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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/39602-0.txt b/39602-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..58ad8cc --- /dev/null +++ b/39602-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10723 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Industrial Arts in Spain, by Juan F. Riaño + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: The Industrial Arts in Spain + +Author: Juan F. Riaño + +Release Date: May 3, 2012 [EBook #39602] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN SPAIN *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images available at The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + +Typographical errors have been corrected (see list following text0.) No +attempt has been made to correct or normalize the spelling of place or +personal names. A letter symbolized in this manner [=D] indicates that it is +pictured in the text with a line over it. One symbolized in this manner [A=] +indicates it is pictured in the text with a line under it. The caret character +(^) indicates a superscript follows. (note of etext transcriber.) + + + + +[Illustration: image of the book's cover + +Spanish Arts + +BY + +JUAN F. RIAÑO.] + + + + +FREDERICK P. PRITCHARD + +SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS. + +SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ARTS. + +_This Volume, forming one of the Series of Art Handbooks issued under +the authority of the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, has +been prepared by_ SEÑOR JUAN F. RIAÑO, _of Madrid, whose Catalogue of +Art Objects of Spanish production in the South Kensington Museum, issued +in 1872, has proved of great value and interest._ + +_April, 1879._ + + + + +THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS +IN SPAIN. + +BY + +JUAN F. RIAÑO. + +WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS + +[Illustration] + +_Published for the Committee of Council on Education,_ + +BY + +CHAPMAN AND HALL, LIMITED, + +LONDON. + +1890. + +RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, + +LONDON AND BUNGAY. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PAGE + +GOLD AND SILVER WORK 1 + +IRON WORK 58 + +BRONZES 68 + +ARMS 79 + +FURNITURE 109 + +IVORIES 126 + +POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 143 + +GLASS 228 + +TEXTILE FABRICS 250 + +LACE 271 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +NO. PAGE + +1. Votive Crown of King Swinthila, Madrid 7 + +2. Leaf of Triptych in Cathedral of Seville 17 + +3. Processional Cross, 15th century, South Kensington Museum 20 + +4. Chalice, 16th century, S.K.M. 30 + +5. Chalice, 17th century, S.K.M. 31 + +6. Pax, 16th century, S.K.M. 33 + +7. Jewel, 17th century, S.K.M. 35 + +8. Silver Dish, 17th century, S.K.M. 36 + +9. Breast Ornament set with emeralds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 37 + +10. Breast Ornament set with diamonds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 39 + +11. Moorish Keys in Cathedral of Seville 60 + +12. Nail heads, S.K.M. 66 + +13. Moorish Lamp, Archæological Museum, Madrid 72 + +14. Tenebrarium in Cathedral of Seville 75 + +15. Monstrance, dated 1537, S.K.M. 77 + +16. Sword of Boabdil, Villaseca Collection, Madrid 85 + +17. Moorish Dagger, 15th century 89 + +18. Rapiers, 16th and 17th centuries, S.K.M. 97 + +19. Breastplate, formerly in Bernal Collection 98 + +20. Saddle of the Cid--Armoury, Madrid 99 + +21. Muskets 100 + +22. Botica de los Templarios, from Toledo, S.K.M. 114 + +23. Vargueño Cabinet, 16th century, S.K.M. 121 + +24. Ivory cylindrical box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 128 + +25. Ivory rectangular box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 129 + +26. Ivory Casket, Moorish, 11th century, Cathedral of Pamplona 131 + +27. Cross of King Ferdinand I., Archæological Museum, Madrid 136 + +28. Samian Bowl 144 + +29. Plateau, (probably of Valencia), S.K.M. 152 + +30. Moorish Vase at the Alhambra 155 + +31. Tile, (probably from the Alhambra) 157 + +32. Hispano-Moresco Vase, 14th or 15th century, S.K.M. 159 + +33. Hispano-Moresco Plateau with raised ribs and studs, + 15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 160 + +34. Hispano-Moresco Salver, 15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 161 + +35. Wine Jar, "Tinaja," S.K.M. 164 + +36. Brim of Well from Toledo, S.K.M. 166 + +37. Earthenware Bowl, Talavera ware, S.K.M. 174 + +38. Earthenware Plaque, Alcora ware, S.K.M. 194 + +39. Marks and Signatures of Painters who worked at Alcora 204--210 + +40. Room decorated with Buen-Retiro porcelain in + the Palace at Madrid 217 + +41. Vase, Buen Retiro porcelain, S.K.M. 220 + +42. Marks used at the porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro 221--223 + +43. Glass Vase, 16th century, S.K.M 232 + +44. Pilgrim's Bottle, Glass, 17th century, S.K.M. 233 + +45. Glass Bottle, modern, S.K.M. 237 + +46. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 238 + +47. Glass Vase, Cadalso, 17th century, S.K.M. 239 + +48. Vase, Green glass with black handle and ribs, + 17th century, S.K.M. 242 + +49. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 245 + +50. Tapestry at Cathedral of Gerona, 11th century 267 + +_The Department of Science and Art is indebted to_ MR. JOHN MURRAY _for +the use of the Woodcuts Nos. 19, 20, 30, and 31. No. 50 is from a +Spanish Woodcut._ + + + + +SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ART. + + + + +GOLD AND SILVER WORK. + + +The Greek and Latin authors who have described the Spanish Peninsula, +state that the quantity of gold and silver ore found there was very +great, and that hence the district became an important centre of +commercial activity of Phœnicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans. +Some authors have gone so far as to assert that the Phœnicians made +the anchors of their ships of gold and silver, and that the +Carthaginians were astonished to find in Andalusia, that the mangers and +vases for holding wine and oil were made of the same materials. These +references have been constantly mentioned in ancient Spanish authors. +Ambrosio de Morales, in his "Antiguedades de España," Alcala 1577, +enters into every detail on this subject. + +I have seen a specimen of this period, a bowl of an earlier and +different style to Roman silversmiths' work, which belongs to a +collector in the province of Cordova. This bowl is of a conical shape: +it is perfectly plain, and has an inscription in Iberian characters +engraved on one of its sides: there are signs outside and at the bottom +which indicate that this bowl was made on the wheel. Velazquez in his +"Ensayo sobre las letras desconocidas," Madrid, 1752, describes a silver +bowl of a similar kind, which was found in Andalusia in 1618 full of +Iberian coins: this bowl weighed ten ounces. Several ornaments, chiefly +consisting of necklaces and earrings, may be studied at the Academy of +History, and private collections, in Madrid; they have been classified +by antiquarians as belonging to this uncertain period, and are similar +in style to others which have been frequently found in England and the +north of Europe. The most interesting objects of this kind which I have +seen in Spain, are gold ornaments proceeding from Galicia; they were +found there by Sr. Villaamil, who gave a description of them in the +"Museo Español de Antiguedades," vol. iii. p. 545. + +The information and remains which have reached us illustrating silver +and gold work of the Roman domination are more important; we find, +however, in this and similar artistic industries that, as a general +rule, the Romans imposed their style and system on the inhabitants of +the countries which they conquered, and it is not easy to point out any +one example which can be given as an exception to this general rule. It +is, undoubtedly, a fact that objects of all kinds in gold and silver +were used in Spain to a very great extent--for, notwithstanding the +destruction of ages, we still possess inscriptions which allude to +silver statues, and a large number of objects in the precious metals +exist in museums and private collections. See "Inscrip. Hisp. lat.," by +Dr. Emile Hübner, Berlin, 1869. Of these it will be sufficient to +mention one of the most important. It is known in the province of +Santander by the name of the dish of Otañez; and belongs to a gentleman +who lives in that locality. It was found at Otañez at the end of the +last century, buried in a stone quarry. This dish is made of silver, it +weighs thirty-three ounces, and is covered with an ornamentation of +figures in relief, some of which are gilt, representing an allegorical +subject of the source of medicinal waters. In the upper part is a nymph +who pours water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects it in a vessel; +another gives a cup of it to a sick man; another fills with it a barrel +which is placed in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two mules. On +each side of the fountain are altars on which sacrifices and libations +are offered. Round it is the inscription: SALVS. VMERITANA, and at the +back is engraved, in confused characters, the words: L. P. CORNELIANI. +PIII.... + +Another very interesting silver dish may be seen at the Academia de la +Historia, Madrid. Although not of Spanish manufacture, it deserves +special notice in a description of works of this style. This dish was +found in 1847, buried in a field at Almendralejo, province of +Estremadura: it is 28-6/8 English inches in diameter, and weighs 533 +ounces. It is ornamented with fine figures in relief, representing the +Emperor Theodosius appointing a magistrate. The emperor is seated on his +throne in the centre, at the sides are his sons Arcadius and Honorius, +with four soldiers of the guard, and the magistrate, who receives the +volume. In the lower part there is an allegorical representation of a +nymph holding the horn of abundance, winged angels, and ears of wheat, +probably alluding to the abundance and plenty of the empire. Round the +rim is the following inscription:-- + + D. N. THEODOSIVS PERPET. + AVG OB DIEM FELI CISSIMVM. + +At the back, in points, are the following Greek words. + + [Greek: POS N MET ποc ↑Ν ΜεΤ] + +We can form a very good idea of the jewel work of the Visigothic period +from the discovery of the treasure of Guarrazar. These jewels were found +in 1858 at the village of this name, six miles from Toledo, on the spot +where, in the Visigothic period, a Christian sanctuary had existed. The +objects found, which may be seen at the Museum of Cluny, Paris, and +Armeria Real, Madrid, constitute the most important collection in Europe +of the jewel work of that period. No less than eleven votive crowns, +some of extraordinary magnificence; two crosses with inscriptions, and +a large number of fragments of all kinds, of gold and precious stones, +were found at Guarrazar. Unfortunately a great part of the treasure has +been lost, for the labourers, who were the first to find it, sold +several objects to the silversmiths at Toledo, who melted and destroyed +specimens of the highest artistic interest. Those that remain in Spain +are-- + +At the Royal Armoury of Madrid: A gold crown of Swinthila inlaid with +precious stones, with pendent cross, and inscriptions of letters hanging +from it: SVINTHILANVS REX. OFFERET. See woodcut on p. 7. A similar crown +of Theodosius, with the inscription: OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM. SCO STEFANO +ETHODOSIVS. ABBA. The cross of Lucetius with the following inscription: ++ IN NOMINE DNI. IN NOMINE SCI OFFERET LVCETIVS: E. Fragments of another +crown and of large crosses: several stones and fragments, and an +emerald, on which is engraved _en creux_ the Annunciation of the Virgin. + +At the Archæological Museum, and in several private collections in +Spain, may be seen a large number of stones and pearls which were found +at Guarrazar. + +Among the objects at the Archæological Museum at Madrid, a small +section, which proceed from a different locality, have also been +classified as Visigothic. They consist of necklaces, earrings, and +rings, and are less important in workmanship than those found at +Guarrazar. The student will find further details in "Museo Español de +Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 137. + +The objects forming part of the treasure of Guarrazar now in the Museum +of Cluny, Paris are: Crown of Recesvinthus, with pendent cross and +inscription: + RECESVINTHVS REX OFFERET. A similar crown, without +inscription. Four crowns formed to imitate basket work, with crosses +hanging from the centres. Three crowns, the rims of which are formed of +_repoussé_ work, only one of which is ornamented with precious stones, +and without pendent crosses. The cross of Sonnicus with the following +inscription: ✠ IN [=D]I NOMINE OFFERET SONNICA [=S C E] MARIE IN SORBACES. + +Swinthila reigned from 624 to 631, A.D.; Recesvinthus from 650 to 672 +A.D.; hence these crowns belong to the 7th century, and the remaining +objects are certainly of the same period. + +Much has been written on these Visigothic jewels by French and Spanish +authors, the most interesting and valuable studies are:--"Descrip. du +Trésor de Guarrazar, par M. Lasteyrie. Paris. 1860." "El arte Latino +Bizantino en España y las Coronas de Guarrazar," by Señor Rios, Madrid, +1861. Consult also his article in "Monumentos Arq. de España." "Coronas +de Guarrazar que se conservan en la Armeria Real de Madrid," by Señor +Rada. Museo Español, vol. iii. Madrid, 1874. + +The importance of this goldsmith's work has led these authors to discuss +several archaeological and artistic points which deserve attention. I +will also give my opinions on this subject, which in some respects +differ from those hitherto advanced. In the Middle Ages the name of +crown was equally applied to those worn on the head, to the votive +crowns hung before altars, and to the pendent lamps which were also of +this circular form. The "Etimologies" of San Isidoro help us, +unfortunately, but little on this subject; but Du Cange, in his +"Glossarium Mediæ et infimæ Latinitatis" gives us sufficient details to +understand the differences between them. I refer the student to two +works on this subject, which treat especially of crowns of light, which +none of the authors who have written on Guarrazar have consulted: +"Tratado de la Sagrada Luminaria," by Gonzalez Villar, Madrid, 1798. "De +Lucernis Pensilibus," by Fanceulli, Maceratae, 1802. + +The crowns found at Guarrazar were undoubtedly votive offerings, for +they all have chains by which they were suspended in the sanctuary in +which they were found. Their size and the structure of their rims lead +us to suppose that they may have been worn on the head. The same +observation applies to a similar crown at the Cluny Museum; if so, the +chains, cross, and pendent letters were added when the crown was offered +to the sanctuary. + +Although details which appear in the handwork of these jewels betray a +certain rudeness, not uncommon in the time they were made, their beauty +and richness are truly surprising. These crowns are decorated round +their rims with rosettes of pearls and sapphires, and a delicate +ornamentation of _cloisonné_ work, which encloses a substance resembling +red glass. From the upper part are attached four chains formed of leaves +_percées à jour_, these are united to a double gold rosette with pendent +sapphires, in the centre of which is set a piece of rock crystal. In the +cross of Recesvinthus the pendant is in the form of a capital, and from +it hangs a small cross of the same style of work: from the lower rim of +the crown are suspended the letters, which are ornamented with the same +vitreous paste, _cloisonné_, and from each hang large single pearls and +sapphires. + +The border of some of these crowns is formed of a net-work of small gold +massive balustrades; having between them square spaces in which pearls +and sapphires are set. Others are made simply of _repoussé_ gold, their +chief interest consisting in the ornamentation which has been so +artistically carried out. Some of them have inscriptions and a few +stones set at intervals. The pendants from these crowns are inferior in +richness to the others already described. The pendent crosses are +ornamented in the same style, either with _cloisonné_ work or _repoussé_ +inscriptions. + +[Illustration: VOTIVE CROWN OF KING SWINTHILA, MADRID.] + +One of the most interesting results produced by the study of the +treasure of Guarrazar has been to show us the immense luxury which it +represents, if we remember the period of decay and poverty of the +Visigothic monarchy. We find this magnificence frequently alluded to by +ancient writers. The Arabs when they took possession of Toledo in the +8th century, mention in different works the immense quantity of jewels +of all kinds which they found and carried away. The gold and +silversmith's work of this period was everywhere in a very high state of +development. We find it constantly alluded to in the works of Paul +Silentiarium and other writers of the time of Justinian, and in the +inventories and references given by Du Sommerard of the jewel work +anterior to the Carlovingian period in Italy and France. The Visigothic +kings, who copied from the Eastern emperors even their legal forms, +followed this rule to a great extent in everything which bore relation +to their daily life. + +The most important question is to determine the origin and locality +where these jewels were made. M. de Lasteyrie considers that jewellery +ornamented with red glass _cloisonné_ work was only made by nations of +the Germanic race. To prove this he presents, among other arguments, the +comparison of a fragment of the ornamentation which appears on the crown +of Recesvinthus, with a similar one on the Evangelistiarium of +Theodolinda in the treasure of Monza, which he considers to be of German +workmanship. These theories are untenable. Sr. Rios is of a different +opinion, and considers these jewels to have been made in Spain, owing to +the similarity of ornamentation with different specimens which occur in +Spain in architectural remains of the Roman and Visigothic periods. + +Both these writers give in my opinion the decorative elements of the +crowns of Guarrazar an importance which they do not possess. The +ornamentation which most frequently occurs consists of a combination of +circles, imbrication, and palms of such an elementary kind that it would +be difficult to ascertain its origin; it appears equally in mosaic work +of the later Roman period, in vases and other objects of the best times +of Greek art, and in Asiatic and archaic works. It may be affirmed that +the ornamentation of the goldsmith's work of the north and south of +Europe are derived from a common origin; from the oriental civilization +which in the first centuries of the Middle Ages penetrated into Europe; +it may also be affirmed that its manufacture and technical proceedings +are precisely similar. Later on, the ornamentation and manufacture of +these jewels received from the western nations some slight +modifications; but this artistic industry by no means proceeded from +them. + +One example will be enough to prove this. Setting apart the famous +_cloisonné pectorale_ at the Boulac Museum, Cairo, and other jewels of +the queen, Aah-Hotep, 17th century B.C.; the hawk of a similar period, +Louvre Museum (Paris), and a number of analogous objects in the British +Museum, we have enough specimens of this kind to show that _cloisonné_ +work was known in the east from the very earliest period. I will draw +especial attention to the _plaque_ in the Museum of Wiesbaden, found at +Wolfsheim in 1870. It is formed of gold, with a circular and triangular +ornamentation and squares, _découpés à jour_, set with jacinths, or red +glass paste. At the back may be read an inscription in Persian +characters, which gives the name of a Sassanide king, Artachshaber, of +the 3rd century of our era. (See A. von Cohausen, "Roemischer +Schmelzenschmuck," Wiesbaden, 1873). I know no more ancient specimen in +the north of Europe of these jewels with coloured stones, nor can I give +a better example of their oriental origin. Those who may wish to make a +more profound study on this subject, can also examine the interesting +jewels with stones found at Petrossa, Wallachia, in 1835, now in the +Museum of Bucharest. They are attributed to the Visigothic King +Athanaric, who lived towards the middle of the 4th century of our era, +and are considered in the present day of undoubted Sassanide origin. + +The artistic and technical origin of the jewels of Guarrazar must be +looked for in the East; their manufacture was most probably Spanish. On +part of these jewels, inscriptions of the names of the _donatarios_ +appear, and it is highly improbable that they were made in another +country. We cannot imagine the extraordinary magnificence of the +Visigothic court, so similar to that of Constantinople and other +contemporary ones, without the presence at each of a group of artists +whose task was to satisfy these demands. + +The Visigothic style continued to be followed in Spain at the court of +the Christian kings, until the 11th century, notwithstanding the Moorish +invasion, and the poverty of the kingdom. The specimens at the treasury +of the cathedral of Oviedo, and others which will be described farther +on, will give a good idea of the manufacture of jewels of this period. +Among the relics which are kept in the shrine called the _Camara Santa_, +at Oviedo, are two most interesting gold processional crosses studded +with stones, which are known by the names of _Cruz de los Angeles_, and +_Cruz de la Victoria_ or _de Pelayo_. The _Cruz de los Angeles_ is +16½ inches high, by 16 inches wide, it is covered at the back with an +ornamentation in fine filigree work, set with different stones. In the +front are five medallions, and an inscription in the vacant spaces. +Among the gems there is a good cameo, and seven engraved stones in the +Gnostic style. (Consult "Monumentos Arquitectonicos de España, Camara +Santa"). The inscription on this cross shows us that it was made, A.D. +808. + + "Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei + Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xpi + Hoc signo tuetur pius + Hoc signo vincitur inimicus + Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi + Fulmine divino intereat ipse + Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea + Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCCXLVI." + +The cross of Victory is supposed to have been the same wooden one borne +by Don Pelayo when he began, early in the 8th century, his struggles +against the Mahomedan invasion, it was decorated in the next century +with gold platings and precious stones. It is 36 inches high by 28½ +inches wide; the ornamentation is similar to the former one, and in the +vacant spaces at the back appears the following inscription, by which +we learn it was made at the Castle of Gauzon, Asturias, A.D. 828. + + "Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent + Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemæna Regina + Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit + Fulmine divino intereat ipse + Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est + Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis + Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus + Et opera us est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri. + XLII. discurrente Era DCCCLXVI." + +Another most interesting object at this shrine is Don Fruela's casket, +which is ornamented with agates set in gold, and is similar in style. +The inscription, which appears outside, gives the date A.D. 910. + + "Operatum est Era DCCCCXLVIII." + +A diptych which belongs to the same shrine may also be mentioned. It was +given by Bishop Don Gonzalo, who was bishop of Oviedo from A.D. 1162 to +1175. Round it are the words--_Gundisalvus Episcopus me jussit fieri._ +This diptych is 5 inches long by 7 wide: it is ornamented with ivory +figures, stones, crystals and engraved gems. Although I do not consider +it to be of Spanish workmanship, it is necessary to mention the splendid +_Arca Santa_, in which it is believed many of the relics were taken to +Oviedo. It is covered with silver plates, with _repoussé_ and chiselled +work representing different religious subjects: the Crucifixion, Our +Lord surrounded by the attributes of the Evangelists, saints, apostles, +angels, and a fine ornamental border with letters, imitating Cufic +inscriptions. This splendid casket is 3 feet 9½ inches long, by 3 and +3½ wide, and 28½ inches high, and appears to have been made +between the 10th and 12th centuries. The figures are similar in style to +the paintings and sculpture of this period, and it is highly probable +that it may have been the work of Italian artists. The Cufic inscription +is illegible, and is interrupted in the angles by the symbols of the +Evangelists. This style of simulated inscriptions was frequently used by +Italian artists. + +A cross of the same style as those already described exists at the +cathedral of Santiago. It is made of wood covered with gold platings and +precious stones; some of these are old intagli, which are set in +delicate filigree work. Round it runs a long inscription, from which it +appears that it was a present from _Adefonsus Princeps cum conjuge +Scemena Regina_, and that it was made in Era DCCCCA. Duodecima; A.D. +874. The number of gems which have reached us, after so many centuries +of ruin, the similarity of the different specimens, and the statement +which appears on the cross of King Pelayo, that it was made at the +castle of Gauzon, prove that the goldsmith's industry had attained great +importance in Spain during this period. + +By studying the different objects of silver and gold work which still +exist in Spanish churches, we can form a good idea of the historical +progress of this industry in the following centuries of the Middle Ages; +but before we do so, it is well to make some observations upon objects +of _orfèvrerie_, the work of the Moors. There is a constant connection +between these objects and those made of ivory: the same characteristics +exist which I shall hereafter point out as appearing in Moorish ivory +carvings. The art of ivory carving was imported from the East, the +subjects are much alike in ivory and metal when men and animals are +represented, and the inscriptions and bands of ornamentation are similar +in style. The main variations consist in the different systems employed +in metal work, by which the work differs according to the proceedings +adopted, of _repoussé_ or chiselling, filigree, niellos or enamels. + +A fine Casket belongs to this kind of oriental work which still may be +seen on the high altar of the cathedral of Gerona, Spain. This casket is +15 inches long by 9 wide and 10½ high. It is made in the usual manner +of wood covered with silver gilt platings with a heavy _repoussé_ +ornamentation of leaves enclosed within circles of pearls. Round the +rim of the cover runs the following Cufic inscription: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"In the name of God. The blessing of God and happiness and prosperity +and permanent joy for the servant of God, Alhakem Emir Amumenin +Almostanser Billah, because he ordered this casket to be made for Abdul +walid Hischem, heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished by the +hands of Hudzen Ibn Bothla." + +Alhakem reigned in Spain from A.D. 961 to 976, in which year he was +succeeded by his son Hischem II. This casket belongs, therefore, to this +period, and is especially interesting as giving the artist's name. Two +other silver Arabian caskets may be seen at the Archæological Museum, +Madrid, which were formerly at the shrine of San Isidoro of Leon, but +they possess less artistic interest than the casket at Gerona. One of +these is elliptical in form; it is ornamented with a good design of +leaves and tendrils, and Cufic inscription; the whole of the casket is +enamelled in black. The ornamentation belongs to the 12th century. The +inscription only mentions the owner's name, Abdo Shakir. The other +casket is silver-gilt, square in form, and rather poorly ornamented. The +two Cufic inscriptions which surround it are laudatory. At the cathedral +of Oviedo there is another silver casket with a laudatory inscription +and medallions with figures, in which from very early times, the remains +of S^{ta.} Eulalia have been kept. I suspect that this casket and the +former one are not of Spanish Arab workmanship, for besides the +circumstance that their inscriptions can be applied to any owner, their +ornamentation is unlike others of the same kind. In the first casket it +is insignificant, but on the shrine of S^{ta.} Eulalia the background +of the medallions is covered with an imbricated pattern which I have +never seen repeated on any Arab or Moorish example in Spain. It is +highly probable that they were productions of Oriental industry and were +imported commercially. + +Several specimens of the 14th and 15th centuries, the last period of the +Moorish domination, exist in Spain. They consist of jewels and sword +handles. The most interesting trinkets are a bracelet and fragments of a +necklace and earrings which are at the Archæological Museum, Madrid. +They are made of gold, covered with a geometrical _repoussé_ +ornamentation, and a delicate filigree pattern. There are specimens also +at the Kensington Museum, Nos. 1455 to 1447, 70, consisting of a +bracelet, silver-gilt, formed of seven alternate oval and rectangular +plaques, with impressed pattern and applied filigree and bossed +ornament, and earrings made of gold, formed of clusters of united +circles and lozenges with filigree bosses. Other jewels of less +importance are known to exist, consisting of bracelets, amulets, +earrings, and rings, mostly made of silver niello-work, these are +ornamented with geometrical patterns and inscriptions of little +importance. + +Moorish arms are most artistic; they are fully described in the article +Arms. The most important specimens are in the Royal Armoury, and noble +house of Villaseca, Madrid; another fine example of a similar style is +at the Generalife of Granada. The hilt and settings of the sheath are of +solid silver, gilt, and covered with geometrical patterns ornamented in +high relief, parts of which are filled with translucid _cloisonné_ +enamel. In some instances the hilt is made of ivory. It is impossible +(see plate on p. 85) to find anything more beautiful than the +ornamentation of these swords, or greater perfection in every detail. It +is evident, therefore, that this industry had reached a very high grade +of perfection at Granada in the second part of the 15th century. The +sword now in the possession of the Villaseca family belonged to Boabdil, +the last Moorish king; the one at Granada to one of Boabdil's nearest +relations. + +In continuing our description of Christian silver-work in the 11th and +12th centuries, we meet with two historical chalices of the highest +interest. One was made by the order of Saint Domingo de Silos [A.D. +1045-1074] when abbot of this church. This chalice still exists there, +with the following inscription:-- + + _In nomine Domini ob honorem Sci Sebastiani Dominico abbas + fecit._ + +It is ornamented with fine filigree work, forming zones and horse-shoe +arches, in a similar style to that of the silversmiths' work of +Asturias, which has never been completely abandoned in Spain. The author +of the life of this saint, Fr. Juan de Castro, Madrid 1688, says, p. +297, that he does not consider it was ever used for the sacrifice of the +mass, owing to its great height [13 inches]. The other chalice might +have been seen until very lately at San Isidoro, Leon; it has been +temporarily concealed owing to political disturbances. The cup and foot +are of agate, probably specimens of the classic period; the mounting, +which dates from the time of D^{na}. Urraca, is studded with a profusion +of precious stones and pastes. Some of the gems of the chalice and paten +are antiques.[A] In the centre of the paten is set a splendid flat onyx. +Round the lower part runs the following inscription:-- + + + _In nomine D[=n]i Urraca Fredi[=n][=a]di._ + +[A] For further details of this interesting work of art, see "Monumentos +Arquitectonicos de España," in which a good reproduction is given. + +Dona Urraca, who was a sister of Alfonso VI., and was generally called +_Urraca Fernandez_, bestowed many important gifts on the church of San +Isidoro. She died A.D. 1101. Another interesting chalice of the same +period, although not of the same importance as those just named, belongs +to Cardinal Moreno, archbishop of Toledo. Round the stem are represented +the emblems of the Evangelists, and the inscription: _Pelagius abbas me +fecit_; this formula appears so frequently that it must be understood +in the sense of _fecit fieri_, ordered to be made. + +The Santo Caliz at Valencia has been traditionally held as the cup used +by Our Saviour at the Last Supper. This chalice consists of a circular +cup hollowed out from a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded +round the lip. The base is formed of another inverted sardonyx. These +are united by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by handles, which +are inlaid with delicate arabesque in black enamel. Oriental pearls are +set round the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, sapphires and +emeralds. This chalice is a work of the Roman imperial epoch, and the +mounts are of a later date. Other specimens of jewellers' work of the +Roman period might be mentioned which exist in Spain, but I do not find +sufficient evidence to justify the opinion that they were made in that +country. I consider those that I have described to be of Spanish origin, +for they keep to the same technical modes of workmanship as the jewel +work of Asturias, and the inscriptions which appear on them refer to +historical personages. It would be difficult, considering all things, to +suppose they were imported. + +[Illustration: ONE LEAF OF TRIPTYCH IN CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.] + +We can mention in the thirteenth century a specimen of Spanish +silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition to the new style, +and the progress in the design of the figures owing to the Italian +Renaissance--I refer to the interesting triptych at the Cathedral of +Seville, known as the "Tablas Alfonsinas," made by the order of Don +Alfonso el Sabio for holding relics. It is of wood, covered inside and +out with silver-gilt plates; it is 22 inches high by 39 wide when its +three leaves are open (the woodcut opposite represents the outside of +left leaf), and is divided inside into fifteen compartments full of +minute ornamentation, among which are set a large number of capsules +covered with rock crystal containing relics, each one with an +inscription of enamelled gold, _cloisonné_. Several good cameos with +sacred subjects appear near the edge of the side leaves. The outside of +this triptych is decorated with twelve medallions containing the arms +of Castile and Aragon, and forty-eight others in which are repeated +alternately the subjects of the Adoration of the Magi and Annunciation +of the Virgin, which are also _repoussé_. In the centres are eagles, +which S^{r}. Rios supposes to allude to Don Alonso's claim to be crowned +Emperor, in which case it was made in the year 1274. (See Mus. esp. de +Antig., vol. ii. p. 83.) The ornamentation which surrounds the panels +belongs to the 16th century. S^{r}. Rios suggests that the possible or +probable author of this interesting object of silversmith work was +Maestro Jorge, a silversmith of Toledo, who is praised by Don Alonso in +his Cantigas--he also mentions the names of Don Lorenzo and Don Niculas +as silversmiths of Seville who worked in this period. + +The most important example of Spanish silversmith's work of the 14th +century is the Retablo and Baldaquino of the cathedral of Gerona. Mr. +Street, in his Gothic Arch. in Spain, p. 326, describes this work of art +in the following manner: "The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with +silver plates, and divided vertically into three series of niches and +canopies: each division has a subject, and a good deal of enamelling is +introduced in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels. +Each panel has a cinque-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and +pinnacles on either side. The straight line of the top is broken by +three niches, which rise in the centre and at either end. In the centre +is the Blessed Virgin with our Lord; on the right San Narcisso; and on +the left St. Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain figures of +saints, subjects from the life of the Blessed Virgin, and subjects from +the life of our Lord." + +At the base of this Retablo may be read the words--_Pere Bernec me +feu_--Peter Bernec made me. Bernec was a silversmith of Valencia, and in +another document he was called Barners. It has been supposed that two +other contemporary silversmiths, whose names appear in papers of the +cathedral, worked also at the Retablo. Their names were Raimundo Andreu, +and Master Bartolomé. Formerly in front of this altar there was a +magnificent silver and gold frontal studded with stones, a fine work of +the 11th century--which was unfortunately carried off by the French in +their invasion of the Peninsula early in the present century, and was +probably with other innumerable priceless treasures melted by them. See +further details in "Viage Literario de Villanueva," vol. xii. p. 180. + +In the Sala Capitular of the Cathedral of Gerona there are three +splendid processional crosses belonging to the 15th and 16th centuries; +one of them is of enamelled gold, and is undoubtedly one of the most +artistic works of the kind in Spain. + +Among Spanish art treasures of the 15th century of a historical style +must be mentioned the splendid silver throne of king Don Martin de +Aragon, d. 1410, still existing in the cathedral of Barcelona; it is +covered with chiselled ornamentation, and a band of velvet embroidered +with gold and completely studded with precious stones. This throne is +carried in the procession of Corpus Christi. The monstrance, a splendid +work of art in the Gothic style, ornamented with delicate pinnacles and +jewel work, is placed on a fine silver foot and carried on this day in +front of this throne. This monstrance is covered also with jewels of +great value which almost conceal it, the gifts of royal personages. The +fine Gothic silver-gilt cross must also be mentioned, known at Toledo by +the name of _Guion de Mendoza_; it was borne before the great Cardinal +Mendoza, and was the first cross placed on the highest point of the +Alhambra Torre de la Vela on the day of the conquest, 2nd January, 1492. + +The following woodcut represents a processional cross of Spanish work of +the beginning of the 15th century, in the South Kensington Museum, No. +514-'73. It is of wood covered with plates of silver-gilt _repoussé_ +work. On one side is a rood with the Virgin and St. John. Over the +figure of Christ is the word Inri. At the extremities angels in high +relief bear the emblems of the Passion. On each side of the figure of +Christ are plaques of translucent enamel representing the penitent and +impenitent thief, at the foot of the cross the Resurrection and +Adoration of the Magi, and above the figure of Christ the Nativity. + +[Illustration: SPANISH PROCESSIONAL CROSS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +At the back there is a figure in high relief of the Almighty; in the +four extremities the emblems of the Evangelists in high relief and +enamelled plaques representing the Annunciation, Flight into Egypt, +Christ's descent into Hades. + +This cross, which is three feet in height, is marked in several places +with the name of + + +-----+ +-----+ + | | | | + | PE | | MAR | + | DRO | | TIN | + | | | | + +-----+ +-----+ + +A large number of images exist in Spain belonging to this period, and +even to an earlier date, chiefly consisting of images of the Blessed +Virgin; their garments are formed of silver platings, chiselled and +_repoussé_ in the traditional Byzantine style. Among the most remarkable +may be mentioned those preserved in the cathedrals of Seville, Pamplona +and Astorga. The following document undoubtedly alludes to one of these +figures. It is dated 12th May, 1367:-- + +"I Sancho Martinez Orebse, silversmith, native of Seville, inform you, +the dean and chapter of the church of Seville, that it was agreed I +should make an image of Saint Mary with its tabernacle, that it should +be finished at a given time, and that you were to give me the silver and +stones required to make it." + +Notwithstanding the poverty of the Spanish monarchs, their personal +ornaments were rich and splendid. We find in "Memorials of Henry the +VIIth," edited by Gairdner, an interesting description by Machado, the +herald or king-of-arms of Henry VII., of the embassy sent to Spain in +1489, to ask for the hand of the Princess Catharine for the Prince of +Wales. The account he gives us of the jewels worn by Queen Isabel la +Catolica is most interesting. They varied at every interview. In one of +these she wore "a line of trimming composed of oblong bosses, of gold, +each decorated with fine and valuable jewels, so rich that no one has +ever seen the like. She wore round her waist a girdle of leather made in +a man's style; the pouch was decorated with a large balass ruby, the +size of a tennis ball, between five rich diamonds and other stones, the +size of a bean. The rest of the girdle was decorated with other precious +stones. Round her neck she wore a rich gold necklace composed of white +and red roses, adorned with jewels. Two ribbons were suspended from her +breast adorned with diamonds, balass and other rubies, pearls, and other +jewels of great value to the number of a hundred or more" (p. 341.) + +"After the King came the Queen, mounted on a fine mule, and all the +harness of the said mule was adorned with pearls and other precious +stones. She was dressed in a robe of a rich woven cloth of gold made in +the fashion of the kingdom, and over that a mantilla all spangled with +lozenges of crimson and black velvet, and on each lozenge was a large +pearl. And with each of these pearls was a rich balass ruby the size of +a beech nut, the richest thing that could be seen, no man ever saw +anything equal to it. She had on her neck a large necklace, adorned with +large diamonds, balass rubies, carbuncles, large pearls, and a great +number of other rich precious stones. She had upon her head-dress two +balass rubies as pendants, the size of a pigeon's egg, and at the end of +the said rubies a large pearl, which jewel was supposed to be worth +12,000 crowns" (p. 348.) + +In the specimens described belonging to the Visigothic period, and many +others to which we might refer, we find constant similarity in form with +silversmith's work of other European countries. It is true that we +occasionally meet with Moorish _orfèvrerie_, and some details, such as +filigree work, due to oriental influence; but in general Byzantine, +Roman, and Gothic styles were adopted and copied in Spain; and the +technical details were the same with those followed in other countries, +with the exception of _champlevé_ enamel, which appears to have been +almost exclusively used at Limoges in the middle ages. It is +interesting, however, and worthy of remark, that important objects are +also found in Spain decorated with _champlevé_ enamel, such as the +splendid altars of San Miguel in Excelsis (Navarre), and Santo Domingo +de Silos (Rioja), and the image of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban +(Salamanca), three specimens of the greatest importance. + +In the Renaissance period, Spanish _orfèvrerie_ enters into its most +brilliant epoch, not only on account of the beauty of the form of the +objects produced, but also owing to its great richness. Among objects of +this period the most important are the _Custodias_ or monstrances of the +cathedrals; these are exclusively peculiar to Spanish art. The almost +incalculable quantity of silver-work produced at this period is +accounted for by the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors, the +discovery and possession of America, and other circumstances which +increased the power and wealth of Spain, and elevated the country to +great importance. + +We find frequent mention at this time of silversmiths, many of whom came +from Germany, France, or Italy, attracted by the large number of works +ordered. Many settled in Spain, such as Enrique de Arphe, Jacome Trezzo, +Mateo Aleman, Hans Belta, and others. The Spaniards who joined them were +greater in number, and not inferior in merit. Silversmiths were already +at that time divided into different groups, according to the technical +proceedings which each one adopted: _plateros de la plata_, workers in +silver, was the name given to those who worked exclusively in _repoussé_ +and chiselled work, and imitated sculpture and architectural models; +goldsmiths, those who worked jewels with stones, enamels, and +niello-work. Even within these groups were workers in filigree, and +those who decorated different objects with painted or mosaic work, +_atauxia_, in the Moorish style. Almost all the most important Spanish +towns were large centres of these industries. Leon, Burgos, Valladolid, +Cuenca, Toledo, Cordova, and Seville rivalled each other in the number +and quality of their productions. The Venetian ambassador, Navagiero, +who visited Valladolid in 1527, says, "Sono in Valladolid assai artefici +di ogni sorte, e se vi lavora benissimo di tutti le arti, e sopra tutto +d' argenti, e vi son tanti argenten quanti non sono in due altri terre, +le prime di Spagna" ("Il Viaggio di Spagna," Vinegia, 1563, p. 35.) + +In order to complete the study of this subject, it is necessary, +besides, to give some notice of the legal dispositions contained in the +Municipal Ordinances and in other laws of a more general character. + +In Capmany's "Memorias," vol. i., part 3, p. 88, are to be found several +statutes concerning the silversmiths of Barcelona from the 14th century, +proving the importance of this guild in 1301. At this period three of +its members formed part of the town Council. The introduction of a +statute of 1489 proves the excellence of the works which they made. +"Experience having shown us in past times, and proof existing at the +present time, that such clever silversmiths have existed and exist at +Barcelona that their works are highly reputed by kings and great people, +and held in great honour and estimation in the town itself." The +Silversmiths' guild still preserve the folio volumes full of drawings, +and the description of the different objects which they presented for +the approbation of the jury, during the 16th and 17th centuries. The +designs contained in these volumes constitute a most interesting +collection of jewels, giving a good idea of the great height of this +industry in Barcelona. + +Baron C. H. Davillier is about to publish a volume on Spanish +silversmiths, in which etchings of several of these designs will be +reproduced. In the list of artists which follows I give the names of the +most remarkable of those who worked at Barcelona. + +In the Municipal Ordinances of Toledo of the year 1494, some laws +relating to silversmiths appeared; they are, however, uninteresting. The +same thing occurs with the Ordinances of Seville, which were re-compiled +in 1526. The guild of silversmiths of Toledo must have been most +important, for in 1423 they already formed a brotherhood or guild under +the protection of St. Eloy, in which they agreed to help the members of +the guild in every way. See "Documentos Ineditos," published by Zarco +del Valle, p. 166. The Ordinances of Granada enter more into details +concerning the technical proceedings of silversmith's work. These +Ordinances appeared in 1538; the work in the Moorish style is described +in full detail; it appears to have been preserved in this locality more +than elsewhere. + +We can judge of the enormous quantities of objects which were made by +those still to be seen in Spanish cathedrals and churches, having +survived the French invasion of the present century. For full details of +the barbarous treatment of these works of art during the French +invasion, see Ford's "Handbook of Spain." The expropriations of the +Spanish government during the civil wars of 1833 to 1840, and the +injudicious law of expropriations of 1869 for the purpose of collecting +artistic objects, have brought about the destruction and disappearance +of numberless works of art in order not to give them up to the +government. + +The same splendour and abundance of silver objects of every kind existed +in the royal palaces and houses of the grandees. Madame d'Aunoy in her +"Voyage en Espagne, Lyon, 1643," p. 109, says: "L'on ne se sert point de +vaisselle d'étain, celle d'argent ou de terre sont les seules qui soient +en usage. Le duc d'Alburquerque est mort, il y a déjà quelque tems; l'on +m'a dit que l'on avoit employé six semaines à écrire sa vaisselle d'or +et d'argent. Il y avoit 1400 douzaines d'assiettes, 500 grands plats, et +700 petits, tout le reste à proportion, et 40 échelles d'argent pour +monter au haut de son buffet, qui étoit par gradins comme un autel placé +dans une grande salle." The splendid silver table belonging to the +Marquis of Villaseca at Madrid gives a good idea of the furniture of +this time. In the Inventories, a great number of which exist, we find +numerous details of silver objects of every kind. In one which was drawn +up in 1574, of the effects of Princess Da Juana (MS. folio, Acad. de la +Historia), the sister of Philip II., we find mention, without counting +the jewels, of a silver balustrade, weighing 121 pounds, to be placed +round the bed. The greater part of the kitchen utensils were also made +of silver. + +Among the most important objects of Spanish silversmith work are +undoubtedly, as I have said before, the custodias. + +The name of custodia is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance or +ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, but also to a sort of +temple or tabernacle, of large size, made also of silver, inside which +is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession on Corpus +Christi day. In order to distinguish these objects one from another, the +name of _viril_ is given to the object which holds the consecrated host; +it is generally made of rock crystal, with a gold stem and mount +ornamented with precious stones. The small tabernacles are generally +objects of the greatest importance both from their artistic and +intrinsic value. The description of one of them will be sufficient to +give an idea of their construction. + +Although a fine custodia existed formerly at Toledo, which we know +weighed 164 pounds, Cardinal Ximenez de Cisneros wished a finer one to +be made, and caused the plan to be furnished by competition. Diego +Copin, Juan de Borgoña, and Enrique de Arphe presented designs; the one +by Enrique de Arphe was selected. Arphe began his work in 1517, and +continued exclusively employed in this, and without the help of other +master silversmiths, until April, 1524, when he gave up the monstrance +to the authorities of the cathedral. The silversmith, Lainez, finished +in 1523 the gold and jewelled cross which is on the top. It represents a +Gothic hexagonal temple, 8 feet high, of three orders, with all the +variety and number of necessary architectural details such as +pilasters, arches, columns, pyramids, canopies, crest-work, &c., to the +closing of the vaulted roof; the whole is _percé à jour_, and so +delicate that it looks like lace. From the roof hang bells and +incense-holders of filigree work; in the key-stone are studded precious +gems. Carvings in relief, representing passages of the life of Our +Saviour, appear on the base of the six pedestals; they are admirably +carved. In the centre of the second order is a figure representing the +Resurrection of Our Lord. On the pilasters and brackets which appear in +the temple there are more than 260 statues of different sizes, all of +which are executed with the same skill. This monstrance was mounted on +iron wires; and Archbishop Fonseca, wishing that the whole of it should +be made of silver, gave orders that Arphe himself should alter it, which +he did in 1525, when the total weight was found to be 388 pounds. The +_viril_ was then placed inside it, this was made of the first gold +brought from America. It is completely covered with precious stones, and +was bought by Cisneros from Queen Isabel (the Catholic); it weighs 29 +pounds of gold. The tabernacle was ordered to be gilt in 1595 by +Archbishop Quiroga; this was done by the Masters Diego de Valdivieso and +Francisco Merino. This splendid work of art remains in this state, and +may be seen at the cathedral of Toledo; it was most fortunately saved +from the rapacity of the French, by being sent to Cadiz during the war. +In 1513 the monstrance at the cathedral of Cordova was also made by +Arphe, it is similar in style and importance to that of Toledo. Before +this, he had also finished the splendid one formerly at Leon, which was +destroyed by the French, as was likewise a similar smaller one, also by +Arphe, formerly at the Monastery of St. Benito, at Sahagun. + +The custodia made by Juan de Arphe in 1587, a Leonese artist, and +grandson of Enrique, for the cathedral of Seville, competes with that of +Toledo. It is formed in the same manner as a temple, but in the +Græco-Roman style, covered with an immense number of statuettes, some of +which are upwards of a foot high, and reliefs of all kinds, and +delicate ornamentation, worked with the utmost skill. The chapter of the +cathedral commissioned the theologian, Francisco Pacheco, to direct the +subjects which were to be represented, and when it was finished Arphe +published a full description of the monstrance, which he does not +hesitate to call "the largest and finest work in silver known of its +kind." This opinion is hardly an exaggerated one if we look at this +splendid work of art. Its plan is circular, and measures 3½ yards +high, and weighs 1082 pounds of silver. For details consult Cean +Bermudez' "Diccionario," Descripcion de la Catedral de Sevilla, Museo +Español de Antiguedades, vol. viii., p. I. + +Besides these two celebrated silversmiths there was another of the same +family, the son of Enrique, and father of Juan, Antonio Arphe, an artist +also of great merit, who made in 1554 the custodia which still exists at +the cathedral of Santiago. + +Cean Bermudez says in his "Diccionario," "that in the same manner as the +city of Leon gave Spain three illustrious silversmiths, Cuenca gave them +other three in the Becerrils," these were Alonso and Francisco Becerril +brothers, and Christoval, the son of Francisco. They all worked at the +famous and splendid custodia of Cuenca, and between them they produced a +most important series of works from 1528 to 1584. + +It is extremely difficult to give in so small a space the description of +the works and names of the numerous artists on silver and gold work, who +worked in Spain during the 16th century. At the present time, +notwithstanding the innumerable objects lost, a long list would remain +of the specimens which have reached us, and their different forms and +applications, still visible in the churches of Toledo, Seville, +Zaragoza, Palencia, Santiago, and others of the Spanish peninsula. Some +idea may be gathered of the importance this art attained in Spain by +looking through the following list of artists who worked in silver and +gold, upwards of 450 of whom I have added to the 95 given by Cean in his +dictionary. It must be borne in mind that the objects on a large scale +which reproduce an architectural model, adopt three styles during the +century, all three of them admirable as regards beauty of form. The +first is Gothic, a reminiscence of the former time, improved by the +change which had already taken place, in drawing and modelling. The +second style is known by the name of _plateresque_, when applied to +architecture, and consists in copying the general structure of buildings +in the classical style, and applying the orders and pointed arch, while +keeping to the profusion of decoration of the earlier period, and +modifying the general plan with the object of introducing the greatest +quantity of ornamentation. The third style is the Greco-Roman; it is +more sober in decoration, and has a greater tendency to keep to the +imitation of the classical school. + +Besides the objects described, which may be considered as original works +and the most important examples of Spanish silversmiths' work, I must +mention those which came from South America, chiefly from Mexico, which +possess a certain aspect; they consist of carved and _repoussé_ work +ornamented with flora of the country adapted in an oriental style; +others consist of filigree work, double-headed crowned eagles are +frequently met with in the same style as those made at Cordova and +Salamanca. + +There are interesting specimens at the Kensington Museum which give an +excellent idea of Spanish silversmiths' work. Besides those already +described attention must be drawn to + +No. 305-66. A silver-gilt cross ornamented with foliage, statuettes of +saints and the Evangelists with their emblems, Marked NOE/M. About 1560. +Height 3 feet 2 inches. + +No. 302-66. Silver-gilt chalice, ornamented with foliated scroll work +and half figures beaten and chiselled. Marked Estorga. About 1540. + +No. 132-73. A silver-gilt chalice, the bowl inscribed outside "+ Sangvis +mevs vere est potvs;" the stem is of baluster form, in several tiers, +ornamented with brackets and large chatons set with crystal, and a band +of cherubim. The foot is chased with masques, festoons, harpies, and +birds, and surrounded by eight semicircular projections, on which are an +armorial shield and a cross set with emeralds and lapis lazuli. Engraved +at bottom "S. I. de Salinas." [See woodcut] With it is a paten dated +1549. + +[Illustration: SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +No. 481-75. Chalice, silver-gilt; the bowl chased in relief with the +instruments of the Passion; on the knop are ten applied figures of +Apostles on ground of translucent blue enamel; the foot, which has eight +semicircular projections, is _repoussé_ with representations of the +Evangelists, cherub and other heads, the Crucifixion, and a shield with +the initials L. B. P. around a crown of thorns enclosing a heart. 17th +century. [See woodcut, p. 31.] + +No. 314-64. Silver-gilt pax of architectural design; in the centre is a +group in full relief of the Virgin giving the chasuble to St. Ildefonso. +About 1540-50. [See woodcut, p. 33.] + +No. 1129-64. Incense holder, boat-shaped, of rock crystal mounted in +silver-gilt. Around the rim is a band of guilloche pattern, set with +amethysts and garnets; on the lids a band inscribed "Oratio mea +dirigatur sicut incensum." About 1540-50. + +[Illustration: SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +No. 93-65. Silver triptych with suspending chain, the interior painted +in oils, the exterior engraved in arabesque. About 1550. + +We find that Spanish jewels were as magnificent in the 16th century as +were the large architectural objects for ecclesiastical use. One of the +most important in richness and artistic merit was the splendid crown +belonging to the Virgen del Sagrario at Toledo, which it is deeply to be +regretted disappeared in 1868. This crown was made in 1556 by the +silversmith Hernando de Carrion; it then consisted of a gold circle with +chiselled and enamelled ornamentation, set with pearls, emeralds and +rubies. In 1574 Cardinal Loaisa wished to enrich it, and ordered a +silver worker called Alejo de Montoya to add to it an upper part, formed +as an imperial crown, which Montoya agreed to do by a special agreement. +This addition was formed of small figures of angels of enamelled gold, +in pairs supporting the side bands, which met in the upper part forming +a group of allegorical figures, upon which was placed a spherical +emerald, without a flaw, 1½ inches in diameter, which served as a +base to the cross. The bands were studded with precious stones and +ornamented inside with subjects of the life of the Blessed Virgin in +enamel. The height of this crown was 10½ inches by 8½ wide. +Montoya took 12 years to do this work--he finished it in 1586. The fine +bracelets belonging to this crown, which have also disappeared, were +made at the same time by Julian Hernando. + +The jewels worn by the Spanish kings and grandees were equally +magnificent. In the description of the gems which Prince Don Carlos, the +son of Philip II, left to be distributed at his death, are included a +sword the hilt of which was of solid gold enamelled in different +colours: this Don Carlos bequeathed to the Grand Master of the Order of +St. John:--a halberd composed of 27 pieces of enamelled gold in high +relief; and a sword with gold mount enamelled in colours with masks, +medals and festoons in the Roman style, made by Rodrigo Reynalti. +Consult "Coleccion de Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de España," +vol. 27, Madrid, 1855. I owe to the courtesy of Count Valencia de Don +Juan, the following description of arms made by _Toto platero de su +Alteza_ in 1554. [Archives of Simancas legajo, No. 37.] These arms +belonged to Prince Don Carlos. + +[Illustration: SPANISH PAX. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +A gold sword, the cross of which is ornamented with masks of white, +grey, and black enamel. + +A gold dagger, and sword-belt belonging to the same sword, ornamented in +a similar manner. + +Also a gold sword, belt and dagger ornamented with figures of children +in solid gold and enamel. + +Although the greater part of these silversmiths were Spaniards, the +Milanese artist, Jacome de Trezzo was very celebrated during the reign +of Philip II. He made several jewels of great importance for the king +and royal family. The splendid tabernacle which was taken by the French +in 1810 from the Escorial was one of his finest works; they carried off +at the same time the superb shrines, the gifts of kings and princes, and +everything they could lay their hands on of gold and silver, loading ten +campaign carts. Consult, "Historia del Escorial," by Quevedo. Madrid, +1849, p. 220. + +At the South Kensington Museum are several objects of this kind, which +will give an excellent idea of Spanish jewel work. + +No. 334-70. A gold enamelled pendant, in form of a chained dog, +supported on a scroll from which small pearls depend, and suspended by +two chains of alternate enamelled and plain links, united to a fastening +crowned by a bird. + +No. 335-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a pelican and her young, +enriched with a carbuncle and pearls, and suspended by pearl links. + +No. 336-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a dog enriched with +jewels. + +No. 337-70. Enamelled gold pendant, in form of a parrot, set with +hyacinth, suspended by chains. + +No.340-70. Enamelled gold pendant representing the Virgin of the +Immaculate Conception. + +Nos. 341 and 342-70. Pendants representing the Virgen del Pilar +Saragossa, attended by saints. [See woodcut opposite.] + +[Illustration: SPANISH JEWEL, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +Spanish jewel work does not decrease during the 17th century, the +number of artists who worked was very great, and the quantity of objects +of all kinds which were made by them to enrich the shrines of churches, +and the houses of grandees, was remarkable, although their artistic +merit was far inferior to the work of the 16th century. The general +decay of art, which produces in Europe the _barroco_ style, appears in +Spain more exaggerated and to a greater extent than elsewhere. The +objects made during this period reproduce until the beginning of the +18th century the lines and extravagant ornamentation which we meet with +in architecture, the handiwork however continued to be excellent, and no +expense was spared to give an aspect of richness to the objects made. + +[Illustration: SILVER DISH. SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +The large quantity of objects of all kinds made of silver, and the +quantity also used in wearing apparel, gave rise to constant +prohibitions restricting its use from the reign of Ferdinand and Isabel, +and even to a far greater extent at the beginning of the 16th century. +In a Decree, issued at Madrid in 1594, "it is forbidden to make or sell +cabinets, escritoires, caskets, brasiers, _chapines_ (clogs), tables, +commodes decorated with silver, either beat in _repoussé_, stamped, +carved or plain, and whoever makes, sells, or buys them, is to lose +them." Notwithstanding this and other restrictions which appeared in the +17th century, this abuse can hardly have been checked, judging by the +number of these objects which have reached us, not counting those +preserved in the shrines of Spanish churches and cathedrals. + +The luxury which was apparent in this century of great decay for Spain +will be found in the numerous descriptions which exist of different +feasts and ceremonies. + +A good idea may be had of this style of silversmiths' work from the +silver dishes in the South Kensington Museum. An engraving of one of +these appears on the preceding page. + +[Illustration: BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH EMERALDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH +CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +During the 17th century, jewellery underwent a complete +transformation--the proceedings and _renaissance_ forms of the Italian +school were abandoned, with all their richness of sculptures, enamels, +and variety of stones. Instead of this, jewels were formed of emeralds, +diamonds or rubies in gold setting, _percés à jour_, producing an +excellent effect. The exceptions to this rule are the objects in which +enamelled work still predominates, a reminiscence of the former century. +Among the finest and best examples may be mentioned the gold crown of +the Virgen de los Desamparados of Toledo, made in Mexico in the 17th +century. It is formed like a basket of flowers, of delicate tracery, and +richly studded with fine emeralds. Several most interesting specimens +exist at Kensington of Spanish jewellery of this kind, bought at the +sale which took place in 1870 of the jewels belonging to the Virgen del +Pilar at Zaragoza. + +No. 325-70 is a breast ornament of gold scroll open work, with enamelled +flowers, set with emeralds. [See woodcut on p. 37.] + +No. 320-70, a gold breast ornament with five bosses and seven pendants, +set with rose diamonds. + +No. 406-73. Breast ornament, gold open strap work and floral filigree, +the lower part an oval pendant, set with table diamonds. [See woodcut on +p. 39.] + +The following fine Spanish jewels of the 17th century in the Kensington +Museum are also worthy of attention: + +No. 330-64. A pectoral cross, with medallions containing relics. + +No. 298-66. Gold filigree cross, within which is an ivory crucifix. + +No. 344-70. Enamelled gold pectoral cross set with amethysts. + +No. 417, 417A.-69. A pair of earrings of gold open work, branches set +with white crystals. + +No. 323, 323A.-70. Silver open work earrings set with rose diamonds. + +No. 330 to 330C.-70. Four miniature ewers of silver filigree open work, +the bodies of Chinese enamelled copper. + +No. 1224-71. Silver frame _repoussé_, with the Holy Dove, and a bleeding +heart encircled with thorns. + +Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, _Churrigueresque_ +styles continued to be copied during the beginning of the 18th century, +in the same manner as in the 17th century. At this time, as in the rest +of Europe, a reaction begins in every branch of art, due in Spain to the +influence of French and Italian artists who accompanied the family of +Bourbon. The Academy of Fine Arts of St. Fernando was founded by a king +of that House towards the middle of the century, the teaching was +reduced to copying Greco-Roman models, such as they were understood at +that time. + +[Illustration: BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH DIAMONDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH +CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +The great centres which in the 16th century had produced such splendid +works of art had almost completely ceased. No great silversmiths +remained at Valladolid, Leon, Toledo, or Seville. The only localities +which have preserved even to the present day the traditional forms of +these ornaments are Salamanca, Cordova, Astorga, and Santiago. Madrid +absorbed from the middle of the 17th century the whole of this industry. +In Larruga's "Memorias," Vol. IV., will be found every detail given on +this subject. Several important establishments for the object of making +silver work on a large scale were founded at Madrid, the most important +being that of Tomas de Buenafuente, which passed after to Francisco +Novi. Two Frenchmen called Isaac and Miguel Naudin established a +manufactory in 1772. In each the greater part of the work was machine +made. Others were founded to cut and polish precious stones, and mount +paste stones. This was done with great skill by Antonio Martinez in +1778, in a building fitted up for the purpose, which still exists +opposite the Botanical Garden of Madrid. Martinez was pensioned by +Charles III. in Paris and London to study the improvements in this +industry. The principal object of the manufactory was to teach the +technical proceedings required in order to extend this industry in the +country, and supply a school in which machinery, models, drawings, &c., +were to be met with. Pupils of both sexes were admitted; machinery was +made in the workshops, and Martinez undertook to teach the manufacture +of gold, doublé, or steel trinkets, with or without enamel or stones. +Sword-hilts, buckles, snuff-boxes, needle-cases, handles for sticks, +brooches, necklaces, orders, and other different objects, were made +either of open work or enamelled gold. + +Inkstands, dishes, dinner services, chocolate stands, cruets, knives and +forks, were made of silver in different styles, generally imitating the +English manner. [Consult Larruga, "Memorias Politicas y Economicas." +Madrid, 1789. Vol. IV., p. 116.] + +The results obtained by the manufactory of Martinez were most +satisfactory; a large number of apprentices were taught there; but their +work was completely French in character; the manner and style of the +Spanish school of silversmiths was completely forgotten. + +As I have already mentioned, the traditional forms were preserved in +some localities which require to be mentioned here in order to finish +this account of this industry in Spain. An interesting and varied +collection of modern Spanish peasant jewellery exists at the South +Kensington Museum. Strange to say, although this collection was formed a +very few years ago, in 1870, it would be very difficult now to make +another; for owing to the means of communication having been of late +years so much improved in Spain, the peasantry are leaving off their +national costumes, and substituting in every detail modern fashions. +Among this peasant jewellery the silver gilt necklace and reliquaries of +Astorga, No. 1114-73, deserve special attention. These necklaces were +worn round the neck and part of the body. The neck ornaments of gold and +seed pearls made at Salamanca, those of silver gilt of Santiago; the +filigree work of Cordova in the Moorish style, and the long earrings of +Cataluña with precious stones, are interesting reminiscences of older +times. + + LIST OF SPANISH GOLDSMITHS AND SILVERSMITHS. + + + 10TH CENTURY + + Years in which + they worked. Residence. + + 961. Hudzen ben Bozla, a Moor. He made a silver + casket which exists still at Gerona Cathedral Gerona. + + + 13TH CENTURY + + 1279. Maestre Jorge Toledo. + + 1283. Modova, Pablo de Burgos. + + Niculas (Don) + + 1262. Perez, Juan Burgos. + + + 14TH CENTURY + + 1357. Andreu, Raimundo de Gerona. + + 1358. Barners, Pedro Gerona. + + 1325. Bartolomé, Maestro Gerona. + + Bernec, Pere, V. Barners + + 1382 to } Capellades, Pedro Tortosa. + 1393. } + + 1378. Fernai, Rodrigo Oviedo. + + 1334. Frau, Ramon Palma de Mallorca. + + 1367. Martinez, Sancho Sevilla. + + 1382 to } Paris, Pedro de Tortosa. + 1393. } + + 1373. Perpiña, Juan Valencia. + + 1370. Ponce, Bartolomé Palma de Mallorca. + + + 15TH CENTURY + + 1417. Abello, Joan Daroca. + + 1495. Alcaçar, Juan de Toledo. + + 1477. Almerique Barcelona. + + 1494. Berenguer, Juan Valencia. + + 1499. Castellano Toledo. + + 1454. Castelnou, Juan de Valencia. + + 1460. Castelnou, Jayme de, son of Juan Valencia. + + 1470. Cetina, Mestre Valencia. + + 1458 to } Diez, Pedro el Cabalan Toledo. + 1463 } + + 1494. Diaz, Thomas Toledo. + + 1417. Diaz, or Diez Caro, Ferrando Daroca. + + 1418 to } Garcia de Valladolid, Alfonso Toledo. + 1426. } + + 1438. Garcia, Alonso Burgos. + + 1442. Garcia de Pielagos, Juan Burgos. + + 1477. Gomez, Garcia Valencia. + + 1424 to } Gonzalez de Madrid, Juan Toledo. + 1459. } + + 1477. Hance + + Lorenzo, Don + + 1425. Medina, Juan de Toledo. + + 1499. Medina, Pedro de Toledo. + + 1470. Nadal Yvo, Maestre Valencia. + + 1493. Narbona, Diego Toledo. + + 1495. Nuñez, Alonso Toledo. + + 1485. Oviedo, Fernando de Burgos. + + 1487. Pizarro Guadalupe. + + 1457. Rodriguez de Villareal, Alonso Toledo. + + 1459. Rodriguez de Villareal, Anton Toledo. + + 1483. Rodriguez, Gonzalo Toledo. + + 1496. Rodriguez, Geronimo Sevilla. + + 1459. Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope Toledo. + + 1417 to } Roiz, Pero Darroca. + 1423. } + + 1489 to } Ruby, Maestre Toledo. + 1491. } + + 1416. Ruiz de Astudillo, Alfonso Burgos. + + 1431. Ruiz de Medina Toledo. + + 1426. Ruiz, Juan Toledo. + + 1498. Ruiz, Juan Toledo. + + 1404. Sanchez, Martinez Sevilla. + + 1424. Sanchez, Anton Toledo. + + 1417. Sancho, Manuel Hernando Burgos. + + 1487. Segovia, Fr. Juan de Guadalupe. + + 1418. Valles, Juan Toledo. + + 1484 to } Vigil, Pedro de Valladolid. + 1488. } + Yvo V. Nadal Yvo ---- + + + 16TH CENTURY + + 1586. Abedo de Villandrando, Diego Madrid. + + 1531. Aguirre, Pedro de Toledo. + + 1515. Aleman, Mateo Sevilla. + + ---- Aleman, Nicolas Sevilla. + + 1596. Alfaro, Francisco Sevilla. + + 1539. Alonso, Juan Toledo. + + 1552. Alvarez, Baltasar Palencia. + + 1568. Alvarez, Francisco Madrid. + + 1531. Alvarez, Juan Granada. + + 1560. Alvarez, Juan Madrid. + + 1538. Alvear, Juan de Burgos. + + ---- Alvear, Nicolas de Burgos. + + 1520 to } Andino, Cristoval de Burgos. + 1521. } + + ---- Angel, Pedro Toledo. + + 1565. Anrique, Joan Toledo. + + 1570. Avila, Alonso de Toledo. + + 1567. Avila Cimbron, Diego de Toledo. + + 1544. Arfe, Antonio de Leon. + + 1595. Arfe y Villafañe, Juan de Sevilla. + + 1506 to } Arphe, Enrique de Leon. + 1525. } + + 1531. Baeza, Francisco de Granada. + + ---- Baeza, Juan Granada. + + 1580. Ballesteros, Fernando de Sevilla. + + 1560. Baptista, Juan Toledo. + + 1584 to } Baroxa, Gregorio de Toledo. + 1601. } + + 1534. Becerril, Alonso Cuenca. + + 1575. Becerril, Cristoval Cuenca. + + 1552. Becerril, Francisco Cuenca. + + 1590. Belta, Hanz Madrid. + Belthae, V.--see Hanz Belthae + + 1582. Benavente, Juan de Palencia. + + 1546. Benavente, Pedro de Toledo. + + 1556. Borgoñes, Juan Toledo. + + 1538. Buentalante, Alonso de Granada. + + 1586. Camps, Bernat Barcelona. + + 1547 to } Carrion, Hernando Toledo. + 1561. } + + 1556. Carrion, Fernando Toledo. + + 1586. Castro, Juan de Madrid. + + 1531. Castro, Luis de Granada. + + 1505. Cetina, Bernardo Juan Valencia. + + 1546. Comes, Gabriel Barcelona. + + 1553. Conill, Antonio Barcelona. + + 1531. Cordova, Anton de Granada. + + Cordova, Juan de Granada. + + 1514. Cota, Martin Toledo. + + 1567. Davila Cimbron, Diego Toledo. + + 1558. Davila, Diego Toledo. + + 1593. Diaz, Francisco Toledo. + + 1526. Diaz, Hernando Toledo. + + 1586. Dominguez, Juan Madrid. + + 1513. Donanti, Juan Sevilla. + + 1564 to } Dueñas, Alonso de Salamanca. + 1598. } + + 1531. Dueñas, Juan de Granada. + + 1537. Escripian, Luis Toledo. + + 1531. Fernandez, Diego Granada. + + 1554. Fernandez, Manuel Sevilla. + + 1567 to } Fernandez, Marcos Toledo. + 1593. } + + ---- Fernandez del Moral Madrid. + + 1531. Flores, Diego Granada. + + 1572. Font, Joan Barcelona. + + 1555. Francés, Juan Toledo. + + 1561 to } Gallego, Miguel Toledo. + 1590. } + + 1531. Garcia, Thome Granada. + + 1561. Gallo, Gaspar Toledo. + + 1555. Goden, Juan Toledo. + + 1509. Gomez, Heros de Valencia. + + 1573. Gomez, Baltasar + + 1574. Gonzalez, Pedro Uveda. + + 1513. Gueran, Ferrer Barcelona. + + 1531. Hermosilla, Bartolomé de Granada. + + 1567. Hernandez, Gonzalo Toledo. + + 1531. Hernandez, Luis Granada. + + 1567. Hernandez, Marcos Toledo. + + 1524 to } Hernandez, Pedro Toledo. + 1544. } + + 1531. Herrera, Gonzalo de Granada. + + 1524. Herreros y Manzanas Toledo. + + 1585 to } Hanz, Belthae Madrid. + 1587. } + + 1582 to } Honrado, Julian Toledo. + 1599. } + + 1531. Jaen, Fernando de Granada. + + 1562 to } Lainez, Juan Bautista Madrid. + 1573. } + + 1524. Laynez, Rodrigo Toledo. + + 1559. Leon, Leoni Madrid. + + 1597. Leoni, Miguel Madrid. + + 1531. Lopez, Francisco Granada. + + 1548 to } Lopez, Juan Toledo. + 1570. } + + 1530. Lopez de Leon, Juan Toledo. + + 1508. Madrid, Pedro de Toledo. + + 1531. Mar, Alonso de la Granada. + + 1588 to } Marques, Lorenzo Toledo. + 1614. } + + 1522. Marquez, Cristoval Toledo. + + 1531. Martinez, Pero Granada. + + 1544 to } Martinez, Francisco Toledo. + 1547. } + + 1553. Mas, Miguel Barcelona. + + 1534. Masanell, Joan Barcelona. + + 1517. Mayquez, Diego Toledo. + + 1500 to } Medina, Pedro de Toledo. + 1515. } + + 1538. Mendoza, Alonso de Granada. + + ---- Mendoza, Blas de Granada. + + ---- Mendoza, Diego de Burgos. + + 1564 to } Merino, Francisco Toledo. + 1601. } + + 1579 to } Montoya, Alejo de Toledo. + 1586. } + + 1598. Morales, Luis Madrid. + + 1592. Morales, Tomas Toledo. + + 1515 to } Moran Toledo. + 1517. } + + 1556. Moran, Pedro Fernandez de Burgos. + + 1561. Morel, Thomas du (an Englishman) Toledo. + + 1574 to } Montoya, Alexo Toledo. + 1590. } + + 1573. Muñoz, Alonso Toledo. + + 1598. Muñoz, Antonio Madrid. + + 1573. Niebre, Matias de, a native of Burgundy, + living at Toledo. + + 1512. Nuñez, Alonso Toledo. + + 1531. Nuñez, Francisco Granada. + + 1532 to } Oña, Antonio de Burgos. + 1560. } + + 1531. Oñate, Juan de Granada. + + 1537 to } Ordoñez, Andres Toledo. + 1546 } + + 1507 to } Ordoñez, Pedro Toledo. + 1510 } + + 1537 to} Orna, Juan de Burgos. + 1528. + + 1581. Ortiz, Pedro Madrid. + + 1529 to } Oviedo, Diego de Toledo. + 1546. } + + 1586. Pan, Juan Barcelona. + + 1594. Pardo, Martin Escorial. + + 1534. Parra, Juan de la Toledo. + + 1577. Pastrana, Luis de Madrid. + + 1595. Pedraza, Diego de Estremadura. + + 1593. Pedraza, Esteban + + 1559. Perez, Francisco Barcelona. + + 1598. Perez, Pedro Madrid. + + 1535. Pierres, a Frenchman, residing at Toledo. + + 1587. Poch, Pero Juan Barcelona. + + 1568. Poggini, Juan Pablo Madrid. + + 1532. Pons, Pere Barcelona. + + 1574. Portigniani, Juan Bautista Toledo. + + 1541 to } Ramirez, Pedro Toledo. + 1554. } + + 1590. Reynalte, Francisco de Madrid. + + ---- Reynalte, Juan de Madrid. + + ---- Reynalte, Pedro de Madrid. + + 1590. Reynalte, Rodrigo de Madrid. + + 1531. Rivera, Diego Lopez de Granada. + + 1590. Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo {Madrid and + { Toledo. + + 1557 to } Rodriguez de Babia, Juan Toledo. + 1586. } + + 1596. Rodriguez del Castillo, Melchor Segovia. + + 1551. Rodriguez, Duarte Toledo. + + 1568. Rodriguez Machado, Juan Toledo. + + 1567. Ros, Felipe Barcelona. + + 1537. Rozas, Gregorio de Burgos. + + 1538. Rozas, Jeronimo de Burgos. + + 1584 to } Ruiz, Diego Toledo. + 1590. } + + 1531. Ruiz, Jeronimo Granada. + + 1524. Ruiz, Julian, lapidary Toledo. + + 1590. Ruiz, Juan Toledo. + + ---- Ruiz, Juan, el Vandolino {Sevilla, Jaen + {and Cordova. + + 1545. Sabat, Benedicti Barcelona. + + 1566. Salamanca, Antonio de Madrid. + + 1590. Sanchez, Andres Toledo. + + 1522. San Roman, Pedro de Toledo. + + 1531. Sevilla, Hernando de Granada. + + 1524. Sigüenza, Pedro de Sevilla. + + 1595. Tamarit, Andreu Barcelona. + + 1590. Tello de Moreta Toledo. + + 1554. Toto Madrid. + + ---- Trezzo, Jacome de, an Italian, who worked at Madrid. + + 1589. Trezzo, a nephew of Jacome Madrid. + + 1590. Urbano, Juan Cordova. + + 1580. Usatigni, Juan Alonso Madrid. + + 1537. Valdes, Antonio de Barcelona. + + 1589. Valdes, Lucas Cordova. + + 1564 to } Valdivieso, Diego de Toledo. + 1598. } + + 1593. Valdivieso, Lucas de Burgos. + + 1575. Valla, Narcisco Barcelona. + + 1548. Valladolid, Juan de Toledo. + + 1566. Valle, Antonio del Madrid. + + 1524. Valles, Hernando de Toledo. + + 1512. Vargas, Gutierre de Toledo. + + 1563. Vazquez, Baptista Toledo. + + 1512 to } Vazquez, Diego Toledo. + 1543. } + + 1558. Velasco Toledo. + + 1580. Velez Toledo. + + 1569. Vergara, Nicolas de Toledo. + + 1546. Vicente, Mateo, lapidary Toledo. + + 1561. Vida, Francisco Barcelona. + + 1534. Villagran, Juan de Toledo. + + 1590. Villanueva, Juan Domingo de Toledo. + + 1552. Villaseca, Alexo Toledo. + + 1538. Vitoria, Francisco de Granada. + + 1538. Vitoria, Juan de Granada. + + 1528. Vozmediano, Diego de Sevilla. + + 1536. Vozmediano, Juan de Sevilla. + + 1561. Ximenez, Juan Barcelona. + + 1537. Ximenis, Rafael Barcelona. + + 1599. Zepes, Bartolomé de Toledo. + + + 17TH CENTURY + + 1618 to } Adeba, Jusepe Madrid. + 1627. } + + 1677. Alcario, Francisco de Sevilla. + + 1664. Aleman, Juan Toledo. + + 1623. Alonso, Jeronimo Madrid. + + 1676 to } Alonso de Prado, Pedro Burgos. + 1714. } + + 1622. Alvarado, Ambrosio de Madrid. + + 1635. Alvarez Brizuela, Blas Madrid. + + ---- Alvarez, Blas Madrid. + + 1636. Alvarez de Peralta, Pedro Madrid. + + Alvear, Andres Burgos. + + 1640. Alvear, Juan de Burgos. + + 1617. Alvear, Juan de Madrid. + + 1691. Arandas, Gaspar Tarragona. + + ---- Arfe, Joseph, a grandson of Juan de Arfe Sevilla. + + 1613. Avalos, Diego de Madrid. + + 1604. Avendaño de Tudela, Luis Madrid. + + 1677. Avila, Agustin de Sevilla. + + 1620. Barinci, Juan Bautista Escorial. + + 1624. Baraona, Antonio Madrid. + + 1638. Barona, Pedro Barcelona. + + ---- Bellicis, V. Bardi + + 1650. Bardi, Bellicis Barcelona. + + 1604. Belta, Pedro Madrid. + + 1602. Benavente, Pedro Toledo. + + 1645. Belorado, Antonio de Burgos. + + 1630. Bonino, Pedro Madrid. + + 1616. Bracho, Alexandro Toledo. + + 1628. Brizuela, Gaspar Miguel de Madrid. + + 1622. Calvo, Juan Madrid. + + 1626. Camanyes or Comanes, Aloy Tortosa. + + 1650. Campo, Juan del Burgos. + + 1646. Campo, Juan de Madrid. + + 1643 to } Carcaba, Felipa, the wife of + 1664. } Andres Salinas, worked at Toledo. + + 1621. Carranza Alvear, Juan de Madrid. + + 1622. Carranza, Martin de Madrid. + + 1615. Castro, Juan Madrid. + + 1651 to } Ciga, Miguel de Burgos. + 1670. } + + 1646. Comañes, Aloy Tortosa. + + 1668. Concepcion, Friar Juan de la Escorial. + + ---- Cruz, Friar Eugenio de la Escorial. + + 1620. Cuello, Amaro Madrid. + + 1661. Dandez, Agustin Barcelona. + + 1623. Delgado Maldonado, Miguel Madrid. + + 1660. Diaz, Juan Segovia. + + 1619. Dominguez, Luis Madrid. + + 1613. Duarte, Cristoval de Madrid. + + 1671. Duran, Juan Toledo. + + 1613 to } Duran, Jusepe Madrid. + 1624. } + + 1664. Ebrart, Pedro Toledo. + + 1660. Elizes, Alonso de Toledo. + + 1642. Espinosa, Juan de Madrid. + + 1640. Espluga, Tomas Barcelona. + + ---- Estrada, Manuel de Sevilla. + + 1624. Estrada, Sebastian Madrid. + + 1655 to } Faneli, Virgilio Toledo. + 1678. } + + 1630. Franconio, Juan Bautista Sevilla. + + 1657. Fernandez, Andres Burgos. + + 1679 to } Fernandez, Gamonal Joseph Toledo. + 1694. } + + 1631. Fernandez de Angulo, Miguel Madrid. + + 1612. Fernandez de Castro, Juan Madrid. + + 1618. Fernandez, Martin Madrid. + + 1627. Fernandez de Tapia, Andres Madrid. + + ---- Fernandez de Tapia, Juan Madrid. + + 1667 to } Fortuna, Juan de Toledo. + 1670. } + + 1629. Gallo, Alonso Madrid. + + 1615. Gamonar, Mathieu de Madrid. + + 1600 to } Garcia, Alonso Toledo. + 1635. } + + 1622. Garcia, Diego Madrid. + + 1618. Garcia, Francisco Madrid. + + 1613. Garcia, Martin Madrid. + + 1600. Garrido, Gaspar Madrid. + + 1620. Generino, Francisco Escorial. + + 1610. Gomez, Antonio Madrid. + + ---- Gomez, Diego Madrid. + + 1626. Gomez, Juan Madrid. + + 1610. Gomez, Marcelo Madrid. + + 1615. Gonzales, Gonzalo Madrid. + + 1613. Gonzales, Enrique Madrid. + + 1634. Gonzales, Francisco Madrid. + + 1630 to } Gonzales, Pascual Madrid. + 1640. } + + 1654. Gonzales, Rafael Segovia. + + 1607. Guardia, Melchor, a native of Milan Barcelona. + + 1679. Güergo, Domingo de Burgos. + + 1639. Guigelmo, Eugenio Madrid. + + 1627 to } Guigelmo, Juan Madrid. + 1634. } + + 1618. Heredia, Juan de Madrid. + + ---- Heredia, Sebastian Madrid. + + 1631. Hurtado, Luis Madrid. + + 1694 to } Jaranta, Juan de Toledo. + 1698. } + + 1650. Landeras, Jeronimo de Burgos. + + 1611. Leal, Sebastian Madrid. + + 1606. Leoni, Pompeyo Madrid. + + 1620. Lopez, Domingo Madrid. + + 1639. Lopez, Francisco Madrid. + + 1611. Lopez de Alvarado, Antonio Madrid. + + 1676. Lopez Barona, Andres Burgos. + + 1617. Lorenzo, Juan Valladolid. + + 1638 to } Maestre, Luis Toledo. + 1646. } + + 1611. Marisanz, Pedro Madrid. + + 1653. Martinez, Juan Burgos. + + 1673. Mata, Francisco de Burgos. + + 1677. Mata, Pedro de Burgos. + + 1686. Mayares, Miguel Madrid. + + 1614 to } Maymó, Bernardo Tarragona. + 1625. } + + 1639. Medina, Juan Bautista de Madrid. + + 1628. Medina Requexo, Bautista de Madrid. + + 1641. Mendez, Duarte Madrid. + + 1614. Mexia, Juan Madrid. + + 1604. Mimbreño, Alonso Roman Madrid. + + 1641. Miñano, Juan de Madrid. + + 1626. Miranda, Alonso de Madrid. + + 1611. Moles, Juan Madrid. + + 1639. Montero, Francisco Madrid. + + 1630. Morales, Francisco Madrid. + + ---- Morales, Manuel de Madrid. + + 1695. Muñoz, Juan Madrid. + + 1661. Nadal, Andres Barcelona. + + 1620. Nadal, Martin Madrid. + + 1621 to } Navarrete Escarraman, Bartolomé de Madrid. + 1629. } + + 1613 to } Navarro, Cristoval Toledo. + 1623. } + + 1624 to } Navarro, Manuel Madrid. + 1628. } + + 1626. Nuñez, Antonio Madrid. + + 1630. Oliva, Gregorio de Madrid. + + 1650 to } Ortiz de la Revilla, Juan Madrid. + 1675. } + + 1615. Oviedo, Martin de Madrid. + + 1619. Oviedo, Pedro de Madrid. + + 1611. Paiba, Vicente de Madrid. + + 1665. Palomo, Diego Toledo. + + 1640. Pallares, Juan de Madrid. + + 1628. Pancorvo, Cristoval de Madrid. + + 1624. Paradiñas, Andres de Madrid. + + 1659. Pedraza, Bernardo de Toledo. + + 1632. Perez, Alonso Madrid. + + 1652 to } Perez, Antonio Toledo. + 1658. } + + 1680. Perez de Montalto, Antonio Toledo. + + 1685 to } Perez de Montalto, Miguel Toledo. + 1688. } + + 1630. Puig, Luis Valencia. + + 1627. Quero, Juan de Madrid. + + 1632. Quixano, Marcos Madrid. + + 1617. Ramirez, Agustin Madrid. + + 1627. Ramos, Juan Madrid. + + 1628. Reynalte, Juan Madrid. + + 1660. Riba, Manuel de Toledo. + + 1624. Ribera, Martin de Madrid. + + 1617. Rios, Esteban de Madrid. + + 1626 to } Roda, Agustin Tortosa. + 1646. } + + 1626. Rodriguez, Bartolomé Madrid. + + 1631. Rodriguez, Eugenio Toledo. + + 1645. Rodriguez, Gabriel Madrid. + + 1618. Rodriguez, Diego Madrid. + + 1613. Rodriguez, Jeronimo Madrid. + + 1617. Rodriguez, Juan Madrid. + + ---- Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo Madrid. + + 1623. Romano Valmaseda, Juan Madrid. + + 1607 to } Ros, Pedro Barcelona. + 1625. } + + 1617. Rosales, Francisco de Madrid. + + 1611. Ruiz, Eugenio Madrid. + + ---- Ruiz, Juan Bautista Madrid. + + ---- Ruiz de Valdevieso Burgos. + + 1675. Ruiz de Velasco, Juan Burgos. + + 1684. Salazar, Francisco Burgos. + + 1604 to } Salinas, Andres de {Toledo and + 1635. } {Madrid. + + 1639 to} Salinas, Francisco de Toledo. + 1670. } + + 1639 to } Salinas, Vicente de Toledo. + 1680. } + + 1616. Sanchez, Francisco Toledo. + + 1659 to } Sanchez Ormachea, Pedro Toledo. + 1661. } + + 1614. San Martin, Juan de Toledo. + + 1610 to } Santillana, Antonio de Madrid. + 1617. } + + 1642. Santo Domingo, Hipolito Madrid. + + 1653. San Vicente, Jacinto de Burgos. + + 1640. Sarabia, Cristoval de Sevilla. + + 1668. Segura, Juan de Sevilla. + + 1632. Serrano, Francisco Madrid. + + 1640. Soler, Baltasar Madrid. + + 1629. Soria, Francisco Madrid. + + 1608. Soria, Jeronimo de Madrid. + + 1617. Soria, Lucas de Madrid. + + 1620. Spagna, Juliano Madrid. + + 1694. Scase, Gaspar Sevilla. + + 1662. Suer, or Sueur, Esteban, a Frenchman who + worked at Toledo. + + 1671. Tellez, Juan Toledo. + + ---- Tebres, Antonio Toledo. + + 1677. Tello, Mateo, a German, worked at Sevilla. + + 1617. Tofino, Alonso Madrid. + + 1618 to } Valera, Domingo de Madrid. + 1623. } + + 1619. Valedomar, Angel de Madrid. + + 1626. Valle, Juan del Madrid. + + ---- Valmaseda, V. Juan Romano ---- + + 1624. Vega, Juan de Madrid. + + 1672. Velasco Ganado, Pedro Toledo. + + 1625. Velasquez, Juan Madrid. + + 1627. Villalta, Antonio Madrid. + + 1600 to } Villamayor, Baltasar Toledo. + 1626. } + + 1638. Villarago, J. Barcelona. + + 1622. Villarroel, Andres de Madrid. + + 1614. Villegas, Martin de Toledo. + + 1645. Vivanco, Simon Madrid. + + 1615. Xabier, Antonio Madrid. + + 1610. Zabalza, Diego de Madrid. + + 1615 to } Zaldivia, Lucas de Burgos. + 1633. } + + ---- Zoga, Miguel de ---- + + + 18TH CENTURY + + 1746. Aguilar, Geronimo Cordova. + + 1794. Alamo, Bernardo de Toledo. + + 1703. Aragon, Diego de Segovia. + + 1716. Aranda, Alberto Madrid. + + 1746. Aviles, Manuel de Cordova. + + End of } Balmet, Bartolomé Madrid. + 18th cent. } + + 1740. Ballestero, Manuel Cordova. + + 1730 to } Bargas, Manuel de Toledo. + 1752. } + + 1702. Bargas, Mateo de Toledo. + + 1739. Bargas y Machuca, Manuel de Toledo. + + 1789 to } Bargas Machuca, Manuel Timoteo Madrid. + 1797. } + + 1753. Bautista, Vicente Toledo. + + 18th cent. Benitez, Pedro Salamanca. + + End of } Buenafuente, Tomas Madrid. + 18th cent. } + + 1746. Bustamante, Franco Cordova. + + 1734. Bustos, Floro de Sevilla. + + 1784. Calzado, José, enameller Malaga. + + 1746. Camacho, Lorenzo Cordova. + + 1746. Camacho, Rafael Cordova. + + 1713. Campo, Matias del Soria. + + 1734. Castillo, Matias del Aranda del Duero. + + 1746. Castro, Damian de Cordova. + + 1748. Castro, Diego Toledo. + + 18th cent. Chevalier, Luis Claudio, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid. + + 1728. Colomes, Pedro, worked at the mounts of silver + knives made at Alcora. + + End of } Conde, Domingo Madrid. + 18th cent. } + + 1754. Cros, Josef Valencia. + + ---- Cuerda, Feliz de la Toledo. + + 1738 to } Cuerda, Jose de la Toledo. + 1745. } + + 1722 to } Dominguez, Juan Antonio Toledo. + 1748. } + + 1776. Elosua, Antonio Burgos. + + 1776. Elosua, Manuel de Burgos. + + 1790. Fernandez, Pablo Burgos. + + 18th cent. Fernandez Clemente, Melchor Salamanca. + + 1741. Fernandez de la Fuente, Antonio Toledo. + + 1778. Ferroni, Juan Madrid. + + 1701. Figueroa, Juan Salamanca. + + 1688. Fornaguera, Buenaventura Barcelona. + + 1790. Gallardo, Vicente Sevilla. + + 1710. Gamonal y Guzman, Juan Toledo. + + 1746. Garcia, Jose Cordova. + + 1760 to } Garcia Reyna, Manuel Toledo. + 1766. } + + 1753. Garcia Crespo, Manuel Salamanca. + + 1772. Gaudin, Isaac, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid. + + ---- Gaudin, Miguel, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid. + + 1714. Gomez, Pedro Alcala de Henares. + + 1746. Hidalgo, Gabriel Cordova. + + 1700 to } Jaranta, Juan de Toledo. + 1717. } + + 1743. Jaranta y Zapata, Juan de Toledo. + + 1717 to } Jaranta, Lorenzo Toledo. + 1732. } + + 1746. Jurado, Jose Cordova. + + 1746. Lara, Diego de Cordova. + + 1790. Lecaroz, Antonio Sevilla. + + 1745. Lopez, Bernardino Toledo. + + 1784. Lopez, Manuel Burgos. + + 1746. Luna, Andres de Cordova. + + ---- Luque, Juan de Cordova. + + 1700. Llanos, Manuel de Burgos. + + 1746. Madueño, Francisco Cordova. + + 1790. Mairod y Vassner, José Sevilla. + + 1734. Manrique, Franco Esteban Aranda de Duero. + + 1784. Marti, Jose Barcelona. + + 1778. Martinez, Antonio Martinez. + + 1754. Martinez, Estanislao Valencia. + + End of } Martinez, Gregorio Madrid. + 18th cent. } + + 1703. Martinez del Valle, Jose Segovia. + + 1693. Matons, Juan Tarragona. + + End of } Mendeluce, Fermin Navarra. + 18th cent. } + + End of } Molinez, Francisco Zaragoza. + 18th cent. } + + 1722. Monteman y Cusens, Lorenzo Salamanca. + + 1746. Moreno, Manuel Cordova. + + 1725. Muñoz de Amador, Bernardo Madrid. + + 1746. Muñoz, Francisco Cordova. + + ---- Navas, Fernando de Cordova. + + 1784. Nieva, Antonio de Malaga. + + 1770 to } Niño, Jose Toledo. + 1776. } + + 1767 to } Niño, Jose Bernardo Toledo. + 1777. } + + End of } Nivel, Juan Madrid. + 18th cent. } + + End of } Novi, Francisco Madrid. + 18th cent. } + + 1786. Olivares, Fermin Madrid. + + 1746. Palomino, Jose Sevilla. + + 1784. Pechenet, Juan Madrid. + + 1734. Perez de Oviedo, Francisco Granada. + + 1746. Pineda, Manuel Cordova. + + ---- Quintero, José + + 1760 to } Reyna, Manuel Toledo. + 1777. } + + 1743. Reyno, Tomas Toledo. + + End of } Roche, Nicholas Madrid. + 18th cent. } + + 1715 to } Rodriguez de Castro, Juan Burgos. + 1757. } + + 1784. Rovira, José Barcelona. + + 1746. Roxelio, Francisco Cordova. + + 1791. Ruiz, Donata Burgos. + + 1746. Ruiz, Juan Cordova. + + ---- Ruiz, Miguel Cordova. + + 1777. Ruiz, Pedro Burgos. + + 1746. Sanchez, Francisco Cordova. + + 1731. Sanchez Renentes, Tomas Sevilla. + + 1767 to } Sanchez Niño, Jose Toledo. + 1777. } + + 1731. Sanz, Pedro Sevilla. + + 18th cent. Sanz de Velasco, Toribio Salamanca. + + 1700. Simancas, Francisco de Burgos. + + 1716. Supuesta, Juan Madrid. + + 1731. Tamaral, Ignacio Sevilla. + + 1746. Torralvo, Sebastian Cordova. + + 1755. Torrijos, Lucas de Burgos. + + 1771. Urqueza, Domingo Madrid. + + ---- Valadrez Romero, Luis Sevilla. + + 1746. Vargas, Jose de Cordova. + + ---- Vega, Pedro de la Cordova. + + 1754. Vicente, Bautista Valencia. + + 1728. Vicente, Luis Valencia. + + 1734. Villa, Andres de Sevilla. + + 1713 to } Zurreño, Antonio Madrid. + 1715. } + + 1799 to } Ximenez, Manuel Toledo. + 1800. } + +I owe to the courtesy of Baron Ch. Davillier the names of the following +artists, which appear in his "Histoire des Principaux Orfèvres +Espagnols," Paris, 1879. + + Perez de las Cellas, Antonio, a native of Saragossa; + he worked at Rome in 1456 + + Ruiz, Alonso; he worked at Toledo in 1431 + + Ferrandez, Garci; he worked at Toledo in 1431 + + Pielagos, Juan Garcia, Burgos 1442 + + Fernai, Rodrigo, a Frenchman, who worked at Oviedo in 1368 + + Bells, Antonio, Barcelona 1458 + + Closes, Francisco, Barcelona 1464 + + Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope, Toledo 1466 + + Sano, Salvador, Barcelona 1475 + + Zobarola, Francisco, Banet 1480 + + Jujuce, a Valencian jew, Pamplona 1356 + + Freset, Perrin, } Frenchmen working at Olite, Navarre, in 1444 + Rodez, Conrat de, } + Bonte, Daniel de, a German, working at Olite, in Navarre about 1400 + + Valdubia, Maestro Ferrando, Rome 1525 + + Fuente, Gonsalvo de, Rome 1539 + + Alfonso, Rome 1546 + + + + +IRON WORK. + + +Numerous iron mines have existed in Spain, especially in the Cantabrian +provinces, and have been worked from very early times. They are +mentioned by Pliny, lib. 34, cap. xii., and have given rise to the +development of excellent metal works in the Spanish Peninsula: although +in many localities this tradition has been continued until our days, the +Basque Provinces have in all times excelled in this artistic industry. + +The want of durability and the little care taken of objects of +iron-work, owing to the insignificant value of the material employed, +prevent us from being able to mention any important examples of a very +early date. After drawing attention to some interesting specimens which +have reached us from the Spanish-Arabs, we must begin the history of +iron-work in Spain in the second half of the 15th century; it continues +to progress in the 16th, and produced undoubtedly at that period works +which were unrivalled in Europe. The _rejas_ or chancel screens +enclosing chapels in the cathedrals of Toledo, Seville, Granada, +Salamanca, and other churches in Spain, of which it is much to be +deplored no drawings or photographs exist, deserve the especial +attention of those who follow this industry in the present day, owing to +the beauty of their forms, and the inexhaustible variety of models which +they present to the manufacturer. + +Besides specimens of Iron-work connected with arms which will be +described in a separate article, the most interesting examples of +Moorish manufacture which have reached us are keys of most delicate +tracery; their perfect state of preservation shows that they have only +been used as symbols of cities or fortresses, which on given occasions +were offered to kings or great people. Even in the present day the +ceremony is still kept up of offering a key to the foreign princes who +stay at the royal palace of Madrid, and in a similar manner as far back +as the Middle Ages, keys have been presented to Spanish sovereigns on +their visiting such towns as Toledo or Seville, and a ceremonial is gone +through of swearing to uphold their privileges, a reminiscence probably +of what occurred when these towns were conquered from the Moors. + +One of these keys at Valencia, belonging to Count de Trigona, measures +9½ inches long, and was originally gilt; its handle or bow is closed, +and covered with delicate work in relief. The wards are ornamented in +the same manner with a combination of several words written in Cufic +letters of difficult interpretation. Round the handle we can read most +distinctly in Arabic the name of the artist: "It was made by Ahmed +Ahsan." + +This key appears to be of the 13th to 14th century. Two similar ones +existed in the town hall of Valencia of a most monumental character; +they were considered of great antiquity, but it has been ascertained +that they were made in 1632, by the locksmith Juan Marti. + +In the shrine of the Cathedral of Seville there are two interesting keys +(_see_ woodcut); one of them is of iron, the other of silver, of a +similar style. For further details see "Museo Español de Antiguedades," +vol. ii., p. I. The first, which is represented to the right, is of +genuine Moorish workmanship; the wards are covered with letters in Cufic +characters, which several oriental scholars have tried to interpret, +without coming to a satisfactory conclusion, probably owing to the +confused, or double meaning of the letters. It is supposed with good +foundation that this was the identical key which was given to King St. +Ferdinand, the conqueror of Seville, in 1248, the day he took possession +of the city. The silver key, to the left of the plate, has traces of +gold and niello work, representing in the upper part, ships, castles and +lions. Round the handle runs an inscription in Hebrew--"The King of +Kings will open; the King of the whole Earth will enter." In the wards +appear in delicate open work carving the following words in Spanish, +"God will open; the king will enter. Dios abrirá; rey entrará." It may +be affirmed to have been made in the 14th century, and in that case, +symbolizes some event of the life of King Pedro the Cruel, a great +protector of the Jewish race. Five Moorish keys of a similar kind, but +inferior merit, may be seen in the local Museum of Segovia, and the +Archæological Museum of Madrid. + +[Illustration: MOORISH KEYS IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.] + +The objects of iron-work made by the Christian artists of this period in +Spain must have been good, for although no specimens exist, we have at +any rate historical information which confirms this. In the Consistorial +Ordinances of Barcelona, Capmany, "Memoirs," vol. i., we find that +ironsmiths formed an extensive guild in the 13th century; in 1257 four +of its members formed part of the chief municipal council; this guild +increased in importance in the following centuries. The Ordinances of +Seville of the 15th century, which were reformed in 1502, and those of +Toledo, also re-enforced in 1582, give an idea of what was done by +workers in bronze, the methods of workmanship and other details of +interest. The Ordinances of Seville mention _rejas_ made in Biscay, and +give a good idea of the styles adopted by the iron-masters there. The +Ordinances of Granada repeat almost exactly the former prescriptions. + +The Cathedrals and large churches in Spain lent themselves in an +admirable manner to the construction of objects of all kinds in iron +work, especially the railings enclosing the side chapels, or sepulchres, +and the double screens required for the _Capilla Mayor_ and _Coro_, +owing to the ancient Spanish custom of constructing the choir in the +centre of the principal nave of the cathedral. Hence we meet with names +of the iron-masters, _rejeros_, mentioned in early documents as attached +to the different cathedrals in the same manner as painters and +architects. We find Bartolomé Morey working at Palma de Mallorca in 1389 +to 1397. He was succeeded by his son Juan, from 1401 to 1407. See +Piferrer, "Recuerdos y Bellezas de España." Maestro Basil worked at +Burgos, and Maestro Pablo at Toledo and its dioceses towards the end of +the same century. Maestro Juan Francés worked at Toledo in 1482. By this +same artist is the beautiful _reja_ of the Capilla Mayor of the +_Colegiata_ of Alcala de Henares; it is signed, "Maestre Juan Francés, +maestro mayor de las obras de fierro en España." From this time the +names of iron-masters are well known and numerous; we may safely affirm +that those who lived in the 16th century have left us the most important +works. + +One of the finest specimens of this artistic industry is the splendid +_reja_ which divides the nave at the royal chapel of Granada. Its +immense size has enabled the artist to carry out a splendid +ornamentation in the "plateresque style," combined with reliefs on a +large scale of figures of apostles and saints, terminated at the upper +part with a wide band of ornamentation of leaves and flowers, crowned +with a Rood, with the Virgin and St. John on either side. The splendid +balustrades and supports are forged with the hammer; the figures and +circular piers are formed of large plates, _repoussé_ and carved in the +most admirable manner, and give a good idea of the difficulties of this +work, which the artists of this time had overcome, long before the +various technical facilities of the present day existed. The +ornamentation of this _reja_ was originally gilt, and the figures are +painted in oils. It was made about the year 1520 to 1530; in the lock, +formed as a Gothic pinnacle, is a small inscription, "Maestro Bartolome +me fec." This same artist worked at Jaen and Seville. Cean Bermudez +calls him "sculptor and iron-master." + +Two most important specimens of iron-work exist also at the cathedral of +Toledo, enclosing the _Capilla Mayor_ and _Coro_. The _reja_ of the +Capilla Mayor is 42 feet wide by 19 inches high; it rests on a pediment +of marble ornamented with masks and bronze work, upon which rises the +_reja_, which is divided horizontally by means of a frieze of +ornamentation, and this again vertically in five compartments. In each +vertical division there is a pilaster of four sides formed of _repoussé_ +plates, carved with a fine ornamentation in the renaissance style, this +is again terminated with life-size figures in high relief of bronze. The +second compartment rises upon the band which divides it in an horizontal +sense; it follows the same decoration in its pilasters, and is +terminated by a series of coats of arms, torches, angels, and a variety +of foliage which finishes the upper part. Upon the centre, hanging from +a thick chain supported from the roof, is suspended a life-size Rood, of +admirable effect, which completes the decoration. In several spots there +are labels with mottos in Latin; in one of them appears the following +inscription, and the date of 1548 when this splendid work was finished: +"Anno MDXLVIII. Paul III. P. M. Carol. V. Imper. Rege. Joannes Martinez +Siliccus. Archipiscopus. Tolet. Hispaniae. Primat." The railings of this +_reja_ are silvered, and the reliefs and salient points gilt. The artist +who made it was Francisco Villalpando, a native of Valladolid; this +model was chosen among those of several artists, who presented their +plans in competition before the ecclesiastical authorities; it is +calculated that ten years elapsed before it was finally finished in +1548. Villalpando was greatly distinguished likewise as a sculptor and +architect. In 1563 a book was printed after his death of a translation +he made of the work on architecture by Sebastian Serlio. Other +remarkable bronze works of art, which will be described further on, were +also by him. + +The _reja_ of the coro, which is placed opposite that of the Capilla +Mayor, is almost exactly similar in size. It is less rich in +ornamentation, but so pure and sober in its general lines, and its +ornamentation is so perfect, that it is perhaps superior to the other. +This _reja_ consists of a single architectonical body, divided in six +vertical compartments, covered with bas reliefs of such delicate work +that they appear rather to be by the hand of a silversmith than by an +iron-master. An innumerable number of figures are combined with the +ornamentation in the base, terminations of the columns and coronation; +in the same manner it is full of banderoles with Latin mottos, and gilt +and silvered; it was finished in 1548, as we see by the inscription. +This _reja_ was made by Domingo de Cespedes, a native of Toledo, with +the help of his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo; the design was also chosen +by competition, and it was finished in seven years. Both these admirable +models of iron-work belong to the best productions of the renaissance +school, and contain models which might be adapted with great advantage +to ironwork of every description in the present day. + +It would be an interminable task to describe the multitude of railings +similar in richness and good taste to these which happily survive in +Spanish cathedrals and churches. It is sufficient to call attention to +the following. The _reja_ of the Capilla del Condestable in the +cathedral of Burgos, by Christoval de Andino in 1523, has been +considered one of the finest specimens of its kind, owing to the +perfection with which every detail is carried out. A contemporary +writer in describing it says: "Good workmen, and those who wish that +their work may have authority and be blameless, must endeavour to be +guided by ancient models, as your fellow-citizen, Cristoval de Andino; +his works are thereby more elegant and excellent than any others which I +have seen up to the present time; if not, judge of his work by looking +at the _reja_ which he is making for your lord the Condestable, which is +undoubtedly superior to all those which have hitherto been made in +Spain." Sagredo--"Medidas del Romano," quoted by Cean Bermudez. In the +centre of the upper part, towards the middle, appears the inscription: +"Ab. Andino, A.D. MDXXIII." The _reja_ of the _coro_ of the cathedral of +Seville, made by the iron-master, Sancho Muñoz in 1519, a native of +Cuenca, is also very remarkable; besides the finer ornamentation which +covers it, it has figures of kings and prophets representing the +genealogy of Our Lord. The _reja_ belonging to the _capilla mayor_ of +the same cathedral was the work of Friar Francisco de Salamanca, +1518-1533; it is covered with an open-work ornamentation, figures of +angels and bas-reliefs, and is terminated in the upper part with a +representation of the Entombment of Our Lord. The large _reja_ of the +cathedral of Cuenca, made by Arenas in 1517, those at Palencia, by +Andino, 1520, and Rodriguez, 1555; the one at the church of Sn. Juan de +la Penitencia, Toledo; the beautiful railing at the chapel of +Palenzuela, in the cathedral of Salamanca, 1524, and a number of objects +of smaller size, such as iron pulpits in the cathedrals of Barcelona, +and in some chapels at Burgos, Avila, Palencia, and Toledo, several of +which are anterior to the 16th century, are all worthy of the student's +especial notice. Among these objects of smaller dimensions special +reference must be made to the fine and picturesque _reja_ surrounding +the sepulchre of Archbishop Diego de Anaya, in the chapel of Sn. +Bartolomé, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca. The beauty of +its details and the open-worked inscription which surrounds it, place +it at once among the finest specimens of ironwork of the 15th century. +The two window _rejas_ at the house called "de las Conchas" in the same +town--an admirable specimen of Burgundian architecture, although +restored--may be quoted as excellent models of ironwork applied to civil +buildings. + +Iron pulpits have been made in Spain with great success. Two interesting +examples of the end of the 15th century still exist at the cathedral of +Avila. They are hexagonal in shape, and supported by lions' claws; they +were originally gilt. One of these pulpits is ornamented in the +Flamboyant style, the other in good Renaissance; consult Sir Digby +Wyatt's "Architect's Note Book in Spain." Friar Francisco de Salamanca +made two interesting iron pulpits for the cathedral of Seville; they are +covered with bas-reliefs representing the Evangelists and subjects taken +from the Acts of the Apostles and the Apocalypse. The pulpit at the +parish church of S^{n.