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+Project Gutenberg's The Industrial Arts in Spain, by Juan F. Riaño
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: The Industrial Arts in Spain
+
+Author: Juan F. Riaño
+
+Release Date: May 3, 2012 [EBook #39602]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN SPAIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images available at The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Typographical errors have been corrected (see list following text0.) No
+attempt has been made to correct or normalize the spelling of place or
+personal names. A letter symbolized in this manner [=D] indicates that it is
+pictured in the text with a line over it. One symbolized in this manner [A=]
+indicates it is pictured in the text with a line under it. The caret character
+(^) indicates a superscript follows. (note of etext transcriber.)
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: image of the book's cover
+
+Spanish Arts
+
+BY
+
+JUAN F. RIAÑO.]
+
+
+
+
+FREDERICK P. PRITCHARD
+
+SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS.
+
+SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ARTS.
+
+_This Volume, forming one of the Series of Art Handbooks issued under
+the authority of the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, has
+been prepared by_ SEÑOR JUAN F. RIAÑO, _of Madrid, whose Catalogue of
+Art Objects of Spanish production in the South Kensington Museum, issued
+in 1872, has proved of great value and interest._
+
+_April, 1879._
+
+
+
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS
+IN SPAIN.
+
+BY
+
+JUAN F. RIAÑO.
+
+WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Published for the Committee of Council on Education,_
+
+BY
+
+CHAPMAN AND HALL, LIMITED,
+
+LONDON.
+
+1890.
+
+RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED,
+
+LONDON AND BUNGAY.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+GOLD AND SILVER WORK 1
+
+IRON WORK 58
+
+BRONZES 68
+
+ARMS 79
+
+FURNITURE 109
+
+IVORIES 126
+
+POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 143
+
+GLASS 228
+
+TEXTILE FABRICS 250
+
+LACE 271
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+NO. PAGE
+
+1. Votive Crown of King Swinthila, Madrid 7
+
+2. Leaf of Triptych in Cathedral of Seville 17
+
+3. Processional Cross, 15th century, South Kensington Museum 20
+
+4. Chalice, 16th century, S.K.M. 30
+
+5. Chalice, 17th century, S.K.M. 31
+
+6. Pax, 16th century, S.K.M. 33
+
+7. Jewel, 17th century, S.K.M. 35
+
+8. Silver Dish, 17th century, S.K.M. 36
+
+9. Breast Ornament set with emeralds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 37
+
+10. Breast Ornament set with diamonds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 39
+
+11. Moorish Keys in Cathedral of Seville 60
+
+12. Nail heads, S.K.M. 66
+
+13. Moorish Lamp, Archæological Museum, Madrid 72
+
+14. Tenebrarium in Cathedral of Seville 75
+
+15. Monstrance, dated 1537, S.K.M. 77
+
+16. Sword of Boabdil, Villaseca Collection, Madrid 85
+
+17. Moorish Dagger, 15th century 89
+
+18. Rapiers, 16th and 17th centuries, S.K.M. 97
+
+19. Breastplate, formerly in Bernal Collection 98
+
+20. Saddle of the Cid--Armoury, Madrid 99
+
+21. Muskets 100
+
+22. Botica de los Templarios, from Toledo, S.K.M. 114
+
+23. Vargueño Cabinet, 16th century, S.K.M. 121
+
+24. Ivory cylindrical box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 128
+
+25. Ivory rectangular box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 129
+
+26. Ivory Casket, Moorish, 11th century, Cathedral of Pamplona 131
+
+27. Cross of King Ferdinand I., Archæological Museum, Madrid 136
+
+28. Samian Bowl 144
+
+29. Plateau, (probably of Valencia), S.K.M. 152
+
+30. Moorish Vase at the Alhambra 155
+
+31. Tile, (probably from the Alhambra) 157
+
+32. Hispano-Moresco Vase, 14th or 15th century, S.K.M. 159
+
+33. Hispano-Moresco Plateau with raised ribs and studs,
+ 15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 160
+
+34. Hispano-Moresco Salver, 15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 161
+
+35. Wine Jar, "Tinaja," S.K.M. 164
+
+36. Brim of Well from Toledo, S.K.M. 166
+
+37. Earthenware Bowl, Talavera ware, S.K.M. 174
+
+38. Earthenware Plaque, Alcora ware, S.K.M. 194
+
+39. Marks and Signatures of Painters who worked at Alcora 204--210
+
+40. Room decorated with Buen-Retiro porcelain in
+ the Palace at Madrid 217
+
+41. Vase, Buen Retiro porcelain, S.K.M. 220
+
+42. Marks used at the porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro 221--223
+
+43. Glass Vase, 16th century, S.K.M 232
+
+44. Pilgrim's Bottle, Glass, 17th century, S.K.M. 233
+
+45. Glass Bottle, modern, S.K.M. 237
+
+46. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 238
+
+47. Glass Vase, Cadalso, 17th century, S.K.M. 239
+
+48. Vase, Green glass with black handle and ribs,
+ 17th century, S.K.M. 242
+
+49. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 245
+
+50. Tapestry at Cathedral of Gerona, 11th century 267
+
+_The Department of Science and Art is indebted to_ MR. JOHN MURRAY _for
+the use of the Woodcuts Nos. 19, 20, 30, and 31. No. 50 is from a
+Spanish Woodcut._
+
+
+
+
+SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ART.
+
+
+
+
+GOLD AND SILVER WORK.
+
+
+The Greek and Latin authors who have described the Spanish Peninsula,
+state that the quantity of gold and silver ore found there was very
+great, and that hence the district became an important centre of
+commercial activity of Phœnicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans.
+Some authors have gone so far as to assert that the Phœnicians made
+the anchors of their ships of gold and silver, and that the
+Carthaginians were astonished to find in Andalusia, that the mangers and
+vases for holding wine and oil were made of the same materials. These
+references have been constantly mentioned in ancient Spanish authors.
+Ambrosio de Morales, in his "Antiguedades de España," Alcala 1577,
+enters into every detail on this subject.
+
+I have seen a specimen of this period, a bowl of an earlier and
+different style to Roman silversmiths' work, which belongs to a
+collector in the province of Cordova. This bowl is of a conical shape:
+it is perfectly plain, and has an inscription in Iberian characters
+engraved on one of its sides: there are signs outside and at the bottom
+which indicate that this bowl was made on the wheel. Velazquez in his
+"Ensayo sobre las letras desconocidas," Madrid, 1752, describes a silver
+bowl of a similar kind, which was found in Andalusia in 1618 full of
+Iberian coins: this bowl weighed ten ounces. Several ornaments, chiefly
+consisting of necklaces and earrings, may be studied at the Academy of
+History, and private collections, in Madrid; they have been classified
+by antiquarians as belonging to this uncertain period, and are similar
+in style to others which have been frequently found in England and the
+north of Europe. The most interesting objects of this kind which I have
+seen in Spain, are gold ornaments proceeding from Galicia; they were
+found there by Sr. Villaamil, who gave a description of them in the
+"Museo Español de Antiguedades," vol. iii. p. 545.
+
+The information and remains which have reached us illustrating silver
+and gold work of the Roman domination are more important; we find,
+however, in this and similar artistic industries that, as a general
+rule, the Romans imposed their style and system on the inhabitants of
+the countries which they conquered, and it is not easy to point out any
+one example which can be given as an exception to this general rule. It
+is, undoubtedly, a fact that objects of all kinds in gold and silver
+were used in Spain to a very great extent--for, notwithstanding the
+destruction of ages, we still possess inscriptions which allude to
+silver statues, and a large number of objects in the precious metals
+exist in museums and private collections. See "Inscrip. Hisp. lat.," by
+Dr. Emile Hübner, Berlin, 1869. Of these it will be sufficient to
+mention one of the most important. It is known in the province of
+Santander by the name of the dish of Otañez; and belongs to a gentleman
+who lives in that locality. It was found at Otañez at the end of the
+last century, buried in a stone quarry. This dish is made of silver, it
+weighs thirty-three ounces, and is covered with an ornamentation of
+figures in relief, some of which are gilt, representing an allegorical
+subject of the source of medicinal waters. In the upper part is a nymph
+who pours water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects it in a vessel;
+another gives a cup of it to a sick man; another fills with it a barrel
+which is placed in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two mules. On
+each side of the fountain are altars on which sacrifices and libations
+are offered. Round it is the inscription: SALVS. VMERITANA, and at the
+back is engraved, in confused characters, the words: L. P. CORNELIANI.
+PIII....
+
+Another very interesting silver dish may be seen at the Academia de la
+Historia, Madrid. Although not of Spanish manufacture, it deserves
+special notice in a description of works of this style. This dish was
+found in 1847, buried in a field at Almendralejo, province of
+Estremadura: it is 28-6/8 English inches in diameter, and weighs 533
+ounces. It is ornamented with fine figures in relief, representing the
+Emperor Theodosius appointing a magistrate. The emperor is seated on his
+throne in the centre, at the sides are his sons Arcadius and Honorius,
+with four soldiers of the guard, and the magistrate, who receives the
+volume. In the lower part there is an allegorical representation of a
+nymph holding the horn of abundance, winged angels, and ears of wheat,
+probably alluding to the abundance and plenty of the empire. Round the
+rim is the following inscription:--
+
+ D. N. THEODOSIVS PERPET.
+ AVG OB DIEM FELI CISSIMVM.
+
+At the back, in points, are the following Greek words.
+
+ [Greek: POS N MET ποc ↑Ν ΜεΤ]
+
+We can form a very good idea of the jewel work of the Visigothic period
+from the discovery of the treasure of Guarrazar. These jewels were found
+in 1858 at the village of this name, six miles from Toledo, on the spot
+where, in the Visigothic period, a Christian sanctuary had existed. The
+objects found, which may be seen at the Museum of Cluny, Paris, and
+Armeria Real, Madrid, constitute the most important collection in Europe
+of the jewel work of that period. No less than eleven votive crowns,
+some of extraordinary magnificence; two crosses with inscriptions, and
+a large number of fragments of all kinds, of gold and precious stones,
+were found at Guarrazar. Unfortunately a great part of the treasure has
+been lost, for the labourers, who were the first to find it, sold
+several objects to the silversmiths at Toledo, who melted and destroyed
+specimens of the highest artistic interest. Those that remain in Spain
+are--
+
+At the Royal Armoury of Madrid: A gold crown of Swinthila inlaid with
+precious stones, with pendent cross, and inscriptions of letters hanging
+from it: SVINTHILANVS REX. OFFERET. See woodcut on p. 7. A similar crown
+of Theodosius, with the inscription: OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM. SCO STEFANO
+ETHODOSIVS. ABBA. The cross of Lucetius with the following inscription:
++ IN NOMINE DNI. IN NOMINE SCI OFFERET LVCETIVS: E. Fragments of another
+crown and of large crosses: several stones and fragments, and an
+emerald, on which is engraved _en creux_ the Annunciation of the Virgin.
+
+At the Archæological Museum, and in several private collections in
+Spain, may be seen a large number of stones and pearls which were found
+at Guarrazar.
+
+Among the objects at the Archæological Museum at Madrid, a small
+section, which proceed from a different locality, have also been
+classified as Visigothic. They consist of necklaces, earrings, and
+rings, and are less important in workmanship than those found at
+Guarrazar. The student will find further details in "Museo Español de
+Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 137.
+
+The objects forming part of the treasure of Guarrazar now in the Museum
+of Cluny, Paris are: Crown of Recesvinthus, with pendent cross and
+inscription: + RECESVINTHVS REX OFFERET. A similar crown, without
+inscription. Four crowns formed to imitate basket work, with crosses
+hanging from the centres. Three crowns, the rims of which are formed of
+_repoussé_ work, only one of which is ornamented with precious stones,
+and without pendent crosses. The cross of Sonnicus with the following
+inscription: ✠ IN [=D]I NOMINE OFFERET SONNICA [=S C E] MARIE IN SORBACES.
+
+Swinthila reigned from 624 to 631, A.D.; Recesvinthus from 650 to 672
+A.D.; hence these crowns belong to the 7th century, and the remaining
+objects are certainly of the same period.
+
+Much has been written on these Visigothic jewels by French and Spanish
+authors, the most interesting and valuable studies are:--"Descrip. du
+Trésor de Guarrazar, par M. Lasteyrie. Paris. 1860." "El arte Latino
+Bizantino en España y las Coronas de Guarrazar," by Señor Rios, Madrid,
+1861. Consult also his article in "Monumentos Arq. de España." "Coronas
+de Guarrazar que se conservan en la Armeria Real de Madrid," by Señor
+Rada. Museo Español, vol. iii. Madrid, 1874.
+
+The importance of this goldsmith's work has led these authors to discuss
+several archaeological and artistic points which deserve attention. I
+will also give my opinions on this subject, which in some respects
+differ from those hitherto advanced. In the Middle Ages the name of
+crown was equally applied to those worn on the head, to the votive
+crowns hung before altars, and to the pendent lamps which were also of
+this circular form. The "Etimologies" of San Isidoro help us,
+unfortunately, but little on this subject; but Du Cange, in his
+"Glossarium Mediæ et infimæ Latinitatis" gives us sufficient details to
+understand the differences between them. I refer the student to two
+works on this subject, which treat especially of crowns of light, which
+none of the authors who have written on Guarrazar have consulted:
+"Tratado de la Sagrada Luminaria," by Gonzalez Villar, Madrid, 1798. "De
+Lucernis Pensilibus," by Fanceulli, Maceratae, 1802.
+
+The crowns found at Guarrazar were undoubtedly votive offerings, for
+they all have chains by which they were suspended in the sanctuary in
+which they were found. Their size and the structure of their rims lead
+us to suppose that they may have been worn on the head. The same
+observation applies to a similar crown at the Cluny Museum; if so, the
+chains, cross, and pendent letters were added when the crown was offered
+to the sanctuary.
+
+Although details which appear in the handwork of these jewels betray a
+certain rudeness, not uncommon in the time they were made, their beauty
+and richness are truly surprising. These crowns are decorated round
+their rims with rosettes of pearls and sapphires, and a delicate
+ornamentation of _cloisonné_ work, which encloses a substance resembling
+red glass. From the upper part are attached four chains formed of leaves
+_percées à jour_, these are united to a double gold rosette with pendent
+sapphires, in the centre of which is set a piece of rock crystal. In the
+cross of Recesvinthus the pendant is in the form of a capital, and from
+it hangs a small cross of the same style of work: from the lower rim of
+the crown are suspended the letters, which are ornamented with the same
+vitreous paste, _cloisonné_, and from each hang large single pearls and
+sapphires.
+
+The border of some of these crowns is formed of a net-work of small gold
+massive balustrades; having between them square spaces in which pearls
+and sapphires are set. Others are made simply of _repoussé_ gold, their
+chief interest consisting in the ornamentation which has been so
+artistically carried out. Some of them have inscriptions and a few
+stones set at intervals. The pendants from these crowns are inferior in
+richness to the others already described. The pendent crosses are
+ornamented in the same style, either with _cloisonné_ work or _repoussé_
+inscriptions.
+
+[Illustration: VOTIVE CROWN OF KING SWINTHILA, MADRID.]
+
+One of the most interesting results produced by the study of the
+treasure of Guarrazar has been to show us the immense luxury which it
+represents, if we remember the period of decay and poverty of the
+Visigothic monarchy. We find this magnificence frequently alluded to by
+ancient writers. The Arabs when they took possession of Toledo in the
+8th century, mention in different works the immense quantity of jewels
+of all kinds which they found and carried away. The gold and
+silversmith's work of this period was everywhere in a very high state of
+development. We find it constantly alluded to in the works of Paul
+Silentiarium and other writers of the time of Justinian, and in the
+inventories and references given by Du Sommerard of the jewel work
+anterior to the Carlovingian period in Italy and France. The Visigothic
+kings, who copied from the Eastern emperors even their legal forms,
+followed this rule to a great extent in everything which bore relation
+to their daily life.
+
+The most important question is to determine the origin and locality
+where these jewels were made. M. de Lasteyrie considers that jewellery
+ornamented with red glass _cloisonné_ work was only made by nations of
+the Germanic race. To prove this he presents, among other arguments, the
+comparison of a fragment of the ornamentation which appears on the crown
+of Recesvinthus, with a similar one on the Evangelistiarium of
+Theodolinda in the treasure of Monza, which he considers to be of German
+workmanship. These theories are untenable. Sr. Rios is of a different
+opinion, and considers these jewels to have been made in Spain, owing to
+the similarity of ornamentation with different specimens which occur in
+Spain in architectural remains of the Roman and Visigothic periods.
+
+Both these writers give in my opinion the decorative elements of the
+crowns of Guarrazar an importance which they do not possess. The
+ornamentation which most frequently occurs consists of a combination of
+circles, imbrication, and palms of such an elementary kind that it would
+be difficult to ascertain its origin; it appears equally in mosaic work
+of the later Roman period, in vases and other objects of the best times
+of Greek art, and in Asiatic and archaic works. It may be affirmed that
+the ornamentation of the goldsmith's work of the north and south of
+Europe are derived from a common origin; from the oriental civilization
+which in the first centuries of the Middle Ages penetrated into Europe;
+it may also be affirmed that its manufacture and technical proceedings
+are precisely similar. Later on, the ornamentation and manufacture of
+these jewels received from the western nations some slight
+modifications; but this artistic industry by no means proceeded from
+them.
+
+One example will be enough to prove this. Setting apart the famous
+_cloisonné pectorale_ at the Boulac Museum, Cairo, and other jewels of
+the queen, Aah-Hotep, 17th century B.C.; the hawk of a similar period,
+Louvre Museum (Paris), and a number of analogous objects in the British
+Museum, we have enough specimens of this kind to show that _cloisonné_
+work was known in the east from the very earliest period. I will draw
+especial attention to the _plaque_ in the Museum of Wiesbaden, found at
+Wolfsheim in 1870. It is formed of gold, with a circular and triangular
+ornamentation and squares, _découpés à jour_, set with jacinths, or red
+glass paste. At the back may be read an inscription in Persian
+characters, which gives the name of a Sassanide king, Artachshaber, of
+the 3rd century of our era. (See A. von Cohausen, "Roemischer
+Schmelzenschmuck," Wiesbaden, 1873). I know no more ancient specimen in
+the north of Europe of these jewels with coloured stones, nor can I give
+a better example of their oriental origin. Those who may wish to make a
+more profound study on this subject, can also examine the interesting
+jewels with stones found at Petrossa, Wallachia, in 1835, now in the
+Museum of Bucharest. They are attributed to the Visigothic King
+Athanaric, who lived towards the middle of the 4th century of our era,
+and are considered in the present day of undoubted Sassanide origin.
+
+The artistic and technical origin of the jewels of Guarrazar must be
+looked for in the East; their manufacture was most probably Spanish. On
+part of these jewels, inscriptions of the names of the _donatarios_
+appear, and it is highly improbable that they were made in another
+country. We cannot imagine the extraordinary magnificence of the
+Visigothic court, so similar to that of Constantinople and other
+contemporary ones, without the presence at each of a group of artists
+whose task was to satisfy these demands.
+
+The Visigothic style continued to be followed in Spain at the court of
+the Christian kings, until the 11th century, notwithstanding the Moorish
+invasion, and the poverty of the kingdom. The specimens at the treasury
+of the cathedral of Oviedo, and others which will be described farther
+on, will give a good idea of the manufacture of jewels of this period.
+Among the relics which are kept in the shrine called the _Camara Santa_,
+at Oviedo, are two most interesting gold processional crosses studded
+with stones, which are known by the names of _Cruz de los Angeles_, and
+_Cruz de la Victoria_ or _de Pelayo_. The _Cruz de los Angeles_ is
+16½ inches high, by 16 inches wide, it is covered at the back with an
+ornamentation in fine filigree work, set with different stones. In the
+front are five medallions, and an inscription in the vacant spaces.
+Among the gems there is a good cameo, and seven engraved stones in the
+Gnostic style. (Consult "Monumentos Arquitectonicos de España, Camara
+Santa"). The inscription on this cross shows us that it was made, A.D.
+808.
+
+ "Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei
+ Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xpi
+ Hoc signo tuetur pius
+ Hoc signo vincitur inimicus
+ Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi
+ Fulmine divino intereat ipse
+ Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea
+ Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCCXLVI."
+
+The cross of Victory is supposed to have been the same wooden one borne
+by Don Pelayo when he began, early in the 8th century, his struggles
+against the Mahomedan invasion, it was decorated in the next century
+with gold platings and precious stones. It is 36 inches high by 28½
+inches wide; the ornamentation is similar to the former one, and in the
+vacant spaces at the back appears the following inscription, by which
+we learn it was made at the Castle of Gauzon, Asturias, A.D. 828.
+
+ "Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent
+ Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemæna Regina
+ Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit
+ Fulmine divino intereat ipse
+ Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est
+ Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis
+ Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus
+ Et opera us est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri.
+ XLII. discurrente Era DCCCLXVI."
+
+Another most interesting object at this shrine is Don Fruela's casket,
+which is ornamented with agates set in gold, and is similar in style.
+The inscription, which appears outside, gives the date A.D. 910.
+
+ "Operatum est Era DCCCCXLVIII."
+
+A diptych which belongs to the same shrine may also be mentioned. It was
+given by Bishop Don Gonzalo, who was bishop of Oviedo from A.D. 1162 to
+1175. Round it are the words--_Gundisalvus Episcopus me jussit fieri._
+This diptych is 5 inches long by 7 wide: it is ornamented with ivory
+figures, stones, crystals and engraved gems. Although I do not consider
+it to be of Spanish workmanship, it is necessary to mention the splendid
+_Arca Santa_, in which it is believed many of the relics were taken to
+Oviedo. It is covered with silver plates, with _repoussé_ and chiselled
+work representing different religious subjects: the Crucifixion, Our
+Lord surrounded by the attributes of the Evangelists, saints, apostles,
+angels, and a fine ornamental border with letters, imitating Cufic
+inscriptions. This splendid casket is 3 feet 9½ inches long, by 3 and
+3½ wide, and 28½ inches high, and appears to have been made
+between the 10th and 12th centuries. The figures are similar in style to
+the paintings and sculpture of this period, and it is highly probable
+that it may have been the work of Italian artists. The Cufic inscription
+is illegible, and is interrupted in the angles by the symbols of the
+Evangelists. This style of simulated inscriptions was frequently used by
+Italian artists.
+
+A cross of the same style as those already described exists at the
+cathedral of Santiago. It is made of wood covered with gold platings and
+precious stones; some of these are old intagli, which are set in
+delicate filigree work. Round it runs a long inscription, from which it
+appears that it was a present from _Adefonsus Princeps cum conjuge
+Scemena Regina_, and that it was made in Era DCCCCA. Duodecima; A.D.
+874. The number of gems which have reached us, after so many centuries
+of ruin, the similarity of the different specimens, and the statement
+which appears on the cross of King Pelayo, that it was made at the
+castle of Gauzon, prove that the goldsmith's industry had attained great
+importance in Spain during this period.
+
+By studying the different objects of silver and gold work which still
+exist in Spanish churches, we can form a good idea of the historical
+progress of this industry in the following centuries of the Middle Ages;
+but before we do so, it is well to make some observations upon objects
+of _orfèvrerie_, the work of the Moors. There is a constant connection
+between these objects and those made of ivory: the same characteristics
+exist which I shall hereafter point out as appearing in Moorish ivory
+carvings. The art of ivory carving was imported from the East, the
+subjects are much alike in ivory and metal when men and animals are
+represented, and the inscriptions and bands of ornamentation are similar
+in style. The main variations consist in the different systems employed
+in metal work, by which the work differs according to the proceedings
+adopted, of _repoussé_ or chiselling, filigree, niellos or enamels.
+
+A fine Casket belongs to this kind of oriental work which still may be
+seen on the high altar of the cathedral of Gerona, Spain. This casket is
+15 inches long by 9 wide and 10½ high. It is made in the usual manner
+of wood covered with silver gilt platings with a heavy _repoussé_
+ornamentation of leaves enclosed within circles of pearls. Round the
+rim of the cover runs the following Cufic inscription:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"In the name of God. The blessing of God and happiness and prosperity
+and permanent joy for the servant of God, Alhakem Emir Amumenin
+Almostanser Billah, because he ordered this casket to be made for Abdul
+walid Hischem, heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished by the
+hands of Hudzen Ibn Bothla."
+
+Alhakem reigned in Spain from A.D. 961 to 976, in which year he was
+succeeded by his son Hischem II. This casket belongs, therefore, to this
+period, and is especially interesting as giving the artist's name. Two
+other silver Arabian caskets may be seen at the Archæological Museum,
+Madrid, which were formerly at the shrine of San Isidoro of Leon, but
+they possess less artistic interest than the casket at Gerona. One of
+these is elliptical in form; it is ornamented with a good design of
+leaves and tendrils, and Cufic inscription; the whole of the casket is
+enamelled in black. The ornamentation belongs to the 12th century. The
+inscription only mentions the owner's name, Abdo Shakir. The other
+casket is silver-gilt, square in form, and rather poorly ornamented. The
+two Cufic inscriptions which surround it are laudatory. At the cathedral
+of Oviedo there is another silver casket with a laudatory inscription
+and medallions with figures, in which from very early times, the remains
+of S^{ta.} Eulalia have been kept. I suspect that this casket and the
+former one are not of Spanish Arab workmanship, for besides the
+circumstance that their inscriptions can be applied to any owner, their
+ornamentation is unlike others of the same kind. In the first casket it
+is insignificant, but on the shrine of S^{ta.} Eulalia the background
+of the medallions is covered with an imbricated pattern which I have
+never seen repeated on any Arab or Moorish example in Spain. It is
+highly probable that they were productions of Oriental industry and were
+imported commercially.
+
+Several specimens of the 14th and 15th centuries, the last period of the
+Moorish domination, exist in Spain. They consist of jewels and sword
+handles. The most interesting trinkets are a bracelet and fragments of a
+necklace and earrings which are at the Archæological Museum, Madrid.
+They are made of gold, covered with a geometrical _repoussé_
+ornamentation, and a delicate filigree pattern. There are specimens also
+at the Kensington Museum, Nos. 1455 to 1447, 70, consisting of a
+bracelet, silver-gilt, formed of seven alternate oval and rectangular
+plaques, with impressed pattern and applied filigree and bossed
+ornament, and earrings made of gold, formed of clusters of united
+circles and lozenges with filigree bosses. Other jewels of less
+importance are known to exist, consisting of bracelets, amulets,
+earrings, and rings, mostly made of silver niello-work, these are
+ornamented with geometrical patterns and inscriptions of little
+importance.
+
+Moorish arms are most artistic; they are fully described in the article
+Arms. The most important specimens are in the Royal Armoury, and noble
+house of Villaseca, Madrid; another fine example of a similar style is
+at the Generalife of Granada. The hilt and settings of the sheath are of
+solid silver, gilt, and covered with geometrical patterns ornamented in
+high relief, parts of which are filled with translucid _cloisonné_
+enamel. In some instances the hilt is made of ivory. It is impossible
+(see plate on p. 85) to find anything more beautiful than the
+ornamentation of these swords, or greater perfection in every detail. It
+is evident, therefore, that this industry had reached a very high grade
+of perfection at Granada in the second part of the 15th century. The
+sword now in the possession of the Villaseca family belonged to Boabdil,
+the last Moorish king; the one at Granada to one of Boabdil's nearest
+relations.
+
+In continuing our description of Christian silver-work in the 11th and
+12th centuries, we meet with two historical chalices of the highest
+interest. One was made by the order of Saint Domingo de Silos [A.D.
+1045-1074] when abbot of this church. This chalice still exists there,
+with the following inscription:--
+
+ _In nomine Domini ob honorem Sci Sebastiani Dominico abbas
+ fecit._
+
+It is ornamented with fine filigree work, forming zones and horse-shoe
+arches, in a similar style to that of the silversmiths' work of
+Asturias, which has never been completely abandoned in Spain. The author
+of the life of this saint, Fr. Juan de Castro, Madrid 1688, says, p.
+297, that he does not consider it was ever used for the sacrifice of the
+mass, owing to its great height [13 inches]. The other chalice might
+have been seen until very lately at San Isidoro, Leon; it has been
+temporarily concealed owing to political disturbances. The cup and foot
+are of agate, probably specimens of the classic period; the mounting,
+which dates from the time of D^{na}. Urraca, is studded with a profusion
+of precious stones and pastes. Some of the gems of the chalice and paten
+are antiques.[A] In the centre of the paten is set a splendid flat onyx.
+Round the lower part runs the following inscription:--
+
+ + _In nomine D[=n]i Urraca Fredi[=n][=a]di._
+
+[A] For further details of this interesting work of art, see "Monumentos
+Arquitectonicos de España," in which a good reproduction is given.
+
+Dona Urraca, who was a sister of Alfonso VI., and was generally called
+_Urraca Fernandez_, bestowed many important gifts on the church of San
+Isidoro. She died A.D. 1101. Another interesting chalice of the same
+period, although not of the same importance as those just named, belongs
+to Cardinal Moreno, archbishop of Toledo. Round the stem are represented
+the emblems of the Evangelists, and the inscription: _Pelagius abbas me
+fecit_; this formula appears so frequently that it must be understood
+in the sense of _fecit fieri_, ordered to be made.
+
+The Santo Caliz at Valencia has been traditionally held as the cup used
+by Our Saviour at the Last Supper. This chalice consists of a circular
+cup hollowed out from a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded
+round the lip. The base is formed of another inverted sardonyx. These
+are united by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by handles, which
+are inlaid with delicate arabesque in black enamel. Oriental pearls are
+set round the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, sapphires and
+emeralds. This chalice is a work of the Roman imperial epoch, and the
+mounts are of a later date. Other specimens of jewellers' work of the
+Roman period might be mentioned which exist in Spain, but I do not find
+sufficient evidence to justify the opinion that they were made in that
+country. I consider those that I have described to be of Spanish origin,
+for they keep to the same technical modes of workmanship as the jewel
+work of Asturias, and the inscriptions which appear on them refer to
+historical personages. It would be difficult, considering all things, to
+suppose they were imported.
+
+[Illustration: ONE LEAF OF TRIPTYCH IN CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.]
+
+We can mention in the thirteenth century a specimen of Spanish
+silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition to the new style,
+and the progress in the design of the figures owing to the Italian
+Renaissance--I refer to the interesting triptych at the Cathedral of
+Seville, known as the "Tablas Alfonsinas," made by the order of Don
+Alfonso el Sabio for holding relics. It is of wood, covered inside and
+out with silver-gilt plates; it is 22 inches high by 39 wide when its
+three leaves are open (the woodcut opposite represents the outside of
+left leaf), and is divided inside into fifteen compartments full of
+minute ornamentation, among which are set a large number of capsules
+covered with rock crystal containing relics, each one with an
+inscription of enamelled gold, _cloisonné_. Several good cameos with
+sacred subjects appear near the edge of the side leaves. The outside of
+this triptych is decorated with twelve medallions containing the arms
+of Castile and Aragon, and forty-eight others in which are repeated
+alternately the subjects of the Adoration of the Magi and Annunciation
+of the Virgin, which are also _repoussé_. In the centres are eagles,
+which S^{r}. Rios supposes to allude to Don Alonso's claim to be crowned
+Emperor, in which case it was made in the year 1274. (See Mus. esp. de
+Antig., vol. ii. p. 83.) The ornamentation which surrounds the panels
+belongs to the 16th century. S^{r}. Rios suggests that the possible or
+probable author of this interesting object of silversmith work was
+Maestro Jorge, a silversmith of Toledo, who is praised by Don Alonso in
+his Cantigas--he also mentions the names of Don Lorenzo and Don Niculas
+as silversmiths of Seville who worked in this period.
+
+The most important example of Spanish silversmith's work of the 14th
+century is the Retablo and Baldaquino of the cathedral of Gerona. Mr.
+Street, in his Gothic Arch. in Spain, p. 326, describes this work of art
+in the following manner: "The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with
+silver plates, and divided vertically into three series of niches and
+canopies: each division has a subject, and a good deal of enamelling is
+introduced in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels.
+Each panel has a cinque-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and
+pinnacles on either side. The straight line of the top is broken by
+three niches, which rise in the centre and at either end. In the centre
+is the Blessed Virgin with our Lord; on the right San Narcisso; and on
+the left St. Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain figures of
+saints, subjects from the life of the Blessed Virgin, and subjects from
+the life of our Lord."
+
+At the base of this Retablo may be read the words--_Pere Bernec me
+feu_--Peter Bernec made me. Bernec was a silversmith of Valencia, and in
+another document he was called Barners. It has been supposed that two
+other contemporary silversmiths, whose names appear in papers of the
+cathedral, worked also at the Retablo. Their names were Raimundo Andreu,
+and Master Bartolomé. Formerly in front of this altar there was a
+magnificent silver and gold frontal studded with stones, a fine work of
+the 11th century--which was unfortunately carried off by the French in
+their invasion of the Peninsula early in the present century, and was
+probably with other innumerable priceless treasures melted by them. See
+further details in "Viage Literario de Villanueva," vol. xii. p. 180.
+
+In the Sala Capitular of the Cathedral of Gerona there are three
+splendid processional crosses belonging to the 15th and 16th centuries;
+one of them is of enamelled gold, and is undoubtedly one of the most
+artistic works of the kind in Spain.
+
+Among Spanish art treasures of the 15th century of a historical style
+must be mentioned the splendid silver throne of king Don Martin de
+Aragon, d. 1410, still existing in the cathedral of Barcelona; it is
+covered with chiselled ornamentation, and a band of velvet embroidered
+with gold and completely studded with precious stones. This throne is
+carried in the procession of Corpus Christi. The monstrance, a splendid
+work of art in the Gothic style, ornamented with delicate pinnacles and
+jewel work, is placed on a fine silver foot and carried on this day in
+front of this throne. This monstrance is covered also with jewels of
+great value which almost conceal it, the gifts of royal personages. The
+fine Gothic silver-gilt cross must also be mentioned, known at Toledo by
+the name of _Guion de Mendoza_; it was borne before the great Cardinal
+Mendoza, and was the first cross placed on the highest point of the
+Alhambra Torre de la Vela on the day of the conquest, 2nd January, 1492.
+
+The following woodcut represents a processional cross of Spanish work of
+the beginning of the 15th century, in the South Kensington Museum, No.
+514-'73. It is of wood covered with plates of silver-gilt _repoussé_
+work. On one side is a rood with the Virgin and St. John. Over the
+figure of Christ is the word Inri. At the extremities angels in high
+relief bear the emblems of the Passion. On each side of the figure of
+Christ are plaques of translucent enamel representing the penitent and
+impenitent thief, at the foot of the cross the Resurrection and
+Adoration of the Magi, and above the figure of Christ the Nativity.
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH PROCESSIONAL CROSS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+At the back there is a figure in high relief of the Almighty; in the
+four extremities the emblems of the Evangelists in high relief and
+enamelled plaques representing the Annunciation, Flight into Egypt,
+Christ's descent into Hades.
+
+This cross, which is three feet in height, is marked in several places
+with the name of
+
+ +-----+ +-----+
+ | | | |
+ | PE | | MAR |
+ | DRO | | TIN |
+ | | | |
+ +-----+ +-----+
+
+A large number of images exist in Spain belonging to this period, and
+even to an earlier date, chiefly consisting of images of the Blessed
+Virgin; their garments are formed of silver platings, chiselled and
+_repoussé_ in the traditional Byzantine style. Among the most remarkable
+may be mentioned those preserved in the cathedrals of Seville, Pamplona
+and Astorga. The following document undoubtedly alludes to one of these
+figures. It is dated 12th May, 1367:--
+
+"I Sancho Martinez Orebse, silversmith, native of Seville, inform you,
+the dean and chapter of the church of Seville, that it was agreed I
+should make an image of Saint Mary with its tabernacle, that it should
+be finished at a given time, and that you were to give me the silver and
+stones required to make it."
+
+Notwithstanding the poverty of the Spanish monarchs, their personal
+ornaments were rich and splendid. We find in "Memorials of Henry the
+VIIth," edited by Gairdner, an interesting description by Machado, the
+herald or king-of-arms of Henry VII., of the embassy sent to Spain in
+1489, to ask for the hand of the Princess Catharine for the Prince of
+Wales. The account he gives us of the jewels worn by Queen Isabel la
+Catolica is most interesting. They varied at every interview. In one of
+these she wore "a line of trimming composed of oblong bosses, of gold,
+each decorated with fine and valuable jewels, so rich that no one has
+ever seen the like. She wore round her waist a girdle of leather made in
+a man's style; the pouch was decorated with a large balass ruby, the
+size of a tennis ball, between five rich diamonds and other stones, the
+size of a bean. The rest of the girdle was decorated with other precious
+stones. Round her neck she wore a rich gold necklace composed of white
+and red roses, adorned with jewels. Two ribbons were suspended from her
+breast adorned with diamonds, balass and other rubies, pearls, and other
+jewels of great value to the number of a hundred or more" (p. 341.)
+
+"After the King came the Queen, mounted on a fine mule, and all the
+harness of the said mule was adorned with pearls and other precious
+stones. She was dressed in a robe of a rich woven cloth of gold made in
+the fashion of the kingdom, and over that a mantilla all spangled with
+lozenges of crimson and black velvet, and on each lozenge was a large
+pearl. And with each of these pearls was a rich balass ruby the size of
+a beech nut, the richest thing that could be seen, no man ever saw
+anything equal to it. She had on her neck a large necklace, adorned with
+large diamonds, balass rubies, carbuncles, large pearls, and a great
+number of other rich precious stones. She had upon her head-dress two
+balass rubies as pendants, the size of a pigeon's egg, and at the end of
+the said rubies a large pearl, which jewel was supposed to be worth
+12,000 crowns" (p. 348.)
+
+In the specimens described belonging to the Visigothic period, and many
+others to which we might refer, we find constant similarity in form with
+silversmith's work of other European countries. It is true that we
+occasionally meet with Moorish _orfèvrerie_, and some details, such as
+filigree work, due to oriental influence; but in general Byzantine,
+Roman, and Gothic styles were adopted and copied in Spain; and the
+technical details were the same with those followed in other countries,
+with the exception of _champlevé_ enamel, which appears to have been
+almost exclusively used at Limoges in the middle ages. It is
+interesting, however, and worthy of remark, that important objects are
+also found in Spain decorated with _champlevé_ enamel, such as the
+splendid altars of San Miguel in Excelsis (Navarre), and Santo Domingo
+de Silos (Rioja), and the image of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban
+(Salamanca), three specimens of the greatest importance.
+
+In the Renaissance period, Spanish _orfèvrerie_ enters into its most
+brilliant epoch, not only on account of the beauty of the form of the
+objects produced, but also owing to its great richness. Among objects of
+this period the most important are the _Custodias_ or monstrances of the
+cathedrals; these are exclusively peculiar to Spanish art. The almost
+incalculable quantity of silver-work produced at this period is
+accounted for by the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors, the
+discovery and possession of America, and other circumstances which
+increased the power and wealth of Spain, and elevated the country to
+great importance.
+
+We find frequent mention at this time of silversmiths, many of whom came
+from Germany, France, or Italy, attracted by the large number of works
+ordered. Many settled in Spain, such as Enrique de Arphe, Jacome Trezzo,
+Mateo Aleman, Hans Belta, and others. The Spaniards who joined them were
+greater in number, and not inferior in merit. Silversmiths were already
+at that time divided into different groups, according to the technical
+proceedings which each one adopted: _plateros de la plata_, workers in
+silver, was the name given to those who worked exclusively in _repoussé_
+and chiselled work, and imitated sculpture and architectural models;
+goldsmiths, those who worked jewels with stones, enamels, and
+niello-work. Even within these groups were workers in filigree, and
+those who decorated different objects with painted or mosaic work,
+_atauxia_, in the Moorish style. Almost all the most important Spanish
+towns were large centres of these industries. Leon, Burgos, Valladolid,
+Cuenca, Toledo, Cordova, and Seville rivalled each other in the number
+and quality of their productions. The Venetian ambassador, Navagiero,
+who visited Valladolid in 1527, says, "Sono in Valladolid assai artefici
+di ogni sorte, e se vi lavora benissimo di tutti le arti, e sopra tutto
+d' argenti, e vi son tanti argenten quanti non sono in due altri terre,
+le prime di Spagna" ("Il Viaggio di Spagna," Vinegia, 1563, p. 35.)
+
+In order to complete the study of this subject, it is necessary,
+besides, to give some notice of the legal dispositions contained in the
+Municipal Ordinances and in other laws of a more general character.
+
+In Capmany's "Memorias," vol. i., part 3, p. 88, are to be found several
+statutes concerning the silversmiths of Barcelona from the 14th century,
+proving the importance of this guild in 1301. At this period three of
+its members formed part of the town Council. The introduction of a
+statute of 1489 proves the excellence of the works which they made.
+"Experience having shown us in past times, and proof existing at the
+present time, that such clever silversmiths have existed and exist at
+Barcelona that their works are highly reputed by kings and great people,
+and held in great honour and estimation in the town itself." The
+Silversmiths' guild still preserve the folio volumes full of drawings,
+and the description of the different objects which they presented for
+the approbation of the jury, during the 16th and 17th centuries. The
+designs contained in these volumes constitute a most interesting
+collection of jewels, giving a good idea of the great height of this
+industry in Barcelona.
+
+Baron C. H. Davillier is about to publish a volume on Spanish
+silversmiths, in which etchings of several of these designs will be
+reproduced. In the list of artists which follows I give the names of the
+most remarkable of those who worked at Barcelona.
+
+In the Municipal Ordinances of Toledo of the year 1494, some laws
+relating to silversmiths appeared; they are, however, uninteresting. The
+same thing occurs with the Ordinances of Seville, which were re-compiled
+in 1526. The guild of silversmiths of Toledo must have been most
+important, for in 1423 they already formed a brotherhood or guild under
+the protection of St. Eloy, in which they agreed to help the members of
+the guild in every way. See "Documentos Ineditos," published by Zarco
+del Valle, p. 166. The Ordinances of Granada enter more into details
+concerning the technical proceedings of silversmith's work. These
+Ordinances appeared in 1538; the work in the Moorish style is described
+in full detail; it appears to have been preserved in this locality more
+than elsewhere.
+
+We can judge of the enormous quantities of objects which were made by
+those still to be seen in Spanish cathedrals and churches, having
+survived the French invasion of the present century. For full details of
+the barbarous treatment of these works of art during the French
+invasion, see Ford's "Handbook of Spain." The expropriations of the
+Spanish government during the civil wars of 1833 to 1840, and the
+injudicious law of expropriations of 1869 for the purpose of collecting
+artistic objects, have brought about the destruction and disappearance
+of numberless works of art in order not to give them up to the
+government.
+
+The same splendour and abundance of silver objects of every kind existed
+in the royal palaces and houses of the grandees. Madame d'Aunoy in her
+"Voyage en Espagne, Lyon, 1643," p. 109, says: "L'on ne se sert point de
+vaisselle d'étain, celle d'argent ou de terre sont les seules qui soient
+en usage. Le duc d'Alburquerque est mort, il y a déjà quelque tems; l'on
+m'a dit que l'on avoit employé six semaines à écrire sa vaisselle d'or
+et d'argent. Il y avoit 1400 douzaines d'assiettes, 500 grands plats, et
+700 petits, tout le reste à proportion, et 40 échelles d'argent pour
+monter au haut de son buffet, qui étoit par gradins comme un autel placé
+dans une grande salle." The splendid silver table belonging to the
+Marquis of Villaseca at Madrid gives a good idea of the furniture of
+this time. In the Inventories, a great number of which exist, we find
+numerous details of silver objects of every kind. In one which was drawn
+up in 1574, of the effects of Princess Da Juana (MS. folio, Acad. de la
+Historia), the sister of Philip II., we find mention, without counting
+the jewels, of a silver balustrade, weighing 121 pounds, to be placed
+round the bed. The greater part of the kitchen utensils were also made
+of silver.
+
+Among the most important objects of Spanish silversmith work are
+undoubtedly, as I have said before, the custodias.
+
+The name of custodia is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance or
+ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, but also to a sort of
+temple or tabernacle, of large size, made also of silver, inside which
+is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession on Corpus
+Christi day. In order to distinguish these objects one from another, the
+name of _viril_ is given to the object which holds the consecrated host;
+it is generally made of rock crystal, with a gold stem and mount
+ornamented with precious stones. The small tabernacles are generally
+objects of the greatest importance both from their artistic and
+intrinsic value. The description of one of them will be sufficient to
+give an idea of their construction.
+
+Although a fine custodia existed formerly at Toledo, which we know
+weighed 164 pounds, Cardinal Ximenez de Cisneros wished a finer one to
+be made, and caused the plan to be furnished by competition. Diego
+Copin, Juan de Borgoña, and Enrique de Arphe presented designs; the one
+by Enrique de Arphe was selected. Arphe began his work in 1517, and
+continued exclusively employed in this, and without the help of other
+master silversmiths, until April, 1524, when he gave up the monstrance
+to the authorities of the cathedral. The silversmith, Lainez, finished
+in 1523 the gold and jewelled cross which is on the top. It represents a
+Gothic hexagonal temple, 8 feet high, of three orders, with all the
+variety and number of necessary architectural details such as
+pilasters, arches, columns, pyramids, canopies, crest-work, &c., to the
+closing of the vaulted roof; the whole is _percé à jour_, and so
+delicate that it looks like lace. From the roof hang bells and
+incense-holders of filigree work; in the key-stone are studded precious
+gems. Carvings in relief, representing passages of the life of Our
+Saviour, appear on the base of the six pedestals; they are admirably
+carved. In the centre of the second order is a figure representing the
+Resurrection of Our Lord. On the pilasters and brackets which appear in
+the temple there are more than 260 statues of different sizes, all of
+which are executed with the same skill. This monstrance was mounted on
+iron wires; and Archbishop Fonseca, wishing that the whole of it should
+be made of silver, gave orders that Arphe himself should alter it, which
+he did in 1525, when the total weight was found to be 388 pounds. The
+_viril_ was then placed inside it, this was made of the first gold
+brought from America. It is completely covered with precious stones, and
+was bought by Cisneros from Queen Isabel (the Catholic); it weighs 29
+pounds of gold. The tabernacle was ordered to be gilt in 1595 by
+Archbishop Quiroga; this was done by the Masters Diego de Valdivieso and
+Francisco Merino. This splendid work of art remains in this state, and
+may be seen at the cathedral of Toledo; it was most fortunately saved
+from the rapacity of the French, by being sent to Cadiz during the war.
+In 1513 the monstrance at the cathedral of Cordova was also made by
+Arphe, it is similar in style and importance to that of Toledo. Before
+this, he had also finished the splendid one formerly at Leon, which was
+destroyed by the French, as was likewise a similar smaller one, also by
+Arphe, formerly at the Monastery of St. Benito, at Sahagun.
+
+The custodia made by Juan de Arphe in 1587, a Leonese artist, and
+grandson of Enrique, for the cathedral of Seville, competes with that of
+Toledo. It is formed in the same manner as a temple, but in the
+Græco-Roman style, covered with an immense number of statuettes, some of
+which are upwards of a foot high, and reliefs of all kinds, and
+delicate ornamentation, worked with the utmost skill. The chapter of the
+cathedral commissioned the theologian, Francisco Pacheco, to direct the
+subjects which were to be represented, and when it was finished Arphe
+published a full description of the monstrance, which he does not
+hesitate to call "the largest and finest work in silver known of its
+kind." This opinion is hardly an exaggerated one if we look at this
+splendid work of art. Its plan is circular, and measures 3½ yards
+high, and weighs 1082 pounds of silver. For details consult Cean
+Bermudez' "Diccionario," Descripcion de la Catedral de Sevilla, Museo
+Español de Antiguedades, vol. viii., p. I.
+
+Besides these two celebrated silversmiths there was another of the same
+family, the son of Enrique, and father of Juan, Antonio Arphe, an artist
+also of great merit, who made in 1554 the custodia which still exists at
+the cathedral of Santiago.
+
+Cean Bermudez says in his "Diccionario," "that in the same manner as the
+city of Leon gave Spain three illustrious silversmiths, Cuenca gave them
+other three in the Becerrils," these were Alonso and Francisco Becerril
+brothers, and Christoval, the son of Francisco. They all worked at the
+famous and splendid custodia of Cuenca, and between them they produced a
+most important series of works from 1528 to 1584.
+
+It is extremely difficult to give in so small a space the description of
+the works and names of the numerous artists on silver and gold work, who
+worked in Spain during the 16th century. At the present time,
+notwithstanding the innumerable objects lost, a long list would remain
+of the specimens which have reached us, and their different forms and
+applications, still visible in the churches of Toledo, Seville,
+Zaragoza, Palencia, Santiago, and others of the Spanish peninsula. Some
+idea may be gathered of the importance this art attained in Spain by
+looking through the following list of artists who worked in silver and
+gold, upwards of 450 of whom I have added to the 95 given by Cean in his
+dictionary. It must be borne in mind that the objects on a large scale
+which reproduce an architectural model, adopt three styles during the
+century, all three of them admirable as regards beauty of form. The
+first is Gothic, a reminiscence of the former time, improved by the
+change which had already taken place, in drawing and modelling. The
+second style is known by the name of _plateresque_, when applied to
+architecture, and consists in copying the general structure of buildings
+in the classical style, and applying the orders and pointed arch, while
+keeping to the profusion of decoration of the earlier period, and
+modifying the general plan with the object of introducing the greatest
+quantity of ornamentation. The third style is the Greco-Roman; it is
+more sober in decoration, and has a greater tendency to keep to the
+imitation of the classical school.
+
+Besides the objects described, which may be considered as original works
+and the most important examples of Spanish silversmiths' work, I must
+mention those which came from South America, chiefly from Mexico, which
+possess a certain aspect; they consist of carved and _repoussé_ work
+ornamented with flora of the country adapted in an oriental style;
+others consist of filigree work, double-headed crowned eagles are
+frequently met with in the same style as those made at Cordova and
+Salamanca.
+
+There are interesting specimens at the Kensington Museum which give an
+excellent idea of Spanish silversmiths' work. Besides those already
+described attention must be drawn to
+
+No. 305-66. A silver-gilt cross ornamented with foliage, statuettes of
+saints and the Evangelists with their emblems, Marked NOE/M. About 1560.
+Height 3 feet 2 inches.
+
+No. 302-66. Silver-gilt chalice, ornamented with foliated scroll work
+and half figures beaten and chiselled. Marked Estorga. About 1540.
+
+No. 132-73. A silver-gilt chalice, the bowl inscribed outside "+ Sangvis
+mevs vere est potvs;" the stem is of baluster form, in several tiers,
+ornamented with brackets and large chatons set with crystal, and a band
+of cherubim. The foot is chased with masques, festoons, harpies, and
+birds, and surrounded by eight semicircular projections, on which are an
+armorial shield and a cross set with emeralds and lapis lazuli. Engraved
+at bottom "S. I. de Salinas." [See woodcut] With it is a paten dated
+1549.
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+No. 481-75. Chalice, silver-gilt; the bowl chased in relief with the
+instruments of the Passion; on the knop are ten applied figures of
+Apostles on ground of translucent blue enamel; the foot, which has eight
+semicircular projections, is _repoussé_ with representations of the
+Evangelists, cherub and other heads, the Crucifixion, and a shield with
+the initials L. B. P. around a crown of thorns enclosing a heart. 17th
+century. [See woodcut, p. 31.]
+
+No. 314-64. Silver-gilt pax of architectural design; in the centre is a
+group in full relief of the Virgin giving the chasuble to St. Ildefonso.
+About 1540-50. [See woodcut, p. 33.]
+
+No. 1129-64. Incense holder, boat-shaped, of rock crystal mounted in
+silver-gilt. Around the rim is a band of guilloche pattern, set with
+amethysts and garnets; on the lids a band inscribed "Oratio mea
+dirigatur sicut incensum." About 1540-50.
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+No. 93-65. Silver triptych with suspending chain, the interior painted
+in oils, the exterior engraved in arabesque. About 1550.
+
+We find that Spanish jewels were as magnificent in the 16th century as
+were the large architectural objects for ecclesiastical use. One of the
+most important in richness and artistic merit was the splendid crown
+belonging to the Virgen del Sagrario at Toledo, which it is deeply to be
+regretted disappeared in 1868. This crown was made in 1556 by the
+silversmith Hernando de Carrion; it then consisted of a gold circle with
+chiselled and enamelled ornamentation, set with pearls, emeralds and
+rubies. In 1574 Cardinal Loaisa wished to enrich it, and ordered a
+silver worker called Alejo de Montoya to add to it an upper part, formed
+as an imperial crown, which Montoya agreed to do by a special agreement.
+This addition was formed of small figures of angels of enamelled gold,
+in pairs supporting the side bands, which met in the upper part forming
+a group of allegorical figures, upon which was placed a spherical
+emerald, without a flaw, 1½ inches in diameter, which served as a
+base to the cross. The bands were studded with precious stones and
+ornamented inside with subjects of the life of the Blessed Virgin in
+enamel. The height of this crown was 10½ inches by 8½ wide.
+Montoya took 12 years to do this work--he finished it in 1586. The fine
+bracelets belonging to this crown, which have also disappeared, were
+made at the same time by Julian Hernando.
+
+The jewels worn by the Spanish kings and grandees were equally
+magnificent. In the description of the gems which Prince Don Carlos, the
+son of Philip II, left to be distributed at his death, are included a
+sword the hilt of which was of solid gold enamelled in different
+colours: this Don Carlos bequeathed to the Grand Master of the Order of
+St. John:--a halberd composed of 27 pieces of enamelled gold in high
+relief; and a sword with gold mount enamelled in colours with masks,
+medals and festoons in the Roman style, made by Rodrigo Reynalti.
+Consult "Coleccion de Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de España,"
+vol. 27, Madrid, 1855. I owe to the courtesy of Count Valencia de Don
+Juan, the following description of arms made by _Toto platero de su
+Alteza_ in 1554. [Archives of Simancas legajo, No. 37.] These arms
+belonged to Prince Don Carlos.
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH PAX. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+A gold sword, the cross of which is ornamented with masks of white,
+grey, and black enamel.
