of Warre and single combat ..._ from the French of B. -de Loque, 1591. - -[448] Foster, _Alumni Oxon._, ad nom. - - - - -CHAPTER V - - METHODS OF TEACHING FRENCH--LATIN AND FRENCH--FRENCH AND ENGLISH - DICTIONARIES--STUDY OF FRENCH LITERATURE - - -Eliote gives some information concerning the fees charged by French -teachers in the later part of the sixteenth century. He asserts that the -usual charge was a shilling a week,[449] but we are left in doubt as to -how many lessons this entitled the student to. He affirms, probably not -seriously, that he would charge a gentleman L10 a year, and a lord from -L20 to L30. - -We are indebted to him also for an account, very prejudiced, no doubt, -of the usual method employed by French teachers generally. This -consisted, according to him, in reading a page of French and then -translating it. Fortunately we are enabled, by means of the French -text-books that have come down to us, to draw a fuller picture of the -French lessons of the time. It has been seen that as a rule these books -contained four parts--rules of pronunciation, rules of grammar, reading -exercises, and a vocabulary. They are generally written throughout in -French and English (in parallel columns[450]), the reason of this being -the importance attached to reading and to double translation, from -French into English and English into French. In the English version the -idiomatic phrase is sacrificed in order to give a more literal rendering -of the French, and also, possibly, because these Frenchmen were -incapable of writing any other. As is to be expected, translation from -French into English was the more usual exercise. Translation from -English into French, however, was by no means neglected, and appears to -have been recommended principally by English teachers of French, and -more especially by Palsgrave and Eliote. Edward VI.'s French exercises, -it will be remembered, are translations from English into French, or -free composition in French. - -In addition to reading and translating, much importance was attached to -pronunciation. It was generally considered best to learn the sounds of -the language by repetition after a teacher with a good accent; but rules -were thought necessary to confirm the knowledge thus acquired. As to -rules of grammar, there was no question of learning the language by -means of them. A grammar was treated as a book of reference, just as a -dictionary. Thus the student usually learnt the pronunciation by reading -the French aloud with his tutor, referring to the rules of pronunciation -whenever necessary, and then translating and retranslating the -dialogues, grammar being supplied as the need for it was felt. Although -these early teachers strictly limited the place of grammar, they almost -all agree in emphasizing its importance within the limits indicated. -Grammar rules were reduced to a minimum. Attention was called to what -were considered important general rules, but those with numerous -exceptions, it is argued, were better learnt by "use" and persistent -reading, "so as not to weary with long discourses which would be -necessary to explain things learnt better by practice than by rule." - -The dialogue form in which almost all the reading material is given, and -the proverbs and familiar phrases, show the importance attached to a -practical and colloquial knowledge of the language. The teaching of -French was of a decidedly business-like nature, and closely in touch -with the concerns of life. One of the chief reasons for this, no doubt, -was that it was learnt for social or other immediate requirements. The -fact that French was not taught in the grammar schools undoubtedly -assisted it to maintain its close connexion with practical life. It is -only about a century and a half later, when French began to gain a -foothold in these schools, that it was taught more and more on -grammatical lines, and less and less as a living language. - -Latin, although most of the school statutes of the time encourage the -scholars to speak it, was taught chiefly on grammatical lines.[451] The -memorizing of Latin grammar was a foremost subject even in the Middle -Ages.[452] [Header: LATIN AND FRENCH] In the sixteenth century the Latin -grammar usually known as Lily's was the prescribed national grammar, -with rules of accidence in English and of syntax in Latin.[453] Familiar -dialogues in the style of those for French were also used, the chief -difference between the Latin and French dialogues being that the Latin -are separate and complete works in themselves, and are not, as a rule, -provided with an English translation. They were memorized as the grammar -was. From the dialogues, or colloquies as they were called, dealing with -typical occurrences of life, the Latin scholar passed on to the reading -of school authors--Cato, Cicero, Ovid, Virgil, Terence, etc.[454] Nor -was vocabulary neglected, for in the schools of the Renaissance the -practice of learning so many words a day, prevalent in the Middle Ages, -was still in vogue. - -It thus appears that the books generally used in teaching Latin were not -without some influence in determining the types of manuals employed for -teaching French. The practice of including religious formulae, which we -find in some books, was sanctioned by their place in the national Latin -grammar, while it is clear that the Latin colloquia of the time had -considerable influence on the French dialogues. In the early sixteenth -century the dialogues of the scholar Vives,[455] who received honours at -both Oxford and Cambridge during his short stay in England, were much in -vogue. Like the French dialogues of the time, they kept closely in touch -with the interests of the pupils and dealt with such topics as rising in -the morning, going to school, returning home, and children's play and -meals, and students' chatter. Similar works were the _Sententiae -pueriles_,[456] a book for beginners, first published at Leipzig in -1544, and containing a collection of familiar phrases rather than -dialogues, and the _Pueriles Confabulatiunculae_ by Evaldus Gallus. In -the second half of the sixteenth century two other manuals of -conversation were added to those already in use in England: the -_Colloquia_ of Mathurin Cordier, first published in Latin in 1564, and -Castellion's _Sacred Dialogues_ based on the Scriptures, printed in -Latin at Basle, in 1555.[457] - -With the text-books, however, all close resemblance between the teaching -of Latin in grammar schools and the teaching of French ends. As we have -seen, reading, pronunciation, and conversation were the main concerns of -the French student; translation held a large place and grammar rules a -subsidiary one. The grammar-school boy, on the contrary, would first -gain an elementary knowledge from rules written in English, and memorize -the vocabulary and phrases; learn his Latin grammar, and then parse and -construe[458] the usual school authors.[459] The sons of the aristocracy -and well-to-do classes probably learnt by a more practical method, as -they were able to have private tutors, who devoted all their time to -providing the necessary atmosphere. As late as 1607, when Latin was less -used colloquially, the writer Cleland, a great advocate of the teaching -of French, condemns the practice of those parents who have their -children brought up to speak Latin only; they neglect their mother -tongue and the language of elegance, French, and soon forget their Latin -when once removed from their tutor's care.[460] That such cases were the -exception rather than the rule, even in the early sixteenth century, may -be gathered from the two great educational writers of the time, Sir -Thomas Elyot and Roger Ascham. Both the _Governour_ (1531) and the -_Scholemaster_ are protests against the common school usage of placing -grammar in the first place, and a summons to base the study of the -language on the reading of authors. They believed with Quintilian that -"Longum et difficile iter est per praecepta, breve et efficax per -exempla." Colet in his _Aeditio_ had laid down the same principle, to -the effect that the "reading of good books, dyligent information of -taught masters, studious advertence and taking heed of learners, hearing -eloquent men speak, and finally busy imitation with the tongue and pen, -more availeth shortly to get the true eloquent speech than all the -tradition of rule and precepts of masters"; [Header: GRAMMAR AND -TRANSLATION] and he adds, "men spoke not Latin because such rules were -made, but contrariwise because men spoke such Latin, upon that followed -the rules and so were made."[461] Yet it seems that the force of -tradition prevailed, and that these precepts were only put into practice -in exceptional cases. - -It is striking to notice how close was the resemblance between the -actual methods used by French teachers and those advocated by would-be -reformers of the teaching of Latin. Colet's words express almost exactly -the sentiments and practice of Holyband, De la Mothe, and other French -teachers; and the same is true of Elyot and Ascham. "Nothing can be more -convenient," writes Elyot in referring to students of Latin, "than by -little and little to train and exercise them in the speaking of Latin, -informing them to know first the names in Latin of all the things that -come in sight, and to name all the parts of their bodies, and giving -them somewhat that they covert or desire in most gentle manner to teach -them to ask it again in Latin." He even goes so far as to say that the -pupil may "as sone speake good latin" on this method "as he may do pure -frenche,"[462] thereby showing that he probably derived suggestions from -the prevalent methods of teaching French. Elyot, however, realized that -the use of Latin as a familiar tongue was not as practicable in schools -as in many noble families, where it might well happen that the pupil -would have "none other persons to serve him or keep hym company but -suche as can speake Latine elegantly." How successful the sole use of -Latin could be in such circumstances is exemplified in the well-known -case of Montaigne. Ascham, like Elyot, recognized the exceptional -conditions required for such a method. He believed the "dailie use of -speaking" would be the best way of learning the language if the child -could only hear it spoken perfectly, but failing this he considered the -practice dangerous.[463] It is probable, however, that in the best -French schools, and certainly in that of Holyband, this ideal was -realized in the case of French. - -As regards the respective importance of reading and grammar, the French -teachers of the time appear to have put into practice the ideas of the -reformers. All agree that grammar rules should be as few as possible, -and be taught in connexion with reading. The general method of French -teachers was to refer to the rule as the need for it arose in reading. -Ascham also pleads for the study of grammar, "so hardlie learned by the -scholar in all common scholes," along with authors; and the educational -reformer Mulcaster, in his _Elementarie_ of 1582, writes that grammar is -best learnt by being applied to the matter, and that the child's mind -should not be clogged with rules. Elyot differs slightly from them in -detail but not in principle. He allows grammar to precede the study of -authors, provided it is reduced to the smallest possible amount. -"Grammar," he says, "being but an introduction to the study of authors," -care should be taken "not to detain the child too longe in that tedious -labour, for a gentyll wytte is there with some fatigate," and "hit in a -maner mortifieth his corage" before he "cometh to the most swete and -pleasant readinge of olde authors."[464] Both these views as regards -grammar--that of Ascham and Mulcaster, and that of Elyot--were prevalent -among French teachers of the time. There are only small differences in -detail; the general principles are identical. - -In the matter of translation, "most common and most commendable of all -other exercises of youth,"[465] there is a striking resemblance between -the method of double translation common among French teachers, and the -same method set out by Ascham, who marks the transition from oral to -written methods of teaching Latin.[466] In the case of De la Mothe, the -resemblance is so clear and close that we are led to believe he was -acquainted with the work of Elizabeth's tutor,[467] published in 1570, -over twenty years before the _French Alphabet_. Ascham's system -consisted of the double translation of a model book, and it is -interesting to compare it with the method of De la Mothe. The pupil has -first to parse and translate the Latin into English; "after this the -child must take a paper booke, and sitting in some place where no man -shall prompe him, by him self, let him translate into Englisshe his -former lesson. [Header: BOOKS IN FRENCH AND ENGLISH] Then showing it to -his master, let the master take from him his Latin booke, and pausing -an houre, at the least, than let the childe translate his owne Englishe -into latin againe, in an other paper booke." And when this is done, the -master should compare it with the original Latin, "and laie them both -togither."[468] - -There was thus much in common between the teaching of Latin and the -teaching of French. The dialogues, which form so important a feature in -the French text-books of the time, were certainly indebted to the Latin -Colloquia, although they also continue the tradition of the mediaeval -French conversation-books. The Latin Dialogues of Vives had much -influence on the French, and Holyband based one of his books, the _Campo -di Fior_, on the _Exercitatio_ translated in French, Italian, and -English. Eliote also acknowledged his debt to the Spanish scholar. In -other cases the debt was almost inevitable and probably unconscious; for -the French teachers, who often taught Latin as well, would use such -books daily, and had moreover probably acquired their own knowledge of -Latin from them. Holyband, we have seen, read the _Sententiae pueriles_ -with his pupils. - -The importance attached to reading and double translation by teachers of -French led to the appearance of a great number of books in French and -English, on the lines of Bellot's _Jardin de Vertu_. For instance, part -of the _Semaines_ of Du Bartas, the most popular French poet in England -in the sixteenth century, was published in this form in 1596, and again -in 1625, on the occasion of the marriage of Charles I. This translation -is due to William L'Isle of Wilbraham,[469] the pioneer in the study of -Anglo-Saxon, who dedicated it in the first place to Lord Howard of -Effingham, Earl of Nottingham, Lord Admiral, and subsequently to Charles -I. It is entitled _Part of Du Bartas, English and French, and in his own -kinde of verse, so near the French Englished, as may teach Englishmen -French, or a Frenchman English. Sequitur Victoria Junctos_,[470] and -consists of the first two days of the _Second Week_, with the French -and English arranged on opposite pages, followed by an English -translation of the commentary of Simon Goulart de Senlis. - -Guy du Faur, Sieur de Pibrac, was another French writer widely read in -England, and his _Quatrains_ were frequently commended by French -teachers to their scholars. They were translated into English verse by -Sylvester, the translator of Du Bartas, and published with the French -original in 1605. Sylvester dedicated the quatrains to Prince Henry, and -the copy in the British Museum contains an epigram in English in the -handwriting of his brother, afterwards Charles I., and a manuscript -dedication to the younger prince in that of the translator.[471] The -quatrains appeared again with the subsequent editions of Sylvester's -works. About this time Prince Henry made Sylvester a Groom of his -Chamber, and gave him a small pension of L20 a year.[472] The story goes -that the prince valued him so highly that he made him his first "poet -pensioner," and it seems that Sylvester took advantage of his position -to encourage his royal patron's French studies. Many other works of the -kind appeared in French and in English.[473] The educational writer -Charles Hoole tells us that masters frequently taught languages by using -interlinearies, "not to speak of their construing the French and Spanish -Bible by the help of an English one."[474] Lord Herbert of Cherbury, -philosopher and gallant, ambassador in France in the time of James I., -learnt French, Italian, and Spanish, on this translation method, whilst -living in the University or at home. He mastered them, he assures us, -without the help of a tutor, solely by means of Latin or English books -translated into those languages, and of dictionaries.[475] - -[Header: FRENCH AND ENGLISH DICTIONARIES] - -De la Mothe advised his advanced pupils to read difficult French books -with the help of a dictionary, and there was some supply of works of -this kind at the disposal of Lord Herbert and other students of the -language. It is true that the widespread use of books in both languages -diminished the demand for such manuals, which may not have been easy to -acquire. Yet there was a considerable choice of such works. Holyband had -produced two French-English dictionaries, in 1580 and 1593 respectively, -in which he referred to "those which broke the ice before him." There -had appeared in 1571 an anonymous _Dictionarie Frenche and -English_,[476] printed by Henry Bynneman for Lucas Harrison. This work, -which does not confine itself to words only, but includes phrases as -well, was no doubt known to Holyband. Its author had probably drawn -largely on an earlier dictionary, already mentioned, in which a place -was given to French--the Latin, English, and French Dictionary of John -Veron (1552). The inclusion of French in such a work is a striking -testimony to the importance of French at that time. But when a second -edition of Veron's dictionary was prepared by Ralph Waddington, in 1575, -he "of purpose thought good to leave out the French, both because (he) -saw it was not necessary for English students of Latin, as for that -Maister Barret hath five years since set forth an alvearie sufficient to -instruct those which are desirous to travel in th'understanding of the -French Tongue." - -This "alvearie" appeared in 1573, two years after the French-English -dictionary printed for Harrison. It was entitled "_An alvearie or Triple -Dictionarie in English, Latin and French, very profitable for all such -as be desirous of any of those three languages ..._" and was dedicated -to Wm. Cecil, Lord Burghley, then Chancellor of Cambridge University. -Baret had been teaching at Cambridge for eighteen years "pupils studious -of the Latin tongue," and part of their daily task was to translate some -piece of English into Latin "for the more speed and easie attayning of -the same." At last, "perceiving what great trouble it was to come -runnying to (him) for every word they missed,"[477] he made them collect -each day a number of Latin words and phrases, together with their -English equivalents. Within a year or two they had gathered together a -great volume of work, to which, "for the apt similitude between the good -scholers and diligent bees in gathering them wax and honey into their -hive," Baret gave the title of _Alvearie_. At first he had no intention -of publishing the work, but when he went to London he was finally -persuaded to do so, and received help from many of his old pupils who -were then at the Inns of Court, and from several of the best scholars in -various English schools. How Baret first thought of adding French to his -dictionary is not known. He owns that he did not trust his own skill in -this matter, although he had formerly "travelled in divers countries -beyond the seas both for languages and for learning"; but that he "used -the help of M. Chaloner and M. Claudius." By 'M. Claudius,' Baret -possibly meant Holyband, who was often called "Maistre Claude." M. -Chaloner may have been the author of the French-English dictionary -published by Harrison in 1571. - -According to the custom of the time, Baret's dictionary was preceded by -a number of commendatory addresses, one of which was by the head-master -of Merchant Taylors' School, Richard Mulcaster. In the dictionary -itself, every English word is first explained, and then its equivalent -in Latin and French given. At the end are tables of the Latin and French -words "placed after the order of the alphabet, whatsoever are to be -found in any other dictionarie. And so as to turn them backwards againe -into Englishe when they reade any Latin or French authors and doubt of -any harde worde therein." - -Baret had "gone to God in Heavenlie seates" before the close of 1580, -when there appeared a posthumous second edition of the _Alvearie_. In -this final form Greek has a place by the side of the other languages, -and the title runs, _An Alvearie or quadruple Dictionarie containing -four sundrie tongues, namely, English, Latine, Greeke, and Frenche, -newlie enriched with varietie of wordes, phrases, proverbs, and divers -lightsome observations of grammar_. But there is no table of the Greek -words, as for the Latin and French. Such was the third dictionary of -French words which appeared before Holyband's.[478] - -[Header: FRENCH IN LATIN DICTIONARIES] - -The place given to French in these early Latin dictionaries is worthy of -notice. No doubt French first entered the schools in this indirect way. -Both Veron's and Baret's works were used in schools; and Baret's -dictionary is included in the list of books mentioned by Charles Hoole -as being specially useful to schoolboys.[479] There are at least two -other school vocabularies in which French was introduced, both due to -the poet and compiler John Higgins, who is said to have been "well read -in classick authors, and withall very well skilled in French."[480] The -first of his lexicographical works was a new and revised edition of -_Huloet's Dictionarie_,[481] which occupied him two years. It appeared -in 1572,[482] a year before Baret's work. Higgins calls himself "late -student in Oxforde," and dedicates the volume to Sir John Peckham. This -edition by Higgins is so much altered that it is almost a new work. One -of the chief changes was the addition of a French version to the Latin -and English, "by whiche you may finde the Latin or French of anye -Englishe woorde you will." For the French, Higgins seems to have drawn -chiefly on the Latin-French dictionary of Robert Estienne, which had -already been published in French, English, and Latin by Jean Veron, in -1552. Higgins also acknowledges his debt to Thierry, whose French-Latin -dictionary appeared twelve years later in 1564. There was a close -relationship between French-Latin and French-English dictionaries. -French is first found side by side with English, in one of these -French-Latin dictionaries--that of Veron; and in subsequent years the -French-English dictionaries are mostly based on one or other of the -French-Latin lexicons. Those due to Robert Estienne and to Thierry were -probably the sources from which the author of the French-English -dictionary of 1571 drew his material; while Holyband based his -_Treasurie_ (1580), and his Dictionary (1593), respectively, on the -augmented editions of Thierry's work due to Nicot, which appeared in -1573 and 1584.[483] - -The second lexicographical work of Higgins, published in 1585, was a -translation, entitled _Nomenclator or Remembrancer of Adrianus Junius, -Physician, divided into two tomes_. It professed to supply the -appropriate names and apt terms for all things under their convenient -titles, in Latin, Greek, French, and English.[484] The English column -was added by Higgins. - -Thus by the end of the sixteenth century there had appeared in England -three French-English dictionaries, and several others in which French -found a place by the side of the classical languages. And we may add to -these the French-Latin dictionaries on which they were usually based, -for it seems extremely likely that those students of French who knew -Latin--and practically all of them would know this chief and first of -school subjects--used the French-Latin lexicons as well, in their study -of French, when other means were not available. - -Early in the seventeenth century, in 1611, Holyband's French dictionary -of 1593 was succeeded by the celebrated French-English dictionary of -Randle Cotgrave,[485] which occupies in the seventeenth century the -place that Palsgrave's _Esclarcissement_ does in the sixteenth among the -works on the French language produced in England. Although Cotgrave's -work is on a much larger scale than Holyband's, and much superior to -it,[486] there is a close connexion between the two. In the _Stationers' -Register_ Cotgrave's is entered as a dictionary in French and English -first collected by Holyband, and since augmented and altered by -Cotgrave.[487] But the work which no doubt was of most help to Cotgrave -was another French-Latin dictionary, Aimar de Ranconnet's _Tresor de la -Langue Francoise_, revised by Nicot (1606).[488] He had, moreover, read -all sorts of books, old and new, in all dialects, where he found words -not heard of for hundreds of years, which he included in his book, to be -used or left as the reader thought fit. J. L'Oiseau de Tourval,[489] a -Parisian, and friend of Cotgrave, who wrote in French an epistle -prefixed to the dictionary, thought it advisable to assure the reader -that none of these words were of Cotgrave's invention, observing at the -same time that it would be well to revive some of these obsolete and -provincial terms. [Header: COTGRAVE'S DICTIONARY] He also adds that -Cotgrave had sent to France in his eager search for words. M. Beaulieu, -secretary to the British ambassador at Paris, was no doubt Cotgrave's -collaborator in this quest, as Cotgrave tells us elsewhere[490] that he -had received valuable help from M. Beaulieu, as well as from a certain -Mr. Limery. - -Cotgrave dedicated his dictionary to Wm. Cecil, Lord Burghley, "his very -good Lord and Maister," whose secretary he was. He declares that he -would have produced a more substantial work to offer to his patron had -not his eyes failed him and forced him "to spend much of their vigour on -this bundle of words." He also offered a copy to the eldest son of James -I., Prince Henry, and received from him a gift of L10.[491] The price of -the dictionary seems to have been 11s. Cotgrave sent two copies to M. -Beaulieu at Paris, and wrote requesting payment of 22s., which they cost -him; for, he says, "I have not been provident enough to reserve any of -them and therefore am forced to be beholden for them to a base and -mechanicall generation, that suffers no respect to weigh down a private -gain."[492] - -Cotgrave's dictionary was much superior to anything of the sort which -had yet appeared. In addition to giving the meaning of each French word -in English, with an indication of its gender in the case of nouns, and, -in the case of adjectives, of the formation of the feminine form, -Cotgrave supplied a collection of illustrative phrases, idioms, and -proverbs. At the end are found "briefe directions for such as desire to -learne the French tongue," giving a succinct treatment of the -pronunciation of the letters, followed by a description of the various -parts of speech. - -This really remarkable work, which is still of considerable utility to -the modern student, reigned supreme throughout the greater part of the -seventeenth century. A second edition was issued in 1632, when Cotgrave -was still alive. The only change in this issue is the addition of a -"most copious Dictionarie of the English set before the French by R. S. -L." This R. S. L. was Robert Sherwood, Londoner, who taught French and -English in London, and also had a French school for a time. He gave his -dictionary the title of _Dictionarie Anglois et Francois pour l'utilite -de tous ceux qui sont desireux de deux langues_,[493] and addressed it -to the "favorables lecteurs francois, alemans et autres." The English -reader he advises to look for fuller information as to "the gender of -all French nouns, and the conjugation of all French verbs" in Cotgrave's -dictionary; the small space to which he was limited did not allow him to -provide such information. Like Cotgrave, Sherwood closes with rules of -grammar, in the form of observations on English pronunciation and on the -English verbs. Sherwood's work is the earliest of the English-French -dictionaries. Both Baret and Higgins had placed English before French, -and no doubt Sherwood made use of their works, as well as of -English-Latin dictionaries. Baret, however, gives an indication of the -greater demand there was for French-English vocabularies, by supplying a -table of French words at the end of his work. Moreover, the object of -Sherwood's lexicon was less to facilitate translation from English to -French than to teach English to foreigners. - -In 1650 Cotgrave's dictionary was issued in a revised and augmented -edition by James Howell, the famous letter-writer.[494] This edition is -preceded by a lengthy essay on the French language, tracing its growth -from the earliest times, and taken, without acknowledgement, from -Pasquier's _Recherches_. Howell had already put much of the same matter -in a series of letters addressed to the Earl of Clare in his _Epistolae -Ho-Elianae_,[495] and repeated it in his glossary of English, French, -Italian, and Spanish, the _Lexicon Tetraglotten_ (1660). He quotes -several examples of old French in both prose and verse, and adds on his -own account a praise of Richelieu and the Academy recently founded by -the cardinal. [Header: JAMES HOWELL] He also discusses the question as -to where the best French was spoken--at the Court, among scholars at the -University, or lawyers at the Courts of Parliament--and is inclined to -share the general opinion of the day, which made the Court the supreme -arbiter in matters of language. - -Cotgrave, it has been seen, included all sorts of words in his -dictionary. Howell thought it necessary to distinguish obsolete and -provincial words, and, accordingly, with the help of "a noble and -knowing French gentleman," he marked such terms with a small cross. He -also initiated another change by placing the grammar before the -dictionary instead of after it, as Cotgrave did: "for a dictionary which -contains the whole bulk of a language to go before the grammar is to -make the building precede the basis. Therefore it was held more -consentaneous to reason, and congruous to order that the grammar should -be put here in the first place, for Art observes the method of Nature to -make us creep before we go." He likewise made a few additions to -Cotgrave's rules, and appended a dialogue in French and English, -"consisting of some of the extraordinary and difficult criticall phrases -which are meer Gallicismes, and pure idiomes of the French tongue"; and -also a passage of French prose, in the old spelling and also according -to the reformed orthography introduced by the Academy. - -In 1660 appeared another edition of Cotgrave, still further enlarged by -Howell.[496] Some years previously copies of the edition of 1650, "with -blank pages sown between the leaves," had been sent by the printer "to -knowing persons, true lovers of the French," who were invited to enter -on the blank pages any word they came across in their reading which was -not in the dictionary; by means of this plan several hundred additional -words were gathered together, many being "new invented terms, which the -admired Mons. Scudery, and other late Romancers have so happily publisht -in their printed volumes." After Howell's death there appeared yet -another issue of his edition of Cotgrave, in 1673.[497] The printer -employed the same means to increase the number of words as had been so -successfully adopted in 1660. - -The appearance of French dictionaries naturally facilitated the reading -of French literature, which in its turn had much influence on the spread -of the knowledge of the language. Lord Herbert of Cherbury, it has been -seen, gained his first knowledge of French by reading it with the help -of a dictionary. And, in spite of the fact that French literature was -widely read in translations,[498] there were many who preferred to read -it in the original. The number of French books in private libraries is -enough to show this. One translator of the time felt it necessary to -apologize for offering an English version (1627) "of the French Knight -Lisander and his lady Calista," contrary to the fashion of the time, -"which is all French."[499] Further testimony is found in the many -French books which were printed in England,[500] in addition to the -books in both French and English. And many English writers of the time -introduced French freely into their own English compositions.[501] - -Almost all Englishmen of education could read French, and many, no -doubt, learnt it as Herbert did. [Header: STUDY OF FRENCH LITERATURE] -Milton, who differed from most of his countrymen in his decided -preference for Italian, taught both languages to his two pupils and -nephews, Edward and John Philips, on this method of reading. For Italian -they read Giovanni Villani's _History_, and for French "a great part of -Pierre Davity, the famous geographer of France in his time."[502] In -fashionable circles the case was the same, and French romances and -collections of _nouvelles_ were much in vogue. Lady Brilliana Harley, -for instance, who later distinguished herself by defending her castle in -Herefordshire against the Royalists, spent much of her time reading -French literature. She wrote asking her son, then at Magdalen College, -Oxford (1638-9), to send her books in French, as she "had rather reade -any thinge in that tounge than in Inglisch."[503] She would even while -away days of sickness by translating passages of Calvin, whom the -English Protestants, yielding to the general prejudice in favour of all -things French, followed in preference to Luther. Not infrequently, -moreover, works in other languages were read in French versions, just as -such versions were frequently the medium of translation; Drummond of -Hawthornden read _Orlando Furioso_ and the _Azolani_ of Bembo in French, -as well as the works of the Swiss theologian and follower of Zwingli, -Thomas Erastus.[504] - -Among the most eager advocates of the reading of French literature were -naturally the French teachers of the time. One of the chief objections -raised against Holyband's system of distinguishing the unpronounced -letters was that the student would be at a loss when he came to read -French books. Holyband, however, protested that such was not the case, -and that "the cavillation of these ignorantes who measure other men's -wit according to their owne" was in contradiction to his experience, -which daily showed him the contrary. As to his reading, Holyband would -first have the learner "reade halfe a score chapters of the New -Testament, because it was both easie and profitable:[505] then let him -take in hand any of the works of Monsieur de Launay, otherwise called -Pierre Boaystuau, as the best and the most elegant writer of our tongue. -His workes be _le Theatre du monde_, the tragicall histories, the -prodigious histories. Sleidan's commentaries in frenche be excellently -translated. Philippe de Commins, when he is corrected is very profitable -and wise." The _Nouveau Testament_ of de Beze, Boiasteau's _Theatre du -monde_, and Sleidan's _Commentaries_[506] were all books well known in -England, and Holyband himself prepared an edition of Boiasteau.[507] An -additional reason, according to him, for retaining the unsounded -consonants was to facilitate the reading of the older monuments of the -French language. He also advised the perusal of Marot's works, of the -_Amadis_ of Herberay des Essarts, of Francois de Belleforest's _Histoire -Universelle du monde_, of the _Vies et Morales de Plutarque_, in Amyot's -version, and of the collection of stories, on the plan of the -_Decameron_, which its author, Jacques Yver, had entitled _Le Printemps_ -(1572),[508] by way of contrast with his own name. - -Evidently Holyband's choice of French literature was influenced to some -extent by his religious sympathies. It is curious that he makes no -mention of Ronsard, who was much read in England, and one of the -favourite authors of the Queen. Bellot in his Grammar had similar if not -identical ambitions. He sought to enable his pupils to read the _Amadis_ -of Des Essarts, Marot, de Beze, du Bellay's lyrics, Froissart, Ronsard, -Collet[509] and Jodelle "racontans l'un l'amour et l'autre la guerre -cruelle." Pibrac and Du Bartas have already been mentioned as favourite -authors. It was to encourage his pupils to take delight in the "profound -learning and flowing sweetness of the French poets, especially the -divine works of that matchlesse du Bartas," that a French teacher of the -seventeenth century, Pierre Erondell, printed at the end of his book for -teaching the language, the New Testament story of the Centurion, -rendered by himself into French verse. "This poor work," he quaintly -writes, will encourage learners to read better ones, "because everything -is better known by his contrarye and the sweet sweeter, after that the -mouth hath tasted of the sharpe sower." - -Naturally writings of a religious character were much in favour with -these teachers. [Header: AUTHORS USUALLY READ] Holyband advised the -reading of de Beze's New Testament, and several times we hear of "the -French Bible" being printed in England.[510] The Liturgy in French[511] -was also printed, and would be useful to English students of French -attending the French Church. - -French teachers were not the only zealous advocates of the reading of -French literature. Most of the writers on polite education of the time -give similar advice, although for different reasons. "For statesmen, -French authors are the best," wrote Francis Osborne in his _Advice to a -son_,[512] "and most fruitful in negociations, and memoirs left by -public ministers, and by their secretaries published after their -deaths." Cleland names the works of the many learned historiographers of -France he would have the future diplomat and aspirant to the services of -the State read: "Engerrand of Munstrellet, Philip of Commines, the Lord -of Haillant, who is both learned and profitable and pleasant in my -conceit. The Commentaries of Bellay and the Inventorie of John Serres, -newlie printed and worthie to be read, both for the good and compendious -compiling of the storie and also for the French eloquence wherin he -floweth. For militarie affairs, yee maie read the Lord of Noue, who is -somwhat difficil for some men, and also the Commentaries of the L. -Monluc, which are good both for a young souldier, and an old -captaine."[513] - -Bodin was another of the authors specially recommended. Sir Philip -Sidney counsels his brother Robert to read him with particular -attention, and James Howell[514] includes him in a list of "good French -writers," which varies slightly from that of Cleland: "For the general -history of France, Serres is one of the best, and for the modern times, -d'Aubigni, Pierre Mathieu, and du Pleix: for the politicall and martiall -government du Haillan, De la Noue, Bodin, and the Cabinet: Touching -Commines, who was contemporary with Machiavel, 'twas a witty speech of -the last Queen mother of France that he made more Heretiques in policy -than Luther ever did in religion. Therefore he requires a reader of -riper years." - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[449] This was the fee charged by Holyband in his French school. - -[450] The interlinear arrangement used in the Middle Ages had been -abandoned in all but a few exceptional cases. These teachers no doubt -agreed with the pedagogue John Brinsley, the chief exponent of the -method of translation, that interlinears were confusing because the eye -catches the two languages simultaneously. - -[451] F. Watson, _English Grammar Schools_, Cambridge, 1908, pp. 305 -_sqq._ J. E. Sandys, "Education in Shakespeare's England," in -_Shakespeare's England_, i. pp. 231 _sqq._ - -[452] Cp. Rashdall, _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, ii. p. -603. - -[453] Article on Lily in _Dict. Nat. Biog._, and Watson, _Grammar -Schools_, pp. 243 _sqq._ - -[454] Cp. W. Lilly's _History of His Life_, "Autobiographies," I., -London, 1828, pp. 12, 13; _The Autobiography of Adam Martindale_, -Chetham Soc., 1845, pp. 14, 15, and similar diaries and memoirs. - -[455] Published at Brabant, 1538; cp. F. Watson, _Tudor Schoolboy Life_, -1908. - -[456] By Leonard Culman. - -[457] Less widely used were the _Dialogues_ of John Posselius, a German -philosopher. They treat of the school and the study of the classical -tongues. They were printed in London in Latin and English in 1625, as -_Dialogues conteyning all the most familiar and usefull words of the -Latin Tongue_. - -[458] Which took the form of translating: "For all your constructions in -Grammar Scholes be nothing els but translations," Ascham, _The -Scholemaster_ (1570), ed. Arber, 1869, p. 92. - -[459] C. Hoole, _An advertisement touching ... school books_, 1659. - -[460] _Institution of a young nobleman_, 1607, p. 78. - -[461] Quoted by F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, p. 246. - -[462] _The Boke named the Governour_, ed. Crofts, 1883, i. p. 33. - -[463] _The Scholemaster_ (1570), ed. Arber, London, 1869, p. 28. - -[464] Elyot, _op. cit._ i. p. 54. - -[465] Ascham, _op. cit._ p. 92. - -[466] F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, p. 264. "Much writing breedeth ready -speaking," was one of his precepts. - -[467] Ascham himself got his ideas mainly from Cicero (_De Oratore_). - -[468] _The Scholemaster, ed. cit._ p. 26. Ascham also suggests the use -of a third paper book, in which a collection of the different forms of -speech and phrases should be made from the material read. - -[469] 1574?-1637, the second of the five sons of Edmund Lisle of -Tanbridge in Surrey, _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[470] This is the title of the 1625 edition, printed by John Hoviland. -That of 1596 was printed by L. Bollifant for R. Wilkins, and entitled -_Babilon a part of Du Bartas his second Weeke_ (Pyne, _List of Books_, -1874-8, i. p. 132); cp. _Stationers' Register_, iii. 98 (_A Booke called -the Colonyes of Bartas with the commentarye of S. G. S. englished and -enlarged by Wm. L'Isle_, 1597). - -[471] This is a copy bound separately from the rest of the 1605 edition -of Sylvester's _Divine Weekes_, with which it was issued. - -[472] S. Lee, in _Dict. Nat. Biog._ - -[473] A long list may be compiled from the _Registers of the Stationers' -Company_. J. Wolfe and R. Field, both printers of French grammars, -received many licences to print books in French and English. See also -Upham, _French Influence in English Literature_, New York, 1908 -(Appendix I., pp. 471-505). Many of these works are on religious topics; -others belong to no particular category, in the style of Bellot's -_Jardin de Vertu_; many on topical subjects, such as news-letters and -pamphlets on the French wars, were printed in French more to appeal to a -larger public than to give instruction in the language. - -[474] _An advertisement touching ... school books_, 1659. - -[475] _Autobiography_, ed. S. Lee, 2nd ed., 1906, p. 23. - -[476] Hazlitt, _Bibliog. Collections_, iv. 111. In 1584 Newbury and -Denham received licence to print "the Dictionary in French and English, -in 4to, and all other dictionaries French and English in quarto," -_Stationers' Register_, ii. 438. - -[477] "Knowing then of no other dictionary to help us, but Sir Thomas -Eliot's _Librarie_, which was come out a little before." - -[478] On Holyband's debts to these works see Miss E. Farrer's _La Vie et -les oeuvres de Claude de Sainliens_, pp. 70 _sqq._ - -[479] F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, p. 458. - -[480] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[481] _Abcedarium Anglico-Latinum_, London, 1552. - -[482] Folio, printed by Thomas Marshe. - -[483] Farrer, _op. cit._ p. 72. - -[484] First appeared at Leyden in 1567. Higgins' edition was printed for -Ralph Newberie and Henrie Denham, 8vo. - -[485] _A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues._ London, printed -by A. Islip, 1611, folio. - -[486] Cp. _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1901, v. p. 243. - -[487] _Stationers' Register_, iii. 432. - -[488] Farrer, _op. cit._ p. 86. - -[489] Himself a good linguist, who translated some of James I.'s -compositions into French, and was for many years in the service of the -English Foreign Office; cp. S. Lee, _Beginnings of French Translations -from the English_. Transactions of the Bibliog. Soc. vii., 1908. - -[490] In an autograph letter; cp. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[491] _Rolls of expenses of Prince Henry_, "Revels at Court," ed. P. -Cunningham, New Shakespeare Soc., 1842 (Preface). - -[492] Harl. MSS. 7002, quoted _Dict. Nat. Biog._ At the end of one of -the Brit. Mus. copies is the MS. inscription: "Mr. James Winwood, his -book and sent him out of England by John More the 18th May [1611]." -Evidently Cotgrave's work made its way rapidly into France. - -[493] Printed by Adam Islip, 4to. - -[494] _A French English Dictionary, compil'd by Mr. Randle Cotgrave, -with another in English and French. Whereunto are newly added the -Animadversions and Supplements etc. of James Howell, Esquire._ London, -printed by W. H. for Rd. Whitaker ... 4to. Sherwood's dictionary was -printed by Susan Islip. - -[495] Ninth ed., 1726, pp. 470 _sqq._ - -[496] _A French and English Dictionary composed by Mr. Randle Cotgrave, -with another in English and French. Whereunto are added sundry -animadversions with supplements of many hundreds of words never before -printed; with accurate castigations throughout the whole work, and -distinctions of the obsolete words from those that are now in use. -Together with a dialogue consisting of all gallicisms, with additions of -the most useful and significant proverbs, with other refinements -according to cardinall Richelieu's late Academy. For the furtherance of -the young learners, and the advantage of all others that endeavour to -arrive to the most exact knowledge of the French this work is exposed to -publick...._ Printed by Wm. Hunt in Pye Corner. - -[497] Title same as in 1660. "Printed for Anthony Dolle, and are to be -sold by Th. Williams at the Golden Ball in Hosier Lane." - -[498] Many important literary productions in different languages came -into England through the medium of a French version--for instance, -Plutarch, _Amadis_, the _Politics_ of Aristotle. Cp. Upham, _French -Influence in English Literature_, p. 13. The influence of Senecan -tragedy reached England through the intermediary of the "French Seneca," -Robert Garnier (Schelling, _Elizabethan Drama_, ii. pp. 5 _sqq._ and p. -512). In 1612 licence was granted N. Bulter to print an English -translation from French of so popular a work as Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ -(_Stationers' Register_, iii. 489). - -[499] The _Histoire tragi-comique de nostre temps sous les noms de -Lysandre et de Caliste_ (1615) was the work of d'Audigier. - -[500] Thus the _Preau des Fleurs meslees, contenant plusieurs et -differentz discours_ of Francois Voilleret, sieur de Florizel, was -printed in London in 1600 (?), and dedicated to the Prince of Wales. In -1620 it was licensed to be printed in French and English, provided the -English translation be approved. In 1619 a French translation of Bacon's -_Essays_ was published at London, and in 1623 Field received a licence -to print a French translation of Camden's _Annals_ (originally in Latin) -by J. Bellequent, avocat au Parlement de Paris (_Stationers' Register_, -iv. 106). - -[501] As did Shakespeare (cp. Schmidt, _Shakespeare Lexicon_, Berlin, -1902, vol. ii.) and several of the lesser poets. French refrains were -also sometimes used, as in Greene's _Never too Late_ (Infida's song): - - "Wilt thou let thy Venus di, - N'oseres vous mon bel amy? - Adon were unkinde say I, - Je vous en prie, pitie me: - N'oseres vous mon bel, mon bel, - N'oseres vous, mon bel amy?" - -See S. Lee, _French Renaissance in England_, Oxford, 1910, p. 243. -Sylvester even ventured to write poems in French. - -[502] _Lives of Ed. and John Philips, nephews of Milton_ (1694), -reprinted by William Godwin, 1815, pp. 362-3. - -[503] _Letters_, Camden Soc., 1854, p. 13, and _passim_. - -[504] Upham, _op. cit._ p. 8. - -[505] In 1551 the New Testament and a Book of Prayers in French were -printed by Thomas Gaultier. _Handlist of Books_, Bibliographical -Society, 1913. - -[506] The German historian's commentary, _De Statu religionis et -reipublicae Carolo Quinto Caesare_, appeared in Latin in 1555, and in -French in 1557. - -[507] _Le theatre du monde . . . revue et corrige par C. de Sainliens_, -1595. Printed by George Bishop and dedicated to "the Scotch Ambassador, -Jacques de Betoun, Archevesque de Glasco." - -[508] Which was very popular. It reached twelve editions before the end -of the century. - -[509] No doubt the poet Claude Collet. - -[510] Cp. _Stationers' Register_, iii. 468. Another work of a religious -nature was the _Catechisme ou instruction familiere sur les principaus -points de la Religion Chrestienne_ (par M. Dielincourt), _Stationers' -Register_, iii. 410. - -[511] _Stationers' Register_, ii. 451, 452. - -[512] 1656, pp. 12-13. - -[513] _Institution of a young nobleman_, p. 152. - -[514] _Directions for forreine travel_ (1642), ed. Arber, 1869, p. 21. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - - FRENCH AT THE UNIVERSITIES - - -The universities set the grammar schools the example by neglecting the -study of French and other subjects necessary to a polite education. Even -the limited encouragement given to the modern language at the -universities during the Middle Ages no longer existed in the sixteenth -century. At this date Latin reigned supreme at Oxford and Cambridge, and -its use was rigorously enforced. The students were required "to speak in -Latin at public places" or otherwise "incur the penalty contained in the -statute regarding this point."[515] It is true that these regulations -were not always obeyed; Fynes Moryson says that scholars in the -universities shun occasions of speaking Latin. But it was none the less -the chief language cultivated at the universities,[516] where no modern -languages received official recognition. - -The mediaeval custom of using French on various academic occasions had -not, however, disappeared without leaving a few traces. Some of the -French forms of procedure favoured in the Middle Ages, probably owing to -the influence of the University of Paris, were still in use at Cambridge -in the seventeenth century. The books of two Cambridge beadels, Beadel -Stokys (_c._ 1570) and Beadel Buck (1665),[517] show that on several -occasions these officials were instructed to use French during public -ceremonies. Thus, at the solemn exercise of determination, one of the -beadels gave thanks for the money he and his fellows received, in the -following terms: [Header: FRENCH AND ITALIAN READ] "Noter Determiners je -vous remercie de le Argent que vous avez donner a moy et a meis -companiouns, pourquoy je prie a Dieu que il vous veuille donner tres -bonne vie et en la Fin la Joye de Paradise." In similar -"Stratford-atte-Bowe" French they summoned the lecturers in the -'schools' to be present on commencement day: "Nostre Seigneur Doctor, -une parolle sil vous Plaist, nostres Peres de nostres Seigneurs -Commencens vous prient que vous estes demayn a son commencement en -l'eglise de nostre Dame." And throughout the ceremonies[518] in Arts and -Theology similar French formulae, often interspersed with Latin, were -frequently used, though they had probably passed out of use by the -beginning of the eighteenth century. But even at that time the summons -to dinner at New College still retained a trace of the old custom; two -choristers walked from the chapel door to the garden gate crying, -"Tempus est vocando, mangez tous seigneurs." - -Yet modern languages were not entirely neglected by all university -students. Gabriel Harvey, in an interesting letter to a certain Mr. -Wood, says that the students of Cambridge have "deserted Thomas Aquinas -and the whole rabblement of schoolmen for modern French and Italian -works such as Commines and Machiavell, Paradines in Frenche, Plutarche -in Frenche, and I know not how many outlandish braveryes of the same -stamp." "You can not stepp into a schollars studye," he adds, "but (ten -to on) you shall litely finde open either Bodin _de Republica_ or Le -Royes exposition uppon Aristotles Politiques, or some other like Frenche -or Italian Politique Discourses."[519] - -Thus we may safely conclude that French and to a less extent Italian -books were widely read at the universities. No doubt, those who learnt -Italian did so with the help of a dictionary or an English translation, -like Lord Herbert of Cherbury. But there were additional opportunities -for learning the more popular language. French tutors and French -grammars were not unknown at both Oxford and Cambridge. But it was at -Oxford that they were by far the more numerous. The tutors taught French -privately to those of the students who were willing to learn. And -Holyband in dedicating his _French Schoolemaister_ (1573) to the young -Robert Sackville, then a student at Oxford, throws light on the attitude -taken towards that language: "not that you shuld leave off your -weightier and worthier studies in the Universitie, but when your mind is -amazed and dazled with long readinge, you may refresh and disport you in -learninge this [French] tongue." - -Protestant refugees formed an important section of the little band of -private French tutors at Oxford. Many Huguenots, frequently scholars of -distinction, settled at the English centres of learning. Some were -promoted to positions in the University,[520] on which they had a very -beneficial influence, just as others received preferment in the English -Church. The French tutors were among the humbler and more numerous -exiles who "taught privately," as the seventeenth-century historian of -the University, Anthony a Wood, tells us. Apart from those who actually -taught French, the presence of considerable numbers of Frenchmen[521] -cannot have been without some indirect influence on the study of French -at Cambridge, as well as at Oxford. - -In addition, several French tutors accompanied their pupils to the -University, and spent some time with them there. Such, no doubt, was the -case of Peter Du Ploich who, for some unknown reason, was residing in -Barnard College (now St. John's), Oxford, early in the second half of -the sixteenth century. Another well-known French tutor, G. De la Mothe, -accompanied his pupil Richard Wenman to Oxford, some time between 1587 -and 1592. About ten years before, we come across a famous Protestant, -Jean Hotman, sieur de Villiers St. Paul, resident at Oxford with his -pupils, the sons of Lord Poulet, English ambassador at Paris; while -attending to the education of his charges he completed his own, and -received the degree of Doctor. Subsequently he became secretary to -Leicester, and was thus brought into contact with the English -Court.[522] The younger Pierre Du Moulin likewise remained with his -pupil Richard Boyle when at Oxford.[523] [Header: FRENCH GRAMMARS -PRINTED AT OXFORD] Among tutors who spent a short time at Oxford, and -then joined the larger and more successful group of language teachers -in London, was John Florio,[524] well known as a writer of books for -teaching Italian, and himself of Italian parentage, though born in -London. In about 1576 he became tutor for French and Italian to -Emmanuel, son of Richard Barnes, Bishop of Durham, and to several other -Oxford students. He was, we are told, a "very useful man in his -profession." Shortly after, he removed to London, where he enjoyed -favour at Court. - -Of more importance, however, is the group of private tutors who settled -at Oxford, found a clientele among the University students, and -frequently wrote and published French grammars for the use of their -pupils. There was evidently some demand for instruction in French at -Oxford early in the sixteenth century. The bookseller John Donne enters -a book called _Frans and Englis_ twice in the register of books he sold -in 1520;[525] this may have been either Caxton's Book in French and -English, or the similar collection of dialogues printed by Pynson and -Wynkyn de Worde in turn. - -The first book for teaching French printed at Oxford was due to a -Frenchman called Pierre Morlet, a native of Auteuil, who taught French -at Oxford in the last decade of the sixteenth century. His _Janitrix -sive institutio ad perfectam linguae gallicae cognitionem acquirendum_ -was issued from the press of Joseph Barnes in 1596.[526] The dedication, -dated from Broadgates Hall the 5th of March of the same year, is -addressed to Morlet's former pupil, Sir Robert Beal. This rare little -treatise contains a few observations on the pronunciation of the -letters, followed by a concise treatment of each part of speech in turn. -It is preceded by a number of commendatory verses in Latin and Greek, -tributes from Morlet's pupils, students of the various colleges. Morlet -had previously prepared a revised edition of Jean Garnier's French -grammar, which was published at Jena in 1593,[527] no doubt before his -coming to England. - -As might be expected, most of the early Oxford French grammars, written -for the use of Oxonians, differ from those published at London in that -they are composed in Latin. They differ further in containing no -practical exercises and restricting their contents to rules of grammar. - -All the French grammars published at Oxford were not due to Frenchmen. -In 1584 a Spanish refugee, Antonio de Corro, resident at Christ Church, -after acting as minister of the Spanish Church in London, had -anticipated Morlet by adding a few rules on French pronunciation and -accidence to his Spanish Grammar,[528] written in his own language. This -was subsequently translated into English in 1590 by J. Thorius, also of -Christ Church, and printed in London as _The Spanish Grammer with -certaine Rules teaching both the Spanish and French tongues_. Several -grammars were likewise produced by Englishmen resident at Oxford, and -teaching the French language. Among others was John Sanford, or -Sandford, chaplain of Magdalen College, and the author of the French -grammar which succeeded Morlet's. Sanford wrote in Latin, and entitled -his work _Le Guichet Francois, sive Janicula et Brevis Introductio ad -Linguam Gallicam_. It was published by Joseph Barnes in 1604,[529] and -dedicated to Dr. Bond, president of Magdalen. Sanford compiled his -observations on the pronunciation and parts of speech from the various -French grammars published in both France and England; he drew largely on -Morlet, as well as Bellot and Holyband; and made equally free with de -Beze, Pillot, and Ramus. - -He varied his duties as chaplain by giving lessons in French. In 1605 he -was teaching French to that "hopefull young gentleman Mr. William Grey, -son to the Rt. Honourable Arthur Lord Grey of Wilton," and found "good -contentement" in his "happy progresse therein." Called away temporarily -by other duties, Sanford made an English translation of the Latin work, -which he addressed to his young charge "as a pledge of my duteous love -towards your good deserts, and as my substitute to supplie my absence, -being willing also for your sake to make a publicke use therof." The -_Janicula_ appeared in its new form, much abridged as well as -translated, in 1605, under the title of _A Briefe Extract of the former -Latin Grammar_.[530] It is significant that although this English -translation was printed by Barnes at Oxford, it was mainly intended for -a London public, and was "to be sold in Paules Church Yard at the signe -of the Crowne by Simon Waterson." - -[Header: SALTONSTALL AND LEIGHTON] - -Sanford retained his position at Magdalen for some years after the -appearance of his grammars. In about 1610 he was travelling abroad as -chaplain to Sir John Digby, whose acquaintance he had made when Sir John -was a student at Balliol.[531] - -Other well-known English teachers of French at Oxford were Wye -Saltonstall and Henry Leighton. Wye Saltonstall came of a noble family -in Essex. He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford, where "his descent -and birth being improved by learning, flatter'd him with a kinder -fortune than afterwards he enjoyed his life being all _Tristia_." He is -said to have then gone to Gray's Inn, Holborn, without taking a degree -at Oxford, and afterwards to have become a perfect master of French, -which he had acquired during his travels. In 1625 he returned to Oxford -for purposes of study and converse with learned men. There he taught -Latin and French, and was still living in good repute in 1640 and -after.[532] - -Henry Leighton, on the other hand, had not so good a reputation at the -University. He is said to have been a man of debauched character, and to -have obtained the degree of M.A. in anything but a straightforward -manner; when Charles I. created more than seventy persons M.A. on the -1st of November 1642, Leighton, who then bore a commission in the king's -army, contrived to have the degree conferred on himself by presenting -himself at dusk, when the light was very low, though his name was not on -the list. When the king's cause declined, Leighton, who had received the -greater part of his education in France, and was an accomplished French -scholar, settled at Oxford as a teacher of French, and had a room in St. -John's College. Apparently he continued to teach French until 1669, the -year of his death.[533] - -He was the author of a French grammar written in Latin, called _Linguae -Gallicae addiscendae regulae_, printed in 1659,[534] and again in 1662. -Beginning with rules for the pronunciation of each letter, the author -passes to observations on the articles, nouns, pronouns, and verbs; he -then returns to the pronunciation, gives fuller rules for the more -difficult sounds, and closes with a list of irregular verbs.[535] -Leighton says he published his work at the request of his friends. He -dedicated it (in French) to Henry O'Brien, baron of Ibrecken, only son -of the Earl of Thomond, expressing, in words very like those used by -Holyband on a similar occasion, the hope that this "divertissement," as -he calls the grammar, may help to while away time not occupied by more -serious and important studies. Thus we see that the general attitude -towards the study of French was still, in the middle of the seventeenth -century, very much what it had been in the preceding century. - -In the meantime other grammars had appeared from the pens of French -sojourners at Oxford. One, Robert Farrear, a teacher of French, wrote a -grammar in English for the use of his pupils, _The Brief Direction to -the French Tongue_, printed at Oxford in 1618. Nothing further is known -of its author. Anthony a Wood[536] informs us that in the title of the -book Farrear inscribed himself M.A., but "whether he took that degree or -was incorporated therein in Oxford" he could not discover. - -The works on French which appeared at Oxford were not all formal -grammars of the type described. Pierre Bense, a native of Paris, who -taught Italian and Spanish as well as French, was the author of the -_Analogo-Diaphora seu Concordantia Discrepans et Discrepantia Concordans -trium linguarum Gallicae, Italicae et Hispanicae_, commended by Edward -Leigh in his _Foelix Consortium or a fit Conjuncture of Religion and -Learning_ (1663). This comparison of the resemblances and differences in -the grammar of the three languages is dedicated to the University of -Oxford, and was printed at the author's own expense in 1637.[537] As to -Bense himself we are told that he was partly bred "in good letters" at -Paris, and then, coming to England, "he went by letters commendatory to -Oxon where being kindly received and entertained, became a sojourner -there, was entred into the public library, and taught for several years -the French, Italian and Spanish tongues." For the rest we must be -content to add with Wood: "What other things he hath written I know not, -nor any thing else of the author."[538] - -[Header: GABRIEL DU GRES] - -As yet no French grammars had appeared at Cambridge, and French teachers -do not seem to have made their presence felt there.[539] In 1631, -however, one of the best known of this group of university French tutors -arrived at Cambridge--Gabriel Du Gres, a native of Saumur, and a member -of a good family from Angers. He arrived in England as a refugee on -account of his Protestant faith, received a warm welcome at Cambridge, -and taught French to several of the students in various colleges.[540] -In the fifth year of his residence, the liberality of his pupils enabled -him to publish his _Breve et Accuratum Grammaticae Gallicae compendium -in quo superflua rescinduntur et necessaria non omittuntur_ (1636), a -work on the same lines and of about the same dimensions as that of -Morlet.[541] It is preceded by Latin verses addressed to the author by -members of different colleges, and is dedicated to the students of the -University, especially those engaged in the study of French. This -grammar of Du Gres appears to be the only work of its kind printed at -Cambridge before the eighteenth century.[542] - -Shortly after its publication Du Gres joined the group of French tutors -at Oxford,[543] and this removal points to the more ready openings -offered there to those of his profession. When he published his _Dialogi -Gallico-Anglico-Latini_[544] at Oxford in 1639, he was teaching French -in that "most illustrious and famous university." These dialogues are -dedicated to Charles, Prince of Wales. Twenty-one in number, they deal -with the usual familiar topics, greetings and the ordinary civilities, -visiting and table talk, the house and its contents, man and the parts -of his body, wayfaring, a journey to France, and so forth, many being of -much interest on account of the light they throw on the customs of the -time. Considerable space is devoted to instructions for writing letters. - -A second edition appeared in 1652, enlarged with "necessary rules for -the pronunciation of the French tongue, very profitable unto them that -are desirous of it," giving a pseudo-English equivalent of the sound of -each French letter, and followed by a few general rules for reading -French and a table of the auxiliary and regular verbs. This little book, -which has more in common with the productions of the London teachers -than with the Oxford manuals, enjoyed a greater popularity than those of -Du Gres's rivals. In 1660 a third edition appeared, without the -additions found in the second. - -He was also the author of an interesting little work in English on the -Duke of Richelieu,[545] printed in London in 1643. Probably Du Gres had -removed to London at that date; in the second edition of his grammar, -printed, like the first, by Leonard Lichfield at Oxford, he describes -himself as "late teacher of the same in Oxford." - -In his dialogues Du Gres gives some account of his ideas on the teaching -of French:[546] - - Commencons a l'abece. - - Escusez moy. - - Entendez moy, oyez moy, prononcer les lettres. Remarquez bien - comment je prononce les voyelles, et principalement _u_, car il est - bien malaise a prononcer a vous autres mm. les Anglois, comme aussi - _e_ entre les consonnes. Prononcez apres moy. - - Voila qui va bien. - - Prononce-je bien? - - Fort bien. Essayez encore une fois. - - Ce mechant _u_ me donne bien de la peine. - - Il ne sauroit tant vous en donner que votre _th_ ou _ch_ nous en - donne. - - Il est malaise d'avoir la propriete de votre langue. - - L'exercice et la lecture des bons autheurs vous apprendront avec le - temps, etc. - -He agreed with most of the French teachers of the day in attaching much -importance to conversational practice and reading. He also recommended a -certain amount of memorising and the study of grammar; general rules and -rules of syntax he considered indispensable; but for pronunciation he -thought practice of more avail than rules. It is possible, he admits, to -learn French by rote, without any grammar rules. But it is not the best -way in his opinion. Without grammar rules the student cannot distinguish -good French from bad, nor can he translate, write letters, or read; and -reading, thought Du Gres, was an essential condition if the cultivation -of French in England was to be maintained. [Header: FRENCH AT -CAMBRIDGE] Those who learn by ear are at a loss as soon as they no -longer hear French spoken daily. As for those who promise to teach -French in a short time, they are nothing but mountebanks. Du Gres held -that a man of moderate intellect could, with hard work, learn to -understand an ordinary French author in three or four months. He had -had, he declares, some pupils at Cambridge who learnt to read and speak -fairly well in four months and others who learnt practically nothing in -a whole year. - -At the end of the seventeenth century the status of French at the -universities had undergone no marked change. At the time of the -Restoration, a certain Philemon Fabri petitioned Williamson for an -appointment as Professor of French eloquence at Oxford, "he having held -a similar situation at Strasburg"; he supported his request by an -address to the king in French verses, entitled _Le Pater Noster des -Anglais au Roi_. Apparently Fabri did not receive the desired -position.[547] At Cambridge we find still less encouragement given to -the study of French than at Oxford. During the Commonwealth, Guy Le -Moyne, formerly French tutor to Charles I., lived at Cambridge, and no -doubt continued to teach French there, as he had done in London and at -Court.[548] At the Restoration he petitioned Charles II. to let him have -the Fellowship at Pembroke Hall reserved for Frenchmen.[549] Le Moyne -was then seventy-two years old, and wished, he said, to end his days at -Cambridge.[550] At Cambridge, as at Oxford, there were also French -tutors in charge of particular pupils. Many of these were French -Protestants. Thus the famous Pierre Du Moulin, arriving in England as a -destitute refugee in 1588, was received into the service of the Countess -of Rutland, who sent him to Cambridge as tutor to her son. There he -remained until 1592, continuing his own studies as well as attending to -those of his young charge. He thoroughly disliked his position, and -seized the first opportunity of leaving it.[551] We also hear of Herbert -Palmer, President of Queen's College (1644-47), who had learnt French -almost as soon as he could speak, and could preach in French as well as -in English.[552] He won considerable distinction as a college tutor, but -whether he placed his knowledge of French at the service of students, as -Sanford and Leighton did at Oxford, is not specified. - -Yet, even at Oxford, the efforts of this band of French teachers were -not on a large enough scale to have any very noticeable effect. Some -gentlemen who, like Sanford's pupil, William Grey, had gone to the -University to make themselves "fit for honourable imployments -hereafter," took advantage of such opportunities as there were of -studying French. Thus Henry Smith, while acting as tutor to Mr. -Clifford, learnt French himself, and wrote to Williamson in that -language.[553] And no doubt the French tutors found enough pupils among -those who were drawn more towards the fashionable than the scholastic -world. But the inability of the young Oxford student to speak French -when in polite London circles was a subject of comment in the -seventeenth century as the language became more and more widely -cultivated. To speak French was even considered incompatible with a -university education, to judge from this passage in one of Farquhar's -comedies:[554] - - _Sir H. Wildair._ Canst thou danse, child? - - _Bantu._ Oui, monsieur. - - _Lady Lurewell._ Heyday! French too! Why, sure, sir, you could - never be bred at Oxford! - -To the same intent Pepys relates[555] how an Oxford scholar, "in a -Doctor of Lawe's gowne," whom he met at dinner at the Spanish -ambassador's, sat like a fool for want of French, "though a gentle sort -of scholar"; nor could he speak the ambassador's language, but only -Latin, which he spoke like an Englishman. Pepys, on the other hand, was -very pleased at the display he was able to make of his own French on -this occasion. The famous diarist was a competent judge, and spoke and -wrote the language with ease. Unfortunately we know nothing of how he -acquired this knowledge, beyond the fact that he had not been to -France.[556] [Header: ONE-SIDEDNESS OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION] He often -criticizes the French of those he meets, and a certain Dr. Pepys, -according to him, "spoke the worst French he had ever heard from one who -had been beyond sea." Pepys's brother spoke French, "very plain and -good," and Mrs. Pepys, the daughter of a refugee Huguenot, was as -familiar with that language as with English.[557] - -Thus the universities, like the schools, failed to keep in touch with -practical life by their neglect of the broader education necessary to -persons of quality and fashion. At the Inns of Court, where gentlemen -usually spent some time on leaving the university,[558] or where they -sometimes went instead of to the university,[559] the state of things -was somewhat better. Some knowledge of French was indispensable to those -studying the law, and the position of the Inns, almost all of them -within the boundaries of the ward of Farringdon Without, the favourite -abode of the French teachers, was such as to offer exceptional -facilities for the study of the language. When Robert Ashley was at the -Inner Temple he studied Spanish, Italian, and Dutch, as well as French. -We are told[560] that in earlier times "knights, barons, and the -greatest nobility of the kingdom often placed their children in those -Inns of Court, not so much to make the laws their study, much less to -live by the profession ... but to form their manners and to preserve -them from contagion of vice." There, could be found "a sort of gymnasium -or academy fit for persons of their station, where they learn singing -and all kinds of music, dancing, and other such accomplishments and -Diversions ... as are suitable to their quality and such as are usually -practiced at Court." French was, without doubt, one of these -accomplishments. Towards the end of the seventeenth century the Inns of -Court were still much in favour, and gentlemen's sons could enjoy there -good company and the innocent recreations of the town, as well as -improve themselves in the "exercises." Clarendon calls the Inns of Court -the suburbs of the Court itself. - -None the less, the gentleman with a university education, even when it -was followed by residence at one of the Inns of Court, was felt to be -inadequately equipped. Almost invariably he sought on the Continent the -polite accomplishments and knowledge of languages, which were necessary -qualifications for high employment at Court, in the army, and elsewhere. -Travel came to be regarded as "an especial part"[561] of the education -of a gentleman, and as such occupies an important place in the -educational treatises of the time. The usual course advised for the sons -of gentlemen was an early study of Greek and Latin, followed by -residence at one of the Universities and at the Inns of Court, and, -finally, "travel beyond seas for language and experience" and the study -of such arts as could not be easily acquired in England. - -In some cases gentlemen were educated quite independently of the English -schools and universities[562]--at home with private tutors, and in -France. Lady Brilliana Harley, for instance, feared that her son would -not find much good company at Oxford. "I believe," she wrote, "that -theare are but feawe nobellmens sonne in Oxford, for now, for the most -part, they send theaire sonnes into France when they are very yonge, -theaire to be breed."[563] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[515] J. Heywood, _Cambridge Statutes_ (sixteenth century), London, -1840, p. 267. - -[516] Cooper, _Annals of Cambridge_, 1852, iii. p. 429; Mullinger, -_History of the University of Cambridge_, iii. p. 368. - -[517] Printed in Peacock's _Observations on the Statutes of the -University of Cambridge_, 1841 (Appendix). - -[518] Cp. C. Wordsworth, _Scholae Academicae_, 1877, pp. 209 _sqq._ - -[519] _Letter Book of Gabriel Harvey_ (1573-1580), Camden Soc., 1884, -pp. 78-9. The tutor of John Hall, author of the _Horae Vacivae_ (1646), -testified to his pupil's attainments in French, Spanish, and Italian -literature. Mullinger, _History of the University of Cambridge_, ii. p. -351. - -[520] One, Jean Verneuil, became underlibrarian of the Bodleian in 1625. -Cp. Schickler, _Les Eglises du Refuge_, i. p. 424; Foster Watson, -_Religious Refugees and English Education_, Hug. Soc. Proceedings, 1911; -Agnew, _Protestant Exiles_, i. ch. v. and pp. 137, 147, 148, 156, 163; -ii. pp. 260, 274, 388; Smiles, _The Huguenots_, ch. xiv. - -[521] There were also numerous French Protestant students at the -University of Edinburgh; cp. Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 366. - -[522] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 244. - -[523] Wood, _Fasti Oxonienses_ (Bliss), ii. 195. - -[524] Wood, _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 380. - -[525] Oxford Historical Society: _Collectanea_, i., 1885, pp. 73 _sqq._ - -[526] 8vo, pp. 92. - -[527] E. Stengel, _Chronologisches Verzeichnis franzoesischer -Grammatiken_, Oppeln, 1890. - -[528] F. Madan, _Oxford Books, 1468-1640_, 1895-1912, i. p. 22; ii. p. -24. Another Spanish Grammar, by d'Oyly, had appeared at Oxford in 1590. - -[529] 4to, 21 leaves. - -[530] Printed by Joseph Barnes, 4to, 8 leaves. - -[531] He visited Spain, and wrote _An Entrance to the Spanish Tongue_ -(1611). While at Oxford he had composed _An Introduction to the Italian -Tongue_ (1605). Cp. Wood, _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 471; C. Plummer, -_Elizabethan Oxford_, Ox. Hist. Soc., 1887, p. xxviii; _Dict. Nat. -Biog._, ad nom. - -[532] Wood, _Athen. Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 676; Foster, _Alumni Oxon._, ad -nom. - -[533] Wood, _Fasti Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 29, 30; _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad -nom. - -[534] 12º, pp. 31. - -[535] In the copy in the Cambridge Univ. Library these are accompanied -by a MS. translation into Latin. Some additional rules in Latin are -written on the last blank leaf. - -[536] _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 277. - -[537] Printed by William Turner, 8º, pp. 72. - -[538] _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 624. - -[539] Valence, French tutor to the Earl of Lincoln, had studied at -Cambridge early in the sixteenth century. - -[540] "Eandem linguam in celeberrima Cantabrigiensi Academia docens." - -[541] Sm. 8vo, pp. 96. - -[542] Cp. R. Bowes, _Catalogue of Books printed at Cambridge, -1521-1893_. - -[543] The statement of Wood (_Athenae Oxon._ iii. 184), that Du Gres had -studied at Oxford before going to Cambridge, is probably incorrect. - -[544] 8vo, pp. 195, printed by Leonard Lichfield. - -[545] _Jean Arman Du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu and Peere of France his -Life_, etc., followed by a translation, "out of the French copie," of -_The Will and Legacies of the Cardinall Richelieu ... together with -certaine Instructions which he left the French King. Also some -remarkable passages that hath happened in France since the death of the -said Cardinall._ - -[546] He charged 10s. a month for an hour's lesson daily. - -[547] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1661-62_, p. 439. - -[548] Le Moyne also translated _The Articles of Agreement between the -King of France, the Parlaiment and Parisians. Faithfully translated out -of the French original copy._ London, 1649. - -[549] In the Middle Ages, Pembroke College gave preference to Frenchmen -in the election of Fellows; cp. _supra_, p. 6. - -[550] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1660-61_, p. 162. - -[551] "Autobiographie de Pierre du Moulin," _Bulletin de la Societe de -l'histoire du Protestantisme Francais_, vii. pp. 343 _sqq._ - -[552] Mullinger, _History of the University of Cambridge_, 1911, iii. p. -300. - -[553] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1670_, p. 275. Evelyn (_Diary_, ed. -Wheatly, 1906, ii. p. 306) describes verses written in Latin, English, -and French by Oxford students and added to _Newes from the dead_, an -account of the restoration to life of one Anne Green, executed at -Oxford, 1650. - -[554] _Sir Harry Wildair_, Act III. Sc. 2; cp. Mockmode in the same -dramatist's _Love and a Bottle_. - -[555] _Diary_, 5th May 1669. - -[556] He long looked forward to a journey there--a hope which was not -fulfilled until his failing eyesight had compelled him to stop writing -his diary. - -[557] She spent some time in France, until her father ordered her back -to England on account of her leaning towards Roman Catholicism. Many -times she expressed a wish to go and live in France. - -[558] Cp. Shakespeare, _2 Henry IV._ Act III. Sc. 2: - - "He's at Oxford still, is he not? - A' must then to the Inns a' Court shortly." - -[559] Higford (_Institution of a Gentleman_, 1660, p. 58) blames those -of his countrymen who neglect the Inns of Court. - -[560] J. Fortescue, _De Laudibus Legum Angliae ... Translated into -English ... with notes by Selden_, new ed., 1771, p. 172. - -[561] Higford, _The Institution of a Gentleman_, 1660, p. 88. - -[562] Perlin says of the English in the middle of the sixteenth century, -referring no doubt to the nobility: "Ceux du pays ne courent gaire ou -bien peu aux deux universites, et ne se donnent point beaucoup aux -lettres, sinon qu'a toute marchandise et a toute vanite" (_Description -des royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse_, p. 11). - -[563] _Letters_ (1638), Camden Soc., 1854, p. 8. Nearly half a century -later, Chancellor Clarendon wrote: "I doubt our Universities are -defective in providing for those exercises and recreations, which are -necessary even to nourish and cherish their studies, at least towards -that accomplished education which persons of quality are designed to; -and it may be want of those Ornaments that may prevail with many to send -their sons abroad, who since they cannot attain the lighter with the -more serious Breeding, chuse the former which makes a present shew, -leaving the latter to be wrought out at leisure" (_Miscellaneous Works_, -1751, p. 326). - - - - -CHAPTER VII - - THE STUDY OF FRENCH BY ENGLISH TRAVELLERS ABROAD - - -One of the favourite methods of learning French was a sojourn in France. -To speak the language well a visit there was considered imperative, and -to speak it "as one who had never been out of England"[564] was -synonymous with speaking it badly. Consequently a journey to France was -common among the young gentry and nobility of the time. Moreover, those -who pursued their travels further, and undertook the Grand Tour as many -gentlemen did on leaving the university, invariably visited France -first, and spent the greater part of their time there. Eighteen months -in France, nine or ten in Italy, five in Germany and the Low Countries, -was considered a suitable division of a three years' tour. Most young -Englishmen of family and fortune spent some time on the Continent. Sir -Francis Walsingham, said by one of his contemporaries to have been the -most accomplished linguist of his day,[565] had acquired his proficiency -abroad, as had also Lord Burghley, who wrote to Walsingham from France -in 1583 to report on his progress in the language.