} Gil de Burgos must also be mentioned. Mr. Street, +notwithstanding his want of sympathy with every object not strictly of +the Middle Ages, says: "It is of very late date, end of the 15th +century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration. The support is of +iron, resting on stone, and the staircase modern. The framework at the +angles, top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the ironwork is laid. The +traceries are cut out of two plates of iron, laid one over the other, +and the ironwork is in part gilded, but I do not think that this is +original. The canopy is of the same age and character, and the whole +effect is very rich at the same time that it is very novel. I saw other +pulpits, but none so old as this." + +Among the applications of iron to decorations of civil architecture must +be specially mentioned the nails and knockers on the doors of houses, +which are so characteristic of Toledo and other old Spanish towns. This +style was imitated from the Moors. Some doors still exist at the +Alhambra, Granada, covered with enormous heads of nails of a +half-spherical form with embossed pattern. These same nails are +constantly to be found on old Spanish houses, to which are added in the +angles pieces of iron of a most artistic order. A large number of these +nails from Toledo, are in the Kensington Museum. Examples of two are +given. + +[Illustration: SPANISH NAIL HEADS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +After the 16th century this industry loses its artistic interest and +importance. Ironwork becomes simply practical and useful, and ceases to +reproduce the grand carved and chiselled works of former times. The +artistic objects are reduced to specimens on a small scale: door-locks, +of which an excellent example exists at the church of Calatravas, +Madrid; a weighing machine, made by the locksmith Salinas for the Mint +in the 17th century, which was exhibited at the Special Loan Collection +of Scientific Apparatus at Kensington in 1876, the fine ornamentation of +the clock of the cathedral of Seville, made in the last century by Friar +Josef Cordero, and the very remarkable iron locks made by Millan at the +beginning of the present century, for the rooms at the palace of the +Escurial, called "Piezas de Maderas finas." The art of inlaying iron +with gold and silver, constitutes in Spain a special industry; the +principal artists who carry it out at the present time with great skill +are Messrs. Zuluaga at Madrid, and Alvarez at Toledo. The splendid +sepulchre of General Prim at the church of Atocha, Madrid, made entirely +of damasquiné ironwork, is worthy of the greatest commendation; the fine +vases and shields of _repoussé_ ironwork inlaid with gold, made by +Alvarez of Toledo, are artistic and excellent revivals of the Milanese +work of the 16th century. + + +IRON MASTERS. + + Year in which Locality of + they worked. Name. their Residence. + + 1520. Avila, Fr. Juan de Guadalupe. + + 1527. Andino, Pedro Seville. + + 1540. Andino, Christoval Toledo. + + 1557. Arenas, Hernando Cuenca. + + 1523. Bartolmé, El Maestro Jaen and Seville. + + 1555. Barco, Alonso Palencia. + + 1559. Brabo, Hernando Toledo. + + 1579. Cela, Juan Tomas Zaragoza. + + 1541. Cespédes, Domingo de Burgos. + + 1561. Corral, Ruy Diaz del Toledo. + + 1604. Celma, Juan Bautista Aragon y Galicia. + + 1692. Conde, Sebastian Seville. + + 1797. Cordero, Fr. Josef Seville. + + 1537. Delgado, Juan Seville. + + 1540. Domingo, Maestro Toledo. + + 1518. Elias, Joan de Palencia. + + 1519. Esteban, Maestro Seville. + + 1494. Frances, Juan Toledo. + + 1555. Herreros, Llorente Palencia. + + 1522. Idrobo, Diego Seville. + + 1524. Juan, Fray Seville. + + 1518. Lopez, Juan do Urisarri Palencia. + + 1531. Lemosin Cuenca. + + 1518. Muñoz, Sancho Cuenca. + + 1389. Morey, Bartolomo Palma de Mallorca. + + 1555. Moreno, Benegno Palencia. + + 1565. Pedro, Maestre Palencia. + + 1533. Palencia, Antonis de Seville. + + 1607. Peñafiel, Luis de Toledo. + + 1510. Prieto, Fernando Seville. + + 1512. Prelojero, Juan Palencia. + + 1555. Rodriguez, Gaspar Palencia. + + 1607. Rodriguez, Bartolomé Toledo. + + 1607. Silva, Francisco de Toledo. + + 1533. Salamanca, Francisco de Seville. + + 1518. Urisarri, Lopez Palencia. + + 1561. Villalpando Toledo. + + 1518. Yepes, Juan de Seville. + + + + +BRONZES. + + +Objects of bronze of native origin are less frequently met with in Spain +than those of silver and iron. Many foreign artists worked at this +industry, the history of which only begins in the 16th century. The +specimens of bronze work made by the Moors will be described in their +proper place. It is true that examples of bronze made by the Iberians +and Romans are frequently met with in excavations; they consist chiefly +of hatchets and other arms, bracelets, fibulas, etc., but they are +similar in every respect to objects of the same kind found in other +European countries. During the Middle Ages, objects of enamelled gilt +bronze were used on a very large scale in churches; specimens of a very +high order may be seen in Spain, such as the splendid altar at San +Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre; that at Santo Domingo de Silos, and the +statuette of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban, Salamanca. These +objects were, however, probably made at Limoges, or in some other +locality out of Spain. We hardly can trace any bronze of this period but +cathedral bells. One was made at Puig-Valencia as early as A.D. 622, +melted in 1550, the only trace of the early work being the inscription +and date, which are given by contemporary authors. + +Another bell, about half a foot high, of A.D. 875, exists at the Local +Museum of Cordova, with the inscription: "_Offert hoc munus Samson +abbatis in domum Sancti Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era_ DCCCCXIII." We +find the name of "_Joannes Calcena me fecit Anno Domini 1306_," on a +bell at the cathedral of Valencia, and on one of Lerida was to be read: +"_Fecit factum per magistrum Joannem Adam Anno Dei 1418 in mense +Aprili_;" the author appears to have been, by reference to the documents +of the church, "_de burgo Sanctæ Mariæ Turlensis diocesis regni +Franciæ_," for details see Villanueva, vol. ii., p. 147-152, xvi. 88. + +Before entering into the renaissance period, I must mention some +remarkable specimens which have reached us, the work of the Spanish +Arabs. Probably the most ancient and interesting is a sculpture +representing a stag, now at the Provincial Museum of Cordova, which +evidently belonged to a fountain. It was found in the ruins of the +palace of Medina Az Zahra, the construction of which corresponds to the +time of Abd er Rahman III., (961); it is undoubtedly work of this +period, and probably belonged to this palace, so celebrated by Oriental +writers. The fragments of a bronze fountain and several lamps, at the +Museum of Granada, are of a later date; they were found in the +excavations of the early city of Illiberis, which was abandoned in the +11th century, when its inhabitants chose the present site of Granada. +The fragments, which are supposed to have belonged originally to a +fountain, consist of a small temple 22 inches high, of an hexagonal +base, with twelve small columns supporting bands of open work, frescoes, +cupola, and turrets: in the angles are birds. There are six lamps, all +of which are mutilated and incomplete; their form and object is +indicated by the remains of chains which suspended them. Some of them +are half melted, giving testimony to the conflagration which the mosque +suffered in the time of the Arabs. Other bronze fragments have been +found in the same locality. All these objects are artistic in their +general lines, but the workmanship is indifferent, and the ornamentation +heavy and coarse. + +A bronze lion and a mortar, found some years since in the province of +Palencia, are more artistic in form and general details. The mortar was +found near Monzon, and the lion not far from it. Remains still exist of +a castle, which was founded by the Arabs, in the locality, and which at +the beginning of the 11th century was in the hands of the Christians; it +is highly probable that these objects belonged to its Moorish +inhabitants. If we take into account how frequently we find Oriental +remains in this locality, both these objects may be safely classified as +belonging to the 10th century, although there are details in their +ornamentation which appear rather to be of a later period. The lion is +12½ inches high by 14½ inches long; an aperture in the lower part +which communicates with the mouth of the animal, appears to suggest that +it belonged to a fountain, the water of which issued, or not, owing to +the movement of the tail, which rotates and acts as a key. The shape of +this lion recalls those at the Alhambra; its forms are stiff and +angular, in the conventional Oriental manner of reproducing animated +beings. The surface is covered with ornamentation, the mane is arranged +in mannered and symmetrical curls, like those so common in Assyrian +sculptures. On the back and two sides is the following inscription in +Cufic characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic "Perfect blessing. Complete happiness."] + +This object is similar in detail and the inscription to a bronze griffin +at the cemetery of Pisa; it belonged to the collection of the painter +Fortuny, and at the sale in 1875 it was bought by Mr. E. Piot. + +The mortar is circular in form, and is surrounded by twelve prismatic +sections. Two lions' heads serve to support the hanging rings or +handles. The whole of the outside is most delicately carved with +arabesques, among which are to be met frequently figures of birds and +quadrupeds. See "El arte en Esp.," vol. iii., Madrid, 1864. The +following inscription in elegant Cufic characters runs round the upper +part: it is repeated twice. "Complete blessing, and ever-increasing +happiness and prosperity of every kind, and an elevated and happy +social position for its owner." From the richness of the ornamentation +of this object, it is probable that it was used to pound aromatic drugs. + +A bronze lamp of a similar ornamentation was found some years ago at +Cordova--it is not unlike in form and shape Roman lamps of the same kind +made of earthenware. It is engraved all over, and the subject of a dog +pursuing a hare appears often repeated. None of these objects of bronze +work are however equal in importance to a lamp made during the reign of +Mohammed III. of Granada, now at the Archæological Museum, Madrid [See +Plate.] It is composed in its base of a body destined to hold the light, +upon which is supported a large four-sided piece in the form of a +pyramid, which is completed with an octagonal body which surmounts it. +Four graduated balls suspend it. The height of this lamp is 2½ yards, +and taking into account its general structure, it appears as if the +chains or intermediate pieces are wanting, which probably existed on the +inverted bell of the base. The manufacture and elegance of decoration of +this object is of a very high order, and may be compared with bronze +work of Damascus. The greater part of the pieces are covered with +pierced open work, and the motto of the Kings of Granada, "There is no +conqueror but God." In the lower part of the large pyramid, truncated in +four sides, is a long inscription in Arabian characters, stating the +lamp to have been made by order of Mohammed III. year of the Hegira, 705 +(A.D. 1305). + +The remaining objects of bronze work of Spanish-Moorish production are +less important. They are interesting notwithstanding. The spherical +perfume-burners which were used to roll on the pavement are highly +artistic and might be adopted in the present day. One or two bronze +buckets of a well exist at the Madrid Archæological Museum, with some +small objects of little importance found at Cordova. This artistic +industry has continued until the present day in Spain in the form of +objects of domestic use, such as brasiers, mortars and lamps, several of +which preserve their ancient traditional form. + +[Illustration: MOORISH LAMP. ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM, MADRID.] + +In metal work as in architecture, a large number of instances exist in +Spain in which the Christian and Moorish styles are blended--as an +example of this style may be mentioned the fine bronze gates of the +cathedral of Toledo. These doors, which are 18 ft. high by 12 ft. wide, +are covered on both sides with bronze plates; the outer side is +decorated with a geometrical Moorish design and small Arabic +inscriptions, alternating with castles and a number of Arabic mottoes. +In one of the side bands and in the lower part may be read in Spanish +the following inscription: + +"Estas puertas fueron acabadas en el mes de Marzo era de mil c ccc. +setanta e cinco años." + +"These doors were finished in the month of March, in the era of 1375 +years" (A.D. 1337). + +The fine doors of the cathedral of Cordova, del Perdon, are similar in +style. They are made of wood and covered with bronze plating, and Gothic +and Arabic inscriptions,--the word "Deus," and + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"The empire belongs to God, all is His." Round these doors, alternating +with the arms of Castille and Leon, is the following inscription. "Dia +dos del mes de Marzo de la era del Cesar de 1415 años, (A.D. 1377.) +Reinante el muy alto et poderoso D. Enrique, rey de Castilla." These +doors were restored in 1539. + +The Puerta del Perdon of the cathedral of Seville is similar in style, +and a good example of moresque bronze work. + +Returning to the bronze work of the Christian artists of the renaissance +period, the general rule which may be established with reference to +statues is that they have been made by foreign artists. This is the case +with the splendid groups of figures at the high altar and presbytery of +the Escorial by Pompeyo Leoni, the equestrian statue of Philip IV. by +Pedro Tacca, and others of a similar kind. One of the very few +exceptions to this rule occurs in Bartolomé Morel, a Spaniard, the +author of the statue called the "Giralda" on the tower of the cathedral +of Seville, the desk of the choir, and _Tenebrarium_ at the same church. +These objects were all by him, and are among the finest specimens of +bronze work in Spain. The _Tenebrarium_ is described by Cean Bermudez in +his "Descripcion artistica de la catedral de Sevilla," p. 129, in the +following manner: "This object is better executed and more graceful in +design than any of its kind in Spain. It consists of a triangular +candelabrum, which is used during matins in the three last days of Holy +Week with fifteen tapers, which are extinguished on reading each psalm. + +"It was designed and executed by Bartolomé Morel in 1562. Juan Giralte, +a native of the Low Countries, and Juan Bita Vazquez helped him to make +the statues which are at the head of this candelabrum, and Pedro +Delgado, a sculptor of great renown, worked at the foot. + +"It is 8 yards and a half high, and the triangular upper part is 3 yards +wide: it is surmounted by fifteen statues which represent Our Saviour, +the Apostles and two other disciples or evangelists. In the vacant space +of the triangle there is a circle ornamented with foliage, in the centre +of which is a figure in high relief of the Blessed Virgin, underneath is +a medallion bust of a king. This centre is of bronzed wood, and is +supported by four small bronze columns, below which are four caryatides, +resting on a nobly designed border ornamented with lions and other +animals in the renaissance style." See woodcut on next page. + +[Illustration: THE TENEBRARIUM IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.] + +Villalpando distinguished himself at the cathedral of Toledo in the same +way as Morel at Seville. The splendid _reja_ at the Capilla Mayor with +the fine gilt bronze pulpits, the bas-reliefs of the doors of Lions, +1564, the font, and railing surrounding the altar of the Virgin in the +coro were all made by him. The pulpits, made as it is asserted out of +the bronze sepulchre of Dn. Alvaro de Luna are octagonal, six of their +sides are admirably decorated with bas-reliefs of exquisite work +divided by pilasters and terminated by a finely designed frieze. The +door of Lions is covered in a similar manner with bronze plates +ornamented in the finest renaissance style; the knockers are models in +their way. In the opposite door del Reloj, these reliefs have been +copied in 1713 by the silversmiths Zurreño y Dominguez. + +Notwithstanding the great merit of these works, the stands for the choir +books are even finer and more exquisite in detail. They are made of gilt +bronze and represent subjects from the life of St. Ildefonso, the +Prophet David and the Apocalypse. They were modelled and designed by +Juan Navarro in 1562, and carved by Nicolas de Vergara and his son some +years afterwards. + +Two artists, natives of Aragon, were very famous during the same century +for their bronze work. One of these, Celma, made the pulpits of the +cathedral of Santiago, which are finely ornamented with busts between +the columns, and bas-reliefs representing subjects of the lives of the +saints, and a fine design of leaves and flowers. In one of the +inscriptions may be read: "_Joannes Baptista Celma, Aragonentis patria +pingendi artifex salutis anno 1563. Compostellæ faciebat._" The other +artist was Cela, the author of the fine reja del coro of the church of +the Pilar at Saragossa, dated 1574-79. + +Two gilt metal Monstrances of Spanish work of the 16th century are in +the South Kensington Museum. No. 4310, 57, represents an architectural +shrine, decorated with strap and cartouche-work, columns, and arcades in +the renaissance style; it is dated 1537. See woodcut on next page. The +other, No. 190, 66, has an ornamented stem, with knob, on which stands a +triangular shrine with kneeling angels; above is a smaller shrine +surmounted by a crucifix. + +[Illustration: SPANISH MONSTRANCE, DATED 1537. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +Objects of bronze work of the 17th century which are not by Fanelli, +Tacca, or other foreigners, are less numerous; most of them show signs +of the decline of art at this period. The chiselled and openworked altar +frontal, at the burial-place of the kings of Spain at the Escorial, is +a very fine work of its kind. The shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa +Forma, also at the Escorial, is an excellent piece of workmanship--both +these objects were made by lay brothers of the convent. Friar Eugenio de +la Cruz and Friar Juan de la Concepcion, silversmiths, worked during the +reign of Philip IV. at chiselling these and other objects of bronze. + +The exaggerations and bad taste, which were so common in every branch of +artistic industry, were as prominent in bronzes--the bas-reliefs of this +metal which ornament the back of the high altar of the cathedral of +Toledo, at the "Transparente," are generally mentioned as models of bad +taste. They are by Narciso Thomé; the architecture, painting, statues +and carvings in marble, jasper and bronze are by the same person, as +appears in the inscription which he placed there at its termination in +1734. + +On the accession of King Charles III. from Naples in 1759, these defects +were corrected, in part owing to the classical influence which became so +general in Europe, and continued to the early part of the present +century. The silver manufactory of Martinez founded in Madrid under his +auspices, has already been mentioned in treating of silver work. Objects +of bronze of all kinds were made there in this classic style, and at the +porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, where splendid tables were made of +pietre dure, mounted in bronze. The most important objects there +produced may be seen at the chapel of the royal palace of Madrid, and +the palaces of Aranjuez and the Escurial. + + + + +ARMS. + + +Those who have a taste for the study of prehistorical monuments in +Spain, will find a very extensive collection of arms and other utensils +of this period at the Muséo Arqueologico, Madrid, which have been found +in different localities of the country. They chiefly consist of +hatchets, knives, and lance and arrow points made of flint, and are +similar in form to those which have been discovered in the north and +centre of Europe. There are therefore, constant analogies between the +implements used by the primitive Iberians, and those of other European +races of the prehistoric period. + +The arms and weapons of the following age, known as the age of bronze, +are less common in Spain, although a few specimens exist in the Muséo of +Madrid, and the "Academia de la Historia." They chiefly consist of +swords, daggers, and lance and arrow points. The hilts are formed of the +same material as the blade in some instances, in others they consist of +a blade fitting into a wooden or ivory handle. The blades are cut on +both sides; they are straight, and finished off in a point; in the +centre runs a thick rim made for the purpose of strengthening the blade, +and that it should not bend. One of these specimens measures 30 inches +long. The daggers are about one-third smaller, with the same rim in the +centre; the bronze hilt is nailed to the blade, and the lance and arrow +points are of the same kind. These weapons are similar in style to the +numerous examples found in other countries, especially England. The +hatchets are also the same, their manner of being fixed on to their +handles and their size and weight being identical with the English ones. +One of the few specimens which varies from this general rule, is a +dagger, with a cylindrical horn-like hilt, belonging to S^{r}. Villaamil: +it was found at Galicia with other interesting arms. (Consult Muséo +Español de Antiguedades, iv. 63.) + +The probable antiquity of these weapons always remains a matter of +doubt; this is especially the case with stone implements. When on their +discovery the geological structure of the soil has been studied, some +evidence exists on which to ground an opinion; but this is very seldom +the case in Spain, and Messrs. Prado, Villanova, Botella, and +MacPherson, are among the few and most trustworthy geologists who have +investigated this subject. With reference to bronze implements, Spanish +authors have a tendency to attribute them to prehistoric times. I see no +reason to justify this opinion, and it appears to me that when this +subject has been studied in a more satisfactory manner, it will appear +that these arms were used during the Roman domination at the same time +as the iron ones. + +In reaching the Iron period, already within historical times, we find +that the Spanish people, when once under the Roman rule, used the well +known arms and utensils which will be found reproduced in all elementary +books on archæology. In this, as in every other sphere, the Romans +imposed their civilization on the races they conquered. Some important +exceptions, however, exist to this general rule. The Spanish swords must +have been excellent in quality, since the Romans adopted them after the +Carthaginian war: they were however, never able to imitate the manner in +which they were tempered. Suidas says: _Romani patriis gladiis depositis +Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium assumpserunt ... sed ferri boni atem et +fabrica solertiam imitari non potuerunt._ The locality where the best +swords were made in Spain was Bilbilis (Calatayud, province of Aragon), +the birthplace of the poet Martial, who, when praising the waters of the +river Jalon and the excellence of its quality for tempering metals, +says, _Salone qui ferrum gelat._ These swords were wide, and cut on both +edges; their points were sharp, and all of them had in the centre signs +of a central groove running down its length. Several specimens may be +seen at the Museo Arqueologico, Madrid, which are 15 or 19 inches long. +The Spaniards used also swords of another form, which were known by the +name of _falcata_, from falx, sickle; the blade was curved, and it has +been supposed to be the genuine Spanish model. The blade was widened in +proportion from the hilt to the point, which was very sharp: it cut like +a sickle in the interior curve, and only a small part was sharpened in +the opposite side. The best specimen, which exists in the Madrid Museum, +is 22½ inches long. The weapons made at Toledo must have been very +famous during the Roman period: Gracio Falisco, a poet of the time of +Julius Cæsar, says, in mentioning them: _Ima toletano præcingant ilia +cultro_; the sword manufactory there attained afterwards great +importance. + +I must end by mentioning the _funda_, or slings, and leaden plummets +(_glandes_), which were thrown so dexterously by the slingers of the +Balearic Islands. The slingers of this province are mentioned with great +praise by ancient authors. (V. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman +Antiquities. _Funda._) + +During the Visigothic domination, some modifications must have been +introduced in the form and number of the arms used, probably owing to +the tradition of the Gothic race, and the Byzantine or Oriental +influences, which they accept in every sphere; but the names and +explanation of these weapons, given by San Isidoro in his "Etimologies," +lib. xviii., indicate that the Roman system was adopted as a general +rule. The chief modification which may be established for the Visigoths, +and the greater part of the European races, is that from their time the +breast-plates and metallic pieces, which served as a protection for the +legs and arms, fell into disuse, and were substituted by coats of mail +or chain armour. This is deduced from San Isidoro's not describing +these metallic plates; although he gives numerous details on different +sorts of coats of mail, including those made of coarse stuffs woven in +Silisia. At this time, the use of planks or boards to protect the body +was abandoned, and did not prove acceptable until the end of the 13th +century, when they again became very generally adopted in Spain. + +During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Spanish Christians continued to +use the same weapons as in other European states. The history of Spanish +arms, in like manner with its artistic history and civilization, is +similar to that of other nations; it frequently occurs that objects of +this kind are classified with those of other countries, the only +exceptions to this general rule being those which result from the +Moorish conquest and influence. + +The Arabs, after they took possession of Spain at the beginning of the +8th century, imported, with their arts and industries, special arms and +weapons, the greater part of which were copied from Persian models; +their swords, helmets, and shields deserve special attention; in other +weapons the difference is not so great; and, indeed, in the two first it +is chiefly confined to their decoration. + +None of the arms made by the Moors have been so justly celebrated, or so +delicately worked as their swords. An Arabic author, El Camus, says the +Arabs had as many as 1000 names to designate swords. In the first years +of the Hegira, their historians praise the swords made at Yemen, and in +India; later on, those of Syria; Damascus was, however, the great centre +where arms of all kinds were made. Several interesting Arabic +manuscripts are known on this subject, such as the _Treatise on steel +blades_ in the library of Gotha, that on _Different kinds of arms, with +the properties of lances, swords, and horses_, in the Library of Leyden, +and numerous articles by Oriental scholars, which have appeared in the +"Journal Asiatique," and other reviews. The manufacture in Syria decayed +in the 15th century; other centres gained in importance, specially those +in Egypt, Morocco, and Spain, which had rivalled the East in this +industry during the Middle Ages. + +The Arabs introduced their forms and manner of decorating arms when they +invaded the Peninsula; it is, however, highly probable that the +traditions still existed at Bilbilis and Toledo of the manner of +tempering steel. It is known that Abd-er Rahman II. (A.D. 822-852) +reformed the manufacture of arms at Toledo, and that in A.D. 965, Al +Hakem II. sent a rich present of specimens made in the locality to Don +Sancho, King of Leon. Notwithstanding the high reputation of the +industries of Cordova, the great centre and court of the Spanish Arabs +during the earlier period of their domination, "it never became famous +for its working steel," as Fernandez Gonzalez tells us in his study on +Spanish moresque swords, from which much of this information has been +derived. (V. Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades, V. I. and V.). Almeria, Murcia, +Seville, and Granada were greatly distinguished in this manufacture +during the domination of the Arabs in Spain. + +We know that Almeria, during the 12th and 13th centuries, "was also +famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils of iron, +copper, or glass." (Mohamadan Dynasties in Spain, by Al-Makkari, vol. i. +p. 51.) Abou Said, in writing in the 13th century of Murcia, says, +"Objects are made there of latteen and ron, consisting of knives and +scissors, with an ornamentation in gold. Other similar utensils, proper +for the outfit of a bride, or a soldier, in such large quantities, that +the mere thought of it confuses the imagination." + +The same author, when speaking of the swords of Seville, says, "The +steel which is made at Seville is most excellent; it would take too much +time to enumerate the delicate objects of every kind which are made in +this town." These industries must have continued in the hands of the +Moors after the town was conquered by Spaniards in the 13th century. In +the following century we find in the will of King D^{n}. Pedro, "I also +endow my son with my Castilian sword, which I had made here in Seville, +ornamented with stones and gold." + +No specimens of Hispaño moresque swords exist previous to the 15th +century. We possess some highly interesting examples of this period, +all, or the most part, of which were made at Granada, the last centre of +civilization of the Spanish Arabs. The most important are the sword, +dagger, and double-handed sword and knife, which, with the authentic +costume, belonging to Boabdil, the last king of Granada, are now in the +possession of the Marquis of Villaseca, at Madrid. These objects were +gained by an ancestor of the marquis, who took Boabdil prisoner in 1482 +at the battle of Lucena. In compliance with the chivalrous practice of +the time, the arms of the conquered king went to the conqueror, and have +been kept as heirlooms since that time. + +The sword of Villaseca is 39 inches long, this includes 12 inches of the +hilt. (See woodcut.) "The steel blade," says S^{r}. Fernandez, in his +article, vol. v. p. 395, "is of a later date, and appears to have been +added to the sword after the older one had disappeared. It is a Toledo +blade, marked with the letter S, similar to the one used by Alonso +Sahagun the elder, and with a hollow line in the centre." + +I am of opinion, however, that it may be the original blade, for the +other sword, which still exists at Granada, of the same kind, has +likewise a blade marked T, Toledo. This coincidence appears to suggest +that those made there were preferred, and in both instances they exactly +fit the sheath, which is the original one. + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +The hilt of this fine sword is formed of solid gold, enamelled in blue, +white, and red. This decoration runs along the pommel and cross bars. +The axle is made of ivory carved with the utmost skill. Two octagons are +on each side, with the following inscription in semi-Cufic letters: (may +you) "obtain your object." On the other side: "in saving his life." + +[Illustration: SWORD OF BOABDIL. VILLASECA COLLECTION, MADRID.] + +Four shields surround in the upper part this axle, which contains the +following inscription in rather illegible characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"In the name of God, power belongs to him, there is no other divinity +but he, happiness proceeds from God alone." + +In the lower part in similar shields we read: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"Miracles belong to God, for certainly the ignorant do not know God at +first, for it is their habit to err." + +On the pommel is the following inscription: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +Say, "He alone is God, Eternal God, who neither created, nor was +engendered." + +Under the pommel, on green enamel, appear the following letters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +Say, "The only God, Eternal, not ..." + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +On the other side: "was neither created, nor engendered, and has no +equal." + +On a band which appears under the axle, on enamel, are the following +letters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"God is clement and merciful," and on the other side: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"God is gifted with the best memory." + +The learned archaeologist and orientalist, D^{n} Pascual de Gayangos, is +of opinion that this sword was worn hanging round the neck, between the +shoulder blades. A small bag, _tahali_, probably hung also from the +leather girdle, which still exists in the collection of Villaseca. + +The _montante_, or double-handed sword, has an iron cylindrical hilt +inlaid with ivory. On it appears the motto of the kings of Granada: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"God alone is the conqueror." + +The blade, part of which is wanting, is marked with the crescent. + +The dagger is superior in artistic merit. The hilt is made of iron, +ornamented with ivory delicately engraved in arabesques. The blade is +damascened in gold, with inscriptions on one side, repeating: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"Health, permanent glory, and lasting happiness [belong to God"]. + +On the opposite side: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"It was made by Reduan." + +The scabbard of this dagger is most beautiful, its chapes are made of +silver enamelled in green, and the remainder is of crimson velvet +embroidered in gold, from which hangs a fine tassel of silk and gold +thread. A small eating knife is fitted into this same scabbard, which +possesses no artistic interest. + +The woodcut on the next page will give a good idea of the blade of a +Moorish dagger of the 15th century. + +A sword of a similar kind to the one already described may be seen at +Granada at the _Administrador's_ of the Generalife. It belongs to the +marquis of Campotejar, a descendant of Sidi Jahia, a Moorish prince who +was converted to Christianity. The marquis of Vega de Armijo has an +interesting sword of the same kind, and two others exist at the Museo de +Artilleria, Madrid, which belonged to Aliatar; Boabdil's sword is at the +Royal Armoury. The Hispano Arab sword, which for centuries had been in a +saint's hand at the church of San Marcelo, Leon, is now at the Museo +Arqueologico, Madrid. + +The Spanish Moors used helmets similar in form to those of the +Christians, though their manner of decoration was different; after the +importations made by the Crusaders, the similarity must every day have +been greater. The _almofar_, which appears by its name to have been +originally oriental, and which is constantly named in Spanish documents +from the poem of the Cid, was a protection for the head, of a similar +form to those used in France and other countries, consisting of a hood +made of chain armour, covering the head and leaving the face free; upon +it was placed the hood or helmet. Some helmets exist at the Royal +Armoury of Madrid of Spanish Moorish origin; among them are two very +remarkable ones, which have been attributed to Boabdil, the last king of +Granada. (Nos. 2345, 2356, of the Catalogue.) They are decorated with +gold filigree, niellos, and geometrical ornamentation in the best +oriental style, most admirably worked, and different in this respect to +the helmets used in this time. Another interesting helmet, which +belonged to this ill-fated monarch, exists in the province of Almeria. + +[Illustration: MOORISH DAGGER, 15TH CENTURY.] + +The _adargas_, or shields, are more varied: they were frequently adopted +by the Christians. They were generally round, with a salient point in +the centre, _ombilicus_, or a sort of iron grating made for the purpose +of entangling the adversary's sword. These shields were of wood or thick +cowhide, _vacaries_, and were decorated outside in a variety of ways, +sometimes with pierced iron plates or bands of leather, forming +arabesques; and at other times with an ornamentation of iron, and +leather embroidered with gold and silver, with rich hanging tassels and +pendants. Shields of a prolonged form were also very constantly used, +terminating in a semicircle in the upper part, and in the lower by a +sharp point or a semicircle at the top and bottom, as may be seen in the +paintings of the Sala de la Justicia at the Alhambra. A good collection +of round shields may be seen at the Armoury at Madrid: they are not +earlier in date than the 15th century, the most interesting among them +are Nos. 233, 253, 389, 595, and 607 of the Catalogue. Some of them are +exquisite in work and detail. These shields, although belonging to the +latest period of the middle ages, were used before this time, for they +appear on the ivory casket existing at the cathedral of Pamplona, [V. +Ivories, p. 130], dated A.D. 1005, and in miniatures of Spanish MSS. of +that date. One of the best examples, which may be mentioned to confirm +these indications, will be found in a MS. at the British Museum (Add. +ii., 695), which was painted during a period of twenty years in the +monastery of Silos, near Burgos, and finished and completed A.D. 1109. +Mr. Shaw, in his "Dresses and Decorations," vol. v., reproduces some of +these figures, and says: "The figures which form our plate represent +Spanish warriors of the later part of the 11th century, and are +interesting on account of their remarkable resemblance to the +Anglo-Norman soldiers on the celebrated Bayeux tapestry. This +resemblance is observable in the style of the drawing, as well as in the +costumes. It is highly probable that the military habits of this period +were borrowed from the Saracens. This supposition is strengthened by the +fact that Arabic inscriptions in Cufic letters are found among the +ornaments of the several robes still preserved which belonged to German +and Frankish barons of the 10th and 11th centuries. One peculiarity of +our Spanish warriors is the round shield with the elegant ornaments on +the disc." + +These may be considered the chief varieties of Spanish arms in the +Middle Ages. In other instances the French and Italian forms are +adopted. The manufacture of arms was not reduced then as at a later date +to the monopoly of the Government or to determined localities. Besides +the arms made at Toledo, those of Seville, Granada, Valencia, Zaragoza, +Barcelona, the Basque provinces, and Cuellar, were very famous. Readers +of Shakespeare will remember Falstaff's _bilbo_, a rapier made at Bilbao +in the Basque provinces. The principal merit of these arms consisted in +the manner in which the artist tempered his metal. It was generally done +at night in order to distinguish in the darkness the exact colour of the +heated steel in dipping it into the water. The swords known by the name +of _perrillo_ were highly esteemed in Spain during the 15th and 16th +centuries; they were marked with a figure resembling a dog. Cervantes +mentions and praises these blades in his "Rinconete y Cortadillo" and +"Don Quixote." They were made by a Moor of Granada, who it is stated had +been swordsman of King Boabdil, and became a Christian under the name of +Julian del Rey. His godfather was King Ferdinand, and besides working at +Granada he did so at Zaragoza and Toledo. When an artist of merit +excelled in a given locality, it absorbed all the fame of this industry. +During the Renaissance larger centres of this industry were established +in large towns, and the fame of the objects they produced was +concentrated there. Toledo absorbed the importance in the industry of +sword making. + +We find that the Municipal Ordinances of the Middle Ages give very +little information by which we can judge of the merits of the objects +produced. A Guild of Armourers existed at Barcelona as early as 1257, +and of Sword makers from the 14th century; but the information given +concerning this subject is very slight. We find more details in the +Ordinances of Toledo, Seville, and Granada, whence we learn that +manufactories of arms existed in these towns. + +The sword manufactory of Toledo acquires its greatest importance during +the Renaissance period until the end of the 17th century, when it +terminated. It was re-established again in 1760 under the patronage of +the Government, and continues to work in the present day. Don Francisco +de Santiago Palomares wrote, in 1772, an "Account of the Sword +Manufactory of Toledo," the manuscript of which exists at the Academia +de la Historia (E. 41). The most interesting part of this study consists +in the details given upon the manner of tempering the blades. The names +he has collected of the most remarkable artists, are taken from the +original dies of their marks which existed at the Archives of the +Ayuntamiento at Toledo. These marks have been published in the "Catalogo +de la Armeria," Madrid, 1849, from which I copy them. It must be borne +in mind that Palomares, after quoting the text by the Poet Gracio +Falisco, which I have given at the beginning, does not establish any +definite fact which enables us to study the historical progress of this +manufactory during the Middle Ages. The author says, p. 111: "At the +beginning of this industry there was no centralization or monopoly in +this manufactory, some armourers formed a guild, placing each artist in +his proper place. The kings of Castille granted them privileges of +different kinds." + +Bowles says, in his "Introduction to the Natural and Geographical +History of Spain," that the steel used at the manufactory of Toledo was +taken from an iron mine existing at a league from Mondragon, the only +one then known in Spain. + +The celebrity of Toledo blades has excited the curiosity of many who +wished to ascertain the cause of their great excellence and renown. Some +supposed the sword manufacturers of Toledo possessed a secret for +tempering their arms: it was not so, however; their only secret being +the waters of the Tagus and the fine white sand on its banks. This sand +was used for cooling the steel: when the steel was red-hot, and began to +give forth sparks, it was uncovered a little and sprinkled with sand, +and sent on to the forgers. As soon as the blade was ready it was +tempered in the following manner: a line of fire was made and the blade +placed in it in such a manner that only four-fifths of its length should +touch the fire. As soon as the blade was red-hot it was dropped +perpendicularly into a bucket of Tagus water; when cold, if it was found +to be bent, a small portion of sand was poured on the yoke, the blade +was placed upon it, and beaten until properly straightened. After this +the fifth part of the blade was fired, and when red-hot was seized with +tongs and rubbed with suet, which soon began to melt; after this the +blade was sent to the grinding-stones, and finished by being polished by +wooden wheels with emery powder. + +Charles the Third, a year after he became King of Spain, re-established +officially the manufactory of arms of Toledo. He placed it in a +building near the Miradero Alto, and the works began in 1761. The king +soon found the building too small for the purpose, and ordered his +architect, Sabatini to build the present one, outside the town near the +river Tagus, which was finished in 1783, and from this time has been +under the superintendence of the Royal Artillery. Not a single sword +maker existed in 1760 of any note who was competent to be placed at the +head of the works, and it was found necessary to bring a proper person +from Valencia. + +Palomares, who was present, says: "As soon as the building was ready and +disposed for working, Luis Calisto, a famous sword maker, began to work. +Calisto was a native of Valencia, and more than 70 years of age when he +was appointed. Other artists were chosen at the same time by the +Director. In the short space of time in which that chief master armourer +lived, he made most excellent weapons; he was most skilful, and was +probably imitated by his successor." + + +NAMES OF THE SWORD MAKERS OF TOLEDO. + +The numbers given correspond to the plates of their marks, given in +"Catalogo de la Real Armeria." + + 1. Alonso de Sahagun, el _viejo_, 1570. + + 2. Alonso de Sahagun, el _mozo_. + + 3. Alonso Perez. + + 4. Alonso de los Rios; he also worked at Cordova. + + 5. Alonso de Cava. + + 6. Andres Martinez. + + 7. Andres Herraez; he also worked at Cuenca. + + 8. Andres Munesten; worked at Calatayud. + + 9. Andres Garcia. + + 10. Antonio de Baena. + + 11. Antonio Gutierrez. + + 12. Antonio Gutierrez, a son of the former. + + 13. Antonio Ruiz, 1520; he used the initial letter of his name. + + 14. Adrian de Zafra; worked at Sn. Clemente. + + 15. Bartolomé de Nieva. + + 16. Casaldo y Campañeros; worked at Cuellar and Badajoz. + + 17. Domingo de Orozco. + + 18. Domingo Maestre, el _viejo_. + + 19. Domingo Maestre, el _mozo_. + + 20. Domingo Rodriguez. + + 21. Domingo Sanchez; called el Tigerero. + + 22. Domingo de Aguirre. + + 23. Domingo de Lama. + + 24. Domingo Corrientes; worked also at Madrid. + + 25. Fabrian de Zafra; hijo de Adrian. + + 26. Francisco Ruiz, el _viejo_, 1617. + + 27. Francisco Ruiz, el _mozo_. + + 28. Francisco Gomez. + + 29. Francisco de Zamora; worked also at Seville. + + 30. Francisco de Alcozer; worked at Madrid. + + 31. Francisco Lurdi. + + 32. Francisco Cordiu. + + 33. Francisco Perez. + + 34. Giraldo Reliz. + + 35. Gonzalo Simon, 1617. + + 36. Gabriel Martinez. + + 37. Gil de Almau. + + 38. Hortuño de Aguirre, 1604. + + 39. Juan Martin. + + 40. Juan de Leizalde; worked at Seville. + + 41. Juan Martinez, el _viejo_. + + 42. Juan Martinez, el _mozo_, 1617. + + 43. Juan de Almau, 1550. + + 44. Juan de Toro. + + 45. Juan Ruiz. + + 46. Juan Martinez de Garata. + + 47. Juan Martinez Menchaca; he lived at the beginning of the 16th + century, and worked at Lisbon, Seville, and Madrid. + + 48. Juan Ros. + + 49. Juan Moreno. + + 50. Juan de Saludo. + + 51. Juan de Meladoria. + + 52. Juan de Vargas. + + 53. Juan de la Horta, 1545. + + 54. Juanes de Toledo. + + 55. Juanes de Algruniva. + + 56. Juanes de Muleto. + + 57. Juanes, el _viejo_. + + 58. Juanes de Uriza. + + 59. Julian del Rey, the Moor; he worked for Boabdil, King of + Granada, 15th century. + + 60. Julian Garcia; worked also at Cuenca. + + 61. Julian de Zamora. + + 62. José Gomez. + + 63. Jusepe de la Hera, el _viejo_. + + 64. Jusepe de la Hera, el _mozo_. + + 65. Jusepe de la Hera, el _nieto_. + + 66. Jusepe de la Hera, el _visnieto_. + + 67. Jusepe del Haza. + + 68. Ignacio Fernandez, el _viejo_. + + 69. Ignacio Fernandez, el _mozo_. + + 70. Luis de Nieves. + + 71. Luis de Ayala. + + 72. Luis de Belmonte. + + 73. Luis de Sahagun. + + 74. Luis de Sahagun. + + 75. Luis de Nieva; worked at Calatayud. + + 76. Lupus Aguado, 1567. + + 77. Miguel Cantero, 1564. + + 78. Miguel Sanchez. + + 79. Melchor Suarez; worked at Lisbon. + + 80. Nicolas Hortuño de Aguirre, 1637. + + 81. Pedro de Toro. + + 82. Pedro de Arechiga. + + 83. Pedro Lopez; worked at Orgaz. + + 84. Pedro de Lerzama; worked at Seville. + + 85. Pedro de Lazaretea; worked at Bilbao. + + 86. Pedro de Orozco. + + 87. Pedro de Belmonte. + + 88. Roque Hernandez. + + Sarabal; used no mark. + + 89. Sebastian Hernandez, el _viejo_, 1637. + + 90. Sebastian Hernandez, el _mozo_; he worked also at Seville. + + 91. Silvestre Nieto. + + 92. Silvestre Nieto. + + 93. Tomas de Ayala, 1625. + + 94. Zamorano, el Toledano. + +Nos. 95, 96, 97, 98, and 99, are the marks of sword makers whose names +are unknown. + + Miguel y Manuel Fernandez; worked at Toledo in 1786. + + Pedro de Barreta; at Bilbao at the end of the 16th century. + +The following names may be added to this list-- + + Luis Calisto, 1760; and the four following artists are mentioned by + Palomares as working at Toledo. + + Juan de Valladolid. + + Sebastian Herbás, 1617. + + Manuel Ruiz, 1700. + + Ignacio Fernandez, 1708. + + Juan Orenga, 15th century; worked at Tortosa, and mentioned in the + "Corvacho" of the Arcipreste de Talavera, fol. xi. + + Martin Garro, v. p. 120, "Almanaque de la Industria." + + Alonso Gutierrez, master of sword making at Madrid in 1625. + +This artist, and the eleven following, are mentioned in original +documents at the Academia de San Fernando. + + Francisco de Borja, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1634. + + Gaspar Martin, sword maker; working at Madrid in 1637. + + Juan Mazon de Santorcas, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1636. + + Juan de Medina; Madrid, 1620. + + Lorenzo de los Rios; Madrid, 1585. + + Miguel de Berrio; Madrid, 1575. + + Pedro Casado, sword maker; Madrid, 1636. + + Francisco de Elias, an apprentice of Pedro Casadós. + + Francisco de Salinas; Madrid, 1636. + + Acheza----; Toledo. + + Camilo, 1500. + +Two fine rapiers are in the Kensington Museum, Nos. 626, '68, and 2214, +'55, which belong to the 16th and 17th centuries, and give a good idea +of this industry of Toledo. Woodcuts of these appear on the opposite +page. One of the blades is marked with the name of Francisco Ruiz. A +large and most important collection of rapiers, swords, and other arms +exists at the Royal Armoury of Madrid. + +The breastplates are unusually fine, but the finest among them are by +Milanese artists. A good example, which has been considered Spanish, was +formerly in the Bernal Collection (see woodcut on p. 98); it gives an +excellent idea of the artistic importance attained by this industry. + +[Illustration: SPANISH RAPIERS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +The saddles used in Spain were similar to those of other European +countries, for we find the same names adapted to the Spanish language. +In the poem of the Cid, 13th century, and other works of the Middle +Ages, _gallega_ and _barda_ saddles are mentioned which were peculiar to +Spain. The _gallega_ saddles were called so from being made in Gallicia; +the _barda_ proceeded from the Moors. We find no details which explain +their exact structure. + +[Illustration: BREASTPLATE, FORMERLY IN THE BERNAL COLLECTION.] + +A very remarkable collection of saddles of every description may be +studied at the fine collection of armour at Madrid; among them are two +of special interest--No. 2311 of "Catalogue of Armoury"--traditionally +supposed to have belonged to the Cid, and No. 1310, which was used by +King James the Conqueror in the 13th century. The Cid's saddle (see +woodcut) is intended for a war-horse; its bows are covered with black +metal plating, ornamented with a design of leaves and pilgrims' shells, +partially gilt, and the word "Fides," considered to be the Cid's +devise. Much has been written on the origin and authenticity of this +saddle. Cervantes alludes to it in the 49th Chapter of "Don Quixote," +Part I. For further details see "Catalogue of the Armeria." + +[Illustration: SADDLE OF THE CID. ARMOURY, MADRID.] + +The greatest novelty which was introduced during the Renaissance period +was the use of fire-arms. The only names of ancient artists that I have +met with, who had any connection with the manufactory of large pieces of +artillery were Pedro Burgues, an iron master of Barcelona, who lived in +1393; Rodrigo de Almanza, and Pedro Colomer, who made fire-arms at +Barcelona in 1413; and the Moor, Alfarax Darhin, an iron master of +Tarazona; V. Fernandez Duro. [Museo Español, vol. v. p. 18.] + +Portable fire-arms were introduced into Spain towards the middle of the +15th century. Count Clonard, in treating this subject in the "Memorias +de la Academia de la Historia," ix. p. 214, says:--"Alfonso de Palencia +tells us the _espingarda_, or large hand musket (see woodcut), and +_arbatana_ culverin, were used in the insurrection at Toledo in July, +1467. He assures us they had been very recently invented and named. They +had been mentioned as early as 1449. In the siege of Toledo, Don Alvaro +de Luna could not be kept back from the dangerous position in which he +had placed himself, notwithstanding the shower of stones, rockets, +arrows, and shots of _espingardas_ which were thrown into the town." + +[Illustration: SPANISH MUSKETS.] + +At the same time as these portable fire-arms were used in Spain, the +ancient _ballestas_, crossbows, so generally used in the Middle Ages, +were very popular. Several artists became very famous in their +manufacture. Alonso Martinez de Espinar enters into many details of this +implement in his rare volume on the "Arte de Ballesteria y Monteria," +Madrid, 1644, 4to, from which I copy the following passage, p. 11:--"The +crossbow is more secure and less dangerous than the arquebuse; for it +has never been known that a man's life has been lost by breaking the +string or cord, two things which are dangerous, but not to a +considerable extent. The crossbow has many advantages over the +arquebuse: it kills, but does not frighten game; this cannot be done +with the arquebuse, for the sound it makes alarms and frightens the +game, and is heard everywhere. Once set, its shot is secure; which is +not the case with the arquebuse, which often misses fire. + +"This weapon has been used in Spain from very early times, and has been +made by the best masters; the most famous among them were-- + + Azcoitia el Viejo. + Pedro de la Fuente. + Christoval de Azcoitia. + Juan Hernandez. + Juan Perez de Villadiego. + Juan Azcoitia. + Vzedo. + Hortega. + +"The only famous maker of crossbows of the present time is Juan de +Lastra." + +Espinar does not mention the name of Miguel, a crossbow maker of +Zaragoza, or another celebrated maker who lived at Barbastro. The +ambassador Salinas alludes to them both in an hitherto unedited letter +written to King Ferdinand of Hungary, the brother of the Emperor Charles +V. He says:--"Before I was able to find a lodging in this town of Monzon +(Aragon), which was about five or six days, I went to Balbastro, +Barbastro, and there occupied myself in making a pair of crossbows for +your Majesty. I believe they are so made that they will satisfy the +desires which were required; they were made in my presence and according +to my wishes, and as your Majesty is annoyed when they do not go off as +you wish, I determined to make them in the following manner: One of them +weighs l. ounces, which is considered here a very great weight. I, +knowing your Majesty's wishes, had another made of lvi. ounces, that is +to say 3½ lbs. of Castille, carved and worked in such a manner that +the cords should not break; and that it be pleasant to shoot, I can +affirm your Majesty that the maker is the best which exists in Spain, +and yet he has never made so fine a crossbow as this one which is now +sent to your Majesty; and if not to your liking, I do not expect you +ever will be pleased with one. I have sent them to Victoria in order +that the screws may be made to fit the cords, and have ordered them to +be made without delay; and as soon as they are ready they are to be sent +to Bilbao to be forwarded to Flanders to the Queen, to whom your Majesty +must write, in order that whatever you may wish may be done with them. +When we leave here, it is said, we are to go to Zaragoza, where your +Majesty will stay ten or twelve days. I will order two crossbows from +_Maestro Michel_, who competes with the maker at Barbastro. I will do +the same with these as the others. I entreat your Majesty should provide +that the best of the two should not be lost. I am thoroughly satisfied +with it, and am sure it will please your Majesty. From Monzon, 27th day +of August, MDXXXIII." (Copy of a letter by Martin de Salinas to +Ferdinand, King of Bohemia and Hungary, MS. fol. Acad. of History, c. +71). + +Martinez de Espinar gives in his "Arte de Ballesteria," p. 41, the names +of the best Spanish arquebuse or musket makers, and says: "The first +cannon brought to Spain came from Germany; the artist who made them used +the following marks:-- + +"Two heads. + +"A vase. + +"A vase and pine. + +"A pair of tongs. + +"Flames. + +"A knife. + +"An excellent artificer worked formerly in Italy called Lazari Cominaz, +but many bad cannons have been attributed to him. + +"The best Spanish masters were-- + +"Maestre Simon, el viejo. + +"Maestre Pedro, his brother, who made at Madrid excellent cannon and +locks. + +"They came over with the Emperor Charles V., and worked also for the +Kings Philip II. and III., and marked the pieces they made with three +sickles. + +"Maestre Simon had four sons; all of them followed his profession. +Felipe and Simon Marcuarte have worked for Philip III. and IV. Simon +Marcuarte is still alive. They mark with a sickle in a shield, and make +also excellent hunting-knives, archers' knives, halberds, and other +things. Pedro, their brother, is also an excellent artificer. + +"Juan Salado worked in several localities, and died at Salamanca. He was +an excellent arquebuse maker. His mark was the letter of his name and a +horse. + +"Sanchez de Mirveña, his son-in-law, followed him. He marked with a lion +and his initials. + +"Gaspar Fernandez was brought by King Ferdinand from Salamanca, and the +arms he makes are the best in Spain. + +"Pedro Muñoz worked at Seville. He was surnamed El Toledano, and marked +with all the letters of his name. + +"Juan de Metola did the same. + +"Leguizamo worked at Seville. He marked with his name and two stags. + +"Francisco Hernandez used his full name. + +"Andres Herraez was a native of Cuenca. He made every sort of arm, and +marked with an eagle and his initials. + +"Maestre Cristoval de Ricla marked with an X. + +"Pedro Palacios with P P." + +A fine musket exists by Palacios at the Royal Armoury of Madrid--No. +427. By Cristoval de Ricla there is a cannon of worked iron, No. 2319, +mounted on its gun-carriage, with the following inscription, "Hizome en +Ricla Cristoval Frisleva año, 1565." A fine gun, also at the Armeria, is +by the same artist. + +Juan de Espinar does not mention the following artists, who lived at his +time at Madrid. I find their names given in original documents in the +Library of the Academia de San Fernando. + + Bartolomé de Orgaz 1643 + + Juan de la Cruz 1629 + + Juan de Mazo 1613 + + Juan de Pozo 1625 + + Juan de Zuazo, armourer of his Majesty 1645 + + Lucas de Ros, armourer of his Majesty 1623-1628 + + Matias Suezo, was arquebusier of the guards of Seville in 1625 + + Rafael Villato in 1625 + + Pero Matia appears in documents of the archives of Simancas as musket-maker + living at the Alhambra at the end of the 16th century. + +By extracting the information on this subject which is given in the +introduction to the Catalogue of the Armoury, we find this list can be +brought down to our time:-- + +Gaspar Hernandez had two excellent pupils. + +Domingo Garcia and Juan Belen, who marked with a lion with a lifted paw. +He was appointed gunsmith to King Charles II. in 1699. + +Alonso Martinez was an excellent artist; he marked his work with the +letters of his name. + +Luis Santos, 1739. + +Nicolas Bis. + +Matias Baeza, gunsmith of King Philip V., 1739. + +Alonso Martinez, 1732. + +Diego Esquivel. + +Juan Fernandez, appointed in 1726. + +Diego Ventura, appointed gunsmith to Charles III., 1760. + +Luis Santos. + +Matias Baeza, 1740. + +Francisco Bis. + +Ignacio Barcina. + +Sebastian Santos, 1752. + +Gabriel de Algora, appointed gunsmith to Ferdinand VI., 1746. + +Juan Fernandez. + +Manuel Sutil, an excellent artist. + +José Cano, 1740. + +Joaquin Celaya, 1749. + +José Lopez. + +Diego Ventura. + +Benito San Martin. + +Juan Santos. + +Francisco Lopez, a great artist, gunsmith of King Charles III., in 1761. + +José Cano. + +Diego Alvarez, 1775. + +Joaquin Celaya. + +Salvador Cenarro, 1762. + +Antonio Gomez, 1762. + +Pedro Ramirez. + +Agustin Bustindui. + +Sebastian Santos. + +Pedro Fernandez. + +Gabriel de Algora. + +Agustin Ortiz, 1761. + +Miguel Cegarra, 1768. + +Francisco Lopez. + +Francisco Garcia, 1788. + +Isidoro Soler, 1792. + +Francisco Targarona, 1792. + +Gregorio Lopez, 1792. + +Agustin Ortiz. + +Pedro Fernandez. + +Carlos Rodriguez. + +Antonio Navarro. + +Diego Alvarez. + +Valentin Lopez. + +Juan de Soto. + +Carlos Montargis, 1783. + +Manuel Cantero, 1792. + +Hilario Mateo. + +Antonio Gomez. + +Juan Lopez. + +Ramon Martinez. + +Basilio Escalante. + +Manuel Soler. + +Melchor Alvarez, the first gunsmith who forged spiral cannon in Spain, +and made double-barrelled guns. + +Gregorio Lopez. + +Aquilino Aparicio. + +Ramon Zuloaga. + +Eusebio Zuloaga. + +*** The marks used by these artists are given in plate 9 of "Catalogo de +la Armeria de Madrid," 1849. + +Daggers, knives, scissors, and other small arms made in Spain, have been +famous from early times. A good example of a dagger is No. 2238, 55 at +the Kensington Museum. A great number of towns have been distinguished +for this industry, such as Albacete, Murcia, Alcazar de San Juan, and +Guadix, where even in the present day much cutlery is produced. The +cutlery made in Spain preserves the traditional Moorish forms. Al +Makkari says, in speaking of these objects, in his "Moham. Dyn. in +Spain," vol. i., p. 93:--"Murcia was likewise famous for the manufacture +of coats of mail, breast-plates, and steel armour inlaid with gold; all +kinds of instruments of brass and iron, such as knives, scissors, and +other trinkets, and especially weapons and other warlike instruments, +wrought in such perfection as to dazzle with their brightness the eyes +of the beholder." The translator adds, p. 393: "Several towns in the +province are renowned for this industry. At Albacete there are several +manufactures of well-tempered scissors, daggers, and knives, which, from +the shape of their blades, betray their Moorish origin. Since the +expulsion of the Moriscos, the Spaniards have kept up this manufacture, +and daggers and knives of the end of the last century are often met with +bearing Arabic inscriptions and verses from the Koran. I have seen one +which on one side has the following inscription, 'I shall certainly kill +thy enemies with the help of God,' and on the reverse, 'Fabrica de +Navajas de Antonio Gonzalez, Albacete, 1705.'" + +Sr. Rico y Sinovas has published an interesting article on ironwork in +the "Almanaque de el Museo de la Industria," 1872. He gives the names of +the following artists who were famous in this industry. + + Aguas, Juan; he worked at Guadix in 1735. + + Albacete, signed Cel, 18th century. + + Ambrosio, worked at Mora in the 18th century. + + Arbell, Ramon, worked at Olot, Cataluña, in the 17th century. + + Beson, Manuel, worked at Madrid. + + Castellanos, el _viejo_, worked at Albacete in 1766. + + Castellanos, el _mozo_, worked at Albacete in the 18th century. + + Castello, Gregorio, 16th century. + + Cerda, Miguel de la, worked at Madrid and Segovia in 1590. + + Diaz, Pedro, worked at Albacete in the early half of the 18th + century. + + Escobar, Cristoval, 16th century. + + Escobar, Juan, 17th century. + + Fernandez Manso de Payba, Jose, master cutler of the 18th century. + + Garcia de la Torre, Teodoro, 18th century. + + Garijo, master cutler of Albacete; he worked in 1771. + + Gomez, Mateo, worked at Albacete in 1659. + + Grande, Juan, 1643. + + Gutierrez, worked at Chinchilla, 1701. + + Herrezuelo, el _viejo_, worked at Baeza in 1643. + + Herrezuelo, el _mozo_, worked at Baeza in 1643. + + Horbeira, Angel, worked at Madrid in the second half of the 17th + century. + + Lallave, Juan, locksmith of Madrid in 1820. + + Leon, worked at Albacete early in the 18th century. + + Llorens, Pablo, worked at Olot in 1699. + + Moro, worked at Madrid late in the last century. + + Ramirez, Juan, worked at Mexico in 1590. + + Romero, worked at Albacete in 1769. + + Rosel, worked at Mora. + + San José, worked at Jaen in 1673. + + Selva, Juan, worked at Cartagena in 1780. + + Segura, worked at Mora towards the end of the last century. + + Sierra, Juan, worked at Albacete in 1771. + + Sosa, Madrid, 17th century. + + Torres, Albacete, 17th century. + + Vicen Perez, worked at Albacete in 1674. + + Vilarosa, Antonio, worked in the 17th century. + + Vicen Perez, Julian, worked at Albacete in 1710. + + Zervantes, Francisco, Toledo, 17th century. + +The following artists' names may be added; they consist of master +cutlers of Madrid, and are to be found in a bundle of original documents +at the Academy of San Fernando. + + Alcocer, Francisco, 1635. + + Baltanos, Lucas de, 1611. + + Castillo, Rafael del, 1625. + + Cuenca, Francisco de, 1613. + + Fuente, Pedro de la, worked at Mora and Madrid in 1628. + + Garcia, Bartolomé, 1642. + + Gonzalez, Marcos, 1624, 1625. + + Heras, Antonio de las, 1611. + + Luzon, Andres de, 1611. + + Martin, Alonso, 1643. + + Martinez de Machuca, Pedro, 1611. + + Morel, Alonso, 1643. + + Rodriguez de Quiñones, Pedro, 1611. + + Torres, Antonio de, 1622. + + Valsarias, Lucas de, 1611. + +The following names of artists are given in Calomarde's "Historia +Politica de Aragon." + + Ferrara, Andres, Zaragoza, 16th century. + + Picado, Jeronimo, Calatayud, 1722. + + Nieva, Luis, Calatayud, 17th century. + + Munester, Andres, Calatayud, 18th century. + + + + +FURNITURE. + + +It is difficult to give an account of the furniture used in Spain from +the earliest times, owing to the absence of specimens belonging to the +Roman or Visigothic period. We are safe, however, in affirming that, +during the domination of the Romans, the same models were used in Spain +as in Rome itself, the similarity between objects of other kinds which +exists, and the continual habit of the Romans of imposing their culture +on the countries which they conquered, is sufficient to justify this +idea. During the first period of the Christian era until about the 11th +century, other objects which have reached us as gold and silversmiths' +work, seem to prove that all industrial art work, including furniture +must have been Classic, Byzantine, or Oriental in form, according to the +period in which these styles predominated. The Roman or Classical style +must have lasted for a considerable time, if we judge by the texts given +by San Isidoro, in his "Etymologies," lib. xx., cap. xi. and xii. San +Isidoro lived in the 7th century of our era. We find he mentions the +words, _de lectis et sellis_, _de vehiculis_, which refer to furniture +of the Roman period; but we do not meet with any distinctive terms which +can be applied to the time in which he lived, on the contrary he +comments on phrases and alludes to the forms of objects in the same +manner as Rufus, Varrus, and other classical writers. + +At the invasion of the Arabs in the beginning of the 8th century the +Byzantine element increased in its application to furniture. During the +reign of the caliphs, contemporary authors tell us that luxury of +decoration of every kind was carried to a great extent. The description +of the pulpit or _minbar_ of the mosque of Cordova will give an idea of +its richness. Al Makkari, in his "History of Mohammedan Dynasties in +Spain," says, "the length of the Mihrab was 8 cubits; its breadth, 7 +cubits; the height of its dome, 13 cubits. There stood on one side a +pulpit, constructed by Alhahem, equalled by none other in the world for +workmanship and materials. It was made of ivory and exquisite woods, +such as ebony, sandal, Indian plantain, citron wood, aloe, and so forth, +at the expense of 3,575 dinars: the steps by which it was ascended were +nine in number. Another writer says it was formed of 36,000 pieces of +wood fastened together by gold and silver nails, occasionally encrusted +with precious stones, and its construction lasted for seven years; eight +artists being daily employed on it," vol. i. p. 222. + +Edrisi, who lived at Cordova at the beginning of the 12th century, +describes this pulpit in the same manner. It was to be seen in the +cathedral of Cordova as late as the 16th century, when it was destroyed, +and its materials employed in the construction of an altar. An Arab +_minbar_ is in the South Kensington Museum, which came from Cairo, and +although belonging to the last centuries of the Middle Ages, it will +give an idea of this structure and its elaborate workmanship. + +The oldest specimen of furniture which exists in Spain, belonging to +Christian art, is the shrine of San Millan de la Cogulla, in the +province of La Rioja, described in _Ivories_, p. 134. This casket or +shrine was made by the orders of King Sancho el Mayor, in 1033, in order +to preserve the relics of San Millan. It is of wood, covered with 22 +compartments of highly interesting ivory plaques, representing episodes +from the life of the Saint. The names of the artists, _Apparitio_ and +_Rodolpho_, appear on it. In 1808 the French stripped the shrine of its +gold and silver ornaments, but, most fortunately, left the casket and +its ivory carvings behind. + +Another interesting object, which is useful for illustrating furniture +in Spain in the 12th century, is the Bishop's throne in the cathedral of +Gerona. It is of white marble of one piece, covered with a simple +ornamentation in excellent taste, in a similar style, and for the same +purpose, as the throne of San Clemente in Rome. It is raised at the back +of the altar, and is ascended by thirteen steps. The Bishop sits on this +throne after the first purification, and continues there until the +Offertory, when he descends and finishes the mass at the altar; owing to +the existence of this chair, one of the most ancient rites of +Catholicism has been preserved at Gerona. + +Mention must also be made of the shrine in which the remains of Queen +Urraca are kept in the cathedral of Palencia, and the Cofre del Cid in +the cathedral of Burgos, although they are more interesting for their +antiquity than their artistic merit. + +During the 13th century furniture in Spain must have been similar to +that used in other countries, it was influenced by French and Italian +forms; from which, as was the case in architecture, these models were +constantly copied. Some idea of this is given in the triptych known by +the name of the Tablas Alfonsinas, which is fully described in Gold and +Silver Work. (See woodcut on p. 17.) + +The principal novelty which we find in Spain in this industry consists +in the combination of the Christian and Moorish styles applied to +furniture. A very remarkable specimen exists at the Academia de la +Historia, consisting of a reliquary, triptych or armoire of very large +dimensions, formerly in the church of the Monasterio of Piedra in +Aragon. It is 13 feet wide and 8 feet high. When the two doors are +closed six compartments appear on each, surrounded by a border headed by +a wide cornice. This cornice is divided in sixteen spaces formed by +arches adorned with stalactite ornamentation in the Moorish style; +inside each span is painted the figure of a saint. In the twelve +compartments which form the doors there are subjects from the life of +Our Lord, beginning with the Annunciation, and ending with the Descent +from the Cross painted in excellent taste. The border which surrounds +these doors is formed of a beautiful geometrical ornamentation, in the +purest Oriental style; in the upper and lower part appears the following +inscription in Gothic characters, which gives us the date in which this +object was made. + +Tabernaculum hoc vocabitur aula Dei quia vere Dominis est in loco isto. +Fuit autem constructum ad honorem et reverentiam sacratissimi corporis +Domini nostri Ihu Xpi et pasionis ejusdem nec non ad honorem == et +reverentiam sanctissime genitricis ejusdem et totius celestis curie et +sanctorum ... at fuit ... depictum anno MCCCXC. anima ordinatoris +requiescat ... sinu salvatoris. Amen. + +When this triptych is opened several compartments appear, formed by +cusped Gothic arches, placed within others, in the form of a mitre +divided by pinnacles. The ornamentation which fills the vacant space +between the arches, and the seven banderoles in the lower part are in +pure Gothic style, without a reminiscence of Moorish art. In the central +banderole appears the name of _Dopnus Martinus Poncii Abbas_, the abbot +of the monastery where this reliquary was made, and the person by whom +the expense was probably borne. The inside of the doors is divided into +two horizontal zones, which include half the total size. The upper zone +is covered with geometrical tracery, similar to the outer borders. The +lower one is divided into four compartments for each leaf of the door, +eight within two, which are formed by cusped Gothic arches; within these +spaces are painted standing figures of angels holding musical +instruments in their hands and nimbi round their heads. The details and +forms of the instruments and delicate ornamentation of the costumes and +carpets, constitute one of the most beautiful details of this triptych. +These details and several of the architectural lines of the Gothic part +of this ornamentation denote an Italian influence, probably Sicilian, +for this province belonged then to the crown of Aragon. This triptych +is richly gilt, and painted inside and out, and is one of the finest and +most remarkable specimens of the kind which exist in any country. A +plate may be seen in "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 307. + +A very interesting specimen of this combination of styles is a recess or +cupboard of the 14th century, which is at the Kensington Museum, No. +1764, 71, [see woodcut]. It is 5 feet 4 inches high, by 8 feet wide; and +is composed of an outer arch, with the tympani ornamented with fine +arabesques in relief, made of stucco,--representing vine tendrils, +leaves, and flowers, similar to those which appear in the Cosa de Mesa +and other Moorish houses at Toledo. The arch is surrounded by two Latin +inscriptions in Gothic characters, of which only the following words are +legible + Autem transies per medium ilorum.... mente +. The first of +these is from St. Luke, iv., v. 30, a passage often quoted by +alchemists. + +This arch serves as a portal to the cupboard, which is about a foot +deep, and is divided into two compartments with two rows of shelves. +Each of these is supported by a series of Moorish arches, the tympani of +which are ornamented with tracery, or an ornamentation of leaves in a +geometrical and Oriental manner. On the rim of the upper part is +repeated the following inscription in African characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"Felicity and Fortune." + +On the lower shelf are the following words in Spanish in Gothic +characters: + Dios: te: salve: estrella: de: la: mannana: medicina: de: +los: peccadores: reina + "Hail! morning star; medicine of sinners; +queen." + +[Illustration: "BOTICA DE LOS TEMPLARIOS." FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +This "Alhacena," or cupboard, existed formerly in the court of an old +house at Toledo, known by the name of "Casa de la Parra," and is +constantly called "Botica de los Templarios," the Templars' dispensary, +probably because the Templars occupied the parish of St. Michael, in +which the house stands, and because the word "medicine" is mentioned in +the inscription. + +In order to increase the list of these objects, which are unfortunately +so rare, it is necessary to mention the organ case, decorated with fine +Moorish tracery, in the chapel founded by Diego de Anaya, Archbishop of +Seville in 1374, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca. + +Another specimen of furniture of interest of the 14th century is the +shrine or casket containing the remains of San Isidoro, existing in the +parish church of San Andres at Madrid. This casket is 7 feet 5 inches +long; the cover is formed of two plain surfaces, forming a roof, which +leaves a triangular pediment at each end. The shrine is made of wood, +covered outside with a coat of painting in distemper, and is decorated +with a series of painted compartments simulating pointed tricuspid +arches let into others which are mitre-shaped; in the interior spaces +are painted a series of representations of the life of the saint. This +object is extremely interesting: it is evidently of Spanish workmanship, +although it has great resemblance with the Italian _cassoni_ of the same +period. See vol. iv. "Mus. Esp." p. 593, and "Monumentos +Arquitectonicos"--livraison 67. + +The most important period of artistic furniture in Spain must be looked +for in the 15th and 16th centuries: we find in this time works decorated +with sculptured figures and most delicate and exquisite ornamentation. +Nothing gives a better idea of this than the choir seats of Spanish +cathedrals. The cathedrals in Spain are different to those of France and +the north of Europe owing to the circumstance that the choir, or _coro_, +is placed in the middle of the central nave, in the traditional form of +the primitive basilicas, such as San Clemente at Rome, with the +difference however, that towards the last centuries of the Middle Ages +the _pluteus_ or walls that surround it, which are elevated about one +yard from the floor, were turned into an enclosure or wall four or five +yards in height. A space is therefore set apart in the middle of the +church, which, although spoiling the general effect of the nave, +becomes, as is the case in most Spanish cathedrals, a museum of artistic +objects of all kinds. The side facing the presbytery or high altar is +enclosed by a _reja_. [See Iron and Bronze work.] In the three remaining +sides stalls are placed against the wall, forming two rows, one near the +floor, and the other raised about a yard from the lower ones. The +general system adopted is a row of stalls separated from each other by +the arms; the backs of the lower ones serving as stands for the books +which are used by those who sit in the upper range. The subsellæ are +prolonged and form canopies, pinnacles, crest-work, and other varied +ornamentation resting on columns. They are usually made of walnut wood, +and there is not a single vacant space which is left uncovered with +figures or ornamentation in relief: the effect produced by the whole is +admirable. The number of seats varies according to the size of the +choir, or importance of the church. + +It is probable that the earliest wood carvers who worked in Spain came +from Flanders or Holland, if we judge by the decided Germanic character +of the figures and ornamentation, and frequent mention made of foreign +masters; but this industry very soon took root in Spain, and Spanish +artists soon equalled or excelled their masters. The most important +choir stalls carved in the Gothic style in Spain belong only to the last +years of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century; those in the +Renaissance style come immediately afterwards, and include the whole +16th century. + +One of the finest is that of Leon, it is in the purest German-Gothic +style, and may be considered as a masterpiece in its way: the large +figures are as delicately carved as the small ones. The representations +of the "Last Judgment" and "Tree of Jesse" are as beautiful as can be +imagined. The choir at Zamora is also in the German style; the large +figures which ornament it are splendid in effect. These stalls are fully +described in "The Ecclesiologist," in the following manner: "The stalls, +though not remarkably early, are very fine. The bishops, as usual, at +the centre of the west nave; then three dignitaries on each side; then +at each extremity of the west end a door into the nave; then on the +north and south sides respectively twenty stalls with subsellæ, which +also are returned. All the panelling is very fine: but that at the back +of the subsellæ I will give at full, because the types of, and legends +concerning Our Lord are so remarkably well chosen, that they may be +useful as giving ideas to our own church builders, and might be +introduced with great advantage in stained glass." "Ecclesiologist," +vol. xiv., p. 363. + +The stalls at the cathedral and church of Sto. Tomas of Avila, and +cathedral of Burgos are also very fine. The _coro_ at Barcelona is +extremely picturesque; at the backs of the stalls are placed the coats +of arms of the knights of the Golden Fleece, in a similar manner to +those of St. George's Chapel at Windsor; among these we find the arms of +Henry the VIIIth. In 1519 the Emperor Charles V. held at Barcelona a +chapter of this Order, the only one which has ever been held in Spain. + +It would take too much space to enumerate the choir seats in Spain +worthy of notice; those at Toledo rank as the most important, as +including the last period of the Gothic and best Renaissance styles. +This _coro_ contains 45 stalls in the lower, and 71 in the upper part. +Mr. Street fully describes the lower part in his "Gothic Architecture in +Spain," p. 252, and says: "The lower range of stalls, fifty in number, +are the work of Maestro Rodrigo, circa A.D. 1495; and the upper range +were executed, half by Berruguete and half by Felipe de Borgoña, A.D. +1543. The old stall ends are picturesque in outline, very large, and +covered with tracery, panels and carvings with monkeys and other animals +sitting on them. The upper range of stalls is raised by four steps, so +that between the elbows of the lower stalls and the desk above them, are +spaces filled in with a magnificent series of bas reliefs, illustrating +the various incidents of the conquest of Granada. They were executed +whilst the subjects depicted were fresh in the minds of the people, and +are full of picturesque vigour and character. The names of the +fortresses are inscribed on the walls; in some we have the siege, in +others the surrender of the keys; in others the Catholic monarchs, +accompanied by Cardinal Ximenes riding in triumph through the gates." +The upper stalls, although considered by Mr. Street "heavy dull +Paganism," are among the most important artistic works existing in +Spain. Their sculptures and ornamentation reproduce the Renaissance +Italian style in its finest period. Columns of red jasper are combined +with the walnut-wood carvings, and the termination of the upper part +which rests on the wall is of white marble carved by the same artists. + +Choir stalls, sharing the fate of other architectural works, followed +the general path of decay after the 16th century. Those stalls at the +cathedral of Malaga, which were carved in the 17th century by José +Michael, Pedro de Mena, and Luis Ortiz, are worthy of mention: the +figures in high relief at the back are very fine. This falling off of +artistic feeling is particularly observable at the cathedral of Cordova; +the stalls there, which were carved by Pedro Duque Cornejo in the 18th +century, are admirable in richness of ornamentation, but the whole +decoration is in the worst possible taste. The fine lecterns which are +placed in the centres of the choirs are often good examples of carving. +An admirable model of this style exists at the cathedral of Zamora. + +In treating of furniture of other kinds, the silver chair or throne of +D^{n.} Martin de Aragon must figure in the first instance. It is +described in "Gold and Silver Work," p. 19. In these and other objects +which are not Oriental in style, constant reminiscences are observable +of the similarity of ideas and forms with Italian or French objects. The +large chests or _cassoni_ of different sizes which are constantly met +with in museums, or in private collections, are similar to objects of +the same kind which abound in Italy. Some are covered with fine Gothic +or Renaissance carvings in the same taste as the choir stalls, and are +ornamented also with good iron-work. Some of them were made in the +province of Cataluña of inlaid ivory, imitating in a coarse manner +Florentine and Milanese work. These objects were of the end of the 15th +and beginning of the 16th century. An excellent example exists at the +cathedral of Toledo, near the Puerta de los Leones, consisting of an +iron coffer covered with carved and repoussé work. + +A fine cupboard of walnut wood may be seen at the same cathedral which +is unrivalled for its beauty. It is composed of an architectural order +with six pilasters, forming five vacant spaces completely covered with +medallions, groups of children, flowers, and a multitude of subjects of +ornamentation in reliefs, terminating with a frieze crowned with +candelabra and salient points. This piece of furniture was made in +1549-1551, by the sculptor, Pedro Pardo, for holding vestments of the +clergy. In 1780 a reproduction was made by Gregorio Lopez Durango: the +original and the copy face each other in the room which is passed on +entering the Sala Capitular. As Spanish carved wood work of the +beginning of the 16th century may be mentioned the specimens at the +Kensington Museum, Nos. 245 and 246-64, of two panels with armorial +shields. + +During the 16th, but more especially the 17th, century it became very +fashionable in Europe to use secretaires or cabinets to a great extent, +which, if we calculate by those that still are found in private houses +in Spain, have never been so numerous in any other country. A great +variety of every description may be seen at the South Kensington Museum. +In looking through old inventories at Madrid, the number of these +escritoires which decorated the rooms of the Palace is almost +incredible. Many of them came from Italy, Flanders, or Germany. In a +memorial drawn up by Pedro Gutierrez and presented to the King, begging +for protection for this industry, he says: "The cabinets and +escritoires, _contadores y bufetes_, which were worth 500, 600, and 700 +reales when brought from Germany, are now made in Spain for 250 and 300 +reales each." (Acad. de la Hist., N. 6, vol. iv. 371.) The quantity and +importance of those brought from Germany is to be inferred from an edict +promulgated by Philip III., in Valladolid in 1603, in which "cabinets of +every kind coming from Nuremberg are not allowed to enter the country," +ib. 518. + +These cabinets were made in a great variety of ways. Some were, as we +have seen, copied in Spain from foreign models, but the greater number +constituted a characteristic industry of the Peninsula. Some were +covered with wood carvings in a similar style to the large armoires in +the Sala Capitular at Toledo. Others were known by the name of +_Vargueños_, because the great centre of their manufacture is supposed +to have existed at the village of Vargas in the province of Toledo. +These cabinets are effective; their geometrical ornamentation is a +reminiscence of the Oriental style, and the iron work outside is very +striking. A good specimen may be seen at the Kensington Museum, No. +1073, '71; a woodcut of the upper portion is given on the next page. + +We also meet with cabinets and armoires with glass doors covered with +tortoise-shell and gilt bronze. A splendid series of inlaid work of +tortoise-shell, ebony, mother-of-pearl and ivory is preserved at the +Sacristy of the Cartuja at Granada, made by a friar of the same convent, +Manuel Vazquez, at the beginning of the last century. Cabinets of ebony, +inlaid and covered with repoussé silver work, must have been very +generally made in Spain; silver was used to so great an extent after the +conquest of America, that a law was issued in 1574 prohibiting with the +utmost rigour the making and selling of this kind of merchandise, in +order not to increase the scarcity of silver. "No cabinets, desks, +coffers, braziers, etc., shall be manufactured of silver." + +[Illustration: VARGUEÑO CABINET. SPANISH. 