+
+A gold dagger, and sword-belt belonging to the same sword, ornamented in
+a similar manner.
+
+Also a gold sword, belt and dagger ornamented with figures of children
+in solid gold and enamel.
+
+Although the greater part of these silversmiths were Spaniards, the
+Milanese artist, Jacome de Trezzo was very celebrated during the reign
+of Philip II. He made several jewels of great importance for the king
+and royal family. The splendid tabernacle which was taken by the French
+in 1810 from the Escorial was one of his finest works; they carried off
+at the same time the superb shrines, the gifts of kings and princes, and
+everything they could lay their hands on of gold and silver, loading ten
+campaign carts. Consult, "Historia del Escorial," by Quevedo. Madrid,
+1849, p. 220.
+
+At the South Kensington Museum are several objects of this kind, which
+will give an excellent idea of Spanish jewel work.
+
+No. 334-70. A gold enamelled pendant, in form of a chained dog,
+supported on a scroll from which small pearls depend, and suspended by
+two chains of alternate enamelled and plain links, united to a fastening
+crowned by a bird.
+
+No. 335-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a pelican and her young,
+enriched with a carbuncle and pearls, and suspended by pearl links.
+
+No. 336-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a dog enriched with
+jewels.
+
+No. 337-70. Enamelled gold pendant, in form of a parrot, set with
+hyacinth, suspended by chains.
+
+No.340-70. Enamelled gold pendant representing the Virgin of the
+Immaculate Conception.
+
+Nos. 341 and 342-70. Pendants representing the Virgen del Pilar
+Saragossa, attended by saints. [See woodcut opposite.]
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH JEWEL, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+Spanish jewel work does not decrease during the 17th century, the
+number of artists who worked was very great, and the quantity of objects
+of all kinds which were made by them to enrich the shrines of churches,
+and the houses of grandees, was remarkable, although their artistic
+merit was far inferior to the work of the 16th century. The general
+decay of art, which produces in Europe the _barroco_ style, appears in
+Spain more exaggerated and to a greater extent than elsewhere. The
+objects made during this period reproduce until the beginning of the
+18th century the lines and extravagant ornamentation which we meet with
+in architecture, the handiwork however continued to be excellent, and no
+expense was spared to give an aspect of richness to the objects made.
+
+[Illustration: SILVER DISH. SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
+MUSEUM.]
+
+The large quantity of objects of all kinds made of silver, and the
+quantity also used in wearing apparel, gave rise to constant
+prohibitions restricting its use from the reign of Ferdinand and Isabel,
+and even to a far greater extent at the beginning of the 16th century.
+In a Decree, issued at Madrid in 1594, "it is forbidden to make or sell
+cabinets, escritoires, caskets, brasiers, _chapines_ (clogs), tables,
+commodes decorated with silver, either beat in _repoussé_, stamped,
+carved or plain, and whoever makes, sells, or buys them, is to lose
+them." Notwithstanding this and other restrictions which appeared in the
+17th century, this abuse can hardly have been checked, judging by the
+number of these objects which have reached us, not counting those
+preserved in the shrines of Spanish churches and cathedrals.
+
+The luxury which was apparent in this century of great decay for Spain
+will be found in the numerous descriptions which exist of different
+feasts and ceremonies.
+
+A good idea may be had of this style of silversmiths' work from the
+silver dishes in the South Kensington Museum. An engraving of one of
+these appears on the preceding page.
+
+[Illustration: BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH EMERALDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH
+CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+During the 17th century, jewellery underwent a complete
+transformation--the proceedings and _renaissance_ forms of the Italian
+school were abandoned, with all their richness of sculptures, enamels,
+and variety of stones. Instead of this, jewels were formed of emeralds,
+diamonds or rubies in gold setting, _percés à jour_, producing an
+excellent effect. The exceptions to this rule are the objects in which
+enamelled work still predominates, a reminiscence of the former century.
+Among the finest and best examples may be mentioned the gold crown of
+the Virgen de los Desamparados of Toledo, made in Mexico in the 17th
+century. It is formed like a basket of flowers, of delicate tracery, and
+richly studded with fine emeralds. Several most interesting specimens
+exist at Kensington of Spanish jewellery of this kind, bought at the
+sale which took place in 1870 of the jewels belonging to the Virgen del
+Pilar at Zaragoza.
+
+No. 325-70 is a breast ornament of gold scroll open work, with enamelled
+flowers, set with emeralds. [See woodcut on p. 37.]
+
+No. 320-70, a gold breast ornament with five bosses and seven pendants,
+set with rose diamonds.
+
+No. 406-73. Breast ornament, gold open strap work and floral filigree,
+the lower part an oval pendant, set with table diamonds. [See woodcut on
+p. 39.]
+
+The following fine Spanish jewels of the 17th century in the Kensington
+Museum are also worthy of attention:
+
+No. 330-64. A pectoral cross, with medallions containing relics.
+
+No. 298-66. Gold filigree cross, within which is an ivory crucifix.
+
+No. 344-70. Enamelled gold pectoral cross set with amethysts.
+
+No. 417, 417A.-69. A pair of earrings of gold open work, branches set
+with white crystals.
+
+No. 323, 323A.-70. Silver open work earrings set with rose diamonds.
+
+No. 330 to 330C.-70. Four miniature ewers of silver filigree open work,
+the bodies of Chinese enamelled copper.
+
+No. 1224-71. Silver frame _repoussé_, with the Holy Dove, and a bleeding
+heart encircled with thorns.
+
+Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, _Churrigueresque_
+styles continued to be copied during the beginning of the 18th century,
+in the same manner as in the 17th century. At this time, as in the rest
+of Europe, a reaction begins in every branch of art, due in Spain to the
+influence of French and Italian artists who accompanied the family of
+Bourbon. The Academy of Fine Arts of St. Fernando was founded by a king
+of that House towards the middle of the century, the teaching was
+reduced to copying Greco-Roman models, such as they were understood at
+that time.
+
+[Illustration: BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH DIAMONDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH
+CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+The great centres which in the 16th century had produced such splendid
+works of art had almost completely ceased. No great silversmiths
+remained at Valladolid, Leon, Toledo, or Seville. The only localities
+which have preserved even to the present day the traditional forms of
+these ornaments are Salamanca, Cordova, Astorga, and Santiago. Madrid
+absorbed from the middle of the 17th century the whole of this industry.
+In Larruga's "Memorias," Vol. IV., will be found every detail given on
+this subject. Several important establishments for the object of making
+silver work on a large scale were founded at Madrid, the most important
+being that of Tomas de Buenafuente, which passed after to Francisco
+Novi. Two Frenchmen called Isaac and Miguel Naudin established a
+manufactory in 1772. In each the greater part of the work was machine
+made. Others were founded to cut and polish precious stones, and mount
+paste stones. This was done with great skill by Antonio Martinez in
+1778, in a building fitted up for the purpose, which still exists
+opposite the Botanical Garden of Madrid. Martinez was pensioned by
+Charles III. in Paris and London to study the improvements in this
+industry. The principal object of the manufactory was to teach the
+technical proceedings required in order to extend this industry in the
+country, and supply a school in which machinery, models, drawings, &c.,
+were to be met with. Pupils of both sexes were admitted; machinery was
+made in the workshops, and Martinez undertook to teach the manufacture
+of gold, doublé, or steel trinkets, with or without enamel or stones.
+Sword-hilts, buckles, snuff-boxes, needle-cases, handles for sticks,
+brooches, necklaces, orders, and other different objects, were made
+either of open work or enamelled gold.
+
+Inkstands, dishes, dinner services, chocolate stands, cruets, knives and
+forks, were made of silver in different styles, generally imitating the
+English manner. [Consult Larruga, "Memorias Politicas y Economicas."
+Madrid, 1789. Vol. IV., p. 116.]
+
+The results obtained by the manufactory of Martinez were most
+satisfactory; a large number of apprentices were taught there; but their
+work was completely French in character; the manner and style of the
+Spanish school of silversmiths was completely forgotten.
+
+As I have already mentioned, the traditional forms were preserved in
+some localities which require to be mentioned here in order to finish
+this account of this industry in Spain. An interesting and varied
+collection of modern Spanish peasant jewellery exists at the South
+Kensington Museum. Strange to say, although this collection was formed a
+very few years ago, in 1870, it would be very difficult now to make
+another; for owing to the means of communication having been of late
+years so much improved in Spain, the peasantry are leaving off their
+national costumes, and substituting in every detail modern fashions.
+Among this peasant jewellery the silver gilt necklace and reliquaries of
+Astorga, No. 1114-73, deserve special attention. These necklaces were
+worn round the neck and part of the body. The neck ornaments of gold and
+seed pearls made at Salamanca, those of silver gilt of Santiago; the
+filigree work of Cordova in the Moorish style, and the long earrings of
+Cataluña with precious stones, are interesting reminiscences of older
+times.
+
+ LIST OF SPANISH GOLDSMITHS AND SILVERSMITHS.
+
+
+ 10TH CENTURY
+
+ Years in which
+ they worked. Residence.
+
+ 961. Hudzen ben Bozla, a Moor. He made a silver
+ casket which exists still at Gerona Cathedral Gerona.
+
+
+ 13TH CENTURY
+
+ 1279. Maestre Jorge Toledo.
+
+ 1283. Modova, Pablo de Burgos.
+
+ Niculas (Don)
+
+ 1262. Perez, Juan Burgos.
+
+
+ 14TH CENTURY
+
+ 1357. Andreu, Raimundo de Gerona.
+
+ 1358. Barners, Pedro Gerona.
+
+ 1325. Bartolomé, Maestro Gerona.
+
+ Bernec, Pere, V. Barners
+
+ 1382 to } Capellades, Pedro Tortosa.
+ 1393. }
+
+ 1378. Fernai, Rodrigo Oviedo.
+
+ 1334. Frau, Ramon Palma de Mallorca.
+
+ 1367. Martinez, Sancho Sevilla.
+
+ 1382 to } Paris, Pedro de Tortosa.
+ 1393. }
+
+ 1373. Perpiña, Juan Valencia.
+
+ 1370. Ponce, Bartolomé Palma de Mallorca.
+
+
+ 15TH CENTURY
+
+ 1417. Abello, Joan Daroca.
+
+ 1495. Alcaçar, Juan de Toledo.
+
+ 1477. Almerique Barcelona.
+
+ 1494. Berenguer, Juan Valencia.
+
+ 1499. Castellano Toledo.
+
+ 1454. Castelnou, Juan de Valencia.
+
+ 1460. Castelnou, Jayme de, son of Juan Valencia.
+
+ 1470. Cetina, Mestre Valencia.
+
+ 1458 to } Diez, Pedro el Cabalan Toledo.
+ 1463 }
+
+ 1494. Diaz, Thomas Toledo.
+
+ 1417. Diaz, or Diez Caro, Ferrando Daroca.
+
+ 1418 to } Garcia de Valladolid, Alfonso Toledo.
+ 1426. }
+
+ 1438. Garcia, Alonso Burgos.
+
+ 1442. Garcia de Pielagos, Juan Burgos.
+
+ 1477. Gomez, Garcia Valencia.
+
+ 1424 to } Gonzalez de Madrid, Juan Toledo.
+ 1459. }
+
+ 1477. Hance
+
+ Lorenzo, Don
+
+ 1425. Medina, Juan de Toledo.
+
+ 1499. Medina, Pedro de Toledo.
+
+ 1470. Nadal Yvo, Maestre Valencia.
+
+ 1493. Narbona, Diego Toledo.
+
+ 1495. Nuñez, Alonso Toledo.
+
+ 1485. Oviedo, Fernando de Burgos.
+
+ 1487. Pizarro Guadalupe.
+
+ 1457. Rodriguez de Villareal, Alonso Toledo.
+
+ 1459. Rodriguez de Villareal, Anton Toledo.
+
+ 1483. Rodriguez, Gonzalo Toledo.
+
+ 1496. Rodriguez, Geronimo Sevilla.
+
+ 1459. Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope Toledo.
+
+ 1417 to } Roiz, Pero Darroca.
+ 1423. }
+
+ 1489 to } Ruby, Maestre Toledo.
+ 1491. }
+
+ 1416. Ruiz de Astudillo, Alfonso Burgos.
+
+ 1431. Ruiz de Medina Toledo.
+
+ 1426. Ruiz, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1498. Ruiz, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1404. Sanchez, Martinez Sevilla.
+
+ 1424. Sanchez, Anton Toledo.
+
+ 1417. Sancho, Manuel Hernando Burgos.
+
+ 1487. Segovia, Fr. Juan de Guadalupe.
+
+ 1418. Valles, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1484 to } Vigil, Pedro de Valladolid.
+ 1488. }
+ Yvo V. Nadal Yvo ----
+
+
+ 16TH CENTURY
+
+ 1586. Abedo de Villandrando, Diego Madrid.
+
+ 1531. Aguirre, Pedro de Toledo.
+
+ 1515. Aleman, Mateo Sevilla.
+
+ ---- Aleman, Nicolas Sevilla.
+
+ 1596. Alfaro, Francisco Sevilla.
+
+ 1539. Alonso, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1552. Alvarez, Baltasar Palencia.
+
+ 1568. Alvarez, Francisco Madrid.
+
+ 1531. Alvarez, Juan Granada.
+
+ 1560. Alvarez, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1538. Alvear, Juan de Burgos.
+
+ ---- Alvear, Nicolas de Burgos.
+
+ 1520 to } Andino, Cristoval de Burgos.
+ 1521. }
+
+ ---- Angel, Pedro Toledo.
+
+ 1565. Anrique, Joan Toledo.
+
+ 1570. Avila, Alonso de Toledo.
+
+ 1567. Avila Cimbron, Diego de Toledo.
+
+ 1544. Arfe, Antonio de Leon.
+
+ 1595. Arfe y Villafañe, Juan de Sevilla.
+
+ 1506 to } Arphe, Enrique de Leon.
+ 1525. }
+
+ 1531. Baeza, Francisco de Granada.
+
+ ---- Baeza, Juan Granada.
+
+ 1580. Ballesteros, Fernando de Sevilla.
+
+ 1560. Baptista, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1584 to } Baroxa, Gregorio de Toledo.
+ 1601. }
+
+ 1534. Becerril, Alonso Cuenca.
+
+ 1575. Becerril, Cristoval Cuenca.
+
+ 1552. Becerril, Francisco Cuenca.
+
+ 1590. Belta, Hanz Madrid.
+ Belthae, V.--see Hanz Belthae
+
+ 1582. Benavente, Juan de Palencia.
+
+ 1546. Benavente, Pedro de Toledo.
+
+ 1556. Borgoñes, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1538. Buentalante, Alonso de Granada.
+
+ 1586. Camps, Bernat Barcelona.
+
+ 1547 to } Carrion, Hernando Toledo.
+ 1561. }
+
+ 1556. Carrion, Fernando Toledo.
+
+ 1586. Castro, Juan de Madrid.
+
+ 1531. Castro, Luis de Granada.
+
+ 1505. Cetina, Bernardo Juan Valencia.
+
+ 1546. Comes, Gabriel Barcelona.
+
+ 1553. Conill, Antonio Barcelona.
+
+ 1531. Cordova, Anton de Granada.
+
+ Cordova, Juan de Granada.
+
+ 1514. Cota, Martin Toledo.
+
+ 1567. Davila Cimbron, Diego Toledo.
+
+ 1558. Davila, Diego Toledo.
+
+ 1593. Diaz, Francisco Toledo.
+
+ 1526. Diaz, Hernando Toledo.
+
+ 1586. Dominguez, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1513. Donanti, Juan Sevilla.
+
+ 1564 to } Dueñas, Alonso de Salamanca.
+ 1598. }
+
+ 1531. Dueñas, Juan de Granada.
+
+ 1537. Escripian, Luis Toledo.
+
+ 1531. Fernandez, Diego Granada.
+
+ 1554. Fernandez, Manuel Sevilla.
+
+ 1567 to } Fernandez, Marcos Toledo.
+ 1593. }
+
+ ---- Fernandez del Moral Madrid.
+
+ 1531. Flores, Diego Granada.
+
+ 1572. Font, Joan Barcelona.
+
+ 1555. Francés, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1561 to } Gallego, Miguel Toledo.
+ 1590. }
+
+ 1531. Garcia, Thome Granada.
+
+ 1561. Gallo, Gaspar Toledo.
+
+ 1555. Goden, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1509. Gomez, Heros de Valencia.
+
+ 1573. Gomez, Baltasar
+
+ 1574. Gonzalez, Pedro Uveda.
+
+ 1513. Gueran, Ferrer Barcelona.
+
+ 1531. Hermosilla, Bartolomé de Granada.
+
+ 1567. Hernandez, Gonzalo Toledo.
+
+ 1531. Hernandez, Luis Granada.
+
+ 1567. Hernandez, Marcos Toledo.
+
+ 1524 to } Hernandez, Pedro Toledo.
+ 1544. }
+
+ 1531. Herrera, Gonzalo de Granada.
+
+ 1524. Herreros y Manzanas Toledo.
+
+ 1585 to } Hanz, Belthae Madrid.
+ 1587. }
+
+ 1582 to } Honrado, Julian Toledo.
+ 1599. }
+
+ 1531. Jaen, Fernando de Granada.
+
+ 1562 to } Lainez, Juan Bautista Madrid.
+ 1573. }
+
+ 1524. Laynez, Rodrigo Toledo.
+
+ 1559. Leon, Leoni Madrid.
+
+ 1597. Leoni, Miguel Madrid.
+
+ 1531. Lopez, Francisco Granada.
+
+ 1548 to } Lopez, Juan Toledo.
+ 1570. }
+
+ 1530. Lopez de Leon, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1508. Madrid, Pedro de Toledo.
+
+ 1531. Mar, Alonso de la Granada.
+
+ 1588 to } Marques, Lorenzo Toledo.
+ 1614. }
+
+ 1522. Marquez, Cristoval Toledo.
+
+ 1531. Martinez, Pero Granada.
+
+ 1544 to } Martinez, Francisco Toledo.
+ 1547. }
+
+ 1553. Mas, Miguel Barcelona.
+
+ 1534. Masanell, Joan Barcelona.
+
+ 1517. Mayquez, Diego Toledo.
+
+ 1500 to } Medina, Pedro de Toledo.
+ 1515. }
+
+ 1538. Mendoza, Alonso de Granada.
+
+ ---- Mendoza, Blas de Granada.
+
+ ---- Mendoza, Diego de Burgos.
+
+ 1564 to } Merino, Francisco Toledo.
+ 1601. }
+
+ 1579 to } Montoya, Alejo de Toledo.
+ 1586. }
+
+ 1598. Morales, Luis Madrid.
+
+ 1592. Morales, Tomas Toledo.
+
+ 1515 to } Moran Toledo.
+ 1517. }
+
+ 1556. Moran, Pedro Fernandez de Burgos.
+
+ 1561. Morel, Thomas du (an Englishman) Toledo.
+
+ 1574 to } Montoya, Alexo Toledo.
+ 1590. }
+
+ 1573. Muñoz, Alonso Toledo.
+
+ 1598. Muñoz, Antonio Madrid.
+
+ 1573. Niebre, Matias de, a native of Burgundy,
+ living at Toledo.
+
+ 1512. Nuñez, Alonso Toledo.
+
+ 1531. Nuñez, Francisco Granada.
+
+ 1532 to } Oña, Antonio de Burgos.
+ 1560. }
+
+ 1531. Oñate, Juan de Granada.
+
+ 1537 to } Ordoñez, Andres Toledo.
+ 1546 }
+
+ 1507 to } Ordoñez, Pedro Toledo.
+ 1510 }
+
+ 1537 to} Orna, Juan de Burgos.
+ 1528.
+
+ 1581. Ortiz, Pedro Madrid.
+
+ 1529 to } Oviedo, Diego de Toledo.
+ 1546. }
+
+ 1586. Pan, Juan Barcelona.
+
+ 1594. Pardo, Martin Escorial.
+
+ 1534. Parra, Juan de la Toledo.
+
+ 1577. Pastrana, Luis de Madrid.
+
+ 1595. Pedraza, Diego de Estremadura.
+
+ 1593. Pedraza, Esteban
+
+ 1559. Perez, Francisco Barcelona.
+
+ 1598. Perez, Pedro Madrid.
+
+ 1535. Pierres, a Frenchman, residing at Toledo.
+
+ 1587. Poch, Pero Juan Barcelona.
+
+ 1568. Poggini, Juan Pablo Madrid.
+
+ 1532. Pons, Pere Barcelona.
+
+ 1574. Portigniani, Juan Bautista Toledo.
+
+ 1541 to } Ramirez, Pedro Toledo.
+ 1554. }
+
+ 1590. Reynalte, Francisco de Madrid.
+
+ ---- Reynalte, Juan de Madrid.
+
+ ---- Reynalte, Pedro de Madrid.
+
+ 1590. Reynalte, Rodrigo de Madrid.
+
+ 1531. Rivera, Diego Lopez de Granada.
+
+ 1590. Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo {Madrid and
+ { Toledo.
+
+ 1557 to } Rodriguez de Babia, Juan Toledo.
+ 1586. }
+
+ 1596. Rodriguez del Castillo, Melchor Segovia.
+
+ 1551. Rodriguez, Duarte Toledo.
+
+ 1568. Rodriguez Machado, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1567. Ros, Felipe Barcelona.
+
+ 1537. Rozas, Gregorio de Burgos.
+
+ 1538. Rozas, Jeronimo de Burgos.
+
+ 1584 to } Ruiz, Diego Toledo.
+ 1590. }
+
+ 1531. Ruiz, Jeronimo Granada.
+
+ 1524. Ruiz, Julian, lapidary Toledo.
+
+ 1590. Ruiz, Juan Toledo.
+
+ ---- Ruiz, Juan, el Vandolino {Sevilla, Jaen
+ {and Cordova.
+
+ 1545. Sabat, Benedicti Barcelona.
+
+ 1566. Salamanca, Antonio de Madrid.
+
+ 1590. Sanchez, Andres Toledo.
+
+ 1522. San Roman, Pedro de Toledo.
+
+ 1531. Sevilla, Hernando de Granada.
+
+ 1524. Sigüenza, Pedro de Sevilla.
+
+ 1595. Tamarit, Andreu Barcelona.
+
+ 1590. Tello de Moreta Toledo.
+
+ 1554. Toto Madrid.
+
+ ---- Trezzo, Jacome de, an Italian, who worked at Madrid.
+
+ 1589. Trezzo, a nephew of Jacome Madrid.
+
+ 1590. Urbano, Juan Cordova.
+
+ 1580. Usatigni, Juan Alonso Madrid.
+
+ 1537. Valdes, Antonio de Barcelona.
+
+ 1589. Valdes, Lucas Cordova.
+
+ 1564 to } Valdivieso, Diego de Toledo.
+ 1598. }
+
+ 1593. Valdivieso, Lucas de Burgos.
+
+ 1575. Valla, Narcisco Barcelona.
+
+ 1548. Valladolid, Juan de Toledo.
+
+ 1566. Valle, Antonio del Madrid.
+
+ 1524. Valles, Hernando de Toledo.
+
+ 1512. Vargas, Gutierre de Toledo.
+
+ 1563. Vazquez, Baptista Toledo.
+
+ 1512 to } Vazquez, Diego Toledo.
+ 1543. }
+
+ 1558. Velasco Toledo.
+
+ 1580. Velez Toledo.
+
+ 1569. Vergara, Nicolas de Toledo.
+
+ 1546. Vicente, Mateo, lapidary Toledo.
+
+ 1561. Vida, Francisco Barcelona.
+
+ 1534. Villagran, Juan de Toledo.
+
+ 1590. Villanueva, Juan Domingo de Toledo.
+
+ 1552. Villaseca, Alexo Toledo.
+
+ 1538. Vitoria, Francisco de Granada.
+
+ 1538. Vitoria, Juan de Granada.
+
+ 1528. Vozmediano, Diego de Sevilla.
+
+ 1536. Vozmediano, Juan de Sevilla.
+
+ 1561. Ximenez, Juan Barcelona.
+
+ 1537. Ximenis, Rafael Barcelona.
+
+ 1599. Zepes, Bartolomé de Toledo.
+
+
+ 17TH CENTURY
+
+ 1618 to } Adeba, Jusepe Madrid.
+ 1627. }
+
+ 1677. Alcario, Francisco de Sevilla.
+
+ 1664. Aleman, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1623. Alonso, Jeronimo Madrid.
+
+ 1676 to } Alonso de Prado, Pedro Burgos.
+ 1714. }
+
+ 1622. Alvarado, Ambrosio de Madrid.
+
+ 1635. Alvarez Brizuela, Blas Madrid.
+
+ ---- Alvarez, Blas Madrid.
+
+ 1636. Alvarez de Peralta, Pedro Madrid.
+
+ Alvear, Andres Burgos.
+
+ 1640. Alvear, Juan de Burgos.
+
+ 1617. Alvear, Juan de Madrid.
+
+ 1691. Arandas, Gaspar Tarragona.
+
+ ---- Arfe, Joseph, a grandson of Juan de Arfe Sevilla.
+
+ 1613. Avalos, Diego de Madrid.
+
+ 1604. Avendaño de Tudela, Luis Madrid.
+
+ 1677. Avila, Agustin de Sevilla.
+
+ 1620. Barinci, Juan Bautista Escorial.
+
+ 1624. Baraona, Antonio Madrid.
+
+ 1638. Barona, Pedro Barcelona.
+
+ ---- Bellicis, V. Bardi
+
+ 1650. Bardi, Bellicis Barcelona.
+
+ 1604. Belta, Pedro Madrid.
+
+ 1602. Benavente, Pedro Toledo.
+
+ 1645. Belorado, Antonio de Burgos.
+
+ 1630. Bonino, Pedro Madrid.
+
+ 1616. Bracho, Alexandro Toledo.
+
+ 1628. Brizuela, Gaspar Miguel de Madrid.
+
+ 1622. Calvo, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1626. Camanyes or Comanes, Aloy Tortosa.
+
+ 1650. Campo, Juan del Burgos.
+
+ 1646. Campo, Juan de Madrid.
+
+ 1643 to } Carcaba, Felipa, the wife of
+ 1664. } Andres Salinas, worked at Toledo.
+
+ 1621. Carranza Alvear, Juan de Madrid.
+
+ 1622. Carranza, Martin de Madrid.
+
+ 1615. Castro, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1651 to } Ciga, Miguel de Burgos.
+ 1670. }
+
+ 1646. Comañes, Aloy Tortosa.
+
+ 1668. Concepcion, Friar Juan de la Escorial.
+
+ ---- Cruz, Friar Eugenio de la Escorial.
+
+ 1620. Cuello, Amaro Madrid.
+
+ 1661. Dandez, Agustin Barcelona.
+
+ 1623. Delgado Maldonado, Miguel Madrid.
+
+ 1660. Diaz, Juan Segovia.
+
+ 1619. Dominguez, Luis Madrid.
+
+ 1613. Duarte, Cristoval de Madrid.
+
+ 1671. Duran, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1613 to } Duran, Jusepe Madrid.
+ 1624. }
+
+ 1664. Ebrart, Pedro Toledo.
+
+ 1660. Elizes, Alonso de Toledo.
+
+ 1642. Espinosa, Juan de Madrid.
+
+ 1640. Espluga, Tomas Barcelona.
+
+ ---- Estrada, Manuel de Sevilla.
+
+ 1624. Estrada, Sebastian Madrid.
+
+ 1655 to } Faneli, Virgilio Toledo.
+ 1678. }
+
+ 1630. Franconio, Juan Bautista Sevilla.
+
+ 1657. Fernandez, Andres Burgos.
+
+ 1679 to } Fernandez, Gamonal Joseph Toledo.
+ 1694. }
+
+ 1631. Fernandez de Angulo, Miguel Madrid.
+
+ 1612. Fernandez de Castro, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1618. Fernandez, Martin Madrid.
+
+ 1627. Fernandez de Tapia, Andres Madrid.
+
+ ---- Fernandez de Tapia, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1667 to } Fortuna, Juan de Toledo.
+ 1670. }
+
+ 1629. Gallo, Alonso Madrid.
+
+ 1615. Gamonar, Mathieu de Madrid.
+
+ 1600 to } Garcia, Alonso Toledo.
+ 1635. }
+
+ 1622. Garcia, Diego Madrid.
+
+ 1618. Garcia, Francisco Madrid.
+
+ 1613. Garcia, Martin Madrid.
+
+ 1600. Garrido, Gaspar Madrid.
+
+ 1620. Generino, Francisco Escorial.
+
+ 1610. Gomez, Antonio Madrid.
+
+ ---- Gomez, Diego Madrid.
+
+ 1626. Gomez, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1610. Gomez, Marcelo Madrid.
+
+ 1615. Gonzales, Gonzalo Madrid.
+
+ 1613. Gonzales, Enrique Madrid.
+
+ 1634. Gonzales, Francisco Madrid.
+
+ 1630 to } Gonzales, Pascual Madrid.
+ 1640. }
+
+ 1654. Gonzales, Rafael Segovia.
+
+ 1607. Guardia, Melchor, a native of Milan Barcelona.
+
+ 1679. Güergo, Domingo de Burgos.
+
+ 1639. Guigelmo, Eugenio Madrid.
+
+ 1627 to } Guigelmo, Juan Madrid.
+ 1634. }
+
+ 1618. Heredia, Juan de Madrid.
+
+ ---- Heredia, Sebastian Madrid.
+
+ 1631. Hurtado, Luis Madrid.
+
+ 1694 to } Jaranta, Juan de Toledo.
+ 1698. }
+
+ 1650. Landeras, Jeronimo de Burgos.
+
+ 1611. Leal, Sebastian Madrid.
+
+ 1606. Leoni, Pompeyo Madrid.
+
+ 1620. Lopez, Domingo Madrid.
+
+ 1639. Lopez, Francisco Madrid.
+
+ 1611. Lopez de Alvarado, Antonio Madrid.
+
+ 1676. Lopez Barona, Andres Burgos.
+
+ 1617. Lorenzo, Juan Valladolid.
+
+ 1638 to } Maestre, Luis Toledo.
+ 1646. }
+
+ 1611. Marisanz, Pedro Madrid.
+
+ 1653. Martinez, Juan Burgos.
+
+ 1673. Mata, Francisco de Burgos.
+
+ 1677. Mata, Pedro de Burgos.
+
+ 1686. Mayares, Miguel Madrid.
+
+ 1614 to } Maymó, Bernardo Tarragona.
+ 1625. }
+
+ 1639. Medina, Juan Bautista de Madrid.
+
+ 1628. Medina Requexo, Bautista de Madrid.
+
+ 1641. Mendez, Duarte Madrid.
+
+ 1614. Mexia, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1604. Mimbreño, Alonso Roman Madrid.
+
+ 1641. Miñano, Juan de Madrid.
+
+ 1626. Miranda, Alonso de Madrid.
+
+ 1611. Moles, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1639. Montero, Francisco Madrid.
+
+ 1630. Morales, Francisco Madrid.
+
+ ---- Morales, Manuel de Madrid.
+
+ 1695. Muñoz, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1661. Nadal, Andres Barcelona.
+
+ 1620. Nadal, Martin Madrid.
+
+ 1621 to } Navarrete Escarraman, Bartolomé de Madrid.
+ 1629. }
+
+ 1613 to } Navarro, Cristoval Toledo.
+ 1623. }
+
+ 1624 to } Navarro, Manuel Madrid.
+ 1628. }
+
+ 1626. Nuñez, Antonio Madrid.
+
+ 1630. Oliva, Gregorio de Madrid.
+
+ 1650 to } Ortiz de la Revilla, Juan Madrid.
+ 1675. }
+
+ 1615. Oviedo, Martin de Madrid.
+
+ 1619. Oviedo, Pedro de Madrid.
+
+ 1611. Paiba, Vicente de Madrid.
+
+ 1665. Palomo, Diego Toledo.
+
+ 1640. Pallares, Juan de Madrid.
+
+ 1628. Pancorvo, Cristoval de Madrid.
+
+ 1624. Paradiñas, Andres de Madrid.
+
+ 1659. Pedraza, Bernardo de Toledo.
+
+ 1632. Perez, Alonso Madrid.
+
+ 1652 to } Perez, Antonio Toledo.
+ 1658. }
+
+ 1680. Perez de Montalto, Antonio Toledo.
+
+ 1685 to } Perez de Montalto, Miguel Toledo.
+ 1688. }
+
+ 1630. Puig, Luis Valencia.
+
+ 1627. Quero, Juan de Madrid.
+
+ 1632. Quixano, Marcos Madrid.
+
+ 1617. Ramirez, Agustin Madrid.
+
+ 1627. Ramos, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1628. Reynalte, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1660. Riba, Manuel de Toledo.
+
+ 1624. Ribera, Martin de Madrid.
+
+ 1617. Rios, Esteban de Madrid.
+
+ 1626 to } Roda, Agustin Tortosa.
+ 1646. }
+
+ 1626. Rodriguez, Bartolomé Madrid.
+
+ 1631. Rodriguez, Eugenio Toledo.
+
+ 1645. Rodriguez, Gabriel Madrid.
+
+ 1618. Rodriguez, Diego Madrid.
+
+ 1613. Rodriguez, Jeronimo Madrid.
+
+ 1617. Rodriguez, Juan Madrid.
+
+ ---- Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo Madrid.
+
+ 1623. Romano Valmaseda, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1607 to } Ros, Pedro Barcelona.
+ 1625. }
+
+ 1617. Rosales, Francisco de Madrid.
+
+ 1611. Ruiz, Eugenio Madrid.
+
+ ---- Ruiz, Juan Bautista Madrid.
+
+ ---- Ruiz de Valdevieso Burgos.
+
+ 1675. Ruiz de Velasco, Juan Burgos.
+
+ 1684. Salazar, Francisco Burgos.
+
+ 1604 to } Salinas, Andres de {Toledo and
+ 1635. } {Madrid.
+
+ 1639 to} Salinas, Francisco de Toledo.
+ 1670. }
+
+ 1639 to } Salinas, Vicente de Toledo.
+ 1680. }
+
+ 1616. Sanchez, Francisco Toledo.
+
+ 1659 to } Sanchez Ormachea, Pedro Toledo.
+ 1661. }
+
+ 1614. San Martin, Juan de Toledo.
+
+ 1610 to } Santillana, Antonio de Madrid.
+ 1617. }
+
+ 1642. Santo Domingo, Hipolito Madrid.
+
+ 1653. San Vicente, Jacinto de Burgos.
+
+ 1640. Sarabia, Cristoval de Sevilla.
+
+ 1668. Segura, Juan de Sevilla.
+
+ 1632. Serrano, Francisco Madrid.
+
+ 1640. Soler, Baltasar Madrid.
+
+ 1629. Soria, Francisco Madrid.
+
+ 1608. Soria, Jeronimo de Madrid.
+
+ 1617. Soria, Lucas de Madrid.
+
+ 1620. Spagna, Juliano Madrid.
+
+ 1694. Scase, Gaspar Sevilla.
+
+ 1662. Suer, or Sueur, Esteban, a Frenchman who
+ worked at Toledo.
+
+ 1671. Tellez, Juan Toledo.
+
+ ---- Tebres, Antonio Toledo.
+
+ 1677. Tello, Mateo, a German, worked at Sevilla.
+
+ 1617. Tofino, Alonso Madrid.
+
+ 1618 to } Valera, Domingo de Madrid.
+ 1623. }
+
+ 1619. Valedomar, Angel de Madrid.
+
+ 1626. Valle, Juan del Madrid.
+
+ ---- Valmaseda, V. Juan Romano ----
+
+ 1624. Vega, Juan de Madrid.
+
+ 1672. Velasco Ganado, Pedro Toledo.
+
+ 1625. Velasquez, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1627. Villalta, Antonio Madrid.
+
+ 1600 to } Villamayor, Baltasar Toledo.
+ 1626. }
+
+ 1638. Villarago, J. Barcelona.
+
+ 1622. Villarroel, Andres de Madrid.
+
+ 1614. Villegas, Martin de Toledo.
+
+ 1645. Vivanco, Simon Madrid.
+
+ 1615. Xabier, Antonio Madrid.
+
+ 1610. Zabalza, Diego de Madrid.
+
+ 1615 to } Zaldivia, Lucas de Burgos.
+ 1633. }
+
+ ---- Zoga, Miguel de ----
+
+
+ 18TH CENTURY
+
+ 1746. Aguilar, Geronimo Cordova.
+
+ 1794. Alamo, Bernardo de Toledo.
+
+ 1703. Aragon, Diego de Segovia.
+
+ 1716. Aranda, Alberto Madrid.
+
+ 1746. Aviles, Manuel de Cordova.
+
+ End of } Balmet, Bartolomé Madrid.
+ 18th cent. }
+
+ 1740. Ballestero, Manuel Cordova.
+
+ 1730 to } Bargas, Manuel de Toledo.
+ 1752. }
+
+ 1702. Bargas, Mateo de Toledo.
+
+ 1739. Bargas y Machuca, Manuel de Toledo.
+
+ 1789 to } Bargas Machuca, Manuel Timoteo Madrid.
+ 1797. }
+
+ 1753. Bautista, Vicente Toledo.
+
+ 18th cent. Benitez, Pedro Salamanca.
+
+ End of } Buenafuente, Tomas Madrid.
+ 18th cent. }
+
+ 1746. Bustamante, Franco Cordova.
+
+ 1734. Bustos, Floro de Sevilla.
+
+ 1784. Calzado, José, enameller Malaga.
+
+ 1746. Camacho, Lorenzo Cordova.
+
+ 1746. Camacho, Rafael Cordova.
+
+ 1713. Campo, Matias del Soria.
+
+ 1734. Castillo, Matias del Aranda del Duero.
+
+ 1746. Castro, Damian de Cordova.
+
+ 1748. Castro, Diego Toledo.
+
+ 18th cent. Chevalier, Luis Claudio, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid.
+
+ 1728. Colomes, Pedro, worked at the mounts of silver
+ knives made at Alcora.
+
+ End of } Conde, Domingo Madrid.
+ 18th cent. }
+
+ 1754. Cros, Josef Valencia.
+
+ ---- Cuerda, Feliz de la Toledo.
+
+ 1738 to } Cuerda, Jose de la Toledo.
+ 1745. }
+
+ 1722 to } Dominguez, Juan Antonio Toledo.
+ 1748. }
+
+ 1776. Elosua, Antonio Burgos.
+
+ 1776. Elosua, Manuel de Burgos.
+
+ 1790. Fernandez, Pablo Burgos.
+
+ 18th cent. Fernandez Clemente, Melchor Salamanca.
+
+ 1741. Fernandez de la Fuente, Antonio Toledo.
+
+ 1778. Ferroni, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1701. Figueroa, Juan Salamanca.
+
+ 1688. Fornaguera, Buenaventura Barcelona.
+
+ 1790. Gallardo, Vicente Sevilla.
+
+ 1710. Gamonal y Guzman, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1746. Garcia, Jose Cordova.
+
+ 1760 to } Garcia Reyna, Manuel Toledo.
+ 1766. }
+
+ 1753. Garcia Crespo, Manuel Salamanca.
+
+ 1772. Gaudin, Isaac, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid.
+
+ ---- Gaudin, Miguel, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid.
+
+ 1714. Gomez, Pedro Alcala de Henares.
+
+ 1746. Hidalgo, Gabriel Cordova.
+
+ 1700 to } Jaranta, Juan de Toledo.
+ 1717. }
+
+ 1743. Jaranta y Zapata, Juan de Toledo.
+
+ 1717 to } Jaranta, Lorenzo Toledo.
+ 1732. }
+
+ 1746. Jurado, Jose Cordova.
+
+ 1746. Lara, Diego de Cordova.
+
+ 1790. Lecaroz, Antonio Sevilla.
+
+ 1745. Lopez, Bernardino Toledo.
+
+ 1784. Lopez, Manuel Burgos.
+
+ 1746. Luna, Andres de Cordova.
+
+ ---- Luque, Juan de Cordova.
+
+ 1700. Llanos, Manuel de Burgos.
+
+ 1746. Madueño, Francisco Cordova.
+
+ 1790. Mairod y Vassner, José Sevilla.
+
+ 1734. Manrique, Franco Esteban Aranda de Duero.
+
+ 1784. Marti, Jose Barcelona.
+
+ 1778. Martinez, Antonio Martinez.
+
+ 1754. Martinez, Estanislao Valencia.
+
+ End of } Martinez, Gregorio Madrid.
+ 18th cent. }
+
+ 1703. Martinez del Valle, Jose Segovia.
+
+ 1693. Matons, Juan Tarragona.
+
+ End of } Mendeluce, Fermin Navarra.
+ 18th cent. }
+
+ End of } Molinez, Francisco Zaragoza.
+ 18th cent. }
+
+ 1722. Monteman y Cusens, Lorenzo Salamanca.
+
+ 1746. Moreno, Manuel Cordova.
+
+ 1725. Muñoz de Amador, Bernardo Madrid.
+
+ 1746. Muñoz, Francisco Cordova.
+
+ ---- Navas, Fernando de Cordova.
+
+ 1784. Nieva, Antonio de Malaga.
+
+ 1770 to } Niño, Jose Toledo.
+ 1776. }
+
+ 1767 to } Niño, Jose Bernardo Toledo.
+ 1777. }
+
+ End of } Nivel, Juan Madrid.
+ 18th cent. }
+
+ End of } Novi, Francisco Madrid.
+ 18th cent. }
+
+ 1786. Olivares, Fermin Madrid.
+
+ 1746. Palomino, Jose Sevilla.
+
+ 1784. Pechenet, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1734. Perez de Oviedo, Francisco Granada.
+
+ 1746. Pineda, Manuel Cordova.
+
+ ---- Quintero, José
+
+ 1760 to } Reyna, Manuel Toledo.
+ 1777. }
+
+ 1743. Reyno, Tomas Toledo.
+
+ End of } Roche, Nicholas Madrid.
+ 18th cent. }
+
+ 1715 to } Rodriguez de Castro, Juan Burgos.
+ 1757. }
+
+ 1784. Rovira, José Barcelona.
+
+ 1746. Roxelio, Francisco Cordova.
+
+ 1791. Ruiz, Donata Burgos.
+
+ 1746. Ruiz, Juan Cordova.
+
+ ---- Ruiz, Miguel Cordova.
+
+ 1777. Ruiz, Pedro Burgos.
+
+ 1746. Sanchez, Francisco Cordova.
+
+ 1731. Sanchez Renentes, Tomas Sevilla.
+
+ 1767 to } Sanchez Niño, Jose Toledo.
+ 1777. }
+
+ 1731. Sanz, Pedro Sevilla.
+
+ 18th cent. Sanz de Velasco, Toribio Salamanca.
+
+ 1700. Simancas, Francisco de Burgos.
+
+ 1716. Supuesta, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1731. Tamaral, Ignacio Sevilla.
+
+ 1746. Torralvo, Sebastian Cordova.
+
+ 1755. Torrijos, Lucas de Burgos.
+
+ 1771. Urqueza, Domingo Madrid.
+
+ ---- Valadrez Romero, Luis Sevilla.
+
+ 1746. Vargas, Jose de Cordova.
+
+ ---- Vega, Pedro de la Cordova.
+
+ 1754. Vicente, Bautista Valencia.
+
+ 1728. Vicente, Luis Valencia.
+
+ 1734. Villa, Andres de Sevilla.
+
+ 1713 to } Zurreño, Antonio Madrid.
+ 1715. }
+
+ 1799 to } Ximenez, Manuel Toledo.
+ 1800. }
+
+I owe to the courtesy of Baron Ch. Davillier the names of the following
+artists, which appear in his "Histoire des Principaux Orfèvres
+Espagnols," Paris, 1879.
+
+ Perez de las Cellas, Antonio, a native of Saragossa;
+ he worked at Rome in 1456
+
+ Ruiz, Alonso; he worked at Toledo in 1431
+
+ Ferrandez, Garci; he worked at Toledo in 1431
+
+ Pielagos, Juan Garcia, Burgos 1442
+
+ Fernai, Rodrigo, a Frenchman, who worked at Oviedo in 1368
+
+ Bells, Antonio, Barcelona 1458
+
+ Closes, Francisco, Barcelona 1464
+
+ Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope, Toledo 1466
+
+ Sano, Salvador, Barcelona 1475
+
+ Zobarola, Francisco, Banet 1480
+
+ Jujuce, a Valencian jew, Pamplona 1356
+
+ Freset, Perrin, } Frenchmen working at Olite, Navarre, in 1444
+ Rodez, Conrat de, }
+ Bonte, Daniel de, a German, working at Olite, in Navarre about 1400
+
+ Valdubia, Maestro Ferrando, Rome 1525
+
+ Fuente, Gonsalvo de, Rome 1539
+
+ Alfonso, Rome 1546
+
+
+
+
+IRON WORK.
+
+
+Numerous iron mines have existed in Spain, especially in the Cantabrian
+provinces, and have been worked from very early times. They are
+mentioned by Pliny, lib. 34, cap. xii., and have given rise to the
+development of excellent metal works in the Spanish Peninsula: although
+in many localities this tradition has been continued until our days, the
+Basque Provinces have in all times excelled in this artistic industry.
+
+The want of durability and the little care taken of objects of
+iron-work, owing to the insignificant value of the material employed,
+prevent us from being able to mention any important examples of a very
+early date. After drawing attention to some interesting specimens which
+have reached us from the Spanish-Arabs, we must begin the history of
+iron-work in Spain in the second half of the 15th century; it continues
+to progress in the 16th, and produced undoubtedly at that period works
+which were unrivalled in Europe. The _rejas_ or chancel screens
+enclosing chapels in the cathedrals of Toledo, Seville, Granada,
+Salamanca, and other churches in Spain, of which it is much to be
+deplored no drawings or photographs exist, deserve the especial
+attention of those who follow this industry in the present day, owing to
+the beauty of their forms, and the inexhaustible variety of models which
+they present to the manufacturer.
+
+Besides specimens of Iron-work connected with arms which will be
+described in a separate article, the most interesting examples of
+Moorish manufacture which have reached us are keys of most delicate
+tracery; their perfect state of preservation shows that they have only
+been used as symbols of cities or fortresses, which on given occasions
+were offered to kings or great people. Even in the present day the
+ceremony is still kept up of offering a key to the foreign princes who
+stay at the royal palace of Madrid, and in a similar manner as far back
+as the Middle Ages, keys have been presented to Spanish sovereigns on
+their visiting such towns as Toledo or Seville, and a ceremonial is gone
+through of swearing to uphold their privileges, a reminiscence probably
+of what occurred when these towns were conquered from the Moors.
+
+One of these keys at Valencia, belonging to Count de Trigona, measures
+9½ inches long, and was originally gilt; its handle or bow is closed,
+and covered with delicate work in relief. The wards are ornamented in
+the same manner with a combination of several words written in Cufic
+letters of difficult interpretation. Round the handle we can read most
+distinctly in Arabic the name of the artist: "It was made by Ahmed
+Ahsan."
+
+This key appears to be of the 13th to 14th century. Two similar ones
+existed in the town hall of Valencia of a most monumental character;
+they were considered of great antiquity, but it has been ascertained
+that they were made in 1632, by the locksmith Juan Marti.
+
+In the shrine of the Cathedral of Seville there are two interesting keys
+(_see_ woodcut); one of them is of iron, the other of silver, of a
+similar style. For further details see "Museo Español de Antiguedades,"
+vol. ii., p. I. The first, which is represented to the right, is of
+genuine Moorish workmanship; the wards are covered with letters in Cufic
+characters, which several oriental scholars have tried to interpret,
+without coming to a satisfactory conclusion, probably owing to the
+confused, or double meaning of the letters. It is supposed with good
+foundation that this was the identical key which was given to King St.
+Ferdinand, the conqueror of Seville, in 1248, the day he took possession
+of the city. The silver key, to the left of the plate, has traces of
+gold and niello work, representing in the upper part, ships, castles and
+lions. Round the handle runs an inscription in Hebrew--"The King of
+Kings will open; the King of the whole Earth will enter." In the wards
+appear in delicate open work carving the following words in Spanish,
+"God will open; the king will enter. Dios abrirá; rey entrará." It may
+be affirmed to have been made in the 14th century, and in that case,
+symbolizes some event of the life of King Pedro the Cruel, a great
+protector of the Jewish race. Five Moorish keys of a similar kind, but
+inferior merit, may be seen in the local Museum of Segovia, and the
+Archæological Museum of Madrid.
+
+[Illustration: MOORISH KEYS IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.]
+
+The objects of iron-work made by the Christian artists of this period in
+Spain must have been good, for although no specimens exist, we have at
+any rate historical information which confirms this. In the Consistorial
+Ordinances of Barcelona, Capmany, "Memoirs," vol. i., we find that
+ironsmiths formed an extensive guild in the 13th century; in 1257 four
+of its members formed part of the chief municipal council; this guild
+increased in importance in the following centuries. The Ordinances of
+Seville of the 15th century, which were reformed in 1502, and those of
+Toledo, also re-enforced in 1582, give an idea of what was done by
+workers in bronze, the methods of workmanship and other details of
+interest. The Ordinances of Seville mention _rejas_ made in Biscay, and
+give a good idea of the styles adopted by the iron-masters there. The
+Ordinances of Granada repeat almost exactly the former prescriptions.
+
+The Cathedrals and large churches in Spain lent themselves in an
+admirable manner to the construction of objects of all kinds in iron
+work, especially the railings enclosing the side chapels, or sepulchres,
+and the double screens required for the _Capilla Mayor_ and _Coro_,
+owing to the ancient Spanish custom of constructing the choir in the
+centre of the principal nave of the cathedral. Hence we meet with names
+of the iron-masters, _rejeros_, mentioned in early documents as attached
+to the different cathedrals in the same manner as painters and
+architects. We find Bartolomé Morey working at Palma de Mallorca in 1389
+to 1397. He was succeeded by his son Juan, from 1401 to 1407. See
+Piferrer, "Recuerdos y Bellezas de España." Maestro Basil worked at
+Burgos, and Maestro Pablo at Toledo and its dioceses towards the end of
+the same century. Maestro Juan Francés worked at Toledo in 1482. By this
+same artist is the beautiful _reja_ of the Capilla Mayor of the
+_Colegiata_ of Alcala de Henares; it is signed, "Maestre Juan Francés,
+maestro mayor de las obras de fierro en España." From this time the
+names of iron-masters are well known and numerous; we may safely affirm
+that those who lived in the 16th century have left us the most important
+works.
+
+One of the finest specimens of this artistic industry is the splendid
+_reja_ which divides the nave at the royal chapel of Granada. Its
+immense size has enabled the artist to carry out a splendid
+ornamentation in the "plateresque style," combined with reliefs on a
+large scale of figures of apostles and saints, terminated at the upper
+part with a wide band of ornamentation of leaves and flowers, crowned
+with a Rood, with the Virgin and St. John on either side. The splendid
+balustrades and supports are forged with the hammer; the figures and
+circular piers are formed of large plates, _repoussé_ and carved in the
+most admirable manner, and give a good idea of the difficulties of this
+work, which the artists of this time had overcome, long before the
+various technical facilities of the present day existed. The
+ornamentation of this _reja_ was originally gilt, and the figures are
+painted in oils. It was made about the year 1520 to 1530; in the lock,
+formed as a Gothic pinnacle, is a small inscription, "Maestro Bartolome
+me fec." This same artist worked at Jaen and Seville. Cean Bermudez
+calls him "sculptor and iron-master."
+
+Two most important specimens of iron-work exist also at the cathedral of
+Toledo, enclosing the _Capilla Mayor_ and _Coro_. The _reja_ of the
+Capilla Mayor is 42 feet wide by 19 inches high; it rests on a pediment
+of marble ornamented with masks and bronze work, upon which rises the
+_reja_, which is divided horizontally by means of a frieze of
+ornamentation, and this again vertically in five compartments. In each
+vertical division there is a pilaster of four sides formed of _repoussé_
+plates, carved with a fine ornamentation in the renaissance style, this
+is again terminated with life-size figures in high relief of bronze. The
+second compartment rises upon the band which divides it in an horizontal
+sense; it follows the same decoration in its pilasters, and is
+terminated by a series of coats of arms, torches, angels, and a variety
+of foliage which finishes the upper part. Upon the centre, hanging from
+a thick chain supported from the roof, is suspended a life-size Rood, of
+admirable effect, which completes the decoration. In several spots there
+are labels with mottos in Latin; in one of them appears the following
+inscription, and the date of 1548 when this splendid work was finished:
+"Anno MDXLVIII. Paul III. P. M. Carol. V. Imper. Rege. Joannes Martinez
+Siliccus. Archipiscopus. Tolet. Hispaniae. Primat." The railings of this
+_reja_ are silvered, and the reliefs and salient points gilt. The artist
+who made it was Francisco Villalpando, a native of Valladolid; this
+model was chosen among those of several artists, who presented their
+plans in competition before the ecclesiastical authorities; it is
+calculated that ten years elapsed before it was finally finished in
+1548. Villalpando was greatly distinguished likewise as a sculptor and
+architect. In 1563 a book was printed after his death of a translation
+he made of the work on architecture by Sebastian Serlio. Other
+remarkable bronze works of art, which will be described further on, were
+also by him.
+
+The _reja_ of the coro, which is placed opposite that of the Capilla
+Mayor, is almost exactly similar in size. It is less rich in
+ornamentation, but so pure and sober in its general lines, and its
+ornamentation is so perfect, that it is perhaps superior to the other.
+This _reja_ consists of a single architectonical body, divided in six
+vertical compartments, covered with bas reliefs of such delicate work
+that they appear rather to be by the hand of a silversmith than by an
+iron-master. An innumerable number of figures are combined with the
+ornamentation in the base, terminations of the columns and coronation;
+in the same manner it is full of banderoles with Latin mottos, and gilt
+and silvered; it was finished in 1548, as we see by the inscription.
+This _reja_ was made by Domingo de Cespedes, a native of Toledo, with
+the help of his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo; the design was also chosen
+by competition, and it was finished in seven years. Both these admirable
+models of iron-work belong to the best productions of the renaissance
+school, and contain models which might be adapted with great advantage
+to ironwork of every description in the present day.