[566] Both ministers -in their turn were patrons to numerous young travellers in France. A -certain Charles Danvers wrote to Walsingham from Paris, in French, to -show his progress and thank him for his favours.[567] And Burghley gave -one Andrew Bussy a monthly allowance of L5 to enable him to study French -at Orleans, where, according to his own account, he took great pains to -make good progress so as to serve his patron the better on his -return.[568] It was generally held that travel was "useful to useful -men,"[569] and that "peregrination" well used was "a very profitable -school, a running Academy."[570] - -Many young English gentlemen went to the French Court in the train of an -ambassador,[571] or with a private tutor;[572] Henry VIII. sent his -natural son, the Duke of Richmond, Palsgrave's pupil, to the French -Court, in the care of Lord Surrey the poet. Richard Carew, the friend of -Camden, was sent to France with Sir Henry Nevill, ambassador to Henri -IV., and Bacon visited Paris in his early youth in the suite of the -diplomat Lord Poulet. The last-mentioned ambassador had several young -Englishmen in his charge. Of few, however, could he make so favourable a -report as he did of the son of Sir George Speake: "I am not unacquainted -with your son's doings in Parris," he wrote to Sir George, "and cannot -comend him inoughe unto you aswell for his dilligence in study as for -his honest and quiett behaviour." One of these young travellers, a Mr. -Throckmorton, he was particularly glad to be rid of; the young man "got -the French tongue in good perfection," we are informed, but he was of -flippant humour, and before he left for England, Poulet told him his -mind freely, and forbade him to travel to Italy, as he intended to do -later, without the company of "an honest and wyse man." The ambassador -had kept him and his man in food during the whole of his stay in Paris, -and, besides, provided him with a horse, which he had also "kept att his -chardges."[573] - -Children too were often sent abroad for education. Thomas Morrice, in -his _Apology for Schoolmasters_ (1619), commends "the ancient and -laudable custom of sending children abroad when they can understand -Latin perfectly"; for then they learn the romance languages all the more -easily, "because the Italian, French and Spanish borrow very many words -of the said Latin, albeit they do chip, chop and change divers letters -and syllables therein." [Header: ENGLISH GENTRY AT THE FRENCH COURT] And -Thomas Peacham[574] tells us in the early seventeenth century that as -soon as a child shows any wildness or unruliness, he is sent either to -the Court to act as a page or to France, and sometimes to Italy. The -number of English children in France was, we may assume, considerable; -and when the news of the terrible massacre of St. Bartholomew reached -England, one of its most noticeable effects was to fill with concern and -apprehension all parents who had children in France. "How fearfull and -carefull the mothers and parents that be here be of such yong gentlemen -as be there, you may easely ges," wrote Elizabeth's secretary of state -to Sir Francis Walsingham, the English ambassador at Paris.[575] Among -these "yong gentlemen" was Sir Philip Sidney, then newly arrived at the -French Court, whom Walsingham himself sheltered in the ambassador's -quarters during that awful night. - -James Basset, the son of Lord Lisle, deputy at Calais for Henry VIII., -was sent to Paris in the autumn of 1536 to complete his education, after -having been for some time in the charge of a tutor in England. There he -went to school with a French priest, whom he soon left for the College -of Navarre. He appears to have attended the college daily, and boarded -with one Guillaume le Gras, who, in June 1537, wrote to Lady Lisle that -her son would soon be able to speak French better than English. "I think -when he goes to see you," writes the Frenchman to her ladyship who did -not understand French, "he will need an interpreter to speak to you." -James himself wrote to tell his mother how he was progressing "at the -large and beautiful college of Navarre, with Pierre du Val his Master -and Preceptor."[576] The following letter[577] giving details on the -course pursued by a young English gentleman studying French in Paris may -no doubt be taken as fairly typical. "In the forenoone ... two hours he -spends in French, one in reading, the other in rendryng to his teacher -some part of a Latin author by word of mouth.... In the afternoon ... he -retires himself into his chamber, and there employs two other hours in -reading over some Latin author; which done, he translates some little -part of it into French, leaving his faults to be corrected the morrow -following by his teacher. After supper we take a brief survey of all.... -M. Ballendine [apparently the teacher] hath commended unto us Paulus -Aemilius in French, who writeth the history of the country. His counsell -we mean to follow." - -Girls also were occasionally sent to France for purposes of education. -Two of James Basset's young sisters, Anne and Mary, spent some time in -that country. To prevent their hindering each other's progress, Anne was -committed to the care of a M. and Mme. de Ryon, at Pont de Remy, while -Mary was sent to Abbeville to a M. and Mme. de Bours. Both girls wrote -letters in French to their mother, Lady Lisle, and it appears that they -had almost forgotten their mother tongue. When Anne returned to England, -where she became maid of honour to Jane Seymour, she had to apologize to -her mother for not being able to write in English, "for surely where -your Ladyship doth think that I can write English, in very deed I -cannot, but that little that I can write is French,"[578] and Mary wrote -to her sister Philippa in French expressing her wish to spend an hour -with her every day in order to teach her to speak French. In France the -two sisters acquired, besides French, the usual accomplishments -befitting their sex--needlework, and playing on the lute and -virginals.[579] - -The traveller Fynes Moryson did not unreservedly approve of the custom -of sending children "of unripe yeeres" to France; "howsoever they are -more to be excused who send them with discreet Tutors to guide them with -whose eyes and judgments they may see and observe.... Children like -Parrots soone learne forraigne languages and sooner forget the same, -yea, and their mother tongue also." He relates how a familiar friend of -his "lately sent his sonne to Paris, who, after two yeeres returning -home, refused to aske his father's blessing after the manner of England, -saying _ce n'est pas la mode de France_."[580] Milton in the same vein -deplores the fact that his compatriots have "need of the monsieurs of -Paris to take their hopeful youth into their slight and prodigal -custodies and send them over back again transformed into mimics, apes -and kickshows."[581] [Header: ENGLISH CHILDREN IN FRANCE] "My -countrymen in England," wrote Sir Amias Poulet from Paris in 1577, -"would doe God and theire countreye good service if either they woulde -provide scolemasters for theire children at home, or else they woulde -take better order of their educacion here, where they are infected with -all sortes [of] pollucions bothe ghostly and bodylie and find manie -willinge scolemasters to teache theme to be badd subiects."[582] - -Nor were such sentiments confined to individual cases. Queen Elizabeth -was constantly making inquiries concerning her subjects beyond the seas -generally, often for political reasons or on account of her Protestant -fears of popery. She found "noe small inconvenience to growe into the -realm" by the number of children living abroad "under colour of learning -the languages." In 1595 she ordered a list of such "children" to be sent -to her with the names of their parents or guardians and tutors,[583] and -there were frequent examinations of subjects suspected of desiring to go -abroad; in 1595 the Mayor of Chester writes to Burghley to know what he -is to do with two boys, aged fifteen and seventeen, who have been -brought before him on suspicion of intending to travel into France to -learn the language, and thence into Spain. - -The objections raised against the journey to France were few, however, -in comparison with those alleged as regards Italy. Italy held a place -second only to France in the Grand Tour on the Continent, and in the -early sixteenth century the first enthusiasm awakened by the Renaissance -attracted many Englishmen there. Scholars, such as Linacre and Colet, -set the example. Then others, including most literary men of the time, -made their way as pilgrims to the centre of the revived learning, -passing through France on their way.[584] Soon the journey became -largely a matter of fashion. This rapid development of the custom of -continental travel was looked upon as a danger in matters political and -religious; popish plots were suspected and foreign intrigues of all -kinds feared. In Elizabeth's time leave "to resort beyond seas for his -better increase in learning, and his knowledge of foreign languages"[585] -was not freely granted to any who might apply. Lord Burghley would -often summon before him applicants for licences to travel, and look -carefully into their knowledge of their own country,[586] and if this -proved insufficient, would advise them to improve it before attempting -to study other countries.[587] - -Voluble were the protests against foreign travel which were made in the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. France and above all Italy were -made responsible for all the vices of the English. It was urged that -trade and state negotiations were the only adequate reasons for travel -abroad. "We are moted in an Island, because Providence intended us to be -shut off from other regions," Bishop Joseph Hall affirms, in his _Quo -Vadis: a juste censure of travel as it is commonly undertaken by -gentlemen of our own nation_ (1617). So strong were the prejudices of -some of these critics that the grandfather of the royalist Sir Arthur -Capell wrote--in 1622--a pamphlet containing _Reasons against the -travellinge of my grandchylde Arthur Capell into the parts beyond the -sea_, in which he draws an alarming picture of the dangers of infection -from popery, and seeks to prove that the time could be much better spent -at home.[588] The chronicler Harrison went so far as to assert that the -custom would prove the ruin of England.[589] And even the courtly Lyly -could write: "Let not your mindes be carried away with vaine delights, -as travailing into farre and straunge countries, wher you shall see more -wickednesse then learn virtue and wit."[590] - -But it was Italy much more than France that excited the fears of these -alarmists. There was a common saying at the time that an Englishman -Italianate was a devil incarnate. "I was once in Italy myself," wrote -Roger Ascham,[591] "but I thank God my abode there was but nine -dayes"--in which he saw more wickedness than he had beheld during nine -years in London. "Suffer not thy sons to pass the Alpes, for they shall -learn nothing there but Pride, Blasphemy and Atheism; [Header: PROTESTS -AGAINST FOREIGN TRAVEL] and if by travelling they get a few broken -Languages, that will profit them no more than to have the same meat -served in divers dishes," was the advice of Lord Burghley.[592] Many -were the precautions taken to prevent English subjects from travelling -to Rome of all places. Travellers who were suspected of such intentions -or who had travelled abroad without permission were rigorously examined. -One such traveller confessed that he went to Brittany and France to see -the countries and learn the language, but swore he had never been to -Rome or spoken to the papist Cardinal Allen.[593] Many passports issued -for the Grand Tour stipulated specifically that the traveller should not -repair to Rome.[594] - -George Carleton gave expression to the general feeling when he wrote to -his brother Dudley, afterwards Lord Dorchester: "I like your going to -France much better than if you had gone to Italy."[595] "France is above -all most needful for us to mark," was the advice Sir Philip Sidney sent -to his brother Robert on his travels.[596] Sir John Eliot gave similar -injunctions to his sons.[597] France was, he said, a country full of -noble instincts and versatile energy; and what his own experience had -been, he recommended his sons to profit by. Some friend had warned them -of possible dangers in France. Heed them not, says Eliot; any hazard or -adventure in France they will find repaid by such advantages of -knowledge and experience as observation of the existing troubles there -is sure to convey. But he will not allow them even to enter Spain; and -the Italian territories of the Church they must avoid as dangerous: -"stagnant and deadly are the waters in the region of Rome, not clear and -flowing for the health-seeking energies of man." He thought, however, -that some parts of Italy might be visited with profit. To attempt to -learn the Italian language before some knowledge of French had been -acquired, was not discreet. "Besides it being less pleasant and more -difficult to talk Italian first," he writes, "it was leaving the more -necessary acquirement to be gained when there was, perchance, less -leisure for it. Whereas by attaining some perfection in French, and then -moving onward, what might be lost in Italy of the first acquirement, -would be regained in France as their steps turned homeward." - -Not only were fears of Roman Catholicism and corrupt manners directed -more specifically toward Italy than France, but the French language was -considered a much more necessary acquirement than Italian. It was -generally agreed that the country most requisite for the English to know -was France, "in regard of neighbourhood, of conformity in Government in -divers things and necessary intelligence of State."[598]. "French is the -most useful of languages--the richest lading of the traveller next to -experience--Italian and Spanish not being so fruitful in learning," -remarks Francis Osborne in his _Advice to a Son_.[599] - -Thus the main object of study of the traveller in France was usually the -language itself, and next to that the polite accomplishments. Those who -continued their travels into Italy were attracted chiefly by the country -and its antiquities. When Addison was in France, after a short stay in -Paris in 1699[600] he settled for nearly a year at Blois to learn the -language, living in great seclusion, studying, and seeing no one but his -teachers, who would sup with him regularly. In 1700 he returned to -Paris, qualified to converse with Boileau and Malebranche. But he spent -his time in Italy very differently, living in fancy with the old Latin -poets, taking Horace as his guide from Naples to Rome, and Virgil on the -return journey: there was no question of settling down in a quiet town -to study Italian. The experience of Lord Herbert of Cherbury at the end -of the sixteenth century and of Evelyn in the middle of the seventeenth -was of a similar nature. Though travellers continued to include Italy in -their tour, the feeling in favour of France became stronger and -stronger. It reached its climax in the latter half of the seventeenth -century, when Clarendon wrote: "What parts soever we propose to visit, -to which our curiosity usually invites us, we can hardly avoid the -setting our feet first in France." And he invites travellers, on -returning there after visiting Italy, to stay in Paris a year to -"unlearn the dark and affected reservation of Italy." [Header: THE -TRAVELLING TUTOR] As for Germany, he thinks they have need to remain two -years in France that they may entirely forget that they were ever in -Germany![601] - -The sons of gentlemen setting out on the Grand Tour were usually -accompanied by a governor or tutor,[602] and the need for such a guide -was generally recognized by writers on travel; all urge the necessity of -his being acquainted with the languages and customs of the countries to -be visited. "That young men should Travaile under some Tutor or grave -Servant, I allow well: so that he be such a one that hath the language -and hath been in the Countrey before," wrote Bacon. And if any one was -not able or did not wish to "be at the charges of keeping a Governor -abroad" with his son, he was advised[603] to "join with one or two more -to help to bear the charges: or else to send with him one well qualified -to carry him over and settle him in one place or other of France, or of -other Countries, to be there with him 2 or 3 months, leave him there -after he hath set him in a good way, and then come home." We also gather -from Gailhard's _The Compleat Gentleman_ that it was "a custom with many -in England to order Travelling to their sons, as Emetick Wine is by the -Physician prescribed to the Patient, that is when they know not what -else to do, and when schools, Universities, Inns of Court, and every -other way hath been tried to no purpose: then that nature which could -not be tamed in none of these places, is given to be minded by a -Gouvernor, with many a woe to him."[604] - -The suitable age for the Grand Tour, as distinct from the shorter -journey in France, was the subject of much discussion. It was usually -undertaken between the ages of sixteen and twenty, and occupied from -three to five years. Some, and among them Locke,[605] agreed with -Gailhard in thinking that travel should not come at the end. They -argued that languages were more easily learnt at an earlier age, and -that children were then less difficult to manage. Others, regarding -travel as a necessary evil,[606] held that, at a later age, travellers -are less receptive of evil influences and the snares of popery. This was -the current opinion. - -In many cases, especially in later times, the travelling tutor was a -Frenchman. Many Englishmen, however, found in this capacity an -opportunity for travel which they might not otherwise have had. For -example, Ben Jonson visited Paris in 1613 as tutor to the son of Sir -Walter Raleigh, and became better known there as a reveller than as a -poet.[607] In the same way Ben Jonson's friend, the poet Aurilian -Townsend, accompanied Lord Herbert of Cherbury on his foreign tour in -1608, and was of much help to him on account of his fluent knowledge of -French, Italian, and Spanish.[608] The time-serving politician Sir John -Reresby travelled with a Mr. Leech, a divine and Fellow of -Cambridge.[609] And the philosopher Thomas Hobbes spent as travelling -tutor in the Cavendish family many years which he calls the happiest -time of his life. He visited France, Germany, and Italy. For a time he -left the Cavendishes to act as tutor to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, -with whom he remained eighteen months in Paris. It was while travelling -with his pupils that Hobbes became known in the philosophic circles of -Paris.[610] Addison was offered a salary of L100 to be tutor to the Duke -of Somerset, who desired him "to be more of a companion than a -Governor," but did not accept the offer.[611] In some cases the -travelling tutor had several pupils. Thus Mr. Cordell, the friend of Sir -Ralph Verney, was tutor to a party of Englishmen.[612] - -On the other hand, Sir Philip Sidney travelled without a governor. -[Header: BOOKS ON TRAVEL] At Frankfort, in the house of the Protestant -printer Andreas Wechel, he began his life-long friendship with the -Huguenot scholar Hubert Languet, who, to some degree, supplied his -needs. Languet, however, expresses his regret that Sidney had no -governor, and when the young Englishman continued his journey into Italy -they kept up a correspondence, in the course of which Languet sent -Sidney much good advice. At his instigation Sidney practised his French -and Latin by translating some of Cicero's letters into French, then from -French into English, and finally back into Latin again, "by a sort of -perpetual motion."[613] John Evelyn the diarist also travelled without a -governor, while the eldest son of Lord Halifax first made the Grand Tour -in the usual fashion, and afterwards returned to his uncle, Henry -Savile, English ambassador at Paris, without the "encumbrance" of a -governor. Savile superintended his nephew's reading, providing him with -books on such subjects as political treaties and negotiations, and -warning him against "nouvelles" and other "vain _entretiens_."[614] - -The practice of travelling abroad called forth many books on the -subject, often written by travellers desiring to place their experience -at the service of others. Such books usually include indications of the -routes to be followed and the places to be visited, and sometimes advice -as to the best way of studying abroad. Some, such as those of Coryat, -Fynes Moryson, and Purchas,[615] are descriptions of long journeys. -Others deal more especially with the method of travel.[616] A few were -written for the particular use of some traveller of high rank; for -instance, when the Earl of Rutland set out on his travels in 1596, his -cousin Essex sent him letters of advice, which circulated at Court, and -were published as _Profitable Instructions for Travellers_ in -1633.[617] Further information was supplied in the treatises on polite -education.[618] - -The subject of travel was thus continually under consideration, and the -different books of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries which deal -with this topic are of great interest. Robert Dallington, the author of -an early guide to France,[619] thought it necessary, seeing the few -teachers there were in France, to "set downe a course of learninge." "I -will presume to advise him," he says of the traveller to France, "that -the most compendious way of attaining the tongue is by booke. I mean for -the knowledge, for as for the speaking he shall never attaine it but by -continuall practize and conversation: he shall therefore first learne -his nownes and verbs by heart, and specially the articles, and their -uses, with the two words _sum_ and _habeo_: for in these consist the -greatest observation of that part of speech." He also urges the future -traveller to engage a Frenchman to assist him, chiefly, no doubt, with -reading and pronunciation. This "reader," as Dallington calls him, -"shall not reade any booke of Poetrie at first, but some other kinde of -stile, and I thinke meetest some moderne comedie. Let his lecture -consist more in questions and answers, either of the one or the other, -then in the reader's continued speech, for this is for the most part -idle and fruitlesse: by the other many errors and mistakings either in -pronunciation or sense are reformed. After three months he shall quit -his lectures, and use his Maister only to walk with and discourse, first -the one and then the other: for thus shal he observe the right use of -the phrase in his Reader, heare his owne faults reproved and grow readie -and prompt in his owne deliverie, which, with the right straine of the -accent, are the two hardest things in language." He should also read -much in private, and "to this reading he must adde a continuall talking -and exercising of his speech with all sorts of people, with boldnesse -and much assurance in himselfe, for I have often observed in others -that nothing hath more prejudiced their profiting then their owne -diffidence and distrust. [Header: A "METHOD OF TRAVEL"] To this I would -have him adde an often writing, either of matter of translation or of -his owne invention, where againe is requisite the Reader's eye, to -censure and correct: for who so cannot write the language he speaks, I -count he hath but halfe the language. There, then, are the two onely -meanes of obtaining a language, speaking and writing, but the first is -the chiefest, and therefore I must advertise the traveller of one thing -which in other countries is a great hinderer thereof, namely, the often -haunting and frequenting of our own Countrimen, whereof he must have a -speciall care,[620] neither to distaste them by a too much -retirednesse[621] nor to hinder himselfe by too much familiaritie." - -A few years later Fynes Moryson[622] offered equally sound advice to the -traveller "for language." "Goe directly to the best citie for the -puritie of language," he tells him, and first "labour to know the -grammar rules, that thy selfe mayst know whether thou speaketh right or -no. I meane not the curious search of those rules, but at least so much -as may make thee able to distinguish Numbers, Cases, and Moodes." -Moryson thought that by learning by ear alone students probably -pronounced better, but, on the other hand, with the help of rules, "they -both speake and write pure language, and never so forget it, as they may -not with small labour and practice recover it again." The student, he -adds, should make a collection of choice phrases, that "hee may speake -and write more eloquently, and let him use himselfe not to the -translated formes of speech, but to the proper phrases of the tongue." -For this purpose he should read many good books, "in which kind, as also -for the Instruction of his soule, I would commend unto him the Holy -Scriptures, but that among the Papists they are not to be had in the -vulgar tongue, neither is the reading of them permitted to laymen. -Therefore to this purpose he shall seeke out the best familiar epistles -for his writing, and I thinke no booke better for his Discourse then -Amadis of Gaule.... In the third place I advise him to professe -Pythagoricall silence, and to the end he may learne true pronunciation, -not to be attained but by long observation and practice, that he for a -time listen to others, before he adventure to speake." He should also -avoid his fellow-countrymen, and, having observed these rules, "then let -him hier some skilfull man to teach him and to reprove his errors, not -passing by any his least omission. And let him not take it ill that any -man should laugh at him, for that will more stirre him up to endevour to -learne the tongue more perfectly, to which end he must converse with -Weomen, children and the most talkative people; and he must cast off all -clownish bashfulnesse, for no man is borne a Master in any art. I say -not that he himselfe should rashly speake, for in the beginning he shall -easily take ill formes of speaking, and hardly forget them once taken." - -The learning of French in England before going abroad did not, as a -rule, enter into the plan of writers on the subject of travelling. -Moryson, however, realized that "at the first step the ignorance of -language doth much oppresse (the traveller) and hinder the fruite he -should reape by his iourney." And Bacon went a step further when he -wrote that "he that travaileth into a Country, before he hath some -entrance into the language, goeth to schoole, and not to travaile.... If -you will have a Young Man to put his Travaile into a little Roome, and -in a short time to gather much, this you must doe. First, as was said, -he must have some Entrance into the Language before he goeth. Then he -must have such a Servant, or Tutor, as knoweth the country."[623] Later -writers usually agree that it would be of benefit to have "something of -the French"[624] before leaving England, "though it were only to -understand something of it and be able to ask for necessary things," or -to have "some grammatical instruction in the language, as a preparation -to speaking it."[625] And indeed many travellers had some previous -knowledge of French. Sir Philip Sidney, for instance, could manage a -letter in French when he was at school at Shrewsbury; Lord Herbert of -Cherbury had studied the language with the help of a dictionary; Sir -John Reresby, at a later date, had learnt French at a private school, -though, like many students nowadays, he could not speak the language on -his arrival in France. [Header: STUDIES PREVIOUS TO TRAVEL] Several -went abroad to "improve" themselves in French, and no doubt the phrase -"to learn the French tongue"[626] often meant to learn to speak it. - -In the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, however, many of those -who studied French seriously in England did not go to France. Among -these were the ladies, to whose skill Mulcaster[627] draws the attention -of travellers, as a proof that languages can be learnt as well at home -as abroad; and not a few of the younger sons of noblemen,[628] as well -as the prosperous middle class--the frequenters of the French schools in -St. Paul's Churchyard, and the pupils of Du Ploich and Holyband, neither -of whom makes any reference to the tour in France. - -The "common practice" in the sixteenth century among young travellers -was to proceed to France knowing no French. They fully expected to learn -the language there, with no further exertion than living in the country. -They are constantly warned of the futility of such expectations. -Dallington, Fynes Moryson, and others lay much emphasis on the necessity -of some serious preliminary study of grammar and reading of good -literature. French teachers in England compared the poor results -obtained in France by these leisurely methods with those achieved by -their own efforts in England. No doubt they found the practice of -learning French by residence in France a serious rival to their own -methods. De la Mothe,[629] for instance, declares he knows English -ladies and gentlemen who have never left England and yet speak French -incomparably better than others who have been in France three or four -years trying to pick up the language by ear, as most travellers do. -Another French teacher[630] writes: "I have knowne three Gentlemen's -sonnes, although I say it that should not say it, who can testify yet, -that in their return from France (after they had remained foure yeares -at Paris, spending a great deal of money) perused my rules but six -moneths and did confesse they reaped more good language in that short -space I taught them then in all the time they spent in France. And -sundry others I have helped who never saw France, and yet could talke, -read and write better language in one yeare than those who have bene at -Paris two yeares, learning but the common phrase of the countrie, -shacking off a litle paines to learne the rules." - -While holding that French could be better learnt in England with rules -than in France without any such assistance, the French teachers of -London admitted that the language could perhaps be best learnt in -France, but only with the help of a good teacher and serious study, as -in England. However, there were hardly any language teachers in France, -according to them, while in England it was easy to find many good ones. -Dallington more specifically bewails the fact that the traveller finds a -"great scarcitie" of such tutors, and directs him to a certain M. -Denison, a Canon of St. Croix in Orleans, after whom he may inquire, -"except his good acquaintance or good fortune bring him to better." - -There was indeed little provision for the serious study of French in -France before the end of the sixteenth century. Most travellers, we are -told, "observed only for their owne use." Few Frenchmen took up the -teaching of their own language to foreigners as a profession, and those -who taught from time to time or merely upon occasion rarely proved -successful. Yet the earliest grammars produced in France were intended -largely for the use of foreigners. Special attention is paid to points -which usually offered difficulty to foreigners, such as the -pronunciation and its divergencies from the orthography.[631] Sylvius or -Du Bois, writing in Latin,[632] remarks that his principles may serve -the English, the Italians and Spaniards, in short, all foreigners; no -doubt those he had chiefly in mind were the numbers of English and other -foreign students at the University of Paris. [Header: LANGUAGE TEACHERS -IN FRANCE] When the earliest grammar written in French appeared, its -author, Louis Meigret,[633] sought to justify his use of the vernacular -by suggesting that foreign students should first learn to understand -French by speaking and reading good French literature, instead of -depending on Latin for the first stages. He had noticed the -peculiarities of the English pronunciation of French, especially the -habit of misplacing the accent; "they raise the voice on the syllable -_an_ in _Angleterre_, while we raise it on the syllable _ter_: so that -French as spoken by the English is not easily understood in France." -From other grammarians foreigners always received some attention. -Pillot[634] and Garnier[635] both wrote in Latin with a special view to -foreigners; and Peletier,[636] who used French, retains all the -etymological consonants, that strangers may find Latin helpful in -understanding French. - -Not before the end of the sixteenth century, however, do we hear of the -first important language teacher in France--Charles Maupas of Blois, a -surgeon by profession, who spent most of his life, more than thirty -years, teaching French to "many lords and gentlemen of divers nations" -who visited his native town. He was "well known to be a famous teacher -of the French tongue to many of the English and Dutch nobility and -gentry." For his English pupils Maupas showed particular affection.[637] -And from them he received in turn numerous proofs of friendship. Among -the Englishmen who learnt French under his care was George Villiers, -Duke of Buckingham, who, at about the age of eighteen, travelled into -France, where "he improved himself[638] well in the language for one -that had so little grammatical foundation, but more in the exercises of -that Nobility for the space of three years and yet came home in his -naturall plight, without affected formes (the ordinary disease of -Travellers)."[639] Maupas bears stronger testimony to his pupil's -attainments in the French language, and some years later he gratefully -dedicated to the Duke his French grammar, first issued publicly in 1618. - -Maupas's _Grammaire francoise contenant reigles tres certaines et -adresse tres asseuree a la naive connoissance et pur usage de nostre -langue. En faveur des estrangers qui en seront desireux_, was first -privately printed in 1607.[640] He had not originally intended it for -publication. The work grew out of the notes and observations he compiled -in order to overcome his pupils' difficulties. As these rules increased -in number and importance, many students began to make extracts from -them; others made copies of the whole, a "great and wearisome labour." -Finally, Maupas, touched by this keenness, resolved to have a large -number of copies printed. He distributed these among his pupils and -their friends, till, contrary to his expectation, he found he had none -left. It was then that the first public edition was issued at Lyons in -1618, and was followed by six others, which were not always authorized. -A Latin edition also appeared in 1623. - -Maupas insists on the necessity of employing a tutor. "Let them come to -me," he says, addressing foreigners desirous of learning French, "if it -is convenient."[641] To learn the language by ear and use alone is -impossible. The small outlay required to engage a teacher saves much -time and labour. As to the grammar, it should be read again and again, -and in time all difficulties will disappear; it will be of great use -even to those already advanced in French. He undertook to teach and -interpret the grammar in French itself, without having recourse to the -international language Latin, the usual medium of teaching French to -travellers; he tells us that many of his pupils were ignorant of Latin, -and that the practice of interpreting the grammar in French had been -adopted by many of his fellow-teachers in other towns. The great -advantage of this method was, he thought, that reading and pronunciation -are learnt conjointly with grammar, the phrases and style of the -language together with its rules and precepts. Besides, the student must -read some book; and a grammar was, in his opinion, preferable to the -little comedies and dialogues usually resorted to for this purpose. He -did not, however, forget that some light reading was a greater incentive -to the learner, and in practice used both. - -Maupas died in 1625, when a new edition of his grammar was in -preparation. His son, who assisted him in teaching, saw the work through -the press, and invited students to transfer to him the favours they had -bestowed on his father. Apparently the younger Charles Maupas continued -to teach his father's clientele for some time. [Header: CHARLES MAUPAS -OF BLOIS] In 1626 he gave further proof of his zeal for the cause in -editing and publishing a comedy which both he and his father had -frequently read with pupils not advanced enough for more serious matter. -We are told vaguely that this comedy, entitled _Les Desguisez: Comedie -Francoise avec l'explication des proverbes et mots difficiles par -Charles Maupas a Bloys_, was the work of one of the _beaux esprits_ of -the period.[642] Maupas, however, only had one copy, and knew not where -to procure more. He was induced to have it printed on seeing the great -labour and time expended by many of his pupils in making copies of it -for their own use. For the benefit of students who had no tutor, he -added an explanatory vocabulary of proverbs and difficult words. - -Maupas's _Grammaire et syntaxe francoise_ is still looked on with -respect.[643] The reputation it enjoyed in the seventeenth century is -the more remarkable in that it was the work of a provincial who had no -relations with the Court, then the supreme arbiter in matters of -language. But the grammar passed into oblivion in the course of time, as -more modern manuals took its place. Maupas's hope that it would be used -by foreign students of French as long as the language was held in esteem -was not to be fulfilled. - -His Grammar was superseded by that of Antoine Oudin--_Grammaire -Francoise rapportee au langage du temps_, Paris, 1632. Oudin's original -intention had been merely to enlarge the grammar of his predecessor. But -as his work advanced he found "force antiquailles" and many mistakes, -besides much confusion, repetition, and pedantry. He felt no compunction -in telling the reader that he had enormously improved all he had -borrowed from Maupas--although he is careful to note that he has no -intention of damaging his rival's reputation, and is proud to share his -opinion on several points. He had a great advantage over Maupas in -having spent all his life in close connexion with the Court; his father, -Cesar, had been interpreter to the French king, and Antoine succeeded -him in that office. He also appears to have had continual relations with -foreigners, and he tells us on one occasion that he received from them -"very considerable benefits." His grammar was certainly much used by -foreign students, although it does not seem to have enjoyed as great a -popularity in England as that of Maupas. Oudin's _Curiositez Francoises_ -(1640) was also addressed "aux estrangers," and his aim was to show his -gratitude by attempting to call attention to the mistakes which had made -their way into grammars drawn up for their instruction.[644] - -_L'Eschole Francoise pour apprendre a bien parler et escrire selon -l'usage de ce temps et pratique des bons autheurs, divisee en deux -livres dont l'un contient les premiers elements, l'autre les parties de -l'oraison_ (Paris, 1604), by Jean Baptiste du Val, avocat en Parlement -at Paris and French tutor to Marie de Medicis, was also intended partly -for the use of foreigners. He seeks to console foreign students coping -with the difficulties of French pronunciation and orthography, by -assuring them that though the French themselves may be able to speak -correctly, they cannot prescribe rules on this score. As for his -grammar, the student will learn more from it in two hours than from any -other in two weeks. He also takes up a supercilious attitude, natural in -one who exercised his profession in the precincts of the Court, towards -anything that resembled a provincial accent; better no teacher at all -than one with a provincial accent. - -Among other grammars of similar purport is that of Masset in French and -Latin, _Exact et tres facile acheminement a la langue Francoyse, mis en -Latin par le meme autheur pour le soulagement des estrangers_ -(1606);[645] and to the same category belongs also the _Praecepta -gallici sermonis ad pleniorem perfectioremque eius linguae cognitionem -necessaria tum suevissima tum facillima_ (1607), by Philippe Garnier, -who, after teaching French for many years in Germany, settled down at -Orleans, his native town, as a language tutor.[646] - -Another work widely used by travellers, and well known in England, was -the _Nouvelle et Parfaite Grammaire Francoise_ (1659) of Laurent -Chiflet, the zealous Jesuit and missionary, which continued to be -reprinted until the eighteenth century, and enjoyed for many years the -highest reputation among foreign students of French. [Header: FRENCH -GRAMMARS FOR TRAVELLERS] The Swiss Muralt relates how he and a friend -were inquiring for some books at one of the booksellers of the Palais, -the centre of the trade; and how the bookseller answered them civilly -and tried to find what they desired, until his wife interfered, crying, -"Ne voiez vous pas que ce sont des etrangers qui ne savent ce qu'ils -demandent? Donnez leur la grammaire de Chiflet, c'est la ce qu'il leur -faut."[647] - -Chiflet is very explicit in his advice to foreign students. In the first -place the pronunciation should be learnt by reading a short passage -every day with a French master, and the verbs most commonly in use -committed to memory. Then the other parts of speech and the rules of -syntax should be studied briefly; but care should be taken not to -neglect reading, and to practise writing French, in order to become -familiar with the orthography. One of his chief recommendations is to -avoid learning isolated words; words should always be presented in -sentence form, which is a means of learning their construction and of -acquiring a good vocabulary at the same time. The rest of the method -consists in translating from Latin or some other language into French, -and in conversing with a tutor who should correct bad grammar or -pronunciation. When once a fair knowledge of French is acquired, it -should be strengthened by reading and reflecting upon some good book -every day. Such reading is the shortest way of learning the language -perfectly. Excellence and fluency in speaking may be attained by -repeating or reciting aloud the substance of what has been read.[648] - -The acquisition of the French language was not the only ambition of the -English gentleman abroad. His aim was also to acquire those polite -accomplishments in which the French excelled--dancing, fencing, riding, -and so on. For this purpose he either frequented one of the "courtly" -academies or engaged private tutors; and "every master of exercise," it -was felt, served as a kind of language master.[649] We are indebted to -Dallington[650] for an account of the cost of such a course abroad. -"Money," he says, "is the soule of travell. If he travel without a -servant L80 sterling is a competent proportion, except he learn to ride: -if he maintain both these charges, he can be allowed no less than L150: -and to allow above L200 were superfluous and to his hurt. The ordinary -rate of his expense is 10 gold crowns a month his fencing, as much his -dancing, no less his reading, and 10 crowns monthly his riding except in -the heat of the year. The remainder of his L150, I allow him for -apparell, books, travelling charges, tennis play, and other -extraordinary expenses." - -Some of the more studious travellers resorted to one or other of the -French universities. John Palsgrave and John Eliote, the two best known -English teachers of French in the sixteenth century, had both followed -this course. Palsgrave was a graduate of Paris, and John Eliote, after -spending three years at the College of Montague in Paris, taught for a -year in the College des Africains at Orleans. The religious question had -much influence in determining the plan of study in France. The -university towns of Rheims and Douay were the special resorts of English -Catholics.[651] On the suppression of the religious houses in England -and the persecution of the English Roman Catholics, English seminaries -arose at Paris, Louvain, Cambrai, St. Omer, Arras, and other centres in -France. English Roman Catholics flocked to the French universities and -colleges, and there is in existence a long list of English students who -matriculated at the University of Douay. - -On the other hand, the schools,[652] colleges,[653] and academies[654] -founded by the Huguenots offered many attractions to Protestant England. -The colleges had much in common with the modern French lycee, and the -chief subjects taught were the classical languages. They did not take -boarders, with the exception of that at Metz, and the students lived _en -pension_ with families in the town. The same is true of the academies, -institutions of university standing. They were eight in number, and -situated at Nimes, Montpellier, Saumur, Montauban, Die, Sedan, Orthez -(in the principality of Bearn[655]), and Geneva. Some Englishmen and -many Scotchmen[656] held positions in the Protestant colleges and -academies. [Header: BRITISH STUDENTS AT FRENCH UNIVERSITIES] Many -English Protestants, during their enforced sojourn on the Continent -during the reign of Mary, took advantage of their exile to study at one -or other of the Protestant academies, as well as to perfect their -knowledge of French. A great number flocked to Geneva, including the -Protestant author Michael Cope, who frequently preached in French.[657] - -Of the colleges, that of Nimes attracted a large number of foreigners. -Montpellier likewise was very popular during the short period at the -beginning of the seventeenth century when the town was Protestant. Among -the academies in France, Saumur, Montauban,[658] and Sedan were much -frequented by English travellers. Saumur in particular quickly attained -to celebrity; its rapid growth may be partly accounted for by the fact -that Duplessis Mornay, Governor of the town in 1588, naturally became a -zealous patron of the Academy. Three years after its foundation the -number of foreign students was considerable, and throughout the -seventeenth century students from England, Scotland, Holland, and -Switzerland thronged to the town. - -The Academy at Geneva likewise was very popular.[659] Though not French, -it was largely attended by French students, who had some influence in -raising the standard of the French spoken in the town, which was rather -unsatisfactory in the sixteenth century. It greatly improved in the -following century, and when the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes -(1685), which dealt the death-blow to the French Protestant foundations, -drove many students to Geneva, their influence in all directions was -still more strongly felt. Some years before, in 1654, the regents were -enjoined to see to it that their pupils "ne parlent savoyard et ne -jurent ou diabloyent," but in 1691 Poulain de la Barre, a doctor of the -Sorbonne, could say that "a Geneve on prononce incomparablement mieux -que l'on ne fait en plusieurs provinces de France."[660] - -The Protestant academies usually consisted of faculties of Arts and -Theology. At Geneva[661] there were lectures in Law, Theology, -Philosophy, Philology, and Literature; the teaching was chiefly in -Latin, but sometimes in French. At the end of the sixteenth century a -riding school, known as the _Manege de la Courature_, on the same lines -as the polite academies of France, was started. The instruction given at -Geneva was on broader lines than that of the less popular academies. -Nimes and Montpellier, for instance, were mainly theological.[662] - -Of the many Englishmen who went to Geneva, as to other Protestant -centres, not all attended lectures at the Academies. Some went merely to -learn French, "the exercises and assurance of behaviour," as the general -belief in England was that they did so with less danger in the towns -tempered by a Calvinistic atmosphere. Among the Englishmen who visited -Geneva in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century we find the names -of Henry Withers, Roger Manners, fifth Earl of Rutland, Robert Devereux, -third Earl of Essex, the son of Elizabeth's unfortunate favourite, and -others. Thomas Bodley, the celebrated founder of the Oxford Library, -followed all the courses at the University in 1559. It was considered a -great honour to lodge in the house of one or other of the professors; -Anthony Bacon, the elder brother of the great Bacon, had the good -fortune to be received into the house of de Beze. Casaubon likewise -received into his house certain young gentlemen who came to the town -with a special recommendation to him. These included the young Henry -Wotton, then on the long tour on the Continent, during which he acquired -the remarkable knowledge of languages which qualified him for the -position of ambassador which he subsequently occupied. In 1593 Wotton -wrote to Lord Zouch: "Here I am placed to my great contentment in the -house of Mr. Isaac Casaubon, a person of sober condition among the -French." The learned professor soon became very fond of Wotton, so far -as to allow him to get into debt for his board and lodging, and the -young man left Geneva without paying his debts, leaving Casaubon to face -his numerous creditors in the town. Casaubon was in despair; but -fortunately the episode ended satisfactorily, for Wotton lived up to his -character, and paid his debts in full as soon as he was able.[663] - -[Header: THE AFFECTED TRAVELLER] - -When later Casaubon was at Paris (1600-1610) and his fame was -widespread, most travellers and scholars passing through the city seized -any opportunity of visiting him. Coryat relates his visit to the great -humanist as the experience he enjoyed above all others. Lord Herbert of -Cherbury was also among the English travellers received by Casaubon into -his house at this period. "And now coming to court," writes Lord -Herbert, "I obtained licence to go beyond sea, taking with me for my -companion Mr. Aurilian Townsend ... and a man to wait in my chamber, who -spoke French, two lacqueys and three horses.... Coming now to Paris -through the recommendation of the Lord Ambassador I was received to the -house of that incomparable scholar Isaac Casaubon, by whose learned -conversation I much benefited myself. Sometimes also I went to the Court -of the French King Henry IV., who, upon information of me in the Garden -of the Tuileries, received me with much courtesy, embracing me in his -arms, and holding me some while there."[664] - -By the side of the serious traveller we are introduced to the frivolous -type, travelling merely as a matter of fashion. These "idle travellers," -as they were called, were the cause of most of the objections raised -against the journey to France and the longer tour on the -Continent--apart from questions of religion and politics. Few such -travellers "scaped bewitching passing over seas."[665] When Lord Herbert -of Cherbury arrived in Paris he remarked on the great number of -Englishmen thronging about the ambassador's mansion. They had, most of -them, studied the language and fashions in some quiet provincial town, -such as Orleans or Blois, and returned to Paris full of affectations. -Herbert draws a picture[666] of one such "true accomplish'd cavalere": - - Now what he speaks are complimental speeches - That never go off, but below the breeches - Of him he doth salute, while he doth wring - And with some strange French words which he doth string, - Windeth about the arms, the legs and sides, - Most serpent like, of any man that bides - His indirect approach. - -Many travellers did not follow Moryson's advice "to lay aside the -spoone and forke of Italy, the affected gestures of France, and all -strange apparrell" on their return to England. Their affectation of -foreign languages and customs proved disagreeable to many of their -countrymen. The Frenchified traveller and his untravelled imitators were -known as _beaux_ or _mounsiers_. Nash speaks of the "dapper mounsieur -pages of the Court," and Shakespeare of the young gallants who charm the -ladies with a French song and a fiddle, and fill the Court with -quarrels, talks, and tailors.[667] When the English nobles and gentlemen -who had held official appointments at Tournai returned to England, after -lingering some time at the French Court, the chronicler Hall[668] -declares they were "all French in eating, drinking, yea in French vices -and brages, so that all estates of England were by them laughed at." - -The English _beau_ thought it his duty to despise English ways, -fashions, and speech, and to ape and dote upon all things French:[669] - - He struts about - In cloak of fashion French. His girdle, purse, - And sword are French; his hat is French; - His nether limbs are cased in French costume. - His shoes are French. In short from top to toe - He stands the Frenchman. - -Above all, he loves to display his "sorry French" and chide his French -valet in public, and - - if he speak - Though but three little words in French, he swells - And plumes himself on his proficiency. - -And when his French fails him, as it soon does, he coins words for -himself which he utters with "widely gaping mouth, and sound acute, -thinking to make the accent French": - - With accent French he speaks the Latin Tongue, - With accent French the tongue of Lombardy, - To Spanish words he gives an accent French, - German he speaks with the same accent French, - All but the French itself. The French he speaks - With accent British. - -Thus the _beau_ cannot be ranked among the genuine students of French. - - Would you believe when you this monsieur see - That his whole body should speak French, not he? - -asks Ben Jonson.[670] [Header: "FRENCH-ITALIANATE" GENTLEMEN] We have a -picture, in Glapthorne's _The Ladies' Privilege_, of a travelled gallant -who undertakes to teach French to a young gentleman desiring thereby to -be "for ever engallanted." They confer on rudiments; "your French," says -the gallant, "is a thing easily gotten, and when you have it, as hard to -shake off, runnes in your blood, as 'twere your mother language." Until -you have enough of the language to sprinkle your English with it, answer -with a shrug, or a nod, or any foreign grimace.[671] The author of the -_Treatyse of a galaunt_ bemoans the fact that "Englysshe men sholde be -so blynde" as to adopt the "marde gere" of the French.[672] Many were -the outbursts of patriotic indignation roused by the affectation of the -newly returned travellers, who "brought home a few smattering terms, -flattering garbes, apish cringes, foppish fancies, foolish guises and -disguises and vanities of neighbour nations."[673] In the sixteenth -century France was not exclusively responsible for the fopperies of the -English _beau_, who might often be described as "French Italianate."[674] -He spoke his own language with shame and lisping.[675] Nothing "will -down but French, Italian and Spanish."[676] "Farewell, Monsieur -Traveller," says Rosalind to Jacques, "look you lisp, and wear strange -suits; disable all the benefits of your own country; be out of love with -your nativity, and almost chide God for making you that countenance you -are."[677] The affected _beau_ will "wring his face round about as a man -would stirre up a mustard pot and talke English through the teeth."[678] -He sprinkles his talk with overseas scraps. "He that cometh lately out -of France will talke French-English, and never blush at the matter, and -another chops in with English Italianated."[679] And what profit has he -from the journey on which he has gathered such evil fruit? Nothing but -words, and in this he exceeds his mother's parrot at home, in that he -can speak more and understands what he says.[680] And this is often no -more than to be able to call the king his lord "with two or three -French, Italian, Spanish or such like terms."[681] His attire, like his -tongue, speaks French and Italian.[682] He censures England's language -and fashions "by countenances and shrugs," and will choke rather than -confess beer a good drink. In time the _beau_ forgot what little he had -learnt of Italian, and in the seventeenth century was generally known as -the _English monsieur_, or the _gentleman a la mode_. - -There were two very different attitudes towards the journey to France, -as there were two types of traveller, the serious and the flippant. The -prejudiced and insular-minded asked with Nash:[683] "What is there in -France to be learned more than in England, but falsehood in fellowship, -perfect slovenry, to love no man but for my pleasure, to swear _Ah par -la mort Dieu_ when a man's hands are scabbed. But for the idle traveller -(I mean not for the soldier), I have known some that have continued -there by the space of half a dozen years, and when they come home, they -have hid a little weerish lean face under a broad hat, kept a terrible -coil in the dust in the street in their long cloaks of gray paper, and -spoke English strangely. Nought else have they profited by their travel, -save learned to distinguish the true Bordeaux grape and know a cup of -neat Gascoigne wine from wine of Orleans." The opposite view is -expressed in the message George Herbert sent to his brother at -Paris:[684] "You live in a brave nation, where except you wink, you -cannot but see many brave examples. Bee covetous then of all good which -you see in Frenchmen whether it be in knowledge or in fashion, or in -words; play the good marchant in transporting French commodities to your -own country." - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[564] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ vol. xvi. No. -238. - -[565] Sir Rt. Naunton, _Fragmenta Regalia_, 1824, p. 69. - -[566] _Cal. State Papers, Dom.: Add., 1580-1625_, p. 99. - -[567] _Ibid._ p. 119. A certain Charles Doyley wrote in similar terms -from Rouen. - -[568] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1595-97_, p. 293. - -[569] _Purchas Pilgrimes_, 1625. - -[570] Howell, _Epistolae Ho-Elianae_. - -[571] As did Sir James Melville (_Memoirs_, Bannatyne Club, 1827, p. -12), "to learn to play upon the lut, and to writ Frenche," at the age of -fourteen. Similarly, Barnaby Fitzpatrick, Edward VI.'s youthful -favourite and proxy for correction, was sent to Paris to study fashions -and manners (Nichols, _Literary Remains_, p. lxx). - -[572] The practice was also very common in Scotland, especially when the -reformers assumed the power of approving private tutors as well as -schoolmasters. Gentlemen were driven to evade this restriction by -sending their sons to France in the care of what they considered -suitable tutors. The Assembly then tried to assert its power by granting -passports only to those whose tutors they approved. See Young, _Histoire -de l'Enseignement en Ecosse_, p. 52. - -[573] _Copy Book of Sir Amias Poulet's Letters_, Roxburghe Club, 1866, -pp. 16, 231. - -[574] _The Compleat Gentleman_ (1622), 1906, p. 33. - -[575] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series, iii. 377. - -[576] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ vol. viii. 517; -vol. ix. 1086; vol. xii. pt. i. 972, etc. - -[577] Dated 1610. Ellis, _Original Letters_, 2nd series, iii. 230. - -[578] Green, _Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies of Great Britain_, -London, 1846, ii. pp. 294 _et seq._ - -[579] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ vol. xiii. pt. i. -512. - -[580] _Itinerary_, 1617, pt. iii. bk. i. p. 5. - -[581] _Of Education._ To Master Samuel Hartlib. - -[582] _Copy Book_, p. 90. - -[583] _State Papers, Dom., 1598-1601_, p. 162; and _1601-1603_, p. 29. -In 1580 a list of some English subjects residing abroad was sent to the -queen (_ibid., Addenda, 1580-1625_, p. 4.) - -[584] Greene left an account of his impressions of France and Italy in -his _Never too Late_ (Works, ed. Grosart, viii. pp. 20 _sqq._). - -[585] Frequently the wording in passports (_Cal. State Papers_). - -[586] There were many complaints throughout the two centuries of the -travellers' neglect of everything concerning their own country. "What is -it to be conversant abroad and a stranger at home?" asks Higford. See -also Penton, _New Instructions to the Guardian_, 1694; and F. B. B. D., -_Education with Respect to Grammar Schools and Universities_, 1701. - -[587] Ellis, _Original Letters_ (3rd series, iv. p. 46), publishes one -of the licences which had to be obtained. - -[588] Reprinted by Lady T. Lewis, _Lives from the Pictures in the -Clarendon Galleries_, 1852, i. p. 250. - -[589] _Description of Britaine_, 1577, Lib. 3. ch. iv. - -[590] _Euphues_, ed. Arber, 1868, p. 152. - -[591] _Scholemaster_, ed. Arber, 1870, p. 82. Mulcaster was also -eloquent on the evil result of travel (_Positions_, 1581). - -[592] _Instructions for Youth ..._, by Sir W. Raleigh, etc., London, -1722, p. 50. - -[593] Who founded the English seminary at Douay. - -[594] See entries in _Cal. of State Papers_. - -[595] March 25, 1601 (_Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1601-1603_, p. 18). - -[596] _Correspondence with Hubert Languet_, 1912, p. 216. - -[597] Letter dated September 1, 1631 (J. Forster, _Sir John Eliot, a -Biography_, London, 1864, i. pp. 16, 17). - -[598] J. Howell, _Instructions for Forreine Travel_, 1642 (ed. Arber, -1869), p. 19. - -[599] 1656, p. 102. - -[600] Spence's _Anecdotes_, 1820, p. 184; _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[601] _A Dialogue concerning Education_, in _Miscellaneous Works_, -London, 1751, pp. 313 _et seq._ - -[602] Cp. Entries of Passports, in the _Cal. State Papers_. The -necessity of such a course was considered specially urgent if the -traveller was himself ignorant of languages (_The Gentleman's Companion, -by a Person of Quality_, 1672, p. 55). - -[603] Gailhard, _The Compleat Gentleman_, 1678, p. 16. - -[604] Gailhard, _op. cit._ pp. 19, 20. A gentleman, he thinks, should be -sent abroad betimes to prevent his being hardened in any evil course. - -[605] _Some Thoughts on Education_, 1693. - -[606] Walker, _Of Education, especially of Young Gentlemen_, 1699, 6th -ed. - -[607] _Notes on Ben Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond of -Hawthornden_ (1619), Shakespeare Soc., 1842, pp. 21, 47. - -[608] _Autobiography_, ed. Sir Sidney Lee (2nd ed., 1906), p. 56. - -[609] _Memoirs of Sir John Reresby_, ed. J. J. Cartwright, 1875, p. 26. - -[610] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[611] Addison was well acquainted with French literature and criticism. -He frequently quotes Boileau, Racine, Corneille, and also Bouhours and -Lebossu. His _Tragedy of Cato_ is closely modelled on the French -pattern. See A. Beljame, _Le Public et les hommes de lettres en -Angleterre au 18e siecle_, 1897, p. 316. - -[612] _Memoirs of the Verney Family_, 1892, iii. p. 36. - -[613] _The Correspondence of Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet_, ed. W. -A. Bradly (Boston, 1912), p. 26. - -[614] _Savile Correspondence_, Camden Soc., 1858, pp. 133, 138. O. -Walker, in his _Of Education_, differs from other writers in proposing -that young gentlemen should travel without a governor. - -[615] In the same category may be placed the _Traveiles of Jerome -Turler_, a native of Saxony, whose work was translated into English in -the year of its appearance (1575). It was specially intended for the use -of students. - -[616] T. Palmer, _Essay on the Means of making our Travels into Forran -Countries more Profitable and Honourable_, 1606; T. Overbury, -_Observations in his Travels_, 1609 (France and the Low Countries). -William Bourne's _Treasure for Travellers_ (London, 1578) has no bearing -on travel from the language point of view. Of special interest are -Dallington's _Method for Travell, shewed by taking the View of France as -it stoode in the Yeare of our Lorde 1598_, London (1606?), and his _View -of France_, London, 1604. Other works are _A Direction for English -Travellers_, licensed for printing in 1635 (Arber, _Stationers' -Register_, iv. 343); Neal's _Direction to Travel_, 1643; Bacon's _Essay -on Travel_, 1625; Howell's _Instructions for Forreine Travel_, 1624. - -[617] The versatile master of the ceremonies to Charles I., Sir -Balthazar Gerbier, wrote his _Subsidium Peregrinantibus or an Assistance -to a Traveller in his convers with--1. Hollanders. 2. Germans. 3. -Venetians. 4. Italians. 5. Spaniards. 6. French_ (1665), in the first -place as a _vade mecum_ for a princely traveller, the unfortunate Duke -of Monmouth. It claimed to give directions for travel, "after the latest -mode." Cp. also _A direction for travailers taken by Sir J. S._ (Sir -John Stradling) _out of_ (the _Epistola de Peregrinatione Italica of_) -_J. Lipsius, etc._, London. 1592. - -[618] List in Watt's _Bibliographia Britannia_, 1824 (heading -_Education_); and in _Cambridge History of English Literature_, ix. ch. -xv. (Bibliography). - -[619] _Method for Travell_, 1598, and _View of France_, 1604. - -[620] The constant warnings against mixing with Englishmen abroad show -how numerous the latter must have been. "He that beyond seas frequents -his own countrymen forgets the principal part of his errand--language," -wrote Francis Osborne in his _Advice to a Son_ (1656). - -[621] As did Lord Lincoln, who "sees no English, rails at England, and -admires France." - -[622] _Itinerary_, 1617. - -[623] Bacon, _Essay on Travel_, 1625. - -[624] Gailhard, _op. cit._ p. 48. - -[625] S. Penton. _New Instructions to the Guardian_, 1694, p. 104. - -[626] Cp. Entries of passports to France in the _Calendar of State -Papers_. - -[627] _Positions_, 1581. - -[628] It appears from a deleted note in the MS. of Defoe's _Compleat -English Gentleman_ that travel was not always considered necessary for -younger sons (ed. K. Buelbring, London, 1890). - -[629] _French Alphabet_, 1592: "Car la plus part de ceux qui vont en -France apprennent par routine, sans reigles, et sans art, de sorte qu'il -leur est impossible d'apprendre, sinon avec une grande longueur de -temps. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent en Angleterre, s'ils apprennent -d'un qui ait bonne methode, il ne se peut faire qu'ils n'apprennent en -bref. D'avantage ce qu'ils apprennent est beaucoup meilleur que le -francois qu'on apprend en France par routine. Car nous ne pouvons parler -ce que nous n'avons apris et que nous ignorons. Ceux qui apprennent du -vulgaire ne peuvent parler que vulgairement . . . d'un francois -corrompu. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent par livres, parlent selon ce -qu'ils apprennent: or est il que les termes et phrases des livres sont -le plus pur et naif francois (bien qu'il y ayt distinction de livres); -il ne se peut donc qu'ils ne parlent plus purement et naivement (comme -j'ay dict) que les autres." - -[630] Wodroeph, _Spared houres of a souldier_, 1623. - -[631] Livet, _La Grammaire francaise et les grammairiens au 16e siecle_, -1859, p. 2. - -[632] _In linguam gallicam Isagoge_, 1531. - -[633] _Le Traite touchant le commun usage de l'escriture francoise_, -1542, 1545; cp. Livet, _op. cit._ pp. 49 _sqq._ - -[634] _Gallicae linguae institutio Latino sermone conscripta_ (1550, -1551, 1555, 1558, etc.). - -[635] _Institutio gallicae linguae in usum iuventutis germanicae_ (1558, -1580, 1591, 1593). - -[636] _Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciacion francoese, departi en -deus livres_, 1555. - -[637] "J'ay tousiours eu plus ordinaire hantise, plus de biens et -d'honneur et de civile conversation de la nation Angloise que de nul -aultre." - -[638] Villiers had no doubt some previous knowledge of French. From the -age of thirteen he had been taught at home by private tutors. - -[639] _Reliquiae Wottonianae_, London, 1657, p. 76. - -[640] 12º, pp. 386. - -[641] - - "Etranger desireux de nostre langue apprendre, - Employe en ce livret et ton temps et ton soin, - Que si d'enseignement plus ample il t'est besoin, - Viens t'en la vive voix de l'autheur mesme entendre." - -[642] It differs from _Les Desguisez_, a comedy written by Godard in -1594. - -[643] E. Winkler, "La Doctrine grammaticale d'apres Maupas et Oudin," in -_Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fuer romanische Philologie_, Heft 38, 1912. - -[644] Towards the end of his career, Oudin was appointed to teach Louis -XIV. Spanish and Italian; he was the author of several manuals for -teaching these languages, and it is worthy of note that sometimes the -German language is included. - -[645] Printed with Nicot's edition of Aimar de Ranconnet's _Thresor de -la langue francoyse_, Paris, 1606. - -[646] Garnier was also the author of familiar dialogues, published in -French, Spanish, Italian, and German in 1656. - -[647] _Lettres sur les Anglais et sur les Francais_ (end of seventeenth -century), 1725, p. 305. - -[648] Another grammar specially intended for the use of strangers was -_Le vray orthographe francois contenant les reigles et preceptes -infallibles pour se rendre certain, correct et parfait a bien parler -francois, tres utile et necessaire tant aux francois qu'estrangers. Par -le sieur de Palliot secretaire ordinaire de la chambre du roy._ 1608. - -[649] Gailhard, _op. cit._ p. 33. - -[650] _Method for Travell_, 1598. - -[651] _Records of the English Catholics_, i. pp. 275 _et sqq._; F. C. -Petre, _English Colleges and Convents established on the Continent ..._, -Norwich, 1849; G. Cardon, _La Fondation de l'Universite de Douai_, -Paris, 1802. - -[652] Cp. p. 343 _infra_. - -[653] Cp. account by M. Nicolas, in _Bulletin de la societe de -l'Histoire du Protestantisme Francais_, iv. pp. 503 _sqq._ and pp. 582 -_sqq._ Twenty-five such colleges are named. - -[654] _Bulletin_, i. p. 301; ii. pp. 43, 303, 354 _sqq._; also articles -in vols. iii., iv., v., vi., ix., and Bourchenin's _Etudes sur les -Academies Protestantes_. - -[655] Suppressed as early as 1620. - -[656] Driven from Scotland, in many cases, by James I.'s attempt to -introduce the English Liturgy into the Scottish churches. Robert -Monteith, author of the _Histoire des Troubles de la Grande Bretagne_, -was professor of philosophy at Saumur for four years (_Dict. Nat. -Biog._). - -[657] He composed in French _A faithful and familiar exposition of -Ecclesiastes_, Geneva, 1557; cp. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[658] Cp. Nicolas, _Histoire de l'ancienne Academie de Montauban_, -Montauban, 1885. - -[659] There was an early Academy at Lausanne which emigrated to Geneva -and assured the latter's success (1559); cp. H. Vuilleumier, _L'Academie -de Lausanne_, Lausanne, 1891. - -[660] _Essai de remarques particulieres sur la langue francoise pour la -ville de Geneve_, 1691. Quoted by Borgeaud, _Histoire de l'Universite de -Geneve_, 1900, p. 445. - -[661] C. Borgeaud, _op. cit._ - -[662] They were united at Nimes in 1617, and finally suppressed in 1644. - -[663] Pattison, _Isaac Casaubon_, Oxford, 1892, pp. 40-42, 155. On the -English at Geneva, cp. _ibid._ p. 20. - -[664] _Autobiography_, ed. Sir S. Lee (2nd ed., 1906), p. 56. - -[665] T. Scot, _Philomythie_, London, 1622. - -[666] _Satyra_ (addressed to Ben Jonson), 1608. _Poems of Lord Herbert -of Cherbury_, ed. J. Churton Collins, London, 1881. - -[667] _Henry VIII._, Act I. Sc. 3. - -[668] A. T. Thomson, _Memoirs of the Court of Henry VIII._, London, -1826, i. p. 259. - -[669] Epigram by Sir Th. More: translated from Latin by J. H. Marsden, -_Philomorus_, 2nd ed., 1878, p. 222. - -[670] _English Monsieur: Works_, London, 1875, viii. p. 190. Cp. other -satires and epigrams of the time: Hall, _Satires_, lib. iii. satire 7; -_Skialetheia_, 1598, No. 27; H. Parrot, _Laquei_, 1613, No. 207; -_Scourge of Villanie_, ed. Grosart, 1879, p. 158. - -[671] H. Glapthorne, "The Ladies' Privilege," _Plays and Poems_, 1874, -ii. pp. 81 _sqq._ It was sometimes the good fortune of the gallant to -"live like a king," "teaching tongues" (T. Scot, _Philomythie_, 1622). - -[672] 1510? Colophon: "Here endeth this treatise made of a galaunt. -Emprinted at London in the Flete St. at the sygne of the sonne by Wynkyn -de Worde." Alex. Barclay, Andrew Borde, Skelton and others, all satirize -the mania for French fashions. Every opportunity of getting the latest -French fashion was eagerly seized. Thus Lady Lisle, wife of Henry -VIII.'s deputy at Calais, constantly sent her friends in England -articles of dress "such as the French ladies wear" (_Letters and Papers -of the Reign of Henry VIII._, i. 3892). Moryson says the English are -"more light than the lightest French." - -[673] Purchas, _Pilgrimes_, 1625. - -[674] Sylvester, _Lacrymae Lacrymarum: Works_ (ed. Grosart), ii. p. 278. - -[675] Sir T. Overbury, _Characters_, 1614: "The Affected Traveller." - -[676] George Pettie, _Civile Conversation_, 1586 (preface to translation -of Guazzo's work). - -[677] _As You Like It_, Act IV. Sc. 1. - -[678] Nash, _Pierce Pennilesse_, quoted by J. J. Jusserand, _The English -Novel in the Time of Shakespeare_, 1899, p. 322. - -[679] Wilson, _Arte of Rhetorique_ (1553), ed. G. H. Mair, 1909, p. 162. - -[680] Hall, _Quo Vadis_, 1617. - -[681] Humphrey, _The Nobles or of Nobilitye_, London, 1563. - -[682] Overbury, _Characters_, 1614. - -[683] _The Unfortunate Traveller_ (1587), Works, ed. McKerrow, ii. p. -300. - -[684] _Letters_ (1618), ed. Warner, _Epistolary Curiosities_, 1818, p. -3. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - - THE STUDY OF FRENCH AMONG MERCHANTS AND SOLDIERS - - -Merchants, always a very important and influential class in England, -claim a place by the side of the higher classes as learners of French. -They were continually in need of foreign languages, and French was -certainly the most useful, and, for those trading with France and the -Netherlands, quite indispensable. As to their own language, we are told -that when English merchants were out of England "it liketh them not, and -they do not use it."[685] Those sons of gentlemen and others who wished -to engage in trade were usually apprenticed to merchants. For instance, -Sir William Petty (b. 1623) first went to school where he got a -smattering of Latin and Greek, and, at the age of twelve, was bound -apprentice to a sea captain. At fifteen he went to Caen in Normandy -aboard a merchant vessel, and began to trade there with such success -that he managed to maintain and educate himself. He learnt French and -perfected himself in Latin, and had enough Greek to serve his turn. -Thence he travelled to Paris and studied anatomy.[686] Sylvester, no -doubt, had many opportunities of putting to the test the French he first -learnt in Saravia's school when later in life he became a merchant -adventurer. It appears that many merchants belonged to the class of -travellers who picked up the language abroad by mixing with those who -spoke it. Fynes Moryson accuses merchants, women, and children of -neglecting any serious study of languages and "rushing into rash -practice." "They doe many times," he admits, "pronounce the tongue and -speake common speeches more gracefully than others, but they seldome -write the tongue well, and alwaies forget it in short time, wanting the -practice." The many practical little manuals of conversation which had -appeared in the Middle Ages, and the "litle pages set in print without -rules or precepts" which succeeded them, would certainly encourage this -"rushing into rash practice"; such, indeed, was their aim. The majority -of merchants acquired their French, we may be sure, either by the help -of such little handbooks, intended to be learnt by heart, or simply by -"ear." - -Dialogues for merchants are provided in almost all French text-books of -the time, giving phrases for buying and selling and enquiring the way. -Barclay describes his grammar (1521) as particularly useful to -merchants. There was, moreover, a very popular little book specially -intended for that class--_A plaine pathway to the French Tongue, very -profitable for Marchants and also all other which desire the same, aptly -devided into nineteen chapters_, which appeared first in 1575, and in at -least one,[687] and probably several other editions.[688] The aim of the -book would explain how it has come about that only one copy has survived -the wear and tear of the demands made upon it. Again James Howell -dedicated his edition of Cotgrave's dictionary (1650) to the nobility -and gentry, and to the "merchant adventurers as well English as the -worthy company of Dutch here resident and others to whom the language is -necessary for commerce and foren correspondence." Books such as those of -Holyband and Du Ploich were written for the use of the middle class, -and, no doubt, for merchants also; and a later writer, John Wodroeph, -describes his collection of common phrases as "more profitable for the -merchants than for the loathsome curtier who cannot digest such coarse -meats." - -Dutch merchants are mentioned by Howell in the dedication of Cotgrave's -dictionary, and the close relations, existing between England and the -Netherlands in the time of Elizabeth, possibly account for the fact that -the Netherlanders took some part in instructing the English, chiefly -merchants, in the French tongue. It has already been seen how -unfavourably the Huguenot teachers in England criticized their -fellow-teachers of French from the Low Countries, and we are not -surprised to find that the latter contented themselves with teaching the -language orally, and avoided the risk of committing their views to -paper. [Header: FRENCH TEXT-BOOKS FOR MERCHANTS] In the Netherlands, -however, no such compunction was felt, and some manuals composed there -made their way to England. At an early date one was reprinted in London. -Holyband, the chief of the group of Huguenot teachers, was quickly up in -arms against it. "Je ne diray rien," he writes in 1573, "d'un nouveau -livre venu d'Anvers, et dernierement imprime a Londres, a cause que, ne -gardant ryme ne raison, soit en son parler, phrase, orthographe, maniere -de converser et communiquer entre gens d'estat; et cependant qu'il -pindarise en son iargon il monstre de quel cru il est sorti, que si nos -chartiers d'Orleans, Bourges ou de Bloys avoyent oui gazouiller -l'autheur d'icelluy, ilz le renvoyeroient bailler entre ses geais, apres -luy avoir donne cinquante coups de leur fouet sur ses echines." Let this -writer teach his jargon to the Flemings, the Burgundians, and the people -of Hainault; it is a true saying that a good Burgundian was never a good -Frenchman. "Lesquelles choses considerees," concludes the irate -Holyband, "i'espere que l'autheur de ce beau livre ne nous contraindra -point de manger ses glands, ayans trouve le pur froment." - -What was this book newly come from Antwerp? Probably an edition of a -very popular collection of phrases and conversations, written originally -in French and Flemish in the early years of the sixteenth century, by a -schoolmaster of Antwerp, Noel de Barlement or Barlaiment.[689] By the -middle of the century the work had appeared in four languages. In 1556 -it was printed at Louvain in Flemish, French, Latin, and Spanish, and in -1565 it appeared at Antwerp in Flemish, French, Italian, and Spanish. In -1557 a London printer, Edward Sutton, received licence to print "a boke -intituled Italian, Frynshe, Englesshe and Laten,"[690] and in 1568 a -"boke intituled Frynsche, Englysshe and Duche" was licensed to John -Alde.[691] Both of these volumes, we may safely conclude, were -adaptations of the Flemish handbook, and either may have been the "book -from Anvers" reviled by Holyband. Another English edition of the work -was issued in 1578, a few years after Holyband's attack, by George -Bishop, who received licence to print a _Dictionarie colloques ou -dialogues en quattre langues, Fflamen, Ffrancoys, Espaignol et Italien_, -"with the Englishe to be added thereto."