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +Cabinets of inlaid ivory or different coloured woods which were +originally imported from Italy and Germany were constantly reproduced in +Spain, as will appear by the following dialogue:-- "How much has your +worship paid for this cabinet? It is worth more than 40 ducats. What +wood is it made of? The red one is made of mahogany from the Habana, and +the black one is made of ebony, and the white one of ivory. You will +find the workmanship excellent. Here you will find a finer cabinet. +Where was it made? It was brought with these chairs from Salamanca." +("Dialogos Familiares," by J. de Luna, Paris, 1669, p. 111.) Among +cabinets inlaid with bone or ivory there is a peculiar style in which +furniture brought from the Portuguese possessions in the East was +imitated in a rough way. Some also have reached us in which the drawers +are covered with embroidery in silks of different colours, exquisitely +worked. In the 17th century furniture of different kinds was covered +with embroidered silks. At the Kensington Museum there is an interesting +coffer, which came from the Convent of Loeches, and was originally the +gift of Count Duke de Olivares, Philip the IVth's minister. + +The cabinets decorated with _pietre duri_, which are frequently met with +in Spain were of foreign make. Madame d'Aunoy, in describing the house +of a grandee of Spain in her "Voyage d'Espagne," p. 56, vol. ii., Lyon, +1643, says, "et de grands cabinets de pièces de rapport enrichis de +pierreries, lesquels ne sont pas faits en Espagne: des tables d'argent +d'entre eux, et des miroirs admirables tant pour leur grandeur que pour +leurs riches bordures, dont les moins belles sont d'argent. Ce que j'ai +trouvé de plus beau sont des _escaparates_; une espèce de petit cabinet +fermé d'une seule glace et rempli de tout ce qu'on se peut figurer de +plus rare." Cabinets ornamented with paintings on glass, or copper, or +enamels came from Flanders, and some rare specimens of damasquine work +were most probably Milanese manufacture. + +In Cean Bermudez "Dicc Historico de los Profesores de Bellas Artes" +appear among the sculptors' names, those of the artists who carved the +most important stalls of the cathedrals, and other works of art of a +similar kind, but the names of those who made cabinets have never yet +been published. I have been fortunate enough to be able to collect the +following from unpublished documents which exist at the Library of the +Acad. de San Fernando at Madrid. They worked in the 16th and 17th +century. + + Aguayo, Urban de, wood carver 1623 + + Carpintero, Francisco, wood carver 1630 + + Garcia, Marcos, wood carver of his Majesty 1637-42 + + Gomez, Juan, carver in wood 1598 + + Gorostiza, Juan de, carver in wood 1627 + + Higares, Nicolas de, carver in wood 1625 + + Hispano, Francisco, carver in ivory 1618 + + Hoz, Martin de la, carver in wood 1624 + + Lara, Benardino, de, carver in wood 1612 + + Lozano, Pedro 1622 + + Marcos, Juan, carver in wood 1636 + + Martinez, Andrés, carver in wood 1622 + + Martinez, Dionisio, carver in wood 1621-25 + + Martinez, Gabriel, carver in wood 1623 + + Murga, Tomas de, carver of his royal Highness 1614 + + Osoz, Martin de, wood carver 1623 + + Parezano, Alonso, wood carver of his Majesty 1623 + + Pelegrin, Joan, wood carver 1614 + + Peña, Jeronimo de la, wood carver 1622 + + Quero, Melchor de, carver in wood 1586 + + Radis, Francisco, master maker of cabinets in + ebony and ivory 1617 + + Riofrio, Martin de, wood carver 1612 + + Riofrio, Tomas de, wood carver 1626 + + Rodriguez, Bernardo de, wood carver 1624 + + Rodriguez, Domingo, wood carver 1633 + + Roxo, Domingo, wood carver 1630 + + Sanchez, Matias, wood carver 1565 + + Santana, Juan de, wood carver 1617 + + Sierra, Francisco de, wood carver 1634 + + Spano, Jeronimo, wood carver 1617 + + Torres, Juan de, wood carver 1658 + + Velasco, Lucas de, master in painting and + gilding cabinets 1633 + + Zorrilla, Domingo 1642 + +Large arm-chairs of a quadrangular form, with arms, back and seat of +leather or embroidered stuffs, were used to furnish rooms at the same +time as these cabinets; tables, and frames inlaid with ivory, +tortoise-shell, ebony, bronze and silver, were hung on the walls; +side-boards, beds, and braziers were made of inlaid woods or silver. +Women during the 16th and 17th centuries sat on low stools on the +ground. The beds were made of rich brocades embroidered with gold, +(_vide_ Madame d'Aunoy), trimmed with point d'Espagne, and on the +splendid carpets were placed silver braziers which burnt crushed olive +stones. The walls were covered with tapestry and rich silks, and from +very early times stamped, painted or gilt leather _guadameciles_ were +used in Spain to a very great extent. These _guadameciles_ were imitated +in France and other countries in the 16th and 17th centuries; a very +large quantity of this stamped leather is to be met with in England. The +Baron Ch. Davillier has lately published an interesting notice on this +subject, from which I take the following information. ("Notes sur les +cuirs de Cordoue. Guadameciles d'Espagne," Paris, 1878.) + +The word guadamecil applied to this leather comes from the village of +_Ghadames_ in Africa, celebrated from the 12th century for this +industry. It was imported by the Moors into Spain, and Cordova became +from the beginning of the Middle Ages the great centre of this +production, although other towns, such as Seville, Granada, Toledo, and +Barcelona, exported these leathers also. The chronicler Ambrosio de +Morales, in his "Las Antiguedades de las ciudades de España," Alcala, +1575, says, p. 10, "A great commerce is produced by the exportation of +skins, and many have been enriched by it, those prepared at Cordova are +so excellent, that now in Spain any goat hide prepared in any locality +is called Cordovan. Guadameciles are made of leather, and are so well +fashioned in Cordova that none can compete with them; they are exported +to the Indies and all Europe. They produce much for the town, and +beautify the principal streets, for the hides are hung out to dry after +they are painted and gilt, and it is a fine sight to see the walls +covered with such variety of colour and form." + +A good collection of these guadameciles is in the South Kensington +Museum. See Nos. 471 to 485, '69, and 1651 to 1654, '71. + +At the end of the 17th and first half of the 18th century, the Baroque +or Churrigueresque architecture had such influence over furniture, that +although exaggerated examples were very common, they reached in no +country to such a pitch as they did in Spain. As specimens, the enormous +_retablos_ over the high altars made of gilt carved wood may be +mentioned, which are so frequently to be seen in Spanish churches. The +exuberance of uncouth heavy ornamentation destroys the regularity and +harmony of the general effect. Chairs and tables were made then in the +same style, and the _cornucopias_ or decorated mirrors which adorn +Spanish churches and sacristy, belong to this period. The name of +_cornucopia_ was given in allusion to the horn of abundance. + +The French influence of the last century brought the same fashions for +furniture into Spain, and we also find there the styles known as Louis +XVI. and Empire. Spain follows the general rule; porcelain plaques from +the manufactories of Alcora and Retiro were let into furniture, and gilt +bronze mountings were very much used. The most important specimens of +furniture of the early present century are the splendid rooms inlaid +with metal work at the Palace, called Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez, and +those known by the name of "Piezas de maderas finas," at the Palace del +Escorial. The description given by J. Quevdo, in his "Historia del Real +Monasterio de San Lorenzo," Madrid, 1849, gives a good idea of their +importance; he says, p. 343, "This series of four small rooms were +decorated at a cost of 28,000,000 of reales (£280,000). The pavement, +friezes, windows, and doors, are made of the most delicate inlaid work +representing landscapes, vases and festoons of flowers, which look as if +they were painted with a brush. King Charles IV. helped in this work, +and they were finished in 1831 under the direction of Angel Maeso. The +splendid iron work was made by Ignacio Millan. It is of polished iron +inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in workmanship." + + + + +IVORIES. + + +No artistic industry in Spain has left behind so little historical +information as ivory carving. Only a very small number of examples of +this art have reached us which are of undoubted Spanish manufacture, but +a group exists among them which has been but little examined or studied; +it is worthy of the utmost attention, on account of its artistic +character, and the inferences which may be drawn from it. + +We find no allusion in the works of Pliny or St. Isidoro to the +existence of the industry of ivory carving in Spain during the Roman and +Visigothic dominations. An interesting example of ivory work of the +Roman period, consisting of a consular diptych may be seen at the +cathedral of Oviedo, which, although certainly not carved in Spain, must +not be overlooked here, in order that it may be included among the +number of the carvings which have reached us of this period. The two +leaves of this diptych are complete, and in a perfect state of +preservation: they are 16 inches long by 6 inches wide; in the centres +are two medallions in relief with a bust of the consul, who is +represented in the act of throwing down with his right hand the _mappa_ +or handkerchief, and holding in his left hand a sceptre. The right +angles are ornamented with masks, the rest of the surface is plain. The +two following inscriptions run along the upper part of the leaves: +FL·STRATEGIVS APION. STRATEGIVS APION V. ILL: COM. DEVV. DOMM. ET · CONS +· OR. + +Flavius Strategius Apius. Strategius Apius, illustrious man, count of +the most fervent servants, and consul in ordinary. + +This consul belongs to the period of Justinian, by which emperor he was +invested with this dignity in A.D. 539. We do not know how this diptych +came to Spain; it is generally supposed that it belonged originally to +the shrine of the cathedral of Toledo, from whence it was removed to +Asturias, with other relics, to be concealed there during the invasion +of the Arabs at the beginning of the 8th century. The student will find +further details in "Corpus Ins." by Hübner. "Monumentos +arquitectonicos." "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades." Vol. i. p. 385. + +From the invasion of the Arabs, which began early in the 8th century, +and on the foundation of the empire of the Caliphs of Cordova in the +year 756, an era of grandeur began for the Arabs in Spain, coinciding +with their independence from the Caliphs of Damascus, which lasted for +more than two centuries; during this time Cordova became the most +important literary and scientific centre in Europe. The direct influence +of the East and Constantinople may be traced without interruption from +this time on the culture of the Spanish Arabs. At times this culture was +transmitted by the objects of every kind which the Spaniards received +from the East, at others by the influence exercised by the artists who +established themselves on the territory of the Caliphate of Cordova. The +greater part of the industrial arts, which were imported at this time, +became naturalized in the country, and we find them developed in every +locality of the Peninsula, and although we do not possess any positive +historical information stating this fact, which distinctly bears on +ivory carvings, we are safe in affirming that the industry existed among +the Spanish Arabs in a very high state of perfection during the last +years of the Caliphate. The description and details of the most +important ivories which have reached us of this period confirms this +opinion. + +At the South Kensington Museum there is a cylindrical box No. 217-'65 +with rounded cover. I copy Mr. Maskell's description of this object, of +which a woodcut is given. (Vide "Ivories, Ancient and Mediæval, in the +South Kensington Museum," London, 1872.) + +"This beautiful box is carved throughout, except the bottom of it, with +interlacing narrow bands forming quatrefoils, in which on the cover are +four eagles. These have spread wings and stand erect; well designed and +most delicately executed. A small knob serves to lift the lid. + +[Illustration: IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +"Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a star having a leaf +ornament. The same decoration is repeated in the spaces between the +larger quatrefoils on the cover. + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"The whole is carved in pierced work, except a band which forms the +upper upright portion of the box, round the side of the lid. This band +has an Arabic inscription: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"A favour of God to the servant of God, Al Hakem al Mostanser Billah, +commander of the faithful." He was a Caliph who reigned at Cordova, A.D. +961-976." + +Another very interesting oblong box is preserved in the same Museum, No. +301-'66. The cover and sides are carved with scroll foliated ornament: +the hinges and clasp are of chased silver inlaid with niello. Round the +sides, immediately below the lid is the following Arabic inscription in +Cufic characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"In the name of God. This (box) was ordered to be made by Seidat Allah, +the wife of Abdo-r-rahman, prince of the believers. God be merciful and +satisfied with him." + +[Illustration: IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +This inscription must allude to Abd er Rahman III. the first Caliph of +Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el Mumenin. The formula "God be +merciful," &c., denotes that he was dead when it was written. He died +A.D. 961. (See woodcut.) + +Another casket, undoubtedly the most important in size which is known of +this period, proceeds from Sanguesa, in the province of Navarre, and is +now preserved in the treasury of the cathedral of Pamplona. + +This splendid box, hitherto undescribed, is 15 inches long, by 9¼ +wide. A woodcut is given opposite. It is completely covered with +carvings in relief, within circular cusped medallions, with figures in +the centres representing different subjects: men seated, hawking, or +struggling with wild beasts, and numerous single figures of lions, +stags, and other animals. The intermediate spaces contain an +ornamentation of leaves and flowers which is accommodated to the +geometrical style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of this box +appears an Arabic inscription in fine Cufic characters. + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"In the name of God. The blessing of God, the complete felicity, the +happiness, the fulfilment of the hope of good works, and the adjourning +the fatal period (of death), be with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the +State), Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made by the orders (of +the said Hagib), under the inspection or direction of his chief eunuch, +Nomayr ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave in the year of 395," [A.D. +1005]. + +In the centre medallion, on the opposite side to the lock, is +represented the standing figure of a man who is attacked by two lions. +He holds on his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an inscription, +with the following religious formula: "There is no God but God," or a +similar one, for the characters are very illegible and confused. In the +centre of this shield may be read [Illustration: Arabic], "made by +Hair," undoubtedly one of the artists who made the box. Another artist's +name may be read with difficulty in a similar inscription which appears +on one of the medallions on the left side: it is written on the thigh of +a stag, which is attacked by a lion [Illustration: Arabic], "it was made +by Obeidat." Three other inscriptions of a similar character appear in +other parts of this box, which probably give the names of other +artists, but I have been unable to decipher them. + +[Illustration: MOORISH CASKET. 11TH CENTURY. CATHEDRAL OF PAMPLONA.] + +Among other artistic objects in the shrine of the cathedral of Braga, in +Portugal, there is an ivory box of the same period, and the inscription, +which runs round the cover, mentions the same persons: + +"There is no God but God, and Mahomad is his prophet. In the name of +God, a blessing, prosperity and fortune for the Hagib Seifo, d. daula, +for this work, which he ordered to be made by the hands of"--here the +inscription has been broken off--"his principal eunuch." (Vide 'Artes e +Letras,' No. 6, 3rd series, p. 94, Lisbon, 1874.) + +Both these caskets were made for Hadjeb Abd el Melik, a minister of +Hischem the second. + +It is necessary to add to them an ivory diptych, preserved at the +Provincial Museum of Burgos, which, as we find by the following +inscription, was also made for Abder Rahman III, (A.D. 912-961). + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"This was ordered to be made by the Iman servant of God Abder Rahman, +prince of believers." + +Two other boxes of the same artistic character, belonging to a private +collection, must also be mentioned. They are both cylindrical, and are +terminated by a spherical cover. They measure 7½ inches high, by +4-5/8 wide, and are covered with a profuse and splendid ornamentation of +figures and animals. Round the lid of one them is a band, with the +following inscription in fine Cufic character: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"The blessing of God and his favours, joy, and prosperity, for +Almogueira, son of the Prince of the faithful, whom may God have +forgiven. It was made in the year 357 [A.D. 967]." + +Almogueira was the son of the Caliph of Cordova, Abder Rahman III. + +On the other may be read in similar characters-- + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +("In the name of God, clement and merciful, blessing")--this part of the +inscription is missing--"and prosperity and happiness for Riyadh ben +Aflah, captain of the superior guard. It was made in the year 359" [A.D. +969]. + +The style of the objects which we have hitherto described is undoubtedly +Oriental, and we must seek in Persia the origin of this industry. There +is, however, every probability that these seven ivory boxes were made in +Spain by Spanish Arabs, or artists who had settled there from the East. +On all these carvings the names of Spanish historical persons appear, +and it is hardly possible that they were ordered in remote countries, +especially as some of these objects are small and comparatively +unimportant. It must also be borne in mind that we find in contemporary +authors many details on the luxury and magnificence of this period of +the Spanish Arabs, and the great height which the arts and industries +had reached at that time. + +The ivory carvings which I have described present all the +characteristics of the Oriental school, which was copied by European +Christian sculptors during the 11th and 12th centuries. We find in +Christian productions of this period, too constantly to require any +further comment, the same geometrical traceries, flowers, leaves, +animals, and birds. The subjects represented on monuments of Christian +art have been erroneously interpreted by modern ecclesiologists who have +endeavoured to demonstrate the symbolism of these figures in a purely +Christian sense with only the unsatisfactory result of checking and +leading astray art students of the Middle Ages. It is of the utmost +importance to go to the primitive sources from which this art is derived +in order to illustrate this important theory. The Oriental school of +sculpture was soon transmitted, either through the influence of the +Spanish Arabs, or by other means, to Christian artists. As an +interesting example of this may be mentioned the shrine which King Dn. +Sancho ordered to be made, A.D. 1033, in which to deposit the bones of +San Millan, still preserved in San Millan de la Cogulla, in the province +of La Rioja, Spain. This fine shrine is 4 feet 6 inches long, by 2 feet +3½ inches high. It is of wood, and covered with gold plates and +inlaid stones and crystals. Between this metal work are placed 22 +plaques of ivory carved with subjects representing passages from the +life of the saint, and single figures of the princes, monks, and +benefactors who helped to defray the expense of this work of art. Among +them there are two small figures with the names of Apparitio +Scholastico, Ramirus Rex. These have been generally supposed to be the +artists' names. A sculptor is also represented carving a shield, and +near him is one of his workmen. Underneath these figures ran formerly an +inscription, of which the first part only remains, containing the name +of the artist--"(Magis) tro et Rodolpho filio." + +Two other interesting specimens remain of Spanish Moresque art of the +11th century. One is a casket at the South Kensington Museum, No. 10, +66, which Mr. Maskell describes as "richly carved in deep relief with +foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing one another, and forming +larger and smaller circles. The top and each side is a single plaque of +ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back has two panels. On the two +are two animals, like does; a large bird stands on the back of each, +attacking it with his beak. The sloping sides have, in the large +circles, men on horseback, and animals fighting. The intermediate spaces +are completely filled with foliage, and smaller beasts. Similar +subjects are repeated in the circles on the panels forming the lower +sides of the casket, and among them are two groups of men and women +sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on a guitar, another +holding a cup in one hand and a flower in the other." There is no +inscription on this casket, but in one of the medallions on the lid +there is a bust which is carried on the back of a horse, and which is +probably a representation of the prince for whom the casket was made. + +The other example of this period is that known as the cross of Don +Fernando, at the Archæological Museum at Madrid. This cross is 20½ +inches by 14. On the front is a figure in high relief of Our Lord with +the inscription: IHE. NAZARENVS REX IVDEORVM. In the upper part is +represented the figure of Our Lord at the moment of his Resurrection, +and in the lower a symbolical figure of Adam; both these figures are in +high relief. Underneath may be read in two lines,-- + + FERDINANDVS REX. + SANCIA REGINA. + +At the back of the cross appears in the centre the Lamb of God: in the +four corners the emblems of the Evangelists. Besides these purely +Christian symbols, the ground work is covered with foliage, circles +interlacing each other, figures of animals of different kinds, and men +struggling with wild beasts. The whole of the ornamentation corresponds +to the style of decoration of the moresque objects which I have already +described. King Ferdinand I. died A.D. 1065, his wife Sancha A.D. 1071; +and documents exist proving that in 1063 they gave this interesting work +of art with other artistic objects to the Church of San Isidoro of Leon, +where it remained until 1870, when it was given up by the authorities of +the church to the Museum at Madrid. The following woodcut represents the +back of the cross:-- + +[Illustration: BACK OF CROSS OF KING FERDINAND I. ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM. +MADRID] + +These different specimens represent, in my opinion, the most +satisfactory view of the art industry of ivory carving during the 10th +and 11th centuries. Several other examples of oriental carving in ivory +still exist in Spain in the shrines of different cathedrals; others of +less artistic interest may be seen at the Archæological Museum at +Madrid. These caskets are for the most part not ornamented with carvings +in relief, but are decorated with inscriptions painted in gold and +colours. The most important are:-- + +A large casket at the Archæological Museum of Madrid, decorated with +painting in red and green, and a fine inscription in Cufic characters. + +A similar casket at the same museum, decorated with a design painted in +green, red, and blue; an inscription in cufic letters runs round a band +in the upper part. + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"Made by Mohammad Ben Assarag." + +An ivory casket at the Real Academia de la Historia at Madrid, with an +ornamentation and inscription painted in the style of the former ones +and the shield of arms of the Kings of Aragon. The inscription +reproduces several Suras of the Koran, and the arms of the house of +Aragon were probably added when the casket came into the possession of +some person belonging to the family. + +A casket exists at the Church of Santo Domingo de Silos (province of +Burgos), which merits a special mention on account of what has remained +to us of the inscription. + +This casket is 13¼ inches long by 7½ inches wide and high. It is +ornamented in part with foliage and flowers in the moresque style, +alternating with hunting subjects, men shooting with bows and arrows, +riding upon lions, fantastic animals and leopards mounted on the back of +bulls. The work is inferior in art to the caskets at Pamplona and South +Kensington. On a band which runs round the four sides of the lid is an +inscription in Cufic characters, of which unfortunately the two longer +sides have been destroyed, and have been substituted at a very early +period by bands of cloisonné enamel, evidently belonging to other +caskets. On the two sides an inscription remains, upon which may be read +the year Hegira 417 (A.D. 1026); the name of the artist who carved it, +Mohammad Ibn Zeiyan, and the two first letters of the town in which it +was made (probably Cuenca) + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +".....for its owner (may God lengthen his days.) It was made in the town +of Cu[enca] in the year 417. (A.D. 1025.) By Mohammad--ibn Zeiyan, his +servant. May God glorify him." + +In the geography of Edrisi, an Oriental author who describes Spain in +the beginning of the 12th century, only two names of towns are mentioned +which agree with this inscription, Coria and Cuenca [Illustration: +Arabic]. The first of these towns was always a less important centre +than Cuenca. Edrisi praises the woollen fabrics made at Cuenca, and +there is every probability that this casket was carved there, as there +is also an ivory monstrance at the cathedral of Perpiñan, which has +likewise an inscription in Cufic characters, stating it was made for the +Hageb Ismail. + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"The blessing of God. Made at the town of Cuenca, for the Hageb Ismail." + +Villanueva in his "Viage por España," Vol. 5, p. 144, mentions two large +ivory caskets with Cufic inscriptions which still exist at the cathedral +of Tortosa, Cataluña. + +Another of a similar description is preserved in the Treasury of the +cathedral of Bayeux. + +This casket is, as M. André tells us in a pamphlet on "Antiquites Arabes +de la Normandie," Rennes, 1869, O^{m} 42 L. by O^{m} 28 W. and 13 H. It +is decorated with bands of enamelled metal, and covered with a fine +running design of peacocks and other birds. Round the lock runs the +following inscription in Cufic characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"In the name of God, clement, merciful, the blessing and His benefits +complete." + +These ivory caskets were made originally to hold perfumes, jewels, or +precious stones. For besides the Arabic inscriptions which allude to +this, we find the idea distinctly expressed in an inscription in Cufic +letters on a casket which came from Cordova belonging to the Caliphate. +This casket was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1867; I do not know +where it is at present. + +It appears at first sight difficult to explain why the Spanish Moors +decorated these objects with the representations of animated beings, +against the precepts of the Koran, and the reason why these objects of +undoubtedly Moorish origin have been preserved until the present day in +the treasuries of Spanish cathedrals. The prohibition of the Koran to +represent animated beings is, however, not so strict as is generally +supposed; it is reduced to the following sentences. "O Believers! Wine +and games of chance, and statues and the divining arrows, are only an +abomination of Satan's work! Avoid them that ye may prosper." [Sura v. +ver. 22.] Later commentators on the Koran have added the severest +prohibitions against painters and artists who represented animated +beings, but to very little effect, and we find in contemporary authors +numerous details of the specimens of sculptures and paintings which +were in the houses of Moorish magnates. Coins, textile fabrics, +furniture, and other objects which have reached us, leave no doubt that +the representations of animated beings were constantly used by the +Spanish and Eastern Arabs from the first century of the Hegira. + +The fact that these Moorish caskets should have been used for preserving +the relics of saints in Spanish churches, is explained by the custom +common in the middle ages in Spain and other countries, of offering war +spoils and treasures brought from long and distant peregrinations, and +even objects of natural history, to the different churches. Alligators +may still be seen hanging in churches in Seville, Toledo, Valencia, etc. +The Moors did the same thing: the famous warrior Almanssor, the minister +of Hischem II. at the end of the 10th century, carried off the bells +from the cathedral of Cordova, and had them turned into lamps and used +at the mosque of Cordova. We find in ancient writers frequent mention of +the custom of Spanish Christians of offering these ivory caskets to the +churches, as trophies taken in their warfares with the Moors. The +ecclesiastical authorities probably placed them at the time with other +valuable objects in the treasuries of the churches, filling them with +relics, for such is the manner in which they are found; they have +remained untouched from the earliest times and are constantly mentioned +in local histories of the cathedrals. We must not suppose that the +ecclesiastical authorities ignored their Mohamedan origin, for we find +at every step during the middle ages the names of priests who knew and +interpreted the Arabic language. The principal reason why these objects +of Oriental art have been preserved, is, that the hatred of race and +belief between Moors and Christians was by no means as great as has been +supposed by modern authors, and certainly never went so far as to +destroy objects of industrial and artistic interest. In the year A.D. +1275, certain privileges were granted to Moorish workmen who were set +apart and ordered to repair the Mosque at Cordova, at that time already +converted into a christian cathedral. During the 13th, 14th and 15th +centuries a large number of parish churches were built in Spain in the +Moorish style, either by Oriental architects, or Spaniards who had +adopted their architecture, and numerous examples might be given of +inscriptions and details of ornamentation which confirm most fully these +theories. + +Objects of ivory carvings of the middle ages, posterior to the 12th +century, are frequently met with in Spain. Among the most remarkable is +the Virgin de las Batallas, in the cathedral of Seville. This image +belonged to St. Ferdinand, early in the 13th century, and the tradition +exists that it was carried on the king's saddle in battle. The fine +ivory diptychs at the Escorial and Archæological Museum at Madrid must +also be mentioned, and a large number of ivory caskets, and fragments, +existing in the same Museum and in different Spanish churches. + +Notwithstanding, however, the numerous examples of ivory carvings which +are still to be met with in Spanish churches and cathedrals, I find no +information which enables us to affirm that this artistic industry +existed in Spain during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. We find +artists mentioned who carved in wood, iron, and silver work, and +numerous details of their work, but ivory carvers are never mentioned, +if any existed, their number must have been comparatively small; and I +am led, therefore, to suppose that the specimens existing in Spain were +imported from Italy or France, and for this reason it is necessary to +end at the Renaissance the history of ivory carving in Spain. + +The inlaid ivory work so constantly used in Spanish furniture of the +16th and 17th centuries, cannot be included in this notice on ivory +carvers, owing to its limited character, and the use to which it was +employed. One branch of sculpture must be mentioned representing sacred +images, which were carved in the 16th and 17th centuries by natives of +the Philippine Islands or the Portuguese Colonies. They are frequently +met with in Spain, and are remarkable for their bad and careless +modelling, a mannered unartistic style, combined with the exaggerated +rigidity so common in Chinese and Indian productions. As examples of +this style of art may be mentioned the representations of St. Erasmus, +and the Immaculate Conception (Nos. 9069, '63, 183, '64), in the South +Kensington Museum. + + + + +POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. + + Roman and Visigothic.--Hispano Moresque earthenware.--Painted, + glazed and lustred pottery.--Terra-cotta.--_Azulejos_ (Tile + decorations).--Pottery made at Talavera, Valencia, Seville, Triana, + Zamora, Puente del Arzobispo.--Unglazed pottery.--Bucaros.--Alcora + ware and porcelain.--Buen Retiro porcelain. + + +ROMAN AND VISIGOTHIC. + +The productions of Ceramic Art have constituted from the earliest times +a very important industry in Spain. Fragments of vases of +greyish-coloured paste, ornamented with bands or zones, are constantly +found in excavations in different localities. It cannot, however, be +determined whether they were importations, or imitations made in the +Spanish Peninsula. The earliest mention which we find of this industry +in Spain is in Pliny (Lib. xxx., cap. xii., line 19, Edition of Paris, +1526-7), who, in praising vases of pottery made in different countries, +mentions those of Saguntum (Murviedro) near Valencia. An epigram by +Juvenal (Sat. v. xxix.), and several by Martial (iv. 45, viii. 6, xiv. +108) on the same subject, prove that the pottery from the eastern coast +of the Mediterranean was very famous at that time. + +Count Lumiares, in his work on pottery of Saguntum ("Barros Saguntinos," +Valencia, 1779, 8vo), mentions having examined more than 1500 specimens +of pottery of different kinds, which he classifies in four groups: grey +pottery, cream-coloured pottery, yellow pottery and red glazed ware, +with ornamentation in relief (Samian ware); this ornamentation +constitutes, in my opinion, the only distinctive feature of the pottery +made at Saguntum. + +Remains of this pottery are very frequently found in the ruins of former +Roman cities; a much larger number of specimens of all kinds have +appeared since Count Lumiares wrote his book, none however differ +materially from the terra-cottas of the Roman period found in Italy, or +in other countries. Some of the marks are identical with those given by +Birch and several authors who have written on Roman pottery; hence it +would appear that this industry was imported into Spain, or the forms +and marks copied there to a very large extent. + +[Illustration: SAMIAN BOWL.] + +The number of inscriptions and potters' marks met with on the vases and +fragments found in Spain is very great. Students who take a special +interest in this subject will find full details in Dr. Emile Hübner's +important work, "Inscrip. Hispaniæ Latinæ," Berlin, 1869. This writer +has collected the greatest number of inscriptions. He mentions 43 which +appear on bricks, 36 on vases and drinking vessels, 63 on lamps, 579 on +vases of red pottery, 115 inscriptions of doubtful reading, 21 which are +incomplete, and 56 written by hand. He gives us, besides, other marks +without inscriptions, representing hands, horses, rabbits, butterflies, +bees, flowers, etc. In an inedited history of the ancient city of +Emporion (Cataluña) [MS., Acad. of Hist., Madrid], the author, Dr. +Joaquin Botet y Sisó, has collected 198 potters' marks. A large number +are still unpublished which have been met with on fragments of pottery +found in Extremadura and Andalucia; we may therefore confidently assert +that the number amounts to upwards of 1500. + +During the Visigothic monarchy, after the downfall of the Roman empire, +which lasted until the invasion of the Arabs in the 8th century, the +same style of ceramic industry, copied from the Romans, continued in +Spain. No special study has been made of the pottery of this epoch, but, +judging by the large amount of fragments of vessels for domestic use, +which are constantly found in ruins of the Visigothic period, there can +be no doubt that pottery continued to be manufactured in Spain. What San +Isidoro, who died in 636, says in his "Etimologies, Book xx.," confirms +this opinion, and undoubtedly refers to vessels similar to those of the +Roman period. (_De vasis Escariis, potoriis vinariis et aquariis, +oleariis, coquinariis et luminariorum._) + +After the Roman domination and Visigothic monarchy, ceramic art in Spain +may be divided into the following groups:-- + +1st. Objects imported by the Moors into Spain; these consist of remains +of pottery belonging to the first period of their invasion; lustred +wares, manufactured in the Peninsula, which attained great importance +during the Middle Ages, and still continue to be made in the present +day; terra-cottas, and green and white glazed pottery; and lastly tiles, +_azulejos_, of bright colours in the Moorish style. + +2nd. Pottery of a distinct Italian style, made principally at Talavera; +porous, unglazed, coloured pottery, _bucaros_; white, unglazed pottery, +made at Andujar and La Rambla. + +3rd. Pottery and porcelain made at Alcora, and the porcelain manufactory +of Buen Retiro, near Madrid. + + +HISPANO MORESQUE EARTHENWARE. + +The Spanish Peninsula was invaded by the Arabs about the year 711 A.D., +and they absorbed for several centuries the industries of the country. +Ceramic Art attained great importance in their hands during the Middle +Ages and Renaissance period, for even while the pottery works +established at Talavera, Seville, and other localities, manufactured +pottery to a very great extent, which was chiefly imitated from Italian +models, the Moorish style still continued, and has never been +interrupted in the province of Valencia down to the present day. + +The Arabs had as early as the beginning of the 12th century, if not even +before, established the industry of metallic-lustred pottery in Spain. +It remains to be seen what were the leading characteristics of the +pottery of the period of the greatest importance of the Spanish Moors +from the 8th to the 11th century. + +Cordova, the capital of the independent Caliphs of Damascus, was the +centre from which works of art of all kinds of a high order were largely +exported. The ruins of the palaces at Medina Az zahra have, it is deeply +to be regretted, never been excavated, and Granada is the only locality +where some fragments of Moorish pottery may be studied belonging to this +time. + +Granada was almost unknown in the 8th century; the ancient Roman town of +Illiberis, about six miles from the present site of Granada, had alone +any importance: it was one of the bishoprics of Andalucia. The Arabs +first settled in the remains of the Roman city: in the 10th century they +removed to the spot occupied by the present town, and Illiberis was then +abandoned. Roman remains are frequently found at Illiberis, as are also +vestiges of the Moorish occupation, chiefly consisting of objects in +bronze and fragments of pottery. These specimens are decorated with +arabesques in green and black on a whitish ground. Some interesting +examples may be studied at the small _Museo Provincial_ at Granada, +which certainly belong to the 10th or beginning of the 11th century. One +of these fragments has unreadable Arabic letters; another is decorated +with a stag; the most remarkable is a plate fourteen inches in diameter, +in the centre of which is represented a falcon on a horse's back. The +form and every detail of the horse, the plaited tail, ending in the +form of a trident, all are identical with one on which is mounted a man +holding a hawk in his hand, carved on the ivory casket described on page +133 as dated 359 of the hegira (A.D. 969), and probably of Cordovese +manufacture. Both these objects possess a very decided Persian +character, and undoubtedly belong to the date ascribed; for besides the +circumstance of their having been found in ruins of this period, the +shape of the horse is conclusive; its character changes soon after, as +we find in the miniatures of the MS. of the 13th century at the Bib. +Nationale de Paris, containing the "Séances de Hariri." It is almost +impossible to assert whether this pottery was made in, or imported into +Spain. One argument in favour of its Spanish-Moorish origin is that the +glaze and paste are similar to pottery which we know was manufactured at +Granada. The common earthenware proceeding from that locality is +decorated in much the same manner. + +Soon after the fall of the Caliphate, metallic-lustred ware was made in +Spain: Edrisi, the most remarkable Arabic geographer of the Middle Ages, +in describing Calatayud, says: "Here the gold-coloured pottery is made +which is exported to all countries." ("Descrip. de l'Afrique et de +l'Espagne," Leyde, 1866.) Edrisi was born in the year 1100. He studied +at Cordova, and finished writing his book in 1154. The circumstance of +this pottery being mentioned in the 12th century as excellent enough for +exportation, certainly makes it appear probable that the _fabrique_ +already existed at an earlier date, especially when we bear in mind that +Calatayud was conquered in the year 1120 by the Christians, and it is +impossible to suppose that they established an Oriental industry there +which was foreign to their culture, or to the contemporary Christian +art. This text of Edrisi's has hitherto not been properly interpreted. +In Jauber's translation (Edrisi, Paris, 1836-40), he interprets the word +_guidar_, [Illustration: Arabic], _lutum purum_ of potters, as the name +of a gilt textile, perhaps because in his time it was difficult to +believe in the existence of metallic-lustred pottery. In the Edit. of +Leyden, by Messrs. Dozy and Goeje, the sense of the word is properly +given; indeed, Jauber himself translates it by _porcelain_ in the +chapter of this volume which refers to China. + +This text of Edrisi's has never yet been quoted by writers on Ceramic +Art; but once known it is impossible for a moment to state that the +earliest manufacture of Moorish lustred ware was that at Malaga, an +opinion which has been supported hitherto on the quotation from Ben +Batutah's works, which will be given later on. I regret to have found no +other allusion to the lustred ware of Aragon until the 10th century. No +mention is made of it in the geographical texts published by Juynboll, +Al Makkari, or other Arabic writers. From what we know of Aragon in the +16th century, it was a great centre of this industry, and its +productions rivalled those of Valencia and Andalucia. + +The next text which alludes to this manufacture is given by Ben Batutah, +a celebrated traveller, who, after travelling for twenty years in the +East, went from Tangiers to Granada, from 1349 to 1351. Passing by +Malaga, he says: "At Malaga, the fine golden pottery is made which is +exported to the furthermost countries." ("Voy. d'Ibn Batoutah," Paris, +1853-58, vol. iv. p. 367.) This text has been constantly reproduced and +commented upon, since Baron Charles Davillier first drew attention to it +in his interesting little _brochure_ on "Faïences Hispano-Moresques." + +The next time I find lustred pottery mentioned is in the 15th century. +Eximenus, in his "Regiment de la cosa publica," Valencia, 1499, in +speaking of the excellent things made in the kingdom of Valencia, says: +"The twenty-seventh excellent thing is that some artificial objects are +made there which bring great renown to the country, for they are +excellent and beautiful, and are now to be found in other localities ... +but above all is the beauty of the gold pottery so splendidly painted at +Manises, which enamours everyone so much, that the Pope, and the +cardinals, and the princes of the world obtain it by special favour, +and are astonished that such excellent and noble works can be made of +earth." + +Lustred pottery had already attained great importance in Aragon early in +the 16th century. We find in a deed granted at Calatayud in 1507, that +"Muhamed ben Suleyman Attaalab, an inhabitant of the suburb of the Moors +at Calatayud, and an artificer of lustred golden earthenware, engaged +himself with Abdallah Alfoquey of the same locality, to teach him the +said industry, in the space of four years and a half, from the date of +the deed." ("Estado social de los mudejares de Castilla, by Fernandez y +Gonzalez," Madrid 1866, p. 437.) At Muel, a village in the province of +Aragon near Zaragoza, this industry existed to a great extent in 1585. +In the travels of Henrique Cock ("Relacion del viage hecho por Felipe +II. en 1585," por Henrique Cock, publicado por Morel Fatio y Rodriguez +Villa, Madrid, 1876,) we find the following interesting details of the +manner in which this pottery was made, p. 30:-- + +"Almost all the inhabitants of this village are potters, and all the +earthenware sold at Zaragoza is manufactured in the following manner. +First the vessels are fashioned of a certain ingredient the earth +furnishes them in that locality, in the shape they may require. Once +made, they bake them in an oven fitted for the purpose. They then remove +them to varnish with white varnish and polish them, and afterwards make +a wash of certain materials in the following manner: twenty-five pounds, +_one arroba_, of lead, with which they mix three or four pounds of tin, +and as many pounds of a certain sand which is to be found there. All +these ingredients are mixed into a paste like ice; it is broken into +small pieces and pounded like flour, and kept by them in powder. This +powder is mixed with water, the dishes are passed through it, and they +are rebaked in the oven, and keep their lustre. Afterwards, in order +that the pottery may be gilt, they take very strong vinegar, mixed with +about two reales (a small coin equivalent to 6_d._) of silver in powder, +vermilion, and red ochre, and a little wire. When all is mixed +together, they paint with a feather on the dishes any decoration they +may like, rebake them, and then they remain gold-coloured for ever. This +was told me by the potters themselves." + +But nothing can be compared in exactitude to the following receipt of +the manner of preparing this lustred ware, which I was fortunate enough +to find in a manuscript in the British Museum. (Egerton, No. 507, MS. +fol. 102). + +Count Florida Blanca wishing in 1785 to establish at Madrid a +manufactory of metallic-lustred ware, had the following report on the +actual state of the industry sent to him from Manises with full details +of the manner in which it was required to be carried out. + +"After the pottery is baked, it is varnished with white and blue, the +only colours used besides the gold lustre; the vessels are again baked; +if the objects are to be painted with gold colour, this can only be put +on the white varnish, after they have gone twice through the oven. The +vessels are then painted with the said gold colour and are baked a third +time, with only dry rosemary for fuel. + +"The white varnish used is composed of lead and tin, which are melted +together in an oven made on purpose; after these materials are +sufficiently melted, they become like earth, and when in this state the +mixture is removed and mixed with an equal quantity in weight of sand: +fine salt is added to it, it is boiled again, and when cold, pounded +into powder. The only sand which can be used is from a cave at +Benalguacil, three leagues from Manises. In order that the varnish +should be fine, for every _arroba_, 25 pounds of lead, 6 to 12 ounces of +tin must be added, and half a bushel of fine-powered salt: if a coarse +kind is required, it is sufficient to add a very small quantity of tin, +and three or four _cuartos_ worth of salt, which in this case must be +added when the ingredient is ready for varnishing the vessel. + +"Five ingredients enter into the composition of the gold colour: +copper, which is better the older it is; silver, as old as possible; +sulphur; red ochre, and strong vinegar, which are mixed in the following +proportions: of copper three ounces, of red ochre twelve ounces, of +silver one _peseta_ (about a shilling), sulphur three ounces, vinegar a +quart; three pounds (of twelve ounces) of the earth or scoriæ, which is +left after this pottery is painted with the gold colour, is added to the +other ingredients. + +"They are mixed in the following manner: a small portion of sulphur in +powder is put into a casserole with two small bits of copper, between +them a coin of one silver _peseta_; the rest of the sulphur and copper +is then added to it. When this casserole is ready, it is placed on the +fire, and is made to boil until the sulphur is consumed, which is +evident when no flame issues from it. The preparation is then taken from +the fire, and when cold is pounded very fine; the red ochre and scoriæ +are then added to it; it is mixed up by hand and again pounded into +powder. The preparation is placed in a basin and mixed with enough water +to make a sufficient paste to stick on the sides of the basin; the +mixture is then rubbed on the vessel with a stick; it is therefore +indispensable that the water should be added very gradually until the +mixture is in the proper state. + +"The basin ready prepared must be placed in an oven for six hours. At +Manises it is customary to do so when the vessels of common pottery are +baked; after this the mixture is scratched off the sides of the basin +with some iron instrument; it is then removed from there and broken up +into small pieces, which are pounded fine in a hand-mortar with the +quantity of vinegar already mentioned, and after having been well ground +and pounded together for two hours the mixture is ready for decorating. +It is well to observe that the quantity of varnish and gold-coloured +mixture which is required for every object can only be ascertained by +practice." + +Excellent lustred ware was made at Murcia, and in several villages of +the province of Valencia; a good example exists of this pottery at the +museum (see woodcut); none, however, was so important as the manufactory +of Manises. Diago, in his "Anales del reyno de Valencia, 1613-40," +repeats the words of Eximeno: "That the pottery made at Valencia is +painted and gilt with so much art, that it has enamoured every one, so +much so that the pope, the cardinals, and princes send for it, +astonished that things of such beauty can be made of earth." + +[Illustration: PLATEAU, PROBABLY OF VALENCIA. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +This and similar texts relating to the exportation of Spanish pottery +explains the fact of these specimens being so frequently met with in +Italy. Pottery of a dark copper-coloured lustre is made at the present +time at Manises, and the imitations and forgeries to be met with at the +dealers' shops in Madrid are made in that locality. + +I have mentioned the different historical texts which allude to this +industry, and the technical receipts showing the ingredients employed to +give the lustre. It is now no longer possible to doubt that this pottery +came originally from the East. This opinion has gained ground of late +years; for among the objects discovered by Sir Henry Layard at Nineveh, +and in more recent excavations in Ephesus and Asia Minor, fragments of +pottery have been found with metallic lustre. This and other important +examples of artistic culture undoubtedly arose in Persia. No examples +which may be mentioned can give a better or more distinct idea of this +than a comparison between the Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares at the +South Kensington Museum. The technical proceedings and effect produced +by the metallic lustre on a white ground, with touches here and there of +blue, are exactly the same in both cases. The principal difference +consists in a greater richness and variety of ornamentation which we +find in the specimens brought from Persia, especially those covered with +a turquoise blue lustre, those of a dark blue and metallic lustre, and +those on which gold is applied _en froid_, of which I know no similar +examples in Spain. It is possible they may have existed in the mosques, +but no traces remain of mosques built by the Spanish Moors during the +13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. The mosques at Cordova and Toledo which +still exist are of an earlier date. If we judge by the mosque of Amru at +Cairo, and others of the same early period, tile decorations were not +used in their ornamentation, and it appears probable that this industry +only became important after the 10th century. The similarity of objects +used in Spain and Persia is constantly observed by travellers in that +country. Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, who was sent there as ambassador from +the King of Castille from 1403 to 1406, gives a most interesting +description of tile decoration, by which we find they were used in the +same manner as in Spain. ("Historia del gran Tamorlan," Seville, 1582, +fol.) Another Spanish traveller, Silva de Figueroa, in a MS. belonging +to Don Pascual de Gayangos, in describing his embassy to Persia in 1618 +mentions the manner in which these tiles were used. I do not quote from +many other travellers, for their remarks are hardly so valuable as those +of Spaniards, who were accustomed to see these objects in their native +country. + +After mentioning the historical sources from which I have traced the +manufactory of Hispano-Moresque lustred ware in Spain, it is advisable +to enumerate the most important examples which have reached us belonging +to the 14th century, or to an earlier date. + +The fine vase at the Alhambra, Granada. (See woodcut.) + +A vase of the same character which exists at the Archæological Museum of +Madrid. + +A vase of the same kind, which belonged to the painter, Mariano Fortuny, +and which was sold at the sale of his art objects in Paris, April 30th, +1875. (_Vide_ "Atelier de Fortuny," Paris, 1875.) + +A fragment of another vase, which belonged also to Fortuny, and was sold +at the same time. + +A fragment of a vase at the Museo of Granada; it is similar to the +others in form and size, but without metallic lustre. + +A large plaque, or _azulejo_, which belonged also to Fortuny. + +The _azulejos_, or tile decorations of the house known by the name of +Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo at Granada. + +Several dishes and bowls at the Kensington, Madrid, and Cluny Museums, +which belong to this period. + +Baron Charles Davillier in his article on Hispano-Moresque lustred ware, +in "Atelier de Fortuny," Paris, 1875, says that interesting specimens of +this pottery exist also at the Museum of Stockholm, and the Cathedral +of Mezzara in Sicily, but that he had not had the opportunity of +studying them. + +[Illustration: MOORISH VASE AT THE ALHAMBRA.] + +All these objects have hitherto been considered to have proceeded from +Malaga, writers on ceramic art derived their evidence from the text +already mentioned, given in Ben Batutah's travels, the only one which +alluded to the existence of this industry in Spain before the 15th +century; but since I have found in Edrisi's Geography a manufacture +mentioned of lustred pottery which existed at Calatayud at the beginning +of the 12th century, that is to say, more than _two centuries_ earlier +than Ben Batutah's travels, I consider it extremely difficult to +classify them. + +The fine vase at the Alhambra is 4 feet 5½ inches high by 8 feet +2½ inches in circumference. It is decorated in the centre with two +antelopes, and a series of elegant traceries of knots, stems, and leaves +which cover the body of the vase. The colours employed are brown and +blue on a yellow ground, the metallic lustre is extremely pale, of a +mother-of-pearl colour. The following inscriptions are repeated all over +the vase in African characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic + +Felicity and Fortune.] + +[Illustration: Arabic + +Permanent prosperity.] + +A similar vase was at the Alhambra until the beginning of the present +century; it disappeared at that time, and its present whereabouts is +unknown. Drawings exist of this vase which have been published in +Lozano's "Ant. Arab. de España," and Murphy's Atlas of "Arabian Ant. of +Spain." + +The fine vase at the Museo Arq. of Madrid is similar in style. It has +been reproduced in a chromo-lithograph in Mus. Esp. de Ant. VI. p. 435. +Both these vases are decorated with colours which are disposed in quite +a distinct manner to all the other specimens of this pottery hitherto +known. The vase at Granada is ornamented in the centre with two +antelopes, and from drawings which have reached us of the companion +vase, we find birds are introduced in the decoration of the handles. +Animals combined with ornamentation are never met with in the immense +number of Moorish traceries of all kinds which may be studied at +Granada. This circumstance has induced me to consider these objects to +have been brought from Persia, for Ben Batutah tells us that several +Persians of importance had settled at Granada; and it is highly +probable that a direct communication existed between these two +countries. It is fair, however, to mention a detail which is against +this argument. The arms of the Moorish kings of Granada appear on the +vase which has disappeared from Granada, and although it may have been +ordered from Persia, it is also possible that it was made in the +province of Andalucia. + +The vase which belonged to Fortuny, and the large _azulejo_, Nos. 42, 44 +(_vide_ "Atelier de Fortuny"), are very different in style. They have no +colours, and their metallic lustre is very low in tone, a common +circumstance in Hispano-Moorish pottery. The following inscription, + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +[Illustration: TILE PROBABLY FROM THE ALHAMBRA; FORMERLY IN THE MARRYAT +COLLECTION.] + +"Glory to Our Lord the Sultan Abul Hajaj," [A.D. 1333-1354.] occurs on +this tile, an inscription very frequently met with also on the walls of +the Alhambra. Abul Hajaj carried out works of restoration to a very +large extent at the Palace. The two large tiles on either side of the +entrance-door of the Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo at Granada, although +not so fine as the vase and tile which belonged to Fortuny, are similar +in general character, and it is safe therefore to consider these +objects, and others of a similar kind, to have proceeded from the +manufacture of Malaga mentioned by Ben Batutah, or other pottery works +of the same kind, which probably existed at that time in the province of +Granada. + +Metallic-lustred dishes have at times an even surface without +ornamentation in relief, and sometimes are ornamented with ribs and +convex dots, which appear to suggest that they are meant to imitate the +structure of nails, bars, or other work common to metal vessels, in the +manner of Etruscan vases. + +The finest specimens of Hispano-Moresque ware at the Kensington Museum +are-- + +No. 8968-'63. A vase which belonged to the Soulages Collection. Mr. +Fortnum, in his "Majolica, Hispano-Moresco, Persian, Damascus and +Rhodian Wares, at the Kensington Museum," London, 1873, describes this +vase as spherical on a trumpet-shaped base, the neck of elongated funnel +form, flanked by two large wing-shaped handles perforated with circular +holes. The surface, except the mouldings, is entirely covered with a +diaper-pattern of ivory or briony leaves, tendrils and small flowers in +brownish lustre, and blue on the white ground. Spanish. 14th or 15th +century. (See woodcut.) + +No. 486-'64. Bowl, funnel-shaped, with representation of a ship in full +sail, with the royal arms of Portugal, 15th century. + +The following are also especially worthy of mention:-- + +No. 7659-'62. Bowl and cover, painted with a scroll diaper in alternate +compartments of gold lustre and blue, the cover surmounted by a +cupola-shaped ornament in gold lustre. 16th century. + +[Illustration: VASE DIAPERED WITH IVY OR BRYONY IN GOLDEN LUSTRE. +HISPANO-MORESCO, 14TH OR 15TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +No. 489-'64. Plateau with lustred arabesque ornaments in compartments. +In the centre are two simulated Arabic inscriptions. 15th century. + +[Illustration: PLATEAU, DIAPERED AND WITH RAISED RIBS AND STUDS, IN BLUE +AND GOLDEN LUSTRE. THE ARMS OF LEON, CASTILE, AND ARAGON. +HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +No. 1680-'55. Plateau, gold shield in the centre, with the arms of Leon, +Castille, and Aragon. The diapered ground is curiously ribbed, and +dotted with raised studs. (See woodcut.) + +No. 243-'53. Plateau, in the centre an escutcheon of arms of Aragon, +Leon, and Castile. (See woodcut.) + +[Illustration: SALVER, DIAPERED IN GOLDEN LUSTRE, WITH THE SHIELD OF +ARAGON, LEON, AND CASTILE. HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH +KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +No. 104-'69. Vase, with shield of arms, seemingly of Sicily and +Portugal. + +Specimens of a later date are distinguished by the redness of the +lustre, such as No. 327-'66, a bowl, with feather-like ornament in the +centre; Nos. 326-'66 and 328-'66 are good examples of this lustred ware +of the last and early present century made at Manises, Valencia. + +It is almost impossible to classify the existing specimens of +Hispano-Moresque pottery. A few examples are marked with the monogram of +Manises, or possess some special sign, such as the Eagle of St. John, +which would make it appear they were made in the province of Valencia, +but as the texts from ancient authors only praise this pottery and give +no details of its general characteristics, it is very difficult to +assign any given specimens to the manufactories of Aragon and Valencia. +The receipts which I have given prove that the ingredients used were the +same, the modification in lustre was owing to the different combinations +of silver and copper. The system hitherto adopted of classifying this +ware by the localities in which it has been purchased is not a safe one, +unless borne out by further evidence. All that can be done at the +present time is to point out the oldest specimens, and probable period +of their manufacture. As a general rule the finest specimens are also +the oldest, for this industry decayed after the Moors were expelled from +Spain, and Italian pottery was imported into that country in the 16th +century. + +The opinion which has been so generally accepted that gold lustred +pottery was made and exported from the Balearic Islands has been +contradicted by D^{n}. Alvaro Campaner y Fuertes in a letter addressed to +Baron Davillier which appeared in the "Museo Balear," Palma, 1875, in +which he refutes the Baron's arguments on the pottery which he supposes +to have come from that locality. + + +TERRA COTTAS.--_AZULEJOS_, OR WALL DECORATIONS OF +TILES.--EARTHENWARE.--BUCAROS AND UNGLAZED POTTERY. + +The earliest historical notice which I have met with of Terracottas is +in a grant made in A.D. 1222, by King Don Fernando el Santo, in favour +of the manufacturers of bricks or tiles at Talavera (M. S. Bibl. +Nacional Madrid, Dd. 114, p. 17), and another document of a similar kind +by his son, King Don Alonso el Sabio A.D. 1281, in favour of the +Cathedral of Cordova, "that no pottery works should be allowed inside +the town, unless they were established in the same manner as in the time +of the Moors." (Mem. Hist. Español, t. ii. p. 45). Although this +information is not of great importance, it enables us to infer that in +the 13th century an industry existed in Spain which was closely +connected with pottery. Baron Davillier mentions a privilege granted by +King D^{n}. Jaime de Aragon to the inhabitants of Jativa, province of +Valencia, in which he commands, "that any master potter who made jars, +pots, pans, tiles, and bricks, should pay a tribute of one _besant_ +yearly for each oven, and be permitted to carry out his industry with no +other obligation or service." (Col. Doc. Ineditos, vol. xviii. p. 67.) + +The details concerning this industry in Cataluña are more interesting; +especially on account of the references given to the marks of the +objects proceeding from this manufacture. The potters, who were known by +the generic name of _olleros_ sent, in 1257, two individuals to form +part of the town council. They formed at that time a guild; in 1314 they +agree in their regulations as to the mark to be adopted for their +pottery, and the actual spot is mentioned on which every potter was to +stamp his wares. This stamp was ordered to be very visible, and +instructions are given as to the quality of the clay, and its +manipulation, in order to produce pottery of a first-class order. We +find statutes in this sense up to 1355. But we cannot find in the "Libro +de Ordenanzas" of the potter's guild that any laws existed touching the +technical details of this manufacture; most of the regulations refer to +the management of the guild from 1304, which was composed of potters, +bricklayers, jar-makers, and manufacturers of pottery for domestic +purposes of Barcelona. (Capmany, Memorias Historicas, 1779-92, vol. i. +part 3, p. 69.) + +[Illustration: WINE JAR--"TINAJA." SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +These references are not, however, sufficient to identify the kind of +pottery made at that time in Cataluña. It is highly probable that +lustred ware was also made there to a great extent, not only because it +was the most characteristic produce of the Peninsula, but also because +this ware was exported to a great extent, and highly esteemed. + +The most important examples of Spanish terra-cotta which have reached us +are _tinajas_, large jars for holding wine and oil. + +One of the best _tinajas_ which I know is at the South Kensington +Museum, No. 330-'66. (See woodcut.) It is a wine jar, amphora-shaped, +and ornamented with incised pattern of vine leaves, and stamped diaper +of a Gothic character. This and similar specimens have always been found +in Andalusia and the province of Toledo, and hence we may infer that the +chief centres of this industry existed at Toledo and Seville. They +continue to be made there, and are used for the same purposes as in the +Middle Ages, for keeping stores of wine, oil, meat, grain, etc. + +Belonging to this section of objects of a large size, are some specimens +of glazed earthenware made for brims of wells. I only know four or five +examples in the local museums of Toledo and Cordova; the font of the +church of San Salvador, Toledo, belongs also to the same pottery. The +brim of a well, at the South Kensington Museum, No. 1763-'71, is of the +same manufacture. It was bought at Toledo for three guineas at a +shoemaker's shop. It is made of glazed white and green earthenware, with +ornamental Cufic characters in high relief all round, which appear to be +of the 14th century (see woodcut on next page). The inscription, which +is repeated, is imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the words: + +[Illustration: Arabic + +"The power, the excellence, and the peace."] + +There is no difficulty in affirming that this form of earthenware was +made at Toledo, for Marineo Siculo, in his interesting volume treating +of "De las Cosas Memorables de España," Alcala, 1539, says, "much coarse +green and white pottery is made at Toledo." + +[Illustration: BRIM OF WELL FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +The manufacture of tiles, as was the case with so many other industries +in Spain, was imported by the Arabs. In the Middle Ages it attained +great importance, and has never ceased in Spain up to the present day. +The earliest tiles (_azulejos_) made in Spain are composed of small +pieces let into the wall, forming geometrical patterns. The proceeding +is similar to that employed by the workers of Byzantine mosaic,--tile +decoration undoubtedly took the place of this mosaic work in Moorish +buildings. It is difficult to fix the precise period when they were +first made, but it must have been posterior to the 10th century, when +Moorish architecture underwent a radical change in its system of +decoration. The oldest tiles which exist in Spain are at the Palace of +the Alhambra, Granada. They belong to the 14th century. The great +variety of their design may be seen in Owen Jones' "Plans and elevations +of the Alhambra," London, fol. 1842, and the fine work published by the +Spanish government, "Monumentos Arquitectonicos." We can judge of the +style adopted by two interesting fragments, both of which came from the +Alhambra, No. 1104-'53, No. 324-'64, South Kensington Museum. + +The earliest mention which I have found of this manufacture occurs in a +letter from Doña Juana de Mendoza, the wife of the Almirante de +Castilla, which is addressed to the lady abbess of the nunnery of Santo +Domingo at Toledo. She begs that a large number of "azulejos" of +different colours, black, white, yellow, and green should be sent to +her. She alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and says she was +expecting a master potter from Seville to place these tiles in their +proper places. This shows us that it was only in the province of +Andalusia that the art was known of cutting these tiles into geometrical +sections and mosaic patterns. This letter is not dated, but it is bound +up with other documents of 1422, and evidence exists to prove that both +the Almirante and his wife were dead in 1431. The locality for which the +tiles were required was probably Palencia; the convent of Santa Clara +was built by them at that time, and they both were buried there. It was +extremely difficult to cut and join together these tiles; the workmen +who did so had to pass through a regular examination in compliance with +the municipal ordinances drawn up in the 15th century; without this +requisite they were not allowed to exercise their trade. + +We know, from documents existing at the Archives of the Alhambra, at +Granada, that tiles were made there at the end of the 16th and beginning +of the 17th century. We find the names of Antonio Tenorio, Gaspar +Hernandez, and Pedro Tenorio working there at that time as master +potters. + +The use of these _azulejos_ was not restricted to Moorish buildings; +they were largely employed to decorate the walls of Christian churches, +convents, palaces, and private houses. The style of work, however, soon +changed, for instead of being made of mosaic work, they were formed of a +single piece like the ordinary tiles, but imitating the Moorish colours. +In the 16th century designs of the Renaissance style alternated with +these, although the system and colouring continued the same. This style +continued in vogue until the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1610. A fine +collection may be seen at the South Kensington Museum of 200 tiles, in +which upwards of 150 varieties of design will be found, Nos. 308-'66 and +367-'66. Their chief characteristic is that only pure colours are used +without gradations or half tints. Lustred reflets are very seldom met +with in tiles; the only examples I know are two beautiful plaques of the +14th century of a pale lustre which are on either side of the entrance +door of the Moorish saloon called Cuarto Real de S^{to}. Domingo, at +Granada; some small polygons of copper-coloured lustre at the Tower of +la Cautiva, Granada: some few details in the coats of arms which are let +into the tiles which adorn the walls of the Chapel at the Alhambra, and +some few tiles with the arms of the Mendozas at the Casa de Pilatos, +Seville. + +A few dishes belong also to the 15th century, ornamented with the same +colouring as the tiles without metallic lustre, and generally decorated +with fantastic animals. They are very scarce. Two examples exist at the +South Kensington Museum, Nos. 1459 and 1461-'70. They probably were made +at Seville; all those I have seen come from there, and we know that the +pottery from Seville was much esteemed. In Pedro de Medina's "Libro de +Grandezas y Cosas Memorables de España," Sevilla, 1549, fol. Iii., he +says, "In this town of Triana much excellent pottery of Malaga is made, +coloured white and yellow, and of different sorts and kinds. This +pottery is made in about fifty houses, and it is exported from here to +many localities. In the same manner excellent _azulejos_ are made, of +great variety of colour and design. And likewise fine reliefs of men +and other things. Great quantities of these _azulejos_ are taken to +different localities." + +At the introduction of Italian forms of art in Spain, at the beginning +of the 16th century, artistic pottery divided itself into two +schools--one kept to the traditional designs and strong tones of colour, +the other used shaded colours, and especially yellow and blue tints, at +times imitating Italian maiolica, but always following the decoration +characteristic of the Renaissance style. + +The Italian influence, and its finest results in Spain may be favourably +studied in Seville, in the tile decorations of the chapel at the +Alcazar, the doorway of the convent of Santa Paula, and a remarkable +sepulchre decorated with tiles at the church of St. Anne at Triana. All +these tile decorations are signed by the same person, and it would be +difficult to find any more remarkable. + +The _azulejos_ at the Alcazar represent a picture in the manner and +style of Pietro Perugino; they are admirable in colour and design. Those +which decorate the sepulchre at the church of St. Anne have the +following inscription, "_Niculoso Francesco italiano me fecit, en el +agno del mil ccccciii._" Some very interesting tiles also may be seen in +one of the rooms in the lower part of the Alcazar; they are marked in +the following manner: A.V.S.T.A.--A.V.G.W.S.T.A. 1577-1578. On the floor +of the pavilion of the Emperor Charles V. in the garden there are also +some fine tiles which are signed Juan Hernandez, 1540. + +We find mention in Cean Bermudez of a painter of _azulejos_ named Juan +Flores, a native of Flanders; he painted tiles for the royal palaces of +Madrid, the Pardo and Segovia; he was appointed Maestro Azulejero by +Philip II. in 1565. + +Returning to other examples of earthenware we meet with the ancient +manufactures of the Balearic Islands, although it is not easy to +determine the kind of pottery which was really made there. Bernardo da +Uzzano, in 1442, made a commercial treaty, (vide Davillier, "Faïences +Hispano Moresques," p. 26), in which he mentions the "faïence" made at +Mallorca and Minorca, which "was exported to a very large extent." The +royal Ordinances for the island of Iviza, which have not been mentioned +by either of these authors, state that the principal traffic and the +greatest industry of ancient times of the island of Iviza consisted in +some vessels of the finest earthenware, well baked and curiously worked, +of which an innumerable quantity were sent off to Africa and other +places, not only on account of the excellence of their worth, which was +admirable, but the speciality of the clay, which preserved from poison. +("Reales Ordinaciones de Iviza," Palma, 1751). + +Manufactures of pottery also existed in a great number of localities in +Spain; the most important centres were at Talavera, Valencia, and +Triana. Judging by the manner in which different authors praise the +earthenware of Talavera, its productions were evidently the most +esteemed. The earliest mention we find of Talavera pottery occurs in a +MS. volume dated 1560--a history of this town, in which mention is made +of "white, green, blue and other coloured Talavera ware." In the +inventory of the effects of D^{na}. Juana, a sister of Philip II., 1573, +several objects of "white earthenware of Talavera" are mentioned. In a +report drawn up by order of Philip II. 1576, it is stated that Talavera +"produced fine white glazed earthenware-tiles, and other pottery, which +supplied the country, part of Portugal and India." Father Ramon de la +Higuera in his "Republicas del Mundo," 1595, mentions the ware of +Talavera in terms of the highest praise. In a MS. history of Talavera +written in 1651, (Bib. Nac. Madrid, G. 112,) the author, Father Alfonso +de Ajofrin, says that "the pottery is as good as that of Pisa, a large +number of _azulejos_ are also made to adorn the front of altars, +churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers, and large and small +specimens of every kind. Two hundred workmen work at eight different +kilns. Four other kilns are kept to make common earthenware. Red porous +clay vases and drinking cups are baked in two other kilns, in a thousand +different shapes in imitation of birds and other animals, also +_brinquiños_ for the use of ladies, so deliciously flavoured that after +drinking the water they contained, they eat the cup in which it was +brought them." In another MS. history of Talavera (Bibl. Nac. G. 187) we +find mention of "perfect imitations of oriental china," and that the +pottery made there, "was used all over Spain, and sent to India, France, +Flanders, Italy and other countries, and was esteemed everywhere for the +perfection of the colouring and brilliancy of the glaze." + +This information may be increased by quoting another interesting MS. on +the history of this town (Bib. Nac. F. 142) in which the writer, Fr. +Andres de Torrejon, who professed in the convent of Santa Catalina in +1568, says:--"The earthenware pottery made here has reached to a great +height of perfection; it is formed of white and red clay. Vases, cups, +_bucaros_ and _brinquiños_ are made of different kinds, dishes and table +centres, and imitations of snails, owls, dogs and every kind of fruits, +olives, and almonds. These objects are painted with great perfection, +and the imitations of porcelain brought from the Portuguese Indies are +most excellent. Every one wonders that in so small a town such excellent +things should be made. The varnish used for the white pottery is made +with tin and sand, it is now found to be more acceptable than coloured +earthenware, so much so, that persons of importance who pass by this +town although they have in their houses dinner services of silver, buy +earthenware made at Talavera, on account of its excellence. The sand +which was used to make the white varnish was brought from Hita, it is +now found at Mejorada, near Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as +silk." + +"The red pottery made at Talavera is much to be commended, for besides +the great variety of objects which they make, the different medals which +they place upon them, they have invented some small _brinquiños_ of so +small and delicate a kind, that the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also +made of the same material. A certain scent is added in the manufacture +of this pottery which excites the appetite and taste of the women, who +eat the pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to their +confessors to check this custom." + +In a volume of "Relaciones Topograficas de los Pueblos de España hechas +en 1576," (MS. in fol. t. ii.) we find, in speaking of Talavera, that +the author says: "What is most excellent there is the white pottery, and +tiles and other objects of this earthenware with which the kingdom and +part of Portugal are provided." + +In Larruga's "Memorias Politicas y Economicas," (vol. x. Madrid, 1741,) +we find, p. 22, that "the manufactory of fine earthenware of Talavera de +la Reyna continued to make much pottery of importance until 1720: eight +kilns existed then, which employed more than 400 persons, men, women and +children. These manufactories possessed at that time large sums of +money. From that time this industry decayed to such an extent, that in +1730 only four kilns existed where pottery of a very inferior kind was +produced." + +The industry was revived later on in the century, but the finest +specimens are of an earlier date. Larruga adds, in p. 17, vol. x., of +his "Memorias," that "Talavera ware is of a lighter clay than the +imitations of this earthenware which were made in other localities." + +Pottery of a similar kind was also made in different other localities of +Spain. Mendez Silva says that at Puente del Arzobispo, near Toledo, +"fine pottery is manufactured in about 8 kilns, which produce more than +40,000 ducats yearly." ("Relacion General de España," Madrid, 1645, fo1. +32.) Paton likewise in his "Historia de Jaen," 1628, writes that "the +white unglazed earthenware made at these towns, is very remarkable for +the curious manner in which they imitate different figures of animals, +such as porcupines, fish, syrens, tortoises, &c." Objects of a similar +kind are still made in Spain. + +The English traveller Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish +Nation during the years 1760-1761," London, 1763, p. 263, says, "the +pottery fabrics are very numerous and excellent, particularly +Talavera." And in "Annales de l'Espagne," by Alvarez de Colmenares, +Amsterdam, 1741, we find, p. 187, in speaking of Talavera, that "On y +fait des ouvrages vernissés d'une façon ingénieuse, avec des peintures +de bon goût; on estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes +Orientales; on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce négoce rend plus de +50,000 ducats par an." + +Udal ap Rhys in his "An Account of the Most Remarkable Places and +Curiosities in Spain and Portugal," London, 1749, in speaking of +Talavera says, "It is noted also for a very curious kind of earthenware +that is made in imitation of China." + +Although we find by the remarks we have quoted from contemporary authors +that earthenware of every description was made at Talavera, the +specimens which are more generally met with may be divided into two +groups, which are painted on a white ground, either in blue, or in +colours in the manner of Italian maiolica. The most important examples +which have reached us consist of bowls of different sizes, dishes, +vases, tinajas, holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decorations. +Blue oriental china was imitated to a vast extent, the colouring was +successful but the design was an imitation of the baroque school of the +time, and the figures, landscapes, and decoration follow the bad taste +so general in Spain in the 18th century. The imitations of Italian +maiolica are effective. The colours most commonly used are manganese, +orange, blue and green. + +Several specimens of this manufacture are in the South Kensington +Museum; among these may be noted-- + +No. 327-'76. A large vase painted in blue with cavaliers and men on foot +in a hilly landscape, on the shoulder are the words "Silva Coronel." + +No. 1282-'71. Holy-water vessel, with raised flowers and scrolls of +foliage with polychrome decoration. + +No. 1281-'71. Soup tureen and cover, white, with raised scrolls and +groups of painted flowers. + +No. 351-'76. Another soup tureen with cover and stand, painted with +garlands and the arms of Portugal. On the cover is a group of fishes and +shells in relief. + +No. 1279-'71. A bowl decorated within with a bull-fight; outside are +storks and trees in green, orange, and manganese. (See woodcut.) + +[Illustration: EARTHENWARE BOWL. TALAVERA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +Several pottery works were established in Spain in the 18th century, all +of them, in the same manner as the earlier fabriques, modified the +system of decorating their wares. In some instances the colours and +designs of Italian maiolica were imitated, others copy the blue +faïences of Pisa, Genoa, and Savona, while others adopted the styles of +Moustiers, Nevers, and Rouen, or English earthenwares. + +Ten or twelve manufactories existed at Toledo in the 17th century which +imitated Talavera ware; in the 18th they hardly produced anything of +importance. Ignacio de Velasco in 1735 founded one at great expense at +Toledo in which imitations of Genoese pottery were chiefly made. At the +death of Ignacio in 1738, these works passed to his son George; in 1742 +Francisco Hernandez directed them, and in 1747 imitated Japanese models. +Several specimens proceeding from Toledo, at the South Kensington +Museum, painted blue on a white ground, in the style of Savona and +Japan, belong to this period. + +In 1755 thirteen pottery kilns existed at Puente del Arzobispo near +Toledo; they still worked in 1791, but their productions were very +inferior in artistic merit. + +Earthenware pottery was made at Segovia from a very early period, +chiefly for domestic use, until a manufactory was founded by two +brothers--Manuel and Tomás Ledesma in 1752--they had seen some specimens +which were made at Bolonia for Isabel Farnesio, the widow of King Philip +V., and they endeavoured to imitate them. In 1774 they tried with a most +unsatisfactory result to imitate English wares. This industry fell into +decay towards the end of the century, and only ware of a very common +description was made there. + +Talavera ware was also imitated at Zamora. At the middle of the 18th +century works existed there where pottery was made in the manner adopted +at Alcora with few results, for soon after it was established the master +potter, who was at the head of these works, left the locality. +["Memorias," Larruga, Vols. 13 and 34.] + +The further we advance into the 18th century, the more we find the +tendency in Spanish ceramic art to imitate the pottery most in vogue in +other countries. Francisco Cavalli, a potter of Ruidoms, won a prize at +Tarragona in 1787, for his excellent imitations of brown and white +Genoese ware. [MS. fol. Bibl. de S. Magestad el Rey, S. 2, E. B. pt. 8.] + +The efforts made by King Charles III. towards increasing industrial arts +in Spain, contributed to the reproductions and efforts made to imitate +foreign wares. When the king founded in 1768 the villages of La Carolina +and La Carlota in Andalucia, he ordered that pottery works should be set +up there. At the same time that he established at Madrid the important +porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, he wished that earthenware works +should exist in the same locality, where specimens should be made in +imitation of the best work produced elsewhere. The king was most anxious +to revive to a great extent the almost extinct industry of metallic +lustred pottery, and thanks to this we are able to know most accurately +the receipt and manner in which this lustre was applied. In the same +volume in which I found these documents, [Brit. Mus. MS. Egerton, 507], +are two reports addressed to Count Florida Blanca in 1786, by Iriarte +and Vargas, who were instructed to facilitate the development of this +industry. The first report contains information relating to the pottery +works of the county of Stafford; the second tells us that in the +building of San Isidro el Real, essays had been made to reproduce +English wares, and the lustred productions of Manises, with an idea of +establishing inside or outside of Madrid pottery works on a large scale, +under the protection of Count Florida Blanca. Iriarte and Vargas were of +opinion that these works should be established far from Madrid, +suggesting as the best spot El Viso in La Mancha, owing to the excellent +quality of the clay. Don Sebastian Schepers, a son or brother of +Cayetano Schepers, was at the head of these works. Cayetano was the +chief modeller at the Retiro manufactory. Their imitations of English +earthenware did not succeed; the varnish turned out badly, and they +determined to bring out English workmen. Their imitations of gold +lustred ware were eminently successful, so much so that competent judges +declared it was equal to what was made at Manises. Pottery works where +earthenwares of different descriptions were made existed also at this +time in Madrid; the best were those of Rodriguez and Reato, mentioned in +Larruga's "Memorias Economicas." + +At the end of the 18th, and beginning of the 19th century, Valencia and +Aragon supplied the country with painted tiles. One of the finest +examples of this class which have reached us is the pavement of the +chapter house of the cathedral of Saragossa, on which landscapes, +medallions, and animals are finely designed in the Italian renaissance +style. In a shield may be read the following inscription: + + Real^{s} Fb^{cas} + D E + Dª Maria Salb + adora + Disdier + Bru f^{t} + Año 1808. + +Valencia has been much renowned for its manufacture of painted tiles, +_azulejos_, which continue to be made there in a very creditable manner +at the present time. J. Townsend, in his "Journey through Spain in the +Years 1786-1787, London," 1792, says: "I was most delighted with the +manufacture of painted tiles. In Valencia their best apartments are +floored with these, and are remarkable for their neatness and elegance. +They are stronger and more beautiful than those brought from Holland." +In a "Nouveau Voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1789, p. 56, the author says: +"L'industrie des Valenciens tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les +productions de leur sol. Il contient une espèce de terre, dont ils font +ces carreaux de faïence colorée connus sous le nom de azulejos, et qu'on +ne fabrique qu'à Valence. On en pave les appartements, et on en revêt +leurs lambris; on y peint les sujets les plus compliqués, tels par +exemple qu'un bal masqué, une fête de taureaux. La couleur rouge est la +seule qui ne puisse être fixée sur cette espèce de faïence. Elle +s'altère par la cuisson." In "Voyage en Espagne, 1797-1798," Paris 1801, +the author says, p. 245: "Les plats sont faits de faïence bleuâtre ou +toute autre couleur orné de figures d'oies." + +Before we pass to describe another most important branch of Spanish +pottery the unglazed earthenware must be mentioned, which from a very +early period has constituted and still constitutes a most important +branch of its industry. This pottery, generally used for cooling water, +consists of white porous vessels of which a large modern collection may +be seen at the South Kensington Museum proceeding from Andujar and La +Rambla (Andalusia). This industry remains in precisely the same state as +in the time of the Arabs. + +The earthenware vessels called _Bucaros_ are similar to these. This +porous pottery was made to a very large extent at Talavera. It was +imported originally from America; the great centre existed at Mejico. +The paste of this ware is unglazed and whitish, black or red--when +painted the colours chosen are generally red, black, and gold. It was +made in Spain as early as the 16th century, and we constantly find +_Bucaros_ alluded to in documents of this period. In the inventory of +the effects belonging to D^{na} Juana, the sister of Philip the Second, +drawn up in 1573, _bucaros_ made at Lisbon, Estremoz, and Montemayor in +Portugal, and those of Ciudad Rodrigo and Castille, are also mentioned. +Madame d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon, [MDCXCIII.], mentions +the habit of Spanish ladies of eating this porous clay. At the South +Kensington Museum there are several good specimens of red pottery of +this kind, Nos. 285 to 318--'72, which, as we have remarked were made at +Talavera and Toledo. + + +ALCORA POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. + +Don Buenaventura Pedro de Alcantara inherited in 1725 the estates +belonging to the title of Aranda in the province of Valencia. Count +Aranda found that the inhabitants of the village of Alcora made coarse +earthenware of every description, and that their vicinity to the sea +coast favoured exportation; he determined, therefore, upon establishing +in 1726 a manufacture of pottery there, in which fine wares might be +made in imitation of those imported from Italy, Germany, France and +England. The count's efforts were so successful that in less than two +years specimens of different kinds of Alcora pottery were exported to a +very large extent. + +No account has hitherto been published which gives any idea of the +importance of this manufactory, nor have the names of the artists who +worked there been known, or the works which they executed. Wishing to +ascertain this, I applied to the Duchess of Hijar, the present +representative of the house of Aranda, and permission was granted me, +thanks to the kindness of the Duchess's _Apoderado general_, Sr. Robles, +to look through the Archives, where the accounts, contracts, and details +of the manufactory are kept. This has enabled me to give an idea of the +importance of this industry, and the names of the artists who worked +there, which have been ignored until the present time by writers on +ceramic art. + +Count Aranda spent in 1726 about £10,000 in establishing the manufactory +of Alcora, and in May, 1727, the first specimens appeared, consisting of +pottery made "in the manner of China, Holland, and other localities." +The manufactory was at that time under the superintendence of Dn. +Joaquin Joseph de Sayas and Joseph Ollery, a Frenchman, chief +draughtsman and carver, who was engaged at a good salary in 1726, and +brought to Alcora from Moustiers by the painter, Edward Roux. In 1728 +Count Aranda increased his salary owing to the "excellent manner in +which Ollery has worked at Alcora, the fine and numerous models which he +constructed, which have contributed to make my manufacture the first in +Spain." + +Five painters and two modellers from Cataluña and six Valencian painters +and two modellers joined these French artists. The personnel of the +fabrique was completed with eleven potters from the locality. The French +painters, M. Pierre Maurissy and M. Gras, and the master of the +modellers, M. Sebastian Carvonel, were engaged in 1728 for two years to +work at the manufactory. Ollery only appears in the lists up to 1737. +The Count granted him a yearly pension of 500 francs besides his salary, +"for his especial zeal in the improvement of the manufactory, and his +great skill in directing the construction of every kind of work." From +this date until the manufacture of porcelain in 1764, only Spanish +artists worked at Alcora. + +The Count was able from the year 1729 to circulate the pottery made at +Alcora through the Spanish dominions, free of custom-house duties. The +government granted him several other privileges and the manufactory +continued to improve, and spared no pains to import the foreign shapes +and designs which were most acceptable. No Spanish pottery manufactory +could compare with Alcora in the excellence and beauty of its work. + +Among the obligations of the artists engaged, whether Spaniards or +Frenchmen, was that of teaching drawing and modelling to a certain +number of pupils. A special Academy was created for this purpose, which +at one time held more than one hundred pupils, who were constantly +renewed and increased with those who appear henceforward in the works at +Alcora. In 1736 there were fifty-six painters, eleven masters, twenty +workers at the wheel, and twenty-five apprentices. In this same year, +1736, specimens of pottery made at Alcora were sent "to all the +dominions of Spain, Rome, Naples, Malta, many Italian cities, Portugal, +and some provinces of France." + +The manufactory produced yearly about 300,000 specimens of different +kinds. The ordinances are interesting which in 1732-1733 prescribe, +"that in our manufactory only pottery of the most excellent kind should +be made, similar to the Chinese, to be equally fine as to the earths +employed, that the models and wheels should be perfect, the drawing of a +first-rate kind, and the varnish and colours excellent, and the pottery +light and of good quality, for it is our express wish that the best +pottery should only be distinguished from that of an inferior kind by +the greater or less amount of painting which covers it." + +Miguel Soliva, Christobal Cros, Francisco Grangel, Miguel Vilar, +Christobal Rocafort, Vicente Serrania, and Joseph Pastor were the best +painters at Alcora in 1743; they decorated a fine dinner service made +for the Tribunal of Commerce, and the large slabs for the Convent of Las +Descalzas Reales at Madrid, representing the Virgin as the Divine +Shepherdess. + +Pottery painted with metallic lustre was made in 1749. We find among the +receipts used in that year one brought from Manises for this object. + +We find it also stated in the communications which passed between the +Tribunal of Commerce and the count in 1746, that "the perfection of the +earthenware of Alcora consisted in the excellent models which had been +made by competent foreign artists, the quality of the earth and receipts +brought at great expense from abroad." Joseph Ochando is mentioned in +that year as an excellent painter, and Juan Lopez as the best carver and +modeller. This document tells us "that from the earliest period of the +manufacture pyramids with figures of children, holding garlands of +flowers and baskets of fruits on their heads, were made with great +perfection, likewise brackets, centre and three-cornered tables, large +objects, some as large as five feet high, to be placed upon them, +chandeliers, cornucopias, statues of different kinds, and animals of +different sorts and sizes. The entire ornamentation of a room has also +been made here; the work is so perfect that nothing in Spain, France, +Italy or Holland could equal it in merit." + +The objects which were made to a great extent at this time consisted in: + + Vases of different shapes. + + Small pots, Chinese fashion. + + Teapots and covers, Chinese fashion. + + Teapots and covers, Dutch fashion. + + Cruets, complete sets, Chinese style. + + Entrée dishes. + + Salt-cellars, Chinese style. + + Escudillas (bowls) of Constantinople. + + Barquillos (sauce bowls), Chinese style. + + Bottles, in the Chinese manner. + + Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds with good painted + borders in imitation of lace-work (_puntilla_); some were designed + in the Chinese manner, and especial care was taken with + fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes. + + Trays and refrigerators. + +In 1750 Count Aranda passed the pottery works on to a private company, +in whose hands they remained until 1766. We know the pottery continued +to be excellent. Unfortunately almost all the details of this period are +missing from the Archives. One of the few documents remaining is a +contract drawn up in October, 1741, with François Haly (the name of this +artist is given by Baron Davillier), a Frenchman, in which he agreed to +work at the manufactory during a period of ten years with a yearly +salary of over 1000 francs, under the following conditions: + +"That the travelling expenses of his wife and children should be given +him, and that his salary should be paid as soon as he made before the +Director and two competent judges the different kinds of porcelain which +he had undertaken to make." He agreed to give up his receipts, and it +was promised him that he should have two modellers and one painter +working by his side, and that if in one year Haly's porcelain was +satisfactory the Count undertook to make him a present of 1000 livres +(_tornoises_). + +Towards the middle of the century, porcelain was made for the first time +at Alcora. A contract was drawn up on 24th March, 1764, with a German, +called John Christian Knipfer, who had already worked there in the +pottery section. By the original agreement, which exists at the +Archives, we find he was to prepare works of "porcelain and painting +similar to those made at Dresden, during a period of six years, under +the following conditions:" + +"That the said Knipfer obliges himself to make and teach the apprentices +the composition and perfection of porcelain paste, its varnishes, and +colours, and whatever he may know at the present time, or discover +during this period of six years; he is not to prevent the Director of +the Works from being present at all the essays made." + +"The said Knipfer offers to make and varnish porcelain, and to employ +gold and silver in its decoration, and in that of the ordinary wares; +likewise the colours of crimson, purple, violet, blues of different +shades, yellow, greens, browns, reds, and black. + +"That Knipfer will give up an account of his secrets, and the management +and manner of using them, in order that in all times the truth of what +he has asserted may be verified." + +From the original documents which exist we gather that Knipfer was +chiefly famed for his excellence in the painting and decoration of +porcelain. + +François Martin was engaged in 1774 for his skill in preparing different +pastes for manufacturing porcelain and pipeclay. He agreed to make "hard +paste porcelain, Japanese faïence, English paste (pipeclay), and +likewise to mould and bake it. The necessary materials were to be +provided by the Count of Aranda." His expenses were to be paid if the +specimens he presented to the competent authorities gave a satisfactory +result, and his salary was to be increased to 1200 francs a year. + +Knipfer and Martin greatly added to the importance of the works made at +the manufactory. Don Pedro Abadia, the Count's steward, an intelligent +man, possessing great scientific knowledge, who had studied this subject +in Paris and London, writes to the Count that the presence of both these +artists was of absolute necessity at Alcora, "until