+
+It would be an interminable task to describe the multitude of railings
+similar in richness and good taste to these which happily survive in
+Spanish cathedrals and churches. It is sufficient to call attention to
+the following. The _reja_ of the Capilla del Condestable in the
+cathedral of Burgos, by Christoval de Andino in 1523, has been
+considered one of the finest specimens of its kind, owing to the
+perfection with which every detail is carried out. A contemporary
+writer in describing it says: "Good workmen, and those who wish that
+their work may have authority and be blameless, must endeavour to be
+guided by ancient models, as your fellow-citizen, Cristoval de Andino;
+his works are thereby more elegant and excellent than any others which I
+have seen up to the present time; if not, judge of his work by looking
+at the _reja_ which he is making for your lord the Condestable, which is
+undoubtedly superior to all those which have hitherto been made in
+Spain." Sagredo--"Medidas del Romano," quoted by Cean Bermudez. In the
+centre of the upper part, towards the middle, appears the inscription:
+"Ab. Andino, A.D. MDXXIII." The _reja_ of the _coro_ of the cathedral of
+Seville, made by the iron-master, Sancho Muñoz in 1519, a native of
+Cuenca, is also very remarkable; besides the finer ornamentation which
+covers it, it has figures of kings and prophets representing the
+genealogy of Our Lord. The _reja_ belonging to the _capilla mayor_ of
+the same cathedral was the work of Friar Francisco de Salamanca,
+1518-1533; it is covered with an open-work ornamentation, figures of
+angels and bas-reliefs, and is terminated in the upper part with a
+representation of the Entombment of Our Lord. The large _reja_ of the
+cathedral of Cuenca, made by Arenas in 1517, those at Palencia, by
+Andino, 1520, and Rodriguez, 1555; the one at the church of Sn. Juan de
+la Penitencia, Toledo; the beautiful railing at the chapel of
+Palenzuela, in the cathedral of Salamanca, 1524, and a number of objects
+of smaller size, such as iron pulpits in the cathedrals of Barcelona,
+and in some chapels at Burgos, Avila, Palencia, and Toledo, several of
+which are anterior to the 16th century, are all worthy of the student's
+especial notice. Among these objects of smaller dimensions special
+reference must be made to the fine and picturesque _reja_ surrounding
+the sepulchre of Archbishop Diego de Anaya, in the chapel of Sn.
+Bartolomé, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca. The beauty of
+its details and the open-worked inscription which surrounds it, place
+it at once among the finest specimens of ironwork of the 15th century.
+The two window _rejas_ at the house called "de las Conchas" in the same
+town--an admirable specimen of Burgundian architecture, although
+restored--may be quoted as excellent models of ironwork applied to civil
+buildings.
+
+Iron pulpits have been made in Spain with great success. Two interesting
+examples of the end of the 15th century still exist at the cathedral of
+Avila. They are hexagonal in shape, and supported by lions' claws; they
+were originally gilt. One of these pulpits is ornamented in the
+Flamboyant style, the other in good Renaissance; consult Sir Digby
+Wyatt's "Architect's Note Book in Spain." Friar Francisco de Salamanca
+made two interesting iron pulpits for the cathedral of Seville; they are
+covered with bas-reliefs representing the Evangelists and subjects taken
+from the Acts of the Apostles and the Apocalypse. The pulpit at the
+parish church of S^{n.} Gil de Burgos must also be mentioned. Mr. Street,
+notwithstanding his want of sympathy with every object not strictly of
+the Middle Ages, says: "It is of very late date, end of the 15th
+century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration. The support is of
+iron, resting on stone, and the staircase modern. The framework at the
+angles, top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the ironwork is laid. The
+traceries are cut out of two plates of iron, laid one over the other,
+and the ironwork is in part gilded, but I do not think that this is
+original. The canopy is of the same age and character, and the whole
+effect is very rich at the same time that it is very novel. I saw other
+pulpits, but none so old as this."
+
+Among the applications of iron to decorations of civil architecture must
+be specially mentioned the nails and knockers on the doors of houses,
+which are so characteristic of Toledo and other old Spanish towns. This
+style was imitated from the Moors. Some doors still exist at the
+Alhambra, Granada, covered with enormous heads of nails of a
+half-spherical form with embossed pattern. These same nails are
+constantly to be found on old Spanish houses, to which are added in the
+angles pieces of iron of a most artistic order. A large number of these
+nails from Toledo, are in the Kensington Museum. Examples of two are
+given.
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH NAIL HEADS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+After the 16th century this industry loses its artistic interest and
+importance. Ironwork becomes simply practical and useful, and ceases to
+reproduce the grand carved and chiselled works of former times. The
+artistic objects are reduced to specimens on a small scale: door-locks,
+of which an excellent example exists at the church of Calatravas,
+Madrid; a weighing machine, made by the locksmith Salinas for the Mint
+in the 17th century, which was exhibited at the Special Loan Collection
+of Scientific Apparatus at Kensington in 1876, the fine ornamentation of
+the clock of the cathedral of Seville, made in the last century by Friar
+Josef Cordero, and the very remarkable iron locks made by Millan at the
+beginning of the present century, for the rooms at the palace of the
+Escurial, called "Piezas de Maderas finas." The art of inlaying iron
+with gold and silver, constitutes in Spain a special industry; the
+principal artists who carry it out at the present time with great skill
+are Messrs. Zuluaga at Madrid, and Alvarez at Toledo. The splendid
+sepulchre of General Prim at the church of Atocha, Madrid, made entirely
+of damasquiné ironwork, is worthy of the greatest commendation; the fine
+vases and shields of _repoussé_ ironwork inlaid with gold, made by
+Alvarez of Toledo, are artistic and excellent revivals of the Milanese
+work of the 16th century.
+
+
+IRON MASTERS.
+
+ Year in which Locality of
+ they worked. Name. their Residence.
+
+ 1520. Avila, Fr. Juan de Guadalupe.
+
+ 1527. Andino, Pedro Seville.
+
+ 1540. Andino, Christoval Toledo.
+
+ 1557. Arenas, Hernando Cuenca.
+
+ 1523. Bartolmé, El Maestro Jaen and Seville.
+
+ 1555. Barco, Alonso Palencia.
+
+ 1559. Brabo, Hernando Toledo.
+
+ 1579. Cela, Juan Tomas Zaragoza.
+
+ 1541. Cespédes, Domingo de Burgos.
+
+ 1561. Corral, Ruy Diaz del Toledo.
+
+ 1604. Celma, Juan Bautista Aragon y Galicia.
+
+ 1692. Conde, Sebastian Seville.
+
+ 1797. Cordero, Fr. Josef Seville.
+
+ 1537. Delgado, Juan Seville.
+
+ 1540. Domingo, Maestro Toledo.
+
+ 1518. Elias, Joan de Palencia.
+
+ 1519. Esteban, Maestro Seville.
+
+ 1494. Frances, Juan Toledo.
+
+ 1555. Herreros, Llorente Palencia.
+
+ 1522. Idrobo, Diego Seville.
+
+ 1524. Juan, Fray Seville.
+
+ 1518. Lopez, Juan do Urisarri Palencia.
+
+ 1531. Lemosin Cuenca.
+
+ 1518. Muñoz, Sancho Cuenca.
+
+ 1389. Morey, Bartolomo Palma de Mallorca.
+
+ 1555. Moreno, Benegno Palencia.
+
+ 1565. Pedro, Maestre Palencia.
+
+ 1533. Palencia, Antonis de Seville.
+
+ 1607. Peñafiel, Luis de Toledo.
+
+ 1510. Prieto, Fernando Seville.
+
+ 1512. Prelojero, Juan Palencia.
+
+ 1555. Rodriguez, Gaspar Palencia.
+
+ 1607. Rodriguez, Bartolomé Toledo.
+
+ 1607. Silva, Francisco de Toledo.
+
+ 1533. Salamanca, Francisco de Seville.
+
+ 1518. Urisarri, Lopez Palencia.
+
+ 1561. Villalpando Toledo.
+
+ 1518. Yepes, Juan de Seville.
+
+
+
+
+BRONZES.
+
+
+Objects of bronze of native origin are less frequently met with in Spain
+than those of silver and iron. Many foreign artists worked at this
+industry, the history of which only begins in the 16th century. The
+specimens of bronze work made by the Moors will be described in their
+proper place. It is true that examples of bronze made by the Iberians
+and Romans are frequently met with in excavations; they consist chiefly
+of hatchets and other arms, bracelets, fibulas, etc., but they are
+similar in every respect to objects of the same kind found in other
+European countries. During the Middle Ages, objects of enamelled gilt
+bronze were used on a very large scale in churches; specimens of a very
+high order may be seen in Spain, such as the splendid altar at San
+Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre; that at Santo Domingo de Silos, and the
+statuette of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban, Salamanca. These
+objects were, however, probably made at Limoges, or in some other
+locality out of Spain. We hardly can trace any bronze of this period but
+cathedral bells. One was made at Puig-Valencia as early as A.D. 622,
+melted in 1550, the only trace of the early work being the inscription
+and date, which are given by contemporary authors.
+
+Another bell, about half a foot high, of A.D. 875, exists at the Local
+Museum of Cordova, with the inscription: "_Offert hoc munus Samson
+abbatis in domum Sancti Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era_ DCCCCXIII." We
+find the name of "_Joannes Calcena me fecit Anno Domini 1306_," on a
+bell at the cathedral of Valencia, and on one of Lerida was to be read:
+"_Fecit factum per magistrum Joannem Adam Anno Dei 1418 in mense
+Aprili_;" the author appears to have been, by reference to the documents
+of the church, "_de burgo Sanctæ Mariæ Turlensis diocesis regni
+Franciæ_," for details see Villanueva, vol. ii., p. 147-152, xvi. 88.
+
+Before entering into the renaissance period, I must mention some
+remarkable specimens which have reached us, the work of the Spanish
+Arabs. Probably the most ancient and interesting is a sculpture
+representing a stag, now at the Provincial Museum of Cordova, which
+evidently belonged to a fountain. It was found in the ruins of the
+palace of Medina Az Zahra, the construction of which corresponds to the
+time of Abd er Rahman III., (961); it is undoubtedly work of this
+period, and probably belonged to this palace, so celebrated by Oriental
+writers. The fragments of a bronze fountain and several lamps, at the
+Museum of Granada, are of a later date; they were found in the
+excavations of the early city of Illiberis, which was abandoned in the
+11th century, when its inhabitants chose the present site of Granada.
+The fragments, which are supposed to have belonged originally to a
+fountain, consist of a small temple 22 inches high, of an hexagonal
+base, with twelve small columns supporting bands of open work, frescoes,
+cupola, and turrets: in the angles are birds. There are six lamps, all
+of which are mutilated and incomplete; their form and object is
+indicated by the remains of chains which suspended them. Some of them
+are half melted, giving testimony to the conflagration which the mosque
+suffered in the time of the Arabs. Other bronze fragments have been
+found in the same locality. All these objects are artistic in their
+general lines, but the workmanship is indifferent, and the ornamentation
+heavy and coarse.
+
+A bronze lion and a mortar, found some years since in the province of
+Palencia, are more artistic in form and general details. The mortar was
+found near Monzon, and the lion not far from it. Remains still exist of
+a castle, which was founded by the Arabs, in the locality, and which at
+the beginning of the 11th century was in the hands of the Christians; it
+is highly probable that these objects belonged to its Moorish
+inhabitants. If we take into account how frequently we find Oriental
+remains in this locality, both these objects may be safely classified as
+belonging to the 10th century, although there are details in their
+ornamentation which appear rather to be of a later period. The lion is
+12½ inches high by 14½ inches long; an aperture in the lower part
+which communicates with the mouth of the animal, appears to suggest that
+it belonged to a fountain, the water of which issued, or not, owing to
+the movement of the tail, which rotates and acts as a key. The shape of
+this lion recalls those at the Alhambra; its forms are stiff and
+angular, in the conventional Oriental manner of reproducing animated
+beings. The surface is covered with ornamentation, the mane is arranged
+in mannered and symmetrical curls, like those so common in Assyrian
+sculptures. On the back and two sides is the following inscription in
+Cufic characters:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic "Perfect blessing. Complete happiness."]
+
+This object is similar in detail and the inscription to a bronze griffin
+at the cemetery of Pisa; it belonged to the collection of the painter
+Fortuny, and at the sale in 1875 it was bought by Mr. E. Piot.
+
+The mortar is circular in form, and is surrounded by twelve prismatic
+sections. Two lions' heads serve to support the hanging rings or
+handles. The whole of the outside is most delicately carved with
+arabesques, among which are to be met frequently figures of birds and
+quadrupeds. See "El arte en Esp.," vol. iii., Madrid, 1864. The
+following inscription in elegant Cufic characters runs round the upper
+part: it is repeated twice. "Complete blessing, and ever-increasing
+happiness and prosperity of every kind, and an elevated and happy
+social position for its owner." From the richness of the ornamentation
+of this object, it is probable that it was used to pound aromatic drugs.
+
+A bronze lamp of a similar ornamentation was found some years ago at
+Cordova--it is not unlike in form and shape Roman lamps of the same kind
+made of earthenware. It is engraved all over, and the subject of a dog
+pursuing a hare appears often repeated. None of these objects of bronze
+work are however equal in importance to a lamp made during the reign of
+Mohammed III. of Granada, now at the Archæological Museum, Madrid [See
+Plate.] It is composed in its base of a body destined to hold the light,
+upon which is supported a large four-sided piece in the form of a
+pyramid, which is completed with an octagonal body which surmounts it.
+Four graduated balls suspend it. The height of this lamp is 2½ yards,
+and taking into account its general structure, it appears as if the
+chains or intermediate pieces are wanting, which probably existed on the
+inverted bell of the base. The manufacture and elegance of decoration of
+this object is of a very high order, and may be compared with bronze
+work of Damascus. The greater part of the pieces are covered with
+pierced open work, and the motto of the Kings of Granada, "There is no
+conqueror but God." In the lower part of the large pyramid, truncated in
+four sides, is a long inscription in Arabian characters, stating the
+lamp to have been made by order of Mohammed III. year of the Hegira, 705
+(A.D. 1305).
+
+The remaining objects of bronze work of Spanish-Moorish production are
+less important. They are interesting notwithstanding. The spherical
+perfume-burners which were used to roll on the pavement are highly
+artistic and might be adopted in the present day. One or two bronze
+buckets of a well exist at the Madrid Archæological Museum, with some
+small objects of little importance found at Cordova. This artistic
+industry has continued until the present day in Spain in the form of
+objects of domestic use, such as brasiers, mortars and lamps, several of
+which preserve their ancient traditional form.
+
+[Illustration: MOORISH LAMP. ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM, MADRID.]
+
+In metal work as in architecture, a large number of instances exist in
+Spain in which the Christian and Moorish styles are blended--as an
+example of this style may be mentioned the fine bronze gates of the
+cathedral of Toledo. These doors, which are 18 ft. high by 12 ft. wide,
+are covered on both sides with bronze plates; the outer side is
+decorated with a geometrical Moorish design and small Arabic
+inscriptions, alternating with castles and a number of Arabic mottoes.
+In one of the side bands and in the lower part may be read in Spanish
+the following inscription:
+
+"Estas puertas fueron acabadas en el mes de Marzo era de mil c ccc.
+setanta e cinco años."
+
+"These doors were finished in the month of March, in the era of 1375
+years" (A.D. 1337).
+
+The fine doors of the cathedral of Cordova, del Perdon, are similar in
+style. They are made of wood and covered with bronze plating, and Gothic
+and Arabic inscriptions,--the word "Deus," and
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"The empire belongs to God, all is His." Round these doors, alternating
+with the arms of Castille and Leon, is the following inscription. "Dia
+dos del mes de Marzo de la era del Cesar de 1415 años, (A.D. 1377.)
+Reinante el muy alto et poderoso D. Enrique, rey de Castilla." These
+doors were restored in 1539.
+
+The Puerta del Perdon of the cathedral of Seville is similar in style,
+and a good example of moresque bronze work.
+
+Returning to the bronze work of the Christian artists of the renaissance
+period, the general rule which may be established with reference to
+statues is that they have been made by foreign artists. This is the case
+with the splendid groups of figures at the high altar and presbytery of
+the Escorial by Pompeyo Leoni, the equestrian statue of Philip IV. by
+Pedro Tacca, and others of a similar kind. One of the very few
+exceptions to this rule occurs in Bartolomé Morel, a Spaniard, the
+author of the statue called the "Giralda" on the tower of the cathedral
+of Seville, the desk of the choir, and _Tenebrarium_ at the same church.
+These objects were all by him, and are among the finest specimens of
+bronze work in Spain. The _Tenebrarium_ is described by Cean Bermudez in
+his "Descripcion artistica de la catedral de Sevilla," p. 129, in the
+following manner: "This object is better executed and more graceful in
+design than any of its kind in Spain. It consists of a triangular
+candelabrum, which is used during matins in the three last days of Holy
+Week with fifteen tapers, which are extinguished on reading each psalm.
+
+"It was designed and executed by Bartolomé Morel in 1562. Juan Giralte,
+a native of the Low Countries, and Juan Bita Vazquez helped him to make
+the statues which are at the head of this candelabrum, and Pedro
+Delgado, a sculptor of great renown, worked at the foot.
+
+"It is 8 yards and a half high, and the triangular upper part is 3 yards
+wide: it is surmounted by fifteen statues which represent Our Saviour,
+the Apostles and two other disciples or evangelists. In the vacant space
+of the triangle there is a circle ornamented with foliage, in the centre
+of which is a figure in high relief of the Blessed Virgin, underneath is
+a medallion bust of a king. This centre is of bronzed wood, and is
+supported by four small bronze columns, below which are four caryatides,
+resting on a nobly designed border ornamented with lions and other
+animals in the renaissance style." See woodcut on next page.
+
+[Illustration: THE TENEBRARIUM IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.]
+
+Villalpando distinguished himself at the cathedral of Toledo in the same
+way as Morel at Seville. The splendid _reja_ at the Capilla Mayor with
+the fine gilt bronze pulpits, the bas-reliefs of the doors of Lions,
+1564, the font, and railing surrounding the altar of the Virgin in the
+coro were all made by him. The pulpits, made as it is asserted out of
+the bronze sepulchre of Dn. Alvaro de Luna are octagonal, six of their
+sides are admirably decorated with bas-reliefs of exquisite work
+divided by pilasters and terminated by a finely designed frieze. The
+door of Lions is covered in a similar manner with bronze plates
+ornamented in the finest renaissance style; the knockers are models in
+their way. In the opposite door del Reloj, these reliefs have been
+copied in 1713 by the silversmiths Zurreño y Dominguez.
+
+Notwithstanding the great merit of these works, the stands for the choir
+books are even finer and more exquisite in detail. They are made of gilt
+bronze and represent subjects from the life of St. Ildefonso, the
+Prophet David and the Apocalypse. They were modelled and designed by
+Juan Navarro in 1562, and carved by Nicolas de Vergara and his son some
+years afterwards.
+
+Two artists, natives of Aragon, were very famous during the same century
+for their bronze work. One of these, Celma, made the pulpits of the
+cathedral of Santiago, which are finely ornamented with busts between
+the columns, and bas-reliefs representing subjects of the lives of the
+saints, and a fine design of leaves and flowers. In one of the
+inscriptions may be read: "_Joannes Baptista Celma, Aragonentis patria
+pingendi artifex salutis anno 1563. Compostellæ faciebat._" The other
+artist was Cela, the author of the fine reja del coro of the church of
+the Pilar at Saragossa, dated 1574-79.
+
+Two gilt metal Monstrances of Spanish work of the 16th century are in
+the South Kensington Museum. No. 4310, 57, represents an architectural
+shrine, decorated with strap and cartouche-work, columns, and arcades in
+the renaissance style; it is dated 1537. See woodcut on next page. The
+other, No. 190, 66, has an ornamented stem, with knob, on which stands a
+triangular shrine with kneeling angels; above is a smaller shrine
+surmounted by a crucifix.
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH MONSTRANCE, DATED 1537. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+Objects of bronze work of the 17th century which are not by Fanelli,
+Tacca, or other foreigners, are less numerous; most of them show signs
+of the decline of art at this period. The chiselled and openworked altar
+frontal, at the burial-place of the kings of Spain at the Escorial, is
+a very fine work of its kind. The shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa
+Forma, also at the Escorial, is an excellent piece of workmanship--both
+these objects were made by lay brothers of the convent. Friar Eugenio de
+la Cruz and Friar Juan de la Concepcion, silversmiths, worked during the
+reign of Philip IV. at chiselling these and other objects of bronze.
+
+The exaggerations and bad taste, which were so common in every branch of
+artistic industry, were as prominent in bronzes--the bas-reliefs of this
+metal which ornament the back of the high altar of the cathedral of
+Toledo, at the "Transparente," are generally mentioned as models of bad
+taste. They are by Narciso Thomé; the architecture, painting, statues
+and carvings in marble, jasper and bronze are by the same person, as
+appears in the inscription which he placed there at its termination in
+1734.
+
+On the accession of King Charles III. from Naples in 1759, these defects
+were corrected, in part owing to the classical influence which became so
+general in Europe, and continued to the early part of the present
+century. The silver manufactory of Martinez founded in Madrid under his
+auspices, has already been mentioned in treating of silver work. Objects
+of bronze of all kinds were made there in this classic style, and at the
+porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, where splendid tables were made of
+pietre dure, mounted in bronze. The most important objects there
+produced may be seen at the chapel of the royal palace of Madrid, and
+the palaces of Aranjuez and the Escurial.
+
+
+
+
+ARMS.
+
+
+Those who have a taste for the study of prehistorical monuments in
+Spain, will find a very extensive collection of arms and other utensils
+of this period at the Muséo Arqueologico, Madrid, which have been found
+in different localities of the country. They chiefly consist of
+hatchets, knives, and lance and arrow points made of flint, and are
+similar in form to those which have been discovered in the north and
+centre of Europe. There are therefore, constant analogies between the
+implements used by the primitive Iberians, and those of other European
+races of the prehistoric period.
+
+The arms and weapons of the following age, known as the age of bronze,
+are less common in Spain, although a few specimens exist in the Muséo of
+Madrid, and the "Academia de la Historia." They chiefly consist of
+swords, daggers, and lance and arrow points. The hilts are formed of the
+same material as the blade in some instances, in others they consist of
+a blade fitting into a wooden or ivory handle. The blades are cut on
+both sides; they are straight, and finished off in a point; in the
+centre runs a thick rim made for the purpose of strengthening the blade,
+and that it should not bend. One of these specimens measures 30 inches
+long. The daggers are about one-third smaller, with the same rim in the
+centre; the bronze hilt is nailed to the blade, and the lance and arrow
+points are of the same kind. These weapons are similar in style to the
+numerous examples found in other countries, especially England. The
+hatchets are also the same, their manner of being fixed on to their
+handles and their size and weight being identical with the English ones.
+One of the few specimens which varies from this general rule, is a
+dagger, with a cylindrical horn-like hilt, belonging to S^{r}. Villaamil:
+it was found at Galicia with other interesting arms. (Consult Muséo
+Español de Antiguedades, iv. 63.)
+
+The probable antiquity of these weapons always remains a matter of
+doubt; this is especially the case with stone implements. When on their
+discovery the geological structure of the soil has been studied, some
+evidence exists on which to ground an opinion; but this is very seldom
+the case in Spain, and Messrs. Prado, Villanova, Botella, and
+MacPherson, are among the few and most trustworthy geologists who have
+investigated this subject. With reference to bronze implements, Spanish
+authors have a tendency to attribute them to prehistoric times. I see no
+reason to justify this opinion, and it appears to me that when this
+subject has been studied in a more satisfactory manner, it will appear
+that these arms were used during the Roman domination at the same time
+as the iron ones.
+
+In reaching the Iron period, already within historical times, we find
+that the Spanish people, when once under the Roman rule, used the well
+known arms and utensils which will be found reproduced in all elementary
+books on archæology. In this, as in every other sphere, the Romans
+imposed their civilization on the races they conquered. Some important
+exceptions, however, exist to this general rule. The Spanish swords must
+have been excellent in quality, since the Romans adopted them after the
+Carthaginian war: they were however, never able to imitate the manner in
+which they were tempered. Suidas says: _Romani patriis gladiis depositis
+Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium assumpserunt ... sed ferri boni atem et
+fabrica solertiam imitari non potuerunt._ The locality where the best
+swords were made in Spain was Bilbilis (Calatayud, province of Aragon),
+the birthplace of the poet Martial, who, when praising the waters of the
+river Jalon and the excellence of its quality for tempering metals,
+says, _Salone qui ferrum gelat._ These swords were wide, and cut on both
+edges; their points were sharp, and all of them had in the centre signs
+of a central groove running down its length. Several specimens may be
+seen at the Museo Arqueologico, Madrid, which are 15 or 19 inches long.
+The Spaniards used also swords of another form, which were known by the
+name of _falcata_, from falx, sickle; the blade was curved, and it has
+been supposed to be the genuine Spanish model. The blade was widened in
+proportion from the hilt to the point, which was very sharp: it cut like
+a sickle in the interior curve, and only a small part was sharpened in
+the opposite side. The best specimen, which exists in the Madrid Museum,
+is 22½ inches long. The weapons made at Toledo must have been very
+famous during the Roman period: Gracio Falisco, a poet of the time of
+Julius Cæsar, says, in mentioning them: _Ima toletano præcingant ilia
+cultro_; the sword manufactory there attained afterwards great
+importance.
+
+I must end by mentioning the _funda_, or slings, and leaden plummets
+(_glandes_), which were thrown so dexterously by the slingers of the
+Balearic Islands. The slingers of this province are mentioned with great
+praise by ancient authors. (V. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman
+Antiquities. _Funda._)
+
+During the Visigothic domination, some modifications must have been
+introduced in the form and number of the arms used, probably owing to
+the tradition of the Gothic race, and the Byzantine or Oriental
+influences, which they accept in every sphere; but the names and
+explanation of these weapons, given by San Isidoro in his "Etimologies,"
+lib. xviii., indicate that the Roman system was adopted as a general
+rule. The chief modification which may be established for the Visigoths,
+and the greater part of the European races, is that from their time the
+breast-plates and metallic pieces, which served as a protection for the
+legs and arms, fell into disuse, and were substituted by coats of mail
+or chain armour. This is deduced from San Isidoro's not describing
+these metallic plates; although he gives numerous details on different
+sorts of coats of mail, including those made of coarse stuffs woven in
+Silisia. At this time, the use of planks or boards to protect the body
+was abandoned, and did not prove acceptable until the end of the 13th
+century, when they again became very generally adopted in Spain.
+
+During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Spanish Christians continued to
+use the same weapons as in other European states. The history of Spanish
+arms, in like manner with its artistic history and civilization, is
+similar to that of other nations; it frequently occurs that objects of
+this kind are classified with those of other countries, the only
+exceptions to this general rule being those which result from the
+Moorish conquest and influence.
+
+The Arabs, after they took possession of Spain at the beginning of the
+8th century, imported, with their arts and industries, special arms and
+weapons, the greater part of which were copied from Persian models;
+their swords, helmets, and shields deserve special attention; in other
+weapons the difference is not so great; and, indeed, in the two first it
+is chiefly confined to their decoration.
+
+None of the arms made by the Moors have been so justly celebrated, or so
+delicately worked as their swords. An Arabic author, El Camus, says the
+Arabs had as many as 1000 names to designate swords. In the first years
+of the Hegira, their historians praise the swords made at Yemen, and in
+India; later on, those of Syria; Damascus was, however, the great centre
+where arms of all kinds were made. Several interesting Arabic
+manuscripts are known on this subject, such as the _Treatise on steel
+blades_ in the library of Gotha, that on _Different kinds of arms, with
+the properties of lances, swords, and horses_, in the Library of Leyden,
+and numerous articles by Oriental scholars, which have appeared in the
+"Journal Asiatique," and other reviews. The manufacture in Syria decayed
+in the 15th century; other centres gained in importance, specially those
+in Egypt, Morocco, and Spain, which had rivalled the East in this
+industry during the Middle Ages.
+
+The Arabs introduced their forms and manner of decorating arms when they
+invaded the Peninsula; it is, however, highly probable that the
+traditions still existed at Bilbilis and Toledo of the manner of
+tempering steel. It is known that Abd-er Rahman II. (A.D. 822-852)
+reformed the manufacture of arms at Toledo, and that in A.D. 965, Al
+Hakem II. sent a rich present of specimens made in the locality to Don
+Sancho, King of Leon. Notwithstanding the high reputation of the
+industries of Cordova, the great centre and court of the Spanish Arabs
+during the earlier period of their domination, "it never became famous
+for its working steel," as Fernandez Gonzalez tells us in his study on
+Spanish moresque swords, from which much of this information has been
+derived. (V. Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades, V. I. and V.). Almeria, Murcia,
+Seville, and Granada were greatly distinguished in this manufacture
+during the domination of the Arabs in Spain.
+
+We know that Almeria, during the 12th and 13th centuries, "was also
+famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils of iron,
+copper, or glass." (Mohamadan Dynasties in Spain, by Al-Makkari, vol. i.
+p. 51.) Abou Said, in writing in the 13th century of Murcia, says,
+"Objects are made there of latteen and ron, consisting of knives and
+scissors, with an ornamentation in gold. Other similar utensils, proper
+for the outfit of a bride, or a soldier, in such large quantities, that
+the mere thought of it confuses the imagination."
+
+The same author, when speaking of the swords of Seville, says, "The
+steel which is made at Seville is most excellent; it would take too much
+time to enumerate the delicate objects of every kind which are made in
+this town." These industries must have continued in the hands of the
+Moors after the town was conquered by Spaniards in the 13th century. In
+the following century we find in the will of King D^{n}. Pedro, "I also
+endow my son with my Castilian sword, which I had made here in Seville,
+ornamented with stones and gold."
+
+No specimens of Hispaño moresque swords exist previous to the 15th
+century. We possess some highly interesting examples of this period,
+all, or the most part, of which were made at Granada, the last centre of
+civilization of the Spanish Arabs. The most important are the sword,
+dagger, and double-handed sword and knife, which, with the authentic
+costume, belonging to Boabdil, the last king of Granada, are now in the
+possession of the Marquis of Villaseca, at Madrid. These objects were
+gained by an ancestor of the marquis, who took Boabdil prisoner in 1482
+at the battle of Lucena. In compliance with the chivalrous practice of
+the time, the arms of the conquered king went to the conqueror, and have
+been kept as heirlooms since that time.
+
+The sword of Villaseca is 39 inches long, this includes 12 inches of the
+hilt. (See woodcut.) "The steel blade," says S^{r}. Fernandez, in his
+article, vol. v. p. 395, "is of a later date, and appears to have been
+added to the sword after the older one had disappeared. It is a Toledo
+blade, marked with the letter S, similar to the one used by Alonso
+Sahagun the elder, and with a hollow line in the centre."
+
+I am of opinion, however, that it may be the original blade, for the
+other sword, which still exists at Granada, of the same kind, has
+likewise a blade marked T, Toledo. This coincidence appears to suggest
+that those made there were preferred, and in both instances they exactly
+fit the sheath, which is the original one.
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+The hilt of this fine sword is formed of solid gold, enamelled in blue,
+white, and red. This decoration runs along the pommel and cross bars.
+The axle is made of ivory carved with the utmost skill. Two octagons are
+on each side, with the following inscription in semi-Cufic letters: (may
+you) "obtain your object." On the other side: "in saving his life."
+
+[Illustration: SWORD OF BOABDIL. VILLASECA COLLECTION, MADRID.]
+
+Four shields surround in the upper part this axle, which contains the
+following inscription in rather illegible characters:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"In the name of God, power belongs to him, there is no other divinity
+but he, happiness proceeds from God alone."
+
+In the lower part in similar shields we read:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"Miracles belong to God, for certainly the ignorant do not know God at
+first, for it is their habit to err."
+
+On the pommel is the following inscription:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+Say, "He alone is God, Eternal God, who neither created, nor was
+engendered."
+
+Under the pommel, on green enamel, appear the following letters:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+Say, "The only God, Eternal, not ..."
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+On the other side: "was neither created, nor engendered, and has no
+equal."
+
+On a band which appears under the axle, on enamel, are the following
+letters:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"God is clement and merciful," and on the other side:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"God is gifted with the best memory."
+
+The learned archaeologist and orientalist, D^{n} Pascual de Gayangos, is
+of opinion that this sword was worn hanging round the neck, between the
+shoulder blades. A small bag, _tahali_, probably hung also from the
+leather girdle, which still exists in the collection of Villaseca.
+
+The _montante_, or double-handed sword, has an iron cylindrical hilt
+inlaid with ivory. On it appears the motto of the kings of Granada:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"God alone is the conqueror."
+
+The blade, part of which is wanting, is marked with the crescent.
+
+The dagger is superior in artistic merit. The hilt is made of iron,
+ornamented with ivory delicately engraved in arabesques. The blade is
+damascened in gold, with inscriptions on one side, repeating:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"Health, permanent glory, and lasting happiness [belong to God"].
+
+On the opposite side:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"It was made by Reduan."
+
+The scabbard of this dagger is most beautiful, its chapes are made of
+silver enamelled in green, and the remainder is of crimson velvet
+embroidered in gold, from which hangs a fine tassel of silk and gold
+thread. A small eating knife is fitted into this same scabbard, which
+possesses no artistic interest.
+
+The woodcut on the next page will give a good idea of the blade of a
+Moorish dagger of the 15th century.
+
+A sword of a similar kind to the one already described may be seen at
+Granada at the _Administrador's_ of the Generalife. It belongs to the
+marquis of Campotejar, a descendant of Sidi Jahia, a Moorish prince who
+was converted to Christianity. The marquis of Vega de Armijo has an
+interesting sword of the same kind, and two others exist at the Museo de
+Artilleria, Madrid, which belonged to Aliatar; Boabdil's sword is at the
+Royal Armoury. The Hispano Arab sword, which for centuries had been in a
+saint's hand at the church of San Marcelo, Leon, is now at the Museo
+Arqueologico, Madrid.
+
+The Spanish Moors used helmets similar in form to those of the
+Christians, though their manner of decoration was different; after the
+importations made by the Crusaders, the similarity must every day have
+been greater. The _almofar_, which appears by its name to have been
+originally oriental, and which is constantly named in Spanish documents
+from the poem of the Cid, was a protection for the head, of a similar
+form to those used in France and other countries, consisting of a hood
+made of chain armour, covering the head and leaving the face free; upon
+it was placed the hood or helmet. Some helmets exist at the Royal
+Armoury of Madrid of Spanish Moorish origin; among them are two very
+remarkable ones, which have been attributed to Boabdil, the last king of
+Granada. (Nos. 2345, 2356, of the Catalogue.) They are decorated with
+gold filigree, niellos, and geometrical ornamentation in the best
+oriental style, most admirably worked, and different in this respect to
+the helmets used in this time. Another interesting helmet, which
+belonged to this ill-fated monarch, exists in the province of Almeria.
+
+[Illustration: MOORISH DAGGER, 15TH CENTURY.]
+
+The _adargas_, or shields, are more varied: they were frequently adopted
+by the Christians. They were generally round, with a salient point in
+the centre, _ombilicus_, or a sort of iron grating made for the purpose
+of entangling the adversary's sword. These shields were of wood or thick
+cowhide, _vacaries_, and were decorated outside in a variety of ways,
+sometimes with pierced iron plates or bands of leather, forming
+arabesques; and at other times with an ornamentation of iron, and
+leather embroidered with gold and silver, with rich hanging tassels and
+pendants. Shields of a prolonged form were also very constantly used,
+terminating in a semicircle in the upper part, and in the lower by a
+sharp point or a semicircle at the top and bottom, as may be seen in the
+paintings of the Sala de la Justicia at the Alhambra. A good collection
+of round shields may be seen at the Armoury at Madrid: they are not
+earlier in date than the 15th century, the most interesting among them
+are Nos. 233, 253, 389, 595, and 607 of the Catalogue. Some of them are
+exquisite in work and detail. These shields, although belonging to the
+latest period of the middle ages, were used before this time, for they
+appear on the ivory casket existing at the cathedral of Pamplona, [V.
+Ivories, p. 130], dated A.D. 1005, and in miniatures of Spanish MSS. of
+that date. One of the best examples, which may be mentioned to confirm
+these indications, will be found in a MS. at the British Museum (Add.
+ii., 695), which was painted during a period of twenty years in the
+monastery of Silos, near Burgos, and finished and completed A.D. 1109.
+Mr. Shaw, in his "Dresses and Decorations," vol. v., reproduces some of
+these figures, and says: "The figures which form our plate represent
+Spanish warriors of the later part of the 11th century, and are
+interesting on account of their remarkable resemblance to the
+Anglo-Norman soldiers on the celebrated Bayeux tapestry. This
+resemblance is observable in the style of the drawing, as well as in the
+costumes. It is highly probable that the military habits of this period
+were borrowed from the Saracens. This supposition is strengthened by the
+fact that Arabic inscriptions in Cufic letters are found among the
+ornaments of the several robes still preserved which belonged to German
+and Frankish barons of the 10th and 11th centuries. One peculiarity of
+our Spanish warriors is the round shield with the elegant ornaments on
+the disc."
+
+These may be considered the chief varieties of Spanish arms in the
+Middle Ages. In other instances the French and Italian forms are
+adopted. The manufacture of arms was not reduced then as at a later date
+to the monopoly of the Government or to determined localities. Besides
+the arms made at Toledo, those of Seville, Granada, Valencia, Zaragoza,
+Barcelona, the Basque provinces, and Cuellar, were very famous. Readers
+of Shakespeare will remember Falstaff's _bilbo_, a rapier made at Bilbao
+in the Basque provinces. The principal merit of these arms consisted in
+the manner in which the artist tempered his metal. It was generally done
+at night in order to distinguish in the darkness the exact colour of the
+heated steel in dipping it into the water. The swords known by the name
+of _perrillo_ were highly esteemed in Spain during the 15th and 16th
+centuries; they were marked with a figure resembling a dog. Cervantes
+mentions and praises these blades in his "Rinconete y Cortadillo" and
+"Don Quixote." They were made by a Moor of Granada, who it is stated had
+been swordsman of King Boabdil, and became a Christian under the name of
+Julian del Rey. His godfather was King Ferdinand, and besides working at
+Granada he did so at Zaragoza and Toledo. When an artist of merit
+excelled in a given locality, it absorbed all the fame of this industry.
+During the Renaissance larger centres of this industry were established
+in large towns, and the fame of the objects they produced was
+concentrated there. Toledo absorbed the importance in the industry of
+sword making.
+
+We find that the Municipal Ordinances of the Middle Ages give very
+little information by which we can judge of the merits of the objects
+produced. A Guild of Armourers existed at Barcelona as early as 1257,
+and of Sword makers from the 14th century; but the information given
+concerning this subject is very slight. We find more details in the
+Ordinances of Toledo, Seville, and Granada, whence we learn that
+manufactories of arms existed in these towns.
+
+The sword manufactory of Toledo acquires its greatest importance during
+the Renaissance period until the end of the 17th century, when it
+terminated. It was re-established again in 1760 under the patronage of
+the Government, and continues to work in the present day. Don Francisco
+de Santiago Palomares wrote, in 1772, an "Account of the Sword
+Manufactory of Toledo," the manuscript of which exists at the Academia
+de la Historia (E. 41). The most interesting part of this study consists
+in the details given upon the manner of tempering the blades. The names
+he has collected of the most remarkable artists, are taken from the
+original dies of their marks which existed at the Archives of the
+Ayuntamiento at Toledo. These marks have been published in the "Catalogo
+de la Armeria," Madrid, 1849, from which I copy them. It must be borne
+in mind that Palomares, after quoting the text by the Poet Gracio
+Falisco, which I have given at the beginning, does not establish any
+definite fact which enables us to study the historical progress of this
+manufactory during the Middle Ages. The author says, p. 111: "At the
+beginning of this industry there was no centralization or monopoly in
+this manufactory, some armourers formed a guild, placing each artist in
+his proper place. The kings of Castille granted them privileges of
+different kinds."
+
+Bowles says, in his "Introduction to the Natural and Geographical
+History of Spain," that the steel used at the manufactory of Toledo was
+taken from an iron mine existing at a league from Mondragon, the only
+one then known in Spain.
+
+The celebrity of Toledo blades has excited the curiosity of many who
+wished to ascertain the cause of their great excellence and renown. Some
+supposed the sword manufacturers of Toledo possessed a secret for
+tempering their arms: it was not so, however; their only secret being
+the waters of the Tagus and the fine white sand on its banks. This sand
+was used for cooling the steel: when the steel was red-hot, and began to
+give forth sparks, it was uncovered a little and sprinkled with sand,
+and sent on to the forgers. As soon as the blade was ready it was
+tempered in the following manner: a line of fire was made and the blade
+placed in it in such a manner that only four-fifths of its length should
+touch the fire. As soon as the blade was red-hot it was dropped
+perpendicularly into a bucket of Tagus water; when cold, if it was found
+to be bent, a small portion of sand was poured on the yoke, the blade
+was placed upon it, and beaten until properly straightened. After this
+the fifth part of the blade was fired, and when red-hot was seized with
+tongs and rubbed with suet, which soon began to melt; after this the
+blade was sent to the grinding-stones, and finished by being polished by
+wooden wheels with emery powder.
+
+Charles the Third, a year after he became King of Spain, re-established
+officially the manufactory of arms of Toledo. He placed it in a
+building near the Miradero Alto, and the works began in 1761. The king
+soon found the building too small for the purpose, and ordered his
+architect, Sabatini to build the present one, outside the town near the
+river Tagus, which was finished in 1783, and from this time has been
+under the superintendence of the Royal Artillery. Not a single sword
+maker existed in 1760 of any note who was competent to be placed at the
+head of the works, and it was found necessary to bring a proper person
+from Valencia.
+
+Palomares, who was present, says: "As soon as the building was ready and
+disposed for working, Luis Calisto, a famous sword maker, began to work.
+Calisto was a native of Valencia, and more than 70 years of age when he
+was appointed. Other artists were chosen at the same time by the
+Director. In the short space of time in which that chief master armourer
+lived, he made most excellent weapons; he was most skilful, and was
+probably imitated by his successor."
+
+
+NAMES OF THE SWORD MAKERS OF TOLEDO.
+
+The numbers given correspond to the plates of their marks, given in
+"Catalogo de la Real Armeria."
+
+ 1. Alonso de Sahagun, el _viejo_, 1570.
+
+ 2. Alonso de Sahagun, el _mozo_.
+
+ 3. Alonso Perez.
+
+ 4. Alonso de los Rios; he also worked at Cordova.
+
+ 5. Alonso de Cava.
+
+ 6. Andres Martinez.
+
+ 7. Andres Herraez; he also worked at Cuenca.
+
+ 8. Andres Munesten; worked at Calatayud.
+
+ 9. Andres Garcia.
+
+ 10. Antonio de Baena.
+
+ 11. Antonio Gutierrez.
+
+ 12. Antonio Gutierrez, a son of the former.
+
+ 13. Antonio Ruiz, 1520; he used the initial letter of his name.
+
+ 14. Adrian de Zafra; worked at Sn. Clemente.
+
+ 15. Bartolomé de Nieva.
+
+ 16. Casaldo y Campañeros; worked at Cuellar and Badajoz.
+
+ 17. Domingo de Orozco.
+
+ 18. Domingo Maestre, el _viejo_.
+
+ 19. Domingo Maestre, el _mozo_.
+
+ 20. Domingo Rodriguez.
+
+ 21. Domingo Sanchez; called el Tigerero.
+
+ 22. Domingo de Aguirre.
+
+ 23. Domingo de Lama.
+
+ 24. Domingo Corrientes; worked also at Madrid.
+
+ 25. Fabrian de Zafra; hijo de Adrian.
+
+ 26. Francisco Ruiz, el _viejo_, 1617.
+
+ 27. Francisco Ruiz, el _mozo_.
+
+ 28. Francisco Gomez.
+
+ 29. Francisco de Zamora; worked also at Seville.
+
+ 30. Francisco de Alcozer; worked at Madrid.
+
+ 31. Francisco Lurdi.
+
+ 32. Francisco Cordiu.
+
+ 33. Francisco Perez.
+
+ 34. Giraldo Reliz.
+
+ 35. Gonzalo Simon, 1617.
+
+ 36. Gabriel Martinez.
+
+ 37. Gil de Almau.
+
+ 38. Hortuño de Aguirre, 1604.
+
+ 39. Juan Martin.
+
+ 40. Juan de Leizalde; worked at Seville.
+
+ 41. Juan Martinez, el _viejo_.
+
+ 42. Juan Martinez, el _mozo_, 1617.
+
+ 43. Juan de Almau, 1550.
+
+ 44. Juan de Toro.
+
+ 45. Juan Ruiz.
+
+ 46. Juan Martinez de Garata.
+
+ 47. Juan Martinez Menchaca; he lived at the beginning of the 16th
+ century, and worked at Lisbon, Seville, and Madrid.
+
+ 48. Juan Ros.
+
+ 49. Juan Moreno.
+
+ 50. Juan de Saludo.
+
+ 51. Juan de Meladoria.
+
+ 52. Juan de Vargas.
+
+ 53. Juan de la Horta, 1545.
+
+ 54. Juanes de Toledo.
+
+ 55. Juanes de Algruniva.
+
+ 56. Juanes de Muleto.
+
+ 57. Juanes, el _viejo_.
+
+ 58. Juanes de Uriza.
+
+ 59. Julian del Rey, the Moor; he worked for Boabdil, King of
+ Granada, 15th century.
+
+ 60. Julian Garcia; worked also at Cuenca.
+
+ 61. Julian de Zamora.
+
+ 62. José Gomez.
+
+ 63. Jusepe de la Hera, el _viejo_.
+
+ 64. Jusepe de la Hera, el _mozo_.
+
+ 65. Jusepe de la Hera, el _nieto_.
+
+ 66. Jusepe de la Hera, el _visnieto_.
+
+ 67. Jusepe del Haza.
+
+ 68. Ignacio Fernandez, el _viejo_.
+
+ 69. Ignacio Fernandez, el _mozo_.
+
+ 70. Luis de Nieves.
+
+ 71. Luis de Ayala.
+
+ 72. Luis de Belmonte.
+
+ 73. Luis de Sahagun.
+
+ 74. Luis de Sahagun.
+
+ 75. Luis de Nieva; worked at Calatayud.
+
+ 76. Lupus Aguado, 1567.
+
+ 77. Miguel Cantero, 1564.
+
+ 78. Miguel Sanchez.
+
+ 79. Melchor Suarez; worked at Lisbon.
+
+ 80. Nicolas Hortuño de Aguirre, 1637.
+
+ 81. Pedro de Toro.
+
+ 82. Pedro de Arechiga.
+
+ 83. Pedro Lopez; worked at Orgaz.
+
+ 84. Pedro de Lerzama; worked at Seville.
+
+ 85. Pedro de Lazaretea; worked at Bilbao.
+
+ 86. Pedro de Orozco.
+
+ 87. Pedro de Belmonte.
+
+ 88. Roque Hernandez.
+
+ Sarabal; used no mark.
+
+ 89. Sebastian Hernandez, el _viejo_, 1637.
+
+ 90. Sebastian Hernandez, el _mozo_; he worked also at Seville.
+
+ 91. Silvestre Nieto.
+
+ 92. Silvestre Nieto.
+
+ 93. Tomas de Ayala, 1625.
+
+ 94. Zamorano, el Toledano.
+
+Nos. 95, 96, 97, 98, and 99, are the marks of sword makers whose names
+are unknown.
+
+ Miguel y Manuel Fernandez; worked at Toledo in 1786.
+
+ Pedro de Barreta; at Bilbao at the end of the 16th century.
+
+The following names may be added to this list--
+
+ Luis Calisto, 1760; and the four following artists are mentioned by
+ Palomares as working at Toledo.
+
+ Juan de Valladolid.
+
+ Sebastian Herbás, 1617.
+
+ Manuel Ruiz, 1700.
+
+ Ignacio Fernandez, 1708.
+
+ Juan Orenga, 15th century; worked at Tortosa, and mentioned in the
+ "Corvacho" of the Arcipreste de Talavera, fol. xi.
+
+ Martin Garro, v. p. 120, "Almanaque de la Industria."
+
+ Alonso Gutierrez, master of sword making at Madrid in 1625.
+
+This artist, and the eleven following, are mentioned in original
+documents at the Academia de San Fernando.
+
+ Francisco de Borja, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1634.
+
+ Gaspar Martin, sword maker; working at Madrid in 1637.
+
+ Juan Mazon de Santorcas, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1636.
+
+ Juan de Medina; Madrid, 1620.
+
+ Lorenzo de los Rios; Madrid, 1585.
+
+ Miguel de Berrio; Madrid, 1575.
+
+ Pedro Casado, sword maker; Madrid, 1636.
+
+ Francisco de Elias, an apprentice of Pedro Casadós.
+
+ Francisco de Salinas; Madrid, 1636.
+
+ Acheza----; Toledo.
+
+ Camilo, 1500.
+
+Two fine rapiers are in the Kensington Museum, Nos. 626, '68, and 2214,
+'55, which belong to the 16th and 17th centuries, and give a good idea
+of this industry of Toledo. Woodcuts of these appear on the opposite
+page. One of the blades is marked with the name of Francisco Ruiz. A
+large and most important collection of rapiers, swords, and other arms
+exists at the Royal Armoury of Madrid.
+
+The breastplates are unusually fine, but the finest among them are by
+Milanese artists. A good example, which has been considered Spanish, was
+formerly in the Bernal Collection (see woodcut on p. 98); it gives an
+excellent idea of the artistic importance attained by this industry.
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH RAPIERS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+The saddles used in Spain were similar to those of other European
+countries, for we find the same names adapted to the Spanish language.
+In the poem of the Cid, 13th century, and other works of the Middle
+Ages, _gallega_ and _barda_ saddles are mentioned which were peculiar to
+Spain. The _gallega_ saddles were called so from being made in Gallicia;
+the _barda_ proceeded from the Moors. We find no details which explain
+their exact structure.
+
+[Illustration: BREASTPLATE, FORMERLY IN THE BERNAL COLLECTION.]
+
+A very remarkable collection of saddles of every description may be
+studied at the fine collection of armour at Madrid; among them are two
+of special interest--No. 2311 of "Catalogue of Armoury"--traditionally
+supposed to have belonged to the Cid, and No. 1310, which was used by
+King James the Conqueror in the 13th century. The Cid's saddle (see
+woodcut) is intended for a war-horse; its bows are covered with black
+metal plating, ornamented with a design of leaves and pilgrims' shells,
+partially gilt, and the word "Fides," considered to be the Cid's
+devise. Much has been written on the origin and authenticity of this
+saddle. Cervantes alludes to it in the 49th Chapter of "Don Quixote,"
+Part I. For further details see "Catalogue of the Armeria."
+
+[Illustration: SADDLE OF THE CID. ARMOURY, MADRID.]
+
+The greatest novelty which was introduced during the Renaissance period
+was the use of fire-arms. The only names of ancient artists that I have
+met with, who had any connection with the manufactory of large pieces of
+artillery were Pedro Burgues, an iron master of Barcelona, who lived in
+1393; Rodrigo de Almanza, and Pedro Colomer, who made fire-arms at
+Barcelona in 1413; and the Moor, Alfarax Darhin, an iron master of
+Tarazona; V. Fernandez Duro. [Museo Español, vol. v. p. 18.]
+
+Portable fire-arms were introduced into Spain towards the middle of the
+15th century. Count Clonard, in treating this subject in the "Memorias
+de la Academia de la Historia," ix. p. 214, says:--"Alfonso de Palencia
+tells us the _espingarda_, or large hand musket (see woodcut), and
+_arbatana_ culverin, were used in the insurrection at Toledo in July,
+1467. He assures us they had been very recently invented and named. They
+had been mentioned as early as 1449. In the siege of Toledo, Don Alvaro
+de Luna could not be kept back from the dangerous position in which he
+had placed himself, notwithstanding the shower of stones, rockets,
+arrows, and shots of _espingardas_ which were thrown into the town."
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH MUSKETS.]
+
+At the same time as these portable fire-arms were used in Spain, the
+ancient _ballestas_, crossbows, so generally used in the Middle Ages,
+were very popular. Several artists became very famous in their
+manufacture. Alonso Martinez de Espinar enters into many details of this
+implement in his rare volume on the "Arte de Ballesteria y Monteria,"
+Madrid, 1644, 4to, from which I copy the following passage, p. 11:--"The
+crossbow is more secure and less dangerous than the arquebuse; for it
+has never been known that a man's life has been lost by breaking the
+string or cord, two things which are dangerous, but not to a
+considerable extent. The crossbow has many advantages over the
+arquebuse: it kills, but does not frighten game; this cannot be done
+with the arquebuse, for the sound it makes alarms and frightens the
+game, and is heard everywhere. Once set, its shot is secure; which is
+not the case with the arquebuse, which often misses fire.
+
+"This weapon has been used in Spain from very early times, and has been
+made by the best masters; the most famous among them were--
+
+ Azcoitia el Viejo.
+ Pedro de la Fuente.
+ Christoval de Azcoitia.
+ Juan Hernandez.
+ Juan Perez de Villadiego.
+ Juan Azcoitia.
+ Vzedo.
+ Hortega.
+
+"The only famous maker of crossbows of the present time is Juan de
+Lastra."
+
+Espinar does not mention the name of Miguel, a crossbow maker of
+Zaragoza, or another celebrated maker who lived at Barbastro. The
+ambassador Salinas alludes to them both in an hitherto unedited letter
+written to King Ferdinand of Hungary, the brother of the Emperor Charles
+V. He says:--"Before I was able to find a lodging in this town of Monzon
+(Aragon), which was about five or six days, I went to Balbastro,
+Barbastro, and there occupied myself in making a pair of crossbows for
+your Majesty. I believe they are so made that they will satisfy the
+desires which were required; they were made in my presence and according
+to my wishes, and as your Majesty is annoyed when they do not go off as
+you wish, I determined to make them in the following manner: One of them
+weighs l. ounces, which is considered here a very great weight. I,
+knowing your Majesty's wishes, had another made of lvi. ounces, that is
+to say 3½ lbs. of Castille, carved and worked in such a manner that
+the cords should not break; and that it be pleasant to shoot, I can
+affirm your Majesty that the maker is the best which exists in Spain,
+and yet he has never made so fine a crossbow as this one which is now
+sent to your Majesty; and if not to your liking, I do not expect you
+ever will be pleased with one. I have sent them to Victoria in order
+that the screws may be made to fit the cords, and have ordered them to
+be made without delay; and as soon as they are ready they are to be sent
+to Bilbao to be forwarded to Flanders to the Queen, to whom your Majesty
+must write, in order that whatever you may wish may be done with them.