[692] - -This vocabulary of Barlement probably enjoyed considerable popularity in -England in its foreign editions also. It was widely used by English -merchants and travellers after it had been adapted to their use by the -addition of English to its columns; and they would, no doubt, bring -copies back with them from the Netherlands. The earliest edition in -which English has a place was probably that of 1576, entitled _Colloques -or Dialogues avec un Dictionaire en six langues, Flamen, Anglois, -Alleman, Francois, Espagnol et Italien. Tres util a tous Marchands ou -autres de quelque estat qu'ils soyent, le tout avec grande diligence et -labeur corrige et mis ensemble. A Anvers 1576_. By the end of the -century a seventh and finally an eighth language were added. There are -copies of two further editions of the work issued in England in the -first half of the seventeenth century. The first included four languages -and appeared in 1637, under the title of _The {English French}{Latine -Dutch} Scholemaster or an introduction to teach young Gentlemen and -Merchants to travell or trade. Being the only helpe to attaine to those -languages_. It was printed for Michael Sparke, who issued another -edition in eight languages in 1639 as _New Dialogues or colloquies or a -little Dictionary of eight languages. A Booke very necessary for all -those that study these tongues either at home or abroad, now perfected -and made fit for travellers, young merchants and seamen, especially -those that desire to attain to the use of the Tongues._ Michael Sparke -recommends the convenience of this portable little volume: "And if -parents use to send their children beyond the sea to learne the language -and to gaine the learning of forraine nations, judge what may be said of -the benefit of this booke (I had almost said of the necessity of it) -which being read doth by daily experience furnish the Reader with a full -and perfect knowledge of divers tongues." He also tells you "in your -eare" that "since the worke has been published in England and the -Netherlands," not so perfect an edition has appeared. - -Turning to the contents of the little handbook, we are at once struck by -the close resemblance between its dialogues and those of the French -text-books produced in England--still further evidence of the use of -the book in our country. [Header: THE DIALOGUES OF BARLEMENT] Its -contents, which in all the varied forms in which it appeared are -fundamentally the same, are divided into two parts. The first consists -of four chapters, and opens with table talk very similar to that of the -English-French dialogues, especially those of Du Ploich. There is a -passage, for example, in which the schoolboy speaks of his school, found -in varying form in several of the early manuals produced in England: - - Peter is that your son? Pierre est cela vostre filz? - Ye it is my sonne. Ouy c'est mon filz. - It is a goodly child. C'est un bel enfant. - God let him alwayes Dieu le laisse tousiours - prosper in vertue. prosperer en bien. - I thanke you cousen. Je vous remercie cousin. - Doth he not goe to schoole? Ne va-il point a l'escole? - Yes, he learneth to speake French. Ouy, il apprend a parler Francois. - Doth he? Fait-il? - It is very well done. C'est tres bien fait. - John can you Jean scavez vous bien - speake good French? parler francois? - Not very well, cousen, Ne point fort bien, mon cousin, - but I learne. mais ie l'apprends. - Where go you to schoole? Ou allez vous a l'escole? - In the Lombarde Street. En la rue de Lombarts. - Have you gone Avez vous longuement - long to schoole? alle a l'escole? - About halfe a yeare. Environ un demy an. - Learn you also to write? Apprenez vous aussi a escrire? - Yea, cousen. Ouy, mon cousin. - That is well done, C'est bien fait, - learne alwayes well. apprenez tousiours. - Well cousen, if it please God. Bien mon cousin, s'il plait a Dieu. - -The second chapter deals with buying and selling; the third with -counting, demanding payment of debts, and so on; and the fourth gives -specimens of commercial letters and documents. The second part contains -an alphabetical vocabulary of common words, followed by directions for -reading and speaking French, in the guise of a slight grammar. A few -rules for pronunciation and the different parts of speech are -accompanied by advice to seek fuller information in other French -grammars. Then come a few rules for the other languages--Italian, -Spanish, and Flemish. - -So popular was this handbook in England that it was reprinted without -much alteration, and no modernization, at the beginning of the -nineteenth century: _The Dialogues in six languages Latin, French, -German, Spanish, Italian, and English_, appeared at Shrewsbury in 1808. -We are informed that "this book contains common forms of speach, one -being a literal translation of the other, and as near as the idiom of -the language will bear, so that they correspond almost word for word, -and will be found extremely useful for beginners." The second part of -the work, although mentioned in the table of contents, is omitted. - -A similar polyglot manual, which was probably less well known in -England, was the _Vocabulaire de six langues, Latin, Francois, -Espagniol, Italien, Anglois et Aleman_, printed at Venice, probably in -1540--an enlarged edition of a vocabulary in five languages (Antwerp, -1534, and Venice, 1537) in which English had no place. This handbook -passed through several other editions,[693] and no doubt became fairly -well known in England through the intermediary of the numerous Italian -merchants who came to London, and the English traders and travellers -visiting Italy; editions which appeared at Rouen in 1611 and 1625 would -also be easily obtainable. The dictionary is described as a very useful -vocabulary for those who wish to learn without going to school--artisans, -women, and especially merchants. The first part consists of a -vocabulary, arranged under fifty-five headings, dealing with the usual -subjects, beginning with the heavens; the second contains a list of -verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns, together with a -collection of phrases and idioms. The interesting dialogue of the -Flemish vocabulary is lacking. - -In the second half of the sixteenth century there lived at Antwerp a -language master, Gabriel Meurier, who counted many English among his -pupils. Meurier was a native of Avesnes in Hainault, where he was born -in about 1530. But for many years he taught languages--French, Spanish, -Flemish, and Italian--at Antwerp, which had by this time supplanted -Bruges as the chief trading centre of the Low Countries. His pupils were -largely merchants, and his first work on the language, the _Grammaire -francoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres et necessaires -pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte Langue_, 1557,[694] was -dedicated to "Messeigneurs et Maistres, les gouverneurs et marchans -Anglois." [Header: GABRIEL MEURIER] In 1563 was issued at Antwerp -another work specially for the use of the English--_Familiare -communications no leasse proppre then verrie proffytable to the Inglishe -nation desirous and nedinge the ffrench language_, dedicated to his most -honoured lord, John Marsh, governor of the English nation, and intended -for the use of "Marchands, Facteurs, Apprentifs, and others of the -English nation." These dialogues on subjects specially useful to -merchants are divided into seventeen chapters, giving familiar talk for -the members of the different trades with lists of their merchandise, -directions for travellers, the names of different artisans and -tradesmen, instructions for collecting debts, receiving money and -writing receipts. Meurier teaches his pupils the words used daily by -merchants at the Exchange, and then the degrees of kinship, numbers, -coins, the days and feast days, the parts of the body and clothing, food -and table talk, and, finally, commercial notes and letters.[695] Another -edition of the book was published at Rouen in 1641, being intended, in -this case, to teach both French and English. The title given to it was -_A treatise for to learne to speake Frenshe and Englishe together with a -form of making letters, indentures, and obligations, quittances, letters -of exchange, verie necessarie for all Marchants that do occupy trade or -marchandise_. Meurier also composed numerous other books which have no -direct bearing on the teaching of French to Englishmen. They were almost -all written for the use of merchants, whom they sought to instruct in -French and Flemish, and sometimes in Spanish and Italian as well. That -the English were always in the author's mind is shown by the fact that -he sometimes explains pronunciation by comparison with English sounds. -He also did important lexicographical work. He prepared French-Flemish -vocabularies in 1562 and 1566, and in 1584 his French-Flemish Dictionary -was published at Anvers. This dictionary is said to have been one of the -sources which helped Cotgrave to compile his famous work, and Meurier -seems to have outdone the later writer in collecting rare and obsolete -words.[696] - -There were thus many faculties for learning French in the Netherlands. -Francis Osborne wrote regarding the study of French abroad:[697] "for -the place I say France, if you have a purse, else some town in the -Netherlands or Flanders, that is wholesome and safe: where the French -may be attained with little more difficulty then at Paris, neither are -the humours of the people so very remote from your owne." Thus the -Netherlanders taught French to the English both in their own -country[698] and in England. The connexion was a long-standing one. -Caxton had taken his French and English Dialogues from a Flemish -text-book, and in later times, as has been seen, Flemish works were -published in England, and had some influence on the dialogues of the -English manuals of French. The debt, however, was not all on one side. -Holyband's _French Schoolemaister_, for instance, was adapted to the use -of Flemings and printed at Rotterdam in 1606,[699] and in 1647 was -published at the end of the _Grammaire flamende et francoise_ (Rouen) of -Jan Louis d'Arsy. Moreover, the grammar of the seventeenth-century -French teacher whose popularity equalled that of Holyband in the -sixteenth century--Claude Mauger--was published in the Low Countries at -the same time as in England. - -Another link between the teaching of French in the Netherlands and in -England is found in the book by John Wodroeph--an interesting figure -among teachers of French. He spent many years in the Netherlands, and in -his French text-book he adapted what he called his "court and country -dialogues" from some French-Flemish ones written for the instruction of -the Court of Nassau in the former language. Writing of the importance of -a knowledge of French, he emphasises its usefulness to the nobility. -But, he adds, it is still more profitable to merchants, for, excepting -Latin, it is the most widely used language in Christendom, and, "si -j'osoye dire," much more useful. - -Wodroeph was a soldier, and soldiers, like merchants, gave much impetus -to the study of French. [Header: FRENCH IN MILITARY CIRCLES] In -Barlement's book of dialogues, soldiers are ranked with merchants, -travellers, and courtiers as those to whom the knowledge of languages -is most necessary: "soit que quelcun face merchandise ou qu'il hante la -court, ou qu'il suive la guerre, ou qu'il aille par villes et champs." -The wars raging almost incessantly in France and the Low Countries -attracted numbers of Englishmen. The army was an opening for younger -sons, and so "Some to the wars to try their fortunes there." Judging -from the epigrams and satires of the time, the swaggering gallant home -from the wars was a familiar figure in London. This sworded and martial -_beau_ is - - He that salutes each gallant he doth meete - With "farewell sweet captaine fond heart _adieu_"; - -one who - - hath served long in France, - And is returned filthy full of French, - -and who, at night when leaving the inn, "thinking still he had been -sentinell of warlike Brill, crys out _que va la? Zounds que?_ and stabs -the drawer with his Syringe straw."[700] - -Those who were moved by the spirit of adventure and liked the -picturesque crowded to the camp of Henry IV. of France who counted many -admirers in this country. One of these, Dudley Carleton, afterwards Lord -Dorchester, writes from the king's camp in 1596 that he is busy studying -French, though "Mars leaves little room for Mercury." Later he perfected -his knowledge by studying at Paris, and wrote thence to John -Chamberlain, the letter writer, to tell him how one Sir John Brooke, -with Coppinger, a Kentish gentleman, "lately come to learn the -language," are the "logs in our French school."[701] Unfortunately we -have no more details of this little group of Englishmen studying French -at Paris. One of the Englishmen who served in Normandy in 1591 with the -troops sent by Queen Elizabeth to help Henry IV. against the League kept -a daily journal from the 13th of August till the 24th of December -following.[702] This soldier, Sir Thomas Coningsby, a friend of Sir -Philip Sidney, acted as muster master to the English detachment, and was -in frequent intercourse with Henry before Rouen. - -An interesting example of how the army and service abroad offered -opportunities for the study of French is found in the memoirs of the -Verney family. The three younger sons of Sir Edmund Verney (1590-1642) -all became soldiers. Tom took service in the army of France, while -Edmund (1616-1649), after studying at Oxford, joined the army of the -States in Flanders (1640). When in winter quarters at Utrecht, he "made -up for his former idleness," and studied for seven or eight hours a day -for many months to improve his knowledge of French and Latin. His -Frenchman, he writes to tell his father, is the same that was Sir -Humphry Sidenham's; he "warrants I shall speak it perfectly before we -draw into the field, and truly, I am confident I shall."[703] He was -reading Plutarch's _Lives_ in French. Edmund was soon after killed in -the Civil War. His younger brother, Harry, was intended from his youth -for a soldier, and early sent to Paris to study French. There he seems -to have spoilt his English without making any very rapid progress in -French, for French grammar had a powerful rival in horses and dogs--his -chief interest in life. "Pleade for me in my behalfe to my father," he -implores his eldest brother, "if I have not write in french so well as -he expects, but howsoever, I presume a line to testifie some little -knowledge in the same, and hope in time to expresse myselfe more radier, -as the old proverbe is ... _il fault du temps pour apprendre_." Harry -Verney later took part in the Thirty Years' War, and was present at the -recapture of Breda by the Prince of Orange in 1637.[704] - -It was during the Thirty Years' War also that John Wodroeph served in -the Netherlands. He tells us in 1623 that he had been "following the -uncertaine warres" for "these seven years past." During this period of -service, "by the spared dayes and houres of (his) watch and guarde," he -composed a book for teaching French, to which he gave the title of _The -Spared Houres of a Souldier in his travells or The true Marrowe of the -French tongue_. It was printed at Dort, near Rotterdam, in 1623, and -dedicated to the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I. Wodroeph was a -"gentleman," and we gather from the interest he shows in Scotland that -he hailed from that country. [Header: JOHN WODROEPH] At both the -beginning and the end of his book are several poems of all sorts -dedicated to courtiers who had followed James from Scotland to -England--the Duke of Lennox, Earl Ramsey, James, Lord of Hay, and -others. He also addresses the Elector Palatine and his queen, Elizabeth, -James I.'s daughter. Many other poems, some in French and some in -English, are written in honour of the Lords of the States-General and of -sundry Flemish gentlemen. All these give this work, written in the midst -of the British army abroad, a strong local colour. In addition, Wodroeph -wrote poems to celebrate the virtues and learning of numerous Scottish -and English officers--Colonel William Brog, Colonel Robert Henderson, -Captain Roger Orme, Captain Edwards, Captain Drummond, and John -Monteith, his very kind captain. To many of these and other "sons of -gentlemen" Wodroeph had taught French, when his military duties -permitted, and he mentions Captain Drummond as being among his most -enthusiastic pupils. He also addresses lines to his very good friend -John Cameron, the Scotch theologian and the minister of the French -Church at Bordeaux, one of the many Scotchmen who held important -scholastic positions in France. These verses must have been written -between 1608 and 1617, the period when Cameron was at Bordeaux. Later -Cameron became professor of divinity at Saumur and Montauban. He spoke -French with unusual purity, and also wrote some of his theological -treatises in French.[705] - -Apart from its martial atmosphere, this curious volume has also a strong -Calvinistic flavour, another indication of Wodroeph's Scottish -sympathies. He wrote many "godly songs" in French, to be sung to various -psalm tunes, and even introduced the spirit into his grammar itself. His -verbs are "truly formed and constructed after the order of Geneva, which -retaineth alwaies entirely the true marrow, method and rules of verbs, -or any other part of speech, both in their Bibles, Psalms, and other -godly books: forsaking all new corruptions, of poets, and other vaine -toyes, threatening to deface the old authority of the Orthographie." -Moreover, a godly gentleman, "maister John Douglas, minister of the Word -of God to the English and Scotch troopers within Utrecht," persuaded him -to undertake the translation into French of Sir William Alexander's -_Doomesday_, which at this date embraced four books or "houres," -subsequently extended to twelve. _Doomesday_, thought Wodroeph, would be -greatly "liked of in France, yea, even as well as a second Du Bartas." -He was, however, unable to complete his task, "finding the style so -excellent and so high, and also somewhat harsh, to agree with French -verse, because that our English tongue (and chiefly by this -extraordinary poet) can affoorde more sense and matter with ten of its -syllables than ever I have been able to construe with twelve or thirteen -of the French. Therefore I was constrained to leave it off, partly for -want of tyme and commoditie, and partly that it was so constrained." The -one 'Houre' he completed was included in his book, with an apology and -the expression of the hope that "any kind French poet would end out the -rest, and also help these few rude lines which are translated in haste -out of his week and shallow braine." - -Wodroeph wrote French, both verse and prose, with remarkable ease. In -addition to the poems already mentioned, there are many others scattered -through his works. One of these, "Chanson Spirituelle de la vie des -vertueux hommes," is written to the tune of Desportes' song, "O nuit, -jalouse nuit, contre moy conjuree." He tells us that whenever possible -he used French in correspondence in preference to English. He spoke the -language with equal fluency, and assures us that he did so with greater -facility than English. He had not acquired this mastery of the language -without much study, but by "many cold winter nights sitting at it," and -by much practice. He appears to have been fairly widely read in French -literature, and shared the admiration felt by many of his countrymen for -Du Bartas and the _Quatrains_ of Pibrac. - -Thus Wodroeph was perfectly conscious of the many difficulties offered -by the French language, and censured in strong terms those who pretend -to teach it in a short space of time. "I have shamefully heard say a -teacher (in my tyme) that he could give rules, that any might read and -write and understand the French language in six weeks. O what a weake -ground should hee build therein! Yea not in sixteene months, hee and his -gentle teaching! Unlesse he dazell his eyes much, and straine his memory -out of her limits." [Header: METHOD OF STUDY] At an earlier date, -Holyband had deplored the existence of the many "thornie and inepte -bookes" claiming to give a knowledge of the language, and Wodroeph, in -his turn, shows the small esteem in which he held the many "small wares" -by which it is impossible to prove a good speaker. He had seen very many -treatises on verbs, "confused (for want of space), confusing those who -read them," and so many pamphlets and books making believe "by wordes -rather than by effects that the French tongue can be truly learned by -the same." No doubt most of these little pamphlets are among the many -school-books of which all trace has been lost. There is, however, -mention of one, _A shorte method for the Declyning of Ffrench Verbes_, -by J. S., licensed in 1623 to the printer, Richard Field.[706] - -Wodroeph, therefore, earnestly begs the student of French not to fancy -he can "spare the marrow of his famous braines" and pick French up by -ear alone, as many seek to do. He must, on the contrary, be prepared "to -storm the citadel of grammar, and do as the valiant captaine, that is to -say, besiege the strongest houldes which commande over the lesser and -weaker sort." "Loving Reader," he writes, "if I could persuade thee to -believe what profit the diligent and serious Man doth reape learning the -true methode of French Tongue and what advantage he gaineth above him -who thinketh to obtaine the said Tongue by the eare only: truly thou -wouldest use thine earnest diligence and celeritie perusing these -rules." Otherwise learners will speak "scurvily, harshly and painfully, -that they make the Frenches take their sport at them, even as the -English do at the Welshes ... taking sometyme the male for the female, -and the hand for the foote; applying to the woman that which should -apply to the man: and to the leg which ought apply to the arme: as _la -garcon_, _le femme_, _ma sieur_, and _mon dame_: ... O what language -this is in the eares of the Frenches! I think truely it should make Pere -Coton him selfe to laugh at it, who said in a sermon (the King and Queen -present), that hee had neither sinned nor laughed in fiftene yeares -tyme, yea and any man else." Verbs are a special difficulty, and there -"be many that can never speake true French for lack of knowing their -methode. For where it ought to be spoken thus: _Il y eut_ or _il y avait -un homme la_, some will say _il fut_, _il estoit un homme la_. Fine -French! And so will the ignorant speake through all the moodes and -tenses, whereat the Frenches take often their sport." Thus those who -have learnt no grammar "go wallowing in the painefull and muddy mire of -confused and backward broyles, doubting and fearing (without any -assurance) what words to speak first in framing their phrases." - -But Wodroeph, in spite of the great emphasis he laid on the study of -rules, fully recognizes the importance and value of practice. "I do not -meene (for all this)," he writes, "to condemne common practice of the -tongue by the eare, but do praise both wayes; esteeming (nevertheless) -the method of the rules for the better and surer way, as I have -certainlie found (and many others), by myne owne experience practicing -them bothe." "Certes il vous faut parler tousiours," he says, "soit-il -ou en bien ou en mal." To make progress "il vous faut frequenter, -hanter, accoynter, accoster, discourir, babiller, caquetter, baiser, -lecher, parler hardiment et discretement, aymer, rire, gausser, jouer, -vous rejouir, et jouir de leurs bonnes faveurs et graces: et -principalement es compagnies honestes: ascavoir, parmi les seigneurs et -Dames, Damoiselles honestes, pudiques matrones, femmes et filles de -vertu et d'honneur; captaines et dignes chefs de guerre, la ou il y a -tousiours quelque chose a esplucher, si c'est de leurs prouesses, -entreprises, ou de leurs faicts heroiques et memorables . . . sans vous -esbahir pour le bruit non plus que fait le bon cheval de trompette." -Wodroeph doubtless based his advice on his own experience. Moreover, a -bold and enterprising spirit has much to do with the successful study of -French: "si vous n'estes hardi prompt, diligent, et vigilent, vous -n'apprendrez pas la langue francoise par songe . . . mais cela vient par -grande peine, diligence et priere a Dieu. Certes, . . . si un homme -estoit marie a une femme francoise . . . il me semble qu'il apprendroit -plustost en disant, Mme, ou m'amie, permettez moy que ie vous recerche -en tout honeur et mariage . . . a celle fin de vous faire ma chere -moitie, et fidele espouse: que par ce moyen, ie puisse et avoir vostre -alliance et apprendre vostre language, autrement, madame, il me -cousteroit beaucoup plus de temps, de peine et de mes moyens." - -Wodroeph's book for teaching French is one of the most comprehensive. He -assures the student that it lacks "nothing to make him a perfect -Frenchman but the birth and delygence though he never read any other." -It fills more than five hundred folio pages. [Header: "THE SPARED HOURES -OF A SOULDIER"] Putting his theories into practice, he begins with rules -of pronunciation and grammar, "set downe by God's helpe as I have -practiced in my time and by the tracke of best Authours, which have -professed this tongue heretofore." His debt to Holyband makes it evident -that he ranked the popular sixteenth-century teacher among these. He -would have the student pay special attention to three things: first the -pronunciation, which, as was usual, he bases on comparison with English -sounds; then the genders, learning every noun with its article "to lead -to the same in right gender"; and, finally, and most important of all, -the verbs, which should be committed to memory. In his grammar he -follows the usual order, treating each part of speech in turn. He -endeavours to avoid all superfluous rules, fearing the "loathsomeness of -the unlearned." - -The rules occupy about a hundred pages. Then follows a most -comprehensive collection of practical exercises, intended for all sorts -and conditions--courtiers, merchants, and the middle classes, "the -learned and the unlearned." The dialogues are accompanied by a verbatim -English translation. In the introductory ones the reader is referred to -the margin for the pronunciation of the most difficult words, where it -is given in English spelling. The "true English phrase" is added in the -footnote where necessary. Wodroeph was strongly in favour of sacrificing -if need be the purity of the English for the sake of rendering the -meaning of the French clearer. He did not pretend, he says, to teach his -countrymen their "own ornate English." "Verbatim, therefore, sometimes -must be had, because it is requisite that it should not always be closed -up in a phrase, but showed bare, as it fals very often: then (nil thou -wilt thou) thou must have a coat to cover it, that is to say his true -signification, or else thou must leave it, and run to the Dictionarie, -and dazle thy eyes there awhile, and be even so wise as thou wast -before; for sometymes they are not to be found at all in it, and -sometymes it will fall in some tense of some mood which no Dictionarie -can yield: yea even thousands." - -The first section of the dialogues, that accompanied by the guides to -pronunciation, deals with familiar subjects, more useful than elegant -and more profitable for the middle classes and merchants than for the -"loathsome courtier." "Thou hast in this Booke all household stuffe and -other pretty necessary words meete for thy dailie use in this tongue. -Also an Introduction to frame all common and ordinarie phrases -pertaining to a house: as of victuals, dressing, voyaging through the -land. Also the partes and cloathing of a Man, his body, all in -remarkable phrases; whereof I will shew thee vively, yea every Member, -from the crowne of the Head unto the Foot." Though Wodroeph's dialogues -are on a much larger scale than usual in French manuals, they treat of -much the same topics. He advises the student to read this first set of -dialogues several times, as much to get a good foundation of common -talk, as to learn the pronunciation by means of the guides provided. -They are followed by lists of common phrases to be learnt by heart, -"every day one or two, for ordinarie use," and to facilitate an early -use of French in conversation, and also by French idioms "very necessary -for Translations of this tongue into any other." - -After about sixty pages of this introductory matter we pass to what -Wodroeph calls "The first booke of familie Dialogues, wherein is treated -of all kinds of common necessary phrases as well for the use of the -fields, labourage and contries, as for all sortes of home affaires for a -house"--all accompanied by a verbatim English translation. These -dialogues comprise conversations between members of most ranks of -society, from a king and queen, ladies and gentlemen, to family scenes, -and discussions between various tradesmen and peasants, not forgetting -the schoolmaster and his pupil and the military officer and his -subordinates; for, whenever occasion arises, Wodroeph introduces -military talk. This section of the work closes with a list of the proper -terms in which to address the higher and lower classes. - -Next come the dialogues taken from _Le verger des Colloques recreatifs_, -offered by a Walloon to Prince Henry of Nassau, for his furtherance in -the same tongue in his younger years. Wodroeph claims to have purified -this book, written in "scurvie Wallons language." It had already been -adapted to the instruction of the English in the Italian language, by -John Florio in his _Second Frutes_. These dialogues are naturally more -of the courtly type, and are concerned with the daily occurrences of the -life of a gentleman. - -They are followed by _The Springwell of Honour and Vertue_, a collection -of moral sayings and counsels, "composed both by ancient and moderne -philosophers not only for the benefit of the corrupted youth, but also -for all folkes, of all qualities, and chiefly for the yong gentilitie." -[Header: END OF WODROEPH'S CAREER] Wodroeph explains how this -collection came to have a place in his book: "being once invited to -supper of a worthy and virtuous gentleman (one who had showed me much -favour for clearing his eldest sone of some doubts of the French -tongue), I saw that hee (his owne selfe) did copie some Theames out of -this same Worke ... for to instruct one of his children being (for that -present) at the French schoole; I entreated him to lend it me for a -Tyme, who did it willingly until I had viewed it, and corrected the -French and read it all out." The _Springwell_ is divided into three -bookes: the first deals with the "means of acquiring Honour and Vertue"; -the second with the old subject of the six or, as Shakespeare has it, -seven ages of man; and the third with the worship of God and our duty to -our neighbours. - -After sundry poems, addressed to English, Scottish, and Flemish -gentlemen, and the translation of Sir William Alexander's _First Hour_, -given in both French and English, come directions for writing letters, -with thirty-six epistles in French and English, and themes gathered out -of French authors for the use of some of his pupils, "before I made them -frame any letters: very profitable to begin with and out of the best and -purest French." Finally we have the usual proverbs, so much in favour at -this period, "picked" from those of the learned Mathurin Cordier, and -"sundry other Authours and writers." The work closes with "a -Thankesgiving (of the Authour) unto God for his helpe in the finishing -of this worke," and the quotation of Wodroeph's device--"Vers Dieu c'est -le meilleur." - -In 1625 a second edition of this curious volume appeared in London, -under the title of _The Marrow of the French Tongue_. This edition is -said to be "revised and purged of much gross English" which had made its -way into the former edition, printed abroad. It is considerably -abridged, and lacks the living interest of the Dort edition. The actual -instructions for the French tongue remain intact, but all the little -chatty autobiographical scraps, and observations to the "Loving Reader," -as well as the addresses to officers, which gave such a characteristic -personal touch to the earlier edition, are here omitted, and the work is -about one hundred and seventy pages shorter. The dedication to Charles -Stuart, now newly crowned Charles I., still stands. Wodroeph had no -doubt returned to England, where he was known to several of the -prominent men of the time. In 1623 he had mentioned favours received -from James, Lord of Hay, at Hampton Court, sixteen years before. We may -presume that he continued to teach French among the higher classes of -society after his return, though there does not appear to be any further -trace of him. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[685] Florio, _First Frutes_, 1578. - -[686] J. Aubrey, _Brief Lives_ (ed. A. Clark, Oxford, 1898), ii. p. 140. - -[687] A fragment of one leaf, the title page, leaving no date; British -Museum, Harl. MSS. 5936. - -[688] Arber, _Transcript of the Stationers' Register_, iii. 413; iv. 152 -and 459. - -[689] _Vocabulaire de nouveau ordonne et derechief recorige pour -aprendre legierement a bien lire, escripre, et parler francoys et -flameng_, Anvers, 1511 (E. Stengel, _Chronologisches Verzeichnis_, p. 22 -n.; and Michelant, _Livre des Mestiers_, Introduction). - -[690] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, i. 343. - -[691] _Ibid._ i. 389. - -[692] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, ii. 338. - -[693] Cp. Ch. Beaulieux, "Liste de Dictionnaires, Lexicographes et -vocabulaires francais anterieurs au Thresor de Nicot" (1606), in -_Melanges de Philologie offerts a Ferdinand Brunot_, Paris, 1904. - -[694] Cp. E. Stengel, "Ueber einige seltene franzoesische Grammatiken," in -_Melanges de Philologie romane dedies a Carl Wahlund_. Macon, 1896, pp. -181 _sqq._ - -[695] Of similar import, no doubt, were the _Boke of Copyes Englesshe, -Ffrynshe and Italion_, licensed to Vautrollier in 1569-70 (_Stationers' -Register_, i. 417); and the _Bills of Lading English, French, Italian, -Dutch_, licensed to Master Bourne in 1636 (_ibid._ iv. 364). - -[696] H. Vaganey, _Le Vocabulaire francais du seizieme siecle_, Paris, -1906, pp. 2 _sqq._ - -[697] _Advice to a Son_, 1656, p. 83. - -[698] Cp. _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1666-67_, pp. 57, 104. At a later -date A. de la Barre, a schoolmaster of Leyden, published a _Methode ou -Instruction nouvelle pour les etrangers qui desirent apprendre la -maniere de composer ou ecrire a la mode du temps et scavoir la vraye -prononciation de la langue francoise_, Leyden, 1642. In 1644 he issued, -also at Leyden, a book probably intended as reading material for his -pupils, and called _Les Lecons publiques du sieur de la Barre, prises -sur les questions curieuses et problematiques des plus beaux esprits de -ce temps_. - -[699] Farrer, _La Vie et les oeuvres de Claude de Sainliens_, -Bibliography. - -[700] G. S. Rowlands, _The Letting of Humour's blood in the Head-Vaine_ -(1600). Edinburgh, 1814. - -[701] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1595-97_, p. 173; _1601-1603_, pp. 18, -111. - -[702] Printed in the _Camden Miscellany_, vol. i., 1847, pp. 65 _sqq._ - -[703] _Memoirs of the Verney Family_, i. 171. - -[704] During the Commonwealth there were many English troops in the -service of France, and the Duke of York, afterwards James II., spent -much of his first exile in serving under Turenne. - -[705] Cp. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. An Englishman, Gilbert Primrose, -was for a time minister at Bordeaux (till 1623), and afterwards of the -Threadneedle Street Church, London (_Dict. Nat. Biog._). - -[706] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, iv. 100. - - - - -PART III - -STUART TIMES - - - - -CHAPTER I - - FRENCH AT THE COURTS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I.--FRENCH STUDIED BY - THE LADIES--FRENCH PLAYERS IN LONDON--ENGLISH GENERALLY IGNORED BY - FOREIGNERS - - -The coming of the Stuarts strengthened considerably the connexion -between France and England. French was widely used at the Court of James -I. The King himself does not appear to have been well acquainted with -other foreign languages than French and Latin, both of which he employed -freely in conversation[707] and correspondence.[708] In one or other of -these tongues he conversed with the learned foreigners he loved to -gather at his Court, such as Isaac Casaubon[709] and the famous -Protestant preacher, Pierre Du Moulin, minister of Charenton. The latter -has left an account[710] of the warm welcome he received from the -English monarch; he tells us that at meal times he usually stood behind -His Majesty's chair and conversed with him. James requested Du Moulin to -write an answer to Cardinal Du Perron's pamphlet concerning the power of -the Pope over monarchs, in which he had been attacked. Du Moulin -complied, and his work was printed at London in 1615 as the _Declaration -du Serenissme Roy Jacques I_. He also preached in French before James at -the Chapel Royal at Greenwich, and received marks of distinction from -the University of Cambridge, which conferred the degree of D.D. upon -him.[711] - -An idea of the extent to which French was used in intercourse with -ambassadors and other foreigners may be gathered from the _Finetti -Philoxenus_, a series of observations by Sir John Finett, knight and -master of the ceremonies to the two first Stuart kings of England, -touching the reception and precedence, treatment and audience of foreign -ambassadors. The French language was making important progress at this -time, and Latin was rapidly losing ground. James was the last king of -England to employ Latin in familiar conversation, and this is partly -accounted for by his pedantic turn of mind. The spread of the use of -French in England was hastened too by its growing popularity all over -Europe. The Flemish Mellema, in his Flemish-French Dictionary of 1591, -says French is used everywhere in Europe and the East.[712] To be -unacquainted with French was accounted a great deficiency in a -gentleman. It was said of the language that _qui langue a jusqu'a Rome -va_,[713] and in England the general conviction was that "No nobleman, -gentleman, soldier, or man of action in business between Nation and -Nation can well be without it."[714] - -James seems to have acquired his knowledge of French chiefly by means of -intercourse with the many Frenchmen at the Scottish Court, one of whom, -Jerome Grelot, was among the young noblemen who shared his studies.[715] -He also read much French literature, however, and later took a great -interest in the language studies of his children. They were constantly -required to send him letters in French and Latin to allow him to judge -of their progress. - - "Sir," wrote the Princess Elizabeth, afterwards Queen of Bohemia, - "L'esperance que j'ay de vous voir bien tost et d'avoir l'honneur - de recepvoir voz commandemens m'empeschera de vous faire ma lettre - plus longue que pour baiser tres humblement les mains de vostre - Majeste."[716] - -The king's eldest son, Henry, made acquaintance with French at a very -early age. In 1600, when only seven years old, he addressed a letter in -French to the States-General of Holland. He calls this epistle "les -primices de nostre main,"[717] and probably received some help in its -composition. He also wrote in French to Henry IV., who had recommended -to him his riding master, M. St. Antoine,[718] and to the Dauphin, -offering him two _bidets_.[719] [Header: FRENCH STUDIES OF THE STUART -FAMILY] At this time many of the riding-masters in England were -Italians, but almost all the dancing-masters were Frenchmen.[720] -The young prince, however, had a French master for both these -exercises.[721] One of his language masters was John Florio, best known -by his translation of Montaigne's _Essais_, published in 1600, who -taught both French and Italian and was the author of several books for -teaching the latter. Florio had spent many of his earlier years at -Oxford, and at the beginning of the seventeenth century was in London, -teaching languages, and well acquainted with many of the chief men of -the day. It is uncertain at what date he became tutor to Prince -Henry,[722] but in 1603 he was appointed Reader in Italian to Queen -Anne, and in the following year "Gentleman extraordinary and Groom of -the Privy Chamber." His royal pupil was a great lover of Pibrac's -_Quatrains_, popular among teachers of French. The prince wrote to his -mother in 1604, sending her a copy of one of the quatrains, and telling -her that if she likes he will undertake to learn the whole by heart -before the end of the year; and, in reminding his father of a promise to -give ecclesiastical preferment to his tutor, Mr. Adam Newton, he quotes -one of them as appropriate:[723] - - Tu ne saurois d'assez ample salaire - Recompenser celui qui t'a soigne - En ton enfance et qui t'a enseigne - A bien parler et sur tout a bien faire. - -Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., seems to have been the most -accomplished of James's family in so far as French is concerned. He was -able to carry on a conversation in it with his father and the Duke John -Ernest of Saxe-Weimar when he was thirteen years old.[724] Evidence of -his fluency is provided by the well-known episode of his visit to Spain -to see the Infanta. The Queen of Spain, daughter of Henry IV. and sister -of Henrietta Maria, was delighted when the English prince, on his -arrival at the Spanish Court, addressed her in her native idiom. She -warned him not to speak to her again without permission, as it was -customary to poison all gentlemen suspected of gallantry towards the -Queen of Spain. She managed to obtain leave to speak with Charles, -however, and had a long conversation with him in her box at the theatre, -in the course of which, it is said, she confided to him her desire for -his marriage with her sister.[725] When Charles married Henrietta she -was quite ignorant of English, and his knowledge of French was again put -to the test. He was also called upon to employ French with his -mother-in-law, Marie de Medecis, during her stay in England. His letters -to her show how accomplished a writer of French he was. He possessed a -more elegant style than his French wife, thanks largely to Guy Le -Moyne,[726] who was also French tutor to the Duke of Buckingham[727] and -other members of the nobility. - -Among the French masters employed in the family of Charles I. was Peter -Massonnet, a native of Geneva, who attended the princes, Charles (II.) -and James (II.), in the capacity of sub-tutor, writing-master, and -French teacher. We have no details as to how he taught them, nor do we -know if Charles learnt from one or other of the French manuals which had -been dedicated to him. Massonnet received a salary and pension from -Charles I., in whose service he remained for thirty-two years, first as -French tutor to his children and then, in the time of his adversity, as -clerk to the Patents, and Foreign Secretary. During the Commonwealth he -spent some time at Oxford, and was created D.Med. on the 9th of April -1648, being described as second or under tutor to James, Duke of -York.[728] At the time of the Restoration Massonnet was in a very -destitute condition. His pension had not been paid during the troubled -period of the Civil Wars and the Commonwealth, and to crown all he was -outlawed for debt. He had to petition Charles II., his former pupil, -several times for the payment of his salary and arrears before his -appeal had any real effect. From time to time he received instalments, -but in 1668 he was still "the saddest object of pity of all the king's -servants, and ready to perish."[729] - -[Header: FRENCH TUTORS AT COURT] - -In 1633 Sir Robert le Grys, Groom of the Chamber to James I. and Charles -I.,[730] offered his services as tutor to Prince Charles (II.), then -three years old. He undertook to make Latin the prince's mother tongue -by the age of seven, using an easy method, not "dogging his memory with -pedantic rules, after the usual fashion." French was to be the language -first studied, and Italian and Spanish also entered the programme.[731] -What sort of reception these proposals met with is not known, but in May -of the same year Sir Robert was granted the office of captain of the -Castle of St. Mewes for life.[732] Another tutor, named Lovell, taught -French and Latin to two of Charles I.'s children during the Civil War. -He was employed at Penhurst by the Countess of Leicester, to whose care -the children had been committed.[733] - -Ladies were among the most eager lovers of the French language at the -Court of the early Stuarts, and were noted for their proficiency in that -tongue. We hear that wealthy ladies go to Court, "and there learn to be -at charge to teach the paraquetoes French."[734] Not only was he that -could not _parlee_ not considered a gentleman, but the ladies had to -talk French if they wished to play a part at Court. French had entirely -supplanted Euphuism, the high-flown, bombastic speech which had held -sway in polite circles after the appearance of Lyly's _Euphues_ in 1579. -"Now a lady at Court who speaks no French," wrote Th. Blount in -1623,[735] "is as little regarded as she who did not parley euphuisme" -in the earlier days. Girls, to be considered well brought up, had to -"speak French naturally at fifteen, and be turned to Spanish and Italian -half a year later."[736] It is improbable that Spanish was learnt in any -but a few exceptional cases. Italian, however, was fairly widely learnt -for purposes of reading as we may conclude from the title of a book -printed at London in 1598 by Adam Islip--_The Necessary, Fit and -Convenient Education of a young Gentlewoman, Italian, French, and -English_.[737] John Evelyn's favourite daughter, Mary, was as familiarly -acquainted with French as with English. Her knowledge of Italian was -limited and characteristic of the general attitude taken up towards that -language; she understood it, and was able "to render a laudable account -of what she read and observed." His other daughter, Susanna, was also a -good French scholar, but apparently knew no Italian, though she had read -most of the Greek and Roman authors. Sir Ralph Verney, who dissuaded -women from deep study, recognised that French was indispensable, and -encouraged them to read French romances especially. - -While Italian was sometimes read, French was almost always spoken in -polite circles. Milton's avowed preference for Italian forms a -noticeable exception to the general rule, and even he acquired some -knowledge of French at an early age.[738] There were also many more -facilities for learning French than there were for Italian. It is -certain--some of the dialogues of the French text-books prove it--that -many ladies picked up a conversational knowledge of the language from -their French maids. This was how the young daughters of Lord Strafford -acquired their knowledge, as we see from the following account of their -progress which he sent to their grandmother: "Nan, I think, speaks -French prettily ... the other (Arabella) also speaks, but her maid, -being of Guernsey, her accent is not good."[739] - -Women, however, had had at all times no small influence on the -production of French text-books. One of the first written in England, -the _Treatyz_ of Walter de Bibbesworth, was composed in the first place -for the use of Lady Dionysia de Mounchensy. [Header: LADIES STUDY -FRENCH] The two chief grammars of the early sixteenth century, the -_Introductorie_ of Duwes and the _Esclarcissement_ of Palsgrave, both -owed their origin to royal princesses, and early in the seventeenth -century there appeared a grammar written specifically to enable women to -"match old Holliband" and "_parlee_ out their part" with men--_The -French Garden for English Ladyes and gentlewomen to walke in, or a -Summer dayes labour_, by Peter Erondell or Arundell, a native of -Normandy, and one of the group of refugee Huguenots, who taught the -French language in London. Erondell informs us he had long felt the -urgent need of such a book in his own teaching experience. "It is to be -wondered," he writes, "that among so many which (and some very -sufficiently) have written principles concerning our French Tongue -(making the dialogues of divers kinds), not one hath set forth any -respecting or belonging properly to women, except in the French -Alphabet,[740] but as good never a whit as never the better; not that I -finde faulte with it, but it is so little, as not to contayne scarce a -whole page, so that it is to be esteemed almost as nothing. I knowe not -where to attribute the cause, unles it be to forgetfulnes in them that -have written of it. For seeing that our tongue is called _Lingua -Mulierum_, and that the English ladyes and gentlewomen are studious and -of a pregnant spirits, quicke concertes and ingeniositie, as any other -country whatsoever, me thinketh it had been a verie worthie and specious -subject for a good writer to employ his Pen." Accordingly Erondell -undertook "to break the yce first," as he puts it. - -He opens his _Garden_ with some rules of pronunciation in English, "as a -gate through the which wee must (and without the which we cannot) enter -into our French Garden." He acknowledges that he has selected these -rules "out of them which have written thereof." Many are taken from De -la Mothe's _French Alphabet_, and Holyband, as well as Bellot, are also -reckoned amongst those "which have written best of it." On one point, -however, Erondell claims to make an observation "never noted before in -any book." This had to do with the change in pronunciation of the -diphthong _oi_.[741] "Whereas our countrymen were wonte to pronounce -these words _connoistre_ ... as it is written by _oi_ or _oy_; now since -fewe yeeres they pronounce it as if it were written thus, _conetre_." - -Erondell reduces the grammar rules to the smallest possible number. "He -wishes the student to learn by heart" the first two verbs _avoir_ and -_estre_, and for the rest to "help him selfe by the treatise that M. -Holliband made thereof,[742] as being the best (French and English) that -I have yet seen, notwithstanding it is not amisse to make you knowe our -persons and the number of our conjugations, which M. Bellot, in his -_French Guide_,[743] saith to be sixe, and I can number no more." In -dealing with grammar, Erondell claims to correct a gross error common in -England--the use of _de_ for the preposition _from_ before a masculine -noun preceded by _le_; "because that in English it is said ... _I come -from the country_, so the English students do commonly say, insteade of -_Je viens du pays_, ... _Je viens de le pays_.... But why should I finde -faulte in the English students," says Erondell, "whereas I my selfe have -heard the French teachers (I mean of our language) commit commonly that -error?" - -Erondell's grammar rules occupy but ten pages. They contain a few -observations on the gender and number of nouns, on verbs, notes on _du_, -_au_, _de la_, _a la_, _en_, _y_, and on the negative and degrees of -comparison. He considers that the rules usually contained in French -text-books are too many. Except for a few indispensable rules, "without -the which our language can never be intelligiblie spoken," the rest are -"rather a trouble and discouragement to the student then any -furtherance." He compiled his book "for them of judgement and capacity -only, which may far sooner attaine to the perfect knowledge of our -tongue, by reason of cutting off those over-many rules, wherein the -student was overmuch entangled." His first idea, indeed, had been to -make a set of dialogues for women without any rules, but he realised -that to do this would have been like building a "house without a doore"; -"and so, the gate being wider open, they may walke in who will." -Gentlemen also may find some "flowers" to please them, and the garden is -an "arbour for the child": - - Who with the busie mother now and then - May prattle of each point, in phrases milde - The witty Boies, of bookes of sport and play, - The pretty lasses of their worke all day. - -The dialogues, thirteen in number, and all of considerable length, form -the main part of the work. As usual they are in French and English, and, -in addition, the pronunciation of the more difficult French words is -given in English spelling in the margin. [Header: PETER ERONDELL] They -deal with the events in the daily life of a lady, from her rising in the -morning till bed-time. The first portrays the lady, who is of a rather -pedantic turn of mind, rising and dressing. The second introduces her -two daughters and their French governess. There is much talk on the -education of children, and we are spectators of the French tutor's -(Erondell) arrival and of the French lesson, which forms the fourth -dialogue. Each of the two girls in turn reads in French and then -translates. The more advanced is given some English to translate into -French, and the beginner is asked to conjugate certain French verbs. -This is how the lesson opens: - - Sister Charlotte I pray you goe, Ma soeur Charlotte, Je vous prie - fetch our bookes, bring our allez querir nos livres, apportez - French Garden, and all our nostre jardin Francois, et tous - other bookes: nos aultres livres: - now in the name of God let us begin. or ca commencons au nom de Dieu. - Mistres Fleurimond read first: Mlle. F. lisez premierement: - speake somewhat louder parlez un peu plus haut - to th' end I may heare afin que j'oye - if you pronounce well: si vous prononcez bien: - say that worde againe. dites ce mot la derechef. - Wherefore do you sounde Pourquoy prononcez vous - that s? cette s la? - Doe you not knowe that it must be ne savez vous pas qu'il la faut - left? Well, it is well said, laisser? Et bien, c'est bien dit, - read with more facilitie, lisez avec plus de facilite, - without taking such paines. sans tant vous peiner. - Construe me that, what is that? Traduisez moy cela, qu'est cela? - Do you understand that? tell me Entendez vous cela? dites m'en - the signification in English--Truly la signification en Anglois--Certes - Sir I cannot tell it, Mons. je ne le scauroye dire, - I understand it not, je ne l'entend point, - I beseech you tell it me, je vous supplie de me le dire, - and I will remember it against et je le retiendray pour une - another time--Give me your paper autre fois--Baillez moy vostre - and I will write it, to th' end papier et ie l'escripray, afin - you forget it not ... etc. que vous ne l'oubliez. . . . - -At the end of her lesson, Florimond has to point out her younger -sister's mistakes; for, says Erondell, "in teaching others, one learns -oneself." His rule for learning to read was, "observe your rules and -read as you do in English"--a method which explains his system of guides -to pronunciation. From the dialogues the student passes to the reading -of French literature. The girls' French tutor came between seven and -eight in the morning, the dancing-master at nine, the singing-master at -ten, and another music-master at four in the afternoon. - -In the following dialogues the lady visits first the nursery, and next -her sons and their tutors. She is then pictured receiving guests, going -out shopping, presiding at the dinner-table,[744] and taking part in -the conversation. Finally, in the evening, the company take a walk by -the Thames, and the thirteenth and last dialogue "treateth of going to -bed, prayers (including the Creed), and night-clothes." - -In order to give students an introduction to French verse as well as -prose, Erondell adds to his book the story of the Centurion in the New -Testament put into French verse by himself. He does not provide any -English translation, and considers that the pupil who has progressed so -far in the study of the language can very well do without it. For the -same reason he here omits, as he does in the last dialogue also, the -guides to pronunciation. - -For a time Erondell had been tutor in the Barkley family, and dedicated -the _Garden_ to the Lady Elizabeth Barkley, with an expression of his -gratitude for the many favours he had received from her. The verses on -the Centurion are dedicated to Thomas Norton, of Norwood, whom he calls -his "tres intime et tres honore amy." As was usual at this time, -Erondell's book is preceded by commendatory poems, including lines by -William Herbert, author of _Cadwallader_, and by Nicholas Breton. There -is also a sonnet by the "Sieur de Mont Chrestien, Gentilhomme francois," -possibly the famous Antoine de Montchretien, who in about 1605 was -forced to leave France on account of a duel, and visited both England -and Holland. Erondell appears to have been many years in England before -he produced his _Garden_. At this date he had a large clientele, -including "many honourable ladies and gentlemen of great worth and -worship." In about 1613 he engaged an assistant to help him, one John -Fabre, a Frenchman, "born in the precinct of Guyand, a town of Turnon"; -in 1618 Fabre was still "professeing the teaching of the French tongue -with Mr. Peter Arundell."[745] - -In addition to compiling the _French Garden_, Erondelle prepared four -new editions of Holyband's _French Schoolemaister_. Although they are -said to be "newly corrected and emended by P. Erondell," he made no -noticeable changes. The first of these editions appeared in 1606, and -the others in 1612, 1615, and 1619. This last date is the latest at -which we hear of him. - -[Header: ERONDELL'S WORKS] - -The earliest notice we have of Erondell is found in 1586, when he -published a _Declaration and Catholic Exhortation to all Christian -Princes to succour the Church of God and Realme of France_,[746] -faithfully translated out of French, and printed side by side with the -original--another of the many similar pamphlets in French and English. -He had thus been in England at least twenty years when his book for -teaching French was published, and its tardy appearance led one of his -admirers to ask: - - Swift Erondell, why hast thou been so slowe - Whose nature is to bring the summer in? - -In earlier years Erondell had no doubt made use of Holyband's works; he -evinces a high esteem for the sixteenth-century teacher, and shows -intimate acquaintance with his _Schoolemaister_ and his _Treatise on -Verbs_. It is an interesting fact that until the middle of the -seventeenth century and probably much later Holyband's sixteenth-century -French was still being taught in England; as late as 1677 the _French -Schoolemaister_ was among the books advertised for sale by Thomas -Passenger at the sign of the Three Bibles on London Bridge.[747] The -great changes taking place in the evolution of the French language -reached England but slowly. - -Erondell translated another French work into English.[748] One day -Richard Hakluyt, the geographer, brought him the whole volume of the -Navigations of the French Nation to the West Indies to translate. From -this Erondell selected the _Nova Francia, or the Description of that -part of New France, which is one continent with Virginia, described in -the three late voyages ... made by M. de Monto, M. du Pont Grave, and M. -de Poutrincourt, into the countries called by the French men La Cadre, -lying to the southwest of Cape Breton ..._, which was published in 1609 -and dedicated to the "Bright Starre of the North, Henry, Prince of Great -Britaine." - -The arrival of the French Queen of England, Henrietta Maria, in 1625, -gave further stimulus to the already strong French influence at the -Court. When she came she knew no English, and for many years after her -arrival waywardly refused to study the language. Her numerous suite of -French ladies and gentlemen, including Mme. Georges, the Duc and -Duchesse de Chevreuse, and Pere Sancy, shared her ignorance, as indeed -did practically all foreigners. The English Court was thus called upon -to exercise its French to the uttermost. The small French colony in -London managed to make itself very unpopular, not only with the King but -also with the whole Court. Their ignorance of English and English ways -caused them to commit blunders which prejudiced people against them. -Such was the case when Henrietta and her suite strolled, chattering and -making a great noise, through an assembly of English people listening to -a sermon. The preacher asked if he must stop, but no notice was taken, -and soon the whole retinue returned in the same fashion, evidently not -understanding a word of what was going on.[749] Within a year of their -arrival, however, most of the French attendants were dismissed. - -Four years after the arrival of the French queen, who had a passion for -the theatre, a French company arrived in London and acted before an -English audience.[750] They first played a farce at Blackfriars on the -17th of November, but did not meet with much success, being "hissed, -hooted, and pipinpelted." This hostile reception was partly due to the -fact that women[751] took part in the acting--a thing hitherto unknown -in England--and partly because the play was a "lascivious and unchaste -comedye," and the company was formed of "certain vagrant French players -who had beene expelled from their owne country." No wonder that they -gave "just offence to all vertuous and well disposed persons in the -town." Yet the French actors were not discouraged. They waited a -fortnight, and then obtained a licence to play at the Red Bull. This -second attempt does not appear to have been more successful than the -first. After some three weeks had elapsed, however, the company decided -to make a last effort. This time they acted at the Fortune, but with so -little success, that the Master of the Revels refunded them half his fee -"in respect of their ill-fortune." The failure of the venture was due -largely to its novelty, and the popular dislike of the French. [Header: -FRENCH PLAYERS IN LONDON] Though we are told that there was a "great -resort" to the French plays,[752] apparently people went more for the -sake of rioting than for the pleasure of hearing the French plays. - -The stormy reception of 1629 did not, however, hinder other French -actors from coming to our country. In 1635 a new company arrived, this -time under the special patronage of the Queen.[753] They first played -before Her Majesty, who recommended them to the King. Through his -influence they were allowed the use of the Cockpit Theatre in Whitehall. -There, on the 17th of February, they presented a French comedy called -_Melise_--either Corneille's _Melite_, or more probably Du Rocher's -comic pastoral, _La Melize, ou les Princes Reconnus_.[754] The King, -Queen, and Court were present. The acting met with approval and the -players received L10. There was no repetition of the riotous behaviour -which had characterised the performances of 1629, probably because there -were no women in the company, and also because the players were -specially patronised by the Court and the aristocracy. A few days after -the King gave orders to the Master of the Revels, Sir Henry Herbert, -brother of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, that the French company should be -allowed to act at Drury Lane Theatre on the two sermon days of each week -during Lent, and through the whole of Passion week, when they would -avoid rivalry with Beeston's English players, who did not perform on -those days. Sir Henry Herbert, himself a good French scholar, tells us -he "did all these courtesies to the French gratis," wishing to render -the Queen his mistress an acceptable service. - -The French actors now enjoyed increasing popularity. When, at the end of -Lent, they had to relinquish the Cockpit, Drury Lane, to the English -players, their services were still in demand. On Easter Monday they -acted before the Court in a play called _Le Trompeur puny_, no doubt the -tragi-comedy of that name by Georges de Scudery.[755] Their success was -even greater than on the occasion of the Court performance of _Melise_, -and on the 16th of April following, they presented _Alcimedor_,[756] -under the same circumstances, and "with good approbation." These three -plays acted at the Court are the only part of their repertoire that is -named in the record of the Master of the Revels. On the 10th of May they -received L30 for three plays acted at the Cockpit, probably that in -Whitehall, where they first acted _Melise_ before the Court, nearly four -months earlier, and not the Cockpit, Drury Lane, where they had played -during Lent. - -The question now arose of providing the French players with a special -theatre of their own. Arrangements were made for converting part of the -Riding School in Drury Lane into a play-house, and on the 18th of April -the King signified to Sir Henry Herbert his royal pleasure that "the -French comedians should erect a stage, scaffolds and seats, and all -other accommodations." On the 5th of May following a warrant was granted -to Josias d'Aunay and Hurfries de Lau (so Sir Herbert spells their -names)[757] and others, empowering them to act at the new theatre -"during pleasure." How long the French company, whose director was -Josias Floridor, continued to act in London is not known. But it is a -striking fact that in 1635 there was a regular French theatre -established in the city, and its presence must have had considerable -effect. The French company under Floridor again appeared before the -Court, in December 1635; we do not know what they played, beyond the -fact that it was a tragedy. On the twenty-first of the same month, the -Pastoral of _Florimene_ was acted in French at Whitehall by the French -ladies who attended the Queen. The King, the Queen, Prince Charles, and -the Elector Palatine, were present, and the performance was a great -success. - -The Queen did not persist in her obstinate refusal to learn English. -When she had been in the country about seven years, she began to study -the language seriously. Mr. Wingate was her tutor, and her love of the -theatre was put to practical use by the performance of long masques and -pastorals in English in which she took part. It is not surprising that -Henrietta Maria was ignorant of English, for our language was -practically unknown in France in the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries. [Header: ENGLISH IGNORED ON THE CONTINENT] Italian and -Spanish were the fashionable modern foreign languages in France. English -was either entirely ignored or regarded as barbarous, and since French -was widely spoken at the English Court, and Latin was used by scholars, -the need for it was not felt.[758] No foreign ambassador ever knew -English. Of the Frenchmen who visited England,[759] only a few learnt -the language. Chief among these were the French teachers, the pioneers -among Frenchmen in the study of the English tongue. Of individuals, the -Sieur de la Hoquette, man of letters and traveller, is said to have -visited England to see Bacon, and learnt English in order to read the -Chancellor's works in the original. He discussed Bacon's works and -English novels with J. Bignon, and was surprised to find that scholar -acquainted with them. Jean Doujat also knew English, as did La Mothe le -Vayer, who married a Scotchwoman, and also perhaps Regnier Desmarais, -who draws a few comparisons with it in his grammar.[760] But these were -isolated exceptions. Among the languages in which Panurge addresses -Pantagruel on their first meeting, English has a place, but is hardly -recognisable in its Scottish dress.[761] And the Marechal de Villars -relates in his memoirs[762] that the Duc de la Ferte, "quand il avait un -peu bu," would break out in English to the great astonishment and -amusement of all who were present. There is a tradition that Corneille -kept a copy of the English translation of the _Cid_, which he showed to -his friends as a curiosity. - -Yet the general ignorance of English outside England did not discourage -English actors from making professional tours abroad. They seem to have -enjoyed considerable popularity in Germany and the Low Countries,[763] -where they played at first in English. No doubt dancing, mimicry, and -music had much to do with their success, and the clown probably took -advantage of his position to offer interpretations from time to time. -However, the actors soon learnt some German by mixing with German -actors. A band of English acrobats had performed at Paris in 1583. Some -years later, in 1598, a troupe of English comedians hired the Hotel de -Bourgogne,[764] the only theatre in Paris, from the _Confrerie de la -Passion_, who usually played there. The English actors, at whose head -was one Jehan Sehais, got into trouble for playing outside the Hotel, -contrary to the privileges of the _Confrerie_, and had to pay an -indemnity. How much these actors made use of their language for -attracting an audience is not certain. At a somewhat later date, another -company played at Fontainebleau before Henry IV. and his son, afterwards -Louis XIII. The "wild dramas" acted by the English players seem to have -made a great impression on the young prince, who afterwards would amuse -himself by dressing as a comedian and crying in a very loud voice, -"Toph, toph, milord!" pacing about with great strides in the fashion of -the English actors.[765] But it is highly probable that these few words -were all the English the future king of France could muster. - -Like the language, English literature was generally ignored in France. -Those men of letters who wrote Latin--More, Camden, Selden, etc.--were -known under their Latin names. In the early years of the seventeenth -century, however,[766] the French began to take an interest in English -literature, and a few translations of prose works appeared, though -English poetry and drama remained unnoticed. The first French version of -an English work was that of Bishop Hall's _Characters of Vertues and -Vices_ which appeared in 1610, and again in 1612 and 1619, and may have -had some influence on La Bruyere's _Caracteres_. [Header: NEGLECT OF -ENGLISH] It is also interesting to note that this enterprising -translator was no other than J. L'Oiseau de Tourval, Parisien, who wrote -so enthusiastically of Cotgrave's dictionary, which appeared in the -following year (1611).[767] In the course of the next twenty years about -a score of other translations saw the light, including versions of -Greene's _Pandosta_ (1615), of Sidney's _Arcadia_, and of Bacon's -_Essays_. The translation of the _Arcadia_ was the subject of a violent -literary quarrel. Two versions came out at the same time, and both -claimed priority. One was due to J. Baudouin, who had lived two years in -England learning the language. He was also responsible for the -translation of Bacon.[768] His rival was one Mlle. Chappelain. - -"English is a language that will do you good in England, but past Dover -it is worth nothing," wrote John Florio the language teacher, in his -_First Frutes_ (1578). And more than half a century later English was -still despised in foreign countries. While French was of use "in all -furthest parts of Europe," English still served "but in the Brittaine -lland,"[769] and even there did not receive due homage. English, we are -told by an indignant upholder of the claims of our language,[770] was -left for him who drives the plough; all the scholars, all the courtiers -you passed in the street, were good scholars in foreign tongues; many of -them chatted French as glibly as parrots, but could not write a single -English line without a solecism. But in the meantime the study of -English had had its advocates.[771] Richard Mulcaster has already been -mentioned as the first Englishman who emphatically urged that English -should be studied as thoroughly as foreign languages. "What reason is -it," he asked, "to be acquainted abrode and a stranger at home? to know -foreign things by rule, and our own but by rote? If all other men had -been so affected, to make much of the foren and set light by their own, -we should never by comparing have discerned the better. They proined -their own speche, both to please themselves and to set us on edge." This -was in 1582. Scholars took up the defence of the claims of English -against French, just as they did the claims of Latin. Camden seeks to -prove that English contains as many Greek words as French,[772] and so -is as worthy of respect. And Osborne, in his _Advice to a Son_, tells -the young diplomat to employ an interpreter in his dealings with these -foreigners who refused to recognize the value of English, "it being too -much an honouring of their Tongue, and undervaluing of your owne, to -propose yourself a master therein, especially since they scorn to learn -yours." There were, however, a few facilities for learning English at -the disposal of foreigners, in addition to residence in England. The -marriage of Charles I. with Henrietta Maria had been hailed both in -France and England by books which taught the languages of the two -countries conjointly, and so strengthened the new bond between them. In -England appeared a new edition of Du Bartas, in French and English, for -teaching "an Englishman French, or a Frenchman English." Wodroeph's -_Marrow of the French Tongue_ (1625), which saw the light at the same -time, was said to be "aussi utile pour le Francois d'apprendre l'Anglois -que pour l'Anglois d'apprendre le Francois," though only the dialogues -in French and English could serve this purpose, as, indeed, they might -in any other French text-book.[773] This notice is evidently added -merely as a concession to topical events; it had not figured in the -earlier edition (1623). - -In France, on the other hand, was published a work in which English was -treated more seriously. This was a _Grammaire Angloise pour facilement -et promptement apprendre la langue angloise. Qui peut aussi aider aux -Anglois pour apprendre la langue Francoise: Alphabet Anglois contenant -la pronunciation des lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons_, -dedicated to Henrietta Maria, and probably arranged by one of the -professors of the College de Navarre, from which it is dated. We are -informed that the princess, and those intending to accompany her to her -new home, studied English daily. These lessons, if they were really -given, were no doubt a matter of form, and we may judge from the results -that they were not taken seriously. - -[Header: ENGLISH GRAMMARS] - -This grammar issued in 1625 was not original; it had appeared at Rouen -in 1595,[774] and before that date there had been several other -editions. The 1595 edition was enlarged and corrected by a certain E. -A., who, for about ten years previously, had spent much of his time -translating French pamphlets on topical events and similar works from -French into English.[775] E. A., who was probably the original compiler -of the work, dedicated it to Queen Elizabeth. He says he had collected -the material from different authors in the leisure time allowed him by -his studies. In its contents the work resembles the usual French manuals -produced in England. It opens with rules for the pronunciation of -English, followed by grammar rules for the same language, all given in -French and English. Then come the dialogues, taken textually and without -acknowledgement from Holyband's _French Littleton_, and one dialogue -specially for courtiers, which may have been original.[776] The book -closes with the vocabulary of Holyband's _French Schoolemaister_. The -grammatical part of the work is also taken from one of the productions -of the French teachers in England--the _Maistre d'escole anglais_ -(1580), written by Jacques Bellot for teaching English to foreigners in -England and dedicated to a member of the royal family of France. - -Bellot protests against the general neglect of the English language, -rich enough in his opinion to rank with the most famous living tongues. -He claims to be the first to draw up precepts for teaching it. There is -little exaggeration in Bellot's claim, for hardly any works on English -had as yet been written, and these were chiefly treatises on the -orthography, more scholastic than pedagogic in intention.[777] At the -close of the year in which Bellot's work was published, however, -appeared the first work on English by an Englishman, designed to give -instruction to foreigners as well as his own countrymen. This was -William Bullocker's _Booke at large for the Amendment of Orthographie -for English Speech_, to which was added "a ruled grammar ... for the -same speech to no small commoditie of the English Nation, not only to -come to easie, speedie and perfect use of our owne language, but also to -their easie and speedie and readie entrance into the secrets of other -Languages, and easie and speedie pathway to all strangers, to use our -language, heretofore very hard unto them." - -Two years later came Mulcaster's _Elementarie_, urging the claims of the -vernacular, and expounding his method for teaching it. Other grammars -followed, some in Latin, some in English,[778] but in hardly any of them -is any attention paid to foreigners--a striking contrast with those -published in France, in which foreigners were always an important -consideration. In 1632, however, appeared Sherwood's English-French -Dictionary, of which, it is said, the French were "great buyers." -Towards the middle of the seventeenth century foreigners received more -and more attention in such books, as English became better known. Simon -Daines's _Orthoepia anglicana_,[779] for instance, intended for the use -of both natives and foreigners, was published in 1640, as was also _The -English grammar made by Ben Jonson for the benefit of all strangers out -of his observation of the English language now spoken and in use_.[780] -Ben Jonson had made a collection of grammars, and he speaks of a most -ancient work written in the Saxon tongue and character. "The profit of -grammar is great to strangers, who have to live in communication and -commerce with us," he wrote, "and it is honourable to ourselves." In -1644 another work of like aim was issued under one of the usual florid -titles affected at that time: _The English Primrose far surpassing -others of this kind that ever grew in any English garden._ It professed -to teach "the true spelling, reading and writing of English," and was -"planted" by Richard Hodges, schoolmaster in Southwark, "for the -exceeding great benefit both of his own countrymen and strangers." -Similarly J. Wharton's grammar of 1655 claimed to be "the most certain -guide that ever yet was extant" for strangers that desire to learn our -language. - -[Header: ENGLISH GRAMMARS FOR FOREIGNERS] - -Thus travellers to England would find some provision for learning -English. In the early seventeenth century several French teachers in -London undertook to teach English to foreigners, and these were the -earliest professional teachers of the language. They had all learnt -English after their arrival in the country on very practical methods, an -experience which must have reacted on their methods of teaching French. -Most of them wrote English with ease, if not always idiomatically. As -time advanced, especially in the latter part of the seventeenth century, -they composed several English grammars for teaching the language to -their pupils. Merchants as well as French teachers were pioneers in -advancing the study of English by foreigners. In 1622 George Mason, one -of the merchants in London skilled in the French tongue, wrote a -_Grammaire Angloise, contenant reigles bien exactes et certaines de la -Prononciation, Orthographie et construction de nostre langue, en faveur -des estrangers qui en sont desireux_, but especially, he tells us, for -the use of "noz francois tant a leur arrivee en ce pais, que en leur -demeure en iceluy." This English grammar[781] is written in French, and -gives rules for pronunciation and the parts of speech. It is followed by -dialogues[782] in French and English, in the usual style, bearing much -resemblance to the Latin colloquies and the dialogues of De la Mothe's -_French Alphabet_. A new edition was issued at London in 1633. The -earliest conversation books in French and English printed by Caxton, -Wynkyn de Worde, and Pynson are called books for teaching English as -well as French. They were indeed equally adapted for either language, -but it is very improbable that at this early date even the most -enterprising merchants learnt English. - -Yet the first foreigners to recognize the importance of English were -merchants. English was given a place by the side of Latin, French, -Spanish, Italian, and German in the edition of the polyglot dictionary -for the use of merchants and travellers, printed at Venice in 1540,[783] -and at a later date in the polyglot collection of dialogues which -developed from the French and Flemish dialogues of Noel de Barlement; -not, however, till 1576, when the book had been in vogue for about -three-quarters of a century. Gabriel Meurier, schoolmaster of Antwerp, -who taught French to many of the numerous English merchants always in -the town, was acquainted with our language, but does not appear to have -had any opening for teaching it, as he did French, Flemish, Italian, and -Spanish. At a later date, however, we find an Englishman gaining his -livelihood by teaching his own language in the Netherlands. In 1646 he -published at Amsterdam _The English schole-master; or certaine rules and -helpes, whereby the natives of the Netherlands may be in a short time, -taught to read, understand and speake the English tongue, by the helpe -whereof the English may be better instructed in the knowledge of the -Dutch tongue, than by any vocabulars, or other Dutch and English Books, -which hitherto they may have had for that purpose_. This work contains -an English grammar, followed by selections from the Scriptures, moral -and familiar sayings, proverbs, dialogues, letters in English and Dutch. -The "Vocabulars" to which he refers furnished him with most of his -dialogues. A new edition appeared in 1658. - -Rouen, ever a busy centre for merchants, was the place where provision -for teaching English was first made in France. Editions of the polyglot -dictionary, which included English in the edition of Venice in 1540, -were printed at Rouen in 1611 and 1625, and again at Paris in 1631. The -1595 edition of E. A.'s English grammar appeared at Rouen, as had -probably the earlier editions. This compilation of the English grammar -of Bellot and the dialogues of Holyband was in vogue for a very long -time. In addition to the Paris issue on the occasion of the marriage of -Henrietta Maria with Charles I. (1625), editions appeared at Rouen in -1639, 1668, 1670, 1679, and most probably at other dates also; another -was issued at London, 1677. Perhaps the first book for teaching English -printed in France was a _Traicte pour apprendre a parler Francoys et -Anglois_, published at Rouen in 1553, apparently an early edition of -Meurier's work, printed at Rouen in 1563 as a _Traite pour apprendre a -parler francois et anglois, ensemble faire missives, obligations,_ etc., -and again at Rouen in 1641. - -It was long before English won recognition from foreigners other than -merchants. Not until the eighteenth century was it learnt for the sake -of its literature, and as a means of intercourse with the people who -spoke it. This state of things made it incumbent on Englishmen to equip -themselves with some foreign tongue, and they naturally chose French, -the most universal language at that time. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[707] See accounts in Rye, _England as seen by Foreigners_. - -[708] J. O. Halliwell, _Letters of the Kings of England_, London, 1846. - -[709] Rye, _op. cit._ p. 153. - -[710] "Autobiographie," _Bull. de la Soc. de l'Hist. du Protestantisme -Francais_, vii. pp. 343 _sqq._ - -[711] Another famous Frenchman at the Court of James I. was Theodore -Mayerne the Court Doctor (cp. _Table Talk of Bishop Hurd_, Ox. Hist. -Soc. Collectanea, ser. 2, p. 390); also Jean de Schelandre and -Montchretien among men of letters. James refused to give audience to the -poet Theophile de Viau, exiled for his daring satires. Boisrobert, St. -Amant, Voiture, likewise visited England at this period. - -[712] Thurot, _Prononciation francaise_, i. p. xiv. - -[713] Gerbier, _Interpreter of the Academy_, 1648. - -[714] Aufeild: Translation of Maupas's _Grammar_, 1634. - -[715] Young, _L'Enseignement en Ecosse_, p. 78. - -[716] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 1st series, iii. 89. - -[717] T. Birch, _Life of Henry Prince of Wales_, London, 1760, p. 20. - -[718] On Henry's death, St. Antoine became equerry to his brother -Charles (Rye, _op. cit._ p. 253). - -[719] Ellis, _Orig. Letters_, ser. 1, iii. 95. - -[720] "The French fashion of dancing is most in request with us" -(Dallington, _Method for Travell_, 1598). - -[721] His dancing-master was a M. du Caus. There were other Frenchmen in -his service. Cp. "Roll of Expenses of Prince Henry," _Revels at Court_, -ed. P. Cunningham, New Sk. Soc., 1842. - -[722] J. Aubrey, _Brief Lives_, ed. Clark, 1898, i. p. 254; Wood, -_Athen. Oxon._ (Bliss). - -[723] T. Birch, _op. cit._ pp. 38, 66, 67. - -[724] Rye, _op. cit._ p. 155. - -[725] _Memoires de Madame de Motteville_, in Petitot et Monmerque, -_Collection des Memoires relatifs a l'Histoire de France_, tom. 37, -1824, pp. 122-3. - -[726] _Cal. State Papers, 1660-61_, p. 162; cp. p. 207, _supra_. - -[727] Probably the second Duke, whom Charles, out of friendship for his -father, the first Duke, brought up in his own family. - -[728] Foster, _Alumni Oxon._, ad nom. - -[729] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1663-64_, pp. 384, 526, 527; _1668-69_, -p. 129; Shaw, _Calendar of Treasury Books, 1667-68_, pp. 346, 365, 620. - -[730] He received the order of knighthood from Charles I. in 1629. - -[731] _Cal. State Papers, 1633_, p. 349. - -[732] Le Grys translated several works from Latin into English. He died -early in 1635; cp. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[733] E. Godfrey, _English Children in Olden Time_, New York, 1907, p. -133. - -[734] Davenant, _The Wits_, Act II.; cp. Upham, _French Influence in -English Literature_, p. 7. - -[735] Preface to Lyly's _Euphues_, 1623. - -[736] T. Middleton, _More Dissemblers among Women_, Act I. Sc. 4; cp. -Upham, _op. cit._ p. 6. - -[737] Watt, _Bibliotheca Britannica_, 1824, ad nom. - -[738] Probably before he left school (Masson, _Life of Milton_, 1875, i. -p. 57). - -[739] E. Godfrey, _op. cit._ p. 178. - -[740] De la Mothe devoted a short chapter to enumerating women's -clothing. - -[741] Thurot, _Prononciation francaise_, pp. 374, 376. - -[742] _Treatise for Declining French Verbs_, 1580, 1599, and 1641. - -[743] Perhaps this is Bellot's _French Methode_ of 1588, of which there -is no copy in the British Museum, the Bodleian, or Cambridge University -Library. There is no trace of his having written a third grammar called -the _French Guide_; in his French Grammar of 1578 the verbs are arranged -in five conjugations. - -[744] This section in particular bears a close resemblance to the -_Exercitatio_ of Vives. See Dialogue 17, in F. Watson's _Tudor Schoolboy -Life_. - -[745] In Broad Street Ward; see Cooper, _List of Aliens_, Camden Soc., -1862; Hug. Soc. Pub., x. Pt. iii. p. 187. - -[746] Lambeth Library, 8vo, B-E in fours. Hazlitt, _Bibliog. Collections -and Notes_, ii. 206. - -[747] It is included in almost all the Sale Catalogues of private -libraries at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the -eighteenth century. - -[748] Erondell was probably also responsible for numerous other -translations from French into English; cp. p. 277, note 2, _infra_. - -[749] Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_, 1884, iv. p. 160. - -[750] J. Payne Collier, _History of English Dramatic Poetry, and Annals -of the Stage_, 1879, i. pp. 451 _sqq._; F. G. Fleay, _A Chronicle -History of the English Stage_, 1890, p. 334. - -[751] "Not women but monsters," wrote the Puritan Prynne in his -_Histriomastrix_, 1633, p. 114. - -[752] Prynne, _op. cit._ p. 215. - -[753] Payne Collier, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 2 _sqq._; Fleay, _op. cit._ p. -339. - -[754] The former was first acted in France in 1629 and the latter in -1633; cf. Upham, _French Influence in English Literature_, p. 373. - -[755] Scudery's work is in verse; a king and queen of England figure -among the characters. It was first performed in France in 1631. - -[756] Probably a tragi-comedy by Du Ryer, acted in 1634; Upham, _op. -cit._ p. 373. - -[757] Diary, reprinted: Malone's _Historical Account of the English -Stage_, in an edition of Shakespeare's works, completed by Boswell, -1821, iii. pp. 120, 122. Herbert makes many of his entries in French. - -[758] Meurier, _Communications familieres_, 1563. - -[759] While the English visited France in great numbers, very few -Frenchmen came to England, except those engaged on diplomatic missions, -or exiles. Thus, Ronsard, Jacques Grevin, Brantome, Bodin, in the -sixteenth century; Schelandre, d'Assoucy, Boisrobert, Le Pays, Pavillon, -Voiture, Malleville, and a few others in the early seventeenth century, -spent a short time in England. Among scholars, Peiresc, Henri Estienne, -Justel, Bochart, and Casaubon visited our country. St. Amant was twice -in England, and on the occasion of his second visit wrote a satirical -poem, _Albion_, in which he gave vent to his dislike of the people and -the country (_Oeuvres_, ed. Livet, 1855, vol. ii.). Guide-books to -England were few, and far from giving a good impression of the country. -See Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, pp. 8, 129. - -[760] Rathery, _Relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la France et -l'Angleterre_, pp. 22-23, 48 sqq. - -[761] "Lord ghest tholb be sua virtiuff be intelligence, aff yi body -schal biff be naturall rehutht tholb suld of me pety have for natur ..." -(_Oeuvres de Rabelais_, ed. C. Marty Laveaux, i. 261). - -[762] Petitot et Monmerque, _Collection des Memoires_, tom. 68, Paris, -1828. - -[763] A. Cohn, _Shakespeare in Germany in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth -Centuries_, London, 1865, pp. xxviii, cxxxiv, cxxxv. - -[764] Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, 1899, pp. 51 _sqq._; E. -Soulie, _Recherches sur Moliere_, Paris, 1863, p. 153. - -[765] _Journal de Jean Hervard sur l'enfance et la jeunesse de Louis -XIII, 1601-28_, Paris, 1868. Quoted by Jusserand, _op. cit._ p. 57 n. -One of Louis's tutors was an Englishman, Richard Smith. - -[766] S. Lee, "The Beginnings of French Translations from the English," -_Proceedings of the Bibliog. Soc._ viii., 1907, pp. 85-112. - -[767] Tourval was for long engaged on turning James I.'s compositions -into French, and complains of not receiving any reward nor even his -expenses. - -[768] He also translated Godwin's _Man in the Moon_, 1648, which had -some influence on Cyrano de Bergerac. He was probably the Jean Baudouin -who studied at Edinburgh in 1597. - -[769] Gerbier, _Interpreter of the Academy_, 1648. - -[770] T. B. Squire, in Simon Daines's _Orthoepia Anglicana_, reprinted -by R. Brotanek in _Neudrucke fruehneuenglischer Grammatiken_, Bd. iii., -1908. - -[771] By the end of the sixteenth century it was quite a usual thing for -learned subjects to be treated in English. Ascham apologised for using -English in his _Toxophilus_ (1545), but in his _Scholemaster_ (1570) he -used it as a matter of course. - -[772] Jusserand, _Histoire litteraire du peuple anglais_, 1904, p. 316. - -[773] Florio makes the same claim in his _First Frutes_ for teaching -Italian and English. - -[774] _Grammaire Angloise et Francoise pour facilement et promptement -apprendre la Langue angloise et francoise._ A Rouen, chez la veuve -Oursel, 1595, 8vo. The Brit. Mus. copy contains MS. notes of a French -student. - -[775] In 1586 he translated three letters of Henry of Navarre, and in -following years a continuous series of similar works; in 1587 the -_Politicke and Militarie Discourse_ of La Noue; in 1588 the _Discourse -concerning the right which the House of Guise have to the crown of -France_, etc. His latest translation appears to have been Louis XIII.'s -_Declaration upon his Edicts for Combats_, 1613. This E. A. may have -been identical with Erondell (or, as sometimes written, Arundel), who -gives his name as "P. Erondell (E. A.)" in his translation of the -_Declaration and Catholic exhortation_ (1586). - -[776] It bears a strong resemblance to the first dialogue in Erondell's -_French Garden_. - -[777] Such as the works of Sir Thomas Smith, John Cheke, John Hart, all -of which appeared before 1580. - -[778] By P. Greenwood (1594), Ed. Coote (1596), A. Gill (1619), J. -Herves (1624), Ch. Butler (1633). Some are reprinted by Brotanek, _op. -cit._; cp. F. Watson, _Modern Subjects_, chap. i. - -[779] Reprinted by Brotanek, _op. cit._ vol. iii., 1908. - -[780] _Works_, 1875, vol. ix. pp. 229 _sqq._ - -[781] Reprinted by R. Brotanek, _op. cit._ Heft i., 1905, pp. 105. - -[782] Pp. 60 _sqq._ - -[783] It had no place in the earlier editions of 1534 and 1537. - - - - -CHAPTER II - - FRENCH GRAMMARS--BOOKS FOR TEACHING LATIN AND FRENCH--FRENCH IN - PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS - - -One of the most noted teachers of English as well as of French was -Robert Sherwood, who in 1632 completed his English-French Dictionary -which was appended to the new edition of Cotgrave's work issued in that -year.[784] Sherwood was born in Norfolk,[785] although he later called -himself a Londoner. In July 1622 he entered Corpus Christi College, -Cambridge, and graduated B.A. in 1626. He then moved to London and -opened a language school in St. Sepulchre's Churchyard, where he -continued to teach for many years. He also taught English to many -French, German, Danish, and Flemish nobles and gentlemen who visited -London. To these distinguished visitors he dedicated his dictionary in -1632, as well as the second edition of his French grammar in 1634, -expressing the hope that he would soon be able to produce an English -grammar "toute entiere," for only the practical exercises in French and -English could be of use to them in their study of English. His French -grammar was intended "for the furtherance and practice of gentlemen, -scollers and others desirous of the said language." We gather that -Sherwood's school was limited entirely to the higher classes, and was -very different from Holyband's noisy and bustling establishment. - -The first edition of Sherwood's _French Tutour_, as he called his -grammar, saw the light in 1625,[786] just before he graduated at -Cambridge. He had probably worked at it as well as at his dictionary -during his residence there, and appears to have taught French to private -pupils. How he first acquired his knowledge of French, we do not know. -He may have spent some years in France before going to Cambridge, since -he would not find much opportunity of studying the language there. His -work is little more than a translation of selections from the French -grammar of Charles Maupas of Blois (1625). Perhaps he studied the -language with Maupas himself, of whom he speaks with great respect. In -parts of his grammar, however, Sherwood drew on his own "long -experience" in teaching French. - -The second edition of the _French Tutour_ (1634) is said to be carefully -corrected and enlarged. In it Sherwood follows the usual order of -treatment. First come rules of pronunciation, then of grammar, which -show "the nature and use of the Articles, a thing of no small importance -in this language: also the way to find out the gender of all nounes: the -conjugation of all the verbs regular and irregular; and after which -followeth a list of most of the indeclinable parts (which commonly do -much hinder learners) Alphabetically Englished; with a most ample syntax -of all the parts of speech." This section closes with an alphabetical -index "interpreting such nounes and verbes as are unenglished in the -grammar." The practical exercises are in the form of "three dialogues -and a touch of French compliments," in French and English, arranged in -two parallel columns on a page. The first deals with familiar talk by -the wayside, depicting travellers on their road to London, and, on their -arrival, taking lodgings at the Black Swan in Holborn, doing their -shopping, and taking their evening meal. The other two dialogues treat -of less familiar subjects; and, on the whole, Sherwood's book was not of -a popular kind, but was intended for the "learned." One describes the -exercises and studies of the nobility, dancing, riding, fencing, -hunting, geography, cosmography, and so forth; and the other turns on -the subject of travel in foreign countries, in which Sherwood emphasizes -the necessity for the traveller of "some good and fundamental beginning -in the language of the country whither he goeth." The _Tutour_ closes -with a selection of French compliments from the book of M. L. Miche on -French courtesy, to which Sherwood added an English version. - -Another Englishman also ventured in the early years of the seventeenth -century to write on the French language--William Colson, who called -himself a Professor of Literal and Liberal Sciences. He had spent many -years abroad as [Header: WILLIAM COLSON] travelling companion to young -English gentlemen, "as well learning as teaching such laudable arts and -qualities as are most fitting for a gentleman's exercise." Seemingly he -spent some time in the Low Countries, and he may have found his pupils -among the English troops serving there, as in 1603 he published at Liege -a book in French on arithmetic which also provides military information. -Before 1612 he had returned to London, where he composed a similar work -in English, dedicated to the Lords of the Privy Council.[787] He tells -us that on his return from his travels he wrote "certaine litteral -workes," mostly on the teaching of languages, and like an earlier -English writer, John Eliote, evolved a special method which he called -"arte locall or the arte of memorie." He expounds his "method," which is -very vague and obscure in its application, in one of his French -text-books which appeared in London in 1620 and was called _The First -Part of the French grammar, Artificially Deduced, into Tables by Arte -Locall, called the Arte of Memorie_. Colson desired to reconcile the old -orthography with the new, as Holyband had done earlier, by means of a -reformed alphabet of twenty-six letters, and of a triple distinction of -characters, Roman, Italian, and English. Roman type was to stand for the -_proper_ pronunciation, that is, letters which are pronounced as they -are written; the Italian for the _improper_, that is, letters which are -not given their usual pronunciation; and finally the letters written but -not sounded were to be printed in black letter. In his reformed alphabet -he divides the letters into seven vowels and eighteen consonants, and -subdivides the consonants into semivowels and mutes. He gives each -letter its usual name, and then its special name according to his own -scheme, as follows: - - A E' E O I Y V | H | S Z X I | L R N M | - a e e o i y u | eh | es ez ex ei | el er en em | - proper names | | | | - speciall names | he | se ze xe ie | le re ne me | - \_____________/ \__________________________/ - Aspiration 8 semivowels - - F [^] B P : D T G K | C Q - ef e[^] eb ep : ed et eg ek | ec eq - | - fe [^]e be pe : de te ge ke | ce qe - \________________________________/ - 10 mutes - \______________________________/ - 7 vowels 18 consonants - \___________________________________________________________/ - Elements and Letters - -And all the said Alphabet is briefly contained in these five artificiall -words to be learnt by heart:--Haeiou--sezexeie--lereneme--fe[^]ebepe-- -detegeke. - -After treating of the letters, Colson proceeds to deal with the other -three chief parts of grammar--"the sillible, the diction, and the -locution" (the last two dealing with accidence and syntax respectively) -in a similarly intricate and obscure style. It is difficult to imagine -what can have been his reasons for his scheme of complicated divisions -and sub-divisions, more like a puzzle than anything else. Yet he appears -to have been serious, and assures us that once his reformed alphabet is -mastered "the perfect pronunciation, reading, and writing of the French -tongue is gotten in the space of one month or thereabouts." It is not -surprising that his attempted reform passed quite unheeded. - -This _First Part of the French grammar_, which is dedicated to "the -Worshippfull, worthie and vertuous gentleman, M. Emanuel Giffard, -Esquire," seems to be the only one of Colson's works on the French -language which has survived. At its close is a large folding sheet, -containing the table of his reformed alphabet, dedicated to Sir Michael -Stanhope and Sir William Cornwallis by their affectionate servant. The -date is 1613. Colson informs us that he had also compiled a French -grammar divided into four parts, after a new method. He likewise refers -to "all his bookes tending to the instruction of the French tongue," -such as his "booke of the declination of nouns, and conjugation of -Verbes," and his "three repertories of the English, French, and Latine -tongues, compounded by arte locall for aiding the memorie in learning -most speedily the words of the foresaide tongues by heart in halfe -time": his "Repertoire of all syllables in general and of all French -words in particular containing the Art to learn them easily by heart in -verie short time and with little labour to the great contentment of him -which is desirous of the French tongue, all reduced into Tables by Art -Locall as before said": and "other works of ours shortly to be printed -tending to the knowledge of the foresaid tongues, in which works is set -downe by Art and order local (called the Art of Memory) most easy and -brief rules to learne the foresaid bookes by heart." Most of these, no -doubt, were short pamphlets, perhaps in the shape of the large folding -sheet inserted at the end of the Grammar of 1620, and so stood but -little chance of survival. - -At this same period the popular French grammar of Charles Maupas, well -known to many travellers to France, was translated into English by -William Aufeild and published in 1634. [Header: WILLIAM AUFEILD] -Maupas's grammar, first printed at Blois in 1607, had won a considerable -reputation in England, and was not without noticeable influence on the -French grammars published in London. Sherwood, who had made free use of -Maupas, praised him very highly. James Howell, in his edition of -Cotgrave's Dictionary, advises students to seek fuller grammatical -information in Maupas's Grammar, "the exactest and most scholarlike of -all." William Aufeild, the translator of the book--"the best -instructions for that language by the consent of all that know the book, -that were ever written"--considers that it excels all the French -grammars ever produced in England: "all of them put together do not -teach half so well the idiom of the French tongue as this one doth." We -are assured that the work was in great demand when it first appeared in -England, and that a great number of the nobility and gentry were -commonly taught by means of it. Finding that the fact that it was -written in French was a great drawback, as it could only be used by -those who already understood French, Aufeild decided to translate it into -English, and dedicated his work to the young Duke of Buckingham,[788] -son of the duke to whom Maupas had offered the original. Aufeild tells -that he had been studying French for ten years when he undertook his -task. He called the translation _A French grammar and Syntaxe, -contayning most exact and certaine Rules for the pronunciation, -Orthography, construction and use of the French language_.[789] - -To adapt the work to the use of the English, the translator placed a -small cross under letters not pronounced in the French word, thus -adopting Holyband's plan. These letters were also printed in a different -type, "that better notice might be taken of them." He also endeavours to -give the sounds of the French alphabet in English spelling, so that if -the student "pronounce the one like an Englishman, he must needs -pronounce the same sounds, written after the French manner, like a -Frenchman." This, he says, is the only invention which he claims as his -own in the whole work. "The examples as well as the text, are englished -to save the reader so many lookings in his Dictionary"; and the word to -which the rule has special reference is printed in different type from -the rest of the example. Occasionally the text is expanded by additional -explanations, included in parentheses. - -Aufeild advises the student of French to read the whole grammar through -first, in order to get a general notion of the language. It is vain, he -argues, to begin learning rules for the pronunciation of a language of -which you are totally ignorant. Especially is this so in the case of the -"unlearned," that is, those unacquainted with Latin grammar. For -instance, "you shall find that in all the third persons plural of verbes -ending in _-ent_, _n_ is not pronounced," and so on. Now, "unless a man -can distinguish an adverbe from a verbe," he says, "or till he know how -the plurall number is made of the singular how shall he know ... when to -leave out _n_ before _t_?" "In my opinion," he adds, "it is but a dull -and wearisome thing for a man to take a great deale of paines, in -learning to pronounce what he understandeth not." Clearly his ideal was -a preliminary grounding in the general principles of grammar. When you -have a general knowledge of the whole language you may begin at the -pronunciation and "so goe through it againe in order as it lieth." In -the second reading the student should take into account the less -important rules which are omitted in the first perusal. - -Aufeild's final piece of advice is at variance with the general practice -among teachers of the time. He would have the pupil postpone all -attempts at speaking the language until the last stages: "be not too -greedy," he warns the reader, "to be thought a speaker of French before -you are sure you understand what you read." The best known teacher of -Italian in the seventeenth century, Torriano, was of the same opinion: -"for the avoiding of a vulgar error or fault very predominant in many, -namely of being over hasty to be speaking of a language, before it be -well understood, I thought not amiss to produce the quotation of one Mr. -Wm. Aufeild.... I jump with him that they who are last at speaking speak -the best and surest and so much I find by my experience among my -scholars."[790] Many years before, Roger Ascham had expressed the same -view with regard to the teaching of Latin. [Header: AUFEILD'S ADVICE TO -STUDENTS] He admitted that the "dailie use of speaking was the best -method," but only provided the learner could always hear the language -spoken correctly and avoid "the habit of the evil choice of words, and -crooked forming of sentences"; but as it is, _loquendo male loqui -discunt_, and he advises the postponement of speaking until some -progress had been made.[791] - -Considering Aufeild's ideas as to the speaking of French, we quite -expect to find him condemning attempts to pick up the language without -the help of rules; "for if with Rules, you shall be often at a loss, -certainly you shall stick at every word without them." It may be that -"they which take another way, may speake more words in halfe a yeare -then you shall in twelve month; but in a year's space you may, with -diligence and industry, speake better (and after a while more) than -another shall doe all his life time, unless there be a vast disparity -between your abilities of mind." - -His attitude as to the respective importance of grammatical study and -its practical application was not in keeping with that of Maupas, of -whom he said, "I know not whom you can equal to him." Maupas had written -his grammar in French instead of the international language, Latin, -because he advocated the study of the grammar in the French language -itself; he taught reading and pronunciation by means of reading the -grammar in French. Aufeild, on the contrary, considered it a drawback -that when English students travelled into France they had to learn -enough French to converse with their teachers before they could learn of -their teachers how to converse with others. This was the reason which -induced him to translate the grammar, although in doing so he, no doubt -unconsciously, set at nought Maupas's principal reason for writing it in -French. - -We know of no other French grammar produced in France which was -specially favoured by English learners of French. But no doubt many -Englishmen, besides those who travelled, studied from French grammars. -English travellers returning from France would, no doubt, bring back -grammars which might also arrive through other channels. Even in the -time of Elizabeth foreign books had been freely imported into England, -and the foreign trade of the stationers of London was very extensive. -That the early French grammars were known in England is shown by their -influence on those produced in England, although in many cases this is -more readily explained by the circumstance that they were the work of -Frenchmen newly arrived from France. However, it is not likely that -these French grammars were ever widely used in England for learning the -language, when books in English were ready to hand and easier to use. In -Scotland, on the other hand, where such books were not in existence, -they were probably more widely employed. Both countries, Scotland in -particular, made free use of foreign text-books for the teaching of -Latin; but the case is hardly the same for the international language. - -In the meantime the production of French grammars in England continued -uninterruptedly. _The Flower de Luce planted in England_ was the title -of a grammar which appeared in 1619. This work was due to one Laur Du -Terme, of whom nothing is known beyond the fact that he was a Frenchman -and a protege of Bacon, then Lord Chancellor. Du Terme had evidently -been in England long enough to acquire some knowledge of English, in -which he wrote his grammar. After imploring his patron to water his -'flower' with a few drops of favourable approbation, he proceeds to -address the gentle reader in these words: "Looke not in this Treatise, -for any eloquent words, nor polished sentences, for I doe not go about -to begge any favour nor insinuate into any man's love by coloured and -misticall phrases.[792] Neither do I intend to teach my masters, but in -requitall of your kind curtesie in teaching mee this little English I -have, do in the same set downe suche precepts as I find best for the -pronouncing, understanding, and speaking of the French tongue." These -precepts he selected from other grammars "used by many both teachers and -learners, yet I presume this will be as agreeable as any were yet, and -in brief containing more than ever I saw yet in English." The -pronunciation is explained by comparison with English sounds, and then -each part of speech is treated in turn; constant analogies with Latin -occur, and he also gives a list of French suffixes with their Latin -roots, and endeavours to introduce the Latin gerund and supine into -French grammar, not being of those who sought to delatinize French -grammar. For the verbs he refers the student to the rules given by -Cotgrave at the end of his dictionary, "very profitable for every -learner to reade," where they are arranged in four conjugations, "while -some authors make three, some five, some six, and little enough for the -understanding of all the verbs." [Header: LAUR DU TERME] He makes no -claim to completeness--"and if by chance I have applied a rule instead -of an exception or an exception instead of a rule, the teacher may -easily mend it, and your courteous censure in reciprocall of the -good-will I beare unto you I hope will excuse it. Reade it over, but not -slightly, consider every rule and way every word in it." - -Du Terme's aim in his rules is to be brief and plain. He desired them to -be regarded in the light of a reference book. The student was to begin -to read from the very first. The _Flower de Luce_ does not provide the -usual stock of reading-exercises, and Du Terme advises the student to -use "any good French author he likes best; and what word soever he goes -about to reade, let him looke upon his Rules concerning the -pronunciation of the letters, how they are pronounced in several places, -first the vowell, then what consonants are before and after, and, having -compared and brought all the Rules concerning those letters together, he -shall easily finde the true pronunciation of any word." The sounds of -the language should be thoroughly mastered at the outset: "Bestow rather -five days in learning five vowels, then to learne and passe them over in -a day, as being the chief and only ground of all the rest, without the -which you shall loose your labour, not being able to pronounce one -diphthongue unless you pronounce the vowels well, perfectly, neatly and -distinctly, without confounding one with another. The which case you -must observe in the consonants." For the proper understanding of the -matter read, he recommends the use of "some bookes that are both English -and French, as the Bible, the Testament, and many others that are very -common in England." He admits that this method is slow and difficult at -first, "yet notwithstanding, after a little labour, will prove exceeding -easie, as by experience hath been tryed: in so much as some have learned -perfectly to reade and understande the most part in less than the -quarter of a year, onely applying themselves unto it one hour and a half -in a day." - -Paul Cougneau or Cogneau, another French teacher of London, also wrote a -French grammar at this period. He called it _A sure Guide to the French -tongue_, and published it in 1635. Cogneau had no mean opinion of his -book. "It hath in some things a peculiar way, not commonly traced by -others," he tells us. "In the beginning are rules of pronunciation, then -for the declension of articles, nouns and pronouns, and in the end the -conjugation of diverse verbs, both personal and impersonal ... and -throughout the whole book there is so great a multiplicity of various -phrases congested as no one book for the bulk contains more. All which -besides are set forth with plainness as fit it for the capacity even of -the meanest. Much pains hath been employed about it, and I hope not -without great benefit and profit in the right use of it, and -consequently not unworthy of the kind acceptance which I heartily wish." -But the work has little value or originality, in spite of its interest -to the modern reader. The rules occupy thirty pages only. They are taken -mainly from Holyband and De la Mothe. The nouns, articles, and pronouns -receive very meagre treatment, but the auxiliaries and verbs, the -regular and a few irregular verbs, are fully conjugated at the end of -the book, being arranged in sentence form, as in many modern text-books: - - J'ay bien dormi ceste nuit. - Tu as trop mange. - Il a trop bu, etc. - -The practical exercises, which fill the next three hundred pages, -reproduce the dialogues of the same sixteenth-century writers--the only -two who retained their popularity in the seventeenth. The exercises of -the _French Schoolemaister_, the _French Littleton_, and the _French -Alphabet_ are all repeated without any acknowledgement. - -Like Du Terme, Cogneau attached much importance to pronunciation and -reading. He held that pronunciation was best learnt with the help of a -teacher, and that rules were not of much use in this case. - - "I have observed," he writes, "how many of my countrymen have taken - great pains and labour to show the English how to pronounce the - French letters, by letters; but these men labour in vain: for I - know that the true pronunciation of any tongue whatsoever cannot be - taught so: nor none can learn it so; I mean, to speak it well and - truly as it ought to be: to learn to understand it by such rules, - one may in time and with great pains, but, as I have said, never to - speak it well and perfectly, without he be taught by some master. I - say not that the rules are unprofitable, no, for they are very - profitable being well used, and the learner being well directed to - understand them aright; but, as I have said, so I say still, that - whosoever will learn this noble and famous tongue, must chuse one - that can speak good French, and one that hath a good method in - teaching, and the first thing to learn of him must be to pronounce - perfectly our 22 letters, and give every one its due sound and - pronunciation." - -The student should undertake nothing until he has mastered the sounds of -the letters and syllables. [Header: PAUL COGNEAU] Then he may pass to -the reading, "and in that reading learn to spell perfectly, for it is -that which will perfect thee, so that thou wilt be able to correct many -Frenchmen both in their speaking and writing, if thou wilt take pains to -learn it perfectly and be as perfect in it as in thy native tongue. If -thou dost mark well what I have said, and do it, and if thou hast a good -teacher, thou maiest learn the French tongue easily in a year." Cogneau -gives his grammar rules in both French and English, and evidently -intended them to form part of the reading material on which the student -was to begin as soon as he had mastered the French sounds. From these he -proceeds to the dialogues. "Thou must learn this book perfectly, to read -the French in English and also the English in French perfectly, and I -durst warrant that whosoever shall learn this book perfectly will be a -perfect Frenchman, and shall be able both to speak and write the French -tongue much better than the most part of Frenchmen." The only -differences, then, between the methods advocated by Laur Du Terme and -Cogneau are that the first would have the student learn the -pronunciation by reading, and the second from the lips of a master -before the student begins to read; and that Cogneau adopts the method of -double translation, so strongly urged by De la Mothe, while Du Terme -mentions only translation of French into English. In fact, Cogneau's -method was probably suggested by the sixteenth-century teachers. - -Cogneau's _Guide_ was in vogue for a number of years. In 1658 a French -teacher, Guillaume Herbert, who appears to have had no mean opinion of -his own abilities, edited the fourth edition. He describes the earlier -form of the work as a "blind" guide rather than a sure one, but now that -it has been revised by him "both masters and scholars may with more -confidence venture upon it as the most correct book now extant of this -kind and in these tongues, and I dare promise them that if I live to see -and oversee the next edition, I will so purge and order it that every -reader may (if ingenious and ingenuous) give it deservedly the name of a -Sure Guide." It is difficult to see in what the improvements he boasts -of consist, for his is little more than a reprint of the earlier -editions. With Herbert's edition the popularity of the _Sure Guide_ came -to an end, no doubt owing to the appearance of more recent works. - -William Aufeild complained, not without reason, that most professors -teach only what other men "have set downe to their hand in English many -years agoe," and it is undeniable that several of the sixteenth-century -French grammars continued to be used in England as late as the middle of -the seventeenth century. Holyband was specially in favour, and so was De -la Mothe. Peter Erondell, it has been seen, prepared new editions of the -_French Schoolemaister_ in 1606, 1612, 1615, and 1619. Another French -professor, James Giffard, was responsible for other editions in 1631, -1636, 1641, 1649, 1655, and it appears to have been printed again in -1668; this Giffard was probably the Jacques Giffard who attended the -Threadneedle Street Church;[793] he is said to have been a native of the -isle of Sark, and in 1640 he married Elizabeth Guilbert of Guernsey. -Editions of the _French Littleton_ saw the light in 1602, 1607, 1625, -1630, 1633, and 1639. None of these editions contains any very -noticeable alterations. The new editions of De la Mothe's _French -Alphabet_ (1625, 1631, 1633, 1639, and 1647) are merely reprints of the -first edition of 1592. Thus it came about that the French of the -sixteenth century was still taught in England in the seventeenth, -regardless of the great changes which had been accomplished in the -language in the meantime. - -The first half of the seventeenth century was also a period during which -French began to receive greater recognition in the educational world. -Latin, it is true, retained its supremacy in the grammar school; but it -is significant that a considerable number of Latin school-books were -adapted to teaching French, and helped to swell the number of such -manuals at the service of students. Thus French gained a place by the -side of Latin, and some went so far as to question the supremacy of -Latin as the "learned" tongue of Europe. In 1619 Thomas Morrice[794] -deemed it necessary to refute the "error" of those of his countrymen who -placed French before Latin--"a most absurd paradox" in his opinion, for -"French was never reckoned a learned tongue; it belongs by right to one -country alone, where the people themselves learn Latin." Such protests -had little effect. In the first years of the century we have the -earliest recognition of French as distinct from other modern languages, -at the hands of a writer on education; [Header: FRENCH MAKES HEADWAY] J. -Cleland held that a young gentleman's tutor should be skilled in the -French as well as the Latin tongue, because "it is most used now -universallie,"[795] and that the student, after translating English into -Latin, should proceed to turn his Latin into French, "that he may profit -in both the Tongues together."[796] - -It was indeed by no means uncommon for French and English tutors to give -instruction in both these tongues. Denisot, Palsgrave, Holyband, and -many other French teachers had done so. Joseph Rutter, tutor to the son -of the Earl of Dorset, at whose request he translated the _Cid_ into -English, is said to have made his pupil his collaborator in this task, -and probably taught him French as well as Latin, and his case does not -appear to have been exceptional. Evelyn, the diarist, learnt the -rudiments of Latin from a Frenchman named Citolin, and probably picked -up some French at the same time; travel abroad and his marriage with the -daughter of Sir Richard Browne, English ambassador at Paris, who from -her youth upwards had lived in France, gave him opportunities for -improving his knowledge of the language, in which he was soon able to -converse with ease.[797] Evelyn's son Richard also studied the two -languages together; when he died in 1658, at the early age of five, he -was able to say the catechism and pronounce English, Latin, and French -accurately, also "to read an script, to decline nouns and conjugate all -regular and most of the irregular verbs." He had likewise "learn'd -_Pueriles_, got by heart almost the entire vocabulary of Latine and -French primitives and words, and could make congruous syntax, turne -English into Latine and _vice versa_, construe and prove what he read, -and did the government and use of relatives, verbs, substantives, -elipses, and many figures and tropes, and made a considerable progress -in Comenius's _Janua_, began himself to write legibly, and had a strong -passion for Greek."[798] - -The manuals for teaching Latin and French together, either Latin -school-books with French added, or works specially written for giving -instruction in the two languages, probably resulted from this connexion. -At an early date French had found a place in several Latin -dictionaries.[799] Soon afterwards it made its way into some of the -Latin Colloquia and school authors. In 1591 the printer John Wyndet -received a licence to print the dialogues of Corderius in French and -English.[800] There is also a notice of an edition of Castellion's -_Sacred Dialogues_ in the same two languages.[801] Aesop's _Fables_ were -printed in English, French, and Latin in 1665, with the purpose of -rendering the acquisition of these languages easier for young gentlemen -and ladies; each fable is accompanied by an illustration due to Francis -Barlow, and followed by a moral reflection. Thomas Philpott was -responsible for the English version, and Robert Codrington, M.A., a -versatile translator of the time, for the Latin and French. At least two -other editions appeared in 1687 and 1703. Another favourite author was -published in the same three languages at a later date--the _Thoughts of -Cicero ... on (1) Religion, and (2) Man.... Published in Latin and -French by the Abbe Olivet, to which is now added an English translation, -with notes_ (_by A. Wishart_) (1750 and 1773). Of these few examples of -Latin and French text-books, two are known only by hearsay. It is likely -that others, adapted to the same purpose, have disappeared without -leaving any trace at all; as such school-books were usually printed with -a privilege, their names are not preserved in the registers of the -Company of Stationers. Little wonder that such manuals, subjected to the -double wear and tear of teaching both Latin and French, have been -entirely lost. The one volume which has come down to us is Aesop's -_Fables_ in French, Latin, and English, and its survival is explained by -the elaborate and costly form in which it was issued. - -In 1617 was published the _Janua Linguarum Quadralinguis_ of Jean -Barbier, a Parisian. The work, originally written in Spanish and Latin -(1611) for the use of Spaniards, was in time adapted to teaching Latin -and incidentally Spanish to the English, by the addition of an English -translation in 1615. The fact that French was added two years later by -Barbier is not without significance. Foremost among books for teaching -French and Latin together, however, was the famous _Janua Linguarum_ of -Comenius, from which Evelyn's son learnt his Latin, and presumably his -French also. It was printed in England in English, French, and Latin, in -the very year in which it had first come out at Leszna in Latin and -German (1631). [Header: BOOKS FOR TEACHING LATIN AND FRENCH] In this -form it was given the title of _Porta Linguarum trilinguis reserata et -aperta, or the Gate of Tongues unlocked and opened_. The _Janua_ -contains a thousand sentences, dealing with subjects encyclopaedic in -plan, beginning with the origin of the world, and ending with death, -providence, and the angels. The intervening chapters treat of the earth -and its elements, animals, man, his life, education, occupations, -afflictions, social institutions, and moral qualities. J. A. Anchoran, -Licentiate in Divinity, a friend of Robert Codrington and apparently a -Frenchman, was responsible for the edition of the _Porta Linguarum_ in -English, French, and Latin. He declares he prepared it "in behalf of" -the young Prince Charles (II.), then about a year old, and of "British, -French and Irish youth." His efforts proved successful; there were two -issues of the work in 1631, and other editions appeared in 1633, 1637, -and 1639. - -With the second and following editions was bound an index to the French -and Latin words contained in the _Porta Linguarum_, entitled: _Clavis ad -Portam or a Key fitted to open the gates of tongues wherein you may -readily find the Latine and French for any English word, necessary for -all young scholars._ It was dedicated to the schoolmasters and ushers of -England, and printed at Oxford, being the work of Wye Saltonstall, -teacher of Latin and French in that University. - -Yet another brief treatise was commonly bound with the 1633 edition of -the _Porta Linguarum_--_The Pathway to the Gate of Tongues, being the -first Instruction for little children_, intended as an introduction to -Comenius, but chiefly to give instruction in French. It was due to one -of the French teachers in London, Jean de Grave, no doubt the son of the -"Jean de Grave natif d'Amsterdam" who came to England in the early years -of the seventeenth century and died some time before 1612. De Grave was -a member of the French Church, and in 1615 was twice threatened with -expulsion owing to his sympathy with the Brownists; but he saved the -situation by recanting.[802] De Grave's _Pathway_ to Comenius opens with -a table of the numbers, the catechism, graces, and prayers, all given in -Latin, English, and French. The main section gives the conjugation of -the four regular verbs (_j'aime_, _je bastis_, _je voy_, _je li_) and -of _aller_, _avoir_, _estre_, _il faut_ and _on aime_, in French -accompanied by English and Latin equivalents in parallel columns. De -Grave makes a point of omitting all the compound tenses usually -introduced into French verbs on the model of the Latin ones, as such -forms can only be expressed by means of paraphrases or of the verbs -_avoir_ and _estre_; thus French rather than Latin was in the author's -mind: "Or m'a semble qu'il ne fallait pas charger au commencement la -memoire des petits enfants de choses desquelles le maistre diligent et -industrieux, pourveu qu'il soit homme lettre et bien entendu en la -grammaire francoise, pourra instiller peu a peu en leur esprit, plus par -diligente pratique que par cette facheuse et prolixe circonlocution qui -n'apporte aucun profit." He agreed with most of the French teachers of -the time that few rules and much practice under the guidance of a good -master, was the best way of learning French. - -In the first half of the seventeenth century also, the private -institutions in which French had a place increased considerably in -number, especially during the latter years of the reign of Charles I. -and the Commonwealth. There were several projects, of which a few were -actually realized for a time, for founding academies in England on the -model of those in France. Their aim was to provide instruction in modern -languages and polite accomplishments, in order to counterbalance the -one-sidedness of the Universities, and save parents the expense of -sending their children abroad, and protect the latter from the dangers -to which they might be exposed in foreign countries. - -In 1635 the accomplished courtier Sir Francis Kynaston founded the -_Museum Minervae_ at his house in Bedford Square, Covent Garden. Latin, -French, and Italian were the chief languages of the curriculum. No -foreigner was allowed to act as either regent or professor. A regulation -stipulated that "noe Gentleman shall speak in the forenoon to the Regent -about any businesse, but either in Italian, French, or Latin; but if any -gentleman be deficient in all these languages, then shall he deale with -some professour or other to speak unto the regent for him in the -morning, but in the afternoon free accesse shall be granted to all that -have any occasion to conferre with him."[803] A certain Michael Mason -was the professor of languages. The Academy was short-lived, and -probably did not survive its founder, who died at the beginning of the -Civil War. - -[Header: FRENCH IN PRIVATE ACADEMIES] - -On the 19th of July 1649, another Academy of similar nature but wider -scope was opened by the adventurous Sir Balthazar Gerbier in his house -at Bethnal Green. In 1648 he published a prospectus, which appeared in -several different forms, announcing to "all fathers of noble families -and lovers of vertue" that "Sir Balthazar Gerbier, knight, erects an -Academy wherein forraigne Languages, Sciences and all noble exercises -shall be taught ... whereunto shall serve several treatises set forth by -the said Sir B. G. in the Forraigne languages aforesaid, the English -tongue being joyned thereunto ... whiche Treatises shall be continually -at Mistresse Allen's Shop at the signe of the crown in Pope's head Alley -neere the olde Exchange, London." Gerbier's intention was to teach the -sciences and languages simultaneously, and by means of each other. -French seems to have been the only foreign language which received -special treatment at his hands. He was the author of _An Introduction to -the French Tongue_, a work of very slight value, treating of the -pronunciation and parts of speech and followed by a lengthy and -wearisome dialogue between three travellers. Carrying out his expressed -aim, he wrote several pamphlets on the subjects of polite education in -French accompanied by a literal English translation.[804] Every Saturday -afternoon a public lesson was read in the Academy, "as well concerning -the grounds and rules of the aforesaid languages, as touching the -sciences and exercises, which will give much satisfaction to all Fathers -of noble families and lovers of vertue." There was also an "open -lecture" by which the deserving poor were to be instructed gratis, on -due recommendation. Gerbier is also said[805] to have started an Academy -for languages at Whitehall. None of his efforts, however, met with much -response. The private Academy as such was an institution which never -really took root in England. Moreover, Gerbier was not a gifted man. The -works he wrote for use in his Academy have very little value, and his -lectures were severely criticised. Walpole calls one of them, typical of -the rest, "a most trifling superficial rhapsody." - -Several other schemes[806] for courtly academies were never realised at -all. Such were those of Prince Henry, son of James I., and of Lord -Admiral Buckingham. A play of the Commonwealth period, Brome's _New -Academy_ (1658), gives an amusing picture of one of these institutions -and introduces us to a group of pushing French men and women who profess -_inter alia_ to "teach the French Tongue with great alacrity." - -Private schools, on the contrary, were better patronised. There were -undoubtedly numerous French schools in the style of those of the -sixteenth century; Wodroeph refers to one, without giving any details, -and the language school kept by Sherwood was well known. In many -instances also French found a place in other private schools alongside -the more usual studies. Sir John Reresby, for example, was sent at the -age of fifteen to a school at Enfield Chase, where he was instructed in -Latin, French, writing, and dancing. There he stayed two years and "came -to a very passable proficiency in Latin, Greek, French, and -rhetoric."[807] The elder brother of Thomas Ellwood, Milton's -amanuensis, also learnt French and Latin at a private school at Hadley, -near Barnet in Hertfordshire, before going with Thomas to learn Latin -and some Greek at the free school of Thame.[808] Such schools seem to -have been relatively numerous at the time of the Commonwealth. One was -kept by Edward Wolley, D.D. of Oxford, who had been domestic chaplain to -Charles I., and taken refuge in France on his sovereign's death. After -spending seven years abroad as chaplain to Charles II. in exile, he -returned to England and opened a school at Hammersmith. In 1654 the -Protector issued stringent orders against "scholemasters who are or -shall be Ignorant, Scandalous, Insufficient or Negligent." Many -royalists were affected, and it was no doubt as a result of this measure -that in 1655 Wolley had to petition Cromwell to allow him to continue -his "painful employment" of instructing youth in Latin, Greek, French, -and other commendable exercises. He pleads that since his return from -France he has demeaned himself irreproachably, and that he causes "the -Holy Scriptures to be read and religious duties to be daily used" in -his school, and takes the children to church on Sunday; [Header: FRENCH -IN PRIVATE SCHOOLS] moreover "they have always spoken with honour and -reverence of his Highness."[809] Among the few royalist and episcopal -schoolmasters who were not affected by the measure of 1654 was Samuel -Turberville, a "very good schoolmaster," who kept school in Kensington. -Sir Ralph Verney's second son Jack, afterwards apprenticed to a -merchant, spent three years there (1656-59), and Turberville commends -his "amendement in writing, the mastery of his grammar and an -indifferent Latin author, his preservation of the ffrench, and the -command of his Violl."[810] Sir Ralph Verney's son had previously -acquired French in France, and wrote it fluently though not always -correctly.[811] His fellow-pupils, we are told, called him the "young -mounseer." - -There were also numerous schools for young ladies and gentlewomen in and -about London and elsewhere. One French teacher, Paul Festeau, advertises -the French boarding-school of Monsieur de la Mare at Marylebone, where -girls were taught "to write, to read, to speak French, to sing, to -dance, to play on the guitar and the spinette."[812] M. de la Mare was a -Protestant, and a reader at the French Church. His wife was a good -mother to the girls, we are told, and his daughter spoke French with -much elegance. Another French teacher, Pierre Berault, mentions the -pension for young ladies kept by his friend M. Papillon in Charles -Street, near St. James's Square. French, writing, singing, dancing, and -designing were the subjects of study. In other cases schools for girls -and young ladies were attended by a visiting French master. The most -popular French teacher of the time, Claude Mauger of Blois, was employed -for some time after his arrival in England as French teacher to the -young ladies of Mrs. Kilvert's once famous Academy. This practice became -more and more widespread as the seventeenth century advanced, and was -very common in the eighteenth century, as it still is nowadays. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[784] See p. 191, _supra_. - -[785] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[786] _Catalogue of Books of some learned Men deceased_, 1678. It was -licensed to the printer Humphrey Lownes on 3rd January 1625 (Arber, -_Stationers' Register_, iv. 133). - -[787] General Treasury of Accounts, London, 1612. - -[788] Guy Le Moyne was probably his French tutor; cp. p. 262, _supra_. - -[789] _Written in France by Charles Maupas of Bloys. Translated into -English with additions and explications peculiarly useful to us English, -together with a preface and an introduction wherein are contained divers -necessary instructions for the better understanding of it._ - -[790] _Italian reviv'd_, 1673. - -[791] _The Scholemaster_, ed. Arber, 1869, p. 28; cp. p. 182, _supra_. - -[792] Is this a reference to Eliote's _Ortho-Epia Gallica_? - -[793] _Threadneedle Street French Church Registers_, Hug. Soc. Pub. -xiii. Pts. i. and ii. The earliest mention of Giffard occurs in 1629, -and the latest in 1649. - -[794] _Apologie for Schoolmasters._ - -[795] Cleland, _Institution of a young nobleman_, 1607, pp. 28-29. - -[796] _Ibid._ p. 80. - -[797] His first literary attempt was a translation (1648) from the -French of La Mothe le Vayer's essay on Liberty and Servitude. - -[798] _Diary_, January 27, 1658. - -[799] Cp. pp. 187 _sqq._, supra. - -[800] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, ii. 576; iii. 466. An edition in -French and Latin was printed in London as late as the eighteenth -century. - -[801] R. Clavell, _Catalogue of Books printed in London, 1666-1680_. - -[802] Schickler, _Eglises du Refuge_, i. 409. His name occurs frequently -in the _Threadneedle Street Church Registers_, Hug. Soc. Pub. ix. and -xiii. - -[803] _The Constitution of the Museum Minervae_, 1636. Charles I. -granted L100 from the Treasury, and Kynaston himself provided books and -other material. - -[804] _The Interpreter of the Academy for forrain languages and all -noble sciences and exercises_, 1648. - -[805] Pepys, _Diary_, ed. Wheatley, iv. p. 148 n. - -[806] Oxford Historical Soc., 1885, _Collectanea_, series 1, pt. vi. pp. -271 _sqq._ John Dury proposes a special class of schools for languages, -which should teach the classics to those desiring "learning," and modern -languages to those intended for commerce (_Reformed School_, 1650, -quoted by F. Watson, _Modern Subjects_, p. xxvii). - -[807] _Memoirs of Sir John Reresby_, 1875, p. 22; and _Memoirs and -Travels_, ed. A. Ivatt, London, 1904, p. xv. - -[808] _Ellwood's Autobiography_, London, 1714, p. 4. - -[809] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1655-56_, p. 76. On the Restoration, -Wolley enjoyed ecclesiastical preferment, and finally became Bishop of -Clonfert. He published an English translation from the French of -Scudery's _Curia Politiae_, in 1546, and other works in English, of no -special interest. See _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. - -[810] _Memoirs of the Verney Family_, iii. p. 361. - -[811] He usually wrote home in French. In the following extract he asks -for a taper, then in fashion among his school-mates: "Je vous prie de -m'anvoier de la chandelle de cirre entortillee, car tous les garcons en -ont pour brullay (_sic_) et moy ie n'en ay point pour moy." - -[812] Two parents discuss the school in a dialogue: - - Ou allez vous? Whither are you going? - Je m'en vais voir ma fille. I am going to see my daughter. - En quel lieu? In what place? - A Maribone. At Maribone. - Que fait elle la? What doth she do there? - Comment, ne scavez vous pas What, do you not know that I - que je l'ay mise en pension? have put her at a Boording school? - Chez qui? With whom? - Chez un nomme Mons. de la At one Mons. de la Mare that - Mare qui tient escole Francoise. keeps a French school. - Vrayement, je n'en scavois rien. Truly, I did not know it. - Qu'apprend elle la? What does she learn there? - Elle apprend a ecrire, a lire, She learns to write, to read, - a parler francois, a chanter, to speak French, to sing, - a danser, a jouer de la guitare, to dance, to play on the guitar, - et de l'epinette. and the spinette. - - - - -CHAPTER III - - THE "LITTLE BLOIS" IN LONDON - - -In the second half of the seventeenth century we come across a band of -French teachers in London, which corresponds, in importance, to that -which grouped itself round Claude Holyband in the vicinity of St. Paul's -Churchyard at the same period in the sixteenth century. At its head was -Claude Mauger, a native of Blois. Mauger had as long a teaching -experience in London as Holyband; he arrived in about 1650, and we do -not hear the last of him till the first decade of the next century. He -was forced to quit his native town by "intestine distempers," probably -an allusion to the persecutions which broke out there in the middle of -the century. He appears to have been a Huguenot. Before coming to -England he had been a student at Orleans, and for seven years had taught -French to travellers, "the flowre of all Europe," at Blois,[813] where -some years previously Maupas had laboured at the same task; among his -pupils was Gustavus Adolphus, Prince of Mecklenburg. On arriving in -England, Mauger exercised the same profession. And several others, -driven from Blois like himself, gathered around him as friends, -admirers, and fellow-workers. Among these, he tells us, he reckons -Master Penson and Master Festeau as specially good masters of language. -Of Penson nothing is known, save that he wrote some lines addressed to -Mauger's critics. Festeau, however, is mentioned elsewhere by Mauger -with high commendation, and the two seem to have been close friends. He -came to England about the same time as Mauger, and may have accompanied -him. These members of the "Little Blois" in London prided themselves on -teaching the accent of Blois, "where the true tone of the French tongue -is found, by the unanimous consent of all Frenchmen." The accent of -Blois had already been recommended by some of the earlier French -teachers. Charles Maupas was its foremost champion. - -Fate had been very unkind to him before his arrival in England, Mauger -tells us. But he soon forgot his sorrows in his busy and successful life -in London. Pupils flocked to him, and, as we saw, he was called upon by -Mrs. Margaret Kilvert to teach French in her Academy for young -gentlewomen--a place, according to him, "which needs nothing, only a -name worthy to expresse its excellency." At the same time he was busy -writing a French grammar, which appeared in 1653, and was dedicated to -Mrs. Kilvert--_The True Advancement of the French Tongue, or a New -Method and more easie directions for the attaining of it than ever yet -have been published_, preceded by verses addressed to no less than fifty -of his lady pupils. It does not differ materially as regards its -contents from previous works of the kind and had apparently been first -written in French, for Mauger says his work "hath now put on a language -to which it was before a stranger." Rules of grammar and pronunciation -occupy the first hundred and twenty pages, and the remaining half of the -book comprises reading exercises in French and English, and a -vocabulary. The sound of each letter is explained, then the declinable -parts are treated in turn, and followed by a few scattered rules of -syntax. The whole is a little incoherent, and lacks order. Mauger was -evidently acquainted with the work of his fellow-townsman Charles -Maupas. - -The second section of Mauger's grammar begins with lists of anglicisms -to be avoided,[814] and then of "certaine francisms," or French idioms, -and of familiar French phrases for common use. The dialogues turn -chiefly on the study of French, and include discussions between students -of French, talk of travel in France, and polite and gallant -conversations between French and English ladies and gentlemen. -Considering Mauger's many women pupils, it is not surprising to find a -considerable part of his book devoted to them: two ladies discuss French -and their French teacher, criticise the French accent of their friends, -or receive visits or lessons from their French, music, or dancing -masters. [Header: CLAUDE MAUGER] And as the two latter, especially the -dancing-master, were usually French, they did much to assist the -language tutor. French maids are also often introduced, and represented -as instructing their mistresses in the French language as well as in -French fashions. It is no doubt Mrs. Kilvert's Academy that is referred -to in the following dialogue: - - Mon pere, je vous prie, donnes moy I pray, Father, give me - vostre benediction. your blessing. - Ma fille, soyes la bien revenue. Daughter, you are welcome home. - Comment se porte How does - Mme. votre Maitresse? your mistress? - Mons. elle se porte bien. She is very well, Sir. - N'aves vous point oublie votre Have you not forgot your - Anglois? English quite? - Non, mon pere. No, sir. - Je croy que vous parles extremement I suppose you speak French - bien. excellently well by this time? - J'entends beaucoup mieux que I understand it better than - je ne parle. I can speak it. - Laquelle est la plus scavante de vous Which of you two is the best - deux? proficient? - C'est ma soeur.--Je ne pense pas. My sister, Sir.--I don't believe - that. - Expliques moy ce livre la en Render me some of that book back - Francois. into French. - Que signifie cela en Francois? What's that in French? - Entendes vous cette sentence la? Do you understand that sentence? - Ouy, Mons. Yes, Sir. - Vous avez bien profite. . . . You have made good proficiency.... - Scavez vous travailler en ouvrages? Have you learnt any needlework - there? - Vostre luth n'est pas d'accord. . . . Your lute is out of tune.... - Et vous, ma fille, vous ne dites But you, daughter, have you - rien? nothing to say? - J'attendois vos ordres. I expect your commands. - Qu'avez vous appris? What have you learnt? - Approchez vous de moy. Come nearer to me. - Dances une courante. Dance me a Courante. - -In another dialogue a French gentleman compliments an English lady on -her French: - - Ou aves vous appris a parler Francois, Mademoiselle? - - Monsieur, je ne parle pas, je ne fais que begayer. - - Je vous proteste que d'abord j'ay creu que vous fussies Francoise. - - Il est impossible a une Angloise de posseder vostre langue. - - Vous m'excuseres, il s'en trouve beaucoup. - - J'eus l'honneur il y a quelque temps d'entretenir une Dame qui - parle aussi nettement qu'une Francoise. - - Je voy que vous avez inclination pour le Francois. - - Fort grande. - - Vous avez l'accent fort pur et net. - - De qui apprenes vous? - - D'un Francois nouvellement arrive qui est de Blois. - - Il est vray que la purete du langage se trouve la, non pas - seulement l'accent, mais la vraye phrase. - - Tout le monde le dit. - - Vostre langue est fort difficile. - - Je voudrois parler aussi bien que vous. - -There is only one dialogue on a subject usually contained in French -manuals--phrases for buying and selling. The vocabulary, which closes -the book, is of a more usual kind. It is arranged under headings, -beginning with the Godhead and ending with a list of things necessary in -a house. - -This book of Mauger's enjoyed a greater and longer-lived popularity than -any that had yet appeared. Edition followed edition until the end of the -first decade of the eighteenth century, and it continued to be -plagiarised for another fifty years. Its success can hardly have been -due to the scholastic value of its rules, which are few and confused, -but rather to its practical nature and lively dialogues. Mauger -constantly revised his grammar; of the earliest editions, no two are -identical. In each case he wrote new dedications, new addresses to the -reader, new dialogues, and varied the form of the grammar rules. The -second edition is much more typical than the first. Mauger had been ill -in 1653, and had not been able to correct the proofs himself. This task -he entrusted to a friend (perhaps Festeau), who "betrayed his -expectation, and corrected it not exactly." He was likewise unable to -add the English column to the dialogues, a task which was undertaken by -the corrector of the press. In the case of the second edition, however, -he attended "three times a day at the Presse," that he might correct it -according "to the expectation of those who will honour it with their -reading." He called it _Mr. Mauger's French Grammar_, and this was the -title under which it continued to be published. - -Mauger dedicated the second edition to Colonel Bullar, mentioning the -many favours heaped upon him by that officer. He again addresses French -verses to numerous English ladies, his pupils. The grammar rules are -much the same; the chief change in this part is the addition of a Latin -translation to the English, "for to render it generally useful to -strangers" visiting London, "which is this day accounted one of the most -glorious cities of the world." That Mauger provided for the teaching of -French to foreign visitors to England shows how important a place the -study of the language held in our country, and we know that he numbered -a few foreigners among his many students of the language. In this second -edition he attempted, as Holyband had done before him, to adapt the -orthography to the pronunciation, but without success. [Header: MAUGER'S -FRENCH GRAMMAR] "I had thought," he writes, "for your greater advantage, -to have fitted the writing to the pronunciation, but having found that -I could not do so, without an absolute totall subverting of the -foundations of the language, I had rather teach you to read and speak -together than to show you how to speak without being able to read, or to -read without knowing how to speak. They might say nevertheless that it -would prevent many difficultyes if we did write as we speak." Mauger -decided to follow the rules of the French Academy, instead of his own -_caprichio_ which would "teach you to speak French without being able to -read any other book than that I should present you with": for "our -language," he said, "which is so highly esteemed by all strangers for -its noble etymologies of Greeke and Latine, will not suffer itself to be -so dismembered by the ignorance of those which profess it, not having -one letter which doth not distinguish one word from another, the -singular number from the plurall, the masculine gender from the -foeminine, or which makes not a syllable long or short." - -The dialogues are new, but very similar to those of the first edition, -the chief change being the introduction of a long and "exact account of -the state of France, ecclesiastical, civil, and military as it -flourisheth at present under King Louis XIV.," which was brought up to -date in each subsequent edition. - -In following years the dialogues become more numerous; they number -eighty in the sixth edition (1670). Each new issue promises additions, -"of the last concern to the reader." A new feature in the sixth and -seventh editions is a versified rendering of the grammar rules, entitled -_Le Parterre de la langue francoise_. The verses were written at the -request of the Duke of Mecklenburg, his former pupil, and arranged in -the form of a dialogue between Mauger and the Duke, who first addresses -his master: - - Le Langage francois est si plein de merveilles - Que ses charmans appas, ravissans nos oreilles, - Nous jettent sur vos bords pour gouster ses douceurs, - Et pour en admirer les beautez et les fleurs. - Mais, pour nous l'acquerir il faut tant d'artifice, - Qu'en ses difficultes il estreint nos delices, - Estouffe nos desseins, traverse le plaisir - Qui flatoit nostre espoir d'y pouvoir reussir. - Les articles _de la_, _de_, _du_, sont difficiles. - Si vous ne les monstrez par vos reigles utiles, - Ils nous font begayer presques a tous momens, - Et ternissent l'eclat de nos raisonnemens. - -And Mauger answers him with an invitation to take what he will from the -"parterre." - -Additional matter was introduced in 1673 in the shape of short rules for -the pronunciation of English, which in the following editions were -developed into a short English grammar, written in French dialogues. -Later Mauger modified the arrangement of his French grammar rules, -giving them in parallel columns of French and English, in the form of -question and answer. The section dealing with the parts of speech is -recast in the form of a conversation between a French master and his -lady pupil. As to the dialogues, which are all "modish"--there is not a -word in them but is "elegant"--they were divided into two categories, -one elementary and the other advanced. In the twelfth edition, for -instance, we have forty-six dialogues, in the style of those of the -earlier editions, and then ten longer and more difficult ones. Mauger -made hardly any changes in the issues that followed the twelfth, and in -this shape it passed down to the eighteenth century. In the course of -its development it had grown to nearly twice its original size. - -Mauger's popularity as a teacher of French grew apace with his grammar. -The commendatory poems, one by John Busby, which are prefixed to the -first two editions, show that even at that early date he was held in -high esteem by many influential Englishmen; and each new edition was -offered to some new patron. - -Mauger also published a collection of letters in French and English, -which he considered "a great help to the learner of the French tongue," -for "those who understand it with the help of the English, are capable -of explaining afterwards any French author, being written on several -subjects." The _Lettres Francoises et Angloises de Claude Mauger sur -Toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres_ were dedicated to Sir -William Pulteney. They were first issued in 1671, and again in 1676, -with the addition of fifty letters. Many are addressed to gentlemen of -note who had been his students at Blois, and continued to correspond -with him for the purpose of practice in French. "Puisque vous desirez -que je continue a vous ecrire des Lettres Francoises," he wrote to the -Count of Praghen in 1668, "pour vous exercer en cette langue qui est -tant usitee dans toutes les cours de l'Europe, je recois vos ordres avec -joye." Others are addressed to pupils in London, including some of his -large clientele of ladies. [Header: MAUGER'S FRENCH AND ENGLISH LETTERS] -For instance, he writes to a certain Mrs. Gregorie: - - Ayant oui dire que vous estes allee a la campagne pour quinze - jours, durant cette belle saison en laquele la nature deploye ce - qu'elle a de plus beau, j'ay pris la hardiesse de vous ecrire cette - lettre en Francois pour vous exercer en cette langue que vous - apprenez avec tant de diligence. Je suis bien aise que vous vous y - adonniez si bien, car, comme vous avez la memoire admirable, vous - en viendriez bien tost a bout. - -He seems to have made a regular practice of exercising his pupils' -French by writing to them in the language.[815] Among his young English -pupils was William Penn, the Quaker, to whom he wrote a letter dated -1670: - - Je n'entendrois pas bien mes interests si Dieu m'ayant fait si - heureux de vous monstrer le Francois que vous apprenez si bien, je - n'en temoignois de la joye, en faisant voir a tout le Monde, que - l'honneur que vous me faites de vous servir de moy, pour vous - l'acquerir est tres grand. En effet monsieur, n'est-ce pas un - bon-heur? Car je perdrois mon credit si Dieu ne me suscitoit de - tems en tems des personnes comme vous, qui par leur diligence et - capacite avec l'aide de ma methode le soutiennent. . . . J'ay bien - de la satisfaction qu'elle [_i.e._ l'Angleterre] scache que vous - m'avez choisy pour vous donner la connaissance d'une langue qui - vous manquoit, qui est si estimee, et si usitee par toute la Terre. - Terre. . . . - -Whether these letters were ever actually sent to his pupils is a -question of some uncertainty, which we are inclined to answer in the -affirmative. In any case, they provided him with an excellent -opportunity of advertising himself by calling attention to some of his -well-known pupils. Many were addressed to friends in France, where he -seems to have had a very good connexion. He closes his collection with a -short selection of commercial letters. - -Mauger was the author of several other short works--a _Livre d'Histoires -curieuses du Temps_, destined for his pupils' reading; a _Tableau du -jugement universal_ (1675), which sold so well that there were very few -copies left at the end of the year; and a Latin poem of one hundred and -four lines, entitled _Oliva Pacis_, celebrating the declaration of peace -between Louis X. of France and Philip II. - -Besides many influential friends, he seems to have had several relatives -in London.[816] One of these was a Master Keyser, his brother-in-law, a -Dutch gentleman and painter, who lived in "Long Aker between the -Maidenhead and the Three Tuns Tavern," and acted as a sort of agent for -Claude. Mauger himself lived "in Great Queen Street, over against Well's -Street, next door to the strong water shop," in 1670. Before 1673 he had -moved to "within two doors of Master Longland, a Farrier in Little Queen -St., over against the Guy of Warwick near the King's Gate in Holborn"; -and in 1676 to "Shandois Street, over against the Three Elmes, at Master -Saint Andre's." It was probably about the year 1670 that he began to -teach English to foreigners visiting England. He had the honour "of -helping a little to the English tongue both the French ambassadors, -Ladyes, ambassadresses and several great Lords, who come daily from the -court of France to the court of England." With many of these he had much -familiar intercourse, and it was at their request that he wrote his -rules for the English language. One of his letters is addressed to the -sharp-witted Courtin, and others to the Marquis de Sande and Monseigneur -Colbert's surgeon. Some of the numerous French nobility, "who come daily -from the court of France to the court of England," attracted by the gay -and Frenchified court of Charles II., also studied English under Mauger. - -He describes his method of teaching as discursive, "avec raisonnement." -Practice and reading are the chief exercises. In one of his dialogues a -lady pupil describes her French lesson;[817] it consisted in reading, -with special attention to the pronunciation, and telling a story in -French, no doubt a repetition of the matter read. For the pronunciation, -Mauger considered "the living voice of a master better than all that can -be set down in writing"; but none the less he provided rules for -acquiring the true accent of Blois. He took little interest in grammar, -but fully realized the necessity of guiding rules; "some man perhaps," -he writes, "will answer me that he speaketh his naturall tongue well -enough, without all these rules. I confesse he may speak reasonably -well, because it is a natural thing for him to do. But you needs must -confesse that a Latine schollar, who hath been acquainted with all such -rules of grammar, speaketh better than such a one." Mauger would have -the student first master his rules, and then begin "by all means" to -read, "pour joindre la pratique a la speculation des regles." [Header: -MAUGER'S METHOD OF TEACHING] He no doubt intended the student to attempt -to speak at the outset with the guidance of a French master, whom he -held absolutely indispensable. The following talk between two students -throws light on the practical methods advocated: - - Apprenez-vous encore le francois? Do you learn French still? - Ouy, je n'y suis pas encore parfait. Yes, I am not yet perfect in it. - Et moi je continue aussi. And I continue also. - Je commence a l'entendre. I begin to understand it. - J'entens tout ce que je lis. I understand all I read. - Avez vous un valet de pie francois? Have you a French foot boy? - Ouy, monsieur. Yes, Sir. - L'entendez-vous bien? Do you understand him well? - Fort bien. Very well. - Quel Autheur lisez vous? What author do you read? - Je lis l'_Histoire de France_. I read the _French History_. - L'avez-vous leuee? Have you read it? - Je l'ay leuee en Anglois. I have read it in English. - Je l'acheteray. I will buy it. - Ou la pourray-je trouver? Where shall I find it? - Partout. Everywhere. - Avez-vous leuee l'_Illustre Have you read the _Illustrious - Parisienne_? Parisien_? - Allez-vous au sermon? Do you go to sermon? - Ouy, Monsieur. Yes, Sir. - Qui est-ce qui preche? Who preaches? - C'est un habile homme. 'Tis an able man. - Avez-vous le Dictionnaire de Miege?[818] Have you Miege's Dictionary? - Ouy, je l'ay. Yes, I have it. - Voulez-vous me le preter? Will you lend it me? - Il est a votre service. It is at your service. - Je vous remercie. I thank you. - La langue francoise n'est-elle pas Is not the French tongue - belle? fine? - Je l'aime fort. I love it extreamly. - Elle est fort a la mode. 'Tis very modish. - -"My dialogues," writes Mauger, "are so useful and so fit to learn to -speak, that one may easily attain the French tongue by the assistance of -a Master, if he will take a little pains on his side." He also advises -his pupils to read the lengthy heroical romances so popular at the -time--_L'Astree_, and the enormous folios of De Gomberville, La -Calprenede, Mlle. de Scudery, and other romances of the same type--as -well as the works of Corneille, Balzac, and Le Grand. With Antoine le -Grand, Mauger claims personal acquaintance, and recommends his works -with special emphasis, giving his pupils notice of a book newly -published by him: "There is a French book newly printed at Paris called -_L'Epicure spirituel_, written in good French by M. Antony le Grand, -Author of _L'Homme sans passions_. You may have it at Mr. Martyn's shop -[Mauger's publisher] at the sign of the Bell in St. Paul's Churchyard." -He also advocates, for purposes of translation, the reading of the Bible -and Common Prayers in French, books specially suitable owing to the ease -with which English renderings could be found; and adds further that "at -Mr. Bentley's shop, in Russel St. in Covent Garden, you may be furnished -with French Bibles, French Common Prayers, French Testaments, and French -Psalms." These would be of special use to his own students, as he -encouraged them to frequent the French Church for the benefit of hearing -the language. As for Mauger himself, although he appears to have -professed the Protestant religion and to have come first to England as a -refugee for the sake of his principles, he does not seem to have given -much attention to religious matters. Neither does he manifest any -particular interest in the French Church,[819] other than as an -excellent place for his pupils to accustom themselves to the sounds of -the French language. - -After he had spent some thirty years in England we find him moving to -Paris, where he was constantly with "some of the ablest gentlemen of -Port Royal," who assured him that his French Grammar and his Letters in -French and English were in their library. This break in Mauger's long -teaching career in England occurred some time about 1680, after the -appearance of the eighth edition of his grammar in 1679. He now took up -his residence in the fashionable quarter of Paris, usually frequented by -foreigners, the Faubourg St. Germain, where he taught French to English -travellers, and English to any one wishing to learn it. This change of -abode modified his exclusive attitude towards the Blois accent. At an -earlier date he had acknowledged that "after Blois the best -pronunciation is got at Orleans, Saumur, Tours, and the Court," and in -1676 he writes, "Je suys exactement le plus beau stile de la Cour," and -tells us that he had daily intercourse with French courtiers "tant -ambassadeurs qu'autres grands seigneurs, a qui j'ay aussi l'honneur de -monstrer la langue angloise." He also read all the latest books, and -carried on a correspondence with learned men in Paris, among others -Antoine le Grand. But in the same year that he was praising the French -of Paris, he wrote, encouraging a noble Englishman to take up the study -of French in England: [Header: MAUGER IN PARIS] "Si vos affaires ne -vous permettent pas d'aller a Paris, pour vous y adonner, de quoy vous -souciez-vous si vous avez Blois dans Londres qui est la source? En effet -sa prononciation ne change jamais: de plus a cause du commerce qu'il y a -entre les deux cours, l'une communique a l'autre sa purete. Et je dy -assurement qu'il y a icy quantite de personnes qui parlent aussi bien a -la mode qu'au Faubourg Saint Germain. Et comme les fonteines font couler -leurs eaux bien loin par de bons canaux sans se corrompre, vous -trouverez des Maitres en cette ville qui vous enseigneront aussi -purement que sur les lieux." However, when he had himself spent two -years in Paris, he gave up praising the merits of Blois, and always -describes himself as "late professor of languages at Paris," which he -now called "the centre of the purity of the French Tongue, where the -true French phrase is to be found." From this time on his grammar claims -to contain everything that can be desired in order to learn French as -spoken at the Court of France, and "all the improvements of that Famous -Language as it is now flourishing at the Court of France." - -During his stay at Paris, which extended from about 1680 to 1688, the -popularity of his grammar in England did not diminish. Four editions -were printed in London after having been corrected by himself at -Paris--the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth. The last was dedicated -to the young Earl of Salisbury, who had studied French with Mauger when -on the usual continental tour. - -Three motives, he states, induced him to return to England, "after -having gathered the finest flowers of the French tongue at Paris to -enrich my workes withall for the better satisfaction of those that learn -it: The first the extream love which I bear to this generous -country,[820] that has obliged me so much as to approve so generally of -my books, that for her sake they are received very well beyond Sea, and -especially in France. The second, to correct the thirteenth edition my -self exactly, many faults of printing having crept into the four last -editions which were Printed here in my absence though I corrected them -at Paris. The third to see my relations and friends." - -After his return to England, he composed his _Book of Curious stories of -the Times_ in French and English for the use of his pupils. The new -editions of his grammar, however, are identical with the thirteenth, -which itself bears very great resemblance to the twelfth issued while -Mauger was still at Paris. How many years he continued to superintend -the new issues of his grammar is not certain; the nineteenth edition of -1702 is the last described as "corrected and enlarged by the Author." - -Again and again he refers to the popularity of his book in England, and -the "unexpressible courtesies" he received at the hands of his English -patrons. "This grammar sells so well," he wrote in the sixth edition -(1670), "as you may see, being printed so often, and many thousands -every time, that I cannot but acknowledge the kindness of this generous -nation towards me in raising its credit both at home and abroad, in so -much that other Nations, following the general approbation concerning it -of so wise a people, use it as commonly everywhere beyond the Sea, as -they do here in London, and in all the dominions of his majesty of Great -Britain." It was also looked on with much favour in France. In 1689 a -French edition, called the thirteenth, was printed at Bordeaux. But it -was in the Netherlands that the grammar received almost as warm a -welcome as in England. The book thus forms another link between the -study of French in England and the Low Countries. In 1693 this Dutch -edition of the grammar was issued for the thirteenth time, and in 1707 -for the fifteenth, both at the Hague. It was usually published with an -English grammar of more importance than the short one added by Mauger to -the English editions--that of Festeau, Mauger's friend and -fellow-townsman. Their combined work was known as the _Nouvelle double -grammaire Francoise-Angloise et Angloise-Francoise par messieurs Claude -Mauger et Paul Festeau, Professeurs de Langues a Paris et a Londres_. -The two grammars are followed by Mauger's dialogues and a collection of -twenty-one "plaisantes et facetieuses Histoires pour rire," in French -and English, entitled _l'Ecole pour rire_. The growing popularity of -English from the beginning of the reign of William of Orange, the editor -tells us in 1693, induced him to add the English grammar to the French -grammar of Mauger, and he chose Festeau's because it was in as high -favour for learning English as Mauger's was for learning French. - -[Header: PAUL FESTEAU] - -Paul Festeau was the author of a French as well as an English -grammar,[821] and, like Mauger, he taught English to foreign visitors in -London, as well as French to English people. Indeed his career bears a -close resemblance to that of Mauger, of whom he seems to have been a -sort of protege. Like Mauger he had taught at Blois, and the two -teachers probably came to England together; at any rate they arrived at -much the same time. He enjoyed a greater popularity than Mauger as a -teacher of English, and was also looked upon with respect as a teacher -of French.