the workmen who were +near them perfected themselves." For owing to the carelessness of the +managers of the porcelain works in 1776 Count Aranda wrote from Paris, +during his embassy there: "My pottery of Alcora, notwithstanding every +effort which has been made, the money spent, and foreign masters which +have been brought over, gets worse every day instead of improving." +Abadia repeats this in his reports. Porcelain of other kinds decidedly +improved. He says also that the pipeclay which Martin had found at +Alcora was the best in Europe. + +In my opinion, a large number of unmarked white biscuit and +demi-porcelain figures which are so constantly found in collections +belong to this period of the manufactory of Alcora. They have hitherto +been classified with very great difficulty, and attributed to the +porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, without any reason which justifies +this opinion. For the help of collectors I will mention the subjects +which they represent, which I have found in a document, dated 1777, of +the figures and groups and other objects made during that year. + + +FIGURES OF DEMI-PORCELAIN. + +Figures of tritons. + + " of soldiers, two sizes. + + " " one-third _palmos_ high. + + " of the four seasons (two sizes). + + " of dancers. + + " of tritons in form of children. + + " with brackets. + + " of different animals. + + " of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style. + +Dancing figures in the German style. + +Figures of Neptune. + +Figures of shepherd and shepherdess. + + " of the Moorish king, Armenius. + + " of the four parts of the world, two sizes. + + " of peasant and his wife. + +Small figures holding musical instruments. + +Figures representing different monarchies. + + " " historical personages. + + " " the history of Alexander the Great, two sizes. + + " " Marius Curtius, two sizes. + + " of elephants. + + " of a man mounted on an elephant. + + " representing Chinese figures. + + " of Heliogabalus. + + " of a general on horseback. + + " of a grenadier supporting a candlestick. + +Large figures representing Julius Cæsar. + +Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets. + +Groups of Chinese figures. + +Snuff-boxes, sugar basins, inkstands. + +Rabbits, horns, and pug dogs for holding scent. + +Small scent bottles. + +Needle cases. + +Large vases with foot and cover. + +Brackets. + +Walking-stick handles. + +Knife handles. + +Tea-spoons. + + +FIGURES OF WHITE BISCUIT CHINA. + +Figures representing Spanish costumes, two sizes. + +Groups of two figures. + +Large and small figures of the four parts of the world. + +Figures of the four seasons, two sizes. + +We find also the following figures of painted and glazed porcelain: + +Four seasons, two sizes. + +Groups of two figures. + +Figure of a Moorish king. + + " of musicians and huntsmen. + +Figure of peasants. + + " of Chinese. + +Small figures of a gardener and female companion. + +Figures of soldiers in the German style. + +In 1780 four rival pottery works were established in the neighbourhood +which copied and imitated the pottery made at Alcora. The two most +important were at Rivasalbes and Onda, the other two at Alcora itself. +Many of the artists who belonged to the works established by Count +Aranda worked at the rival factories; among them were Mariano Causada, +Joaquin Ten, Francisco Marsal, Vicente Alvaro, Christoval Mascarós, +Francisco and Miguel Badenas, and Nadal Nebot; some of these artists +returned to the Count's manufactory. In order to distinguish the genuine +pottery from imitations, orders were given, with the authorization of +the Tribunal of Commerce, that the pottery made there should be marked +henceforward with the letter A; no special mark had hitherto been used +at the manufactory, the artists very often signed the specimens they +made with their monograms or signatures, of which those most frequently +met with will be found accompanying the list of artists' names, for the +help of collectors; all of them have been copied from original +documents. It is interesting for collectors to bear in mind, that all +specimens which are marked with the letter A are _posterior_ to 1784. +The pottery works founded in imitation of the manufactory belonging to +Count Aranda came to an end before 1790, some by special agreement with +the owners themselves, and others by the express orders of the +authorities, in virtue of the privileges granted to the Count. + +Mr. Martin died at Alcora in the month of May, 1786. Knipfer left soon +afterwards, and was succeeded by a French artist, M. Pierre +Cloostermans, a skilful man, and well versed in the manufacture of +porcelain pastes, as well as in painting and decorating them. According +to his contract, which was drawn up in Paris in 1787, "Pierre +Cloostermans, chemiste, natif de Paris, demeurant à Paris, Rue de +Clery, au coin de celle Montmartre," agreed to "live for thirty years at +Alcora as director and workman, to make soft and hard porcelains, and +all the necessary colours with which to paint and decorate it." + +He also promised to make good pipeclay pottery and marbled wares which +were to be as excellent as those of Strasburg. The expenses of his +journey were paid, his sons were to be employed in the works, and it was +stipulated that if the works increased to a great extent, 500 pounds +(Valencian money), was to be added to his yearly salary. It was against +the Count's express desire that pottery of an exclusively artistic +character should be produced at Alcora; his chief object was to improve +the industry itself. In one of his letters to Abadia, written in +October, 1789, he says: "I wish to export the porcelain of my +manufactory, but chiefly in common objects, such as cups of different +kinds, tea and coffee services, etc. These may be varied in form and +colour, the principal point being that the paste should bear hot +liquids, for we Spaniards above everything wish that nothing we buy +should ever break. By no means let time be wasted in making anything +that requires much loss of time. The chief object is that the pastes +should be of first-rate excellence and durability." + +Cloostermans suffered much discomfort and annoyance from other workmen +at Alcora, who were envious of his merit: they put every difficulty in +his path, insulted him daily with pasquins, accused him of not +fulfilling his religious duties, and annoyed him incessantly. His +letters are full of these complaints. Count Aranda treated him with +every consideration. During Cloostermans' stay at Alcora, the pottery +made improved greatly in artistic merit. Figures and groups of many +kinds were attempted, and even Wedgwood jasper ware was creditably +imitated. In 1789, among other pottery that was sent to Madrid were "two +hard paste porcelain cups, adorned with low relief in the English +style." The most important one was moulded by Francisco Garcés, the +garlands and low reliefs by Joaquin Ferrer, sculptor, the flowers on the +covers by an apprentice, helped by Cloostermans. The composition of +these objects was suggested by Abadia, who brought some specimens from +Paris which came from England. + +Cloostermans sent the Count in 1789 a number of objects of different +kinds made of porcelain. Among them the most interesting were "a tea and +coffee service painted and gilt of glazed porcelain, and ten unglazed +figures. Those painted by Albaro are marked A, those by Escuder, E, and +by Mas, M, and Cloostermans' son." A large and varied collection of +marbled wares and toys were sent at the same time. Cloostermans' marbled +wares are pronounced superb. + +Count Aranda writes in July, 1790, to Diez Robles alluding to a large +collection of pots for plants, which were made at Alcora for the King, +decorated with the royal arms. Another series are still to be met with +at the Royal Gardens; they are of pipeclay, and ornamented with rams' +heads. + +In 1784 the Count sent two potters, Christoval Pastor and Vicente +Alvaro, to Paris to study the last improvements in porcelain. They +returned in 1789, and the porcelain they made was much commended and +highly approved. They write to the Count in September, 1789: "We know +that Don Domingo has sent your Excellency 97 objects made by us, marked +No. 3, 1, No. 4, No. 3, with a dot, and No. 3 with the letter 'P'; No. 4 +with the letter 'H,' all made by me in clay, and varnished with the +greatest care. Three flask-stands and two toothpick-stands were made by +me, Pastor, before I went to Paris. The marble wares, Nos. 3 and 4, and +other similar objects with gold lines, are also made by me." + +In 1784, Mariano Garcia of Valencia made some experiments before the +Directors of laying on gold, and different shades of purples. A number +of specimens were sent to the Count, but Knipfer did not approve of the +plan adopted, and it was afterwards abandoned. + +Marbled wares of different colours were made at Alcora in vast +quantities in 1790. A large depôt was established in 1791 of Alcora ware +in the Calle de Luzon at Madrid. The printed prospectuses which were +issued give a long and detailed list of the different productions of the +manufactory, which chiefly consisted of dinner and tea services, and +other objects of domestic use. + +In 1792 nearly 100 painters and modellers existed at the manufactory; 45 +were employed to work in porcelain and pipeclays, and 26 were +apprentices. + +Cloostermans was forced to leave Alcora in April, 1793, owing to certain +disturbances which occurred at Valencia, when, owing to a proclamation +of the Captain-Generals, he and other Frenchmen residing in the province +of Valencia, were ordered to leave the country. The Count gives +instructions that Cloostermans should want for nothing on his journey; +he writes ordering that 3000 reales should be given him, and his yearly +pension of 1200 pounds (_tornoises_). Cloostermans left with his three +sons after giving up the receipts and other documents connected with the +manufactory. In 1795 permission was given that Frenchmen might return to +Spain, and he resumed his post in the manufactory. + +The principal efforts at Alcora since Knipfer, Martin, and Cloostermans +entered the manufactory, had been centred in making porcelain and +pipeclay wares of different kinds. A great number of essays with foreign +earths were made; and all those of a suitable kind which were known in +Spain. Count Aranda was always most anxious that Spanish materials +should be used in the manufactory; he says, in a letter written in 1790, +"the Kaolin of Cataluña may be good or bad, but it is acknowledged to be +Kaolin, and if not used these works must be closed." This Kaolin had +been found by Christobal Pastor and Vicente Albaro on their return from +Paris. + +Baron Davillier has been good enough to inform me that he has found +mention of some objects of Alcora wares which Count Aranda sent as a +present to his friend Voltaire, at Ferney. + +From 1789 to 1797 the following kinds of pottery were made at Alcora:-- + +Hard paste porcelain (French). + +Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish. + +Porcelain of pipe-clay (English). + +Blue pipe-clay porcelain. + +Marbled pipe-clay porcelain. + +_Bucaro_, painted and gilt. + +Strasburg Ware. + +Porcelain painted _en froid._ + +Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown. + + +PORCELAIN (FRITA). + +Porcelain painted with gilt lines. + + " " without gold. + +Porcelain (frita), canary colour. + +Boxes in relief. + + " plain. + +Porcelain (frita), painted with marble wares. + +Plain boxes of the same kind. + +Porcelain (frita), of blue and brown ground. + +Cups and saucers of a similar kind. + + +BISCUIT PORCELAIN. + +Figures. + +Vases. + +Pedestals. + +White porcelain (frita) cups of different kinds. + + " " ornamented and plain. + +Boxes with busts. + +Boxes with ornamentations in relief. + +Figures. + +Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc. + +Large figures of the Four Seasons. + +Flower vases with rams' heads. + +Plain boxes. + +Boxes with ornaments in relief. + + +WHITE PORCELAIN. + +Plates, cups, etc. + +Figures of different kinds. + + +PAINTED PORCELAIN. + +Cups, saucers, plates, etc. + +Cream pots. + +Plain snuff boxes, or in the shape of a dog. + +Fruit stands in relief. + +In 1799 we find mention made of partridges modelled by Christoval Mas, +and Clemente Aycart much commended for his dogs, ducks, tortoises and +frogs. + +Joseph Ferrer writes to the Duke of Hijar in the same year, that "he had +just seen a bust of D^{n} José Delgado, a trifle smaller than the one +previously sent of your excellency." These busts and some medallion +portraits were made of porcelain _frite_. Ferrer complains in the same +letter that Delgado the manager had asked for a fine jug and basin of +Sèvres, which had been given by the King of France to the late Count, +and that he had been obliged to hide it away with some English specimens +which were in the warehouse. + +Count Aranda died in January, 1798, and was succeeded by his son the +Duke of Hijar. Cloostermans died the same year; Vicente Prats is stated +to be the best painter and decorator at Alcora at this date. In an +extract drawn up of the state of the pottery works in 1798, it appears +that 200 workmen were employed, and pottery of every description was +made, common earthenware, pipeclays in imitation of the English ones, +and porcelain in small quantities; common wares were made in large +quantities; the pipeclays were pronounced superior to the English in +brilliancy, but were so porous that they were easily stained, a large +number of snuff-boxes and other small objects belong to this period. + +In 1800, the Duke of Hijar, who succeeded the Count of Aranda in the +management of the manufactory, writes to D^{n} Josef Ferrer, saying: +"As I do not know the authors of the pipe-clay porcelain or that of +other kinds which is sent here, I beg you to order the master workmen of +porcelain and common pottery to engrave, in making it, the initials of +their names, as it will enable me to distinguish the good from the bad." + +Twelve porcelain baths with the arms of Spain in blue were made at +Alcora for Queen Maria Louisa in 1800. + +The Duke of Hijar ordered in 1800 that a dinner-service should be made +there for his use. He sent instructions that it should be of the same +kind as a tea-service previously sent to his son the Duke of Aliaga. The +painter chosen to decorate it was Mariano Alvaro, and the designs +selected by Ferrer were taken from the Loggie of Raphael. + +In the same year some cases of pottery were sent to the Duke; in one of +them was a fine soup tureen modelled by Josef Ferrer, Cloostermans' son, +Pierre, writes at this time, asking to be appointed to the post left +vacant by his father's death; his petition however was not granted. + +We have already seen that pottery and porcelain continued to be +manufactured in the present century at Alcora in the same manner as in +the 18th century, but owing to the French invasion of 1808 this industry +suffered the consequences of war, and the work done there greatly +diminished in excellence and quantity. Even before this the Director, +D^{n} José Delgado complains in several documents of the bad state of +the manufactory, the Directors who replaced him, D^{n} Juan Bautista +Cabot and D^{n} Pedro Bezarco, write continually repeating the same +thing. After the French were turned out of Spain, the industry was +revived and strengthened by fresh artists from the porcelain manufactory +of Madrid. D^{n} Luis Poggetti was appointed drawing master there in 1815, +and D^{n} Domingo Palmera master of ornamental art, both these artists +had worked at Buen Retiro, Poggetti as Director of pietre dure, and +Palmera as second-class sculptor. After this time the manufactory of +pottery at Alcora ceased to produce artistic works, and limited itself +to send out common wares for domestic purposes; this system continued +until 1858, when the Duke of Hijar sold the manufactory to D^{n} Ramon +Girona, who brought over English workmen from Staffordshire in order to +improve the wares. Many imitations of the older styles have also been +made at Alcora of late years. + +One of the most important results of the present study is the necessity +of changing the classifications of a great number of specimens which +have been believed to be manufactured at Moustiers and other localities +in France, but which in fact were made at Alcora. It is sufficient to +mention the names of Grangel, Cros, Soliva, and Vilar, which one of the +best informed writers on Ceramic industry, Baron Davillier, has +discovered on different specimens of pottery, and which, in his "Hist. +des faïences et porcelaines de Moustiers, etc., Paris, 1863," he +considers to be the names of artists who worked in France, although all +of them belonged exclusively to Alcora, as will be seen in the subjoined +list of artists' names. I am in hopes, also, that many errors may be +corrected in future, touching French and English pottery, which was +imitated to a great extent, and with much success at Alcora. + +We gather also by this information that an immense number of objects +were made of pipeclay porcelain, in imitation of English wares; and, in +my opinion, a great quantity of objects of white pipeclay porcelain +which have been found of late years in Spain are of Alcora manufacture. +They have been hitherto classified by amateurs as Leeds pottery. We +find, in papers relating to Alcora, that a decided distinction is made +between white and straw-coloured pottery. This indication may be +sufficient to distinguish it from English wares. + +Townsend, in "A Journey to Spain in the years 1786-1787," London, 1792, +p. 255, says: "At Alcora, in the neighbourhood of Valencia, a +manufacture of porcelain has been successfully established by Count +Aranda, and deserves encouragement. I was much pleased with their +imitations of gilding. It is very natural, and the manager informed me +that after many years' trial it was found to be durable." + +[Illustration: EARTHENWARE PLAQUE, ALCORA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +Specimens exist of Alcora ware and porcelain at the South Kensington +Museum. + +Nos. 1051, 1052-'71. Two fine plaques, painted with mythological +subjects of Pomona and Galatea, the borders raised in form of a frame, +with scroll ornaments [see woodcut of No. 1052]. + +No. 341-'76. A porcelain cup and saucer, blue ground, gilt; painted with +flowers in white medallions. + +No. 333-'76. A plate painted with sprigs, and containing models of fruit +in full relief. + + + A LIST OF THE DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE + MANUFACTORY OF POTTERY AND PORCELAIN OF ALCORA FROM ITS FOUNDATION, + 1726, UNTIL THE BEGINNING OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. + +DIRECTORS. + + +Dr. Joaquin Joseph de Sayas, 1727. + +Joseph Ollery, 1727 to 1733. + +Manuel de Molina, 1727 to 1735. + +Cayetano Allue, 1727 to 1750. + +Marcial Guirandeta, 1778 to 1783. + +Juan Villalonga, 1789. + +Pierre Cloostermans, 1789. + +Domingo Abadia, 1789. + +Gabriel Berenguer y Cebrian, 1789. + +Josef Ferrer, 1799. + +Josef Delgado, 1800. + + +ARTISTS. + +Abella, Francisco, 1750, at Alcora. + +Alvaro, Cristobal, 1750. + +Alvaro, Joseph, paints pottery in 1743, 1750. + +Alvaro, Vicente, el mayor, works at the wheel in 1750. + +Alvaro, Vicente, painted with Knipfer in 1783; he was sent by Count +Aranda in 1784 to Paris to learn the making of porcelain; he returned to +Spain in 1789, and continued to work at Alcora. + +Alvaro, Tiburcio, painted with Knipfer in 1783. + +Andrés, Cristoval, modeller and carver in 1783. + +Andrés, Francisco, modeller in 1783. + +Andrés, Francisco, modeller, 1743 to 1750. + +Andrés, Gabriel, painter, 1743 to 1750. + +Andrés, Gabriel, figures as one of the leading painters in 1794. + +Andrés, Jaime, painter, from 1728 to 1737. + +Andrés, Mariano, paints from 1739 to 1750. + +Andrés, Mariano, works in 1789. + +Andrés, Miguel, painter, 1743 to 1750. + +Aparicio, Manuel, painter, 1750. + +Arqua, Vicente, 1750. + +Aycart, Clemente, sculptor, worked at the porcelain works in 1789. + +Aycart, Roque, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Aycart, Ventura, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Bachero, Vicente, painted porcelain in 1789. + +Badenas, Cristoval, painter, 1727 to 1750. + +Badenes, Francisco, establishes with Miguel Badenas pottery works, where +pottery was made in imitation of Alcora: it was put a stop to by +agreement in 1789. + +Badenes, Miguel; see Francisco. + +Beltran, Pedro, retouched painting on porcelain in 1783 to 1789. + +Berenguer, Cristoval, painter, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Blasco, Bautista, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Blasco, Francisco, painted from 1731 to 1738. + +Blasco, Joaquin, painted in 1750. + +Blasco, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735; he painted in 1750. + +Blasco, Manuel, painter, 1728 to 1750. + +Blasco, Vicente, painted 1727 to 1750. + +Buxadós, Ildefonso, painted 1727 to 1750. + +Buxadós, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Calvo Perales, Joseph, painter from 1727 to 1750. + +Calvo, Manuel, painter of common pottery in 1783. + +Calvo, Ramon, painted common earthenware from 1750 to 1783. + +Campion, Juan, a Frenchman, worked at the wheel in 1743. + +Carnicer, Juan, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789. + +Carnicer, Vicente, modeller from 1783 to 1789. + +Carbonel, Sebastian, a Frenchman; he modelled in 1728. + +Catalá, Cristoval, modelled in 1783. + +Catalá, Juan, 1750. + +Catalá, Manuel, 1750. + +Catalá, Pascual, painter from 1729 to 1750. + +Catalá, Pedro Juan, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Caussada, mayor, Jacinto, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Caussada, menor, Jacinto, from 1727. + +Caussada, Joseph, a son of Jacinto, painted from 1743 to 1750. He ran +away from the manufactory and went to work at Talavera, and was brought +back to Alcora. + +Caussada, Mariano. It was proposed that he should be turned out of the +manufactory, owing to his having gone over to the works established at +Onda, where he gave them the receipts of the colours and varnishes used +at Alcora; he returned to Alcora in 1789. + +Caveta, Pascual, painter, 1743. + +Chiva, Cristoval de, painted porcelain in 1789. + +Chiva, Joseph, painted from 1727 to 1738. + +Chiva, Manuel, painted in 1789. + +Cloostermans, Pierre, a French artist; he entered the manufactory in +1787, and continued to work there until his death in 1798. + +Cloostermans, a son of Pierre's, was an excellent painter on porcelain +in 1789. + +Corrás, Ignacio, a native of Cataluña, painted from 1727 to 1728. + +Coll, Jaime, a native of Cataluña, painted from 1727 to 1736. + +Cros, Cristoval, painted from May, 1727 to 1743; he was one of the best +artists who painted at Alcora. + +Cros, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Cros, Manuel, 1750. + +Cros, Pascual, painted from 1727 to 1736. + +Cros, menor, Vicente, painted porcelain from 1750 to 1789. + +Cros, Vicente, 1735 to 1750. + +Datos, Gaspar, modeller, 1731 to 1750. + +Datos, Julian, modeller, in 1783. + +Datos, Ramon, painted in 1750. + +Datos, Vicente, 1750. + +Escuder, Vicente, painted with Knipfer from 1783 to 1789. + +Fabra, Francisco, painted from 1730 to 1743. + +Fabra, Vicente, painter, 1727 to 1735. + +Falco, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1743. + +Falco, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1735. + +Feliu, Vicente Tomas, painter, from 1727 to 1750. + +Feliu y Thomas, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Ferrer, Joaquin, a carver, who worked with Mr. Martin from 1783 to 1789. + +Ferrer, Esteban, painted porcelain in 1789. + +Ferrer y Carnicer, Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783. In December, +1789, he had an oven on his own account at Alcora, the only one which +remained out of four which had been established four years previously +there. + +Ferrer, menor, Vicente, 1750. + +Ferrer, Vicente, painted from 1727 to 1743. + +Flor, Antonio, painted common pottery from 1750 to 1783. + +Fores, Joseph, painter, 1727. + +Fornench, Joseph, painted in 1739. + +Fornench, Phelipe, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Fornench, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Fornench, Phelipe, painter, 1727 to 1750. + +Fuste, Salvador, painter, 1727. + +Galvez, Juan, modeller, 1731 to 1735. + +Garcés, Joaquin, painter. He worked with Joaquin Ter at the manufactory +which he established at Alcora, and returned to the Counts in 1789. + +Garcés, Francisco, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin in 1783, and was +considered by Cloostermans, in 1789, his most able workman. + +Garcés, Joseph, painter, 1727. + +Garcés, Pedro, 1743. + +Garcia, Mariano, a native of Valencia. He went to Alcora to try a system +of gilding and purple which he had invented, which produced an +unsatisfactory result. + +Gasch, Agustin, painter from 1728 to 1750, although he was absent from +the works from 1735 to 1741. + +Gasch, Bruno, a son of Juan's, worked at the wheel from 1743 to 1750. + +Gasch, Cristoval, worked with the turners, 1731 to 1741, and joined the +painters until 1750. + +Gasch, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1729 to 1750. + +Gasch, mayor, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Gasch, Joseph, painter, 1731 to 1735. + +Gasch, Juan, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1750. + +Gasch, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Gasch, Miguel, the son of Juan, painted in 1743. + +Gasch, Vicente, 1750. + +Gasch, Correo Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Gardo, Juan, painter and modeller, 1731 to 1735. + +Gil, Francisco, modeller, 1783. + +Giner, Manuel, painter, 1727. + +Gomez, Cristoval, painter on common pottery, 1783. + +Gomez, Francisco, modeller, 1731 to 1750. + +Gomez, Vicente, painter, 1750, 1783. + +Gomez, menor, Vicente, worked at the wheel and painted from 1783 to +1789. + +Gorris, Joseph, 1750. + +Granell, Cristoval, painter, 1729, 1750. + +Granell, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735. + +Granell, Vicente, 1731 to 1750. + +Grangel, Francisco, pintor, painted from 1727 to 1783. In 1743 the +finest work was given to him. + +Grangel, Juan, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Gras, Monsieur, painter, 1728. + +Haly, François, 1751. + +Herrando, Francisco, 1727. + +Herrando, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1736. + +Herrando, Juan, painted from 1729 to 1735. + +Herrando, Manuel, modeller, 1783. + +Herrando, Pascual, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1743. + +Herrando, Thadeo, 1750. + +Huguet, Cristobal, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Huguet, Francisco, worked at the wheel and modelled in porcelain from +1783 to 1789. + +Huguet y Mascarós, Joseph, painter, 1783 to 1794. + +Huguet, Vicente, painter. He worked at the manufactory established by +Joaquin Ten at Alcora, and returned to Count Arandas in 1789, and +continued there in 1794. + +Huguet Serra, Joseph, modeller in 1783. + +Ibañez, Juan, painter from 1727 to 1735. + +Knipfer, Juan, a native of Saxony, 1783. + +Lazaro, Joseph, painter, 1727. + +Lopez, Julian, 1792. + +Llorente, Francisco, 1750. + +Lloscos, Joaquin, painter, 1783. + +Llosca, menor, painter, 1783. + +Malanco, Nicolas, painter, 1727. + +Marin, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1736. + +Marques, Miguel, painter, 1794. + +Marras, Francisco, painter and modeller in 1727. + +Marsal, Bautista, painter from 1727 to 1743. + +Marsal, Francisco. He worked at Alcora, and left it for the manufactory +of Onda; in 1783 he returned to Count Aranda's works. + +Marti, Miguel, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Martin, Francisco, modeller in 1783. + +Martir, Pedro, worked at the wheel in 1739. + +Mas, Cristoval, modeller from 1783 to 1789. + +Mas, Francisco, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Mas, Julian, a skilful painter on porcelain in 1789. + +Mas, menor, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Mas, Manuel, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Mas, Pedro, painter in 1743. + +Mascarós, Cristobal, painter from 1728 to 1750. + +Mascarós y Thomas, Cristoval, painted on pottery from 1783 to 1794. + +Mascarós, Francisco, 1743 to 1750. + +Mascarós, Joseph, painted porcelain in 1789. + +Mascarós, José, painter in 1735 to 1736. + +Mascarós, Pedro Martin, painted from 1729 to 1736. + +Mascarós, Vicente, worked at the wheel from 1750 to 1780. + +Masso y Fabra, Vicente, painted in 1727. + +Massó, Joseph, 1750. + +Massó y Fabra, Francisco, painter, 1739, 1750. + +Massó Nadal, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750. + +Mallol, Joaquin, modeller, 1783. + +Mallol, Cristoval, modeller in 1783. + +Mallol, Vicente, modeller, 1783. + +Maurisi, Pedro, a Frenchman, began to work in 1728. + +Mezquita y Chiva, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Mezquita, Francisco, painted in 1750. + +Mezquita, Jaime, painter, 1731 to 1750. + +Mezquita, Pascual, painter from 1727 to 1735. + +Miguel, Vicente, 1750. + +Miralles, Vicente, worked in clay from 1731 to 1743. + +Moliner, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Moliner, Miguel, painted from 1728 to 1750. + +Moliner, Vicente, modeller in 1783. + +Monfort, Agustin, modeller in 1783. + +Monfort, Pablo, modeller in 1783. + +Montemenor, Joseph, modeller in 1783. + +Montolin, Jacinto, painter, from 1731 to 1750. + +Montolin, Juan, painter, the son of Jacinto, from 1735 to 1750. + +Montolin, Juan, varnisher and painter in 1783. + +Montolin, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789. + +Montolin, Vicente, painter of common pottery in 1783. + +Montolin, Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750. + +Moya, Crisostomo, retouched porcelain in 1789. + +Nadal, Felix, 1727 to 1735. + +Nadal, Juan, master at the wheel, painter and carver from 1727 to 1737. + +Nadal, Miguel, 1783. + +Nadal, Nebot, works from 1743 to 1783. + +Navarro, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783, and painted porcelain +in 1789. + +Nebot, Bautista, painter, 1794. + +Nebot, Cristoval, modeller, 1750. + +Nebot, Cristoval, menor, 1794. + +Nebot, Francisco, 1750. + +Nebot, Francisco, painter in 1794. + +Nebot, Joseph, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1740. + +Nebot, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1794. + +Nebot, Juan, painter, 1750 to 1783. + +Nebot, Miguel, painter, 1783 to 1794. + +Nebot, Narciso, painter, 1794. + +Negre, Deodato, painter, 1727. + +Negre, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1783 to 1794. + +Negre, Julian, worked at the wheel in 1794. + +Negre, Manuel, modeller, 1783 to 1794. + +Negre, Ramon, painter, 1783 to 1794. + +Negre, Vicente, modeller, 1727. + +Nondedeu, Cristoval, modeller, 1729. + +Nondedeu, Miguel, turner, 1731 to 1743. + +Ochando, Joseph, draughtsman and carver, from 1727 to 1742. + +Olery, Joseph, director of the works from 1735 to 1737. In August, 1729, +he was appointed principal draughtsman. + +Pacor, Bartolomé, painter, 1728 to 1735. + +Palau, Francisco, painter, from 1727 to 1750. + +Palmera, Domingo, master of ornamental art, 1815. + +Pardo, Cristoval, turner, from 1727 to 1750. + +Pardo, Francisco, 1750. + +Pardo, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1750. + +Pardo, Vicente, master at the wheel in 1728. + +Pastor Bartolo, Antonio, painter, 1750. + +Pastor Butoni, Antonio, painter, 1750. + +Pastor, Bartolomé, a brother of Vicente's, from 1729 to 1750. + +Pastor, Bautista, varnisher, 1783. + +Pastor, Cristoval, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin from 1783 to +1789. + +Pastor, Gaspar, 1750. + +Pastor, Joseph, painted in common pottery and porcelain from 1783 to +1789. + +Pastor, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750; his name appears in 1743 +among the best artists of Alcora. + +Pastor, Vicente, painter, from 1728 to 1743. + +Pastor, Vicente, painter, was pensioned in Paris by Count Aranda in +1784; he returned to the works in 1789, and continued there for several +years afterwards. + +Peña, Vicente, modeller, 1783. + +Perales, Ramon de, painter, 1750. + +Periz, Joseph, modeller, from 1727 to 1731. + +Periz, Joseph, mayor, painter, from 1750 to 1783. + +Periz, Joseph, menor, modeller, 1783. + +Perpiñan, Cristoval, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1740. + +Perpiñan, Vicente, modeller, from 1731 to 1743. + +Pinazo, Andres, draughtsman and carver, 1727. + +Poggetti, Luis, drawing master, 1815. + +Porcar, Cristoval, painter, from 1727 to 1735. + +Porcar, Pascual, modeller, from 1729 to 1735. + +Prast, Antonio, painter of common pottery in 1783. + +Prats, Cristoval, modeller, 1783. + +Prats, Cristoval, turner, from 1731 to 1750. + +Prats, Francisco, modeller, from 1750 to 1783. + +Prats, Fulgencio, painter, 1783. + +Prats, Vicente, painter, from 1750 to 1794. In 1789 he ranked among the +first artists at Alcora. + +Querol, Vicente, 1743. + +Querol, Joseph, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750. + +Querol, Manuel, painter, from 1750 to 1783. + +Rech, Joseph, a native of Cataluña, painter, in 1727. + +Redolat, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789. + +Ribot, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1735. + +Ricart, Antonio, turner, from 1729 to 1735. + +Ricart, Clemente, modeller, in 1783. + +Ricart, Joaquin, modeller, in 1783. + +Robert, a Frenchman, painted in 1729. + +Rocafort, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750; he was one of the best +artists at the manufactory in 1743. + +Roman, Juan, painted from 1731 to 1735. + +Roman, Manuel, painted from 1735 to 1750. + +Romualdo, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750. + +Roux, Edouard, a French painter, who worked at Alcora, where he had been +brought by Ollery in 1728 until 1735. + +Rules, Joseph de, turner, from 1731 to 1735. + +Saborit, Cristoval, modeller, in 1783. + +Saborit, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1736. + +Saborit, Joaquin, painter, 1783. + +Saborit, Joaquin, painted from 1728 to 1750. + +Saborit, Manuel, modeller, in 1783. + +Sagao, Rafael, draughtsman and carver, 1727. + +Salvada, Joseph, 1789. + +Sancho, Joaquin, painted in 1783. + +Serrania, Cristoval, 1750. + +Serrania, Vicente, painted from 1728 to 1743. + +Soliva, Joaquin, painted pottery in 1783, and retouched porcelain in +1789. + +Soliva, Miguel, painted from 1727 to 1750. In 1743 he was considered the +best artist at Alcora. + +Soriano, Joseph, turner from 1731 to 1735. + +Soriano, Nicasio, turner from 1731 to 1735. + +Sorolla, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Tarazona, menor, Cristoval, modeller, 1783. + +Tarazona, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Tarazona, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1783. + +Tarragó, Joseph, painter from 1728 to 1735. + +Tarragó, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750. + +Ten, Francisco, modeller in 1783. + +Ten, Joaquin, painter from 1732 to 1750. In 1789 he closes the pottery +works which he had established in imitation of those of Alcora. + +Ten, Joseph, 1750. + +Ten, Jaime, painter from 1735 to 1750. + +Terra, Cristobal, modeller, 1783. + +Terra, Vicente, varnisher, 1783. + +Thomas, Antonio, modeller, 1783. + +Thomas, Gaspar, 1750. + +Thomas, Joaquin, modeller in 1783. + +Thomas, José, 1750. + +Thomas, José, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Thomas, Juan, 1743, 1750. + +Thomas, Mateo, 1750. + +Thomas Feliu, Vicente, painter from 1729 to 1740. + +Thomas, Vicente, 1783. + +Torres, Cristoval, painter from 1728 to 1750. + +Torres, Juan, from 1731 to 1735. + +Vadenes, Cristobal, 1770. + +Valentin, Pedro, painter from 1727 to 1743. + +Vilar, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1750. + +Vilar, Cristobal, sculptor, works in porcelain in 1789. + +Vilar, Francisco, 1750. + +Vilar, Joseph, modeller in 1783. + +Vilar, Miguel, painter from 1727 to 1743. + +Vilar, Pedro, worked in the ovens from 1735 to 1750. + +Vilar, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1789. + +Vilar y Bordoñan, Cristobal, modeller in 1783. + +Vilar y Bordoñan, Mariano, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789. + +Vilar Perpiñan, Cristobal, painted from 1739 to 1743. + +Vilar Ricart, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1735. + +Vilar Porcar, Cristobal, painter, 1727. + +Vilar Ricart, Joseph, painter from January, 1731, to 1735. + +Vilar Porcar, Joaquin, painter from 1727 to 1735. + +Vilar Saboret, Joaquin, painter in 1729. + +Yguet, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Zaragoza, Friar, worker in porcelain, 1799. + + +MARKS AND SIGNATURES OF THE PAINTERS WHO WORKED AT ALCORA. + +From 1727 to 1784 no special mark was used at Alcora. In several +instances specimens were signed with the painter's name or initials. + +In order to distinguish the qualities or sizes, coloured numbers were +frequently added. + +From 1784 the letter A in gold or colours was used to mark the pottery +and porcelain made at Alcora. + +The following marks were used after 1784. The a underlined, [A=], +sometimes in blue. + +A number and letter, No. 4 A, G 8; No. 3 P. In 1799 the pottery made by +Friar Joseph de Zaragoza was marked M. O. X. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + +MADRID.--BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN. + +In 1759 King Charles III. came from Naples, having inherited the Spanish +crown on the death of his brother Ferdinand VI. Soon after his arrival +he determined to establish a porcelain manufactory at Madrid in the same +style as one which in 1736 he had founded at Naples. The documents which +exist relating to this manufactory at the archives of the Royal Palace, +Madrid, Alcala, Ministry of Finance, etc., state that before the King +left Naples, he ordered the following letter to be written to the +Secretary of State, Richard Wall, on September 11, 1759: "Likewise the +workmen and utensils used at the royal manufactory of porcelain of Capo +di Monte must be embarked from Naples to Alicant, in the vessels +prepared for that purpose, in order to continue from there the journey +to Madrid. The necessary conveyances are to be provided, and the +expenses to be charged to his Majesty's account." + +Charles III. landed at Barcelona on the 17th of October, 1759, and we +find a letter written by order of the King, by the Marquis of Esquilace +to Secretary Wall, in November of the same year, in which he says that +the King had heard of the arrival in Spain of the workmen from Capo di +Monte, and gives orders that money should be supplied to the Director, +Don Juan Thomas Bonicelli. Wall answers that he "will give orders and +help the workmen who are to establish the manufactory, and let them have +every facility to examine different sorts of earths and localities which +may suit them, and that the Director, Bonicelli, should have the money +he might require." + +It appears also that 300 gold ducats were given to Giuseppe Gricci, +"modeller," in absence of Bonicelli. The King ordered Wall to be +informed that he understood that a place had been found near Madrid to +establish these works, and that he was anxious to see a plan of the +exact locality. Giuseppe Gricci drew the plan of the spot chosen, and +was paid 100 gold doubloons for works connected with the manufactory. +Bonicelli sends the following list of workmen who had arrived from +Naples to the King. + +Cayetano Schepers, chief composer. + +Pablo Forni. + +Joseph Gricci, principal modeller. + +Carlos Gricci. + +Esteban Gricci, modeller. + +Cayetano Fumo, " + +Basilio Fumo, " + +Joseph Fumo, " + +Carlos Fumo, " + +Macedonio Fumo, " + +Joseph Santorum, " + +Juan Bescia, " + +Bautista de Bautista, " + +Antonio Morelly, " + +Salvador Nofri, " + +Phelipe Esplores, " + +Ambrosio de Giorgi, " + +Pedro Antonio de Giorgi, " + +Pablo Frate, " + + +WORKMEN EMPLOYED IN THE KILNS. + +Jenaro Bonincosa. + +Nicolas Rocio. + +Pasqual Rocco. + +Juan Frate. + +Baldo de Beneditis. + +Vincenzio Frate. + +Matheo Mayni. + +Giorchino Amable. + +Joseph Esclavo. + +Antonio Aquaviva Esclavo. + + +WORKMEN WHO POUNDED THE COLOURS. + +Francisco Conte. + +Nicolas Conte. + +Angelo Lionelli. + +Joseph Caramello. + +Joachim Pataroti, carver in pietri dure. + + +WORKMEN EMPLOYED AT THE WHEEL. + +Joseph Grossi. + +Nicolas Botino. + +Juan Remini, gold beater. + +Pedro Chevalier, mounter. + + +PAINTERS. + +José de la Torre. + +Juan Bautista de la Torre. + +Nicolas de la Torre. + +Fernando Sorrentini. + +Mariano Nani. + +Jenaro Boltri. + +Nicolas Donadio. + +Antonio Provinciale. + +Joseph del Coco. + +Carlos Remissi. + +Francesco Simini. + +Xavier Brancacio. + +Joseph Esclavo. + +Francisco Esclavo. + +On the 19th of December, 1759, Don Carlos de Borbon, the King's +architect, presented him with the plans of the porcelain manufactory. +The spot selected was inside the gardens of the Royal Palace of Buen +Retiro. Ponz tells us in his "Viage," Vol. VI. p. 108, that the building +was large and of regular architecture. We know it cost 179,130 reals. + +Don Carlos de Borbon was a black slave who had been captured with other +blacks during the reign of Ferdinand VI. The Queen-mother sent them to +Naples, and Charles III. gave them an artistic education. + +Don Carlos Antonio became the King's architect. On the 22nd of May, +1760, the building was finished, the money then spent amounted to +upwards of 145,000 reals, and Larruga tells us, in his Memorias, "The +King spent in establishing this manufactory £115,000, with a yearly cost +to keep it up of £20,000." + +William Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish Nation during the +years 1760-1761," London, 1763, says, p. 262: "At Madrid is lately set +up a manufacture of porcelain in the gardens of the King's palace at the +Retiro, wrought by artificers brought from Saxony." Documents exist +proving that in 1760-1761, they were already working there. Townsend, in +his "Journey through Spain in 1786 and 1787," London, 1792, says, Vol. +II., p. 278:-- + +"I tried to obtain admission to the china manufacture, which is likewise +administered on the King's account, but His Majesty's injunctions are so +severe that I could neither get introduced to see it, nor meet with any +one who had ever been able to procure that favour for himself. I was the +less mortified upon this occasion because, from the specimens which I +have seen, both in the palace at Madrid, and in the provinces, it +resembles the manufacture of Sèvres which I had formerly visited in a +tour through France." + +In the "Nouveau voyage en Espagne, ou Tableau de l'état actuel de cette +monarchie," Paris, 1789, Vol. I. p. 233, the author tells us, how "Le +monarque actuel à établi dans leur interieur une fabrique de porcelaine, +dont l'entrée est jusquà present interdite à tout le monde. On veut sans +doute que ses essais se perfectionment dans le silence, avant de les +exposer aux yeux des curieux. Ses productions ne peuvent encore se voir +que dans les Palais des Souverains, ou dans quelques Cours d'Italie, +auxquelles il les envoie en presens." + +We find in a "Nouveau voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1805, p. 34, in +describing this porcelain manufactory that the author says; "Cet +établissement tres couteux ne travaille que pour le Roi et a son compte; +il en sort des vases d'une beaute et d'un fini qui ne le cedent point à +ceux de Sèvres." + +Citoyen Alquier, in 1800, the envoy of the French Republic, was allowed +to visit the manufactory. + +We do not know the precise date when porcelain began to be manufactured +at the Retiro. Clarke, writing in 1761, says the works had begun, and in +1764 pupils attended the classes at the Academy of S^{n} Fernando. +Larruga, in his "Memorias," says that as soon as the building was +finished, china was made under the superintendence of Don Cayetano +Schepers; the works, during his superintendence, proved very +unsatisfactory, to his great astonishment, as the same process and +workmen were employed as at Naples. Schepers attributes it to squabbles +between the Spanish and Italian workmen. Sebastian Schepers, from 1783, +a son of Cayetano's, tried various experiments with different clays of +the country. + +The porcelain made at Buen Retiro was kept for the first thirty years +for the exclusive use of the royal family, or to be sent as presents to +foreign courts. Nothing was offered for sale until January, 1789, after +Charles III.'s death, 1788, when Charles IV. determined that the china +manufactured at Buen Retiro might be sold. Even in Spain the specimens +of this china are very scarce; it is only at the palaces of Madrid, +Aranjuez, the Escorial and La Granja that an idea can be formed of the +perfection of this manufacture. + +The director at that time was Don Domingo Bonicelli, a son of Don Juan +Bonicelli. Don Domingo chose a room within the Retiro, which was +arranged at a cost of £350, in which to exhibit the objects for sale. +Another room was taken in the Calle del Turco, which is mentioned in +"Noticias varias y curiosas de Madrid," Valero Chicarro, 1762-1793, +which we find was closed in 1800, as the "objects manufactured at the +Retiro were simply for ornament, and could only be bought by very rich +persons." Southey in his "Letters from Spain," London, 1797, p. 118, +says, "The old palace of Buen Retiro is converted into a royal porcelain +manufactory; the prices are extravagantly high, but they have arrived at +great excellence in the manufacture. The false taste of the people is +displayed in all the vases I saw there, which though made from Roman +models, are all terminated by porcelain flowers." + +Every kind of porcelain was made at Buen Retiro, hard and soft paste, +white china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and modelled in the style of +Capo di Monte. A great many existed imitating the blue jasper ware of +Wedgwood, and they also made flowers, coloured and biscuit, groups, and +single figures, and painted porcelain of different kinds. Great +quantities of tiles for pavements were also made there, which may still +be seen at the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez; they are mentioned in the +accounts which exist at the Ministry of Finance for 1807 and 1808. We +find in these same accounts interesting details of the objects made +monthly. In January, 1808, a large number of figures were made, +including 151 heads for the table centre which was made for the king, +306 objects ornamented with paintings, 2,056 tiles, 577 objects of less +artistic importance, such as dishes, plates, etc. The finest specimens +which exist are in the Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the +Palaces of Madrid and Aranjuez of which the walls are completely covered +with china plaques and looking-glasses, modelled in the most admirable +manner with figures, fruits, and flowers. The room at Aranjuez is +covered with a bold ornamentation of figures in the Japanese style, in +high relief, painted with colours and gold with the most exquisite +details. The figures unite the fine Italian modelling with the Japanese +decoration. The chandelier is in the same style. Upon a vase on the +wainscot to the right of the entrance door is the following inscription: + + JOSEPH + GRICC^{I} + DELINEAV^{it} + ET + SCUL^{it} + 1763. + +This same date is repeated in the angles, and in some shields near the +roof we find, + + AÑO + 1765; + +probably the year the work was terminated. Antonio Conca, in his +"Descrizione Odeporica della Spagna in cui spezialmente si da notizia +delle cose spettanti alle Belle Arti," Parma, 1793, Vol. III., p. 310, +says, "Il Gabineto abbelitto di porcellana della Fabbricca del Retiro ha +meritato le bodi de curiozi viaggiatori." We also find in p. 119, "Un +altro Gabinetto vien chiamato della Cina pel sud principal ornata di bei +putti, di bassi relievi, e di altre opere di porcellana della nuova Real +Fabbricca del Ritiro." Ponz, in his "Viage de España," Madrid, 1782, +describes the room at the Palace of Madrid, saying, "it is covered with +large plaques of porcelain made at Buen Retiro. In some are represented +figures of children copied from models, and between each compartment +looking-glasses are let in." (See woodcut.) + +[Illustration: ROOM DECORATED WITH BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN, IN THE PALACE +AT MADRID.] + +From the establishment of the manufactory in 1759 by Charles III. +until 1803 the styles adopted at Capo di Monte had been followed. At the +beginning of this century Dn. Bartolomé Sureda went to Paris to learn +the manner in which Sèvres porcelain was made. On his return in 1803 he +was appointed director of the works at Buen Retiro and endeavoured to +imitate the paste and brilliancy of decoration of Sèvres. Two workmen +came over from Paris--Victor Perche, and Vivien. + +Among the finest specimens of this period of the manufactory are a +splendid clock and four vases, two mètres high, with porcelain flowers, +which exist in one of the state rooms of the Palace of Madrid. The vases +are placed in the four corners of the room. The clock is ornamented with +large biscuit figures. A large number of vases exist at the royal +Palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, and Escorial, of Retiro china. They are +often finely mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or porcelain flowers. +The blue of the imitations of Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the +biscuit work so fine as the English. Gold is often added to these +specimens. + +We find at the archives of the Ministry of Finance interesting details +of a dinner service made in 1798 for Charles IV., and a centre-piece, +which probably is that now in the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez. + +When the French made their entry into Madrid in the spring of 1808 they +took possession of the position occupied by the royal manufactory. In +July of the same year it continued in the hands of the French, who +forced open the doors of the laboratory. Porcelain continued, however, +to be made there during the reign of Joseph I.; we find in "Travels +through Spain and part of Portugal," London, 1808, p. 23, that, the +author says, "the gardens of the Buen Retiro are open to the public. In +the neighbourhood of these the royal porcelain manufacture is carried on +in a large white building." Lord Blayney, in his "Narrative of a Journey +through Spain and France in 1810-1814," London, 1814, says that "the +royal manufactures of tapestry and porcelain have declined since the +death of Charles III. and have now entirely ceased." + +We find in "Paseos por Madrid," Madrid, 1815-8, p. 87, it stated that +"The English, at the second entry of our troops in Madrid, ruined this +building in order that it should not be used as a fortress by the French +troops." + +Richard Ford, in his "Handbook for Travellers in Spain," London, 1845, +says, "Everything was destroyed by the invaders, who turned the +manufactory into a fortification, which surrendered with 200 cannon, +Aug. 14th, 1812, to the Duke of Wellington. Ferdinand VII., on his +restoration, re-created La China, removing the workshops and ware rooms +to the Moneloa." + +The South Kensington Museum contains an interesting collection of Buen +Retiro porcelain of different kinds, of which may be named: + +No. 344-'66. A vase of biscuit porcelain, two-handled, with frieze of +classic dancing figures and flowers. + +Nos. 333, 4-'66. Two small vases for tea, white porcelain, covered with +flowers in relief. + +No. 892-'75. A pair of vases painted with young bacchanals in rose +camaïeu, and gilt. + +No. 893-'75. A pair of draped female figures, each holding a cornucopia, +standing on an altar-shaped plinth. + +No. 894-'75. A clock case, white porcelain, of rock and scroll work, +with flowers and groups of amorini. + +No. 332-'76. A group of Ariadne and the panther. + +No. 1068-'73. A pair of tall vases, with gilt serpent handles, the necks +fluted with gold, the upper part of the body painted with classic +groups, and with coloured scroll foliage in relief, the lower part +painted with leaves and scrolls on white ground. (See woodcut on next +page.) + +[Illustration: BUEN RETIRO VASE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +MARKS USED AT THE PORCELAIN MANUFACTORY OF BUEN RETIRO. + +[Illustration] + +The usual mark in blue. + +[Illustration] + +In blue, and sometimes in violet and gold. + +[Illustration] + +Cayetano or Carlos Fumo. The initials and date are graved in the clay +under the glaze; the fleur-de-lis is pencilled in blue. On a fine group +of children playing with a goat. + +[Illustration] + +This mark is graved in the clay, under the glaze, on a fine group +modelled by Salvador Nofri. + +[Illustration] + +Ochogavia? graved in the soft clay on a figure. + +[Illustration] + +1798, Sorrentini? These marks are pencilled in red on a pink cup and +saucer, with landscapes painted _en grisaille._ + +[Illustration] + +Pedro Antonio Georgi? The initials P. G. are gilt; the M crowned in red; +the V and M graved in the clay; on a cup and saucer buff coloured. + +[Illustration] + +Provinciale? The letters Po are graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in +blue; on two saucers, beautifully painted with children. + +[Illustration] + +Probably the initial of the king. On two jardinières; the interlaced C's +graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in blue. + +[Illustration] + +On two large vases imitating Wedgwood's blue and white jasper, with +white biscuit flowers. + +[Illustration] + +On a group of biscuit Retiro porcelain of two figures representing +Painting. The same mark appears on a figure of Apollo, about one foot +high. This mark is stamped on the porcelain; the letters are in relief +tinted rose colour. + +[Illustration] + +At the room decorated with Buen Retiro plaques at Aranjuez. It appears +on a vase in relief, which is placed on the basement to the right on +entering. The date 1765 appears on the ceiling, probably the year when +the work was finished. + +[Illustration] + +Graven on the clay on a white soft paste bracket painted with coloured +flowers belonging to Count Valencia de D^{n} Juan. + +[Illustration] + +On a cup at the Museo Arqueologico, Mad., painted with landscapes. The +initials are of Pedro Antonio Giorgi, who painted from 1802 to 1808. + +[Illustration] + +Engraved on the clay on a plaque of blue biscuit porcelain imitating +Wedgwood jasper ware, representing a mythological subject. + +[Illustration] + +On a dessert plate representing a vine leaf at the Museo Arqueologico. +The initials appear to be those of Felipe Gricci, a son of the first +modeller José, who came with Charles III. from Naples. + +[Illustration] + +Fleur-de-lis graven in the clay on a fine group of three figures. + + +LIST OF DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE ROYAL MANUFACTORY +OF THE BUEN RETIRO FROM ITS FOUNDATION, IN 1759, UNTIL 1808: + +DIRECTORS. + +Bonicelli, Juan Thomas, principal Director at the establishment of the +manufactory in 1759. + +Bonicelli, Domingo. In 1786 he was Director; in 1796 he solicits his +retirement, and died soon after. + +Cristobal de Torrijos, appointed Director in 1797, after the death of +Don Domingo Bonicelli. + +Sureda, Bartolomé, Director in 1804, and continues in 1808. + + +PRINCIPAL MODELLERS AND SUPERINTENDENTS, POSSESSING THE SECRETS OF THE +FABRICATION (SECRETISTAS). + +Schepers, Cayetano, first Modeller in 1759. + +Gricci, Carlos, son of Joseph Gricci, came to Spain, 1759. He appears in +a list of artists employed in 1764: he died 1795. + +Gricci, Felipe, 1785. In 1802 he was first Modeller. + +Forni, Antonio, second Modeller in 1802. + + +SCULPTORS. + +Agreda, Esteban, born at Logroño, 1759. He obtained several prizes at +the Academy of San Fernando; employed in 1797, and continued to work +there in 1808. + +Avila, Ceferino de, employed 1799, and continued there in 1808. + +Avila, Juan de, 1771, and continued there in 1808. + +Bautista, Bautista de, 1759. + +Bautista, Cayetano, 1785. + +Bautista, Juan Lopez, employed from 1799 to 1808. + +Benedictis, Cayetano, 1785, 1802. + +Benincasa, Miguel, 1778, and continues to work in 1808. + +Benincasa, Vicente, 1785. + +Bergaz, Alonso, 1764. + +Bescia, Juan, 1759. + +Borbon, Geronimo, 1802 + +Borbon, Genaro, 1784 and 1808. + +Caravielo, Miguel, 1785. + +Chaves, Alonso, born at Madrid in 1741. In 1760 was appointed Modeller, +and in 1763 obtained a Second Prize at the Academy, and a First Prize in +1766. + +Chaves, Justo, 1785. + +Esplores, Felipe, 1759. + +Estebe, Antonio, 1778 and 1808. + +Flores, Josef, 1785. + +Forni, Pablo, 1759. + +Francholy, Angel, 1776 to 1808. + +Francholy, José, 1804 to 1808. + +Francholy, Luis, 1785. + +Frate, Carlos, 1785 to 1802. + +Frate, Josef, 1785. + +Frates, Juan, 1794 to 1808. + +Frate, Pablo, from 1759 to 1785. + +Frates, Mateo, 1797 to 1808. + +Frates, Mateo, born at Madrid in 1788. First Prize of the Academy in +1805; in 1829 was appointed Director of the China establishment at the +Moncloa. + +Frates, Francisco, 1764 to 1808. + +Fumo, Basilio, in 1759 was Director of the China manufactory; in 1779 he +was appointed a Member of the Academy of San Fernando; died in 1797. + +Fumo, Carlos, 1759. + +Fumo, Cayetano, 1759. + +Fumo, Joseph, 1759; died in 1799. + +Fumo, Macedonio, 1759, and continues in 1802. + +Fumo, Bernabé, 1802. + +Giorgi, Pedro Antonio de, 1759, and continues in 1785. + +Giorgi, Carlos, 1785 to 1808. + +Giorgi, Ambrosio de, 1759. + +Giorgi, Antonio, 1795 to 1808. + +Gricchi, Joseph, 1759. In 1766 was appointed Honorary Director of the +Academy of San Fernando; died in 1769. + +Gricci, Esteban, 1759. + +Guijarro, Dionisio, 1798 to 1808. + +Llorente, Manuel, 1764 to 1785. + +Morelly, Antonio, 1759 to 1785. + +Nofri, Salvador, 1759 to 1785. + +Nofri, Justo, 1778 to 1808. + +Nofri, or Noferi, Juan, 1802. + +Ochogavia, Manuel, 1764. Born in Galicia in 1744; in 1760 won a Second +Prize of Sculpture at the Academy, and in 1763 a First Prize. + +Palmerani, Domingo, 1795, 1808. + +Palmerani, Angel, 1799 to 1808. + +Penaba, Joseph, 1793 to 1808. + +Rodriguez, Antonio, 1797 to 1808. + +Sancho, Dionisio, 1788. Born at Cienpozuelos in 1762; won a Prize at the +Academy in 1793; was appointed a Member of the Academy, 1796; in 1810 he +went to Mexico, where he died, 1829. + +Santorum, Joseph, 1759. + +Sorrentini, Fernando, 1785 to 1808. + +Sorrentini, Rafael, 1785. + +Sorrentini, Francisco, 1802. + +Valentin, José, 1779 to 1808. + +Valentin, Miguel, 1785. + + +PAINTERS. + +Alonso, Francisco, 1764. + +Boltri, Genaro, 1756. Born in Naples in 1730; in 1759 he came to Madrid +with Charles III.'s household, and worked at the Retiro; died in Madrid +in 1788. + +Brancasio, Xavier, 1759. + +Brancacho, Domingo, 1762 to 1803. + +Branga, Ignacio de, 1800, painter of figures; he continues there in +1808. + +Camaron, Josef, 1802. Born at Segorbe in 1760; in 1776 he won a prize of +painting at Valencia; he was pensioned to Rome, and appointed Painter in +Ordinary to the King. + +Castillo, Fernando del, born at Madrid in 1740. He was appointed Painter +at the manufactory, and worked there until his death in 1777. + +Coco, Joseph del, 1759. + +Cruz, Mariano de la, 1807, 1808. + +Domeu, Carlos, 1785. + +Donadio, Nicolas, 1759. + +Giorgi, Pedro Antonio, 1802. + +Martinez, Antonio, 1764. + +Martinez, Pedro, 1796 to 1808. + +Nani, Mariano, 1759. His wife received a pension from 1804, probably the +year of his death. + +Peshorn, Jorge, 1788, and continues working in 1802. + +Provinciale, Antonio, 1759 and 1785. + +Quirós, Juan José, 1802. + +Rimini, Carlos, 1759. + +Romero, Juan Bautista, 1800. Flowers and fruit; appears in lists of +1802. + +Rubio, Joseph, 1799 to 1808. + +Semini, Francisco, 1759. + +Soriano, Joaquin, 1799. Landscape painter in 1800; continues in 1808. + +Sorrentini, Josef, 1756, probably from Capo di Monte. In 1802 he asks +for a retiring pension. + +Sorrentini, Fernando, 1759. + +Sorrentini, Pablo, 1764 to 1808. + +Sorrentini, Gabriel, 1769 to 1808. + +Sorrentini, Manuel, 1785 to 1802. + +Torre, Joseph de la, 1759. + +Torre, Nicolas de la, 1759. In 1802 asks for a retiring pension. + +Torre, Raphael de la, 1759. + +Torre, Juan Bautista de la, 1759 and 1808. + +Torre, Josef de la, 1785 and 1802. + +Torre, Francisco de la, 1796 to 1808. + +Torre, Julian de la, 1802. + +Velasquez, Castor, 1807, and continued in 1808. Born in Madrid in 1768 +and obtained a prize at the Academy in 1787. + + +VARIOUS ARTISTS EMPLOYED IN THE MANUFACTORY. + +Agreda, Manuel, Sculptor, a brother of Esteban Agreda; he superintended +the making of biscuit china; born at Haro in 1773; won prizes at the +Academy; and was employed at the Manufactory from 1805 to 1808. + +Bautista, Juan, employed to make porcelain flowers from 1785 to 1808. + +Bautista, Francisco, appears in 1802 as maker of porcelain flowers. + +Bautista, Sebastian, appears in 1802 as a maker of porcelain flowers. + +Chevalier, Pedro, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1759, and continued to +work at the Manufactory in 1763. + +Escalera, Josef, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1781, and continued to work +at the Manufactory in 1808. + +Perche, Jaime Victor, French workman brought from Paris to prepare +porcelain, from 1803 to 1809. + +Vivien, French workman, brought from Paris to prepare porcelain, from +1803 to 1809. + +At the same time that porcelain was made at Retiro and Alcora, other +manufactories of a similar kind were established in Spain; but none of +them could compete with these. The most important was established at +Sargadelos, Galicia, in 1804. One of the finest specimens which have +reached us of this manufactory is a large bas relief representing the +massacres of the Spaniards by the French in Madrid on the 2nd of May, +1808. + + + + +GLASS. + + +Since the South Kensington Museum purchased the largest collection of +old and modern Spanish glass in Europe, the taste for and study of this +branch of industry has increased to a very great extent. It is evident +that this manufacture attained great importance during the three last +centuries, and possibly existed at an earlier period; and that glass +objects made in Spain possess a special and distinct character, +different to those made in other countries. Before the objects at the +Kensington Museum were collected, the existence of this industry in +Spain was comparatively unknown. + +The earliest mention of glass works in Spain will be found in Pliny, +who, while explaining the proceedings which were employed in this +industry, says that glass was made in a similar manner in France and +Spain: "Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo harenae +temperantur."--L. XXXVI. cap. 66. + +The next allusion to this industry will be found in the works of San +Isidoro. This eminent man lived in the 7th century, and after quoting +the observations of the Roman author, gives us to understand that this +industry existed before his time in Italy, France, and Spain: "Olim +fiebat et in Italia, et per Gallias, et Hispaniam arena alba mollissima +pila mola que terebatur." [Divi. Isid. Hisp. Etymologiarum, I. XVI. cap. +16.] It is evident, therefore, from this passage, that glass was made to +a large extent in the Spanish Peninsula during the Roman period. This is +confirmed by the number of specimens which are constantly found in +ruins. We learn also that the manufacture had ceased to exist in the +seventh century. + +Glass vessels of the Roman period found in Spain are similar in form and +manufacture to those which we know were made in France and Italy. This +is not to be wondered at, if we remember that the Romans imposed their +artistic forms on the countries they conquered. It is impossible to +classify the specimens of this industry into determined localities. The +study of the glass paste may, at some future period, give materials for +such a classification. + +One special characteristic of Roman glass may be taken into account to +be applied to Spanish glass of a later period. We find ancient specimens +constantly ornamented with a sort of thread or line which runs all over +the vase. These lines are sometimes made of transparent glass, and +sometimes of white opaque glass, termed in Italy _latticinio_ from its +milky whiteness. When the industry of glass making was revived in Europe +during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, classical forms were +copied in this as in other industries; this line ornamentation was +copied on a much smaller scale in Italy than in Spain, where it +constituted the chief and constant characteristic of glass making. It is +an interesting fact that objects of a traditional Moorish form have the +greatest amount of lines of this style of ornamentation. We cannot, +until this subject is more thoroughly investigated, do otherwise than +infer either that the tradition of this industry was preserved in Spain, +or that the Arabs imported this style of decoration from the same +localities from which it had been copied by the Romans centuries before. + +The comparison of these different styles of glass making can be carried +out in a most satisfactory manner in London by examining the fine +specimens of glass in the British Museum (Slade collection), and the old +Spanish glass at South Kensington. + +We have no specimens of glass of the Visigothic period. If, as is most +probable, glass was used by the Visigoths, they may have imported it +from the East, for the text I have quoted from the works of St. Isidore +seems to prove that this industry had ceased to exist in his time. The +glass paste of different colours must, however, be mentioned, which is +set in gold in the Visigothic crowns found at Guarrazar, near Toledo. It +imitates precious stones, and was very generally used during the +Byzantine period; its occurrence here makes it appear probable that at +any rate the tradition of this industry existed in Spain. + +From the 8th to the end of the 15th century, during the Mahomedan +domination, I infer that the industry of glass making became as +important in Spain as that of pottery. No specimens, however, of the +earlier period have reached us, and we must judge of what it was from +the glass vessels in the Kensington Museum, belonging to the Renaissance +period, which preserve their Oriental form, and are of a different style +to that of Venice and other localities in Europe. + +A most interesting fact, which confirms this theory, will be found in a +translation made from Hebrew to Arabic of a work which treats of the +virtues of precious stones, _Lapidario_ [MS. Biblioteca del Escorial], +quoted by Rico y Sinobas in "Almanaque de la Industria," 1873. We do not +know exactly when the author Abolais lived, but in the prologue to this +MS. it is mentioned that D^{n}. Alfonso el Sabio found this book at +Toledo, and gave orders to a Jew called Juda Mosca, and a priest, Garci +Perez, to translate it into Spanish. The translation was terminated in +1250. Technical details are given in this volume concerning the +substances which are employed in glass making, and some of the minerals +found in Spain which are used in painting or enamelling it, but as this +work was written to explain the properties of minerals, as they were +understood in the author's time, he does not enter into any interesting +details, or describe the forms of these objects. Another allusion to +glass making in Spain will be found in Al Makkari, the Arabian author of +"Mohamedan Dynasties in Spain," [London, 1840, 2 vols. 4to], who quotes +an Oriental writer of the 13th century, who says, "Almeria was also +famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils, whether +of iron, copper, or glass." (Vol. I. p. 51.) + +The tradition of this industry has been undoubtedly preserved at Almeria +until the present day, for in this province, and in the adjoining +villages of the province of Granada, we find that specimens are to be +met with, which possess a marked Oriental form, and are completely free +from the influence of Italian models which existed in other localities. +The most characteristic specimens consist of jars of two, four and eight +handles, bowls with ribs and handles, pilgrim's bottles, etc., of which +interesting examples exist at the South Kensington Museum. Woodcuts of +several of these are given. + +All these objects are decorated with a serrated ornamentation of +buttons, trellis-work, and the lines to which I have already alluded +which were placed there after the object was made, in the Roman style. +The paste is generally of a dark green colour, and when we find these +same features in vessels of white clear glass, we may affirm that they +are contemporary imitations made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they are +very seldom to be met with in the provinces of Almeria and Granada, and +are generally found at Toledo and other localities; it is, moreover, a +common condition of Oriental art that its general form complies with a +geometrical tracery, and we never find as in Italian works of art, forms +and capricious ornamentations which interfere with the symmetry of the +general lines, and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole. + +[Illustration: GLASS VASE.--SPANISH, 16TH CENTURY.] + +I have been unable to find the glass industries of this period mentioned +by any contemporary author, but I owe to the courtesy of S^{r}. Romero +Ortiz some interesting details which have been taken from the archives +of certain villages, which although of a more modern date prove that +this industry existed in these localities. At about 14 miles from the +Puebla de D^{n}. Fadrique, there is a locality called Pinar de la +Vidriera, where traces of ovens and scoriæ exist belonging to an +ancient glass manufactory, which is likewise mentioned in documents of +the municipality as continuing to work in 1620. At Castril de la Peña, a +manufactory yet exists where glass is still made, and which has existed +from time immemorial in the village. The building itself is decorated +with the escutcheon of the family of Hernando de Zafra, one of the +secretaries of Queen Isabel, late in the 15th century, who must have +purchased it with other lands which he possessed there, towards the year +1492. A gallery, one mile long, which exists at the entrance of the town +from whence the sand has been extracted for this manufacture, gives an +idea of the antiquity of this industry in this particular locality. It +has been calculated that about two tons of sand were used at these glass +works every month. At Royo Molino, in the province of Jaen, a very +ancient building still exists, now half in ruins, which has been used +until very lately as a glass factory. At Maria, in the province of +Almeria, several glass manufactories have existed. The oldest, it is +believed, was about two miles from the town, and is called traditionally +"del Campo," but I have not found mention of it in any document. Three +glass ovens existed inside the town: one was established by Vicente +Botia, towards the year 1750, which lasted until 1790. Juan Martinez +established at about this period an industry of a similar kind near the +former one, which continued to work until 1854. The same green glass has +been constantly made in these localities, the same forms have been +copied, the only difference between the older and more modern specimens +consisting in the coarser and heavier quality of the glass. + +[Illustration: PILGRIMS' GLASS BOTTLE.--SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.] + +In treating of the glass manufactures in Spain, where Italian models +were imitated to a very great extent, we find very few allusions in +contemporary authors of the Middle Ages; it may be because glass vessels +were chiefly used with wooden and pottery utensils by the poorer +classes, and metal utensils of all kinds by those who were able to +afford them. At any rate, it is only towards the end of the Middle Ages +that we meet with information concerning this industry, which continues +uninterrupted until the present day. + +Barcelona is one of the towns distinguished for the antiquity and +excellence of its glass. In a municipal edict of 1324, we find a special +prohibition that the glass ovens should not be inside the city, owing to +the danger they might cause to the rest of the population. In 1455, +permission was granted to the _vidrieros_, glassmakers, to form a guild +under the patronage of St. Bernardino, and from this period some of its +members figure as holding municipal charges. Capmany, "Memorias," Vol. +I. p. 134. According to this author, the special Ordinances of this +corporation are not known, but only those which were given by the +municipality in 1659. He adds that the master _vidrieros_ required six +years of apprenticeship and practice to be admitted to work. + +From the 15th century several authors praise the glass made at +Barcelona. In a MS. by Jeronimo Paulo, who writes in 1491, a description +in Latin of the most remarkable things at Barcelona, he says, "they also +send to Rome and other places many glass vessels of different sorts and +kinds which may well compete with those of Venice." In the account of +Philip le Bel's journey to Spain on his marriage with Queen Joanna we +find the following mention of the town of Barcelona: "Et sont là faicts +les plus beauls ouvrages de voires (verres) et de cire qui soient faicts +au monde. Le Jordi (19 Janvier, 1503) Monsigneur alla au dehors de la +ville vioir ung jour où on faict voires (verres) de cristallin très +beaus." ["Collection des Voyages," Bruxelles, 1876, Vol. I., p. 257.] +Marineus Siculus, who writes early in the 16th century says, "the best +glass made in Spain is that of Barcelona," and Gaspar Barreiros in his +"Chorographia," [Coimbra, 1569,] tells us, "they made excellent glass at +Barcelona, almost equal to the Venetian." At the beginning of the 17th +century the authors, Jaime Rebullosa, in his "Descripcion del mundo," +[Barcelona, 1603, 8vo,] and Luis Nuñez in "Hispania," [Antverpiæ, 1607, +8vo, p. 279,] continue to praise the glass made at Barcelona, and from +that period we find its merit and the vast quantity which was exported +constantly alluded to. The fame of Spanish glass must have been +justified, for in the "Viage del Cardinal Infante," by Aedo, printed in +1639, we find it stated that when the Infant Cardinal was at Barcelona, +in 1632, he went with his galleys to Mataró, four leagues from +Barcelona, to see the "glass made there which was so abundantly sold all +over the country." The Spanish translator of "La Piazza universale di +tutte le professioni," [Madrid, 1615,] adds the name of Barcelona to the +Italian author's mention of glass objects made in Venice, saying, "This +industry has reached such a degree of excellence at Murano and Barcelona +that nothing can be compared to it; there is nothing now which cannot be +made of glass and crystal, even cabinets have been made, and castles +with their towers, battlements, artillery, and fortifications." Mendez +Silva in his "Poblacion de España, [Madrid, 1654, p. 243,] repeats the +same idea when he says they made at Barcelona, "fine glass which might +compete with the Venetian." This industry continued in Cataluña to a +great extent in the last century, and was praised by the following +writers. The author of the "Atlante Español," [Vol. IV., Madrid, +1778-1795,] tells us that "they continued to make excellent glass at +Barcelona, in imitation of the Venetian, with which it might compete," +and that this industry was carried out to a great extent at Mataró, +Cervelló, and Almatret, all three towns of Cataluña; he says that in +this last mentioned town the glass made was "so excellent, and the +number of workmen employed was so large, that an oratory had been built +in order that the workmen should hear mass there." + +The constant comparisons which we find between the glass made at +Barcelona with that of Murano suggests two things--that Spanish glass +must have been of a first-rate order, and that the form of the glass +vessels was similar to those made at Venice. It is highly probable that +a great part of the specimens of glass of different kinds which are +classified as Italian in several collections, are really Spanish, +although it is extremely difficult to point out the difference. In this, +as in other branches of industry, the mania for classifying has gone too +far, and comparative studies of a more concrete order are necessary; +until these are made, the principal fact to be borne in mind in +classifying glass vessels is to compare them with objects of a similar +manufacture which have been made until very lately in Cataluña, and of +which an extremely interesting collection exists at the South Kensington +Museum, proceeding from Barcelona, Mataró and Cervelló, (Nos. 149 to +193) which will enable the amateur to see how the industry of +glass-making has continued traditionally to be preserved in that +province. See woodcut opposite representing a glass bottle, also the +central vessel in woodcut on p. 238. + +Among the specimens of old Spanish glass we may consider to have +proceeded from Cataluña the following examples, forming part of the +collection acquired in 1873. Bottles, Nos. 249 to 262, cups, Nos. 336 to +339, and tumblers, Nos. 303 to 305, 312 to 314, and 328, '29. Among +these, there are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality. +The most characteristic are the _arruxiadós_, or _borracha_, a vessel +spirally ribbed with several narrow spouts, used by the peasant girls of +the villages to sprinkle rose water in the festival of the patron saint +of the district; the _porrones_, a bottle with a long spout, used by the +peasantry for drinking wine; the _cantaro_, a jug, funnel shaped with +wide mouth, handle and curved spout, and the _pilas de agua bendita_, a +holy water vessel of different shapes. + +[Illustration: GLASS BOTTLE.--MODERN SPANISH.] + +Very few details have reached us of the famous glass works which existed +at Cadalso, in the province of Toledo; we know, however, that the glass +made there was as excellent as that made at Cataluña, and was compared +in a similar manner to the Venetian. The unknown author of "El +Crotalon," published by the Spanish Bibliophiles, from a rare MS., in +1871, writing in the time of the Emperor Charles V., mentions "the fine +glass made at Cadalso." Marineus Siculus also writes in 1517 in his "De +las Cosas Memorables de España," [Alcala de Henares, 1539, fol., Vol. +I.,] that "Glass was made in several towns of Castile, the most +important of them being Cadalso, which supplied the whole kingdom." It +would appear therefore that this glass manufactory was already +established in that locality in the 16th century, and we frequently meet +with allusions to the excellence of its productions in contemporary +authors. The town itself has continually been called "Cadalso de los +vidrios." Mendez Silva in his "Poblacion general de España," [Madrid, +1645, p. 40] says: "They make in three glass ovens fine glass of +beautiful colours and forms, which can compete with the Venetian." At +the South Kensington Museum, there are two fine specimens of glass made +at Cadalso--No. 1068, '73, a drinking vessel of white glass, the upper +part in form of the Spanish vessel called "bucaro," ribbed and streaked +with colours; the stem pineapple shape, with remains of gilding (this is +represented in the woodcut); and No. 1082, '73, a bowl of plain glass, +the lower part spirally waved, and decorated with scale pattern in gold +and coloured dots. Both these objects proceed from a nunnery in a +village near Cadalso. + +[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +Larruga says in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1791, Vol. X., p. 53,] that +"two glass ovens existed at Cadalso, which belonged to the Marchioness +of Villena; they are worked by the inhabitants of this town. One of the +ovens has fallen into disuse from the beginning of the present (18th) +century, and the fame of the glass made there, formerly so renowned for +its clearness and variety of the objects made, has declined. In +examining the state of this industry during the reign of Charles II. we +find how much it had fallen off, for Dn. Antonio de Obando in 1692, +undertook to reestablish it, and to make glass vessels, and window +glasses as had been made there formerly. It appears that 200 dozens of +objects of different kinds were sent out from there yearly." The vase, +No. 333, '73 represented in the woodcut is an example of the coloured +glass of Cadalso. + +[Illustration: GLASS VASE.--SPANISH (CADALSO), 17TH CENTURY.] + +Glass ovens existed from a very early period in the central provinces +of Spain, which probably imitated from the 16th century the productions +of Cadalso. We know from papers at the Archives of the Convent, of two +of these which paid a yearly rent to the monastery of San Jeronimo de +Guisando, from 1478 to 1480. One of these glass works was situated at +the Venta del Cojo on the borders of Escalona, and the other at the +Venta de los Toros de Guisando. + +It is evident that a glass manufactory existed at Toledo, from some +accounts which I have found in the Archives of the Cathedral, in which +Bartolomé Lopez, vidriero, is mentioned in 1546--Pedro Fernandez in +1590, and Tomas Nuñez in 1660; as furnishing glass vessels, principally +lamps for the cathedral. Tomas Nuñez is also paid for "three crosses of +crystalline glass." In a letter written in 1690 to Count Gondomar, the +celebrated ambassador to James I., (Archives of the Palace at Madrid), I +find a glass manufactory mentioned which existed at Cebreros in the +province of Segovia. The writer says, "Your lordship knows we have a +glass oven here; this week we have made the glass called crystalline, of +which I send in a basket sixteen specimens for my lady Dna. Costanza." + +Larruga tells us in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1792, Vol. XVI., p. 222,] +"That in 1680 a glass manufactory was established at San Martin de +Valdeiglesias, where glass in the Venetian style was made--the glass was +excellent. This manufactory was under the direction of Diodonet Lambot a +native of Namur. He was succeeded by Santiago Bandoleto, who was by no +means as skilful. Glass ovens were also established at the Torre de +Estevan, Hambroz, under the direction of Guillermo Torcada." At +Recuenco, in the province of Cuenca, glass works existed at the +beginning of the 16th century; but in 1722 Don Fernando Lopez de Aragon +established a manufactory on a large scale. The glass made there was +used by the king and the greater part of the rich people at Madrid. In +1739 two other glass works existed there, which continued their +operations during the rest of the century. In the same province several +glass ovens existed towards the middle of the last century. The +principal ones were established in the villages of Arbetota, Vindel and +Armallones; only coarse specimens were made there, but at an earlier +period their productions had been, Larruga tells us in the nineteenth +volume of his "Memorias," very important. The glass works which we find +mentioned in the "Atlante Español," [Madrid, 1795,] were also of a very +inferior quality; they were established at the end of the last century +at Busot, in the province of Alicante, Hinojares and Carolina, province +of Jaen. The "Correo de España," [Vol. I. Madrid, 1771,] mentions an +important glass manufactory which existed at Andorra near Alcañiz, and +one where glass of an inferior quality was made at Cabra, in the +province of Cordova. Cabanilles, "Historia y descripcion del reino de +Valencia," Barcelona, mentions the existence from a very early period of +glass works at Olleria, a village of the kingdom of Valencia. + +The only mention which I have found in which Seville appears as a centre +of this industry, is an interesting allusion to the village of Cala, +which was represented in a festival which was given to Philip II. in +1578, "with a crystal glass in its hand, and several others at its feet, +because a famous glass oven existed there." ["Recibimiento que hizo +Sevilla al Rey Don Phelipe." Por Juan de Mallara, Sevilla, 1570, p. 89.] + +In the 17th century, during the reign of Philip IV., the glass made at +Valdemaqueda in the province of Avila was very celebrated. In a royal +schedule, dated 1680, which states the price at which things were sold +at Madrid, "the glass made at Barcelona, Valdemaqueda, and Villafranca" +are mentioned. We find the glass of Valdemaqueda was sold for a higher +price than that made at the other localities. + +The principal value of these extracts is to prove that the industry of +glass-making existed in these localities; none of the authors mentions +the principal characteristics by which the vessels made may be +classified. Those made at Almeria and Barcelona are more easily known, +for they have kept until very recently their general character; while at +Cadalso and other localities of the centre of Spain, the tradition of +the Italian models has quite disappeared. In one fact every author +agrees, namely, that the glass made in those provinces closely resembled +the Venetian, and was completely different to the system followed by the +Arabs. It is, therefore, highly probable, as I have already stated, that +a large number of objects of glass of different kinds, which have been +hitherto considered Italian, were made in Spain. + +[Illustration: VASE OF GREEN GLASS, WITH BLACK HANDLES AND +RIBS.--SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.] + +The following observations may serve as a guide in the difficult task of +classifying this group. The specimens of glass vessels most generally +met with in the neighbourhood of Cadalso are:-- + +Objects of white transparent glass, sweetmeat dishes ornamented with +ribs, buttons, and reticulated rims with touches of gold. + +Objects of clear greenish glass of a paler hue than is made in the +province of Almeria, decorated with blue, or some opaque colour (see +woodcut); in some instances part of the object is decorated with a rough +crackled surface. + +Objects of opaque glass with different colours, vases, glasses, cups and +saucers, of thin milk-white texture with blue spots, or imitations in +the Japanese style of different colours. Vases for holding flowers, and +other objects, of dark blue glass, milk-white cups, glass and other +objects ornamented with lines of red or blue of a thicker paste than the +preceding ones. + +Although these objects are copied from Venetian models, they are coarser +in every detail, they are heavier and thicker, and the delicate and +elegant ornamentation which we find on Italian specimens is almost +always wanting, we seldom find examples of the beautiful _millefiori_ +chalcedony or tortoise-shell paste, and the outline of these objects is +symmetrical and Oriental in style. + + * * * * * + +The royal glass manufactory at La Granja de San Ildefonso, was founded +on the remains of an important one which had been established some years +before, under the protection of Philip the 5th, at the Nuevo Bastan, in +the province of Madrid. + +Towards the years 1712 to 1718, this king commissioned D^{n}. Tomas del +Burgo and D^{n}. Juan B. Pomerague to establish glass-works at the Bastan; +twenty foreign workmen were brought over with this purpose, with their +families, and the necessary implements. These gentlemen did not carry +out the undertaking to the king's satisfaction, and in 1720 his majesty +gave D^{n}. Juan de Goyeneche special privileges that he might "make every +kind of glass manufacture up to the height of twenty inches, and have +these glasses worked and polished, embroidered and covered with metal; +to make looking-glass and similar decorations, and every kind of glass +vessels, and white glass for window-panes, and every sort of glass +vessel of different kinds and forms which have been invented in the +present time, or likely to be invented in this art." In order to carry +this out, the king allowed them to have as many foreign masters and +workmen as they might require, with the sole condition that a fourth +part of the workmen employed should be Spaniards. It was prohibited that +any industry of a similar kind should be established in Spain for thirty +years, or that glass made abroad should be imported into the country. + +After a long series of annoyances of every kind, Goyeneche succeeded in +meeting with the king's approbation, but as fuel was very scarce at the +Bastan, he removed the glass works to Villanueva de Alcorcon, in the +province of Cuenca. From the ruins of this glass manufactory, Larruga +says in his "Memorias," [vol. xiii., p. 274], "was founded the splendid +glass manufactory of San Ildefonso." + +Ventura Sit, a native of Catalonia, constructed an oven there, which +worked from 1728 to 1736 with great success. Queen Doña Isabel +encouraged Sit, and the king ordered him to make some glasses which +might serve for mirrors. Those he made at first were small, but Sit +began by making them 30 inches long and ended by making them as large as +145 inches. The machine for polishing them was invented by a Catalan +called Pedro Fronvila. + +The section of glass vessels of a superior quality began to work in +1771. Glasses, bottles, and objects of all kinds were made there under +the direction of a glass worker called Eder, a Swede, and Sivert, a +Frenchman. Another section where the same quality of glass was made was +directed by Don Segismundo Brun, a native of Hanover, but who had been +brought up from a very early age at La Granja. It was this artist who +invented gilded glass _a feu_. A large number of foreign artists worked +at this manufacture; they impressed their special style on the objects +they made, which were similar to those of the same kind manufactured in +France, England, and Germany. + +From the time of Ventura Sit, towards the year 1734, the manufactory of +glass at La Granja belonged to the crown, and continued under the +protection of the Spanish kings, who spared no expense to obtain its +development. Early in the present century this industry began to decay. +Towards 1828 it passed into private hands, and continued to work until +1849. The manufactory is now closed, although there is some talk of +reviving this industry. + +[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +The glass objects made at La Granja possess a very marked French style, +which renders them liable to be mistaken for French and German +productions of a similar kind. The greater part of the objects which +were made were of white clear transparent glass, richly cut and +engraved, or ornamented with gold (see woodcut). The cut glass is +generally engraved with inscriptions, views, flowers, and devices, and +until very lately has been made there in a rougher style. Coloured and +enamelled glass has also been made there, but not to so great an +extent. Glass for window panes and mirrors were ordered for the Royal +palaces. Lustres of all kinds of white and coloured glass were also made +there in the Venetian style, richly ornamented with coloured flowers. A +small chandelier of this kind is in the South Kensington Museum (No. +998, '73), the only example I have seen of a lustre of latticinio glass. +In the collection of old Spanish glass at the Museum will be found a +sufficient variety of specimens of this manufacture to give an idea of +the different styles made at La Granja. A fac-simile of one of the +engraved mirrors and a fine cut glass will be found in "Museo Español de +Antiguedades, vol. IX." + +Besides glass vessels and objects of a similar kind, painted glass +windows have been made in Spain from a very early time, of which most +important specimens exist at Toledo, Leon, and other Spanish cathedrals. +The proceedings employed in this industry are too well known to require +repetition in this volume. The industry was undoubtedly imported by +foreign workmen from France and the north of Europe, and as was the case +with other industries it took root in the country, and a large number of +Spanish artists followed and took part in this industry. + + * * * * * + +In order to convey an idea of the height of this industry in Spain, I +give a list of the painters who worked on glass which I have collected +from the following works, to which I refer the student who may wish for +further details on the subject. Cean Bermudez, "Dicc. Hist. de los mas +ilustres Profesores de las Bellas Artes en España. Madrid, 1800." +Villanueva, "Viage á las Iglesias de España." Piferrer, "Recuerdos y +Bellezas. Mallorca." "Documentos Ineditos." Zarco del Valle. + + +GLASS PAINTERS IN SPAIN. + + Years in which + they worked Artists. Residence. + + 1682. Alcalde, Francisco Burgos. + 1504. Aleman, Cristoval Toledo. + 1458. Aleman, Pedro Toledo. + 1645. Alonso, Francisco Burgos. + 1544. Arce, Juan de Burgos. + 1581. Arce Burgos. + 1613. Argete, Luis de Leon. + 1424. Aragan, Maestro Joan Leon. + Arfian, Antonio Sevilla. + Arteaga, Matias Sevilla. + 1516. Ayala, Francisco Palencia. + 1605. Babel, Jorge Madrid. + 1442. Baldovin, Maestro Leon. + 1519. Bernal, Juan Sevilla. + 1533. Borgoña, Jorge Palencia. + 1439. Bonifacio, Pedro Toledo. + 1562. Bruges, Carlos Cuenca. + 1602. Campo, Diego del Madrid. + 1522. Campa, Juan Toledo. + 1674. Chilberri, Pierres de Segovia. + 1509. Cuesta, Juan de Toledo. + 1513. Cordova, Gonzalo de Toledo. + 1538. Cotin, Gaspar de Burgos. + 1459. Cristoval, El Maestro Toledo. + 1566 to } Dangles, Sebastian Mallorca. + 1573 } + 1676. Danis, Juan Segovia. + 1565. Diaz, Diego Escorial. + 1418. Dolfin, El Maestro Toledo. + 1485. Enrique, Maestro Toledo. + 1566. Estaenheyl, Ulrrique Madrid. + 1565. Espinosa, Francisco de Escorial. + 1565. Espinosa, Hernando de Escorial. + 1551. Ferrera, Rodrigo de Leon. + 1526. Fernandez, Pedro Sevilla. + 1557. Flandes, Arnao de Sevilla. + 1494. Fontanet, Gil Barcelona. + 1459. Frances, Pedro Toledo. + 1571. Galceran, Il Maestro Escorial. + 1518. Gelandia, Bernardino de Sevilla. + 1608. Guillermo, Maestro Leon. + 1571. Guasch, Juan Tarragona. + 1674. Herranz, Francisco Segovia. + 1520. Holanda, Alberto de Burgos. + 1548. Holanda, Geraldo de Cuenca. + 1535. Holanda, Nicolas de Burgos. + 1509. Jacques, Juan Sevilla. + 1427. Juan, Maestro Burgos. + 1510. Juan, Hijo de Jacobo Sevilla. + 1458. Juanico Toledo. + 1428. Loys, Maestro Toledo. + 1600. Ludeque, Diego de Madrid. + 1569. Menandro, Vicente Sevilla. + 1538. Ortega, Alonso de Toledo. + 1534. Ortega, Juan de Toledo. + 1458. Pablo, Fray Toledo. + 1459. Pedro, Maestro Toledo. + 1639. Perez, Sebastian Leon. + 1559. Pesquera, Sebastian de Sevilla. + 1600. Pierres, Antonio Madrid. + ---- Resen, Pelegrin ---- + 1565. Resen, Renerio Madrid. + 1500. Rolando, Alberto de Avila. + 1500. Rolando, Nicolas de Avila. + 1624. Ruiz, Valentin Burgos. + 1625. Ruiz, Simon Burgos. + 1368-- } Sacoma, Francisco Mallorca. + 1369. } + 1420 to } Sala, Antonio Mallorca. + 1447. } + 1542. Salcedo, Diego de Palencia. + 1512. Santillana, Diego Palencia. + 1498. Santillana, Juan de Burgos. + 1392. San Amat, Juan Lerida. + 1503. Troya, Vasco de Toledo. + 1579. Valerio, Octavio Malaga. + 1562. Valdivieso, Diego de Cuenca. + 1497. Valdivieso, Juan Burgos. + 1538. Vergara, Arnao de Sevilla. + 1521. Vergara, Nicolas de Burgos. + 1606. Vergara, Nicolas de, El Mozo Toledo. + 1574. Vergara, Nicolas de, el Viejo Toledo. + 1590. Vegara, Juan de Toledo. + 1518. Vivan, Juan Sevilla. + 1605. Volui, Gil Leon. + 1509. Ximenez, Alexo Toledo. + 1458. Ximeno. Toledo. + + + + +TEXTILE FABRICS. + + +The silence of San Isidoro on the subject of textile fabrics in Spain +would lead us to suppose that this industry only became important during +the Arab domination; the Moors probably imported this industry into +Spain from the earliest times of their conquest. A great number of +provinces were famed then for the excellence of their textile fabrics; +the most important of them, according to the testimony of Moorish and +Christian writers, was Almeria. The Cordovese historian, Ash Shakandi, +who wrote at the beginning of the 13th century, says: "Almeria is an +opulent and magnificent city, whose fame has spread far and wide; the +inhabitants are very elegant in their dress. Almeria is the greatest +mart in Andalus, Christians of all nations came to its port to buy and +sell, and they had factories established in it. From thence the +Christian merchants who came to its port travelled to other parts in the +interior of the country, where they loaded their vessels with such goods +as they wanted. Costly silken robes of the brightest colours are +manufactured in Almeria," [Moh. Dyn. in Spain, I. 52]. Almakkari adds, +[p. 51]: "But what made Almeria superior to any other city in the world +was its various manufactures of silks and other articles of dress, such +as the _dibaj_ [silken stuff of many colours], a sort of silken cloth +surpassing in quality and durability anything else manufactured in other +countries; the _tiraz_ or costly stuff on which the names of sultans, +princes, and other wealthy individuals are inscribed, and of which no +less than 800 looms existed at one time; of more inferior articles such +as the _holol_ (striped silks) and brocades, there were 1000 looms, the +same number were continually employed in weaving the stuffs called +_iskalátón_ (scarlet). There were also 1000 for weaving robes called Al +jorjáni (Georgian), and another 1000 for weaving robes called Isbahani, +from Isfahan, and a similar number for Atabi. The manufacture of damask +for curtains and turbans for the women, of gay and dazzling colours, +employed a number of hands equal to that of those engaged in the +manufacture of the above mentioned articles." + +An oriental author asserts that Abd-ul-Rahman II. A.D. 825-852 was the +first sultan of his race who introduced into Spain the use of the +_tiraz_ [_ib._ Vol. II. 434]. Another explains that Atabi took the name +of a suburb of Bagdad "where were made the stuffs called _otabi_, +composed of cotton and silk of different colours." [Consult Dozy, 'Dict. +des vêtements.'] + +Ash Shakandi also mentions Malaga as famous for its textile fabrics; he +says--"Malaga is also famous for its manufactures of silks of all +colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a suit made out of +them will cost many thousands; such are the brocades with beautiful +drawings, and the names of khalifs, amirs, and other wealthy people, +woven in them." [Moham. Dynast. Vol. I. 49.] Further on the same writer +adds, "As at Malaga and Almeria, there are at Murcia several +manufactures of silken cloth called _al washiu thalathat_, [variegated, +of many colours.] It is likewise famous for the fabric of carpets called +_tantili_, which are exported to all countries of the east and west; as +also a sort of mat, of the brightest colours, with which the Murcians +cover the walls of their houses." [_ib._ p. 69.] + +Arabic texts are frequently met with which allude to the manufactures of +textile fabrics of Granada, Seville, and other towns, in which their +productions are praised, and there is no doubt that they were very +remarkable; for Christian authors of the middle ages refer to them so +continually. Students who wish for a more extensive idea of this subject +must remember the quotations and information given by Francisque Michel +concerning Spanish stuffs, [Recherches sur le Comm., la Fabric. etc., +des Etoffes, etc. Paris, 1852.] He tells us--"Nous trouverons tout +d'abord les pailles d'Almérie, ville de la côte meridionale d'Espagne, +qui jouissait d'une réputation proverbiale pour la beauté et la finesse +de ses tissus de soie, vantés dans mille endroits de nos vieilles +chansons de geste, de nos anciens poëmes" [Vol. I. p. 284]. Further on +he continues [Vol. I. p. 286], "à l'époque à laquelle appartiennent les +textes, et même auparavant, la culture et la fabrication de la soie +étaient des plus prospères à Almérie et en général dans le royaume de +Grenade. 