+When we leave here, it is said, we are to go to Zaragoza, where your
+Majesty will stay ten or twelve days. I will order two crossbows from
+_Maestro Michel_, who competes with the maker at Barbastro. I will do
+the same with these as the others. I entreat your Majesty should provide
+that the best of the two should not be lost. I am thoroughly satisfied
+with it, and am sure it will please your Majesty. From Monzon, 27th day
+of August, MDXXXIII." (Copy of a letter by Martin de Salinas to
+Ferdinand, King of Bohemia and Hungary, MS. fol. Acad. of History, c.
+71).
+
+Martinez de Espinar gives in his "Arte de Ballesteria," p. 41, the names
+of the best Spanish arquebuse or musket makers, and says: "The first
+cannon brought to Spain came from Germany; the artist who made them used
+the following marks:--
+
+"Two heads.
+
+"A vase.
+
+"A vase and pine.
+
+"A pair of tongs.
+
+"Flames.
+
+"A knife.
+
+"An excellent artificer worked formerly in Italy called Lazari Cominaz,
+but many bad cannons have been attributed to him.
+
+"The best Spanish masters were--
+
+"Maestre Simon, el viejo.
+
+"Maestre Pedro, his brother, who made at Madrid excellent cannon and
+locks.
+
+"They came over with the Emperor Charles V., and worked also for the
+Kings Philip II. and III., and marked the pieces they made with three
+sickles.
+
+"Maestre Simon had four sons; all of them followed his profession.
+Felipe and Simon Marcuarte have worked for Philip III. and IV. Simon
+Marcuarte is still alive. They mark with a sickle in a shield, and make
+also excellent hunting-knives, archers' knives, halberds, and other
+things. Pedro, their brother, is also an excellent artificer.
+
+"Juan Salado worked in several localities, and died at Salamanca. He was
+an excellent arquebuse maker. His mark was the letter of his name and a
+horse.
+
+"Sanchez de Mirveña, his son-in-law, followed him. He marked with a lion
+and his initials.
+
+"Gaspar Fernandez was brought by King Ferdinand from Salamanca, and the
+arms he makes are the best in Spain.
+
+"Pedro Muñoz worked at Seville. He was surnamed El Toledano, and marked
+with all the letters of his name.
+
+"Juan de Metola did the same.
+
+"Leguizamo worked at Seville. He marked with his name and two stags.
+
+"Francisco Hernandez used his full name.
+
+"Andres Herraez was a native of Cuenca. He made every sort of arm, and
+marked with an eagle and his initials.
+
+"Maestre Cristoval de Ricla marked with an X.
+
+"Pedro Palacios with P P."
+
+A fine musket exists by Palacios at the Royal Armoury of Madrid--No.
+427. By Cristoval de Ricla there is a cannon of worked iron, No. 2319,
+mounted on its gun-carriage, with the following inscription, "Hizome en
+Ricla Cristoval Frisleva año, 1565." A fine gun, also at the Armeria, is
+by the same artist.
+
+Juan de Espinar does not mention the following artists, who lived at his
+time at Madrid. I find their names given in original documents in the
+Library of the Academia de San Fernando.
+
+ Bartolomé de Orgaz 1643
+
+ Juan de la Cruz 1629
+
+ Juan de Mazo 1613
+
+ Juan de Pozo 1625
+
+ Juan de Zuazo, armourer of his Majesty 1645
+
+ Lucas de Ros, armourer of his Majesty 1623-1628
+
+ Matias Suezo, was arquebusier of the guards of Seville in 1625
+
+ Rafael Villato in 1625
+
+ Pero Matia appears in documents of the archives of Simancas as musket-maker
+ living at the Alhambra at the end of the 16th century.
+
+By extracting the information on this subject which is given in the
+introduction to the Catalogue of the Armoury, we find this list can be
+brought down to our time:--
+
+Gaspar Hernandez had two excellent pupils.
+
+Domingo Garcia and Juan Belen, who marked with a lion with a lifted paw.
+He was appointed gunsmith to King Charles II. in 1699.
+
+Alonso Martinez was an excellent artist; he marked his work with the
+letters of his name.
+
+Luis Santos, 1739.
+
+Nicolas Bis.
+
+Matias Baeza, gunsmith of King Philip V., 1739.
+
+Alonso Martinez, 1732.
+
+Diego Esquivel.
+
+Juan Fernandez, appointed in 1726.
+
+Diego Ventura, appointed gunsmith to Charles III., 1760.
+
+Luis Santos.
+
+Matias Baeza, 1740.
+
+Francisco Bis.
+
+Ignacio Barcina.
+
+Sebastian Santos, 1752.
+
+Gabriel de Algora, appointed gunsmith to Ferdinand VI., 1746.
+
+Juan Fernandez.
+
+Manuel Sutil, an excellent artist.
+
+José Cano, 1740.
+
+Joaquin Celaya, 1749.
+
+José Lopez.
+
+Diego Ventura.
+
+Benito San Martin.
+
+Juan Santos.
+
+Francisco Lopez, a great artist, gunsmith of King Charles III., in 1761.
+
+José Cano.
+
+Diego Alvarez, 1775.
+
+Joaquin Celaya.
+
+Salvador Cenarro, 1762.
+
+Antonio Gomez, 1762.
+
+Pedro Ramirez.
+
+Agustin Bustindui.
+
+Sebastian Santos.
+
+Pedro Fernandez.
+
+Gabriel de Algora.
+
+Agustin Ortiz, 1761.
+
+Miguel Cegarra, 1768.
+
+Francisco Lopez.
+
+Francisco Garcia, 1788.
+
+Isidoro Soler, 1792.
+
+Francisco Targarona, 1792.
+
+Gregorio Lopez, 1792.
+
+Agustin Ortiz.
+
+Pedro Fernandez.
+
+Carlos Rodriguez.
+
+Antonio Navarro.
+
+Diego Alvarez.
+
+Valentin Lopez.
+
+Juan de Soto.
+
+Carlos Montargis, 1783.
+
+Manuel Cantero, 1792.
+
+Hilario Mateo.
+
+Antonio Gomez.
+
+Juan Lopez.
+
+Ramon Martinez.
+
+Basilio Escalante.
+
+Manuel Soler.
+
+Melchor Alvarez, the first gunsmith who forged spiral cannon in Spain,
+and made double-barrelled guns.
+
+Gregorio Lopez.
+
+Aquilino Aparicio.
+
+Ramon Zuloaga.
+
+Eusebio Zuloaga.
+
+*** The marks used by these artists are given in plate 9 of "Catalogo de
+la Armeria de Madrid," 1849.
+
+Daggers, knives, scissors, and other small arms made in Spain, have been
+famous from early times. A good example of a dagger is No. 2238, 55 at
+the Kensington Museum. A great number of towns have been distinguished
+for this industry, such as Albacete, Murcia, Alcazar de San Juan, and
+Guadix, where even in the present day much cutlery is produced. The
+cutlery made in Spain preserves the traditional Moorish forms. Al
+Makkari says, in speaking of these objects, in his "Moham. Dyn. in
+Spain," vol. i., p. 93:--"Murcia was likewise famous for the manufacture
+of coats of mail, breast-plates, and steel armour inlaid with gold; all
+kinds of instruments of brass and iron, such as knives, scissors, and
+other trinkets, and especially weapons and other warlike instruments,
+wrought in such perfection as to dazzle with their brightness the eyes
+of the beholder." The translator adds, p. 393: "Several towns in the
+province are renowned for this industry. At Albacete there are several
+manufactures of well-tempered scissors, daggers, and knives, which, from
+the shape of their blades, betray their Moorish origin. Since the
+expulsion of the Moriscos, the Spaniards have kept up this manufacture,
+and daggers and knives of the end of the last century are often met with
+bearing Arabic inscriptions and verses from the Koran. I have seen one
+which on one side has the following inscription, 'I shall certainly kill
+thy enemies with the help of God,' and on the reverse, 'Fabrica de
+Navajas de Antonio Gonzalez, Albacete, 1705.'"
+
+Sr. Rico y Sinovas has published an interesting article on ironwork in
+the "Almanaque de el Museo de la Industria," 1872. He gives the names of
+the following artists who were famous in this industry.
+
+ Aguas, Juan; he worked at Guadix in 1735.
+
+ Albacete, signed Cel, 18th century.
+
+ Ambrosio, worked at Mora in the 18th century.
+
+ Arbell, Ramon, worked at Olot, Cataluña, in the 17th century.
+
+ Beson, Manuel, worked at Madrid.
+
+ Castellanos, el _viejo_, worked at Albacete in 1766.
+
+ Castellanos, el _mozo_, worked at Albacete in the 18th century.
+
+ Castello, Gregorio, 16th century.
+
+ Cerda, Miguel de la, worked at Madrid and Segovia in 1590.
+
+ Diaz, Pedro, worked at Albacete in the early half of the 18th
+ century.
+
+ Escobar, Cristoval, 16th century.
+
+ Escobar, Juan, 17th century.
+
+ Fernandez Manso de Payba, Jose, master cutler of the 18th century.
+
+ Garcia de la Torre, Teodoro, 18th century.
+
+ Garijo, master cutler of Albacete; he worked in 1771.
+
+ Gomez, Mateo, worked at Albacete in 1659.
+
+ Grande, Juan, 1643.
+
+ Gutierrez, worked at Chinchilla, 1701.
+
+ Herrezuelo, el _viejo_, worked at Baeza in 1643.
+
+ Herrezuelo, el _mozo_, worked at Baeza in 1643.
+
+ Horbeira, Angel, worked at Madrid in the second half of the 17th
+ century.
+
+ Lallave, Juan, locksmith of Madrid in 1820.
+
+ Leon, worked at Albacete early in the 18th century.
+
+ Llorens, Pablo, worked at Olot in 1699.
+
+ Moro, worked at Madrid late in the last century.
+
+ Ramirez, Juan, worked at Mexico in 1590.
+
+ Romero, worked at Albacete in 1769.
+
+ Rosel, worked at Mora.
+
+ San José, worked at Jaen in 1673.
+
+ Selva, Juan, worked at Cartagena in 1780.
+
+ Segura, worked at Mora towards the end of the last century.
+
+ Sierra, Juan, worked at Albacete in 1771.
+
+ Sosa, Madrid, 17th century.
+
+ Torres, Albacete, 17th century.
+
+ Vicen Perez, worked at Albacete in 1674.
+
+ Vilarosa, Antonio, worked in the 17th century.
+
+ Vicen Perez, Julian, worked at Albacete in 1710.
+
+ Zervantes, Francisco, Toledo, 17th century.
+
+The following artists' names may be added; they consist of master
+cutlers of Madrid, and are to be found in a bundle of original documents
+at the Academy of San Fernando.
+
+ Alcocer, Francisco, 1635.
+
+ Baltanos, Lucas de, 1611.
+
+ Castillo, Rafael del, 1625.
+
+ Cuenca, Francisco de, 1613.
+
+ Fuente, Pedro de la, worked at Mora and Madrid in 1628.
+
+ Garcia, Bartolomé, 1642.
+
+ Gonzalez, Marcos, 1624, 1625.
+
+ Heras, Antonio de las, 1611.
+
+ Luzon, Andres de, 1611.
+
+ Martin, Alonso, 1643.
+
+ Martinez de Machuca, Pedro, 1611.
+
+ Morel, Alonso, 1643.
+
+ Rodriguez de Quiñones, Pedro, 1611.
+
+ Torres, Antonio de, 1622.
+
+ Valsarias, Lucas de, 1611.
+
+The following names of artists are given in Calomarde's "Historia
+Politica de Aragon."
+
+ Ferrara, Andres, Zaragoza, 16th century.
+
+ Picado, Jeronimo, Calatayud, 1722.
+
+ Nieva, Luis, Calatayud, 17th century.
+
+ Munester, Andres, Calatayud, 18th century.
+
+
+
+
+FURNITURE.
+
+
+It is difficult to give an account of the furniture used in Spain from
+the earliest times, owing to the absence of specimens belonging to the
+Roman or Visigothic period. We are safe, however, in affirming that,
+during the domination of the Romans, the same models were used in Spain
+as in Rome itself, the similarity between objects of other kinds which
+exists, and the continual habit of the Romans of imposing their culture
+on the countries which they conquered, is sufficient to justify this
+idea. During the first period of the Christian era until about the 11th
+century, other objects which have reached us as gold and silversmiths'
+work, seem to prove that all industrial art work, including furniture
+must have been Classic, Byzantine, or Oriental in form, according to the
+period in which these styles predominated. The Roman or Classical style
+must have lasted for a considerable time, if we judge by the texts given
+by San Isidoro, in his "Etymologies," lib. xx., cap. xi. and xii. San
+Isidoro lived in the 7th century of our era. We find he mentions the
+words, _de lectis et sellis_, _de vehiculis_, which refer to furniture
+of the Roman period; but we do not meet with any distinctive terms which
+can be applied to the time in which he lived, on the contrary he
+comments on phrases and alludes to the forms of objects in the same
+manner as Rufus, Varrus, and other classical writers.
+
+At the invasion of the Arabs in the beginning of the 8th century the
+Byzantine element increased in its application to furniture. During the
+reign of the caliphs, contemporary authors tell us that luxury of
+decoration of every kind was carried to a great extent. The description
+of the pulpit or _minbar_ of the mosque of Cordova will give an idea of
+its richness. Al Makkari, in his "History of Mohammedan Dynasties in
+Spain," says, "the length of the Mihrab was 8 cubits; its breadth, 7
+cubits; the height of its dome, 13 cubits. There stood on one side a
+pulpit, constructed by Alhahem, equalled by none other in the world for
+workmanship and materials. It was made of ivory and exquisite woods,
+such as ebony, sandal, Indian plantain, citron wood, aloe, and so forth,
+at the expense of 3,575 dinars: the steps by which it was ascended were
+nine in number. Another writer says it was formed of 36,000 pieces of
+wood fastened together by gold and silver nails, occasionally encrusted
+with precious stones, and its construction lasted for seven years; eight
+artists being daily employed on it," vol. i. p. 222.
+
+Edrisi, who lived at Cordova at the beginning of the 12th century,
+describes this pulpit in the same manner. It was to be seen in the
+cathedral of Cordova as late as the 16th century, when it was destroyed,
+and its materials employed in the construction of an altar. An Arab
+_minbar_ is in the South Kensington Museum, which came from Cairo, and
+although belonging to the last centuries of the Middle Ages, it will
+give an idea of this structure and its elaborate workmanship.
+
+The oldest specimen of furniture which exists in Spain, belonging to
+Christian art, is the shrine of San Millan de la Cogulla, in the
+province of La Rioja, described in _Ivories_, p. 134. This casket or
+shrine was made by the orders of King Sancho el Mayor, in 1033, in order
+to preserve the relics of San Millan. It is of wood, covered with 22
+compartments of highly interesting ivory plaques, representing episodes
+from the life of the Saint. The names of the artists, _Apparitio_ and
+_Rodolpho_, appear on it. In 1808 the French stripped the shrine of its
+gold and silver ornaments, but, most fortunately, left the casket and
+its ivory carvings behind.
+
+Another interesting object, which is useful for illustrating furniture
+in Spain in the 12th century, is the Bishop's throne in the cathedral of
+Gerona. It is of white marble of one piece, covered with a simple
+ornamentation in excellent taste, in a similar style, and for the same
+purpose, as the throne of San Clemente in Rome. It is raised at the back
+of the altar, and is ascended by thirteen steps. The Bishop sits on this
+throne after the first purification, and continues there until the
+Offertory, when he descends and finishes the mass at the altar; owing to
+the existence of this chair, one of the most ancient rites of
+Catholicism has been preserved at Gerona.
+
+Mention must also be made of the shrine in which the remains of Queen
+Urraca are kept in the cathedral of Palencia, and the Cofre del Cid in
+the cathedral of Burgos, although they are more interesting for their
+antiquity than their artistic merit.
+
+During the 13th century furniture in Spain must have been similar to
+that used in other countries, it was influenced by French and Italian
+forms; from which, as was the case in architecture, these models were
+constantly copied. Some idea of this is given in the triptych known by
+the name of the Tablas Alfonsinas, which is fully described in Gold and
+Silver Work. (See woodcut on p. 17.)
+
+The principal novelty which we find in Spain in this industry consists
+in the combination of the Christian and Moorish styles applied to
+furniture. A very remarkable specimen exists at the Academia de la
+Historia, consisting of a reliquary, triptych or armoire of very large
+dimensions, formerly in the church of the Monasterio of Piedra in
+Aragon. It is 13 feet wide and 8 feet high. When the two doors are
+closed six compartments appear on each, surrounded by a border headed by
+a wide cornice. This cornice is divided in sixteen spaces formed by
+arches adorned with stalactite ornamentation in the Moorish style;
+inside each span is painted the figure of a saint. In the twelve
+compartments which form the doors there are subjects from the life of
+Our Lord, beginning with the Annunciation, and ending with the Descent
+from the Cross painted in excellent taste. The border which surrounds
+these doors is formed of a beautiful geometrical ornamentation, in the
+purest Oriental style; in the upper and lower part appears the following
+inscription in Gothic characters, which gives us the date in which this
+object was made.
+
+Tabernaculum hoc vocabitur aula Dei quia vere Dominis est in loco isto.
+Fuit autem constructum ad honorem et reverentiam sacratissimi corporis
+Domini nostri Ihu Xpi et pasionis ejusdem nec non ad honorem == et
+reverentiam sanctissime genitricis ejusdem et totius celestis curie et
+sanctorum ... at fuit ... depictum anno MCCCXC. anima ordinatoris
+requiescat ... sinu salvatoris. Amen.
+
+When this triptych is opened several compartments appear, formed by
+cusped Gothic arches, placed within others, in the form of a mitre
+divided by pinnacles. The ornamentation which fills the vacant space
+between the arches, and the seven banderoles in the lower part are in
+pure Gothic style, without a reminiscence of Moorish art. In the central
+banderole appears the name of _Dopnus Martinus Poncii Abbas_, the abbot
+of the monastery where this reliquary was made, and the person by whom
+the expense was probably borne. The inside of the doors is divided into
+two horizontal zones, which include half the total size. The upper zone
+is covered with geometrical tracery, similar to the outer borders. The
+lower one is divided into four compartments for each leaf of the door,
+eight within two, which are formed by cusped Gothic arches; within these
+spaces are painted standing figures of angels holding musical
+instruments in their hands and nimbi round their heads. The details and
+forms of the instruments and delicate ornamentation of the costumes and
+carpets, constitute one of the most beautiful details of this triptych.
+These details and several of the architectural lines of the Gothic part
+of this ornamentation denote an Italian influence, probably Sicilian,
+for this province belonged then to the crown of Aragon. This triptych
+is richly gilt, and painted inside and out, and is one of the finest and
+most remarkable specimens of the kind which exist in any country. A
+plate may be seen in "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 307.
+
+A very interesting specimen of this combination of styles is a recess or
+cupboard of the 14th century, which is at the Kensington Museum, No.
+1764, 71, [see woodcut]. It is 5 feet 4 inches high, by 8 feet wide; and
+is composed of an outer arch, with the tympani ornamented with fine
+arabesques in relief, made of stucco,--representing vine tendrils,
+leaves, and flowers, similar to those which appear in the Cosa de Mesa
+and other Moorish houses at Toledo. The arch is surrounded by two Latin
+inscriptions in Gothic characters, of which only the following words are
+legible + Autem transies per medium ilorum.... mente +. The first of
+these is from St. Luke, iv., v. 30, a passage often quoted by
+alchemists.
+
+This arch serves as a portal to the cupboard, which is about a foot
+deep, and is divided into two compartments with two rows of shelves.
+Each of these is supported by a series of Moorish arches, the tympani of
+which are ornamented with tracery, or an ornamentation of leaves in a
+geometrical and Oriental manner. On the rim of the upper part is
+repeated the following inscription in African characters:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"Felicity and Fortune."
+
+On the lower shelf are the following words in Spanish in Gothic
+characters: + Dios: te: salve: estrella: de: la: mannana: medicina: de:
+los: peccadores: reina + "Hail! morning star; medicine of sinners;
+queen."
+
+[Illustration: "BOTICA DE LOS TEMPLARIOS." FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON
+MUSEUM.]
+
+This "Alhacena," or cupboard, existed formerly in the court of an old
+house at Toledo, known by the name of "Casa de la Parra," and is
+constantly called "Botica de los Templarios," the Templars' dispensary,
+probably because the Templars occupied the parish of St. Michael, in
+which the house stands, and because the word "medicine" is mentioned in
+the inscription.
+
+In order to increase the list of these objects, which are unfortunately
+so rare, it is necessary to mention the organ case, decorated with fine
+Moorish tracery, in the chapel founded by Diego de Anaya, Archbishop of
+Seville in 1374, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca.
+
+Another specimen of furniture of interest of the 14th century is the
+shrine or casket containing the remains of San Isidoro, existing in the
+parish church of San Andres at Madrid. This casket is 7 feet 5 inches
+long; the cover is formed of two plain surfaces, forming a roof, which
+leaves a triangular pediment at each end. The shrine is made of wood,
+covered outside with a coat of painting in distemper, and is decorated
+with a series of painted compartments simulating pointed tricuspid
+arches let into others which are mitre-shaped; in the interior spaces
+are painted a series of representations of the life of the saint. This
+object is extremely interesting: it is evidently of Spanish workmanship,
+although it has great resemblance with the Italian _cassoni_ of the same
+period. See vol. iv. "Mus. Esp." p. 593, and "Monumentos
+Arquitectonicos"--livraison 67.
+
+The most important period of artistic furniture in Spain must be looked
+for in the 15th and 16th centuries: we find in this time works decorated
+with sculptured figures and most delicate and exquisite ornamentation.
+Nothing gives a better idea of this than the choir seats of Spanish
+cathedrals. The cathedrals in Spain are different to those of France and
+the north of Europe owing to the circumstance that the choir, or _coro_,
+is placed in the middle of the central nave, in the traditional form of
+the primitive basilicas, such as San Clemente at Rome, with the
+difference however, that towards the last centuries of the Middle Ages
+the _pluteus_ or walls that surround it, which are elevated about one
+yard from the floor, were turned into an enclosure or wall four or five
+yards in height. A space is therefore set apart in the middle of the
+church, which, although spoiling the general effect of the nave,
+becomes, as is the case in most Spanish cathedrals, a museum of artistic
+objects of all kinds. The side facing the presbytery or high altar is
+enclosed by a _reja_. [See Iron and Bronze work.] In the three remaining
+sides stalls are placed against the wall, forming two rows, one near the
+floor, and the other raised about a yard from the lower ones. The
+general system adopted is a row of stalls separated from each other by
+the arms; the backs of the lower ones serving as stands for the books
+which are used by those who sit in the upper range. The subsellæ are
+prolonged and form canopies, pinnacles, crest-work, and other varied
+ornamentation resting on columns. They are usually made of walnut wood,
+and there is not a single vacant space which is left uncovered with
+figures or ornamentation in relief: the effect produced by the whole is
+admirable. The number of seats varies according to the size of the
+choir, or importance of the church.
+
+It is probable that the earliest wood carvers who worked in Spain came
+from Flanders or Holland, if we judge by the decided Germanic character
+of the figures and ornamentation, and frequent mention made of foreign
+masters; but this industry very soon took root in Spain, and Spanish
+artists soon equalled or excelled their masters. The most important
+choir stalls carved in the Gothic style in Spain belong only to the last
+years of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century; those in the
+Renaissance style come immediately afterwards, and include the whole
+16th century.
+
+One of the finest is that of Leon, it is in the purest German-Gothic
+style, and may be considered as a masterpiece in its way: the large
+figures are as delicately carved as the small ones. The representations
+of the "Last Judgment" and "Tree of Jesse" are as beautiful as can be
+imagined. The choir at Zamora is also in the German style; the large
+figures which ornament it are splendid in effect. These stalls are fully
+described in "The Ecclesiologist," in the following manner: "The stalls,
+though not remarkably early, are very fine. The bishops, as usual, at
+the centre of the west nave; then three dignitaries on each side; then
+at each extremity of the west end a door into the nave; then on the
+north and south sides respectively twenty stalls with subsellæ, which
+also are returned. All the panelling is very fine: but that at the back
+of the subsellæ I will give at full, because the types of, and legends
+concerning Our Lord are so remarkably well chosen, that they may be
+useful as giving ideas to our own church builders, and might be
+introduced with great advantage in stained glass." "Ecclesiologist,"
+vol. xiv., p. 363.
+
+The stalls at the cathedral and church of Sto. Tomas of Avila, and
+cathedral of Burgos are also very fine. The _coro_ at Barcelona is
+extremely picturesque; at the backs of the stalls are placed the coats
+of arms of the knights of the Golden Fleece, in a similar manner to
+those of St. George's Chapel at Windsor; among these we find the arms of
+Henry the VIIIth. In 1519 the Emperor Charles V. held at Barcelona a
+chapter of this Order, the only one which has ever been held in Spain.
+
+It would take too much space to enumerate the choir seats in Spain
+worthy of notice; those at Toledo rank as the most important, as
+including the last period of the Gothic and best Renaissance styles.
+This _coro_ contains 45 stalls in the lower, and 71 in the upper part.
+Mr. Street fully describes the lower part in his "Gothic Architecture in
+Spain," p. 252, and says: "The lower range of stalls, fifty in number,
+are the work of Maestro Rodrigo, circa A.D. 1495; and the upper range
+were executed, half by Berruguete and half by Felipe de Borgoña, A.D.
+1543. The old stall ends are picturesque in outline, very large, and
+covered with tracery, panels and carvings with monkeys and other animals
+sitting on them. The upper range of stalls is raised by four steps, so
+that between the elbows of the lower stalls and the desk above them, are
+spaces filled in with a magnificent series of bas reliefs, illustrating
+the various incidents of the conquest of Granada. They were executed
+whilst the subjects depicted were fresh in the minds of the people, and
+are full of picturesque vigour and character. The names of the
+fortresses are inscribed on the walls; in some we have the siege, in
+others the surrender of the keys; in others the Catholic monarchs,
+accompanied by Cardinal Ximenes riding in triumph through the gates."
+The upper stalls, although considered by Mr. Street "heavy dull
+Paganism," are among the most important artistic works existing in
+Spain. Their sculptures and ornamentation reproduce the Renaissance
+Italian style in its finest period. Columns of red jasper are combined
+with the walnut-wood carvings, and the termination of the upper part
+which rests on the wall is of white marble carved by the same artists.
+
+Choir stalls, sharing the fate of other architectural works, followed
+the general path of decay after the 16th century. Those stalls at the
+cathedral of Malaga, which were carved in the 17th century by José
+Michael, Pedro de Mena, and Luis Ortiz, are worthy of mention: the
+figures in high relief at the back are very fine. This falling off of
+artistic feeling is particularly observable at the cathedral of Cordova;
+the stalls there, which were carved by Pedro Duque Cornejo in the 18th
+century, are admirable in richness of ornamentation, but the whole
+decoration is in the worst possible taste. The fine lecterns which are
+placed in the centres of the choirs are often good examples of carving.
+An admirable model of this style exists at the cathedral of Zamora.
+
+In treating of furniture of other kinds, the silver chair or throne of
+D^{n.} Martin de Aragon must figure in the first instance. It is
+described in "Gold and Silver Work," p. 19. In these and other objects
+which are not Oriental in style, constant reminiscences are observable
+of the similarity of ideas and forms with Italian or French objects. The
+large chests or _cassoni_ of different sizes which are constantly met
+with in museums, or in private collections, are similar to objects of
+the same kind which abound in Italy. Some are covered with fine Gothic
+or Renaissance carvings in the same taste as the choir stalls, and are
+ornamented also with good iron-work. Some of them were made in the
+province of Cataluña of inlaid ivory, imitating in a coarse manner
+Florentine and Milanese work. These objects were of the end of the 15th
+and beginning of the 16th century. An excellent example exists at the
+cathedral of Toledo, near the Puerta de los Leones, consisting of an
+iron coffer covered with carved and repoussé work.
+
+A fine cupboard of walnut wood may be seen at the same cathedral which
+is unrivalled for its beauty. It is composed of an architectural order
+with six pilasters, forming five vacant spaces completely covered with
+medallions, groups of children, flowers, and a multitude of subjects of
+ornamentation in reliefs, terminating with a frieze crowned with
+candelabra and salient points. This piece of furniture was made in
+1549-1551, by the sculptor, Pedro Pardo, for holding vestments of the
+clergy. In 1780 a reproduction was made by Gregorio Lopez Durango: the
+original and the copy face each other in the room which is passed on
+entering the Sala Capitular. As Spanish carved wood work of the
+beginning of the 16th century may be mentioned the specimens at the
+Kensington Museum, Nos. 245 and 246-64, of two panels with armorial
+shields.
+
+During the 16th, but more especially the 17th, century it became very
+fashionable in Europe to use secretaires or cabinets to a great extent,
+which, if we calculate by those that still are found in private houses
+in Spain, have never been so numerous in any other country. A great
+variety of every description may be seen at the South Kensington Museum.
+In looking through old inventories at Madrid, the number of these
+escritoires which decorated the rooms of the Palace is almost
+incredible. Many of them came from Italy, Flanders, or Germany. In a
+memorial drawn up by Pedro Gutierrez and presented to the King, begging
+for protection for this industry, he says: "The cabinets and
+escritoires, _contadores y bufetes_, which were worth 500, 600, and 700
+reales when brought from Germany, are now made in Spain for 250 and 300
+reales each." (Acad. de la Hist., N. 6, vol. iv. 371.) The quantity and
+importance of those brought from Germany is to be inferred from an edict
+promulgated by Philip III., in Valladolid in 1603, in which "cabinets of
+every kind coming from Nuremberg are not allowed to enter the country,"
+ib. 518.
+
+These cabinets were made in a great variety of ways. Some were, as we
+have seen, copied in Spain from foreign models, but the greater number
+constituted a characteristic industry of the Peninsula. Some were
+covered with wood carvings in a similar style to the large armoires in
+the Sala Capitular at Toledo. Others were known by the name of
+_Vargueños_, because the great centre of their manufacture is supposed
+to have existed at the village of Vargas in the province of Toledo.
+These cabinets are effective; their geometrical ornamentation is a
+reminiscence of the Oriental style, and the iron work outside is very
+striking. A good specimen may be seen at the Kensington Museum, No.
+1073, '71; a woodcut of the upper portion is given on the next page.
+
+We also meet with cabinets and armoires with glass doors covered with
+tortoise-shell and gilt bronze. A splendid series of inlaid work of
+tortoise-shell, ebony, mother-of-pearl and ivory is preserved at the
+Sacristy of the Cartuja at Granada, made by a friar of the same convent,
+Manuel Vazquez, at the beginning of the last century. Cabinets of ebony,
+inlaid and covered with repoussé silver work, must have been very
+generally made in Spain; silver was used to so great an extent after the
+conquest of America, that a law was issued in 1574 prohibiting with the
+utmost rigour the making and selling of this kind of merchandise, in
+order not to increase the scarcity of silver. "No cabinets, desks,
+coffers, braziers, etc., shall be manufactured of silver."
+
+[Illustration: VARGUEÑO CABINET. SPANISH. 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
+MUSEUM.]
+
+Cabinets of inlaid ivory or different coloured woods which were
+originally imported from Italy and Germany were constantly reproduced in
+Spain, as will appear by the following dialogue:-- "How much has your
+worship paid for this cabinet? It is worth more than 40 ducats. What
+wood is it made of? The red one is made of mahogany from the Habana, and
+the black one is made of ebony, and the white one of ivory. You will
+find the workmanship excellent. Here you will find a finer cabinet.
+Where was it made? It was brought with these chairs from Salamanca."
+("Dialogos Familiares," by J. de Luna, Paris, 1669, p. 111.) Among
+cabinets inlaid with bone or ivory there is a peculiar style in which
+furniture brought from the Portuguese possessions in the East was
+imitated in a rough way. Some also have reached us in which the drawers
+are covered with embroidery in silks of different colours, exquisitely
+worked. In the 17th century furniture of different kinds was covered
+with embroidered silks. At the Kensington Museum there is an interesting
+coffer, which came from the Convent of Loeches, and was originally the
+gift of Count Duke de Olivares, Philip the IVth's minister.
+
+The cabinets decorated with _pietre duri_, which are frequently met with
+in Spain were of foreign make. Madame d'Aunoy, in describing the house
+of a grandee of Spain in her "Voyage d'Espagne," p. 56, vol. ii., Lyon,
+1643, says, "et de grands cabinets de pièces de rapport enrichis de
+pierreries, lesquels ne sont pas faits en Espagne: des tables d'argent
+d'entre eux, et des miroirs admirables tant pour leur grandeur que pour
+leurs riches bordures, dont les moins belles sont d'argent. Ce que j'ai
+trouvé de plus beau sont des _escaparates_; une espèce de petit cabinet
+fermé d'une seule glace et rempli de tout ce qu'on se peut figurer de
+plus rare." Cabinets ornamented with paintings on glass, or copper, or
+enamels came from Flanders, and some rare specimens of damasquine work
+were most probably Milanese manufacture.
+
+In Cean Bermudez "Dicc Historico de los Profesores de Bellas Artes"
+appear among the sculptors' names, those of the artists who carved the
+most important stalls of the cathedrals, and other works of art of a
+similar kind, but the names of those who made cabinets have never yet
+been published. I have been fortunate enough to be able to collect the
+following from unpublished documents which exist at the Library of the
+Acad. de San Fernando at Madrid. They worked in the 16th and 17th
+century.
+
+ Aguayo, Urban de, wood carver 1623
+
+ Carpintero, Francisco, wood carver 1630
+
+ Garcia, Marcos, wood carver of his Majesty 1637-42
+
+ Gomez, Juan, carver in wood 1598
+
+ Gorostiza, Juan de, carver in wood 1627
+
+ Higares, Nicolas de, carver in wood 1625
+
+ Hispano, Francisco, carver in ivory 1618
+
+ Hoz, Martin de la, carver in wood 1624
+
+ Lara, Benardino, de, carver in wood 1612
+
+ Lozano, Pedro 1622
+
+ Marcos, Juan, carver in wood 1636
+
+ Martinez, Andrés, carver in wood 1622
+
+ Martinez, Dionisio, carver in wood 1621-25
+
+ Martinez, Gabriel, carver in wood 1623
+
+ Murga, Tomas de, carver of his royal Highness 1614
+
+ Osoz, Martin de, wood carver 1623
+
+ Parezano, Alonso, wood carver of his Majesty 1623
+
+ Pelegrin, Joan, wood carver 1614
+
+ Peña, Jeronimo de la, wood carver 1622
+
+ Quero, Melchor de, carver in wood 1586
+
+ Radis, Francisco, master maker of cabinets in
+ ebony and ivory 1617
+
+ Riofrio, Martin de, wood carver 1612
+
+ Riofrio, Tomas de, wood carver 1626
+
+ Rodriguez, Bernardo de, wood carver 1624
+
+ Rodriguez, Domingo, wood carver 1633
+
+ Roxo, Domingo, wood carver 1630
+
+ Sanchez, Matias, wood carver 1565
+
+ Santana, Juan de, wood carver 1617
+
+ Sierra, Francisco de, wood carver 1634
+
+ Spano, Jeronimo, wood carver 1617
+
+ Torres, Juan de, wood carver 1658
+
+ Velasco, Lucas de, master in painting and
+ gilding cabinets 1633
+
+ Zorrilla, Domingo 1642
+
+Large arm-chairs of a quadrangular form, with arms, back and seat of
+leather or embroidered stuffs, were used to furnish rooms at the same
+time as these cabinets; tables, and frames inlaid with ivory,
+tortoise-shell, ebony, bronze and silver, were hung on the walls;
+side-boards, beds, and braziers were made of inlaid woods or silver.
+Women during the 16th and 17th centuries sat on low stools on the
+ground. The beds were made of rich brocades embroidered with gold,
+(_vide_ Madame d'Aunoy), trimmed with point d'Espagne, and on the
+splendid carpets were placed silver braziers which burnt crushed olive
+stones. The walls were covered with tapestry and rich silks, and from
+very early times stamped, painted or gilt leather _guadameciles_ were
+used in Spain to a very great extent. These _guadameciles_ were imitated
+in France and other countries in the 16th and 17th centuries; a very
+large quantity of this stamped leather is to be met with in England. The
+Baron Ch. Davillier has lately published an interesting notice on this
+subject, from which I take the following information. ("Notes sur les
+cuirs de Cordoue. Guadameciles d'Espagne," Paris, 1878.)
+
+The word guadamecil applied to this leather comes from the village of
+_Ghadames_ in Africa, celebrated from the 12th century for this
+industry. It was imported by the Moors into Spain, and Cordova became
+from the beginning of the Middle Ages the great centre of this
+production, although other towns, such as Seville, Granada, Toledo, and
+Barcelona, exported these leathers also. The chronicler Ambrosio de
+Morales, in his "Las Antiguedades de las ciudades de España," Alcala,
+1575, says, p. 10, "A great commerce is produced by the exportation of
+skins, and many have been enriched by it, those prepared at Cordova are
+so excellent, that now in Spain any goat hide prepared in any locality
+is called Cordovan. Guadameciles are made of leather, and are so well
+fashioned in Cordova that none can compete with them; they are exported
+to the Indies and all Europe. They produce much for the town, and
+beautify the principal streets, for the hides are hung out to dry after
+they are painted and gilt, and it is a fine sight to see the walls
+covered with such variety of colour and form."
+
+A good collection of these guadameciles is in the South Kensington
+Museum. See Nos. 471 to 485, '69, and 1651 to 1654, '71.
+
+At the end of the 17th and first half of the 18th century, the Baroque
+or Churrigueresque architecture had such influence over furniture, that
+although exaggerated examples were very common, they reached in no
+country to such a pitch as they did in Spain. As specimens, the enormous
+_retablos_ over the high altars made of gilt carved wood may be
+mentioned, which are so frequently to be seen in Spanish churches. The
+exuberance of uncouth heavy ornamentation destroys the regularity and
+harmony of the general effect. Chairs and tables were made then in the
+same style, and the _cornucopias_ or decorated mirrors which adorn
+Spanish churches and sacristy, belong to this period. The name of
+_cornucopia_ was given in allusion to the horn of abundance.
+
+The French influence of the last century brought the same fashions for
+furniture into Spain, and we also find there the styles known as Louis
+XVI. and Empire. Spain follows the general rule; porcelain plaques from
+the manufactories of Alcora and Retiro were let into furniture, and gilt
+bronze mountings were very much used. The most important specimens of
+furniture of the early present century are the splendid rooms inlaid
+with metal work at the Palace, called Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez, and
+those known by the name of "Piezas de maderas finas," at the Palace del
+Escorial. The description given by J. Quevdo, in his "Historia del Real
+Monasterio de San Lorenzo," Madrid, 1849, gives a good idea of their
+importance; he says, p. 343, "This series of four small rooms were
+decorated at a cost of 28,000,000 of reales (£280,000). The pavement,
+friezes, windows, and doors, are made of the most delicate inlaid work
+representing landscapes, vases and festoons of flowers, which look as if
+they were painted with a brush. King Charles IV. helped in this work,
+and they were finished in 1831 under the direction of Angel Maeso. The
+splendid iron work was made by Ignacio Millan. It is of polished iron
+inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in workmanship."
+
+
+
+
+IVORIES.
+
+
+No artistic industry in Spain has left behind so little historical
+information as ivory carving. Only a very small number of examples of
+this art have reached us which are of undoubted Spanish manufacture, but
+a group exists among them which has been but little examined or studied;
+it is worthy of the utmost attention, on account of its artistic
+character, and the inferences which may be drawn from it.
+
+We find no allusion in the works of Pliny or St. Isidoro to the
+existence of the industry of ivory carving in Spain during the Roman and
+Visigothic dominations. An interesting example of ivory work of the
+Roman period, consisting of a consular diptych may be seen at the
+cathedral of Oviedo, which, although certainly not carved in Spain, must
+not be overlooked here, in order that it may be included among the
+number of the carvings which have reached us of this period. The two
+leaves of this diptych are complete, and in a perfect state of
+preservation: they are 16 inches long by 6 inches wide; in the centres
+are two medallions in relief with a bust of the consul, who is
+represented in the act of throwing down with his right hand the _mappa_
+or handkerchief, and holding in his left hand a sceptre. The right
+angles are ornamented with masks, the rest of the surface is plain. The
+two following inscriptions run along the upper part of the leaves:
+FL·STRATEGIVS APION. STRATEGIVS APION V. ILL: COM. DEVV. DOMM. ET · CONS
+· OR.
+
+Flavius Strategius Apius. Strategius Apius, illustrious man, count of
+the most fervent servants, and consul in ordinary.
+
+This consul belongs to the period of Justinian, by which emperor he was
+invested with this dignity in A.D. 539. We do not know how this diptych
+came to Spain; it is generally supposed that it belonged originally to
+the shrine of the cathedral of Toledo, from whence it was removed to
+Asturias, with other relics, to be concealed there during the invasion
+of the Arabs at the beginning of the 8th century. The student will find
+further details in "Corpus Ins." by Hübner. "Monumentos
+arquitectonicos." "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades." Vol. i. p. 385.
+
+From the invasion of the Arabs, which began early in the 8th century,
+and on the foundation of the empire of the Caliphs of Cordova in the
+year 756, an era of grandeur began for the Arabs in Spain, coinciding
+with their independence from the Caliphs of Damascus, which lasted for
+more than two centuries; during this time Cordova became the most
+important literary and scientific centre in Europe. The direct influence
+of the East and Constantinople may be traced without interruption from
+this time on the culture of the Spanish Arabs. At times this culture was
+transmitted by the objects of every kind which the Spaniards received
+from the East, at others by the influence exercised by the artists who
+established themselves on the territory of the Caliphate of Cordova. The
+greater part of the industrial arts, which were imported at this time,
+became naturalized in the country, and we find them developed in every
+locality of the Peninsula, and although we do not possess any positive
+historical information stating this fact, which distinctly bears on
+ivory carvings, we are safe in affirming that the industry existed among
+the Spanish Arabs in a very high state of perfection during the last
+years of the Caliphate. The description and details of the most
+important ivories which have reached us of this period confirms this
+opinion.
+
+At the South Kensington Museum there is a cylindrical box No. 217-'65
+with rounded cover. I copy Mr. Maskell's description of this object, of
+which a woodcut is given. (Vide "Ivories, Ancient and Mediæval, in the
+South Kensington Museum," London, 1872.)
+
+"This beautiful box is carved throughout, except the bottom of it, with
+interlacing narrow bands forming quatrefoils, in which on the cover are
+four eagles. These have spread wings and stand erect; well designed and
+most delicately executed. A small knob serves to lift the lid.
+
+[Illustration: IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
+MUSEUM.]
+
+"Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a star having a leaf
+ornament. The same decoration is repeated in the spaces between the
+larger quatrefoils on the cover.
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"The whole is carved in pierced work, except a band which forms the
+upper upright portion of the box, round the side of the lid. This band
+has an Arabic inscription:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"A favour of God to the servant of God, Al Hakem al Mostanser Billah,
+commander of the faithful." He was a Caliph who reigned at Cordova, A.D.
+961-976."
+
+Another very interesting oblong box is preserved in the same Museum, No.
+301-'66. The cover and sides are carved with scroll foliated ornament:
+the hinges and clasp are of chased silver inlaid with niello. Round the
+sides, immediately below the lid is the following Arabic inscription in
+Cufic characters:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"In the name of God. This (box) was ordered to be made by Seidat Allah,
+the wife of Abdo-r-rahman, prince of the believers. God be merciful and
+satisfied with him."
+
+[Illustration: IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
+MUSEUM.]
+
+This inscription must allude to Abd er Rahman III. the first Caliph of
+Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el Mumenin. The formula "God be
+merciful," &c., denotes that he was dead when it was written. He died
+A.D. 961. (See woodcut.)
+
+Another casket, undoubtedly the most important in size which is known of
+this period, proceeds from Sanguesa, in the province of Navarre, and is
+now preserved in the treasury of the cathedral of Pamplona.
+
+This splendid box, hitherto undescribed, is 15 inches long, by 9¼
+wide. A woodcut is given opposite. It is completely covered with
+carvings in relief, within circular cusped medallions, with figures in
+the centres representing different subjects: men seated, hawking, or
+struggling with wild beasts, and numerous single figures of lions,
+stags, and other animals. The intermediate spaces contain an
+ornamentation of leaves and flowers which is accommodated to the
+geometrical style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of this box
+appears an Arabic inscription in fine Cufic characters.
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"In the name of God. The blessing of God, the complete felicity, the
+happiness, the fulfilment of the hope of good works, and the adjourning
+the fatal period (of death), be with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the
+State), Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made by the orders (of
+the said Hagib), under the inspection or direction of his chief eunuch,
+Nomayr ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave in the year of 395," [A.D.
+1005].
+
+In the centre medallion, on the opposite side to the lock, is
+represented the standing figure of a man who is attacked by two lions.
+He holds on his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an inscription,
+with the following religious formula: "There is no God but God," or a
+similar one, for the characters are very illegible and confused. In the
+centre of this shield may be read [Illustration: Arabic], "made by
+Hair," undoubtedly one of the artists who made the box. Another artist's
+name may be read with difficulty in a similar inscription which appears
+on one of the medallions on the left side: it is written on the thigh of
+a stag, which is attacked by a lion [Illustration: Arabic], "it was made
+by Obeidat." Three other inscriptions of a similar character appear in
+other parts of this box, which probably give the names of other
+artists, but I have been unable to decipher them.
+
+[Illustration: MOORISH CASKET. 11TH CENTURY. CATHEDRAL OF PAMPLONA.]
+
+Among other artistic objects in the shrine of the cathedral of Braga, in
+Portugal, there is an ivory box of the same period, and the inscription,
+which runs round the cover, mentions the same persons:
+
+"There is no God but God, and Mahomad is his prophet. In the name of
+God, a blessing, prosperity and fortune for the Hagib Seifo, d. daula,
+for this work, which he ordered to be made by the hands of"--here the
+inscription has been broken off--"his principal eunuch." (Vide 'Artes e
+Letras,' No. 6, 3rd series, p. 94, Lisbon, 1874.)
+
+Both these caskets were made for Hadjeb Abd el Melik, a minister of
+Hischem the second.
+
+It is necessary to add to them an ivory diptych, preserved at the
+Provincial Museum of Burgos, which, as we find by the following
+inscription, was also made for Abder Rahman III, (A.D. 912-961).
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"This was ordered to be made by the Iman servant of God Abder Rahman,
+prince of believers."
+
+Two other boxes of the same artistic character, belonging to a private
+collection, must also be mentioned. They are both cylindrical, and are
+terminated by a spherical cover. They measure 7½ inches high, by
+4-5/8 wide, and are covered with a profuse and splendid ornamentation of
+figures and animals. Round the lid of one them is a band, with the
+following inscription in fine Cufic character:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"The blessing of God and his favours, joy, and prosperity, for
+Almogueira, son of the Prince of the faithful, whom may God have
+forgiven. It was made in the year 357 [A.D. 967]."
+
+Almogueira was the son of the Caliph of Cordova, Abder Rahman III.
+
+On the other may be read in similar characters--
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+("In the name of God, clement and merciful, blessing")--this part of the
+inscription is missing--"and prosperity and happiness for Riyadh ben
+Aflah, captain of the superior guard. It was made in the year 359" [A.D.
+969].
+
+The style of the objects which we have hitherto described is undoubtedly
+Oriental, and we must seek in Persia the origin of this industry. There
+is, however, every probability that these seven ivory boxes were made in
+Spain by Spanish Arabs, or artists who had settled there from the East.
+On all these carvings the names of Spanish historical persons appear,
+and it is hardly possible that they were ordered in remote countries,
+especially as some of these objects are small and comparatively
+unimportant. It must also be borne in mind that we find in contemporary
+authors many details on the luxury and magnificence of this period of
+the Spanish Arabs, and the great height which the arts and industries
+had reached at that time.
+
+The ivory carvings which I have described present all the
+characteristics of the Oriental school, which was copied by European
+Christian sculptors during the 11th and 12th centuries. We find in
+Christian productions of this period, too constantly to require any
+further comment, the same geometrical traceries, flowers, leaves,
+animals, and birds. The subjects represented on monuments of Christian
+art have been erroneously interpreted by modern ecclesiologists who have
+endeavoured to demonstrate the symbolism of these figures in a purely
+Christian sense with only the unsatisfactory result of checking and
+leading astray art students of the Middle Ages. It is of the utmost
+importance to go to the primitive sources from which this art is derived
+in order to illustrate this important theory. The Oriental school of
+sculpture was soon transmitted, either through the influence of the
+Spanish Arabs, or by other means, to Christian artists. As an
+interesting example of this may be mentioned the shrine which King Dn.
+Sancho ordered to be made, A.D. 1033, in which to deposit the bones of
+San Millan, still preserved in San Millan de la Cogulla, in the province
+of La Rioja, Spain. This fine shrine is 4 feet 6 inches long, by 2 feet
+3½ inches high. It is of wood, and covered with gold plates and
+inlaid stones and crystals. Between this metal work are placed 22
+plaques of ivory carved with subjects representing passages from the
+life of the saint, and single figures of the princes, monks, and
+benefactors who helped to defray the expense of this work of art. Among
+them there are two small figures with the names of Apparitio
+Scholastico, Ramirus Rex. These have been generally supposed to be the
+artists' names. A sculptor is also represented carving a shield, and
+near him is one of his workmen. Underneath these figures ran formerly an
+inscription, of which the first part only remains, containing the name
+of the artist--"(Magis) tro et Rodolpho filio."
+
+Two other interesting specimens remain of Spanish Moresque art of the
+11th century. One is a casket at the South Kensington Museum, No. 10,
+66, which Mr. Maskell describes as "richly carved in deep relief with
+foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing one another, and forming
+larger and smaller circles. The top and each side is a single plaque of
+ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back has two panels. On the two
+are two animals, like does; a large bird stands on the back of each,
+attacking it with his beak. The sloping sides have, in the large
+circles, men on horseback, and animals fighting. The intermediate spaces
+are completely filled with foliage, and smaller beasts. Similar
+subjects are repeated in the circles on the panels forming the lower
+sides of the casket, and among them are two groups of men and women
+sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on a guitar, another
+holding a cup in one hand and a flower in the other." There is no
+inscription on this casket, but in one of the medallions on the lid
+there is a bust which is carried on the back of a horse, and which is
+probably a representation of the prince for whom the casket was made.
+
+The other example of this period is that known as the cross of Don
+Fernando, at the Archæological Museum at Madrid. This cross is 20½
+inches by 14. On the front is a figure in high relief of Our Lord with
+the inscription: IHE. NAZARENVS REX IVDEORVM. In the upper part is
+represented the figure of Our Lord at the moment of his Resurrection,
+and in the lower a symbolical figure of Adam; both these figures are in
+high relief. Underneath may be read in two lines,--
+
+ FERDINANDVS REX.
+ SANCIA REGINA.
+
+At the back of the cross appears in the centre the Lamb of God: in the
+four corners the emblems of the Evangelists. Besides these purely
+Christian symbols, the ground work is covered with foliage, circles
+interlacing each other, figures of animals of different kinds, and men
+struggling with wild beasts. The whole of the ornamentation corresponds
+to the style of decoration of the moresque objects which I have already
+described. King Ferdinand I. died A.D. 1065, his wife Sancha A.D. 1071;
+and documents exist proving that in 1063 they gave this interesting work
+of art with other artistic objects to the Church of San Isidoro of Leon,
+where it remained until 1870, when it was given up by the authorities of
+the church to the Museum at Madrid. The following woodcut represents the
+back of the cross:--
+
+[Illustration: BACK OF CROSS OF KING FERDINAND I. ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM.
+MADRID]
+
+These different specimens represent, in my opinion, the most
+satisfactory view of the art industry of ivory carving during the 10th
+and 11th centuries. Several other examples of oriental carving in ivory
+still exist in Spain in the shrines of different cathedrals; others of
+less artistic interest may be seen at the Archæological Museum at
+Madrid. These caskets are for the most part not ornamented with carvings
+in relief, but are decorated with inscriptions painted in gold and
+colours. The most important are:--
+
+A large casket at the Archæological Museum of Madrid, decorated with
+painting in red and green, and a fine inscription in Cufic characters.
+
+A similar casket at the same museum, decorated with a design painted in
+green, red, and blue; an inscription in cufic letters runs round a band
+in the upper part.
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"Made by Mohammad Ben Assarag."
+
+An ivory casket at the Real Academia de la Historia at Madrid, with an
+ornamentation and inscription painted in the style of the former ones
+and the shield of arms of the Kings of Aragon. The inscription
+reproduces several Suras of the Koran, and the arms of the house of
+Aragon were probably added when the casket came into the possession of
+some person belonging to the family.
+
+A casket exists at the Church of Santo Domingo de Silos (province of
+Burgos), which merits a special mention on account of what has remained
+to us of the inscription.
+
+This casket is 13¼ inches long by 7½ inches wide and high. It is
+ornamented in part with foliage and flowers in the moresque style,
+alternating with hunting subjects, men shooting with bows and arrows,
+riding upon lions, fantastic animals and leopards mounted on the back of
+bulls. The work is inferior in art to the caskets at Pamplona and South
+Kensington. On a band which runs round the four sides of the lid is an
+inscription in Cufic characters, of which unfortunately the two longer
+sides have been destroyed, and have been substituted at a very early
+period by bands of cloisonné enamel, evidently belonging to other
+caskets. On the two sides an inscription remains, upon which may be read
+the year Hegira 417 (A.D. 1026); the name of the artist who carved it,
+Mohammad Ibn Zeiyan, and the two first letters of the town in which it
+was made (probably Cuenca)
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+".....for its owner (may God lengthen his days.) It was made in the town
+of Cu[enca] in the year 417. (A.D. 1025.) By Mohammad--ibn Zeiyan, his
+servant. May God glorify him."