[822] - -Festeau's French Grammar, first published in 1667, occupies an important -second place among the French text-books produced in the third quarter -of the seventeenth century. It was dedicated to Colonel Russel, of the -King's Guard, who had learnt French under Festeau's guidance. As a -grammar it is fuller and more clearly arranged than Mauger's, and, in -main outline, there is much similarity between the two. The rules, which -occupy the first two hundred pages, are written in English and provide -information on pronunciation and on each part of speech in turn. Each is -accompanied by a considerable number of illustrative examples, which, -Festeau thought, were of great help in impressing the rule on the -memory, and of more use than dialogues. He also included dialogues in -his work, and was attacked on account of their prolixity. He argued, in -reply, that "if the reader pleases to consider the store of phrases in -the body of the Work amongst the Rules which do contain near two hundred -pages, he will very well apprehend that, when a scholar hath learnt all -these Phrases without book in learning the rules, he needs not at all -burden his memory with many dialogues: for ... I have found by -experience that those who have learned them were able afterwards to -translate French into English, with the aid of a dictionary and I do -maintain that it is not necessary to learn such abondance of Dialogue by -heart, it is enough to read and English them, and next to that to -explain them from English into French, and so doing the words and -phrases do insensibly make an impression in the memory and the discreet -scholar goeth forward with a great deal of ease. As for young children I -yield that it is good they should continue the Dialogues: but after they -have learned short phrases, they must of necessity learn long ones, -otherwise they could never attain to the capacity of joyning words -together. Beside when a master doth teach his scholar, he must not ask -him a whole long phrase at once, he must divide it in parts according to -the distinction of points. As for instance, if I will ask this long -phrase of a child | Quand on a gaigne une fois | le jeu attire -insensiblement | en esperance de gaigner davantage |. I will ask it him -at three several times." Festeau gives the pupil the English in three -separate phrases, and requires him to give the French rendering. "Them -that will take the pains to peruse it," to use Festeau's own words in -describing his grammar, "will observe a very new method, clear and -intelligible Rules to the least capacities, fine remarks upon all the -parts of speech and particularly upon the gender of nouns, and the use -of moods and tenses. They will find the difficulties of the particles, -_en_, _on_, and _que_ explained, which give commonly so much trouble to -the learner, they will see the use and good order of impersonal verbs, -as well active as passive, likewise also of the reciprocal and reflected -verbs. Finally they will see familiar dialogues on divers sorts of -subjects, very useful and profitable for them that desire to speak -properly: no barbarous kind of words and phrases as are found in some -other grammars, by reason that the Author professes to speak and to -write his own language well." A vocabulary of thirty pages, in the style -of Mauger's, and rules for the accents and the length of the vowels fill -the rest of the volume. This was how the work stood in the third -edition, which, Festeau explains, "might rightly be said the fourth, -seeing that there was fifteen hundred copies drawn off the second -edition, and two thousand of this, whereas they use to draw but a -thousand at most: and considering the time it first came out, it seems -that it sells pretty well. If some other former grammars have had more -editions, it cannot be inferred thence that this comes short of them: we -can buy nothing at market but what is to be sold, and when this hath -been in the light as long, no doubt but (especially being better known) -it may have as many editions." [Header: PIERRE LAINE] Possibly he was -referring to Mauger's popularity, and the two friends may have become -rivals during the latter part of their stay in England. On similar -grounds he claimed that the sixth edition might be called the tenth, as -two thousand copies were drawn of the four last editions. Mauger, -however, states that "many thousand" copies of his grammar were drawn at -every edition. - -By this time Festeau's grammar had acquired a considerable reputation. -"The approbation that it hath received," he writes, "of the most learned -of the nation, who have esteemed it the neatest, the easiest and most -correct, is not a small advantage to it: It is that which hath -encouraged me to bring it to a better perfection." There is, however, -very little difference between the half score or so editions which were -issued. - -Like Mauger, Festeau soon began to modify his attitude towards the Blois -accent. In 1679, while still advertising himself proudly as a "native of -Blois, where the true tone of the French Tongue is found by the -unanimous consent of all Frenchmen," he claims to teach the "Elegancy -and Purity of the French Tongue as it is now spoken at the Court of -France." However, it is uncertain whether Festeau went to Paris or not. -At the time when he first wrote of Court French he was teaching in -London, and we are informed that "if any gentleman have occasion for the -author of this grammar, his Lodging is in the Strand near St. Clement's, -at Mr. John King's house, at the sign of the wounded heart." He was -still there in 1693. In 1675 we see him requesting any "gentleman or -others desiring to speak with him to inquire for him in Haughton Street, -next door to the Joyner's Arms, near Claire Market," or at Mr. Loundes, -his bookseller and publisher. At about this time he began to teach -mathematics as well as, and by means of French; he was prepared to -instruct gentlemen in all its branches. It was at the request of several -gentlemen, with whom he "did often discourse of the same in French," -that he added to the fourth edition of his grammar a long dialogue -covering the whole field of mathematics, and giving "a clear and fair -idea thereof." - -Another French tutor who flourished at the same time as Mauger, and who -wrote a French grammar which, like his, appeared during the -Commonwealth, was Peter Laine. Laine is not very communicative as -regards himself; he does not even tell us from what part of France he -came. All we know of him is that he was a protege of Robert Paston, to -whom he dedicated his book, and who, no doubt, had been his pupil for -French. Of his grammar he writes, "I here expose to thy view a work -which might rather be counted an Errata than a book"--a state of things -for which both himself and the printer were to blame. For his part, he -says, he does not write for the sake of seeing his name in print, or -because he fancies he excels others. "I rather count myself inferior to -the least of them. But the urgent importunities of some persons whom I -have had, and still have the honour to inform in French, have made me -undertake it to satisfie their desires, and my gratitude." - -His sympathy with the Protestants emerges clearly from the contents of -his grammar. Apparently he did not belong to the Blois group. He differs -from them in adopting the new orthography in which many of the unsounded -letters were omitted. It was a pity to spoil the purity and elegance of -the pronunciation by the old orthography, he thought; moreover the clear -resemblance between the orthography and the pronunciation renders the -language easier to foreigners; "seeing that we both write and speak any -vulgar Tongue to be understood and to entertain Society, it is in my -judgement, not only convenient but even necessary to bring as near a -conformity betwixt the Tongue and the Pen, as may without prejudice to -the material grounds of our language, afford all the facility that is -possible to those that are strangers to it." It is curious to recall -that Peletier, and other earlier writers, had, on the contrary, retained -the etymological consonants of the old orthography, with the idea that -the foreigner's Latin would thereby be of greater service to him. - -Laine's _Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue, teaching with -much ease, facility and delight, how to attain briefly and most exactly -to the true and modern pronunciation thereof_, is very similar to -Mauger's grammar in the distribution of the matter. Rules for the -pronunciation, which as usual are briefly explained by means of -comparison with English sounds, are followed by observations on each -part of speech in turn;[823] finally come familiar phrases "to be used -at the first learning of French," ten long dialogues, and a vocabulary, -all in French and English. [Header: LAINE'S DIALOGUES] The book closes -with what Laine calls "an alphabetical rule for the true and modern -orthography of that French now spoken, being a catalogue of very -necessary words never before printed"--an alphabetical list of words. -The grammatical section of the work is written in English. In the -dialogues he purposely adapts the English to the French phrase. "I have -been more careful," he explains, "in the whole course of the treatise, -to observe the French, then the English phrase: to the end I might make -its signification more intelligible, to vary less from the sense, and to -afford most delight and more facility to the learner." - -According to him, the first thing to be learned by the student of French -are the sounds of the language. He should commit to memory as many of -the familiar phrases as he can easily retain, and from them pass to the -"dialogical discourses." Their substance is much the same as in -Mauger--polite and gallant conversations mainly between students of -French, talk and guidance for travellers in France, etc. The following -specimen is from a dialogue between an English gentleman and his -language master: - - Quel beau livre est-ce la? What fine book is that? - Mons., c'est le romant comique. Sir, it is the comic romance. - Qui en est l'autheur? Who is the author of it? - Mons. C'est Mons. Scarron. Sir, it is Mr. Scarron. - Est-il fort celebre? Is he very famed? - Est il fort estime? Is he much esteemed? - Mons., c'est un esprit sublime et Sir, it is a sublime and - transcendant. transcendant wit. - De quoi traite cet ouvrage? What doth this work deal on? - Mons., il n'est plein que Sir, it is full but - de drolleries facesieuses. . . . of pleasant drolleries.... - Lisons un peu: faites moi Let us read a little: do me - la faveur de m'antandre the favour to understand me - lire. read. - Prononcez hardiment; Pronounce boldly; - Observez vos accents. Observe your accents. - Ne prenez point de mauvaise habitude. Take no ill habit. - Lises distinctement. Read distinctly. - Vou lisez trop vite. You read too fast. - Notre langue est ennemi de la Our tongue is enemy to - precipitation. precipitation. - -Laine evidently intended that the dialogues, at least some of them, -should be committed to memory, as well as read and translated; "after -that," he continues, "as his sufficiency shall permit, he may proceed to -Reading any Histories, among which the Holy Writ ought to have the -pre-eminence, had not divine Providence, and the Eternal Spirit that -dictated it, purposely rejected the affected smoothness and polishedness -of the style." We recall, as we reflect on this strange reason for -rejecting the Holy Scriptures as reading material, the unenviable -reputation the refugees themselves had as regards literary style. As the -Bible is left us "for divine study only," Laine advises his pupils to -make use of moral histories for purposes of reading. Many, he says, have -been produced of late years. Nor did he limit his pupils' choice to -these; he encouraged them to read the heroic romances so popular at the -time--_Artamene ou le grand Cyrus_ and _Clelie_ by Mlle. de Scudery, -_Cassandre_ and _Cleopatre_ by La Calprenede; also the _Poesies -spirituelles_ of Corneille, the commentaries of Caesar in French, and -Scarron's _Roman comique_. Lighter fare could be found in the _Gazette -francoise_. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[813] "Which city, lying in the very middle of France, is the most -famous for the true pronunciation of the language." - -[814] "What are you doing? You must not render this in French, _qu'estes -vous en faisant?_ but thus, _Que faites-vous?_" ... and so on. - -[815] The practice was a common one at the time. Thus Sir Charles -Cotterel wrote in Italian to Mrs. Katherine Philipps, who thanks him for -the care he takes to improve her in Italian by writing to her in that -language. Letter of April 12, 1662, in _Letters of Orinda to -Poliarchus_, 1705. - -[816] One of his letters (No. 18) is addressed to Adrien Mauger (1675), -Bachelor of Divinity, Claude's nephew, whom he calls the head of the -family, and who apparently lived at Blois. - -[817] His fee was 40s. a month, for three lessons a week. - -[818] Cp. p. 383, _infra._ - -[819] The names Mauger and Maugier occur frequently in the Registers of -the Threadneedle Street Church, but none can be connected with Claude. - -[820] "L'Angleterre que j'aime infiniment," he writes in his twelfth -edition. - -[821] The first edition appeared in 1672. The second edition was -advertised in 1678 (Arber, _Term Catalogues_, i. 323). - -[822] - - "De tous les professeurs de la langue francoyse, - Festeau c'est de toi seul dont je fais plus de cas. - Si tu es eloquent dans nostre langue angloise, - Dans la tienne, pourquoy ne le serois-tu pas?" - -Thus wrote one of his pupils, Mr. P. Hume, probably the famous statesman -and Covenanter. - -[823] Pp. 48-130. Laine retains the usual six Latin cases; the verbs are -divided into four conjugations; the indeclinables are given in lists. A -vocabulary of nouns which have two meanings according as they are -masculine or feminine is included. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - - THE FRENCH TEACHING PROFESSION AND METHODS OF STUDYING THE LANGUAGE - - -From their very first appearance the voluminous French romances of the -time enjoyed great popularity in England,[824] partly, perhaps, on -account of the lack of a supply of similar works in the vernacular. -Several English translations appeared, but many preferred to read them -in the original. Their importance in the eyes of the French teachers may -also have increased their vogue. They were especially affected by -Charles I.; and when on the eve of his death, he was distributing a few -of his favourite possessions among his friends, he left the volumes of -La Calprenede's _Cassandre_ to the Earl of Lindsey.[825] Later on, Pope -describing, in his _Rape of the Lock_, the adventurous baron in quest of -the much-coveted lock, pictures him imploring Love for help, and -declares he - - to Love an altar built - Of twelve vast French Romances neatly gilt. - -Among the most eager readers of French romances was Dorothy Osborne. We -are enabled to trace part of her course in reading from the charming -letters she wrote to Sir William Temple, her future husband. They are -full of references to things French, and replete with French words; she -uses English words in a French sense: _injury_ with her means _insult_; -and she writes to explain that when she said _maliciously_ she really -meant "a French _malice_, which you know does not signify the same -thing as an English one." A little note sent to Temple when she was in -London, shortly before their marriage, evidently in answer to one from -him, may be quoted as a specimen of her French, and her total disregard -of spelling and grammar: - - Je n'ay guere plus dormie que vous et mes songes n'ont pas estres - moins confuse, au rest une bande de violons que sont venue jouer - sous ma fennestre m'ont tourmentes de tel facon que je doubt fort - si je pourrois jamais les souffrire encore; je ne suis pourtant pas - en fort mauvaise humeur et je m'en voy ausi tost que je serai - habillee voire ce qu'il est posible de faire pour vostre - satisfaction; apres je viendre vous rendre conte de nos affairs et - quoy qu'il en sera vous ne scaurois jamais doubte que je ne vous - ayme plus que toutes les choses du monde.[826] - -The French romances were Dorothy's constant companions, and her letters -are full of criticisms of and references to her favourite passages. She -sent the volumes to Temple by instalments,[827] as she finished them, -pressing him for his opinion. _Le Grand Cyrus_ seems to have been her -favourite. She had also a great admiration for _Ibraham ou l'Illustre -Bassa_, which, like _Polexandre et Cleopatre_ and the four volumes of -_Prazimene_, was her "old acquaintance." _Parthenissa_, the English -romance in the French style by Lord Broghill, did not meet with her -approval. "But," she confides to Temple, "perhaps I like it worse for -having a piece of _Cyrus_ by me that I am highly pleased with, and that -I would fain have you read. I'll send it you." As for the English -translations of her favourites, she had no patience with them. They are -written in a language half French and half English, and so changed that -Dorothy, their old friend, hardly recognizes them in this strange garb. - -French romances were not the only French interest Dorothy Osborne and -Temple had in common. They had first become acquainted while travelling -to France, the Osbornes on their way to join their father at St. Malo, -and Temple setting out on the usual "tour." Temple, apparently, lingered -with his new friends in France, until his father, hearing of this, -ordered him to Paris.[828] There he evidently acquired the knowledge of -French which Dorothy playfully declares a necessary qualification for -_her_ husband: for she could not marry one who "speaks the French he -has picked up out of the old Laws"; [Header: PEPYS'S FRENCH BOOKS] or, -the other extreme, the "travelled monsieur whose head is all feather -inside and out, that can talk of nothing but dances and duels, and has -courage enough to wear slashes when every one else dies with cold to see -him."[829] - -Another instance of the popularity of these romances and other French -writings is found in Pepys's _Diary_.[830] Both Pepys and more -particularly his wife, who was the daughter of a French refugee, were -great readers of the romances. Pepys himself seems to have found them a -little tiresome, and relates how on a certain occasion Mrs. Pepys -wearied him by telling him long stories out of the _Grand Cyrus_, and -how he hurt her feelings by checking her outpourings. She would sit up -till past midnight reading _Cyrus_ or _Polexandre_. He would often stop -at his bookseller's to buy French books for his wife, including -_L'Illustre Bassa_ in four volumes, and _Cassandre_. One evening she -read to him the epistle of _Cassandre_, which he pronounced "very good -indeed." When they went to see Dryden's _Evening Love, or the Mock -Astrologer_, Mrs. Pepys recognized at once its debt to _L'Illustre -Bassa_, and on the following afternoon "she read in the _L'Illustre -Bassa_ the plot of yesterday's play, which is exactly the same." - -His French books seem to have been a great source of interest to Pepys, -and to have served him on many occasions. Being ill, "taking physique -all day," he beguiled the time by reading "little French romances." He -appears to have been particularly attracted by Sorbiere's _Voyage en -Angleterre_, which on its appearance caused some indignation at the -English Court. Pepys read the book in the year of its publication -(1664).[831] Unfortunately he has not left us a very full account of the -other French books he knew. However, on the 1st May 1666, he writes that -he went "by water to Redriffe, reading a new French book my Lord -Bruncker did give me to-day, _L'Histoire Amoureuse des Gaules_" [by the -Comte de Bussy], "being a pretty libel against the amours of the Court -of France." Another volume which pleased Pepys was a "pretty" work, _La -Nouvelle allegorique_, "upon the strife between rhetorique and its -enemies, very pleasant." His choice of French literature was wide, -ranging from Du Bartas, which he judged "very fine as anything he had -seen," to Helot's "idle roguish book," _L'Eschole des Filles_, which he -burnt, "that it might not stand in the list of books, nor among them to -disgrace them if it be found."[832] - -At both Allestry's and Martin's, Pepys's booksellers, there was a great -variety of French and foreign books, which often tempted him. "To my new -bookseller's, Martin's," he writes on the 10th January 1667-8, "and -there did meet with Fournier the Frenchman, that hath wrote of the sea -and navigation,[833] and I could not but buy him." He was much -interested in French treatises on music,[834] and sent to France for -Mersenne's _L'Harmonie Universelle_, which he could not get at his -bookseller's. Pepys's friend, William Batelier, brought him "one or two -printed musick books of songs"[835] from France, among other French -books. "Home," he again notes, on the 26th January 1668, "and there I -find Will Batelier hath also sent the books which I made him bring me -out of France, among others _L'Estat de France_, _Marnix_, _etc._,[836] -to my great content, and so I was well pleased with them and shall take -a time to look them over ... but my eyes are now too much out of tune to -look upon them with any pleasure." And when his failing eyesight -prevented him from reading with ease, his wife, Batelier, and his -brother-in-law, Balty St. Michel, would read to him in French as well as -in English. He got Balty to read to him out of Sorbiere's _Voyage en -Angleterre_, and under the date the 30th of January 1668-9 we find this -entry: "I spent all the afternoon with my wife and Will Batelier -talking, and then making them read, and particularly made an end of Mr. -Boyle's _Book of Formes_, which I am glad to have over, and then fell to -read a French discourse which he hath brought over with him for me." - -[Header: POLITE CONVERSATION FASHIONABLE] - -No doubt the polite French literature which the French teachers -recommended so strongly to their pupils had some influence on the -character of the dialogues which form part of their manuals. Mauger, -Festeau, and Laine all include polite conversations in their dialogues, -and leave the old familiar subjects of buying and selling, wayside and -tavern talk. Polite conversation was the fashion, and coteries for -fostering it grew up in England on the model of those in France. Mrs. -Katherine Philipps, generally known as "the matchless Orinda," is -perhaps the most prominent of the ladies who tried, without any -permanent success it is true, to introduce the refinements of the French -_salons_ into England.[837] Each member of the "Society of Friendship" -she gathered round her assumed fanciful names in the style of those -affected by the adherents of the Parisian salons. "Orinda" was of course -a great reader of French literature, and knew French perfectly. She is -chiefly remembered for her translations of some of Corneille's plays -into English.[838] French books of conversation, such as Mlle. de -Scudery's _Conversations sur divers sujets_[839] or the similar volume -by Clerombault, which was rendered into English by a "person of honour" -[1672], also give some clue to the tastes and tendencies of the time, -though they had no direct influence on the dialogues specially written -for students of French. But, like them, they turn on such subjects as -the pleasures, the passions, the soul, love, beauty, merit, and so -forth. Thus the French teachers of the time, in introducing a new style -into their dialogues, undoubtedly yielded, to some extent at all events, -to the tastes of their numerous lady pupils. A large proportion of -Mauger's pupils were ladies. He praised their accent, and considered it -clearer and more correct than that of their brothers. And in the later -editions of his treatise the grammar rules are given in the form of a -conversation between a lady and her French master. Another French -teacher of the time, the author of a collection of dialogues in which -the new style is the dominating feature, also shows a decided preference -for his lady pupils. This writer was William or Guillaume Herbert, the -author of the _French and English dialogues in a more exact and -delightful method then any yet extant_. - -The thirty-four dialogues contained in this collection are all, with the -exception of the first which is autobiographical, written in the -_precieux_ style, full of points and conceits,[840] and all, with the -same exception, are very alike and a little wearisome. Herbert says he -does not write for every one, but for "les plus subtils." And in his -first dialogue, which gives a free account of his condition and -opinions, he proceeds to ridicule the traditional style of the French -and English dialogues. A stranger addresses a friend of the author: - - Pourquoi ne parle-t-il point de vendre et d'acheter? - - Parce qu'il n'a rien a vendre et que fort peu d'argent pour - acheter; et que les autres faiseurs de livres Francois en ce pais - ont tout vendu et tout achete avant qu'il allat au marche. - - Pourquoi ne dit-il rien du Manger et du Boire? - - Pour tant qu'il y prend fort peu de plaisir, faute d'appetit, et - que quelques-uns de ceux qui l'ont precede l'ont fait pour lui, - nommant fidelement toutes les viandes qu'ils ont portees a la table - de leurs maitres. Qui leche les plats, en peut bien parler. - - Pourquoi ne parle-t-il point des Habits, et de La Mode, du Lever et - du Coucher, de la Chambre et du Lit? - - Parce que nos maitres, qui ont ete valets de chambre ou laquais, - lui ont epargne ce travail, comme leur etant plus propre qu'a lui. - - Pourquoi se tait-il des Merciers, des Tailleurs et des Cordonniers? - - Parce qu'ils aiment mieux argent contant que des paroles et que - n'etant point dans leurs livres il ne se souvient guere d'eux et - s'en soucie encore moins. - - Pourquoi laisse-t-il les Ministres, les Medecins et les - Jurisconsultes, sans faire attention d'eux? - - Parce qu'ils ont assez d'esprit pour ne s'oublier pas: et assez de - langue pour parler pour eux-memes. Et toutefois il en parle a la - derobee, sans leur donner un discours a part, quoiqu'il honore ces - professions-la, et aime fort passionement plusieurs personnes de - ces trois etats, pour leurs rares merites. - - N'a-t-il rien des Apoticaires, des Chirurgiens et des Barbiers? - - Pas un seul mot, monsieur, parce qu'il se sert rarement des - premiers, et que, par la grace de Dieu, il n'a ni playes ni ulceres - ni verole pour les seconds, et que, les derniers le tenant a la - gorge, il n'oseroit parler. - - Il pourroit dire quelque chose des Parens et des Alliez. - - Qu'en diroit-il, les siens lui etant si peu courtois? S'il parloit - d'eux, ce seroit moyen de renouveler ses douleurs. - -[Header: STATE OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION] - -Herbert, it will be seen, had not a very high opinion of the social -origin or ability of the majority of his fellow-teachers. He was a very -unwilling member of the profession. He does not style himself "Professor -of the French Language" on the title-page of his dialogues, although he -taught both in his house and away from home, because few people care to -boast of their cross, and his cross was--to be reduced to belong to a -profession "que tant de valets, de mecaniques, et d'ignorants rendent -tous les jours meprisable." He draws a far from flattering picture of -the common sort of French teacher. He is a "brouillon," a shuffling -fellow, who boasts, dresses well, and intrudes everywhere, cringing and -offering his services at a cheaper price than the genuine teachers. He -can hardly write seven or eight lines of French correctly. Yet men such -as this, says Herbert, pass for first-class teachers, and some take upon -themselves to correct and write books. What is more, they count many -pupils, even among the nobility. - -Yet another cause of annoyance to Herbert was what seemed to him the -presumption of the Blois fraternity. It is the fashion, he remarks -scornfully, to say you come from Blois. And you do so if you happen to -come from Normandy. He is not ashamed of his province, though he takes -good care not to advertise it needlessly; Brittany (of which he was -evidently a native) is better than Blois, according to him. Thus we may -conclude that Herbert was one of the 'enemies' to whom members of the -Blois group frequently allude. Festeau refers to them as being ignorant -and envious persons, while Mauger describes them foaming with envy and -jealousy, and trying to harm him in the eyes of his pupils, as well as -casting aspersions on his grammar;[841] but he did not regard what they -said, England having raised his grammar so high that "their envy cannot -reach to it." And Mauger goes on to censure a certain section of the -French teaching profession, "broken Frenchmen," who make their pupils -speak rapidly, but not distinctly. "Have a speciall care," he exclaims, -"that you have not to do with those that are not true Frenchmen as your -Normans or Gascons. I confesse that a Norman that is a man of some -quality or one that hath seen the world or that is a good scholar may -possibly have the right accent, but any other that hath not such parts -can never give the true accent." Herbert retorted that the Blois clique -tried to persuade every one that Bretons and Normans cannot speak -correct French. He naturally resented such assertions, and was not -himself nearly so exclusive in the list of those who were not "good -Frenchmen." He merely states that the English are greatly mistaken in -their estimation of the French living here, "considering as such all -those that speak their tongue, so that the high Germans, Switzers of the -French tongue, Danes, Swedes, Dutch, Walloons, and those of Geneva pass -for good French in the opinion of many, although in truth there are not -here two naturall French 'mongst ten, which are taken for such, and who -for their profit would gladly go for such." - -There was every need, thought Herbert, of protecting the profession from -these incompetent teachers. Before a tutor is engaged he should be made -to translate a passage from a good author from English into French, and -then from French into English, and both the pieces should be examined by -competent judges of both languages; for, according to him, a teacher -must know English, or some other language with which the scholar is -acquainted, such as Latin, so that there may be some foundation on which -to build the new edifice. - -Beyond the importance he attached to translation, we know little of -Herbert's ideas on the teaching of French. He devotes more space to -criticizing the teachers. He does tell us, however, that French -orthography is best learnt by transcribing French passages, by which -operation it impresses itself on the mind without effort. He was also an -advocate of much and careful reading. Grammatical rules he considered -necessary, and he had intended to publish a grammar together with his -dialogues, but he was prevented from doing so by illness. He hoped, -however, to issue it a few months later, but apparently he was again -prevented from carrying out his design. [Header: GUILLAUME HERBERT] Yet -two years after the appearance of his dialogues he published another -work but of quite a different character--_Considerations on the behalf -of Foreiners which reside in England, and of the English who are out of -their own country, to allay the tempest which is too often raised in the -minds of the vulgar sort, and to sweeten the bitterness of a bilious or -cholerick humour against strangers_, in which he showed "that of all the -Nations of Europe, the English and French should love one another best, -as well for their vicinity as for the great commerce that is 'mongst -them in time of peace, and for their consanguinitie, there being in this -country thousands of families which are descended from the French, and -as many or more in France whose progenitours are English." These -'considerations,' twenty in number, are mainly a plea in favour of the -foreign churches in England and of the liberty of aliens to trade and -work in this country, with an allusion to the "good usage of -neighbouring Nations" towards the English fugitives of Mary's reign. -They are dated from the Charterhouse, June 1662, and appear to have been -the only work Herbert published after his _Dialogues_. He had, however, -previously shown his interest in the teaching of French by editing in -1658 the fourth edition of Cogneau's _Sure Guide to the French -Tongue_,[842] which consisted largely of the style of dialogue which he -ridiculed at a later date. - -Herbert had had a long career in England before we first hear of him as -a teacher of French. He had composed treatises in French and in English, -both of which he wrote with equal facility. His language gives no clue -to his nationality, but, as we saw, we may conclude from his -autobiographical dialogue that he was a native of Brittany. He was, no -doubt, the William Herbert, native of France, who received a grant of -letters of denization in 1636. At that date he was living at -Pointington, Somerset, and was married to an Englishwoman, Frances -Sedgwicke. In the previous year he had prepared for the press a work in -French called _La Mallette de David_.[843] How he spent his time in -Pointington is not clear, but in 1640 he was tutor to the sons of -Montague Bertie, second Earl of Lindsey. On the death of his wife in -1645 he moved to London, and published a number of devotional works in -English, which he had composed at Pointington, chiefly for the benefit -of his wife and children. He refers to the unfavourable reception of -these compositions in his French and English dialogues, which he hoped -would meet with a better fate. - -Herbert also took a great interest in the foreign churches of London. He -dedicated his _Quadripartit Devotion_ of 1648 to the "learned, pious, -and reverend Pastors, Elders, and Deacons of all the French and Dutch -congregations in England." At a later date he published a biting -pamphlet against a French Pastor, Jean Despagne,--the _Reponse aux -Questions de Mr. Despagne adressees a l'Eglise Francoise de Londres_ -(1657), accusing "le ridicule Despagne" of blasphemy and immorality, as -well as criticising his French. In this work Herbert agrees with Laine -in omitting a number of superfluous letters, with the intention of -facilitating reading for foreigners, though he was opposed to too many -changes, for fear of offending the partisans of the old orthography. The -_Dialogues_ and the _Considerations in behalf of Strangers_ were the two -works issued subsequently to the attack on Despagne, and with them ends -all we know of the career of Herbert, critic of the French teaching -profession, and earliest advocate of the "registration" of teachers. - -The Jean Despagne attacked so bitterly by Herbert was none the less a -welcome guest in this country, and was the only truly French minister in -London during the Commonwealth. English as well as French, attracted by -his excellent sermons, gathered round him. Thus he co-operated in a -sense, and no doubt unconsciously, with Mauger and the other French -teachers of the time, who were busy encouraging their pupils to attend -the French church. Despagne was minister, not of the old church of -Threadneedle Street, but of a new congregation in Westminster, which met -at first in Durham House in the Strand, and when that was pulled down, -at the chapel in Somerset House (1653).[844] He held aloof from the -older church, and went so far as to criticise Calvin. He was attacked -and accused of schism, but was protected by his powerful patrons, chief -among whom was the Earl of Pembroke. An important group of the royalist -English nobility and gentry found in Despagne a means of satisfying -their religious needs when the Anglican church was in abeyance. Among -them was the diarist John Evelyn, who heard Despagne preach in the -Savoy church. [Header: THE FRENCH CHURCHES] Another adherent, and a very -faithful one, was a certain Henry Brown, who, in his English translation -of one of Despagne's works,[845] speaks of the great resort of the -English nobility and gentry to the "excellent sermons and Doctrines" of -the French pastor. Many continued to attend after the Restoration, -Evelyn among others; as late as 1670 he remarks that "a 'stranger' -preached at the Savoy French church, the liturgie of the Church of -England being now used altogether, as translated into French by Dr. -Durell." - -The Savoy church had been authorized by Charles II. at the Restoration -on condition that the English Liturgy in French should be used. The -Threadneedle Street church, on the contrary, continued to use the -Calvinistic 'discipline,' and regarded with jealousy and suspicion the -church rising in Westminster. It refused all co-operation, and -endeavoured to bring about the suppression of the new church. The Savoy -church benefited on account of its situation in the fashionable -residential quarter, while Threadneedle Street was away in the city. -Consequently many members of the English aristocracy and gentry -continued to frequent the Westminster church even after the Restoration. -The use of the Anglican Liturgy was no doubt an additional attraction. -When service was opened there in 1661, by J. Durel,[846] among the -English present were the Duke and Duchess of Ormond, the Countess of -Derby and her daughters, the Earl of Stafford, and the Dukes of -Newcastle and Devonshire. Indeed the English gentry seem to have -occupied the attention of the French churches just as much as the -refugees themselves. The Threadneedle Street church felt the advantages -of its Westminster rival in this respect, and at the Restoration, -offered to establish a French Sabbath Lecture at Westminster for those -of the English gentry and French Protestants who found Threadneedle -Street too remote, hoping by this means to prevent division by having a -separate church there.[847] The Threadneedle Street church, however, was -not without its English adherents. Pepys went from time to time to both -French churches, but more frequently to Threadneedle Street, as far as -can be gathered from his diary, where he does not always specify which -of the churches is meant. "At last I rose," he writes on the 28th -September 1662, "and with Tom to the French church at the Savoy, where I -never was before; a pretty place it is; and there they have the Common -Prayer Book read in French, and which I never saw before, the minister -do preach with his hat off, I suppose in further conformity with our -Church." Pepys as a rule went to the Anglican church in the morning, and -to the French in the afternoon. He usually has a very good word for the -sermon, though on one occasion it was so "tedious and long that they -were fain to light candles to baptize the children by." There were also -services held at the French ambassador's, which many of the nobility -attended, as well as French sermons at Court from time to time. Evelyn -was present on one of these occasions: "At St. James's chapel preached, -or rather harangued, the famous orator, Monsieur Morus, in French. There -were present the King, the Duke, the French ambassador Lord Aubigny, the -Earl of Bristol, and a world of Roman Catholics, drawn thither to hear -this eloquent Protestant." This was on the 12th of January 1662. At a -much later date, September 1685, he heard another Frenchman, "who -preached before the King and Queene in that splendid chapell next St. -George's Hall." - -It appears therefore that the practice, common among French teachers, of -urging their pupils to go to the French church, met with some response, -as did their advice as regards the reading of French literature. On both -these points the teachers of the middle of the seventeenth century are -at one with those of the sixteenth, and, as a general rule, there is -very little difference between the methods used in the two centuries. -Reading remained the basis of the teaching; dialogues were committed to -memory and translated into English, less importance being attached to -retranslation into French in later times. As for pronunciation, the -teachers of the seventeenth century realised the inadequacy of teaching -it by comparison with English sounds; they laid all the more emphasis on -the services of a good tutor, continuing, none the less, to supply -certain rules, though not without a warning. As time went on, more -importance was attached to the grammar, which, though still limited in -theory to essential general rules, was often studied in the first place, -and not left till need for it arose in practice. The general opinion is -thus expressed by James Howell: "What foundations are to material -fabriques the same is grammar to a language. [Header: FRENCH BY "GRAMMAR -AND ROTE"] If the foundation be not well laid, 'twill be but a poor -tottring superstructure; if grammatical rules go not before, there is no -language can be had in perfection. Yet there are no precepts so -punctuall, but much must be left to observation, which is the grand -Mistresse that guides and improves the understanding in the research and -poursute of all humane knowledge, _Quod deficit in praecepto, suppleat -observatio._" Students who learnt on this method, called a combination -of "grammar and rote," would read aloud with their tutor, chiefly for -practice in pronunciation; study the principal grammar rules and commit -to memory the vocabulary of familiar phrases, and a few short dialogues; -read and translate[848] French dialogues, and then pass to the favourite -French authors; sometimes they would translate from English into French, -or write French letters; finally they would converse as much as possible -with their tutor, repeat stories they had read in French, and seize -every opportunity of speaking the language and hearing it spoken. - -Such was the method employed by the more serious French teachers of the -time. There were, however, others, and apparently very many, who taught -"by rote" alone without any grammar rules--a common method of learning -modern languages. "In England, the French, Spanish, and Italian -Languages are not the languages of our country, and spoke only by few -Persons, yet 'tis evident they are taught in London, and several other -places in the Kingdom, purely by conversation." "For it is well known," -argues a writer on education,[849] "that there are Grammars writ for the -French, Italian, and Spanish languages, and yet notwithstanding, these -Languages are learned by Conversation ... little children, who know not -what Grammar means, are bred up to speak foreign languages fluently and -correctly.... There are some indeed, in England that teach Modern -Languages by Grammar. But this is not at all necessary, as is -unanswerably evident from those Persons who perfectly learn them without -it. However, those who reach the Modern Languages by Grammar only teach -their scholars so much of it as to know how to decline Nouns and Verbs -and understand some few rules. For as for the Languages themselves, they -are generally taught not by Books but Conversation, which is found by -experience to be much the readiest, easiest, and best Method of teaching -them.... Some by great application have learn'd French or Italian in -half a year's time by conversation, and indeed any foreign Tongue is -ordinarily taught in a year or a year and a half. And such as are two -years in learning any of them are accounted either very negligent or -else very incapable of retaining them.... Men who know little or nothing -of French, Italian, or Spanish, quickly learn any one of these languages -only by going twice or thrice a week to a club where they are obliged to -speak it." - -How common such practical methods of learning French were may be -gathered from the fact that the few memoirs and similar writings which -give any detail on the subject invariably mention them. For instance, -the mother of Mrs. Hutchinson, the wife of the regicide and Governor of -Nottingham, was sent to board in the house of a refugee minister in -order to learn French.[850] As to Mrs. Hutchinson herself, she had a -French nurse, and was taught to speak English and French together.[851] -Others had tutors. Thus the mother of Lady Anne Halkett, the royalist -and writer on religious subjects, paid masters to teach Lady Anne and -her sister "to write, speak French, play on the lute and virginals and -dance";[852] and Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle, held up by -Mrs. Makin as an example to "all ingenious and Vertuous Ladies," also -had tutors for the polite accomplishments, and refers to her language -lessons as "prating."[853] She acquired a good knowledge of French, -became attendant to Queen Henrietta Maria, and accompanied her in her -exile in France. - -[Header: FRENCH BY CONVERSATION] - -An example of the opportunities of acquiring a knowledge of French, "in -any leisure hour," as Milton said of Italian, is found in the Letters of -Robert Loveday, the translator of part of La Calprenede's _Cleopatre_. -Loveday lived during the Commonwealth as a dependent in the house of -Lady Clinton at Nottingham, where, he says, French "was familiarly -spoken by the best sort of the family."[854] He therefore had every -opportunity of learning the language, and was much helped by an old -Italian gentleman, skilled in French, who was living in the house on the -same footing as himself. As a result of his application he was able to -translate several French works into English "in those empty spaces of -time which were left by those that command me at my disposall." He -procured a copy of Cotgrave's dictionary and asked a friend in London to -make enquiries at the booksellers if there was "any new French book of -indifferent volume that was worth the translating and not enterprised by -any other."[855] Loveday hoped by this means to give "larger scope to -(his) narrow condition" at Nottingham. One of his first enterprises was -the translation of a "mad fantastick Dream" he met with in Sorel's -_Francion_, which he sent to his brother; but his chief work was a -rendering of the first three parts of _Cleopatre_, which was hardly of -the "indifferent size" he writes of. The several parts appeared in 1652, -1654, and 1655 respectively, under the title of _Hymen's Praeludia, or -Love's Masterpiece_, and were dedicated to his "ever-honoured lady" Lady -Clinton. In the complete version, the fourth, fifth, and sixth parts are -also ascribed to Loveday. - -Thus practical methods gained a firm hold in the teaching of French; -when grammar was studied, it was within limited boundaries, and only so -far as desirable for practical purposes. In the teaching of Latin, on -the other hand, more and more importance was attached to the study of -grammar, which took the foremost place, literature being regarded as -little more than a collection of illustrative examples of the -rules.[856] Grammar had become "a full swolen and overflowing stream, -which, by a strong hand, arrogates to itself (and hath well-nigh gotten) -the whole traffic in learning, especially of languages."[857] The use -of the Grammar and reading books in Latin alone was another practice -which engaged the attention of the reformers.[858] "A book altogether in -Latin is a mere Barbarian to our children," wrote Charles Hoole,[859] -who published many of the popular Latin school-books with English -translations, in the style of those which are always present in the -French text-books. His opinion was that "no language is more readily got -than by familiar discourse in it, and ability therein is in no way -sooner gained then by comparing the tongue we learn with that we know, -and asking how they call this or how they say that in another language, -which we are able to express in our own." A writer of the time[860] thus -describes "that wild goose chase usually led": "ordinarily boys learn a -leaf or two of the Pueriles, twenty pages of Corderius, a part of Esop's -Fables, a piece of Tullie, a little of Ovid, a remnant of Virgil, -Terence, etc. ... to read the accidence, to get it without book, is -ordinarily the work of one whole year. To construe the Grammar and to -get it without book is at least the task of two years more, and then, it -may be, it is little understood until a year or two more is spent in -making plain Latin ... when it is all done, besides declining nouns and -forming verbs and getting a few words, there is very little advantage to -the child." And a French teacher,[861] writing at about the same time, -has left a very similar picture. [Header: GRAMMATICAL STUDY OF -LANGUAGES] He describes how the child slaves till the age of fifteen or -sixteen, forced to learn against his will a little Latin and Greek, with -little result after seven or eight years of hardship. "Not 10 per cent -really know either; they are buried under a _fatras_ of words and rules, -which stun the memory and overturn the judgment, and all under the rule -of the rod." Such is the learning of a foreign language "by grammar." - -The feeling of dissatisfaction with the usual method of teaching Latin -in grammar schools, however, seems to have been general in the -seventeenth century, and many were the protests and appeals for reform. -"No man can run speedily to the mark of languages that is shackled and -ingiv'd with grammar precepts," wrote Joseph Webbe,[862] who draws a -careful distinction between the grammar-Latin thus acquired and what he -calls Latin-Latin,[863] that is, "Such as the best approved authors -wrote and left us in their books and monuments of use and custom," as -distinct from "that Latin which we now make by grammar rules, and their -collection out of that custom and those authors was to make us write and -speak such Latin as that custom and those authors did, which was -Latin-Latin, but it succeeded not." - -Consequently there arose a belief that "practice"--in speaking, reading, -and writing the language--should take its place by the side of grammar. -Writers pleaded, in the style of Elyot and Ascham, for the teaching of -Latin on more practical lines, quoting Montaigne's experience.[864] -Thomas Grantham[865] opened a private school, in which he sought to -deliver youth from their "great captivity" and the hardship and -uselessness of learning grammar word for word without book and in Latin, -which the boy does not understand, "just as if a man should teach one an -art in French when he understands not French." Grantham, on the -contrary, taught his scholars to understand the rules first, and by -repeatedly applying them they came to know them without book, whether -they would or no. Similar was the method of the French teachers, who -often carried the idea further, and taught their pupils the rules as -need for them arose in practice. - -John Webster thus puts the case for and against learning by "rule." "As -for grammar," he says,[866] "which hath been invented for the more -certain and facile teaching and obtaining of languages, it is very -controvertible whether it perform the same in the surest, easiest and -shortest way or not, since hundreds speak their mother tongue and other -languages very perfectly, use them readily, and understand them -excellent well, and yet never knew or were taught any grammar rules, nor -followed the wayes of Conjugations and Declensions, Noun or Verb. And it -is sufficiently known that many men, by their own industry, without the -method or rules of grammar, have gotten a competent understanding in -divers languages: and many unletter'd persons will, by use and exercise, -without Grammar rules, learn to speak and understand some languages in -far shorter time than any do learn them by method and rule, as is -clearly manifest by those that travel.... And again, if we conceive that -languages learnt by use and exercise render men ready and expert in the -understanding and speaking of them, without any aggravating or pushing -the intellect and memory, when that which is gotten by rule and method, -when we come to use and speak it, doth exceedingly rack and excruciate -the intellect and memory: which are forced at the same time, not only to -find fit words agreeable to the present matter discoursed of, and to put -them into a good Rhetorical order, but must at the same instant of -speaking, collect all the numerous rules of number, case ... as into one -centre, where so many rayes are united and yet not confounded, which -must needs be very perplexive and gravaminous to memorative faculty: and -therefore none that attains languages by grammar do ever come to speak -and understand them perfectly and readily, until they come to a perfect -habit in the exercitation of them, and so thereby come to lose and leave -the use of those many and intricate rules, which have cost us so many -pains to attain to them, and so to justifie the saying that we do but -_discere dediscenda_." Those who learn by "use and exercitation," on the -other hand, acquire languages more quickly and with better results. If -the study of grammar is insisted on, it should be made very brief. The -indeclinables require no rules, but are learnt by use. [Header: LOCKE -ON THE TEACHING OF FRENCH] Of the declinables the only ones that present -any difficulties are the noun and the verb, regular and irregular. As to -the irregulars, they are best learnt by "use," as rules only "render the -way more perplexed and tedious. And the way of the regulars is facile -and brief, being but one rule for all." - -Many others wrote in a similar strain,[867] advocating the teaching of -Latin on lines widely used in the teaching of French. Several actually -specified the modern language, which was first mentioned in books on -education in this connexion. Thomas Grantham, in his _Brain Breaker's -Breaker_ (1644), points out that many young gentlemen and ladies learn -to speak French in half a year without grammar, and argues that the same -purpose could be achieved with Latin and Greek in a twelvemonth. -Similarly George Snell argued that Latin might be learnt "in as short a -time as a Monsieur can teach French,"[868] for the pronunciation, so -great a task in learning the living tongue, is of no importance in the -dead language. At a somewhat later date, when French had made more -headway in the scholastic world, Locke plainly states that people are -accustomed to the right way of teaching French, "which is by talking it -into children by constant conversation, and not by Grammatical -Rules,"[869] and proposes that the same method should be applied to -Latin. "When we so often see a Frenchwoman teach an English girl to -speak and read French perfectly in a year or two, without any rule of -grammar, or anything else but prattling to her, I cannot but wonder how -gentlemen have overseen this way for their sons, and thought them more -dull and incapable than their daughters."[870] Elsewhere Locke again -draws comparisons between the teaching of Latin and that of French,[871] -and a French teacher of the early part of the eighteenth century -recognized the importance of this tribute when he published a grammar -intended to confirm the knowledge acquired by "practice."[872] - -Yet all these proposals and protests do not seem to have had much effect -on the teaching of Latin. In a few cases, however, experiments were -attempted, usually in connexion with French. Several were made with the -_Janua_ of Comenius, which had early been adapted to the teaching of -French as well as Latin. The theories of Comenius himself had no doubt -inspired the English reformers. He had written that rules are thorns to -the understanding, that no one ever mastered a language by precept -alone, though it is often done by practice; rules, however, should not -be entirely discarded.[873] - -J. T. Philipps, who was later tutor to the Duke of Cumberland, son of -George II., relates[874] how he taught both Latin and French on -practical lines with the help of Comenius. His pupil first got a good -notion of the Latin tongue by studying the verbs and nouns, and then -learning the Latin column of the _Janua Linguarum_. "I likewise at som -leisure Hours," continues Philipps, "taught him to read French and when -he had good the pronunciation, he labour'd for some time, as he did -before in the Latin, to make himself Master of the French Verbs and -Nouns, and then began to learn the sentences in another column of the -_Janua Linguarum_, which, by the assistance of the Latin, he mastered in -a very short time. So that before the end of the first year, he could -read Fontaine's _Fables_ from French into English, and give me an -account of the French Minister's text which he heard, and part of the -sermon; [Header: LANGUAGES LEARNT WITHOUT GRAMMAR] for I charg'd him -never to miss the French Church, that he might the better accustom -himself to the true Accent of that Tongue.... I spent an hour every -Sunday Morning all the time the Boy was with me, to read over several -short Catechisms or systems in Divinity both in French and Latin."[875] - -The learned Mrs. Bathsua Makin, who had been governess to the daughters -of Charles I., and later kept a school at Tottenham High Cross, also -advocated the use of the _Janua Linguarum_ for learning Latin and -French. The young ladies of her school learnt ten Latin sentences of the -_Janua_ a day thoroughly, spending "but six hours a day in their books." -By the end of six months they had a fair knowledge of the language, and -turned to French: "If the Latin tongue may be learnt in 6 months, where -most of the words are new, then the French may be learnt in three, by -one that understands Latin and English, because there is not above one -word of ten of the French Tongue, that may not fairly, without force, be -reduced to the Latin or English."[876] - -We are also told[877] of a boy of seven who spoke Latin, French, and -English with equal facility, "by reason that his father talked to him in -nothing but Latin, and his mother, who was a Frenchwoman, in nothing but -French, and the rest of the family in nothing but English." And the Rev. -Henry Wotton of Corpus Christi, Cambridge, has left an account of how, -when he undertook the education of his son, "leaving off the Accidence -in that Method that ordinarily children are trained up in, (he) -immediately thought with (him)self to make an experiment whether -children of his years might not be taught the Latin Tongue as ordinarily -children are taught the French and Italian, and without the torture of -grammar, to make them, by reading a Latin book, to understand Nouns and -Verbs, Declensions and Moods, and that without the vast circuit, that -ordinarily takes up 3 or 4 years, as preparatory to read any Latin -author."[878] Evelyn bears witness to the success of Wotton's -experiment. He saw the young William Wotton in London at the age of -eleven, and pronounced him "a miracle."[879] To Evelyn also we are -indebted for an account of another case of similar precocity due to the -same method. He relates how he and Pepys saw a child of twelve, the son -of one Dr. Clench, "who was perfect in the Latine authors, spake French -naturally, and possessed amazing knowledge. His tutor was a Frenchman, -who had not troubled him to learn even the rules of grammar by heart, -but merely read to him, first in French, and then in Latin."[880] - -In no case, however, was the contrast between the prevalent methods of -teaching Latin and French so marked as in the learning of Latin in -Grammar Schools, and of French in France by "rote" or with the help of a -few general grammar rules; the older the student, the more necessary -were grammar rules considered. Richard Carew, for instance, was struck -by the fact that he learnt more French without rules in three-quarters -of a year in France than he had learnt Latin in more than thirteen -years' strenuous study of grammar. He had gone to France on leaving the -university. On his arrival he was at a loss for words, knowing nothing -of the language; but after a short stay, spent in the midst of French -people, talking and reading nothing but French, he surmounted the -difficulties of the language with surprising ease, and wished students -of Latin to benefit by his experience.[881] The two languages, indeed, -were not infrequently studied together by the considerable number of -English children who were sent to France for purposes of education. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[824] "It is most astonishing that there ever could have been people -idle enough to write and read such endless heaps of the same stuff. It -was, however, the occupation of thousands in the last century, and is -still the private though disavowed amusement of young girls and -sentimental ladies," wrote Chesterfield in the eighteenth century -(_Letters to his Son_, 1774, p. 242). Even Johnson read and enjoyed -these lengthy romances. - -[825] Jusserand, _The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare_, p. 381. - -[826] _Letters from Dorothy Osborne to Sir Wm. Temple, 1652-54_, London, -1888, p. 318. - -[827] He in turn passed them on to Lady Diana Rich. - -[828] T. P. Courtney, _Memoirs of the Life, Works and Correspondence of -Sir Wm. Temple_, London, 1836, i. p. 5. - -[829] _Letters_, p. 172; ep. Goldsmith, _Essay on the Use of Language_: -"If again you are obliged to wear a flimsy stuff in the midst of winter, -be the first to remark that stuffs are very much worn at Paris." - -[830] Pepys used Cotgrave's Dictionary; _Diary_, February 26, 1660-1. - -[831] This book was very widely read in England. But there does not seem -to have been an English translation of it before 1709 (Pepys's _Diary_, -Oct. 13, 1664, ed. Wheatley, 1904). - -[832] _Diary_, Jan. 13, Feb. 8 and 9, 1667-8. - -[833] _L'Hydrographie contenant la theorie et la pratique de toutes les -parties de la navigation_, 1643. - -[834] He read Descartes's _Musicae Compendium_, but did not think much -of it. - -[835] Pepys relates how one evening Penn and he fell to discoursing -about some words in a French song Mrs. Pepys was singing--_D'un air tout -interdict_: "wherein I laid twenty to one against him, which he would -not agree to with me, though I know myself in the right as to the sense -of the word, and almost angry we were, and were an houre and more upon -the dispute, till at last broke up not satisfied, and so home." - -[836] _Les Resolutions Politiques ou Maximes d'Etat_, par Jean de -Marnix, Baron de Potes, Bruxelles, 1612. - -[837] Cp. E. Gosse, _Seventeenth Century Studies_, 1897; J. J. -Jusserand, _The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare_, p. 373. - -[838] D. Canfield, _Corneille and Racine in England_, 1904. How common -was the presence of Frenchmen in English families of high standing may -be gathered from Orinda's statement that "one, Legrand, a Frenchman -belonging to the Duchess of Ormond, has by her order set the fourth -[song in _Pompey_ to music], and a Frenchman of my Lord Orrery's the -second" (_Letters of Orinda to Poliarchus_, London, 1705, Letter dated -Jan. 31, 1663). - -[839] Fifth ed., Amsterdam, 1686. Translated into English by F. Spence, -London, 1683. Queen Henrietta Maria had done much to foster the spirit -of the _Astree_ and the Hotel de Rambouillet in England: cp. J. B. -Fletcher, "Precieuses at the Court of Charles I.," in the _Journal of -Comparative Philology_, vol. i. 1903. - -[840] Between ladies and "cavaliers." Herbert explains that by -"cavalier" he means _galant homme_. Here is a specimen of their style: -"_Cavalier_: La voila, je la vois.--_Dame_: Que voyez-vous, mons.?--Je -vois la Gloire du beau sexe, l'Ornement de ce siecle, et l'Objet de mes -affections.--Vous voyez ici bien des choses.--Toutes ces choses sont en -une.--C'est donc une merveille.--Dites, ma chere Dame, la merveille des -merveilles.--Je le pourrois dire apres vous, car votre bel esprit ne se -sauroit tromper.--Il se peut bien tromper, mais non pas en ceci.--Je -veux qu'il soit infaillible en ceci: il faut pourtant que je voye cette -Gloire, cet Ornement et cet Objet, pour en pouvoir juger.--Vous ne les -sauriez voir que par reflexion.--Je ne vous entens pas.--Approchez-vous -de ce miroir, et vous verrez ce que je dis. Qu'y voyez-vous, ma -Belle?--Je vous y vois, monsieur.--Voila une belle reponse.--Belle ou -laide, elle est vraye.--Elle l'est effectivement: mais n'y voyez-vous -rien que moi?--Je m'y vois aussi bien que vous.--Vous voyez donc cette -illustre merveille, etc." - -[841] "Il y a des particuliers qui ne sont pas dans mes interets, qui -les (_i.e._ his works) decrient hautement, non pas tant par malice que -par jalousie, quelques-uns etant des personnes interessees qui sont de -ma profession, ou des critiques ignorans qui trouvent a redire a tout ce -que les autres font, pour faire paroitre ce qu'ils n'ont point, -s'imaginant qu'on les prend pour des hommes d'esprit, quand on les -entend reprendre les choses les mieux faites." - -[842] See p. 290, _supra_. - -[843] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, iv. 333. - -[844] Schickler, _Eglises du Refuge_, ii. pp. 148-9, and 153. Despagne -became a denizen in 1655 (Hug. Soc. Pub. xviii.). Cp. also Haag, _La -France protestante_, ad nom., and the _Bulletin de la societe de -l'Histoire du Protestantisme francais_, viii. pp. 369 _et seq._ He died -in 1658. - -[845] _Harmony of the Old and New Testament_, 1682, Brown's preface. - -[846] Schickler, _op. cit._ ii. p. 224. - -[847] _Cal. of State Papers, Dom., 1660-61_, p. 277. - -[848] That translation was not always the means of interpretation is -shown by the following passage from Mauger; a stranger questions one of -his pupils: - - Entendez-vous tout ce que vous lises? - J'en entends une partie. - Entendez-vous bien le sens? - Fort bien, monsieur. - -Probably French was not 'construed' word for word, as Latin was, the -clause, on the contrary, being made the starting-point. "Construing word -for word is impossible in any language," wrote Joseph Webbe in his -_Petition to the High Court of Parliament_, quoting as an example the -"barbarous English of the Frenchman, '_I you pray, sir_,' for _Je vous -prie, monsieur_." - -[849] _An Essay on Education_, London, 1711. - -[850] _Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson_, ed. C. H. Firth, -London. 1885, i. p. 16. - -[851] _Ibid._ p. 23. - -[852] _Autobiography of Lady Anne Halkett, 1622-1699, 1701_, Camden -Society, 1875, p. 2. - -[853] _The Lives of Wm., Duke of Newcastle and of his wife Margaret ... -written by the thrice noble and illustrious princess Margaret, Duchess -of Newcastle_, ed. M. A. Lower, 1872, p. 271. - -[854] _Loveday's Letters, Domestick and forrain to several persons ..._, -London, 1659, p. 31. - -[855] _Letters_, p. 105. Cp. also pp. 26, 47, 79, 135, etc. It is -evident from the letter of Dorothy Osborne quoted above, p. 320, that -she had learnt French chiefly by ear. Several of the inaccuracies, such -as the use of the past participle for the infinitive, would not be -noticeable in pronunciation. - -[856] F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, pp. 276 _sqq._ - -[857] J. Webbe, _An Appeale to Truth in the Controversie between Art and -Verse about the best and most expedient course in languages_, 1622. - -[858] There was a strong feeling at this period in favour of a freer use -of English in the teaching of Latin, chiefly on account of the time such -a course would save. Thus Milton recognized the mistake of spending a -great number of years in learning one language "making two labours of -one by learning first the accidence, then the grammar in Latin, ere the -language of those rules be understood." The remedy, he thought, was the -use of a grammar in English (A. F. Leach, "Milton as Schoolboy and -Schoolmaster," _Proceedings of the British Academy_, iii. 1908). Snell -(_Right Teaching of Useful Knowledge_, 1649), Mrs. Makin or M. Lewis (?) -(_Essay to Revive the Antient Education of Gentlewomen_, 1671), and -others also argued that English should be the groundwork of the teaching -of Latin. Most of the English grammars produced in the seventeenth -century claim to be useful to scholars as an introduction to the -rudiments of Latin; and it was on this footing, no doubt, that English -grammar first made its way into the schools. Chief among these, perhaps, -was J. Poole's _English Accidence for attaining more speedily the Latin -Tongue, so that every young child, as soon as he can read English, may -by it turn any sentence into Latin. Published by Authority, and -commended as generally necessary to be made use of in all schooles of -this commonwealth_, London, 1655. For a list of English grammars cp. F. -Watson, _Modern Subjects_, chap. i. Lily's Grammar came to be almost -always used with the English rendering by Wm. Hume. Cp. Watson, _Grammar -Schools_, p. 296. - -[859] _An advertisement ... touching school books_, 1659. - -[860] _An Essay to Revive the Antient Education of Gentlewomen_, London, -1673 (by Mrs. Makin or Mark Lewis). - -[861] G. Miege, _A New French Grammar_, 1678, p. 377. - -[862] _Appeale to Truth_, 1622, p. 41. - -[863] _Petition to the High Court of Parliament, in behalf of auncient -and authentique Authours, for the universall and perpetuall good of -every man_, 1623. - -[864] _Essais_, liv. i., ch. xxv. - -[865] Cp. _The Brain Breaker's Breaker, or the Apologie of Th. Grantham -for his Method of Teaching_, 1644. - -[866] _The Examination of Academies, wherein is discussed ... the -Matter, Method and Customes of Academick and Scholastick Learning, and -the insufficiency thereof discovered and laid open_, 1653, p. 21. - -[867] Thus Sir Wm. Petty, in his _Advice to S. Hartlib for the -advancement of some particular parts of learning_ (1648), argues that -languages should be taught by "incomparably more easy wayes then are now -usuall." An anonymous "Lover of his Nation" proposed that children -should learn Latin as they do English, by having no other language -within their hearing for two years; and similarly with other languages -(Watson, _Modern Subjects_, p. 482). Ch. Hoole, teacher at a private -grammar school in London, also proposes that Latin should be learnt by -speaking and hearing it spoken, and attributes the unsatisfactory -knowledge of the language to the too frequent use of English in schools -(_New Discoverie of the old art of Teaching Schooll_, 1660). The French -teacher Miege suggests that Latin should be taught in special schools, -on the same lines as French was taught in the French ones (_French -Grammar_, 1678). In 1685 was published _The Way of Teaching the Latin -Tongue by use to those that have already learn'd their Mother Tongue_; -and in 1669 had appeared a work translated from the French, called _An -Examen of the Way of Teaching the Latine Tongue to little children by -use alone_. Among other publications of similar import are: _An Essay on -Education, showing how Latin, Greek, and other Languages may be learn'd -more easily, quickly and perfectly than they commonly are_, 1711; and -_An Essay upon the education of youth in Grammar Schools in which the -Vulgar Method of Teaching is examined, and a new one proposed for the -more easy and speedy training up of Youth, to the knowledge of the -Learned Languages ..._, by J. Clarke, Master of the Public Grammar -School in Hull (London, 1720). - -[868] _Right Teaching of Useful Knowledge to fit scholars for some -honest Profession_, London, 1649, p. 186. - -[869] Locke, _Some thoughts concerning Education_ (1693), ed. J. W. -Adamson, in _Educational Writings of Locke_, London, 1912, p. 125. - -[870] _Op. cit._ p. 127. - -[871] "Why does the Learning of Latin and Greek need the rod, when -French and Italian need it not?" (_op. cit._ p. 69). And again, "Those -who teach any of the modern languages with success never amuse their -scholars to make speeches or verses either in French or Italian, their -business being language barely and not invention" (_op. cit._ p. 71). - -[872] J. Palairet, _New Royal French Grammar_, The Hague, 1738. - -[873] Languages, he held, were best learnt by rules of a simple nature, -comparison of the points of difference and resemblance between the known -and unknown language, and exercises on familiar subjects. - -[874] _A compendious way of teaching Ancient and Modern Languages ..._, -2nd edition, London, 1723, pp. 45 _et seq._ - -[875] He would then learn Italian and Spanish on the same plan. - -[876] _An Essay to Revive the Antient Education of Gentlewomen ..._, -1673. - -[877] _Essay on Education_, 1711. The case of Queen Elizabeth, who is -said to have learnt only one or two Latin rules, is also quoted. - -[878] _An Essay on the education of children in the first rudiments of -learning, together with a narrative of what knowledge Wm. Wotton, a -child of 6 years of age, had attained unto upon the Improvement of those -Rudiments in the Latin, Greek and Hebrew Tongues._ Reprinted, London, -1753, p. 38. - -[879] _Diary_, July 6, 1679. - -[880] _Ibid._, Jan. 27, 1688. - -[881] For this purpose he wrote _The True and readie way to learne the -Latin Tongue, expressed in an answer to the Question whether the -ordinary way of teaching Latin by Rules of Grammar be best_, 1654. - - - - -CHAPTER V - - THE TOUR IN FRANCE - - And now methinks I see a youth advance - Ready prepared to make the tour of France. - - _Satire against the French_, 1691. - - -When, in the middle of the seventeenth century, England was torn in -twain by civil war and party quarrels, even the Puritans willingly sent -their children to be brought up in France. It was at this period that -Thomas Grantham, a severe critic of the usual method of teaching Latin -in Grammar Schools,[882] wrote this significant passage: "Let a boy of -seven or eight years of age be sent out of England into France: he shall -learn in a twelvemonth or less to write and speak the French tongue -readily, although he keep much company with English, read many English -books, and write many English letters home, and all this with pleasure -and delight." The number of English children in France at this period -was considerable.[883] At St. Malo, for instance, when proceedings were -taken against the English in the town, the chief victims were the -"English boys sent to learn French."[884] - -The memoirs of the Verney family afford a detailed picture of one of the -numerous families of royalist sympathies, cut off from English public -school and university life, and brought up in France. Sir Ralph Verney -had taken the side of Parliament in the long struggle, but in 1643 went -into voluntary exile in France rather than sign the Covenant. He -settled at Blois with his family, and procured French tutors for his -boys. Apparently he had some trouble at first, one of the tutors being -dismissed "for drinking, lying and seeking to proselytise." Finally the -education of the boys was entrusted to the Protestant pastor, M. -Testard, who received foreign pupils. The young students worked hard at -Latin and French under the minister's supervision. Testard reported of -Edmund, the elder, "Il fait merveille. . . . Je luy raconte une histoire -en francais, il me la rend extempore en Latin."[885] And one day Mme. -Testard found the young John hard at work in bed in the early morning -with two books in French and Latin. The children wrote in French to -their mother when she was absent in England making valiant and finally -successful attempts to get the sequestration taken off Sir Ralph's -estate. And when, after her death, Sir Ralph sought to divert his mind -by travelling in Italy, Edmund,[886] then aged thirteen, wrote this -letter--which shows clearly the dangers of a purely oral method: - - Plust a Dieu qu'il vous donnast la pensee de retourner a Blois. Les - jours me semblent des annees tant il m'ennuye d'ettre icy comme - dans un desert de solitude; car quoy est cequi me peut desormais - plaire dans cette ville, comment est ceque cette lumiere de la vie, - et cette respiration de l'air me peuvent-elle estre agreeables, - puisqu'y ayant perdu cequi m'estoit le plus au Monde et qu'il - m'interesse plus q'une seule personne dont je suis prive de - l'honneur de sa presence, au reste, graces a Dieu, nous nous porte - fort bien et pourcequi et de moy je vous asseure que je ne - manqueray jamais a mon devoir, c'espourquoy finissant je demeure et - demeureray aternellement, - - Votre tres humble et fidel fils, - - EDMOND VERNEY. - -Sir Ralph had also in his charge two girls, his young cousins, whom -their mother had entrusted to him: "Sweet nephew, I have after A long -debate with my selfe sent my tow gurles where I shall desier youre care -of them, that they may be tought what is fite for them as the reding of -the french tong, and to singe, and to dance and to right and to playe of -the gittar."[887] - -Sir Ralph regarded France as "the fittest place to breed up youth." -[Header: SIR RALPH VERNEY'S VIEWS] "I wish peace in France for my -children's sake," he wrote to M. Du Val, a French tutor. After bringing -up his own family there, he would have liked to send his grandchildren -to France with a sober and discreet governor, rather than to any school -in England; but his son Edmund thought the advantage of learning to -speak French fluently did not compensate for the loss of English public -school life, which he himself had never enjoyed. Sir Ralph soon became a -versatile source of information to parents desiring details of the cost -of living and education in France. He considered L200 a year a proper -allowance for an English youth to be boarded in a good French family, -and that homes in which there were children were best, on account of the -continual prattle of the young inmates. The families of French pastors -were naturally preferred; and as the pastors were in the habit of taking -French pupils also,[888] no doubt the young English boys found suitable -companions. - -The Protestant schools,[889] established wherever possible by the French -reformers in the vicinity of their churches, were also in favour with -English parents. These schools, in which the subjects usually taught -were reading, writing, arithmetic, and the catechism, were for obvious -reasons looked on with suspicion by the Government; one by one they were -dispersed, especially when the feeling against the Protestants became -more acute towards the middle of the seventeenth century. Thus the -schools of Rouen were closed in 1640; and shortly afterwards Sir Ralph -Verney wrote, in reply to an inquiry about a school, that Rouen is a -very unfit place, as no Protestant masters are allowed to keep school -there; moreover, living is dear in the town, and the accent of the -inhabitants bad. In some cases, when the schools had been closed or -converted into Jesuit establishments, the ejected schoolmasters gave -private lessons, or received a few _pensionnaires_ in their homes. Even -this was forbidden in 1683. And two years later the Revocation of the -Edict of Nantes dealt the severest blow of all. - -Regarding the Protestant Academies,[890] Sir Ralph sent the following -report to his friends in England: "There are divers Universities at -Sedan, Saumur, Geneva and other fine places, as I am told at noe -unreasonable rate, and not only Protestant schoolmasters, but whole -colleges of Protestants."[891] Many young Englishmen were sent to one or -other of these towns, either to attend lectures at the Academies, or, -more often, to study French and the "exercises" privately, in a -Protestant atmosphere. Sir Orlando Bridgman, a friend of Sir Ralph -Verney, after letting his son study with two other English boys under a -M. Cordell at Blois, intended to send him either to Saumur or Poitiers, -then to Paris, and so to the Inns of Court,[892] and Sir Thomas Cotton -sent his sons to Saumur to perfect themselves in French.[893] In the -middle of the seventeenth century, Sir Joseph Williamson, the future -statesman and diplomat of the reign of Charles II., was living at Saumur -with several young Englishmen in his care.[894] After graduating at -Oxford, he had left England in the capacity of tutor to a young man of -quality, possibly one of the sons of the Marquis of Ormonde. At Saumur, -Williamson kept a book of notes relating to the studies of his pupils -and containing the letters which he wrote to their parents in answer to -inquiries concerning their progress. He and his pupils lived _en -pension_ in a private house in the town, "with very civil company,"--"the -best way to get the language which is much desired." On the whole -Williamson's pupils do not seem to have made as rapid progress as either -he himself or their parents desired. One anxious father writes to ask -Williamson to let his son practise writing French daily; another exhorts -his son to devote himself seriously to learning French by reading good -authors and conversing. The Academies of Montauban and Sedan, though -they never attained a popularity equal to that of Saumur, were not -neglected, and attracted many foreign students. The Academy at Montauban -was moved to Puy Laurens in 1659, where it remained until its -suppression at the time of the Revocation. In 1678 Henry Savile, English -ambassador at Paris, informed his brother, Lord Halifax, that there are -only two Protestant Universities in France, at Saumur and Puy Laurens, -and that of these Saumur is beyond dispute the better.[895] [Header: -TRAVELLERS AT FRENCH UNIVERSITIES] From this we see that these two -Academies were then the best known;[896] no doubt the rest, which had -never been quite so popular, were much enfeebled by the hostile edicts -which preceded the Revocation. Lord Halifax at first intended to send -his sons to the College at Chastillon. Savile, however, stopped them -when they arrived at Paris, as he had heard that the only teaching given -at the College was reading, writing, and the catechism--the curriculum -of the Protestant schools. In the end the boys were sent with their -governor to the Academy at Geneva. On their return to England in 1681, -one of them went to complete his education at the University and the -other to the academy which was opened that year by the Frenchman M. -Foubert, who had set up as a teacher of the "exercises" in London. - -Other travellers spent some time at one of the French Universities. The -University of Paris usually counted a considerable number of English -among its students, and Clarendon tells us that those who have been -there "mingle gracefully in all companies." The Universities of -Bordeaux, Poitiers, and Montpellier were also favourite resorts. -Montpellier particularly, with its "gentle salutiferous air," attracted -those suffering from the "national complaint."[897] When Will Allestry -was there in 1668, he spent the greater part of his time learning -French, and what leisure he had he employed in studying the -Institutions.[898] Orleans, famous for the study of law, was also much -patronised. The custom of studying in French Universities, however, did -not meet with general approval in England. Sir Balthazar Gerbier -pronounced it "no less than abusing the Universities of Oxford and -Cambridge and the famous free schools of this realme to withdraw from -them the sons of Noble families and those that are lovers of vertue." -The same opinion is voiced by Samuel Penton, Master of Exeter Hall, -Oxford, who did not omit even the Protestant Academies from his -condemnation. "The strangeness of New Faces, Language, Manners and -Studies may prove perhaps uneasie, and then their great want of -discipline to confine him to Prayers, Exercises and Meals is dangerous: -all he will have to do is to keep in touch with a Lecturer, and what is -learned from him, most young Gentlemen are so civil as to leave behind -them when they return."[899] - -The governors who usually accompanied young travellers, especially those -of high birth, were not infrequently Frenchmen. We are told that it was -a rare sight to see a young English nobleman at a foreign court with a -governor of his own nation,[900] though some preferred an English -governor, and cautioned travellers against foreign tutors. Samuel Penton -warns us that if the young traveller is committed, for cheapness or -curiosity, to a foreigner instead of an English governor, "there are -some in the world who without a fee will tell you what that is like to -come to."[901] One of the English governors, J. Gailhard, who was tutor -abroad to several of the nobility and gentry, including the Earl of -Huntingdon, Lord Hastings, and Sir Thomas Grosvenor, lays down "a method -of travel" which is of special interest, as it is the one which he -followed with his own pupils.[902] His view was that, if possible, the -traveller should have some knowledge of French before setting out on his -travels. The first thing he should do on arriving at Paris is to go to -the famous Protestant temple at Charenton, and there give thanks for his -safe journey so far--whether he understand French or not. He will do -well to make but a short stay at Paris, where his progress will be -hindered by the great number of his countrymen there. The best places to -reside in are the towns along the valley of the Loire, where there are -plenty of good masters to be had. Perhaps Angers is the best. The -student is further urged to keep a diary, and talk as much as -possible--"with speaking we learn to speak." The masters for the riding -and fencing exercises, dancing and music, are to be looked upon as so -many additional language teachers. Although "of ten words he could not -speak two right, yet let him not be ashamed and discouraged at it: for -it is not to be expected he should be a Master before he hath been a -scholar." The language master should teach his pupil to read, write and -spell correctly, and to speak properly. [Header: GUIDE-BOOKS FOR -TRAVELLERS] The material for reading must be carefully chosen; romances, -such as those of Scudery, are often dangerous; it is better to use books -which give instruction in such subjects as history, morality, and -politics. Every evening there should be a repetition of what has been -learnt during the day. Gailhard also draws attention to the necessity of -respecting and observing the customs of the places visited: "Here in -England, the manner is for the master of the House to go in before a -stranger, this would pass for a great incivility in France; so here the -Lady or Mistress of the House uses to sit at the upper end of the Table, -which in France is given to Strangers. So if we be many in a company we -make no scruple to drink all out of a glass, or a Tankard, which they -are not used to do, and if a servant would offer to give them a glass -before it was washed every time they drink, they would be angry at it. -Here when a man is sneezing we say nothing to him, but there they would -look upon't as a want of civility. Again, we in England upon a journey, -use to ask one another how we do, but in France they do no such -thing--amongst them that question would answer to this, 'what aileth you -that you look so ill?'" - -The attitude of the French teachers in England towards the foreign tour -gradually changed. They no longer saw in it a rival institution, -depriving them of many of their pupils, but, on the contrary, a means of -giving the finishing touch to the results of their own efforts in -England. All strongly advise their pupils to go to France, and most of -them add directions for travel in their text-books.[903] Mauger's -dialogues include "most exact instructions for travel, very useful and -necessary for all gentlemen that intend to travel into France," and -Laine's grammar is "enriched with choice dialogues useful for persons of -quality that intend to travel into France, leading them as by the hand -to the most noted and principal places of the kingdom." - -As the tour in France increased in popularity, the directions furnished -by French teachers were supplemented by guide-books properly so called; -towards the end of the seventeenth century books such as _The Present -State of France_ and _The Description of Paris_ were to be had at every -bookseller's in London.[904] As early as 1604 Sir Robert Dallington had -written his _View of France_, in which he refers to a book called the -_French Guide_, which "undertaketh to resemble eche countrie to some -other thing, as Bretaigne to a horse-shoe, Picardy to a Neat's toung -etc., which are but idle and disproportioned comparisons." Peter Heylyn, -chaplain at the Courts of Charles I. and Charles II., was the author of -two popular books of this type: _France painted to the Life by a learned -and impartial Hand_,[905] and _A Full relation of two Journeys, the one -in the mainland of France, the other in some of the adjacent -Islands_.[906] Some of these guides are descriptions of the country, -others are relations of journeys made there; to the first category -belongs _A Description of France in its several governments by J. S. -Gent_ (1692), and to the second, _A Journey to Paris in the year 1698 by -Dr. Martin Lister_. Some include advice as to the course of study to be -followed. And as Italy was still frequently included in the tour, -travellers were sometimes supplied with information regarding that -country.[907] - -So popular did the tour in France become in the seventeenth century that -guide-books for travellers were produced on the spot. The earliest -French books of this kind had not been specially designed for the use of -foreign visitors; they were as a rule descriptions of the towns and -their geographical positions, or notices on their history and -antiquities.[908] In time, however, they assumed a character more -particularly adapted to strangers.[909] [Header: ROUTES USUALLY -FOLLOWED] One of the best known and most popular was _Le Voyage de -France, dresse pour l'instruction et commodite tant des Francais que des -etrangers_, first published in 1639. The author, C. de Varennes, gives -directions for the study of French. He thinks Oudin's Grammar the most -profitable, on account of the manner in which it deals with the chief -difficulties of foreigners, and Paris and Orleans the best towns for -study. For the rest, the help of a tutor should be enlisted, and the -student should converse as much as possible with children, and with -persons of learning and ability; he should also read widely, preferably -dialogues in familiar style and the latest novels; and write French, for -which exercise he will find much help in the _Secretaire de la Cour_ and -the _Secretaire a la mode_,[910] collections of letters and -"compliments," which, we may say incidentally, enjoyed a popularity -greatly exceeding their merit. - -The short tour in France grew in popularity as the seventeenth century -advanced, and many were content to spend the whole of their sojourn -abroad there, without undertaking the longer continental tour. Others -went to France to prepare themselves for the longer tour. Naturally the -tour in France alone engaged the attention of French teachers. We are -told that the cost of a tour of three months need not be more than L50. -"If you take a friend with you 'twill make you miss a thousand -opportunities of following your end: you go to get French, and it would -be best if you could avoid making an acquaintance with any Englishman -there. To converse with their learned men will be beside your purpose -too, if you go for so short a time: they talk the worst for conversation -and you had rather be with the ladies."[911] - -The chief routes which French masters in England advised their pupils to -take were those from Dover to Boulogne and from Rye to Dieppe, whence it -was usual to proceed through Rouen to Paris.[912] Locke, for instance, -landed at Boulogne when on his way to the South of France; thence he -made his way to Paris, chiefly on foot.[913] "If Paris be heaven (for -the French with their usual justice, extol it above all things on -earth)," he writes after a night spent at Poy, "Poy certainly is -purgatory on the way to it." His impressions of Tilliard were more -favourable: "Good mutton, and a good supper, clean linen of the country, -and a pretty girl to lay it (who was an angel compared with the fiends -of Poy) made us some amends for the past night's suffering." It was on -the same route to Paris that the Norman Claude du Val, afterwards -notorious on the English highways, first came into contact with the -English as he was journeying to Paris to try his fortune there. At Rouen -he met a band of young Englishmen on their way to Paris with their -governors, to learn the exercises and to "fit themselves to go a-wooing -at their return home; who were infinitely ambitious of his company, not -doubting but in those two days' travel (from Rouen to Paris) they should -pump many considerable things out of him, both as to the language and -customs of France: and upon that account they did willingly defray his -charges." When the young Englishmen arrived at Paris and settled in the -usual quarter, the Faubourg St. Germain, Du Val attached himself to -their service, and betook himself to England on the Restoration, which -drained Paris of many of its English inhabitants.[914] - -Many travellers, however, agreed with the French teachers that Paris was -not a suitable place for serious study of French, both on account of the -many distractions it offered and of the great number of English people -resident there. It therefore became customary with the more -serious-minded to retire for a time to some quiet provincial town where -the accent was good. The French teacher Wodroeph tells us as much: -"Mais, Monsieur, je vois bien que vous estes estranger et vous allez a -la cour a Paris pour y apprendre nostre langue francoise. Mais mieux il -vous vaut d'aller a Orleans plustost que d'y aller pour hanter la cour -et baiser les Dames et Damoiselles. . . . Parquoy je vous conseille -mieux vous en esloigner et d'aller a Orleans la ou vous apprendrez la -vraye methode de la langue vulgaire."[915] The towns in the valley of -the Loire were favourite resorts for purposes of study.[916] Orleans, -Blois, and Saumur seem to have been the most popular. [Header: LOIRE -TOWNS FAVOURED] For instance, James Howell, after spending some time in -Paris, where he lodged near the Bastille--"the part furthest off from -the quarters where the English resort," for he wished "to go on to get a -little language"[917] as soon as he could--went to Orleans to study -French; he describes it as "the most charming town on the Loire, and the -best to learn the language in the purity." The town was never without a -great abundance of strangers.[918] The fame of Blois and its teachers -was widespread; and Bourges, Tours, Angers, and Caen were noted for the -purity of their French. Saumur and other towns in which the Protestants -were powerful were also much frequented. John Malpet, afterwards -Principal of Gloucester Hall, Oxford, spent two years in France with his -pupil, Lord Falkland, visiting Orleans, Blois, and Saumur.[919] John -Evelyn visited Paris, Blois, Orleans, and Lyons, and finally settled at -Tours, where he engaged a French master and studied the language -diligently for nineteen weeks. - -While studying in one or other of these towns, English travellers -usually lodged in hotels, _auberges_, or _pensions_,[920] and sometimes -with French families. One of their chief difficulties appears to have -been to avoid their fellow-countrymen in such places. Gabriel Du Gres -suggests that when English students are thus thrown together they should -come to an agreement that any one who spoke his native tongue should pay -a fine. A further though less serious impediment was the speaking of -Latin, still considered necessary to the traveller by scholars such as -John Brinsley.[921] For this reason travellers "for language" are -advised to frequent the company of women and children, and "polite" -society, rather than that of scholars. It is a great inconvenience, -observes Du Gres, if your landlord can speak Latin. The majority of -travellers, however, do not appear to have experienced any embarrassment -in this respect; on the contrary, those with little previous knowledge -of French found their Latin of use in their first French lessons if they -studied the language "grammatically" with a master. French teachers in -England usually recommended suitable _pensions_ to their students. -Gabriel Du Gres, for instance, gives a list of such lodgings at Saumur, -his native town; Mauger, of those of Blois, Orleans, and other towns in -the Loire valley.[922] In like manner they addressed their pupils to -recommendable academies for instruction in the polite accomplishments -and military exercises. However, for the most part they advised their -pupils to go to private masters, who would attend to their French as -well as the "exercises." The house of M. Doux, who had a riding school -at Blois, was considered a particularly appropriate residence for those -desiring to learn French, on account of his daughters, who spoke -"wondrously well," as was also that of a certain M. Dechausse, who kept -an academy for teaching young gentlemen to ride. - -What is more, French teachers in England, no longer regarding their -fellow-workers in France as rivals but rather as collaborators, as we -have seen, not infrequently entertained friendly relations with them, -and even went so far as to direct pupils to them. Claude Mauger, for -instance, sent as many of his pupils as possible to M. Gaudrey at Paris, -the author of verses in praise of Mauger's _Tableau du Jugement -Universel_. This change of attitude is probably explained by the fact -that in the seventeenth century French was studied more seriously in -England than in the sixteenth century; and students on their arrival in -France had often had preliminary instruction under the care of a French -tutor in England; Clarendon significantly states that in France "we -quickly _renew_ the acquaintance we have had with the language by the -practice and custom of speaking it." Students going abroad for purposes -of study are therefore addressed to M. Nicolas, an excellent master at -Paris, M. le Fevre, an _avocat en parlement_ at Orleans, and others. We -are also informed that _abbes_ were fond of teaching their language to -strangers, especially the English.[923] Moreover, several French -teachers in England had previously exercised their profession in France. -The most popular of all, Claude Mauger, had spent seven years teaching -French at Blois. [Header: FRENCH GRAMMARS FOR TRAVELLERS] Many years -later, when he had made his reputation as a successful teacher of -French in London, he went for a time to Paris, where he settled in the -Faubourg St. Germain, and was busily occupied in teaching French to -travellers, among others to the Earl of Salisbury. He also tells us that -his books were very popular in France, and used by the great majority of -English students there. - -Several of the French teachers in France wrote books for the use of -their pupils. Mauger himself quotes the authority of "all French -Grammarians that are Professors in France for the teaching of travellers -the language." Yet in the seventeenth century, when the French language -became one of the chief preoccupations of polite society as well as of -scholars, many grammars paid no attention to teaching the language to -foreigners. There were, however, several well-known teachers of -languages at Paris who wrote grammars specially for their use. Alcide de -St. Maurice, the author of the _Guide fidelle des estrangers dans le -voyage de France_ (1672), composed a grammar called _Remarques sur les -principales difficultez de la langue francoise_ (1674), which has little -value, and is compiled chiefly from Vaugelas and Menage. His chief aim -was to overcome the usual difficulties--pronunciation and orthography. -Several years previously he had written a collection of short stories -inspired by the _Decameron_. The _Fleurs, Fleurettes et passetemps ou -les divers caracteres de l'amour honneste_, as he called them, were -published at Paris in 1666, and were no doubt intended as reading matter -for his pupils. - -A work called the _Nova Grammatica Gallica_, written in Latin and French -for the use of foreigners, appeared at Paris in 1678. It is mainly -compiled from Chiflet and other French grammarians. A certain M. -Mauconduy was responsible for the grammar, which was on much the same -lines as that of Maupas. The French theologian M. de Saint-Amour, of the -Sorbonne, addressed several foreigners to Mauconduy, who issued for -their use daily _feuillets volants_, containing remarks on the language. -His pupils made rapid progress, and usually knew French fairly well in -three months, we are told. - -Another of these teachers, Denys Vairasse d'Allais,[924] lived, like -Mauger, in the Faubourg St. Germain, and like him taught English as well -as French. He had spent some time in England in his youth, and perhaps -taught French there. He also corresponded with Pepys, the famous -diarist. Vairasse had a particular affection for his English pupils, -and they appear to have been in the majority. He was a strong advocate -of the study of grammar, and condemned attempts to learn French "by -imitation" alone. His _Grammaire Methodique contenant en abrege les -principes de cet art et les regles les plus necessaires de la langue -francoise dans un ordre claire et naturelle_ appeared at Paris in -1682.[925] In it he criticizes severely all the French grammars for the -use of strangers produced either in France or in foreign countries. -Shortly afterwards the grammar was abridged and translated into English -as _A Short and Methodical Introduction to the French Tongue composed -for the particular benefit of the English_, printed at Paris in 1683. -This French grammar published in English at Paris is a striking -testimony to the importance of the English as students of French. - -Rene Milleran, like Vairasse d'Allais, taught English as well as French. -He was a native of Saumur, but spent most of his life at Paris teaching -languages, and for a time acted as interpreter to the king. He composed -for the use of his pupils a French grammar entitled _La Nouvelle -Grammaire Francoise, avec le Latin a cote des exemples devisee en deux -parties_ (Marseilles, 1692), which is no doubt a first edition of his -_Les deux Gramaires Fransaizes_ (Marseilles, 1694), in which he expounds -his new system of orthography. His collection of letters, _Lettres -Familieres Galantes et autres sur toutes sortes de sujets, avec leurs -responses_, of which the third edition appeared in 1700, enjoyed a great -popularity, like most similar collections at this time: successive -editions appeared right into the eighteenth century. This, he says, was -the first work which won for him the favour of so many foreign noblemen. -His method was to give the students copies of the letters in either -Latin or their own language, and to let them translate them into French. -He announced an edition of the letters with English, German, and Latin -translations for the use of his pupils, but it does not appear to have -been published. Like most writers connected with the Court, Milleran -calls attention to the purity of his style, and announces that no other -books give such exact rules for the language of the Court. A special -feature of his work was the selection of letters by members of the -French Academy. [Header: HOWELL'S ADVICE TO TRAVELLERS] Nor was the -more familiar side neglected: there are numerous letters to and from -students of French, reporting on their progress in the language, with -mutual congratulations on improvement in style, etc. It is said of -Milleran's compositions that their chief merit is their scarcity, and -few will agree with De Liniere, the satirist and enemy of Boileau, who -wrote in praise of Milleran: - - Cet homme en sa Grammaire etale - Autant de scavoir que Varron, - Et dans ses Lettres il egale - Balzac, Voiture et Ciceron. - -Not a few English travellers dispensed with the services of a tutor in -France. Among these was James Howell, who studied French at Paris, -Orleans, and Poissy, where he endangered his health by too close -application; he acted for a time as travelling tutor to the son of Baron -Altham. He put his knowledge of French to the test by translating his -own first literary production, _Dodona's Grove_. This, he says, he -submitted to the new _Academie des beaux esprits_, founded by Richelieu, -which gave it a public expression of approbation.[926] The translation -was printed at Paris in 1641 under the title of _Dendrologie ou la Foret -de Dodone_. Howell left instructions for travellers, based on his own -experience of study abroad, and typical of the theories current at the -time. He advises[927] the student who has settled in some quiet town to -choose a room looking on to the street, "to take in the common cry and -language"; to keep a diary during the day, and in the evening to write -an essay from this material, "for the penne maketh the deepest furrowes, -and doth fertilize and enrich the memory more than anything else." He -should avoid the company of his countrymen, "the greatest bane of -English Gentlemen abroad," and frequent cafes and ordinaries,[928] and -engage a French page-boy "to parley and chide withal, whereof he shall -have occasion enough."[929] Howell strongly felt the necessity of -travelling in France at an early age in order to gain a good -pronunciation, "hardly overcome by one who has past the minority ... -the French tongue by reason of the huge difference betwixt their writing -and speaking will put one often into fits of despair and passion." He -draws a grotesque picture of "some of the riper plants" who "overact -themselves, for while they labour to _trencher le mot_, to cut the word -as they say, and speake like naturall Frenchmen, and to get the true -genuine tone ... they fall a lisping and mincing, and so distort and -strain their mouths and voyce so that they render themselves fantastique -and ridiculous: let it be sufficient for one of riper years to speak -French intelligibly, roundly, and congruously, without such forced -affectation." It is equally important to avoid bashfulness in speaking: -"whatsoever it is, let it come forth confidently whether true or false -sintaxis; for a bold vivacious spirit hath a very great advantage in -attaining the French, or indeed any other language." - -The student will also do well to repair sometimes "to the Courts of -pleading and to the Publique Schools. For in France they presently fall -from the Latine to dispute in the vulgar tongue." He should also combine -the study of grammar--that of Maupas is the best--with his practical -exercises, and begin a course of reading, making notes as he goes on. -The most suitable books are those dealing with the history of France, -such as Serres and D'Aubigne. Much judgment is needed in the choice of -books on other subjects, "especially when there is such a confusion of -them as in France, which, as Africk, produceth always something new, for -I never knew week pass in Paris, but it brought forth some new kinds of -authors: but let him take heed of tumultuary and disjointed Authors, as -well as of the frivolous and pedantique." However, "there be some French -poets will affoord excellent entertainment specially Du Bartas, and -'twere not amisse to give a slight salute to Ronsard and Desportes, and -the late Theophile.[930] And touching poets, they must be used like -flowers, some must only be smelt into, but some are good to be thrown -into a limbique to be Distilled." - -The student is likewise admonished to make a collection of French -proverbs, and translate from English into French--the most difficult -task in learning the language, "for to translate another tongue into -English is not hard or profitable." [Header: USUAL COURSE] Finally, "for -Sundayes and Holydayes, there bee many Treasuries of Devotion in the -French Tongue, full of patheticall ejaculations, and Heavenly raptures, -and his closet must not be without some of these.... Peter du Moulin -hath many fine pieces to this purpose, du Plessis, Allencour and others. -And let him be conversant with such bookes only on Sundayes and not -mingle humane studies with them. His closet must be his Rendez-vous -whensoever hee is surprized with any fit of perverseness, as thoughts of -Country or Kindred will often affect one." - -Having acquired some knowledge of French in this retirement, "hee may -then adventure upon Paris, and the Court, and visit Ambassadours," and -go in the train of some young nobleman. In addition he should enter into -the life of the town, read the weekly gazettes and newspapers, "and it -were not amisse for him to spend some time in the New Academy, erected -lately by the French Cardinall Richelieu, where all the sciences are -read in the French tongue which is done of purpose to refine and enrich -the Language." He may also frequent one of the divers Academies in -Paris, for private gentlemen and cadets. - -It was also customary to make either the _Grand_ or the _Petit Tour_ of -France, after the period of studious retirement. The _Grand Tour_ -included Lyons, Marseilles, Toulouse, Bordeaux, and Paris; the _Petit -Tour_, Paris, Tours, and Poitiers.[931] Paris, we can guess, was the -chief attraction to most young Englishmen of family and fortune. Dryden -thus describes the education of a young gentleman of fashion:[932] "Your -father sent you into France at twelve years old, bred you up at Paris, -first at a college and then at an Academy." Much importance was attached -to a course of study at the University there, and many recognized the -advantages gained therefrom. But on the other hand there were not a few -complaints of the dangers of lack of discipline and the company of -dissolute scholars, and still more, of the neglect of all serious study. -Clarendon[933] assures us that many English travellers never saw the -University nor knew in what part of Paris it stood; but "dedicate all -that precious season only to Dancing and other exercises, which is -horribly to misspend it"; with the result that when such a traveller -returns to England, all his learning consists in wearing his clothes -well, and he has at least one French fellow to wait upon him and comb -his periwig. He is a "most accomplish'd Harlequin:"[934] - - Drest in a tawdrey suit, at Paris made, - For which he more than twice the value paid. - French his attendants, French alone his mouth - Can speak, his native language is uncouth. - If to the ladies he doth make advance, - His very looks must have the air of France. - -Such being the case, Admiral Penn thought well to send his son William -to France[935] in the hope that the brilliant life there would make him -forget the Quaker sympathies formed at Oxford.[936] The plan succeeded -for the time being; Penn returned "a most modish person, a fine -Gentleman, with all the latest French fashions," and Pepys[937] reports -that he perceived "something of learning he hath got, but a great deale, -if not too much of the vanity of the French garbe and affected manner of -speech and gait. I fear all real profit he hath made of his travel will -signify little." - -No doubt many "raw young travellers" did "waste their time abroad in -gallantry, ignorant for the most part of foreign languages, and no -recommendation to their own country."[938] Costeker in _The Compleat -Education of a Young Nobleman_ pictures what the young traveller abroad -often is, and what he might be. To begin with, "the utmost of his -thoughts and ideas are confined to the more fashionable part of dress." -Then, "according to custom, our Beau is designed to Travel; the Tour -proposed is to France, Italy and Spain. Were I to act the part of an -impartial Inquisitor I would ask for what? Why, most undoubtedly, I -might expect to be answered, to see the World again and perfect his -Studies, and by that means compleat the fine Gentleman. Thus equiped -with a fine Estate, little Learning, and less Sense, and intirely -ignorant of all Languages but his own, he launches into a foreign -Nation, without the least knowledge of his own, where the sharpers will -find him out, discover his Intellects, and make the most of him; they -besiege him with fulsome Adulation, against which his feminine refined -Understanding is too weak to resist. [Header: SIR JOHN RERESBY IN -FRANCE] I will not dwell long upon the subject of his stay there, -supposing he has made his Tour, and seen all the most remarkable and -wondrous curiosities of those Nations, he returns a little better than -he went, except for smattering a little of the tongues, and can give us -but as bad and imperfect an Account of their nation as he was capable of -giving them of ours; all the Advantage he brings from thence is their -Modes and Vices ... the incommoding a French Peruke unmans the Bow at -once."[939] And next to himself he "loves best anyone who will call him -a _Bel Esprit_." How different a picture from that of the traveller -which is painted as a model to young Englishmen: at the age of twenty he -goes abroad for two years, after having acquired a true knowledge of his -own nation and made himself master of French and Latin. He is capable of -learning more in a month than another ignorant of languages can in -twelve. "I am confident were all our young Noblemen educated in this -manner the French Court would no longer bee esteem'd the Residence of -Politeness and Belles Lettres but must then yield to the British one in -many degrees, by reason our young Gentlemen would not only be perfect -Masters in their exterior but intellectual Perfections, and England will -then be fam'd for the Excellency of Manners and Politeness as it is now -for the incomparable Beauty of the Ladies."[940] - -Sir John Reresby's account of how he spent his time abroad may be given -as a fairly typical example.[941] He went to France, in company with Mr. -Leech, his governor, in 1654. They travelled from Rye to Dieppe, and -thence to Paris, passing through Rouen. Their stay at Paris was very -short, as Reresby found the great resort of his countrymen there a great -"prevention" to learning the language. "I stayed no longer in Paris," he -tells us, "than to get my clothes, and to receive my bills of exchange, -and so went to live in a pension or boarding house at Blois.... I -employed my time here in learning the language, the guitar and dancing, -till July, and then, there having been some likelihood of a quarrel -between me and a Dutch gentleman in the same house, my governour -prevailed with me to go and live at Saumur[942].... At Saumur in -addition to the exercises I learnt at Blois, I learned to fence, and to -play of the lute. Besides that I studied philosophy and the -mathematicks, with my governor, who read lectures of each to me every -other day. After eight months' stay I had got so much of the language to -be able to converse with some ladies of the town, especially the -daughters of one M. du Plessis.... In the month of April I began to make -the little tour or circuit of France, and returned to Saumur after some -six weeks' absence. In July, I went (desirous to avoid much English -company resident at Saumur) to Le Mans, the capital town of Mayence, -with the two Mr. Leeches and one Mr. Butler. We lodged, and were in -pension at the parson's or minister's house; there were there no -strangers. There were several French persons of quality that lived there -at that time, as the Marquis de Cogne's widow, the Marquis de Verdun, -and several others, who made us partakers of the pastimes and diversions -of the place. All that winter few weeks did pass, that there were not -balls three times at the least, and we had the freer access by reason -that the women were more numerous than the men. I stayed there till -April 1656, and then returned to Saumur with my Governor alone." After -staying there for some time, Reresby dismissed his governor and made a -tour in Italy. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[882] _Discourse in derision of the Teaching in Free Schools_, 1644. - -[883] One John Gifford, for instance, obtained permission to spend seven -years in France in order to educate his family there (_Cal. State -Papers, Dom., 1623-25_, p. 282). Mr. Storey sent his grandson Starky to -France to learn the language (_ibid., 1649-50_, p. 535). - -[884] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1654_, p. 427. Care was taken to prevent -English students abroad from going to Roman Catholics; in 1661 Francis -Cottington made a successful application for the remission of a -forfeiture he incurred by going to Paris without a licence and living -three months in the house of a Papist (_Cal. State Papers, Dom., -1661-62_, p. 566). - -[885] _Memoirs of the Verney Family_, i. pp. 477, 497. - -[886] Among the books he read were Monluc's _Commentaires_, the -_Secretaire a la mode_, and the _Secretaire de la cour_ (_Memoirs of the -Verney Family_, iii. p. 80). - -[887] _Memoirs_, iii. p. 66. - -[888] An Edict of 1683 restricted the number of such pupils allowed to -French pastors to two. - -[889] An account of the schools of the French Protestants is given by M. -Nicolas in the _Bulletin de l'Histoire du Protestantisme francais_, vol. -iv. pp. 497 _et seq._ - -[890] Cp. pp. 233 _sqq._, _supra_. The names of many famous families are -found in the registers of Geneva University--the Pembrokes, Montagus, -Cavendishes, Cecils, etc. Borgeaud, _L'Academie de Geneve_, p. 442. - -[891] _Memoirs_, i. p. 358. - -[892] _Verney Memoirs_, vol. i. p. 358. - -[893] _Cal. of State Papers, Dom., 1661-62_, p. 283. - -[894] _Ibid., 1656-56_, pp. 182, 188, 281, 288, 316. - -[895] _Savile Correspondence_, Camden Society, 1858, pp. 80, 71 _sqq._, -228. - -[896] When the Academy of Saumur was suppressed in 1684, the town lost -about two-thirds of its inhabitants. - -[897] Locke was one of those who went to the South of France "carrying a -cough with him"; cp. his Journal in King, _Life of Locke ... with -Extracts from his ... Journal_, 1830, i. pp. 86 _sqq._, Nov. 1675-March -1679. - -[898] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1667-68_, p. 69. - -[899] _New Instructions to the Guardian_, 1694, p. 101. - -[900] Cooper, _Annals of Cambridge_, iv. 184. - -[901] _New Instructions to the Guardian_, 1694, p. 101. - -[902] _The Compleat Gentleman or Directions for the Education of Youth -as to their breeding at home and Travelling Abroad_, 1687, pp. 33 _sqq._ - -[903] Eliote seems to have been the first to have described the Grand -Tour--in his grammar, _Ortho-Epia Gallica_ (1593). Sherwood followed his -example in 1625. After the middle of the century such dialogues assume a -more educational and guide-like and less descriptive form. - -[904] Lister, _A Journey to Paris in the year 1698_, p. 2. Lister had -previously visited France in about 1668. In 1698 he visited the aged -Mlle. de Scudery and the Daciers, and frequented the French theatres. - -[905] Second edition, 1657. - -[906] London, 1656. Another edition appeared in 1673, entitled _The -Voyage of France, or a compleat Journey through France_. - -[907] As in _A Tour in France and Italy made by an English Gentleman_ -(J. Clenchy), 1675 and 1676, reprinted in _A Collection of Voyages_, -1745, vol. i.; and _Remarks on the Grand Tour of France and Italy lately -performed by a person of quality_ (W. Bromley), 1692 and 1693 (when it -was entitled _Remarks made in Travels through France and Italy with many -public inscriptions. Lately undertaken by a Person of Quality_). Cp. pp. -220 _sqq._, supra. - -[908] For instance: _Le Guide des chemins pour aller et venir par tous -les pays et contrees du Royaume de France . . . par C. Estienne_, Paris, -1552, 1553; Lyons, 1556. _Les Antiquitez et Recherches des Villes, -chasteaux, et places plus remarquables de toute la France_, 6e ed., -1631. L. Coulon, _Le fidele conducteur pour le voyage de France montrant -exactement les Routes et choses remarquables qui se trouvent en chaque -ville, et les distances d'icelles avec un denombrement des Batailles qui -s'y sont donnees_, Paris, 1654. - -[909] As _Le Guide Fidelle des etrangers dans le voyage de France_, -Paris, 1672 (by Aloide de St. Maurice); _Les Delices de la France ou -description des provinces et villes capitales d'icelles_, Leyde, 1685; -_Le Gentilhomme etranger voyageant en France, par le baron G.D.N._, -1699--borrowed, without acknowledgement, from _Le Guide Fidelle_ of -1672. Cp. A. Babeau, _Les Voyageurs en France depuis la Renaissance -jusqu'a la Revolution_, Paris, 1885, chapter v. - -[910] By La Serre. The former, which first appeared in 1625, went -through fifty editions. - -[911] Lockier, in Spense's _Anecdotes_, 1820, p. 75. - -[912] _Journal_, p. 89. - -[913] Riding on horseback was the more usual mode of travelling, the -horses being hired from town to town; cp. Locke's _Journal_, p. 149. -Wherever possible, travellers went from one town to another by water--as -from one of the Loire towns to another. - -[914] _The Memoirs of M. du Val ... intended as a severe reflexion on -the too great fondness of English ladies towards French valets which at -that time was a common complaint_, London, 1670, Harleian Miscellany, -iii. p. 308. - -[915] _Spared Houres of a Souldier_, 1623. - -[916] Moryson mentions Orleans as a good town; Edward Leigh, Blois and -Orleans (_Foelix Consortium_, 1663); Evelyn, Blois and Bourges; Lookier, -Orleans and Caen. - -[917] _Epistolae Ho-Elianae_, 9th ed., 1726, p. 38. - -[918] Heylyn, _Voyage of France_, 1673, p. 294. - -[919] He kept a diary in Latin (1648-50); cf. Wood, _Athenae Oxon._ -(Bliss), iii. 901. - -[920] Gailhard, _The Compleat Gentleman_, 1678. - -[921] Who, in his _Ludus Literarius_, urges boys to practise speaking -Latin "to fit them if they shall go beyond the seas, as Gentlemen who go -to travel, Factors for merchants, and the like." - -[922] He tells us that at Rouen the English usually went to an inn kept -by a certain Mr. Madde; at Dieppe, Madame Godard's house was very -popular; at Paris, the best hotel was the "Ville de Venize." At Orleans, -good lodging was found at the "Croix Blanche," kept by one M. Richard, -and at the house of M. Marishall Laisne. - -[923] J. Rutledge, _Memoire sur le caractere, et les moeurs des Francais -compares a ceux des Anglais_, 1776, p. 55. - -[924] Vairasse was born _c._ 1630, probably at Allais. - -[925] Another grammar of similar intent was that of Ruau, _La vraie -methode d'enseigner la langue francoise aux estrangers expliquee en -Latin_, Paris, 1687. - -[926] _Epistolae Ho-Elianae_, 9th ed., 1726, p. 283. - -[927] _Instructions for forreine travel_, 1642, ed. Arber, 1869, pp. 19 -_sqq._ - -[928] Bacon had many years before advised the traveller to keep a diary: -and further "let him sequester himself from the company of his -countrymen, and diet in such places where there is a good company of the -nation where he travaileth" (_Essay on Travel_). - -[929] A Huguenot boy of about sixteen was considered a suitable valet -(Laine, _French Grammar_, 1650). - -[930] _I.e._ Theophile de Viau. - -[931] St. Maurice, _Guide Fidelle_, 1672. - -[932] _Limberman or the Kind Keeper_, Act I. Sc. 1. - -[933] _On Education._ Miscellaneous Works, 1751, pp. 322-3. - -[934] _Satire against the French_, 1691. - -[935] Webb, _The Penns and Penningtons of the Seventeenth Century in -their Domestic and Religious Life_, 1867, p. 154. - -[936] Gibbon, on the contrary, was sent to the house of a pastor of -Lausanne, in the hope that he would abjure the doctrines of Roman -Catholicism, which he had affected at the same University. - -[937] _Diary_, August 26 and 27, 1664; August 30, 1664. - -[938] D. Fordyce, _Dialogues on Education_, 1745, i. p. 417. - -[939] _The Compleat Education of a Young Nobleman_, 1723, pp. 13 and 14. - -[940] Costeker, _op. cit._ pp. 50-51. - -[941] _Memoirs of Sir John Reresby, 1634-1689_, London, 1875, pp. 26 -_sqq._, and _Memoirs and Travels of Sir John Reresby_, London, 1904, p. -21. - -[942] Travelling by boat on the Loire, as was usual, and passing by -Tours. They were accompanied by a band of French men and women who, says -Reresby, tried to make the journey more pleasant by singing, and made it -less so. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - - GALLOMANIA AFTER THE RESTORATION - - -The French teachers of London at the time of the Restoration, chief -amongst whom were Claude Mauger, Paul Festeau, Pierre Laine, and -Guillaume Herbert, all urged students to travel in France as a means of -completing the knowledge of French acquired in England; yet at the same -time they naturally and in their own interests lay emphasis on the -facilities for learning the language in England, especially after the -Restoration, when, to use Mauger's words, there was a little France in -London, as well as a little England in Paris; "there being so great a -correspondence between the two Courts of England and France that we see -here continually the Lords of the latter, as they see at Paris persons -of quality of the former, besides an infinity of others going and coming -from thence." This indeed was the period in which Francomania reached -its height in England. During the Commonwealth the English Court and -many of the nobility and gentry had sojourned in France, and returned -thence imbued with admiration for everything French. This admiration was -intensified by the universal popularity of the French language and -French fashions. Gentlemen from all parts of Europe repaired to France -to learn the language and "frenchify" their manners. France was the -country to which English gentlemen resorted "to get their breeding"; and -the Chancellor Clarendon held that their manners were much improved by -the contact. On the other hand, French men and women of the same class -came to the English Court in larger numbers than ever before. Some -returned with their English friends at the Restoration. Others followed -later, for the English Court offered more attractions to -pleasure-seekers than did the French Court, now under the influence of -Madame de Maintenon. - -The indignation and dismay aroused in France by the execution of -Charles I.[943] made the welcome offered to the royalist emigrants all -the warmer in the first instance. We are told that Paris, and indeed all -France, was full of loyal fugitives.[944] The exiled English Court was -sheltered at the Louvre and the Palais Royal in turn.[945] The queen -arrived in her native land in 1644, and shortly afterwards came Prince -Charles, then about sixteen years old, and James, the young Duke of -York. Mlle. de Montpensier, the grand-daughter of Henry IV., remarks on -the French of the two young princes. James, she thought, spoke the -language with ease, and very well indeed, and Mademoiselle was no -lenient critic.[946] But Charles had not drawn as much profit from the -lessons received in England.[947] He found the pronunciation an almost -insuperable difficulty, stammered and hesitated, and during the early -part of his stay remained almost mute for want of words. Mademoiselle -says he could not utter one intelligible sentence in French, though he -understood all she said to him. Charles, however, soon felt the benefit -of his sojourn abroad. When he returned to France from Holland in 1648, -he had already made much progress and answered the French king readily -in French, when that monarch inquired about the horses and dogs of the -Prince of Orange. He was ready enough to talk of hunting in French, but -when the queen wished to know about the progress of his affairs, and to -talk of serious matters, he excused himself, declaring he could not -speak French.[948] He would also sit silent for long periods in Mlle. de -Montpensier's presence, and only ventured to convey his compliments to -her through Lord Jermyn, one of the chief counsellors of Charles I., who -remained in the service of the queen during her exile in France. -[Header: THE ENGLISH COURT IN FRANCE] But the princess was delighted to -see a great improvement in his speaking of the language at the time of -his return from the expedition into Scotland, and the fatal battle of -Worcester. He forgot his shyness and spoke French well, relating to her -the thrilling story of his escape, and how he was "furieusement ennuye" -in Scotland, where they think it a sin to listen to a violin. He was -also able to make the princess very pretty compliments in French, and on -these occasions, she remarks, he spoke the language particularly -well.[949] - -Charles is even said to have gone incognito to several French reformed -churches during his stay in France. The presence of Cromwell's -ambassador prevented his going to the famous church of Charenton, but he -went to others. On one occasion he listened to the sermon in the -Protestant church of La Rochelle, in company with the Duke of Ormond, -and expressed his satisfaction to one or two of the congregation to whom -he revealed his identity.[950] - -Many other Englishmen improved their French during their enforced stay -on the Continent. Most of the high officials of the Court of Charles I., -the courtiers, nobles, and gentlemen round the king, spent the greater -part of the interregnum in Paris, although some of them were disturbed -by the French understanding with Cromwell in 1656. John Evelyn[951] -enumerates most of the distinguished Englishmen he met in France,[952] -and remarks on the number of French courtiers who paid their respects to -the king (Charles II.); he himself kissed His Majesty's hand at St. -Germain's. French courtiers had free intercourse with the English at -concerts, festivals, and other entertainments.[953] They also met at the -Academies so fashionable at the time. On the 13th March 1650, for -instance, Evelyn witnessed a "triumph" in Mr. Del Campo's Academy, where -"divers of the French and English noblesse, especially my Lord of -Ossory, and Richard, sons to the Marquis of Ormond (afterwards Duke), -did their exercises on horseback in noble equipage before a world of -spectators and great persons, men and ladies." And again, on the 24th of -May, he writes, "we were invited by the Noble Academies to a running, -where were many brave horses, gallants and ladies, my Lord Stanhope -entertaining us with a collation." The king's brother, the young Duke of -Gloucester, set the example by daily attending one of these academies. -Sir John Reresby, that time-serving politician, has also left an account -of his journey in France during the Commonwealth. On his arrival at -Paris in 1654 he saw the king, the Duke of York, and Prince Rupert -playing at billiards in the Palais Royal; "but was incognito, it being -crime sufficient the waiting upon His Majesty to have caused the -sequestration of his estates."[954] Reresby was again in France in 1659, -and was well received by Henrietta Maria. Almost alone of the English -exiles, Sir Edward Hyde, the Chancellor, who found the discomforts of -the exiled Court very great, failed to become a fluent speaker of -French, chiefly because he was unable to overcome the difficulties of -the pronunciation. After the Restoration he was the one high official of -the English Court who did not speak the language with fluency. It was -not till the time of his exile in France, after his disgrace in 1668, -that he mastered the language sufficiently to read its literature; but -he still found "many inconveniences" in speaking it.[955] - -Men of letters formed a considerable section of the English colony in -France. Waller, Denham, Cowley, Davenant, Hobbes, Killigrew, Shirley, -Fanshawe, Crashaw, etc., and later Roscommon, Rochester, Buckingham, -Wycherley, Vanbrugh, and others lived in France, and some mixed freely -in French literary circles, then centring round the Hotel de -Rambouillet, and such names as those of Malherbe, Vaugelas, Corneille, -Bossuet, Scudery, La Calprenede. English literature of the Restoration -gives ample proof of their familiarity with both the language and -literature of their hosts.[956] Waller, for instance, after spending -some time at Rouen, moved to Paris, where he lived "in great splendour -and hospitality."[957] [Header: ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS IN FRANCE] -Cowley, who had followed the queen to Paris, became secretary to Lord -Jermyn, afterwards Earl of St. Albans, and deciphered the letters which -passed between the king and queen of England. The dramatist Davenant was -twice in France, where he remained several years on his second visit. -Hobbes, who for many years acted as a travelling tutor, made his mark in -the philosophic circles of Paris, and knew Mersenne, Sorbiere, and -Gassendi. He fled to Paris during the civil wars, and for a time was -engaged in teaching arithmetic to the Prince of Wales.[958] - -Among the many children sent to France for education during the Civil -War and Commonwealth were several future literary men. Both Vanbrugh and -Wycherley were brought up in this way. At the age of fifteen Wycherley -was "sent for education to the Western parts of France, either to -Saintonges or the Angoumois. His abode there was either upon the Banks -of the Charente, or very little remov'd from it. And he had there the -Happiness to be in the neighbourhood of one of the most accomplish'd -Ladies of the Court of France, Mme. de Montausier, whom Voiture has made -famous by several very ingenious letters, the most of which were writ to -her when she was a Maid, and call'd Mlle. de Rambouillet. I have heard -Mr. Wycherley say he was often admitted to the Conversation of that -lady, who us'd to call him the Little Hugenot: and that young as he was, -he was equally pleased with the Beauty of her Mind, and with the Graces -of her person."[959] - -One of the young royalists who received his education in France during -the Commonwealth so completely mastered the French language that he -gained an important place among French men of letters: the famous -Anthony Hamilton, the author of short stories in French[960]--masterpieces -in the light vein[961]--and of the well-known life of his -gallant brother-in-law, the Comte de Grammont, which gives a -vivid picture of the life at the Court of Charles II. Hamilton has -been placed second only to Voltaire as a representative of the _esprit -francais_.[962] - -At the Restoration, Hamilton returned to England with the rest of the -English emigrants, together with a considerable number of Frenchmen who -had attached themselves to the English Court. He was followed two years -later by the hero of his _Memoires_,[963] the Comte de Grammont, who -pronounced the English Court so like that of France in manners and -conversation that he could hardly realize he was in another -country.[964] French was the language freely used by the English -emigrants on their return to London, and by others in imitation of them. -"French is the most in use," wrote William Higford in the year of the -Restoration, "a most sweet tongue called the Woman's tongue, and as I -think for the address from the servant to the mistress, and from the -servant to the soveraigne, there is no sweeter nor more civil."[965] The -use of the French language was spreading all over Europe, but nowhere -was it so popular as in England: "indeed it is most alamode and best -pleases the ladies and we cannot deny but Messieurs of France are -excellent wits."[966] - -The presence of so many of these _messieurs_ in London intensified the -already strong French atmosphere. Several famous names occur in the list -of French ladies and gentlemen who took up their abode in England at -this time. Shortly before De Grammont, St. Evremond had arrived in -England, where he spent over thirty years, and died in 1703. Both played -important parts in the social life of the time. De Grammont especially -was very popular. [Header: FRENCH COURTIERS IN LONDON] He received a -warm welcome at Court, where he met many old friends and was overwhelmed -with hospitality; to make an engagement with him it was necessary to see -him a fortnight beforehand. He himself added to the Court festivities by -giving French entertainments in the Parisian style. - -At the numerous festivities held in honour of De Grammont, St. -Evremond[967] was almost invariably one of the guests. He soon became -the centre of a _coterie_, half English and half French, including his -literary companion the Dutchman Vossius, Canon of Windsor, the French -doctor Le Fevre, professor of chemistry to Charles II.,[968] and the -learned Huguenot Henri Justel, who had charge of the royal library at -St. James's. What contributed most to reconcile St. Evremond to his life -in England, however, was the arrival of Hortense Mancini, Duchesse de -Mazarin, niece of the cardinal. The French ambassador Courtin said -England was the refuge of French wives who had quarrelled with their -husbands, and the Duchesse was one of these.[969] In her _salon_ St. -Evremond met the most distinguished Englishmen and foreign ministers of -the day. He saw her daily, and she inspired much of his best work. -There, too, met French Catholics, Huguenots, and Englishmen, free from -all religious prejudice, and talked of the subjects which interested -them most. Another of Mazarin's nieces, the Duchesse de Bouillon,[970] -was also in London for a time, and received in her _salon_ Waller, St. -Evremond, and others; at one time there was a possibility of La Fontaine -joining her circle. La Fontaine seems to have felt some interest in -England and the English, who, he says, - - pensent profondement; - Leur esprit, en cela, suit leur temperament, - Creusant dans les sujets, et forts d'experiences, - Ils etendent partout l'empire des sciences. - -To Mrs. Harvey, sister of Lord Montagu and friend of the Duchess of -Mazarin, he dedicated his fable _Le Renard Anglais_. - -Both St. Evremond and the Duchess of Mazarin ended their days in -England.[971] St. Evremond enjoyed the favour of three English kings. -Charles II. gave him a pension, and when William III. dined with one of -his courtiers, he is said to have always stipulated that the French -writer should be of the party, as he took great delight in his -conversation. Though St. Evremond received permission in 1689 to return -to his native land, he did not avail himself of the offer, preferring to -remain in the midst of his English friends, who were accustomed to his -ways and manners and his peculiarities.[972] But during the whole of his -thirty years' stay in England he made no attempt to speak English. -French was the language in which he and the rest of his countrymen -carried on their daily intercourse with their hosts. - -Pepys also refers frequently to the Frenchmen he met in London.[973] On -one occasion at the Cockpit his attention was diverted from the stage by -a group of loquacious Frenchmen in a box, who, not understanding -English, were amusing themselves by asking a pretty lady, who knew both -languages, what the actors said. "Lord! what sport they made!" says -Pepys. On another occasion at Whitehall he met a very communicative -Frenchman with one eye, who shared a coach with him, and told him the -history of his own life "without asking." - -Covent Garden, we are told, was the favourite resort of the French -residents, "nearer the Court, than the Exchange."[974] Their presence, -however, was not confined to Court circles; for the French were -beginning to take an interest in England and to visit the country,[975] -although, as yet, their curiosity had not extended to the language. In a -few cases English was studied. Mauger even tells us that several of his -contemporaries learnt it in France. It is certain that some employed the -services of the French teachers of London, who were willing to teach -their newly acquired language to their countrymen; for this purpose the -practice of attaching English grammars to French ones--a combination -first instituted by Mauger, who urged the French and English to avail -themselves of this opportunity of exchanging lessons--became more and -more common as the seventeenth century drew to its close. [Header: -FRENCH VALETS AND "FEMMES DE CHAMBRE"] In the meanwhile guide-books[976] -and relations of travel in England appeared. The writer of one of these, -M. Payen,[977] remarks on the great number of strangers, especially -Frenchmen, in London.[978] At the time of the Restoration, however, the -chief significance of their presence lies in the need they created for -the English to speak French. - -The great demand for everything French, including the language, offered -an opening for many Frenchmen in London; for all the men and women of -fashion were not in the position of De Grammont, who sent his valet, -Thermes, to France every week to bring back the latest fashions from -Paris. "Nothing will go down with the town now," writes a contemporary -author, "but French fashions, French dancing, French songs, French -servants, French wines, French kickshaws, and now and then French sawce -come in among them, and so no doubt but French doctors may be in esteem -too."[979] In almost every book written at the time there is some -reference to the mania for French fashions. And some time later the Abbe -Le Blanc relates how, on one occasion in England, a self-satisfied -Englishman taunted him thus: "Il faut que votre pays soit bien pauvre, -puisque tant de gens sont obliges de le quitter pour chercher a vivre en -celui-ci. C'est vous qui nous fournissez de Maitres a danser, de -Perruquiers, de Tailleurs, et de Valets de chambre: et nous vous devons -cette justice, pour la Frisure ou pour le Menuet, les Francois -l'emportent sur toutes les autres Nations. Je ne comprens pas comment on -aime si fort la Danse dans un Pays ou l'on a si peu sujet de rire. -N'est-il pas triste, par exemple, de ne cultiver vos Vignes que pour -nous?"[980] - -Regarding the French _valets_ and _femmes de chambre_ in London, the -Abbe writes: "Il n'est pas etonnant que l'on trouve en Angleterre tant -de Domestiques Francois. A Londres on se plait a parler notre Langue, on -copie nos usages, on imite nos moeurs: ils entretiennent du moins dans -nos manieres ceux qui les aiment: et les Anglois les payent a -proportion de l'utilite qu'ils en retirent."[981] We are told that the -French lackey was "as mischievous all the year as a London apprentice on -Shrove Tuesday";[982] yet he was indispensable: - - His Lordship's Valet must be bred in France, - Or else he is a clown without Pretence: - The English Blockheads are in dress so coarse, - They're fit for nothing but to rub a horse. - Her Ladyship's ill manner'd or ill bred, - Whose Woman Confident or Chamber Maid, - Did not in France suck in her first breath'd Air, - Or did not gain her education there.[983] - -French cooks were also in great demand, and it was a point of gentility -to dine at one of the French ordinaries. Thus Briske, in Shadwell's -_Humourists_, is condemned as "a fellow that never wore a noble or -polite garniture, or a white periwig, one that has not a bit of interest -at Chatelin's, or ever ate a good fricacy, sup, or ragoust in his life"; -for now, "like the French we dress, like Frenchmen eat." "Substantial -beef" is "boil'd in vain," and "our boards are profaned with -fricassee":[984] - - Our cooks in dressing have no skill at all, - French cooks are only of the modish stamp. - -Pepys did not care for the new French restaurants. At the most popular, -Chatelin's,[985] he says, they serve a "damned base dinner at the charge -of 8s. 6d." He preferred the old English ordinaries where English food -was given a French name. Yet he admits that at the French houses the -table is covered and the glasses clean, all in the French manner; and -when he dined with his patrons of the Admiralty, he usually was given a -"fine French dinner."[986] - -[Header: THE FRENCH TAILOR] - -As to the French dancing-master, he is a "very Paladin of France when -he comes into England once, where he has the Regimen of the Ladies leges -and is the sole Pedagoge of their feet, teaching them the French -Language, as well as the French Pace."[987] French music was also the -vogue. We are told that during the reign of Charles II. "all musick -affected by the beau mond ran in the ffrench way."[988] John Bannester, -the first violin to the king, is said to have lost his post[989] for -having upheld, within the hearing of His Majesty, that the English -musicians were superior to the French. Soon after the Restoration, -Charles on one occasion gave great umbrage to the English musicians by -making them stop their performance and bidding the French music play -instead. - -In the same way the French tailor is "the King of Fashions and Emperor -of the Mode, not onely in France, but most of its Neighboring Nations, -and his Laws are received where the King of France's will not -pass";[990] and thus the French - - Now give us laws for pantalons, - The length of breeches and the gathers, - Port-cannons, periwigs and feathers.[991] - -There was a French peddling woman at Court, Mlle. Le Boord, who "us'd to -bring peticoates, and fanns and baubles out of France to the -Ladys,"[992] and whose opinion had great weight. De Grammont won the -favour of the English ladies by having French trinkets sent them from -France. "Let the fashion be French, 'tis no matter what the cloth -be."[993] Travellers from France were beset with questions as to the -latest mode. Some devotees were said to receive weekly letters from -France providing information on this subject.[994] At one moment -Charles protested against the rage for French fashions by adopting a -simple garment after the Persian style, which was first worn at Court on -the 18th October 1666. Divers gentlemen went so far as to wager that His -Majesty would not persist in this change; and when Louis XIV. retorted -by ordering his pages to be attired in the same Persian garb, Charles -withdrew. "It was a comely and manly attire," writes Evelyn, "too good -to hold, it being impossible for us in good earnest to leave the -Monsieurs' vanities long."[995] - -Francomania indeed was carried to extremes: - - And as some pupils have been known - In time to put their tutors down, - So ours are often found t'ave got - More tricks than ever they were taught.[996] - -We are told of an "English captain that threw up his commission because -his company would not exercise after the French Discipline."[997] Dryden -even accuses the French of influencing the course of English -politics:[998] - - The Holy League - Begot our Cov'nant; Guisards got Whig, - Whate'er our hot-brain'd sheriffs did advance, - Was like our fashions, first produced in France, - And when worn out, well scourg'd and bannish'd there. - Sent over, like their godly Beggars, here. - -A French patent was said to authorize any crime.[999] "Now what a Devil -'tis should make us so dote on these French," says Flecknoe,[1000] and -another writer adds:[1001] - - Our native speech we must forget e'er long - To learn the French that much more modish Tongue. - Their language smoother is, hath pretty Aires, - But ours is Gothick if compar'd with theirs. - The French by arts of smooth insinuation - Are now become the Darlings of the Nation. - -[Header: FRENCH SPOKEN AT COURT] - -The example was set at Court, where French was commonly in use, and -where to be able to speak it well was a necessity and proof of good -breeding. "Mark then, I makes 'em both speak French to show their -breeding," says the author Boyes of his two kings in Buckingham's -_Rehearsal_.[1002] Sir John Reresby first attracted notice at Court by -his fluent French. "It was this summer," he writes in 1661, "that the -Duke of York first took any particular notice of me. I happened to be in -discourse with the French Ambassador and some other gentlemen of his -nation, in the presence at Whitehall, and the Duke joined us, he being a -great lover of the French tongue and kind to those who spoke it. The -next night he talked with me a long while as he was at supper with the -king."[1003] And Reresby, with a keen eye for his own advancement, took -advantage of this to secure the patronage of the Duke. He also tells us -that the King, Duke, and French ambassador were very often merry and -intimate together at Louise de Kerouaille's (now Duchess of Portsmouth) -lodgings,[1004] where French alone would be used, for it was an unknown -thing for a French ambassador to speak English. There was not a -courtier[1005] who did not speak French with ease, Clarendon alone -excepted. - -The ladies of the Court were equally well versed in the language. When -De Grammont, who had made the acquaintance of most of the courtiers in -France, came to make that of the ladies, he needed no interpreter, for -all knew French--"assez pour s'expliquer et toutes entendaient le -francois assez bien pour ce qu'on avait a leur dire."[1006] Amongst them -was Miss Hamilton, Anthony's sister, who became De Grammont's -wife,[1007] and was much admired at the Court of Louis XIV. The -accomplishments of Miss Stuart may be quoted as typical of the rest: -"elle avoit de la grace, dansoit bien, parloit francois mieux que sa -langue naturelle: elle etoit polie, possedoit cet air de parure apres -lequel on court et qu'on n'attrappe gueres a moins de l'avoir pris en -France des sa jeunesse."[1008] The least gifted lady of the Court was -Miss Blake, who "n'entendoit presque point le francois." When the -Countess of Berkshire recommended one of her near relatives as one of -the queen's dressers, the fact that she had been twelve years in France, -and could speak French exceedingly well, was mentioned as her chief -qualification.[1009] The Portuguese queen[1010] was indeed out of place -in her Frenchified Court. She could not speak French, and Spanish was -her means of intercourse with Charles II. and the Duke of York, who both -spoke this language fairly well, and were able to act as interpreters -between their French mother and the young queen. Catherine's Portuguese -attire was the subject of much amusement, and her efforts to induce the -ladies of the Court to adopt it were of no avail. James II., when he was -an exile in France for the second time, told the nuns of Chaillot that -she had endeavoured to prevail on King Charles to use his influence with -them: "but the ladies dressed in the French fashions and would not hear -of any other, constantly sending artificers and dressmakers to Paris to -import the newest modes, as they do to this very day."[1011] The country -ladies caught the fashion as it was going out in London.[1012] - -In many cases the passion for all things French became a mania with the -ladies, as is frequently pictured in the drama of the time.[1013] A -Frenchified lady would have a French maid, "born and bred in France, who -could speak English but brokenly," with whom she would talk a mixture of -broken French and English; while many a one like Melantha of Dryden's -_Marriage a-la-mode_,[1014] doted on any new French word: "as fast as -any bullion comes out of France, she coins it into English, and runs -mad in new French words."[1015] [Header: THE FRENCHIFIED LADY] She -importunes those returned from the tour in France, or who have -correspondence with Parisians, to know the latest words used in Paris. -Her maid supplies her daily with a store of French words: - - _Melantha._ ... You _sot_ you, come produce your Morning's work.... - O, my Venus! 14 or 15 words to serve me a whole day! Let me die, at - this rate I cannot last till night! Come read your words.... - - _Philotis._ _Sottises._ - - _Melantha._ _Sottises, bon._ That's an excellent word to begin withal: - as for example, he or she said a thousand _sottises_ to me. Proceed. - - _Philotis._ _Figure_: as what a _Figure_ of a man is there! _Naive_ - and _Naivete_. - - _Melantha._ _Naive!_ as how? - - _Philotis._ Speaking of a thing that was naturally said: it was so - _naive_. Or such an innocent piece of simplicity: 'twas such a - _Naivete_. - -And as Melantha becomes excited with her new acquisitions, she bestows -gifts on her maid at each new word. - -A new catechism[1016] for the ladies was invented on these lines: - - --Of what Nation are you? - --English by birth: my education _a la mode de France_. - --Who confirms you? - --Mademoiselle the French Mantua maker. - -We are told that the Frenchified lady was educated in a French -boarding-school, by a French dancing master, a French singing master, -and a French waiting woman. "Before I could speak English plain," she -tells us, "I was taught to jabber French: and learnt to dance before I -could go: in short I danced French dances at 8, sang French at 10, spoke -it at 13, and before 15 could talk nothing else." - -Among the gentlemen _a la mode_, "to speak French like a magpie" was -also the fashion: - - We shortly must our native speech forget - And every man appear a French coquett. - Upon the Tongue our English sounds not well, - But--oh, monsieur, la langue francoise est belle;[1017] - -wrote a satirist of the time. And so the Francomaniacs, designated as -_beaux_ or English _monsieurs_, became the subject for satire and -ridicule. Their French was often not of a very high standard. Pepys met -one of the _monsieurs_, "full of his French," and pronounced it "not -very good." Many, no doubt, had to be content "t' adorn their English -with French scraps." - - And while they idly think t' enrich, - Adulterate their native speech: - For, though to smatter ends of Greek - Or Latin be the rhetorique - Of pedants counted and vainglorious, - To smatter French is meritorious, - And to forget their mother tongue - Or purposely to speak it wrong.[1018] - -Butler says that "'tis as ill breeding now to speak good Englis, as to -wrote good Englis,[1019] good sense or a good hand," and "not to be able -to swear a French oath, nor use the polite French word in conversation," -debarred one from polite society. The town spark or _beau garzion_ is -frequently introduced in the comedies of the time. Not being master of -his own language, he intermingles it with scraps of French that the -ladies may take him for a man of parts and a true linguist.[1020] Such -is Sir Foppington, who walks with one eye hidden under his hat, with a -toothpick in prominence, and a cane dangling at his button;[1021] and -Sir Novelty Fashion, who prefers the title of _Beau_ to that of Right -Honourable;[1022] and the _Monsieur_ of Paris of Wycherley's _Gentleman -Dancing Master_, "mightily affected with French Language and Fashions," -preferring the company of a French valet to that of an English squire, -and talking "agreeable ill Englis." Etherege's Sir Fopling Flutter[1023] -presents us with a telling picture of what was considered good breeding -and wit at the Court of Charles II. [Header: THE ENGLISH "MONSIEUR"] Sir -Fopling is "a fine undertaking French fop, arrived piping hot from -Paris," bent on imitating the people of quality in France and on -speaking a mixture of French and English. "His head stands for the most -part on one side, and his looks are more languishing than a lady's when -she lolls at stretch in her coach, or leans her head carelessly against -the side of a box in the playhouse." He judges everything according to -what is done at Paris, and English music and dancing make him shudder. -And as it was _a la mode_ to be - - Attended by a young petit garcon - Who from his cradle was an arch Fripon,[1024] - -he walks about with a train of French valets. Mr. Frenchlove of James -Howard's "English Monsieur" (1674) is likewise "a Frenchman in his -second nature, that is in his fashion, discourse and clothes"; he cannot -discover a _divertissement_ in the whole of London, but finds "some -comfort that in this vast beef-eating city, a French house may be found -to eat at." - -The French ordinaries held an important place in the daily round of the -_beau_. His toilet occupied the whole of the early part of the day. He -would then go to the French ordinary,[1025] where he boasts of his -travels to the untravelled company, and if they receive this well, plies -them with "more such stuff, as how he, simple fellow as he seems to be, -had interpreted between the French King and the Emperor." Or, if his -accomplishments will not stand this strain, "flings some fragments of -French or small parcels of Italian about the table."[1026] He may then -take the promenade or _Tour a la Mode_, where he salutes with _bon -meen_, and has a hundred _jolly rancounters_ on the way.[1027] He -usually ended his day at the play. - -And here again he would find the desired French atmosphere. Many -translations or adaptations of French plays were acted,[1028] and the -English drama of the period is so full of French words and phrases that -it is hardly intelligible to any one without a good knowledge of -French.[1029] The Frenchified Gallants and Ladies, the French Valets, -and other French characters introduced so freely into the plays, offered -ample opportunity for the use of French words.[1030] Dryden, alone, is -responsible for the introduction of more than a hundred such -words.[1031] As literature was fashionable at the time, most of the -dramatic authors were themselves gentlemen _a la mode_ with strong -French tastes. Sedley, for instance, had a great reputation in the world -of fashion. Wycherley and Vanbrugh had both been educated in France. -Etherege had probably resided many years in Paris. Cibber, who always -played the part of the fop in his own plays, went twice to France -specially to study the airs and graces of the French _petit-maitre_,--at -no better place, however, than a _table d'Auberge_, the Abbe Le Blanc -tells us:[1032] "Il faut lui pardonner ses erreurs sur ses modeles, il -n'etoit a portee d'en voir d'autres: si meme il n'a pas aussi bien imite -ceux-ci que les Anglois se le sont persuade, je n'en suis pas surpris: -il m'a avoue de bonne foi qu'il n'entend pas assez notre langue pour -suivre la conversation." It is unlikely, however, that Cibber's French -was as scanty as the _abbe_ reports. At any rate his daughter Charlotte, -afterwards Mrs. Clarke, tells us that she understood the alphabet in -French before she was able to speak English.[1033] - -The prologues and epilogues of the Restoration plays are frequently -addressed to the gallants, and often in a language which would appeal to -them; for instance, a French Marquis speaks the epilogue in Farquhar's -_Constant Couple_: - - ... Vat have you English, dat you call your own, - Vat have you of grand plaisir in dis towne, - Vidout it come from France, dat will go down? - Picquet, basset: your vin, your dress, your dance, - 'Tis all, you zee, tout a-la-mode de France. - -[Header: FRENCH PLAYS IN LONDON] - -The Francomaniacs of the time would find still more to their taste at -the French play. During nearly twenty years after the Restoration, -London was hardly ever without a company of French players. The beaux -and gallants flocked to see "a troop of frisking monsieurs," and cry -"Ben" and "keep time to the cadence of the French verses":[1034] - - Old English authors vanish and give place - To these new conquerors of the Norman race, - -wrote Dryden, protesting against the caprice of the town for the French -comedians; and he adds elsewhere:[1035] - - A brisk French troop is grown your dear delight, - Who with broad bloody bills, call you each day, - To laugh and break your buttons at their play. - -There was a great rush to the French plays, both tragedies and comedies. -Valets went hours in advance to reserve a place for their masters. There -is no need, says Dryden, to seek far for the reason of their -popularity,--they are French, and that is enough. People go to show -their breeding and try to laugh at the right moment. The English -dramatist insinuates that the comedians let in their own countrymen free -of charge that they might lead the applause, and give the cue to the -ladies. - -The English Court and its followers had evidently acquired a taste for -French plays during their sojourn abroad. Immediately after the -Restoration a French company settled in London, and the king became -their special patron and protector. In 1661 he made a grant of L300 to -Jean Channoveau to be distributed among the French comedians,[1036] and -in 1663 they obtained permission to bring from France their stage -decorations and scenery. It seems to have always been the king's -"pleasure" that "the clothes, vestments, scenes, and other ornaments -proper for and directly designed for their own use about the stage -should be imported customs free."[1037] The earliest troupe of French -actors, under Jean Channoveau, acted at the Cockpit in Drury Lane; and -there, on the 30th August 1661, Pepys took his wife to see a French -comedy. He carried away a very bad impression of the play, describing -it as "ill done, the scenes and company and everything else so nasty and -out of order and poor, that (he) was sick all the while in (his) mind to -be there." He vented his ill humour on a friend of Mrs. Pepys whom she -had met in France; and "that done, there being nothing pleasant but the -foolery of the farce, we went home." - -French comedies were also acted at Court. Evelyn, who went very little -to the theatre, witnessed one of these on the 16th December 1662, but -makes no observation on it. In the _Playhouse to be let_ of Davenant, -who directed the Duke's company playing at Dorset Gardens,[1038] figures -a Frenchman who has brought over a troupe of his countrymen to act a -farce. The French actor Bellerose is said to have made a fortune by -playing in London.[1039] Another of these actors who ventured to London -was Henri Pitel, sieur de Longchamp, who came in 1676 with his wife and -two daughters.[1040] He stayed nearly two years in England, and shone at -the Court of Charles II. Charles himself is said not to have missed one -of the French plays,[1041] at which his mistress, Louise de Kerouaille, -Duchess of Portsmouth, Mme. Mazarin, the French ambassador, and many -courtiers were always present. In 1684 the "Prince's French players" -were again expected in England,[1042] no doubt the same troupe, directed -by Pitel and known as _Les comediens de son Altesse serenissime M. le -Prince_. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[943] Expressed in the _Lettres_ of Guy Patin, and numerous pamphlets -published at the time. - -[944] Evelyn, _Diary_, Sept. 1, 1650. - -[945] In the _Journal de voyage de deux jeunes Hollandais a Paris, -1656-58_ (ed. A. P. Faugere, 2nd ed., Paris, 1899), there is some -information concerning the exiled Court. The teacher Laine mentions a -lady in the suite of the exiled queen in his _Dialogues_. - -[946] _Memoires_, 4 vols., Paris, 1859, i. pp. 102, 137, 225, etc. - -[947] _Supra_, pp. 262 _sqq._ - -[948] After the Restoration he would also try to get out of a difficult -situation on the same plea. He talked French freely to Mlle. de -Kerouaille. However, when the French Ambassador, Courtin, wished to -discuss with him the negotiations with the Dutch, he excused himself on -the ground that he had forgotten nearly all his French since his return -to England, and asked for delay to reflect on anything proposed in that -language. He offered the same excuse for his Council, but Courtin -retorted that many of them spoke French as well as English. Cp. J. J. -Jusserand, _A French Ambassador at the Court of Charles II._, London, -1892, p. 143. - -[949] "Il me disoit des douceurs, a ce que m'ont dit les gens qui nous -ecoutoient et parloit si bien francois, en tenant ces propos-la, qu'il -n'y a personne qui ne doive convenir que l'Amour etoit plutot francois -que de toute autre nation. Car, quand le roi parloit sa langue (la -langue de l'amour) il oublioit la sienne et n'en perdoit l'accent -qu'avec moi: car les autres ne l'entendirent pas si bien" (_Memoires_, -_ed. cit._ i. p. 322). - -[950] _Lettre de M. de L'Angle a un de ses amis touchant la religion du -serenissime roy d'Angleterre_, Geneva?, 1660, p. 18. - -[951] Evelyn was in France in 1643, on his way to study anatomy at -Padua, and again in 1646-7 on his return, and yet again in 1649. - -[952] Lord High Treasurer Cottington, Sir Ed. Hyde, etc.; cp. _Diary_, -Aug. 1 and 18, Sept. 7, 12, 13, Oct. 2, 7, 1649, etc. - -[953] Thus the King invited the Prince of Conde to supper at St. Cloud -... "where I saw a famous (tennis) match betwixt Mons. Saumaurs and -Colonel Cooke, and so returned to Paris." Evelyn, _Diary_, Sept. 13, -1649. - -[954] _Memoirs of Sir John Reresby of Thribergh, Bart., M.P. for York, -etc., 1634-1689_, ed. J. J. Cartwright, London, 1875, pp. 26, 42 (cp. -pp. 359 _sqq._, supra). - -[955] Sir Henry Craike, _Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon_, 1911, ii. -pp. 321 _sqq._ - -[956] W. Harvey-Jellie, _Les Sources du Theatre anglais a l'epoque de la -Restauration_, Paris, 1906, pp. 37 _sqq._ - -[957] Evelyn visited Waller several times. - -[958] Evelyn met Hobbes at Paris in September 1650. - -[959] Dennis, _Original Letters, familiar, moral and critical_, London, -1723, i. p. 215. At a later date he was again in France for reasons of -health. The king gave him L500 to pay the expenses of a journey to the -South of France. He was at Montpellier from the winter of 1678 to the -spring of 1679. - -[960] ". . . cette langue dont il savait toutes les plus delicates -ressources en grace, en malice plaisante et en ironie." Cf. Sayous, -_Histoire de la litterature francaise a l'etranger_. - -[961] "Hamilton dans le conte (says Sayous, _op. cit._) l'emporte sur -Voltaire qui eut ete le premier, si au lieu de se jeter dans les -allegories philosophiques il s'etait abandonne, comme notre Ecossais, au -plaisir plus innocent de laisser courir son imagination et sa plume." - -[962] The Scotch Chevalier de Ramsay (1686-1743), the friend of Fenelon, -also wrote French with remarkable purity. His best known work is _Les -Voyages de Cyrus avec un discours sur la mythologie_ (Paris, 1727; -London, 1730). At a later date Thomas Hales (1740?-1780), known as -d'Hele, d'Hell, or Dell, a French dramatist of English birth, also made -himself a name in French literature (Sylvain van de Weyer, _Les Anglais -qui ont ecrit en francais_, Miscellanies, Philobiblon Soc., 1854, vol. -i.). - -[963] Hamilton, _Memoires du Comte de Grammont. Histoire amoureuse de -la Cour de Charles II_, ed. B. Pifteau, Paris, 1876, Preface. Voltaire -often quoted the beginning of _Le Belier_ as a model of style. - -[964] "Il trouvoit si peu de difference aux manieres et a la -conversation de ceux qu'il voyoit le plus souvent, qu'il ne lui -paroissoit pas qu'il eut change de pais. Tout ce qui peut occuper un -homme de son humeur s'offroit partout aux divers penchans qui -l'entrainoient, come si les plaisirs de la cour de France l'eussent -quitte pour l'accompagner dans son exil" (_Memoires_, _ed. cit._ p. 83). -Grammont had been banished from the French Court on account of a -presumptuous love affair. - -[965] _Institution of a Gentleman_, London, 1660, p. 88. The book first -appeared as _Institutions, or Advice to his Grandson_, in 1658. - -[966] J. Smith, _Grammatica Quadralinguis_, 1674. - -[967] Sayous, _op. cit._ ii. ch. iv. - -[968] Evelyn once accompanied His Majesty "to M. Favre to see his -preparation for the composition of Sir Walter Raleigh's rare cordial," -when the chemist made a learned discourse in French on the nature of -each ingredient. - -[969] _Revue Historique_, xxix., Sept.-Oct. 1885, p. 25. - -[970] J. J. Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, London, 1899, pp. 132, -135, 136. Mme. d'Aulnoy, the fairy-tale writer and authoress of the -_Memoires de la cour d'Angleterre_, was also among the French ladies in -London at this time. - -[971] St. Evremond was buried at Westminster at the age of ninety-one. -The Duchess died at Chelsea in 1699. - -[972] In a letter to Justel he spoke of the Thames as "nostre Thamise." - -[973] Evelyn's Diary, likewise, is full of mentions of meetings with -Frenchmen. - -[974] Sorbiere, _Relation d'un voyage en Angleterre . . ._, Paris, 1664, -p. 32. - -[975] Cp. Ch. Bastide, _Anglais et Francais du 17e siecle_, Paris, 1912. - -[976] Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, p. 136, note 2. - -[977] _Les Voyages de M. Payen_, Paris, 1667. - -[978] Mauger calls London "une des merveilles du monde. On y vient de -tous cotez, pour admirer sa magnificence." - -[979] _The Ladies' Catechism_, 1703. - -[980] J. B. Le Blanc, _Lettres d'un Francais_, a La Haye, 1745, iii. p. -67. - -[981] _Ibid._ i. p. 145. Mrs. Pepys assisted Lady Sandwich to find a -French maid (_Diary_, Nov. 15, 1660), and was herself very desirous of -one. - -The prejudiced Rutledge writes nearly a century later: "As the lower -classes of the French are so completely qualified for Domestics, it is -not surprising that such numerous colonies of French _valets de -chambre_, cooks and footmen are planted all over Europe: and that the -nobility and fashionable people of so many countries shew an avowed -Propensity to Prefer them even to their fellow natives" (_Account of the -Character and Manners of the French_, 1770, pt. ii. p. 172). - -[982] Flecknoe, _Characters ..._ (1665), London, 1673, p. 8. "They (the -French) have gained so much influence over the English Fops that they -furnish them with their French Puppydogs for _Valets de Chambre_" -(_French Conjuror_, 1678). Addison (_Spectator_, No. 45) says he -remembers the time when some well-bred Englishwomen kept a _valet de -chambre_ "because, forsooth, they were more handy than one of their own -sex." - -[983] _Satire on the French_, 1691. Reprinted as the _Baboon a la Mode_, -1701. - -[984] _Satirical Reflections_, 1707, 3rd pt. - -[985] Cp. Wycherley, _Country Wife_, Act I. Sc. 1. - -[986] _Diary_, Oct 19, 1663; May 30, 1665; May 12, 1667; Feb. 18, March -13 and 26, 1668. - -[987] Flecknoe, _Characters_, p. 12. Pepys describes a French dance at -Court (_Diary_, Nov. 15, 1666), which was "not extraordinarily -pleasing." He much admired the dancing of the young Princess Mary, -taught by a Frenchman (_Diary_, March 2, 1669). The _maitres d'armes_ -were often Italians and Spaniards. There were protests against the -French and Italian singing and dancing "taught by the dregs of Italy and -France" (_Satirical Reflections_, 1707). - -[988] Pepys's _Diary_, ed. H. B. Wheatley, v. p. 332, note, and vi. p. -187. - -[989] A Frenchman was appointed in his place; cp. _Cal. of State Papers, -1660-61_, p. 7; _1663-64_, pp. 214, 607. Children were sent to France to -learn music. Pepys did not like the "French airs" (_Diary_, July 27, -1661; June 18, 1666). - -[990] Flecknoe, _Characters_, p. 48. French gardeners (_Cal. State -Papers, 1661-62_, pp. 175, 294) and French barbers were also in favour. -Pepys went to the French pewterer's (March 13, 1667-8). - -[991] S. Butler, _Hudibras_. - -[992] Evelyn, _Diary_, March 1671. - -[993] Vincent, _Young Gallants' Academy_, 1674. - -[994] Cp. Sedley, _Mulberry Garden_ (Sir J. Everyoung: "Which is the -most a la mode right revered spark? points or laces? girdle or shoulder -belts? What say your letters out of France?"). There is hardly a comedy -of the time without some such references to French fashions; cp. -Etherege, _Sir Fopling Flutter_; Shadwell, _Humours of the Army_, etc. - -[995] Evelyn, _Diary_, Oct. 18, 1666. Evelyn had himself written a -pamphlet called _Tyrannus or the Mode_, an invective against "our -overmuch affecting of French fashion," in which he praised the -comeliness and usefulness of the Persian style of clothing. This he had -presented to the king: "I do not impute to this discourse the change -whiche soone happen'd, but it was an identity that I could not but take -notice of" (_Diary_, Oct. 18 and 30, 1666). - -[996] Butler, _Satire on our ridiculous imitation of the French_; "A -l'etranger on prend plaisir a encherir sur toutes les Nouveautez qui -leur viennent de France. . . ." Muralt (_Lettres_, 1725). - -[997] _French Conjuror_, 1678. - -[998] _Duc de Guise_, Prologue; cp. Prologue to _Albion and Albanius_: - - "Then 'tis the mode of France without whose Rules - None must presume to set up here as fools." - -[999] French money was said to be most successful in bribes. Farquhar, -_Constant Couple_, iv. 2. - -[1000] Flecknoe, _Characters_, p. 12. - -[1001] _Satire against the French_, 1691. - -[1002] Acted 1671; Act II. Sc. 2. - -[1003] _Memoires_, _ed. cit._ pp. 51-52. - -[1004] _Ibid._ p. 143. - -[1005] Lord Rutherford, for instance, begs pardon for his English, being -more accustomed to the French tongue (_Cal. of State Papers, 1661-62_, -p. 4). - -[1006] Hamilton, _op. cit._ p. 82. - -[1007] The story goes that Grammont was leaving England without marrying -Miss Hamilton, when her brother overtook him and told him he had -forgotten something, whereat he realized his oversight and returned to -repair it. It is said that this incident supplied Moliere with the -subject of his _Mariage force_. - -[1008] Hamilton, _op. cit._ p. 82. - -[1009] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1661-62_, p. 28. - -[1010] Two grammars for teaching Portuguese greeted the new queen. One -was a _Portuguese Grammar_ in French and English by Mr. La Molliere, a -French gentleman, 1662 (_Register of the Company of Stationers_, ii. -307); and the other, J. Howell's _Grammar for the Spanish or Castilian -tongue with some special remarks on the Portuguese Dialect_, with a -description of Spain and Portugal by way of guide. It was dedicated to -the queen. - -[1011] Fragment of the Journal of the Convent of Chaillot, in the secret -archives of France, Hotel de Soubise. Quoted by Strickland in _Lives of -the Queens_, 1888, iv. p. 383. - -[1012] Cp. Sedley, _Mulberry Garden_. - -[1013] Such as Lady Lurewell of Farquhar's _Constant Couple_; Lady -Fanciful in Vanbrugh's _Provoked Wife_; Brome's _Damoiselle_ (1653); or -Mrs. Rich in _The Beau Defeated_ (1700?). - -[1014] _The Frenchified Lady never in Paris_ was the name given her by -Henry Dell in his play, based on Dryden's and printed 1757 and 1761. - -[1015] There is a book called _The Art of Affectation_ teaching ladies -to speak "in a silly soft tone of voice and use all the foolish French -words which will infallibly make your person and conversation charming" -(Etherege, _Sir Fopling Flutter_). - -[1016] _The Ladies' Catechism_, 1703? - -[1017] _Satire against the French_, 1691, p. 14. - -[1018] _Satire on our ridiculous imitation of the French_; Chalmers, -_English Poets_, viii. p. 206. - -[1019] Cp. Swift, _Poem written in a Lady's Ivory Table Book_ (1698): - - "Here you may read, - Here in beau-spelling--tru tel deth." - -[1020] _Character of the Beau_, 1696. - -[1021] Cibber, _Careless Husband_, Act I. Sc. 1. - -[1022] Cibber, _Love's last shift or the Fool in fashion_. Sedley's Sir -Charles Everyoung, Ned Estridge, and Harry Modish are all "most -accomplished monsieurs," as are Clodis in Cibber's _Love Makes a Man or -the Fop's Fortune_; Sir Harry Wildair in Farquhar's play of that name; -Lord Foppington of Vanbrugh's _Relapse or Virtue in Danger_; Bull Junior -in Dennis's _A Plot and no Plot_; Clencher, senior, the Prentice turned -Beau in Farquhar's _Constant Couple_; Mrs. Behn's _Sir Timothy Tawdry_; -Crowne's _Sir Courtly Nice_, etc. In 1697 appeared a work called _The -Compleat Beau_. - -[1023] _Sir Fopling Flutter or the Man of Mode_, 1676. Supposed to be a -portrait of the then notorious Beau Hewitt. - -[1024] _Satire against the French_, 1691. - -[1025] _Character of the Beau_, 1691. Most of the accomplished -"monsieurs" frequented the French houses (Sedley, _Mulberry Garden_). -Act II. Sc. 2 of Wycherley's _Love in a Wood_, and Act II. Sc. 2 of his -_Gentleman Dancing Master_, both take place in a French house. Cp. -_Character of the Town Gallant_, 1675. - -[1026] Vincent, _Young Gallants' Academy_, 1674, p. 44. - -[1027] Flecknoe, _Characters_, 1673. The 1665 edition of his -_Aenigmatical Characters ..._, 1665, contains a description in French of -the _Tour a la Mode_: ". . . C'est une bataille bien rangee ou l'on ne -tire que des coups d'Oeillades, et ou les premiers ayant fait leur -descharge, ilz s'en vont pour donner place aux autres" . . ., etc. (p. -21). - -[1028] Charles II. openly avowed his preference for the French drama. -Dryden wrote his _Essay of Dramatic Poesy_, "to vindicate the Honour of -our English writers from the censure of those who unjustly prefer the -French before them." Pepys saw many of the French plays acted in -English. Cp. H. McAfee, _Pepys on the Restoration Stage ..._, Yale Univ. -Press, 1916. - -[1029] A. Beljame, _Le Public et les hommes de lettres au 18e siecle_, -Paris, 1897, p. 139. - -[1030] As in Etherege's _Comical Revenge or Love in a Tub_, _Sir Fopling -Flutter_, and the plays of Cibber, Vanbrugh, Mrs. Behn, Shadwell, -Farquhar, Wycherley, etc.; _The French Conjuror_, 1678; _The Beau -Defeated_, 1700?, etc. - -[1031] A. Beljame, _Quae e Gallicis verbis in Anglicam linguam Johannes -Dryden introduxerit_, Paris, 1881. On French influence in Restoration -Drama, see Charlanne, _L'Influence francaise en Angleterre_, pp. 64 -_sqq._ - -[1032] _Lettre a M. de la Chaussee_: _Lettres_, 1745, ii. p. 240. - -[1033] _Narrative of her Life, written by Herself_, pub. in series of -Autobiographies, London, 1826, vol. vii. p. 12. Most of the writers of -the time were able to write some French. Flecknoe, for instance, wrote -some of his _Characters_ in the language, and wrote a French dedication -of his Poems (1652), "a la plus excellente de son sexe." - -[1034] Dryden, "Prologue spoken at the opening of the new house, 26 -March, 1674," _Works_, ed. Scott and Saintsbury, x. p. 320. - -[1035] "Prologue to Arviragus and Phihera by L. Carlell, revival," -_Works_, x. 405. - -[1036] Shaw, _Calendar of Treasury Books, 1660-67_, p. 311. - -[1037] _Ibid., 1672-75_, pp. 14, 24, 29, etc.; _1677-78_ (vol. v.), pp. -692, 803; _1684_ (vol. vii.), p. 1444. - -[1038] Charles had granted two privileges: one to Henry Killigrew, who -directed the King's company acting at Drury Lane, and the other to Sir -William Davenant, who directed the Duke's company. The rival companies -united in 1682. - -[1039] Chardon, _La troupe du roman comique devoilee et les comediens de -la campagne au 17e siecle_, Le Mans, 1876, p. 47. - -[1040] Chardon, _op. cit._ p. 98. - -[1041] _Revue Historique_, xxix., Sept.-Oct. 1858, p. 23. - -[1042] _Historical MSS. Commission Reports_, v. p. 186. French dancers -and singers also attracted the English from the performances of their -own actors; cp. Cibber, Epilogue to _The Careless Husband_, and -Farquhar, Preface to _The Inconstant_. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - - THE TEACHING OF FRENCH AND ITS POPULARITY AFTER THE RESTORATION - - -In the meantime French grammars were being published in England in -considerable numbers.[1043] So plentiful were they that there was -"scarce anything to be seen anywhere but French grammars." The manuals -of Mauger and Festeau were still in vogue, and that of Mauger was -frequently reedited. Among new grammarians figures the tutor to the -children of the Duke of York (James II.), Pierre de Laine, who may -possibly have been identical with the Pierre Laine who published a -grammar in 1655.[1044] His French grammar, written in the first place -for the Lady Mary (afterwards Mary II.), was published in 1667,[1045] -when the princess was about five years old. It was subsequently placed -at the service of the Lady Anne, afterwards queen, and a second edition -appeared in 1677, with the title: _The Princely Way to the French Tongue -as it was first compiled for the use of her Highness the Lady Mary and -since taught her royal sister the Lady Anne etc. by P. D. L. Tutor for -the French to both their Highnesses_.[1046] - -"Before you begin anything of Letters or rules," says Laine, "you may -Learn how to call in French these few things following. - - Ma Tete, say maw tate my Head - Mes Cheveuz, say maysheveu my Hair," - -and so on for the parts of the body, the numbers, days, and months, with -similar guides to pronunciation. He then proceeds to treat of the -sounds of letters and syllables, based on comparison with English. These -rules occupy less than a fifth of the book; the remainder contains -practical exercises. First come familiar phrases and dialogues, strongly -religious in tone, including prayers, the catechism, commandments, etc., -and conversation specially suited to royal princesses. A chronological -abridgement of the sacred scriptures by way of dialogue is followed by -rules of grammar, likewise in dialogue form. Lastly come the _Fables_ of -Aesop put into "burlesque French" for the use of her Highness the Lady -Mary when a child, and models of letters suitable for children, and -accompanied by answers. - -In later years Laine spent some time at Paris as secretary[1047] to Sir -Henry Savile, the English envoy at the French Court, who did so much to -prepare a favourable reception in England for the refugees at the time -of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.[1048] Laine was the first -teacher to receive a grant of letters of denization under the Order in -Council of the 28th July 1681.[1049] Shortly afterwards the same -privilege was bestowed on Francis Cheneau, whose _French Grammar, -enrich'd with a compendious and easie way to learne the French tongue in -a short time_, was licensed for printing in 1684.[1050] For many years -Cheneau continued to teach French, and in time added Latin, English, and -Italian to his repertory. He describes himself as a native of Paris, -"formerly slave and Governor of the Isles of Nacsia and Paros in the -Archipelago." At the time of the appearance of his second work on the -French language, in 1716, he was "living in his House in Old Fish St. -next door to the Faulcon in London," where could be seen his short -grammars for Latin, Italian, and English. - -The most versatile compiler of French manuals at this period was Guy -Miege, a native of Lausanne, who came to England at the time of the -Restoration. For two years he was employed in the household of Lord -Elgin, and was then appointed under-secretary to the Earl of Carlisle, -ambassador extraordinary to Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. After spending -three years abroad with the embassy, he travelled in France on his own -account from 1665 till 1668, preparing a _Relation of the Three -Embassies_ in which he had taken part. [Header: THE DICTIONARIES OF GUY -MIEGE] His book was published in 1669, on his return to London. He then -settled in England as a teacher of French and geography, and wrote many -works for teaching the language. The first was _A New Dictionary French -and English and English and French_ (1677), dedicated to Charles Lennox, -Duke of Richmond. As usual, this French-English Dictionary is based on a -French-Latin one--in this case that of Pomey. Miege was also closely -acquainted with Howell's edition of Cotgrave's dictionary, last -published in 1670; but he held it very defective in retaining so many -obsolete words, and in not being adapted to the "present use and modern -orthography--which indeed is highly pretended to in the last edition -thereof, but so performed that the title runs away with all the credit -of it." He looked upon Cotgrave "as a good help indeed for reading of -old French books (a thing which few people mind)." For his own part, his -design was to teach the latest Court French, and he made a point of -omitting all the provincial and obsolete words Cotgrave had searched out -so carefully, words "that offend the eyes and grate the ears, but the -Rubbish of the French Tongue." To "season the naturall dulness of the -work" he included many proverbs, descriptions, and observations in both -the English and French parts. - -Considering that "the way to understand the bottom of a language is to -learn how the derivatives are formed from their primitives and the -compounds from their simples,"[1051] he arranged all the derivatives -after their respective primitives; that nothing might be wanting, -however, he placed them in their alphabetic order also, with a reference -to the necessary primitive. - -Miege's innovation in excluding all obsolete terms from his dictionary -raised such a storm at its first appearance[1052] that he felt himself -bound to yield to public opinion by making a separate collection of such -words, which he called _A Dictionary of barbarous French or A -Collection, by way of Alphabet, of Obsolete, Provincial, misspelt, and -Made Words in French, taken out of Cotgrave's dictionary with some -additions_. It was, he said, "performed for the satisfaction of such as -read old French." By the time of its publication in 1679, however, the -storm raised by his first work had died away. - -Miege continued his lexicographical labours. In 1684 appeared _A Short -French Dictionary English and French, with another in French and -English_, a work of no ambitious aims, containing a list of words pure -and simple, with no descriptions or observations, intended for -beginners, travellers, and those who could not afford the price of the -larger one, and, above all, for foreigners reading English. The English -were too eager and advanced in the study of French to find much help in -so slight a work, but foreigners evidently adopted the dictionary; -editions appeared at the Hague in 1691, 1701 (the fifth), and -1703;[1053] another was issued at Rotterdam as late as 1728. - -For the use of English students and those desiring to study either -language more thoroughly, Miege prepared, during many years of hard -work, an enlarged edition of his first French dictionary of 1677, which, -he tells us, was compiled under great disadvantages; "the Publick was in -haste for a French Dictionary, and they had it accordingly, hurried from -the design to the composition, and from under my pen to the press." The -new work, on a much larger scale, was known as _The Great French -Dictionary, in two parts_, and published in 1688, eleven years after the -appearance of its nucleus, the _New French Dictionary_ (1677). It gives -words according to both their old and modern orthography, "by which -means the reader is fitted for any sort of French book," and, writes -Miege, "although I am not fond of obsolete and barbarous words, yet I -thought fit to intersperse the most remarkable of them, lest they should -be missed by such as read old Books." Each word is accompanied by -explanations, proverbs, phrases, "and as the first part does, here and -there, give a prospect into the constitution of the kingdom of France, -so the second does afford to foreiners what they have hitherto very much -wanted, to wit, an Insight into the Constitution of England...." In the -_Great Dictionary_ Miege abandoned his plan of arranging the derivatives -under their primitives, because it had made his former work "swarm with -uneasy references"; he followed the alphabetical order strictly, "but in -such a manner that, where a derivative is remote from its primitive, I -show its extraction within a Parenthesis." [Header: MIEGE'S FRENCH -GRAMMARS] Each of the two sections of the _Great Dictionary_ is preceded -by a grammar of the language concerned. First comes the _Grounds of the -French Tongue_, before the French-English Dictionary, and then a -_Methode abregee pour apprendre l'Anglois_. This French grammar was a -reprint of one of those which Miege had compiled while working at his -dictionaries. - -In 1684 Miege tells us that he had "put forth two French grammars, both -of them well approved by all unprejudiced persons. The one is short and -concise, fitted for all sorts of learners, but especially new beginners; -the other is a large and complete piece, giving a curious and full -account of the French Tongue. To this is annexed a copious vocabulary -and a long Train of useful Dialogues." The more advanced of these -grammars was the first to appear, being published in 1678 under the -title of _A New French Grammar, or a New Method for learning the French -Tongue_. After dealing with pronunciation, he passes to the accidence -and syntax, with special attention to his favourite theory of the -importance of a knowledge of primitives and derivatives. He is much -indebted to the grammars of Vaugelas and Chiflet, especially in his -observations on letter-writing, on repetition of words, and on style. -The second half of the book contains a vocabulary, arranged under the -usual headings, and familiar dialogues, without which he dare not offer -the work to a public "so well convinced of their Usefulness, as to the -speaking part of a Language"; therefore, "though it were something -against the grain," he included such exercises, "exceeding even Mr. -Mauger's in number." The one hundred and fifteen familiar dialogues are -followed by four more advanced ones in French alone, "for proficient -learners to turn into English." The first deals with the education of -children, and the others with geography, a subject Miege taught in -either French or English "as might be most convenient." - -The elementary grammar had been issued about 1682[1054] as _A short and -easie French Grammar fitted for all sorts of learners; according to the -present use and modern orthography of the French with some Reflections -on the ancient use thereof_. In 1682 the vocabulary and dialogues of the -earlier grammar were, each of them, issued separately, probably to -facilitate their use with this second grammar. - -In 1687 appeared the _Grounds of the French Tongue or a new French -Grammar_,[1055] which Miege incorporated in his _Great French -Dictionary_ in the following year. In general outline its contents -resemble those of the grammar which had appeared ten years before. It -is, however, an entirely new work. Most of the rules differ,[1056] and -the vocabulary and dialogues are new. He breaks away from the old -tradition of introducing the Latin declension of nouns into French -grammars.[1057] The _Grounds of the French Tongue_ is about a hundred -pages shorter than the grammar of 1678, and on the whole it is less -interesting from the point of view of the student of French. The second -part, called the _Nouvelle Nomenclature Francoise et Angloise_, which -might be obtained apart from the grammar, had originally appeared in -1685 as part of Miege's _Nouvelle methode pour apprendre -l'Anglois_.[1058] Consequently the dialogues are more suited to the -student of English than to the student of French, as they deal chiefly -with life in England and the impressions of a Frenchman in London, -including an account of the coffee-houses, the penny post, the churches, -English food and drink, and so forth. - -Lastly, in about 1698,[1059] appeared _Miege's last and best French -Grammar, or a new Method to learn French, containing the Quintessence of -all other Grammars, with such plain and easie rules as will make one -speedily perfect in that famous language_. A second edition was issued -in 1705. The work was based on his first grammar (1678), which thus -benefited by his long experience as a writer on the French language and -teacher of that tongue. - -Miege held that French was best learnt by a combination of the methods -of rote and grammar, either being insufficient without the other; as for -attempting to learn foreign languages at home by rote, "'tis properly -building in the air. [Header: BEST METHOD OF STUDY] For whatever -progress one makes that way, unless he sticks constantly to it, the -Language steals away from him, and, like a Building without a -foundation, it falls insensibly." Englishmen who learn French by ear in -France soon find the fluency of which they are so proud slipping away -from them after their return to England;[1060] and even Frenchmen who -have never studied their language grammatically begin to lose the purity -of phrase after they have been some time in England. - -Accordingly "a great care ought to be taken to pitch upon the best sort -of Grammar and to make choice of a skilful Master. Now a skilful master -must be first such a one as can speak the true modern French: A Thing -few people can boast of, besides courtiers and scholars, so nice a -language it is." Therefore the student should not waste his time, as -many do, with the common sort of teachers, who speak, for the most part, -but a corrupt and provincial French, and yet are patronized by many. In -the second place, the teacher should be a man of some learning; and in -the third, he should have "some skill in the English tongue, not that he -should use much English with his scholars,[1061] but because, without -it, 'tis impossible he can teach by the grammar, or explain the true -meaning of words." Lastly, he should himself be thoroughly acquainted -with the grammar, and be able to find out what should be learnt "by -rote, what by heart, and what passages need not at all be learnt." But, -when all is done, "there is an art in teaching not to be found amongst -all men of knowledge." - -Thus the right use of a grammar depends much on the skill and judgement -of the teacher. Miege declares against overburdening the memory with -abstruse and difficult rules. In most cases it is enough if the learner -understands the rule; there is no need to confine him to the author's -words or to make him learn long lists of exceptions. "The best thing to -exercise his memory in, besides the general and most necessary rules, is -to learn a good store of words with their signification. And then, -whether he comes to read French, or to hear it spoke, one word doth so -help another, that by degrees, he will find out the meaning." As for the -dialogues, only a few, and those of a familiar type, should be learnt -"without book." "An analysis is the best use they can be put to, but -some teachers will find it too hard a task." - -The best way, therefore, is "to lay a good foundation with grammar -rules, and to raise the Superstructure by Practice"; the more -adventurous the learner is in speaking French the better. If, however, -"one be so very averse from Grammar rules as to look upon them as so -many Bug bears, my opinion is that he may begin by Rote, provided he -make good at last his Proficiency that Way, with the help of a choice -Grammar. And then the Rules will appear to him very plain, easy and -delectable." - -In 1678 Miege was receiving pupils for French and geography at his -lodging in Penton Street, Leicester Square, and we are told that in 1693 -he was taking in _pensionnaires_ in Dean's Yard, near Westminster Abbey. -Towards the end of his teaching career in England he appears to have -been on very friendly terms with another teacher of French, Francesco -Casparo Colsoni, an Italian minister, who also taught Italian and -English. Colsoni wrote a book for teaching the three languages,[1062] -called _The New Trismagister_ (1688), in which he drew freely from the -works of Mauger, Festeau, and his friend Miege. In the meantime other -manuals appeared, including a translation of a grammar which was first -published at Paris in 1672[1063]--_A French Grammar, teaching the -knowledge of that language.... Published by the Academy for the -reformation of the French Tongue_ (1674), printed in parallel columns of -English and the original French. _A Very easie Introduction to the -French Tongue_ was published in about 1673, which claimed to be "proper -for all persons who have bad memories." A certain John Smith, M.A., J. -G. D'Abadie, formerly of the Royal Musketeers and for a time teacher of -French at Oxford, Jacob Villiers, who had a French school at Nottingham, -and Jean de Kerhuel, a French minister,[1064] all published grammars at -about the same time.[1065] - -[Header: PIERRE BERAULT] - -Among the more interesting French teachers of the period is Pierre -Berault, a French monk who was converted to Protestantism when he was -on the point of setting out for England to work among the refugees as a -Jesuit emissary.[1066] On the 2nd of April 1671 he "abjured all the -errors of the Church of Rome" in the French Church of the Savoy, London, -and subsequently devoted himself to teaching French. Until nearly the -end of the century he lived in various parts of London, "waiting upon -any Gentlemen or Gentlewomen who have a mind to learn French," and -using, according to his own account, a very sound method. At the same -time he was busy with his pen. He began with a compilation setting forth -his religious principles,[1067] and with books on moral and religious -subjects, in French and English for the benefit of learners.[1068] Later -he wrote _A New, plain, short and compleat French and English grammar_ -(1688), which had an "extraordinary sale and reception," and passed -through numerous editions. Berault's motto as regards the teaching of -French was _omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci_,--a fit -combination of grammar rules and practical exercises. The grammar, which -occupies less than half the book, begins with an explanation of -grammatical terms for the benefit of those ignorant of Latin; it then -deals shortly with the pronunciation and the declinable parts of -speech;[1069] lastly come a few rules of syntax and short vocabularies -of the indeclinables. The reading exercises open with the catechism, -creeds, commandments, and prayers. The dialogues, accompanied, contrary -to custom, by an interlinear translation, are at first very simple, and -arranged in syllables for the benefit of beginners, but they become more -difficult. The following is a dialogue between a French tutor and his -scholar: - - Good morrow, Sir, how do you do? - Bonjour, Monsieur, comment vous portez vous? - - Very well to serve you. - Fort bien pour vous servir. - - Do you teach the French tongue? - Enseignez-vous la langue Francoise? - - Yes sir, and the Latin also. - Ouy, monsieur, et aussi la Latine. - - Will you teach me these two tongues? - Voulez vous m'enseigner ces deux langues? - - I will do it willingly. - Je le feray volontiers. - - * * * * * - - What method do you hold? - Quel methode voulez-vous tenir? - - Because you understand Latin - Parce que vous entendez la langue Latine - - I will begin by the pronunciation - Je commenceray par la prononciation - - Which you can learn in two lessons. - Que vous pouvez apprendre en deux lecons. - - Then I will teach you the nouns, - Puis je vous enseigneray les noms, - - Pronouns, verbs and other parts of speech. - Pronoms, verbes et autres parties d'oraison. - - And afterwards the rules of syntax. - Et ensuite les regles de Composition. - - How long will I be in learning all that? - Combien seray-je a apprendre tout cela? - - But little time if you will follow me. - Peu de temps si vous voulez me suivre. - -Berault added a selection of Cordier's Colloquies in French and English -to his work, as well as the usual proverbs, idioms and polite letters, -and a vocabulary. The letters have no English translation, Berault -believing that "whoso will peruse this grammar, he will not only be able -to explain them but any other French book whatsoever." Accordingly he -supplied a list of what he considered suitable modern French books, all -of which could be obtained from one or other of the French booksellers -in London. - -In the second half of the seventeenth century the position of the French -language in England was further strengthened by its growing popularity -all over Europe. "I have visited," wrote the dramatist Chappuzeau in -1674,[1070] "every part of Christendom with care. [Header: FRENCH AND -LATIN] It has been easy for me to observe that to-day a prince with only -the French language which has spread everywhere, has the same advantages -that Mithridates had with twenty-two." The French language was regarded -as "one of the chiefest qualifications of accomplished persons," and -"the common language of all well-bred people, and the most generally -used in the commerce of civil life." Bayle states that in many parts of -Europe there were people who spoke and wrote French as purely as the -French themselves, and that in many foreign towns all the men and women -of quality and many of the common people spoke French with ease. Writers -of the time are unanimous in describing French as the universal -language; and most French teachers write in the style of Guy Miege to -the effect that "the French tongue is in a manner grown universal in -Europe ... and of all the parts of Europe next to France none is more -fond of it than England." - -Thus, in the second half of the seventeenth century, French was in a -position to dispute its ground with Latin. France herself set the -example. French was the language used at Court, while Latin was used -only by scholars. Significant it is that in 1676 Louis XIV., in -consequence of Charpentier's _Defense de la langue francoise pour -l'inscription de l'arc de Triomphe_, replaced the Latin inscriptions on -his triumphal arches by others in French. Replying to Charpentier's -essay, a Jesuit, P. Lucus, wrote a treatise in defence of Latin.[1071] -Charpentier retorted by two laboured volumes, _De l'excellence de la -langue francoise_ (1683), and finally won the day. In this he refers to -the universality of French, and draws attention to the advantages which -would result to science if it were studied in that language. The long -Quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns, which first reached England from -France, also shows the spirit of the times. And Bayle asserts as -evidence of the supremacy of French that: "Veut-on qu'un libelle courre -bien le monde, aussitot on le traduit en francois, lors meme que -l'original est en Latin: tant il est vrai que le latin n'est pas si -commun en Europe aujourd'hui que la Langue francoise."[1072] - -In England French had long been a rival to Latin as the most commonly -used foreign tongue, and after the Restoration it was generally -recognized, among courtiers, men of fashion, ministers of state, and -diplomats, as the more convenient means of intercourse. Only scholars -and the universities continued to uphold the traditional supremacy of -the Latin tongue, and even at the universities Latin had passed out of -colloquial use before the Restoration, though still used in disputations -and other prescribed exercises.[1073] The victory of French in the world -of fashion was an easy one. It had "long since chased Latin from the -gallant's head," declares Sedley,[1074] and Ravenscroft in his prologue -to the _English Lawyer_,[1075] in which a jargon made up of Latin and -English predominates, thus addresses the gallants: - - Gallants, pray what do you doe here to-day? - Which of you understands a Latine play?... - This age defies th' accomplishments of Schools, - The Town breeds Wits, the Colleges make Fools. - -Samuel Vincent,[1076] instructing the gallant how to behave at an -ordinary, warns him to "beware how (he) speaks any Latin there: your -ordinaries most commonly have no more to do with Latin, than a desparate -town or Garrison hath."[1077] - -Latin also lost what ground it held as the official language. Milton had -been Latin secretary during the Commonwealth, but after the Restoration -French was the language used. "Since Latin hath ceased to be a Language, -if ever it was any, which I am not sure of, at least in this present -age," wrote Lord Chancellor Clarendon,[1078] "the French is almost -naturalised through Europe, and understood and spoken in all the -Northern Courts and hath nearly driven the Dutch out of its own country, -and almost sides the Italian in the Eastern Parts, where it was scarce -known in the last Age." French, therefore, had little to fear from Latin -as the language of intercourse with ambassadors and other foreigners in -England; and still less from English, which was not to receive any -recognition at the hands of foreigners for years to come. [Header: -FRENCH IN THE SCHOLASTIC WORLD] Considering the almost universal -popularity of French, and the general neglect of English, most -Englishmen were obliged to agree with Clarendon that it was "too late -sullenly to affect an ignorance" of that language because the French -"will not take the Pains to understand ours," and we may gain much by -being conversant in theirs. He adds "it would be a great Dishonour to -the court if, when Ambassadors come thither from Neighbour Princes, no -body were able to treat with them, or converse with those who accompany -them in no other language but English, of which not one of them -understand one word; not to mention how the king shall be supplied with -Ministers, or Secretaries of State, or with Persons fit to be sent -Ambassadors abroad," if those who aspire to such rank are not acquainted -with the necessary foreign language. - -Before the Restoration, French, in spite of the important place it held -in the world of polite education, had received very little recognition -at the hands of educational writers. Cleland alone, in his _Institution -of a Nobleman_ (1607), had treated it seriously. After 1660, however, -its widespread use and popularity rendered this omission no longer -possible, and at this time occurs a break in the tradition of classical -scholarship.[1079] The case for French was put most forcibly and with -greatest effect by Locke in his _Thoughts on Education_. Referring to -the young scholar, he writes: "As soon as he can speak English, 'tis -time for him to learn some other Language. This no body doubts of, when -French is proposed ... because French is a living language, and to be -used more in speaking, that should be first learned, that the yet pliant -Organs of Speech might be accustomed to a due formation of those sounds -and he get the habit of pronouncing French well, which is the harder to -be done the longer it is delay'd. When he can speak French well, (which -on conversational methods is usually in a year or two), he should -proceed to Latin."[1080] For the same reasons Clarendon would have -French learnt first, by "rote," "without the Formality or Method of -grammar."[1081] - -Even in the world of scholarship the traditional deference shown to -ancient learning received some check, and the educational value of the -ancient languages was called in question. Some believed that "a -gentleman might become learned by the only assistance of modern -languages." Evelyn wrote a discourse on the subject at the request of -Sir Samuel Tuke for the Duke of Norfolk; unfortunately it was lost, "to -his griefe"[1082] and ours. It contained, he told Pepys, "a list of -Authors and a method of reading them to advantage ... nor was [he] -without some purpose of one day publishing it, because 'twas written -with a vertuous designe of provoking our court fopps and for -encouragement of illustrious persons who have leisure and inclinations -to cultivate their minds beyond a farce, a horse, a whore and a dog, -which, with very little more are the confines of the knowledge and -discourse of most of our fine gentlemen and beaux." Learning, he felt, -would assume a more attractive form in the eyes of the majority, if it -were attained through modern languages. Defoe likewise thought Latin and -Greek were not indispensable to scholarship, and considered it a pity to -lock up all learning in the dead languages.[1083] Hobbes even went so -far as to suggest in his _Behemoth_ (_c._ 1668) that it would be well to -substitute French, Dutch, and Italian for Latin, Greek, and Hebrew at -the universities. Others recommended that the classics should be read in -French translations, and it is probable that men of fashion at the time -read them in this form, if at all. Sedley implies that to read Terence -in Latin was a mark of ill-breeding.[1084] The fashionable Etherege, who -knew neither Latin nor Greek, had a large number of French translations -of classical plays amongst his books.[1085] And at a somewhat later date -the Abbe Le Blanc remarks[1086] that the English have become so fond of -French that they prefer to read even Cicero in that language. He writes -to tell Olivet how eagerly his translations are received in England. -"Celle des Tusculanes que vous venez de publier de concert avec M. Le -Pere Bouhour a ete goutee en Angleterre de tous ceux qui sont en etat de -juger des Beautes de l'Original et de la fidelite avec laquelle chacun -de vous les a rendues." - -The readiness with which the English read French books also attracted -the Abbe's attention.[1087] [Header: PROPOSALS FOR REFORMED SCHOOLS] It -was no new thing for French literature to be widely appreciated in -England. But before the Restoration it had received but little -recognition as a profitable subject of study, except for students of -statecraft and military tactics. In 1673, however, one writer[1088] -takes a new step in stating that "all learning is now in French," and -goes on to say that if it were in English "those dead languages would be -of little use, only in reference to the scriptures." Similarly Mary -Astell, the author of _A Serious Proposal to the Ladies_ (1694), urges -the ladies, who most of them know French, to study French Philosophy, -Descartes and Malebranche, rather than restrict themselves to idle -novels and romances. And when Locke was in Paris in 1677 he bought the -best class-books and manuals in French and Latin for the use of Lord -Shaftesbury's grandson. The many English gentlemen who had French tutors -were frequently taught not only the French language, but other subjects -from French text-books. - -There were, moreover, several proposals for reformed schools,[1089] in -which French was given a place by the side of Latin. In the ideal school -as pictured by Clarendon, the master is well acquainted with the French -language; and "those that teach the exercises" are Frenchmen, both that -the scholars "may be accustomed to that language, and retain what they -are supposed to have learnt before, and because they do teach all -Exercises best."[1090] Thomas Tryon, the "Pythagorean," proposed a -school in which there was to be a tutor for French and Latin, or one for -each language, and a music master.[1091] The scholars should begin at an -early age, and nothing but French and Latin be spoken in their hearing. -The school should stand apart, so that the pupils have no intercourse -with "wild" children. In about a year they learn French and Latin by -conversation, and then other subjects with the help of these languages. -Newcomers soon pick up a colloquial knowledge of the language by mixing -with their schoolfellows. When they speak the languages perfectly, then -is the time, says Tryon, to study the grammar; "for to speak is one -thing, and the Art or Reason of speaking is another. The first must be -done by Imitation and Practice, the other is the Work of time, and must -be improved by degrees. They that learn the Art of speaking before they -can speak invert the true Method ... for the Reason and Philosophy of -speaking is a great Art and the work of Time, and not at all to be -taught to children." Before studying rules the learners should not only -speak, but read perfectly. After learning the letters they should read -daily for two or three hours, "in any book that treats of Temperance and -Vertue." - -Notwithstanding the increased importance attached to French in all -spheres, the modern language received no status in the grammar schools, -where the sole aim pursued was "to make good Latin and Greek scholars -and minute philosophers."[1092] On the other hand, the private -institutions in which the language was taught naturally increased very -greatly in number. Many Huguenot refugees opened schools in and about -London, and one French observer was struck by their number.[1093] Some -arose in provincial towns. At Nottingham, for instance, an Englishman, -Jacob Villiers, had a school of some importance. Villiers himself was a -well-known citizen. His name appears in the Charter of 1682 as one of -the chief councillors of the town; and he was one of "the council of -eighteen" who were displaced by an order of the Privy Council of 10th -February 1688.[1094] He was described on his gravestone in St. Mary's -Churchyard as a descendant of a collateral branch of the family of the -great favourite of James I. and Charles I. The family "continued still -in Nottingham" in the middle of the eighteenth century.[1095] - -Villiers's French school was flourishing some years before the first -mention of him as a public character. [Header: FRENCH SCHOOL AT -NOTTINGHAM] He had acquired his knowledge of French abroad, having -travelled for many years in France[1096] and Germany, where he gave -English lessons and received favours from the Prince Elector Palatine, -elder brother of Prince Rupert. It was no doubt after his return that he -opened his school for gentlemen and ladies. He also completed a book on -the French and English languages, which was published in London in 1680, -"to gratify the ladies and gentlemen his scholars, and all such who have -a mind so to be." His chief aim was to encourage the French and English -to learn each other's language by pointing out the close affinity -between them. The _Vocabularium Analogicum, or the Englishman speaking -French, and the Frenchman speaking English, Plainly shewing the nearness -or affinity betwixt the English, French and Latin_,[1097] contains a -vocabulary of similar words in the three languages--"a verbal eccho -repeating words thrice and that without any considerable -variation"--which occupies the main part of the work.[1098] It is -preceded by rules for pronouncing French, taken, without acknowledgement, -chiefly from Wodroeph, and followed by selections from Pierre de Laine's -_Royal French Grammar_ of 1667. Learners of French are advised to master -the pronunciation first, and to engage a French master. A collection -of familiar phrases and commendatory and other French verses, some -of them also taken from Wodroeph, close the volume. - -Several schools or academies in which young ladies studied French, as -well as philosophy and other serious subjects, were started at this -time, such as that kept by Mrs. Bathsua Makin, a learned Englishwoman of -the day, who for some time was governess to the daughters of Charles I. -Subsequently she opened a school for gentlewomen, first at Putney (1649) -and afterwards at Tottenham High Cross, "where, by the blessing of God, -Gentlewomen may be instructed in the Principles of Religion, and in all -manner of sober and vertuous education. More particularly in all things -ordinarily taught in other schools as works of all sorts, dancing, -musick, singing etc." Half their time was employed in acquiring these -arts and the other half in learning the Latin and French tongues. -"Gentlewomen of eight or nine years old, that can read well, may be -instructed in a year or two, according to their parts, in the Latin and -French tongues, by such plain and short rules, accommodated to the -grammar of the English Tongue, that they may easily keep what they have -learned, and recover what they shall lose." Those wishing to pursue -their studies further could learn other languages, Greek, Hebrew, -Italian, or Spanish, or could study astronomy, geography, and other -subjects. The usual fee was L20 a year, but more was charged if the -pupil made good progress. Parents were advised to apply for details at -Mr. Mason's Coffee House in Cornhill, near the Royal Exchange, on -Tuesday, or on Thursdays at the Bolt and Tun in Fleet Street, from three -to six in the afternoon.[1099] - -Mary Astell, another learned Englishwoman, to whom we have already -alluded, came forward with a proposal advocating a scheme of study for -women, in the retirement of an establishment "more academic than -monastic." She urges her sex to study rhetoric, logic, and philosophy, -and, as most of them know French, to read Descartes and Malebranche, and -not idle novels and romances. The project ultimately fell to the ground, -however, chiefly on account of the opposition of Bishop Burnet, who -condemned it as a popish design. Shortly afterwards Defoe, who "would -deny women no sort of learning," proposed an academy for women,[1100] in -which they should be taught "all sorts of breeding suitable to both -their genius and their quality, and in particular music and dancing, -which it would be cruelty to bar the sex of, because they are their -darlings: but besides this they should be taught languages, as -particularly French and Italian; and I would venture the injury of -giving a woman more tongues than one." As to reading, history is the -best subject. - -There are traces of other academies in which modern languages and the -"exercises" were the chief studies.[1101] At the end of _Musick or a -Parley of Instruments_, a musical entertainment performed by the -students of one of these academies, is an advertisement of the -curriculum; instruction in French and Italian was given by foreigners, -and mathematics, music, and the "exercises" received attention. [Header: -FRENCH IN PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS] Mark Lewis, the friend of Mrs. -Makin,[1102] taught like her in a school or "gymnasium" at Tottenham -High Cross, where "any person, whether young or old, as their Quality -is, may be perfected in the Tongues by constant conversation." The -school flourished about 1670, and there was then "an apartment for -French," while Italian and Spanish were "to receive attention -hereafter."[1103] Lewis's method of teaching so pleased the Earl of -Anglesey, then Lord Privy Seal, that he sent his grandsons to the -school, and enabled Lewis to secure letters patent for his method. A -similar academy was kept by a certain Mr. Banister in Chancery Lane near -the Pump. There was a wide choice of studies, including Latin, Greek, -and French, for the languages, and the usual "exercises." Any person -that desired could be accommodated in Mr. Banister's house "with diet -and lodging at reasonable Rates, ... or they may come thither at set -times and be Instructed in the things before mentioned." The academy -kept by Thomas Watts in Little Tower Street differed from the majority -in aiming at qualifying young gentlemen for business. Writing, -arithmetic, and merchants' accounts were taught, as well as mathematics -and experimental philosophy: a master resident in the house gave lessons -in French, a language absolutely necessary to business men, and "so far -universal that the place is not known where 'tis not spoken." -Accordingly it received special attention; and "as a just notion of -grammar, so the opportunity of frequent conversation, is absolutely -necessary, if one would ever arrive at any Perfection in this Language," -Watts, therefore, not only "fix'd on a Master capable of doing the -first, but entertained him constantly in his house, where all those -young gentlemen that learn French are obliged always to speak it, and -have their master daily to converse with."[1104] Some academies confined -themselves chiefly to the exercises. But even then the atmosphere was -French. Such was the academy opened in London in 1682 by M. Foubert, a -Frenchman lately come from Paris. He was helped by a royal grant, and -seems to have been fairly successful. On his arrival his goods were -delivered at the house of M. Laine,[1105] probably the French teacher of -that name. - -As time went on such schools became more and more numerous and the -demand for instruction in French increased. The language was no longer -limited chiefly to certain classes: the gentry, merchants, soldiers, and -others requiring it for practical purposes. It came to be regarded as a -necessary part of a liberal education. The ever-growing call for -teachers of French was met by the great invasion of Protestant refugees -caused by the renewal of the fierce persecutions which culminated in the -Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. The reception of the -fugitives was doubtful under James II., who looked upon them with -disfavour, but could not, for political reasons, refuse them -hospitality. With the advent of William of Orange in 1689, however, -their position was assured, and they became ardent supporters of the new -monarch. They arrived in such multitudes, says a contemporary, that it -was impossible to calculate their number; there was hardly an English -family of standing in which one or more refugees did not find a -home--often a permanent one. - -From this time dates a new period in the teaching of French in England, -dominated by the influence of these refugees, from whose ranks the chief -tutors and schoolmasters were recruited, and whose French grammars and -manuals continued, in some cases, to be used till the end of the -eighteenth century, and even later. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1043] A play called _The French Schoolmaster_ appeared in 1662 (Fleay, -_Chronicle of English Drama_, 1891, ii. p. 338). - -[1044] There are, however, no points of resemblance between that work -and the grammar which appeared about twelve years later. - -[1045] Catalogue of the Library of Dean Smallwood, 1684. - -[1046] Cp. Arber, _Term Catalogues_, i. 269. Anne was three years -younger than Mary. - -[1047] Schickler, _Les Eglises du Refuge_, ii. p. 311. - -[1048] _Savile Correspondence_, Camden Society, 1856, _passim_. - -[1049] Huguenot Society Publications, xviii. p. 138. - -[1050] _Stationers' Register_, iii. p. 277. - -[1051] Such was also the opinion of J. Minsheu, author of the _Ductor in -Linguas_ (1617): "I have always found that the true knowledge and sure -holding of them in our memories, consisted in the knowing of them by -their causes, originalls and etymologies, that is by their reasons and -derivations." - -[1052] His work suffered in having to strive against Cotgrave's long -settled reputation. - -[1053] The third edition appeared, like the first, at London, 1690. - -[1054] Arber, _Term Catalogues_, i. 477. - -[1055] 8vo: pp. 168, 142. Printed for Th. Bassett.... - -[1056] For instance, that for the gender of nouns, in 1678, states that -those ending in "e" or "x" are masculine, and the rest feminine; in -1687, those ending in "e" and "ion" are feminine and the rest masculine; -in both cases long lists of exceptions are given. - -[1057] "To follow the old road I should now decline a noun or two with -these articles, and six cases to be sure, to wit, the nominative, -accusative, dative, vocative, and ablative, whether our language can -afford them or not. But why should I perplex the learned with so -improper and needless a thing? For the distinction of cases is come from -the variable termination of one and the same noun. A thing incident (I -confess) to the Latine tongue, but not to our vulgar speech." - -[1058] A second edition of Miege's English Grammar appeared in 1691. - -[1059] Arber, _Term Catalogues_, iii. 67, 487. - -[1060] But if they have been grounded in the principles before -travelling, they make quicker progress, and do not lose their knowledge. - -[1061] "Car il n'y a rien de tel pour apprendre une langue que de -l'entendre parler." - -[1062] Later he added rules for Spanish to his work. Colsoni also wrote -_Le Guide de Londres pour les Estrangers_ (1st edition, 1693), and -several works chiefly on topical subjects, of little interest. In 1694 -his _Guide_ was followed by Richard Baldwin's _Booke for Strangers_. - -[1063] And again in 1679. - -[1064] Who translated one of Tillotson's sermons into French (1673). - -[1065] See Bibliography. - -[1066] Schickler, _op. cit._ ii. p. 282. - -[1067] _The Church of Rome evidently proved Heretick_ (1680); _The -Church of England evidently proved the holy catholick Church_ (1682). -Towards the end of his career he wrote a _Discourse of the Trinitie ... -etc._ (1700). Berault calls himself a French minister, and he served as -chaplain on several of His Majesty's ships during the war with France at -the end of the century. - -[1068] _Le Veritable et assure Chemin du Ciel en Francois et en Anglois_ -(1681), and the _Bouquet ou un Amas de plusieurs veritez Theologiques_ -(1685), dedicated to Anne Stuart, afterwards queen. - -[1069] Berault is behind the times in retaining most of the Latin cases -and tenses. His grammar, on the whole, is fuller and more detailed than -most of its kind. - -[1070] _Le Theatre francois_ (1674). ed. Monval, 1876, p. 62. Jean -Blaeu, in translating from English into French Ed. Chamberlain's -_Present State of England_ (1669), states: "Je ne l'ay pas sitost veu en -Anglois que j'ay juge qu'il meritoit de paroistre dans la langue -francoise, comme estant plus universelle dans la chrestiente qu'aucune -autre" (1671). Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, p. 20, note. - -[1071] _De monumentis publicis latine inscribendis._ Goujet, -_Bibliotheque francoise_ (1740-56), i. p. 13. - -[1072] Bayle, _Oeuvres_, iv. p. 190, quoted by Charlanne, _L'Influence -francaise en Angleterre_, pt. ii. p. 202. - -[1073] F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, p. 312. - -[1074] Epilogue to _Bellamira_. - -[1075] London, 1678. - -[1076] _Young Gallants' Academy_, 1674, p. 44. - -[1077] A little later Swift wrote that "the current opinion prevails -that the study of Latin and Greek is loss of time...." (_Works_, 1841, -ii. p. 291). - -[1078] _A Dialogue ... concerning Education_, Miscellaneous Works, -London, 1751, p. 338. - -[1079] Even the universities had to give some recognition to the modern -language. A Professorship of Modern History and Modern Languages was -founded at both universities in 1724. Cp. Cooper, _Annals of Cambridge_, -iv. 128. - -[1080] "Some Thoughts," _Educational Writings of Locke_, 1912, p. 125. - -[1081] The same opinions are voiced by later writers, such as Costeker, -_Education of a Young Nobleman_, 1723, p. 18; and the author of a -pamphlet _On Education_, 1734. - -[1082] Evelyn, _Diary_, Dec. 6, 1681. - -[1083] _The Compleat Gentleman_ (1728), ed. K. D. Buelbring, 1890. - -[1084] Epilogue to _Bellamira_. - -[1085] _Works_, ed. A. Wilson, Verity, London, 1888, Preface. - -[1086] Le Blanc, _Lettres d'un Francais_, a la Haye, 1745, ii. p. 1. - -[1087] He tells Maupertuis of the great success of his _De la Figure de -la Terre_ (1738) in England, where it was awaited with impatience and -received with acclamation (_Lettres_, ii. 244). - -[1088] _An Essay to revive the antient Education of Gentlewomen_ (Mrs. -Makin or Mark Lewis). - -[1089] French no doubt often reached grammar school boys indirectly. -Thus Charles Hoole in 1660 (_A New Discoverie of the old Art of Teaching -School_) recommends the Dialogues of Du Gres for their private reading; -perhaps, however, he was thinking more of the Latin than of the French -part. - -[1090] _Miscellaneous Works_, 1751, pp. 320-1. - -[1091] _A New Method of Educating Children ..._, 1695. - -[1092] Th. Sheridan, _Plan of Education_, 1769, p. 42. - -[1093] M. Misson, _Memoires et Observations d'un voyageur en -Angleterre_, a la Haye, 1698, p. 99. - -[1094] Information supplied by J. Potter Briscoe, Esq., of Nottingham. - -[1095] C. Deering, _An Historical Account of the ancient and present -State of the Town of Nottingham_, Nottingham, 1751, p. 32. - -[1096] He remarks on the desire to learn English expressed by several -French persons he met, chiefly Huguenots. - -[1097] Printed by J. D. for Jonathan Robinson at the Golden Lion, and -George Wells, at the Sun in Paul's Churchyard. 8vo, pp. 224. - -[1098] Pp. 17-132. - -[1099] _An Essay to revive the Antient Education of Gentlewomen ..._, -London, 1673. - -[1100] _Essay on Projects_ (1697), London, 1887, pp. 164 _sqq._ - -[1101] Cp. Loveday, _Letters_, 1639, p. 178. - -[1102] Lewis also interviewed parents any Thursday in the afternoon -between three and six o'clock, at the Bolt and Tun in Fleet Street. - -[1103] _Model for a school for the better education of Youth_, and -Advertisement at the end of his _Plan and Short Rules for pointing -periods ..._ (_c._ 1670). - -[1104] Advertisement in _An Essay on the Proper Method for forming the -Man of Business_, 4th ed., 1722, pp. 44-45. - -[1105] _Calendar of State Papers, Treasury Books, 1679-80_, pp. 132, -140. - - - - -APPENDICES - - - - -APPENDIX I - - CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF MANUALS AND GRAMMARS FOR TEACHING FRENCH TO THE - ENGLISH - - -I - -The Middle Ages - -_A. Manuscripts_ - -* Indicates that there are also other manuscripts of later date. - - Henry III. (1216-1272): - - _c._ 1250 Short Treatise on French Verbs (Trinity College, - Cambridge, R. 3, 56). - - Edward I. (1272-1307): - - * Le treytyz ke moun sire Gautier de Bibelesworthe - fist a ma dame Dionisie de Mounchensy pur aprise de - langwage (ed. T. Wright, "Volume of Vocabularies," - 1857). - - * Tractatus Orthographiae of T. H. Parisii Studentis - (ed. M. K. Pope, "Modern Language Review," April 1910). - - _c._ 1300 * Orthographia Gallica (ed. J. Stuerzinger, - "Altfranzoesische Bibliothek," viii., Heilbronn, 1884). - - Edward II. and Edward III. (1307-1377): - - Commentaries in French on the Orthographia Gallica - (ed. Stuerzinger, _ut supra_). - - Epistolaries, or Collections of model letters (MSS. - Harl. 4971, Harl. 3988, Addit. 17716 Brit. Mus.; Ee 4, - 20, Camb. Univ. Libr.; B 14. 39, 40, Trinity Col. Camb.; - 182, All Souls, Oxon.; 188, Magdalen Col.). - - Cartularies, or Collections of Bills, Indentures, etc. - (Harl. 4971; Ee 4, 20, Camb. Univ. Libr.; Addit. - 17716). - - Undated Vocabularies and Verb Tables and Fragments - on Grammar (Ee 4, 20, Camb. Univ. Libr.; Harl. 4971, - Addit. 17716, Brit. Mus.; 188, Magdalen Col., Oxon.). - - _c._ 1340 Nominale sive Verbale in Gallicis cum expositione - eiusdem in Anglicis (ed. Skeat, "Transactions of the - Philological Soc.," 1903-1906). - - Richard II. (1377-1399): - - Tractatus Orthographiae of Coyfurelly, Doctor in Law - of Orleans (ed. Stengel, "Zeitschrift fuer - neufranzoesische Sprache und Literatur," vol. i., 1878). - - 1396 * Maniere de Language (ed. P. Meyer, "Revue critique," - 1873). - - 1399 Petit Livre pour enseigner les enfanz de leur entreparler - comun francois (ed. Stengel, _op. cit._). - - _c._ 1409 Donait francois pur briefment entroduyr les Anglois - et la droit language de Paris et de pais la d'entour - fait aus despenses de Johan Barton par pluseurs bons - clercs du language avandite (ed. Stengel, _op. cit._). - - Conjugation of Verbs, by R. Dove. Le Donait soloum - douce franceis de Paris (Sloane MSS. 513). - - _c._ 1415 Liber Donati (MSS. Dd 12, 23, Gg 6, 44, Camb. Univ. - Libr.; Addit. 17716 Brit. Mus.). - - Femina. Liber iste vocatur Femina, quia sicut Femina - docet infantemloqui maternam, sic docet iste liber - iuvenes rethorice loqui Gallicum prout infra patebit - (ed. W. A. Wright, Roxburghe Club, 1907). - - 1415 Maniere de Language (ed. P. Meyer, "Romania," xxxii., - 1903). - - John Lydgate, Praeceptiones linguae gallicae, li. 1. - (Bale, "Scriptores Britanniae," fol. 203.) - - _c._ 1500? Dialogues in French and English (MS. Ii. 6, 17, Camb. - Univ. Libr.). - - -_B. Printed Books_ - - _c._ 1483 Tres bonne doctrine pour aprendre briefment francoys - et engloys. Printed by William Caxton. B.L. 4to. (Ed. - H. Bradley, "Early English Text Society," extra series, - lxxix., 1900.) - - Another edition. Fragment of one leaf in the Bodleian. - - _c._ 1492? Here is a good boke to lerne to speke French. B.L. - 4to. Colophon: Per me Richardum Pynson. - - _c._ 1498? Here beginneth a Lytell treatyse for to lerne - Englisshe and Frensshe. B.L. 4to. Colophon: Here endeth - a lytyll treatyse for to lerne Englysshe and Frensshe. - Emprinted at Westmynster by my Wynken de Worde. - - Another edition. Fragment of one leaf in the British - Museum. B.L. 4to. - - -II - -TUDOR AND STUART TIMES - - 1521 BARCLAY. The introductorie to wryte and to pronounce frenche. - - ? VALENCE. Introductions in frensche.... - - 1528 Fragment of grammar in Lambeth Library. - - 1530 PALSGRAVE. Lesclarcissement de la langue francoyse. - - _c._ 1534 DUWES. An introductorie for to lerne ... french trewly. - - _c._ 1535 DUWES. An introductorie for to lerne ... french trewly. - - _c._ 1547 DUWES. An introductorie for to lerne ... french trewly. - - 1552 VERON. Dictionariolum puerorum.... - - 1553? DU PLOICH. A Treatise in English and Frenche.... - - 1553? Traicte pour apprendre a parler francoys et angloys. - - 1557 G. MEURIER. La Grammaire Francoise. . . . - - 1557 (BARLEMENT.) A Boke intituled Italion, Frynsshe, Englysshe Latin. - - 1559 Ane A.B.C. for Scottes men to read the frenche toung.... - - 1563 MEURIER. Communications familieres. - - 1565 HOLYBAND. The French Schoolemaister. - - 1566 HOLYBAND. The French Littleton. - - 1568 (BARLEMENT.) A Boke intituled Ffrynshe, Englysshe and Duche. - - 1571 A Dictionarie french and english. - - 1572 HIGGINS. Huloets dictionarie ... the French thereunto annexed. - - 1573 HOLYBAND. The French Schoolemaister. - - 1574 BARET. An Alvearie ... in Englishe, Latin and French. - - 1575 * A plaine pathway to the French Tongue. - - 1576 LEDOYEN DE LA PICHONNAYE. A Plaine Treatise to larne ... French. - - 1578 BELLOT. The French Grammer. - - 1578 DU PLOICH. A Treatise in English and Frenche, new ed. - - 1578 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - - 1578 (BARLEMENT.) Dictionaire . . . en quattre Langues. - - ? HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1580 HOLYBAND. A Treatise for Declining of Verbs. - - 1580 HOLYBAND. De Pronuntiatione Linguae Gallicae. - - 1580 HOLYBAND. The Treasurie of the French Tong. - - 1581 BARET. Alvearie ... New ed. - - 1581 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - - 1581 BELLOT. Le Jardin de Vertu. - - 1582 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1583 HOLYBAND. Campo di Fior. - - 1585 HIGGINS. The Nomenclator or Remembrancer of Adrianus Junius. - - 1588 BELLOT. The French Methode. - - ? HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1590 DE CORRO. The Spanish Grammer with certeine Rules teaching ... - French. - - 1591 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - - 1591 CORDERIUS. Dialogues in French and English. - - 1592 DE LA MOTHE. The French Alphabet. - - 1593 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - - 1593 HOLYBAND. A Dictionarie French and English. - - 1593 ELIOTE. Ortho-Epia Gallica. - - 1595 E. A. Grammaire Angloise et Francoise. - - 1595 DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet. - - 1596 MORLET. Janitrix ... ad perfectam Linguae Gallicae cognitionem. - - 1597 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - - 1598 The Necessary ... Education of a Young Gentlewoman, Italian, - French and English. - - 1599 HOLYBAND. A Treatise for Declining of Verbs. - - 1602 A Short Syntaxis of the French Tongue. - - 1602 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - - 1604 SANFORD. Le Guichet Francois. - - 1605 SANFORD. A Briefe Extract of the former grammar ... in English. - - 1605 ERONDELL. The French Garden. - - 1606 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1607 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - - 1611 COTGRAVE. A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues. - - 1612 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1615 The Declining of Frenche Verbes (HOLYBAND?). - - 1615 The French A.B.C. - - 1615 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1617 JEAN BARBIER. Janua Linguarum Quadralinguis. - - 1618 FARREAR. A Brief Direction to the French Tongue. - - 1619 LAUR DU TERME. The Flower de Luce. - - 1619 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1620 COLSON. The First Part of the French Grammar. - - 1623 WODROEPH. The spared Houres of a souldier in his Travels. - - 1623 J. S. A Shorte Method for the Declyning of Ffrench Verbes. - - 1625 SHERWOOD. The French Tutour. - - 1625 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - - 1625 DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet. - - 1625 WODROEPH. The True Marrow of the French Tongue. - - 1625 L'ISLE. Part of Du Bartas, French and English. - - 1625 Grammaire Angloise et Francoise. - - 1630 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - - 1631 ANCHORAN. Comenius's Janua Linguarum. - - 1631 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1631 DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet. - - 1632 COTGRAVE. French-English Dictionary, with SHERWOOD'S - English-French Dictionary. - - 1633 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - - 1633 DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet. - - 1633 ANCHORAN. Comenius's Janua Linguarum. - - 1633 SALTONSTALL. Clavis ad Portam. - - 1633 DE GRAVE. The Pathway to the Gate of Tongues. - - 1634 SHERWOOD. The French Tutour, 2nd ed. - - 1634 AUFEILD. A French Grammar and Syntaxe. - - 1635 COGNEAU. A Sure Guide to the French Tongue. - - 1636 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1636 DU GRES. Breve et accuratum grammaticae gallicae Compendium. - - 1637 (BARLEMENT.) The English, Latine, French, Dutch Scholemaster. - - 1637 BENSE. Analogo Diaphora ... trium Linguarum, Gallicae, Hispanicae - et Italicae. - - 1637 ANCHORAN. Comenius's Janua. - - 1639 DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet. - - 1639 HOLYBAND. French Littleton. - - 1639 Grammaire Angloise et Francoise. - - 1639 DU GRES. Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini. - - 1639 ANCHORAN. Comenius's Janua. - - 1639 (BARLEMENT.) New Dialogues or Colloquies ... - - 1641 MEURIER. A treatise for to learne to speake Frenshe and Englishe. - - 1641 HOLYBAND. Treatise for Declining of French Verbs. - - 1641 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1643 GOSTLIN. Aurisodinae Linguae Gallicae. - - 1645 COGNEAU. Sure Guide ... - - 1647 DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet. - - 1648 GERBIER. An Introduction of the French Tongue. - - 1649 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1650 COTGRAVE. French Dictionary. - - 1651 COGNEAU. Sure Guide. - - 1652 DU GRES. Dialogi ... - - 1653 MAUGER. True Advancement of the French Tongue. - - 1655 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1655 LAINE. A Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue. - - 1656 MAUGER. French Grammar, 2nd ed. - - 1658 COGNEAU. Sure Guide. - - 1658 MAUGER. French Grammar, 3rd ed. - - 1659 LEIGHTON. Linguae Gallicae addiscendae Regulae. - - 1660 DU GRES. Dialogi ... - - 1660 COTGRAVE. Dictionary. - - 1660 HERBERT. French and English Dialogues. - - 1660 HOWELL. Lexicon Tetraglotton. - - 1662 MAUGER. French Grammar, 4th ed. - - 1662 LEIGHTON. ... Regulae. - - 1666 AEsop's Fables in English, French and Latine. - - ? Castellion's Sacred Dialogues ... French and English. - - 1667 MAUGER. French Grammar, 5th ed. - - 1667 FESTEAU. French Grammar. - - 1667 DE LAINE. Princely Way to the French Tongue. - - 1668 HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister. - - 1668 Grammaire Francoise et Angloise. - - 1668 Grammaire Francoise et Angloise. - - 1670 MAUGER. Grammar, 6th ed. - - 1671 MAUGER. Lettres francoises et angloises. - - 1671 FESTEAU. Grammar, 2nd ed. - - 1673 MAUGER. Grammar, 7th ed. - - 1673 COTGRAVE. Dictionary. - - 1674 A French Grammar ... Published by the Academy. - - 1674 SMITH. Grammatica Quadralinguis. - - 1674 A very easie Introduction to the French Tongue. - - 1675 FESTEAU. Grammar, 3rd ed. - - 1676 D'ABADIE. A New French Grammar. - - 1676 MAUGER. Grammar (the English edition). - - 1676 MAUGER. Lettres, 2nd ed. - - 1677 DE LAINE. Princely Way, 2nd ed. - - 1677 Grammaire francoise et angloise. - - 1677 MIEGE. A New Dictionary, French and English. - - 1678 MIEGE. A New French Grammar. - - 1679 MAUGER. Grammar, 8th ed. - - 1679 FESTEAU. Grammar, 4th ed. - - 1679 Grammaire Francoise et Angloise. - - 1679 MIEGE. Dictionary of Barbarous French. - - 1680 VILLIERS. Vocabularium Analogicum. - - 1681 BERAULT. Chemin du Ciel. - - 1682 MAUGER. Grammar, 10th ed. - - 1682 MIEGE. Short and Easie French Grammar. - - 1683 VAIRESSE D'ALLAIS. Short and Methodical Introduction. - - 1684 MIEGE. A Short French Dictionary. - - 1684 KERHUEL. Grammaire Francoise. - - 1684 MAUGER. Grammar, 11th ed. - - 1684 CHENEAU. French Grammar. - - 1685 FESTEAU. Grammar, 5th ed. - - 1685 BERAULT. Bouquet . . . de Plusieurs Veritez Theologiques. - - 1686 MAUGER. Grammar, 12th ed. - - 1687 AEsop's Fables in English, French and Latine. - - 1687 MIEGE. Grounds of the French Tongue. - - 1688 MIEGE. Great French Dictionary. - - 1688 BERAULT. New ... French and English Grammar. - - 1688 COLSONI. The New Trismagister. - - 1689 MAUGER. Grammar, 13th ed. - - 1690 MIEGE. Short French Dictionary, 3rd ed. - - 1690 MAUGER. Grammar, 14th ed. - - 1690 COLSONI. A new Grammar of three languages. - - 1691 MIEGE. Short French Dictionary. - - 1691 BERAULT. Grammar, 2nd ed. - - _c._ 1691 LANE. French Grammar. - - ? GROLLEAU. Compleat French Tutor. - - 1693 FESTEAU. Grammar, 6th ed. - - 1693 BERAULT. Grammar, 3rd ed. - - 1693 Eloquent Master of Languages. - - 1694 BOYER. Compleat French Master. - - 1694 MAUGER. Grammar, 16th ed. - - 1695 COLSONI. New and Accurate Grammar [new edition]. - - 1698 MIEGE. Last and Best French Grammar. - - 1698 BERAULT. French and English Grammar. - - 1698 MAUGER. French Grammar. - - 1699 MAUGER. French Grammar [new edition]. - - 1699 BOYER. French Master, 2nd ed. - - ? VASLET. Nomenclator Trilinguis. - - 1699 BOYER. Royal French Dictionary. - - - - -APPENDIX II - - BIBLIOGRAPHY, ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY, OF MANUALS FOR TEACHING THE - FRENCH LANGUAGE TO THE ENGLISH, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH - CENTURY TO THE END OF THE STUART PERIOD - - -A., E.: - - Grammaire Angloise et Francoise pour facilement et promptement - aprendre la langue Angloise et Francoise. Revue et corrigee tout de - nouveau d'une quantite de fautes qui etoient aux precedentes - impressions par E. A. Augmentee en cette derniere edition d'un - vocabulaire Anglois et Francois. Rouen, 1595. Cp. sub "Anonymous - Works," Grammaire Angloise et Francoise. - -AESOP: Cp. CODRINGTON. - -ANCHORAN, J. A.: - - Porta Linguarum Trilinguis reserata et aperta, sive seminarium - linguarum et scientiarum omnium, hoc est compendiaria Latinam, - Anglicam, Gallicam (et quamvis aliam) Linguam una cum artium et - scientiarum fundamentis sesquianni spatio ad summum docendi et - perdiscendi methodus sub titulis centum periodis mille comprehensa. - The Gate of Tongues unlocked and opened.... London, George Millar - for Michael Sparke, 1631. - - Another issue, George Millar for the Author, 1631. - - Another ed.: Porta linguarum ... J. A. Anchorani ... Th. Cotes - sumptibus M. Sparke, 1633. - - 3rd ed. Anna Griffin sumptibus M. Sparke. London, 1637. - - 4th ed. E. Griffin for M. Sparke, 1639. - -ANONYMOUS WORKS (Arranged chronologically): - - De la Prosodie, etc. (Fragment in the Lambeth Library dated 1528.) - - (BARLEMENT.) A boke intituled Italion, Frynsshe, Englysshe and - Laten. London, Ed. Sutton, 1557. - - Another ed.: A Boke intituled Ffrynsshe, Englysshe and Duche. - London, John Alde, 1569. - - Another ed.: Dictionaire, Colloques ou Dialogues en Quattre - langues, Flamen, Ffrancoys, Espaignel et Italien, with the Englishe - to be added thereto. George Bishop, 1578. - - Another ed.: - The English}{French - Latine }{Dutch Scholemaster, or an Introduction to teach young - Gentlemen and Merchants to travell or trade. Being the only helpe - to attaine to those Languages. London, for Michael Sparke, 1637. - - Another ed.: New Dialogues or Colloquies and a little Dictionary of - eight Languages. A Booke very necessary for all those that study - these tongues either at home or abroad, now perfected and made fit - for travellers, young merchants and seamen, especially those that - desire to attain to the use of the tongues. London, Printed for - Michael Sparke, 1639. - - Ane A, B, C for Scottes men to read the frenche toung with ane - exhortatioun to the noblis of Scotland to favour thair ald - friendis. Licensed to Wm. Nudrye, 1559. - - A Dictionarie french and english. 1571. Col.: Imprinted at London - by Henry Bynneman for Lucus Harrison. An. 1570.[1106] - - A plaine pathway to the French Tongue, very profitable for - Marchants and also all other which desire the same, aptly devided - into nineteen chapters. The contents whereof appear in the next - Page. Printed in London by Thomas East, 1575. - - Another ed. Newly corrected. London, by Th. East (date unknown). - - Corderius. Dialogues in French and English. John Wyndet, 1591. - - Grammaire Angloise et Francoise . . . Revue et corrigee . . . par - E. A. (_q.v. sub_ A., E.) - - Another ed.: Grammaire Angloise pour facilement et promptement - apprendre la langue angloise. Qui peut aussi aider aux Anglois pour - apprendre la langue Francoise. Alphabet anglois contenant la - prononciation des Lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons. - Paris, 1625. - - Another ed. Rouen, 1639. - - Another ed. Rouen, 1662. - - Another ed. Rouen, 1670. - - Another edition. London, 1677. - - The Necessary, fit and convenient Education of a young Gentlewoman, - Italian, French and English. Adam Islip, 1598. - - A Short Syntaxis in the French Tongue. 12º. London, 1602. - - The French A. B. C. Licensed to Rd. Field, 1615. - - The Declining of Frenche Verbes. Rd. Field, 1615 (another edition - of Holyband's Treatise for declining of Verbs?). - - (Sebastien Chateillon.) Sacred Dialogues translated out of Latin - into French and English for the benefit of youth. Sold by R. Hom - and J. Sims. (Date unknown, between 1666 and 1668?) - - A French Grammar Teaching the knowledge of that language, how to - read and write it perfectly without any other precedent Study than - to have learnt to Read only. Published by the Academy for - Reformation of the French Tongue. London. Printed by W. G. for Wm. - Copper at the sign of the Pelican in Little Britain, 1674. - - A very easie Introduction to the French Tongue, or A very brief - Grammar, proper for all persons who have bad memories. Containing - all the principal grounds for the more speedy practice of - discourse. Also many peculiar phrases; with a very useful Dialogue - for young factors. 8vo. Sold by J. Sims at the King's Head in - Cornhill, _c._ 1673. - -AUFEILD, WILLIAM: - - A French Grammar and Syntaxe contayning most exact and certaine - rules for the pronunciation, orthography, construction and use of - the French Language. Written in French by Charles Maupas, of Bloys. - Translated into English with additions and explications peculiarly - useful to us English; together with a preface and an Introduction - wherein are contained divers necessary instructions for the better - understanding of it, by W. A. London, printed for Rich. Mynne, - dwelling in little Britaine at the signe of St. Paul, 1634. - -BARBIER, JEAN: - - Janua Linguarum Quadralinguis, or The Gate to the Latine, English, - Frenche and Spanish Tongues. London, 1617.