+
+In the geography of Edrisi, an Oriental author who describes Spain in
+the beginning of the 12th century, only two names of towns are mentioned
+which agree with this inscription, Coria and Cuenca [Illustration:
+Arabic]. The first of these towns was always a less important centre
+than Cuenca. Edrisi praises the woollen fabrics made at Cuenca, and
+there is every probability that this casket was carved there, as there
+is also an ivory monstrance at the cathedral of Perpiñan, which has
+likewise an inscription in Cufic characters, stating it was made for the
+Hageb Ismail.
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"The blessing of God. Made at the town of Cuenca, for the Hageb Ismail."
+
+Villanueva in his "Viage por España," Vol. 5, p. 144, mentions two large
+ivory caskets with Cufic inscriptions which still exist at the cathedral
+of Tortosa, Cataluña.
+
+Another of a similar description is preserved in the Treasury of the
+cathedral of Bayeux.
+
+This casket is, as M. André tells us in a pamphlet on "Antiquites Arabes
+de la Normandie," Rennes, 1869, O^{m} 42 L. by O^{m} 28 W. and 13 H. It
+is decorated with bands of enamelled metal, and covered with a fine
+running design of peacocks and other birds. Round the lock runs the
+following inscription in Cufic characters:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+"In the name of God, clement, merciful, the blessing and His benefits
+complete."
+
+These ivory caskets were made originally to hold perfumes, jewels, or
+precious stones. For besides the Arabic inscriptions which allude to
+this, we find the idea distinctly expressed in an inscription in Cufic
+letters on a casket which came from Cordova belonging to the Caliphate.
+This casket was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1867; I do not know
+where it is at present.
+
+It appears at first sight difficult to explain why the Spanish Moors
+decorated these objects with the representations of animated beings,
+against the precepts of the Koran, and the reason why these objects of
+undoubtedly Moorish origin have been preserved until the present day in
+the treasuries of Spanish cathedrals. The prohibition of the Koran to
+represent animated beings is, however, not so strict as is generally
+supposed; it is reduced to the following sentences. "O Believers! Wine
+and games of chance, and statues and the divining arrows, are only an
+abomination of Satan's work! Avoid them that ye may prosper." [Sura v.
+ver. 22.] Later commentators on the Koran have added the severest
+prohibitions against painters and artists who represented animated
+beings, but to very little effect, and we find in contemporary authors
+numerous details of the specimens of sculptures and paintings which
+were in the houses of Moorish magnates. Coins, textile fabrics,
+furniture, and other objects which have reached us, leave no doubt that
+the representations of animated beings were constantly used by the
+Spanish and Eastern Arabs from the first century of the Hegira.
+
+The fact that these Moorish caskets should have been used for preserving
+the relics of saints in Spanish churches, is explained by the custom
+common in the middle ages in Spain and other countries, of offering war
+spoils and treasures brought from long and distant peregrinations, and
+even objects of natural history, to the different churches. Alligators
+may still be seen hanging in churches in Seville, Toledo, Valencia, etc.
+The Moors did the same thing: the famous warrior Almanssor, the minister
+of Hischem II. at the end of the 10th century, carried off the bells
+from the cathedral of Cordova, and had them turned into lamps and used
+at the mosque of Cordova. We find in ancient writers frequent mention of
+the custom of Spanish Christians of offering these ivory caskets to the
+churches, as trophies taken in their warfares with the Moors. The
+ecclesiastical authorities probably placed them at the time with other
+valuable objects in the treasuries of the churches, filling them with
+relics, for such is the manner in which they are found; they have
+remained untouched from the earliest times and are constantly mentioned
+in local histories of the cathedrals. We must not suppose that the
+ecclesiastical authorities ignored their Mohamedan origin, for we find
+at every step during the middle ages the names of priests who knew and
+interpreted the Arabic language. The principal reason why these objects
+of Oriental art have been preserved, is, that the hatred of race and
+belief between Moors and Christians was by no means as great as has been
+supposed by modern authors, and certainly never went so far as to
+destroy objects of industrial and artistic interest. In the year A.D.
+1275, certain privileges were granted to Moorish workmen who were set
+apart and ordered to repair the Mosque at Cordova, at that time already
+converted into a christian cathedral. During the 13th, 14th and 15th
+centuries a large number of parish churches were built in Spain in the
+Moorish style, either by Oriental architects, or Spaniards who had
+adopted their architecture, and numerous examples might be given of
+inscriptions and details of ornamentation which confirm most fully these
+theories.
+
+Objects of ivory carvings of the middle ages, posterior to the 12th
+century, are frequently met with in Spain. Among the most remarkable is
+the Virgin de las Batallas, in the cathedral of Seville. This image
+belonged to St. Ferdinand, early in the 13th century, and the tradition
+exists that it was carried on the king's saddle in battle. The fine
+ivory diptychs at the Escorial and Archæological Museum at Madrid must
+also be mentioned, and a large number of ivory caskets, and fragments,
+existing in the same Museum and in different Spanish churches.
+
+Notwithstanding, however, the numerous examples of ivory carvings which
+are still to be met with in Spanish churches and cathedrals, I find no
+information which enables us to affirm that this artistic industry
+existed in Spain during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. We find
+artists mentioned who carved in wood, iron, and silver work, and
+numerous details of their work, but ivory carvers are never mentioned,
+if any existed, their number must have been comparatively small; and I
+am led, therefore, to suppose that the specimens existing in Spain were
+imported from Italy or France, and for this reason it is necessary to
+end at the Renaissance the history of ivory carving in Spain.
+
+The inlaid ivory work so constantly used in Spanish furniture of the
+16th and 17th centuries, cannot be included in this notice on ivory
+carvers, owing to its limited character, and the use to which it was
+employed. One branch of sculpture must be mentioned representing sacred
+images, which were carved in the 16th and 17th centuries by natives of
+the Philippine Islands or the Portuguese Colonies. They are frequently
+met with in Spain, and are remarkable for their bad and careless
+modelling, a mannered unartistic style, combined with the exaggerated
+rigidity so common in Chinese and Indian productions. As examples of
+this style of art may be mentioned the representations of St. Erasmus,
+and the Immaculate Conception (Nos. 9069, '63, 183, '64), in the South
+Kensington Museum.
+
+
+
+
+POTTERY AND PORCELAIN.
+
+ Roman and Visigothic.--Hispano Moresque earthenware.--Painted,
+ glazed and lustred pottery.--Terra-cotta.--_Azulejos_ (Tile
+ decorations).--Pottery made at Talavera, Valencia, Seville, Triana,
+ Zamora, Puente del Arzobispo.--Unglazed pottery.--Bucaros.--Alcora
+ ware and porcelain.--Buen Retiro porcelain.
+
+
+ROMAN AND VISIGOTHIC.
+
+The productions of Ceramic Art have constituted from the earliest times
+a very important industry in Spain. Fragments of vases of
+greyish-coloured paste, ornamented with bands or zones, are constantly
+found in excavations in different localities. It cannot, however, be
+determined whether they were importations, or imitations made in the
+Spanish Peninsula. The earliest mention which we find of this industry
+in Spain is in Pliny (Lib. xxx., cap. xii., line 19, Edition of Paris,
+1526-7), who, in praising vases of pottery made in different countries,
+mentions those of Saguntum (Murviedro) near Valencia. An epigram by
+Juvenal (Sat. v. xxix.), and several by Martial (iv. 45, viii. 6, xiv.
+108) on the same subject, prove that the pottery from the eastern coast
+of the Mediterranean was very famous at that time.
+
+Count Lumiares, in his work on pottery of Saguntum ("Barros Saguntinos,"
+Valencia, 1779, 8vo), mentions having examined more than 1500 specimens
+of pottery of different kinds, which he classifies in four groups: grey
+pottery, cream-coloured pottery, yellow pottery and red glazed ware,
+with ornamentation in relief (Samian ware); this ornamentation
+constitutes, in my opinion, the only distinctive feature of the pottery
+made at Saguntum.
+
+Remains of this pottery are very frequently found in the ruins of former
+Roman cities; a much larger number of specimens of all kinds have
+appeared since Count Lumiares wrote his book, none however differ
+materially from the terra-cottas of the Roman period found in Italy, or
+in other countries. Some of the marks are identical with those given by
+Birch and several authors who have written on Roman pottery; hence it
+would appear that this industry was imported into Spain, or the forms
+and marks copied there to a very large extent.
+
+[Illustration: SAMIAN BOWL.]
+
+The number of inscriptions and potters' marks met with on the vases and
+fragments found in Spain is very great. Students who take a special
+interest in this subject will find full details in Dr. Emile Hübner's
+important work, "Inscrip. Hispaniæ Latinæ," Berlin, 1869. This writer
+has collected the greatest number of inscriptions. He mentions 43 which
+appear on bricks, 36 on vases and drinking vessels, 63 on lamps, 579 on
+vases of red pottery, 115 inscriptions of doubtful reading, 21 which are
+incomplete, and 56 written by hand. He gives us, besides, other marks
+without inscriptions, representing hands, horses, rabbits, butterflies,
+bees, flowers, etc. In an inedited history of the ancient city of
+Emporion (Cataluña) [MS., Acad. of Hist., Madrid], the author, Dr.
+Joaquin Botet y Sisó, has collected 198 potters' marks. A large number
+are still unpublished which have been met with on fragments of pottery
+found in Extremadura and Andalucia; we may therefore confidently assert
+that the number amounts to upwards of 1500.
+
+During the Visigothic monarchy, after the downfall of the Roman empire,
+which lasted until the invasion of the Arabs in the 8th century, the
+same style of ceramic industry, copied from the Romans, continued in
+Spain. No special study has been made of the pottery of this epoch, but,
+judging by the large amount of fragments of vessels for domestic use,
+which are constantly found in ruins of the Visigothic period, there can
+be no doubt that pottery continued to be manufactured in Spain. What San
+Isidoro, who died in 636, says in his "Etimologies, Book xx.," confirms
+this opinion, and undoubtedly refers to vessels similar to those of the
+Roman period. (_De vasis Escariis, potoriis vinariis et aquariis,
+oleariis, coquinariis et luminariorum._)
+
+After the Roman domination and Visigothic monarchy, ceramic art in Spain
+may be divided into the following groups:--
+
+1st. Objects imported by the Moors into Spain; these consist of remains
+of pottery belonging to the first period of their invasion; lustred
+wares, manufactured in the Peninsula, which attained great importance
+during the Middle Ages, and still continue to be made in the present
+day; terra-cottas, and green and white glazed pottery; and lastly tiles,
+_azulejos_, of bright colours in the Moorish style.
+
+2nd. Pottery of a distinct Italian style, made principally at Talavera;
+porous, unglazed, coloured pottery, _bucaros_; white, unglazed pottery,
+made at Andujar and La Rambla.
+
+3rd. Pottery and porcelain made at Alcora, and the porcelain manufactory
+of Buen Retiro, near Madrid.
+
+
+HISPANO MORESQUE EARTHENWARE.
+
+The Spanish Peninsula was invaded by the Arabs about the year 711 A.D.,
+and they absorbed for several centuries the industries of the country.
+Ceramic Art attained great importance in their hands during the Middle
+Ages and Renaissance period, for even while the pottery works
+established at Talavera, Seville, and other localities, manufactured
+pottery to a very great extent, which was chiefly imitated from Italian
+models, the Moorish style still continued, and has never been
+interrupted in the province of Valencia down to the present day.
+
+The Arabs had as early as the beginning of the 12th century, if not even
+before, established the industry of metallic-lustred pottery in Spain.
+It remains to be seen what were the leading characteristics of the
+pottery of the period of the greatest importance of the Spanish Moors
+from the 8th to the 11th century.
+
+Cordova, the capital of the independent Caliphs of Damascus, was the
+centre from which works of art of all kinds of a high order were largely
+exported. The ruins of the palaces at Medina Az zahra have, it is deeply
+to be regretted, never been excavated, and Granada is the only locality
+where some fragments of Moorish pottery may be studied belonging to this
+time.
+
+Granada was almost unknown in the 8th century; the ancient Roman town of
+Illiberis, about six miles from the present site of Granada, had alone
+any importance: it was one of the bishoprics of Andalucia. The Arabs
+first settled in the remains of the Roman city: in the 10th century they
+removed to the spot occupied by the present town, and Illiberis was then
+abandoned. Roman remains are frequently found at Illiberis, as are also
+vestiges of the Moorish occupation, chiefly consisting of objects in
+bronze and fragments of pottery. These specimens are decorated with
+arabesques in green and black on a whitish ground. Some interesting
+examples may be studied at the small _Museo Provincial_ at Granada,
+which certainly belong to the 10th or beginning of the 11th century. One
+of these fragments has unreadable Arabic letters; another is decorated
+with a stag; the most remarkable is a plate fourteen inches in diameter,
+in the centre of which is represented a falcon on a horse's back. The
+form and every detail of the horse, the plaited tail, ending in the
+form of a trident, all are identical with one on which is mounted a man
+holding a hawk in his hand, carved on the ivory casket described on page
+133 as dated 359 of the hegira (A.D. 969), and probably of Cordovese
+manufacture. Both these objects possess a very decided Persian
+character, and undoubtedly belong to the date ascribed; for besides the
+circumstance of their having been found in ruins of this period, the
+shape of the horse is conclusive; its character changes soon after, as
+we find in the miniatures of the MS. of the 13th century at the Bib.
+Nationale de Paris, containing the "Séances de Hariri." It is almost
+impossible to assert whether this pottery was made in, or imported into
+Spain. One argument in favour of its Spanish-Moorish origin is that the
+glaze and paste are similar to pottery which we know was manufactured at
+Granada. The common earthenware proceeding from that locality is
+decorated in much the same manner.
+
+Soon after the fall of the Caliphate, metallic-lustred ware was made in
+Spain: Edrisi, the most remarkable Arabic geographer of the Middle Ages,
+in describing Calatayud, says: "Here the gold-coloured pottery is made
+which is exported to all countries." ("Descrip. de l'Afrique et de
+l'Espagne," Leyde, 1866.) Edrisi was born in the year 1100. He studied
+at Cordova, and finished writing his book in 1154. The circumstance of
+this pottery being mentioned in the 12th century as excellent enough for
+exportation, certainly makes it appear probable that the _fabrique_
+already existed at an earlier date, especially when we bear in mind that
+Calatayud was conquered in the year 1120 by the Christians, and it is
+impossible to suppose that they established an Oriental industry there
+which was foreign to their culture, or to the contemporary Christian
+art. This text of Edrisi's has hitherto not been properly interpreted.
+In Jauber's translation (Edrisi, Paris, 1836-40), he interprets the word
+_guidar_, [Illustration: Arabic], _lutum purum_ of potters, as the name
+of a gilt textile, perhaps because in his time it was difficult to
+believe in the existence of metallic-lustred pottery. In the Edit. of
+Leyden, by Messrs. Dozy and Goeje, the sense of the word is properly
+given; indeed, Jauber himself translates it by _porcelain_ in the
+chapter of this volume which refers to China.
+
+This text of Edrisi's has never yet been quoted by writers on Ceramic
+Art; but once known it is impossible for a moment to state that the
+earliest manufacture of Moorish lustred ware was that at Malaga, an
+opinion which has been supported hitherto on the quotation from Ben
+Batutah's works, which will be given later on. I regret to have found no
+other allusion to the lustred ware of Aragon until the 10th century. No
+mention is made of it in the geographical texts published by Juynboll,
+Al Makkari, or other Arabic writers. From what we know of Aragon in the
+16th century, it was a great centre of this industry, and its
+productions rivalled those of Valencia and Andalucia.
+
+The next text which alludes to this manufacture is given by Ben Batutah,
+a celebrated traveller, who, after travelling for twenty years in the
+East, went from Tangiers to Granada, from 1349 to 1351. Passing by
+Malaga, he says: "At Malaga, the fine golden pottery is made which is
+exported to the furthermost countries." ("Voy. d'Ibn Batoutah," Paris,
+1853-58, vol. iv. p. 367.) This text has been constantly reproduced and
+commented upon, since Baron Charles Davillier first drew attention to it
+in his interesting little _brochure_ on "Faïences Hispano-Moresques."
+
+The next time I find lustred pottery mentioned is in the 15th century.
+Eximenus, in his "Regiment de la cosa publica," Valencia, 1499, in
+speaking of the excellent things made in the kingdom of Valencia, says:
+"The twenty-seventh excellent thing is that some artificial objects are
+made there which bring great renown to the country, for they are
+excellent and beautiful, and are now to be found in other localities ...
+but above all is the beauty of the gold pottery so splendidly painted at
+Manises, which enamours everyone so much, that the Pope, and the
+cardinals, and the princes of the world obtain it by special favour,
+and are astonished that such excellent and noble works can be made of
+earth."
+
+Lustred pottery had already attained great importance in Aragon early in
+the 16th century. We find in a deed granted at Calatayud in 1507, that
+"Muhamed ben Suleyman Attaalab, an inhabitant of the suburb of the Moors
+at Calatayud, and an artificer of lustred golden earthenware, engaged
+himself with Abdallah Alfoquey of the same locality, to teach him the
+said industry, in the space of four years and a half, from the date of
+the deed." ("Estado social de los mudejares de Castilla, by Fernandez y
+Gonzalez," Madrid 1866, p. 437.) At Muel, a village in the province of
+Aragon near Zaragoza, this industry existed to a great extent in 1585.
+In the travels of Henrique Cock ("Relacion del viage hecho por Felipe
+II. en 1585," por Henrique Cock, publicado por Morel Fatio y Rodriguez
+Villa, Madrid, 1876,) we find the following interesting details of the
+manner in which this pottery was made, p. 30:--
+
+"Almost all the inhabitants of this village are potters, and all the
+earthenware sold at Zaragoza is manufactured in the following manner.
+First the vessels are fashioned of a certain ingredient the earth
+furnishes them in that locality, in the shape they may require. Once
+made, they bake them in an oven fitted for the purpose. They then remove
+them to varnish with white varnish and polish them, and afterwards make
+a wash of certain materials in the following manner: twenty-five pounds,
+_one arroba_, of lead, with which they mix three or four pounds of tin,
+and as many pounds of a certain sand which is to be found there. All
+these ingredients are mixed into a paste like ice; it is broken into
+small pieces and pounded like flour, and kept by them in powder. This
+powder is mixed with water, the dishes are passed through it, and they
+are rebaked in the oven, and keep their lustre. Afterwards, in order
+that the pottery may be gilt, they take very strong vinegar, mixed with
+about two reales (a small coin equivalent to 6_d._) of silver in powder,
+vermilion, and red ochre, and a little wire. When all is mixed
+together, they paint with a feather on the dishes any decoration they
+may like, rebake them, and then they remain gold-coloured for ever. This
+was told me by the potters themselves."
+
+But nothing can be compared in exactitude to the following receipt of
+the manner of preparing this lustred ware, which I was fortunate enough
+to find in a manuscript in the British Museum. (Egerton, No. 507, MS.
+fol. 102).
+
+Count Florida Blanca wishing in 1785 to establish at Madrid a
+manufactory of metallic-lustred ware, had the following report on the
+actual state of the industry sent to him from Manises with full details
+of the manner in which it was required to be carried out.
+
+"After the pottery is baked, it is varnished with white and blue, the
+only colours used besides the gold lustre; the vessels are again baked;
+if the objects are to be painted with gold colour, this can only be put
+on the white varnish, after they have gone twice through the oven. The
+vessels are then painted with the said gold colour and are baked a third
+time, with only dry rosemary for fuel.
+
+"The white varnish used is composed of lead and tin, which are melted
+together in an oven made on purpose; after these materials are
+sufficiently melted, they become like earth, and when in this state the
+mixture is removed and mixed with an equal quantity in weight of sand:
+fine salt is added to it, it is boiled again, and when cold, pounded
+into powder. The only sand which can be used is from a cave at
+Benalguacil, three leagues from Manises. In order that the varnish
+should be fine, for every _arroba_, 25 pounds of lead, 6 to 12 ounces of
+tin must be added, and half a bushel of fine-powered salt: if a coarse
+kind is required, it is sufficient to add a very small quantity of tin,
+and three or four _cuartos_ worth of salt, which in this case must be
+added when the ingredient is ready for varnishing the vessel.
+
+"Five ingredients enter into the composition of the gold colour:
+copper, which is better the older it is; silver, as old as possible;
+sulphur; red ochre, and strong vinegar, which are mixed in the following
+proportions: of copper three ounces, of red ochre twelve ounces, of
+silver one _peseta_ (about a shilling), sulphur three ounces, vinegar a
+quart; three pounds (of twelve ounces) of the earth or scoriæ, which is
+left after this pottery is painted with the gold colour, is added to the
+other ingredients.
+
+"They are mixed in the following manner: a small portion of sulphur in
+powder is put into a casserole with two small bits of copper, between
+them a coin of one silver _peseta_; the rest of the sulphur and copper
+is then added to it. When this casserole is ready, it is placed on the
+fire, and is made to boil until the sulphur is consumed, which is
+evident when no flame issues from it. The preparation is then taken from
+the fire, and when cold is pounded very fine; the red ochre and scoriæ
+are then added to it; it is mixed up by hand and again pounded into
+powder. The preparation is placed in a basin and mixed with enough water
+to make a sufficient paste to stick on the sides of the basin; the
+mixture is then rubbed on the vessel with a stick; it is therefore
+indispensable that the water should be added very gradually until the
+mixture is in the proper state.
+
+"The basin ready prepared must be placed in an oven for six hours. At
+Manises it is customary to do so when the vessels of common pottery are
+baked; after this the mixture is scratched off the sides of the basin
+with some iron instrument; it is then removed from there and broken up
+into small pieces, which are pounded fine in a hand-mortar with the
+quantity of vinegar already mentioned, and after having been well ground
+and pounded together for two hours the mixture is ready for decorating.
+It is well to observe that the quantity of varnish and gold-coloured
+mixture which is required for every object can only be ascertained by
+practice."
+
+Excellent lustred ware was made at Murcia, and in several villages of
+the province of Valencia; a good example exists of this pottery at the
+museum (see woodcut); none, however, was so important as the manufactory
+of Manises. Diago, in his "Anales del reyno de Valencia, 1613-40,"
+repeats the words of Eximeno: "That the pottery made at Valencia is
+painted and gilt with so much art, that it has enamoured every one, so
+much so that the pope, the cardinals, and princes send for it,
+astonished that things of such beauty can be made of earth."
+
+[Illustration: PLATEAU, PROBABLY OF VALENCIA. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+This and similar texts relating to the exportation of Spanish pottery
+explains the fact of these specimens being so frequently met with in
+Italy. Pottery of a dark copper-coloured lustre is made at the present
+time at Manises, and the imitations and forgeries to be met with at the
+dealers' shops in Madrid are made in that locality.
+
+I have mentioned the different historical texts which allude to this
+industry, and the technical receipts showing the ingredients employed to
+give the lustre. It is now no longer possible to doubt that this pottery
+came originally from the East. This opinion has gained ground of late
+years; for among the objects discovered by Sir Henry Layard at Nineveh,
+and in more recent excavations in Ephesus and Asia Minor, fragments of
+pottery have been found with metallic lustre. This and other important
+examples of artistic culture undoubtedly arose in Persia. No examples
+which may be mentioned can give a better or more distinct idea of this
+than a comparison between the Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares at the
+South Kensington Museum. The technical proceedings and effect produced
+by the metallic lustre on a white ground, with touches here and there of
+blue, are exactly the same in both cases. The principal difference
+consists in a greater richness and variety of ornamentation which we
+find in the specimens brought from Persia, especially those covered with
+a turquoise blue lustre, those of a dark blue and metallic lustre, and
+those on which gold is applied _en froid_, of which I know no similar
+examples in Spain. It is possible they may have existed in the mosques,
+but no traces remain of mosques built by the Spanish Moors during the
+13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. The mosques at Cordova and Toledo which
+still exist are of an earlier date. If we judge by the mosque of Amru at
+Cairo, and others of the same early period, tile decorations were not
+used in their ornamentation, and it appears probable that this industry
+only became important after the 10th century. The similarity of objects
+used in Spain and Persia is constantly observed by travellers in that
+country. Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, who was sent there as ambassador from
+the King of Castille from 1403 to 1406, gives a most interesting
+description of tile decoration, by which we find they were used in the
+same manner as in Spain. ("Historia del gran Tamorlan," Seville, 1582,
+fol.) Another Spanish traveller, Silva de Figueroa, in a MS. belonging
+to Don Pascual de Gayangos, in describing his embassy to Persia in 1618
+mentions the manner in which these tiles were used. I do not quote from
+many other travellers, for their remarks are hardly so valuable as those
+of Spaniards, who were accustomed to see these objects in their native
+country.
+
+After mentioning the historical sources from which I have traced the
+manufactory of Hispano-Moresque lustred ware in Spain, it is advisable
+to enumerate the most important examples which have reached us belonging
+to the 14th century, or to an earlier date.
+
+The fine vase at the Alhambra, Granada. (See woodcut.)
+
+A vase of the same character which exists at the Archæological Museum of
+Madrid.
+
+A vase of the same kind, which belonged to the painter, Mariano Fortuny,
+and which was sold at the sale of his art objects in Paris, April 30th,
+1875. (_Vide_ "Atelier de Fortuny," Paris, 1875.)
+
+A fragment of another vase, which belonged also to Fortuny, and was sold
+at the same time.
+
+A fragment of a vase at the Museo of Granada; it is similar to the
+others in form and size, but without metallic lustre.
+
+A large plaque, or _azulejo_, which belonged also to Fortuny.
+
+The _azulejos_, or tile decorations of the house known by the name of
+Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo at Granada.
+
+Several dishes and bowls at the Kensington, Madrid, and Cluny Museums,
+which belong to this period.
+
+Baron Charles Davillier in his article on Hispano-Moresque lustred ware,
+in "Atelier de Fortuny," Paris, 1875, says that interesting specimens of
+this pottery exist also at the Museum of Stockholm, and the Cathedral
+of Mezzara in Sicily, but that he had not had the opportunity of
+studying them.
+
+[Illustration: MOORISH VASE AT THE ALHAMBRA.]
+
+All these objects have hitherto been considered to have proceeded from
+Malaga, writers on ceramic art derived their evidence from the text
+already mentioned, given in Ben Batutah's travels, the only one which
+alluded to the existence of this industry in Spain before the 15th
+century; but since I have found in Edrisi's Geography a manufacture
+mentioned of lustred pottery which existed at Calatayud at the beginning
+of the 12th century, that is to say, more than _two centuries_ earlier
+than Ben Batutah's travels, I consider it extremely difficult to
+classify them.
+
+The fine vase at the Alhambra is 4 feet 5½ inches high by 8 feet
+2½ inches in circumference. It is decorated in the centre with two
+antelopes, and a series of elegant traceries of knots, stems, and leaves
+which cover the body of the vase. The colours employed are brown and
+blue on a yellow ground, the metallic lustre is extremely pale, of a
+mother-of-pearl colour. The following inscriptions are repeated all over
+the vase in African characters:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic
+
+Felicity and Fortune.]
+
+[Illustration: Arabic
+
+Permanent prosperity.]
+
+A similar vase was at the Alhambra until the beginning of the present
+century; it disappeared at that time, and its present whereabouts is
+unknown. Drawings exist of this vase which have been published in
+Lozano's "Ant. Arab. de España," and Murphy's Atlas of "Arabian Ant. of
+Spain."
+
+The fine vase at the Museo Arq. of Madrid is similar in style. It has
+been reproduced in a chromo-lithograph in Mus. Esp. de Ant. VI. p. 435.
+Both these vases are decorated with colours which are disposed in quite
+a distinct manner to all the other specimens of this pottery hitherto
+known. The vase at Granada is ornamented in the centre with two
+antelopes, and from drawings which have reached us of the companion
+vase, we find birds are introduced in the decoration of the handles.
+Animals combined with ornamentation are never met with in the immense
+number of Moorish traceries of all kinds which may be studied at
+Granada. This circumstance has induced me to consider these objects to
+have been brought from Persia, for Ben Batutah tells us that several
+Persians of importance had settled at Granada; and it is highly
+probable that a direct communication existed between these two
+countries. It is fair, however, to mention a detail which is against
+this argument. The arms of the Moorish kings of Granada appear on the
+vase which has disappeared from Granada, and although it may have been
+ordered from Persia, it is also possible that it was made in the
+province of Andalucia.
+
+The vase which belonged to Fortuny, and the large _azulejo_, Nos. 42, 44
+(_vide_ "Atelier de Fortuny"), are very different in style. They have no
+colours, and their metallic lustre is very low in tone, a common
+circumstance in Hispano-Moorish pottery. The following inscription,
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+[Illustration: TILE PROBABLY FROM THE ALHAMBRA; FORMERLY IN THE MARRYAT
+COLLECTION.]
+
+"Glory to Our Lord the Sultan Abul Hajaj," [A.D. 1333-1354.] occurs on
+this tile, an inscription very frequently met with also on the walls of
+the Alhambra. Abul Hajaj carried out works of restoration to a very
+large extent at the Palace. The two large tiles on either side of the
+entrance-door of the Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo at Granada, although
+not so fine as the vase and tile which belonged to Fortuny, are similar
+in general character, and it is safe therefore to consider these
+objects, and others of a similar kind, to have proceeded from the
+manufacture of Malaga mentioned by Ben Batutah, or other pottery works
+of the same kind, which probably existed at that time in the province of
+Granada.
+
+Metallic-lustred dishes have at times an even surface without
+ornamentation in relief, and sometimes are ornamented with ribs and
+convex dots, which appear to suggest that they are meant to imitate the
+structure of nails, bars, or other work common to metal vessels, in the
+manner of Etruscan vases.
+
+The finest specimens of Hispano-Moresque ware at the Kensington Museum
+are--
+
+No. 8968-'63. A vase which belonged to the Soulages Collection. Mr.
+Fortnum, in his "Majolica, Hispano-Moresco, Persian, Damascus and
+Rhodian Wares, at the Kensington Museum," London, 1873, describes this
+vase as spherical on a trumpet-shaped base, the neck of elongated funnel
+form, flanked by two large wing-shaped handles perforated with circular
+holes. The surface, except the mouldings, is entirely covered with a
+diaper-pattern of ivory or briony leaves, tendrils and small flowers in
+brownish lustre, and blue on the white ground. Spanish. 14th or 15th
+century. (See woodcut.)
+
+No. 486-'64. Bowl, funnel-shaped, with representation of a ship in full
+sail, with the royal arms of Portugal, 15th century.
+
+The following are also especially worthy of mention:--
+
+No. 7659-'62. Bowl and cover, painted with a scroll diaper in alternate
+compartments of gold lustre and blue, the cover surmounted by a
+cupola-shaped ornament in gold lustre. 16th century.
+
+[Illustration: VASE DIAPERED WITH IVY OR BRYONY IN GOLDEN LUSTRE.
+HISPANO-MORESCO, 14TH OR 15TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+No. 489-'64. Plateau with lustred arabesque ornaments in compartments.
+In the centre are two simulated Arabic inscriptions. 15th century.
+
+[Illustration: PLATEAU, DIAPERED AND WITH RAISED RIBS AND STUDS, IN BLUE
+AND GOLDEN LUSTRE. THE ARMS OF LEON, CASTILE, AND ARAGON.
+HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+No. 1680-'55. Plateau, gold shield in the centre, with the arms of Leon,
+Castille, and Aragon. The diapered ground is curiously ribbed, and
+dotted with raised studs. (See woodcut.)
+
+No. 243-'53. Plateau, in the centre an escutcheon of arms of Aragon,
+Leon, and Castile. (See woodcut.)
+
+[Illustration: SALVER, DIAPERED IN GOLDEN LUSTRE, WITH THE SHIELD OF
+ARAGON, LEON, AND CASTILE. HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH
+KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+No. 104-'69. Vase, with shield of arms, seemingly of Sicily and
+Portugal.
+
+Specimens of a later date are distinguished by the redness of the
+lustre, such as No. 327-'66, a bowl, with feather-like ornament in the
+centre; Nos. 326-'66 and 328-'66 are good examples of this lustred ware
+of the last and early present century made at Manises, Valencia.
+
+It is almost impossible to classify the existing specimens of
+Hispano-Moresque pottery. A few examples are marked with the monogram of
+Manises, or possess some special sign, such as the Eagle of St. John,
+which would make it appear they were made in the province of Valencia,
+but as the texts from ancient authors only praise this pottery and give
+no details of its general characteristics, it is very difficult to
+assign any given specimens to the manufactories of Aragon and Valencia.
+The receipts which I have given prove that the ingredients used were the
+same, the modification in lustre was owing to the different combinations
+of silver and copper. The system hitherto adopted of classifying this
+ware by the localities in which it has been purchased is not a safe one,
+unless borne out by further evidence. All that can be done at the
+present time is to point out the oldest specimens, and probable period
+of their manufacture. As a general rule the finest specimens are also
+the oldest, for this industry decayed after the Moors were expelled from
+Spain, and Italian pottery was imported into that country in the 16th
+century.
+
+The opinion which has been so generally accepted that gold lustred
+pottery was made and exported from the Balearic Islands has been
+contradicted by D^{n}. Alvaro Campaner y Fuertes in a letter addressed to
+Baron Davillier which appeared in the "Museo Balear," Palma, 1875, in
+which he refutes the Baron's arguments on the pottery which he supposes
+to have come from that locality.
+
+
+TERRA COTTAS.--_AZULEJOS_, OR WALL DECORATIONS OF
+TILES.--EARTHENWARE.--BUCAROS AND UNGLAZED POTTERY.
+
+The earliest historical notice which I have met with of Terracottas is
+in a grant made in A.D. 1222, by King Don Fernando el Santo, in favour
+of the manufacturers of bricks or tiles at Talavera (M. S. Bibl.
+Nacional Madrid, Dd. 114, p. 17), and another document of a similar kind
+by his son, King Don Alonso el Sabio A.D. 1281, in favour of the
+Cathedral of Cordova, "that no pottery works should be allowed inside
+the town, unless they were established in the same manner as in the time
+of the Moors." (Mem. Hist. Español, t. ii. p. 45). Although this
+information is not of great importance, it enables us to infer that in
+the 13th century an industry existed in Spain which was closely
+connected with pottery. Baron Davillier mentions a privilege granted by
+King D^{n}. Jaime de Aragon to the inhabitants of Jativa, province of
+Valencia, in which he commands, "that any master potter who made jars,
+pots, pans, tiles, and bricks, should pay a tribute of one _besant_
+yearly for each oven, and be permitted to carry out his industry with no
+other obligation or service." (Col. Doc. Ineditos, vol. xviii. p. 67.)
+
+The details concerning this industry in Cataluña are more interesting;
+especially on account of the references given to the marks of the
+objects proceeding from this manufacture. The potters, who were known by
+the generic name of _olleros_ sent, in 1257, two individuals to form
+part of the town council. They formed at that time a guild; in 1314 they
+agree in their regulations as to the mark to be adopted for their
+pottery, and the actual spot is mentioned on which every potter was to
+stamp his wares. This stamp was ordered to be very visible, and
+instructions are given as to the quality of the clay, and its
+manipulation, in order to produce pottery of a first-class order. We
+find statutes in this sense up to 1355. But we cannot find in the "Libro
+de Ordenanzas" of the potter's guild that any laws existed touching the
+technical details of this manufacture; most of the regulations refer to
+the management of the guild from 1304, which was composed of potters,
+bricklayers, jar-makers, and manufacturers of pottery for domestic
+purposes of Barcelona. (Capmany, Memorias Historicas, 1779-92, vol. i.
+part 3, p. 69.)
+
+[Illustration: WINE JAR--"TINAJA." SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+These references are not, however, sufficient to identify the kind of
+pottery made at that time in Cataluña. It is highly probable that
+lustred ware was also made there to a great extent, not only because it
+was the most characteristic produce of the Peninsula, but also because
+this ware was exported to a great extent, and highly esteemed.
+
+The most important examples of Spanish terra-cotta which have reached us
+are _tinajas_, large jars for holding wine and oil.
+
+One of the best _tinajas_ which I know is at the South Kensington
+Museum, No. 330-'66. (See woodcut.) It is a wine jar, amphora-shaped,
+and ornamented with incised pattern of vine leaves, and stamped diaper
+of a Gothic character. This and similar specimens have always been found
+in Andalusia and the province of Toledo, and hence we may infer that the
+chief centres of this industry existed at Toledo and Seville. They
+continue to be made there, and are used for the same purposes as in the
+Middle Ages, for keeping stores of wine, oil, meat, grain, etc.
+
+Belonging to this section of objects of a large size, are some specimens
+of glazed earthenware made for brims of wells. I only know four or five
+examples in the local museums of Toledo and Cordova; the font of the
+church of San Salvador, Toledo, belongs also to the same pottery. The
+brim of a well, at the South Kensington Museum, No. 1763-'71, is of the
+same manufacture. It was bought at Toledo for three guineas at a
+shoemaker's shop. It is made of glazed white and green earthenware, with
+ornamental Cufic characters in high relief all round, which appear to be
+of the 14th century (see woodcut on next page). The inscription, which
+is repeated, is imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the words:
+
+[Illustration: Arabic
+
+"The power, the excellence, and the peace."]
+
+There is no difficulty in affirming that this form of earthenware was
+made at Toledo, for Marineo Siculo, in his interesting volume treating
+of "De las Cosas Memorables de España," Alcala, 1539, says, "much coarse
+green and white pottery is made at Toledo."
+
+[Illustration: BRIM OF WELL FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+The manufacture of tiles, as was the case with so many other industries
+in Spain, was imported by the Arabs. In the Middle Ages it attained
+great importance, and has never ceased in Spain up to the present day.
+The earliest tiles (_azulejos_) made in Spain are composed of small
+pieces let into the wall, forming geometrical patterns. The proceeding
+is similar to that employed by the workers of Byzantine mosaic,--tile
+decoration undoubtedly took the place of this mosaic work in Moorish
+buildings. It is difficult to fix the precise period when they were
+first made, but it must have been posterior to the 10th century, when
+Moorish architecture underwent a radical change in its system of
+decoration. The oldest tiles which exist in Spain are at the Palace of
+the Alhambra, Granada. They belong to the 14th century. The great
+variety of their design may be seen in Owen Jones' "Plans and elevations
+of the Alhambra," London, fol. 1842, and the fine work published by the
+Spanish government, "Monumentos Arquitectonicos." We can judge of the
+style adopted by two interesting fragments, both of which came from the
+Alhambra, No. 1104-'53, No. 324-'64, South Kensington Museum.
+
+The earliest mention which I have found of this manufacture occurs in a
+letter from Doña Juana de Mendoza, the wife of the Almirante de
+Castilla, which is addressed to the lady abbess of the nunnery of Santo
+Domingo at Toledo. She begs that a large number of "azulejos" of
+different colours, black, white, yellow, and green should be sent to
+her. She alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and says she was
+expecting a master potter from Seville to place these tiles in their
+proper places. This shows us that it was only in the province of
+Andalusia that the art was known of cutting these tiles into geometrical
+sections and mosaic patterns. This letter is not dated, but it is bound
+up with other documents of 1422, and evidence exists to prove that both
+the Almirante and his wife were dead in 1431. The locality for which the
+tiles were required was probably Palencia; the convent of Santa Clara
+was built by them at that time, and they both were buried there. It was
+extremely difficult to cut and join together these tiles; the workmen
+who did so had to pass through a regular examination in compliance with
+the municipal ordinances drawn up in the 15th century; without this
+requisite they were not allowed to exercise their trade.
+
+We know, from documents existing at the Archives of the Alhambra, at
+Granada, that tiles were made there at the end of the 16th and beginning
+of the 17th century. We find the names of Antonio Tenorio, Gaspar
+Hernandez, and Pedro Tenorio working there at that time as master
+potters.
+
+The use of these _azulejos_ was not restricted to Moorish buildings;
+they were largely employed to decorate the walls of Christian churches,
+convents, palaces, and private houses. The style of work, however, soon
+changed, for instead of being made of mosaic work, they were formed of a
+single piece like the ordinary tiles, but imitating the Moorish colours.
+In the 16th century designs of the Renaissance style alternated with
+these, although the system and colouring continued the same. This style
+continued in vogue until the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1610. A fine
+collection may be seen at the South Kensington Museum of 200 tiles, in
+which upwards of 150 varieties of design will be found, Nos. 308-'66 and
+367-'66. Their chief characteristic is that only pure colours are used
+without gradations or half tints. Lustred reflets are very seldom met
+with in tiles; the only examples I know are two beautiful plaques of the
+14th century of a pale lustre which are on either side of the entrance
+door of the Moorish saloon called Cuarto Real de S^{to}. Domingo, at
+Granada; some small polygons of copper-coloured lustre at the Tower of
+la Cautiva, Granada: some few details in the coats of arms which are let
+into the tiles which adorn the walls of the Chapel at the Alhambra, and
+some few tiles with the arms of the Mendozas at the Casa de Pilatos,
+Seville.
+
+A few dishes belong also to the 15th century, ornamented with the same
+colouring as the tiles without metallic lustre, and generally decorated
+with fantastic animals. They are very scarce. Two examples exist at the
+South Kensington Museum, Nos. 1459 and 1461-'70. They probably were made
+at Seville; all those I have seen come from there, and we know that the
+pottery from Seville was much esteemed. In Pedro de Medina's "Libro de
+Grandezas y Cosas Memorables de España," Sevilla, 1549, fol. Iii., he
+says, "In this town of Triana much excellent pottery of Malaga is made,
+coloured white and yellow, and of different sorts and kinds. This
+pottery is made in about fifty houses, and it is exported from here to
+many localities. In the same manner excellent _azulejos_ are made, of
+great variety of colour and design. And likewise fine reliefs of men
+and other things. Great quantities of these _azulejos_ are taken to
+different localities."
+
+At the introduction of Italian forms of art in Spain, at the beginning
+of the 16th century, artistic pottery divided itself into two
+schools--one kept to the traditional designs and strong tones of colour,
+the other used shaded colours, and especially yellow and blue tints, at
+times imitating Italian maiolica, but always following the decoration
+characteristic of the Renaissance style.
+
+The Italian influence, and its finest results in Spain may be favourably
+studied in Seville, in the tile decorations of the chapel at the
+Alcazar, the doorway of the convent of Santa Paula, and a remarkable
+sepulchre decorated with tiles at the church of St. Anne at Triana. All
+these tile decorations are signed by the same person, and it would be
+difficult to find any more remarkable.
+
+The _azulejos_ at the Alcazar represent a picture in the manner and
+style of Pietro Perugino; they are admirable in colour and design. Those
+which decorate the sepulchre at the church of St. Anne have the
+following inscription, "_Niculoso Francesco italiano me fecit, en el
+agno del mil ccccciii._" Some very interesting tiles also may be seen in
+one of the rooms in the lower part of the Alcazar; they are marked in
+the following manner: A.V.S.T.A.--A.V.G.W.S.T.A. 1577-1578. On the floor
+of the pavilion of the Emperor Charles V. in the garden there are also
+some fine tiles which are signed Juan Hernandez, 1540.
+
+We find mention in Cean Bermudez of a painter of _azulejos_ named Juan
+Flores, a native of Flanders; he painted tiles for the royal palaces of
+Madrid, the Pardo and Segovia; he was appointed Maestro Azulejero by
+Philip II. in 1565.
+
+Returning to other examples of earthenware we meet with the ancient
+manufactures of the Balearic Islands, although it is not easy to
+determine the kind of pottery which was really made there. Bernardo da
+Uzzano, in 1442, made a commercial treaty, (vide Davillier, "Faïences
+Hispano Moresques," p. 26), in which he mentions the "faïence" made at
+Mallorca and Minorca, which "was exported to a very large extent." The
+royal Ordinances for the island of Iviza, which have not been mentioned
+by either of these authors, state that the principal traffic and the
+greatest industry of ancient times of the island of Iviza consisted in
+some vessels of the finest earthenware, well baked and curiously worked,
+of which an innumerable quantity were sent off to Africa and other
+places, not only on account of the excellence of their worth, which was
+admirable, but the speciality of the clay, which preserved from poison.
+("Reales Ordinaciones de Iviza," Palma, 1751).
+
+Manufactures of pottery also existed in a great number of localities in
+Spain; the most important centres were at Talavera, Valencia, and
+Triana. Judging by the manner in which different authors praise the
+earthenware of Talavera, its productions were evidently the most
+esteemed. The earliest mention we find of Talavera pottery occurs in a
+MS. volume dated 1560--a history of this town, in which mention is made
+of "white, green, blue and other coloured Talavera ware." In the
+inventory of the effects of D^{na}. Juana, a sister of Philip II., 1573,
+several objects of "white earthenware of Talavera" are mentioned. In a
+report drawn up by order of Philip II. 1576, it is stated that Talavera
+"produced fine white glazed earthenware-tiles, and other pottery, which
+supplied the country, part of Portugal and India." Father Ramon de la
+Higuera in his "Republicas del Mundo," 1595, mentions the ware of
+Talavera in terms of the highest praise. In a MS. history of Talavera
+written in 1651, (Bib. Nac. Madrid, G. 112,) the author, Father Alfonso
+de Ajofrin, says that "the pottery is as good as that of Pisa, a large
+number of _azulejos_ are also made to adorn the front of altars,
+churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers, and large and small
+specimens of every kind. Two hundred workmen work at eight different
+kilns. Four other kilns are kept to make common earthenware. Red porous
+clay vases and drinking cups are baked in two other kilns, in a thousand
+different shapes in imitation of birds and other animals, also
+_brinquiños_ for the use of ladies, so deliciously flavoured that after
+drinking the water they contained, they eat the cup in which it was
+brought them." In another MS. history of Talavera (Bibl. Nac. G. 187) we
+find mention of "perfect imitations of oriental china," and that the
+pottery made there, "was used all over Spain, and sent to India, France,
+Flanders, Italy and other countries, and was esteemed everywhere for the
+perfection of the colouring and brilliancy of the glaze."
+
+This information may be increased by quoting another interesting MS. on
+the history of this town (Bib. Nac. F. 142) in which the writer, Fr.
+Andres de Torrejon, who professed in the convent of Santa Catalina in
+1568, says:--"The earthenware pottery made here has reached to a great
+height of perfection; it is formed of white and red clay. Vases, cups,
+_bucaros_ and _brinquiños_ are made of different kinds, dishes and table
+centres, and imitations of snails, owls, dogs and every kind of fruits,
+olives, and almonds. These objects are painted with great perfection,
+and the imitations of porcelain brought from the Portuguese Indies are
+most excellent. Every one wonders that in so small a town such excellent
+things should be made. The varnish used for the white pottery is made
+with tin and sand, it is now found to be more acceptable than coloured
+earthenware, so much so, that persons of importance who pass by this
+town although they have in their houses dinner services of silver, buy
+earthenware made at Talavera, on account of its excellence. The sand
+which was used to make the white varnish was brought from Hita, it is
+now found at Mejorada, near Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as
+silk."
+
+"The red pottery made at Talavera is much to be commended, for besides
+the great variety of objects which they make, the different medals which
+they place upon them, they have invented some small _brinquiños_ of so
+small and delicate a kind, that the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also
+made of the same material. A certain scent is added in the manufacture
+of this pottery which excites the appetite and taste of the women, who
+eat the pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to their
+confessors to check this custom."
+
+In a volume of "Relaciones Topograficas de los Pueblos de España hechas
+en 1576," (MS. in fol. t. ii.) we find, in speaking of Talavera, that
+the author says: "What is most excellent there is the white pottery, and
+tiles and other objects of this earthenware with which the kingdom and
+part of Portugal are provided."
+
+In Larruga's "Memorias Politicas y Economicas," (vol. x. Madrid, 1741,)
+we find, p. 22, that "the manufactory of fine earthenware of Talavera de
+la Reyna continued to make much pottery of importance until 1720: eight
+kilns existed then, which employed more than 400 persons, men, women and
+children. These manufactories possessed at that time large sums of
+money. From that time this industry decayed to such an extent, that in
+1730 only four kilns existed where pottery of a very inferior kind was
+produced."
+
+The industry was revived later on in the century, but the finest
+specimens are of an earlier date. Larruga adds, in p. 17, vol. x., of
+his "Memorias," that "Talavera ware is of a lighter clay than the
+imitations of this earthenware which were made in other localities."
+
+Pottery of a similar kind was also made in different other localities of
+Spain. Mendez Silva says that at Puente del Arzobispo, near Toledo,
+"fine pottery is manufactured in about 8 kilns, which produce more than
+40,000 ducats yearly." ("Relacion General de España," Madrid, 1645, fo1.
+32.) Paton likewise in his "Historia de Jaen," 1628, writes that "the
+white unglazed earthenware made at these towns, is very remarkable for
+the curious manner in which they imitate different figures of animals,
+such as porcupines, fish, syrens, tortoises, &c." Objects of a similar
+kind are still made in Spain.
+
+The English traveller Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish
+Nation during the years 1760-1761," London, 1763, p. 263, says, "the
+pottery fabrics are very numerous and excellent, particularly
+Talavera." And in "Annales de l'Espagne," by Alvarez de Colmenares,
+Amsterdam, 1741, we find, p. 187, in speaking of Talavera, that "On y
+fait des ouvrages vernissés d'une façon ingénieuse, avec des peintures
+de bon goût; on estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes
+Orientales; on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce négoce rend plus de
+50,000 ducats par an."
+
+Udal ap Rhys in his "An Account of the Most Remarkable Places and
+Curiosities in Spain and Portugal," London, 1749, in speaking of
+Talavera says, "It is noted also for a very curious kind of earthenware
+that is made in imitation of China."
+
+Although we find by the remarks we have quoted from contemporary authors
+that earthenware of every description was made at Talavera, the
+specimens which are more generally met with may be divided into two
+groups, which are painted on a white ground, either in blue, or in
+colours in the manner of Italian maiolica. The most important examples
+which have reached us consist of bowls of different sizes, dishes,
+vases, tinajas, holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decorations.
+Blue oriental china was imitated to a vast extent, the colouring was
+successful but the design was an imitation of the baroque school of the
+time, and the figures, landscapes, and decoration follow the bad taste
+so general in Spain in the 18th century. The imitations of Italian
+maiolica are effective. The colours most commonly used are manganese,
+orange, blue and green.
+
+Several specimens of this manufacture are in the South Kensington
+Museum; among these may be noted--
+
+No. 327-'76. A large vase painted in blue with cavaliers and men on foot
+in a hilly landscape, on the shoulder are the words "Silva Coronel."
+
+No. 1282-'71. Holy-water vessel, with raised flowers and scrolls of
+foliage with polychrome decoration.
+
+No. 1281-'71. Soup tureen and cover, white, with raised scrolls and
+groups of painted flowers.
+
+No. 351-'76. Another soup tureen with cover and stand, painted with
+garlands and the arms of Portugal. On the cover is a group of fishes and
+shells in relief.
+
+No. 1279-'71. A bowl decorated within with a bull-fight; outside are
+storks and trees in green, orange, and manganese. (See woodcut.)
+
+[Illustration: EARTHENWARE BOWL. TALAVERA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON
+MUSEUM.]
+
+Several pottery works were established in Spain in the 18th century, all
+of them, in the same manner as the earlier fabriques, modified the
+system of decorating their wares. In some instances the colours and
+designs of Italian maiolica were imitated, others copy the blue
+faïences of Pisa, Genoa, and Savona, while others adopted the styles of
+Moustiers, Nevers, and Rouen, or English earthenwares.
+
+Ten or twelve manufactories existed at Toledo in the 17th century which
+imitated Talavera ware; in the 18th they hardly produced anything of
+importance. Ignacio de Velasco in 1735 founded one at great expense at
+Toledo in which imitations of Genoese pottery were chiefly made. At the
+death of Ignacio in 1738, these works passed to his son George; in 1742
+Francisco Hernandez directed them, and in 1747 imitated Japanese models.
+Several specimens proceeding from Toledo, at the South Kensington
+Museum, painted blue on a white ground, in the style of Savona and
+Japan, belong to this period.
+
+In 1755 thirteen pottery kilns existed at Puente del Arzobispo near
+Toledo; they still worked in 1791, but their productions were very
+inferior in artistic merit.
+
+Earthenware pottery was made at Segovia from a very early period,
+chiefly for domestic use, until a manufactory was founded by two
+brothers--Manuel and Tomás Ledesma in 1752--they had seen some specimens
+which were made at Bolonia for Isabel Farnesio, the widow of King Philip
+V., and they endeavoured to imitate them. In 1774 they tried with a most
+unsatisfactory result to imitate English wares. This industry fell into
+decay towards the end of the century, and only ware of a very common
+description was made there.
+
+Talavera ware was also imitated at Zamora. At the middle of the 18th
+century works existed there where pottery was made in the manner adopted
+at Alcora with few results, for soon after it was established the master
+potter, who was at the head of these works, left the locality.
+["Memorias," Larruga, Vols. 13 and 34.]
+
+The further we advance into the 18th century, the more we find the
+tendency in Spanish ceramic art to imitate the pottery most in vogue in
+other countries. Francisco Cavalli, a potter of Ruidoms, won a prize at
+Tarragona in 1787, for his excellent imitations of brown and white
+Genoese ware. [MS. fol. Bibl. de S. Magestad el Rey, S. 2, E. B. pt. 8.]