[1107] - -BARCLAY, ALEXANDER: - - Here begynneth the introductory to wryte and to pronounce frenche, - compyled by Alexander Barclay, compendiously at the commandement of - the right hye excellent and myghty prynce Thomas, duke of - Northfolke. [Col.] Imprynted at London in the Flete strete at the - sygne of the rose Garlande by Robert Coplande, 1521, the yere of - our lord MCCCCCXXI ye XXII day of Marche. - -BARET, JOHN: - - An Alvearie or triple Dictionarie in Englishe, Latin, and French. - Very profitable for all such as be desirous of any of those three - languages. Also by the two tables at the ende of this booke they - may contrariwise finde the most necessarie Latin or French words, - placed after the order of an Alphabet, whatsoever are to be found - in any other Dictionarie. And so to turne them backwardes againe - into Englishe when they reade any Latin or French authors and doubt - of any harde worde therein. London, Henry Denham, 1574. - - A new edition: An Alvearie or quadruple dictionarie containing four - sundrie tongues, namelie, Englishe, Latine, Greeke and Frenche. - Newlie enriched with a varietie of wordes, phrases, proverbs and - divers lightsome observations of Grammar. By the Tables you may - contrariwise finde out the most necessarie wordes placed after the - Alphabet, whatsoever are to be found in any other dictionarie. - Which Tables also serving for lexicons, to lead the learner unto - the English of such hard wordes as are often read in Authors, being - faithfullie examined, are truelie numbered. Verie profitable for - such as be desirous of anie of those languages. London, Henry - Denham, 1581. - -BARLEMENT. Cp. Entry under "Anonymous Works." - -BELLOT, JACQUES: - - The French Grammer, or an Introduction orderly and Methodically, by - ready rules, playne preceptes and evident examples, teachinge the - Frenche Tongue: Made and very commodiously set forth for their - sakes that desire to attayne the Perfecte knowledge of the same - Language, by James Bellot, Gentleman of Caen in Normandy. Imprinted - at London in Fleet Street by Th. Marshe, 1578. - - Le jardin de vertu et bonnes moeurs, plain de plusieurs belles - fleurs et riches sentences avec le sens d'icelles recueillies de - plusieurs autheurs, et mises en lumiere par J. B. gent. Cadomois. - Imprime a Londres par Th. Vautrollier, 1581. - - The French Methode. London, 1588. - -BENSE, PIERRE: - - Analogo Diaphora seu Concordantia Discrepans et Discrepantia - Concordans trium linguarum Gallicae, Hispanicae et Italicae. Unde - innotescat, quantum quaque a Romanae linguae, unde ortum duxere, - idiomate deflexerit; earum quoque ratio et natura dilucide et - succinte delineantur. Opera et studio Petri Bense, Parisini, apud - Oxon. has linguas profitentis. Oxoniae. Excudebat Guilielmus Turner - impensis authoris, 1637. - -BERAULT, PIERRE: - - A new, plain, short and compleat French and English Grammar. Wherby - the learner may attain in few months to speak and write French - correctly as they do now in the Court of France, and wherein all - that is dark, superfluous and deficient in other grammars is plain, - short and methodically supplied. Also very useful to strangers that - are desirous to learn the English tongue: for whose sake is added a - short but very exact English Grammar. Omne tulit punctum qui - miscuit utile dulce. London, 1688. - - Second edition, _c._ 1691. - - Third edition, with additions, 1693. - - Fourth edition, 1700. - - Another edition: A New and Compleat French and English Grammar, - plainly showing the shortest and easiest way to understand, speak, - and write spedily those Languages, but especially the French. - Containing above twenty pleasant and useful Dialogues translated - into English by Sir R. L'Estrange, and here rendered into French - with several others, almost word for word. To which is added a - short but exact English Grammar. Also a French and English - Dictionary, where the parts of speech are ranged separately. - Comprehending all that's necessary for any Persons that have a - desire to learn either Language, by Peter Berault, French - Minister, lately chaplain of Her Majesty's ships Kent, Victory, - Scarborough, and Dunkirk. London, 1707. - - Le Veritable et assure chemin du ciel en Francois et en Anglois. - London, 1680. - - Bouquet ou un amas de plusieurs veritez theologiques propres pour - instruire toutes sortes de personnes, particulierement pour - consoler une ame dans ses Troubles. London, 1685. - -BEYER, GUILLAUME: - - La vraye instruction des trois langues la Francoise, l'Angloise et - la Flamende. Proposee en des regles fondamentales et succinctes. Un - assemblage des mots les plus usites, et des colloques utiles et - recreatifs; ou hormis d'autres discours curieus, le gouvernement de - la France se reduit. Historiquement et Politiquement mise en trois - langues. Seconde ed. augmentee. Dordrecht, 1681. (Date of first - edition unknown.) - -CHATEILLON (or CASTELLION), S. Cp. entry under "Anonymous Works." - -CHENEAU, FRANCOIS: - - Francis Cheneau's French Grammar, enrich'd with a compendious and - easie way to learne the French Tongue in a very short time. - Licensed to Ch. Mearne, _c._ 1684. - - The Perfect French Master teaching in less than a month to turn any - English into French by Rule and Figure, Alphabetically, in a Method - hitherto altogether unknown in Europe. With the regular and - irregular Verbs. By Mr. Cheneau of Paris, Professor of the Latin, - English, French, Italian Tongues, formerly slave and Governor of - the Isles of Nacsia and Paros in the Archipelago, now living in his - house in Old Fish St. next door to the Faulcon in London. Where may - be seen his short grammars for all these tongues, after the same - way. W. Botham for the author. London, 1716. - -CODRINGTON, ROBERT: - - AEsop's Fables, With his life in English, French and Latine. The - English by Tho. Philipott, Esq., the French and Latine by Rob. - Codrington, M.A. Illustrated with one hundred and ten sculptures. - By Francis Barlow, and are to be sold at his House, The Golden - Eagle in New Street near Shoe Lane, 1665-6. - - Another ed. London, 1687. - - Another ed. [London], 1703. - -COGNEAU, PAUL: - - A Sure Guide to the French Tongue, teaching by a most easy way to - pronounce it naturally, to reade it perfectly, write it truly and - speke it readily. Together with the Verbes personal and impersonal - and useful sentences added to some of them, most profitable for all - sorts of people to learn. Painfully gathered and set in order after - the alphabetical way, for the better benefit of those that are - desirous to learn the French, by me Paul Cogneau. London, 1635. - - Another ed. [London] 1645. - - Another ed. [London] 1651. - - Fourth ed., exactly corrected, much amplified, and better ordered. - (By Wm. Herbert, _q.v._) London, 1658. - -COLSON, WILLIAM: - - The First Part of the French Grammar, Artificially reduced into - Tables by Arte locall, called the Arte of Memorie. Contayning - (after an extraordinary and most easy method) the Pronunciation and - Orthographie of the French Tongue according to the new manner of - writing, without changing the originall or old, for the - understanding of both by a reformed alphabet of twenty-six letters - and by a triple distinction of characters (Roman, Italian and - English) representing unto the eye three sorts of pronunciation - distinguished by them. Proper, signified by a Roman character: - Improper, noted by an Italian: and superfluous, marked by an - English.... And as most amply is declared in the explication of the - foresaid reformed alphabet, and letters in it otherwise ordered, - and named then heretofore, and two otherwise shaped ... for _j_ and - _v_ consonants. In which is taught, the universall knowledge of the - four materiall parts of Grammar ... for the better understanding of - the rules of the triple pronunciation aforesaid. Also the - Artificiall and generall declination terminative of Nounes and - Verbes. Lately compiled by William Colson of London, Professor of - Litterall and Liberall Sciences. London, Printed by W. Stansby, - 1620. - -COLSONI, FRANCISCO CASPARO: - - The New Trismagister. Or the New Teacher of three Languages by whom - an Italian, an English and a French Gentleman may learn to - discourse together, each in their several languages: in four parts. - (I.) The Italian learns to speak English. (II.) The English and - Italian Gentlemen learn to speak French. (III.) The French and the - English Gentlemen learn to speak Italian. (IV.) The Frenchman - learns to speak English. 1688. - - Another edition: A New and Accurate Grammar whereby French and - Italian, the Spaniard and the Portuguese may learn to speak English - well, with rules for the learning of French, Italian, and Spanish. - Nouvelle et curieuse Grammaire par laquelle. . . . Par F. Colsoni, - M.(A). et Maitre des dites Langues demeurant dans Falcon Court en - Lothbury. 8vo. Printed for S. Manship at the Ship in Cornhill, _c._ - 1695. - -COMENIUS. Cf. entry under "Anonymous Works." - -CORDERIUS. Cf. entry under "Anonymous Works." - -CORRO, ANTONIO DE: - - The Spanish Grammer, with certeine Rules teaching both the Spanish - and French tongues. By which they that have some knowledge in the - French tongue may the easier attaine to the Spanish, and likewise - they that have the Spanish with more facilitie learne the French: - and they that are acquainted with neither of them, learne either or - both. Made in Spanish by M. Anthonie de Corro, translated by John - Thorius, Graduate in Oxeford. London, 1590. - -COTGRAVE, RANDLE: - - A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, compiled by Randle - Cotgrave. London, 1611. - - Another ed. ... Whereunto is also annexed a most copious dictionary - of the English set before the French, by R. S. L. (Robert Sherwood, - Londoner, _q.v._) London, 1632. - - Another ed. ... Whereunto are newly added the animadversions and - Supplements of James Howell, Esquire. Inter Eruditos Cathedram - habeat Polyglottes. London, 1650. - - Another ed. ... Whereunto are added sundry Animadversions, with - supplements of many hundreds of words never before printed: with - accurate castigations throughout the whole work, and distinctions - of the obsolete words from those that are now in use. Together with - a large Grammar, a dialogue consisting of all Gallicisms, with - additions of the most significant proverbs, with other refinements - according to Cardinal Richelieu's late Academy. For the furtherance - of young learners, and the advantage of all others that endeavour - to arrive to the most exact knowledge of the French Language, this - work is exposed to publick, by James Howell, Esqr. London, 1660. - - Another ed. London, 1673. - -D'ABADIE, J.G.: - - A new French Grammar, containing at large the principles of that - tongue, or the most exact rules, criticall observations, and fit - examples for teaching with a good method and attaining the French - Tongue as the Witts or the Gentlemen of the French Academy speak - and pronounce it at this present time. Composed for the use of the - English gentry by J.G. d'Abadie, Esq. Oxford, Printed by H. Hall, - Printer to the University, for J. Crosby, 1676. - -DE GRAVE, JEAN: - - The Pathway to the Gate of Tongues, being the first instruction for - little children, with A short manner to conjugate French Verbes. - Ordered and made Latine, French and English by Jean de Grave, - Professor of the French Tongue in the City of London. Oxford, 1633. - (Bound with second ed. of Comenius's Porta Linguarum. London, - 1633.) - -DE LA MOTHE, N., G.: - - The French Alphabet, teaching in a very short time, and by a most - easie way, to pronounce French naturally, to read it perfectly, to - write it truly and to speak it accordingly. Together with the - treasure of the French tongue, containing the rarest sentences, - proverbs, parobles, similies, apothegmes, and Golden sayings of the - most excellent French Authors, as well Poets as Oratours. The one - diligently compiled and the other painfully gathered and set in - order, after the alphabetical maner, for the benefit of those that - are desirous of the French tong. Printed by E. Alde, and are to be - solde by H. Jackson, dwelling in Fleet Street, beneath the Conduit - at the sign of St. John Evangelist, 1595. - - First edition. London, Richard Field, 1592 (no copy known). - - Another edition. London, Geo. Miller, 1625. - - Another edition. London, Geo. Miller, 1631. - - Another edition. London, Geo. Miller, 1633. - - Another edition. London, Geo. Miller, 1639. - - Another edition. London, A. Miller, 1647. - -DE LA PICHONNAYE, LEDOYEN: - - A Plaine Treatise to larne in a shorte space of the French Tongue. - London, H. Denham, 1576. - -DE SAINLIENS, CLAUDE. Cf. HOLYBAND. - -DU GRES, GABRIEL: - - Breve et Accuratum grammaticae Gallicae Compendium in quo superflua - rescinduntur et necessaria non omittuntur, per Gabrielem du Gres, - Gallum, eandem linguam in celeberrima Cantabrigiensi Academia - edocentem. Cantabrigiae. Impensis Authoris amicorum gratia. 1636. - - Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini, per Gabrielem Dugres Linguam - Gallicam in illustrissima et famosissima Oxoniensi Academia (haud - ita pridem privatim) edocentem. Oxoniae, L. Lichfield, 1639. - - Editio secunda, priori emendatior. Oxoniae, 1652. - - Editio tertia. Oxoniae, 1660. - -DU PLOICH, PIERRE: - - A Treatise in English and Frenche right necessary and proffitable - for al young children (the contentes whereof apere in a table at - the ende of this boke), made by Peter du Ploiche, teacher of the - same dwelling in Trinitie lane at the signe of the Rose. Richard - Grafton, [1553?] - - Another ed. Imprime a Londre par Jean Kingston, La xiiii. Auvril, - 1578. - -DU TERME, LAUR: - - The Flower de Luce, planted in England, or a short Treatise and - brieffe compendium wherein is contained the true and lively - pronunciation and understanding of the French tongue. Compiled by - Laur du Terme, Teacher of the same. London, Printed by Nicholas - Okes, 1619. - -DUWES, GILES: - - An Introductorie for to lerne to rede, to pronounce, and to speke - Frenche trewly, compyled for the right high excellent and most - vertuous lady, the lady Mary of Englande, daughter to our most - gracious soverayn Lorde Kyng Henry the Eight. Printed at London by - Thomas Godfray, cum privilegio a rege indulto, [1533?] - - Another ed. Printed at London by Nicolas Bourman for John Reyns in - Paules churchyarde at the signe of the George. [1534?] - - Another ed., newly corrected and amended. Printed by John Waley, - [1546?] - -ELIOTE, JOHN: - - Ortho-Epia Gallica. Eliot's Fruits for the French. Enterlaced with - a double new invention, which teacheth to speke truely, speedily - and volubly the French Tongue. Pend for the practice, pleasure and - profit of all English Gentlemen who will endevour by their owne - paine, studie and dilligence to attaine the naturall accent, the - true pronunciation, and swift and glib Grace of that noble, famous - and courtly Language. Natura et Arte. London, Printed by John - Wolfe, 1593. - -ERONDELL, PIERRE: - - The French Garden for English Ladyes and Gentlewomen to walke in or - a sommer dayes labour. Being an instruction for the attayning unto - of the French tongue: wherein for the practise thereof are framed - thirteene dialogues in French and English, concerning divers - matters, from the rising in the morning till Bedtime. Also the - Historie of the Centurion mencioned in the Gospell: in French - Verses. Which is an easier and shorter Methode then hath beene yet - set forth to bring the lovers of the French tongue to the - perfection of the same. By Peter Erondell, Professor of the same - language. London, Printed for Ed. White, 1605. - - Cf. HOLYBAND, French Schoolemaister. - -FARREAR, ROBERT: - - A brief Direction to the French Tongue. Oxford, 1618. - -FESTEAU, PAUL: - - A new and Easie French Grammar, or a Compendious way how to Read, - Speak and Write French exactly, very necessary for all Persons - whatsoever. With variety of Dialogues. Whereunto is added a - Nomenclature English and French. London. Printed for Th. - Thornycroft and are to be sold at the Eagle and Child near - Worcester House in the Strand, 1667. - - Second ed., c. 1671. - - [Another ed.]: Paul Festeau's French Grammar, being the newest and - exactest Method now extant for the attaining to the purity of the - French Tongue. Augmented and enriched with several choice and new - dialogues.... The third ed., Diligently corrected, amended and much - enlarged with the Rules of the Accent, by the Author, Native of - Blois, and now Professor of the French Tongue in London. London, - 1675. - - [Another ed.]: Paul Festeau's French Grammar being the newest and - exactest method ... for the attaining of the Elegancy and Purity of - the French Tongue as it is now spoken at the Court of France. - Augmented and enriched with several choice and new Dialogues, - furnished with rich phrases, proverbs and sentences, profitable and - necessary for all persons. Together with a Nomenclature English and - French, and the Rules of Quantity. The fourth ed., Diligently - corrected, amended and very much enlarged by the author, native of - Blois, a city in France where the true tone of the French tongue is - found by the Unanimous consent of all Frenchmen. London, 1679. - - Fifth ed. 1685. - - Another ed., _c._ 1688. - - Another ed. 1693. - - Another ed., _c._ 1699. - - Another ed., corrected and enlarged by the author, _c._ 1701. - -GERBIER, SIR BALTHAZAR: - - An Introduction of the French tongue, (in) "The Interpreter of the - Academie for forrain languages and all noble sciences and - exercises." The first part. London, 1648. - -GIFFARD, JAMES. Cf. HOLYBAND, French Schoolemaister. - -GOSTLIN: - - Aurisodinae linguae Gallicae. 8vo. London, 1643. - -GRAVE. Cf. DE GRAVE. - -GROLLEAU: - - Grolleau's Compleat French Tutor. (Date unknown, some time after - 1685.) - -HERBERT, WILLIAM: - - French and English Dialogues. In a more exact and delightful method - then any yet extant. London, 1660. Cf. COGNEAU. - -HIGGINS, JOHN: - - Huloet's Dictionarie, corrected and amended and set in order and - enlarged with many names of men, townes, beastes, foules, fishes, - trees, shrubbes, herbes, fruites, places, instrumentes, etc. In - eche place fit phrases gathered out of the best Latin authors. Also - the French thereunto annexed, by which you may finde the Latin or - Frenche of anye Englishe woorde you will. By John Higgins, late - student in Oxeforde. Londoni, in aedibus Thomae Marshij, anno 1572. - - The Nomenclator or Remembrancer of Adrianus Junius, Physician, - divided into two Tomes, conteining proper names, and apt termes for - all thinges under their convenient Titles, which within a few - leaves doe follow. Written by the said Adrianus Junius in Latine, - Greek, French, and other forrein tongues, and now in English by - John Higgins. With a full supplie of all such words as the last - inlarged edition affoorded; and a dictional index, conteining above - 1400 principall words with their numbers directly leading to their - interpretations. Of special use for all scholars and learners of - the same languages. London, 1585. - -HOLYBAND, CLAUDE, or DE SAINLIENS: - - The French Schoolemaistr, wherein is most plainlie shewed the true - and most perfect way of pronouncinge of the French tongue, without - any helpe of Maister or Teacher: set foorthe for the furtherance of - all those whiche doo studie privately in their owne study or - houses: Unto the which is annexed a Vocabularie for al such woordes - as bee used in common talkes: by M. Claudius Hollybande, professor - of the Latin, French and Englishe tongues. Imprinted at London, by - William How for Abraham Veale, 1573. - - First ed. 1565 (no copy known). - - Another ed. (Date unknown; after 1580.) - - Another ed.: The French Schoolemaister of Claudius Hollybande. - Newly corrected.... London, 1582. - - Another ed. Newly corrected by C. Hollyband. London. (Date - unknown.) - - Another ed.: The French Schoolemaister, wherein is most plainely - shewed the true and perfect way of pronouncing the French tongue, - to the furtherance of all those which would gladly learne it. First - collected by Mr. C. H., and now newly corrected and amended by P. - Erondelle, Professor of the said tongue. London, 1606. - - Another ed. London, 1612. - - Another ed. London, 1615. - - Another ed. London, 1619. - - Another ed.: The French Schoolemaister.... First collected by Mr. - C. H. ... and now ... corrected ... by James Giffard. London, 1631. - - Another ed. ... newly corrected and amended by James Giffard, - Professor of the said tongue. London, 1636. - - Another ed. ... new corrected, amended and much enlarged, with - severall quaint Proverbes and other necessary rules, by James - Giffard, Professor of the said Tongue. London, 1641. - - Another ed. London, 1649. - - Another ed. London, 1655. - - Another ed.: The French Schoolmaster teaching easily that language. - London, 1668. - - The French Littelton, A most easie, perfect and absolute way to - learne the Frenche tongue. Newly set forth by Claude Holliband, - teaching in Paules Churchyarde by the signe of the Lucrece. Let the - reader peruse the epistle to his owne instruction. Imprinted by T. - Vautrollier: London, 1566. - - Another ed. London, 1578. - - Another ed. London, 1579. - - Another ed.: Set forth by Claudius Holliband, teaching in Pauls - Churchyard at the sign of the Golden Ball. London, 1581. - - Another ed. ... London, 1591. - - Another ed. ... by Claudius Holliband, Gentilhomme Bourbonnois. - London, 1593. - - Another ed. London, 1597. - - Another ed. London, 1602. - - Another ed. London, 1607. - - Another ed. London, 1609. - - Another ed. London, 1625. - - Another ed. London, 1630. - - Another ed. London, 1633. - - Another ed. London, 1639. - - A Treatise for Declining of Verbs which may be called the second - chiefest worke of the frenche tongue: Set forthe by Claudius - Hollyband, teaching at the signe of the Golden Ball in Paules - Church Yarde. London, 1580. - - Another ed. London, 1599. - - Another ed. London, 1641. - - De Pronuntiatione. Claudii a Sancto Vinculo de pronuntiatione - linguae Gallicae libri duo. Ad illustrissimam simulq doctissimam - Elizabetham Anglorum Reginam. T. Vautrollerius; Londoni. 1580. - - The Treasurie of the French Tong: teaching the waye to varie all - sortes of verbes. Enriched so plentifully with wordes and phrases - (for the benefit of the studious in that language) as the like hath - not before bin published. Gathered and set forth by C. Hollyband. - For the better understanding of the order of the dictionarie peruse - the Preface to the reader. London, 1580. - - Campo di Fior, or the Flowery Field of four languages, Italian, - Latin, French and English. London, 1583. - - A Dictionarie French and English. Published for the benefite of the - studious in that language. Gathered and set forth by Claudius - Hollyband. London, 1593. - -HOWELL, JAMES: - - Lexicon Tetraglotton, and English, French, Italian, Spanish - Dictionary. Whereunto is adjoined a large nomenclature of the - proper terms (in all four) belonging to several arts and sciences, - to recreations, to professions both liberal and mechanick etc. - Divided into fifty-two sections. With another Vocabulary of the - choicest Proverbs.... London. Printed by J. G. for Cornelius Bee at - the King's Arms in Little Brittaine, 1660. - - Cf. COTGRAVE. - -HULOET. Cf. HIGGINS. - -KERHUEL, JEAN DE: - - Grammaire Francoise, composee par Jean de Kerhuel, Professeur de la - ditte Langue. A French Grammar.... 8vo. Printed for J. Wickins at - the Miter in Fleet Street, 1684. - -LAINE, PIERRE: - - A compendious Introduction to the French Tongue. Teaching with much - ease, facility and delight, how to attain and most exactly to the - true and modern pronunciation thereof. Illustrated with several - elegant expressions and choice Dialogues, useful for persons of - Quality that intend to travel into France, leading them, as by the - hand, to the most noted and principal places of that Kingdom. - Whereunto is annexed an alphabetical Rule for the true and modern - orthography of that French now spoken, being a catalogue of very - necessary words never before printed. By Peter Laine, a teacher of - the said tongue now in London. London. Printed by T. N. for Anthony - Williamson at the Queen's Arms in St. Paul's Churchyard, near the - West End. 1655. - -LAINE, PIERRE DE: - - The Princely way to the French Tongue, as it was first compiled - for the use of her Highness the Lady Mary and since taught her - royal sister the Lady Anne. To which is added a Chronological - abridgement of the sacred scriptures by way of dialogue. Together - with a longer explication of the French Grammar, Choice fables of - AEsop in Burlesque French, and lastly some models of letters French - and English, by P.D.L. 2nd ed. London. Printed by J. Macock for H. - Herrington etc., 1677. - - First ed. 1667. (No copy known.) - -LEIGHTON, HENRY: - - Linguae Gallicae addiscendae regulae. Collectae opera et industria H. - Leighton, A.M. Hanc linguam in celeberrima Academia Oxoniensi - edocentis. Oxoniae, 1659. - - Another ed. 1662. - -LISLE OF WILBRAHAM, WM.: - - Part of Du Bartas, English and French, and in his owne kinde of - verse, so near the French Englished, as may teach an Englishman - French, or a Frenchman English. Sequitur Victoria Junctos. By Wm. - L'isle of Wilburgham, Esquier for the King's Body. London. Printed - by John Hoviland, 1625. - -MAUGER, CLAUDE: - - The true advancement of the French Tongue, or A new Method, and - more easie directions for the attaining of it, then ever yet have - been published. Whereunto are added many choice and select - dialogues, containing not onely familiar discourses, but most exact - Instructions for Travell, in a most elegant style and phrase, very - useful and necessary for all gentlemen that intend to travel into - France. Also a chapter of Anglicismes, wherein those errors which - the English usually commit in speaking French are demonstrated and - corrected. By Claudius Mauger, late professor of the French Tongue - at Blois, and now teacher of the said Tongue here in London. - London. Printed by Tho. Roycroft for J. Martin and J. Allestry at - the Bell in St. Paul's Churchyard, 1653. - - Another ed.: Mr. Mauger's French Grammar. Enriched with severall - choise Dialogues containing an exact account of the State of - France, Ecclesiastical, civil, and Military, as it flourisheth at - present under King Louis the xivth. Also a chapter of Anglicisims, - with instructions for travellers into France. The second edition, - enlarged and most exactly corrected by the Authour, late professor - at Blois. London. Printed by R. D. for John Martin and J. Allestree - at the Bell in St. Paul's Churchyard, 1656. - - Third ed. London, 1658. - - Another ed. ... enriched with 50 new short dialogues. Containing - for the most part an exact account of England's Triumphs, with the - state of France ... as it flourisheth now since Cardinal Mazarin's - death. With a most curious and most ingenious addition of 700 - French verses upon the rules. Also a Chapter of Anglicisms, with - instructions for Travellers into France. Fourth ed. Exactly - corrected, enlarged and perused by the great care and diligence of - the author, late publick Professor of Blois, in France, for all - Travellers. London. Printed for John Martin ... 1662. - - Fifth ed. London, 1667. - - Another ed. ... Enlarged and Enriched with 80 new dialogues, both - familiar and high with compliments, and the exact pronunciation. - All digested in a most admirable order, with the State of - France.... Also a chapter of Anglicisms and Francisms. With 700 - French verses containing all the rules of the French Tongue. As - likewise the Generall Rules of the English Pronunciation. Sixth ed. - Exactly corrected by the author.... London. Printed for J. Martin - at the sign of the bell, and James Allestry at the Rose and Crown - in Paul's Churchyard, 1670. - - Another ed.: La Grammaire francoise de Claude Mauger expliquee en - Anglois, Latin et en Francois, enrichie de regles plus courtes et - plus substantielles qu'auparavant, comme du regime des verbes, de - la conjugaison de tous les irreguliers par toutes leurs personnes, - d'un Traite de l'accent etc. Et a la fin, d'un abrege des regles - generales de la Langue Angloise, en dialogues francois, outre ce - qui etoit dans la sixieme edition. La 7e. ed. Reveue et corrigee - par l'autheur . . . a Londres. Londres. Imprimee par T. Roycroft - pour Jean Martin et se vendent a l'enseigne de la cloche au - cymitiere de Sainct Paul. 1673. Claudius Mauger's French Grammar, - etc. - - Another ed., with additions: The "English Edition." London, Printed - by John Martyn, c. 1676. - - Eighth ed. Londres, J. Martyn, 1679. - - Tenth ed. Corrected by the author, now professor of the Languages - at Paris. London, 1682. - - Eleventh ed. London, T. Harrison, c. 1683. - - Twelfth ed. . . . avec des augmentations de Mots a la Mode d'une - nouvelle Methode et de tout ce qu'on peut souhaiter pour s'acquirir - ce beau Language comme on le parle a present a la cour de France. - Ou on voit un ordre extraordinaire et methodique pour l'acquisition - de cette langue, scavoir, une tres parfaite pronuntiation, la - conjugaison de tous les Verbes irreguliers, des Regles courtes et - substantielles, ausquelles sont ajoutez un Vocabulaire et une - nouvelle Grammaire Angloise pour l'utilite de tant d'estrangers qui - ont envie de l'apprendre. La douzieme edition exactement corrigee - par l'autheur a present Professeur des Langues a Paris. Londres. R. - E. pour R. Bently et S. Magnes demeurant dans Russel St. au Covent - Gardin. 1686. - - Thirteenth ed. ... Corrected by the author, late at Paris and now - at London. London, 1688. - - Fourteenth ed. ... Corrected and Enlarged by the author. London. - Sold by T. Guy at the Oxford Arms in Lombard Street. 1690. - - Sixteenth ed. ... exactly corrected and Enlarged by the Authour. - Late Professor of the Languages at Paris. London. R. E. for R. - Bently in Russel St. in Covent Gardin, 1694. - - Eighteenth ed. ... corrected and enlarged by the author. London, - for T. Guy, 1698. - - Nineteenth ed. ... corrected and enlarged by the Author, late - professor of the Languages at Paris. London, R. Wellington, 1702. - - Twentieth ed. ... Faithfully corrected from all the errors in the - former by a French Minister. London, R. Wellington, 1705. - - Twenty-first ed. ... with additions. London, R. Wellington, 1709. - - Mauger's Letters. Written upon several subjects, faithfully - translated into English, for the greater facility of those who have - a desire to learn the French Tongue. Corrected and Revised by the - author, formerly professor of French at Bloys, now at London. - London, 1671. - - Another ed.: Lettres Francoises et Angloises de Claud Mauger sur - Toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres avec augmentation de 50 - lettres nouvelles, dont il y en a plusieurs sur les dernieres et - grandes Revolutions de l'Europe. Tres exactement corrigee, polies - et ecrites, dans le plus nouveau stile de la cour, dans lesquelles - la purete et l'elegance des deux langues s'accordent mieux - qu'auparavant. Tres utiles a ceux qui aspirent au beau language, et - sont curieux de scavoir de quelle maniere ils doivent parler aux - personnes de quelque qualite qu'elles soient. Outre Quantite de - Billets a la fin du Livre, qui sont tres necessaires pour le - commerce. La seconde edition. Londres, imprimee par Tho. Roycroft - et se vendent chez Samuel Lowndes vis a vis de l'Hostel d'Exeter - dans la Strand. 1676. - -MEURIER, GABRIEL: - - La Grammaire Francoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres - et necessaires pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte langue - par Gabriel Meurier. . . . Anvers, 1557. - - Traicte pour apprendre a parler Francoys et Angloys. Rouen, Etienne - Colas, 1553. - - Communications familieres non moins propres que tresutiles a la - nation Angloise desireuse et diseteuse du langage Francois, par G. - Meurier. Familiare Communications no leasse proppre then verrie - proffytable to the Inglis nation desirous and nedinge the ffrenche - language, by Gabriel Meurier. En Anvers. . . . Chez Pierre de - Keerberghe sus le Cemitiere nostre Dame a la Croix d'or. 1563. - - Another ed.: Traite pour apprendre a parler Francois et Anglois: - ensemble un Formulaire de faire missives, obligations, Quittances, - Lettres de Change, necessaire a tous marchands qui veulent - trafiquer. A Treatise for to learne to speake Frenshe and - Englische, together with a form of making letters, indentures, and - obligations, quittances, letters of exchange, verie necessarie for - all Marchants that do occupy trade of Marchandise. A Rouen, chez - Jacques Cailloue, tenant sa boutique dans la Court du Palais. 1641. - -MIEGE, GUY: - - A New Dictionary French and English with another English and French - according to the present use and modern orthography of the French, - inrich'd with new words, choice phrases and apposite proverbs. - Digested into a most accurate method and contrived for the use of - both English and Foreiners, by Guy Miege, Gent. London. Printed by - T. Dawks for T. Basset at the George near Clifford's Inn in Fleet - Street, 1677. - - A New French Grammar or a New Method for learning of the French - Tongue. To which are added for a help to young beginners a large - vocabulary, and a store of familiar Dialogues, besides Four curious - discourses of Cosmography in French for proficient learners to turn - into English. By Guy Miege, Gent., author of the New French - Dictionary, professor of the French Tongue and of Geography. - London. Th. Basset.... 1678. - - A Dictionary of Barbarous French or a Collection by Way of Alphabet - of Obsolete, Provincial, Misspelt and Made Words in French. Taken - out of Cotgrave's Dictionary with some additions. A work much - desired and now performed for the satisfaction of such as read old - French. By Guy Miege, Gent., author of the New French Dictionary. - London, for Th. Basset, 1679.[1108] - - A Short and Easie French Grammar, fitted for all sorts of learners: - according to the present use and modern orthography of the French, - with some Reflections on the ancient use thereof. London, Th. - Basset, 1682. - - A Large Vocabulary English and French for the use of such as learn - French or English. London, Th. Basset, 1682. - - One Hundred and Fifteen Dialogues French and English fitted for the - use of learners. London, Th. Basset, 1682. - - A Short French Dictionary, English and French with another in - French and English, according to the present use and modern - orthography, by Guy Miege, Gent. London, for Th. Basset, 1684. - - Another ed. London, 1690. - - Another ed. The Hague, 1691. - - Fifth ed. The Hague, 1701. - - Another ed. 1703. - - Another ed. Rotterdam, 1728. - - The Grounds of the French Tongue, or a new French Grammar according - to the present use and modern orthography. Digested into an easy, - short and accurate Method with a Vocabulary and Dialogues. London, - for Th. Basset, 1687. - - The Great French Dictionary in two parts. The first part French and - English. The second English and French. According to the ancient - and modern orthography: wherein each language is set forth in its - greatest latitude. The various senses of words both proper and - figurative are orderly digested, and illustrated with apposite - phrases and proverbs. The hard words explained: and the proprieties - adjusted. To which are prefixed the Grounds of both Languages in - two Discourses, the one English, the other French, by Guy Miege, - Gent. London, for Th. Basset, 1688. - - Miege's last and best French Grammar, or a new Method to learn - French, containing the Quintessence of all other Grammars, with - such plain and easie rules as will make one speedily perfect in - that famous language.... London, W. Freeman and A. Roper, 1698. - - Another ed., the second. London, J. Freeman, 1705. - -MORLET, PIERRE: - - Janitrix sive Institutio ad perfectam linguae Gallicae cognitionem - acquirendam. Authore Petro Morleto Gallo. Oxoniae, excudebat - Josephus Barnesius, 1596. - -PALSGRAVE, JOHN: - - Lesclarcissement de la langue francoyse compose par maistre Jehan - Palsgrave Angloys natyf de Londres et gradue de Paris. 1530. [Col.] - The printing fynysshed by Johan Hawkyns, the xviii daye of July. - The yere of our lorde God M.C.C.C.C.C. and XXX. - -S., J.: - - A short method for the Declyning of Ffrench Verbes etc., by J. S., - _c._ 1623. - -SALTONSTALL, WYE: - - Clavis ad Portam, or a key fitted to the gates of tongues. Wherein - you may readily find the Latine and French for any English word, - necessary for all young schollers. [Oxford?] Printed by Wm. Turner, - 1634. (Bound with the 1633 edition--London--of Anchoran's - Comenius.) - -SANFORD, JOHN: - - Le Guichet Francois. Sive janicula et brevis introductio ad linguam - Gallicam. Oxoniae. Excudebat Josephus Barnesius, 1604. - - A briefe extract of the former Latin Grammar, done into English for - the easier instruction of the Learner. At Oxford. Printed by Joseph - Barnes, and are to be sold in Paules Churchyard at the signe of the - Crowne by Simon Waterson. 1605. - -SHERWOOD, ROBERT: - - The Frenche Tutour, London, Humphrey Lownes, 1625 (no copy known). - - The French Tutour by way of grammar exactly and fully Teaching all - the most necessary Rules for the attaining of the French tongue, - whereunto are also annexed three Dialogues; and a touch of French - compliments all for the furtherance of Gentlemen, Schollers and - others desirous of the said language. Second ed. carefully - corrected and enlarged by Robert Sherwood, Londoner. London, - Printed by Robert Young, 1634. - - Dictionnaire Anglois-Francois. 1632. Cf. COTGRAVE. - -SMITH, J.: - - Grammatica Quadrilinguis, or brief Instructions for the French, - Italian, Spanish and English Tongues, with the Proverbs of each - Language fitted for those who desire to perfect themselves therein. - By J. Smith, M.A. Printed for J. Clarke at the Star, in Little - Britain, and J. Lutton at the Anchor in Poutry. London, 1674. - -THORIUS, J. Cf. CORRO. - -VAIRASSE D'ALLAIS, DENYS: - - A short and methodical introduction to the French tongue, composed - for the particular benefit and use of the English. Paris, 1683. - -VALENCE, PIERRE: - - Introductions in Frensche for Henry the Yonge Erle of Lyncoln - (childe of greate esperaunce), sonne of the most noble and - excellente pryncesse Mary (by the grace of God queene of France - etc.). [No date or place.] - -VERON, JOHN: - - Dictionariolum puerorum, tribus linguis, Latina, Anglica et Gallica - conscriptum. Latino gallicum nuper ediderat Rob. Stephanus - Parisiis, cui Anglicam interpretationem adiecit Joannes Veron. - London, John Wolfe, 1552. - -VILLIERS, JACOB: - - Vocabularium Analogicum, or the Englishman speaking French, and the - Frenchman speaking English. Plainly showing the nearness or - affinity betwixt the English, French and Latin. Alphabetically - digested. With new and easy directions for the attaining of the - French tongue, comprehended in rules of pronouncing, rules of - accenting and the like. To which is added the explanation of - Mounsieur de Laine's French Grammar by way of dialogue set forth - for the special use and encouragement of such as desire to be - proficients in the same language. The like not extant. By Jacob - Villiers, Master of a French School in Nottingham. London, printed - by J. D. for Jonathan Robinson, at the Golden Lion, and George - Wells, at the Sun in St. Paul's Church yard, 1680. - -WODROEPH, JOHN: - - The spared houres of a souldier in his travels, or The true marrowe - of the French Tongue, wherein is truly treated (by ordre) the nine - parts of speech, together with two rare and excellent bookes of - Dialogues, the one presented to that illustrious prince Count Henry - of Nassau, in his younger yeares for his Furtherance in this - tongue, newly reviewed and put in pure French Phrase (easie and - delightfull) from point to point; and the other formed and made - (since) by the Authour himselfe. Added yet an excellent worke, very - profitable for all the ages of man, called the Springwell of Honour - and Vertue, gathered together very carefully, both by ancient and - Moderne Philosophers of our Tyme. With many Godly songs, sonets, - Theames, Letters missives, and sentences proverbiales: so orderly, - plain and pertinent, as hath not (formerly) beene seene in the - most famous Ile of great Britaine. By John Wodroephe, Gent. Les - Heures de relasche. . . . Imprime a Dort, Par Nicolas Vincentz, - Pour George Waters, Marchant Libraire, demeurant pres le Marche au - Poisson, a l'Enseigne des Manchettes dorees. 1623. - - Second edition: The Marrow of the French Tongue, containing: - - 1. Rules for the true pronunciation of every letter as it is - written or spoken. - - 2. An exact Grammar containing the nine parts of speech of the - French Tongue. - - 3. Dialogues on French and English, fitted for all kind of - discourse for courtiers, citizens, and countrymen, in their affairs - at home or travelling abroad. - -With variety of other helps to the learner as Phrases, Letters missive, -sentences, proverbes, Theames, and in both languages. So exactly -collected and compiled by the great paines and industry of M. John -Wodroephe, that the meanest capacity either French or Englishman, that -can but reade, may in a short time by his owne industry without the -helpe of any Teacher attaine to the perfection of both languages. Ce -livre est aussi utile pour le Francois d'apprendre l'Anglois que pour -l'Anglois d'apprendre le Francois. The second edition. Reviewed and -purged of much gross English, and divers errors committed in the former -edition printed at Dort. London. Printed for Rd. Meighen at the signe of -the Leg in the Strand, and in St. Dunstan's Churchyard in Fleet Street, -1625. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1106] Licensed to Harrison (Arber, _Stationers' Register_, i. 364); -assigned over to Th. Woodcock by Harrison's widow, 1578 (_ibid._ ii. -331). - -[1107] Based on Bathe's _Janua Linguarum_ in Latin and Spanish, 1611. - -[1108] Sometimes bound with the Dictionary of 1677. - - - - -INDEX - - -_The names of those who taught French or wrote French grammars are -marked with an asterisk._ - - *A., E., 277, 280 - - *Abadie, J. G. d', 388 - - A B C of Geneva, 132 - - _A B C for Scottes men_, 154 - - Academie francaise, 110 _n._, 192, 193, 305, 354, 355, 357, 388 - - Academies, 120 _sq._, 231, 296 _sq._, 345, 397 _sq._; - academies in France, 352, 357, 363 _sq._; - Protestant academies in France, 232 _sq._, 343 _sq._ - - Addison, Joseph, 218, 220, 370 _n._ - - Aesop, in French, 294, 382 - - Aimar de Ranconnet, 190, 230 _n._ - - Alexander, Sir Wm., 250, 255 - - Alexandre, Pierre, 118 - - Alexis, Guillaume, 101 - - Allen, Cardinal, 217 - - _Amadis de Gaule_, 85, 194 _n._, 196, 223 - - Amyot, Jacques, 196, 199 - - *Anchoran, J. A., 295 - - Ancients and Moderns, quarrel of, 391 - - *Andre, Bernard, 68, 75, 76 - - Angers, 205, 346, 351 - - Anglo-French, 18 _sq._, 26 - - Anne, Queen of England, 381, 389 _n._ - - Anne of Cleves, 72 - - Anvers, 241 _sq._, 244, 245, 279 - - Arithmetic, 139, 154, 399 - - Ascham, Roger, 64, 73, 120, 146, 182, 183, 184, 216, 275 _n._, 286, 335 - - Ashley, Robert, 151, 129 - - Astell, Mary, 395, 398 - - Aubigne, Agrippa d', 65 _n._, 197, 356 - - *Aufeild, Wm., 260 _n._, 284 _sq._, 292 - - Aulnoy, Mme. d', 367 _n._ - - Auteuil, 201 - - - Bacon, Anthony, 234 - - Bacon, Francis, 66, 118 _n._, 194 _n._, 212, 219, 221 _n._, 224, 273, - 275, 288, 355 _n._ - - Bacon, Nicholas, 118 _n._, 120 - - Balzac, Guez de, 309, 355 - - Banister's Academy, 399 - - *Barbier, Jean, 294 - - *Barclay, Alexander, 4, 34, 62, 65, 69 _n._, 77 _sq._, 123, 144, 237, - 240 - - *Baret, James, 187 _sq._, 189, 192 - - Barkley, Lady Elizabeth, 268 - - *Barlement, Noel de, 241 _sq._, 246, 279 - - Baro, Pierre, 119 - - *Barton, Jehan, 27 _n._, 32 _sq._, 38, 78 - - Basset, James, 213, 214 - - *Baudouin, Jean, 275 - - Bayle, Pierre, 391 - - Baynton, Andrew, 87 _n._, 91, 96, 100, 105, 106 - - Beal, Sir Robert, 201 - - _Beau, Character of the_, 376 _n._, 377 _n._ - - _Beau, The Compleat_, 376 - - _Beau, The Defeated_, 374 _n._, 378 _n._ - - Beaux, 235 _sq._, 247, 321, 357 _sq._, 370 _n._, 375 _sq._, 378, 394 - - Belleau, Remi, 174 - - Belleforest, Francois de, 196 - - *Bellemain, Jean, 107 _sq._, 112, 113 - - Bellerose, 380 - - *Bellot, Jacques, 156 _sq._, 168, 172, 185, 186 _n._, 196, 202, 265, - 266, 277, 280 - - *Bense, Pierre, 204 - - *Berail, Gilles, 156 - - *Berault, Pierre, 300, 388 _sq._ - - Beze, Theodore de, 196, 197, 202, 234 - - *Bibbesworth, Walter de, 11 _sq._, 16, 28, 38, 40, 264 - - Bignon, Jerome, 66 _n._, 273 - - Blois, 218, 227 _sq._, 235, 241, 282, 284, 301 _sq._, 325, 342, 344, - 350, 351, 352, 359 - - Blount, Th., 263 - - *Bod, Charles, 155 _n._ - - Bodin, Jean, 197, 199. 273 _n._ - - Bodley, Sir Th., 234 - - Boiasteau, Pierre, 195, 196 - - Boileau, 218, 220 _n._, 355 - - Boisrobert, 259 _n._, 273 _n._ - - Boleyn, Anne, 71, 72, 83, 95 - - Booksellers and French teachers, 129, 138, 163 - - Bossuet, 364 - - Bouhours, le Pere, 220 _n._, 394 - - Bouillon, Duchesse de, 367 - - *Bourbon, Nicolas, 83, 89 - - Bourges, 241, 351 - - *Boy, Francis, 149 - - Boyle, Richard, 200 - - Bozon, Nicolas, 8 _n._ - - Brantome, 273 _n._ - - Bretons: teach French, 325, 326 - - Brinsley, John, 179 _n._, 351 - - Brome, Rd., 298, 374 _n._ - - Buck _Third Universitie_, 169 _n._ - - Buckingham, George Villiers, first Duke, 227, 262, 285, 298, 396; - second Duke, 364, 373 - - Bullar, Colonel, 304 - - Burghley, Wm. Cecil, Lord, 119, 121, 123, 187, 191, 211, 215, 217 - - Burgundians, 115, 119, 145, 168 _sq._, 241 - - Busby, John, 306 - - *Bushell, Abraham, 155 - - Bussy, le Comte de, 321 - - Butler, Mr., 360 - - Butler, Samuel, 371 _n._, 372 _n._, 376 _n._ - - - Caen, 156, 159, 239, 351 - - Calvin, Jean, 66, 84, 107, 108, 112, 195, 328 - - Camden, Wm., 66, 71, 194 _n._, 212, 274, 276 - - Cameron, John, 249 - - _Campo di Fior_, 143 _n._, 145, 159, 185 - - Canterbury, French school at, 120 _sq._ - - Capell, Sir Arthur, 216 - - Carew, Richard, 212, 340 - - Carleton, Dudley, 217, 247 - - Cartularies, 42 - - Casaubon, Isaac, 118, 150, 234 _sq._, 259, 273 _n._ - - Castellion, dialogues of, 182, 294 - - Castiglione, Baptista, 73 _n._ - - Catechism, in French, 130, 147, 153, 295, 339, 382, 389 - - _Catechism, The Ladies'_, 369 _n._, 375 - - Caxton, Wm., 42 _sq._, 47, 48, 54, 55, 56, 201, 246, 279 - - Chamberlain, John, 247 - - _Champ fleury_, 100 - - Chappuzeau, 390 - - Charenton, 259, 346, 363 - - Charles I., 170, 185, 194 _n._, 203, 207, 248, 255, 261 _sq._, 271, - 272, 276, 280, 296, 298, 319, 323 _n._, 339, 348, 362, 363, 396, 397 - - Charles II., 70 _n._, 205, 207, 262, 263, 272, 295, 298, 308, 329, 330, - 344, 348, 362 _sq._, 366, 367, 368, 371, 372, 373, 374, 376, 377 _n._, - 380 - - Charpentier, 391 - - Chartier, Alain, 101 - - Chaucer, Geoffrey, 18, 19 - - Cheking, John, 105 - - *Chemin, Nicholas, 149 - - *Cheneau, Francis, 382 - - Chesterfield, Lord, 319 _n._ - - *Chevallier, A. R., 112, 119, 150 _n._ - - *Chiflet, Laurent, 230 _sq._, 353, 385 - - Children and study of French, 12, 32, 38 _sq._, 52, 55, 212 _sq._, 239, - 242, 295 _sq._, 331, 338 _sq._, 340, 341 _sq._, 357, 365, 371 _n._, - 382, 395 - - Church, use of French in the, 24 - - Churches: foreign, in England: Dutch, 116 _sq._; - French, 116 _sq._, 145 _sq._, 151, 155 _sq._, 159, 167, 169, 295, - 299, 309, 310, 328 _sq._, 339, 389; - Italian, 146; - Walloon, 117; - Protestant, in France, 363. _See_ Charenton - - Cibber, Colley, 376 _n._, 378, 380 _n._ - - Clarendon, Ed. Hyde, Earl of, 209, 210 _n._, 218, 345, 352, 357, 361, - 364, 373, 392, 393, 395 - - Cleland, James, 182, 197, 293, 393 - - Clinton, Lady, 333 - - *Codrington, Rt., 294, 295 - - *Cogneau, Paul, 289 _sq._, 327 - - *Cokele, John, 149 - - Colet, John, 62, 182, 183, 215 - - College de Navarre, 213, 276 - - Colleges: in France, 357; - English Roman Catholic, in France, 232; - Protestant, in France, 232, 345 - - Collet, Claude, 196 - - *Colson, Wm., 282 _sq._ - - *Colsoni, F. C., 388 - - Comedians. _See_ Theatre - - Comenius, 293, 294 _sq._, 338, 339 - - Commercial French, 42, 53, 65, 169 _n._, 243, 245, 307, 399. _See_ - Merchants - - Commines, Philippe de, 196, 197, 199 - - Commonwealth, 262, 296, 298, 315, 333, 341, 361, 366 - - Coningsby, Sir Th., 247 - - Cooks, French, 370 - - Cordano, Girolamo, 62, 72 _n._ - - *Cordell, M., 220 - - Cordier, Mathurin, 181, 255, 294, 334, 390 - - Corneille, Pierre, 220 _n._, 271, 273, 293, 309, 323, 364 - - Corneille, Th., 318 - - Cornwallis, Sir Wm., 127, 284 - - Correspondence: use of French in, 17, 23, 66, 69, 71 _sq._, 108, 259, - 260, 262, 299 _n._, 319 _sq._, 342, 353 - - *Corro, Antonio de, 202 - - Coryat, Tom, 63, 221, 235 - - Cosmo III. of Tuscany, 63 - - Costeker, J. L., 358, 393 - - *Cotgrave, Randle, 190 _sq._, 240, 245, 275, 281, 285, 288, 321 _n._, - 333, 383 - - Cotterel, Sir Ch., 307 _n._ - - Courtesy book, 47, 52 - - Courtin, French ambassador, 308, 362 _n._, 367 - - Cowley, 364, 365 - - Coxe, Leonard, 100 - - *Coyfurelly, Canon, 10, 35, 38 - - Cranmer, 83, 112, 118, 120 - - Cromwell, Secretary, 81, 83, 98, 105, 119, 120 - - Cromwell, Gregory, 80, 105, 119 - - *Curlew, Nicholas, 149 - - - Daines, Simon, 275 _n._, 278 - - Dallington, Sir Rt., 65 _n._, 221 _n._, 222 _sq._, 225, 226, 231, 261 - _n._, 348 - - Dancing, 94, 137, 209, 231, 232, 261, 267, 282, 298, 299, 303, 332, - 342, 346, 357, 359, 369, 371, 397, 398 - - Dancing-master: French, 369, 370, 375, 376 - - Danneau, Lambert, 77 - - *Darvil d'Arras, Ch., 155 _n._ - - Davenant, Sir Wm., 263 _n._, 364, 365, 380 - - Defoe, Daniel, 225 _n._, 394, 398 - - *Deger, Anness, 170 - - *De la Barre, 246 _n._ - - *De la Mare, 299 - - *De la Mothe, G., 119, 161 _sq._, 183, 184, 186, 200, 225, 265, 279, - 290, 291, 292 - - De la Porte: epithets, 117 - - *Denisot, Nicolas, 83 _sq._, 89, 293 - - Descartes, 395, 398 - - Despagne, Jean, 328, 329 - - Desportes, 174, 250, 356 - - Dialects, French, 27, 28, 54, 144, 145, 169, 241, 326 - - Dialogues: French, 36 _sq._, 43 _sq._, 48 _sq._, 93, 102, 124, 130 - _sq._, 135, 137 _sq._, 164 _sq._, 176, 193, 206, 241 _sq._, 254, 267, - 282, 291, 294, 299 _n._, 302 _sq._, 305, 309, 313 _sq._, 317, 324, 347, - 349, 385, 386, 389; - Latin, 145, 181, 185, 294 - - Dictionaries: French and English, 95, 122, 141, 168, 187 _sq._, 192, - 199, 253, 281, 383 _sq._; - Latin, influence on French, 122, 187, 189, 190, 293, 383 - - Digby, Sir John, 203 - - Diplomacy: use of French in, 7, 22, 23, 65, 67, 70 _n._, 169 _n._, - 260, 392, 393 - - Doctors, French, 259 _n._, 369 - - _Donait_, 30 _sq._, 33 - - Douay, 129, 217 _n._, 232 - - Doujat, Jean, 273 - - *Dove, R., 31 - - Drama: French influence, 364, 378 - - Drummond of Hawthornden, 195, 220 _n._ - - Dryden, 321, 357, 372, 374, 378, 379 - - Du Bartas, 65 _n._, 151, 174, 175, 177, 185, 186, 196, 250, 276, 322, - 356 - - Du Bellay, 84, 196 - - *Du Buisson, 148 - - *Du Gres, Gabriel, 205 _sq._, 351, 352, 395 _n._ - - Du Moulin, Pierre, senior, 207, 259 - - Du Moulin, Pierre, junior, 200, 357 - - Du Perron, Cardinal, 259 - - *Du Plantin, 149, 150 - - Du Plessis, 360 - - Duplessis-Mornay, 66 _n._, 233, 357 - - *Du Ploich, 129 _sq._, 143, 145, 200, 225, 240, 243 - - Dutch, 115 _sq._, 119, 169 _n._, 209, 227, 240 _sq._, 280, 326, 394. - _Cp._ Netherlands - - _Dutch Tutor_, 169 _n._ - - *Du Terme, Laur, 288 _sq._, 290, 291 - - Du Val, Claude, 350 - - *Du Val, J. B., 230 - - *Du Val, M., 343 - - Du Val, Pierre, 213 - - *Duwes, Giles, 4, 77, 86 _sq._, 113, 123, 132 _n._, 133, 144, 171, 264 - - - Edward VI., King, 66, 72, 83, 107 _sq._, 111, 112, 113, 114, 116, 118, - 123, 130, 134, 180, 212 _n._ - - Effiat, Marquis d', 66 - - _Elementarie_, 62 _n._, 184, 278 - - Eliot, Sir John, 217 - - *Eliote, John, 65, 127 _sq._, 179, 180, 232, 288 _n._, 347 _n._ - - Elizabeth, Queen, 64 _n._, 66, 67, 73, 74, 95, 108 _sq._, 110 _sq._, - 113, 115, 117, 123, 140, 141, 146, 147, 151, 156, 160, 196, 215, 240, - 247, 277, 287, 339 _n._ - - Elizabeth Stuart, Princess, 151, 175, 249, 260 - - Ellwood, Th., 298 - - Elyot, Sir Th., 92, 182, 183, 184, 187 _n._, 335 - - English language, 4, 7, 18, 21, 23, 48, 62, 66, 89, 129, 141, 145, 171, - 192, 241 _sq._, 262, 264, 269, 270, 272 _sq._, 281, 288, 308, 310, 334 - _n._, 368, 384, 390 _n._, 392, 397; - taught in France, 353, 354, 397; - broken English, 171, 236 _sq._, 374, 376, 378; - grammars of the, 159, 276 _sq._, 281, 306, 312, 334 _n._, 385, 386, - 389 - - English literature, 190 _n._, 274 _sq._ - - Englishmen: judged by foreigners, 20, 117 _sq._, 367; - write in French, 365, 366 _n._, 378 _n._ - - English teachers of French, 99, 123, 144, 152, 159, 168, 171 _sq._, - 180, 283 - - Epistolaries, 17 _sq._, 35, 42 - - *Erail, Evrard, 155 _n._ - - Erasmus, 62, 64 _n._, 65 _n._, 104, 112 - - *Erondell, Pierre, 196, 264 _sq._, 269 _n._, 277 _n._, 292 - - _Esclarcissement, l'_, 3, 61, 78 _n._, 86 _sq._, 190, 264. - _See_ Palsgrave - - Essex, Rt. Devereux, Earl of, 234 - - Estienne, H., 66 _n._, 273 _n._ - - Estienne, Rt., 122, 189 - - Etherege, Sir George, 371 _n._, 374 _n._, 376, 378, 394 - - Eton, 120 - - _Euphues_, 216 _n._, 263 - - Evelyn, John, 218, 221, 264, 293, 294, 328, 329, 330, 340, 350 _n._, - 351, 362 _n._, 363, 365 _n._, 367 _n._, 368 _n._, 371 _n._, 372, 380, - 394 - - "Exercises," 231, 352, 395, 398 - - Expenses of travellers, 232, 343, 349 - - - *Fabre, John, 268 - - *Fabri, Philemon, 207 - - Farquhar, George, 208, 372 _n._, 374 _n._, 376 _n._, 378, 380 _n._ - - *Farrear, Rt., 204 - - Fashions, French, 68, 71, 236 _sq._, 303, 321 _n._, 358. 361, 369, 371, - 372, 373, 376, 377 - - Fees of French teachers, 139, 179, 206 _n._, 308 _n._ - - _Femina_, 28 _sq._, 39 _n._, 40, 52 - - Fencing, 231, 232, 282, 346, 360, 371 _n._ - - *Festeau, Paul, 299, 301, 304, 312 _sq._, 323, 325, 361, 381, 388 - - Field, Rd., 162, 163 - - Finett, Sir John, 260 - - Flecknoe, Rd., 370 _n._, 371 _n._, 372, 377 _n._, 378 _n._ - - Flemings, 115, 127, 152 _n._, 169, 241, 255. _Cp._ Netherlands - - Flemish, 45, 62, 241 _sq._, 246, 260, 280 - - *Florio, John, 65, 127, 201, 239 _n._, 254, 261, 275, 276 _n._ - - *Fontaine, Rt., 155 _n._, 156, 168 - - Foreigners visit England, 6, 61, 63, 66, 74, 114 _sq._, 124 _sq._, 259, - 277 _sq._, 281, 304, 308, 313, 327, 368 _sq._ - - Foubert's Academy, 345, 399 - - _France, Survey of_, 177 - - Francois I. of France, 68, 69, 71, 73, 93 - - Francois de Valois, 159 - - _Frans and Englis_, 201 - - _French Alphabet_, 162 _sq._, 184, 225 _n._, 265, 279, 290, 292 - - _French Conjuror_, 370 _n._, 372 _n._, 378 _n._ - - _French Garden_, 264 _sq._ - - _French Littleton_, 136 _sq._, 141, 142 _sq._, 160, 277, 290, 292 - - _French Methode_, 161, 266 _n._ - - _French Schoolemaister_, 135 _sq._, 140, 142 _sq._, 199, 246, 268, 269, - 277, 290, 292 - - _French Schoolmaster_, 381 _n._ - - _French Tutor_, 168 - - _French Tutour_, 281 _sq._ - - Froissart, 21, 23, 101, 196 - - - Gailhard, J., 219, 224 _n._, 346, 351 _n._ - - _Galaunt, Treatyse of a_, 237 - - Gallants. _See_ Beaux - - *Ganeur, Onias, 155 _n._ - - Garlande, John de, 5, 7, 24 - - Garnier, Jean, 201 - - Garnier, Philippe, 230 - - Garnier, Robert, 194 _n._ - - Gascoigne, George, 142 - - Gascons, 326 - - Geneva, 233 _sq._, 249, 326, 343 _n._, 344, 345 - - _Gentleman's Companion_, 219 - - Geography, 383, 385, 388, 398 - - *Gerbier, Sir Balthazar, 222 _n._, 260 _n._, 275 _n._, 297, 345 - - German language, 62, 73 _n._, 121, 169 _n._, 230 _n._, 236, 242 _sq._, - 279, 295, 354 - - Germans, 123 _n._, 326 - - Germany, 211, 219, 220 - - Gibbon, 358 _n._ - - *Giffard, James, 292 - - Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 121 - - Glapthorne: _The Ladies' Privilege_, 237 - - Goldsmith, 321 _n._ - - Gomberville, de, 309 - - _Good Boke to lerne Frenshe_, 47 _sq._, 54 _sq._ - - Governors. _See_ Tutors - - _Governour, The_, 92, 182, 183 _n._ - - Gower, 18, 19 - - Grammar: rules of French, 9, 10, 13, 31 _sq._, 77 _sq._, 80, 82, 88 - _n._, 89 _sq._, 92, 132, 143 _sq._, 157 _sq._, 265 _sq._, 286, 288, - 290, 305, 386 - - Grammont, le Comte de, 366, 369, 371, 373 - - Grantham, Th., 335, 337, 341 - - *Grave, Jean de, 295 _sq._ - - Greek, 64 _n._, 73, 74, 84, 88, 92, 120, 121, 153, 188, 190, 210, 239, - 276, 293, 298, 305, 335 _n._, 337, 338 _n._, 394, 398, 399 - - Greene, Rt., 178, 194 _n._, 215, 275 - - Grelot, Jerome, 260 - - Grenville, Fulke, 128 - - Grevin, Jacques, 65 _n._, 273 _n._ - - Grey, Lady Jane, 64 _n._, 73 _n._ - - Grey, Lord of Wilton, 202, 208 - - Grocyn, 62 - - Guide-books for travellers: in England, 273 _n._, 321, 369, 388, 396 - _n._; - in France, 221 _sq._, 347 _sq._ - - - *H. T., Parisiis Studentis, 11, 35 - - Hainault, 38, 145, 241 - - Hakluyt, Rd., 269 - - Halkett, Lady Anne, 332 - - Hall (chronicler), 236 - - Hall, Joseph, 216, 237 _n._, 238, 274 - - Hamilton, Anthony, 365 _sq._, 373 - - Hamilton, Miss, 373 - - Harley, Lady Brilliana, 195, 210 - - Harrison (chronicler), 64 _n._, 216 - - Harrison, Lucus, 187, 188 - - Harvey, Gabriel, 199 - - Hawes, Stephen, 68 - - *Hawmells, Gouvert, 169 - - Hebrew, 153, 169 _n._, 398 - - Henrietta Maria, 261 _sq._, 269 _sq._, 276, 280, 323 _n._, 332, 362, - 364 - - Henry III. of France, 159 - - Henry IV. of France, 66, 235, 247, 260, 261, 274, 362 - - Henry VII. of England, 68, 75, 103 - - Henry VIII. of England, 4, 22, 62, 66, 68 _sq._, 71, 72, 75, 76, 86, - 90, 96, 97, 101, 103, 112, 114, 130, 212, 213, 237 _n._ - - Henry Stuart (Prince), 186, 191, 260 _sq._, 298 - - *Henry, Jean, 140 - - Hentzner (traveller), 74, 112 _n._ - - Herberay des Essarts, 85, 194 _n._, 196, 223 - - Herbert, George, 238 - - *Herbert, Guillaume, 291, 324 _sq._, 361 - - Herbert, Sir Henry, 271, 272 - - Herbert, Wm. (poet), 268 - - Herbert of Cherbury, Lord, 186, 187, 194, 199, 218, 220, 224, 235, 271 - - Herbert of Swansea, Lord, 142 - - Heylyn, Peter, 348, 351 _n._ - - Higden: _Polychronicon_, 15, 24 - - Higford, Wm., 209, 210 _n._, 216 _n._, 366 - - *Higgins, John, 189 _sq._, 192 - - Hobbes, 220, 264, 265, 394 - - *Holyband, 56, 119, 134 _sq._, 156, 157, 159, 160, 162 _n._, 163, 164 - _n._, 166, 168, 169, 171, 176, 179 _n._, 183, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190, - 195, 196, 197, 199, 202, 204, 225, 240, 241, 246, 250, 253, 264, 265, - 268, 269, 277, 280, 281, 283, 285, 290, 292, 293, 301, 304 - - Hoole, Charles, 182 _n._, 186, 189, 334, 337 _n._, 395 _n._ - - Hotman, Francois, 66 - - *Hotman, Jean, 200 - - Howard, Katherine, 72 - - Howell, James, 192 _sq._, 197, 212 _n._, 218 _n._, 221 _n._, 240, 285, - 330, 351, 355, 374 _n._, 383 - - Huguenot. _See_ Refugees - - _Huloet's Dictionarie_, 189 - - Hume, P., 313 - - Humphrey: _The Nobles_, 115 _n._, 118, 238 _n._ - - Hutchinson, Mrs., 332 - - - Inns of Court, 188, 203, 209, 210, 219, 344 - - _Institution of a Gentleman_ (Higford), 209, 210 _n._, 216 _n._, 366 - - _Institution of a Nobleman_ (Cleland), 182, 197, 293, 393 - - Institutions, educational. _See_ Academies, Colleges, Schools, - Universities - - Italian, 64, 65, 68, 73, 74, 84, 88, 112, 120, 121, 145, 165, 169 _n._, - 171, 185, 186, 192, 195, 199, 201, 203 _n._, 204, 209, 212, 217, 218, - 220, 230 _n._, 236 _sq._, 241 _sq._, 254, 261, 263 _sq._, 273, 276 - _n._, 279, 280, 286, 296, 307 _n._, 331, 333, 338 _n._, 339, 371 _n._, - 377, 382, 388, 392, 394, 398, 399 - - Italy, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216 _sq._, 219, 220, 221, 236, 244, 348, - 358, 360 - - - James I., 151, 186, 190 _n._, 232 _n._, 249, 259 _sq._, 275 _n._, 298, - 396 - - James II., 248 _n._, 262, 362, 373, 374, 381, 400 - - _Jardin de Vertu_, 160, 185, 186 _n._ - - Jermyn, Lord, Earl of St. Albans, 362, 365 - - Jodelle, Etienne, 196 - - Jonson, Ben, 220, 237, 278 - - Justel, Henri, 367, 368 _n._ - - - Katherine of Aragon, 71, 73 - - Katherine of Braganza, 374 - - *Kerhuel, Jean de, 388 - - Kerouaille, Mlle. de, Duchess of Portsmouth, 362 _n._, 373, 380 - - Killigrew, Henry, 364, 380 _n._ - - Kilvert, Mrs., 300, 302, 303 - - Kynaston, Sir Francis, 296 - - - La Bruyere, 275 - - La Calprenede, 309, 318, 320, 321, 333, 364 - - La Fontaine, 338, 367 - - *Laine, Pierre, 315 _sq._, 323, 328, 347, 355 _n._, 361, 362 _n._ - - *Laine, Pierre de, 381 _sq._, 397, 399 - - Lake, Sir Th., 151 - - Lambeth fragment, 81 _sq._, 132 _n._ - - La Mothe le Vayer, 273, 293 _n._ - - Langland, Wm., 19 - - *Langlois or Inglishe, 153 _sq._, 156 _n._ - - Languet, Hubert, 63, 66 _n._, 217, 221 - - La Serre, 342 _n._, 349 - - Latimer, 62, 63 - - Latin and French, 4, 5, 8, 9, 24, 33, 42, 87, 89, 104, 153, 180 _sq._, - 201, 212, 213, 221, 227, 228, 231, 236, 241 _sq._, 246, 248, 263, 276, - 284, 286, 287, 288, 292 _sq._, 296, 305, 316, 326, 331 _n._, 333 _sq._, - 335, 337 _sq._, 341, 342, 351, 353, 354, 376, 386, 390, 391 _sq._, 394, - 395, 397; - use and study of, 62 _sq._, 65, 66, 68, 72, 73, 74, 88, 92, 106, 111, - 112, 119, 120, 121, 127, 130, 132, 139, 151, 171, 198, 208, 210, 234, - 239, 259 _sq._, 273, 298, 351, 356, 376, 382, 397, 399; - text-books, 5 _n._, 106, 139, 145, 181, 185, 279, 293, 334 - - Latini, Brunetto, 7, 26 - - Law French, 22, 30, 61, 64, 165, 321 - - Le Blanc, Abbe, 23 _n._, 369, 378, 394 - - Le Fevre (chemist), 367 - - Le Fevre, Raoul, 46 - - Le Grand, Antoine, 309, 310 - - *Le Grys, Sir Rt., 263 - - Leicester, Rt. Dudley, Earl of, 83, 172, 200 - - Leicester, Countess of, 262 - - Leigh, Ed., 204, 350 _n._ - - *Leighton, Hy., 203 _sq._, 208 - - *Lemaire, Mary, 170 - - Lemaire de Belges, 101 - - Le Mans, 360 - - *Le Moyne, Guy, 207, 262, 285 _n._ - - *Le Pipre, Paul, 148 _sq._ - - Le Roy, Louis, 151 - - Letters: model French, 17, 35, 245, 255, 306 _sq._, 331, 349, 354, 390 - - Lewis, Mark, 334 _n._, 395 _n._, 398 _n._, 399 - - Lewisham, French school at, 140 - - _Liber Donati_, 30 _sq._ - - Lily's Grammar, 181, 334 _n._ - - Linacre, 62, 215 - - Lincoln, Earl of, 80 - - Lindsey, Montagu Bertie, Earl of, 327 - - Lisle, Lady, 213, 214, 237 _n._ _See_ Basset - - Lisle of Wilbraham, 185 - - Lister, Martin, 348 - - Literature, French, study of, 24, 57, 101, 174, 194 _sq._, 199, 220 - _n._, 221, 223, 229, 231, 248, 250, 261, 267, 289, 309, 317, 319 _sq._, - 330, 333, 342, 347, 349, 356, 390, 395, 398 - - _Livre des Mestiers_, 45 _sq._ - - Locke, 219, 337, 338, 345 _n._, 349, 393, 395 - - L'Oiseau de Tourval, 190, 275 - - Lorris, G. de, 101 - - Louis XII. of France, 70, 104 - - Louis XIII. of France, 274, 372 - - Louis XIV. of France, 230 _n._, 305, 373 - - *Louveau, Jean, Sieur de la Porte, 150 - - *Love, John, 129, 170 - - Loveday, Rt., 333, 398 - - *Lydgate, John, 34 - - Lyly, John, 216, 263 - - - Maids, French, 264, 303, 332, 369, 370, 374, 375 - - Maintenon, Mme. de, 361 - - Makin, Mrs. Bathsua, 332, 334 _n._, 339, 395 _n._, 397, 398 - - Malebranche, 218, 395, 398 - - Malherbe, 364 - - Malpet, John, 351 - - _Maniere de Langage_, 26 _n._, 35 _sq._, 38, 39, 40, 42, 47, 52 - - Margaret of Navarre, 71, 74, 84, 111 - - Margaret of Savoy, 69 - - Margaret of Scotland, 101 - - Marie de Medicis, 230, 262 - - Marillac (ambassador), 72, 73 - - Marot, Clement, 83, 174, 196 - - Marseilles, 357 - - Marsilliers, Pierre de, 153 - - *Martin, Martin, 149 - - Mary I. of England, 72, 73, 86, 89, 90, 93 _sq._, 101 _sq._, 109, 112, - 113, 115, 116, 156, 233, 327 - - Mary II. of England, 371 _n._, 381, 382 - - Mary Tudor, Queen of France, 69, 70, 71, 80, 81, 86, 94, 101, 104, 105 - - *Mason, Baudouin, 155 _n._, 156 _n._ - - Mason, George, 279 - - *Masset, Jean, 230 - - *Massonnet, Peter, 262 _sq._ - - Mathematics, 283, 315, 360, 398, 399 - - *Mauconduy, 353 - - *Mauger, Claude, 246, 300, 301 _sq._, 313, 314, 315, 317, 323, 325, - 326, 328, 331 _n._, 347, 352, 353, 361, 368, 370 _n._, 381, 385, 388 - - *Maupas, Charles, 227 _sq._, 230, 282, 284 _sq._, 287, 301, 302, 353, - 356 - - *Maupas, junior, 228 _sq._ - - Maupertuis, 395 _n._ - - Mayerne, Theodore, 259 _n._ - - Mazarin, Duchesse de, 367, 380 - - Mecklenburg, Duke of, 301, 305 - - Meigret, Louis, 110 _n._, 226 - - Melville, James, 153 - - Melville, Sir James, 73, 212 _n._ - - Menage, Gilles, 353 - - Merchants: study of French by, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41 _sq._, 49, 50, 53, - 55, 124, 137, 141, 169 _n._, 239 _sq._, 253, 299, 400 - - Meschinot, Jean, 101 - - Meteren, Immanuel von, 62 - - Methods of studying French, 56, 82, 90 _sq._, 133, 139, 143 _sq._, 166 - _sq._, 177, 179 _sq._, 184 _sq._, 195, 206, 222 _sq._, 225 _sq._, 228, - 231, 250 _sq._, 267, 283, 286 _sq._, 289, 290 _sq._, 296, 308 _sq._, - 314, 317, 326, 330 _sq._, 346, 349, 354, 355 _sq._, 386 _sq._, 395 - _sq._ - - *Meurier, Gabriel, 244 _sq._, 273 _n._, 279, 280 - - Middleton, Th., 263 _n._ - - *Miege, Guy, 309, 334 _n._, 337 _n._, 382 _sq._, 388, 391 - - *Milleran, Rene, 354 _sq._ - - Milton, 64, 194, 214, 264, 298, 333, 334 _n._, 392 - - Minsheu, J., 169 _n._, 383 _n._ - - Misson, M., 396 _n._ - - Moliere, 373 - - Monluc, 197, 342 _n._ - - Montaigne, 20, 127, 183, 261, 335 - - Montauban, 232, 233, 249, 344 - - Montausier, Mme. de., 365 - - Montchretien, 259, 268 - - Montjoy, Christopher, 125, 162 - - Montpellier, 232, 233, 234, 345, 365 _n._ - - Montpensier, Mlle. de, 262, 263 - - More, Sir Th., 62, 83, 104, 105, 120, 236, 274 - - *Morlet, Pierre, 201, 202, 205 - - Morrice, Th., 171, 212, 292 - - Moryson, Fynes, _Itinerary_, 198, 214, 221, 223 _sq._, 225, 235, 237 - _n._, 239, 350 _n._ - - Motteville, Mme. de, 262 _n._ - - Mulcaster, Rd., 62 _n._, 64 _n._, 142, 184, 188, 216 _n._, 225, 275, - 278 - - Muralt, 230, 372 _n._ - - Music, 94, 120, 121, 147, 209, 214, 267, 299, 303, 322, 332, 342, 346, - 359, 371; - French music, 395, 397, 398 - - - Nantes, Edict of, 170, 233, 343, 345, 382, 400 - - Nash, 236, 237 _n._, 238 - - Neckam, Alexander, 5, 7, 24 - - Netherlands, 45, 75, 76 _n._, 115, 211, 239, 249, 283, 312; - French taught in the Netherlands, 240 _sq._; - teachers from the Netherlands, 152, 169 - - Newcastle, Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of, 329, 332 - - New Testament: in French, 130, 137, 153, 167, 186, 195, 196, 197, 222, - 268, 289, 298, 310, 317, 318, 382 - - Newton, Th., 156 - - Nicot, 189, 190, 230 _n._, 244 _n._ - - Nimes, 232, 233, 234 - - _Nomenclator_, of Adrian Junius, 189 - - _Nominale_, 16, 28 - - Normans in England, 47, 81, 112, 145, 146, 156, 161, 265, 326 - - Norton, Th., 268 - - Nottingham: French school at, 396 - - Nucius, Nicander, 62, 66, 117 - - - Ordinaries, 355, 370, 377, 392 - - Orleans, 27, 35, 37, 38, 221, 226, 230, 232, 235, 241, 301, 310, 345, - 350, 351, 352, 355 - - _Orthographia Gallica_, 8 _sq._, 38 - - Orthography, French, 8 _sq._, 10 _sq._, 31, 35, 78, 87, 109 _sq._, 137, - 165, 283, 305, 316, 326, 328, 354, 383, 384 - - Osborne, Dorothy, 318 _sq._, 333 _n._ - - Osborne, Francis, 197, 218, 223 _n._, 245, 276 - - Ossory, Lord, Duke of Ormond, 120, 364 - - *Oudin, Antoine, 229 _sq._, 249 - - Oudin, Cesar, 229 - - Overbury, Sir Th., 221, 237 _n._, 238 _n._ - - - *Palairet, J., 338 - - Palmer, Herbert, 207 - - Palmer, T., 221 - - *Palsgrave, J., 3 _sq._, 57, 61, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 86 _sq._, 123, - 128, 153, 166, 171, 176 _n._, 177, 180, 190, 212, 232, 264, 293 - - *Papillon, 300 - - Parker, Matthew, 119 - - Parr, Katherine, 64 _n._, 72, 108, 111, 112 - - Pasqualigo, Piero, 68 - - Pasquier, Etienne, 75, 154 _n._, 192 - - Passports, 215, 216, 219 _n._ - - Paston, Rt., 316 - - Pastors: French, 116, 150, 328, 332, 342, 343, 360, 388, 389 _n._ - - Patin, Guy, 362 _n._ - - Peacham, Th., 213 - - Peiresc, 66 _n._ - - Peletier du Mans, 66, 110 _n._, 175, 227, 316 - - Penn, Wm., 307, 322 _n._, 358 - - *Penson, M., 301 - - Penton, Samuel, 216 _n._, 224 _n._, 345, 346 - - Pepys, Samuel, 23 _n._, 208, 321 _sq._, 330 _sq._, 340, 353, 358, 370, - 371 _n._, 375, 377 _n._, 379, 394 - - Pepys, Mrs., 209, 321, 380 - - Perlin, Etienne, 81, 116 _n._, 117, 118 _n._, 210 _n._ - - Pettie, George, 237 _n._ - - Petty, Sir. Wm., 239, 337 _n._ - - *Philippe, J. T., 338 - - Philipps, Katherine, 307 _n._, 323 - - Pibrac, 66 _n._, 186, 196, 250, 261 - - Picard, 103, 144, 169 - - Pillot, 202, 227 - - Pleiade, 84, 158 - - Poitiers, 344, 345, 357 - - Pope, Alex., 319 - - Port Royal, 310 - - Portuguese grammar, 374 _n._ - - _Positions_, 64 _n._, 216 _n._, 225 _n._ - - Poulet, Sir Amias, 65, 200, 212, 215 - - *Poullain, Valerand, 150 - - Prayers in French, 130, 135, 137, 153, 268, 295, 310, 382, 389 - - Precieuses, 323, 324 - - *Preste, John, 156 _n._ - - *Primont, Vincent, 148, 149 - - Pronunciation, of French, 8 _sq._, 28 _sq._, 33, 79, 82, 87, 89, 110, - 132, 137, 141, 143, 157, 164 _sq._, 175 _sq._, 206, 224, 227, 228, 231, - 236, 253, 265 _sq._, 283, 285, 288, 290, 302, 305, 316, 330 _sq._, 355, - 381, 390 - - Protestants. _See_ Refugees - - Proverbs, 107, 124, 135, 137, 166, 180, 356, 384, 390 - - _Purchas Pilgrimes_, 212, 221, 237 _n._ - - Purfoote, Th., 138, 141 - - Puttenham _Arte of Poesie_, 70 _n._ - - Pynson, Rd., 47 _sq._, 53 _sq._, 56, 94 _sq._, 97 _sq._, 201, 279 - - - Rabelais, 83, 174, 176, 273 - - Racine, 220 - - Raleigh, Sir Walter, 217 _n._, 220, 367 _n._ - - Rambouillet, Mlle. de, 365 - - Rambouillet, Hotel de, 364 - - Ramus, Petrus, 175, 202 - - Ramsay, Chevalier de, 366 _n._ - - Ravenscroft, Ed., 392 - - Readers: in French and English, 134, 160, 185, 186 _n._, 187, 276, 306, - 307, 311, 353, 389 _n._ - - Reading. _See_ Methods - - Refugees, 61, 75, 114 _sq._, 122, 125, 129, 146 _sq._, 149, 153, 155 - _sq._, 161, 169 _sq._, 173, 200, 207, 240 _sq._, 301, 329, 396, 400 - - Register of aliens, 159, 163, 170 - - Regnier-Desmarais, 273 - - Religious Houses: use of French in, 23, 61 - - Religious instruction in French, 147, 181. _Cp._ New Testament, Prayers - - Reresby, Sir John, 220, 224, 298, 359, 364, 373 - - Rheims, 232 - - Rhetoriqueurs, 158 - - Richelieu, Cardinal, 192, 206, 357 - - Richmond, Hy. Fitzroy, Duke of, 105, 212 - - Riding, 231, 261, 282, 346 - - *Rieu, Pierre de, 149 - - *Robone, Jean, 148, 149 - - *Rolland, Alexander, 154 - - Roman Catholics (teachers), 115, 129, 169, 170 - - _Roman de Jehan et Blonde_, 21 - - _Roman de la Rose_, 98, 101 - - _Roman de Renart_, 20, 21 - - Romances, French, 120, 193, 195, 264, 309, 318, 319 _sq._, 346, 349, - 395, 398 - - Ronsard, 65 _n._, 84, 174, 196, 273 _n._, 356 - - Rouen, 156 _n._, 244, 245, 247, 277, 280, 343, 349, 350, 359, 364 - - Rowe, John, 152 - - *Rowland, Francis, 149 - - *Rowsignoll, Nicholas, 149 - - Russel, Colonel, 313 - - Rutland, Roger, 5th Earl of, 234 - - Rutledge, J., 352 _n._, 370 _n._ - - Rutter, Joseph, 293 - - - Sackville, Rt., 140, 200 - - Saint Amant, 259 _n._, 273 _n._ - - Saint Amour, M. de, 353 - - Saint Gelais, Octovian de, 101 - - Saint Evremond, 366, 367 _sq._ - - Saint Malo, 341 - - *Saint Maurice, Alcide de, 348 _n._, 353, 357 _n._ - - St Paul's Churchyard, 129, 135, 138, 140, 156, 159, 161, 163, 168, 170, - 202, 225, 301 - - Salons, 323, 367 - - *Saltonstall, Wye, 203, 295 - - *Sanford, J., 202 _sq._, 208 - - *Saravia, Adrian, 150 _sq._, 239 - - Saumur, 205, 232, 233, 249, 310, 344, 345, 350, 351, 352, 354, 359 - _sq._ - - Savile, Sir Hy., 221, 344 _sq._, 382 - - Scaliger, 63, 65 _n._ - - Scarron: _Roman Comique_, 317, 318 - - Schelandre, Jean de, 259 _n._, 273 _n._ - - Scholars: attitude to French, 63, 128, 198 _sq._, 208, 271, 337, 392, - 393 _sq._ - - _Scholemaster, The_, 146 _n._, 182, 183 _n._, 216 _n._, 275 _n._, 287 - _n._ - - _Schoolmasters, Apologie for._ _See_ Morrice - - Schoolmistresses, 170 - - Schools: Grammar Schools and French, 4, 5, 15, 24, 40, 127 _sq._, 149, - 152 _sq._, 171, 180, 182, 189, 209, 210, 292, 335, 341, 395 _n._, 396; - private schools and French, 40, 219, 298, 335, 339, 395 _sq._, 397 - _sq._; - French schools, 129 _sq._, 134 _sq._, 150 _sq._, 153 _sq._, 179 _n._, - 183, 192, 225, 243, 247, 255, 281, 299, 375, 396; - French Church Schools, 145 _sq._, 150; - Protestant Schools in France, 232, 343, 345; - Scotch Schools and French, 152 _sq._ - - Scotland: French in schools of Scotland, 152 _sq._; - tutors, 212 _n._; - French Grammars in Scotland, 154, 288 - - Scudery, Georges de, 193, 271, 299 _n._ - - Scudery, Mlle, de, 309, 318, 320, 321, 323, 347, 348 _n._, 364 - - Sedley, Ch., 371 _n._, 374 _n._, 376 _n._, 377 _n._, 378, 392 _n._, 394 - - Selden, John, 66 _n._, 274 - - Seymour, Anne, Jane, and Margaret, 84 - - Seymour, Jane (Queen), 72, 95, 214 - - Shadwell, Th., 370, 371 _n._, 378 _n._ - - Shakespeare, 64, 65, 69, 125 _sq._, 162, 194 _n._, 209 _n._, 236, 237, - 255, 272 _n._ - - Sheridan, 396 _n._ - - *Sherwood, Rt., 192, 278, 281 _sq._, 285, 298, 347 _n._ - - Shrewsbury School, 128, 224 - - Sidenham, Sir Humphrey, 248 - - Sidney, Sir Philip, 63, 128, 129, 197, 213, 217, 220 _sq._, 224, 247, - 275 - - Singing, 69, 267, 300, 342, 369, 371 _n._, 397 - - Singing-master, French, 375 - - Smith, Hy., 208 - - *Smith, John, M.A., 388 - - Smith, Sir Th., 124, 277 _n._ - - Snell, George, 334 _n._, 337 - - Soldiers and French, 197, 238, 246 _sq._, 260, 400 - - Somerset, Protector, 66, 84, 105, 107, 112 - - Sorbiere: _Voyage en Angleterre_, 321, 322, 364, 368 _n._ - - Sorel: _Francion_, 333 - - Southampton: French School at, 150 - - Spain, 215, 217, 358 - - Spaniards, 371 _n._ - - Spanish, 64, 65, 72 _sq._, 121, 164, 169 _n._, 171, 186, 192, 199 _n._, - 202, 203 _n._ 204, 209, 212, 218, 220, 230 _n._, 236 _sq._, 241 _sq._, - 263, 273, 279, 280, 294, 331, 374, 388 _n._, 399 - - Stanhope, Sir Michael, 284 - - Strafford, Lord, 264 - - Suffolk, Brandon, Duke of, 69, 80, 81, 94, 105 - - Swift, 22, 376 _n._, 392 _n._ - - Swiss teachers, 326, 382 - - Sylvester, Joshua, 151, 186, 194 _n._, 237 _n._, 239 - - Sylvius, 4 _n._, 76, 110 _n._, 137 _n._, 226 - - - Tailors, French, 369, 371 - - Teachers of French criticised, 173, 250, 266, 325 _sq._, 387 - - Temple, Sir Wm., 318, 320 - - Theatre: French comedians in England, 68, 270 _sq._, 379; - Frenchmen at the Cockpit, 368; - English players abroad, 274 - - Thierry, J., 189 - - *Thorius, 202 - - Torriano, 64 _n._, 286 - - Tory, Geoffrey, 100 - - Toulouse, 357 - - Tours, 310, 351, 357, 359 _n._ - - Townsend, A., 220, 235 - - _Tractatus Orthographiae_, 10, 11 - - Translations: French, of English and Latin writings, 178, 194, 269, - 277 _n._, 319, 320, 323, 355, 390 _n._, 394 - - Travel and Travellers, 35 _sq._, 43, 51, 137, 169 _n._, 210, 211 _sq._, - 242 _sq._, 247, 282, 284, 287, 317, 320, 336, 340, 341 _sq._, 359, 361, - 363 _sq._, 371, 384, 387 _n._, 397 - - *Tresol, Adrian, 155 _n._, 156 _n._ - - *Tressol, A., 156 _n._ - - Trevisa, John of, 24 - - Tryon, Th., 395 _sq._ - - Turberville, S., 299 - - Turler, Jerome: _Traveiles_, 221 _n._ - - Turner, Dr. Wm., 64 _n._ - - Tutors, travelling, 212, 215, 219, 220, 222, 224, 231, 248, 346, 355, - 359 - - - Udal, Nicholas, 64 _n._ - - Universities, English: and the French language, 6, 7, 15, 24, 40 _n._, - 75, 118, 186, 195, 198 _sq._, 261, 262, 281, 295, 296, 345, 388, 392, - 393 _n._, 394 - - Universities, French: English students at, 5, 6, 27, 77, 104, 172, 210, - 213, 226, 232, 345, 357 - - Utenhove, John, 150 - - - *Vairasse d'Allais, Denys, 353 _sq._ - - *Valence, Pierre, 77, 80 _sq._, 205 _n._ - - Valets, French, 309, 350, 355, 358, 359, 369, 370, 376, 377, 378, 379 - - Vanbrugh, Sir John, 364, 365, 374 _n._, 376 _n._, 378 - - Vaquerie, Jean, 155 _n._ - - *Varennes, C. de, 349 - - Vaugelas, 353, 364, 385 - - Vaughan, Stephen, 98 - - Vautrollier, Th., 160, 162, 163, 245 _n._ - - Verneuil, Jean, 200 _n._ - - Verney, Sir Ralph, 220, 248, 264, 298, 341 _sq._ - - Veron, John, 122, 150 _n._, 187, 189 - - Verone, John, 122 - - Versification, French, 158 - - Viau, Theophile de, 259 _n._, 356 - - Villars, Marechal de, 273 - - *Villiers, Jacob, 388, 396 _sq._ - - Vincent, Samuel, 371 _n._, 377 _n._, 392 - - Vives, 145, 175, 181, 185, 268 _n._ - - Vocabularies, 5, 11 _sq._, 16, 28, 36, 38, 40, 52, 88, 91, 135, 137, - 177, 241 _sq._, 245 _n._, 279, 280, 302, 304, 314, 316, 385, 390, 397 - - Voiture, 259 _n._, 273 _n._, 355, 365 - - Voltaire, 117, 365 _n._, 366 - - Vossius, 367 - - - Waddington, Ralph, 187 - - Wadington, Wm. of, 19 - - Waiting-women, French. _See_ Maids - - Walker, O.: _Of Education_, 220 _n._, 221 _n._ - - Waller, Edmund, 364, 367 - - Walloons, 115, 127, 144, 168, 254, 326 - - Wallop, Sir Hy., 123, 162 - - Walsingham, 119, 211, 213 - - Watts, Th., 399 - - Webbe, Joseph, 331, 334 _n._, 335 - - Webster, John, 336 - - Wenman, Sir Rd., 162, 200 - - Wharton, Sir Philip, 123, 156 - - William III., 312, 368, 400 - - William of Wykeham, 23 - - Williamson, Sir Joseph, 207, 208, 344 - - Wilson: _Arte of Rhetorique_, 120, 238 _n._ - - Withers, Hy., 234 - - *Wodroeph, 225 _n._, 240, 246, 248 _sq._, 276, 298, 350, 397 - - Wolley, Ed., D.D., 298 - - Wolsey, Cardinal, 69, 70, 94, 104 - - Women, and study of French, 12, 22, 27, 64 _n._, 70, 214, 225, 239, - 244, 263 _sq._, 299, 304, 306, 308, 323, 324, 334 _n._, 337, 339, - 342, 373 _sq._, 378, 395, 397 _sq._; - the Frenchified lady, 22, 374 _sq._ - - Wood, Anthony A., 200, 204 - - Wotton, Sir Henry, 120, 234 - - *Wotton, Rev. Henry, 339 - - Writing, 119, 130, 139, 147, 262, 298, 299, 332, 399 - - Wroth, Sir Th., 157 - - Wuertemberg, Duke of, 66, 74 - - Wycherley, 364, 365, 370 _n._, 376, 377 _n._, 378 - - Wykeham, Wm. de, 23 - - Wynkyn de Worde, 47 _sq._, 53 _sq._, 56, 201, 237, 279 - - - Yver, Jacques, 196 - - - Zouche, Lord, 142 _sq._, 234 - - -THE END - - - _Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_. - - - - -FRENCH - -MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY FRENCH SERIES - - -No. I. LES OEUVRES DE GUIOT DE PROVINS. POETE LYRIQUE ET SATIRIQUE - - Edited by JOHN ORR, M.A., _Professor of French Language, University - of Manchester_. Demy 8vo. =10s. 6d. net.= - - "This is an excellent edition of the complete works of a French - poet of the time of Philippe Auguste.... If we mistake not, this - edition is the first old French text published in England having no - immediate bearing upon English history. There have been some such - texts published ... elsewhere, but none, I believe, of this - importance, nor any edited with this degree of thoroughness or this - wealth of illustrative commentary."--Professor T. A. JENKINS, - Chicago, in _Modern Philology_. - -No. II. OEUVRES POETIQUES DE JEAN DE LINGENDES - - Edited by E. T. GRIFFITHS, M.A., _Late Lecturer in French Language - and Literature in the University of Manchester_. Crown 8vo. Cloth. - =6s. net.= - - "Cette reimpression fait honneur aux publications de l'Universite - de Manchester, et l'execution typographique merite les memes eloges - que l'information savante de l'editeur."--L. ROUSTAN in _Revue - critique d'histoire et de litterature_. - -No. III. THE TEACHING AND CULTIVATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE IN ENGLAND -DURING TUDOR AND STUART TIMES, WITH AN INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ON THE -PRECEDING PERIOD - - By KATHLEEN LAMBLEY, M.A., _Sometime Assistant Lecturer in French - in the University of Manchester; Lecturer in French in the - University of Durham_. =14s. net.= - - - THE MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS - 12 LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD - LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY - LONDON, NEW YORK, BOMBAY, ETC. - - - - -_MODERN LANGUAGE TEXTS_ - - -_FRENCH SERIES_ - -ROUSSEAU. DU CONTRAT SOCIAL. Edited by Emeritus Professor C. E. VAUGHAN, -M.A. Paper, 5s. net; cloth, 6s. net. - -ALFRED DE VIGNY. POEMES CHOISIS. Edited by E. ALLISON PEERS, M.A. Paper, -3s. 6d. net; cloth, 4s. 6d. net. - -PASCAL. LETTRES PROVINCIALES. Edited by H. F. STEWART, D.D. Paper, 7s. -6d. net; cloth, 8s. 6d. net. _Also an edition de luxe on hand-made -paper._ 21s. net. - -B. CONSTANT. ADOLPHE. Edited by Professor G. RUDLER, D. es L. 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Edited by JOHN LEES, M.A., Ph.D. [_In the Press._ - - - THE MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS - 12 LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD - LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY - LONDON, NEW YORK, BOMBAY, ETC. - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -Corrections: - -"Lord Burghly" which appears from p. 211 to p. 217 was normalised to -"Lord Burghley" as elsewhere in the book. - -The first line indicates the page or the note number and original text, -the second the corrected text. - - p. x: Travelers at the French Universities - Travellers at the French Universities. - - p. 37: il dira tout courtoisenent - il dira tout courtoisement. - - p. 39: le roy d'Angliterre est oste - le roy d'Angleterre est oste. - - p. 39: Maris, oy, il y avoit tant de presse - Marie, oy, il y avoit tant de presse. - - p. 160: a wastefull, a riotious and - and an outrageous spender - - a wastefull, a riotious and - an outrageous spender. - - p. 166: deligently gathered and faithfully set - diligently gathered and faithfully set. - - p. 176: Qe-heur et-til? - Qel-heur et-til? - - p. 237: a thing easily gotton - a thing easily gotten. - - p. 239: For instance Sir Willam Petty - For instance Sir William Petty. - - p. 241: Lesquelles choses considererees - Lesquelles choses considerees. - - p. 252: de leurs prouesses, entreprinses - de leurs prouesses, entreprises. - - p. 398: accomodated to the grammar - accommodated to the grammar. - - p. 411: Qui peut aissi - Qui peut aussi. - - p. 414: of Nacsia and Paros in the Archipeligo - of Nacsia and Paros in the Archipelago. - - p. 414: ou hormis d'autres discours curieus - ou hormis d'autres discours curieus. - - p. 423: se vendent a l'enseigne - se vendent a l'enseigne. - - n. 126: E. J. Furnival - E. J. Furnivall. - - n. 433: the Picard or Bourgonions - the Picard or Bourgignions. - - n. 671: H. Glapthorne, "The Ladies Privilege" - H. Glapthorne, "The Ladies' Privilege." - - - Errata list: - - p. 41: "pernes" should be "prenez" ("Sir pernes le hanappe"). - - p. 43: "comnencier" should be "commencier" ("Veul comnencier"). - - p. 92, n. 230: "The Boke of the Governour" appears as "The Boke named - the Governour" in n. 462. - - p. 104: "Sir Thomas More, writing to Erasmus in 1617" should be "Sir - Thomas More, writing to Erasmus in 1517." - - p. 137-138: the small cross below the unsounded letters in the - quotation does not always correspond to modern pronunciation. The - original has been retained. - - p. 283, n. 361: Liege should be Liege. - - p. 293: "to read an script" should be "to read a script." - - n. 126, 313: Author "E. J. Furnivall" should be "F. J. Furnivall." - - n. 276: "congnoissance" should be "cognoissance" ("la congnoissance - des histoires"). - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Teaching and Cultivation of the -French Language in England during Tudor and Stuart Times, by Kathleen Lambley - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TEACHING AND CULTIVATION *** - -***** This file should be named 40617.txt or 40617.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/6/1/40617/ - -Produced by Ian Deane, Ethan Kent, Eleni Christofaki and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/American -Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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