+
+The efforts made by King Charles III. towards increasing industrial arts
+in Spain, contributed to the reproductions and efforts made to imitate
+foreign wares. When the king founded in 1768 the villages of La Carolina
+and La Carlota in Andalucia, he ordered that pottery works should be set
+up there. At the same time that he established at Madrid the important
+porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, he wished that earthenware works
+should exist in the same locality, where specimens should be made in
+imitation of the best work produced elsewhere. The king was most anxious
+to revive to a great extent the almost extinct industry of metallic
+lustred pottery, and thanks to this we are able to know most accurately
+the receipt and manner in which this lustre was applied. In the same
+volume in which I found these documents, [Brit. Mus. MS. Egerton, 507],
+are two reports addressed to Count Florida Blanca in 1786, by Iriarte
+and Vargas, who were instructed to facilitate the development of this
+industry. The first report contains information relating to the pottery
+works of the county of Stafford; the second tells us that in the
+building of San Isidro el Real, essays had been made to reproduce
+English wares, and the lustred productions of Manises, with an idea of
+establishing inside or outside of Madrid pottery works on a large scale,
+under the protection of Count Florida Blanca. Iriarte and Vargas were of
+opinion that these works should be established far from Madrid,
+suggesting as the best spot El Viso in La Mancha, owing to the excellent
+quality of the clay. Don Sebastian Schepers, a son or brother of
+Cayetano Schepers, was at the head of these works. Cayetano was the
+chief modeller at the Retiro manufactory. Their imitations of English
+earthenware did not succeed; the varnish turned out badly, and they
+determined to bring out English workmen. Their imitations of gold
+lustred ware were eminently successful, so much so that competent judges
+declared it was equal to what was made at Manises. Pottery works where
+earthenwares of different descriptions were made existed also at this
+time in Madrid; the best were those of Rodriguez and Reato, mentioned in
+Larruga's "Memorias Economicas."
+
+At the end of the 18th, and beginning of the 19th century, Valencia and
+Aragon supplied the country with painted tiles. One of the finest
+examples of this class which have reached us is the pavement of the
+chapter house of the cathedral of Saragossa, on which landscapes,
+medallions, and animals are finely designed in the Italian renaissance
+style. In a shield may be read the following inscription:
+
+ Real^{s} Fb^{cas}
+ D E
+ Dª Maria Salb
+ adora
+ Disdier
+ Bru f^{t}
+ Año 1808.
+
+Valencia has been much renowned for its manufacture of painted tiles,
+_azulejos_, which continue to be made there in a very creditable manner
+at the present time. J. Townsend, in his "Journey through Spain in the
+Years 1786-1787, London," 1792, says: "I was most delighted with the
+manufacture of painted tiles. In Valencia their best apartments are
+floored with these, and are remarkable for their neatness and elegance.
+They are stronger and more beautiful than those brought from Holland."
+In a "Nouveau Voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1789, p. 56, the author says:
+"L'industrie des Valenciens tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les
+productions de leur sol. Il contient une espèce de terre, dont ils font
+ces carreaux de faïence colorée connus sous le nom de azulejos, et qu'on
+ne fabrique qu'à Valence. On en pave les appartements, et on en revêt
+leurs lambris; on y peint les sujets les plus compliqués, tels par
+exemple qu'un bal masqué, une fête de taureaux. La couleur rouge est la
+seule qui ne puisse être fixée sur cette espèce de faïence. Elle
+s'altère par la cuisson." In "Voyage en Espagne, 1797-1798," Paris 1801,
+the author says, p. 245: "Les plats sont faits de faïence bleuâtre ou
+toute autre couleur orné de figures d'oies."
+
+Before we pass to describe another most important branch of Spanish
+pottery the unglazed earthenware must be mentioned, which from a very
+early period has constituted and still constitutes a most important
+branch of its industry. This pottery, generally used for cooling water,
+consists of white porous vessels of which a large modern collection may
+be seen at the South Kensington Museum proceeding from Andujar and La
+Rambla (Andalusia). This industry remains in precisely the same state as
+in the time of the Arabs.
+
+The earthenware vessels called _Bucaros_ are similar to these. This
+porous pottery was made to a very large extent at Talavera. It was
+imported originally from America; the great centre existed at Mejico.
+The paste of this ware is unglazed and whitish, black or red--when
+painted the colours chosen are generally red, black, and gold. It was
+made in Spain as early as the 16th century, and we constantly find
+_Bucaros_ alluded to in documents of this period. In the inventory of
+the effects belonging to D^{na} Juana, the sister of Philip the Second,
+drawn up in 1573, _bucaros_ made at Lisbon, Estremoz, and Montemayor in
+Portugal, and those of Ciudad Rodrigo and Castille, are also mentioned.
+Madame d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon, [MDCXCIII.], mentions
+the habit of Spanish ladies of eating this porous clay. At the South
+Kensington Museum there are several good specimens of red pottery of
+this kind, Nos. 285 to 318--'72, which, as we have remarked were made at
+Talavera and Toledo.
+
+
+ALCORA POTTERY AND PORCELAIN.
+
+Don Buenaventura Pedro de Alcantara inherited in 1725 the estates
+belonging to the title of Aranda in the province of Valencia. Count
+Aranda found that the inhabitants of the village of Alcora made coarse
+earthenware of every description, and that their vicinity to the sea
+coast favoured exportation; he determined, therefore, upon establishing
+in 1726 a manufacture of pottery there, in which fine wares might be
+made in imitation of those imported from Italy, Germany, France and
+England. The count's efforts were so successful that in less than two
+years specimens of different kinds of Alcora pottery were exported to a
+very large extent.
+
+No account has hitherto been published which gives any idea of the
+importance of this manufactory, nor have the names of the artists who
+worked there been known, or the works which they executed. Wishing to
+ascertain this, I applied to the Duchess of Hijar, the present
+representative of the house of Aranda, and permission was granted me,
+thanks to the kindness of the Duchess's _Apoderado general_, Sr. Robles,
+to look through the Archives, where the accounts, contracts, and details
+of the manufactory are kept. This has enabled me to give an idea of the
+importance of this industry, and the names of the artists who worked
+there, which have been ignored until the present time by writers on
+ceramic art.
+
+Count Aranda spent in 1726 about £10,000 in establishing the manufactory
+of Alcora, and in May, 1727, the first specimens appeared, consisting of
+pottery made "in the manner of China, Holland, and other localities."
+The manufactory was at that time under the superintendence of Dn.
+Joaquin Joseph de Sayas and Joseph Ollery, a Frenchman, chief
+draughtsman and carver, who was engaged at a good salary in 1726, and
+brought to Alcora from Moustiers by the painter, Edward Roux. In 1728
+Count Aranda increased his salary owing to the "excellent manner in
+which Ollery has worked at Alcora, the fine and numerous models which he
+constructed, which have contributed to make my manufacture the first in
+Spain."
+
+Five painters and two modellers from Cataluña and six Valencian painters
+and two modellers joined these French artists. The personnel of the
+fabrique was completed with eleven potters from the locality. The French
+painters, M. Pierre Maurissy and M. Gras, and the master of the
+modellers, M. Sebastian Carvonel, were engaged in 1728 for two years to
+work at the manufactory. Ollery only appears in the lists up to 1737.
+The Count granted him a yearly pension of 500 francs besides his salary,
+"for his especial zeal in the improvement of the manufactory, and his
+great skill in directing the construction of every kind of work." From
+this date until the manufacture of porcelain in 1764, only Spanish
+artists worked at Alcora.
+
+The Count was able from the year 1729 to circulate the pottery made at
+Alcora through the Spanish dominions, free of custom-house duties. The
+government granted him several other privileges and the manufactory
+continued to improve, and spared no pains to import the foreign shapes
+and designs which were most acceptable. No Spanish pottery manufactory
+could compare with Alcora in the excellence and beauty of its work.
+
+Among the obligations of the artists engaged, whether Spaniards or
+Frenchmen, was that of teaching drawing and modelling to a certain
+number of pupils. A special Academy was created for this purpose, which
+at one time held more than one hundred pupils, who were constantly
+renewed and increased with those who appear henceforward in the works at
+Alcora. In 1736 there were fifty-six painters, eleven masters, twenty
+workers at the wheel, and twenty-five apprentices. In this same year,
+1736, specimens of pottery made at Alcora were sent "to all the
+dominions of Spain, Rome, Naples, Malta, many Italian cities, Portugal,
+and some provinces of France."
+
+The manufactory produced yearly about 300,000 specimens of different
+kinds. The ordinances are interesting which in 1732-1733 prescribe,
+"that in our manufactory only pottery of the most excellent kind should
+be made, similar to the Chinese, to be equally fine as to the earths
+employed, that the models and wheels should be perfect, the drawing of a
+first-rate kind, and the varnish and colours excellent, and the pottery
+light and of good quality, for it is our express wish that the best
+pottery should only be distinguished from that of an inferior kind by
+the greater or less amount of painting which covers it."
+
+Miguel Soliva, Christobal Cros, Francisco Grangel, Miguel Vilar,
+Christobal Rocafort, Vicente Serrania, and Joseph Pastor were the best
+painters at Alcora in 1743; they decorated a fine dinner service made
+for the Tribunal of Commerce, and the large slabs for the Convent of Las
+Descalzas Reales at Madrid, representing the Virgin as the Divine
+Shepherdess.
+
+Pottery painted with metallic lustre was made in 1749. We find among the
+receipts used in that year one brought from Manises for this object.
+
+We find it also stated in the communications which passed between the
+Tribunal of Commerce and the count in 1746, that "the perfection of the
+earthenware of Alcora consisted in the excellent models which had been
+made by competent foreign artists, the quality of the earth and receipts
+brought at great expense from abroad." Joseph Ochando is mentioned in
+that year as an excellent painter, and Juan Lopez as the best carver and
+modeller. This document tells us "that from the earliest period of the
+manufacture pyramids with figures of children, holding garlands of
+flowers and baskets of fruits on their heads, were made with great
+perfection, likewise brackets, centre and three-cornered tables, large
+objects, some as large as five feet high, to be placed upon them,
+chandeliers, cornucopias, statues of different kinds, and animals of
+different sorts and sizes. The entire ornamentation of a room has also
+been made here; the work is so perfect that nothing in Spain, France,
+Italy or Holland could equal it in merit."
+
+The objects which were made to a great extent at this time consisted in:
+
+ Vases of different shapes.
+
+ Small pots, Chinese fashion.
+
+ Teapots and covers, Chinese fashion.
+
+ Teapots and covers, Dutch fashion.
+
+ Cruets, complete sets, Chinese style.
+
+ Entrée dishes.
+
+ Salt-cellars, Chinese style.
+
+ Escudillas (bowls) of Constantinople.
+
+ Barquillos (sauce bowls), Chinese style.
+
+ Bottles, in the Chinese manner.
+
+ Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds with good painted
+ borders in imitation of lace-work (_puntilla_); some were designed
+ in the Chinese manner, and especial care was taken with
+ fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes.
+
+ Trays and refrigerators.
+
+In 1750 Count Aranda passed the pottery works on to a private company,
+in whose hands they remained until 1766. We know the pottery continued
+to be excellent. Unfortunately almost all the details of this period are
+missing from the Archives. One of the few documents remaining is a
+contract drawn up in October, 1741, with François Haly (the name of this
+artist is given by Baron Davillier), a Frenchman, in which he agreed to
+work at the manufactory during a period of ten years with a yearly
+salary of over 1000 francs, under the following conditions:
+
+"That the travelling expenses of his wife and children should be given
+him, and that his salary should be paid as soon as he made before the
+Director and two competent judges the different kinds of porcelain which
+he had undertaken to make." He agreed to give up his receipts, and it
+was promised him that he should have two modellers and one painter
+working by his side, and that if in one year Haly's porcelain was
+satisfactory the Count undertook to make him a present of 1000 livres
+(_tornoises_).
+
+Towards the middle of the century, porcelain was made for the first time
+at Alcora. A contract was drawn up on 24th March, 1764, with a German,
+called John Christian Knipfer, who had already worked there in the
+pottery section. By the original agreement, which exists at the
+Archives, we find he was to prepare works of "porcelain and painting
+similar to those made at Dresden, during a period of six years, under
+the following conditions:"
+
+"That the said Knipfer obliges himself to make and teach the apprentices
+the composition and perfection of porcelain paste, its varnishes, and
+colours, and whatever he may know at the present time, or discover
+during this period of six years; he is not to prevent the Director of
+the Works from being present at all the essays made."
+
+"The said Knipfer offers to make and varnish porcelain, and to employ
+gold and silver in its decoration, and in that of the ordinary wares;
+likewise the colours of crimson, purple, violet, blues of different
+shades, yellow, greens, browns, reds, and black.
+
+"That Knipfer will give up an account of his secrets, and the management
+and manner of using them, in order that in all times the truth of what
+he has asserted may be verified."
+
+From the original documents which exist we gather that Knipfer was
+chiefly famed for his excellence in the painting and decoration of
+porcelain.
+
+François Martin was engaged in 1774 for his skill in preparing different
+pastes for manufacturing porcelain and pipeclay. He agreed to make "hard
+paste porcelain, Japanese faïence, English paste (pipeclay), and
+likewise to mould and bake it. The necessary materials were to be
+provided by the Count of Aranda." His expenses were to be paid if the
+specimens he presented to the competent authorities gave a satisfactory
+result, and his salary was to be increased to 1200 francs a year.
+
+Knipfer and Martin greatly added to the importance of the works made at
+the manufactory. Don Pedro Abadia, the Count's steward, an intelligent
+man, possessing great scientific knowledge, who had studied this subject
+in Paris and London, writes to the Count that the presence of both these
+artists was of absolute necessity at Alcora, "until the workmen who were
+near them perfected themselves." For owing to the carelessness of the
+managers of the porcelain works in 1776 Count Aranda wrote from Paris,
+during his embassy there: "My pottery of Alcora, notwithstanding every
+effort which has been made, the money spent, and foreign masters which
+have been brought over, gets worse every day instead of improving."
+Abadia repeats this in his reports. Porcelain of other kinds decidedly
+improved. He says also that the pipeclay which Martin had found at
+Alcora was the best in Europe.
+
+In my opinion, a large number of unmarked white biscuit and
+demi-porcelain figures which are so constantly found in collections
+belong to this period of the manufactory of Alcora. They have hitherto
+been classified with very great difficulty, and attributed to the
+porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, without any reason which justifies
+this opinion. For the help of collectors I will mention the subjects
+which they represent, which I have found in a document, dated 1777, of
+the figures and groups and other objects made during that year.
+
+
+FIGURES OF DEMI-PORCELAIN.
+
+Figures of tritons.
+
+ " of soldiers, two sizes.
+
+ " " one-third _palmos_ high.
+
+ " of the four seasons (two sizes).
+
+ " of dancers.
+
+ " of tritons in form of children.
+
+ " with brackets.
+
+ " of different animals.
+
+ " of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.
+
+Dancing figures in the German style.
+
+Figures of Neptune.
+
+Figures of shepherd and shepherdess.
+
+ " of the Moorish king, Armenius.
+
+ " of the four parts of the world, two sizes.
+
+ " of peasant and his wife.
+
+Small figures holding musical instruments.
+
+Figures representing different monarchies.
+
+ " " historical personages.
+
+ " " the history of Alexander the Great, two sizes.
+
+ " " Marius Curtius, two sizes.
+
+ " of elephants.
+
+ " of a man mounted on an elephant.
+
+ " representing Chinese figures.
+
+ " of Heliogabalus.
+
+ " of a general on horseback.
+
+ " of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.
+
+Large figures representing Julius Cæsar.
+
+Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets.
+
+Groups of Chinese figures.
+
+Snuff-boxes, sugar basins, inkstands.
+
+Rabbits, horns, and pug dogs for holding scent.
+
+Small scent bottles.
+
+Needle cases.
+
+Large vases with foot and cover.
+
+Brackets.
+
+Walking-stick handles.
+
+Knife handles.
+
+Tea-spoons.
+
+
+FIGURES OF WHITE BISCUIT CHINA.
+
+Figures representing Spanish costumes, two sizes.
+
+Groups of two figures.
+
+Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.
+
+Figures of the four seasons, two sizes.
+
+We find also the following figures of painted and glazed porcelain:
+
+Four seasons, two sizes.
+
+Groups of two figures.
+
+Figure of a Moorish king.
+
+ " of musicians and huntsmen.
+
+Figure of peasants.
+
+ " of Chinese.
+
+Small figures of a gardener and female companion.
+
+Figures of soldiers in the German style.
+
+In 1780 four rival pottery works were established in the neighbourhood
+which copied and imitated the pottery made at Alcora. The two most
+important were at Rivasalbes and Onda, the other two at Alcora itself.
+Many of the artists who belonged to the works established by Count
+Aranda worked at the rival factories; among them were Mariano Causada,
+Joaquin Ten, Francisco Marsal, Vicente Alvaro, Christoval Mascarós,
+Francisco and Miguel Badenas, and Nadal Nebot; some of these artists
+returned to the Count's manufactory. In order to distinguish the genuine
+pottery from imitations, orders were given, with the authorization of
+the Tribunal of Commerce, that the pottery made there should be marked
+henceforward with the letter A; no special mark had hitherto been used
+at the manufactory, the artists very often signed the specimens they
+made with their monograms or signatures, of which those most frequently
+met with will be found accompanying the list of artists' names, for the
+help of collectors; all of them have been copied from original
+documents. It is interesting for collectors to bear in mind, that all
+specimens which are marked with the letter A are _posterior_ to 1784.
+The pottery works founded in imitation of the manufactory belonging to
+Count Aranda came to an end before 1790, some by special agreement with
+the owners themselves, and others by the express orders of the
+authorities, in virtue of the privileges granted to the Count.
+
+Mr. Martin died at Alcora in the month of May, 1786. Knipfer left soon
+afterwards, and was succeeded by a French artist, M. Pierre
+Cloostermans, a skilful man, and well versed in the manufacture of
+porcelain pastes, as well as in painting and decorating them. According
+to his contract, which was drawn up in Paris in 1787, "Pierre
+Cloostermans, chemiste, natif de Paris, demeurant à Paris, Rue de
+Clery, au coin de celle Montmartre," agreed to "live for thirty years at
+Alcora as director and workman, to make soft and hard porcelains, and
+all the necessary colours with which to paint and decorate it."
+
+He also promised to make good pipeclay pottery and marbled wares which
+were to be as excellent as those of Strasburg. The expenses of his
+journey were paid, his sons were to be employed in the works, and it was
+stipulated that if the works increased to a great extent, 500 pounds
+(Valencian money), was to be added to his yearly salary. It was against
+the Count's express desire that pottery of an exclusively artistic
+character should be produced at Alcora; his chief object was to improve
+the industry itself. In one of his letters to Abadia, written in
+October, 1789, he says: "I wish to export the porcelain of my
+manufactory, but chiefly in common objects, such as cups of different
+kinds, tea and coffee services, etc. These may be varied in form and
+colour, the principal point being that the paste should bear hot
+liquids, for we Spaniards above everything wish that nothing we buy
+should ever break. By no means let time be wasted in making anything
+that requires much loss of time. The chief object is that the pastes
+should be of first-rate excellence and durability."
+
+Cloostermans suffered much discomfort and annoyance from other workmen
+at Alcora, who were envious of his merit: they put every difficulty in
+his path, insulted him daily with pasquins, accused him of not
+fulfilling his religious duties, and annoyed him incessantly. His
+letters are full of these complaints. Count Aranda treated him with
+every consideration. During Cloostermans' stay at Alcora, the pottery
+made improved greatly in artistic merit. Figures and groups of many
+kinds were attempted, and even Wedgwood jasper ware was creditably
+imitated. In 1789, among other pottery that was sent to Madrid were "two
+hard paste porcelain cups, adorned with low relief in the English
+style." The most important one was moulded by Francisco Garcés, the
+garlands and low reliefs by Joaquin Ferrer, sculptor, the flowers on the
+covers by an apprentice, helped by Cloostermans. The composition of
+these objects was suggested by Abadia, who brought some specimens from
+Paris which came from England.
+
+Cloostermans sent the Count in 1789 a number of objects of different
+kinds made of porcelain. Among them the most interesting were "a tea and
+coffee service painted and gilt of glazed porcelain, and ten unglazed
+figures. Those painted by Albaro are marked A, those by Escuder, E, and
+by Mas, M, and Cloostermans' son." A large and varied collection of
+marbled wares and toys were sent at the same time. Cloostermans' marbled
+wares are pronounced superb.
+
+Count Aranda writes in July, 1790, to Diez Robles alluding to a large
+collection of pots for plants, which were made at Alcora for the King,
+decorated with the royal arms. Another series are still to be met with
+at the Royal Gardens; they are of pipeclay, and ornamented with rams'
+heads.
+
+In 1784 the Count sent two potters, Christoval Pastor and Vicente
+Alvaro, to Paris to study the last improvements in porcelain. They
+returned in 1789, and the porcelain they made was much commended and
+highly approved. They write to the Count in September, 1789: "We know
+that Don Domingo has sent your Excellency 97 objects made by us, marked
+No. 3, 1, No. 4, No. 3, with a dot, and No. 3 with the letter 'P'; No. 4
+with the letter 'H,' all made by me in clay, and varnished with the
+greatest care. Three flask-stands and two toothpick-stands were made by
+me, Pastor, before I went to Paris. The marble wares, Nos. 3 and 4, and
+other similar objects with gold lines, are also made by me."
+
+In 1784, Mariano Garcia of Valencia made some experiments before the
+Directors of laying on gold, and different shades of purples. A number
+of specimens were sent to the Count, but Knipfer did not approve of the
+plan adopted, and it was afterwards abandoned.
+
+Marbled wares of different colours were made at Alcora in vast
+quantities in 1790. A large depôt was established in 1791 of Alcora ware
+in the Calle de Luzon at Madrid. The printed prospectuses which were
+issued give a long and detailed list of the different productions of the
+manufactory, which chiefly consisted of dinner and tea services, and
+other objects of domestic use.
+
+In 1792 nearly 100 painters and modellers existed at the manufactory; 45
+were employed to work in porcelain and pipeclays, and 26 were
+apprentices.
+
+Cloostermans was forced to leave Alcora in April, 1793, owing to certain
+disturbances which occurred at Valencia, when, owing to a proclamation
+of the Captain-Generals, he and other Frenchmen residing in the province
+of Valencia, were ordered to leave the country. The Count gives
+instructions that Cloostermans should want for nothing on his journey;
+he writes ordering that 3000 reales should be given him, and his yearly
+pension of 1200 pounds (_tornoises_). Cloostermans left with his three
+sons after giving up the receipts and other documents connected with the
+manufactory. In 1795 permission was given that Frenchmen might return to
+Spain, and he resumed his post in the manufactory.
+
+The principal efforts at Alcora since Knipfer, Martin, and Cloostermans
+entered the manufactory, had been centred in making porcelain and
+pipeclay wares of different kinds. A great number of essays with foreign
+earths were made; and all those of a suitable kind which were known in
+Spain. Count Aranda was always most anxious that Spanish materials
+should be used in the manufactory; he says, in a letter written in 1790,
+"the Kaolin of Cataluña may be good or bad, but it is acknowledged to be
+Kaolin, and if not used these works must be closed." This Kaolin had
+been found by Christobal Pastor and Vicente Albaro on their return from
+Paris.
+
+Baron Davillier has been good enough to inform me that he has found
+mention of some objects of Alcora wares which Count Aranda sent as a
+present to his friend Voltaire, at Ferney.
+
+From 1789 to 1797 the following kinds of pottery were made at Alcora:--
+
+Hard paste porcelain (French).
+
+Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.
+
+Porcelain of pipe-clay (English).
+
+Blue pipe-clay porcelain.
+
+Marbled pipe-clay porcelain.
+
+_Bucaro_, painted and gilt.
+
+Strasburg Ware.
+
+Porcelain painted _en froid._
+
+Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.
+
+
+PORCELAIN (FRITA).
+
+Porcelain painted with gilt lines.
+
+ " " without gold.
+
+Porcelain (frita), canary colour.
+
+Boxes in relief.
+
+ " plain.
+
+Porcelain (frita), painted with marble wares.
+
+Plain boxes of the same kind.
+
+Porcelain (frita), of blue and brown ground.
+
+Cups and saucers of a similar kind.
+
+
+BISCUIT PORCELAIN.
+
+Figures.
+
+Vases.
+
+Pedestals.
+
+White porcelain (frita) cups of different kinds.
+
+ " " ornamented and plain.
+
+Boxes with busts.
+
+Boxes with ornamentations in relief.
+
+Figures.
+
+Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.
+
+Large figures of the Four Seasons.
+
+Flower vases with rams' heads.
+
+Plain boxes.
+
+Boxes with ornaments in relief.
+
+
+WHITE PORCELAIN.
+
+Plates, cups, etc.
+
+Figures of different kinds.
+
+
+PAINTED PORCELAIN.
+
+Cups, saucers, plates, etc.
+
+Cream pots.
+
+Plain snuff boxes, or in the shape of a dog.
+
+Fruit stands in relief.
+
+In 1799 we find mention made of partridges modelled by Christoval Mas,
+and Clemente Aycart much commended for his dogs, ducks, tortoises and
+frogs.
+
+Joseph Ferrer writes to the Duke of Hijar in the same year, that "he had
+just seen a bust of D^{n} José Delgado, a trifle smaller than the one
+previously sent of your excellency." These busts and some medallion
+portraits were made of porcelain _frite_. Ferrer complains in the same
+letter that Delgado the manager had asked for a fine jug and basin of
+Sèvres, which had been given by the King of France to the late Count,
+and that he had been obliged to hide it away with some English specimens
+which were in the warehouse.
+
+Count Aranda died in January, 1798, and was succeeded by his son the
+Duke of Hijar. Cloostermans died the same year; Vicente Prats is stated
+to be the best painter and decorator at Alcora at this date. In an
+extract drawn up of the state of the pottery works in 1798, it appears
+that 200 workmen were employed, and pottery of every description was
+made, common earthenware, pipeclays in imitation of the English ones,
+and porcelain in small quantities; common wares were made in large
+quantities; the pipeclays were pronounced superior to the English in
+brilliancy, but were so porous that they were easily stained, a large
+number of snuff-boxes and other small objects belong to this period.
+
+In 1800, the Duke of Hijar, who succeeded the Count of Aranda in the
+management of the manufactory, writes to D^{n} Josef Ferrer, saying:
+"As I do not know the authors of the pipe-clay porcelain or that of
+other kinds which is sent here, I beg you to order the master workmen of
+porcelain and common pottery to engrave, in making it, the initials of
+their names, as it will enable me to distinguish the good from the bad."
+
+Twelve porcelain baths with the arms of Spain in blue were made at
+Alcora for Queen Maria Louisa in 1800.
+
+The Duke of Hijar ordered in 1800 that a dinner-service should be made
+there for his use. He sent instructions that it should be of the same
+kind as a tea-service previously sent to his son the Duke of Aliaga. The
+painter chosen to decorate it was Mariano Alvaro, and the designs
+selected by Ferrer were taken from the Loggie of Raphael.
+
+In the same year some cases of pottery were sent to the Duke; in one of
+them was a fine soup tureen modelled by Josef Ferrer, Cloostermans' son,
+Pierre, writes at this time, asking to be appointed to the post left
+vacant by his father's death; his petition however was not granted.
+
+We have already seen that pottery and porcelain continued to be
+manufactured in the present century at Alcora in the same manner as in
+the 18th century, but owing to the French invasion of 1808 this industry
+suffered the consequences of war, and the work done there greatly
+diminished in excellence and quantity. Even before this the Director,
+D^{n} José Delgado complains in several documents of the bad state of
+the manufactory, the Directors who replaced him, D^{n} Juan Bautista
+Cabot and D^{n} Pedro Bezarco, write continually repeating the same
+thing. After the French were turned out of Spain, the industry was
+revived and strengthened by fresh artists from the porcelain manufactory
+of Madrid. D^{n} Luis Poggetti was appointed drawing master there in 1815,
+and D^{n} Domingo Palmera master of ornamental art, both these artists
+had worked at Buen Retiro, Poggetti as Director of pietre dure, and
+Palmera as second-class sculptor. After this time the manufactory of
+pottery at Alcora ceased to produce artistic works, and limited itself
+to send out common wares for domestic purposes; this system continued
+until 1858, when the Duke of Hijar sold the manufactory to D^{n} Ramon
+Girona, who brought over English workmen from Staffordshire in order to
+improve the wares. Many imitations of the older styles have also been
+made at Alcora of late years.
+
+One of the most important results of the present study is the necessity
+of changing the classifications of a great number of specimens which
+have been believed to be manufactured at Moustiers and other localities
+in France, but which in fact were made at Alcora. It is sufficient to
+mention the names of Grangel, Cros, Soliva, and Vilar, which one of the
+best informed writers on Ceramic industry, Baron Davillier, has
+discovered on different specimens of pottery, and which, in his "Hist.
+des faïences et porcelaines de Moustiers, etc., Paris, 1863," he
+considers to be the names of artists who worked in France, although all
+of them belonged exclusively to Alcora, as will be seen in the subjoined
+list of artists' names. I am in hopes, also, that many errors may be
+corrected in future, touching French and English pottery, which was
+imitated to a great extent, and with much success at Alcora.
+
+We gather also by this information that an immense number of objects
+were made of pipeclay porcelain, in imitation of English wares; and, in
+my opinion, a great quantity of objects of white pipeclay porcelain
+which have been found of late years in Spain are of Alcora manufacture.
+They have been hitherto classified by amateurs as Leeds pottery. We
+find, in papers relating to Alcora, that a decided distinction is made
+between white and straw-coloured pottery. This indication may be
+sufficient to distinguish it from English wares.
+
+Townsend, in "A Journey to Spain in the years 1786-1787," London, 1792,
+p. 255, says: "At Alcora, in the neighbourhood of Valencia, a
+manufacture of porcelain has been successfully established by Count
+Aranda, and deserves encouragement. I was much pleased with their
+imitations of gilding. It is very natural, and the manager informed me
+that after many years' trial it was found to be durable."
+
+[Illustration: EARTHENWARE PLAQUE, ALCORA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON
+MUSEUM.]
+
+Specimens exist of Alcora ware and porcelain at the South Kensington
+Museum.
+
+Nos. 1051, 1052-'71. Two fine plaques, painted with mythological
+subjects of Pomona and Galatea, the borders raised in form of a frame,
+with scroll ornaments [see woodcut of No. 1052].
+
+No. 341-'76. A porcelain cup and saucer, blue ground, gilt; painted with
+flowers in white medallions.
+
+No. 333-'76. A plate painted with sprigs, and containing models of fruit
+in full relief.
+
+
+ A LIST OF THE DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE
+ MANUFACTORY OF POTTERY AND PORCELAIN OF ALCORA FROM ITS FOUNDATION,
+ 1726, UNTIL THE BEGINNING OF THE PRESENT CENTURY.
+
+DIRECTORS.
+
+
+Dr. Joaquin Joseph de Sayas, 1727.
+
+Joseph Ollery, 1727 to 1733.
+
+Manuel de Molina, 1727 to 1735.
+
+Cayetano Allue, 1727 to 1750.
+
+Marcial Guirandeta, 1778 to 1783.
+
+Juan Villalonga, 1789.
+
+Pierre Cloostermans, 1789.
+
+Domingo Abadia, 1789.
+
+Gabriel Berenguer y Cebrian, 1789.
+
+Josef Ferrer, 1799.
+
+Josef Delgado, 1800.
+
+
+ARTISTS.
+
+Abella, Francisco, 1750, at Alcora.
+
+Alvaro, Cristobal, 1750.
+
+Alvaro, Joseph, paints pottery in 1743, 1750.
+
+Alvaro, Vicente, el mayor, works at the wheel in 1750.
+
+Alvaro, Vicente, painted with Knipfer in 1783; he was sent by Count
+Aranda in 1784 to Paris to learn the making of porcelain; he returned to
+Spain in 1789, and continued to work at Alcora.
+
+Alvaro, Tiburcio, painted with Knipfer in 1783.
+
+Andrés, Cristoval, modeller and carver in 1783.
+
+Andrés, Francisco, modeller in 1783.
+
+Andrés, Francisco, modeller, 1743 to 1750.
+
+Andrés, Gabriel, painter, 1743 to 1750.
+
+Andrés, Gabriel, figures as one of the leading painters in 1794.
+
+Andrés, Jaime, painter, from 1728 to 1737.
+
+Andrés, Mariano, paints from 1739 to 1750.
+
+Andrés, Mariano, works in 1789.
+
+Andrés, Miguel, painter, 1743 to 1750.
+
+Aparicio, Manuel, painter, 1750.
+
+Arqua, Vicente, 1750.
+
+Aycart, Clemente, sculptor, worked at the porcelain works in 1789.
+
+Aycart, Roque, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Aycart, Ventura, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Bachero, Vicente, painted porcelain in 1789.
+
+Badenas, Cristoval, painter, 1727 to 1750.
+
+Badenes, Francisco, establishes with Miguel Badenas pottery works, where
+pottery was made in imitation of Alcora: it was put a stop to by
+agreement in 1789.
+
+Badenes, Miguel; see Francisco.
+
+Beltran, Pedro, retouched painting on porcelain in 1783 to 1789.
+
+Berenguer, Cristoval, painter, painted from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Blasco, Bautista, painted from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Blasco, Francisco, painted from 1731 to 1738.
+
+Blasco, Joaquin, painted in 1750.
+
+Blasco, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735; he painted in 1750.
+
+Blasco, Manuel, painter, 1728 to 1750.
+
+Blasco, Vicente, painted 1727 to 1750.
+
+Buxadós, Ildefonso, painted 1727 to 1750.
+
+Buxadós, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783.
+
+Calvo Perales, Joseph, painter from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Calvo, Manuel, painter of common pottery in 1783.
+
+Calvo, Ramon, painted common earthenware from 1750 to 1783.
+
+Campion, Juan, a Frenchman, worked at the wheel in 1743.
+
+Carnicer, Juan, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789.
+
+Carnicer, Vicente, modeller from 1783 to 1789.
+
+Carbonel, Sebastian, a Frenchman; he modelled in 1728.
+
+Catalá, Cristoval, modelled in 1783.
+
+Catalá, Juan, 1750.
+
+Catalá, Manuel, 1750.
+
+Catalá, Pascual, painter from 1729 to 1750.
+
+Catalá, Pedro Juan, painted common pottery in 1783.
+
+Caussada, mayor, Jacinto, painted from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Caussada, menor, Jacinto, from 1727.
+
+Caussada, Joseph, a son of Jacinto, painted from 1743 to 1750. He ran
+away from the manufactory and went to work at Talavera, and was brought
+back to Alcora.
+
+Caussada, Mariano. It was proposed that he should be turned out of the
+manufactory, owing to his having gone over to the works established at
+Onda, where he gave them the receipts of the colours and varnishes used
+at Alcora; he returned to Alcora in 1789.
+
+Caveta, Pascual, painter, 1743.
+
+Chiva, Cristoval de, painted porcelain in 1789.
+
+Chiva, Joseph, painted from 1727 to 1738.
+
+Chiva, Manuel, painted in 1789.
+
+Cloostermans, Pierre, a French artist; he entered the manufactory in
+1787, and continued to work there until his death in 1798.
+
+Cloostermans, a son of Pierre's, was an excellent painter on porcelain
+in 1789.
+
+Corrás, Ignacio, a native of Cataluña, painted from 1727 to 1728.
+
+Coll, Jaime, a native of Cataluña, painted from 1727 to 1736.
+
+Cros, Cristoval, painted from May, 1727 to 1743; he was one of the best
+artists who painted at Alcora.
+
+Cros, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Cros, Manuel, 1750.
+
+Cros, Pascual, painted from 1727 to 1736.
+
+Cros, menor, Vicente, painted porcelain from 1750 to 1789.
+
+Cros, Vicente, 1735 to 1750.
+
+Datos, Gaspar, modeller, 1731 to 1750.
+
+Datos, Julian, modeller, in 1783.
+
+Datos, Ramon, painted in 1750.
+
+Datos, Vicente, 1750.
+
+Escuder, Vicente, painted with Knipfer from 1783 to 1789.
+
+Fabra, Francisco, painted from 1730 to 1743.
+
+Fabra, Vicente, painter, 1727 to 1735.
+
+Falco, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1743.
+
+Falco, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1735.
+
+Feliu, Vicente Tomas, painter, from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Feliu y Thomas, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783.
+
+Ferrer, Joaquin, a carver, who worked with Mr. Martin from 1783 to 1789.
+
+Ferrer, Esteban, painted porcelain in 1789.
+
+Ferrer y Carnicer, Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783. In December,
+1789, he had an oven on his own account at Alcora, the only one which
+remained out of four which had been established four years previously
+there.
+
+Ferrer, menor, Vicente, 1750.
+
+Ferrer, Vicente, painted from 1727 to 1743.
+
+Flor, Antonio, painted common pottery from 1750 to 1783.
+
+Fores, Joseph, painter, 1727.
+
+Fornench, Joseph, painted in 1739.
+
+Fornench, Phelipe, painted common pottery in 1783.
+
+Fornench, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Fornench, Phelipe, painter, 1727 to 1750.
+
+Fuste, Salvador, painter, 1727.
+
+Galvez, Juan, modeller, 1731 to 1735.
+
+Garcés, Joaquin, painter. He worked with Joaquin Ter at the manufactory
+which he established at Alcora, and returned to the Counts in 1789.
+
+Garcés, Francisco, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin in 1783, and was
+considered by Cloostermans, in 1789, his most able workman.
+
+Garcés, Joseph, painter, 1727.
+
+Garcés, Pedro, 1743.
+
+Garcia, Mariano, a native of Valencia. He went to Alcora to try a system
+of gilding and purple which he had invented, which produced an
+unsatisfactory result.
+
+Gasch, Agustin, painter from 1728 to 1750, although he was absent from
+the works from 1735 to 1741.
+
+Gasch, Bruno, a son of Juan's, worked at the wheel from 1743 to 1750.
+
+Gasch, Cristoval, worked with the turners, 1731 to 1741, and joined the
+painters until 1750.
+
+Gasch, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1729 to 1750.
+
+Gasch, mayor, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Gasch, Joseph, painter, 1731 to 1735.
+
+Gasch, Juan, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1750.
+
+Gasch, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Gasch, Miguel, the son of Juan, painted in 1743.
+
+Gasch, Vicente, 1750.
+
+Gasch, Correo Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Gardo, Juan, painter and modeller, 1731 to 1735.
+
+Gil, Francisco, modeller, 1783.
+
+Giner, Manuel, painter, 1727.
+
+Gomez, Cristoval, painter on common pottery, 1783.
+
+Gomez, Francisco, modeller, 1731 to 1750.
+
+Gomez, Vicente, painter, 1750, 1783.
+
+Gomez, menor, Vicente, worked at the wheel and painted from 1783 to
+1789.
+
+Gorris, Joseph, 1750.
+
+Granell, Cristoval, painter, 1729, 1750.
+
+Granell, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735.
+
+Granell, Vicente, 1731 to 1750.
+
+Grangel, Francisco, pintor, painted from 1727 to 1783. In 1743 the
+finest work was given to him.
+
+Grangel, Juan, painted from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Gras, Monsieur, painter, 1728.
+
+Haly, François, 1751.
+
+Herrando, Francisco, 1727.
+
+Herrando, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1736.
+
+Herrando, Juan, painted from 1729 to 1735.
+
+Herrando, Manuel, modeller, 1783.
+
+Herrando, Pascual, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1743.
+
+Herrando, Thadeo, 1750.
+
+Huguet, Cristobal, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Huguet, Francisco, worked at the wheel and modelled in porcelain from
+1783 to 1789.
+
+Huguet y Mascarós, Joseph, painter, 1783 to 1794.
+
+Huguet, Vicente, painter. He worked at the manufactory established by
+Joaquin Ten at Alcora, and returned to Count Arandas in 1789, and
+continued there in 1794.
+
+Huguet Serra, Joseph, modeller in 1783.
+
+Ibañez, Juan, painter from 1727 to 1735.
+
+Knipfer, Juan, a native of Saxony, 1783.
+
+Lazaro, Joseph, painter, 1727.
+
+Lopez, Julian, 1792.
+
+Llorente, Francisco, 1750.
+
+Lloscos, Joaquin, painter, 1783.
+
+Llosca, menor, painter, 1783.
+
+Malanco, Nicolas, painter, 1727.
+
+Marin, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1736.
+
+Marques, Miguel, painter, 1794.
+
+Marras, Francisco, painter and modeller in 1727.
+
+Marsal, Bautista, painter from 1727 to 1743.
+
+Marsal, Francisco. He worked at Alcora, and left it for the manufactory
+of Onda; in 1783 he returned to Count Aranda's works.
+
+Marti, Miguel, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Martin, Francisco, modeller in 1783.
+
+Martir, Pedro, worked at the wheel in 1739.
+
+Mas, Cristoval, modeller from 1783 to 1789.
+
+Mas, Francisco, painted common pottery in 1783.
+
+Mas, Julian, a skilful painter on porcelain in 1789.
+
+Mas, menor, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783.
+
+Mas, Manuel, painted from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Mas, Pedro, painter in 1743.
+
+Mascarós, Cristobal, painter from 1728 to 1750.
+
+Mascarós y Thomas, Cristoval, painted on pottery from 1783 to 1794.
+
+Mascarós, Francisco, 1743 to 1750.
+
+Mascarós, Joseph, painted porcelain in 1789.
+
+Mascarós, José, painter in 1735 to 1736.
+
+Mascarós, Pedro Martin, painted from 1729 to 1736.
+
+Mascarós, Vicente, worked at the wheel from 1750 to 1780.
+
+Masso y Fabra, Vicente, painted in 1727.
+
+Massó, Joseph, 1750.
+
+Massó y Fabra, Francisco, painter, 1739, 1750.
+
+Massó Nadal, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Mallol, Joaquin, modeller, 1783.
+
+Mallol, Cristoval, modeller in 1783.
+
+Mallol, Vicente, modeller, 1783.
+
+Maurisi, Pedro, a Frenchman, began to work in 1728.
+
+Mezquita y Chiva, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Mezquita, Francisco, painted in 1750.
+
+Mezquita, Jaime, painter, 1731 to 1750.
+
+Mezquita, Pascual, painter from 1727 to 1735.
+
+Miguel, Vicente, 1750.
+
+Miralles, Vicente, worked in clay from 1731 to 1743.
+
+Moliner, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Moliner, Miguel, painted from 1728 to 1750.
+
+Moliner, Vicente, modeller in 1783.
+
+Monfort, Agustin, modeller in 1783.
+
+Monfort, Pablo, modeller in 1783.
+
+Montemenor, Joseph, modeller in 1783.
+
+Montolin, Jacinto, painter, from 1731 to 1750.
+
+Montolin, Juan, painter, the son of Jacinto, from 1735 to 1750.
+
+Montolin, Juan, varnisher and painter in 1783.
+
+Montolin, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789.
+
+Montolin, Vicente, painter of common pottery in 1783.
+
+Montolin, Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Moya, Crisostomo, retouched porcelain in 1789.
+
+Nadal, Felix, 1727 to 1735.
+
+Nadal, Juan, master at the wheel, painter and carver from 1727 to 1737.
+
+Nadal, Miguel, 1783.
+
+Nadal, Nebot, works from 1743 to 1783.
+
+Navarro, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783, and painted porcelain
+in 1789.
+
+Nebot, Bautista, painter, 1794.
+
+Nebot, Cristoval, modeller, 1750.
+
+Nebot, Cristoval, menor, 1794.
+
+Nebot, Francisco, 1750.
+
+Nebot, Francisco, painter in 1794.
+
+Nebot, Joseph, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1740.
+
+Nebot, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1794.
+
+Nebot, Juan, painter, 1750 to 1783.
+
+Nebot, Miguel, painter, 1783 to 1794.
+
+Nebot, Narciso, painter, 1794.
+
+Negre, Deodato, painter, 1727.
+
+Negre, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1783 to 1794.
+
+Negre, Julian, worked at the wheel in 1794.
+
+Negre, Manuel, modeller, 1783 to 1794.
+
+Negre, Ramon, painter, 1783 to 1794.
+
+Negre, Vicente, modeller, 1727.
+
+Nondedeu, Cristoval, modeller, 1729.
+
+Nondedeu, Miguel, turner, 1731 to 1743.
+
+Ochando, Joseph, draughtsman and carver, from 1727 to 1742.
+
+Olery, Joseph, director of the works from 1735 to 1737. In August, 1729,
+he was appointed principal draughtsman.
+
+Pacor, Bartolomé, painter, 1728 to 1735.
+
+Palau, Francisco, painter, from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Palmera, Domingo, master of ornamental art, 1815.
+
+Pardo, Cristoval, turner, from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Pardo, Francisco, 1750.
+
+Pardo, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1750.
+
+Pardo, Vicente, master at the wheel in 1728.
+
+Pastor Bartolo, Antonio, painter, 1750.
+
+Pastor Butoni, Antonio, painter, 1750.
+
+Pastor, Bartolomé, a brother of Vicente's, from 1729 to 1750.
+
+Pastor, Bautista, varnisher, 1783.
+
+Pastor, Cristoval, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin from 1783 to
+1789.
+
+Pastor, Gaspar, 1750.
+
+Pastor, Joseph, painted in common pottery and porcelain from 1783 to
+1789.
+
+Pastor, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750; his name appears in 1743
+among the best artists of Alcora.
+
+Pastor, Vicente, painter, from 1728 to 1743.
+
+Pastor, Vicente, painter, was pensioned in Paris by Count Aranda in
+1784; he returned to the works in 1789, and continued there for several
+years afterwards.
+
+Peña, Vicente, modeller, 1783.
+
+Perales, Ramon de, painter, 1750.
+
+Periz, Joseph, modeller, from 1727 to 1731.
+
+Periz, Joseph, mayor, painter, from 1750 to 1783.
+
+Periz, Joseph, menor, modeller, 1783.
+
+Perpiñan, Cristoval, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1740.
+
+Perpiñan, Vicente, modeller, from 1731 to 1743.
+
+Pinazo, Andres, draughtsman and carver, 1727.
+
+Poggetti, Luis, drawing master, 1815.
+
+Porcar, Cristoval, painter, from 1727 to 1735.
+
+Porcar, Pascual, modeller, from 1729 to 1735.
+
+Prast, Antonio, painter of common pottery in 1783.
+
+Prats, Cristoval, modeller, 1783.
+
+Prats, Cristoval, turner, from 1731 to 1750.
+
+Prats, Francisco, modeller, from 1750 to 1783.
+
+Prats, Fulgencio, painter, 1783.
+
+Prats, Vicente, painter, from 1750 to 1794. In 1789 he ranked among the
+first artists at Alcora.
+
+Querol, Vicente, 1743.
+
+Querol, Joseph, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Querol, Manuel, painter, from 1750 to 1783.
+
+Rech, Joseph, a native of Cataluña, painter, in 1727.
+
+Redolat, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789.
+
+Ribot, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1735.
+
+Ricart, Antonio, turner, from 1729 to 1735.
+
+Ricart, Clemente, modeller, in 1783.
+
+Ricart, Joaquin, modeller, in 1783.
+
+Robert, a Frenchman, painted in 1729.
+
+Rocafort, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750; he was one of the best
+artists at the manufactory in 1743.
+
+Roman, Juan, painted from 1731 to 1735.
+
+Roman, Manuel, painted from 1735 to 1750.
+
+Romualdo, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750.
+
+Roux, Edouard, a French painter, who worked at Alcora, where he had been
+brought by Ollery in 1728 until 1735.
+
+Rules, Joseph de, turner, from 1731 to 1735.
+
+Saborit, Cristoval, modeller, in 1783.
+
+Saborit, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1736.
+
+Saborit, Joaquin, painter, 1783.
+
+Saborit, Joaquin, painted from 1728 to 1750.
+
+Saborit, Manuel, modeller, in 1783.
+
+Sagao, Rafael, draughtsman and carver, 1727.
+
+Salvada, Joseph, 1789.
+
+Sancho, Joaquin, painted in 1783.
+
+Serrania, Cristoval, 1750.
+
+Serrania, Vicente, painted from 1728 to 1743.
+
+Soliva, Joaquin, painted pottery in 1783, and retouched porcelain in
+1789.
+
+Soliva, Miguel, painted from 1727 to 1750. In 1743 he was considered the
+best artist at Alcora.
+
+Soriano, Joseph, turner from 1731 to 1735.
+
+Soriano, Nicasio, turner from 1731 to 1735.
+
+Sorolla, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Tarazona, menor, Cristoval, modeller, 1783.
+
+Tarazona, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Tarazona, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1783.
+
+Tarragó, Joseph, painter from 1728 to 1735.
+
+Tarragó, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Ten, Francisco, modeller in 1783.
+
+Ten, Joaquin, painter from 1732 to 1750. In 1789 he closes the pottery
+works which he had established in imitation of those of Alcora.
+
+Ten, Joseph, 1750.
+
+Ten, Jaime, painter from 1735 to 1750.
+
+Terra, Cristobal, modeller, 1783.
+
+Terra, Vicente, varnisher, 1783.
+
+Thomas, Antonio, modeller, 1783.
+
+Thomas, Gaspar, 1750.
+
+Thomas, Joaquin, modeller in 1783.
+
+Thomas, José, 1750.
+
+Thomas, José, worked at the wheel in 1783.
+
+Thomas, Juan, 1743, 1750.
+
+Thomas, Mateo, 1750.
+
+Thomas Feliu, Vicente, painter from 1729 to 1740.
+
+Thomas, Vicente, 1783.
+
+Torres, Cristoval, painter from 1728 to 1750.
+
+Torres, Juan, from 1731 to 1735.
+
+Vadenes, Cristobal, 1770.
+
+Valentin, Pedro, painter from 1727 to 1743.
+
+Vilar, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1750.
+
+Vilar, Cristobal, sculptor, works in porcelain in 1789.
+
+Vilar, Francisco, 1750.
+
+Vilar, Joseph, modeller in 1783.
+
+Vilar, Miguel, painter from 1727 to 1743.
+
+Vilar, Pedro, worked in the ovens from 1735 to 1750.
+
+Vilar, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1789.
+
+Vilar y Bordoñan, Cristobal, modeller in 1783.
+
+Vilar y Bordoñan, Mariano, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789.
+
+Vilar Perpiñan, Cristobal, painted from 1739 to 1743.
+
+Vilar Ricart, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1735.
+
+Vilar Porcar, Cristobal, painter, 1727.
+
+Vilar Ricart, Joseph, painter from January, 1731, to 1735.
+
+Vilar Porcar, Joaquin, painter from 1727 to 1735.
+
+Vilar Saboret, Joaquin, painter in 1729.
+
+Yguet, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783.
+
+Zaragoza, Friar, worker in porcelain, 1799.
+
+
+MARKS AND SIGNATURES OF THE PAINTERS WHO WORKED AT ALCORA.
+
+From 1727 to 1784 no special mark was used at Alcora. In several
+instances specimens were signed with the painter's name or initials.
+
+In order to distinguish the qualities or sizes, coloured numbers were
+frequently added.
+
+From 1784 the letter A in gold or colours was used to mark the pottery
+and porcelain made at Alcora.
+
+The following marks were used after 1784. The a underlined, [A=],
+sometimes in blue.
+
+A number and letter, No. 4 A, G 8; No. 3 P. In 1799 the pottery made by
+Friar Joseph de Zaragoza was marked M. O. X.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+MADRID.--BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN.
+
+In 1759 King Charles III. came from Naples, having inherited the Spanish
+crown on the death of his brother Ferdinand VI. Soon after his arrival
+he determined to establish a porcelain manufactory at Madrid in the same
+style as one which in 1736 he had founded at Naples. The documents which
+exist relating to this manufactory at the archives of the Royal Palace,
+Madrid, Alcala, Ministry of Finance, etc., state that before the King
+left Naples, he ordered the following letter to be written to the
+Secretary of State, Richard Wall, on September 11, 1759: "Likewise the
+workmen and utensils used at the royal manufactory of porcelain of Capo
+di Monte must be embarked from Naples to Alicant, in the vessels
+prepared for that purpose, in order to continue from there the journey
+to Madrid. The necessary conveyances are to be provided, and the
+expenses to be charged to his Majesty's account."
+
+Charles III. landed at Barcelona on the 17th of October, 1759, and we
+find a letter written by order of the King, by the Marquis of Esquilace
+to Secretary Wall, in November of the same year, in which he says that
+the King had heard of the arrival in Spain of the workmen from Capo di
+Monte, and gives orders that money should be supplied to the Director,
+Don Juan Thomas Bonicelli. Wall answers that he "will give orders and
+help the workmen who are to establish the manufactory, and let them have
+every facility to examine different sorts of earths and localities which
+may suit them, and that the Director, Bonicelli, should have the money
+he might require."
+
+It appears also that 300 gold ducats were given to Giuseppe Gricci,
+"modeller," in absence of Bonicelli. The King ordered Wall to be
+informed that he understood that a place had been found near Madrid to
+establish these works, and that he was anxious to see a plan of the
+exact locality. Giuseppe Gricci drew the plan of the spot chosen, and
+was paid 100 gold doubloons for works connected with the manufactory.
+Bonicelli sends the following list of workmen who had arrived from
+Naples to the King.
+
+Cayetano Schepers, chief composer.
+
+Pablo Forni.
+
+Joseph Gricci, principal modeller.
+
+Carlos Gricci.
+
+Esteban Gricci, modeller.
+
+Cayetano Fumo, "
+
+Basilio Fumo, "
+
+Joseph Fumo, "
+
+Carlos Fumo, "
+
+Macedonio Fumo, "
+
+Joseph Santorum, "
+
+Juan Bescia, "
+
+Bautista de Bautista, "
+
+Antonio Morelly, "
+
+Salvador Nofri, "
+
+Phelipe Esplores, "
+
+Ambrosio de Giorgi, "
+
+Pedro Antonio de Giorgi, "
+
+Pablo Frate, "
+
+
+WORKMEN EMPLOYED IN THE KILNS.
+
+Jenaro Bonincosa.
+
+Nicolas Rocio.
+
+Pasqual Rocco.
+
+Juan Frate.
+
+Baldo de Beneditis.
+
+Vincenzio Frate.
+
+Matheo Mayni.
+
+Giorchino Amable.
+
+Joseph Esclavo.
+
+Antonio Aquaviva Esclavo.
+
+
+WORKMEN WHO POUNDED THE COLOURS.
+
+Francisco Conte.
+
+Nicolas Conte.
+
+Angelo Lionelli.
+
+Joseph Caramello.
+
+Joachim Pataroti, carver in pietri dure.
+
+
+WORKMEN EMPLOYED AT THE WHEEL.
+
+Joseph Grossi.
+
+Nicolas Botino.
+
+Juan Remini, gold beater.
+
+Pedro Chevalier, mounter.
+
+
+PAINTERS.
+
+José de la Torre.
+
+Juan Bautista de la Torre.
+
+Nicolas de la Torre.
+
+Fernando Sorrentini.
+
+Mariano Nani.
+
+Jenaro Boltri.
+
+Nicolas Donadio.
+
+Antonio Provinciale.
+
+Joseph del Coco.
+
+Carlos Remissi.
+
+Francesco Simini.
+
+Xavier Brancacio.
+
+Joseph Esclavo.
+
+Francisco Esclavo.
+
+On the 19th of December, 1759, Don Carlos de Borbon, the King's
+architect, presented him with the plans of the porcelain manufactory.
+The spot selected was inside the gardens of the Royal Palace of Buen
+Retiro. Ponz tells us in his "Viage," Vol. VI. p. 108, that the building
+was large and of regular architecture. We know it cost 179,130 reals.
+
+Don Carlos de Borbon was a black slave who had been captured with other
+blacks during the reign of Ferdinand VI. The Queen-mother sent them to
+Naples, and Charles III. gave them an artistic education.
+
+Don Carlos Antonio became the King's architect. On the 22nd of May,
+1760, the building was finished, the money then spent amounted to
+upwards of 145,000 reals, and Larruga tells us, in his Memorias, "The
+King spent in establishing this manufactory £115,000, with a yearly cost
+to keep it up of £20,000."
+
+William Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish Nation during the
+years 1760-1761," London, 1763, says, p. 262: "At Madrid is lately set
+up a manufacture of porcelain in the gardens of the King's palace at the
+Retiro, wrought by artificers brought from Saxony." Documents exist
+proving that in 1760-1761, they were already working there. Townsend, in
+his "Journey through Spain in 1786 and 1787," London, 1792, says, Vol.
+II., p. 278:--
+
+"I tried to obtain admission to the china manufacture, which is likewise
+administered on the King's account, but His Majesty's injunctions are so
+severe that I could neither get introduced to see it, nor meet with any
+one who had ever been able to procure that favour for himself. I was the
+less mortified upon this occasion because, from the specimens which I
+have seen, both in the palace at Madrid, and in the provinces, it
+resembles the manufacture of Sèvres which I had formerly visited in a
+tour through France."
+
+In the "Nouveau voyage en Espagne, ou Tableau de l'état actuel de cette
+monarchie," Paris, 1789, Vol. I. p. 233, the author tells us, how "Le
+monarque actuel à établi dans leur interieur une fabrique de porcelaine,
+dont l'entrée est jusquà present interdite à tout le monde. On veut sans
+doute que ses essais se perfectionment dans le silence, avant de les
+exposer aux yeux des curieux. Ses productions ne peuvent encore se voir
+que dans les Palais des Souverains, ou dans quelques Cours d'Italie,
+auxquelles il les envoie en presens."
+
+We find in a "Nouveau voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1805, p. 34, in
+describing this porcelain manufactory that the author says; "Cet
+établissement tres couteux ne travaille que pour le Roi et a son compte;
+il en sort des vases d'une beaute et d'un fini qui ne le cedent point à
+ceux de Sèvres."
+
+Citoyen Alquier, in 1800, the envoy of the French Republic, was allowed
+to visit the manufactory.
+
+We do not know the precise date when porcelain began to be manufactured
+at the Retiro. Clarke, writing in 1761, says the works had begun, and in
+1764 pupils attended the classes at the Academy of S^{n} Fernando.
+Larruga, in his "Memorias," says that as soon as the building was
+finished, china was made under the superintendence of Don Cayetano
+Schepers; the works, during his superintendence, proved very
+unsatisfactory, to his great astonishment, as the same process and
+workmen were employed as at Naples. Schepers attributes it to squabbles
+between the Spanish and Italian workmen. Sebastian Schepers, from 1783,
+a son of Cayetano's, tried various experiments with different clays of
+the country.
+
+The porcelain made at Buen Retiro was kept for the first thirty years
+for the exclusive use of the royal family, or to be sent as presents to
+foreign courts. Nothing was offered for sale until January, 1789, after
+Charles III.'s death, 1788, when Charles IV. determined that the china
+manufactured at Buen Retiro might be sold. Even in Spain the specimens
+of this china are very scarce; it is only at the palaces of Madrid,
+Aranjuez, the Escorial and La Granja that an idea can be formed of the
+perfection of this manufacture.
+
+The director at that time was Don Domingo Bonicelli, a son of Don Juan
+Bonicelli. Don Domingo chose a room within the Retiro, which was
+arranged at a cost of £350, in which to exhibit the objects for sale.
+Another room was taken in the Calle del Turco, which is mentioned in
+"Noticias varias y curiosas de Madrid," Valero Chicarro, 1762-1793,
+which we find was closed in 1800, as the "objects manufactured at the
+Retiro were simply for ornament, and could only be bought by very rich
+persons." Southey in his "Letters from Spain," London, 1797, p. 118,
+says, "The old palace of Buen Retiro is converted into a royal porcelain
+manufactory; the prices are extravagantly high, but they have arrived at
+great excellence in the manufacture. The false taste of the people is
+displayed in all the vases I saw there, which though made from Roman
+models, are all terminated by porcelain flowers."
+
+Every kind of porcelain was made at Buen Retiro, hard and soft paste,
+white china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and modelled in the style of
+Capo di Monte. A great many existed imitating the blue jasper ware of
+Wedgwood, and they also made flowers, coloured and biscuit, groups, and
+single figures, and painted porcelain of different kinds. Great
+quantities of tiles for pavements were also made there, which may still
+be seen at the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez; they are mentioned in the
+accounts which exist at the Ministry of Finance for 1807 and 1808. We
+find in these same accounts interesting details of the objects made
+monthly. In January, 1808, a large number of figures were made,
+including 151 heads for the table centre which was made for the king,
+306 objects ornamented with paintings, 2,056 tiles, 577 objects of less
+artistic importance, such as dishes, plates, etc. The finest specimens
+which exist are in the Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the
+Palaces of Madrid and Aranjuez of which the walls are completely covered
+with china plaques and looking-glasses, modelled in the most admirable
+manner with figures, fruits, and flowers. The room at Aranjuez is
+covered with a bold ornamentation of figures in the Japanese style, in
+high relief, painted with colours and gold with the most exquisite
+details. The figures unite the fine Italian modelling with the Japanese
+decoration. The chandelier is in the same style. Upon a vase on the
+wainscot to the right of the entrance door is the following inscription:
+
+ JOSEPH
+ GRICC^{I}
+ DELINEAV^{it}
+ ET
+ SCUL^{it}
+ 1763.
+
+This same date is repeated in the angles, and in some shields near the
+roof we find,
+
+ AÑO
+ 1765;
+
+probably the year the work was terminated. Antonio Conca, in his
+"Descrizione Odeporica della Spagna in cui spezialmente si da notizia
+delle cose spettanti alle Belle Arti," Parma, 1793, Vol. III., p. 310,
+says, "Il Gabineto abbelitto di porcellana della Fabbricca del Retiro ha
+meritato le bodi de curiozi viaggiatori." We also find in p. 119, "Un
+altro Gabinetto vien chiamato della Cina pel sud principal ornata di bei
+putti, di bassi relievi, e di altre opere di porcellana della nuova Real
+Fabbricca del Ritiro." Ponz, in his "Viage de España," Madrid, 1782,
+describes the room at the Palace of Madrid, saying, "it is covered with
+large plaques of porcelain made at Buen Retiro. In some are represented
+figures of children copied from models, and between each compartment
+looking-glasses are let in." (See woodcut.)
+
+[Illustration: ROOM DECORATED WITH BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN, IN THE PALACE
+AT MADRID.]
+
+From the establishment of the manufactory in 1759 by Charles III.
+until 1803 the styles adopted at Capo di Monte had been followed. At the
+beginning of this century Dn. Bartolomé Sureda went to Paris to learn
+the manner in which Sèvres porcelain was made. On his return in 1803 he
+was appointed director of the works at Buen Retiro and endeavoured to
+imitate the paste and brilliancy of decoration of Sèvres. Two workmen
+came over from Paris--Victor Perche, and Vivien.
+
+Among the finest specimens of this period of the manufactory are a
+splendid clock and four vases, two mètres high, with porcelain flowers,
+which exist in one of the state rooms of the Palace of Madrid. The vases
+are placed in the four corners of the room. The clock is ornamented with
+large biscuit figures. A large number of vases exist at the royal
+Palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, and Escorial, of Retiro china. They are
+often finely mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or porcelain flowers.
+The blue of the imitations of Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the
+biscuit work so fine as the English. Gold is often added to these
+specimens.
+
+We find at the archives of the Ministry of Finance interesting details
+of a dinner service made in 1798 for Charles IV., and a centre-piece,
+which probably is that now in the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez.
+
+When the French made their entry into Madrid in the spring of 1808 they
+took possession of the position occupied by the royal manufactory. In
+July of the same year it continued in the hands of the French, who
+forced open the doors of the laboratory. Porcelain continued, however,
+to be made there during the reign of Joseph I.; we find in "Travels
+through Spain and part of Portugal," London, 1808, p. 23, that, the
+author says, "the gardens of the Buen Retiro are open to the public. In
+the neighbourhood of these the royal porcelain manufacture is carried on
+in a large white building." Lord Blayney, in his "Narrative of a Journey
+through Spain and France in 1810-1814," London, 1814, says that "the
+royal manufactures of tapestry and porcelain have declined since the
+death of Charles III. and have now entirely ceased."
+
+We find in "Paseos por Madrid," Madrid, 1815-8, p. 87, it stated that
+"The English, at the second entry of our troops in Madrid, ruined this
+building in order that it should not be used as a fortress by the French
+troops."
+
+Richard Ford, in his "Handbook for Travellers in Spain," London, 1845,
+says, "Everything was destroyed by the invaders, who turned the
+manufactory into a fortification, which surrendered with 200 cannon,
+Aug. 14th, 1812, to the Duke of Wellington. Ferdinand VII., on his
+restoration, re-created La China, removing the workshops and ware rooms
+to the Moneloa."
+
+The South Kensington Museum contains an interesting collection of Buen
+Retiro porcelain of different kinds, of which may be named:
+
+No. 344-'66. A vase of biscuit porcelain, two-handled, with frieze of
+classic dancing figures and flowers.
+
+Nos. 333, 4-'66. Two small vases for tea, white porcelain, covered with
+flowers in relief.
+
+No. 892-'75. A pair of vases painted with young bacchanals in rose
+camaïeu, and gilt.
+
+No. 893-'75. A pair of draped female figures, each holding a cornucopia,
+standing on an altar-shaped plinth.
+
+No. 894-'75. A clock case, white porcelain, of rock and scroll work,
+with flowers and groups of amorini.
+
+No. 332-'76. A group of Ariadne and the panther.
+
+No. 1068-'73. A pair of tall vases, with gilt serpent handles, the necks
+fluted with gold, the upper part of the body painted with classic
+groups, and with coloured scroll foliage in relief, the lower part
+painted with leaves and scrolls on white ground. (See woodcut on next
+page.)
+
+[Illustration: BUEN RETIRO VASE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
+
+MARKS USED AT THE PORCELAIN MANUFACTORY OF BUEN RETIRO.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The usual mark in blue.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In blue, and sometimes in violet and gold.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Cayetano or Carlos Fumo. The initials and date are graved in the clay
+under the glaze; the fleur-de-lis is pencilled in blue. On a fine group
+of children playing with a goat.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This mark is graved in the clay, under the glaze, on a fine group
+modelled by Salvador Nofri.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Ochogavia? graved in the soft clay on a figure.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+1798, Sorrentini? These marks are pencilled in red on a pink cup and
+saucer, with landscapes painted _en grisaille._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Pedro Antonio Georgi? The initials P. G. are gilt; the M crowned in red;
+the V and M graved in the clay; on a cup and saucer buff coloured.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Provinciale? The letters Po are graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in
+blue; on two saucers, beautifully painted with children.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Probably the initial of the king. On two jardinières; the interlaced C's
+graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in blue.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+On two large vases imitating Wedgwood's blue and white jasper, with
+white biscuit flowers.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+On a group of biscuit Retiro porcelain of two figures representing
+Painting. The same mark appears on a figure of Apollo, about one foot
+high. This mark is stamped on the porcelain; the letters are in relief
+tinted rose colour.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+At the room decorated with Buen Retiro plaques at Aranjuez. It appears
+on a vase in relief, which is placed on the basement to the right on
+entering. The date 1765 appears on the ceiling, probably the year when
+the work was finished.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Graven on the clay on a white soft paste bracket painted with coloured
+flowers belonging to Count Valencia de D^{n} Juan.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+On a cup at the Museo Arqueologico, Mad., painted with landscapes. The
+initials are of Pedro Antonio Giorgi, who painted from 1802 to 1808.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Engraved on the clay on a plaque of blue biscuit porcelain imitating
+Wedgwood jasper ware, representing a mythological subject.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+On a dessert plate representing a vine leaf at the Museo Arqueologico.
+The initials appear to be those of Felipe Gricci, a son of the first
+modeller José, who came with Charles III. from Naples.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Fleur-de-lis graven in the clay on a fine group of three figures.
+
+
+LIST OF DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE ROYAL MANUFACTORY
+OF THE BUEN RETIRO FROM ITS FOUNDATION, IN 1759, UNTIL 1808:
+
+DIRECTORS.
+
+Bonicelli, Juan Thomas, principal Director at the establishment of the
+manufactory in 1759.
+
+Bonicelli, Domingo. In 1786 he was Director; in 1796 he solicits his
+retirement, and died soon after.
+
+Cristobal de Torrijos, appointed Director in 1797, after the death of
+Don Domingo Bonicelli.
+
+Sureda, Bartolomé, Director in 1804, and continues in 1808.
+
+
+PRINCIPAL MODELLERS AND SUPERINTENDENTS, POSSESSING THE SECRETS OF THE
+FABRICATION (SECRETISTAS).
+
+Schepers, Cayetano, first Modeller in 1759.
+
+Gricci, Carlos, son of Joseph Gricci, came to Spain, 1759. He appears in
+a list of artists employed in 1764: he died 1795.
+
+Gricci, Felipe, 1785. In 1802 he was first Modeller.
+
+Forni, Antonio, second Modeller in 1802.
+
+
+SCULPTORS.
+
+Agreda, Esteban, born at Logroño, 1759. He obtained several prizes at
+the Academy of San Fernando; employed in 1797, and continued to work
+there in 1808.
+
+Avila, Ceferino de, employed 1799, and continued there in 1808.
+
+Avila, Juan de, 1771, and continued there in 1808.
+
+Bautista, Bautista de, 1759.
+
+Bautista, Cayetano, 1785.
+
+Bautista, Juan Lopez, employed from 1799 to 1808.
+
+Benedictis, Cayetano, 1785, 1802.
+
+Benincasa, Miguel, 1778, and continues to work in 1808.
+
+Benincasa, Vicente, 1785.
+
+Bergaz, Alonso, 1764.
+
+Bescia, Juan, 1759.
+
+Borbon, Geronimo, 1802
+
+Borbon, Genaro, 1784 and 1808.
+
+Caravielo, Miguel, 1785.
+
+Chaves, Alonso, born at Madrid in 1741. In 1760 was appointed Modeller,
+and in 1763 obtained a Second Prize at the Academy, and a First Prize in
+1766.
+
+Chaves, Justo, 1785.
+
+Esplores, Felipe, 1759.
+
+Estebe, Antonio, 1778 and 1808.
+
+Flores, Josef, 1785.
+
+Forni, Pablo, 1759.
+
+Francholy, Angel, 1776 to 1808.
+
+Francholy, José, 1804 to 1808.
+
+Francholy, Luis, 1785.
+
+Frate, Carlos, 1785 to 1802.
+
+Frate, Josef, 1785.
+
+Frates, Juan, 1794 to 1808.
+
+Frate, Pablo, from 1759 to 1785.
+
+Frates, Mateo, 1797 to 1808.
+
+Frates, Mateo, born at Madrid in 1788. First Prize of the Academy in
+1805; in 1829 was appointed Director of the China establishment at the
+Moncloa.
+
+Frates, Francisco, 1764 to 1808.
+
+Fumo, Basilio, in 1759 was Director of the China manufactory; in 1779 he
+was appointed a Member of the Academy of San Fernando; died in 1797.
+
+Fumo, Carlos, 1759.
+
+Fumo, Cayetano, 1759.
+
+Fumo, Joseph, 1759; died in 1799.
+
+Fumo, Macedonio, 1759, and continues in 1802.
+
+Fumo, Bernabé, 1802.
+
+Giorgi, Pedro Antonio de, 1759, and continues in 1785.
+
+Giorgi, Carlos, 1785 to 1808.
+
+Giorgi, Ambrosio de, 1759.
+
+Giorgi, Antonio, 1795 to 1808.
+
+Gricchi, Joseph, 1759. In 1766 was appointed Honorary Director of the
+Academy of San Fernando; died in 1769.
+
+Gricci, Esteban, 1759.
+
+Guijarro, Dionisio, 1798 to 1808.
+
+Llorente, Manuel, 1764 to 1785.
+
+Morelly, Antonio, 1759 to 1785.
+
+Nofri, Salvador, 1759 to 1785.
+
+Nofri, Justo, 1778 to 1808.
+
+Nofri, or Noferi, Juan, 1802.
+
+Ochogavia, Manuel, 1764. Born in Galicia in 1744; in 1760 won a Second
+Prize of Sculpture at the Academy, and in 1763 a First Prize.
+
+Palmerani, Domingo, 1795, 1808.
+
+Palmerani, Angel, 1799 to 1808.
+
+Penaba, Joseph, 1793 to 1808.
+
+Rodriguez, Antonio, 1797 to 1808.
+
+Sancho, Dionisio, 1788. Born at Cienpozuelos in 1762; won a Prize at the
+Academy in 1793; was appointed a Member of the Academy, 1796; in 1810 he
+went to Mexico, where he died, 1829.
+
+Santorum, Joseph, 1759.
+
+Sorrentini, Fernando, 1785 to 1808.
+
+Sorrentini, Rafael, 1785.
+
+Sorrentini, Francisco, 1802.
+
+Valentin, José, 1779 to 1808.
+
+Valentin, Miguel, 1785.
+
+
+PAINTERS.
+
+Alonso, Francisco, 1764.
+
+Boltri, Genaro, 1756. Born in Naples in 1730; in 1759 he came to Madrid
+with Charles III.'s household, and worked at the Retiro; died in Madrid
+in 1788.
+
+Brancasio, Xavier, 1759.
+
+Brancacho, Domingo, 1762 to 1803.
+
+Branga, Ignacio de, 1800, painter of figures; he continues there in
+1808.
+
+Camaron, Josef, 1802. Born at Segorbe in 1760; in 1776 he won a prize of
+painting at Valencia; he was pensioned to Rome, and appointed Painter in
+Ordinary to the King.
+
+Castillo, Fernando del, born at Madrid in 1740. He was appointed Painter
+at the manufactory, and worked there until his death in 1777.
+
+Coco, Joseph del, 1759.
+
+Cruz, Mariano de la, 1807, 1808.
+
+Domeu, Carlos, 1785.
+
+Donadio, Nicolas, 1759.
+
+Giorgi, Pedro Antonio, 1802.
+
+Martinez, Antonio, 1764.
+
+Martinez, Pedro, 1796 to 1808.
+
+Nani, Mariano, 1759. His wife received a pension from 1804, probably the
+year of his death.
+
+Peshorn, Jorge, 1788, and continues working in 1802.
+
+Provinciale, Antonio, 1759 and 1785.
+
+Quirós, Juan José, 1802.
+
+Rimini, Carlos, 1759.
+
+Romero, Juan Bautista, 1800. Flowers and fruit; appears in lists of
+1802.
+
+Rubio, Joseph, 1799 to 1808.
+
+Semini, Francisco, 1759.
+
+Soriano, Joaquin, 1799. Landscape painter in 1800; continues in 1808.
+
+Sorrentini, Josef, 1756, probably from Capo di Monte. In 1802 he asks
+for a retiring pension.
+
+Sorrentini, Fernando, 1759.
+
+Sorrentini, Pablo, 1764 to 1808.
+
+Sorrentini, Gabriel, 1769 to 1808.
+
+Sorrentini, Manuel, 1785 to 1802.
+
+Torre, Joseph de la, 1759.
+
+Torre, Nicolas de la, 1759. In 1802 asks for a retiring pension.
+
+Torre, Raphael de la, 1759.
+
+Torre, Juan Bautista de la, 1759 and 1808.
+
+Torre, Josef de la, 1785 and 1802.
+
+Torre, Francisco de la, 1796 to 1808.
+
+Torre, Julian de la, 1802.
+
+Velasquez, Castor, 1807, and continued in 1808. Born in Madrid in 1768
+and obtained a prize at the Academy in 1787.
+
+
+VARIOUS ARTISTS EMPLOYED IN THE MANUFACTORY.
+
+Agreda, Manuel, Sculptor, a brother of Esteban Agreda; he superintended
+the making of biscuit china; born at Haro in 1773; won prizes at the
+Academy; and was employed at the Manufactory from 1805 to 1808.
+
+Bautista, Juan, employed to make porcelain flowers from 1785 to 1808.
+
+Bautista, Francisco, appears in 1802 as maker of porcelain flowers.
+
+Bautista, Sebastian, appears in 1802 as a maker of porcelain flowers.
+
+Chevalier, Pedro, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1759, and continued to
+work at the Manufactory in 1763.
+
+Escalera, Josef, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1781, and continued to work
+at the Manufactory in 1808.
+
+Perche, Jaime Victor, French workman brought from Paris to prepare
+porcelain, from 1803 to 1809.
+
+Vivien, French workman, brought from Paris to prepare porcelain, from
+1803 to 1809.
+
+At the same time that porcelain was made at Retiro and Alcora, other
+manufactories of a similar kind were established in Spain; but none of
+them could compete with these. The most important was established at
+Sargadelos, Galicia, in 1804. One of the finest specimens which have
+reached us of this manufactory is a large bas relief representing the
+massacres of the Spaniards by the French in Madrid on the 2nd of May,
+1808.
+
+
+
+
+GLASS.
+
+
+Since the South Kensington Museum purchased the largest collection of
+old and modern Spanish glass in Europe, the taste for and study of this
+branch of industry has increased to a very great extent. It is evident
+that this manufacture attained great importance during the three last
+centuries, and possibly existed at an earlier period; and that glass
+objects made in Spain possess a special and distinct character,
+different to those made in other countries. Before the objects at the
+Kensington Museum were collected, the existence of this industry in
+Spain was comparatively unknown.
+
+The earliest mention of glass works in Spain will be found in Pliny,
+who, while explaining the proceedings which were employed in this
+industry, says that glass was made in a similar manner in France and
+Spain: "Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo harenae
+temperantur."--L. XXXVI. cap. 66.
+
+The next allusion to this industry will be found in the works of San
+Isidoro. This eminent man lived in the 7th century, and after quoting
+the observations of the Roman author, gives us to understand that this
+industry existed before his time in Italy, France, and Spain: "Olim
+fiebat et in Italia, et per Gallias, et Hispaniam arena alba mollissima
+pila mola que terebatur." [Divi. Isid. Hisp. Etymologiarum, I. XVI. cap.
+16.] It is evident, therefore, from this passage, that glass was made to
+a large extent in the Spanish Peninsula during the Roman period. This is
+confirmed by the number of specimens which are constantly found in
+ruins. We learn also that the manufacture had ceased to exist in the
+seventh century.
+
+Glass vessels of the Roman period found in Spain are similar in form and
+manufacture to those which we know were made in France and Italy. This
+is not to be wondered at, if we remember that the Romans imposed their
+artistic forms on the countries they conquered. It is impossible to
+classify the specimens of this industry into determined localities. The
+study of the glass paste may, at some future period, give materials for
+such a classification.
+
+One special characteristic of Roman glass may be taken into account to
+be applied to Spanish glass of a later period. We find ancient specimens
+constantly ornamented with a sort of thread or line which runs all over
+the vase. These lines are sometimes made of transparent glass, and
+sometimes of white opaque glass, termed in Italy _latticinio_ from its
+milky whiteness. When the industry of glass making was revived in Europe
+during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, classical forms were
+copied in this as in other industries; this line ornamentation was
+copied on a much smaller scale in Italy than in Spain, where it
+constituted the chief and constant characteristic of glass making. It is
+an interesting fact that objects of a traditional Moorish form have the
+greatest amount of lines of this style of ornamentation. We cannot,
+until this subject is more thoroughly investigated, do otherwise than
+infer either that the tradition of this industry was preserved in Spain,
+or that the Arabs imported this style of decoration from the same
+localities from which it had been copied by the Romans centuries before.
+
+The comparison of these different styles of glass making can be carried
+out in a most satisfactory manner in London by examining the fine
+specimens of glass in the British Museum (Slade collection), and the old
+Spanish glass at South Kensington.
+
+We have no specimens of glass of the Visigothic period. If, as is most
+probable, glass was used by the Visigoths, they may have imported it
+from the East, for the text I have quoted from the works of St. Isidore
+seems to prove that this industry had ceased to exist in his time. The
+glass paste of different colours must, however, be mentioned, which is
+set in gold in the Visigothic crowns found at Guarrazar, near Toledo. It
+imitates precious stones, and was very generally used during the
+Byzantine period; its occurrence here makes it appear probable that at
+any rate the tradition of this industry existed in Spain.
+
+From the 8th to the end of the 15th century, during the Mahomedan
+domination, I infer that the industry of glass making became as
+important in Spain as that of pottery. No specimens, however, of the
+earlier period have reached us, and we must judge of what it was from
+the glass vessels in the Kensington Museum, belonging to the Renaissance
+period, which preserve their Oriental form, and are of a different style
+to that of Venice and other localities in Europe.
+
+A most interesting fact, which confirms this theory, will be found in a
+translation made from Hebrew to Arabic of a work which treats of the
+virtues of precious stones, _Lapidario_ [MS. Biblioteca del Escorial],
+quoted by Rico y Sinobas in "Almanaque de la Industria," 1873. We do not
+know exactly when the author Abolais lived, but in the prologue to this
+MS. it is mentioned that D^{n}. Alfonso el Sabio found this book at
+Toledo, and gave orders to a Jew called Juda Mosca, and a priest, Garci
+Perez, to translate it into Spanish. The translation was terminated in
+1250. Technical details are given in this volume concerning the
+substances which are employed in glass making, and some of the minerals
+found in Spain which are used in painting or enamelling it, but as this
+work was written to explain the properties of minerals, as they were
+understood in the author's time, he does not enter into any interesting
+details, or describe the forms of these objects. Another allusion to
+glass making in Spain will be found in Al Makkari, the Arabian author of
+"Mohamedan Dynasties in Spain," [London, 1840, 2 vols. 4to], who quotes
+an Oriental writer of the 13th century, who says, "Almeria was also
+famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils, whether
+of iron, copper, or glass." (Vol. I. p. 51.)
+
+The tradition of this industry has been undoubtedly preserved at Almeria
+until the present day, for in this province, and in the adjoining
+villages of the province of Granada, we find that specimens are to be
+met with, which possess a marked Oriental form, and are completely free
+from the influence of Italian models which existed in other localities.
+The most characteristic specimens consist of jars of two, four and eight
+handles, bowls with ribs and handles, pilgrim's bottles, etc., of which
+interesting examples exist at the South Kensington Museum. Woodcuts of
+several of these are given.
+
+All these objects are decorated with a serrated ornamentation of
+buttons, trellis-work, and the lines to which I have already alluded
+which were placed there after the object was made, in the Roman style.
+The paste is generally of a dark green colour, and when we find these
+same features in vessels of white clear glass, we may affirm that they
+are contemporary imitations made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they are
+very seldom to be met with in the provinces of Almeria and Granada, and
+are generally found at Toledo and other localities; it is, moreover, a
+common condition of Oriental art that its general form complies with a
+geometrical tracery, and we never find as in Italian works of art, forms
+and capricious ornamentations which interfere with the symmetry of the
+general lines, and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole.
+
+[Illustration: GLASS VASE.--SPANISH, 16TH CENTURY.]
+
+I have been unable to find the glass industries of this period mentioned
+by any contemporary author, but I owe to the courtesy of S^{r}. Romero
+Ortiz some interesting details which have been taken from the archives
+of certain villages, which although of a more modern date prove that
+this industry existed in these localities. At about 14 miles from the
+Puebla de D^{n}. Fadrique, there is a locality called Pinar de la
+Vidriera, where traces of ovens and scoriæ exist belonging to an
+ancient glass manufactory, which is likewise mentioned in documents of
+the municipality as continuing to work in 1620. At Castril de la Peña, a
+manufactory yet exists where glass is still made, and which has existed
+from time immemorial in the village. The building itself is decorated
+with the escutcheon of the family of Hernando de Zafra, one of the
+secretaries of Queen Isabel, late in the 15th century, who must have
+purchased it with other lands which he possessed there, towards the year
+1492. A gallery, one mile long, which exists at the entrance of the town
+from whence the sand has been extracted for this manufacture, gives an
+idea of the antiquity of this industry in this particular locality. It
+has been calculated that about two tons of sand were used at these glass
+works every month. At Royo Molino, in the province of Jaen, a very
+ancient building still exists, now half in ruins, which has been used
+until very lately as a glass factory. At Maria, in the province of
+Almeria, several glass manufactories have existed. The oldest, it is
+believed, was about two miles from the town, and is called traditionally
+"del Campo," but I have not found mention of it in any document. Three
+glass ovens existed inside the town: one was established by Vicente
+Botia, towards the year 1750, which lasted until 1790. Juan Martinez
+established at about this period an industry of a similar kind near the
+former one, which continued to work until 1854. The same green glass has
+been constantly made in these localities, the same forms have been
+copied, the only difference between the older and more modern specimens
+consisting in the coarser and heavier quality of the glass.
+
+[Illustration: PILGRIMS' GLASS BOTTLE.--SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.]
+
+In treating of the glass manufactures in Spain, where Italian models
+were imitated to a very great extent, we find very few allusions in
+contemporary authors of the Middle Ages; it may be because glass vessels
+were chiefly used with wooden and pottery utensils by the poorer
+classes, and metal utensils of all kinds by those who were able to
+afford them. At any rate, it is only towards the end of the Middle Ages
+that we meet with information concerning this industry, which continues
+uninterrupted until the present day.
+
+Barcelona is one of the towns distinguished for the antiquity and
+excellence of its glass. In a municipal edict of 1324, we find a special
+prohibition that the glass ovens should not be inside the city, owing to
+the danger they might cause to the rest of the population. In 1455,
+permission was granted to the _vidrieros_, glassmakers, to form a guild
+under the patronage of St. Bernardino, and from this period some of its
+members figure as holding municipal charges. Capmany, "Memorias," Vol.
+I. p. 134. According to this author, the special Ordinances of this
+corporation are not known, but only those which were given by the
+municipality in 1659. He adds that the master _vidrieros_ required six
+years of apprenticeship and practice to be admitted to work.
+
+From the 15th century several authors praise the glass made at
+Barcelona. In a MS. by Jeronimo Paulo, who writes in 1491, a description
+in Latin of the most remarkable things at Barcelona, he says, "they also
+send to Rome and other places many glass vessels of different sorts and
+kinds which may well compete with those of Venice." In the account of
+Philip le Bel's journey to Spain on his marriage with Queen Joanna we
+find the following mention of the town of Barcelona: "Et sont là faicts
+les plus beauls ouvrages de voires (verres) et de cire qui soient faicts
+au monde. Le Jordi (19 Janvier, 1503) Monsigneur alla au dehors de la
+ville vioir ung jour où on faict voires (verres) de cristallin très
+beaus." ["Collection des Voyages," Bruxelles, 1876, Vol. I., p. 257.]
+Marineus Siculus, who writes early in the 16th century says, "the best
+glass made in Spain is that of Barcelona," and Gaspar Barreiros in his
+"Chorographia," [Coimbra, 1569,] tells us, "they made excellent glass at
+Barcelona, almost equal to the Venetian." At the beginning of the 17th
+century the authors, Jaime Rebullosa, in his "Descripcion del mundo,"
+[Barcelona, 1603, 8vo,] and Luis Nuñez in "Hispania," [Antverpiæ, 1607,
+8vo, p. 279,] continue to praise the glass made at Barcelona, and from
+that period we find its merit and the vast quantity which was exported
+constantly alluded to. The fame of Spanish glass must have been
+justified, for in the "Viage del Cardinal Infante," by Aedo, printed in
+1639, we find it stated that when the Infant Cardinal was at Barcelona,
+in 1632, he went with his galleys to Mataró, four leagues from
+Barcelona, to see the "glass made there which was so abundantly sold all
+over the country." The Spanish translator of "La Piazza universale di
+tutte le professioni," [Madrid, 1615,] adds the name of Barcelona to the
+Italian author's mention of glass objects made in Venice, saying, "This
+industry has reached such a degree of excellence at Murano and Barcelona
+that nothing can be compared to it; there is nothing now which cannot be
+made of glass and crystal, even cabinets have been made, and castles
+with their towers, battlements, artillery, and fortifications." Mendez
+Silva in his "Poblacion de España, [Madrid, 1654, p. 243,] repeats the
+same idea when he says they made at Barcelona, "fine glass which might
+compete with the Venetian." This industry continued in Cataluña to a
+great extent in the last century, and was praised by the following
+writers. The author of the "Atlante Español," [Vol. IV., Madrid,
+1778-1795,] tells us that "they continued to make excellent glass at
+Barcelona, in imitation of the Venetian, with which it might compete,"
+and that this industry was carried out to a great extent at Mataró,
+Cervelló, and Almatret, all three towns of Cataluña; he says that in
+this last mentioned town the glass made was "so excellent, and the
+number of workmen employed was so large, that an oratory had been built
+in order that the workmen should hear mass there."
+
+The constant comparisons which we find between the glass made at
+Barcelona with that of Murano suggests two things--that Spanish glass
+must have been of a first-rate order, and that the form of the glass
+vessels was similar to those made at Venice. It is highly probable that
+a great part of the specimens of glass of different kinds which are
+classified as Italian in several collections, are really Spanish,
+although it is extremely difficult to point out the difference. In this,
+as in other branches of industry, the mania for classifying has gone too
+far, and comparative studies of a more concrete order are necessary;
+until these are made, the principal fact to be borne in mind in
+classifying glass vessels is to compare them with objects of a similar
+manufacture which have been made until very lately in Cataluña, and of
+which an extremely interesting collection exists at the South Kensington
+Museum, proceeding from Barcelona, Mataró and Cervelló, (Nos. 149 to
+193) which will enable the amateur to see how the industry of
+glass-making has continued traditionally to be preserved in that
+province. See woodcut opposite representing a glass bottle, also the
+central vessel in woodcut on p. 238.
+
+Among the specimens of old Spanish glass we may consider to have
+proceeded from Cataluña the following examples, forming part of the
+collection acquired in 1873. Bottles, Nos. 249 to 262, cups, Nos. 336 to
+339, and tumblers, Nos. 303 to 305, 312 to 314, and 328, '29. Among
+these, there are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality.
+The most characteristic are the _arruxiadós_, or _borracha_, a vessel
+spirally ribbed with several narrow spouts, used by the peasant girls of
+the villages to sprinkle rose water in the festival of the patron saint
+of the district; the _porrones_, a bottle with a long spout, used by the
+peasantry for drinking wine; the _cantaro_, a jug, funnel shaped with
+wide mouth, handle and curved spout, and the _pilas de agua bendita_, a
+holy water vessel of different shapes.
+
+[Illustration: GLASS BOTTLE.--MODERN SPANISH.]
+
+Very few details have reached us of the famous glass works which existed
+at Cadalso, in the province of Toledo; we know, however, that the glass
+made there was as excellent as that made at Cataluña, and was compared
+in a similar manner to the Venetian. The unknown author of "El
+Crotalon," published by the Spanish Bibliophiles, from a rare MS., in
+1871, writing in the time of the Emperor Charles V., mentions "the fine
+glass made at Cadalso." Marineus Siculus also writes in 1517 in his "De
+las Cosas Memorables de España," [Alcala de Henares, 1539, fol., Vol.
+I.,] that "Glass was made in several towns of Castile, the most
+important of them being Cadalso, which supplied the whole kingdom." It
+would appear therefore that this glass manufactory was already
+established in that locality in the 16th century, and we frequently meet
+with allusions to the excellence of its productions in contemporary
+authors. The town itself has continually been called "Cadalso de los
+vidrios." Mendez Silva in his "Poblacion general de España," [Madrid,
+1645, p. 40] says: "They make in three glass ovens fine glass of
+beautiful colours and forms, which can compete with the Venetian." At
+the South Kensington Museum, there are two fine specimens of glass made
+at Cadalso--No. 1068, '73, a drinking vessel of white glass, the upper
+part in form of the Spanish vessel called "bucaro," ribbed and streaked
+with colours; the stem pineapple shape, with remains of gilding (this is
+represented in the woodcut); and No. 1082, '73, a bowl of plain glass,
+the lower part spirally waved, and decorated with scale pattern in gold
+and coloured dots. Both these objects proceed from a nunnery in a
+village near Cadalso.
+
+[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON
+MUSEUM.]
+
+Larruga says in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1791, Vol. X., p. 53,] that
+"two glass ovens existed at Cadalso, which belonged to the Marchioness
+of Villena; they are worked by the inhabitants of this town. One of the
+ovens has fallen into disuse from the beginning of the present (18th)
+century, and the fame of the glass made there, formerly so renowned for
+its clearness and variety of the objects made, has declined. In
+examining the state of this industry during the reign of Charles II. we
+find how much it had fallen off, for Dn. Antonio de Obando in 1692,
+undertook to reestablish it, and to make glass vessels, and window
+glasses as had been made there formerly. It appears that 200 dozens of
+objects of different kinds were sent out from there yearly." The vase,
+No. 333, '73 represented in the woodcut is an example of the coloured
+glass of Cadalso.
+
+[Illustration: GLASS VASE.--SPANISH (CADALSO), 17TH CENTURY.]
+
+Glass ovens existed from a very early period in the central provinces
+of Spain, which probably imitated from the 16th century the productions
+of Cadalso. We know from papers at the Archives of the Convent, of two
+of these which paid a yearly rent to the monastery of San Jeronimo de
+Guisando, from 1478 to 1480. One of these glass works was situated at
+the Venta del Cojo on the borders of Escalona, and the other at the
+Venta de los Toros de Guisando.
+
+It is evident that a glass manufactory existed at Toledo, from some
+accounts which I have found in the Archives of the Cathedral, in which
+Bartolomé Lopez, vidriero, is mentioned in 1546--Pedro Fernandez in
+1590, and Tomas Nuñez in 1660; as furnishing glass vessels, principally
+lamps for the cathedral. Tomas Nuñez is also paid for "three crosses of
+crystalline glass." In a letter written in 1690 to Count Gondomar, the
+celebrated ambassador to James I., (Archives of the Palace at Madrid), I
+find a glass manufactory mentioned which existed at Cebreros in the
+province of Segovia. The writer says, "Your lordship knows we have a
+glass oven here; this week we have made the glass called crystalline, of
+which I send in a basket sixteen specimens for my lady Dna. Costanza."
+
+Larruga tells us in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1792, Vol. XVI., p. 222,]
+"That in 1680 a glass manufactory was established at San Martin de
+Valdeiglesias, where glass in the Venetian style was made--the glass was
+excellent. This manufactory was under the direction of Diodonet Lambot a
+native of Namur. He was succeeded by Santiago Bandoleto, who was by no
+means as skilful. Glass ovens were also established at the Torre de
+Estevan, Hambroz, under the direction of Guillermo Torcada." At
+Recuenco, in the province of Cuenca, glass works existed at the
+beginning of the 16th century; but in 1722 Don Fernando Lopez de Aragon
+established a manufactory on a large scale. The glass made there was
+used by the king and the greater part of the rich people at Madrid. In
+1739 two other glass works existed there, which continued their
+operations during the rest of the century. In the same province several
+glass ovens existed towards the middle of the last century. The
+principal ones were established in the villages of Arbetota, Vindel and
+Armallones; only coarse specimens were made there, but at an earlier
+period their productions had been, Larruga tells us in the nineteenth
+volume of his "Memorias," very important. The glass works which we find
+mentioned in the "Atlante Español," [Madrid, 1795,] were also of a very
+inferior quality; they were established at the end of the last century
+at Busot, in the province of Alicante, Hinojares and Carolina, province
+of Jaen. The "Correo de España," [Vol. I. Madrid, 1771,] mentions an
+important glass manufactory which existed at Andorra near Alcañiz, and
+one where glass of an inferior quality was made at Cabra, in the
+province of Cordova. Cabanilles, "Historia y descripcion del reino de
+Valencia," Barcelona, mentions the existence from a very early period of
+glass works at Olleria, a village of the kingdom of Valencia.
+
+The only mention which I have found in which Seville appears as a centre
+of this industry, is an interesting allusion to the village of Cala,
+which was represented in a festival which was given to Philip II. in
+1578, "with a crystal glass in its hand, and several others at its feet,
+because a famous glass oven existed there." ["Recibimiento que hizo
+Sevilla al Rey Don Phelipe." Por Juan de Mallara, Sevilla, 1570, p. 89.]
+
+In the 17th century, during the reign of Philip IV., the glass made at
+Valdemaqueda in the province of Avila was very celebrated. In a royal
+schedule, dated 1680, which states the price at which things were sold
+at Madrid, "the glass made at Barcelona, Valdemaqueda, and Villafranca"
+are mentioned. We find the glass of Valdemaqueda was sold for a higher
+price than that made at the other localities.
+
+The principal value of these extracts is to prove that the industry of
+glass-making existed in these localities; none of the authors mentions
+the principal characteristics by which the vessels made may be
+classified. Those made at Almeria and Barcelona are more easily known,
+for they have kept until very recently their general character; while at
+Cadalso and other localities of the centre of Spain, the tradition of
+the Italian models has quite disappeared. In one fact every author
+agrees, namely, that the glass made in those provinces closely resembled
+the Venetian, and was completely different to the system followed by the
+Arabs. It is, therefore, highly probable, as I have already stated, that
+a large number of objects of glass of different kinds, which have been
+hitherto considered Italian, were made in Spain.
+
+[Illustration: VASE OF GREEN GLASS, WITH BLACK HANDLES AND
+RIBS.--SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.]
+
+The following observations may serve as a guide in the difficult task of
+classifying this group. The specimens of glass vessels most generally
+met with in the neighbourhood of Cadalso are:--
+
+Objects of white transparent glass, sweetmeat dishes ornamented with
+ribs, buttons, and reticulated rims with touches of gold.
+
+Objects of clear greenish glass of a paler hue than is made in the
+province of Almeria, decorated with blue, or some opaque colour (see
+woodcut); in some instances part of the object is decorated with a rough
+crackled surface.
+
+Objects of opaque glass with different colours, vases, glasses, cups and
+saucers, of thin milk-white texture with blue spots, or imitations in
+the Japanese style of different colours. Vases for holding flowers, and
+other objects, of dark blue glass, milk-white cups, glass and other
+objects ornamented with lines of red or blue of a thicker paste than the
+preceding ones.
+
+Although these objects are copied from Venetian models, they are coarser
+in every detail, they are heavier and thicker, and the delicate and
+elegant ornamentation which we find on Italian specimens is almost
+always wanting, we seldom find examples of the beautiful _millefiori_
+chalcedony or tortoise-shell paste, and the outline of these objects is
+symmetrical and Oriental in style.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The royal glass manufactory at La Granja de San Ildefonso, was founded
+on the remains of an important one which had been established some years
+before, under the protection of Philip the 5th, at the Nuevo Bastan, in
+the province of Madrid.
+
+Towards the years 1712 to 1718, this king commissioned D^{n}. Tomas del
+Burgo and D^{n}. Juan B. Pomerague to establish glass-works at the Bastan;
+twenty foreign workmen were brought over with this purpose, with their
+families, and the necessary implements. These gentlemen did not carry
+out the undertaking to the king's satisfaction, and in 1720 his majesty
+gave D^{n}. Juan de Goyeneche special privileges that he might "make every
+kind of glass manufacture up to the height of twenty inches, and have
+these glasses worked and polished, embroidered and covered with metal;
+to make looking-glass and similar decorations, and every kind of glass
+vessels, and white glass for window-panes, and every sort of glass
+vessel of different kinds and forms which have been invented in the
+present time, or likely to be invented in this art." In order to carry
+this out, the king allowed them to have as many foreign masters and
+workmen as they might require, with the sole condition that a fourth
+part of the workmen employed should be Spaniards. It was prohibited that
+any industry of a similar kind should be established in Spain for thirty
+years, or that glass made abroad should be imported into the country.
+
+After a long series of annoyances of every kind, Goyeneche succeeded in
+meeting with the king's approbation, but as fuel was very scarce at the
+Bastan, he removed the glass works to Villanueva de Alcorcon, in the
+province of Cuenca. From the ruins of this glass manufactory, Larruga
+says in his "Memorias," [vol. xiii., p. 274], "was founded the splendid
+glass manufactory of San Ildefonso."
+
+Ventura Sit, a native of Catalonia, constructed an oven there, which
+worked from 1728 to 1736 with great success. Queen Doña Isabel
+encouraged Sit, and the king ordered him to make some glasses which
+might serve for mirrors. Those he made at first were small, but Sit
+began by making them 30 inches long and ended by making them as large as
+145 inches. The machine for polishing them was invented by a Catalan
+called Pedro Fronvila.
+
+The section of glass vessels of a superior quality began to work in
+1771. Glasses, bottles, and objects of all kinds were made there under
+the direction of a glass worker called Eder, a Swede, and Sivert, a
+Frenchman. Another section where the same quality of glass was made was
+directed by Don Segismundo Brun, a native of Hanover, but who had been
+brought up from a very early age at La Granja. It was this artist who
+invented gilded glass _a feu_. A large number of foreign artists worked
+at this manufacture; they impressed their special style on the objects
+they made, which were similar to those of the same kind manufactured in
+France, England, and Germany.
+
+From the time of Ventura Sit, towards the year 1734, the manufactory of
+glass at La Granja belonged to the crown, and continued under the
+protection of the Spanish kings, who spared no expense to obtain its
+development. Early in the present century this industry began to decay.
+Towards 1828 it passed into private hands, and continued to work until
+1849. The manufactory is now closed, although there is some talk of
+reviving this industry.
+
+[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON
+MUSEUM.]
+
+The glass objects made at La Granja possess a very marked French style,
+which renders them liable to be mistaken for French and German
+productions of a similar kind. The greater part of the objects which
+were made were of white clear transparent glass, richly cut and
+engraved, or ornamented with gold (see woodcut). The cut glass is
+generally engraved with inscriptions, views, flowers, and devices, and
+until very lately has been made there in a rougher style. Coloured and
+enamelled glass has also been made there, but not to so great an
+extent. Glass for window panes and mirrors were ordered for the Royal
+palaces. Lustres of all kinds of white and coloured glass were also made
+there in the Venetian style, richly ornamented with coloured flowers. A
+small chandelier of this kind is in the South Kensington Museum (No.
+998, '73), the only example I have seen of a lustre of latticinio glass.
+In the collection of old Spanish glass at the Museum will be found a
+sufficient variety of specimens of this manufacture to give an idea of
+the different styles made at La Granja. A fac-simile of one of the
+engraved mirrors and a fine cut glass will be found in "Museo Español de
+Antiguedades, vol. IX."
+
+Besides glass vessels and objects of a similar kind, painted glass
+windows have been made in Spain from a very early time, of which most
+important specimens exist at Toledo, Leon, and other Spanish cathedrals.
+The proceedings employed in this industry are too well known to require
+repetition in this volume. The industry was undoubtedly imported by
+foreign workmen from France and the north of Europe, and as was the case
+with other industries it took root in the country, and a large number of
+Spanish artists followed and took part in this industry.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+In order to convey an idea of the height of this industry in Spain, I
+give a list of the painters who worked on glass which I have collected
+from the following works, to which I refer the student who may wish for
+further details on the subject. Cean Bermudez, "Dicc. Hist. de los mas
+ilustres Profesores de las Bellas Artes en España. Madrid, 1800."
+Villanueva, "Viage á las Iglesias de España." Piferrer, "Recuerdos y
+Bellezas. Mallorca." "Documentos Ineditos." Zarco del Valle.
+
+
+GLASS PAINTERS IN SPAIN.
+
+ Years in which
+ they worked Artists. Residence.
+
+ 1682. Alcalde, Francisco Burgos.
+ 1504. Aleman, Cristoval Toledo.
+ 1458. Aleman, Pedro Toledo.
+ 1645. Alonso, Francisco Burgos.
+ 1544. Arce, Juan de Burgos.
+ 1581. Arce Burgos.
+ 1613. Argete, Luis de Leon.
+ 1424. Aragan, Maestro Joan Leon.
+ Arfian, Antonio Sevilla.
+ Arteaga, Matias Sevilla.
+ 1516. Ayala, Francisco Palencia.
+ 1605. Babel, Jorge Madrid.
+ 1442. Baldovin, Maestro Leon.
+ 1519. Bernal, Juan Sevilla.
+ 1533. Borgoña, Jorge Palencia.
+ 1439. Bonifacio, Pedro Toledo.
+ 1562. Bruges, Carlos Cuenca.
+ 1602. Campo, Diego del Madrid.
+ 1522. Campa, Juan Toledo.
+ 1674. Chilberri, Pierres de Segovia.
+ 1509. Cuesta, Juan de Toledo.
+ 1513. Cordova, Gonzalo de Toledo.
+ 1538. Cotin, Gaspar de Burgos.
+ 1459. Cristoval, El Maestro Toledo.
+ 1566 to } Dangles, Sebastian Mallorca.
+ 1573 }
+ 1676. Danis, Juan Segovia.
+ 1565. Diaz, Diego Escorial.
+ 1418. Dolfin, El Maestro Toledo.
+ 1485. Enrique, Maestro Toledo.
+ 1566. Estaenheyl, Ulrrique Madrid.
+ 1565. Espinosa, Francisco de Escorial.
+ 1565. Espinosa, Hernando de Escorial.
+ 1551. Ferrera, Rodrigo de Leon.
+ 1526. Fernandez, Pedro Sevilla.
+ 1557. Flandes, Arnao de Sevilla.
+ 1494. Fontanet, Gil Barcelona.
+ 1459. Frances, Pedro Toledo.
+ 1571. Galceran, Il Maestro Escorial.
+ 1518. Gelandia, Bernardino de Sevilla.
+ 1608. Guillermo, Maestro Leon.
+ 1571. Guasch, Juan Tarragona.
+ 1674. Herranz, Francisco Segovia.
+ 1520. Holanda, Alberto de Burgos.
+ 1548. Holanda, Geraldo de Cuenca.
+ 1535. Holanda, Nicolas de Burgos.
+ 1509. Jacques, Juan Sevilla.
+ 1427. Juan, Maestro Burgos.
+ 1510. Juan, Hijo de Jacobo Sevilla.
+ 1458. Juanico Toledo.
+ 1428. Loys, Maestro Toledo.
+ 1600. Ludeque, Diego de Madrid.
+ 1569. Menandro, Vicente Sevilla.
+ 1538. Ortega, Alonso de Toledo.
+ 1534. Ortega, Juan de Toledo.
+ 1458. Pablo, Fray Toledo.
+ 1459. Pedro, Maestro Toledo.
+ 1639. Perez, Sebastian Leon.
+ 1559. Pesquera, Sebastian de Sevilla.
+ 1600. Pierres, Antonio Madrid.
+ ---- Resen, Pelegrin ----
+ 1565. Resen, Renerio Madrid.
+ 1500. Rolando, Alberto de Avila.
+ 1500. Rolando, Nicolas de Avila.
+ 1624. Ruiz, Valentin Burgos.
+ 1625. Ruiz, Simon Burgos.
+ 1368-- } Sacoma, Francisco Mallorca.
+ 1369. }
+ 1420 to } Sala, Antonio Mallorca.
+ 1447. }
+ 1542. Salcedo, Diego de Palencia.
+ 1512. Santillana, Diego Palencia.
+ 1498. Santillana, Juan de Burgos.
+ 1392. San Amat, Juan Lerida.
+ 1503. Troya, Vasco de Toledo.
+ 1579. Valerio, Octavio Malaga.
+ 1562. Valdivieso, Diego de Cuenca.
+ 1497. Valdivieso, Juan Burgos.
+ 1538. Vergara, Arnao de Sevilla.
+ 1521. Vergara, Nicolas de Burgos.
+ 1606. Vergara, Nicolas de, El Mozo Toledo.
+ 1574. Vergara, Nicolas de, el Viejo Toledo.
+ 1590. Vegara, Juan de Toledo.
+ 1518. Vivan, Juan Sevilla.
+ 1605. Volui, Gil Leon.
+ 1509. Ximenez, Alexo Toledo.
+ 1458. Ximeno. Toledo.
+
+
+
+
+TEXTILE FABRICS.
+
+
+The silence of San Isidoro on the subject of textile fabrics in Spain
+would lead us to suppose that this industry only became important during
+the Arab domination; the Moors probably imported this industry into
+Spain from the earliest times of their conquest. A great number of
+provinces were famed then for the excellence of their textile fabrics;
+the most important of them, according to the testimony of Moorish and
+Christian writers, was Almeria. The Cordovese historian, Ash Shakandi,
+who wrote at the beginning of the 13th century, says: "Almeria is an
+opulent and magnificent city, whose fame has spread far and wide; the
+inhabitants are very elegant in their dress. Almeria is the greatest
+mart in Andalus, Christians of all nations came to its port to buy and
+sell, and they had factories established in it. From thence the
+Christian merchants who came to its port travelled to other parts in the
+interior of the country, where they loaded their vessels with such goods
+as they wanted. Costly silken robes of the brightest colours are
+manufactured in Almeria," [Moh. Dyn. in Spain, I. 52]. Almakkari adds,
+[p. 51]: "But what made Almeria superior to any other city in the world
+was its various manufactures of silks and other articles of dress, such
+as the _dibaj_ [silken stuff of many colours], a sort of silken cloth
+surpassing in quality and durability anything else manufactured in other
+countries; the _tiraz_ or costly stuff on which the names of sultans,
+princes, and other wealthy individuals are inscribed, and of which no
+less than 800 looms existed at one time; of more inferior articles such
+as the _holol_ (striped silks) and brocades, there were 1000 looms, the
+same number were continually employed in weaving the stuffs called
+_iskalátón_ (scarlet). There were also 1000 for weaving robes called Al
+jorjáni (Georgian), and another 1000 for weaving robes called Isbahani,
+from Isfahan, and a similar number for Atabi. The manufacture of damask
+for curtains and turbans for the women, of gay and dazzling colours,
+employed a number of hands equal to that of those engaged in the
+manufacture of the above mentioned articles."
+
+An oriental author asserts that Abd-ul-Rahman II. A.D. 825-852 was the
+first sultan of his race who introduced into Spain the use of the
+_tiraz_ [_ib._ Vol. II. 434]. Another explains that Atabi took the name
+of a suburb of Bagdad "where were made the stuffs called _otabi_,
+composed of cotton and silk of different colours." [Consult Dozy, 'Dict.
+des vêtements.']
+
+Ash Shakandi also mentions Malaga as famous for its textile fabrics; he
+says--"Malaga is also famous for its manufactures of silks of all
+colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a suit made out of
+them will cost many thousands; such are the brocades with beautiful
+drawings, and the names of khalifs, amirs, and other wealthy people,
+woven in them." [Moham. Dynast. Vol. I. 49.] Further on the same writer
+adds, "As at Malaga and Almeria, there are at Murcia several
+manufactures of silken cloth called _al washiu thalathat_, [variegated,
+of many colours.] It is likewise famous for the fabric of carpets called
+_tantili_, which are exported to all countries of the east and west; as
+also a sort of mat, of the brightest colours, with which the Murcians
+cover the walls of their houses." [_ib._ p. 69.]
+
+Arabic texts are frequently met with which allude to the manufactures of
+textile fabrics of Granada, Seville, and other towns, in which their
+productions are praised, and there is no doubt that they were very
+remarkable; for Christian authors of the middle ages refer to them so
+continually. Students who wish for a more extensive idea of this subject
+must remember the quotations and information given by Francisque Michel
+concerning Spanish stuffs, [Recherches sur le Comm., la Fabric. etc.,
+des Etoffes, etc. Paris, 1852.] He tells us--"Nous trouverons tout
+d'abord les pailles d'Almérie, ville de la côte meridionale d'Espagne,
+qui jouissait d'une réputation proverbiale pour la beauté et la finesse
+de ses tissus de soie, vantés dans mille endroits de nos vieilles
+chansons de geste, de nos anciens poëmes" [Vol. I. p. 284]. Further on
+he continues [Vol. I. p. 286], "à l'époque à laquelle appartiennent les
+textes, et même auparavant, la culture et la fabrication de la soie
+étaient des plus prospères à Almérie et en général dans le royaume de
+Grenade. 'Du royaume de Grenade vient cire, soie, figues, etc.' ... ce
+qu'il y a de bien certain, c'est que les étoffes d'Espagne étaient
+célèbres dès le 9^{e} siècle. Anastase le Bibliothécaire en parle en
+quatre endroits sous le nom de _spaniscum_; et en placant ce tissu à la
+suite de _fundatum_ et du _stauracin_ il nous donne suffisamment à
+entendre qu'il était de grand prix, et de soie comme eux. Un biographe
+de Saint Ansegise, mort en 835, placé de même une couverture d'Espagne,
+_stragulum_, _Hispanicum unum_, à la suite de tapis ou teintures.
+
+"Il est malaise de déterminer la matière des étoffes qu'un écrivain
+byzantin du 12^{e} siècle nous dit fabriquées en Espagne et aux colonnes
+d'Hercule--tout nous permet de croire qu'elles étaient de soie de tout
+ou en partie, ou du moins qu'elles étaient comptées parmi les tissus
+précieux.... Saragosse produisait aussi des draps d'or--et nous trouvons
+au 13^{e} siècle que le géographe Edrisi pouvait dire qu'il y avait dans
+le seul territoire de Jaen 3000 villages où l'on élevait des vers de
+soie. Nous savons qu'à Seville, sous la domination des Maures, elle
+comptait 6000 métiers pour ces étoffes de soie. Les règlements
+municipaux dont les royaumes de Grenade et de Seville ont été l'objet
+suffisaient pour nous apprendre que l'industrie de la soie fut
+florissante durant le moyen âge. Nous signalerons les draps d'or et de
+soie que D. Pedro de Luna en 1327 apporta à l'infante Léonore, sœur
+d'Alphonse XI., à l'occasion de son mariage, et nous savons qu'un
+ministre de Pedro le cruel possédait à Toledo 125 coffres de drap d'or
+et de soie."
+
+Edrisi in his "Déscrip. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne," [Leyde, 1866,]
+writing in the 12th century, says p. 239: "Almérie était la ville
+principale des Musulmans à l'Espagne des moravides. Elle était alors
+très industrieuse, et on y comptait entre autres 800 métiers à tisser la
+soie, où l'on fabriquait des étoffes connus sous le nom de _holla_, de
+_debady_, de _siglaton_, d'_espahani_, de _djordjani_: des rideaux ornés
+de fleurs, des étoffes ornés de clous, de petits tapis, des étoffes
+connus sous les noms de _attabi_, de _mi djar_."
+
+To complete this historical information, and especially in order to add
+details as to the technical character of this manufacture, the Rev.
+Daniel Rock's interesting introduction to "Textile Fabrics, a
+Descriptive Catalogue, London, 1870," must be consulted; although,
+notwithstanding the learned author's remarks, it is extremely difficult,
+in my opinion, to classify textile fabrics proceeding from Syria,
+Sicily, or the Spanish Arabs, as all, whether imitations or originals,
+are similar in manufacture.
+
+M. Michel and Dr. Rock enter into numerous details concerning the
+ancient names of stuffs, and in order further to illustrate this subject
+I venture to propose a different etymology than the one given by these
+writers of the word Samit, Samitum, or Xamet, which, although slightly
+different in orthography, is met with everywhere in Europe. My opinion
+is that it means stuff made at Damascus, for the word Sham
+[Illustration: Arabic writing] is applied to the name of this town as
+well as to that of Syria, and the appellative Shami and Shamit
+[Illustration: Arabic writing] appears in the lexicon to express what
+comes from Damascus or Syria.
+
+The oldest specimen which I know of Spanish Arab textile fabric, is a
+woollen fragment of very fine quality embroidered in colours, which is
+at the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. It is about 1½ yards
+long, by 18 inches wide. In medallions embroidered in silks are
+represented seated figures which appear to be a king, a lady, lions,
+birds, and quadrupeds. In two borders occurs the following inscription,
+repeated in cufic characters: "In the name of God, clement and merciful:
+The blessing of God and happiness for the caliph Iman Abdallah Hixem,
+favoured of God, prince of believers."
+
+[Illustration: Arabic]
+
+Hixem reigned from A.D. 979 until the first years of the 11th century.
+This fragment was found inside a small casket on the altar of a church
+in the town of San Esteban de Gormaz, province of Soria, where it was
+probably taken as a war trophy: it may be classified as a stuff called
+_tiraz_ [Illustration: Arabic], the skirt of a robe. An oriental author
+tells us that among the customs which contribute to give splendour to
+sovereignty is that of putting the name, or some other sign belonging to
+kings on the stuffs of their robes; that these inscriptions are woven
+into the material with gold or coloured thread of a different hue to the
+ground, and that royal robes were always made of _tiraz._ The caliphs of
+Cordova had a place set apart in their palaces where this stuff was
+kept: this custom lasted until the 11th century when it disappeared, and
+was re-established in the 13th century with the kings of Granada. (Moh.
+Dyn. vol. i., pp. 356 and 397; Mus. Esp. de Ant. vol. vi. pp. 464 and
+465.)
+
+Another most important object, although less ancient than the former
+one, is an Arabian banner which is traditionally believed to have been
+taken from the Almohades at the battle of Las Navas, A.D. 1212. This
+banner, which is preserved at the monastery of Las Huelgas of Burgos, is
+ten feet high by seven feet three inches wide. It is made of a crimson
+stuff, covered with an ornamentation woven and embroidered in gold and
+colours. In the centre is a large circle, placed within a square, which
+is enlarged in parallel bands. The four largest bands, which are also
+the last, are covered with inscriptions in blue African characters. The
+upper part of this banner is prolonged with several bands, one of which
+has inscriptions of a similar kind to those already mentioned; other
+borders contain several sentences in small African letters. The lower
+part is also prolonged and is terminated by eight points cut in a
+semicircle, inside which there are discs with illegible inscriptions.
+Three violet coloured lions, similar in form to those which appear on
+the arms of Leon, may be seen on three of the sides of the square. In
+the large circle in the centre of this banner, appears eight times
+repeated the word "The Empire," [Illustration: Arabic]. This inscription
+is embroidered or woven in Cufic characters, in a similar style to those
+at the Alhambra; it is a strange circumstance that the letters appear on
+the wrong side, as if this was the back of the stuff; the word which
+seems to be required to complete this sentence, "God," is also wanting.
+The large inscriptions in blue of the five bands reproduce Suras of the
+Koran, and pious sentences in one of the small ones on the upper part.
+S^{r.} Fernandez, who has published an article on this banner in Mus.
+Esp. [vol. vi., p. 469], thinks he finds a date which corresponds with
+the year A.D. 1140. I am not, however, satisfied with his interpretation
+of the inscription contained in the large centre circle, or the date he
+gives; for comparing the ornamentation of this specimen with other
+textiles, and the designs used in Moorish architecture, it appears to me
+that it must be considered as belonging to the 14th century. This may be
+easily accounted for by some historical mistake in the tradition
+respecting it at the convent of Las Huelgas. It is highly probable that
+King Alfonso XI. may have given this banner to the convent, and have
+been mistaken for King Alfonso VIII.; the conqueror of the battle of Las
+Navas.
+
+The specimens of Spanish moresco stuffs in the Kensington Museum, will
+be found numbered 51, 121, 124, 125, 152, 160, 180, 241, 244. (V. Dr.
+Rock's Catalogue.)
+
+The artistic industry of silk manufactures which was initiated in Spain
+by the Arabs, continued to flourish during the Middle Ages and a great
+part of the Renaissance. Malaga and Almeria were important centres, but
+later on this industry was chiefly centred at Granada. The silk fabrics
+made at Seville, Toledo, Murcia and Valencia were much esteemed. The
+Moorish style of ornamentation in embroideries and stuffs must soon have
+fallen into disuse. Owing to the materials of similar kinds imported
+from Italy, France, Flanders, and other countries, these manufactures
+were imitated to a great extent, as may be gathered by the immense
+number of specimens which are still to be met with in Spanish churches.
+The cathedral of Toledo is quite a museum of objects of this kind, but
+all the textiles there are woven in the European manner.
+
+The Moorish style in stuffs was preserved at Granada longer than in any
+other town in Spain. In 1502, ten years after its conquest by the
+Christians, we find it stated in the "Voyage of Philip le Beau," the
+father of the Emperor Charles V.: "Grenade est fort marchande,
+principallement de soyes, car les marchans y achattent la pluspart des
+soyes que l'on maine en Italie, pour faires les draps de soyes. Le lieu
+où on les vendt est nommé le Sacquatin. Auprès de ce lieu est une place
+appellée l'Allecasserie, où on vendt les draps de soyes ouvrés à la
+Moresque, qui sont moult beaus pour la multitude des couleurs et la
+diversité des ouvrages, et en font une grande marchandise." ["Collect.
+de Voyages, par M. Gachard, Bruxelles," 1870, i. 205.] Navagiero, who
+visited Spain twenty years after, tells us in his "Viaggio fatto in
+Spagna" [Vinegia 1563, p. 21]: "One enters a place called Alcaiceria
+which is enclosed within two doors, and full of alleys where the Moors
+sell silks and embroideries of every kind" [p. 29]: "All sorts of cloths
+of silks are made there; the silks made at Granada are much esteemed all
+over Spain; they are not so good as those which come from Italy. There
+are several looms, but they do not yet know how to work them well; they
+make good taffetas, sarcenet, and silk serges. The velvets are not bad,
+but those that are made at Valencia are better in quality."
+
+Dr. Rock considers the following specimens in the Kensington Museum to
+have been made at Granada: Nos. 26, 27, 60, 65, 73, 128, 161, 166.
+
+Larruga tells us in his "Memorias" [vol. vii. 205], that the silk
+manufactures established at Toledo consumed in 1480 about 450,000 pounds
+of silk: they decreased about forty years afterwards. In the ordinances
+issued from that town in 1494, which were confirmed by the Emperor
+Charles V. we find that the following stuffs were made at Toledo:
+
+"Stuffs of gold and silver which are made in the same manner as satin.
+
+"Satins woven with gold.
+
+"Satins brocaded with silk and gold or silver flowers.
+
+"Silver serges with double filigree.
+
+"Silver and gold materials, which are made like _gorgoran_ or serge.
+
+"Silver and gold stuffs which are made like taffetas, spring silver with
+silk flowers.
+
+"Embroidered stuffs.
+
+"Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or _berguilla_.
+
+"_Lama_, cloth of silver, shaded with silver watering.
+
+"Plain silk stuffs woven with silver or gold called _restaño_.
+
+"Silk stuffs woven with gold or silver called _relampagos_.
+
+"Serges woven with gold and silver for church vestments.
+
+"Plain filigree serges.
+
+"_Velillo_ of silver.
+
+"Satin woven with gold and silver.
+
+"Brocades of different kinds.
+
+"Church vestments.
+
+"Silver _primaveras_.
+
+"Serges for church vestments."
+
+("Ord. Ant. de Toledo," Tol. 1858, p. 223).
+
+Until the middle of the 17th century, Larruga tells us in vol. vii. p.
+208 of his "Memorias," the silk manufacture of Toledo was one of those
+most highly esteemed in Spain; from this time it was superseded by the
+manufactures of Seville, Granada, Valencia, and others. These cheapened
+their productions; but Toledo insisted on keeping to the old Spanish
+yard and weight in every kind of stuffs. In 1651 fifty looms belonged to
+this manufacture, although most of them were established in the suburbs.
+In this year there was a great decrease in the price of the coin, and
+the Genoese introduced a large quantity of silk stuffs, so much so that
+only twenty looms could be kept working at Toledo. After this, in 1663,
+2061 looms existed there.
+
+The silk manufacture of Toledo continued to lose its importance in
+consequence of the vast importations of foreign silks, but the
+traditions of this industry have never disappeared from the city.
+Larruga, who enters into this subject at great length in the seventh and
+eighth volumes of his "Memorias," mentions the silk manufacture of D^{n}.
+Miguel Gregorio Molero, "who made from the year 1714, under his
+direction and that of Christoval de Morales, his father-in-law, a large
+quantity of silk fabrics of wide and narrow materials of every kind, and
+stuffs woven with silver and gold." It is an interesting fact that the
+manufactory of Molero continues to work in the present day, and gold and
+silver stuffs are made there for ecclesiastical purposes similar in
+design and manufacture to the early established one of 1714; specimens
+exist at the South Kensington Museum of the silks made at Toledo by
+Molero.
+
+Towards the middle of the 18th century the most important centre of
+artistic silks existed at Talavera, where it was established on a very
+large scale by King Fernando VI. and supported by the state. It was
+founded in 1748 under the superintendence of a Frenchman called Jean
+Roulière, who was educated at Lyon, a great mechanician, who entered the
+manufactory with a yearly salary of £450, and 4 per cent. of the sale.
+Fine church vestments were made there, and the richest stuffs woven
+with silver and gold for decorating apartments and furniture, of which a
+vast quantity remain in the palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, the Escorial
+and La Granja. In 1762 the Spanish government handed over this
+manufactory to the firm of Uztariz and Company; it remained in their
+hands until 1780, and at this period it continued to be worked for five
+years by the state; in 1785 it passed to the superintendence of the
+Tribunal of Commerce entitled Cinco Gremios Mayores de Madrid. The
+French invasion of 1808 and general decay of the country contributed
+towards the extinction of this industry.
+
+In a similar manner to the silk manufactures established at Toledo,
+silks of all kinds were made at Seville, Granada, Murcia, and other
+provinces, to a very great extent during the 16th and 17th centuries.
+This industry continues in the present day, and specimens exist at the
+South Kensington Museum, made in 1874, which recall the ancient style of
+these stuffs.
+
+
+EMBROIDERIES.
+
+It is probable that the history of embroidery in Spain followed the same
+steps as that of gold and silver stuffs, owing to the great similarity
+which exists between these industries, as may be seen by the banner
+called de las Navas, which is composed of both these materials.
+Ornamentation in the Oriental style must have fallen sooner into disuse
+than in woven fabrics owing to the fashion of introducing figures in
+ecclesiastical vestments, which much before the Renaissance period
+became so general in Europe. The first mention which I find of the
+existence of this artistic industry appears in the Ordenanzas de
+Sevilla, 1433; it refers to regulating this industry, and preventing
+certain frauds, by which we may infer its existence from an earlier
+period. Similar dispositions appear in one of the Ordinances of Toledo,
+dated 1496, and as sumptuary laws were continually issued we have
+constant references to the existence of this industry: [consult
+"Sempere, Hist. del Lujo," vol. ii. 8vo]. These legal prohibitions did
+not, however, reach church vestments; after the aggrandizement of the
+monarchy by the conquest of the New World such enormous sums were spent
+on these objects, that notwithstanding the ravages of time, wars,
+disturbances of all kinds, and vandalisms and neglect, the cathedrals of
+Toledo and Seville, and many other churches, are museums of this style
+of art.
+
+The art of embroidery was imported by Italians and Germans early in the
+16th century, in the same manner as wood carving, metal work, and other
+industries. The comparative study of embroideries of different kinds
+which are preserved in churches and museums in other countries confirms
+this theory; some have been made in the north and others in the south,
+while their historical origin may be traced to Italy. In Spain itself
+this comparison may be made, and the Germanic influence is most
+apparent. At the cathedral of Burgos there is a fine series of
+ecclesiastical vestments which Bishop Alonso de Cartagena gave to the
+cathedral on his return from the council of Bâle, 1431-43. Another
+series of most important specimens is at Toledo, a present to Cardinal
+Mendoza by the German emperor Frederic in 1489. In both these instances
+we find that the embroidery is identical with what was made in Spain at
+this period, until they changed the Gothic for the Italian Renaissance
+style.
+
+I must mention two splendid altar frontals of foreign workmanship which
+exist in Spain, one of them is at the chapel of the Disputation of
+Barcelona; it represents St. George slaying the dragon. This embroidery
+is in high relief, and is so perfect in every detail that it appears to
+be chiselled. Another altar frontal of the same style is at the
+Colegiata of Manresa, Cataluña; on this one the Crucifixion is
+represented, with eighteen other subjects, taken from the Old and New
+Testaments. This frontal is signed--_Geri Lapi Rachamatore Me fecit in
+Florentia._
+
+Almost all Spanish towns of importance are distinguished for their
+embroidery, Toledo, Seville and Valencia are especially so; Ciudad
+Rodrigo figures as an important centre of this industry during the 16th
+century. We find the sentence, "obra de Ciudad Rodrigo" applied to
+embroidery of gold thread, [Acad. de la Historia, MS. C. 122.] Father
+Siguenza tells us in his "Hist. de la orden de San Jeronimo" that this
+style of embroidery was exclusively Spanish, and probably the remains of
+the Moorish influence. The principal localities where embroideries and
+artistic work of every kind can be studied are the cathedrals of the
+towns we have mentioned, which were great centres of artistic industries
+in other times, and the monastery of the Escorial. The collection at the
+cathedral of Toledo alone is sufficient to illustrate this subject.
+
+About forty sets of splendid vestments exist at this cathedral which are
+embroidered with the most exquisite taste, belonging to the 15th and
+16th centuries. Each set generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope,
+altar frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces.
+The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of saints,
+are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MS. The _manga_, or case
+which hangs round the processional cross given by Cardinal Ximenez, is
+one of the most splendid specimens of this collection. As a fine
+specimen of embroidery on a large scale must be mentioned the _dosel_ or
+canopy called the tent of Ferdinand and Isabel, also at the cathedral of
+Toledo, which is interesting as being the same which was used in the
+reception of the English envoys Thomas Salvaige and Richard Nanfan who
+were sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage of Prince Henry with
+the Infanta D^{na.} Catalina. The ambassadors describe it in the
+following manner: "After the tilting was over, the kings returned to the
+palace, and took the ambassadors with them, and entered a large room:
+and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of rich crimson velvet,
+richly embroidered with the arms of Castile and Aragon, and covered
+with the device of the king, which is a ... (blank in original), and his
+motto, written at length, which is 'Tanto Monta.'" ("Memorials of King
+Henry the Seventh," Gairdner, Lon. 1858, p. 348.)
+
+The most remarkable specimen of embroidery which exists in Spain, not so
+much on account of its artistic merit as for the enormous value of the
+materials employed, is the mantle of the Virgin del Sagrario at Toledo.
+It is completely covered with pearls and jewels forming a most effective
+ornamentation. This embroidery was made in the beginning of the 17th
+century, during the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who presented it to
+the church. S^{r.} Parro in his exhaustive volume of "Toledo en la
+Mano," [vol. i., p. 574,] describes it in the following manner: "It is
+made of twelve yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is
+entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre there is a
+jewel of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each side
+of enamelled gold, emeralds and large rubies; a variety of other jewels
+are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part are the
+arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on gold and studded with sapphires
+and rubies. The centre of this mantle is covered with flowers and
+pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of different sizes. Round the
+borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the gems which were employed
+in this superb work of art, no less than 257 ounces of pearls of
+different sizes, 300 ounces of gold thread, 160 ounces of small pieces
+of enamelled gold, and eight ounces of emeralds were used."
+
+A fine altar frontal of a similar kind embroidered in corals may be seen
+in the same room where this mantle of the Virgin is kept at the
+cathedral of Toledo.
+
+We find in Madame de Villars' letters, [p. 39, Paris, 1823,] the
+description of a similar embroidery. Writing in 1680 she says, "Ce que
+j'ai vu de plus riche, de plus doré, de plus magnifique, est
+l'appartement de la reine. Il y a entre autres meubles dans sa chambre,
+une tapisserie, dont ce qu'on y voit de fond, est de perles. Ce ne sont
+pas des personnages, on ne peut dire que l'or y soit massif, mais il
+est employé d'une manière et d'une abondance extraordinaires. Il y a
+quelques fleurs: ce sont des bandes de compartimens; mais il faudrait
+être plus habile que je ne suis pour représenter les choses, pour vous
+faire comprendre la beauté que compose le corail employé dans cet
+ouvrage. Ce n'est point une matière assez précieuse pour en vanter la
+quantité; mais la couleur et l'or qui paraissent dans cette broderie,
+sont assurément ce qu'on aurait peine à décrire."
+
+From the period when these embroideries were made until the middle of
+the 18th century, Spanish embroideries lost much of their artistic
+character, although the work itself continued equally excellent. During
+the whole of the 17th century, a style of embroidery became very general
+in Spain, which appears to have been copied from eastern importations by
+the Portuguese or the Spanish possessions in America. The specimens most
+generally met with in Spain are chiefly bed covers, the ground of which
+is either linen or satin, embroidered in chain stitch, with figures and
+exotic birds and animals. Their effect is very rich, and the
+ornamentation is arranged generally in circles. Specimens exist in
+England of this kind of work; for example, a quilt, said to have been
+made for an Archbishop of Toledo, lent by Lady Cornelia Guest to the
+Special Exhibition of Embroidery held at South Kensington in 1873.
+
+At the Mus. Arq., Madrid, is a fine quilt of this kind embroidered with
+maize-coloured silk on linen, with representations of figures and
+animals.
+
+Embroideries were made in Spain to cover furniture. Sedan chairs,
+coffers, &c., were ornamented in this manner. At the Kensington Museum
+there is an interesting example of a trunk with silver lock, covered
+with embroidery, which was given towards 1680 by Count Olivares to the
+nuns at Loeches. Some fine embroidered tapestries belonging to the same
+collection are at the Museo Arqueleogico, Madrid. A varied collection of
+ecclesiastical vestments of the kinds described may also be studied at
+the museum. (V. Nos. 78, 79, 84, 673, 1194, 1195, 1250, &c., in Dr.
+Rock's Catalogue.)
+
+The sumptuary laws, and especially the Decrees issued by Philip IV. in
+1622, prohibited any display or ostentation in costume, and embroideries
+were confined to ecclesiastical purposes. In the middle of the 18th
+century embroideries were introduced in the costumes of men and women
+when French fashions were imported into Spain. Although many of them
+came from France, they were imitated in Spain to a large extent. A guild
+of embroiderers was formed in 1779, who submitted their statutes to the
+Tribunal of Commerce. We find that Madrid was the principal centre of
+this industry, and that French designs were universally copied, as was
+the case in the whole of Europe. The splendid curtains and embroidered
+hangings for apartments which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the
+Escorial and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens of this industry.
+
+The following list of Spanish embroiderers is taken from Cean's "Dic. de
+Prof de las Bellas Artes;" Martinez, "Hist. del Templo Cat. de Burgos;"
+Suarez de Figueroa, "Plaza Universal," etc.
+
+ Years in which
+ they worked. Artists. Residence.
+
+ 1603. Alcala, Fr. Fernando de Escorial.
+
+ 1526. Alonso, Esteban Toledo.
+
+ 1688 to } Arroyo, Diego de Burgos.
+ 1715. }
+
+ 1594. Aspe, Simeon de Burgos.
+
+ 1646. Ansin, Francisco de Burgos.
+
+ 1500. Barcelona, Fr. Rafael de Escorial.
+
+ 1599. Berrio, Francisco de Burgos.
+
+ 1452. Bilbao, Juan Burgos.
+
+ 1514. Burgos, Pedro Toledo.
+
+ 1574 to } Camiña, Alonso Burgos.
+ 1580. }
+
+ 1580 to } Camiña, Miguel, a son of Alonso Burgos.
+ 1593. }
+
+ 1580. Castillo, Juan del Madrid.
+
+ 1571. Cordova, Fr. Francisco Escorial.
+
+ 1616. Corral, Felipe de Toledo.
+
+ 1514. Covarrubias, Marcos de Toledo.
+
+ 1422. Fernandez, Garcia Burgos.
+
+ 1422. Fernandez, Pedro Burgos.
+
+ 1645. Garcia de Jalon, Juan Burgos.
+
+ 1500. Gil, Francisco Madrid.
+
+ 1688. Gomez, Juan Sevilla.
+
+ 1514. Hernandez, Alonso Toledo.
+
+ 1630. Landa, Alonso de Burgos.
+
+ 1625. Martinez de Manurga, Sebastian Burgos.
+
+ 1521. Monte, Cornieles de Burgos.
+
+ 1576. Montserrate, Fr. Lorenzo scorial.
+
+ 1580 to } Ochandiano, Andrès Burgos.
+ 1593. }
+
+ 1595. Ortiz de Zarate, Pedro Burgos.
+
+ 1565. Palenzuela, Francisco de Burgos.
+
+ 1591. Palenzuela, Jeronimo Burgos.
+
+ 1500. Perez, Gabriel Madrid.
+
+ 1580. Perez, Juan Madrid.
+
+ 1514. Rica, Hernando de la Toledo.
+
+ 1500. Rosales Toledo.
+
+ 1500. Rosicler, Luís de Madrid.
+
+ 1514. Ruiz, Martin Toledo.
+
+ 1716 to } Ruiz, Antonio Burgos.
+ 1734. }
+
+ 1585. Rutinez, Diego Escorial.
+
+ 1563. Salas, Juan de Granada.
+
+ 1718. Santos Martires, Fr. Esteban de los { Cardeña
+ { Burgos.
+ 1561. Sarabia Burgos.
+
+ 1514. Talavera, Juan de Toledo.
+
+ 1500. Toledo, Fr. Juan de Escorial.
+
+ 1752. Transmontana, Fr. F. Javier de Burgos.
+
+ 1684. Valle, Antonio del Burgos.
+
+ 1500. Vega, Felicis de Madrid.
+
+ 1563. Villegas, Nicolas de Granada.
+
+ 1502. Xaques, el Maestro Toledo.
+
+
+TAPESTRIES.
+
+The manufacture of tapestry or carpets was introduced into Spain by the
+Arabs. The earliest historical information which I have been able to
+find relating to this industry occurs in Edrisi, an oriental author of
+the beginning of the 12th century, ["Descrip. de l'Afr. et de l'Esp.,
+trad. de Dozy el Goeje,"] when speaking of Chinchilla in the province of
+Alicante, he says: "On y fabrique des tapis de laine qu'on ne saurait
+imiter ailleurs, circonstance qui dépend de la qualité de l'air et des
+eaux." In mentioning Cuenca, he says: "Les tapis de laine qu'on y fait
+sont d'excellente qualité," p. 237. Although we find very few
+descriptive details of this industry, it is undoubtedly the fact that in
+a wide zone which comprehends from the kingdom of Valencia until that of
+Granada, carpets have been constantly made; for even in the present day
+this industry is alive in a number of towns, where not only the old
+technical proceedings are continued, but also much of the primitive
+character of the designs and colours. In confirmation of this, I find
+frequent mention in books and MSS. of the 16th century of carpets of
+Letur, made in the kingdom of Murcia, Alcaraz, and Baeza.
+
+The first time I find this industry mentioned by Christian authors is in
+Francisque Michel's work on "Étoffes de Soie," vol. i., p. 292; he says:
+"A une époque qu'il nous serait difficile de préciser un poète Latin
+vantait les teintures précieuses à sujets, et les tapis d'Espagne."
+
+"Tunc preciosa suis surgunt aulaea figuris.
+
+"Ac in se raptis ora tenent animis.
+
+"Tunc operosa suis _Hispana tapetia_ villis.
+
+"Hinc rubras, virides inde ferunt species."
+
+At the cathedral of Gerona an extremely interesting tapestry of the 12th
+century may be seen, which may have been made in the locality.
+
+[Illustration: TAPESTRY AT THE CATHEDRAL OF GERONA; REPRESENTING THE
+CREATION, &C.--SPANISH, 11TH CENTURY. _To face p. 267._]
+
+This tapestry is about 4½ yards wide by 4 yards high. The composition
+represents the Genesis. In the centre is a geometrical figure formed by
+two concentric circles. In the lesser circle is a figure of Christ
+holding an open book, on which appear the words, _Sanctus Deus_, and on
+each side _Rex fortis_, surrounded by the inscription, _Dixit quoque
+Deus, Fiat lux, Et facta est lux._ In the larger circle are the words,
+_In principio creavit Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia quæ in eis
+sunt, et vidit Deus cuncta quæ egerat et erant valde bona._
+
+The space between the two circles is divided by radiating lines into
+eight portions, in which are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of
+light and darkness: the division of land from water, the creation of
+sun, moon, and stars, of birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve.
+In the angles outside the larger circle are the four winds, and the
+whole is surrounded by a border, imperfect in parts, containing
+representations of the months, and apparently of certain scriptural
+incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out. The accompanying
+engraving, though imperfect and inaccurate in some of its details, gives
+a general idea of this work.
+
+Although this tapestry is embroidered with crewels on linen, it appears
+advisable to include it in the description of Spanish tapestries, owing
+to its similarity and general aspect to other tapestries. It is easy for
+students of Spanish works of art of the Middle Ages to fix the period
+and style to which this example belongs. Several remarkable
+illuminations exist in Spain representing the Apocalypse which were
+painted in the X. XI. and XIIth. centuries, which have already been
+alluded to in other articles of this work. The figures of the tapestry
+of Gerona are disposed in a precisely similar manner to the miniatures
+of the 12th century. They are in the same style as the paintings on the
+ceiling of the chapel of St. Catalina, at St. Isidoro of Leon, which
+were painted at that period. There can be therefore no doubt that they
+belong to that period and style. Several MSS. may be mentioned to
+further illustrate the subject. An excellent specimen is at the
+cathedral of Gerona, those at the National Library, Museo Arqueologico,
+and Academia de la Historia, Madrid, Escorial, Bibliotheque Nationale,
+Paris--and especially the fine MS. at the British Museum (Add. II.
+695),--dated A. D. 1109, referred to in the chapter on Arms, page 90.
+The illuminations of this volume are extremely similar to the design of
+this tapestry. Plate 83, twelve inches by eight, within a circle,
+representing Christ holding a book in his hand, may be given as an
+example.
+
+I do not find any information of a later date which suggests the
+existence of the manufacture of tapestries in Spain during the Middle
+Ages. There are constant allusions to the splendid tapestries which were
+brought from Flanders, many of which are at the Royal palace of Madrid.
+The earliest mention I find is a memorial printed without date, in which
+Pedro Gutierrez, tapestry maker of Salamanca, asks Philip II. to protect
+this industry. He evidently gained his object, for in the documents
+published by S^{r}. Cruzada in his "Tapices de Goya," [Madrid, 1870,] it
+appears that in 1578 Queen Doña Ana appointed him to work in her Camara
+as tapestry maker to make _reposteros_[B] and Philip II. in 1582
+confirms this appointment. Gutierrez worked at this period, at Salamanca
+and Madrid. He was succeeded in his charge in 1625 by Antonio Ceron, who
+established this industry definitively in the Calle de Santa Isabel at
+Madrid. The fine picture by Velasquez, at the Madrid Gallery, "The
+Weavers," which represents the interior of the tapestry manufactory,
+belongs to this time. We find this industry soon fell into decay. In
+1694 a Belgian named Juan Metier tried to revive it, but without
+success; the same thing occurred with Nicolas Hernandez, a tapestry
+maker of Salamanca, in 1707.
+
+[B] Reposteros is the ancient name given to the hangings which are
+placed outside the balconies on state occasions in Spain. Several
+splendid examples of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries may still
+be seen at the houses of Spanish grandees, of which those belonging to
+the Conde de Oñate and Marques de Alcañices at Madrid are the most
+remarkable for their artistic design.
+
+The tapestry manufactory of Santa Barbara at Madrid was founded soon
+after; it was the most important of all, and continues to produce
+excellent work in the present day. It appears that Jacobo Vandergoten of
+Antwerp was engaged expressly by the king; he began to work in 1720, and
+continued there until his death in 1724. He was succeeded by his sons,
+Francisco, Jacobo, Cornelius, and Adrian, who worked in _basse lisse_
+looms until 1729, when a Frenchman, Antonio Lenger mounted a _haute
+lisse_ one.
+
+On the occasion of the temporary removal of the court to Seville, the
+king established a tapestry manufactory there in 1730; Jacobo
+Vandergoten was put at the head of it, and the painter, Andres
+Procaccini, helped him in the direction of the manufactory. It only
+lasted three years, at the end of which the artists returned with their
+implements to establish themselves in the old tapestry manufactory of
+the Calle de Santa Isabel: and continued to work there until 1744, at
+that time they again joined the works at Santa Barbara.
+
+Three of the brothers Vandergoten were already dead in 1774. Cornelius
+alone was alive. In the same year the Spanish artists, Antonio Moreno,
+Domingo Galan, Tomas del Castillo, and Manuel Sanchez were placed at the
+head of these works, under the superintendence of Sanchez, who continued
+there until his death in 1786, when he was succeeded by his nephew,
+Livinio Stuck. This manufactory was much neglected at the end of the
+last century; it was destroyed by the French in 1808, and was
+rehabilitated in 1815 under the direction of a son of Stuck. This family
+continues to work there in the present day. The carpets made at the
+manufactory of S^{ta.} Barbara are of the highest excellence and
+artistic order.
+
+Very fine tapestries have been made at this manufactory during the last
+century, some after original cartoons of excellent painters and others
+reproductions of ancient Flemish ones belonging to the royal
+collections. During the years 1721 to 1724 the tapestries representing
+pastoral subjects after Teniers were woven there, and a series of
+hunting subjects which still exist at the Pardo and palace of Madrid.
+The excellent copy of the series of tapestries representing the conquest
+of Tunis, after cartoons by William Pannemaker were made partly at
+Seville and partly at Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara. The tapestries
+representing scenes from the life of Don Quixote, designed by the
+painter Procaccini, were also made at the looms of Santa Barbara.
+
+Fine carpets in the Turkish style were made there under the
+superintendence of Cornelius Vandergoten, who excelled in this special
+industry. Carpets also in the French style of the Gobelin manufactory
+were made at the same time. The best specimens of carpets and tapestries
+of the manufactory of Santa Barbara, will be found at the palaces of the
+Escorial, the Pardo, and Madrid. The series made from cartoons of
+Teniers and the Spanish painter Goya are extremely interesting. A
+complete collection of photographs of the foreign and Spanish tapestries
+at the palace of Madrid will be found in the Art Library of the South
+Kensington Museum.
+
+
+
+
+LACE.
+
+
+It is not easy to give a clear idea of the history of the manufacture of
+ancient Spanish lace; the principal reason being that this industry was
+carried out by private persons, who never formed themselves into Guilds
+or corporations, as was the case during the middle ages and Renaissance
+period with those who devoted their time to other arts and industries.
+We find in the Royal Ordinances constant references to weavers, silver
+and goldsmiths, tailors, etc., but in none do we find the manufacture of
+lace mentioned. The most important Ordinances relating to Spanish
+industries are those published at Toledo and Seville in the 15th and
+16th centuries, and at Granada in the 16th and 17th centuries, and in
+none of them do we find lace even alluded to. In the innumerable laws
+which appeared from the middle ages until the 18th century for the
+object of reforming costumes and checking their excessive luxury no
+mention is made of lace; when it is referred to, it is only when
+_puntas_ or _entredoses_, edgings or insertions, are mentioned in which
+gold and silver are introduced. We never find any allusion in
+contemporary writers to the fine heavy thread lace, sometimes called
+Point d'Espagne or Point de Venise, the origin of which has been a
+source of so much doubt to collectors of the present day.
+
+The only thing which we can do therefore at the present, until this
+subject is more fully investigated, is to assert that lace of different
+kinds has been made from the very earliest times in Spain, and do our
+best to classify the different kinds by the differences which we observe
+in those of other localities.
+
+Father Fr. Marcos Antonio de Campos in his "Microcosmia y Gobierno
+Universal del Hombre Cristiano," [Barcelona, 1592, p. 225,] says: "I
+will not be silent and fail to mention the time lost these last years in
+the manufacture of _cadenetas_, a work of thread combined with gold and
+silver; this extravagance and excess reached such a point that 100 and
+1000 of ducats were spent in this work, which, besides destroying the
+eyesight, wasting away the lives, and rendering consumptive the women
+who worked it, and preventing them from spending their time with more
+advantage to their souls, a few ounces of thread and years of time, were
+wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I ask myself, after this fancy
+has passed away, will the lady or gentleman find that the chemises that
+cost them 50 ducats, or the _basquiña_ (petticoats) that cost them 300,
+are worth half their price, which certainly is the case with other
+objects in which the material itself is worth more." This quotation is
+interesting as proving that lace was made during the 16th century. The
+friar, in following the prevalent fashion of preaching against luxury
+and extravagance, shows us that this industry must have reached to a
+great height in order to be an object of censure.
+
+From the 16th century until the end of the 18th we find this manufacture
+continued in Spain, but that foreign lace of different kinds was
+likewise imported to a great extent, although we may affirm that black
+lace especially was made in Spain during the whole period.
+
+We find lace mentioned by ancient Spanish authors under the following
+names: _punta_, _randa_, _cadeneta_, _entredos_, _red_, _deshilado_,
+_franja_, _blonda_, and _encaje_, which may be translated as edging, or
+points, réseuil, chain stitch, insertion, netting, ravelling, fringe,
+blonde, and lace.
+
+M. H. de Cocheris in his introduction to "Patrons de Broderies," Paris,
+1872, says that "gold and silver laces were made at Paris and Lyons."
+The four books which are reproduced in this volume mention Lyons as
+being a great centre of this particular branch of industry. Gold and
+silver lace was, however, also made and copied in Spain during the 17th
+century. We find in the "Pragmatica y Nueva Orden cerca de los Vestidos
+y Trajes, asi de Hombres como de Mugeres," [fol. Madrid 1611, p. 5,]
+"May we be allowed to border or edge the said silken materials with
+thread lace, which are not to be made of chain stitch, or gold or
+silver, and when these laces are mentioned we should understand they are
+exclusively for women's use." We also find in an Ordinance of the time
+of Philip III., dated 1623, that gold and silver lace was prohibited,
+and that "simple edgings, and curls, and fraises for women were enjoined
+for women's use." In the "Fenix de Cataluña, compendio de sus Antiguas
+Grandezas y Medio para Renovarlas," Barcelona, 1683, by Narciso Feliu,
+the author states, p. 75, that "edgings of all sorts of gold, silver,
+silk, thread, and aloe, is made there with greater perfection than in
+Flanders."
+
+Many interesting details have reached us of the costume of a Spanish
+lady in the 17th century. We will copy the description given by Madame
+d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon 1628. "Under the vertingale of
+black taffety they wear a dozen or more petticoats, one finer than the
+other, of rich stuffs trimmed with lace of gold and silver to the
+girdle. They wear at all times a white garment called sabenqua; it is
+made of the finest English lace, and four ells in compass. I have seen
+some worth 500 or 600 crowns, and so great is their vanity, they would
+rather have one of those lace subenquas than a dozen coarse ones, and
+either lie in bed till it is washed, or else dress themselves without
+any, which they frequently enough do." A number of portraits exist in
+the Spanish galleries, especially by Velasquez and Carreño, in which
+these extravagant costumes are fully portrayed, but in very few Spanish
+portraits of the seventeenth century does thread lace of the kind known
+as Point d'Espagne or de Venise ever appear. Mrs. Palliser, in her
+interesting "History of Lace," p. 80, quotes a vast number of
+descriptions of these gold and silver laces. The celebrated bed at
+Versailles, the interior lacings of the carriages, the costumes of the
+gentlemen and ladies of court, and wedding dresses, were all trimmed
+with this silver and gold lace, either made in Spain, or called Point
+d'Espagne.
+
+We copy again Madame d'Aunoy's description of a Spanish bed. "It is of
+gold and green damask lined with silver brocade and trimmed with point
+of Spain. Her sheets were laced round with an English lace half an ell
+deep. The young Princess of Monteleon bade her maids bring in her
+wedding clothes. They brought in thirty silver baskets so heavy four
+women could only carry one basket: the linen and lace were not inferior
+to the rest." Beckford, in describing the apartment of a Spanish lady,
+writes: "Her bed was of the richest blue velvet trimmed with point
+lace." Aarsens de Sommerdyck in his "Voyage d'Espagne," [Paris, 1665,]
+writes, in describing the costume worn by the men: "Leurs collets ou
+cravates sont de grandes pointes, qui sans doute coustent beaucoup, bien
+qu'elles ne paroissent pas belles. La mode en est presque la mesme qu'en
+France, l'ayant prise de la princesse de Carignan quand elle estoit à
+Madrid, dont elles les nomment Valonas à la Carignan." In the
+interesting "Journal du Voyage d'Espagne," Paris, 1669, l'Abbé Bertaut
+tells us that on the 15th of October, 1659, on the occasion of his
+embassy to Madrid, the king of Spain sent eight postilions, and forty
+post-horses, the saddles and bridles of eight of which were covered with
+gold and silver lace.
+
+Notwithstanding the opinion of so competent an authority as Mrs.
+Palliser, I doubt the statement, finding no evidence to support it, that
+thread lace of a very fine or artistic kind was ever made in Spain, or
+exported as an article of commerce during early times. The lace alb,
+which is mentioned, to prove this, as existing at Granada, a gift of
+Ferdinand and Isabel, is of Flemish lace of the 17th century. The
+chasuble, etc., splendid ecclesiastical vestments embroidered on crimson
+velvet, were certainly the gift of these kings, and if Cardinal Wiseman
+officiated in this vestment, it is probable he may have made a mistake
+and not separated the alb from the chasuble, which certainly may be
+worth 10,000 crowns. J. Barretti, in his "Journey from London to Genoa,
+through Portugal and Spain," London, 1770, describing the fine church of
+Las Salesas, lately built, writes, "The nuns showed me in the sacristy
+some surplices for the mass priest, that are made of the finest Flanders
+lace. Each surplice has cost about 1000 doubloons." In "Tassa de los
+Precios a que se han de vender as Mercaderias," Madrid, 1628, we find
+that the "puntas or edgings made in Spain are to be sold at the same
+price as those imported from Paris." Puntas from Flanders are estimated
+in this tariff at a much higher rate than those which were brought from
+France; we may calculate they were sold for double the price. The
+"Ordenaciones" made at Barcelona to settle commercial tariffs state in
+1704: "As experience has shown us that most of the edgings or puntas
+made in this principality are sent out of the country, and we do not
+find them mentioned in the financial accounts, to the great disadvantage
+of the community, it is determined--"
+
+We find reference to lace brought from Flanders, Paris, and Lyon, in the
+first volume of "Apendice a la Educacion Popular," [p. 61.] [Madrid,
+1775,] the author mentions the large sums of money which were taken out
+of the country by the importations of foreign lace, and he adds, [vol.
+ii., p. 61,] "Lace is employed to a very considerable extent; all the
+fine qualities come from foreign lands, and the greater varieties of the
+coarser ones. Spanish matrons, among other branches of their education,
+are taught to make lace of different kinds, and many respectable people
+live on this industry." Larruga, in his "Memorias," Madrid, 1788,
+mentions, vol. ii., p. 149, a manufacture of gold and silver lace which
+had been set up lately at Madrid; and in the 17th vol., p. 294, in
+mentioning lace made at La Mancha, "the industry of lace has existed at
+Almagro from time immemorial. D^{n}. Manuel Fernandez and Dª Rita
+Lambert, his wife, natives of Madrid, established in this town in 1766
+a manufacture of silk and thread lace." This industry also existed at
+Granatula, Manzanares, and other villages of La Mancha. At Zamora "lace
+and blonde were made in private houses. The finest kinds are sold to
+lace merchants." In Sempere, "Historia del Lujo," [Madrid, 1788, 8vo,]
+we find that in the Ordinance issued in 1723, the "introduction of every
+sort of edgings or foreign laces was prohibited, the only kinds allowed
+were those made in the country."
+
+Cabanillas writes in his "Observaciones sobre la Historia natural del
+Reino de Valencia," Madrid, 1797, that at Novelda a third part of the
+inhabitants made lace, "more than 2000 among women and children worked
+at this industry, and the natives themselves hawked these wares about
+the country." Swinburne, in his "Travels in Spain in 1775," also says,
+"The women of the hamlets were busy with their bobbins making lace."
+Laborde writes that in 1809 the manufacture of blonde was almost
+entirely confined to Cataluña. Barcelona is in the present day the great
+centre of this industry in Spain; the black and white blondes which are
+made chiefly for mantillas are very fine. The white laces made there are
+in the style of Lille and Buckinghamshire laces, Brussels and Duchesse
+laces, and Chantilly is also made to a large extent. Gold and silver
+blondes were revived during the years 1830-40; and it may interest my
+readers to know that the late Queen Mercedes, in her wedding trousseaux,
+had a garniture de robe, mantilla included, of gold blonde.
+
+Modern torchon laces are still made at Almagro to a very large extent.
+Bed linen, even in the poorest houses, is elaborately trimmed with lace
+or embroidery. Valances for beds of ravellings, point coupé and lace
+work are still constantly found to decorate beds at weddings in the
+provinces of Spain.
+
+THE END.
+
+RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BUNGAY.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM SCIENCE AND ART HANDBOOKS.
+
+Handsomely printed in large crown 8vo.
+
+_Published for the Committee of Council on Education._
+
+MARINE ENGINES AND BOILERS. By GEORGE C. V. HOLMES, Secretary of the
+Institution of Naval Architects, Whitworth Scholar. With Sixty-nine
+Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, 3_s._
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN ART IN IRELAND. By MARGARET STOKES. With 106 Woodcuts.
+Crown 8vo. 4_s._ A Library Edition, demy 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._
+
+FOOD GRAINS OF INDIA. By PROF. A. H. CHURCH, M.A., F.C.S., F.I.C. With
+numerous Woodcuts. Small 4to, 6_s._
+
+THE ART OF THE SARACENS IN EGYPT. By STANLEY LANE POOLE, B.A., M.A.R.S.
+With 108 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 4_s._
+
+ENGLISH PORCELAIN: A Handbook to the China made in England during the
+18th Century, as illustrated by Specimens chiefly in the National
+Collections. By PROF. A. H. CHURCH, M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 3_s._
+
+RUSSIAN ART AND ART OBJECTS IN RUSSIA: A Handbook to the reproduction of
+Goldsmiths' work and other Art Treasures from that country in the South
+Kensington Museum. By ALFRED MASKELL. With Illustrations. 4_s._ 6_d._
+
+FRENCH POTTERY. By PAUL GASNAULT and EDOUARD GARNIER. With Illustrations
+and Marks. 3_s._
+
+ENGLISH EARTHENWARE: A Handbook to the Wares made in England during the
+17th and 18th Centuries, as illustrated by Specimens in the National
+Collection. By PROF. A. H. CHURCH, M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 3_s._
+
+INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF DENMARK. From the Earliest Times to the Danish
+Conquest of England. By J. J. A. WORSAAE, Hon. F.S.A., &c. &c. With Map
+and Woodcuts. 3_s._ 6_d._
+
+INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF SCANDINAVIA IN THE PAGAN Time. By HANS HILDEBRAND,
+Royal Antiquary of Sweden. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+PRECIOUS STONES: Considered in their Scientific and Artistic relations,
+with a Catalogue of the Townsend Collection of Gems in the South
+Kensington Museum. By PROF. A. H. CHURCH, M.A. With a Coloured Plate and
+Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF INDIA. By Sir GEORGE C. M. BIRDWOOD, C.S.I., &c. With
+Map and Woodcuts. Demy 8vo, 14_s._
+
+HANDBOOK TO THE DYCE AND FORSTER COLLECTIONS in the South Kensington
+Museum. With Portraits and Facsimiles, 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN SPAIN. By JUAN F. RIAÑO. With numerous Woodcuts.
+4_s._
+
+GLASS. By ALEXANDER NESBITT. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+GOLD AND SILVER SMITHS' WORK. By JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN, M.A. With
+numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+TAPESTRY. By ALFRED DE CHAMPEAUX. With Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+BRONZES. By C. DRURY E. FORTNUM, F.S.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._
+6_d._
+
+PLAIN WORDS ABOUT WATER. By A. H. CHURCH, M.A, Oxon. With Illustrations.
+Sewed, 6_d._
+
+ANIMAL PRODUCTS: their Preparation, Commercial Uses, and Value. By T. L.
+SIMMONDS. With Illustrations, 7_s._ 6_d._
+
+FOOD: Some Account of its Sources, Constituents, and Uses. By PROFESSOR
+A. H. CHURCH, M.A. Oxon. New Edition, enlarged. 3_s._
+
+ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. By ANDREW MURRAY, F.L.S. APTERA. With
+Illustrations, 7_s._ 6_d._
+
+JAPANESE POTTERY. Being a Native Report. With an Introduction and
+Catalogue by A. W. FRANKS, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. With Illustrations and
+Marks. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+HANDBOOK TO THE SPECIAL LOAN COLLECTION of Scientific Apparatus. 3_s._
+
+INDUSTRIAL ARTS: Historical Sketches. With Numerous Illustrations. 3_s._
+
+TEXTILE FABRICS. By the Very Rev. DANIEL ROCK, D.D. With numerous
+Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+JONES COLLECTION IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. With Portrait and
+Woodcuts, 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+COLLEGE AND CORPORATION PLATE. A Handbook to the Reproductions of Silver
+Plate in the South Kensington Museum from Celebrated English
+Collections. By WILFRED JOSEPH CRIPPS, M.A. F.S.A. With Illustrations.
+2_s._ 6_d._
+
+IVORIES: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL. By WILLIAM MASKELL. With numerous
+Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+ANCIENT AND MODERN FURNITURE AND WOODWORK. By JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN,
+M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+MAIOLICA. By C. DRURY E. FORTNUM, F.S.A. With numerous Woodcuts, 2_s._
+6_d._
+
+THE CHEMISTRY OF FOODS. With Microscopic Illustrations. By JAMES BELL,
+Ph.D., &c., Principal of the Somerset House Laboratory. Part I.--Tea,
+Coffee, Cocoa, Sugar. &c. 2_s._ 6_d._ Part II.--Milk, Butter, Cheese,
+Cereals, Prepared Starches, &c. 3_s._
+
+MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. By CARL ENGEL. With numerous Woodcuts, 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+MANUAL OF DESIGN, compiled from the Writings and Addresses of RICHARD
+REDGRAVE, R.A. By GILBERT R. REDGRAVE. With Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+PERSIAN ART. By MAJOR R. MURDOCK SMITH, R.E. With Map and Woodcuts.
+Second Edition, enlarged, 2_s._
+
+ * * * * *
+
+These typographical errors were corrected by the etext transcriber:
+
+Guadamecis are made of leather=>Guadameciles are made of leather
+
+The French influence of the last century brought the same hions fasfor
+furniture into Spain=>The French influence of the last century brought
+the same fashions for furniture into Spain
+
+gilt bronze mounting were very much used.=>gilt bronze mountings were
+very much used.
+
+It is of polished iron inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in
+workmanhip.=>It is of polished iron inlaid with gold, and most exquisite
+in workmanship.
+
+A wooodcut is given opposite.=>A woodcut is given opposite.
+
+Round the lid of of one them is a band=>Round the lid of one them is a
+band
+
+there are some which are undoubtedly still made n the locality.=>there
+are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality.
+
+same collection are at the Museo Arquelogico, Madrid=>same collection
+are at the Museo Arqueleogico, Madrid
+
+the chaper on Arms, page 90=>the chapter on Arms, page 90
+
+Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain,
+_Churriguesque=>Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain,
+_Churrigueresque
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Industrial Arts in Spain, by Juan F. Riaño
+
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