'Du royaume de Grenade vient cire, soie, figues, etc.' ... ce +qu'il y a de bien certain, c'est que les étoffes d'Espagne étaient +célèbres dès le 9^{e} siècle. Anastase le Bibliothécaire en parle en +quatre endroits sous le nom de _spaniscum_; et en placant ce tissu à la +suite de _fundatum_ et du _stauracin_ il nous donne suffisamment à +entendre qu'il était de grand prix, et de soie comme eux. Un biographe +de Saint Ansegise, mort en 835, placé de même une couverture d'Espagne, +_stragulum_, _Hispanicum unum_, à la suite de tapis ou teintures. + +"Il est malaise de déterminer la matière des étoffes qu'un écrivain +byzantin du 12^{e} siècle nous dit fabriquées en Espagne et aux colonnes +d'Hercule--tout nous permet de croire qu'elles étaient de soie de tout +ou en partie, ou du moins qu'elles étaient comptées parmi les tissus +précieux.... Saragosse produisait aussi des draps d'or--et nous trouvons +au 13^{e} siècle que le géographe Edrisi pouvait dire qu'il y avait dans +le seul territoire de Jaen 3000 villages où l'on élevait des vers de +soie. Nous savons qu'à Seville, sous la domination des Maures, elle +comptait 6000 métiers pour ces étoffes de soie. Les règlements +municipaux dont les royaumes de Grenade et de Seville ont été l'objet +suffisaient pour nous apprendre que l'industrie de la soie fut +florissante durant le moyen âge. Nous signalerons les draps d'or et de +soie que D. Pedro de Luna en 1327 apporta à l'infante Léonore, sœur +d'Alphonse XI., à l'occasion de son mariage, et nous savons qu'un +ministre de Pedro le cruel possédait à Toledo 125 coffres de drap d'or +et de soie." + +Edrisi in his "Déscrip. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne," [Leyde, 1866,] +writing in the 12th century, says p. 239: "Almérie était la ville +principale des Musulmans à l'Espagne des moravides. Elle était alors +très industrieuse, et on y comptait entre autres 800 métiers à tisser la +soie, où l'on fabriquait des étoffes connus sous le nom de _holla_, de +_debady_, de _siglaton_, d'_espahani_, de _djordjani_: des rideaux ornés +de fleurs, des étoffes ornés de clous, de petits tapis, des étoffes +connus sous les noms de _attabi_, de _mi djar_." + +To complete this historical information, and especially in order to add +details as to the technical character of this manufacture, the Rev. +Daniel Rock's interesting introduction to "Textile Fabrics, a +Descriptive Catalogue, London, 1870," must be consulted; although, +notwithstanding the learned author's remarks, it is extremely difficult, +in my opinion, to classify textile fabrics proceeding from Syria, +Sicily, or the Spanish Arabs, as all, whether imitations or originals, +are similar in manufacture. + +M. Michel and Dr. Rock enter into numerous details concerning the +ancient names of stuffs, and in order further to illustrate this subject +I venture to propose a different etymology than the one given by these +writers of the word Samit, Samitum, or Xamet, which, although slightly +different in orthography, is met with everywhere in Europe. My opinion +is that it means stuff made at Damascus, for the word Sham +[Illustration: Arabic writing] is applied to the name of this town as +well as to that of Syria, and the appellative Shami and Shamit +[Illustration: Arabic writing] appears in the lexicon to express what +comes from Damascus or Syria. + +The oldest specimen which I know of Spanish Arab textile fabric, is a +woollen fragment of very fine quality embroidered in colours, which is +at the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. It is about 1½ yards +long, by 18 inches wide. In medallions embroidered in silks are +represented seated figures which appear to be a king, a lady, lions, +birds, and quadrupeds. In two borders occurs the following inscription, +repeated in cufic characters: "In the name of God, clement and merciful: +The blessing of God and happiness for the caliph Iman Abdallah Hixem, +favoured of God, prince of believers." + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +Hixem reigned from A.D. 979 until the first years of the 11th century. +This fragment was found inside a small casket on the altar of a church +in the town of San Esteban de Gormaz, province of Soria, where it was +probably taken as a war trophy: it may be classified as a stuff called +_tiraz_ [Illustration: Arabic], the skirt of a robe. An oriental author +tells us that among the customs which contribute to give splendour to +sovereignty is that of putting the name, or some other sign belonging to +kings on the stuffs of their robes; that these inscriptions are woven +into the material with gold or coloured thread of a different hue to the +ground, and that royal robes were always made of _tiraz._ The caliphs of +Cordova had a place set apart in their palaces where this stuff was +kept: this custom lasted until the 11th century when it disappeared, and +was re-established in the 13th century with the kings of Granada. (Moh. +Dyn. vol. i., pp. 356 and 397; Mus. Esp. de Ant. vol. vi. pp. 464 and +465.) + +Another most important object, although less ancient than the former +one, is an Arabian banner which is traditionally believed to have been +taken from the Almohades at the battle of Las Navas, A.D. 1212. This +banner, which is preserved at the monastery of Las Huelgas of Burgos, is +ten feet high by seven feet three inches wide. It is made of a crimson +stuff, covered with an ornamentation woven and embroidered in gold and +colours. In the centre is a large circle, placed within a square, which +is enlarged in parallel bands. The four largest bands, which are also +the last, are covered with inscriptions in blue African characters. The +upper part of this banner is prolonged with several bands, one of which +has inscriptions of a similar kind to those already mentioned; other +borders contain several sentences in small African letters. The lower +part is also prolonged and is terminated by eight points cut in a +semicircle, inside which there are discs with illegible inscriptions. +Three violet coloured lions, similar in form to those which appear on +the arms of Leon, may be seen on three of the sides of the square. In +the large circle in the centre of this banner, appears eight times +repeated the word "The Empire," [Illustration: Arabic]. This inscription +is embroidered or woven in Cufic characters, in a similar style to those +at the Alhambra; it is a strange circumstance that the letters appear on +the wrong side, as if this was the back of the stuff; the word which +seems to be required to complete this sentence, "God," is also wanting. +The large inscriptions in blue of the five bands reproduce Suras of the +Koran, and pious sentences in one of the small ones on the upper part. +S^{r.} Fernandez, who has published an article on this banner in Mus. +Esp. [vol. vi., p. 469], thinks he finds a date which corresponds with +the year A.D. 1140. I am not, however, satisfied with his interpretation +of the inscription contained in the large centre circle, or the date he +gives; for comparing the ornamentation of this specimen with other +textiles, and the designs used in Moorish architecture, it appears to me +that it must be considered as belonging to the 14th century. This may be +easily accounted for by some historical mistake in the tradition +respecting it at the convent of Las Huelgas. It is highly probable that +King Alfonso XI. may have given this banner to the convent, and have +been mistaken for King Alfonso VIII.; the conqueror of the battle of Las +Navas. + +The specimens of Spanish moresco stuffs in the Kensington Museum, will +be found numbered 51, 121, 124, 125, 152, 160, 180, 241, 244. (V. Dr. +Rock's Catalogue.) + +The artistic industry of silk manufactures which was initiated in Spain +by the Arabs, continued to flourish during the Middle Ages and a great +part of the Renaissance. Malaga and Almeria were important centres, but +later on this industry was chiefly centred at Granada. The silk fabrics +made at Seville, Toledo, Murcia and Valencia were much esteemed. The +Moorish style of ornamentation in embroideries and stuffs must soon have +fallen into disuse. Owing to the materials of similar kinds imported +from Italy, France, Flanders, and other countries, these manufactures +were imitated to a great extent, as may be gathered by the immense +number of specimens which are still to be met with in Spanish churches. +The cathedral of Toledo is quite a museum of objects of this kind, but +all the textiles there are woven in the European manner. + +The Moorish style in stuffs was preserved at Granada longer than in any +other town in Spain. In 1502, ten years after its conquest by the +Christians, we find it stated in the "Voyage of Philip le Beau," the +father of the Emperor Charles V.: "Grenade est fort marchande, +principallement de soyes, car les marchans y achattent la pluspart des +soyes que l'on maine en Italie, pour faires les draps de soyes. Le lieu +où on les vendt est nommé le Sacquatin. Auprès de ce lieu est une place +appellée l'Allecasserie, où on vendt les draps de soyes ouvrés à la +Moresque, qui sont moult beaus pour la multitude des couleurs et la +diversité des ouvrages, et en font une grande marchandise." ["Collect. +de Voyages, par M. Gachard, Bruxelles," 1870, i. 205.] Navagiero, who +visited Spain twenty years after, tells us in his "Viaggio fatto in +Spagna" [Vinegia 1563, p. 21]: "One enters a place called Alcaiceria +which is enclosed within two doors, and full of alleys where the Moors +sell silks and embroideries of every kind" [p. 29]: "All sorts of cloths +of silks are made there; the silks made at Granada are much esteemed all +over Spain; they are not so good as those which come from Italy. There +are several looms, but they do not yet know how to work them well; they +make good taffetas, sarcenet, and silk serges. The velvets are not bad, +but those that are made at Valencia are better in quality." + +Dr. Rock considers the following specimens in the Kensington Museum to +have been made at Granada: Nos. 26, 27, 60, 65, 73, 128, 161, 166. + +Larruga tells us in his "Memorias" [vol. vii. 205], that the silk +manufactures established at Toledo consumed in 1480 about 450,000 pounds +of silk: they decreased about forty years afterwards. In the ordinances +issued from that town in 1494, which were confirmed by the Emperor +Charles V. we find that the following stuffs were made at Toledo: + +"Stuffs of gold and silver which are made in the same manner as satin. + +"Satins woven with gold. + +"Satins brocaded with silk and gold or silver flowers. + +"Silver serges with double filigree. + +"Silver and gold materials, which are made like _gorgoran_ or serge. + +"Silver and gold stuffs which are made like taffetas, spring silver with +silk flowers. + +"Embroidered stuffs. + +"Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or _berguilla_. + +"_Lama_, cloth of silver, shaded with silver watering. + +"Plain silk stuffs woven with silver or gold called _restaño_. + +"Silk stuffs woven with gold or silver called _relampagos_. + +"Serges woven with gold and silver for church vestments. + +"Plain filigree serges. + +"_Velillo_ of silver. + +"Satin woven with gold and silver. + +"Brocades of different kinds. + +"Church vestments. + +"Silver _primaveras_. + +"Serges for church vestments." + +("Ord. Ant. de Toledo," Tol. 1858, p. 223). + +Until the middle of the 17th century, Larruga tells us in vol. vii. p. +208 of his "Memorias," the silk manufacture of Toledo was one of those +most highly esteemed in Spain; from this time it was superseded by the +manufactures of Seville, Granada, Valencia, and others. These cheapened +their productions; but Toledo insisted on keeping to the old Spanish +yard and weight in every kind of stuffs. In 1651 fifty looms belonged to +this manufacture, although most of them were established in the suburbs. +In this year there was a great decrease in the price of the coin, and +the Genoese introduced a large quantity of silk stuffs, so much so that +only twenty looms could be kept working at Toledo. After this, in 1663, +2061 looms existed there. + +The silk manufacture of Toledo continued to lose its importance in +consequence of the vast importations of foreign silks, but the +traditions of this industry have never disappeared from the city. +Larruga, who enters into this subject at great length in the seventh and +eighth volumes of his "Memorias," mentions the silk manufacture of D^{n}. +Miguel Gregorio Molero, "who made from the year 1714, under his +direction and that of Christoval de Morales, his father-in-law, a large +quantity of silk fabrics of wide and narrow materials of every kind, and +stuffs woven with silver and gold." It is an interesting fact that the +manufactory of Molero continues to work in the present day, and gold and +silver stuffs are made there for ecclesiastical purposes similar in +design and manufacture to the early established one of 1714; specimens +exist at the South Kensington Museum of the silks made at Toledo by +Molero. + +Towards the middle of the 18th century the most important centre of +artistic silks existed at Talavera, where it was established on a very +large scale by King Fernando VI. and supported by the state. It was +founded in 1748 under the superintendence of a Frenchman called Jean +Roulière, who was educated at Lyon, a great mechanician, who entered the +manufactory with a yearly salary of £450, and 4 per cent. of the sale. +Fine church vestments were made there, and the richest stuffs woven +with silver and gold for decorating apartments and furniture, of which a +vast quantity remain in the palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, the Escorial +and La Granja. In 1762 the Spanish government handed over this +manufactory to the firm of Uztariz and Company; it remained in their +hands until 1780, and at this period it continued to be worked for five +years by the state; in 1785 it passed to the superintendence of the +Tribunal of Commerce entitled Cinco Gremios Mayores de Madrid. The +French invasion of 1808 and general decay of the country contributed +towards the extinction of this industry. + +In a similar manner to the silk manufactures established at Toledo, +silks of all kinds were made at Seville, Granada, Murcia, and other +provinces, to a very great extent during the 16th and 17th centuries. +This industry continues in the present day, and specimens exist at the +South Kensington Museum, made in 1874, which recall the ancient style of +these stuffs. + + +EMBROIDERIES. + +It is probable that the history of embroidery in Spain followed the same +steps as that of gold and silver stuffs, owing to the great similarity +which exists between these industries, as may be seen by the banner +called de las Navas, which is composed of both these materials. +Ornamentation in the Oriental style must have fallen sooner into disuse +than in woven fabrics owing to the fashion of introducing figures in +ecclesiastical vestments, which much before the Renaissance period +became so general in Europe. The first mention which I find of the +existence of this artistic industry appears in the Ordenanzas de +Sevilla, 1433; it refers to regulating this industry, and preventing +certain frauds, by which we may infer its existence from an earlier +period. Similar dispositions appear in one of the Ordinances of Toledo, +dated 1496, and as sumptuary laws were continually issued we have +constant references to the existence of this industry: [consult +"Sempere, Hist. del Lujo," vol. ii. 8vo]. These legal prohibitions did +not, however, reach church vestments; after the aggrandizement of the +monarchy by the conquest of the New World such enormous sums were spent +on these objects, that notwithstanding the ravages of time, wars, +disturbances of all kinds, and vandalisms and neglect, the cathedrals of +Toledo and Seville, and many other churches, are museums of this style +of art. + +The art of embroidery was imported by Italians and Germans early in the +16th century, in the same manner as wood carving, metal work, and other +industries. The comparative study of embroideries of different kinds +which are preserved in churches and museums in other countries confirms +this theory; some have been made in the north and others in the south, +while their historical origin may be traced to Italy. In Spain itself +this comparison may be made, and the Germanic influence is most +apparent. At the cathedral of Burgos there is a fine series of +ecclesiastical vestments which Bishop Alonso de Cartagena gave to the +cathedral on his return from the council of Bâle, 1431-43. Another +series of most important specimens is at Toledo, a present to Cardinal +Mendoza by the German emperor Frederic in 1489. In both these instances +we find that the embroidery is identical with what was made in Spain at +this period, until they changed the Gothic for the Italian Renaissance +style. + +I must mention two splendid altar frontals of foreign workmanship which +exist in Spain, one of them is at the chapel of the Disputation of +Barcelona; it represents St. George slaying the dragon. This embroidery +is in high relief, and is so perfect in every detail that it appears to +be chiselled. Another altar frontal of the same style is at the +Colegiata of Manresa, Cataluña; on this one the Crucifixion is +represented, with eighteen other subjects, taken from the Old and New +Testaments. This frontal is signed--_Geri Lapi Rachamatore Me fecit in +Florentia._ + +Almost all Spanish towns of importance are distinguished for their +embroidery, Toledo, Seville and Valencia are especially so; Ciudad +Rodrigo figures as an important centre of this industry during the 16th +century. We find the sentence, "obra de Ciudad Rodrigo" applied to +embroidery of gold thread, [Acad. de la Historia, MS. C. 122.] Father +Siguenza tells us in his "Hist. de la orden de San Jeronimo" that this +style of embroidery was exclusively Spanish, and probably the remains of +the Moorish influence. The principal localities where embroideries and +artistic work of every kind can be studied are the cathedrals of the +towns we have mentioned, which were great centres of artistic industries +in other times, and the monastery of the Escorial. The collection at the +cathedral of Toledo alone is sufficient to illustrate this subject. + +About forty sets of splendid vestments exist at this cathedral which are +embroidered with the most exquisite taste, belonging to the 15th and +16th centuries. Each set generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope, +altar frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces. +The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of saints, +are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MS. The _manga_, or case +which hangs round the processional cross given by Cardinal Ximenez, is +one of the most splendid specimens of this collection. As a fine +specimen of embroidery on a large scale must be mentioned the _dosel_ or +canopy called the tent of Ferdinand and Isabel, also at the cathedral of +Toledo, which is interesting as being the same which was used in the +reception of the English envoys Thomas Salvaige and Richard Nanfan who +were sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage of Prince Henry with +the Infanta D^{na.} Catalina. The ambassadors describe it in the +following manner: "After the tilting was over, the kings returned to the +palace, and took the ambassadors with them, and entered a large room: +and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of rich crimson velvet, +richly embroidered with the arms of Castile and Aragon, and covered +with the device of the king, which is a ... (blank in original), and his +motto, written at length, which is 'Tanto Monta.'" ("Memorials of King +Henry the Seventh," Gairdner, Lon. 1858, p. 348.) + +The most remarkable specimen of embroidery which exists in Spain, not so +much on account of its artistic merit as for the enormous value of the +materials employed, is the mantle of the Virgin del Sagrario at Toledo. +It is completely covered with pearls and jewels forming a most effective +ornamentation. This embroidery was made in the beginning of the 17th +century, during the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who presented it to +the church. S^{r.} Parro in his exhaustive volume of "Toledo en la +Mano," [vol. i., p. 574,] describes it in the following manner: "It is +made of twelve yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is +entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre there is a +jewel of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each side +of enamelled gold, emeralds and large rubies; a variety of other jewels +are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part are the +arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on gold and studded with sapphires +and rubies. The centre of this mantle is covered with flowers and +pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of different sizes. Round the +borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the gems which were employed +in this superb work of art, no less than 257 ounces of pearls of +different sizes, 300 ounces of gold thread, 160 ounces of small pieces +of enamelled gold, and eight ounces of emeralds were used." + +A fine altar frontal of a similar kind embroidered in corals may be seen +in the same room where this mantle of the Virgin is kept at the +cathedral of Toledo. + +We find in Madame de Villars' letters, [p. 39, Paris, 1823,] the +description of a similar embroidery. Writing in 1680 she says, "Ce que +j'ai vu de plus riche, de plus doré, de plus magnifique, est +l'appartement de la reine. Il y a entre autres meubles dans sa chambre, +une tapisserie, dont ce qu'on y voit de fond, est de perles. Ce ne sont +pas des personnages, on ne peut dire que l'or y soit massif, mais il +est employé d'une manière et d'une abondance extraordinaires. Il y a +quelques fleurs: ce sont des bandes de compartimens; mais il faudrait +être plus habile que je ne suis pour représenter les choses, pour vous +faire comprendre la beauté que compose le corail employé dans cet +ouvrage. Ce n'est point une matière assez précieuse pour en vanter la +quantité; mais la couleur et l'or qui paraissent dans cette broderie, +sont assurément ce qu'on aurait peine à décrire." + +From the period when these embroideries were made until the middle of +the 18th century, Spanish embroideries lost much of their artistic +character, although the work itself continued equally excellent. During +the whole of the 17th century, a style of embroidery became very general +in Spain, which appears to have been copied from eastern importations by +the Portuguese or the Spanish possessions in America. The specimens most +generally met with in Spain are chiefly bed covers, the ground of which +is either linen or satin, embroidered in chain stitch, with figures and +exotic birds and animals. Their effect is very rich, and the +ornamentation is arranged generally in circles. Specimens exist in +England of this kind of work; for example, a quilt, said to have been +made for an Archbishop of Toledo, lent by Lady Cornelia Guest to the +Special Exhibition of Embroidery held at South Kensington in 1873. + +At the Mus. Arq., Madrid, is a fine quilt of this kind embroidered with +maize-coloured silk on linen, with representations of figures and +animals. + +Embroideries were made in Spain to cover furniture. Sedan chairs, +coffers, &c., were ornamented in this manner. At the Kensington Museum +there is an interesting example of a trunk with silver lock, covered +with embroidery, which was given towards 1680 by Count Olivares to the +nuns at Loeches. Some fine embroidered tapestries belonging to the same +collection are at the Museo Arqueleogico, Madrid. A varied collection of +ecclesiastical vestments of the kinds described may also be studied at +the museum. (V. Nos. 78, 79, 84, 673, 1194, 1195, 1250, &c., in Dr. +Rock's Catalogue.) + +The sumptuary laws, and especially the Decrees issued by Philip IV. in +1622, prohibited any display or ostentation in costume, and embroideries +were confined to ecclesiastical purposes. In the middle of the 18th +century embroideries were introduced in the costumes of men and women +when French fashions were imported into Spain. Although many of them +came from France, they were imitated in Spain to a large extent. A guild +of embroiderers was formed in 1779, who submitted their statutes to the +Tribunal of Commerce. We find that Madrid was the principal centre of +this industry, and that French designs were universally copied, as was +the case in the whole of Europe. The splendid curtains and embroidered +hangings for apartments which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the +Escorial and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens of this industry. + +The following list of Spanish embroiderers is taken from Cean's "Dic. de +Prof de las Bellas Artes;" Martinez, "Hist. del Templo Cat. de Burgos;" +Suarez de Figueroa, "Plaza Universal," etc. + + Years in which + they worked. Artists. Residence. + + 1603. Alcala, Fr. Fernando de Escorial. + + 1526. Alonso, Esteban Toledo. + + 1688 to } Arroyo, Diego de Burgos. + 1715. } + + 1594. Aspe, Simeon de Burgos. + + 1646. Ansin, Francisco de Burgos. + + 1500. Barcelona, Fr. Rafael de Escorial. + + 1599. Berrio, Francisco de Burgos. + + 1452. Bilbao, Juan Burgos. + + 1514. Burgos, Pedro Toledo. + + 1574 to } Camiña, Alonso Burgos. + 1580. } + + 1580 to } Camiña, Miguel, a son of Alonso Burgos. + 1593. } + + 1580. Castillo, Juan del Madrid. + + 1571. Cordova, Fr. Francisco Escorial. + + 1616. Corral, Felipe de Toledo. + + 1514. Covarrubias, Marcos de Toledo. + + 1422. Fernandez, Garcia Burgos. + + 1422. Fernandez, Pedro Burgos. + + 1645. Garcia de Jalon, Juan Burgos. + + 1500. Gil, Francisco Madrid. + + 1688. Gomez, Juan Sevilla. + + 1514. Hernandez, Alonso Toledo. + + 1630. Landa, Alonso de Burgos. + + 1625. Martinez de Manurga, Sebastian Burgos. + + 1521. Monte, Cornieles de Burgos. + + 1576. Montserrate, Fr. Lorenzo scorial. + + 1580 to } Ochandiano, Andrès Burgos. + 1593. } + + 1595. Ortiz de Zarate, Pedro Burgos. + + 1565. Palenzuela, Francisco de Burgos. + + 1591. Palenzuela, Jeronimo Burgos. + + 1500. Perez, Gabriel Madrid. + + 1580. Perez, Juan Madrid. + + 1514. Rica, Hernando de la Toledo. + + 1500. Rosales Toledo. + + 1500. Rosicler, Luís de Madrid. + + 1514. Ruiz, Martin Toledo. + + 1716 to } Ruiz, Antonio Burgos. + 1734. } + + 1585. Rutinez, Diego Escorial. + + 1563. Salas, Juan de Granada. + + 1718. Santos Martires, Fr. Esteban de los { Cardeña + { Burgos. + 1561. Sarabia Burgos. + + 1514. Talavera, Juan de Toledo. + + 1500. Toledo, Fr. Juan de Escorial. + + 1752. Transmontana, Fr. F. Javier de Burgos. + + 1684. Valle, Antonio del Burgos. + + 1500. Vega, Felicis de Madrid. + + 1563. Villegas, Nicolas de Granada. + + 1502. Xaques, el Maestro Toledo. + + +TAPESTRIES. + +The manufacture of tapestry or carpets was introduced into Spain by the +Arabs. The earliest historical information which I have been able to +find relating to this industry occurs in Edrisi, an oriental author of +the beginning of the 12th century, ["Descrip. de l'Afr. et de l'Esp., +trad. de Dozy el Goeje,"] when speaking of Chinchilla in the province of +Alicante, he says: "On y fabrique des tapis de laine qu'on ne saurait +imiter ailleurs, circonstance qui dépend de la qualité de l'air et des +eaux." In mentioning Cuenca, he says: "Les tapis de laine qu'on y fait +sont d'excellente qualité," p. 237. Although we find very few +descriptive details of this industry, it is undoubtedly the fact that in +a wide zone which comprehends from the kingdom of Valencia until that of +Granada, carpets have been constantly made; for even in the present day +this industry is alive in a number of towns, where not only the old +technical proceedings are continued, but also much of the primitive +character of the designs and colours. In confirmation of this, I find +frequent mention in books and MSS. of the 16th century of carpets of +Letur, made in the kingdom of Murcia, Alcaraz, and Baeza. + +The first time I find this industry mentioned by Christian authors is in +Francisque Michel's work on "Étoffes de Soie," vol. i., p. 292; he says: +"A une époque qu'il nous serait difficile de préciser un poète Latin +vantait les teintures précieuses à sujets, et les tapis d'Espagne." + +"Tunc preciosa suis surgunt aulaea figuris. + +"Ac in se raptis ora tenent animis. + +"Tunc operosa suis _Hispana tapetia_ villis. + +"Hinc rubras, virides inde ferunt species." + +At the cathedral of Gerona an extremely interesting tapestry of the 12th +century may be seen, which may have been made in the locality. + +[Illustration: TAPESTRY AT THE CATHEDRAL OF GERONA; REPRESENTING THE +CREATION, &C.--SPANISH, 11TH CENTURY. _To face p. 267._] + +This tapestry is about 4½ yards wide by 4 yards high. The composition +represents the Genesis. In the centre is a geometrical figure formed by +two concentric circles. In the lesser circle is a figure of Christ +holding an open book, on which appear the words, _Sanctus Deus_, and on +each side _Rex fortis_, surrounded by the inscription, _Dixit quoque +Deus, Fiat lux, Et facta est lux._ In the larger circle are the words, +_In principio creavit Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia quæ in eis +sunt, et vidit Deus cuncta quæ egerat et erant valde bona._ + +The space between the two circles is divided by radiating lines into +eight portions, in which are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of +light and darkness: the division of land from water, the creation of +sun, moon, and stars, of birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve. +In the angles outside the larger circle are the four winds, and the +whole is surrounded by a border, imperfect in parts, containing +representations of the months, and apparently of certain scriptural +incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out. The accompanying +engraving, though imperfect and inaccurate in some of its details, gives +a general idea of this work. + +Although this tapestry is embroidered with crewels on linen, it appears +advisable to include it in the description of Spanish tapestries, owing +to its similarity and general aspect to other tapestries. It is easy for +students of Spanish works of art of the Middle Ages to fix the period +and style to which this example belongs. Several remarkable +illuminations exist in Spain representing the Apocalypse which were +painted in the X. XI. and XIIth. centuries, which have already been +alluded to in other articles of this work. The figures of the tapestry +of Gerona are disposed in a precisely similar manner to the miniatures +of the 12th century. They are in the same style as the paintings on the +ceiling of the chapel of St. Catalina, at St. Isidoro of Leon, which +were painted at that period. There can be therefore no doubt that they +belong to that period and style. Several MSS. may be mentioned to +further illustrate the subject. An excellent specimen is at the +cathedral of Gerona, those at the National Library, Museo Arqueologico, +and Academia de la Historia, Madrid, Escorial, Bibliotheque Nationale, +Paris--and especially the fine MS. at the British Museum (Add. II. +695),--dated A. D. 1109, referred to in the chapter on Arms, page 90. +The illuminations of this volume are extremely similar to the design of +this tapestry. Plate 83, twelve inches by eight, within a circle, +representing Christ holding a book in his hand, may be given as an +example. + +I do not find any information of a later date which suggests the +existence of the manufacture of tapestries in Spain during the Middle +Ages. There are constant allusions to the splendid tapestries which were +brought from Flanders, many of which are at the Royal palace of Madrid. +The earliest mention I find is a memorial printed without date, in which +Pedro Gutierrez, tapestry maker of Salamanca, asks Philip II. to protect +this industry. He evidently gained his object, for in the documents +published by S^{r}. Cruzada in his "Tapices de Goya," [Madrid, 1870,] it +appears that in 1578 Queen Doña Ana appointed him to work in her Camara +as tapestry maker to make _reposteros_[B] and Philip II. in 1582 +confirms this appointment. Gutierrez worked at this period, at Salamanca +and Madrid. He was succeeded in his charge in 1625 by Antonio Ceron, who +established this industry definitively in the Calle de Santa Isabel at +Madrid. The fine picture by Velasquez, at the Madrid Gallery, "The +Weavers," which represents the interior of the tapestry manufactory, +belongs to this time. We find this industry soon fell into decay. In +1694 a Belgian named Juan Metier tried to revive it, but without +success; the same thing occurred with Nicolas Hernandez, a tapestry +maker of Salamanca, in 1707. + +[B] Reposteros is the ancient name given to the hangings which are +placed outside the balconies on state occasions in Spain. Several +splendid examples of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries may still +be seen at the houses of Spanish grandees, of which those belonging to +the Conde de Oñate and Marques de Alcañices at Madrid are the most +remarkable for their artistic design. + +The tapestry manufactory of Santa Barbara at Madrid was founded soon +after; it was the most important of all, and continues to produce +excellent work in the present day. It appears that Jacobo Vandergoten of +Antwerp was engaged expressly by the king; he began to work in 1720, and +continued there until his death in 1724. He was succeeded by his sons, +Francisco, Jacobo, Cornelius, and Adrian, who worked in _basse lisse_ +looms until 1729, when a Frenchman, Antonio Lenger mounted a _haute +lisse_ one. + +On the occasion of the temporary removal of the court to Seville, the +king established a tapestry manufactory there in 1730; Jacobo +Vandergoten was put at the head of it, and the painter, Andres +Procaccini, helped him in the direction of the manufactory. It only +lasted three years, at the end of which the artists returned with their +implements to establish themselves in the old tapestry manufactory of +the Calle de Santa Isabel: and continued to work there until 1744, at +that time they again joined the works at Santa Barbara. + +Three of the brothers Vandergoten were already dead in 1774. Cornelius +alone was alive. In the same year the Spanish artists, Antonio Moreno, +Domingo Galan, Tomas del Castillo, and Manuel Sanchez were placed at the +head of these works, under the superintendence of Sanchez, who continued +there until his death in 1786, when he was succeeded by his nephew, +Livinio Stuck. This manufactory was much neglected at the end of the +last century; it was destroyed by the French in 1808, and was +rehabilitated in 1815 under the direction of a son of Stuck. This family +continues to work there in the present day. The carpets made at the +manufactory of S^{ta.} Barbara are of the highest excellence and +artistic order. + +Very fine tapestries have been made at this manufactory during the last +century, some after original cartoons of excellent painters and others +reproductions of ancient Flemish ones belonging to the royal +collections. During the years 1721 to 1724 the tapestries representing +pastoral subjects after Teniers were woven there, and a series of +hunting subjects which still exist at the Pardo and palace of Madrid. +The excellent copy of the series of tapestries representing the conquest +of Tunis, after cartoons by William Pannemaker were made partly at +Seville and partly at Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara. The tapestries +representing scenes from the life of Don Quixote, designed by the +painter Procaccini, were also made at the looms of Santa Barbara. + +Fine carpets in the Turkish style were made there under the +superintendence of Cornelius Vandergoten, who excelled in this special +industry. Carpets also in the French style of the Gobelin manufactory +were made at the same time. The best specimens of carpets and tapestries +of the manufactory of Santa Barbara, will be found at the palaces of the +Escorial, the Pardo, and Madrid. The series made from cartoons of +Teniers and the Spanish painter Goya are extremely interesting. A +complete collection of photographs of the foreign and Spanish tapestries +at the palace of Madrid will be found in the Art Library of the South +Kensington Museum. + + + + +LACE. + + +It is not easy to give a clear idea of the history of the manufacture of +ancient Spanish lace; the principal reason being that this industry was +carried out by private persons, who never formed themselves into Guilds +or corporations, as was the case during the middle ages and Renaissance +period with those who devoted their time to other arts and industries. +We find in the Royal Ordinances constant references to weavers, silver +and goldsmiths, tailors, etc., but in none do we find the manufacture of +lace mentioned. The most important Ordinances relating to Spanish +industries are those published at Toledo and Seville in the 15th and +16th centuries, and at Granada in the 16th and 17th centuries, and in +none of them do we find lace even alluded to. In the innumerable laws +which appeared from the middle ages until the 18th century for the +object of reforming costumes and checking their excessive luxury no +mention is made of lace; when it is referred to, it is only when +_puntas_ or _entredoses_, edgings or insertions, are mentioned in which +gold and silver are introduced. We never find any allusion in +contemporary writers to the fine heavy thread lace, sometimes called +Point d'Espagne or Point de Venise, the origin of which has been a +source of so much doubt to collectors of the present day. + +The only thing which we can do therefore at the present, until this +subject is more fully investigated, is to assert that lace of different +kinds has been made from the very earliest times in Spain, and do our +best to classify the different kinds by the differences which we observe +in those of other localities. + +Father Fr. Marcos Antonio de Campos in his "Microcosmia y Gobierno +Universal del Hombre Cristiano," [Barcelona, 1592, p. 225,] says: "I +will not be silent and fail to mention the time lost these last years in +the manufacture of _cadenetas_, a work of thread combined with gold and +silver; this extravagance and excess reached such a point that 100 and +1000 of ducats were spent in this work, which, besides destroying the +eyesight, wasting away the lives, and rendering consumptive the women +who worked it, and preventing them from spending their time with more +advantage to their souls, a few ounces of thread and years of time, were +wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I ask myself, after this fancy +has passed away, will the lady or gentleman find that the chemises that +cost them 50 ducats, or the _basquiña_ (petticoats) that cost them 300, +are worth half their price, which certainly is the case with other +objects in which the material itself is worth more." This quotation is +interesting as proving that lace was made during the 16th century. The +friar, in following the prevalent fashion of preaching against luxury +and extravagance, shows us that this industry must have reached to a +great height in order to be an object of censure. + +From the 16th century until the end of the 18th we find this manufacture +continued in Spain, but that foreign lace of different kinds was +likewise imported to a great extent, although we may affirm that black +lace especially was made in Spain during the whole period. + +We find lace mentioned by ancient Spanish authors under the following +names: _punta_, _randa_, _cadeneta_, _entredos_, _red_, _deshilado_, +_franja_, _blonda_, and _encaje_, which may be translated as edging, or +points, réseuil, chain stitch, insertion, netting, ravelling, fringe, +blonde, and lace. + +M. H. de Cocheris in his introduction to "Patrons de Broderies," Paris, +1872, says that "gold and silver laces were made at Paris and Lyons." +The four books which are reproduced in this volume mention Lyons as +being a great centre of this particular branch of industry. Gold and +silver lace was, however, also made and copied in Spain during the 17th +century. We find in the "Pragmatica y Nueva Orden cerca de los Vestidos +y Trajes, asi de Hombres como de Mugeres," [fol. Madrid 1611, p. 5,] +"May we be allowed to border or edge the said silken materials with +thread lace, which are not to be made of chain stitch, or gold or +silver, and when these laces are mentioned we should understand they are +exclusively for women's use." We also find in an Ordinance of the time +of Philip III., dated 1623, that gold and silver lace was prohibited, +and that "simple edgings, and curls, and fraises for women were enjoined +for women's use." In the "Fenix de Cataluña, compendio de sus Antiguas +Grandezas y Medio para Renovarlas," Barcelona, 1683, by Narciso Feliu, +the author states, p. 75, that "edgings of all sorts of gold, silver, +silk, thread, and aloe, is made there with greater perfection than in +Flanders." + +Many interesting details have reached us of the costume of a Spanish +lady in the 17th century. We will copy the description given by Madame +d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon 1628. "Under the vertingale of +black taffety they wear a dozen or more petticoats, one finer than the +other, of rich stuffs trimmed with lace of gold and silver to the +girdle. They wear at all times a white garment called sabenqua; it is +made of the finest English lace, and four ells in compass. I have seen +some worth 500 or 600 crowns, and so great is their vanity, they would +rather have one of those lace subenquas than a dozen coarse ones, and +either lie in bed till it is washed, or else dress themselves without +any, which they frequently enough do." A number of portraits exist in +the Spanish galleries, especially by Velasquez and Carreño, in which +these extravagant costumes are fully portrayed, but in very few Spanish +portraits of the seventeenth century does thread lace of the kind known +as Point d'Espagne or de Venise ever appear. Mrs. Palliser, in her +interesting "History of Lace," p. 80, quotes a vast number of +descriptions of these gold and silver laces. The celebrated bed at +Versailles, the interior lacings of the carriages, the costumes of the +gentlemen and ladies of court, and wedding dresses, were all trimmed +with this silver and gold lace, either made in Spain, or called Point +d'Espagne. + +We copy again Madame d'Aunoy's description of a Spanish bed. "It is of +gold and green damask lined with silver brocade and trimmed with point +of Spain. Her sheets were laced round with an English lace half an ell +deep. The young Princess of Monteleon bade her maids bring in her +wedding clothes. They brought in thirty silver baskets so heavy four +women could only carry one basket: the linen and lace were not inferior +to the rest." Beckford, in describing the apartment of a Spanish lady, +writes: "Her bed was of the richest blue velvet trimmed with point +lace." Aarsens de Sommerdyck in his "Voyage d'Espagne," [Paris, 1665,] +writes, in describing the costume worn by the men: "Leurs collets ou +cravates sont de grandes pointes, qui sans doute coustent beaucoup, bien +qu'elles ne paroissent pas belles. La mode en est presque la mesme qu'en +France, l'ayant prise de la princesse de Carignan quand elle estoit à +Madrid, dont elles les nomment Valonas à la Carignan." In the +interesting "Journal du Voyage d'Espagne," Paris, 1669, l'Abbé Bertaut +tells us that on the 15th of October, 1659, on the occasion of his +embassy to Madrid, the king of Spain sent eight postilions, and forty +post-horses, the saddles and bridles of eight of which were covered with +gold and silver lace. + +Notwithstanding the opinion of so competent an authority as Mrs. +Palliser, I doubt the statement, finding no evidence to support it, that +thread lace of a very fine or artistic kind was ever made in Spain, or +exported as an article of commerce during early times. The lace alb, +which is mentioned, to prove this, as existing at Granada, a gift of +Ferdinand and Isabel, is of Flemish lace of the 17th century. The +chasuble, etc., splendid ecclesiastical vestments embroidered on crimson +velvet, were certainly the gift of these kings, and if Cardinal Wiseman +officiated in this vestment, it is probable he may have made a mistake +and not separated the alb from the chasuble, which certainly may be +worth 10,000 crowns. J. Barretti, in his "Journey from London to Genoa, +through Portugal and Spain," London, 1770, describing the fine church of +Las Salesas, lately built, writes, "The nuns showed me in the sacristy +some surplices for the mass priest, that are made of the finest Flanders +lace. Each surplice has cost about 1000 doubloons." In "Tassa de los +Precios a que se han de vender as Mercaderias," Madrid, 1628, we find +that the "puntas or edgings made in Spain are to be sold at the same +price as those imported from Paris." Puntas from Flanders are estimated +in this tariff at a much higher rate than those which were brought from +France; we may calculate they were sold for double the price. The +"Ordenaciones" made at Barcelona to settle commercial tariffs state in +1704: "As experience has shown us that most of the edgings or puntas +made in this principality are sent out of the country, and we do not +find them mentioned in the financial accounts, to the great disadvantage +of the community, it is determined--" + +We find reference to lace brought from Flanders, Paris, and Lyon, in the +first volume of "Apendice a la Educacion Popular," [p. 61.] [Madrid, +1775,] the author mentions the large sums of money which were taken out +of the country by the importations of foreign lace, and he adds, [vol. +ii., p. 61,] "Lace is employed to a very considerable extent; all the +fine qualities come from foreign lands, and the greater varieties of the +coarser ones. Spanish matrons, among other branches of their education, +are taught to make lace of different kinds, and many respectable people +live on this industry." Larruga, in his "Memorias," Madrid, 1788, +mentions, vol. ii., p. 149, a manufacture of gold and silver lace which +had been set up lately at Madrid; and in the 17th vol., p. 294, in +mentioning lace made at La Mancha, "the industry of lace has existed at +Almagro from time immemorial. D^{n}. Manuel Fernandez and Dª Rita +Lambert, his wife, natives of Madrid, established in this town in 1766 +a manufacture of silk and thread lace." This industry also existed at +Granatula, Manzanares, and other villages of La Mancha. At Zamora "lace +and blonde were made in private houses. The finest kinds are sold to +lace merchants." In Sempere, "Historia del Lujo," [Madrid, 1788, 8vo,] +we find that in the Ordinance issued in 1723, the "introduction of every +sort of edgings or foreign laces was prohibited, the only kinds allowed +were those made in the country." + +Cabanillas writes in his "Observaciones sobre la Historia natural del +Reino de Valencia," Madrid, 1797, that at Novelda a third part of the +inhabitants made lace, "more than 2000 among women and children worked +at this industry, and the natives themselves hawked these wares about +the country." Swinburne, in his "Travels in Spain in 1775," also says, +"The women of the hamlets were busy with their bobbins making lace." +Laborde writes that in 1809 the manufacture of blonde was almost +entirely confined to Cataluña. Barcelona is in the present day the great +centre of this industry in Spain; the black and white blondes which are +made chiefly for mantillas are very fine. The white laces made there are +in the style of Lille and Buckinghamshire laces, Brussels and Duchesse +laces, and Chantilly is also made to a large extent. Gold and silver +blondes were revived during the years 1830-40; and it may interest my +readers to know that the late Queen Mercedes, in her wedding trousseaux, +had a garniture de robe, mantilla included, of gold blonde. + +Modern torchon laces are still made at Almagro to a very large extent. +Bed linen, even in the poorest houses, is elaborately trimmed with lace +or embroidery. Valances for beds of ravellings, point coupé and lace +work are still constantly found to decorate beds at weddings in the +provinces of Spain. + +THE END. + +RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BUNGAY. + + * * * * * + +SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM SCIENCE AND ART HANDBOOKS. + +Handsomely printed in large crown 8vo. + +_Published for the Committee of Council on Education._ + +MARINE ENGINES AND BOILERS. By GEORGE C. V. HOLMES, Secretary of the +Institution of Naval Architects, Whitworth Scholar. With Sixty-nine +Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, 3_s._ + +EARLY CHRISTIAN ART IN IRELAND. By MARGARET STOKES. With 106 Woodcuts. +Crown 8vo. 4_s._ A Library Edition, demy 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ + +FOOD GRAINS OF INDIA. By PROF. A. H. CHURCH, M.A., F.C.S., F.I.C. With +numerous Woodcuts. Small 4to, 6_s._ + +THE ART OF THE SARACENS IN EGYPT. By STANLEY LANE POOLE, B.A., M.A.R.S. +With 108 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 4_s._ + +ENGLISH PORCELAIN: A Handbook to the China made in England during the +18th Century, as illustrated by Specimens chiefly in the National +Collections. By PROF. A. H. CHURCH, M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 3_s._ + +RUSSIAN ART AND ART OBJECTS IN RUSSIA: A Handbook to the reproduction of +Goldsmiths' work and other Art Treasures from that country in the South +Kensington Museum. By ALFRED MASKELL. With Illustrations. 4_s._ 6_d._ + +FRENCH POTTERY. By PAUL GASNAULT and EDOUARD GARNIER. With Illustrations +and Marks. 3_s._ + +ENGLISH EARTHENWARE: A Handbook to the Wares made in England during the +17th and 18th Centuries, as illustrated by Specimens in the National +Collection. By PROF. A. H. CHURCH, M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 3_s._ + +INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF DENMARK. From the Earliest Times to the Danish +Conquest of England. By J. J. A. WORSAAE, Hon. F.S.A., &c. &c. With Map +and Woodcuts. 3_s._ 6_d._ + +INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF SCANDINAVIA IN THE PAGAN Time. By HANS HILDEBRAND, +Royal Antiquary of Sweden. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +PRECIOUS STONES: Considered in their Scientific and Artistic relations, +with a Catalogue of the Townsend Collection of Gems in the South +Kensington Museum. By PROF. A. H. CHURCH, M.A. With a Coloured Plate and +Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF INDIA. By Sir GEORGE C. M. BIRDWOOD, C.S.I., &c. With +Map and Woodcuts. Demy 8vo, 14_s._ + +HANDBOOK TO THE DYCE AND FORSTER COLLECTIONS in the South Kensington +Museum. With Portraits and Facsimiles, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN SPAIN. By JUAN F. RIAÑO. With numerous Woodcuts. +4_s._ + +GLASS. By ALEXANDER NESBITT. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +GOLD AND SILVER SMITHS' WORK. By JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN, M.A. With +numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +TAPESTRY. By ALFRED DE CHAMPEAUX. With Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +BRONZES. By C. DRURY E. FORTNUM, F.S.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ +6_d._ + +PLAIN WORDS ABOUT WATER. By A. H. CHURCH, M.A, Oxon. With Illustrations. +Sewed, 6_d._ + +ANIMAL PRODUCTS: their Preparation, Commercial Uses, and Value. By T. L. +SIMMONDS. With Illustrations, 7_s._ 6_d._ + +FOOD: Some Account of its Sources, Constituents, and Uses. By PROFESSOR +A. H. CHURCH, M.A. Oxon. New Edition, enlarged. 3_s._ + +ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. By ANDREW MURRAY, F.L.S. APTERA. With +Illustrations, 7_s._ 6_d._ + +JAPANESE POTTERY. Being a Native Report. With an Introduction and +Catalogue by A. W. FRANKS, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. With Illustrations and +Marks. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +HANDBOOK TO THE SPECIAL LOAN COLLECTION of Scientific Apparatus. 3_s._ + +INDUSTRIAL ARTS: Historical Sketches. With Numerous Illustrations. 3_s._ + +TEXTILE FABRICS. By the Very Rev. DANIEL ROCK, D.D. With numerous +Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +JONES COLLECTION IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. With Portrait and +Woodcuts, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +COLLEGE AND CORPORATION PLATE. A Handbook to the Reproductions of Silver +Plate in the South Kensington Museum from Celebrated English +Collections. By WILFRED JOSEPH CRIPPS, M.A. F.S.A. With Illustrations. +2_s._ 6_d._ + +IVORIES: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL. By WILLIAM MASKELL. With numerous +Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +ANCIENT AND MODERN FURNITURE AND WOODWORK. By JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN, +M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +MAIOLICA. By C. DRURY E. FORTNUM, F.S.A. With numerous Woodcuts, 2_s._ +6_d._ + +THE CHEMISTRY OF FOODS. With Microscopic Illustrations. By JAMES BELL, +Ph.D., &c., Principal of the Somerset House Laboratory. Part I.--Tea, +Coffee, Cocoa, Sugar. &c. 2_s._ 6_d._ Part II.--Milk, Butter, Cheese, +Cereals, Prepared Starches, &c. 3_s._ + +MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. By CARL ENGEL. With numerous Woodcuts, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +MANUAL OF DESIGN, compiled from the Writings and Addresses of RICHARD +REDGRAVE, R.A. By GILBERT R. REDGRAVE. With Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +PERSIAN ART. By MAJOR R. MURDOCK SMITH, R.E. With Map and Woodcuts. +Second Edition, enlarged, 2_s._ + + * * * * * + +These typographical errors were corrected by the etext transcriber: + +Guadamecis are made of leather=>Guadameciles are made of leather + +The French influence of the last century brought the same hions fasfor +furniture into Spain=>The French influence of the last century brought +the same fashions for furniture into Spain + +gilt bronze mounting were very much used.=>gilt bronze mountings were +very much used. + +It is of polished iron inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in +workmanhip.=>It is of polished iron inlaid with gold, and most exquisite +in workmanship. + +A wooodcut is given opposite.=>A woodcut is given opposite. + +Round the lid of of one them is a band=>Round the lid of one them is a +band + +there are some which are undoubtedly still made n the locality.=>there +are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality. + +same collection are at the Museo Arquelogico, Madrid=>same collection +are at the Museo Arqueleogico, Madrid + +the chaper on Arms, page 90=>the chapter on Arms, page 90 + +Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, +_Churriguesque=>Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, +_Churrigueresque + + * * * * * + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Industrial Arts in Spain, by Juan F. Riaño + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN SPAIN *** + +***** This file should be named 39602-0.txt or 39602-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/6/0/39602/ + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images available at The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: The Industrial Arts in Spain + +Author: Juan F. Riao + +Release Date: May 3, 2012 [EBook #39602] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN SPAIN *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images available at The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + +Typographical errors have been corrected (see list following text0.) No +attempt has been made to correct or normalize the spelling of place or +personal names. A letter symbolized in this manner [=D] indicates that it is +pictured in the text with a line over it. One symbolized in this manner [A=] +indicates it is pictured in the text with a line under it. The caret character +(^) indicates a superscript follows. (note of etext transcriber.) + + + + +[Illustration: image of the book's cover + +Spanish Arts + +BY + +JUAN F. RIAO.] + + + + +FREDERICK P. PRITCHARD + +SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS. + +SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ARTS. + +_This Volume, forming one of the Series of Art Handbooks issued under +the authority of the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, has +been prepared by_ SEOR JUAN F. RIAO, _of Madrid, whose Catalogue of +Art Objects of Spanish production in the South Kensington Museum, issued +in 1872, has proved of great value and interest._ + +_April, 1879._ + + + + +THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS +IN SPAIN. + +BY + +JUAN F. RIAO. + +WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS + +[Illustration] + +_Published for the Committee of Council on Education,_ + +BY + +CHAPMAN AND HALL, LIMITED, + +LONDON. + +1890. + +RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, + +LONDON AND BUNGAY. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PAGE + +GOLD AND SILVER WORK 1 + +IRON WORK 58 + +BRONZES 68 + +ARMS 79 + +FURNITURE 109 + +IVORIES 126 + +POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 143 + +GLASS 228 + +TEXTILE FABRICS 250 + +LACE 271 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +NO. PAGE + +1. Votive Crown of King Swinthila, Madrid 7 + +2. Leaf of Triptych in Cathedral of Seville 17 + +3. Processional Cross, 15th century, South Kensington Museum 20 + +4. Chalice, 16th century, S.K.M. 30 + +5. Chalice, 17th century, S.K.M. 31 + +6. Pax, 16th century, S.K.M. 33 + +7. Jewel, 17th century, S.K.M. 35 + +8. Silver Dish, 17th century, S.K.M. 36 + +9. Breast Ornament set with emeralds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 37 + +10. Breast Ornament set with diamonds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 39 + +11. Moorish Keys in Cathedral of Seville 60 + +12. Nail heads, S.K.M. 66 + +13. Moorish Lamp, Archological Museum, Madrid 72 + +14. Tenebrarium in Cathedral of Seville 75 + +15. Monstrance, dated 1537, S.K.M. 77 + +16. Sword of Boabdil, Villaseca Collection, Madrid 85 + +17. Moorish Dagger, 15th century 89 + +18. Rapiers, 16th and 17th centuries, S.K.M. 97 + +19. Breastplate, formerly in Bernal Collection 98 + +20. Saddle of the Cid--Armoury, Madrid 99 + +21. Muskets 100 + +22. Botica de los Templarios, from Toledo, S.K.M. 114 + +23. Vargueo Cabinet, 16th century, S.K.M. 121 + +24. Ivory cylindrical box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 128 + +25. Ivory rectangular box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 129 + +26. Ivory Casket, Moorish, 11th century, Cathedral of Pamplona 131 + +27. Cross of King Ferdinand I., Archological Museum, Madrid 136 + +28. Samian Bowl 144 + +29. Plateau, (probably of Valencia), S.K.M. 152 + +30. Moorish Vase at the Alhambra 155 + +31. Tile, (probably from the Alhambra) 157 + +32. Hispano-Moresco Vase, 14th or 15th century, S.K.M. 159 + +33. Hispano-Moresco Plateau with raised ribs and studs, + 15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 160 + +34. Hispano-Moresco Salver, 15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 161 + +35. Wine Jar, "Tinaja," S.K.M. 164 + +36. Brim of Well from Toledo, S.K.M. 166 + +37. Earthenware Bowl, Talavera ware, S.K.M. 174 + +38. Earthenware Plaque, Alcora ware, S.K.M. 194 + +39. Marks and Signatures of Painters who worked at Alcora 204--210 + +40. Room decorated with Buen-Retiro porcelain in + the Palace at Madrid 217 + +41. Vase, Buen Retiro porcelain, S.K.M. 220 + +42. Marks used at the porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro 221--223 + +43. Glass Vase, 16th century, S.K.M 232 + +44. Pilgrim's Bottle, Glass, 17th century, S.K.M. 233 + +45. Glass Bottle, modern, S.K.M. 237 + +46. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 238 + +47. Glass Vase, Cadalso, 17th century, S.K.M. 239 + +48. Vase, Green glass with black handle and ribs, + 17th century, S.K.M. 242 + +49. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 245 + +50. Tapestry at Cathedral of Gerona, 11th century 267 + +_The Department of Science and Art is indebted to_ MR. JOHN MURRAY _for +the use of the Woodcuts Nos. 19, 20, 30, and 31. No. 50 is from a +Spanish Woodcut._ + + + + +SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ART. + + + + +GOLD AND SILVER WORK. + + +The Greek and Latin authors who have described the Spanish Peninsula, +state that the quantity of gold and silver ore found there was very +great, and that hence the district became an important centre of +commercial activity of Ph[oe]nicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans. +Some authors have gone so far as to assert that the Ph[oe]nicians made +the anchors of their ships of gold and silver, and that the +Carthaginians were astonished to find in Andalusia, that the mangers and +vases for holding wine and oil were made of the same materials. These +references have been constantly mentioned in ancient Spanish authors. +Ambrosio de Morales, in his "Antiguedades de Espaa," Alcala 1577, +enters into every detail on this subject. + +I have seen a specimen of this period, a bowl of an earlier and +different style to Roman silversmiths' work, which belongs to a +collector in the province of Cordova. This bowl is of a conical shape: +it is perfectly plain, and has an inscription in Iberian characters +engraved on one of its sides: there are signs outside and at the bottom +which indicate that this bowl was made on the wheel. Velazquez in his +"Ensayo sobre las letras desconocidas," Madrid, 1752, describes a silver +bowl of a similar kind, which was found in Andalusia in 1618 full of +Iberian coins: this bowl weighed ten ounces. Several ornaments, chiefly +consisting of necklaces and earrings, may be studied at the Academy of +History, and private collections, in Madrid; they have been classified +by antiquarians as belonging to this uncertain period, and are similar +in style to others which have been frequently found in England and the +north of Europe. The most interesting objects of this kind which I have +seen in Spain, are gold ornaments proceeding from Galicia; they were +found there by Sr. Villaamil, who gave a description of them in the +"Museo Espaol de Antiguedades," vol. iii. p. 545. + +The information and remains which have reached us illustrating silver +and gold work of the Roman domination are more important; we find, +however, in this and similar artistic industries that, as a general +rule, the Romans imposed their style and system on the inhabitants of +the countries which they conquered, and it is not easy to point out any +one example which can be given as an exception to this general rule. It +is, undoubtedly, a fact that objects of all kinds in gold and silver +were used in Spain to a very great extent--for, notwithstanding the +destruction of ages, we still possess inscriptions which allude to +silver statues, and a large number of objects in the precious metals +exist in museums and private collections. See "Inscrip. Hisp. lat.," by +Dr. Emile Hbner, Berlin, 1869. Of these it will be sufficient to +mention one of the most important. It is known in the province of +Santander by the name of the dish of Otaez; and belongs to a gentleman +who lives in that locality. It was found at Otaez at the end of the +last century, buried in a stone quarry. This dish is made of silver, it +weighs thirty-three ounces, and is covered with an ornamentation of +figures in relief, some of which are gilt, representing an allegorical +subject of the source of medicinal waters. In the upper part is a nymph +who pours water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects it in a vessel; +another gives a cup of it to a sick man; another fills with it a barrel +which is placed in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two mules. On +each side of the fountain are altars on which sacrifices and libations +are offered. Round it is the inscription: SALVS. VMERITANA, and at the +back is engraved, in confused characters, the words: L. P. CORNELIANI. +PIII.... + +Another very interesting silver dish may be seen at the Academia de la +Historia, Madrid. Although not of Spanish manufacture, it deserves +special notice in a description of works of this style. This dish was +found in 1847, buried in a field at Almendralejo, province of +Estremadura: it is 28-6/8 English inches in diameter, and weighs 533 +ounces. It is ornamented with fine figures in relief, representing the +Emperor Theodosius appointing a magistrate. The emperor is seated on his +throne in the centre, at the sides are his sons Arcadius and Honorius, +with four soldiers of the guard, and the magistrate, who receives the +volume. In the lower part there is an allegorical representation of a +nymph holding the horn of abundance, winged angels, and ears of wheat, +probably alluding to the abundance and plenty of the empire. Round the +rim is the following inscription:-- + + D. N. THEODOSIVS PERPET. + AVG OB DIEM FELI CISSIMVM. + +At the back, in points, are the following Greek words. + + [Greek: POS N MET] + +We can form a very good idea of the jewel work of the Visigothic period +from the discovery of the treasure of Guarrazar. These jewels were found +in 1858 at the village of this name, six miles from Toledo, on the spot +where, in the Visigothic period, a Christian sanctuary had existed. The +objects found, which may be seen at the Museum of Cluny, Paris, and +Armeria Real, Madrid, constitute the most important collection in Europe +of the jewel work of that period. No less than eleven votive crowns, +some of extraordinary magnificence; two crosses with inscriptions, and +a large number of fragments of all kinds, of gold and precious stones, +were found at Guarrazar. Unfortunately a great part of the treasure has +been lost, for the labourers, who were the first to find it, sold +several objects to the silversmiths at Toledo, who melted and destroyed +specimens of the highest artistic interest. Those that remain in Spain +are-- + +At the Royal Armoury of Madrid: A gold crown of Swinthila inlaid with +precious stones, with pendent cross, and inscriptions of letters hanging +from it: SVINTHILANVS REX. OFFERET. See woodcut on p. 7. A similar crown +of Theodosius, with the inscription: OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM. SCO STEFANO +ETHODOSIVS. ABBA. The cross of Lucetius with the following inscription: ++ IN NOMINE DNI. IN NOMINE SCI OFFERET LVCETIVS: E. Fragments of another +crown and of large crosses: several stones and fragments, and an +emerald, on which is engraved _en creux_ the Annunciation of the Virgin. + +At the Archological Museum, and in several private collections in +Spain, may be seen a large number of stones and pearls which were found +at Guarrazar. + +Among the objects at the Archological Museum at Madrid, a small +section, which proceed from a different locality, have also been +classified as Visigothic. They consist of necklaces, earrings, and +rings, and are less important in workmanship than those found at +Guarrazar. The student will find further details in "Museo Espaol de +Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 137. + +The objects forming part of the treasure of Guarrazar now in the Museum +of Cluny, Paris are: Crown of Recesvinthus, with pendent cross and +inscription: + RECESVINTHVS REX OFFERET. A similar crown, without +inscription. Four crowns formed to imitate basket work, with crosses +hanging from the centres. Three crowns, the rims of which are formed of +_repouss_ work, only one of which is ornamented with precious stones, +and without pendent crosses. The cross of Sonnicus with the following +inscription: [sign of Maltese cross] IN [=D]I NOMINE OFFERET SONNICA +[=S C E] MARIE IN SORBACES. + +Swinthila reigned from 624 to 631, A.D.; Recesvinthus from 650 to 672 +A.D.; hence these crowns belong to the 7th century, and the remaining +objects are certainly of the same period. + +Much has been written on these Visigothic jewels by French and Spanish +authors, the most interesting and valuable studies are:--"Descrip. du +Trsor de Guarrazar, par M. Lasteyrie. Paris. 1860." "El arte Latino +Bizantino en Espaa y las Coronas de Guarrazar," by Seor Rios, Madrid, +1861. Consult also his article in "Monumentos Arq. de Espaa." "Coronas +de Guarrazar que se conservan en la Armeria Real de Madrid," by Seor +Rada. Museo Espaol, vol. iii. Madrid, 1874. + +The importance of this goldsmith's work has led these authors to discuss +several archaeological and artistic points which deserve attention. I +will also give my opinions on this subject, which in some respects +differ from those hitherto advanced. In the Middle Ages the name of +crown was equally applied to those worn on the head, to the votive +crowns hung before altars, and to the pendent lamps which were also of +this circular form. The "Etimologies" of San Isidoro help us, +unfortunately, but little on this subject; but Du Cange, in his +"Glossarium Medi et infim Latinitatis" gives us sufficient details to +understand the differences between them. I refer the student to two +works on this subject, which treat especially of crowns of light, which +none of the authors who have written on Guarrazar have consulted: +"Tratado de la Sagrada Luminaria," by Gonzalez Villar, Madrid, 1798. "De +Lucernis Pensilibus," by Fanceulli, Maceratae, 1802. + +The crowns found at Guarrazar were undoubtedly votive offerings, for +they all have chains by which they were suspended in the sanctuary in +which they were found. Their size and the structure of their rims lead +us to suppose that they may have been worn on the head. The same +observation applies to a similar crown at the Cluny Museum; if so, the +chains, cross, and pendent letters were added when the crown was offered +to the sanctuary. + +Although details which appear in the handwork of these jewels betray a +certain rudeness, not uncommon in the time they were made, their beauty +and richness are truly surprising. These crowns are decorated round +their rims with rosettes of pearls and sapphires, and a delicate +ornamentation of _cloisonn_ work, which encloses a substance resembling +red glass. From the upper part are attached four chains formed of leaves +_perces jour_, these are united to a double gold rosette with pendent +sapphires, in the centre of which is set a piece of rock crystal. In the +cross of Recesvinthus the pendant is in the form of a capital, and from +it hangs a small cross of the same style of work: from the lower rim of +the crown are suspended the letters, which are ornamented with the same +vitreous paste, _cloisonn_, and from each hang large single pearls and +sapphires. + +The border of some of these crowns is formed of a net-work of small gold +massive balustrades; having between them square spaces in which pearls +and sapphires are set. Others are made simply of _repouss_ gold, their +chief interest consisting in the ornamentation which has been so +artistically carried out. Some of them have inscriptions and a few +stones set at intervals. The pendants from these crowns are inferior in +richness to the others already described. The pendent crosses are +ornamented in the same style, either with _cloisonn_ work or _repouss_ +inscriptions. + +[Illustration: VOTIVE CROWN OF KING SWINTHILA, MADRID.] + +One of the most interesting results produced by the study of the +treasure of Guarrazar has been to show us the immense luxury which it +represents, if we remember the period of decay and poverty of the +Visigothic monarchy. We find this magnificence frequently alluded to by +ancient writers. The Arabs when they took possession of Toledo in the +8th century, mention in different works the immense quantity of jewels +of all kinds which they found and carried away. The gold and +silversmith's work of this period was everywhere in a very high state of +development. We find it constantly alluded to in the works of Paul +Silentiarium and other writers of the time of Justinian, and in the +inventories and references given by Du Sommerard of the jewel work +anterior to the Carlovingian period in Italy and France. The Visigothic +kings, who copied from the Eastern emperors even their legal forms, +followed this rule to a great extent in everything which bore relation +to their daily life. + +The most important question is to determine the origin and locality +where these jewels were made. M. de Lasteyrie considers that jewellery +ornamented with red glass _cloisonn_ work was only made by nations of +the Germanic race. To prove this he presents, among other arguments, the +comparison of a fragment of the ornamentation which appears on the crown +of Recesvinthus, with a similar one on the Evangelistiarium of +Theodolinda in the treasure of Monza, which he considers to be of German +workmanship. These theories are untenable. Sr. Rios is of a different +opinion, and considers these jewels to have been made in Spain, owing to +the similarity of ornamentation with different specimens which occur in +Spain in architectural remains of the Roman and Visigothic periods. + +Both these writers give in my opinion the decorative elements of the +crowns of Guarrazar an importance which they do not possess. The +ornamentation which most frequently occurs consists of a combination of +circles, imbrication, and palms of such an elementary kind that it would +be difficult to ascertain its origin; it appears equally in mosaic work +of the later Roman period, in vases and other objects of the best times +of Greek art, and in Asiatic and archaic works. It may be affirmed that +the ornamentation of the goldsmith's work of the north and south of +Europe are derived from a common origin; from the oriental civilization +which in the first centuries of the Middle Ages penetrated into Europe; +it may also be affirmed that its manufacture and technical proceedings +are precisely similar. Later on, the ornamentation and manufacture of +these jewels received from the western nations some slight +modifications; but this artistic industry by no means proceeded from +them. + +One example will be enough to prove this. Setting apart the famous +_cloisonn pectorale_ at the Boulac Museum, Cairo, and other jewels of +the queen, Aah-Hotep, 17th century B.C.; the hawk of a similar period, +Louvre Museum (Paris), and a number of analogous objects in the British +Museum, we have enough specimens of this kind to show that _cloisonn_ +work was known in the east from the very earliest period. I will draw +especial attention to the _plaque_ in the Museum of Wiesbaden, found at +Wolfsheim in 1870. It is formed of gold, with a circular and triangular +ornamentation and squares, _dcoups jour_, set with jacinths, or red +glass paste. At the back may be read an inscription in Persian +characters, which gives the name of a Sassanide king, Artachshaber, of +the 3rd century of our era. (See A. von Cohausen, "Roemischer +Schmelzenschmuck," Wiesbaden, 1873). I know no more ancient specimen in +the north of Europe of these jewels with coloured stones, nor can I give +a better example of their oriental origin. Those who may wish to make a +more profound study on this subject, can also examine the interesting +jewels with stones found at Petrossa, Wallachia, in 1835, now in the +Museum of Bucharest. They are attributed to the Visigothic King +Athanaric, who lived towards the middle of the 4th century of our era, +and are considered in the present day of undoubted Sassanide origin. + +The artistic and technical origin of the jewels of Guarrazar must be +looked for in the East; their manufacture was most probably Spanish. On +part of these jewels, inscriptions of the names of the _donatarios_ +appear, and it is highly improbable that they were made in another +country. We cannot imagine the extraordinary magnificence of the +Visigothic court, so similar to that of Constantinople and other +contemporary ones, without the presence at each of a group of artists +whose task was to satisfy these demands. + +The Visigothic style continued to be followed in Spain at the court of +the Christian kings, until the 11th century, notwithstanding the Moorish +invasion, and the poverty of the kingdom. The specimens at the treasury +of the cathedral of Oviedo, and others which will be described farther +on, will give a good idea of the manufacture of jewels of this period. +Among the relics which are kept in the shrine called the _Camara Santa_, +at Oviedo, are two most interesting gold processional crosses studded +with stones, which are known by the names of _Cruz de los Angeles_, and +_Cruz de la Victoria_ or _de Pelayo_. The _Cruz de los Angeles_ is +16-1/2 inches high, by 16 inches wide, it is covered at the back with an +ornamentation in fine filigree work, set with different stones. In the +front are five medallions, and an inscription in the vacant spaces. +Among the gems there is a good cameo, and seven engraved stones in the +Gnostic style. (Consult "Monumentos Arquitectonicos de Espaa, Camara +Santa"). The inscription on this cross shows us that it was made, A.D. +808. + + "Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei + Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xpi + Hoc signo tuetur pius + Hoc signo vincitur inimicus + Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi + Fulmine divino intereat ipse + Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea + Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCCXLVI." + +The cross of Victory is supposed to have been the same wooden one borne +by Don Pelayo when he began, early in the 8th century, his struggles +against the Mahomedan invasion, it was decorated in the next century +with gold platings and precious stones. It is 36 inches high by 28-1/2 +inches wide; the ornamentation is similar to the former one, and in the +vacant spaces at the back appears the following inscription, by which +we learn it was made at the Castle of Gauzon, Asturias, A.D. 828. + + "Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent + Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemna Regina + Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit + Fulmine divino intereat ipse + Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est + Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis + Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus + Et opera us est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri. + XLII. discurrente Era DCCCLXVI." + +Another most interesting object at this shrine is Don Fruela's casket, +which is ornamented with agates set in gold, and is similar in style. +The inscription, which appears outside, gives the date A.D. 910. + + "Operatum est Era DCCCCXLVIII." + +A diptych which belongs to the same shrine may also be mentioned. It was +given by Bishop Don Gonzalo, who was bishop of Oviedo from A.D. 1162 to +1175. Round it are the words--_Gundisalvus Episcopus me jussit fieri._ +This diptych is 5 inches long by 7 wide: it is ornamented with ivory +figures, stones, crystals and engraved gems. Although I do not consider +it to be of Spanish workmanship, it is necessary to mention the splendid +_Arca Santa_, in which it is believed many of the relics were taken to +Oviedo. It is covered with silver plates, with _repouss_ and chiselled +work representing different religious subjects: the Crucifixion, Our +Lord surrounded by the attributes of the Evangelists, saints, apostles, +angels, and a fine ornamental border with letters, imitating Cufic +inscriptions. This splendid casket is 3 feet 9-1/2 inches long, by 3 and +3-1/2 wide, and 28-1/2 inches high, and appears to have been made +between the 10th and 12th centuries. The figures are similar in style to +the paintings and sculpture of this period, and it is highly probable +that it may have been the work of Italian artists. The Cufic inscription +is illegible, and is interrupted in the angles by the symbols of the +Evangelists. This style of simulated inscriptions was frequently used by +Italian artists. + +A cross of the same style as those already described exists at the +cathedral of Santiago. It is made of wood covered with gold platings and +precious stones; some of these are old intagli, which are set in +delicate filigree work. Round it runs a long inscription, from which it +appears that it was a present from _Adefonsus Princeps cum conjuge +Scemena Regina_, and that it was made in Era DCCCCA. Duodecima; A.D. +874. The number of gems which have reached us, after so many centuries +of ruin, the similarity of the different specimens, and the statement +which appears on the cross of King Pelayo, that it was made at the +castle of Gauzon, prove that the goldsmith's industry had attained great +importance in Spain during this period. + +By studying the different objects of silver and gold work which still +exist in Spanish churches, we can form a good idea of the historical +progress of this industry in the following centuries of the Middle Ages; +but before we do so, it is well to make some observations upon objects +of _orfvrerie_, the work of the Moors. There is a constant connection +between these objects and those made of ivory: the same characteristics +exist which I shall hereafter point out as appearing in Moorish ivory +carvings. The art of ivory carving was imported from the East, the +subjects are much alike in ivory and metal when men and animals are +represented, and the inscriptions and bands of ornamentation are similar +in style. The main variations consist in the different systems employed +in metal work, by which the work differs according to the proceedings +adopted, of _repouss_ or chiselling, filigree, niellos or enamels. + +A fine Casket belongs to this kind of oriental work which still may be +seen on the high altar of the cathedral of Gerona, Spain. This casket is +15 inches long by 9 wide and 10-1/2 high. It is made in the usual manner +of wood covered with silver gilt platings with a heavy _repouss_ +ornamentation of leaves enclosed within circles of pearls. Round the +rim of the cover runs the following Cufic inscription: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"In the name of God. The blessing of God and happiness and prosperity +and permanent joy for the servant of God, Alhakem Emir Amumenin +Almostanser Billah, because he ordered this casket to be made for Abdul +walid Hischem, heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished by the +hands of Hudzen Ibn Bothla." + +Alhakem reigned in Spain from A.D. 961 to 976, in which year he was +succeeded by his son Hischem II. This casket belongs, therefore, to this +period, and is especially interesting as giving the artist's name. Two +other silver Arabian caskets may be seen at the Archological Museum, +Madrid, which were formerly at the shrine of San Isidoro of Leon, but +they possess less artistic interest than the casket at Gerona. One of +these is elliptical in form; it is ornamented with a good design of +leaves and tendrils, and Cufic inscription; the whole of the casket is +enamelled in black. The ornamentation belongs to the 12th century. The +inscription only mentions the owner's name, Abdo Shakir. The other +casket is silver-gilt, square in form, and rather poorly ornamented. The +two Cufic inscriptions which surround it are laudatory. At the cathedral +of Oviedo there is another silver casket with a laudatory inscription +and medallions with figures, in which from very early times, the remains +of S^{ta.} Eulalia have been kept. I suspect that this casket and the +former one are not of Spanish Arab workmanship, for besides the +circumstance that their inscriptions can be applied to any owner, their +ornamentation is unlike others of the same kind. In the first casket it +is insignificant, but on the shrine of S^{ta.} Eulalia the background +of the medallions is covered with an imbricated pattern which I have +never seen repeated on any Arab or Moorish example in Spain. It is +highly probable that they were productions of Oriental industry and were +imported commercially. + +Several specimens of the 14th and 15th centuries, the last period of the +Moorish domination, exist in Spain. They consist of jewels and sword +handles. The most interesting trinkets are a bracelet and fragments of a +necklace and earrings which are at the Archological Museum, Madrid. +They are made of gold, covered with a geometrical _repouss_ +ornamentation, and a delicate filigree pattern. There are specimens also +at the Kensington Museum, Nos. 1455 to 1447, 70, consisting of a +bracelet, silver-gilt, formed of seven alternate oval and rectangular +plaques, with impressed pattern and applied filigree and bossed +ornament, and earrings made of gold, formed of clusters of united +circles and lozenges with filigree bosses. Other jewels of less +importance are known to exist, consisting of bracelets, amulets, +earrings, and rings, mostly made of silver niello-work, these are +ornamented with geometrical patterns and inscriptions of little +importance. + +Moorish arms are most artistic; they are fully described in the article +Arms. The most important specimens are in the Royal Armoury, and noble +house of Villaseca, Madrid; another fine example of a similar style is +at the Generalife of Granada. The hilt and settings of the sheath are of +solid silver, gilt, and covered with geometrical patterns ornamented in +high relief, parts of which are filled with translucid _cloisonn_ +enamel. In some instances the hilt is made of ivory. It is impossible +(see plate on p. 85) to find anything more beautiful than the +ornamentation of these swords, or greater perfection in every detail. It +is evident, therefore, that this industry had reached a very high grade +of perfection at Granada in the second part of the 15th century. The +sword now in the possession of the Villaseca family belonged to Boabdil, +the last Moorish king; the one at Granada to one of Boabdil's nearest +relations. + +In continuing our description of Christian silver-work in the 11th and +12th centuries, we meet with two historical chalices of the highest +interest. One was made by the order of Saint Domingo de Silos [A.D. +1045-1074] when abbot of this church. This chalice still exists there, +with the following inscription:-- + + _In nomine Domini ob honorem Sci Sebastiani Dominico abbas + fecit._ + +It is ornamented with fine filigree work, forming zones and horse-shoe +arches, in a similar style to that of the silversmiths' work of +Asturias, which has never been completely abandoned in Spain. The author +of the life of this saint, Fr. Juan de Castro, Madrid 1688, says, p. +297, that he does not consider it was ever used for the sacrifice of the +mass, owing to its great height [13 inches]. The other chalice might +have been seen until very lately at San Isidoro, Leon; it has been +temporarily concealed owing to political disturbances. The cup and foot +are of agate, probably specimens of the classic period; the mounting, +which dates from the time of D^{na}. Urraca, is studded with a profusion +of precious stones and pastes. Some of the gems of the chalice and paten +are antiques.[A] In the centre of the paten is set a splendid flat onyx. +Round the lower part runs the following inscription:-- + + + _In nomine D[=n]i Urraca Fredi[=n][=a]di._ + +[A] For further details of this interesting work of art, see "Monumentos +Arquitectonicos de Espaa," in which a good reproduction is given. + +Dona Urraca, who was a sister of Alfonso VI., and was generally called +_Urraca Fernandez_, bestowed many important gifts on the church of San +Isidoro. She died A.D. 1101. Another interesting chalice of the same +period, although not of the same importance as those just named, belongs +to Cardinal Moreno, archbishop of Toledo. Round the stem are represented +the emblems of the Evangelists, and the inscription: _Pelagius abbas me +fecit_; this formula appears so frequently that it must be understood +in the sense of _fecit fieri_, ordered to be made. + +The Santo Caliz at Valencia has been traditionally held as the cup used +by Our Saviour at the Last Supper. This chalice consists of a circular +cup hollowed out from a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded +round the lip. The base is formed of another inverted sardonyx. These +are united by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by handles, which +are inlaid with delicate arabesque in black enamel. Oriental pearls are +set round the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, sapphires and +emeralds. This chalice is a work of the Roman imperial epoch, and the +mounts are of a later date. Other specimens of jewellers' work of the +Roman period might be mentioned which exist in Spain, but I do not find +sufficient evidence to justify the opinion that they were made in that +country. I consider those that I have described to be of Spanish origin, +for they keep to the same technical modes of workmanship as the jewel +work of Asturias, and the inscriptions which appear on them refer to +historical personages. It would be difficult, considering all things, to +suppose they were imported. + +[Illustration: ONE LEAF OF TRIPTYCH IN CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.] + +We can mention in the thirteenth century a specimen of Spanish +silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition to the new style, +and the progress in the design of the figures owing to the Italian +Renaissance--I refer to the interesting triptych at the Cathedral of +Seville, known as the "Tablas Alfonsinas," made by the order of Don +Alfonso el Sabio for holding relics. It is of wood, covered inside and +out with silver-gilt plates; it is 22 inches high by 39 wide when its +three leaves are open (the woodcut opposite represents the outside of +left leaf), and is divided inside into fifteen compartments full of +minute ornamentation, among which are set a large number of capsules +covered with rock crystal containing relics, each one with an +inscription of enamelled gold, _cloisonn_. Several good cameos with +sacred subjects appear near the edge of the side leaves. The outside of +this triptych is decorated with twelve medallions containing the arms +of Castile and Aragon, and forty-eight others in which are repeated +alternately the subjects of the Adoration of the Magi and Annunciation +of the Virgin, which are also _repouss_. In the centres are eagles, +which S^{r}. Rios supposes to allude to Don Alonso's claim to be crowned +Emperor, in which case it was made in the year 1274. (See Mus. esp. de +Antig., vol. ii. p. 83.) The ornamentation which surrounds the panels +belongs to the 16th century. S^{r}. Rios suggests that the possible or +probable author of this interesting object of silversmith work was +Maestro Jorge, a silversmith of Toledo, who is praised by Don Alonso in +his Cantigas--he also mentions the names of Don Lorenzo and Don Niculas +as silversmiths of Seville who worked in this period. + +The most important example of Spanish silversmith's work of the 14th +century is the Retablo and Baldaquino of the cathedral of Gerona. Mr. +Street, in his Gothic Arch. in Spain, p. 326, describes this work of art +in the following manner: "The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with +silver plates, and divided vertically into three series of niches and +canopies: each division has a subject, and a good deal of enamelling is +introduced in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels. +Each panel has a cinque-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and +pinnacles on either side. The straight line of the top is broken by +three niches, which rise in the centre and at either end. In the centre +is the Blessed Virgin with our Lord; on the right San Narcisso; and on +the left St. Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain figures of +saints, subjects from the life of the Blessed Virgin, and subjects from +the life of our Lord." + +At the base of this Retablo may be read the words--_Pere Bernec me +feu_--Peter Bernec made me. Bernec was a silversmith of Valencia, and in +another document he was called Barners. It has been supposed that two +other contemporary silversmiths, whose names appear in papers of the +cathedral, worked also at the Retablo. Their names were Raimundo Andreu, +and Master Bartolom. Formerly in front of this altar there was a +magnificent silver and gold frontal studded with stones, a fine work of +the 11th century--which was unfortunately carried off by the French in +their invasion of the Peninsula early in the present century, and was +probably with other innumerable priceless treasures melted by them. See +further details in "Viage Literario de Villanueva," vol. xii. p. 180. + +In the Sala Capitular of the Cathedral of Gerona there are three +splendid processional crosses belonging to the 15th and 16th centuries; +one of them is of enamelled gold, and is undoubtedly one of the most +artistic works of the kind in Spain. + +Among Spanish art treasures of the 15th century of a historical style +must be mentioned the splendid silver throne of king Don Martin de +Aragon, d. 1410, still existing in the cathedral of Barcelona; it is +covered with chiselled ornamentation, and a band of velvet embroidered +with gold and completely studded with precious stones. This throne is +carried in the procession of Corpus Christi. The monstrance, a splendid +work of art in the Gothic style, ornamented with delicate pinnacles and +jewel work, is placed on a fine silver foot and carried on this day in +front of this throne. This monstrance is covered also with jewels of +great value which almost conceal it, the gifts of royal personages. The +fine Gothic silver-gilt cross must also be mentioned, known at Toledo by +the name of _Guion de Mendoza_; it was borne before the great Cardinal +Mendoza, and was the first cross placed on the highest point of the +Alhambra Torre de la Vela on the day of the conquest, 2nd January, 1492. + +The following woodcut represents a processional cross of Spanish work of +the beginning of the 15th century, in the South Kensington Museum, No. +514-'73. It is of wood covered with plates of silver-gilt _repouss_ +work. On one side is a rood with the Virgin and St. John. Over the +figure of Christ is the word Inri. At the extremities angels in high +relief bear the emblems of the Passion. On each side of the figure of +Christ are plaques of translucent enamel representing the penitent and +impenitent thief, at the foot of the cross the Resurrection and +Adoration of the Magi, and above the figure of Christ the Nativity. + +[Illustration: SPANISH PROCESSIONAL CROSS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +At the back there is a figure in high relief of the Almighty; in the +four extremities the emblems of the Evangelists in high relief and +enamelled plaques representing the Annunciation, Flight into Egypt, +Christ's descent into Hades. + +This cross, which is three feet in height, is marked in several places +with the name of + + +-----+ +-----+ + | | | | + | PE | | MAR | + | DRO | | TIN | + | | | | + +-----+ +-----+ + +A large number of images exist in Spain belonging to this period, and +even to an earlier date, chiefly consisting of images of the Blessed +Virgin; their garments are formed of silver platings, chiselled and +_repouss_ in the traditional Byzantine style. Among the most remarkable +may be mentioned those preserved in the cathedrals of Seville, Pamplona +and Astorga. The following document undoubtedly alludes to one of these +figures. It is dated 12th May, 1367:-- + +"I Sancho Martinez Orebse, silversmith, native of Seville, inform you, +the dean and chapter of the church of Seville, that it was agreed I +should make an image of Saint Mary with its tabernacle, that it should +be finished at a given time, and that you were to give me the silver and +stones required to make it." + +Notwithstanding the poverty of the Spanish monarchs, their personal +ornaments were rich and splendid. We find in "Memorials of Henry the +VIIth," edited by Gairdner, an interesting description by Machado, the +herald or king-of-arms of Henry VII., of the embassy sent to Spain in +1489, to ask for the hand of the Princess Catharine for the Prince of +Wales. The account he gives us of the jewels worn by Queen Isabel la +Catolica is most interesting. They varied at every interview. In one of +these she wore "a line of trimming composed of oblong bosses, of gold, +each decorated with fine and valuable jewels, so rich that no one has +ever seen the like. She wore round her waist a girdle of leather made in +a man's style; the pouch was decorated with a large balass ruby, the +size of a tennis ball, between five rich diamonds and other stones, the +size of a bean. The rest of the girdle was decorated with other precious +stones. Round her neck she wore a rich gold necklace composed of white +and red roses, adorned with jewels. Two ribbons were suspended from her +breast adorned with diamonds, balass and other rubies, pearls, and other +jewels of great value to the number of a hundred or more" (p. 341.) + +"After the King came the Queen, mounted on a fine mule, and all the +harness of the said mule was adorned with pearls and other precious +stones. She was dressed in a robe of a rich woven cloth of gold made in +the fashion of the kingdom, and over that a mantilla all spangled with +lozenges of crimson and black velvet, and on each lozenge was a large +pearl. And with each of these pearls was a rich balass ruby the size of +a beech nut, the richest thing that could be seen, no man ever saw +anything equal to it. She had on her neck a large necklace, adorned with +large diamonds, balass rubies, carbuncles, large pearls, and a great +number of other rich precious stones. She had upon her head-dress two +balass rubies as pendants, the size of a pigeon's egg, and at the end of +the said rubies a large pearl, which jewel was supposed to be worth +12,000 crowns" (p. 348.) + +In the specimens described belonging to the Visigothic period, and many +others to which we might refer, we find constant similarity in form with +silversmith's work of other European countries. It is true that we +occasionally meet with Moorish _orfvrerie_, and some details, such as +filigree work, due to oriental influence; but in general Byzantine, +Roman, and Gothic styles were adopted and copied in Spain; and the +technical details were the same with those followed in other countries, +with the exception of _champlev_ enamel, which appears to have been +almost exclusively used at Limoges in the middle ages. It is +interesting, however, and worthy of remark, that important objects are +also found in Spain decorated with _champlev_ enamel, such as the +splendid altars of San Miguel in Excelsis (Navarre), and Santo Domingo +de Silos (Rioja), and the image of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban +(Salamanca), three specimens of the greatest importance. + +In the Renaissance period, Spanish _orfvrerie_ enters into its most +brilliant epoch, not only on account of the beauty of the form of the +objects produced, but also owing to its great richness. Among objects of +this period the most important are the _Custodias_ or monstrances of the +cathedrals; these are exclusively peculiar to Spanish art. The almost +incalculable quantity of silver-work produced at this period is +accounted for by the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors, the +discovery and possession of America, and other circumstances which +increased the power and wealth of Spain, and elevated the country to +great importance. + +We find frequent mention at this time of silversmiths, many of whom came +from Germany, France, or Italy, attracted by the large number of works +ordered. Many settled in Spain, such as Enrique de Arphe, Jacome Trezzo, +Mateo Aleman, Hans Belta, and others. The Spaniards who joined them were +greater in number, and not inferior in merit. Silversmiths were already +at that time divided into different groups, according to the technical +proceedings which each one adopted: _plateros de la plata_, workers in +silver, was the name given to those who worked exclusively in _repouss_ +and chiselled work, and imitated sculpture and architectural models; +goldsmiths, those who worked jewels with stones, enamels, and +niello-work. Even within these groups were workers in filigree, and +those who decorated different objects with painted or mosaic work, +_atauxia_, in the Moorish style. Almost all the most important Spanish +towns were large centres of these industries. Leon, Burgos, Valladolid, +Cuenca, Toledo, Cordova, and Seville rivalled each other in the number +and quality of their productions. The Venetian ambassador, Navagiero, +who visited Valladolid in 1527, says, "Sono in Valladolid assai artefici +di ogni sorte, e se vi lavora benissimo di tutti le arti, e sopra tutto +d' argenti, e vi son tanti argenten quanti non sono in due altri terre, +le prime di Spagna" ("Il Viaggio di Spagna," Vinegia, 1563, p. 35.) + +In order to complete the study of this subject, it is necessary, +besides, to give some notice of the legal dispositions contained in the +Municipal Ordinances and in other laws of a more general character. + +In Capmany's "Memorias," vol. i., part 3, p. 88, are to be found several +statutes concerning the silversmiths of Barcelona from the 14th century, +proving the importance of this guild in 1301. At this period three of +its members formed part of the town Council. The introduction of a +statute of 1489 proves the excellence of the works which they made. +"Experience having shown us in past times, and proof existing at the +present time, that such clever silversmiths have existed and exist at +Barcelona that their works are highly reputed by kings and great people, +and held in great honour and estimation in the town itself." The +Silversmiths' guild still preserve the folio volumes full of drawings, +and the description of the different objects which they presented for +the approbation of the jury, during the 16th and 17th centuries. The +designs contained in these volumes constitute a most interesting +collection of jewels, giving a good idea of the great height of this +industry in Barcelona. + +Baron C. H. Davillier is about to publish a volume on Spanish +silversmiths, in which etchings of several of these designs will be +reproduced. In the list of artists which follows I give the names of the +most remarkable of those who worked at Barcelona. + +In the Municipal Ordinances of Toledo of the year 1494, some laws +relating to silversmiths appeared; they are, however, uninteresting. The +same thing occurs with the Ordinances of Seville, which were re-compiled +in 1526. The guild of silversmiths of Toledo must have been most +important, for in 1423 they already formed a brotherhood or guild under +the protection of St. Eloy, in which they agreed to help the members of +the guild in every way. See "Documentos Ineditos," published by Zarco +del Valle, p. 166. The Ordinances of Granada enter more into details +concerning the technical proceedings of silversmith's work. These +Ordinances appeared in 1538; the work in the Moorish style is described +in full detail; it appears to have been preserved in this locality more +than elsewhere. + +We can judge of the enormous quantities of objects which were made by +those still to be seen in Spanish cathedrals and churches, having +survived the French invasion of the present century. For full details of +the barbarous treatment of these works of art during the French +invasion, see Ford's "Handbook of Spain." The expropriations of the +Spanish government during the civil wars of 1833 to 1840, and the +injudicious law of expropriations of 1869 for the purpose of collecting +artistic objects, have brought about the destruction and disappearance +of numberless works of art in order not to give them up to the +government. + +The same splendour and abundance of silver objects of every kind existed +in the royal palaces and houses of the grandees. Madame d'Aunoy in her +"Voyage en Espagne, Lyon, 1643," p. 109, says: "L'on ne se sert point de +vaisselle d'tain, celle d'argent ou de terre sont les seules qui soient +en usage. Le duc d'Alburquerque est mort, il y a dj quelque tems; l'on +m'a dit que l'on avoit employ six semaines crire sa vaisselle d'or +et d'argent. Il y avoit 1400 douzaines d'assiettes, 500 grands plats, et +700 petits, tout le reste proportion, et 40 chelles d'argent pour +monter au haut de son buffet, qui toit par gradins comme un autel plac +dans une grande salle." The splendid silver table belonging to the +Marquis of Villaseca at Madrid gives a good idea of the furniture of +this time. In the Inventories, a great number of which exist, we find +numerous details of silver objects of every kind. In one which was drawn +up in 1574, of the effects of Princess Da Juana (MS. folio, Acad. de la +Historia), the sister of Philip II., we find mention, without counting +the jewels, of a silver balustrade, weighing 121 pounds, to be placed +round the bed. The greater part of the kitchen utensils were also made +of silver. + +Among the most important objects of Spanish silversmith work are +undoubtedly, as I have said before, the custodias. + +The name of custodia is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance or +ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, but also to a sort of +temple or tabernacle, of large size, made also of silver, inside which +is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession on Corpus +Christi day. In order to distinguish these objects one from another, the +name of _viril_ is given to the object which holds the consecrated host; +it is generally made of rock crystal, with a gold stem and mount +ornamented with precious stones. The small tabernacles are generally +objects of the greatest importance both from their artistic and +intrinsic value. The description of one of them will be sufficient to +give an idea of their construction. + +Although a fine custodia existed formerly at Toledo, which we know +weighed 164 pounds, Cardinal Ximenez de Cisneros wished a finer one to +be made, and caused the plan to be furnished by competition. Diego +Copin, Juan de Borgoa, and Enrique de Arphe presented designs; the one +by Enrique de Arphe was selected. Arphe began his work in 1517, and +continued exclusively employed in this, and without the help of other +master silversmiths, until April, 1524, when he gave up the monstrance +to the authorities of the cathedral. The silversmith, Lainez, finished +in 1523 the gold and jewelled cross which is on the top. It represents a +Gothic hexagonal temple, 8 feet high, of three orders, with all the +variety and number of necessary architectural details such as +pilasters, arches, columns, pyramids, canopies, crest-work, &c., to the +closing of the vaulted roof; the whole is _perc jour_, and so +delicate that it looks like lace. From the roof hang bells and +incense-holders of filigree work; in the key-stone are studded precious +gems. Carvings in relief, representing passages of the life of Our +Saviour, appear on the base of the six pedestals; they are admirably +carved. In the centre of the second order is a figure representing the +Resurrection of Our Lord. On the pilasters and brackets which appear in +the temple there are more than 260 statues of different sizes, all of +which are executed with the same skill. This monstrance was mounted on +iron wires; and Archbishop Fonseca, wishing that the whole of it should +be made of silver, gave orders that Arphe himself should alter it, which +he did in 1525, when the total weight was found to be 388 pounds. The +_viril_ was then placed inside it, this was made of the first gold +brought from America. It is completely covered with precious stones, and +was bought by Cisneros from Queen Isabel (the Catholic); it weighs 29 +pounds of gold. The tabernacle was ordered to be gilt in 1595 by +Archbishop Quiroga; this was done by the Masters Diego de Valdivieso and +Francisco Merino. This splendid work of art remains in this state, and +may be seen at the cathedral of Toledo; it was most fortunately saved +from the rapacity of the French, by being sent to Cadiz during the war. +In 1513 the monstrance at the cathedral of Cordova was also made by +Arphe, it is similar in style and importance to that of Toledo. Before +this, he had also finished the splendid one formerly at Leon, which was +destroyed by the French, as was likewise a similar smaller one, also by +Arphe, formerly at the Monastery of St. Benito, at Sahagun. + +The custodia made by Juan de Arphe in 1587, a Leonese artist, and +grandson of Enrique, for the cathedral of Seville, competes with that of +Toledo. It is formed in the same manner as a temple, but in the +Grco-Roman style, covered with an immense number of statuettes, some of +which are upwards of a foot high, and reliefs of all kinds, and +delicate ornamentation, worked with the utmost skill. The chapter of the +cathedral commissioned the theologian, Francisco Pacheco, to direct the +subjects which were to be represented, and when it was finished Arphe +published a full description of the monstrance, which he does not +hesitate to call "the largest and finest work in silver known of its +kind." This opinion is hardly an exaggerated one if we look at this +splendid work of art. Its plan is circular, and measures 3-1/2 yards +high, and weighs 1082 pounds of silver. For details consult Cean +Bermudez' "Diccionario," Descripcion de la Catedral de Sevilla, Museo +Espaol de Antiguedades, vol. viii., p. I. + +Besides these two celebrated silversmiths there was another of the same +family, the son of Enrique, and father of Juan, Antonio Arphe, an artist +also of great merit, who made in 1554 the custodia which still exists at +the cathedral of Santiago. + +Cean Bermudez says in his "Diccionario," "that in the same manner as the +city of Leon gave Spain three illustrious silversmiths, Cuenca gave them +other three in the Becerrils," these were Alonso and Francisco Becerril +brothers, and Christoval, the son of Francisco. They all worked at the +famous and splendid custodia of Cuenca, and between them they produced a +most important series of works from 1528 to 1584. + +It is extremely difficult to give in so small a space the description of +the works and names of the numerous artists on silver and gold work, who +worked in Spain during the 16th century. At the present time, +notwithstanding the innumerable objects lost, a long list would remain +of the specimens which have reached us, and their different forms and +applications, still visible in the churches of Toledo, Seville, +Zaragoza, Palencia, Santiago, and others of the Spanish peninsula. Some +idea may be gathered of the importance this art attained in Spain by +looking through the following list of artists who worked in silver and +gold, upwards of 450 of whom I have added to the 95 given by Cean in his +dictionary. It must be borne in mind that the objects on a large scale +which reproduce an architectural model, adopt three styles during the +century, all three of them admirable as regards beauty of form. The +first is Gothic, a reminiscence of the former time, improved by the +change which had already taken place, in drawing and modelling. The +second style is known by the name of _plateresque_, when applied to +architecture, and consists in copying the general structure of buildings +in the classical style, and applying the orders and pointed arch, while +keeping to the profusion of decoration of the earlier period, and +modifying the general plan with the object of introducing the greatest +quantity of ornamentation. The third style is the Greco-Roman; it is +more sober in decoration, and has a greater tendency to keep to the +imitation of the classical school. + +Besides the objects described, which may be considered as original works +and the most important examples of Spanish silversmiths' work, I must +mention those which came from South America, chiefly from Mexico, which +possess a certain aspect; they consist of carved and _repouss_ work +ornamented with flora of the country adapted in an oriental style; +others consist of filigree work, double-headed crowned eagles are +frequently met with in the same style as those made at Cordova and +Salamanca. + +There are interesting specimens at the Kensington Museum which give an +excellent idea of Spanish silversmiths' work. Besides those already +described attention must be drawn to + +No. 305-66. A silver-gilt cross ornamented with foliage, statuettes of +saints and the Evangelists with their emblems, Marked NOE/M. About 1560. +Height 3 feet 2 inches. + +No. 302-66. Silver-gilt chalice, ornamented with foliated scroll work +and half figures beaten and chiselled. Marked Estorga. About 1540. + +No. 132-73. A silver-gilt chalice, the bowl inscribed outside "+ Sangvis +mevs vere est potvs;" the stem is of baluster form, in several tiers, +ornamented with brackets and large chatons set with crystal, and a band +of cherubim. The foot is chased with masques, festoons, harpies, and +birds, and surrounded by eight semicircular projections, on which are an +armorial shield and a cross set with emeralds and lapis lazuli. Engraved +at bottom "S. I. de Salinas." [See woodcut] With it is a paten dated +1549. + +[Illustration: SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +No. 481-75. Chalice, silver-gilt; the bowl chased in relief with the +instruments of the Passion; on the knop are ten applied figures of +Apostles on ground of translucent blue enamel; the foot, which has eight +semicircular projections, is _repouss_ with representations of the +Evangelists, cherub and other heads, the Crucifixion, and a shield with +the initials L. B. P. around a crown of thorns enclosing a heart. 17th +century. [See woodcut, p. 31.] + +No. 314-64. Silver-gilt pax of architectural design; in the centre is a +group in full relief of the Virgin giving the chasuble to St. Ildefonso. +About 1540-50. [See woodcut, p. 33.] + +No. 1129-64. Incense holder, boat-shaped, of rock crystal mounted in +silver-gilt. Around the rim is a band of guilloche pattern, set with +amethysts and garnets; on the lids a band inscribed "Oratio mea +dirigatur sicut incensum." About 1540-50. + +[Illustration: SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +No. 93-65. Silver triptych with suspending chain, the interior painted +in oils, the exterior engraved in arabesque. About 1550. + +We find that Spanish jewels were as magnificent in the 16th century as +were the large architectural objects for ecclesiastical use. One of the +most important in richness and artistic merit was the splendid crown +belonging to the Virgen del Sagrario at Toledo, which it is deeply to be +regretted disappeared in 1868. This crown was made in 1556 by the +silversmith Hernando de Carrion; it then consisted of a gold circle with +chiselled and enamelled ornamentation, set with pearls, emeralds and +rubies. In 1574 Cardinal Loaisa wished to enrich it, and ordered a +silver worker called Alejo de Montoya to add to it an upper part, formed +as an imperial crown, which Montoya agreed to do by a special agreement. +This addition was formed of small figures of angels of enamelled gold, +in pairs supporting the side bands, which met in the upper part forming +a group of allegorical figures, upon which was placed a spherical +emerald, without a flaw, 1-1/2 inches in diameter, which served as a +base to the cross. The bands were studded with precious stones and +ornamented inside with subjects of the life of the Blessed Virgin in +enamel. The height of this crown was 10-1/2 inches by 8-1/2 wide. +Montoya took 12 years to do this work--he finished it in 1586. The fine +bracelets belonging to this crown, which have also disappeared, were +made at the same time by Julian Hernando. + +The jewels worn by the Spanish kings and grandees were equally +magnificent. In the description of the gems which Prince Don Carlos, the +son of Philip II, left to be distributed at his death, are included a +sword the hilt of which was of solid gold enamelled in different +colours: this Don Carlos bequeathed to the Grand Master of the Order of +St. John:--a halberd composed of 27 pieces of enamelled gold in high +relief; and a sword with gold mount enamelled in colours with masks, +medals and festoons in the Roman style, made by Rodrigo Reynalti. +Consult "Coleccion de Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de Espaa," +vol. 27, Madrid, 1855. I owe to the courtesy of Count Valencia de Don +Juan, the following description of arms made by _Toto platero de su +Alteza_ in 1554. [Archives of Simancas legajo, No. 37.] These arms +belonged to Prince Don Carlos. + +[Illustration: SPANISH PAX. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +A gold sword, the cross of which is ornamented with masks of white, +grey, and black enamel. + +A gold dagger, and sword-belt belonging to the same sword, ornamented in +a similar manner. + +Also a gold sword, belt and dagger ornamented with figures of children +in solid gold and enamel. + +Although the greater part of these silversmiths were Spaniards, the +Milanese artist, Jacome de Trezzo was very celebrated during the reign +of Philip II. He made several jewels of great importance for the king +and royal family. The splendid tabernacle which was taken by the French +in 1810 from the Escorial was one of his finest works; they carried off +at the same time the superb shrines, the gifts of kings and princes, and +everything they could lay their hands on of gold and silver, loading ten +campaign carts. Consult, "Historia del Escorial," by Quevedo. Madrid, +1849, p. 220. + +At the South Kensington Museum are several objects of this kind, which +will give an excellent idea of Spanish jewel work. + +No. 334-70. A gold enamelled pendant, in form of a chained dog, +supported on a scroll from which small pearls depend, and suspended by +two chains of alternate enamelled and plain links, united to a fastening +crowned by a bird. + +No. 335-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a pelican and her young, +enriched with a carbuncle and pearls, and suspended by pearl links. + +No. 336-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a dog enriched with +jewels. + +No. 337-70. Enamelled gold pendant, in form of a parrot, set with +hyacinth, suspended by chains. + +No.340-70. Enamelled gold pendant representing the Virgin of the +Immaculate Conception. + +Nos. 341 and 342-70. Pendants representing the Virgen del Pilar +Saragossa, attended by saints. [See woodcut opposite.] + +[Illustration: SPANISH JEWEL, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +Spanish jewel work does not decrease during the 17th century, the +number of artists who worked was very great, and the quantity of objects +of all kinds which were made by them to enrich the shrines of churches, +and the houses of grandees, was remarkable, although their artistic +merit was far inferior to the work of the 16th century. The general +decay of art, which produces in Europe the _barroco_ style, appears in +Spain more exaggerated and to a greater extent than elsewhere. The +objects made during this period reproduce until the beginning of the +18th century the lines and extravagant ornamentation which we meet with +in architecture, the handiwork however continued to be excellent, and no +expense was spared to give an aspect of richness to the objects made. + +[Illustration: SILVER DISH. SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +The large quantity of objects of all kinds made of silver, and the +quantity also used in wearing apparel, gave rise to constant +prohibitions restricting its use from the reign of Ferdinand and Isabel, +and even to a far greater extent at the beginning of the 16th century. +In a Decree, issued at Madrid in 1594, "it is forbidden to make or sell +cabinets, escritoires, caskets, brasiers, _chapines_ (clogs), tables, +commodes decorated with silver, either beat in _repouss_, stamped, +carved or plain, and whoever makes, sells, or buys them, is to lose +them." Notwithstanding this and other restrictions which appeared in the +17th century, this abuse can hardly have been checked, judging by the +number of these objects which have reached us, not counting those +preserved in the shrines of Spanish churches and cathedrals. + +The luxury which was apparent in this century of great decay for Spain +will be found in the numerous descriptions which exist of different +feasts and ceremonies. + +A good idea may be had of this style of silversmiths' work from the +silver dishes in the South Kensington Museum. An engraving of one of +these appears on the preceding page. + +[Illustration: BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH EMERALDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH +CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +During the 17th century, jewellery underwent a complete +transformation--the proceedings and _renaissance_ forms of the Italian +school were abandoned, with all their richness of sculptures, enamels, +and variety of stones. Instead of this, jewels were formed of emeralds, +diamonds or rubies in gold setting, _percs jour_, producing an +excellent effect. The exceptions to this rule are the objects in which +enamelled work still predominates, a reminiscence of the former century. +Among the finest and best examples may be mentioned the gold crown of +the Virgen de los Desamparados of Toledo, made in Mexico in the 17th +century. It is formed like a basket of flowers, of delicate tracery, and +richly studded with fine emeralds. Several most interesting specimens +exist at Kensington of Spanish jewellery of this kind, bought at the +sale which took place in 1870 of the jewels belonging to the Virgen del +Pilar at Zaragoza. + +No. 325-70 is a breast ornament of gold scroll open work, with enamelled +flowers, set with emeralds. [See woodcut on p. 37.] + +No. 320-70, a gold breast ornament with five bosses and seven pendants, +set with rose diamonds. + +No. 406-73. Breast ornament, gold open strap work and floral filigree, +the lower part an oval pendant, set with table diamonds. [See woodcut on +p. 39.] + +The following fine Spanish jewels of the 17th century in the Kensington +Museum are also worthy of attention: + +No. 330-64. A pectoral cross, with medallions containing relics. + +No. 298-66. Gold filigree cross, within which is an ivory crucifix. + +No. 344-70. Enamelled gold pectoral cross set with amethysts. + +No. 417, 417A.-69. A pair of earrings of gold open work, branches set +with white crystals. + +No. 323, 323A.-70. Silver open work earrings set with rose diamonds. + +No. 330 to 330C.-70. Four miniature ewers of silver filigree open work, +the bodies of Chinese enamelled copper. + +No. 1224-71. Silver frame _repouss_, with the Holy Dove, and a bleeding +heart encircled with thorns. + +Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, _Churrigueresque_ +styles continued to be copied during the beginning of the 18th century, +in the same manner as in the 17th century. At this time, as in the rest +of Europe, a reaction begins in every branch of art, due in Spain to the +influence of French and Italian artists who accompanied the family of +Bourbon. The Academy of Fine Arts of St. Fernando was founded by a king +of that House towards the middle of the century, the teaching was +reduced to copying Greco-Roman models, such as they were understood at +that time. + +[Illustration: BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH DIAMONDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH +CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +The great centres which in the 16th century had produced such splendid +works of art had almost completely ceased. No great silversmiths +remained at Valladolid, Leon, Toledo, or Seville. The only localities +which have preserved even to the present day the traditional forms of +these ornaments are Salamanca, Cordova, Astorga, and Santiago. Madrid +absorbed from the middle of the 17th century the whole of this industry. +In Larruga's "Memorias," Vol. IV., will be found every detail given on +this subject. Several important establishments for the object of making +silver work on a large scale were founded at Madrid, the most important +being that of Tomas de Buenafuente, which passed after to Francisco +Novi. Two Frenchmen called Isaac and Miguel Naudin established a +manufactory in 1772. In each the greater part of the work was machine +made. Others were founded to cut and polish precious stones, and mount +paste stones. This was done with great skill by Antonio Martinez in +1778, in a building fitted up for the purpose, which still exists +opposite the Botanical Garden of Madrid. Martinez was pensioned by +Charles III. in Paris and London to study the improvements in this +industry. The principal object of the manufactory was to teach the +technical proceedings required in order to extend this industry in the +country, and supply a school in which machinery, models, drawings, &c., +were to be met with. Pupils of both sexes were admitted; machinery was +made in the workshops, and Martinez undertook to teach the manufacture +of gold, doubl, or steel trinkets, with or without enamel or stones. +Sword-hilts, buckles, snuff-boxes, needle-cases, handles for sticks, +brooches, necklaces, orders, and other different objects, were made +either of open work or enamelled gold. + +Inkstands, dishes, dinner services, chocolate stands, cruets, knives and +forks, were made of silver in different styles, generally imitating the +English manner. [Consult Larruga, "Memorias Politicas y Economicas." +Madrid, 1789. Vol. IV., p. 116.] + +The results obtained by the manufactory of Martinez were most +satisfactory; a large number of apprentices were taught there; but their +work was completely French in character; the manner and style of the +Spanish school of silversmiths was completely forgotten. + +As I have already mentioned, the traditional forms were preserved in +some localities which require to be mentioned here in order to finish +this account of this industry in Spain. An interesting and varied +collection of modern Spanish peasant jewellery exists at the South +Kensington Museum. Strange to say, although this collection was formed a +very few years ago, in 1870, it would be very difficult now to make +another; for owing to the means of communication having been of late +years so much improved in Spain, the peasantry are leaving off their +national costumes, and substituting in every detail modern fashions. +Among this peasant jewellery the silver gilt necklace and reliquaries of +Astorga, No. 1114-73, deserve special attention. These necklaces were +worn round the neck and part of the body. The neck ornaments of gold and +seed pearls made at Salamanca, those of silver gilt of Santiago; the +filigree work of Cordova in the Moorish style, and the long earrings of +Catalua with precious stones, are interesting reminiscences of older +times. + + LIST OF SPANISH GOLDSMITHS AND SILVERSMITHS. + + 10TH CENTURY + Years in which + they worked. Residence. + 961. Hudzen ben Bozla, a Moor. He made a silver + casket which exists still at Gerona Cathedral Gerona. + + 13TH CENTURY + + 1279. Maestre Jorge Toledo. + 1283. Modova, Pablo de Burgos. + Niculas (Don) + 1262. Perez, Juan Burgos. + + 14TH CENTURY + + 1357. Andreu, Raimundo de Gerona. + 1358. Barners, Pedro Gerona. + 1325. Bartolom, Maestro Gerona. + Bernec, Pere, V. Barners + 1382 to } Capellades, Pedro Tortosa. + 1393. } + 1378. Fernai, Rodrigo Oviedo. + 1334. Frau, Ramon Palma de Mallorca. + 1367. Martinez, Sancho Sevilla. + 1382 to } Paris, Pedro de Tortosa. + 1393. } + 1373. Perpia, Juan Valencia. + 1370. Ponce, Bartolom Palma de Mallorca. + + 15TH CENTURY + + 1417. Abello, Joan Daroca. + 1495. Alcaar, Juan de Toledo. + 1477. Almerique Barcelona. + 1494. Berenguer, Juan Valencia. + 1499. Castellano Toledo. + 1454. Castelnou, Juan de Valencia. + 1460. Castelnou, Jayme de, son of Juan Valencia. + 1470. Cetina, Mestre Valencia. + 1458 to } Diez, Pedro el Cabalan Toledo. + 1463 } + 1494. Diaz, Thomas Toledo. + 1417. Diaz, or Diez Caro, Ferrando Daroca. + 1418 to } Garcia de Valladolid, Alfonso Toledo. + 1426. } + 1438. Garcia, Alonso Burgos. + 1442. Garcia de Pielagos, Juan Burgos. + 1477. Gomez, Garcia Valencia. + 1424 to } Gonzalez de Madrid, Juan Toledo. + 1459. } + 1477. Hance + Lorenzo, Don + 1425. Medina, Juan de Toledo. + 1499. Medina, Pedro de Toledo. + 1470. Nadal Yvo, Maestre Valencia. + 1493. Narbona, Diego Toledo. + 1495. Nuez, Alonso Toledo. + 1485. Oviedo, Fernando de Burgos. + 1487. Pizarro Guadalupe. + 1457. Rodriguez de Villareal, Alonso Toledo. + 1459. Rodriguez de Villareal, Anton Toledo. + 1483. Rodriguez, Gonzalo Toledo. + 1496. Rodriguez, Geronimo Sevilla. + 1459. Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope Toledo. + 1417 to } Roiz, Pero Darroca. + 1423. } + 1489 to } Ruby, Maestre Toledo. + 1491. } + 1416. Ruiz de Astudillo, Alfonso Burgos. + 1431. Ruiz de Medina Toledo. + 1426. Ruiz, Juan Toledo. + 1498. Ruiz, Juan Toledo. + 1404. Sanchez, Martinez Sevilla. + 1424. Sanchez, Anton Toledo. + 1417. Sancho, Manuel Hernando Burgos. + 1487. Segovia, Fr. Juan de Guadalupe. + 1418. Valles, Juan Toledo. + 1484 to } Vigil, Pedro de Valladolid. + 1488. } + Yvo V. Nadal Yvo ---- + + 16TH CENTURY + + 1586. Abedo de Villandrando, Diego Madrid. + 1531. Aguirre, Pedro de Toledo. + 1515. Aleman, Mateo Sevilla. + ---- Aleman, Nicolas Sevilla. + 1596. Alfaro, Francisco Sevilla. + 1539. Alonso, Juan Toledo. + 1552. Alvarez, Baltasar Palencia. + 1568. Alvarez, Francisco Madrid. + 1531. Alvarez, Juan Granada. + 1560. Alvarez, Juan Madrid. + 1538. Alvear, Juan de Burgos. + ---- Alvear, Nicolas de Burgos. + 1520 to } Andino, Cristoval de Burgos. + 1521. } + ---- Angel, Pedro Toledo. + 1565. Anrique, Joan Toledo. + 1570. Avila, Alonso de Toledo. + 1567. Avila Cimbron, Diego de Toledo. + 1544. Arfe, Antonio de Leon. + 1595. Arfe y Villafae, Juan de Sevilla. + 1506 to } Arphe, Enrique de Leon. + 1525. } + 1531. Baeza, Francisco de Granada. + ---- Baeza, Juan Granada. + 1580. Ballesteros, Fernando de Sevilla. + 1560. Baptista, Juan Toledo. + 1584 to } Baroxa, Gregorio de Toledo. + 1601. } + 1534. Becerril, Alonso Cuenca. + 1575. Becerril, Cristoval Cuenca. + 1552. Becerril, Francisco Cuenca. + 1590. Belta, Hanz Madrid. + Belthae, V.--see Hanz Belthae + 1582. Benavente, Juan de Palencia. + 1546. Benavente, Pedro de Toledo. + 1556. Borgoes, Juan Toledo. + 1538. Buentalante, Alonso de Granada. + 1586. Camps, Bernat Barcelona. + 1547 to } Carrion, Hernando Toledo. + 1561. } + 1556. Carrion, Fernando Toledo. + 1586. Castro, Juan de Madrid. + 1531. Castro, Luis de Granada. + 1505. Cetina, Bernardo Juan Valencia. + 1546. Comes, Gabriel Barcelona. + 1553. Conill, Antonio Barcelona. + 1531. Cordova, Anton de Granada. + Cordova, Juan de Granada. + 1514. Cota, Martin Toledo. + 1567. Davila Cimbron, Diego Toledo. + 1558. Davila, Diego Toledo. + 1593. Diaz, Francisco Toledo. + 1526. Diaz, Hernando Toledo. + 1586. Dominguez, Juan Madrid. + 1513. Donanti, Juan Sevilla. + 1564 to } Dueas, Alonso de Salamanca. + 1598. } + 1531. Dueas, Juan de Granada. + 1537. Escripian, Luis Toledo. + 1531. Fernandez, Diego Granada. + 1554. Fernandez, Manuel Sevilla. + 1567 to } Fernandez, Marcos Toledo. + 1593. } + ---- Fernandez del Moral Madrid. + 1531. Flores, Diego Granada. + 1572. Font, Joan Barcelona. + 1555. Francs, Juan Toledo. + 1561 to } Gallego, Miguel Toledo. + 1590. } + 1531. Garcia, Thome Granada. + 1561. Gallo, Gaspar Toledo. + 1555. Goden, Juan Toledo. + 1509. Gomez, Heros de Valencia. + 1573. Gomez, Baltasar + 1574. Gonzalez, Pedro Uveda. + 1513. Gueran, Ferrer Barcelona. + 1531. Hermosilla, Bartolom de Granada. + 1567. Hernandez, Gonzalo Toledo. + 1531. Hernandez, Luis Granada. + 1567. Hernandez, Marcos Toledo. + 1524 to } Hernandez, Pedro Toledo. + 1544. } + 1531. Herrera, Gonzalo de Granada. + 1524. Herreros y Manzanas Toledo. + 1585 to } Hanz, Belthae Madrid. + 1587. } + 1582 to } Honrado, Julian Toledo. + 1599. } + 1531. Jaen, Fernando de Granada. + 1562 to } Lainez, Juan Bautista Madrid. + 1573. } + 1524. Laynez, Rodrigo Toledo. + 1559. Leon, Leoni Madrid. + 1597. Leoni, Miguel Madrid. + 1531. Lopez, Francisco Granada. + 1548 to } Lopez, Juan Toledo. + 1570. } + 1530. Lopez de Leon, Juan Toledo. + 1508. Madrid, Pedro de Toledo. + 1531. Mar, Alonso de la Granada. + 1588 to } Marques, Lorenzo Toledo. + 1614. } + 1522. Marquez, Cristoval Toledo. + 1531. Martinez, Pero Granada. + 1544 to } Martinez, Francisco Toledo. + 1547. } + 1553. Mas, Miguel Barcelona. + 1534. Masanell, Joan Barcelona. + 1517. Mayquez, Diego Toledo. + 1500 to } Medina, Pedro de Toledo. + 1515. } + 1538. Mendoza, Alonso de Granada. + ---- Mendoza, Blas de Granada. + ---- Mendoza, Diego de Burgos. + 1564 to } Merino, Francisco Toledo. + 1601. } + 1579 to } Montoya, Alejo de Toledo. + 1586. } + 1598. Morales, Luis Madrid. + 1592. Morales, Tomas Toledo. + 1515 to } Moran Toledo. + 1517. } + 1556. Moran, Pedro Fernandez de Burgos. + 1561. Morel, Thomas du (an Englishman) Toledo. + 1574 to } Montoya, Alexo Toledo. + 1590. } + 1573. Muoz, Alonso Toledo. + 1598. Muoz, Antonio Madrid. + 1573. Niebre, Matias de, a native of Burgundy, + living at Toledo. + 1512. Nuez, Alonso Toledo. + 1531. Nuez, Francisco Granada. + 1532 to } Oa, Antonio de Burgos. + 1560. } + 1531. Oate, Juan de Granada. + 1537 to } Ordoez, Andres Toledo. + 1546 } + 1507 to } Ordoez, Pedro Toledo. + 1510 } + 1537 to} Orna, Juan de Burgos. + 1528. + 1581. Ortiz, Pedro Madrid. + 1529 to } Oviedo, Diego de Toledo. + 1546. } + 1586. Pan, Juan Barcelona. + 1594. Pardo, Martin Escorial. + 1534. Parra, Juan de la Toledo. + 1577. Pastrana, Luis de Madrid. + 1595. Pedraza, Diego de Estremadura. + 1593. Pedraza, Esteban + 1559. Perez, Francisco Barcelona. + 1598. Perez, Pedro Madrid. + 1535. Pierres, a Frenchman, residing at Toledo. + 1587. Poch, Pero Juan Barcelona. + 1568. Poggini, Juan Pablo Madrid. + 1532. Pons, Pere Barcelona. + 1574. Portigniani, Juan Bautista Toledo. + 1541 to } Ramirez, Pedro Toledo. + 1554. } + 1590. Reynalte, Francisco de Madrid. + ---- Reynalte, Juan de Madrid. + ---- Reynalte, Pedro de Madrid. + 1590. Reynalte, Rodrigo de Madrid. + 1531. Rivera, Diego Lopez de Granada. + 1590. Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo {Madrid and + { Toledo. + 1557 to } Rodriguez de Babia, Juan Toledo. + 1586. } + 1596. Rodriguez del Castillo, Melchor Segovia. + 1551. Rodriguez, Duarte Toledo. + 1568. Rodriguez Machado, Juan Toledo. + 1567. Ros, Felipe Barcelona. + 1537. Rozas, Gregorio de Burgos. + 1538. Rozas, Jeronimo de Burgos. + 1584 to } Ruiz, Diego Toledo. + 1590. } + 1531. Ruiz, Jeronimo Granada. + 1524. Ruiz, Julian, lapidary Toledo. + 1590. Ruiz, Juan Toledo. + ---- Ruiz, Juan, el Vandolino {Sevilla, Jaen + {and Cordova. + 1545. Sabat, Benedicti Barcelona. + 1566. Salamanca, Antonio de Madrid. + 1590. Sanchez, Andres Toledo. + 1522. San Roman, Pedro de Toledo. + 1531. Sevilla, Hernando de Granada. + 1524. Sigenza, Pedro de Sevilla. + 1595. Tamarit, Andreu Barcelona. + 1590. Tello de Moreta Toledo. + 1554. Toto Madrid. + ---- Trezzo, Jacome de, an Italian, who worked at Madrid. + 1589. Trezzo, a nephew of Jacome Madrid. + 1590. Urbano, Juan Cordova. + 1580. Usatigni, Juan Alonso Madrid. + 1537. Valdes, Antonio de Barcelona. + 1589. Valdes, Lucas Cordova. + 1564 to } Valdivieso, Diego de Toledo. + 1598. } + 1593. Valdivieso, Lucas de Burgos. + 1575. Valla, Narcisco Barcelona. + 1548. Valladolid, Juan de Toledo. + 1566. Valle, Antonio del Madrid. + 1524. Valles, Hernando de Toledo. + 1512. Vargas, Gutierre de Toledo. + 1563. Vazquez, Baptista Toledo. + 1512 to } Vazquez, Diego Toledo. + 1543. } + 1558. Velasco Toledo. + 1580. Velez Toledo. + 1569. Vergara, Nicolas de Toledo. + 1546. Vicente, Mateo, lapidary Toledo. + 1561. Vida, Francisco Barcelona. + 1534. Villagran, Juan de Toledo. + 1590. Villanueva, Juan Domingo de Toledo. + 1552. Villaseca, Alexo Toledo. + 1538. Vitoria, Francisco de Granada. + 1538. Vitoria, Juan de Granada. + 1528. Vozmediano, Diego de Sevilla. + 1536. Vozmediano, Juan de Sevilla. + 1561. Ximenez, Juan Barcelona. + 1537. Ximenis, Rafael Barcelona. + 1599. Zepes, Bartolom de Toledo. + + 17TH CENTURY + + 1618 to } Adeba, Jusepe Madrid. + 1627. } + 1677. Alcario, Francisco de Sevilla. + 1664. Aleman, Juan Toledo. + 1623. Alonso, Jeronimo Madrid. + 1676 to } Alonso de Prado, Pedro Burgos. + 1714. } + 1622. Alvarado, Ambrosio de Madrid. + 1635. Alvarez Brizuela, Blas Madrid. + ---- Alvarez, Blas Madrid. + 1636. Alvarez de Peralta, Pedro Madrid. + Alvear, Andres Burgos. + 1640. Alvear, Juan de Burgos. + 1617. Alvear, Juan de Madrid. + 1691. Arandas, Gaspar Tarragona. + ---- Arfe, Joseph, a grandson of Juan de Arfe Sevilla. + 1613. Avalos, Diego de Madrid. + 1604. Avendao de Tudela, Luis Madrid. + 1677. Avila, Agustin de Sevilla. + 1620. Barinci, Juan Bautista Escorial. + 1624. Baraona, Antonio Madrid. + 1638. Barona, Pedro Barcelona. + ---- Bellicis, V. Bardi + 1650. Bardi, Bellicis Barcelona. + 1604. Belta, Pedro Madrid. + 1602. Benavente, Pedro Toledo. + 1645. Belorado, Antonio de Burgos. + 1630. Bonino, Pedro Madrid. + 1616. Bracho, Alexandro Toledo. + 1628. Brizuela, Gaspar Miguel de Madrid. + 1622. Calvo, Juan Madrid. + 1626. Camanyes or Comanes, Aloy Tortosa. + 1650. Campo, Juan del Burgos. + 1646. Campo, Juan de Madrid. + 1643 to } Carcaba, Felipa, the wife of + 1664. } Andres Salinas, worked at Toledo. + 1621. Carranza Alvear, Juan de Madrid. + 1622. Carranza, Martin de Madrid. + 1615. Castro, Juan Madrid. + 1651 to } Ciga, Miguel de Burgos. + 1670. } + 1646. Comaes, Aloy Tortosa. + 1668. Concepcion, Friar Juan de la Escorial. + ---- Cruz, Friar Eugenio de la Escorial. + 1620. Cuello, Amaro Madrid. + 1661. Dandez, Agustin Barcelona. + 1623. Delgado Maldonado, Miguel Madrid. + 1660. Diaz, Juan Segovia. + 1619. Dominguez, Luis Madrid. + 1613. Duarte, Cristoval de Madrid. + 1671. Duran, Juan Toledo. + 1613 to } Duran, Jusepe Madrid. + 1624. } + 1664. Ebrart, Pedro Toledo. + 1660. Elizes, Alonso de Toledo. + 1642. Espinosa, Juan de Madrid. + 1640. Espluga, Tomas Barcelona. + ---- Estrada, Manuel de Sevilla. + 1624. Estrada, Sebastian Madrid. + 1655 to } Faneli, Virgilio Toledo. + 1678. } + 1630. Franconio, Juan Bautista Sevilla. + 1657. Fernandez, Andres Burgos. + 1679 to } Fernandez, Gamonal Joseph Toledo. + 1694. } + 1631. Fernandez de Angulo, Miguel Madrid. + 1612. Fernandez de Castro, Juan Madrid. + 1618. Fernandez, Martin Madrid. + 1627. Fernandez de Tapia, Andres Madrid. + ---- Fernandez de Tapia, Juan Madrid. + 1667 to } Fortuna, Juan de Toledo. + 1670. } + 1629. Gallo, Alonso Madrid. + 1615. Gamonar, Mathieu de Madrid. + 1600 to } Garcia, Alonso Toledo. + 1635. } + 1622. Garcia, Diego Madrid. + 1618. Garcia, Francisco Madrid. + 1613. Garcia, Martin Madrid. + 1600. Garrido, Gaspar Madrid. + 1620. Generino, Francisco Escorial. + 1610. Gomez, Antonio Madrid. + ---- Gomez, Diego Madrid. + 1626. Gomez, Juan Madrid. + 1610. Gomez, Marcelo Madrid. + 1615. Gonzales, Gonzalo Madrid. + 1613. Gonzales, Enrique Madrid. + 1634. Gonzales, Francisco Madrid. + 1630 to } Gonzales, Pascual Madrid. + 1640. } + 1654. Gonzales, Rafael Segovia. + 1607. Guardia, Melchor, a native of Milan Barcelona. + 1679. Gergo, Domingo de Burgos. + 1639. Guigelmo, Eugenio Madrid. + 1627 to } Guigelmo, Juan Madrid. + 1634. } + 1618. Heredia, Juan de Madrid. + ---- Heredia, Sebastian Madrid. + 1631. Hurtado, Luis Madrid. + 1694 to } Jaranta, Juan de Toledo. + 1698. } + 1650. Landeras, Jeronimo de Burgos. + 1611. Leal, Sebastian Madrid. + 1606. Leoni, Pompeyo Madrid. + 1620. Lopez, Domingo Madrid. + 1639. Lopez, Francisco Madrid. + 1611. Lopez de Alvarado, Antonio Madrid. + 1676. Lopez Barona, Andres Burgos. + 1617. Lorenzo, Juan Valladolid. + 1638 to } Maestre, Luis Toledo. + 1646. } + 1611. Marisanz, Pedro Madrid. + 1653. Martinez, Juan Burgos. + 1673. Mata, Francisco de Burgos. + 1677. Mata, Pedro de Burgos. + 1686. Mayares, Miguel Madrid. + 1614 to } Maym, Bernardo Tarragona. + 1625. } + 1639. Medina, Juan Bautista de Madrid. + 1628. Medina Requexo, Bautista de Madrid. + 1641. Mendez, Duarte Madrid. + 1614. Mexia, Juan Madrid. + 1604. Mimbreo, Alonso Roman Madrid. + 1641. Miano, Juan de Madrid. + 1626. Miranda, Alonso de Madrid. + 1611. Moles, Juan Madrid. + 1639. Montero, Francisco Madrid. + 1630. Morales, Francisco Madrid. + ---- Morales, Manuel de Madrid. + 1695. Muoz, Juan Madrid. + 1661. Nadal, Andres Barcelona. + 1620. Nadal, Martin Madrid. + 1621 to } Navarrete Escarraman, Bartolom de Madrid. + 1629. } + 1613 to } Navarro, Cristoval Toledo. + 1623. } + 1624 to } Navarro, Manuel Madrid. + 1628. } + 1626. Nuez, Antonio Madrid. + 1630. Oliva, Gregorio de Madrid. + 1650 to } Ortiz de la Revilla, Juan Madrid. + 1675. } + 1615. Oviedo, Martin de Madrid. + 1619. Oviedo, Pedro de Madrid. + 1611. Paiba, Vicente de Madrid. + 1665. Palomo, Diego Toledo. + 1640. Pallares, Juan de Madrid. + 1628. Pancorvo, Cristoval de Madrid. + 1624. Paradias, Andres de Madrid. + 1659. Pedraza, Bernardo de Toledo. + 1632. Perez, Alonso Madrid. + 1652 to } Perez, Antonio Toledo. + 1658. } + 1680. Perez de Montalto, Antonio Toledo. + 1685 to } Perez de Montalto, Miguel Toledo. + 1688. } + 1630. Puig, Luis alencia. + 1627. Quero, Juan de Madrid. + 1632. Quixano, Marcos Madrid. + 1617. Ramirez, Agustin Madrid. + 1627. Ramos, Juan Madrid. + 1628. Reynalte, Juan Madrid. + 1660. Riba, Manuel de Toledo. + 1624. Ribera, Martin de Madrid. + 1617. Rios, Esteban de Madrid. + 1626 to } Roda, Agustin ortosa. + 1646. } + 1626. Rodriguez, Bartolom Madrid. + 1631. Rodriguez, Eugenio Toledo. + 1645. Rodriguez, Gabriel Madrid. + 1618. Rodriguez, Diego Madrid. + 1613. Rodriguez, Jeronimo Madrid. + 1617. Rodriguez, Juan Madrid. + ---- Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo Madrid. + 1623. Romano Valmaseda, Juan Madrid. + 1607 to } Ros, Pedro Barcelona. + 1625. } + 1617. Rosales, Francisco de Madrid. + 1611. Ruiz, Eugenio Madrid. + ---- Ruiz, Juan Bautista Madrid. + ---- Ruiz de Valdevieso Burgos. + 1675. Ruiz de Velasco, Juan Burgos. + 1684. Salazar, Francisco Burgos. + 1604 to } Salinas, Andres de {Toledo and + 1635. } {Madrid. + 1639 to} Salinas, Francisco de Toledo. + 1670. } + 1639 to } Salinas, Vicente de Toledo. + 1680. } + 1616. Sanchez, Francisco Toledo. + 1659 to } Sanchez Ormachea, Pedro Toledo. + 1661. } + 1614. San Martin, Juan de Toledo. + 1610 to } Santillana, Antonio de Madrid. + 1617. } + 1642. Santo Domingo, Hipolito Madrid. + 1653. San Vicente, Jacinto de Burgos. + 1640. Sarabia, Cristoval de Sevilla. + 1668. Segura, Juan de Sevilla. + 1632. Serrano, Francisco Madrid. + 1640. Soler, Baltasar Madrid. + 1629. Soria, Francisco Madrid. + 1608. Soria, Jeronimo de Madrid. + 1617. Soria, Lucas de Madrid. + 1620. Spagna, Juliano Madrid. + 1694. Scase, Gaspar Sevilla. + 1662. Suer, or Sueur, Esteban, a Frenchman who + worked at Toledo. + 1671. Tellez, Juan Toledo. + ---- Tebres, Antonio Toledo. + 1677. Tello, Mateo, a German, worked at Sevilla. + 1617. Tofino, Alonso Madrid. + 1618 to } Valera, Domingo de Madrid. + 1623. } + 1619. Valedomar, Angel de Madrid. + 1626. Valle, Juan del Madrid. + ---- Valmaseda, V. Juan Romano ---- + 1624. Vega, Juan de Madrid. + 1672. Velasco Ganado, Pedro Toledo. + 1625. Velasquez, Juan Madrid. + 1627. Villalta, Antonio Madrid. + 1600 to } Villamayor, Baltasar Toledo. + 1626. } + 1638. Villarago, J. Barcelona. + 1622. Villarroel, Andres de Madrid. + 1614. Villegas, Martin de Toledo. + 1645. Vivanco, Simon Madrid. + 1615. Xabier, Antonio Madrid. + 1610. Zabalza, Diego de Madrid. + 1615 to } Zaldivia, Lucas de Burgos. + 1633. } + ---- Zoga, Miguel de ---- + + 18TH CENTURY + + 1746. Aguilar, Geronimo Cordova. + 1794. Alamo, Bernardo de Toledo. + 1703. Aragon, Diego de Segovia. + 1716. Aranda, Alberto Madrid. + 1746. Aviles, Manuel de Cordova. + End of } Balmet, Bartolom Madrid. + 18th cent. } + 1740. Ballestero, Manuel Cordova. + 1730 to } Bargas, Manuel de Toledo. + 1752. } + 1702. Bargas, Mateo de Toledo. + 1739. Bargas y Machuca, Manuel de Toledo. + 1789 to } Bargas Machuca, Manuel Timoteo Madrid. + 1797. } + 1753. Bautista, Vicente Toledo. + 18th cent. Benitez, Pedro Salamanca. + End of } Buenafuente, Tomas Madrid. + 18th cent. } + 1746. Bustamante, Franco Cordova. + 1734. Bustos, Floro de Sevilla. + 1784. Calzado, Jos, enameller Malaga. + 1746. Camacho, Lorenzo Cordova. + 1746. Camacho, Rafael Cordova. + 1713. Campo, Matias del Soria. + 1734. Castillo, Matias del Aranda del Duero. + 1746. Castro, Damian de Cordova. + 1748. Castro, Diego Toledo. + 18th cent. Chevalier, Luis Claudio, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid. + 1728. Colomes, Pedro, worked at the mounts of silver + knives made at Alcora. + End of } Conde, Domingo Madrid. + 18th cent. } + 1754. Cros, Josef Valencia. + ---- Cuerda, Feliz de la Toledo. + 1738 to } Cuerda, Jose de la Toledo. + 1745. } + 1722 to } Dominguez, Juan Antonio Toledo. + 1748. } + 1776. Elosua, Antonio Burgos. + 1776. Elosua, Manuel de Burgos. + 1790. Fernandez, Pablo Burgos. + 18th cent. Fernandez Clemente, Melchor Salamanca. + 1741. Fernandez de la Fuente, Antonio Toledo. + 1778. Ferroni, Juan Madrid. + 1701. Figueroa, Juan Salamanca. + 1688. Fornaguera, Buenaventura Barcelona. + 1790. Gallardo, Vicente Sevilla. + 1710. Gamonal y Guzman, Juan Toledo. + 1746. Garcia, Jose Cordova. + 1760 to } Garcia Reyna, Manuel Toledo. + 1766. } + 1753. Garcia Crespo, Manuel Salamanca. + 1772. Gaudin, Isaac, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid. + ---- Gaudin, Miguel, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid. + 1714. Gomez, Pedro Alcala de Henares. + 1746. Hidalgo, Gabriel Cordova. + 1700 to } Jaranta, Juan de Toledo. + 1717. } + 1743. Jaranta y Zapata, Juan de Toledo. + 1717 to } Jaranta, Lorenzo Toledo. + 1732. } + 1746. Jurado, Jose Cordova. + 1746. Lara, Diego de Cordova. + 1790. Lecaroz, Antonio Sevilla. + 1745. Lopez, Bernardino Toledo. + 1784. Lopez, Manuel Burgos. + 1746. Luna, Andres de Cordova. + ---- Luque, Juan de Cordova. + 1700. Llanos, Manuel de Burgos. + 1746. Madueo, Francisco Cordova. + 1790. Mairod y Vassner, Jos Sevilla. + 1734. Manrique, Franco Esteban Aranda de Duero. + 1784. Marti, Jose Barcelona. + 1778. Martinez, Antonio Martinez. + 1754. Martinez, Estanislao Valencia. + End of } Martinez, Gregorio Madrid. + 18th cent. } + 1703. Martinez del Valle, Jose Segovia. + 1693. Matons, Juan Tarragona. + End of } Mendeluce, Fermin Navarra. + 18th cent. } + End of } Molinez, Francisco Zaragoza. + 18th cent. } + 1722. Monteman y Cusens, Lorenzo Salamanca. + 1746. Moreno, Manuel Cordova. + 1725. Muoz de Amador, Bernardo Madrid. + 1746. Muoz, Francisco Cordova. + ---- Navas, Fernando de Cordova. + 1784. Nieva, Antonio de Malaga. + 1770 to } Nio, Jose Toledo. + 1776. } + 1767 to } Nio, Jose Bernardo Toledo. + 1777. } + End of } Nivel, Juan Madrid. + 18th cent. } + End of } Novi, Francisco Madrid. + 18th cent. } + 1786. Olivares, Fermin Madrid. + 1746. Palomino, Jose Sevilla. + 1784. Pechenet, Juan Madrid. + 1734. Perez de Oviedo, Francisco Granada. + 1746. Pineda, Manuel Cordova. + ---- Quintero, Jos + 1760 to } Reyna, Manuel Toledo. + 1777. } + 1743. Reyno, Tomas Toledo. + End of } Roche, Nicholas Madrid. + 18th cent. } + 1715 to } Rodriguez de Castro, Juan Burgos. + 1757. } + 1784. Rovira, Jos Barcelona. + 1746. Roxelio, Francisco Cordova. + 1791. Ruiz, Donata Burgos. + 1746. Ruiz, Juan Cordova. + ---- Ruiz, Miguel Cordova. + 1777. Ruiz, Pedro Burgos. + 1746. Sanchez, Francisco Cordova. + 1731. Sanchez Renentes, Tomas Sevilla. + 1767 to } Sanchez Nio, Jose Toledo. + 1777. } + 1731. Sanz, Pedro Sevilla. + 18th cent. Sanz de Velasco, Toribio Salamanca. + 1700. Simancas, Francisco de Burgos. + 1716. Supuesta, Juan Madrid. + 1731. Tamaral, Ignacio Sevilla. + 1746. Torralvo, Sebastian Cordova. + 1755. Torrijos, Lucas de Burgos. + 1771. Urqueza, Domingo Madrid. + ---- Valadrez Romero, Luis Sevilla. + 1746. Vargas, Jose de Cordova. + ---- Vega, Pedro de la Cordova. + 1754. Vicente, Bautista Valencia. + 1728. Vicente, Luis Valencia. + 1734. Villa, Andres de Sevilla. + 1713 to } Zurreo, Antonio Madrid. + 1715. } + 1799 to } Ximenez, Manuel Toledo. + 1800. } +I owe to the courtesy of Baron Ch. Davillier the names of the following +artists, which appear in his "Histoire des Principaux Orfvres +Espagnols," Paris, 1879. + + Perez de las Cellas, Antonio, a native of Saragossa; + he worked at Rome in 1456 + + Ruiz, Alonso; he worked at Toledo in 1431 + + Ferrandez, Garci; he worked at Toledo in 1431 + + Pielagos, Juan Garcia, Burgos 1442 + + Fernai, Rodrigo, a Frenchman, who worked at Oviedo in 1368 + + Bells, Antonio, Barcelona 1458 + + Closes, Francisco, Barcelona 1464 + + Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope, Toledo 1466 + + Sano, Salvador, Barcelona 1475 + + Zobarola, Francisco, Banet 1480 + + Jujuce, a Valencian jew, Pamplona 1356 + + Freset, Perrin, } Frenchmen working at Olite, Navarre, in 1444 + Rodez, Conrat de, } + Bonte, Daniel de, a German, working at Olite, in Navarre about 1400 + + Valdubia, Maestro Ferrando, Rome 1525 + + Fuente, Gonsalvo de, Rome 1539 + + Alfonso, Rome 1546 + + + + +IRON WORK. + + +Numerous iron mines have existed in Spain, especially in the Cantabrian +provinces, and have been worked from very early times. They are +mentioned by Pliny, lib. 34, cap. xii., and have given rise to the +development of excellent metal works in the Spanish Peninsula: although +in many localities this tradition has been continued until our days, the +Basque Provinces have in all times excelled in this artistic industry. + +The want of durability and the little care taken of objects of +iron-work, owing to the insignificant value of the material employed, +prevent us from being able to mention any important examples of a very +early date. After drawing attention to some interesting specimens which +have reached us from the Spanish-Arabs, we must begin the history of +iron-work in Spain in the second half of the 15th century; it continues +to progress in the 16th, and produced undoubtedly at that period works +which were unrivalled in Europe. The _rejas_ or chancel screens +enclosing chapels in the cathedrals of Toledo, Seville, Granada, +Salamanca, and other churches in Spain, of which it is much to be +deplored no drawings or photographs exist, deserve the especial +attention of those who follow this industry in the present day, owing to +the beauty of their forms, and the inexhaustible variety of models which +they present to the manufacturer. + +Besides specimens of Iron-work connected with arms which will be +described in a separate article, the most interesting examples of +Moorish manufacture which have reached us are keys of most delicate +tracery; their perfect state of preservation shows that they have only +been used as symbols of cities or fortresses, which on given occasions +were offered to kings or great people. Even in the present day the +ceremony is still kept up of offering a key to the foreign princes who +stay at the royal palace of Madrid, and in a similar manner as far back +as the Middle Ages, keys have been presented to Spanish sovereigns on +their visiting such towns as Toledo or Seville, and a ceremonial is gone +through of swearing to uphold their privileges, a reminiscence probably +of what occurred when these towns were conquered from the Moors. + +One of these keys at Valencia, belonging to Count de Trigona, measures +9-1/2 inches long, and was originally gilt; its handle or bow is closed, +and covered with delicate work in relief. The wards are ornamented in +the same manner with a combination of several words written in Cufic +letters of difficult interpretation. Round the handle we can read most +distinctly in Arabic the name of the artist: "It was made by Ahmed +Ahsan." + +This key appears to be of the 13th to 14th century. Two similar ones +existed in the town hall of Valencia of a most monumental character; +they were considered of great antiquity, but it has been ascertained +that they were made in 1632, by the locksmith Juan Marti. + +In the shrine of the Cathedral of Seville there are two interesting keys +(_see_ woodcut); one of them is of iron, the other of silver, of a +similar style. For further details see "Museo Espaol de Antiguedades," +vol. ii., p. I. The first, which is represented to the right, is of +genuine Moorish workmanship; the wards are covered with letters in Cufic +characters, which several oriental scholars have tried to interpret, +without coming to a satisfactory conclusion, probably owing to the +confused, or double meaning of the letters. It is supposed with good +foundation that this was the identical key which was given to King St. +Ferdinand, the conqueror of Seville, in 1248, the day he took possession +of the city. The silver key, to the left of the plate, has traces of +gold and niello work, representing in the upper part, ships, castles and +lions. Round the handle runs an inscription in Hebrew--"The King of +Kings will open; the King of the whole Earth will enter." In the wards +appear in delicate open work carving the following words in Spanish, +"God will open; the king will enter. Dios abrir; rey entrar." It may +be affirmed to have been made in the 14th century, and in that case, +symbolizes some event of the life of King Pedro the Cruel, a great +protector of the Jewish race. Five Moorish keys of a similar kind, but +inferior merit, may be seen in the local Museum of Segovia, and the +Archological Museum of Madrid. + +[Illustration: MOORISH KEYS IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.] + +The objects of iron-work made by the Christian artists of this period in +Spain must have been good, for although no specimens exist, we have at +any rate historical information which confirms this. In the Consistorial +Ordinances of Barcelona, Capmany, "Memoirs," vol. i., we find that +ironsmiths formed an extensive guild in the 13th century; in 1257 four +of its members formed part of the chief municipal council; this guild +increased in importance in the following centuries. The Ordinances of +Seville of the 15th century, which were reformed in 1502, and those of +Toledo, also re-enforced in 1582, give an idea of what was done by +workers in bronze, the methods of workmanship and other details of +interest. The Ordinances of Seville mention _rejas_ made in Biscay, and +give a good idea of the styles adopted by the iron-masters there. The +Ordinances of Granada repeat almost exactly the former prescriptions. + +The Cathedrals and large churches in Spain lent themselves in an +admirable manner to the construction of objects of all kinds in iron +work, especially the railings enclosing the side chapels, or sepulchres, +and the double screens required for the _Capilla Mayor_ and _Coro_, +owing to the ancient Spanish custom of constructing the choir in the +centre of the principal nave of the cathedral. Hence we meet with names +of the iron-masters, _rejeros_, mentioned in early documents as attached +to the different cathedrals in the same manner as painters and +architects. We find Bartolom Morey working at Palma de Mallorca in 1389 +to 1397. He was succeeded by his son Juan, from 1401 to 1407. See +Piferrer, "Recuerdos y Bellezas de Espaa." Maestro Basil worked at +Burgos, and Maestro Pablo at Toledo and its dioceses towards the end of +the same century. Maestro Juan Francs worked at Toledo in 1482. By this +same artist is the beautiful _reja_ of the Capilla Mayor of the +_Colegiata_ of Alcala de Henares; it is signed, "Maestre Juan Francs, +maestro mayor de las obras de fierro en Espaa." From this time the +names of iron-masters are well known and numerous; we may safely affirm +that those who lived in the 16th century have left us the most important +works. + +One of the finest specimens of this artistic industry is the splendid +_reja_ which divides the nave at the royal chapel of Granada. Its +immense size has enabled the artist to carry out a splendid +ornamentation in the "plateresque style," combined with reliefs on a +large scale of figures of apostles and saints, terminated at the upper +part with a wide band of ornamentation of leaves and flowers, crowned +with a Rood, with the Virgin and St. John on either side. The splendid +balustrades and supports are forged with the hammer; the figures and +circular piers are formed of large plates, _repouss_ and carved in the +most admirable manner, and give a good idea of the difficulties of this +work, which the artists of this time had overcome, long before the +various technical facilities of the present day existed. The +ornamentation of this _reja_ was originally gilt, and the figures are +painted in oils. It was made about the year 1520 to 1530; in the lock, +formed as a Gothic pinnacle, is a small inscription, "Maestro Bartolome +me fec." This same artist worked at Jaen and Seville. Cean Bermudez +calls him "sculptor and iron-master." + +Two most important specimens of iron-work exist also at the cathedral of +Toledo, enclosing the _Capilla Mayor_ and _Coro_. The _reja_ of the +Capilla Mayor is 42 feet wide by 19 inches high; it rests on a pediment +of marble ornamented with masks and bronze work, upon which rises the +_reja_, which is divided horizontally by means of a frieze of +ornamentation, and this again vertically in five compartments. In each +vertical division there is a pilaster of four sides formed of _repouss_ +plates, carved with a fine ornamentation in the renaissance style, this +is again terminated with life-size figures in high relief of bronze. The +second compartment rises upon the band which divides it in an horizontal +sense; it follows the same decoration in its pilasters, and is +terminated by a series of coats of arms, torches, angels, and a variety +of foliage which finishes the upper part. Upon the centre, hanging from +a thick chain supported from the roof, is suspended a life-size Rood, of +admirable effect, which completes the decoration. In several spots there +are labels with mottos in Latin; in one of them appears the following +inscription, and the date of 1548 when this splendid work was finished: +"Anno MDXLVIII. Paul III. P. M. Carol. V. Imper. Rege. Joannes Martinez +Siliccus. Archipiscopus. Tolet. Hispaniae. Primat." The railings of this +_reja_ are silvered, and the reliefs and salient points gilt. The artist +who made it was Francisco Villalpando, a native of Valladolid; this +model was chosen among those of several artists, who presented their +plans in competition before the ecclesiastical authorities; it is +calculated that ten years elapsed before it was finally finished in +1548. Villalpando was greatly distinguished likewise as a sculptor and +architect. In 1563 a book was printed after his death of a translation +he made of the work on architecture by Sebastian Serlio. Other +remarkable bronze works of art, which will be described further on, were +also by him. + +The _reja_ of the coro, which is placed opposite that of the Capilla +Mayor, is almost exactly similar in size. It is less rich in +ornamentation, but so pure and sober in its general lines, and its +ornamentation is so perfect, that it is perhaps superior to the other. +This _reja_ consists of a single architectonical body, divided in six +vertical compartments, covered with bas reliefs of such delicate work +that they appear rather to be by the hand of a silversmith than by an +iron-master. An innumerable number of figures are combined with the +ornamentation in the base, terminations of the columns and coronation; +in the same manner it is full of banderoles with Latin mottos, and gilt +and silvered; it was finished in 1548, as we see by the inscription. +This _reja_ was made by Domingo de Cespedes, a native of Toledo, with +the help of his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo; the design was also chosen +by competition, and it was finished in seven years. Both these admirable +models of iron-work belong to the best productions of the renaissance +school, and contain models which might be adapted with great advantage +to ironwork of every description in the present day. + +It would be an interminable task to describe the multitude of railings +similar in richness and good taste to these which happily survive in +Spanish cathedrals and churches. It is sufficient to call attention to +the following. The _reja_ of the Capilla del Condestable in the +cathedral of Burgos, by Christoval de Andino in 1523, has been +considered one of the finest specimens of its kind, owing to the +perfection with which every detail is carried out. A contemporary +writer in describing it says: "Good workmen, and those who wish that +their work may have authority and be blameless, must endeavour to be +guided by ancient models, as your fellow-citizen, Cristoval de Andino; +his works are thereby more elegant and excellent than any others which I +have seen up to the present time; if not, judge of his work by looking +at the _reja_ which he is making for your lord the Condestable, which is +undoubtedly superior to all those which have hitherto been made in +Spain." Sagredo--"Medidas del Romano," quoted by Cean Bermudez. In the +centre of the upper part, towards the middle, appears the inscription: +"Ab. Andino, A.D. MDXXIII." The _reja_ of the _coro_ of the cathedral of +Seville, made by the iron-master, Sancho Muoz in 1519, a native of +Cuenca, is also very remarkable; besides the finer ornamentation which +covers it, it has figures of kings and prophets representing the +genealogy of Our Lord. The _reja_ belonging to the _capilla mayor_ of +the same cathedral was the work of Friar Francisco de Salamanca, +1518-1533; it is covered with an open-work ornamentation, figures of +angels and bas-reliefs, and is terminated in the upper part with a +representation of the Entombment of Our Lord. The large _reja_ of the +cathedral of Cuenca, made by Arenas in 1517, those at Palencia, by +Andino, 1520, and Rodriguez, 1555; the one at the church of Sn. Juan de +la Penitencia, Toledo; the beautiful railing at the chapel of +Palenzuela, in the cathedral of Salamanca, 1524, and a number of objects +of smaller size, such as iron pulpits in the cathedrals of Barcelona, +and in some chapels at Burgos, Avila, Palencia, and Toledo, several of +which are anterior to the 16th century, are all worthy of the student's +especial notice. Among these objects of smaller dimensions special +reference must be made to the fine and picturesque _reja_ surrounding +the sepulchre of Archbishop Diego de Anaya, in the chapel of Sn. +Bartolom, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca. The beauty of +its details and the open-worked inscription which surrounds it, place +it at once among the finest specimens of ironwork of the 15th century. +The two window _rejas_ at the house called "de las Conchas" in the same +town--an admirable specimen of Burgundian architecture, although +restored--may be quoted as excellent models of ironwork applied to civil +buildings. + +Iron pulpits have been made in Spain with great success. Two interesting +examples of the end of the 15th century still exist at the cathedral of +Avila. They are hexagonal in shape, and supported by lions' claws; they +were originally gilt. One of these pulpits is ornamented in the +Flamboyant style, the other in good Renaissance; consult Sir Digby +Wyatt's "Architect's Note Book in Spain." Friar Francisco de Salamanca +made two interesting iron pulpits for the cathedral of Seville; they are +covered with bas-reliefs representing the Evangelists and subjects taken +from the Acts of the Apostles and the Apocalypse. The pulpit at the +parish church of S^{n.} Gil de Burgos must also be mentioned. Mr. Street, +notwithstanding his want of sympathy with every object not strictly of +the Middle Ages, says: "It is of very late date, end of the 15th +century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration. The support is of +iron, resting on stone, and the staircase modern. The framework at the +angles, top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the ironwork is laid. The +traceries are cut out of two plates of iron, laid one over the other, +and the ironwork is in part gilded, but I do not think that this is +original. The canopy is of the same age and character, and the whole +effect is very rich at the same time that it is very novel. I saw other +pulpits, but none so old as this." + +Among the applications of iron to decorations of civil architecture must +be specially mentioned the nails and knockers on the doors of houses, +which are so characteristic of Toledo and other old Spanish towns. This +style was imitated from the Moors. Some doors still exist at the +Alhambra, Granada, covered with enormous heads of nails of a +half-spherical form with embossed pattern. These same nails are +constantly to be found on old Spanish houses, to which are added in the +angles pieces of iron of a most artistic order. A large number of these +nails from Toledo, are in the Kensington Museum. Examples of two are +given. + +[Illustration: SPANISH NAIL HEADS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +After the 16th century this industry loses its artistic interest and +importance. Ironwork becomes simply practical and useful, and ceases to +reproduce the grand carved and chiselled works of former times. The +artistic objects are reduced to specimens on a small scale: door-locks, +of which an excellent example exists at the church of Calatravas, +Madrid; a weighing machine, made by the locksmith Salinas for the Mint +in the 17th century, which was exhibited at the Special Loan Collection +of Scientific Apparatus at Kensington in 1876, the fine ornamentation of +the clock of the cathedral of Seville, made in the last century by Friar +Josef Cordero, and the very remarkable iron locks made by Millan at the +beginning of the present century, for the rooms at the palace of the +Escurial, called "Piezas de Maderas finas." The art of inlaying iron +with gold and silver, constitutes in Spain a special industry; the +principal artists who carry it out at the present time with great skill +are Messrs. Zuluaga at Madrid, and Alvarez at Toledo. The splendid +sepulchre of General Prim at the church of Atocha, Madrid, made entirely +of damasquin ironwork, is worthy of the greatest commendation; the fine +vases and shields of _repouss_ ironwork inlaid with gold, made by +Alvarez of Toledo, are artistic and excellent revivals of the Milanese +work of the 16th century. + + +IRON MASTERS. + + Year in which Locality of + they worked. Name. their Residence. + + 1520. Avila, Fr. Juan de Guadalupe. + + 1527. Andino, Pedro Seville. + + 1540. Andino, Christoval Toledo. + + 1557. Arenas, Hernando Cuenca. + + 1523. Bartolm, El Maestro Jaen and Seville. + + 1555. Barco, Alonso Palencia. + + 1559. Brabo, Hernando Toledo. + + 1579. Cela, Juan Tomas Zaragoza. + + 1541. Cespdes, Domingo de Burgos. + + 1561. Corral, Ruy Diaz del Toledo. + + 1604. Celma, Juan Bautista Aragon y Galicia. + + 1692. Conde, Sebastian Seville. + + 1797. Cordero, Fr. Josef Seville. + + 1537. Delgado, Juan Seville. + + 1540. Domingo, Maestro Toledo. + + 1518. Elias, Joan de Palencia. + + 1519. Esteban, Maestro Seville. + + 1494. Frances, Juan Toledo. + + 1555. Herreros, Llorente Palencia. + + 1522. Idrobo, Diego Seville. + + 1524. Juan, Fray Seville. + + 1518. Lopez, Juan do Urisarri Palencia. + + 1531. Lemosin Cuenca. + + 1518. Muoz, Sancho Cuenca. + + 1389. Morey, Bartolomo Palma de Mallorca. + + 1555. Moreno, Benegno Palencia. + + 1565. Pedro, Maestre Palencia. + + 1533. Palencia, Antonis de Seville. + + 1607. Peafiel, Luis de Toledo. + + 1510. Prieto, Fernando Seville. + + 1512. Prelojero, Juan Palencia. + + 1555. Rodriguez, Gaspar Palencia. + + 1607. Rodriguez, Bartolom Toledo. + + 1607. Silva, Francisco de Toledo. + + 1533. Salamanca, Francisco de Seville. + + 1518. Urisarri, Lopez Palencia. + + 1561. Villalpando Toledo. + + 1518. Yepes, Juan de Seville. + + + + +BRONZES. + + +Objects of bronze of native origin are less frequently met with in Spain +than those of silver and iron. Many foreign artists worked at this +industry, the history of which only begins in the 16th century. The +specimens of bronze work made by the Moors will be described in their +proper place. It is true that examples of bronze made by the Iberians +and Romans are frequently met with in excavations; they consist chiefly +of hatchets and other arms, bracelets, fibulas, etc., but they are +similar in every respect to objects of the same kind found in other +European countries. During the Middle Ages, objects of enamelled gilt +bronze were used on a very large scale in churches; specimens of a very +high order may be seen in Spain, such as the splendid altar at San +Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre; that at Santo Domingo de Silos, and the +statuette of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban, Salamanca. These +objects were, however, probably made at Limoges, or in some other +locality out of Spain. We hardly can trace any bronze of this period but +cathedral bells. One was made at Puig-Valencia as early as A.D. 622, +melted in 1550, the only trace of the early work being the inscription +and date, which are given by contemporary authors. + +Another bell, about half a foot high, of A.D. 875, exists at the Local +Museum of Cordova, with the inscription: "_Offert hoc munus Samson +abbatis in domum Sancti Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era_ DCCCCXIII." We +find the name of "_Joannes Calcena me fecit Anno Domini 1306_," on a +bell at the cathedral of Valencia, and on one of Lerida was to be read: +"_Fecit factum per magistrum Joannem Adam Anno Dei 1418 in mense +Aprili_;" the author appears to have been, by reference to the documents +of the church, "_de burgo Sanct Mari Turlensis diocesis regni +Franci_," for details see Villanueva, vol. ii., p. 147-152, xvi. 88. + +Before entering into the renaissance period, I must mention some +remarkable specimens which have reached us, the work of the Spanish +Arabs. Probably the most ancient and interesting is a sculpture +representing a stag, now at the Provincial Museum of Cordova, which +evidently belonged to a fountain. It was found in the ruins of the +palace of Medina Az Zahra, the construction of which corresponds to the +time of Abd er Rahman III., (961); it is undoubtedly work of this +period, and probably belonged to this palace, so celebrated by Oriental +writers. The fragments of a bronze fountain and several lamps, at the +Museum of Granada, are of a later date; they were found in the +excavations of the early city of Illiberis, which was abandoned in the +11th century, when its inhabitants chose the present site of Granada. +The fragments, which are supposed to have belonged originally to a +fountain, consist of a small temple 22 inches high, of an hexagonal +base, with twelve small columns supporting bands of open work, frescoes, +cupola, and turrets: in the angles are birds. There are six lamps, all +of which are mutilated and incomplete; their form and object is +indicated by the remains of chains which suspended them. Some of them +are half melted, giving testimony to the conflagration which the mosque +suffered in the time of the Arabs. Other bronze fragments have been +found in the same locality. All these objects are artistic in their +general lines, but the workmanship is indifferent, and the ornamentation +heavy and coarse. + +A bronze lion and a mortar, found some years since in the province of +Palencia, are more artistic in form and general details. The mortar was +found near Monzon, and the lion not far from it. Remains still exist of +a castle, which was founded by the Arabs, in the locality, and which at +the beginning of the 11th century was in the hands of the Christians; it +is highly probable that these objects belonged to its Moorish +inhabitants. If we take into account how frequently we find Oriental +remains in this locality, both these objects may be safely classified as +belonging to the 10th century, although there are details in their +ornamentation which appear rather to be of a later period. The lion is +12-1/2 inches high by 14-1/2 inches long; an aperture in the lower part +which communicates with the mouth of the animal, appears to suggest that +it belonged to a fountain, the water of which issued, or not, owing to +the movement of the tail, which rotates and acts as a key. The shape of +this lion recalls those at the Alhambra; its forms are stiff and +angular, in the conventional Oriental manner of reproducing animated +beings. The surface is covered with ornamentation, the mane is arranged +in mannered and symmetrical curls, like those so common in Assyrian +sculptures. On the back and two sides is the following inscription in +Cufic characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic "Perfect blessing. Complete happiness."] + +This object is similar in detail and the inscription to a bronze griffin +at the cemetery of Pisa; it belonged to the collection of the painter +Fortuny, and at the sale in 1875 it was bought by Mr. E. Piot. + +The mortar is circular in form, and is surrounded by twelve prismatic +sections. Two lions' heads serve to support the hanging rings or +handles. The whole of the outside is most delicately carved with +arabesques, among which are to be met frequently figures of birds and +quadrupeds. See "El arte en Esp.," vol. iii., Madrid, 1864. The +following inscription in elegant Cufic characters runs round the upper +part: it is repeated twice. "Complete blessing, and ever-increasing +happiness and prosperity of every kind, and an elevated and happy +social position for its owner." From the richness of the ornamentation +of this object, it is probable that it was used to pound aromatic drugs. + +A bronze lamp of a similar ornamentation was found some years ago at +Cordova--it is not unlike in form and shape Roman lamps of the same kind +made of earthenware. It is engraved all over, and the subject of a dog +pursuing a hare appears often repeated. None of these objects of bronze +work are however equal in importance to a lamp made during the reign of +Mohammed III. of Granada, now at the Archological Museum, Madrid [See +Plate.] It is composed in its base of a body destined to hold the light, +upon which is supported a large four-sided piece in the form of a +pyramid, which is completed with an octagonal body which surmounts it. +Four graduated balls suspend it. The height of this lamp is 2-1/2 yards, +and taking into account its general structure, it appears as if the +chains or intermediate pieces are wanting, which probably existed on the +inverted bell of the base. The manufacture and elegance of decoration of +this object is of a very high order, and may be compared with bronze +work of Damascus. The greater part of the pieces are covered with +pierced open work, and the motto of the Kings of Granada, "There is no +conqueror but God." In the lower part of the large pyramid, truncated in +four sides, is a long inscription in Arabian characters, stating the +lamp to have been made by order of Mohammed III. year of the Hegira, 705 +(A.D. 1305). + +The remaining objects of bronze work of Spanish-Moorish production are +less important. They are interesting notwithstanding. The spherical +perfume-burners which were used to roll on the pavement are highly +artistic and might be adopted in the present day. One or two bronze +buckets of a well exist at the Madrid Archological Museum, with some +small objects of little importance found at Cordova. This artistic +industry has continued until the present day in Spain in the form of +objects of domestic use, such as brasiers, mortars and lamps, several of +which preserve their ancient traditional form. + +[Illustration: MOORISH LAMP. ARCHOLOGICAL MUSEUM, MADRID.] + +In metal work as in architecture, a large number of instances exist in +Spain in which the Christian and Moorish styles are blended--as an +example of this style may be mentioned the fine bronze gates of the +cathedral of Toledo. These doors, which are 18 ft. high by 12 ft. wide, +are covered on both sides with bronze plates; the outer side is +decorated with a geometrical Moorish design and small Arabic +inscriptions, alternating with castles and a number of Arabic mottoes. +In one of the side bands and in the lower part may be read in Spanish +the following inscription: + +"Estas puertas fueron acabadas en el mes de Marzo era de mil c ccc. +setanta e cinco aos." + +"These doors were finished in the month of March, in the era of 1375 +years" (A.D. 1337). + +The fine doors of the cathedral of Cordova, del Perdon, are similar in +style. They are made of wood and covered with bronze plating, and Gothic +and Arabic inscriptions,--the word "Deus," and + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"The empire belongs to God, all is His." Round these doors, alternating +with the arms of Castille and Leon, is the following inscription. "Dia +dos del mes de Marzo de la era del Cesar de 1415 aos, (A.D. 1377.) +Reinante el muy alto et poderoso D. Enrique, rey de Castilla." These +doors were restored in 1539. + +The Puerta del Perdon of the cathedral of Seville is similar in style, +and a good example of moresque bronze work. + +Returning to the bronze work of the Christian artists of the renaissance +period, the general rule which may be established with reference to +statues is that they have been made by foreign artists. This is the case +with the splendid groups of figures at the high altar and presbytery of +the Escorial by Pompeyo Leoni, the equestrian statue of Philip IV. by +Pedro Tacca, and others of a similar kind. One of the very few +exceptions to this rule occurs in Bartolom Morel, a Spaniard, the +author of the statue called the "Giralda" on the tower of the cathedral +of Seville, the desk of the choir, and _Tenebrarium_ at the same church. +These objects were all by him, and are among the finest specimens of +bronze work in Spain. The _Tenebrarium_ is described by Cean Bermudez in +his "Descripcion artistica de la catedral de Sevilla," p. 129, in the +following manner: "This object is better executed and more graceful in +design than any of its kind in Spain. It consists of a triangular +candelabrum, which is used during matins in the three last days of Holy +Week with fifteen tapers, which are extinguished on reading each psalm. + +"It was designed and executed by Bartolom Morel in 1562. Juan Giralte, +a native of the Low Countries, and Juan Bita Vazquez helped him to make +the statues which are at the head of this candelabrum, and Pedro +Delgado, a sculptor of great renown, worked at the foot. + +"It is 8 yards and a half high, and the triangular upper part is 3 yards +wide: it is surmounted by fifteen statues which represent Our Saviour, +the Apostles and two other disciples or evangelists. In the vacant space +of the triangle there is a circle ornamented with foliage, in the centre +of which is a figure in high relief of the Blessed Virgin, underneath is +a medallion bust of a king. This centre is of bronzed wood, and is +supported by four small bronze columns, below which are four caryatides, +resting on a nobly designed border ornamented with lions and other +animals in the renaissance style." See woodcut on next page. + +[Illustration: THE TENEBRARIUM IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.] + +Villalpando distinguished himself at the cathedral of Toledo in the same +way as Morel at Seville. The splendid _reja_ at the Capilla Mayor with +the fine gilt bronze pulpits, the bas-reliefs of the doors of Lions, +1564, the font, and railing surrounding the altar of the Virgin in the +coro were all made by him. The pulpits, made as it is asserted out of +the bronze sepulchre of Dn. Alvaro de Luna are octagonal, six of their +sides are admirably decorated with bas-reliefs of exquisite work +divided by pilasters and terminated by a finely designed frieze. The +door of Lions is covered in a similar manner with bronze plates +ornamented in the finest renaissance style; the knockers are models in +their way. In the opposite door del Reloj, these reliefs have been +copied in 1713 by the silversmiths Zurreo y Dominguez. + +Notwithstanding the great merit of these works, the stands for the choir +books are even finer and more exquisite in detail. They are made of gilt +bronze and represent subjects from the life of St. Ildefonso, the +Prophet David and the Apocalypse. They were modelled and designed by +Juan Navarro in 1562, and carved by Nicolas de Vergara and his son some +years afterwards. + +Two artists, natives of Aragon, were very famous during the same century +for their bronze work. One of these, Celma, made the pulpits of the +cathedral of Santiago, which are finely ornamented with busts between +the columns, and bas-reliefs representing subjects of the lives of the +saints, and a fine design of leaves and flowers. In one of the +inscriptions may be read: "_Joannes Baptista Celma, Aragonentis patria +pingendi artifex salutis anno 1563. Compostell faciebat._" The other +artist was Cela, the author of the fine reja del coro of the church of +the Pilar at Saragossa, dated 1574-79. + +Two gilt metal Monstrances of Spanish work of the 16th century are in +the South Kensington Museum. No. 4310, 57, represents an architectural +shrine, decorated with strap and cartouche-work, columns, and arcades in +the renaissance style; it is dated 1537. See woodcut on next page. The +other, No. 190, 66, has an ornamented stem, with knob, on which stands a +triangular shrine with kneeling angels; above is a smaller shrine +surmounted by a crucifix. + +[Illustration: SPANISH MONSTRANCE, DATED 1537. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +Objects of bronze work of the 17th century which are not by Fanelli, +Tacca, or other foreigners, are less numerous; most of them show signs +of the decline of art at this period. The chiselled and openworked altar +frontal, at the burial-place of the kings of Spain at the Escorial, is +a very fine work of its kind. The shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa +Forma, also at the Escorial, is an excellent piece of workmanship--both +these objects were made by lay brothers of the convent. Friar Eugenio de +la Cruz and Friar Juan de la Concepcion, silversmiths, worked during the +reign of Philip IV. at chiselling these and other objects of bronze. + +The exaggerations and bad taste, which were so common in every branch of +artistic industry, were as prominent in bronzes--the bas-reliefs of this +metal which ornament the back of the high altar of the cathedral of +Toledo, at the "Transparente," are generally mentioned as models of bad +taste. They are by Narciso Thom; the architecture, painting, statues +and carvings in marble, jasper and bronze are by the same person, as +appears in the inscription which he placed there at its termination in +1734. + +On the accession of King Charles III. from Naples in 1759, these defects +were corrected, in part owing to the classical influence which became so +general in Europe, and continued to the early part of the present +century. The silver manufactory of Martinez founded in Madrid under his +auspices, has already been mentioned in treating of silver work. Objects +of bronze of all kinds were made there in this classic style, and at the +porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, where splendid tables were made of +pietre dure, mounted in bronze. The most important objects there +produced may be seen at the chapel of the royal palace of Madrid, and +the palaces of Aranjuez and the Escurial. + + + + +ARMS. + + +Those who have a taste for the study of prehistorical monuments in +Spain, will find a very extensive collection of arms and other utensils +of this period at the Muso Arqueologico, Madrid, which have been found +in different localities of the country. They chiefly consist of +hatchets, knives, and lance and arrow points made of flint, and are +similar in form to those which have been discovered in the north and +centre of Europe. There are therefore, constant analogies between the +implements used by the primitive Iberians, and those of other European +races of the prehistoric period. + +The arms and weapons of the following age, known as the age of bronze, +are less common in Spain, although a few specimens exist in the Muso of +Madrid, and the "Academia de la Historia." They chiefly consist of +swords, daggers, and lance and arrow points. The hilts are formed of the +same material as the blade in some instances, in others they consist of +a blade fitting into a wooden or ivory handle. The blades are cut on +both sides; they are straight, and finished off in a point; in the +centre runs a thick rim made for the purpose of strengthening the blade, +and that it should not bend. One of these specimens measures 30 inches +long. The daggers are about one-third smaller, with the same rim in the +centre; the bronze hilt is nailed to the blade, and the lance and arrow +points are of the same kind. These weapons are similar in style to the +numerous examples found in other countries, especially England. The +hatchets are also the same, their manner of being fixed on to their +handles and their size and weight being identical with the English ones. +One of the few specimens which varies from this general rule, is a +dagger, with a cylindrical horn-like hilt, belonging to S^{r}. Villaamil: +it was found at Galicia with other interesting arms. (Consult Muso +Espaol de Antiguedades, iv. 63.) + +The probable antiquity of these weapons always remains a matter of +doubt; this is especially the case with stone implements. When on their +discovery the geological structure of the soil has been studied, some +evidence exists on which to ground an opinion; but this is very seldom +the case in Spain, and Messrs. Prado, Villanova, Botella, and +MacPherson, are among the few and most trustworthy geologists who have +investigated this subject. With reference to bronze implements, Spanish +authors have a tendency to attribute them to prehistoric times. I see no +reason to justify this opinion, and it appears to me that when this +subject has been studied in a more satisfactory manner, it will appear +that these arms were used during the Roman domination at the same time +as the iron ones. + +In reaching the Iron period, already within historical times, we find +that the Spanish people, when once under the Roman rule, used the well +known arms and utensils which will be found reproduced in all elementary +books on archology. In this, as in every other sphere, the Romans +imposed their civilization on the races they conquered. Some important +exceptions, however, exist to this general rule. The Spanish swords must +have been excellent in quality, since the Romans adopted them after the +Carthaginian war: they were however, never able to imitate the manner in +which they were tempered. Suidas says: _Romani patriis gladiis depositis +Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium assumpserunt ... sed ferri boni atem et +fabrica solertiam imitari non potuerunt._ The locality where the best +swords were made in Spain was Bilbilis (Calatayud, province of Aragon), +the birthplace of the poet Martial, who, when praising the waters of the +river Jalon and the excellence of its quality for tempering metals, +says, _Salone qui ferrum gelat._ These swords were wide, and cut on both +edges; their points were sharp, and all of them had in the centre signs +of a central groove running down its length. Several specimens may be +seen at the Museo Arqueologico, Madrid, which are 15 or 19 inches long. +The Spaniards used also swords of another form, which were known by the +name of _falcata_, from falx, sickle; the blade was curved, and it has +been supposed to be the genuine Spanish model. The blade was widened in +proportion from the hilt to the point, which was very sharp: it cut like +a sickle in the interior curve, and only a small part was sharpened in +the opposite side. The best specimen, which exists in the Madrid Museum, +is 22-1/2 inches long. The weapons made at Toledo must have been very +famous during the Roman period: Gracio Falisco, a poet of the time of +Julius Csar, says, in mentioning them: _Ima toletano prcingant ilia +cultro_; the sword manufactory there attained afterwards great +importance. + +I must end by mentioning the _funda_, or slings, and leaden plummets +(_glandes_), which were thrown so dexterously by the slingers of the +Balearic Islands. The slingers of this province are mentioned with great +praise by ancient authors. (V. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman +Antiquities. _Funda._) + +During the Visigothic domination, some modifications must have been +introduced in the form and number of the arms used, probably owing to +the tradition of the Gothic race, and the Byzantine or Oriental +influences, which they accept in every sphere; but the names and +explanation of these weapons, given by San Isidoro in his "Etimologies," +lib. xviii., indicate that the Roman system was adopted as a general +rule. The chief modification which may be established for the Visigoths, +and the greater part of the European races, is that from their time the +breast-plates and metallic pieces, which served as a protection for the +legs and arms, fell into disuse, and were substituted by coats of mail +or chain armour. This is deduced from San Isidoro's not describing +these metallic plates; although he gives numerous details on different +sorts of coats of mail, including those made of coarse stuffs woven in +Silisia. At this time, the use of planks or boards to protect the body +was abandoned, and did not prove acceptable until the end of the 13th +century, when they again became very generally adopted in Spain. + +During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Spanish Christians continued to +use the same weapons as in other European states. The history of Spanish +arms, in like manner with its artistic history and civilization, is +similar to that of other nations; it frequently occurs that objects of +this kind are classified with those of other countries, the only +exceptions to this general rule being those which result from the +Moorish conquest and influence. + +The Arabs, after they took possession of Spain at the beginning of the +8th century, imported, with their arts and industries, special arms and +weapons, the greater part of which were copied from Persian models; +their swords, helmets, and shields deserve special attention; in other +weapons the difference is not so great; and, indeed, in the two first it +is chiefly confined to their decoration. + +None of the arms made by the Moors have been so justly celebrated, or so +delicately worked as their swords. An Arabic author, El Camus, says the +Arabs had as many as 1000 names to designate swords. In the first years +of the Hegira, their historians praise the swords made at Yemen, and in +India; later on, those of Syria; Damascus was, however, the great centre +where arms of all kinds were made. Several interesting Arabic +manuscripts are known on this subject, such as the _Treatise on steel +blades_ in the library of Gotha, that on _Different kinds of arms, with +the properties of lances, swords, and horses_, in the Library of Leyden, +and numerous articles by Oriental scholars, which have appeared in the +"Journal Asiatique," and other reviews. The manufacture in Syria decayed +in the 15th century; other centres gained in importance, specially those +in Egypt, Morocco, and Spain, which had rivalled the East in this +industry during the Middle Ages. + +The Arabs introduced their forms and manner of decorating arms when they +invaded the Peninsula; it is, however, highly probable that the +traditions still existed at Bilbilis and Toledo of the manner of +tempering steel. It is known that Abd-er Rahman II. (A.D. 822-852) +reformed the manufacture of arms at Toledo, and that in A.D. 965, Al +Hakem II. sent a rich present of specimens made in the locality to Don +Sancho, King of Leon. Notwithstanding the high reputation of the +industries of Cordova, the great centre and court of the Spanish Arabs +during the earlier period of their domination, "it never became famous +for its working steel," as Fernandez Gonzalez tells us in his study on +Spanish moresque swords, from which much of this information has been +derived. (V. Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades, V. I. and V.). Almeria, Murcia, +Seville, and Granada were greatly distinguished in this manufacture +during the domination of the Arabs in Spain. + +We know that Almeria, during the 12th and 13th centuries, "was also +famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils of iron, +copper, or glass." (Mohamadan Dynasties in Spain, by Al-Makkari, vol. i. +p. 51.) Abou Said, in writing in the 13th century of Murcia, says, +"Objects are made there of latteen and ron, consisting of knives and +scissors, with an ornamentation in gold. Other similar utensils, proper +for the outfit of a bride, or a soldier, in such large quantities, that +the mere thought of it confuses the imagination." + +The same author, when speaking of the swords of Seville, says, "The +steel which is made at Seville is most excellent; it would take too much +time to enumerate the delicate objects of every kind which are made in +this town." These industries must have continued in the hands of the +Moors after the town was conquered by Spaniards in the 13th century. In +the following century we find in the will of King D^{n}. Pedro, "I also +endow my son with my Castilian sword, which I had made here in Seville, +ornamented with stones and gold." + +No specimens of Hispao moresque swords exist previous to the 15th +century. We possess some highly interesting examples of this period, +all, or the most part, of which were made at Granada, the last centre of +civilization of the Spanish Arabs. The most important are the sword, +dagger, and double-handed sword and knife, which, with the authentic +costume, belonging to Boabdil, the last king of Granada, are now in the +possession of the Marquis of Villaseca, at Madrid. These objects were +gained by an ancestor of the marquis, who took Boabdil prisoner in 1482 +at the battle of Lucena. In compliance with the chivalrous practice of +the time, the arms of the conquered king went to the conqueror, and have +been kept as heirlooms since that time. + +The sword of Villaseca is 39 inches long, this includes 12 inches of the +hilt. (See woodcut.) "The steel blade," says S^{r}. Fernandez, in his +article, vol. v. p. 395, "is of a later date, and appears to have been +added to the sword after the older one had disappeared. It is a Toledo +blade, marked with the letter S, similar to the one used by Alonso +Sahagun the elder, and with a hollow line in the centre." + +I am of opinion, however, that it may be the original blade, for the +other sword, which still exists at Granada, of the same kind, has +likewise a blade marked T, Toledo. This coincidence appears to suggest +that those made there were preferred, and in both instances they exactly +fit the sheath, which is the original one. + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +The hilt of this fine sword is formed of solid gold, enamelled in blue, +white, and red. This decoration runs along the pommel and cross bars. +The axle is made of ivory carved with the utmost skill. Two octagons are +on each side, with the following inscription in semi-Cufic letters: (may +you) "obtain your object." On the other side: "in saving his life." + +[Illustration: SWORD OF BOABDIL. VILLASECA COLLECTION, MADRID.] + +Four shields surround in the upper part this axle, which contains the +following inscription in rather illegible characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"In the name of God, power belongs to him, there is no other divinity +but he, happiness proceeds from God alone." + +In the lower part in similar shields we read: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"Miracles belong to God, for certainly the ignorant do not know God at +first, for it is their habit to err." + +On the pommel is the following inscription: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +Say, "He alone is God, Eternal God, who neither created, nor was +engendered." + +Under the pommel, on green enamel, appear the following letters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +Say, "The only God, Eternal, not ..." + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +On the other side: "was neither created, nor engendered, and has no +equal." + +On a band which appears under the axle, on enamel, are the following +letters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"God is clement and merciful," and on the other side: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"God is gifted with the best memory." + +The learned archaeologist and orientalist, D^{n} Pascual de Gayangos, is +of opinion that this sword was worn hanging round the neck, between the +shoulder blades. A small bag, _tahali_, probably hung also from the +leather girdle, which still exists in the collection of Villaseca. + +The _montante_, or double-handed sword, has an iron cylindrical hilt +inlaid with ivory. On it appears the motto of the kings of Granada: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"God alone is the conqueror." + +The blade, part of which is wanting, is marked with the crescent. + +The dagger is superior in artistic merit. The hilt is made of iron, +ornamented with ivory delicately engraved in arabesques. The blade is +damascened in gold, with inscriptions on one side, repeating: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"Health, permanent glory, and lasting happiness [belong to God"]. + +On the opposite side: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"It was made by Reduan." + +The scabbard of this dagger is most beautiful, its chapes are made of +silver enamelled in green, and the remainder is of crimson velvet +embroidered in gold, from which hangs a fine tassel of silk and gold +thread. A small eating knife is fitted into this same scabbard, which +possesses no artistic interest. + +The woodcut on the next page will give a good idea of the blade of a +Moorish dagger of the 15th century. + +A sword of a similar kind to the one already described may be seen at +Granada at the _Administrador's_ of the Generalife. It belongs to the +marquis of Campotejar, a descendant of Sidi Jahia, a Moorish prince who +was converted to Christianity. The marquis of Vega de Armijo has an +interesting sword of the same kind, and two others exist at the Museo de +Artilleria, Madrid, which belonged to Aliatar; Boabdil's sword is at the +Royal Armoury. The Hispano Arab sword, which for centuries had been in a +saint's hand at the church of San Marcelo, Leon, is now at the Museo +Arqueologico, Madrid. + +The Spanish Moors used helmets similar in form to those of the +Christians, though their manner of decoration was different; after the +importations made by the Crusaders, the similarity must every day have +been greater. The _almofar_, which appears by its name to have been +originally oriental, and which is constantly named in Spanish documents +from the poem of the Cid, was a protection for the head, of a similar +form to those used in France and other countries, consisting of a hood +made of chain armour, covering the head and leaving the face free; upon +it was placed the hood or helmet. Some helmets exist at the Royal +Armoury of Madrid of Spanish Moorish origin; among them are two very +remarkable ones, which have been attributed to Boabdil, the last king of +Granada. (Nos. 2345, 2356, of the Catalogue.) They are decorated with +gold filigree, niellos, and geometrical ornamentation in the best +oriental style, most admirably worked, and different in this respect to +the helmets used in this time. Another interesting helmet, which +belonged to this ill-fated monarch, exists in the province of Almeria. + +[Illustration: MOORISH DAGGER, 15TH CENTURY.] + +The _adargas_, or shields, are more varied: they were frequently adopted +by the Christians. They were generally round, with a salient point in +the centre, _ombilicus_, or a sort of iron grating made for the purpose +of entangling the adversary's sword. These shields were of wood or thick +cowhide, _vacaries_, and were decorated outside in a variety of ways, +sometimes with pierced iron plates or bands of leather, forming +arabesques; and at other times with an ornamentation of iron, and +leather embroidered with gold and silver, with rich hanging tassels and +pendants. Shields of a prolonged form were also very constantly used, +terminating in a semicircle in the upper part, and in the lower by a +sharp point or a semicircle at the top and bottom, as may be seen in the +paintings of the Sala de la Justicia at the Alhambra. A good collection +of round shields may be seen at the Armoury at Madrid: they are not +earlier in date than the 15th century, the most interesting among them +are Nos. 233, 253, 389, 595, and 607 of the Catalogue. Some of them are +exquisite in work and detail. These shields, although belonging to the +latest period of the middle ages, were used before this time, for they +appear on the ivory casket existing at the cathedral of Pamplona, [V. +Ivories, p. 130], dated A.D. 1005, and in miniatures of Spanish MSS. of +that date. One of the best examples, which may be mentioned to confirm +these indications, will be found in a MS. at the British Museum (Add. +ii., 695), which was painted during a period of twenty years in the +monastery of Silos, near Burgos, and finished and completed A.D. 1109. +Mr. Shaw, in his "Dresses and Decorations," vol. v., reproduces some of +these figures, and says: "The figures which form our plate represent +Spanish warriors of the later part of the 11th century, and are +interesting on account of their remarkable resemblance to the +Anglo-Norman soldiers on the celebrated Bayeux tapestry. This +resemblance is observable in the style of the drawing, as well as in the +costumes. It is highly probable that the military habits of this period +were borrowed from the Saracens. This supposition is strengthened by the +fact that Arabic inscriptions in Cufic letters are found among the +ornaments of the several robes still preserved which belonged to German +and Frankish barons of the 10th and 11th centuries. One peculiarity of +our Spanish warriors is the round shield with the elegant ornaments on +the disc." + +These may be considered the chief varieties of Spanish arms in the +Middle Ages. In other instances the French and Italian forms are +adopted. The manufacture of arms was not reduced then as at a later date +to the monopoly of the Government or to determined localities. Besides +the arms made at Toledo, those of Seville, Granada, Valencia, Zaragoza, +Barcelona, the Basque provinces, and Cuellar, were very famous. Readers +of Shakespeare will remember Falstaff's _bilbo_, a rapier made at Bilbao +in the Basque provinces. The principal merit of these arms consisted in +the manner in which the artist tempered his metal. It was generally done +at night in order to distinguish in the darkness the exact colour of the +heated steel in dipping it into the water. The swords known by the name +of _perrillo_ were highly esteemed in Spain during the 15th and 16th +centuries; they were marked with a figure resembling a dog. Cervantes +mentions and praises these blades in his "Rinconete y Cortadillo" and +"Don Quixote." They were made by a Moor of Granada, who it is stated had +been swordsman of King Boabdil, and became a Christian under the name of +Julian del Rey. His godfather was King Ferdinand, and besides working at +Granada he did so at Zaragoza and Toledo. When an artist of merit +excelled in a given locality, it absorbed all the fame of this industry. +During the Renaissance larger centres of this industry were established +in large towns, and the fame of the objects they produced was +concentrated there. Toledo absorbed the importance in the industry of +sword making. + +We find that the Municipal Ordinances of the Middle Ages give very +little information by which we can judge of the merits of the objects +produced. A Guild of Armourers existed at Barcelona as early as 1257, +and of Sword makers from the 14th century; but the information given +concerning this subject is very slight. We find more details in the +Ordinances of Toledo, Seville, and Granada, whence we learn that +manufactories of arms existed in these towns. + +The sword manufactory of Toledo acquires its greatest importance during +the Renaissance period until the end of the 17th century, when it +terminated. It was re-established again in 1760 under the patronage of +the Government, and continues to work in the present day. Don Francisco +de Santiago Palomares wrote, in 1772, an "Account of the Sword +Manufactory of Toledo," the manuscript of which exists at the Academia +de la Historia (E. 41). The most interesting part of this study consists +in the details given upon the manner of tempering the blades. The names +he has collected of the most remarkable artists, are taken from the +original dies of their marks which existed at the Archives of the +Ayuntamiento at Toledo. These marks have been published in the "Catalogo +de la Armeria," Madrid, 1849, from which I copy them. It must be borne +in mind that Palomares, after quoting the text by the Poet Gracio +Falisco, which I have given at the beginning, does not establish any +definite fact which enables us to study the historical progress of this +manufactory during the Middle Ages. The author says, p. 111: "At the +beginning of this industry there was no centralization or monopoly in +this manufactory, some armourers formed a guild, placing each artist in +his proper place. The kings of Castille granted them privileges of +different kinds." + +Bowles says, in his "Introduction to the Natural and Geographical +History of Spain," that the steel used at the manufactory of Toledo was +taken from an iron mine existing at a league from Mondragon, the only +one then known in Spain. + +The celebrity of Toledo blades has excited the curiosity of many who +wished to ascertain the cause of their great excellence and renown. Some +supposed the sword manufacturers of Toledo possessed a secret for +tempering their arms: it was not so, however; their only secret being +the waters of the Tagus and the fine white sand on its banks. This sand +was used for cooling the steel: when the steel was red-hot, and began to +give forth sparks, it was uncovered a little and sprinkled with sand, +and sent on to the forgers. As soon as the blade was ready it was +tempered in the following manner: a line of fire was made and the blade +placed in it in such a manner that only four-fifths of its length should +touch the fire. As soon as the blade was red-hot it was dropped +perpendicularly into a bucket of Tagus water; when cold, if it was found +to be bent, a small portion of sand was poured on the yoke, the blade +was placed upon it, and beaten until properly straightened. After this +the fifth part of the blade was fired, and when red-hot was seized with +tongs and rubbed with suet, which soon began to melt; after this the +blade was sent to the grinding-stones, and finished by being polished by +wooden wheels with emery powder. + +Charles the Third, a year after he became King of Spain, re-established +officially the manufactory of arms of Toledo. He placed it in a +building near the Miradero Alto, and the works began in 1761. The king +soon found the building too small for the purpose, and ordered his +architect, Sabatini to build the present one, outside the town near the +river Tagus, which was finished in 1783, and from this time has been +under the superintendence of the Royal Artillery. Not a single sword +maker existed in 1760 of any note who was competent to be placed at the +head of the works, and it was found necessary to bring a proper person +from Valencia. + +Palomares, who was present, says: "As soon as the building was ready and +disposed for working, Luis Calisto, a famous sword maker, began to work. +Calisto was a native of Valencia, and more than 70 years of age when he +was appointed. Other artists were chosen at the same time by the +Director. In the short space of time in which that chief master armourer +lived, he made most excellent weapons; he was most skilful, and was +probably imitated by his successor." + + +NAMES OF THE SWORD MAKERS OF TOLEDO. + +The numbers given correspond to the plates of their marks, given in +"Catalogo de la Real Armeria." + + 1. Alonso de Sahagun, el _viejo_, 1570. + + 2. Alonso de Sahagun, el _mozo_. + + 3. Alonso Perez. + + 4. Alonso de los Rios; he also worked at Cordova. + + 5. Alonso de Cava. + + 6. Andres Martinez. + + 7. Andres Herraez; he also worked at Cuenca. + + 8. Andres Munesten; worked at Calatayud. + + 9. Andres Garcia. + + 10. Antonio de Baena. + + 11. Antonio Gutierrez. + + 12. Antonio Gutierrez, a son of the former. + + 13. Antonio Ruiz, 1520; he used the initial letter of his name. + + 14. Adrian de Zafra; worked at Sn. Clemente. + + 15. Bartolom de Nieva. + + 16. Casaldo y Campaeros; worked at Cuellar and Badajoz. + + 17. Domingo de Orozco. + + 18. Domingo Maestre, el _viejo_. + + 19. Domingo Maestre, el _mozo_. + + 20. Domingo Rodriguez. + + 21. Domingo Sanchez; called el Tigerero. + + 22. Domingo de Aguirre. + + 23. Domingo de Lama. + + 24. Domingo Corrientes; worked also at Madrid. + + 25. Fabrian de Zafra; hijo de Adrian. + + 26. Francisco Ruiz, el _viejo_, 1617. + + 27. Francisco Ruiz, el _mozo_. + + 28. Francisco Gomez. + + 29. Francisco de Zamora; worked also at Seville. + + 30. Francisco de Alcozer; worked at Madrid. + + 31. Francisco Lurdi. + + 32. Francisco Cordiu. + + 33. Francisco Perez. + + 34. Giraldo Reliz. + + 35. Gonzalo Simon, 1617. + + 36. Gabriel Martinez. + + 37. Gil de Almau. + + 38. Hortuo de Aguirre, 1604. + + 39. Juan Martin. + + 40. Juan de Leizalde; worked at Seville. + + 41. Juan Martinez, el _viejo_. + + 42. Juan Martinez, el _mozo_, 1617. + + 43. Juan de Almau, 1550. + + 44. Juan de Toro. + + 45. Juan Ruiz. + + 46. Juan Martinez de Garata. + + 47. Juan Martinez Menchaca; he lived at the beginning of the 16th + century, and worked at Lisbon, Seville, and Madrid. + + 48. Juan Ros. + + 49. Juan Moreno. + + 50. Juan de Saludo. + + 51. Juan de Meladoria. + + 52. Juan de Vargas. + + 53. Juan de la Horta, 1545. + + 54. Juanes de Toledo. + + 55. Juanes de Algruniva. + + 56. Juanes de Muleto. + + 57. Juanes, el _viejo_. + + 58. Juanes de Uriza. + + 59. Julian del Rey, the Moor; he worked for Boabdil, King of + Granada, 15th century. + + 60. Julian Garcia; worked also at Cuenca. + + 61. Julian de Zamora. + + 62. Jos Gomez. + + 63. Jusepe de la Hera, el _viejo_. + + 64. Jusepe de la Hera, el _mozo_. + + 65. Jusepe de la Hera, el _nieto_. + + 66. Jusepe de la Hera, el _visnieto_. + + 67. Jusepe del Haza. + + 68. Ignacio Fernandez, el _viejo_. + + 69. Ignacio Fernandez, el _mozo_. + + 70. Luis de Nieves. + + 71. Luis de Ayala. + + 72. Luis de Belmonte. + + 73. Luis de Sahagun. + + 74. Luis de Sahagun. + + 75. Luis de Nieva; worked at Calatayud. + + 76. Lupus Aguado, 1567. + + 77. Miguel Cantero, 1564. + + 78. Miguel Sanchez. + + 79. Melchor Suarez; worked at Lisbon. + + 80. Nicolas Hortuo de Aguirre, 1637. + + 81. Pedro de Toro. + + 82. Pedro de Arechiga. + + 83. Pedro Lopez; worked at Orgaz. + + 84. Pedro de Lerzama; worked at Seville. + + 85. Pedro de Lazaretea; worked at Bilbao. + + 86. Pedro de Orozco. + + 87. Pedro de Belmonte. + + 88. Roque Hernandez. + + Sarabal; used no mark. + + 89. Sebastian Hernandez, el _viejo_, 1637. + + 90. Sebastian Hernandez, el _mozo_; he worked also at Seville. + + 91. Silvestre Nieto. + + 92. Silvestre Nieto. + + 93. Tomas de Ayala, 1625. + + 94. Zamorano, el Toledano. + +Nos. 95, 96, 97, 98, and 99, are the marks of sword makers whose names +are unknown. + + Miguel y Manuel Fernandez; worked at Toledo in 1786. + + Pedro de Barreta; at Bilbao at the end of the 16th century. + +The following names may be added to this list-- + + Luis Calisto, 1760; and the four following artists are mentioned by + Palomares as working at Toledo. + + Juan de Valladolid. + + Sebastian Herbs, 1617. + + Manuel Ruiz, 1700. + + Ignacio Fernandez, 1708. + + Juan Orenga, 15th century; worked at Tortosa, and mentioned in the + "Corvacho" of the Arcipreste de Talavera, fol. xi. + + Martin Garro, v. p. 120, "Almanaque de la Industria." + + Alonso Gutierrez, master of sword making at Madrid in 1625. + +This artist, and the eleven following, are mentioned in original +documents at the Academia de San Fernando. + + Francisco de Borja, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1634. + + Gaspar Martin, sword maker; working at Madrid in 1637. + + Juan Mazon de Santorcas, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1636. + + Juan de Medina; Madrid, 1620. + + Lorenzo de los Rios; Madrid, 1585. + + Miguel de Berrio; Madrid, 1575. + + Pedro Casado, sword maker; Madrid, 1636. + + Francisco de Elias, an apprentice of Pedro Casads. + + Francisco de Salinas; Madrid, 1636. + + Acheza----; Toledo. + + Camilo, 1500. + +Two fine rapiers are in the Kensington Museum, Nos. 626, '68, and 2214, +'55, which belong to the 16th and 17th centuries, and give a good idea +of this industry of Toledo. Woodcuts of these appear on the opposite +page. One of the blades is marked with the name of Francisco Ruiz. A +large and most important collection of rapiers, swords, and other arms +exists at the Royal Armoury of Madrid. + +The breastplates are unusually fine, but the finest among them are by +Milanese artists. A good example, which has been considered Spanish, was +formerly in the Bernal Collection (see woodcut on p. 98); it gives an +excellent idea of the artistic importance attained by this industry. + +[Illustration: SPANISH RAPIERS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +The saddles used in Spain were similar to those of other European +countries, for we find the same names adapted to the Spanish language. +In the poem of the Cid, 13th century, and other works of the Middle +Ages, _gallega_ and _barda_ saddles are mentioned which were peculiar to +Spain. The _gallega_ saddles were called so from being made in Gallicia; +the _barda_ proceeded from the Moors. We find no details which explain +their exact structure. + +[Illustration: BREASTPLATE, FORMERLY IN THE BERNAL COLLECTION.] + +A very remarkable collection of saddles of every description may be +studied at the fine collection of armour at Madrid; among them are two +of special interest--No. 2311 of "Catalogue of Armoury"--traditionally +supposed to have belonged to the Cid, and No. 1310, which was used by +King James the Conqueror in the 13th century. The Cid's saddle (see +woodcut) is intended for a war-horse; its bows are covered with black +metal plating, ornamented with a design of leaves and pilgrims' shells, +partially gilt, and the word "Fides," considered to be the Cid's +devise. Much has been written on the origin and authenticity of this +saddle. Cervantes alludes to it in the 49th Chapter of "Don Quixote," +Part I. For further details see "Catalogue of the Armeria." + +[Illustration: SADDLE OF THE CID. ARMOURY, MADRID.] + +The greatest novelty which was introduced during the Renaissance period +was the use of fire-arms. The only names of ancient artists that I have +met with, who had any connection with the manufactory of large pieces of +artillery were Pedro Burgues, an iron master of Barcelona, who lived in +1393; Rodrigo de Almanza, and Pedro Colomer, who made fire-arms at +Barcelona in 1413; and the Moor, Alfarax Darhin, an iron master of +Tarazona; V. Fernandez Duro. [Museo Espaol, vol. v. p. 18.] + +Portable fire-arms were introduced into Spain towards the middle of the +15th century. Count Clonard, in treating this subject in the "Memorias +de la Academia de la Historia," ix. p. 214, says:--"Alfonso de Palencia +tells us the _espingarda_, or large hand musket (see woodcut), and +_arbatana_ culverin, were used in the insurrection at Toledo in July, +1467. He assures us they had been very recently invented and named. They +had been mentioned as early as 1449. In the siege of Toledo, Don Alvaro +de Luna could not be kept back from the dangerous position in which he +had placed himself, notwithstanding the shower of stones, rockets, +arrows, and shots of _espingardas_ which were thrown into the town." + +[Illustration: SPANISH MUSKETS.] + +At the same time as these portable fire-arms were used in Spain, the +ancient _ballestas_, crossbows, so generally used in the Middle Ages, +were very popular. Several artists became very famous in their +manufacture. Alonso Martinez de Espinar enters into many details of this +implement in his rare volume on the "Arte de Ballesteria y Monteria," +Madrid, 1644, 4to, from which I copy the following passage, p. 11:--"The +crossbow is more secure and less dangerous than the arquebuse; for it +has never been known that a man's life has been lost by breaking the +string or cord, two things which are dangerous, but not to a +considerable extent. The crossbow has many advantages over the +arquebuse: it kills, but does not frighten game; this cannot be done +with the arquebuse, for the sound it makes alarms and frightens the +game, and is heard everywhere. Once set, its shot is secure; which is +not the case with the arquebuse, which often misses fire. + +"This weapon has been used in Spain from very early times, and has been +made by the best masters; the most famous among them were-- + + Azcoitia el Viejo. + Pedro de la Fuente. + Christoval de Azcoitia. + Juan Hernandez. + Juan Perez de Villadiego. + Juan Azcoitia. + Vzedo. + Hortega. + +"The only famous maker of crossbows of the present time is Juan de +Lastra." + +Espinar does not mention the name of Miguel, a crossbow maker of +Zaragoza, or another celebrated maker who lived at Barbastro. The +ambassador Salinas alludes to them both in an hitherto unedited letter +written to King Ferdinand of Hungary, the brother of the Emperor Charles +V. He says:--"Before I was able to find a lodging in this town of Monzon +(Aragon), which was about five or six days, I went to Balbastro, +Barbastro, and there occupied myself in making a pair of crossbows for +your Majesty. I believe they are so made that they will satisfy the +desires which were required; they were made in my presence and according +to my wishes, and as your Majesty is annoyed when they do not go off as +you wish, I determined to make them in the following manner: One of them +weighs l. ounces, which is considered here a very great weight. I, +knowing your Majesty's wishes, had another made of lvi. ounces, that is +to say 3-1/2 lbs. of Castille, carved and worked in such a manner that +the cords should not break; and that it be pleasant to shoot, I can +affirm your Majesty that the maker is the best which exists in Spain, +and yet he has never made so fine a crossbow as this one which is now +sent to your Majesty; and if not to your liking, I do not expect you +ever will be pleased with one. I have sent them to Victoria in order +that the screws may be made to fit the cords, and have ordered them to +be made without delay; and as soon as they are ready they are to be sent +to Bilbao to be forwarded to Flanders to the Queen, to whom your Majesty +must write, in order that whatever you may wish may be done with them. +When we leave here, it is said, we are to go to Zaragoza, where your +Majesty will stay ten or twelve days. I will order two crossbows from +_Maestro Michel_, who competes with the maker at Barbastro. I will do +the same with these as the others. I entreat your Majesty should provide +that the best of the two should not be lost. I am thoroughly satisfied +with it, and am sure it will please your Majesty. From Monzon, 27th day +of August, MDXXXIII." (Copy of a letter by Martin de Salinas to +Ferdinand, King of Bohemia and Hungary, MS. fol. Acad. of History, c. +71). + +Martinez de Espinar gives in his "Arte de Ballesteria," p. 41, the names +of the best Spanish arquebuse or musket makers, and says: "The first +cannon brought to Spain came from Germany; the artist who made them used +the following marks:-- + +"Two heads. + +"A vase. + +"A vase and pine. + +"A pair of tongs. + +"Flames. + +"A knife. + +"An excellent artificer worked formerly in Italy called Lazari Cominaz, +but many bad cannons have been attributed to him. + +"The best Spanish masters were-- + +"Maestre Simon, el viejo. + +"Maestre Pedro, his brother, who made at Madrid excellent cannon and +locks. + +"They came over with the Emperor Charles V., and worked also for the +Kings Philip II. and III., and marked the pieces they made with three +sickles. + +"Maestre Simon had four sons; all of them followed his profession. +Felipe and Simon Marcuarte have worked for Philip III. and IV. Simon +Marcuarte is still alive. They mark with a sickle in a shield, and make +also excellent hunting-knives, archers' knives, halberds, and other +things. Pedro, their brother, is also an excellent artificer. + +"Juan Salado worked in several localities, and died at Salamanca. He was +an excellent arquebuse maker. His mark was the letter of his name and a +horse. + +"Sanchez de Mirvea, his son-in-law, followed him. He marked with a lion +and his initials. + +"Gaspar Fernandez was brought by King Ferdinand from Salamanca, and the +arms he makes are the best in Spain. + +"Pedro Muoz worked at Seville. He was surnamed El Toledano, and marked +with all the letters of his name. + +"Juan de Metola did the same. + +"Leguizamo worked at Seville. He marked with his name and two stags. + +"Francisco Hernandez used his full name. + +"Andres Herraez was a native of Cuenca. He made every sort of arm, and +marked with an eagle and his initials. + +"Maestre Cristoval de Ricla marked with an X. + +"Pedro Palacios with P P." + +A fine musket exists by Palacios at the Royal Armoury of Madrid--No. +427. By Cristoval de Ricla there is a cannon of worked iron, No. 2319, +mounted on its gun-carriage, with the following inscription, "Hizome en +Ricla Cristoval Frisleva ao, 1565." A fine gun, also at the Armeria, is +by the same artist. + +Juan de Espinar does not mention the following artists, who lived at his +time at Madrid. I find their names given in original documents in the +Library of the Academia de San Fernando. + + Bartolom de Orgaz 1643 + + Juan de la Cruz 1629 + + Juan de Mazo 1613 + + Juan de Pozo 1625 + + Juan de Zuazo, armourer of his Majesty 1645 + + Lucas de Ros, armourer of his Majesty 1623-1628 + + Matias Suezo, was arquebusier of the guards of Seville in 1625 + + Rafael Villato in 1625 + + Pero Matia appears in documents of the archives of Simancas as musket-maker + living at the Alhambra at the end of the 16th century. + +By extracting the information on this subject which is given in the +introduction to the Catalogue of the Armoury, we find this list can be +brought down to our time:-- + +Gaspar Hernandez had two excellent pupils. + +Domingo Garcia and Juan Belen, who marked with a lion with a lifted paw. +He was appointed gunsmith to King Charles II. in 1699. + +Alonso Martinez was an excellent artist; he marked his work with the +letters of his name. + +Luis Santos, 1739. + +Nicolas Bis. + +Matias Baeza, gunsmith of King Philip V., 1739. + +Alonso Martinez, 1732. + +Diego Esquivel. + +Juan Fernandez, appointed in 1726. + +Diego Ventura, appointed gunsmith to Charles III., 1760. + +Luis Santos. + +Matias Baeza, 1740. + +Francisco Bis. + +Ignacio Barcina. + +Sebastian Santos, 1752. + +Gabriel de Algora, appointed gunsmith to Ferdinand VI., 1746. + +Juan Fernandez. + +Manuel Sutil, an excellent artist. + +Jos Cano, 1740. + +Joaquin Celaya, 1749. + +Jos Lopez. + +Diego Ventura. + +Benito San Martin. + +Juan Santos. + +Francisco Lopez, a great artist, gunsmith of King Charles III., in 1761. + +Jos Cano. + +Diego Alvarez, 1775. + +Joaquin Celaya. + +Salvador Cenarro, 1762. + +Antonio Gomez, 1762. + +Pedro Ramirez. + +Agustin Bustindui. + +Sebastian Santos. + +Pedro Fernandez. + +Gabriel de Algora. + +Agustin Ortiz, 1761. + +Miguel Cegarra, 1768. + +Francisco Lopez. + +Francisco Garcia, 1788. + +Isidoro Soler, 1792. + +Francisco Targarona, 1792. + +Gregorio Lopez, 1792. + +Agustin Ortiz. + +Pedro Fernandez. + +Carlos Rodriguez. + +Antonio Navarro. + +Diego Alvarez. + +Valentin Lopez. + +Juan de Soto. + +Carlos Montargis, 1783. + +Manuel Cantero, 1792. + +Hilario Mateo. + +Antonio Gomez. + +Juan Lopez. + +Ramon Martinez. + +Basilio Escalante. + +Manuel Soler. + +Melchor Alvarez, the first gunsmith who forged spiral cannon in Spain, +and made double-barrelled guns. + +Gregorio Lopez. + +Aquilino Aparicio. + +Ramon Zuloaga. + +Eusebio Zuloaga. + +*** The marks used by these artists are given in plate 9 of "Catalogo de +la Armeria de Madrid," 1849. + +Daggers, knives, scissors, and other small arms made in Spain, have been +famous from early times. A good example of a dagger is No. 2238, 55 at +the Kensington Museum. A great number of towns have been distinguished +for this industry, such as Albacete, Murcia, Alcazar de San Juan, and +Guadix, where even in the present day much cutlery is produced. The +cutlery made in Spain preserves the traditional Moorish forms. Al +Makkari says, in speaking of these objects, in his "Moham. Dyn. in +Spain," vol. i., p. 93:--"Murcia was likewise famous for the manufacture +of coats of mail, breast-plates, and steel armour inlaid with gold; all +kinds of instruments of brass and iron, such as knives, scissors, and +other trinkets, and especially weapons and other warlike instruments, +wrought in such perfection as to dazzle with their brightness the eyes +of the beholder." The translator adds, p. 393: "Several towns in the +province are renowned for this industry. At Albacete there are several +manufactures of well-tempered scissors, daggers, and knives, which, from +the shape of their blades, betray their Moorish origin. Since the +expulsion of the Moriscos, the Spaniards have kept up this manufacture, +and daggers and knives of the end of the last century are often met with +bearing Arabic inscriptions and verses from the Koran. I have seen one +which on one side has the following inscription, 'I shall certainly kill +thy enemies with the help of God,' and on the reverse, 'Fabrica de +Navajas de Antonio Gonzalez, Albacete, 1705.'" + +Sr. Rico y Sinovas has published an interesting article on ironwork in +the "Almanaque de el Museo de la Industria," 1872. He gives the names of +the following artists who were famous in this industry. + + Aguas, Juan; he worked at Guadix in 1735. + + Albacete, signed Cel, 18th century. + + Ambrosio, worked at Mora in the 18th century. + + Arbell, Ramon, worked at Olot, Catalua, in the 17th century. + + Beson, Manuel, worked at Madrid. + + Castellanos, el _viejo_, worked at Albacete in 1766. + + Castellanos, el _mozo_, worked at Albacete in the 18th century. + + Castello, Gregorio, 16th century. + + Cerda, Miguel de la, worked at Madrid and Segovia in 1590. + + Diaz, Pedro, worked at Albacete in the early half of the 18th + century. + + Escobar, Cristoval, 16th century. + + Escobar, Juan, 17th century. + + Fernandez Manso de Payba, Jose, master cutler of the 18th century. + + Garcia de la Torre, Teodoro, 18th century. + + Garijo, master cutler of Albacete; he worked in 1771. + + Gomez, Mateo, worked at Albacete in 1659. + + Grande, Juan, 1643. + + Gutierrez, worked at Chinchilla, 1701. + + Herrezuelo, el _viejo_, worked at Baeza in 1643. + + Herrezuelo, el _mozo_, worked at Baeza in 1643. + + Horbeira, Angel, worked at Madrid in the second half of the 17th + century. + + Lallave, Juan, locksmith of Madrid in 1820. + + Leon, worked at Albacete early in the 18th century. + + Llorens, Pablo, worked at Olot in 1699. + + Moro, worked at Madrid late in the last century. + + Ramirez, Juan, worked at Mexico in 1590. + + Romero, worked at Albacete in 1769. + + Rosel, worked at Mora. + + San Jos, worked at Jaen in 1673. + + Selva, Juan, worked at Cartagena in 1780. + + Segura, worked at Mora towards the end of the last century. + + Sierra, Juan, worked at Albacete in 1771. + + Sosa, Madrid, 17th century. + + Torres, Albacete, 17th century. + + Vicen Perez, worked at Albacete in 1674. + + Vilarosa, Antonio, worked in the 17th century. + + Vicen Perez, Julian, worked at Albacete in 1710. + + Zervantes, Francisco, Toledo, 17th century. + +The following artists' names may be added; they consist of master +cutlers of Madrid, and are to be found in a bundle of original documents +at the Academy of San Fernando. + + Alcocer, Francisco, 1635. + + Baltanos, Lucas de, 1611. + + Castillo, Rafael del, 1625. + + Cuenca, Francisco de, 1613. + + Fuente, Pedro de la, worked at Mora and Madrid in 1628. + + Garcia, Bartolom, 1642. + + Gonzalez, Marcos, 1624, 1625. + + Heras, Antonio de las, 1611. + + Luzon, Andres de, 1611. + + Martin, Alonso, 1643. + + Martinez de Machuca, Pedro, 1611. + + Morel, Alonso, 1643. + + Rodriguez de Quiones, Pedro, 1611. + + Torres, Antonio de, 1622. + + Valsarias, Lucas de, 1611. + +The following names of artists are given in Calomarde's "Historia +Politica de Aragon." + + Ferrara, Andres, Zaragoza, 16th century. + + Picado, Jeronimo, Calatayud, 1722. + + Nieva, Luis, Calatayud, 17th century. + + Munester, Andres, Calatayud, 18th century. + + + + +FURNITURE. + + +It is difficult to give an account of the furniture used in Spain from +the earliest times, owing to the absence of specimens belonging to the +Roman or Visigothic period. We are safe, however, in affirming that, +during the domination of the Romans, the same models were used in Spain +as in Rome itself, the similarity between objects of other kinds which +exists, and the continual habit of the Romans of imposing their culture +on the countries which they conquered, is sufficient to justify this +idea. During the first period of the Christian era until about the 11th +century, other objects which have reached us as gold and silversmiths' +work, seem to prove that all industrial art work, including furniture +must have been Classic, Byzantine, or Oriental in form, according to the +period in which these styles predominated. The Roman or Classical style +must have lasted for a considerable time, if we judge by the texts given +by San Isidoro, in his "Etymologies," lib. xx., cap. xi. and xii. San +Isidoro lived in the 7th century of our era. We find he mentions the +words, _de lectis et sellis_, _de vehiculis_, which refer to furniture +of the Roman period; but we do not meet with any distinctive terms which +can be applied to the time in which he lived, on the contrary he +comments on phrases and alludes to the forms of objects in the same +manner as Rufus, Varrus, and other classical writers. + +At the invasion of the Arabs in the beginning of the 8th century the +Byzantine element increased in its application to furniture. During the +reign of the caliphs, contemporary authors tell us that luxury of +decoration of every kind was carried to a great extent. The description +of the pulpit or _minbar_ of the mosque of Cordova will give an idea of +its richness. Al Makkari, in his "History of Mohammedan Dynasties in +Spain," says, "the length of the Mihrab was 8 cubits; its breadth, 7 +cubits; the height of its dome, 13 cubits. There stood on one side a +pulpit, constructed by Alhahem, equalled by none other in the world for +workmanship and materials. It was made of ivory and exquisite woods, +such as ebony, sandal, Indian plantain, citron wood, aloe, and so forth, +at the expense of 3,575 dinars: the steps by which it was ascended were +nine in number. Another writer says it was formed of 36,000 pieces of +wood fastened together by gold and silver nails, occasionally encrusted +with precious stones, and its construction lasted for seven years; eight +artists being daily employed on it," vol. i. p. 222. + +Edrisi, who lived at Cordova at the beginning of the 12th century, +describes this pulpit in the same manner. It was to be seen in the +cathedral of Cordova as late as the 16th century, when it was destroyed, +and its materials employed in the construction of an altar. An Arab +_minbar_ is in the South Kensington Museum, which came from Cairo, and +although belonging to the last centuries of the Middle Ages, it will +give an idea of this structure and its elaborate workmanship. + +The oldest specimen of furniture which exists in Spain, belonging to +Christian art, is the shrine of San Millan de la Cogulla, in the +province of La Rioja, described in _Ivories_, p. 134. This casket or +shrine was made by the orders of King Sancho el Mayor, in 1033, in order +to preserve the relics of San Millan. It is of wood, covered with 22 +compartments of highly interesting ivory plaques, representing episodes +from the life of the Saint. The names of the artists, _Apparitio_ and +_Rodolpho_, appear on it. In 1808 the French stripped the shrine of its +gold and silver ornaments, but, most fortunately, left the casket and +its ivory carvings behind. + +Another interesting object, which is useful for illustrating furniture +in Spain in the 12th century, is the Bishop's throne in the cathedral of +Gerona. It is of white marble of one piece, covered with a simple +ornamentation in excellent taste, in a similar style, and for the same +purpose, as the throne of San Clemente in Rome. It is raised at the back +of the altar, and is ascended by thirteen steps. The Bishop sits on this +throne after the first purification, and continues there until the +Offertory, when he descends and finishes the mass at the altar; owing to +the existence of this chair, one of the most ancient rites of +Catholicism has been preserved at Gerona. + +Mention must also be made of the shrine in which the remains of Queen +Urraca are kept in the cathedral of Palencia, and the Cofre del Cid in +the cathedral of Burgos, although they are more interesting for their +antiquity than their artistic merit. + +During the 13th century furniture in Spain must have been similar to +that used in other countries, it was influenced by French and Italian +forms; from which, as was the case in architecture, these models were +constantly copied. Some idea of this is given in the triptych known by +the name of the Tablas Alfonsinas, which is fully described in Gold and +Silver Work. (See woodcut on p. 17.) + +The principal novelty which we find in Spain in this industry consists +in the combination of the Christian and Moorish styles applied to +furniture. A very remarkable specimen exists at the Academia de la +Historia, consisting of a reliquary, triptych or armoire of very large +dimensions, formerly in the church of the Monasterio of Piedra in +Aragon. It is 13 feet wide and 8 feet high. When the two doors are +closed six compartments appear on each, surrounded by a border headed by +a wide cornice. This cornice is divided in sixteen spaces formed by +arches adorned with stalactite ornamentation in the Moorish style; +inside each span is painted the figure of a saint. In the twelve +compartments which form the doors there are subjects from the life of +Our Lord, beginning with the Annunciation, and ending with the Descent +from the Cross painted in excellent taste. The border which surrounds +these doors is formed of a beautiful geometrical ornamentation, in the +purest Oriental style; in the upper and lower part appears the following +inscription in Gothic characters, which gives us the date in which this +object was made. + +Tabernaculum hoc vocabitur aula Dei quia vere Dominis est in loco isto. +Fuit autem constructum ad honorem et reverentiam sacratissimi corporis +Domini nostri Ihu Xpi et pasionis ejusdem nec non ad honorem == et +reverentiam sanctissime genitricis ejusdem et totius celestis curie et +sanctorum ... at fuit ... depictum anno MCCCXC. anima ordinatoris +requiescat ... sinu salvatoris. Amen. + +When this triptych is opened several compartments appear, formed by +cusped Gothic arches, placed within others, in the form of a mitre +divided by pinnacles. The ornamentation which fills the vacant space +between the arches, and the seven banderoles in the lower part are in +pure Gothic style, without a reminiscence of Moorish art. In the central +banderole appears the name of _Dopnus Martinus Poncii Abbas_, the abbot +of the monastery where this reliquary was made, and the person by whom +the expense was probably borne. The inside of the doors is divided into +two horizontal zones, which include half the total size. The upper zone +is covered with geometrical tracery, similar to the outer borders. The +lower one is divided into four compartments for each leaf of the door, +eight within two, which are formed by cusped Gothic arches; within these +spaces are painted standing figures of angels holding musical +instruments in their hands and nimbi round their heads. The details and +forms of the instruments and delicate ornamentation of the costumes and +carpets, constitute one of the most beautiful details of this triptych. +These details and several of the architectural lines of the Gothic part +of this ornamentation denote an Italian influence, probably Sicilian, +for this province belonged then to the crown of Aragon. This triptych +is richly gilt, and painted inside and out, and is one of the finest and +most remarkable specimens of the kind which exist in any country. A +plate may be seen in "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 307. + +A very interesting specimen of this combination of styles is a recess or +cupboard of the 14th century, which is at the Kensington Museum, No. +1764, 71, [see woodcut]. It is 5 feet 4 inches high, by 8 feet wide; and +is composed of an outer arch, with the tympani ornamented with fine +arabesques in relief, made of stucco,--representing vine tendrils, +leaves, and flowers, similar to those which appear in the Cosa de Mesa +and other Moorish houses at Toledo. The arch is surrounded by two Latin +inscriptions in Gothic characters, of which only the following words are +legible + Autem transies per medium ilorum.... mente +. The first of +these is from St. Luke, iv., v. 30, a passage often quoted by +alchemists. + +This arch serves as a portal to the cupboard, which is about a foot +deep, and is divided into two compartments with two rows of shelves. +Each of these is supported by a series of Moorish arches, the tympani of +which are ornamented with tracery, or an ornamentation of leaves in a +geometrical and Oriental manner. On the rim of the upper part is +repeated the following inscription in African characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"Felicity and Fortune." + +On the lower shelf are the following words in Spanish in Gothic +characters: + Dios: te: salve: estrella: de: la: mannana: medicina: de: +los: peccadores: reina + "Hail! morning star; medicine of sinners; +queen." + +[Illustration: "BOTICA DE LOS TEMPLARIOS." FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +This "Alhacena," or cupboard, existed formerly in the court of an old +house at Toledo, known by the name of "Casa de la Parra," and is +constantly called "Botica de los Templarios," the Templars' dispensary, +probably because the Templars occupied the parish of St. Michael, in +which the house stands, and because the word "medicine" is mentioned in +the inscription. + +In order to increase the list of these objects, which are unfortunately +so rare, it is necessary to mention the organ case, decorated with fine +Moorish tracery, in the chapel founded by Diego de Anaya, Archbishop of +Seville in 1374, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca. + +Another specimen of furniture of interest of the 14th century is the +shrine or casket containing the remains of San Isidoro, existing in the +parish church of San Andres at Madrid. This casket is 7 feet 5 inches +long; the cover is formed of two plain surfaces, forming a roof, which +leaves a triangular pediment at each end. The shrine is made of wood, +covered outside with a coat of painting in distemper, and is decorated +with a series of painted compartments simulating pointed tricuspid +arches let into others which are mitre-shaped; in the interior spaces +are painted a series of representations of the life of the saint. This +object is extremely interesting: it is evidently of Spanish workmanship, +although it has great resemblance with the Italian _cassoni_ of the same +period. See vol. iv. "Mus. Esp." p. 593, and "Monumentos +Arquitectonicos"--livraison 67. + +The most important period of artistic furniture in Spain must be looked +for in the 15th and 16th centuries: we find in this time works decorated +with sculptured figures and most delicate and exquisite ornamentation. +Nothing gives a better idea of this than the choir seats of Spanish +cathedrals. The cathedrals in Spain are different to those of France and +the north of Europe owing to the circumstance that the choir, or _coro_, +is placed in the middle of the central nave, in the traditional form of +the primitive basilicas, such as San Clemente at Rome, with the +difference however, that towards the last centuries of the Middle Ages +the _pluteus_ or walls that surround it, which are elevated about one +yard from the floor, were turned into an enclosure or wall four or five +yards in height. A space is therefore set apart in the middle of the +church, which, although spoiling the general effect of the nave, +becomes, as is the case in most Spanish cathedrals, a museum of artistic +objects of all kinds. The side facing the presbytery or high altar is +enclosed by a _reja_. [See Iron and Bronze work.] In the three remaining +sides stalls are placed against the wall, forming two rows, one near the +floor, and the other raised about a yard from the lower ones. The +general system adopted is a row of stalls separated from each other by +the arms; the backs of the lower ones serving as stands for the books +which are used by those who sit in the upper range. The subsell are +prolonged and form canopies, pinnacles, crest-work, and other varied +ornamentation resting on columns. They are usually made of walnut wood, +and there is not a single vacant space which is left uncovered with +figures or ornamentation in relief: the effect produced by the whole is +admirable. The number of seats varies according to the size of the +choir, or importance of the church. + +It is probable that the earliest wood carvers who worked in Spain came +from Flanders or Holland, if we judge by the decided Germanic character +of the figures and ornamentation, and frequent mention made of foreign +masters; but this industry very soon took root in Spain, and Spanish +artists soon equalled or excelled their masters. The most important +choir stalls carved in the Gothic style in Spain belong only to the last +years of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century; those in the +Renaissance style come immediately afterwards, and include the whole +16th century. + +One of the finest is that of Leon, it is in the purest German-Gothic +style, and may be considered as a masterpiece in its way: the large +figures are as delicately carved as the small ones. The representations +of the "Last Judgment" and "Tree of Jesse" are as beautiful as can be +imagined. The choir at Zamora is also in the German style; the large +figures which ornament it are splendid in effect. These stalls are fully +described in "The Ecclesiologist," in the following manner: "The stalls, +though not remarkably early, are very fine. The bishops, as usual, at +the centre of the west nave; then three dignitaries on each side; then +at each extremity of the west end a door into the nave; then on the +north and south sides respectively twenty stalls with subsell, which +also are returned. All the panelling is very fine: but that at the back +of the subsell I will give at full, because the types of, and legends +concerning Our Lord are so remarkably well chosen, that they may be +useful as giving ideas to our own church builders, and might be +introduced with great advantage in stained glass." "Ecclesiologist," +vol. xiv., p. 363. + +The stalls at the cathedral and church of Sto. Tomas of Avila, and +cathedral of Burgos are also very fine. The _coro_ at Barcelona is +extremely picturesque; at the backs of the stalls are placed the coats +of arms of the knights of the Golden Fleece, in a similar manner to +those of St. George's Chapel at Windsor; among these we find the arms of +Henry the VIIIth. In 1519 the Emperor Charles V. held at Barcelona a +chapter of this Order, the only one which has ever been held in Spain. + +It would take too much space to enumerate the choir seats in Spain +worthy of notice; those at Toledo rank as the most important, as +including the last period of the Gothic and best Renaissance styles. +This _coro_ contains 45 stalls in the lower, and 71 in the upper part. +Mr. Street fully describes the lower part in his "Gothic Architecture in +Spain," p. 252, and says: "The lower range of stalls, fifty in number, +are the work of Maestro Rodrigo, circa A.D. 1495; and the upper range +were executed, half by Berruguete and half by Felipe de Borgoa, A.D. +1543. The old stall ends are picturesque in outline, very large, and +covered with tracery, panels and carvings with monkeys and other animals +sitting on them. The upper range of stalls is raised by four steps, so +that between the elbows of the lower stalls and the desk above them, are +spaces filled in with a magnificent series of bas reliefs, illustrating +the various incidents of the conquest of Granada. They were executed +whilst the subjects depicted were fresh in the minds of the people, and +are full of picturesque vigour and character. The names of the +fortresses are inscribed on the walls; in some we have the siege, in +others the surrender of the keys; in others the Catholic monarchs, +accompanied by Cardinal Ximenes riding in triumph through the gates." +The upper stalls, although considered by Mr. Street "heavy dull +Paganism," are among the most important artistic works existing in +Spain. Their sculptures and ornamentation reproduce the Renaissance +Italian style in its finest period. Columns of red jasper are combined +with the walnut-wood carvings, and the termination of the upper part +which rests on the wall is of white marble carved by the same artists. + +Choir stalls, sharing the fate of other architectural works, followed +the general path of decay after the 16th century. Those stalls at the +cathedral of Malaga, which were carved in the 17th century by Jos +Michael, Pedro de Mena, and Luis Ortiz, are worthy of mention: the +figures in high relief at the back are very fine. This falling off of +artistic feeling is particularly observable at the cathedral of Cordova; +the stalls there, which were carved by Pedro Duque Cornejo in the 18th +century, are admirable in richness of ornamentation, but the whole +decoration is in the worst possible taste. The fine lecterns which are +placed in the centres of the choirs are often good examples of carving. +An admirable model of this style exists at the cathedral of Zamora. + +In treating of furniture of other kinds, the silver chair or throne of +D^{n.} Martin de Aragon must figure in the first instance. It is +described in "Gold and Silver Work," p. 19. In these and other objects +which are not Oriental in style, constant reminiscences are observable +of the similarity of ideas and forms with Italian or French objects. The +large chests or _cassoni_ of different sizes which are constantly met +with in museums, or in private collections, are similar to objects of +the same kind which abound in Italy. Some are covered with fine Gothic +or Renaissance carvings in the same taste as the choir stalls, and are +ornamented also with good iron-work. Some of them were made in the +province of Catalua of inlaid ivory, imitating in a coarse manner +Florentine and Milanese work. These objects were of the end of the 15th +and beginning of the 16th century. An excellent example exists at the +cathedral of Toledo, near the Puerta de los Leones, consisting of an +iron coffer covered with carved and repouss work. + +A fine cupboard of walnut wood may be seen at the same cathedral which +is unrivalled for its beauty. It is composed of an architectural order +with six pilasters, forming five vacant spaces completely covered with +medallions, groups of children, flowers, and a multitude of subjects of +ornamentation in reliefs, terminating with a frieze crowned with +candelabra and salient points. This piece of furniture was made in +1549-1551, by the sculptor, Pedro Pardo, for holding vestments of the +clergy. In 1780 a reproduction was made by Gregorio Lopez Durango: the +original and the copy face each other in the room which is passed on +entering the Sala Capitular. As Spanish carved wood work of the +beginning of the 16th century may be mentioned the specimens at the +Kensington Museum, Nos. 245 and 246-64, of two panels with armorial +shields. + +During the 16th, but more especially the 17th, century it became very +fashionable in Europe to use secretaires or cabinets to a great extent, +which, if we calculate by those that still are found in private houses +in Spain, have never been so numerous in any other country. A great +variety of every description may be seen at the South Kensington Museum. +In looking through old inventories at Madrid, the number of these +escritoires which decorated the rooms of the Palace is almost +incredible. Many of them came from Italy, Flanders, or Germany. In a +memorial drawn up by Pedro Gutierrez and presented to the King, begging +for protection for this industry, he says: "The cabinets and +escritoires, _contadores y bufetes_, which were worth 500, 600, and 700 +reales when brought from Germany, are now made in Spain for 250 and 300 +reales each." (Acad. de la Hist., N. 6, vol. iv. 371.) The quantity and +importance of those brought from Germany is to be inferred from an edict +promulgated by Philip III., in Valladolid in 1603, in which "cabinets of +every kind coming from Nuremberg are not allowed to enter the country," +ib. 518. + +These cabinets were made in a great variety of ways. Some were, as we +have seen, copied in Spain from foreign models, but the greater number +constituted a characteristic industry of the Peninsula. Some were +covered with wood carvings in a similar style to the large armoires in +the Sala Capitular at Toledo. Others were known by the name of +_Vargueos_, because the great centre of their manufacture is supposed +to have existed at the village of Vargas in the province of Toledo. +These cabinets are effective; their geometrical ornamentation is a +reminiscence of the Oriental style, and the iron work outside is very +striking. A good specimen may be seen at the Kensington Museum, No. +1073, '71; a woodcut of the upper portion is given on the next page. + +We also meet with cabinets and armoires with glass doors covered with +tortoise-shell and gilt bronze. A splendid series of inlaid work of +tortoise-shell, ebony, mother-of-pearl and ivory is preserved at the +Sacristy of the Cartuja at Granada, made by a friar of the same convent, +Manuel Vazquez, at the beginning of the last century. Cabinets of ebony, +inlaid and covered with repouss silver work, must have been very +generally made in Spain; silver was used to so great an extent after the +conquest of America, that a law was issued in 1574 prohibiting with the +utmost rigour the making and selling of this kind of merchandise, in +order not to increase the scarcity of silver. "No cabinets, desks, +coffers, braziers, etc., shall be manufactured of silver." + +[Illustration: VARGUEO CABINET. SPANISH. 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +Cabinets of inlaid ivory or different coloured woods which were +originally imported from Italy and Germany were constantly reproduced in +Spain, as will appear by the following dialogue:-- "How much has your +worship paid for this cabinet? It is worth more than 40 ducats. What +wood is it made of? The red one is made of mahogany from the Habana, and +the black one is made of ebony, and the white one of ivory. You will +find the workmanship excellent. Here you will find a finer cabinet. +Where was it made? It was brought with these chairs from Salamanca." +("Dialogos Familiares," by J. de Luna, Paris, 1669, p. 111.) Among +cabinets inlaid with bone or ivory there is a peculiar style in which +furniture brought from the Portuguese possessions in the East was +imitated in a rough way. Some also have reached us in which the drawers +are covered with embroidery in silks of different colours, exquisitely +worked. In the 17th century furniture of different kinds was covered +with embroidered silks. At the Kensington Museum there is an interesting +coffer, which came from the Convent of Loeches, and was originally the +gift of Count Duke de Olivares, Philip the IVth's minister. + +The cabinets decorated with _pietre duri_, which are frequently met with +in Spain were of foreign make. Madame d'Aunoy, in describing the house +of a grandee of Spain in her "Voyage d'Espagne," p. 56, vol. ii., Lyon, +1643, says, "et de grands cabinets de pices de rapport enrichis de +pierreries, lesquels ne sont pas faits en Espagne: des tables d'argent +d'entre eux, et des miroirs admirables tant pour leur grandeur que pour +leurs riches bordures, dont les moins belles sont d'argent. Ce que j'ai +trouv de plus beau sont des _escaparates_; une espce de petit cabinet +ferm d'une seule glace et rempli de tout ce qu'on se peut figurer de +plus rare." Cabinets ornamented with paintings on glass, or copper, or +enamels came from Flanders, and some rare specimens of damasquine work +were most probably Milanese manufacture. + +In Cean Bermudez "Dicc Historico de los Profesores de Bellas Artes" +appear among the sculptors' names, those of the artists who carved the +most important stalls of the cathedrals, and other works of art of a +similar kind, but the names of those who made cabinets have never yet +been published. I have been fortunate enough to be able to collect the +following from unpublished documents which exist at the Library of the +Acad. de San Fernando at Madrid. They worked in the 16th and 17th +century. + + Aguayo, Urban de, wood carver 1623 + + Carpintero, Francisco, wood carver 1630 + + Garcia, Marcos, wood carver of his Majesty 1637-42 + + Gomez, Juan, carver in wood 1598 + + Gorostiza, Juan de, carver in wood 1627 + + Higares, Nicolas de, carver in wood 1625 + + Hispano, Francisco, carver in ivory 1618 + + Hoz, Martin de la, carver in wood 1624 + + Lara, Benardino, de, carver in wood 1612 + + Lozano, Pedro 1622 + + Marcos, Juan, carver in wood 1636 + + Martinez, Andrs, carver in wood 1622 + + Martinez, Dionisio, carver in wood 1621-25 + + Martinez, Gabriel, carver in wood 1623 + + Murga, Tomas de, carver of his royal Highness 1614 + + Osoz, Martin de, wood carver 1623 + + Parezano, Alonso, wood carver of his Majesty 1623 + + Pelegrin, Joan, wood carver 1614 + + Pea, Jeronimo de la, wood carver 1622 + + Quero, Melchor de, carver in wood 1586 + + Radis, Francisco, master maker of cabinets in + ebony and ivory 1617 + + Riofrio, Martin de, wood carver 1612 + + Riofrio, Tomas de, wood carver 1626 + + Rodriguez, Bernardo de, wood carver 1624 + + Rodriguez, Domingo, wood carver 1633 + + Roxo, Domingo, wood carver 1630 + + Sanchez, Matias, wood carver 1565 + + Santana, Juan de, wood carver 1617 + + Sierra, Francisco de, wood carver 1634 + + Spano, Jeronimo, wood carver 1617 + + Torres, Juan de, wood carver 1658 + + Velasco, Lucas de, master in painting and + gilding cabinets 1633 + + Zorrilla, Domingo 1642 + +Large arm-chairs of a quadrangular form, with arms, back and seat of +leather or embroidered stuffs, were used to furnish rooms at the same +time as these cabinets; tables, and frames inlaid with ivory, +tortoise-shell, ebony, bronze and silver, were hung on the walls; +side-boards, beds, and braziers were made of inlaid woods or silver. +Women during the 16th and 17th centuries sat on low stools on the +ground. The beds were made of rich brocades embroidered with gold, +(_vide_ Madame d'Aunoy), trimmed with point d'Espagne, and on the +splendid carpets were placed silver braziers which burnt crushed olive +stones. The walls were covered with tapestry and rich silks, and from +very early times stamped, painted or gilt leather _guadameciles_ were +used in Spain to a very great extent. These _guadameciles_ were imitated +in France and other countries in the 16th and 17th centuries; a very +large quantity of this stamped leather is to be met with in England. The +Baron Ch. Davillier has lately published an interesting notice on this +subject, from which I take the following information. ("Notes sur les +cuirs de Cordoue. Guadameciles d'Espagne," Paris, 1878.) + +The word guadamecil applied to this leather comes from the village of +_Ghadames_ in Africa, celebrated from the 12th century for this +industry. It was imported by the Moors into Spain, and Cordova became +from the beginning of the Middle Ages the great centre of this +production, although other towns, such as Seville, Granada, Toledo, and +Barcelona, exported these leathers also. The chronicler Ambrosio de +Morales, in his "Las Antiguedades de las ciudades de Espaa," Alcala, +1575, says, p. 10, "A great commerce is produced by the exportation of +skins, and many have been enriched by it, those prepared at Cordova are +so excellent, that now in Spain any goat hide prepared in any locality +is called Cordovan. Guadameciles are made of leather, and are so well +fashioned in Cordova that none can compete with them; they are exported +to the Indies and all Europe. They produce much for the town, and +beautify the principal streets, for the hides are hung out to dry after +they are painted and gilt, and it is a fine sight to see the walls +covered with such variety of colour and form." + +A good collection of these guadameciles is in the South Kensington +Museum. See Nos. 471 to 485, '69, and 1651 to 1654, '71. + +At the end of the 17th and first half of the 18th century, the Baroque +or Churrigueresque architecture had such influence over furniture, that +although exaggerated examples were very common, they reached in no +country to such a pitch as they did in Spain. As specimens, the enormous +_retablos_ over the high altars made of gilt carved wood may be +mentioned, which are so frequently to be seen in Spanish churches. The +exuberance of uncouth heavy ornamentation destroys the regularity and +harmony of the general effect. Chairs and tables were made then in the +same style, and the _cornucopias_ or decorated mirrors which adorn +Spanish churches and sacristy, belong to this period. The name of +_cornucopia_ was given in allusion to the horn of abundance. + +The French influence of the last century brought the same fashions for +furniture into Spain, and we also find there the styles known as Louis +XVI. and Empire. Spain follows the general rule; porcelain plaques from +the manufactories of Alcora and Retiro were let into furniture, and gilt +bronze mountings were very much used. The most important specimens of +furniture of the early present century are the splendid rooms inlaid +with metal work at the Palace, called Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez, and +those known by the name of "Piezas de maderas finas," at the Palace del +Escorial. The description given by J. Quevdo, in his "Historia del Real +Monasterio de San Lorenzo," Madrid, 1849, gives a good idea of their +importance; he says, p. 343, "This series of four small rooms were +decorated at a cost of 28,000,000 of reales (280,000). The pavement, +friezes, windows, and doors, are made of the most delicate inlaid work +representing landscapes, vases and festoons of flowers, which look as if +they were painted with a brush. King Charles IV. helped in this work, +and they were finished in 1831 under the direction of Angel Maeso. The +splendid iron work was made by Ignacio Millan. It is of polished iron +inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in workmanship." + + + + +IVORIES. + + +No artistic industry in Spain has left behind so little historical +information as ivory carving. Only a very small number of examples of +this art have reached us which are of undoubted Spanish manufacture, but +a group exists among them which has been but little examined or studied; +it is worthy of the utmost attention, on account of its artistic +character, and the inferences which may be drawn from it. + +We find no allusion in the works of Pliny or St. Isidoro to the +existence of the industry of ivory carving in Spain during the Roman and +Visigothic dominations. An interesting example of ivory work of the +Roman period, consisting of a consular diptych may be seen at the +cathedral of Oviedo, which, although certainly not carved in Spain, must +not be overlooked here, in order that it may be included among the +number of the carvings which have reached us of this period. The two +leaves of this diptych are complete, and in a perfect state of +preservation: they are 16 inches long by 6 inches wide; in the centres +are two medallions in relief with a bust of the consul, who is +represented in the act of throwing down with his right hand the _mappa_ +or handkerchief, and holding in his left hand a sceptre. The right +angles are ornamented with masks, the rest of the surface is plain. The +two following inscriptions run along the upper part of the leaves: +FLSTRATEGIVS APION. STRATEGIVS APION V. ILL: COM. DEVV. DOMM. ET CONS + OR. + +Flavius Strategius Apius. Strategius Apius, illustrious man, count of +the most fervent servants, and consul in ordinary. + +This consul belongs to the period of Justinian, by which emperor he was +invested with this dignity in A.D. 539. We do not know how this diptych +came to Spain; it is generally supposed that it belonged originally to +the shrine of the cathedral of Toledo, from whence it was removed to +Asturias, with other relics, to be concealed there during the invasion +of the Arabs at the beginning of the 8th century. The student will find +further details in "Corpus Ins." by Hbner. "Monumentos +arquitectonicos." "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades." Vol. i. p. 385. + +From the invasion of the Arabs, which began early in the 8th century, +and on the foundation of the empire of the Caliphs of Cordova in the +year 756, an era of grandeur began for the Arabs in Spain, coinciding +with their independence from the Caliphs of Damascus, which lasted for +more than two centuries; during this time Cordova became the most +important literary and scientific centre in Europe. The direct influence +of the East and Constantinople may be traced without interruption from +this time on the culture of the Spanish Arabs. At times this culture was +transmitted by the objects of every kind which the Spaniards received +from the East, at others by the influence exercised by the artists who +established themselves on the territory of the Caliphate of Cordova. The +greater part of the industrial arts, which were imported at this time, +became naturalized in the country, and we find them developed in every +locality of the Peninsula, and although we do not possess any positive +historical information stating this fact, which distinctly bears on +ivory carvings, we are safe in affirming that the industry existed among +the Spanish Arabs in a very high state of perfection during the last +years of the Caliphate. The description and details of the most +important ivories which have reached us of this period confirms this +opinion. + +At the South Kensington Museum there is a cylindrical box No. 217-'65 +with rounded cover. I copy Mr. Maskell's description of this object, of +which a woodcut is given. (Vide "Ivories, Ancient and Medival, in the +South Kensington Museum," London, 1872.) + +"This beautiful box is carved throughout, except the bottom of it, with +interlacing narrow bands forming quatrefoils, in which on the cover are +four eagles. These have spread wings and stand erect; well designed and +most delicately executed. A small knob serves to lift the lid. + +[Illustration: IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +"Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a star having a leaf +ornament. The same decoration is repeated in the spaces between the +larger quatrefoils on the cover. + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"The whole is carved in pierced work, except a band which forms the +upper upright portion of the box, round the side of the lid. This band +has an Arabic inscription: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"A favour of God to the servant of God, Al Hakem al Mostanser Billah, +commander of the faithful." He was a Caliph who reigned at Cordova, A.D. +961-976." + +Another very interesting oblong box is preserved in the same Museum, No. +301-'66. The cover and sides are carved with scroll foliated ornament: +the hinges and clasp are of chased silver inlaid with niello. Round the +sides, immediately below the lid is the following Arabic inscription in +Cufic characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"In the name of God. This (box) was ordered to be made by Seidat Allah, +the wife of Abdo-r-rahman, prince of the believers. God be merciful and +satisfied with him." + +[Illustration: IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +This inscription must allude to Abd er Rahman III. the first Caliph of +Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el Mumenin. The formula "God be +merciful," &c., denotes that he was dead when it was written. He died +A.D. 961. (See woodcut.) + +Another casket, undoubtedly the most important in size which is known of +this period, proceeds from Sanguesa, in the province of Navarre, and is +now preserved in the treasury of the cathedral of Pamplona. + +This splendid box, hitherto undescribed, is 15 inches long, by 9-1/4 +wide. A woodcut is given opposite. It is completely covered with +carvings in relief, within circular cusped medallions, with figures in +the centres representing different subjects: men seated, hawking, or +struggling with wild beasts, and numerous single figures of lions, +stags, and other animals. The intermediate spaces contain an +ornamentation of leaves and flowers which is accommodated to the +geometrical style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of this box +appears an Arabic inscription in fine Cufic characters. + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"In the name of God. The blessing of God, the complete felicity, the +happiness, the fulfilment of the hope of good works, and the adjourning +the fatal period (of death), be with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the +State), Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made by the orders (of +the said Hagib), under the inspection or direction of his chief eunuch, +Nomayr ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave in the year of 395," [A.D. +1005]. + +In the centre medallion, on the opposite side to the lock, is +represented the standing figure of a man who is attacked by two lions. +He holds on his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an inscription, +with the following religious formula: "There is no God but God," or a +similar one, for the characters are very illegible and confused. In the +centre of this shield may be read [Illustration: Arabic], "made by +Hair," undoubtedly one of the artists who made the box. Another artist's +name may be read with difficulty in a similar inscription which appears +on one of the medallions on the left side: it is written on the thigh of +a stag, which is attacked by a lion [Illustration: Arabic], "it was made +by Obeidat." Three other inscriptions of a similar character appear in +other parts of this box, which probably give the names of other +artists, but I have been unable to decipher them. + +[Illustration: MOORISH CASKET. 11TH CENTURY. CATHEDRAL OF PAMPLONA.] + +Among other artistic objects in the shrine of the cathedral of Braga, in +Portugal, there is an ivory box of the same period, and the inscription, +which runs round the cover, mentions the same persons: + +"There is no God but God, and Mahomad is his prophet. In the name of +God, a blessing, prosperity and fortune for the Hagib Seifo, d. daula, +for this work, which he ordered to be made by the hands of"--here the +inscription has been broken off--"his principal eunuch." (Vide 'Artes e +Letras,' No. 6, 3rd series, p. 94, Lisbon, 1874.) + +Both these caskets were made for Hadjeb Abd el Melik, a minister of +Hischem the second. + +It is necessary to add to them an ivory diptych, preserved at the +Provincial Museum of Burgos, which, as we find by the following +inscription, was also made for Abder Rahman III, (A.D. 912-961). + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"This was ordered to be made by the Iman servant of God Abder Rahman, +prince of believers." + +Two other boxes of the same artistic character, belonging to a private +collection, must also be mentioned. They are both cylindrical, and are +terminated by a spherical cover. They measure 7-1/2 inches high, by +4-5/8 wide, and are covered with a profuse and splendid ornamentation of +figures and animals. Round the lid of one them is a band, with the +following inscription in fine Cufic character: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"The blessing of God and his favours, joy, and prosperity, for +Almogueira, son of the Prince of the faithful, whom may God have +forgiven. It was made in the year 357 [A.D. 967]." + +Almogueira was the son of the Caliph of Cordova, Abder Rahman III. + +On the other may be read in similar characters-- + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +("In the name of God, clement and merciful, blessing")--this part of the +inscription is missing--"and prosperity and happiness for Riyadh ben +Aflah, captain of the superior guard. It was made in the year 359" [A.D. +969]. + +The style of the objects which we have hitherto described is undoubtedly +Oriental, and we must seek in Persia the origin of this industry. There +is, however, every probability that these seven ivory boxes were made in +Spain by Spanish Arabs, or artists who had settled there from the East. +On all these carvings the names of Spanish historical persons appear, +and it is hardly possible that they were ordered in remote countries, +especially as some of these objects are small and comparatively +unimportant. It must also be borne in mind that we find in contemporary +authors many details on the luxury and magnificence of this period of +the Spanish Arabs, and the great height which the arts and industries +had reached at that time. + +The ivory carvings which I have described present all the +characteristics of the Oriental school, which was copied by European +Christian sculptors during the 11th and 12th centuries. We find in +Christian productions of this period, too constantly to require any +further comment, the same geometrical traceries, flowers, leaves, +animals, and birds. The subjects represented on monuments of Christian +art have been erroneously interpreted by modern ecclesiologists who have +endeavoured to demonstrate the symbolism of these figures in a purely +Christian sense with only the unsatisfactory result of checking and +leading astray art students of the Middle Ages. It is of the utmost +importance to go to the primitive sources from which this art is derived +in order to illustrate this important theory. The Oriental school of +sculpture was soon transmitted, either through the influence of the +Spanish Arabs, or by other means, to Christian artists. As an +interesting example of this may be mentioned the shrine which King Dn. +Sancho ordered to be made, A.D. 1033, in which to deposit the bones of +San Millan, still preserved in San Millan de la Cogulla, in the province +of La Rioja, Spain. This fine shrine is 4 feet 6 inches long, by 2 feet +3-1/2 inches high. It is of wood, and covered with gold plates and +inlaid stones and crystals. Between this metal work are placed 22 +plaques of ivory carved with subjects representing passages from the +life of the saint, and single figures of the princes, monks, and +benefactors who helped to defray the expense of this work of art. Among +them there are two small figures with the names of Apparitio +Scholastico, Ramirus Rex. These have been generally supposed to be the +artists' names. A sculptor is also represented carving a shield, and +near him is one of his workmen. Underneath these figures ran formerly an +inscription, of which the first part only remains, containing the name +of the artist--"(Magis) tro et Rodolpho filio." + +Two other interesting specimens remain of Spanish Moresque art of the +11th century. One is a casket at the South Kensington Museum, No. 10, +66, which Mr. Maskell describes as "richly carved in deep relief with +foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing one another, and forming +larger and smaller circles. The top and each side is a single plaque of +ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back has two panels. On the two +are two animals, like does; a large bird stands on the back of each, +attacking it with his beak. The sloping sides have, in the large +circles, men on horseback, and animals fighting. The intermediate spaces +are completely filled with foliage, and smaller beasts. Similar +subjects are repeated in the circles on the panels forming the lower +sides of the casket, and among them are two groups of men and women +sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on a guitar, another +holding a cup in one hand and a flower in the other." There is no +inscription on this casket, but in one of the medallions on the lid +there is a bust which is carried on the back of a horse, and which is +probably a representation of the prince for whom the casket was made. + +The other example of this period is that known as the cross of Don +Fernando, at the Archological Museum at Madrid. This cross is 20-1/2 +inches by 14. On the front is a figure in high relief of Our Lord with +the inscription: IHE. NAZARENVS REX IVDEORVM. In the upper part is +represented the figure of Our Lord at the moment of his Resurrection, +and in the lower a symbolical figure of Adam; both these figures are in +high relief. Underneath may be read in two lines,-- + + FERDINANDVS REX. + SANCIA REGINA. + +At the back of the cross appears in the centre the Lamb of God: in the +four corners the emblems of the Evangelists. Besides these purely +Christian symbols, the ground work is covered with foliage, circles +interlacing each other, figures of animals of different kinds, and men +struggling with wild beasts. The whole of the ornamentation corresponds +to the style of decoration of the moresque objects which I have already +described. King Ferdinand I. died A.D. 1065, his wife Sancha A.D. 1071; +and documents exist proving that in 1063 they gave this interesting work +of art with other artistic objects to the Church of San Isidoro of Leon, +where it remained until 1870, when it was given up by the authorities of +the church to the Museum at Madrid. The following woodcut represents the +back of the cross:-- + +[Illustration: BACK OF CROSS OF KING FERDINAND I. ARCHOLOGICAL MUSEUM. +MADRID] + +These different specimens represent, in my opinion, the most +satisfactory view of the art industry of ivory carving during the 10th +and 11th centuries. Several other examples of oriental carving in ivory +still exist in Spain in the shrines of different cathedrals; others of +less artistic interest may be seen at the Archological Museum at +Madrid. These caskets are for the most part not ornamented with carvings +in relief, but are decorated with inscriptions painted in gold and +colours. The most important are:-- + +A large casket at the Archological Museum of Madrid, decorated with +painting in red and green, and a fine inscription in Cufic characters. + +A similar casket at the same museum, decorated with a design painted in +green, red, and blue; an inscription in cufic letters runs round a band +in the upper part. + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"Made by Mohammad Ben Assarag." + +An ivory casket at the Real Academia de la Historia at Madrid, with an +ornamentation and inscription painted in the style of the former ones +and the shield of arms of the Kings of Aragon. The inscription +reproduces several Suras of the Koran, and the arms of the house of +Aragon were probably added when the casket came into the possession of +some person belonging to the family. + +A casket exists at the Church of Santo Domingo de Silos (province of +Burgos), which merits a special mention on account of what has remained +to us of the inscription. + +This casket is 13-1/4 inches long by 7-1/2 inches wide and high. It is +ornamented in part with foliage and flowers in the moresque style, +alternating with hunting subjects, men shooting with bows and arrows, +riding upon lions, fantastic animals and leopards mounted on the back of +bulls. The work is inferior in art to the caskets at Pamplona and South +Kensington. On a band which runs round the four sides of the lid is an +inscription in Cufic characters, of which unfortunately the two longer +sides have been destroyed, and have been substituted at a very early +period by bands of cloisonn enamel, evidently belonging to other +caskets. On the two sides an inscription remains, upon which may be read +the year Hegira 417 (A.D. 1026); the name of the artist who carved it, +Mohammad Ibn Zeiyan, and the two first letters of the town in which it +was made (probably Cuenca) + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +".....for its owner (may God lengthen his days.) It was made in the town +of Cu[enca] in the year 417. (A.D. 1025.) By Mohammad--ibn Zeiyan, his +servant. May God glorify him." + +In the geography of Edrisi, an Oriental author who describes Spain in +the beginning of the 12th century, only two names of towns are mentioned +which agree with this inscription, Coria and Cuenca [Illustration: +Arabic]. The first of these towns was always a less important centre +than Cuenca. Edrisi praises the woollen fabrics made at Cuenca, and +there is every probability that this casket was carved there, as there +is also an ivory monstrance at the cathedral of Perpian, which has +likewise an inscription in Cufic characters, stating it was made for the +Hageb Ismail. + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"The blessing of God. Made at the town of Cuenca, for the Hageb Ismail." + +Villanueva in his "Viage por Espaa," Vol. 5, p. 144, mentions two large +ivory caskets with Cufic inscriptions which still exist at the cathedral +of Tortosa, Catalua. + +Another of a similar description is preserved in the Treasury of the +cathedral of Bayeux. + +This casket is, as M. Andr tells us in a pamphlet on "Antiquites Arabes +de la Normandie," Rennes, 1869, O^{m} 42 L. by O^{m} 28 W. and 13 H. It +is decorated with bands of enamelled metal, and covered with a fine +running design of peacocks and other birds. Round the lock runs the +following inscription in Cufic characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +"In the name of God, clement, merciful, the blessing and His benefits +complete." + +These ivory caskets were made originally to hold perfumes, jewels, or +precious stones. For besides the Arabic inscriptions which allude to +this, we find the idea distinctly expressed in an inscription in Cufic +letters on a casket which came from Cordova belonging to the Caliphate. +This casket was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1867; I do not know +where it is at present. + +It appears at first sight difficult to explain why the Spanish Moors +decorated these objects with the representations of animated beings, +against the precepts of the Koran, and the reason why these objects of +undoubtedly Moorish origin have been preserved until the present day in +the treasuries of Spanish cathedrals. The prohibition of the Koran to +represent animated beings is, however, not so strict as is generally +supposed; it is reduced to the following sentences. "O Believers! Wine +and games of chance, and statues and the divining arrows, are only an +abomination of Satan's work! Avoid them that ye may prosper." [Sura v. +ver. 22.] Later commentators on the Koran have added the severest +prohibitions against painters and artists who represented animated +beings, but to very little effect, and we find in contemporary authors +numerous details of the specimens of sculptures and paintings which +were in the houses of Moorish magnates. Coins, textile fabrics, +furniture, and other objects which have reached us, leave no doubt that +the representations of animated beings were constantly used by the +Spanish and Eastern Arabs from the first century of the Hegira. + +The fact that these Moorish caskets should have been used for preserving +the relics of saints in Spanish churches, is explained by the custom +common in the middle ages in Spain and other countries, of offering war +spoils and treasures brought from long and distant peregrinations, and +even objects of natural history, to the different churches. Alligators +may still be seen hanging in churches in Seville, Toledo, Valencia, etc. +The Moors did the same thing: the famous warrior Almanssor, the minister +of Hischem II. at the end of the 10th century, carried off the bells +from the cathedral of Cordova, and had them turned into lamps and used +at the mosque of Cordova. We find in ancient writers frequent mention of +the custom of Spanish Christians of offering these ivory caskets to the +churches, as trophies taken in their warfares with the Moors. The +ecclesiastical authorities probably placed them at the time with other +valuable objects in the treasuries of the churches, filling them with +relics, for such is the manner in which they are found; they have +remained untouched from the earliest times and are constantly mentioned +in local histories of the cathedrals. We must not suppose that the +ecclesiastical authorities ignored their Mohamedan origin, for we find +at every step during the middle ages the names of priests who knew and +interpreted the Arabic language. The principal reason why these objects +of Oriental art have been preserved, is, that the hatred of race and +belief between Moors and Christians was by no means as great as has been +supposed by modern authors, and certainly never went so far as to +destroy objects of industrial and artistic interest. In the year A.D. +1275, certain privileges were granted to Moorish workmen who were set +apart and ordered to repair the Mosque at Cordova, at that time already +converted into a christian cathedral. During the 13th, 14th and 15th +centuries a large number of parish churches were built in Spain in the +Moorish style, either by Oriental architects, or Spaniards who had +adopted their architecture, and numerous examples might be given of +inscriptions and details of ornamentation which confirm most fully these +theories. + +Objects of ivory carvings of the middle ages, posterior to the 12th +century, are frequently met with in Spain. Among the most remarkable is +the Virgin de las Batallas, in the cathedral of Seville. This image +belonged to St. Ferdinand, early in the 13th century, and the tradition +exists that it was carried on the king's saddle in battle. The fine +ivory diptychs at the Escorial and Archological Museum at Madrid must +also be mentioned, and a large number of ivory caskets, and fragments, +existing in the same Museum and in different Spanish churches. + +Notwithstanding, however, the numerous examples of ivory carvings which +are still to be met with in Spanish churches and cathedrals, I find no +information which enables us to affirm that this artistic industry +existed in Spain during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. We find +artists mentioned who carved in wood, iron, and silver work, and +numerous details of their work, but ivory carvers are never mentioned, +if any existed, their number must have been comparatively small; and I +am led, therefore, to suppose that the specimens existing in Spain were +imported from Italy or France, and for this reason it is necessary to +end at the Renaissance the history of ivory carving in Spain. + +The inlaid ivory work so constantly used in Spanish furniture of the +16th and 17th centuries, cannot be included in this notice on ivory +carvers, owing to its limited character, and the use to which it was +employed. One branch of sculpture must be mentioned representing sacred +images, which were carved in the 16th and 17th centuries by natives of +the Philippine Islands or the Portuguese Colonies. They are frequently +met with in Spain, and are remarkable for their bad and careless +modelling, a mannered unartistic style, combined with the exaggerated +rigidity so common in Chinese and Indian productions. As examples of +this style of art may be mentioned the representations of St. Erasmus, +and the Immaculate Conception (Nos. 9069, '63, 183, '64), in the South +Kensington Museum. + + + + +POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. + + Roman and Visigothic.--Hispano Moresque earthenware.--Painted, + glazed and lustred pottery.--Terra-cotta.--_Azulejos_ (Tile + decorations).--Pottery made at Talavera, Valencia, Seville, Triana, + Zamora, Puente del Arzobispo.--Unglazed pottery.--Bucaros.--Alcora + ware and porcelain.--Buen Retiro porcelain. + + +ROMAN AND VISIGOTHIC. + +The productions of Ceramic Art have constituted from the earliest times +a very important industry in Spain. Fragments of vases of +greyish-coloured paste, ornamented with bands or zones, are constantly +found in excavations in different localities. It cannot, however, be +determined whether they were importations, or imitations made in the +Spanish Peninsula. The earliest mention which we find of this industry +in Spain is in Pliny (Lib. xxx., cap. xii., line 19, Edition of Paris, +1526-7), who, in praising vases of pottery made in different countries, +mentions those of Saguntum (Murviedro) near Valencia. An epigram by +Juvenal (Sat. v. xxix.), and several by Martial (iv. 45, viii. 6, xiv. +108) on the same subject, prove that the pottery from the eastern coast +of the Mediterranean was very famous at that time. + +Count Lumiares, in his work on pottery of Saguntum ("Barros Saguntinos," +Valencia, 1779, 8vo), mentions having examined more than 1500 specimens +of pottery of different kinds, which he classifies in four groups: grey +pottery, cream-coloured pottery, yellow pottery and red glazed ware, +with ornamentation in relief (Samian ware); this ornamentation +constitutes, in my opinion, the only distinctive feature of the pottery +made at Saguntum. + +Remains of this pottery are very frequently found in the ruins of former +Roman cities; a much larger number of specimens of all kinds have +appeared since Count Lumiares wrote his book, none however differ +materially from the terra-cottas of the Roman period found in Italy, or +in other countries. Some of the marks are identical with those given by +Birch and several authors who have written on Roman pottery; hence it +would appear that this industry was imported into Spain, or the forms +and marks copied there to a very large extent. + +[Illustration: SAMIAN BOWL.] + +The number of inscriptions and potters' marks met with on the vases and +fragments found in Spain is very great. Students who take a special +interest in this subject will find full details in Dr. Emile Hbner's +important work, "Inscrip. Hispani Latin," Berlin, 1869. This writer +has collected the greatest number of inscriptions. He mentions 43 which +appear on bricks, 36 on vases and drinking vessels, 63 on lamps, 579 on +vases of red pottery, 115 inscriptions of doubtful reading, 21 which are +incomplete, and 56 written by hand. He gives us, besides, other marks +without inscriptions, representing hands, horses, rabbits, butterflies, +bees, flowers, etc. In an inedited history of the ancient city of +Emporion (Catalua) [MS., Acad. of Hist., Madrid], the author, Dr. +Joaquin Botet y Sis, has collected 198 potters' marks. A large number +are still unpublished which have been met with on fragments of pottery +found in Extremadura and Andalucia; we may therefore confidently assert +that the number amounts to upwards of 1500. + +During the Visigothic monarchy, after the downfall of the Roman empire, +which lasted until the invasion of the Arabs in the 8th century, the +same style of ceramic industry, copied from the Romans, continued in +Spain. No special study has been made of the pottery of this epoch, but, +judging by the large amount of fragments of vessels for domestic use, +which are constantly found in ruins of the Visigothic period, there can +be no doubt that pottery continued to be manufactured in Spain. What San +Isidoro, who died in 636, says in his "Etimologies, Book xx.," confirms +this opinion, and undoubtedly refers to vessels similar to those of the +Roman period. (_De vasis Escariis, potoriis vinariis et aquariis, +oleariis, coquinariis et luminariorum._) + +After the Roman domination and Visigothic monarchy, ceramic art in Spain +may be divided into the following groups:-- + +1st. Objects imported by the Moors into Spain; these consist of remains +of pottery belonging to the first period of their invasion; lustred +wares, manufactured in the Peninsula, which attained great importance +during the Middle Ages, and still continue to be made in the present +day; terra-cottas, and green and white glazed pottery; and lastly tiles, +_azulejos_, of bright colours in the Moorish style. + +2nd. Pottery of a distinct Italian style, made principally at Talavera; +porous, unglazed, coloured pottery, _bucaros_; white, unglazed pottery, +made at Andujar and La Rambla. + +3rd. Pottery and porcelain made at Alcora, and the porcelain manufactory +of Buen Retiro, near Madrid. + + +HISPANO MORESQUE EARTHENWARE. + +The Spanish Peninsula was invaded by the Arabs about the year 711 A.D., +and they absorbed for several centuries the industries of the country. +Ceramic Art attained great importance in their hands during the Middle +Ages and Renaissance period, for even while the pottery works +established at Talavera, Seville, and other localities, manufactured +pottery to a very great extent, which was chiefly imitated from Italian +models, the Moorish style still continued, and has never been +interrupted in the province of Valencia down to the present day. + +The Arabs had as early as the beginning of the 12th century, if not even +before, established the industry of metallic-lustred pottery in Spain. +It remains to be seen what were the leading characteristics of the +pottery of the period of the greatest importance of the Spanish Moors +from the 8th to the 11th century. + +Cordova, the capital of the independent Caliphs of Damascus, was the +centre from which works of art of all kinds of a high order were largely +exported. The ruins of the palaces at Medina Az zahra have, it is deeply +to be regretted, never been excavated, and Granada is the only locality +where some fragments of Moorish pottery may be studied belonging to this +time. + +Granada was almost unknown in the 8th century; the ancient Roman town of +Illiberis, about six miles from the present site of Granada, had alone +any importance: it was one of the bishoprics of Andalucia. The Arabs +first settled in the remains of the Roman city: in the 10th century they +removed to the spot occupied by the present town, and Illiberis was then +abandoned. Roman remains are frequently found at Illiberis, as are also +vestiges of the Moorish occupation, chiefly consisting of objects in +bronze and fragments of pottery. These specimens are decorated with +arabesques in green and black on a whitish ground. Some interesting +examples may be studied at the small _Museo Provincial_ at Granada, +which certainly belong to the 10th or beginning of the 11th century. One +of these fragments has unreadable Arabic letters; another is decorated +with a stag; the most remarkable is a plate fourteen inches in diameter, +in the centre of which is represented a falcon on a horse's back. The +form and every detail of the horse, the plaited tail, ending in the +form of a trident, all are identical with one on which is mounted a man +holding a hawk in his hand, carved on the ivory casket described on page +133 as dated 359 of the hegira (A.D. 969), and probably of Cordovese +manufacture. Both these objects possess a very decided Persian +character, and undoubtedly belong to the date ascribed; for besides the +circumstance of their having been found in ruins of this period, the +shape of the horse is conclusive; its character changes soon after, as +we find in the miniatures of the MS. of the 13th century at the Bib. +Nationale de Paris, containing the "Sances de Hariri." It is almost +impossible to assert whether this pottery was made in, or imported into +Spain. One argument in favour of its Spanish-Moorish origin is that the +glaze and paste are similar to pottery which we know was manufactured at +Granada. The common earthenware proceeding from that locality is +decorated in much the same manner. + +Soon after the fall of the Caliphate, metallic-lustred ware was made in +Spain: Edrisi, the most remarkable Arabic geographer of the Middle Ages, +in describing Calatayud, says: "Here the gold-coloured pottery is made +which is exported to all countries." ("Descrip. de l'Afrique et de +l'Espagne," Leyde, 1866.) Edrisi was born in the year 1100. He studied +at Cordova, and finished writing his book in 1154. The circumstance of +this pottery being mentioned in the 12th century as excellent enough for +exportation, certainly makes it appear probable that the _fabrique_ +already existed at an earlier date, especially when we bear in mind that +Calatayud was conquered in the year 1120 by the Christians, and it is +impossible to suppose that they established an Oriental industry there +which was foreign to their culture, or to the contemporary Christian +art. This text of Edrisi's has hitherto not been properly interpreted. +In Jauber's translation (Edrisi, Paris, 1836-40), he interprets the word +_guidar_, [Illustration: Arabic], _lutum purum_ of potters, as the name +of a gilt textile, perhaps because in his time it was difficult to +believe in the existence of metallic-lustred pottery. In the Edit. of +Leyden, by Messrs. Dozy and Goeje, the sense of the word is properly +given; indeed, Jauber himself translates it by _porcelain_ in the +chapter of this volume which refers to China. + +This text of Edrisi's has never yet been quoted by writers on Ceramic +Art; but once known it is impossible for a moment to state that the +earliest manufacture of Moorish lustred ware was that at Malaga, an +opinion which has been supported hitherto on the quotation from Ben +Batutah's works, which will be given later on. I regret to have found no +other allusion to the lustred ware of Aragon until the 10th century. No +mention is made of it in the geographical texts published by Juynboll, +Al Makkari, or other Arabic writers. From what we know of Aragon in the +16th century, it was a great centre of this industry, and its +productions rivalled those of Valencia and Andalucia. + +The next text which alludes to this manufacture is given by Ben Batutah, +a celebrated traveller, who, after travelling for twenty years in the +East, went from Tangiers to Granada, from 1349 to 1351. Passing by +Malaga, he says: "At Malaga, the fine golden pottery is made which is +exported to the furthermost countries." ("Voy. d'Ibn Batoutah," Paris, +1853-58, vol. iv. p. 367.) This text has been constantly reproduced and +commented upon, since Baron Charles Davillier first drew attention to it +in his interesting little _brochure_ on "Faences Hispano-Moresques." + +The next time I find lustred pottery mentioned is in the 15th century. +Eximenus, in his "Regiment de la cosa publica," Valencia, 1499, in +speaking of the excellent things made in the kingdom of Valencia, says: +"The twenty-seventh excellent thing is that some artificial objects are +made there which bring great renown to the country, for they are +excellent and beautiful, and are now to be found in other localities ... +but above all is the beauty of the gold pottery so splendidly painted at +Manises, which enamours everyone so much, that the Pope, and the +cardinals, and the princes of the world obtain it by special favour, +and are astonished that such excellent and noble works can be made of +earth." + +Lustred pottery had already attained great importance in Aragon early in +the 16th century. We find in a deed granted at Calatayud in 1507, that +"Muhamed ben Suleyman Attaalab, an inhabitant of the suburb of the Moors +at Calatayud, and an artificer of lustred golden earthenware, engaged +himself with Abdallah Alfoquey of the same locality, to teach him the +said industry, in the space of four years and a half, from the date of +the deed." ("Estado social de los mudejares de Castilla, by Fernandez y +Gonzalez," Madrid 1866, p. 437.) At Muel, a village in the province of +Aragon near Zaragoza, this industry existed to a great extent in 1585. +In the travels of Henrique Cock ("Relacion del viage hecho por Felipe +II. en 1585," por Henrique Cock, publicado por Morel Fatio y Rodriguez +Villa, Madrid, 1876,) we find the following interesting details of the +manner in which this pottery was made, p. 30:-- + +"Almost all the inhabitants of this village are potters, and all the +earthenware sold at Zaragoza is manufactured in the following manner. +First the vessels are fashioned of a certain ingredient the earth +furnishes them in that locality, in the shape they may require. Once +made, they bake them in an oven fitted for the purpose. They then remove +them to varnish with white varnish and polish them, and afterwards make +a wash of certain materials in the following manner: twenty-five pounds, +_one arroba_, of lead, with which they mix three or four pounds of tin, +and as many pounds of a certain sand which is to be found there. All +these ingredients are mixed into a paste like ice; it is broken into +small pieces and pounded like flour, and kept by them in powder. This +powder is mixed with water, the dishes are passed through it, and they +are rebaked in the oven, and keep their lustre. Afterwards, in order +that the pottery may be gilt, they take very strong vinegar, mixed with +about two reales (a small coin equivalent to 6_d._) of silver in powder, +vermilion, and red ochre, and a little wire. When all is mixed +together, they paint with a feather on the dishes any decoration they +may like, rebake them, and then they remain gold-coloured for ever. This +was told me by the potters themselves." + +But nothing can be compared in exactitude to the following receipt of +the manner of preparing this lustred ware, which I was fortunate enough +to find in a manuscript in the British Museum. (Egerton, No. 507, MS. +fol. 102). + +Count Florida Blanca wishing in 1785 to establish at Madrid a +manufactory of metallic-lustred ware, had the following report on the +actual state of the industry sent to him from Manises with full details +of the manner in which it was required to be carried out. + +"After the pottery is baked, it is varnished with white and blue, the +only colours used besides the gold lustre; the vessels are again baked; +if the objects are to be painted with gold colour, this can only be put +on the white varnish, after they have gone twice through the oven. The +vessels are then painted with the said gold colour and are baked a third +time, with only dry rosemary for fuel. + +"The white varnish used is composed of lead and tin, which are melted +together in an oven made on purpose; after these materials are +sufficiently melted, they become like earth, and when in this state the +mixture is removed and mixed with an equal quantity in weight of sand: +fine salt is added to it, it is boiled again, and when cold, pounded +into powder. The only sand which can be used is from a cave at +Benalguacil, three leagues from Manises. In order that the varnish +should be fine, for every _arroba_, 25 pounds of lead, 6 to 12 ounces of +tin must be added, and half a bushel of fine-powered salt: if a coarse +kind is required, it is sufficient to add a very small quantity of tin, +and three or four _cuartos_ worth of salt, which in this case must be +added when the ingredient is ready for varnishing the vessel. + +"Five ingredients enter into the composition of the gold colour: +copper, which is better the older it is; silver, as old as possible; +sulphur; red ochre, and strong vinegar, which are mixed in the following +proportions: of copper three ounces, of red ochre twelve ounces, of +silver one _peseta_ (about a shilling), sulphur three ounces, vinegar a +quart; three pounds (of twelve ounces) of the earth or scori, which is +left after this pottery is painted with the gold colour, is added to the +other ingredients. + +"They are mixed in the following manner: a small portion of sulphur in +powder is put into a casserole with two small bits of copper, between +them a coin of one silver _peseta_; the rest of the sulphur and copper +is then added to it. When this casserole is ready, it is placed on the +fire, and is made to boil until the sulphur is consumed, which is +evident when no flame issues from it. The preparation is then taken from +the fire, and when cold is pounded very fine; the red ochre and scori +are then added to it; it is mixed up by hand and again pounded into +powder. The preparation is placed in a basin and mixed with enough water +to make a sufficient paste to stick on the sides of the basin; the +mixture is then rubbed on the vessel with a stick; it is therefore +indispensable that the water should be added very gradually until the +mixture is in the proper state. + +"The basin ready prepared must be placed in an oven for six hours. At +Manises it is customary to do so when the vessels of common pottery are +baked; after this the mixture is scratched off the sides of the basin +with some iron instrument; it is then removed from there and broken up +into small pieces, which are pounded fine in a hand-mortar with the +quantity of vinegar already mentioned, and after having been well ground +and pounded together for two hours the mixture is ready for decorating. +It is well to observe that the quantity of varnish and gold-coloured +mixture which is required for every object can only be ascertained by +practice." + +Excellent lustred ware was made at Murcia, and in several villages of +the province of Valencia; a good example exists of this pottery at the +museum (see woodcut); none, however, was so important as the manufactory +of Manises. Diago, in his "Anales del reyno de Valencia, 1613-40," +repeats the words of Eximeno: "That the pottery made at Valencia is +painted and gilt with so much art, that it has enamoured every one, so +much so that the pope, the cardinals, and princes send for it, +astonished that things of such beauty can be made of earth." + +[Illustration: PLATEAU, PROBABLY OF VALENCIA. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +This and similar texts relating to the exportation of Spanish pottery +explains the fact of these specimens being so frequently met with in +Italy. Pottery of a dark copper-coloured lustre is made at the present +time at Manises, and the imitations and forgeries to be met with at the +dealers' shops in Madrid are made in that locality. + +I have mentioned the different historical texts which allude to this +industry, and the technical receipts showing the ingredients employed to +give the lustre. It is now no longer possible to doubt that this pottery +came originally from the East. This opinion has gained ground of late +years; for among the objects discovered by Sir Henry Layard at Nineveh, +and in more recent excavations in Ephesus and Asia Minor, fragments of +pottery have been found with metallic lustre. This and other important +examples of artistic culture undoubtedly arose in Persia. No examples +which may be mentioned can give a better or more distinct idea of this +than a comparison between the Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares at the +South Kensington Museum. The technical proceedings and effect produced +by the metallic lustre on a white ground, with touches here and there of +blue, are exactly the same in both cases. The principal difference +consists in a greater richness and variety of ornamentation which we +find in the specimens brought from Persia, especially those covered with +a turquoise blue lustre, those of a dark blue and metallic lustre, and +those on which gold is applied _en froid_, of which I know no similar +examples in Spain. It is possible they may have existed in the mosques, +but no traces remain of mosques built by the Spanish Moors during the +13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. The mosques at Cordova and Toledo which +still exist are of an earlier date. If we judge by the mosque of Amru at +Cairo, and others of the same early period, tile decorations were not +used in their ornamentation, and it appears probable that this industry +only became important after the 10th century. The similarity of objects +used in Spain and Persia is constantly observed by travellers in that +country. Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, who was sent there as ambassador from +the King of Castille from 1403 to 1406, gives a most interesting +description of tile decoration, by which we find they were used in the +same manner as in Spain. ("Historia del gran Tamorlan," Seville, 1582, +fol.) Another Spanish traveller, Silva de Figueroa, in a MS. belonging +to Don Pascual de Gayangos, in describing his embassy to Persia in 1618 +mentions the manner in which these tiles were used. I do not quote from +many other travellers, for their remarks are hardly so valuable as those +of Spaniards, who were accustomed to see these objects in their native +country. + +After mentioning the historical sources from which I have traced the +manufactory of Hispano-Moresque lustred ware in Spain, it is advisable +to enumerate the most important examples which have reached us belonging +to the 14th century, or to an earlier date. + +The fine vase at the Alhambra, Granada. (See woodcut.) + +A vase of the same character which exists at the Archological Museum of +Madrid. + +A vase of the same kind, which belonged to the painter, Mariano Fortuny, +and which was sold at the sale of his art objects in Paris, April 30th, +1875. (_Vide_ "Atelier de Fortuny," Paris, 1875.) + +A fragment of another vase, which belonged also to Fortuny, and was sold +at the same time. + +A fragment of a vase at the Museo of Granada; it is similar to the +others in form and size, but without metallic lustre. + +A large plaque, or _azulejo_, which belonged also to Fortuny. + +The _azulejos_, or tile decorations of the house known by the name of +Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo at Granada. + +Several dishes and bowls at the Kensington, Madrid, and Cluny Museums, +which belong to this period. + +Baron Charles Davillier in his article on Hispano-Moresque lustred ware, +in "Atelier de Fortuny," Paris, 1875, says that interesting specimens of +this pottery exist also at the Museum of Stockholm, and the Cathedral +of Mezzara in Sicily, but that he had not had the opportunity of +studying them. + +[Illustration: MOORISH VASE AT THE ALHAMBRA.] + +All these objects have hitherto been considered to have proceeded from +Malaga, writers on ceramic art derived their evidence from the text +already mentioned, given in Ben Batutah's travels, the only one which +alluded to the existence of this industry in Spain before the 15th +century; but since I have found in Edrisi's Geography a manufacture +mentioned of lustred pottery which existed at Calatayud at the beginning +of the 12th century, that is to say, more than _two centuries_ earlier +than Ben Batutah's travels, I consider it extremely difficult to +classify them. + +The fine vase at the Alhambra is 4 feet 5-1/2 inches high by 8 feet +2-1/2 inches in circumference. It is decorated in the centre with two +antelopes, and a series of elegant traceries of knots, stems, and leaves +which cover the body of the vase. The colours employed are brown and +blue on a yellow ground, the metallic lustre is extremely pale, of a +mother-of-pearl colour. The following inscriptions are repeated all over +the vase in African characters: + +[Illustration: Arabic + +Felicity and Fortune.] + +[Illustration: Arabic + +Permanent prosperity.] + +A similar vase was at the Alhambra until the beginning of the present +century; it disappeared at that time, and its present whereabouts is +unknown. Drawings exist of this vase which have been published in +Lozano's "Ant. Arab. de Espaa," and Murphy's Atlas of "Arabian Ant. of +Spain." + +The fine vase at the Museo Arq. of Madrid is similar in style. It has +been reproduced in a chromo-lithograph in Mus. Esp. de Ant. VI. p. 435. +Both these vases are decorated with colours which are disposed in quite +a distinct manner to all the other specimens of this pottery hitherto +known. The vase at Granada is ornamented in the centre with two +antelopes, and from drawings which have reached us of the companion +vase, we find birds are introduced in the decoration of the handles. +Animals combined with ornamentation are never met with in the immense +number of Moorish traceries of all kinds which may be studied at +Granada. This circumstance has induced me to consider these objects to +have been brought from Persia, for Ben Batutah tells us that several +Persians of importance had settled at Granada; and it is highly +probable that a direct communication existed between these two +countries. It is fair, however, to mention a detail which is against +this argument. The arms of the Moorish kings of Granada appear on the +vase which has disappeared from Granada, and although it may have been +ordered from Persia, it is also possible that it was made in the +province of Andalucia. + +The vase which belonged to Fortuny, and the large _azulejo_, Nos. 42, 44 +(_vide_ "Atelier de Fortuny"), are very different in style. They have no +colours, and their metallic lustre is very low in tone, a common +circumstance in Hispano-Moorish pottery. The following inscription, + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +[Illustration: TILE PROBABLY FROM THE ALHAMBRA; FORMERLY IN THE MARRYAT +COLLECTION.] + +"Glory to Our Lord the Sultan Abul Hajaj," [A.D. 1333-1354.] occurs on +this tile, an inscription very frequently met with also on the walls of +the Alhambra. Abul Hajaj carried out works of restoration to a very +large extent at the Palace. The two large tiles on either side of the +entrance-door of the Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo at Granada, although +not so fine as the vase and tile which belonged to Fortuny, are similar +in general character, and it is safe therefore to consider these +objects, and others of a similar kind, to have proceeded from the +manufacture of Malaga mentioned by Ben Batutah, or other pottery works +of the same kind, which probably existed at that time in the province of +Granada. + +Metallic-lustred dishes have at times an even surface without +ornamentation in relief, and sometimes are ornamented with ribs and +convex dots, which appear to suggest that they are meant to imitate the +structure of nails, bars, or other work common to metal vessels, in the +manner of Etruscan vases. + +The finest specimens of Hispano-Moresque ware at the Kensington Museum +are-- + +No. 8968-'63. A vase which belonged to the Soulages Collection. Mr. +Fortnum, in his "Majolica, Hispano-Moresco, Persian, Damascus and +Rhodian Wares, at the Kensington Museum," London, 1873, describes this +vase as spherical on a trumpet-shaped base, the neck of elongated funnel +form, flanked by two large wing-shaped handles perforated with circular +holes. The surface, except the mouldings, is entirely covered with a +diaper-pattern of ivory or briony leaves, tendrils and small flowers in +brownish lustre, and blue on the white ground. Spanish. 14th or 15th +century. (See woodcut.) + +No. 486-'64. Bowl, funnel-shaped, with representation of a ship in full +sail, with the royal arms of Portugal, 15th century. + +The following are also especially worthy of mention:-- + +No. 7659-'62. Bowl and cover, painted with a scroll diaper in alternate +compartments of gold lustre and blue, the cover surmounted by a +cupola-shaped ornament in gold lustre. 16th century. + +[Illustration: VASE DIAPERED WITH IVY OR BRYONY IN GOLDEN LUSTRE. +HISPANO-MORESCO, 14TH OR 15TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +No. 489-'64. Plateau with lustred arabesque ornaments in compartments. +In the centre are two simulated Arabic inscriptions. 15th century. + +[Illustration: PLATEAU, DIAPERED AND WITH RAISED RIBS AND STUDS, IN BLUE +AND GOLDEN LUSTRE. THE ARMS OF LEON, CASTILE, AND ARAGON. +HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +No. 1680-'55. Plateau, gold shield in the centre, with the arms of Leon, +Castille, and Aragon. The diapered ground is curiously ribbed, and +dotted with raised studs. (See woodcut.) + +No. 243-'53. Plateau, in the centre an escutcheon of arms of Aragon, +Leon, and Castile. (See woodcut.) + +[Illustration: SALVER, DIAPERED IN GOLDEN LUSTRE, WITH THE SHIELD OF +ARAGON, LEON, AND CASTILE. HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH +KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +No. 104-'69. Vase, with shield of arms, seemingly of Sicily and +Portugal. + +Specimens of a later date are distinguished by the redness of the +lustre, such as No. 327-'66, a bowl, with feather-like ornament in the +centre; Nos. 326-'66 and 328-'66 are good examples of this lustred ware +of the last and early present century made at Manises, Valencia. + +It is almost impossible to classify the existing specimens of +Hispano-Moresque pottery. A few examples are marked with the monogram of +Manises, or possess some special sign, such as the Eagle of St. John, +which would make it appear they were made in the province of Valencia, +but as the texts from ancient authors only praise this pottery and give +no details of its general characteristics, it is very difficult to +assign any given specimens to the manufactories of Aragon and Valencia. +The receipts which I have given prove that the ingredients used were the +same, the modification in lustre was owing to the different combinations +of silver and copper. The system hitherto adopted of classifying this +ware by the localities in which it has been purchased is not a safe one, +unless borne out by further evidence. All that can be done at the +present time is to point out the oldest specimens, and probable period +of their manufacture. As a general rule the finest specimens are also +the oldest, for this industry decayed after the Moors were expelled from +Spain, and Italian pottery was imported into that country in the 16th +century. + +The opinion which has been so generally accepted that gold lustred +pottery was made and exported from the Balearic Islands has been +contradicted by D^{n}. Alvaro Campaner y Fuertes in a letter addressed to +Baron Davillier which appeared in the "Museo Balear," Palma, 1875, in +which he refutes the Baron's arguments on the pottery which he supposes +to have come from that locality. + + +TERRA COTTAS.--_AZULEJOS_, OR WALL DECORATIONS OF +TILES.--EARTHENWARE.--BUCAROS AND UNGLAZED POTTERY. + +The earliest historical notice which I have met with of Terracottas is +in a grant made in A.D. 1222, by King Don Fernando el Santo, in favour +of the manufacturers of bricks or tiles at Talavera (M. S. Bibl. +Nacional Madrid, Dd. 114, p. 17), and another document of a similar kind +by his son, King Don Alonso el Sabio A.D. 1281, in favour of the +Cathedral of Cordova, "that no pottery works should be allowed inside +the town, unless they were established in the same manner as in the time +of the Moors." (Mem. Hist. Espaol, t. ii. p. 45). Although this +information is not of great importance, it enables us to infer that in +the 13th century an industry existed in Spain which was closely +connected with pottery. Baron Davillier mentions a privilege granted by +King D^{n}. Jaime de Aragon to the inhabitants of Jativa, province of +Valencia, in which he commands, "that any master potter who made jars, +pots, pans, tiles, and bricks, should pay a tribute of one _besant_ +yearly for each oven, and be permitted to carry out his industry with no +other obligation or service." (Col. Doc. Ineditos, vol. xviii. p. 67.) + +The details concerning this industry in Catalua are more interesting; +especially on account of the references given to the marks of the +objects proceeding from this manufacture. The potters, who were known by +the generic name of _olleros_ sent, in 1257, two individuals to form +part of the town council. They formed at that time a guild; in 1314 they +agree in their regulations as to the mark to be adopted for their +pottery, and the actual spot is mentioned on which every potter was to +stamp his wares. This stamp was ordered to be very visible, and +instructions are given as to the quality of the clay, and its +manipulation, in order to produce pottery of a first-class order. We +find statutes in this sense up to 1355. But we cannot find in the "Libro +de Ordenanzas" of the potter's guild that any laws existed touching the +technical details of this manufacture; most of the regulations refer to +the management of the guild from 1304, which was composed of potters, +bricklayers, jar-makers, and manufacturers of pottery for domestic +purposes of Barcelona. (Capmany, Memorias Historicas, 1779-92, vol. i. +part 3, p. 69.) + +[Illustration: WINE JAR--"TINAJA." SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +These references are not, however, sufficient to identify the kind of +pottery made at that time in Catalua. It is highly probable that +lustred ware was also made there to a great extent, not only because it +was the most characteristic produce of the Peninsula, but also because +this ware was exported to a great extent, and highly esteemed. + +The most important examples of Spanish terra-cotta which have reached us +are _tinajas_, large jars for holding wine and oil. + +One of the best _tinajas_ which I know is at the South Kensington +Museum, No. 330-'66. (See woodcut.) It is a wine jar, amphora-shaped, +and ornamented with incised pattern of vine leaves, and stamped diaper +of a Gothic character. This and similar specimens have always been found +in Andalusia and the province of Toledo, and hence we may infer that the +chief centres of this industry existed at Toledo and Seville. They +continue to be made there, and are used for the same purposes as in the +Middle Ages, for keeping stores of wine, oil, meat, grain, etc. + +Belonging to this section of objects of a large size, are some specimens +of glazed earthenware made for brims of wells. I only know four or five +examples in the local museums of Toledo and Cordova; the font of the +church of San Salvador, Toledo, belongs also to the same pottery. The +brim of a well, at the South Kensington Museum, No. 1763-'71, is of the +same manufacture. It was bought at Toledo for three guineas at a +shoemaker's shop. It is made of glazed white and green earthenware, with +ornamental Cufic characters in high relief all round, which appear to be +of the 14th century (see woodcut on next page). The inscription, which +is repeated, is imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the words: + +[Illustration: Arabic + +"The power, the excellence, and the peace."] + +There is no difficulty in affirming that this form of earthenware was +made at Toledo, for Marineo Siculo, in his interesting volume treating +of "De las Cosas Memorables de Espaa," Alcala, 1539, says, "much coarse +green and white pottery is made at Toledo." + +[Illustration: BRIM OF WELL FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +The manufacture of tiles, as was the case with so many other industries +in Spain, was imported by the Arabs. In the Middle Ages it attained +great importance, and has never ceased in Spain up to the present day. +The earliest tiles (_azulejos_) made in Spain are composed of small +pieces let into the wall, forming geometrical patterns. The proceeding +is similar to that employed by the workers of Byzantine mosaic,--tile +decoration undoubtedly took the place of this mosaic work in Moorish +buildings. It is difficult to fix the precise period when they were +first made, but it must have been posterior to the 10th century, when +Moorish architecture underwent a radical change in its system of +decoration. The oldest tiles which exist in Spain are at the Palace of +the Alhambra, Granada. They belong to the 14th century. The great +variety of their design may be seen in Owen Jones' "Plans and elevations +of the Alhambra," London, fol. 1842, and the fine work published by the +Spanish government, "Monumentos Arquitectonicos." We can judge of the +style adopted by two interesting fragments, both of which came from the +Alhambra, No. 1104-'53, No. 324-'64, South Kensington Museum. + +The earliest mention which I have found of this manufacture occurs in a +letter from Doa Juana de Mendoza, the wife of the Almirante de +Castilla, which is addressed to the lady abbess of the nunnery of Santo +Domingo at Toledo. She begs that a large number of "azulejos" of +different colours, black, white, yellow, and green should be sent to +her. She alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and says she was +expecting a master potter from Seville to place these tiles in their +proper places. This shows us that it was only in the province of +Andalusia that the art was known of cutting these tiles into geometrical +sections and mosaic patterns. This letter is not dated, but it is bound +up with other documents of 1422, and evidence exists to prove that both +the Almirante and his wife were dead in 1431. The locality for which the +tiles were required was probably Palencia; the convent of Santa Clara +was built by them at that time, and they both were buried there. It was +extremely difficult to cut and join together these tiles; the workmen +who did so had to pass through a regular examination in compliance with +the municipal ordinances drawn up in the 15th century; without this +requisite they were not allowed to exercise their trade. + +We know, from documents existing at the Archives of the Alhambra, at +Granada, that tiles were made there at the end of the 16th and beginning +of the 17th century. We find the names of Antonio Tenorio, Gaspar +Hernandez, and Pedro Tenorio working there at that time as master +potters. + +The use of these _azulejos_ was not restricted to Moorish buildings; +they were largely employed to decorate the walls of Christian churches, +convents, palaces, and private houses. The style of work, however, soon +changed, for instead of being made of mosaic work, they were formed of a +single piece like the ordinary tiles, but imitating the Moorish colours. +In the 16th century designs of the Renaissance style alternated with +these, although the system and colouring continued the same. This style +continued in vogue until the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1610. A fine +collection may be seen at the South Kensington Museum of 200 tiles, in +which upwards of 150 varieties of design will be found, Nos. 308-'66 and +367-'66. Their chief characteristic is that only pure colours are used +without gradations or half tints. Lustred reflets are very seldom met +with in tiles; the only examples I know are two beautiful plaques of the +14th century of a pale lustre which are on either side of the entrance +door of the Moorish saloon called Cuarto Real de S^{to}. Domingo, at +Granada; some small polygons of copper-coloured lustre at the Tower of +la Cautiva, Granada: some few details in the coats of arms which are let +into the tiles which adorn the walls of the Chapel at the Alhambra, and +some few tiles with the arms of the Mendozas at the Casa de Pilatos, +Seville. + +A few dishes belong also to the 15th century, ornamented with the same +colouring as the tiles without metallic lustre, and generally decorated +with fantastic animals. They are very scarce. Two examples exist at the +South Kensington Museum, Nos. 1459 and 1461-'70. They probably were made +at Seville; all those I have seen come from there, and we know that the +pottery from Seville was much esteemed. In Pedro de Medina's "Libro de +Grandezas y Cosas Memorables de Espaa," Sevilla, 1549, fol. Iii., he +says, "In this town of Triana much excellent pottery of Malaga is made, +coloured white and yellow, and of different sorts and kinds. This +pottery is made in about fifty houses, and it is exported from here to +many localities. In the same manner excellent _azulejos_ are made, of +great variety of colour and design. And likewise fine reliefs of men +and other things. Great quantities of these _azulejos_ are taken to +different localities." + +At the introduction of Italian forms of art in Spain, at the beginning +of the 16th century, artistic pottery divided itself into two +schools--one kept to the traditional designs and strong tones of colour, +the other used shaded colours, and especially yellow and blue tints, at +times imitating Italian maiolica, but always following the decoration +characteristic of the Renaissance style. + +The Italian influence, and its finest results in Spain may be favourably +studied in Seville, in the tile decorations of the chapel at the +Alcazar, the doorway of the convent of Santa Paula, and a remarkable +sepulchre decorated with tiles at the church of St. Anne at Triana. All +these tile decorations are signed by the same person, and it would be +difficult to find any more remarkable. + +The _azulejos_ at the Alcazar represent a picture in the manner and +style of Pietro Perugino; they are admirable in colour and design. Those +which decorate the sepulchre at the church of St. Anne have the +following inscription, "_Niculoso Francesco italiano me fecit, en el +agno del mil ccccciii._" Some very interesting tiles also may be seen in +one of the rooms in the lower part of the Alcazar; they are marked in +the following manner: A.V.S.T.A.--A.V.G.W.S.T.A. 1577-1578. On the floor +of the pavilion of the Emperor Charles V. in the garden there are also +some fine tiles which are signed Juan Hernandez, 1540. + +We find mention in Cean Bermudez of a painter of _azulejos_ named Juan +Flores, a native of Flanders; he painted tiles for the royal palaces of +Madrid, the Pardo and Segovia; he was appointed Maestro Azulejero by +Philip II. in 1565. + +Returning to other examples of earthenware we meet with the ancient +manufactures of the Balearic Islands, although it is not easy to +determine the kind of pottery which was really made there. Bernardo da +Uzzano, in 1442, made a commercial treaty, (vide Davillier, "Faences +Hispano Moresques," p. 26), in which he mentions the "faence" made at +Mallorca and Minorca, which "was exported to a very large extent." The +royal Ordinances for the island of Iviza, which have not been mentioned +by either of these authors, state that the principal traffic and the +greatest industry of ancient times of the island of Iviza consisted in +some vessels of the finest earthenware, well baked and curiously worked, +of which an innumerable quantity were sent off to Africa and other +places, not only on account of the excellence of their worth, which was +admirable, but the speciality of the clay, which preserved from poison. +("Reales Ordinaciones de Iviza," Palma, 1751). + +Manufactures of pottery also existed in a great number of localities in +Spain; the most important centres were at Talavera, Valencia, and +Triana. Judging by the manner in which different authors praise the +earthenware of Talavera, its productions were evidently the most +esteemed. The earliest mention we find of Talavera pottery occurs in a +MS. volume dated 1560--a history of this town, in which mention is made +of "white, green, blue and other coloured Talavera ware." In the +inventory of the effects of D^{na}. Juana, a sister of Philip II., 1573, +several objects of "white earthenware of Talavera" are mentioned. In a +report drawn up by order of Philip II. 1576, it is stated that Talavera +"produced fine white glazed earthenware-tiles, and other pottery, which +supplied the country, part of Portugal and India." Father Ramon de la +Higuera in his "Republicas del Mundo," 1595, mentions the ware of +Talavera in terms of the highest praise. In a MS. history of Talavera +written in 1651, (Bib. Nac. Madrid, G. 112,) the author, Father Alfonso +de Ajofrin, says that "the pottery is as good as that of Pisa, a large +number of _azulejos_ are also made to adorn the front of altars, +churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers, and large and small +specimens of every kind. Two hundred workmen work at eight different +kilns. Four other kilns are kept to make common earthenware. Red porous +clay vases and drinking cups are baked in two other kilns, in a thousand +different shapes in imitation of birds and other animals, also +_brinquios_ for the use of ladies, so deliciously flavoured that after +drinking the water they contained, they eat the cup in which it was +brought them." In another MS. history of Talavera (Bibl. Nac. G. 187) we +find mention of "perfect imitations of oriental china," and that the +pottery made there, "was used all over Spain, and sent to India, France, +Flanders, Italy and other countries, and was esteemed everywhere for the +perfection of the colouring and brilliancy of the glaze." + +This information may be increased by quoting another interesting MS. on +the history of this town (Bib. Nac. F. 142) in which the writer, Fr. +Andres de Torrejon, who professed in the convent of Santa Catalina in +1568, says:--"The earthenware pottery made here has reached to a great +height of perfection; it is formed of white and red clay. Vases, cups, +_bucaros_ and _brinquios_ are made of different kinds, dishes and table +centres, and imitations of snails, owls, dogs and every kind of fruits, +olives, and almonds. These objects are painted with great perfection, +and the imitations of porcelain brought from the Portuguese Indies are +most excellent. Every one wonders that in so small a town such excellent +things should be made. The varnish used for the white pottery is made +with tin and sand, it is now found to be more acceptable than coloured +earthenware, so much so, that persons of importance who pass by this +town although they have in their houses dinner services of silver, buy +earthenware made at Talavera, on account of its excellence. The sand +which was used to make the white varnish was brought from Hita, it is +now found at Mejorada, near Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as +silk." + +"The red pottery made at Talavera is much to be commended, for besides +the great variety of objects which they make, the different medals which +they place upon them, they have invented some small _brinquios_ of so +small and delicate a kind, that the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also +made of the same material. A certain scent is added in the manufacture +of this pottery which excites the appetite and taste of the women, who +eat the pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to their +confessors to check this custom." + +In a volume of "Relaciones Topograficas de los Pueblos de Espaa hechas +en 1576," (MS. in fol. t. ii.) we find, in speaking of Talavera, that +the author says: "What is most excellent there is the white pottery, and +tiles and other objects of this earthenware with which the kingdom and +part of Portugal are provided." + +In Larruga's "Memorias Politicas y Economicas," (vol. x. Madrid, 1741,) +we find, p. 22, that "the manufactory of fine earthenware of Talavera de +la Reyna continued to make much pottery of importance until 1720: eight +kilns existed then, which employed more than 400 persons, men, women and +children. These manufactories possessed at that time large sums of +money. From that time this industry decayed to such an extent, that in +1730 only four kilns existed where pottery of a very inferior kind was +produced." + +The industry was revived later on in the century, but the finest +specimens are of an earlier date. Larruga adds, in p. 17, vol. x., of +his "Memorias," that "Talavera ware is of a lighter clay than the +imitations of this earthenware which were made in other localities." + +Pottery of a similar kind was also made in different other localities of +Spain. Mendez Silva says that at Puente del Arzobispo, near Toledo, +"fine pottery is manufactured in about 8 kilns, which produce more than +40,000 ducats yearly." ("Relacion General de Espaa," Madrid, 1645, fo1. +32.) Paton likewise in his "Historia de Jaen," 1628, writes that "the +white unglazed earthenware made at these towns, is very remarkable for +the curious manner in which they imitate different figures of animals, +such as porcupines, fish, syrens, tortoises, &c." Objects of a similar +kind are still made in Spain. + +The English traveller Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish +Nation during the years 1760-1761," London, 1763, p. 263, says, "the +pottery fabrics are very numerous and excellent, particularly +Talavera." And in "Annales de l'Espagne," by Alvarez de Colmenares, +Amsterdam, 1741, we find, p. 187, in speaking of Talavera, that "On y +fait des ouvrages vernisss d'une faon ingnieuse, avec des peintures +de bon got; on estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes +Orientales; on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce ngoce rend plus de +50,000 ducats par an." + +Udal ap Rhys in his "An Account of the Most Remarkable Places and +Curiosities in Spain and Portugal," London, 1749, in speaking of +Talavera says, "It is noted also for a very curious kind of earthenware +that is made in imitation of China." + +Although we find by the remarks we have quoted from contemporary authors +that earthenware of every description was made at Talavera, the +specimens which are more generally met with may be divided into two +groups, which are painted on a white ground, either in blue, or in +colours in the manner of Italian maiolica. The most important examples +which have reached us consist of bowls of different sizes, dishes, +vases, tinajas, holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decorations. +Blue oriental china was imitated to a vast extent, the colouring was +successful but the design was an imitation of the baroque school of the +time, and the figures, landscapes, and decoration follow the bad taste +so general in Spain in the 18th century. The imitations of Italian +maiolica are effective. The colours most commonly used are manganese, +orange, blue and green. + +Several specimens of this manufacture are in the South Kensington +Museum; among these may be noted-- + +No. 327-'76. A large vase painted in blue with cavaliers and men on foot +in a hilly landscape, on the shoulder are the words "Silva Coronel." + +No. 1282-'71. Holy-water vessel, with raised flowers and scrolls of +foliage with polychrome decoration. + +No. 1281-'71. Soup tureen and cover, white, with raised scrolls and +groups of painted flowers. + +No. 351-'76. Another soup tureen with cover and stand, painted with +garlands and the arms of Portugal. On the cover is a group of fishes and +shells in relief. + +No. 1279-'71. A bowl decorated within with a bull-fight; outside are +storks and trees in green, orange, and manganese. (See woodcut.) + +[Illustration: EARTHENWARE BOWL. TALAVERA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +Several pottery works were established in Spain in the 18th century, all +of them, in the same manner as the earlier fabriques, modified the +system of decorating their wares. In some instances the colours and +designs of Italian maiolica were imitated, others copy the blue +faences of Pisa, Genoa, and Savona, while others adopted the styles of +Moustiers, Nevers, and Rouen, or English earthenwares. + +Ten or twelve manufactories existed at Toledo in the 17th century which +imitated Talavera ware; in the 18th they hardly produced anything of +importance. Ignacio de Velasco in 1735 founded one at great expense at +Toledo in which imitations of Genoese pottery were chiefly made. At the +death of Ignacio in 1738, these works passed to his son George; in 1742 +Francisco Hernandez directed them, and in 1747 imitated Japanese models. +Several specimens proceeding from Toledo, at the South Kensington +Museum, painted blue on a white ground, in the style of Savona and +Japan, belong to this period. + +In 1755 thirteen pottery kilns existed at Puente del Arzobispo near +Toledo; they still worked in 1791, but their productions were very +inferior in artistic merit. + +Earthenware pottery was made at Segovia from a very early period, +chiefly for domestic use, until a manufactory was founded by two +brothers--Manuel and Toms Ledesma in 1752--they had seen some specimens +which were made at Bolonia for Isabel Farnesio, the widow of King Philip +V., and they endeavoured to imitate them. In 1774 they tried with a most +unsatisfactory result to imitate English wares. This industry fell into +decay towards the end of the century, and only ware of a very common +description was made there. + +Talavera ware was also imitated at Zamora. At the middle of the 18th +century works existed there where pottery was made in the manner adopted +at Alcora with few results, for soon after it was established the master +potter, who was at the head of these works, left the locality. +["Memorias," Larruga, Vols. 13 and 34.] + +The further we advance into the 18th century, the more we find the +tendency in Spanish ceramic art to imitate the pottery most in vogue in +other countries. Francisco Cavalli, a potter of Ruidoms, won a prize at +Tarragona in 1787, for his excellent imitations of brown and white +Genoese ware. [MS. fol. Bibl. de S. Magestad el Rey, S. 2, E. B. pt. 8.] + +The efforts made by King Charles III. towards increasing industrial arts +in Spain, contributed to the reproductions and efforts made to imitate +foreign wares. When the king founded in 1768 the villages of La Carolina +and La Carlota in Andalucia, he ordered that pottery works should be set +up there. At the same time that he established at Madrid the important +porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, he wished that earthenware works +should exist in the same locality, where specimens should be made in +imitation of the best work produced elsewhere. The king was most anxious +to revive to a great extent the almost extinct industry of metallic +lustred pottery, and thanks to this we are able to know most accurately +the receipt and manner in which this lustre was applied. In the same +volume in which I found these documents, [Brit. Mus. MS. Egerton, 507], +are two reports addressed to Count Florida Blanca in 1786, by Iriarte +and Vargas, who were instructed to facilitate the development of this +industry. The first report contains information relating to the pottery +works of the county of Stafford; the second tells us that in the +building of San Isidro el Real, essays had been made to reproduce +English wares, and the lustred productions of Manises, with an idea of +establishing inside or outside of Madrid pottery works on a large scale, +under the protection of Count Florida Blanca. Iriarte and Vargas were of +opinion that these works should be established far from Madrid, +suggesting as the best spot El Viso in La Mancha, owing to the excellent +quality of the clay. Don Sebastian Schepers, a son or brother of +Cayetano Schepers, was at the head of these works. Cayetano was the +chief modeller at the Retiro manufactory. Their imitations of English +earthenware did not succeed; the varnish turned out badly, and they +determined to bring out English workmen. Their imitations of gold +lustred ware were eminently successful, so much so that competent judges +declared it was equal to what was made at Manises. Pottery works where +earthenwares of different descriptions were made existed also at this +time in Madrid; the best were those of Rodriguez and Reato, mentioned in +Larruga's "Memorias Economicas." + +At the end of the 18th, and beginning of the 19th century, Valencia and +Aragon supplied the country with painted tiles. One of the finest +examples of this class which have reached us is the pavement of the +chapter house of the cathedral of Saragossa, on which landscapes, +medallions, and animals are finely designed in the Italian renaissance +style. In a shield may be read the following inscription: + + Real^{s} Fb^{cas} + D E + D Maria Salb + adora + Disdier + Bru f^{t} + Ao 1808. + +Valencia has been much renowned for its manufacture of painted tiles, +_azulejos_, which continue to be made there in a very creditable manner +at the present time. J. Townsend, in his "Journey through Spain in the +Years 1786-1787, London," 1792, says: "I was most delighted with the +manufacture of painted tiles. In Valencia their best apartments are +floored with these, and are remarkable for their neatness and elegance. +They are stronger and more beautiful than those brought from Holland." +In a "Nouveau Voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1789, p. 56, the author says: +"L'industrie des Valenciens tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les +productions de leur sol. Il contient une espce de terre, dont ils font +ces carreaux de faence colore connus sous le nom de azulejos, et qu'on +ne fabrique qu' Valence. On en pave les appartements, et on en revt +leurs lambris; on y peint les sujets les plus compliqus, tels par +exemple qu'un bal masqu, une fte de taureaux. La couleur rouge est la +seule qui ne puisse tre fixe sur cette espce de faence. Elle +s'altre par la cuisson." In "Voyage en Espagne, 1797-1798," Paris 1801, +the author says, p. 245: "Les plats sont faits de faence bleutre ou +toute autre couleur orn de figures d'oies." + +Before we pass to describe another most important branch of Spanish +pottery the unglazed earthenware must be mentioned, which from a very +early period has constituted and still constitutes a most important +branch of its industry. This pottery, generally used for cooling water, +consists of white porous vessels of which a large modern collection may +be seen at the South Kensington Museum proceeding from Andujar and La +Rambla (Andalusia). This industry remains in precisely the same state as +in the time of the Arabs. + +The earthenware vessels called _Bucaros_ are similar to these. This +porous pottery was made to a very large extent at Talavera. It was +imported originally from America; the great centre existed at Mejico. +The paste of this ware is unglazed and whitish, black or red--when +painted the colours chosen are generally red, black, and gold. It was +made in Spain as early as the 16th century, and we constantly find +_Bucaros_ alluded to in documents of this period. In the inventory of +the effects belonging to D^{na} Juana, the sister of Philip the Second, +drawn up in 1573, _bucaros_ made at Lisbon, Estremoz, and Montemayor in +Portugal, and those of Ciudad Rodrigo and Castille, are also mentioned. +Madame d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon, [MDCXCIII.], mentions +the habit of Spanish ladies of eating this porous clay. At the South +Kensington Museum there are several good specimens of red pottery of +this kind, Nos. 285 to 318--'72, which, as we have remarked were made at +Talavera and Toledo. + + +ALCORA POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. + +Don Buenaventura Pedro de Alcantara inherited in 1725 the estates +belonging to the title of Aranda in the province of Valencia. Count +Aranda found that the inhabitants of the village of Alcora made coarse +earthenware of every description, and that their vicinity to the sea +coast favoured exportation; he determined, therefore, upon establishing +in 1726 a manufacture of pottery there, in which fine wares might be +made in imitation of those imported from Italy, Germany, France and +England. The count's efforts were so successful that in less than two +years specimens of different kinds of Alcora pottery were exported to a +very large extent. + +No account has hitherto been published which gives any idea of the +importance of this manufactory, nor have the names of the artists who +worked there been known, or the works which they executed. Wishing to +ascertain this, I applied to the Duchess of Hijar, the present +representative of the house of Aranda, and permission was granted me, +thanks to the kindness of the Duchess's _Apoderado general_, Sr. Robles, +to look through the Archives, where the accounts, contracts, and details +of the manufactory are kept. This has enabled me to give an idea of the +importance of this industry, and the names of the artists who worked +there, which have been ignored until the present time by writers on +ceramic art. + +Count Aranda spent in 1726 about 10,000 in establishing the manufactory +of Alcora, and in May, 1727, the first specimens appeared, consisting of +pottery made "in the manner of China, Holland, and other localities." +The manufactory was at that time under the superintendence of Dn. +Joaquin Joseph de Sayas and Joseph Ollery, a Frenchman, chief +draughtsman and carver, who was engaged at a good salary in 1726, and +brought to Alcora from Moustiers by the painter, Edward Roux. In 1728 +Count Aranda increased his salary owing to the "excellent manner in +which Ollery has worked at Alcora, the fine and numerous models which he +constructed, which have contributed to make my manufacture the first in +Spain." + +Five painters and two modellers from Catalua and six Valencian painters +and two modellers joined these French artists. The personnel of the +fabrique was completed with eleven potters from the locality. The French +painters, M. Pierre Maurissy and M. Gras, and the master of the +modellers, M. Sebastian Carvonel, were engaged in 1728 for two years to +work at the manufactory. Ollery only appears in the lists up to 1737. +The Count granted him a yearly pension of 500 francs besides his salary, +"for his especial zeal in the improvement of the manufactory, and his +great skill in directing the construction of every kind of work." From +this date until the manufacture of porcelain in 1764, only Spanish +artists worked at Alcora. + +The Count was able from the year 1729 to circulate the pottery made at +Alcora through the Spanish dominions, free of custom-house duties. The +government granted him several other privileges and the manufactory +continued to improve, and spared no pains to import the foreign shapes +and designs which were most acceptable. No Spanish pottery manufactory +could compare with Alcora in the excellence and beauty of its work. + +Among the obligations of the artists engaged, whether Spaniards or +Frenchmen, was that of teaching drawing and modelling to a certain +number of pupils. A special Academy was created for this purpose, which +at one time held more than one hundred pupils, who were constantly +renewed and increased with those who appear henceforward in the works at +Alcora. In 1736 there were fifty-six painters, eleven masters, twenty +workers at the wheel, and twenty-five apprentices. In this same year, +1736, specimens of pottery made at Alcora were sent "to all the +dominions of Spain, Rome, Naples, Malta, many Italian cities, Portugal, +and some provinces of France." + +The manufactory produced yearly about 300,000 specimens of different +kinds. The ordinances are interesting which in 1732-1733 prescribe, +"that in our manufactory only pottery of the most excellent kind should +be made, similar to the Chinese, to be equally fine as to the earths +employed, that the models and wheels should be perfect, the drawing of a +first-rate kind, and the varnish and colours excellent, and the pottery +light and of good quality, for it is our express wish that the best +pottery should only be distinguished from that of an inferior kind by +the greater or less amount of painting which covers it." + +Miguel Soliva, Christobal Cros, Francisco Grangel, Miguel Vilar, +Christobal Rocafort, Vicente Serrania, and Joseph Pastor were the best +painters at Alcora in 1743; they decorated a fine dinner service made +for the Tribunal of Commerce, and the large slabs for the Convent of Las +Descalzas Reales at Madrid, representing the Virgin as the Divine +Shepherdess. + +Pottery painted with metallic lustre was made in 1749. We find among the +receipts used in that year one brought from Manises for this object. + +We find it also stated in the communications which passed between the +Tribunal of Commerce and the count in 1746, that "the perfection of the +earthenware of Alcora consisted in the excellent models which had been +made by competent foreign artists, the quality of the earth and receipts +brought at great expense from abroad." Joseph Ochando is mentioned in +that year as an excellent painter, and Juan Lopez as the best carver and +modeller. This document tells us "that from the earliest period of the +manufacture pyramids with figures of children, holding garlands of +flowers and baskets of fruits on their heads, were made with great +perfection, likewise brackets, centre and three-cornered tables, large +objects, some as large as five feet high, to be placed upon them, +chandeliers, cornucopias, statues of different kinds, and animals of +different sorts and sizes. The entire ornamentation of a room has also +been made here; the work is so perfect that nothing in Spain, France, +Italy or Holland could equal it in merit." + +The objects which were made to a great extent at this time consisted in: + + Vases of different shapes. + + Small pots, Chinese fashion. + + Teapots and covers, Chinese fashion. + + Teapots and covers, Dutch fashion. + + Cruets, complete sets, Chinese style. + + Entre dishes. + + Salt-cellars, Chinese style. + + Escudillas (bowls) of Constantinople. + + Barquillos (sauce bowls), Chinese style. + + Bottles, in the Chinese manner. + + Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds with good painted + borders in imitation of lace-work (_puntilla_); some were designed + in the Chinese manner, and especial care was taken with + fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes. + + Trays and refrigerators. + +In 1750 Count Aranda passed the pottery works on to a private company, +in whose hands they remained until 1766. We know the pottery continued +to be excellent. Unfortunately almost all the details of this period are +missing from the Archives. One of the few documents remaining is a +contract drawn up in October, 1741, with Franois Haly (the name of this +artist is given by Baron Davillier), a Frenchman, in which he agreed to +work at the manufactory during a period of ten years with a yearly +salary of over 1000 francs, under the following conditions: + +"That the travelling expenses of his wife and children should be given +him, and that his salary should be paid as soon as he made before the +Director and two competent judges the different kinds of porcelain which +he had undertaken to make." He agreed to give up his receipts, and it +was promised him that he should have two modellers and one painter +working by his side, and that if in one year Haly's porcelain was +satisfactory the Count undertook to make him a present of 1000 livres +(_tornoises_). + +Towards the middle of the century, porcelain was made for the first time +at Alcora. A contract was drawn up on 24th March, 1764, with a German, +called John Christian Knipfer, who had already worked there in the +pottery section. By the original agreement, which exists at the +Archives, we find he was to prepare works of "porcelain and painting +similar to those made at Dresden, during a period of six years, under +the following conditions:" + +"That the said Knipfer obliges himself to make and teach the apprentices +the composition and perfection of porcelain paste, its varnishes, and +colours, and whatever he may know at the present time, or discover +during this period of six years; he is not to prevent the Director of +the Works from being present at all the essays made." + +"The said Knipfer offers to make and varnish porcelain, and to employ +gold and silver in its decoration, and in that of the ordinary wares; +likewise the colours of crimson, purple, violet, blues of different +shades, yellow, greens, browns, reds, and black. + +"That Knipfer will give up an account of his secrets, and the management +and manner of using them, in order that in all times the truth of what +he has asserted may be verified." + +From the original documents which exist we gather that Knipfer was +chiefly famed for his excellence in the painting and decoration of +porcelain. + +Franois Martin was engaged in 1774 for his skill in preparing different +pastes for manufacturing porcelain and pipeclay. He agreed to make "hard +paste porcelain, Japanese faence, English paste (pipeclay), and +likewise to mould and bake it. The necessary materials were to be +provided by the Count of Aranda." His expenses were to be paid if the +specimens he presented to the competent authorities gave a satisfactory +result, and his salary was to be increased to 1200 francs a year. + +Knipfer and Martin greatly added to the importance of the works made at +the manufactory. Don Pedro Abadia, the Count's steward, an intelligent +man, possessing great scientific knowledge, who had studied this subject +in Paris and London, writes to the Count that the presence of both these +artists was of absolute necessity at Alcora, "until the workmen who were +near them perfected themselves." For owing to the carelessness of the +managers of the porcelain works in 1776 Count Aranda wrote from Paris, +during his embassy there: "My pottery of Alcora, notwithstanding every +effort which has been made, the money spent, and foreign masters which +have been brought over, gets worse every day instead of improving." +Abadia repeats this in his reports. Porcelain of other kinds decidedly +improved. He says also that the pipeclay which Martin had found at +Alcora was the best in Europe. + +In my opinion, a large number of unmarked white biscuit and +demi-porcelain figures which are so constantly found in collections +belong to this period of the manufactory of Alcora. They have hitherto +been classified with very great difficulty, and attributed to the +porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, without any reason which justifies +this opinion. For the help of collectors I will mention the subjects +which they represent, which I have found in a document, dated 1777, of +the figures and groups and other objects made during that year. + + +FIGURES OF DEMI-PORCELAIN. + +Figures of tritons. + + " of soldiers, two sizes. + + " " one-third _palmos_ high. + + " of the four seasons (two sizes). + + " of dancers. + + " of tritons in form of children. + + " with brackets. + + " of different animals. + + " of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style. + +Dancing figures in the German style. + +Figures of Neptune. + +Figures of shepherd and shepherdess. + + " of the Moorish king, Armenius. + + " of the four parts of the world, two sizes. + + " of peasant and his wife. + +Small figures holding musical instruments. + +Figures representing different monarchies. + + " " historical personages. + + " " the history of Alexander the Great, two sizes. + + " " Marius Curtius, two sizes. + + " of elephants. + + " of a man mounted on an elephant. + + " representing Chinese figures. + + " of Heliogabalus. + + " of a general on horseback. + + " of a grenadier supporting a candlestick. + +Large figures representing Julius Csar. + +Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets. + +Groups of Chinese figures. + +Snuff-boxes, sugar basins, inkstands. + +Rabbits, horns, and pug dogs for holding scent. + +Small scent bottles. + +Needle cases. + +Large vases with foot and cover. + +Brackets. + +Walking-stick handles. + +Knife handles. + +Tea-spoons. + + +FIGURES OF WHITE BISCUIT CHINA. + +Figures representing Spanish costumes, two sizes. + +Groups of two figures. + +Large and small figures of the four parts of the world. + +Figures of the four seasons, two sizes. + +We find also the following figures of painted and glazed porcelain: + +Four seasons, two sizes. + +Groups of two figures. + +Figure of a Moorish king. + + " of musicians and huntsmen. + +Figure of peasants. + + " of Chinese. + +Small figures of a gardener and female companion. + +Figures of soldiers in the German style. + +In 1780 four rival pottery works were established in the neighbourhood +which copied and imitated the pottery made at Alcora. The two most +important were at Rivasalbes and Onda, the other two at Alcora itself. +Many of the artists who belonged to the works established by Count +Aranda worked at the rival factories; among them were Mariano Causada, +Joaquin Ten, Francisco Marsal, Vicente Alvaro, Christoval Mascars, +Francisco and Miguel Badenas, and Nadal Nebot; some of these artists +returned to the Count's manufactory. In order to distinguish the genuine +pottery from imitations, orders were given, with the authorization of +the Tribunal of Commerce, that the pottery made there should be marked +henceforward with the letter A; no special mark had hitherto been used +at the manufactory, the artists very often signed the specimens they +made with their monograms or signatures, of which those most frequently +met with will be found accompanying the list of artists' names, for the +help of collectors; all of them have been copied from original +documents. It is interesting for collectors to bear in mind, that all +specimens which are marked with the letter A are _posterior_ to 1784. +The pottery works founded in imitation of the manufactory belonging to +Count Aranda came to an end before 1790, some by special agreement with +the owners themselves, and others by the express orders of the +authorities, in virtue of the privileges granted to the Count. + +Mr. Martin died at Alcora in the month of May, 1786. Knipfer left soon +afterwards, and was succeeded by a French artist, M. Pierre +Cloostermans, a skilful man, and well versed in the manufacture of +porcelain pastes, as well as in painting and decorating them. According +to his contract, which was drawn up in Paris in 1787, "Pierre +Cloostermans, chemiste, natif de Paris, demeurant Paris, Rue de +Clery, au coin de celle Montmartre," agreed to "live for thirty years at +Alcora as director and workman, to make soft and hard porcelains, and +all the necessary colours with which to paint and decorate it." + +He also promised to make good pipeclay pottery and marbled wares which +were to be as excellent as those of Strasburg. The expenses of his +journey were paid, his sons were to be employed in the works, and it was +stipulated that if the works increased to a great extent, 500 pounds +(Valencian money), was to be added to his yearly salary. It was against +the Count's express desire that pottery of an exclusively artistic +character should be produced at Alcora; his chief object was to improve +the industry itself. In one of his letters to Abadia, written in +October, 1789, he says: "I wish to export the porcelain of my +manufactory, but chiefly in common objects, such as cups of different +kinds, tea and coffee services, etc. These may be varied in form and +colour, the principal point being that the paste should bear hot +liquids, for we Spaniards above everything wish that nothing we buy +should ever break. By no means let time be wasted in making anything +that requires much loss of time. The chief object is that the pastes +should be of first-rate excellence and durability." + +Cloostermans suffered much discomfort and annoyance from other workmen +at Alcora, who were envious of his merit: they put every difficulty in +his path, insulted him daily with pasquins, accused him of not +fulfilling his religious duties, and annoyed him incessantly. His +letters are full of these complaints. Count Aranda treated him with +every consideration. During Cloostermans' stay at Alcora, the pottery +made improved greatly in artistic merit. Figures and groups of many +kinds were attempted, and even Wedgwood jasper ware was creditably +imitated. In 1789, among other pottery that was sent to Madrid were "two +hard paste porcelain cups, adorned with low relief in the English +style." The most important one was moulded by Francisco Garcs, the +garlands and low reliefs by Joaquin Ferrer, sculptor, the flowers on the +covers by an apprentice, helped by Cloostermans. The composition of +these objects was suggested by Abadia, who brought some specimens from +Paris which came from England. + +Cloostermans sent the Count in 1789 a number of objects of different +kinds made of porcelain. Among them the most interesting were "a tea and +coffee service painted and gilt of glazed porcelain, and ten unglazed +figures. Those painted by Albaro are marked A, those by Escuder, E, and +by Mas, M, and Cloostermans' son." A large and varied collection of +marbled wares and toys were sent at the same time. Cloostermans' marbled +wares are pronounced superb. + +Count Aranda writes in July, 1790, to Diez Robles alluding to a large +collection of pots for plants, which were made at Alcora for the King, +decorated with the royal arms. Another series are still to be met with +at the Royal Gardens; they are of pipeclay, and ornamented with rams' +heads. + +In 1784 the Count sent two potters, Christoval Pastor and Vicente +Alvaro, to Paris to study the last improvements in porcelain. They +returned in 1789, and the porcelain they made was much commended and +highly approved. They write to the Count in September, 1789: "We know +that Don Domingo has sent your Excellency 97 objects made by us, marked +No. 3, 1, No. 4, No. 3, with a dot, and No. 3 with the letter 'P'; No. 4 +with the letter 'H,' all made by me in clay, and varnished with the +greatest care. Three flask-stands and two toothpick-stands were made by +me, Pastor, before I went to Paris. The marble wares, Nos. 3 and 4, and +other similar objects with gold lines, are also made by me." + +In 1784, Mariano Garcia of Valencia made some experiments before the +Directors of laying on gold, and different shades of purples. A number +of specimens were sent to the Count, but Knipfer did not approve of the +plan adopted, and it was afterwards abandoned. + +Marbled wares of different colours were made at Alcora in vast +quantities in 1790. A large dept was established in 1791 of Alcora ware +in the Calle de Luzon at Madrid. The printed prospectuses which were +issued give a long and detailed list of the different productions of the +manufactory, which chiefly consisted of dinner and tea services, and +other objects of domestic use. + +In 1792 nearly 100 painters and modellers existed at the manufactory; 45 +were employed to work in porcelain and pipeclays, and 26 were +apprentices. + +Cloostermans was forced to leave Alcora in April, 1793, owing to certain +disturbances which occurred at Valencia, when, owing to a proclamation +of the Captain-Generals, he and other Frenchmen residing in the province +of Valencia, were ordered to leave the country. The Count gives +instructions that Cloostermans should want for nothing on his journey; +he writes ordering that 3000 reales should be given him, and his yearly +pension of 1200 pounds (_tornoises_). Cloostermans left with his three +sons after giving up the receipts and other documents connected with the +manufactory. In 1795 permission was given that Frenchmen might return to +Spain, and he resumed his post in the manufactory. + +The principal efforts at Alcora since Knipfer, Martin, and Cloostermans +entered the manufactory, had been centred in making porcelain and +pipeclay wares of different kinds. A great number of essays with foreign +earths were made; and all those of a suitable kind which were known in +Spain. Count Aranda was always most anxious that Spanish materials +should be used in the manufactory; he says, in a letter written in 1790, +"the Kaolin of Catalua may be good or bad, but it is acknowledged to be +Kaolin, and if not used these works must be closed." This Kaolin had +been found by Christobal Pastor and Vicente Albaro on their return from +Paris. + +Baron Davillier has been good enough to inform me that he has found +mention of some objects of Alcora wares which Count Aranda sent as a +present to his friend Voltaire, at Ferney. + +From 1789 to 1797 the following kinds of pottery were made at Alcora:-- + +Hard paste porcelain (French). + +Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish. + +Porcelain of pipe-clay (English). + +Blue pipe-clay porcelain. + +Marbled pipe-clay porcelain. + +_Bucaro_, painted and gilt. + +Strasburg Ware. + +Porcelain painted _en froid._ + +Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown. + + +PORCELAIN (FRITA). + +Porcelain painted with gilt lines. + + " " without gold. + +Porcelain (frita), canary colour. + +Boxes in relief. + + " plain. + +Porcelain (frita), painted with marble wares. + +Plain boxes of the same kind. + +Porcelain (frita), of blue and brown ground. + +Cups and saucers of a similar kind. + + +BISCUIT PORCELAIN. + +Figures. + +Vases. + +Pedestals. + +White porcelain (frita) cups of different kinds. + + " " ornamented and plain. + +Boxes with busts. + +Boxes with ornamentations in relief. + +Figures. + +Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc. + +Large figures of the Four Seasons. + +Flower vases with rams' heads. + +Plain boxes. + +Boxes with ornaments in relief. + + +WHITE PORCELAIN. + +Plates, cups, etc. + +Figures of different kinds. + + +PAINTED PORCELAIN. + +Cups, saucers, plates, etc. + +Cream pots. + +Plain snuff boxes, or in the shape of a dog. + +Fruit stands in relief. + +In 1799 we find mention made of partridges modelled by Christoval Mas, +and Clemente Aycart much commended for his dogs, ducks, tortoises and +frogs. + +Joseph Ferrer writes to the Duke of Hijar in the same year, that "he had +just seen a bust of D^{n} Jos Delgado, a trifle smaller than the one +previously sent of your excellency." These busts and some medallion +portraits were made of porcelain _frite_. Ferrer complains in the same +letter that Delgado the manager had asked for a fine jug and basin of +Svres, which had been given by the King of France to the late Count, +and that he had been obliged to hide it away with some English specimens +which were in the warehouse. + +Count Aranda died in January, 1798, and was succeeded by his son the +Duke of Hijar. Cloostermans died the same year; Vicente Prats is stated +to be the best painter and decorator at Alcora at this date. In an +extract drawn up of the state of the pottery works in 1798, it appears +that 200 workmen were employed, and pottery of every description was +made, common earthenware, pipeclays in imitation of the English ones, +and porcelain in small quantities; common wares were made in large +quantities; the pipeclays were pronounced superior to the English in +brilliancy, but were so porous that they were easily stained, a large +number of snuff-boxes and other small objects belong to this period. + +In 1800, the Duke of Hijar, who succeeded the Count of Aranda in the +management of the manufactory, writes to D^{n} Josef Ferrer, saying: +"As I do not know the authors of the pipe-clay porcelain or that of +other kinds which is sent here, I beg you to order the master workmen of +porcelain and common pottery to engrave, in making it, the initials of +their names, as it will enable me to distinguish the good from the bad." + +Twelve porcelain baths with the arms of Spain in blue were made at +Alcora for Queen Maria Louisa in 1800. + +The Duke of Hijar ordered in 1800 that a dinner-service should be made +there for his use. He sent instructions that it should be of the same +kind as a tea-service previously sent to his son the Duke of Aliaga. The +painter chosen to decorate it was Mariano Alvaro, and the designs +selected by Ferrer were taken from the Loggie of Raphael. + +In the same year some cases of pottery were sent to the Duke; in one of +them was a fine soup tureen modelled by Josef Ferrer, Cloostermans' son, +Pierre, writes at this time, asking to be appointed to the post left +vacant by his father's death; his petition however was not granted. + +We have already seen that pottery and porcelain continued to be +manufactured in the present century at Alcora in the same manner as in +the 18th century, but owing to the French invasion of 1808 this industry +suffered the consequences of war, and the work done there greatly +diminished in excellence and quantity. Even before this the Director, +D^{n} Jos Delgado complains in several documents of the bad state of +the manufactory, the Directors who replaced him, D^{n} Juan Bautista +Cabot and D^{n} Pedro Bezarco, write continually repeating the same +thing. After the French were turned out of Spain, the industry was +revived and strengthened by fresh artists from the porcelain manufactory +of Madrid. D^{n} Luis Poggetti was appointed drawing master there in 1815, +and D^{n} Domingo Palmera master of ornamental art, both these artists +had worked at Buen Retiro, Poggetti as Director of pietre dure, and +Palmera as second-class sculptor. After this time the manufactory of +pottery at Alcora ceased to produce artistic works, and limited itself +to send out common wares for domestic purposes; this system continued +until 1858, when the Duke of Hijar sold the manufactory to D^{n} Ramon +Girona, who brought over English workmen from Staffordshire in order to +improve the wares. Many imitations of the older styles have also been +made at Alcora of late years. + +One of the most important results of the present study is the necessity +of changing the classifications of a great number of specimens which +have been believed to be manufactured at Moustiers and other localities +in France, but which in fact were made at Alcora. It is sufficient to +mention the names of Grangel, Cros, Soliva, and Vilar, which one of the +best informed writers on Ceramic industry, Baron Davillier, has +discovered on different specimens of pottery, and which, in his "Hist. +des faences et porcelaines de Moustiers, etc., Paris, 1863," he +considers to be the names of artists who worked in France, although all +of them belonged exclusively to Alcora, as will be seen in the subjoined +list of artists' names. I am in hopes, also, that many errors may be +corrected in future, touching French and English pottery, which was +imitated to a great extent, and with much success at Alcora. + +We gather also by this information that an immense number of objects +were made of pipeclay porcelain, in imitation of English wares; and, in +my opinion, a great quantity of objects of white pipeclay porcelain +which have been found of late years in Spain are of Alcora manufacture. +They have been hitherto classified by amateurs as Leeds pottery. We +find, in papers relating to Alcora, that a decided distinction is made +between white and straw-coloured pottery. This indication may be +sufficient to distinguish it from English wares. + +Townsend, in "A Journey to Spain in the years 1786-1787," London, 1792, +p. 255, says: "At Alcora, in the neighbourhood of Valencia, a +manufacture of porcelain has been successfully established by Count +Aranda, and deserves encouragement. I was much pleased with their +imitations of gilding. It is very natural, and the manager informed me +that after many years' trial it was found to be durable." + +[Illustration: EARTHENWARE PLAQUE, ALCORA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +Specimens exist of Alcora ware and porcelain at the South Kensington +Museum. + +Nos. 1051, 1052-'71. Two fine plaques, painted with mythological +subjects of Pomona and Galatea, the borders raised in form of a frame, +with scroll ornaments [see woodcut of No. 1052]. + +No. 341-'76. A porcelain cup and saucer, blue ground, gilt; painted with +flowers in white medallions. + +No. 333-'76. A plate painted with sprigs, and containing models of fruit +in full relief. + + + A LIST OF THE DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE + MANUFACTORY OF POTTERY AND PORCELAIN OF ALCORA FROM ITS FOUNDATION, + 1726, UNTIL THE BEGINNING OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. + +DIRECTORS. + + +Dr. Joaquin Joseph de Sayas, 1727. + +Joseph Ollery, 1727 to 1733. + +Manuel de Molina, 1727 to 1735. + +Cayetano Allue, 1727 to 1750. + +Marcial Guirandeta, 1778 to 1783. + +Juan Villalonga, 1789. + +Pierre Cloostermans, 1789. + +Domingo Abadia, 1789. + +Gabriel Berenguer y Cebrian, 1789. + +Josef Ferrer, 1799. + +Josef Delgado, 1800. + + +ARTISTS. + +Abella, Francisco, 1750, at Alcora. + +Alvaro, Cristobal, 1750. + +Alvaro, Joseph, paints pottery in 1743, 1750. + +Alvaro, Vicente, el mayor, works at the wheel in 1750. + +Alvaro, Vicente, painted with Knipfer in 1783; he was sent by Count +Aranda in 1784 to Paris to learn the making of porcelain; he returned to +Spain in 1789, and continued to work at Alcora. + +Alvaro, Tiburcio, painted with Knipfer in 1783. + +Andrs, Cristoval, modeller and carver in 1783. + +Andrs, Francisco, modeller in 1783. + +Andrs, Francisco, modeller, 1743 to 1750. + +Andrs, Gabriel, painter, 1743 to 1750. + +Andrs, Gabriel, figures as one of the leading painters in 1794. + +Andrs, Jaime, painter, from 1728 to 1737. + +Andrs, Mariano, paints from 1739 to 1750. + +Andrs, Mariano, works in 1789. + +Andrs, Miguel, painter, 1743 to 1750. + +Aparicio, Manuel, painter, 1750. + +Arqua, Vicente, 1750. + +Aycart, Clemente, sculptor, worked at the porcelain works in 1789. + +Aycart, Roque, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Aycart, Ventura, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Bachero, Vicente, painted porcelain in 1789. + +Badenas, Cristoval, painter, 1727 to 1750. + +Badenes, Francisco, establishes with Miguel Badenas pottery works, where +pottery was made in imitation of Alcora: it was put a stop to by +agreement in 1789. + +Badenes, Miguel; see Francisco. + +Beltran, Pedro, retouched painting on porcelain in 1783 to 1789. + +Berenguer, Cristoval, painter, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Blasco, Bautista, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Blasco, Francisco, painted from 1731 to 1738. + +Blasco, Joaquin, painted in 1750. + +Blasco, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735; he painted in 1750. + +Blasco, Manuel, painter, 1728 to 1750. + +Blasco, Vicente, painted 1727 to 1750. + +Buxads, Ildefonso, painted 1727 to 1750. + +Buxads, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Calvo Perales, Joseph, painter from 1727 to 1750. + +Calvo, Manuel, painter of common pottery in 1783. + +Calvo, Ramon, painted common earthenware from 1750 to 1783. + +Campion, Juan, a Frenchman, worked at the wheel in 1743. + +Carnicer, Juan, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789. + +Carnicer, Vicente, modeller from 1783 to 1789. + +Carbonel, Sebastian, a Frenchman; he modelled in 1728. + +Catal, Cristoval, modelled in 1783. + +Catal, Juan, 1750. + +Catal, Manuel, 1750. + +Catal, Pascual, painter from 1729 to 1750. + +Catal, Pedro Juan, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Caussada, mayor, Jacinto, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Caussada, menor, Jacinto, from 1727. + +Caussada, Joseph, a son of Jacinto, painted from 1743 to 1750. He ran +away from the manufactory and went to work at Talavera, and was brought +back to Alcora. + +Caussada, Mariano. It was proposed that he should be turned out of the +manufactory, owing to his having gone over to the works established at +Onda, where he gave them the receipts of the colours and varnishes used +at Alcora; he returned to Alcora in 1789. + +Caveta, Pascual, painter, 1743. + +Chiva, Cristoval de, painted porcelain in 1789. + +Chiva, Joseph, painted from 1727 to 1738. + +Chiva, Manuel, painted in 1789. + +Cloostermans, Pierre, a French artist; he entered the manufactory in +1787, and continued to work there until his death in 1798. + +Cloostermans, a son of Pierre's, was an excellent painter on porcelain +in 1789. + +Corrs, Ignacio, a native of Catalua, painted from 1727 to 1728. + +Coll, Jaime, a native of Catalua, painted from 1727 to 1736. + +Cros, Cristoval, painted from May, 1727 to 1743; he was one of the best +artists who painted at Alcora. + +Cros, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Cros, Manuel, 1750. + +Cros, Pascual, painted from 1727 to 1736. + +Cros, menor, Vicente, painted porcelain from 1750 to 1789. + +Cros, Vicente, 1735 to 1750. + +Datos, Gaspar, modeller, 1731 to 1750. + +Datos, Julian, modeller, in 1783. + +Datos, Ramon, painted in 1750. + +Datos, Vicente, 1750. + +Escuder, Vicente, painted with Knipfer from 1783 to 1789. + +Fabra, Francisco, painted from 1730 to 1743. + +Fabra, Vicente, painter, 1727 to 1735. + +Falco, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1743. + +Falco, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1735. + +Feliu, Vicente Tomas, painter, from 1727 to 1750. + +Feliu y Thomas, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Ferrer, Joaquin, a carver, who worked with Mr. Martin from 1783 to 1789. + +Ferrer, Esteban, painted porcelain in 1789. + +Ferrer y Carnicer, Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783. In December, +1789, he had an oven on his own account at Alcora, the only one which +remained out of four which had been established four years previously +there. + +Ferrer, menor, Vicente, 1750. + +Ferrer, Vicente, painted from 1727 to 1743. + +Flor, Antonio, painted common pottery from 1750 to 1783. + +Fores, Joseph, painter, 1727. + +Fornench, Joseph, painted in 1739. + +Fornench, Phelipe, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Fornench, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Fornench, Phelipe, painter, 1727 to 1750. + +Fuste, Salvador, painter, 1727. + +Galvez, Juan, modeller, 1731 to 1735. + +Garcs, Joaquin, painter. He worked with Joaquin Ter at the manufactory +which he established at Alcora, and returned to the Counts in 1789. + +Garcs, Francisco, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin in 1783, and was +considered by Cloostermans, in 1789, his most able workman. + +Garcs, Joseph, painter, 1727. + +Garcs, Pedro, 1743. + +Garcia, Mariano, a native of Valencia. He went to Alcora to try a system +of gilding and purple which he had invented, which produced an +unsatisfactory result. + +Gasch, Agustin, painter from 1728 to 1750, although he was absent from +the works from 1735 to 1741. + +Gasch, Bruno, a son of Juan's, worked at the wheel from 1743 to 1750. + +Gasch, Cristoval, worked with the turners, 1731 to 1741, and joined the +painters until 1750. + +Gasch, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1729 to 1750. + +Gasch, mayor, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Gasch, Joseph, painter, 1731 to 1735. + +Gasch, Juan, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1750. + +Gasch, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Gasch, Miguel, the son of Juan, painted in 1743. + +Gasch, Vicente, 1750. + +Gasch, Correo Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Gardo, Juan, painter and modeller, 1731 to 1735. + +Gil, Francisco, modeller, 1783. + +Giner, Manuel, painter, 1727. + +Gomez, Cristoval, painter on common pottery, 1783. + +Gomez, Francisco, modeller, 1731 to 1750. + +Gomez, Vicente, painter, 1750, 1783. + +Gomez, menor, Vicente, worked at the wheel and painted from 1783 to +1789. + +Gorris, Joseph, 1750. + +Granell, Cristoval, painter, 1729, 1750. + +Granell, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735. + +Granell, Vicente, 1731 to 1750. + +Grangel, Francisco, pintor, painted from 1727 to 1783. In 1743 the +finest work was given to him. + +Grangel, Juan, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Gras, Monsieur, painter, 1728. + +Haly, Franois, 1751. + +Herrando, Francisco, 1727. + +Herrando, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1736. + +Herrando, Juan, painted from 1729 to 1735. + +Herrando, Manuel, modeller, 1783. + +Herrando, Pascual, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1743. + +Herrando, Thadeo, 1750. + +Huguet, Cristobal, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Huguet, Francisco, worked at the wheel and modelled in porcelain from +1783 to 1789. + +Huguet y Mascars, Joseph, painter, 1783 to 1794. + +Huguet, Vicente, painter. He worked at the manufactory established by +Joaquin Ten at Alcora, and returned to Count Arandas in 1789, and +continued there in 1794. + +Huguet Serra, Joseph, modeller in 1783. + +Ibaez, Juan, painter from 1727 to 1735. + +Knipfer, Juan, a native of Saxony, 1783. + +Lazaro, Joseph, painter, 1727. + +Lopez, Julian, 1792. + +Llorente, Francisco, 1750. + +Lloscos, Joaquin, painter, 1783. + +Llosca, menor, painter, 1783. + +Malanco, Nicolas, painter, 1727. + +Marin, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1736. + +Marques, Miguel, painter, 1794. + +Marras, Francisco, painter and modeller in 1727. + +Marsal, Bautista, painter from 1727 to 1743. + +Marsal, Francisco. He worked at Alcora, and left it for the manufactory +of Onda; in 1783 he returned to Count Aranda's works. + +Marti, Miguel, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Martin, Francisco, modeller in 1783. + +Martir, Pedro, worked at the wheel in 1739. + +Mas, Cristoval, modeller from 1783 to 1789. + +Mas, Francisco, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Mas, Julian, a skilful painter on porcelain in 1789. + +Mas, menor, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Mas, Manuel, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Mas, Pedro, painter in 1743. + +Mascars, Cristobal, painter from 1728 to 1750. + +Mascars y Thomas, Cristoval, painted on pottery from 1783 to 1794. + +Mascars, Francisco, 1743 to 1750. + +Mascars, Joseph, painted porcelain in 1789. + +Mascars, Jos, painter in 1735 to 1736. + +Mascars, Pedro Martin, painted from 1729 to 1736. + +Mascars, Vicente, worked at the wheel from 1750 to 1780. + +Masso y Fabra, Vicente, painted in 1727. + +Mass, Joseph, 1750. + +Mass y Fabra, Francisco, painter, 1739, 1750. + +Mass Nadal, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750. + +Mallol, Joaquin, modeller, 1783. + +Mallol, Cristoval, modeller in 1783. + +Mallol, Vicente, modeller, 1783. + +Maurisi, Pedro, a Frenchman, began to work in 1728. + +Mezquita y Chiva, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Mezquita, Francisco, painted in 1750. + +Mezquita, Jaime, painter, 1731 to 1750. + +Mezquita, Pascual, painter from 1727 to 1735. + +Miguel, Vicente, 1750. + +Miralles, Vicente, worked in clay from 1731 to 1743. + +Moliner, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Moliner, Miguel, painted from 1728 to 1750. + +Moliner, Vicente, modeller in 1783. + +Monfort, Agustin, modeller in 1783. + +Monfort, Pablo, modeller in 1783. + +Montemenor, Joseph, modeller in 1783. + +Montolin, Jacinto, painter, from 1731 to 1750. + +Montolin, Juan, painter, the son of Jacinto, from 1735 to 1750. + +Montolin, Juan, varnisher and painter in 1783. + +Montolin, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789. + +Montolin, Vicente, painter of common pottery in 1783. + +Montolin, Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750. + +Moya, Crisostomo, retouched porcelain in 1789. + +Nadal, Felix, 1727 to 1735. + +Nadal, Juan, master at the wheel, painter and carver from 1727 to 1737. + +Nadal, Miguel, 1783. + +Nadal, Nebot, works from 1743 to 1783. + +Navarro, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783, and painted porcelain +in 1789. + +Nebot, Bautista, painter, 1794. + +Nebot, Cristoval, modeller, 1750. + +Nebot, Cristoval, menor, 1794. + +Nebot, Francisco, 1750. + +Nebot, Francisco, painter in 1794. + +Nebot, Joseph, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1740. + +Nebot, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1794. + +Nebot, Juan, painter, 1750 to 1783. + +Nebot, Miguel, painter, 1783 to 1794. + +Nebot, Narciso, painter, 1794. + +Negre, Deodato, painter, 1727. + +Negre, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1783 to 1794. + +Negre, Julian, worked at the wheel in 1794. + +Negre, Manuel, modeller, 1783 to 1794. + +Negre, Ramon, painter, 1783 to 1794. + +Negre, Vicente, modeller, 1727. + +Nondedeu, Cristoval, modeller, 1729. + +Nondedeu, Miguel, turner, 1731 to 1743. + +Ochando, Joseph, draughtsman and carver, from 1727 to 1742. + +Olery, Joseph, director of the works from 1735 to 1737. In August, 1729, +he was appointed principal draughtsman. + +Pacor, Bartolom, painter, 1728 to 1735. + +Palau, Francisco, painter, from 1727 to 1750. + +Palmera, Domingo, master of ornamental art, 1815. + +Pardo, Cristoval, turner, from 1727 to 1750. + +Pardo, Francisco, 1750. + +Pardo, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1750. + +Pardo, Vicente, master at the wheel in 1728. + +Pastor Bartolo, Antonio, painter, 1750. + +Pastor Butoni, Antonio, painter, 1750. + +Pastor, Bartolom, a brother of Vicente's, from 1729 to 1750. + +Pastor, Bautista, varnisher, 1783. + +Pastor, Cristoval, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin from 1783 to +1789. + +Pastor, Gaspar, 1750. + +Pastor, Joseph, painted in common pottery and porcelain from 1783 to +1789. + +Pastor, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750; his name appears in 1743 +among the best artists of Alcora. + +Pastor, Vicente, painter, from 1728 to 1743. + +Pastor, Vicente, painter, was pensioned in Paris by Count Aranda in +1784; he returned to the works in 1789, and continued there for several +years afterwards. + +Pea, Vicente, modeller, 1783. + +Perales, Ramon de, painter, 1750. + +Periz, Joseph, modeller, from 1727 to 1731. + +Periz, Joseph, mayor, painter, from 1750 to 1783. + +Periz, Joseph, menor, modeller, 1783. + +Perpian, Cristoval, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1740. + +Perpian, Vicente, modeller, from 1731 to 1743. + +Pinazo, Andres, draughtsman and carver, 1727. + +Poggetti, Luis, drawing master, 1815. + +Porcar, Cristoval, painter, from 1727 to 1735. + +Porcar, Pascual, modeller, from 1729 to 1735. + +Prast, Antonio, painter of common pottery in 1783. + +Prats, Cristoval, modeller, 1783. + +Prats, Cristoval, turner, from 1731 to 1750. + +Prats, Francisco, modeller, from 1750 to 1783. + +Prats, Fulgencio, painter, 1783. + +Prats, Vicente, painter, from 1750 to 1794. In 1789 he ranked among the +first artists at Alcora. + +Querol, Vicente, 1743. + +Querol, Joseph, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750. + +Querol, Manuel, painter, from 1750 to 1783. + +Rech, Joseph, a native of Catalua, painter, in 1727. + +Redolat, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789. + +Ribot, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1735. + +Ricart, Antonio, turner, from 1729 to 1735. + +Ricart, Clemente, modeller, in 1783. + +Ricart, Joaquin, modeller, in 1783. + +Robert, a Frenchman, painted in 1729. + +Rocafort, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750; he was one of the best +artists at the manufactory in 1743. + +Roman, Juan, painted from 1731 to 1735. + +Roman, Manuel, painted from 1735 to 1750. + +Romualdo, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750. + +Roux, Edouard, a French painter, who worked at Alcora, where he had been +brought by Ollery in 1728 until 1735. + +Rules, Joseph de, turner, from 1731 to 1735. + +Saborit, Cristoval, modeller, in 1783. + +Saborit, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1736. + +Saborit, Joaquin, painter, 1783. + +Saborit, Joaquin, painted from 1728 to 1750. + +Saborit, Manuel, modeller, in 1783. + +Sagao, Rafael, draughtsman and carver, 1727. + +Salvada, Joseph, 1789. + +Sancho, Joaquin, painted in 1783. + +Serrania, Cristoval, 1750. + +Serrania, Vicente, painted from 1728 to 1743. + +Soliva, Joaquin, painted pottery in 1783, and retouched porcelain in +1789. + +Soliva, Miguel, painted from 1727 to 1750. In 1743 he was considered the +best artist at Alcora. + +Soriano, Joseph, turner from 1731 to 1735. + +Soriano, Nicasio, turner from 1731 to 1735. + +Sorolla, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Tarazona, menor, Cristoval, modeller, 1783. + +Tarazona, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750. + +Tarazona, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1783. + +Tarrag, Joseph, painter from 1728 to 1735. + +Tarrag, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750. + +Ten, Francisco, modeller in 1783. + +Ten, Joaquin, painter from 1732 to 1750. In 1789 he closes the pottery +works which he had established in imitation of those of Alcora. + +Ten, Joseph, 1750. + +Ten, Jaime, painter from 1735 to 1750. + +Terra, Cristobal, modeller, 1783. + +Terra, Vicente, varnisher, 1783. + +Thomas, Antonio, modeller, 1783. + +Thomas, Gaspar, 1750. + +Thomas, Joaquin, modeller in 1783. + +Thomas, Jos, 1750. + +Thomas, Jos, worked at the wheel in 1783. + +Thomas, Juan, 1743, 1750. + +Thomas, Mateo, 1750. + +Thomas Feliu, Vicente, painter from 1729 to 1740. + +Thomas, Vicente, 1783. + +Torres, Cristoval, painter from 1728 to 1750. + +Torres, Juan, from 1731 to 1735. + +Vadenes, Cristobal, 1770. + +Valentin, Pedro, painter from 1727 to 1743. + +Vilar, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1750. + +Vilar, Cristobal, sculptor, works in porcelain in 1789. + +Vilar, Francisco, 1750. + +Vilar, Joseph, modeller in 1783. + +Vilar, Miguel, painter from 1727 to 1743. + +Vilar, Pedro, worked in the ovens from 1735 to 1750. + +Vilar, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1789. + +Vilar y Bordoan, Cristobal, modeller in 1783. + +Vilar y Bordoan, Mariano, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789. + +Vilar Perpian, Cristobal, painted from 1739 to 1743. + +Vilar Ricart, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1735. + +Vilar Porcar, Cristobal, painter, 1727. + +Vilar Ricart, Joseph, painter from January, 1731, to 1735. + +Vilar Porcar, Joaquin, painter from 1727 to 1735. + +Vilar Saboret, Joaquin, painter in 1729. + +Yguet, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783. + +Zaragoza, Friar, worker in porcelain, 1799. + + +MARKS AND SIGNATURES OF THE PAINTERS WHO WORKED AT ALCORA. + +From 1727 to 1784 no special mark was used at Alcora. In several +instances specimens were signed with the painter's name or initials. + +In order to distinguish the qualities or sizes, coloured numbers were +frequently added. + +From 1784 the letter A in gold or colours was used to mark the pottery +and porcelain made at Alcora. + +The following marks were used after 1784. The a underlined, [A=], +sometimes in blue. + +A number and letter, No. 4 A, G 8; No. 3 P. In 1799 the pottery made by +Friar Joseph de Zaragoza was marked M. O. X. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + +MADRID.--BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN. + +In 1759 King Charles III. came from Naples, having inherited the Spanish +crown on the death of his brother Ferdinand VI. Soon after his arrival +he determined to establish a porcelain manufactory at Madrid in the same +style as one which in 1736 he had founded at Naples. The documents which +exist relating to this manufactory at the archives of the Royal Palace, +Madrid, Alcala, Ministry of Finance, etc., state that before the King +left Naples, he ordered the following letter to be written to the +Secretary of State, Richard Wall, on September 11, 1759: "Likewise the +workmen and utensils used at the royal manufactory of porcelain of Capo +di Monte must be embarked from Naples to Alicant, in the vessels +prepared for that purpose, in order to continue from there the journey +to Madrid. The necessary conveyances are to be provided, and the +expenses to be charged to his Majesty's account." + +Charles III. landed at Barcelona on the 17th of October, 1759, and we +find a letter written by order of the King, by the Marquis of Esquilace +to Secretary Wall, in November of the same year, in which he says that +the King had heard of the arrival in Spain of the workmen from Capo di +Monte, and gives orders that money should be supplied to the Director, +Don Juan Thomas Bonicelli. Wall answers that he "will give orders and +help the workmen who are to establish the manufactory, and let them have +every facility to examine different sorts of earths and localities which +may suit them, and that the Director, Bonicelli, should have the money +he might require." + +It appears also that 300 gold ducats were given to Giuseppe Gricci, +"modeller," in absence of Bonicelli. The King ordered Wall to be +informed that he understood that a place had been found near Madrid to +establish these works, and that he was anxious to see a plan of the +exact locality. Giuseppe Gricci drew the plan of the spot chosen, and +was paid 100 gold doubloons for works connected with the manufactory. +Bonicelli sends the following list of workmen who had arrived from +Naples to the King. + +Cayetano Schepers, chief composer. + +Pablo Forni. + +Joseph Gricci, principal modeller. + +Carlos Gricci. + +Esteban Gricci, modeller. + +Cayetano Fumo, " + +Basilio Fumo, " + +Joseph Fumo, " + +Carlos Fumo, " + +Macedonio Fumo, " + +Joseph Santorum, " + +Juan Bescia, " + +Bautista de Bautista, " + +Antonio Morelly, " + +Salvador Nofri, " + +Phelipe Esplores, " + +Ambrosio de Giorgi, " + +Pedro Antonio de Giorgi, " + +Pablo Frate, " + + +WORKMEN EMPLOYED IN THE KILNS. + +Jenaro Bonincosa. + +Nicolas Rocio. + +Pasqual Rocco. + +Juan Frate. + +Baldo de Beneditis. + +Vincenzio Frate. + +Matheo Mayni. + +Giorchino Amable. + +Joseph Esclavo. + +Antonio Aquaviva Esclavo. + + +WORKMEN WHO POUNDED THE COLOURS. + +Francisco Conte. + +Nicolas Conte. + +Angelo Lionelli. + +Joseph Caramello. + +Joachim Pataroti, carver in pietri dure. + + +WORKMEN EMPLOYED AT THE WHEEL. + +Joseph Grossi. + +Nicolas Botino. + +Juan Remini, gold beater. + +Pedro Chevalier, mounter. + + +PAINTERS. + +Jos de la Torre. + +Juan Bautista de la Torre. + +Nicolas de la Torre. + +Fernando Sorrentini. + +Mariano Nani. + +Jenaro Boltri. + +Nicolas Donadio. + +Antonio Provinciale. + +Joseph del Coco. + +Carlos Remissi. + +Francesco Simini. + +Xavier Brancacio. + +Joseph Esclavo. + +Francisco Esclavo. + +On the 19th of December, 1759, Don Carlos de Borbon, the King's +architect, presented him with the plans of the porcelain manufactory. +The spot selected was inside the gardens of the Royal Palace of Buen +Retiro. Ponz tells us in his "Viage," Vol. VI. p. 108, that the building +was large and of regular architecture. We know it cost 179,130 reals. + +Don Carlos de Borbon was a black slave who had been captured with other +blacks during the reign of Ferdinand VI. The Queen-mother sent them to +Naples, and Charles III. gave them an artistic education. + +Don Carlos Antonio became the King's architect. On the 22nd of May, +1760, the building was finished, the money then spent amounted to +upwards of 145,000 reals, and Larruga tells us, in his Memorias, "The +King spent in establishing this manufactory 115,000, with a yearly cost +to keep it up of 20,000." + +William Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish Nation during the +years 1760-1761," London, 1763, says, p. 262: "At Madrid is lately set +up a manufacture of porcelain in the gardens of the King's palace at the +Retiro, wrought by artificers brought from Saxony." Documents exist +proving that in 1760-1761, they were already working there. Townsend, in +his "Journey through Spain in 1786 and 1787," London, 1792, says, Vol. +II., p. 278:-- + +"I tried to obtain admission to the china manufacture, which is likewise +administered on the King's account, but His Majesty's injunctions are so +severe that I could neither get introduced to see it, nor meet with any +one who had ever been able to procure that favour for himself. I was the +less mortified upon this occasion because, from the specimens which I +have seen, both in the palace at Madrid, and in the provinces, it +resembles the manufacture of Svres which I had formerly visited in a +tour through France." + +In the "Nouveau voyage en Espagne, ou Tableau de l'tat actuel de cette +monarchie," Paris, 1789, Vol. I. p. 233, the author tells us, how "Le +monarque actuel tabli dans leur interieur une fabrique de porcelaine, +dont l'entre est jusqu present interdite tout le monde. On veut sans +doute que ses essais se perfectionment dans le silence, avant de les +exposer aux yeux des curieux. Ses productions ne peuvent encore se voir +que dans les Palais des Souverains, ou dans quelques Cours d'Italie, +auxquelles il les envoie en presens." + +We find in a "Nouveau voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1805, p. 34, in +describing this porcelain manufactory that the author says; "Cet +tablissement tres couteux ne travaille que pour le Roi et a son compte; +il en sort des vases d'une beaute et d'un fini qui ne le cedent point +ceux de Svres." + +Citoyen Alquier, in 1800, the envoy of the French Republic, was allowed +to visit the manufactory. + +We do not know the precise date when porcelain began to be manufactured +at the Retiro. Clarke, writing in 1761, says the works had begun, and in +1764 pupils attended the classes at the Academy of S^{n} Fernando. +Larruga, in his "Memorias," says that as soon as the building was +finished, china was made under the superintendence of Don Cayetano +Schepers; the works, during his superintendence, proved very +unsatisfactory, to his great astonishment, as the same process and +workmen were employed as at Naples. Schepers attributes it to squabbles +between the Spanish and Italian workmen. Sebastian Schepers, from 1783, +a son of Cayetano's, tried various experiments with different clays of +the country. + +The porcelain made at Buen Retiro was kept for the first thirty years +for the exclusive use of the royal family, or to be sent as presents to +foreign courts. Nothing was offered for sale until January, 1789, after +Charles III.'s death, 1788, when Charles IV. determined that the china +manufactured at Buen Retiro might be sold. Even in Spain the specimens +of this china are very scarce; it is only at the palaces of Madrid, +Aranjuez, the Escorial and La Granja that an idea can be formed of the +perfection of this manufacture. + +The director at that time was Don Domingo Bonicelli, a son of Don Juan +Bonicelli. Don Domingo chose a room within the Retiro, which was +arranged at a cost of 350, in which to exhibit the objects for sale. +Another room was taken in the Calle del Turco, which is mentioned in +"Noticias varias y curiosas de Madrid," Valero Chicarro, 1762-1793, +which we find was closed in 1800, as the "objects manufactured at the +Retiro were simply for ornament, and could only be bought by very rich +persons." Southey in his "Letters from Spain," London, 1797, p. 118, +says, "The old palace of Buen Retiro is converted into a royal porcelain +manufactory; the prices are extravagantly high, but they have arrived at +great excellence in the manufacture. The false taste of the people is +displayed in all the vases I saw there, which though made from Roman +models, are all terminated by porcelain flowers." + +Every kind of porcelain was made at Buen Retiro, hard and soft paste, +white china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and modelled in the style of +Capo di Monte. A great many existed imitating the blue jasper ware of +Wedgwood, and they also made flowers, coloured and biscuit, groups, and +single figures, and painted porcelain of different kinds. Great +quantities of tiles for pavements were also made there, which may still +be seen at the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez; they are mentioned in the +accounts which exist at the Ministry of Finance for 1807 and 1808. We +find in these same accounts interesting details of the objects made +monthly. In January, 1808, a large number of figures were made, +including 151 heads for the table centre which was made for the king, +306 objects ornamented with paintings, 2,056 tiles, 577 objects of less +artistic importance, such as dishes, plates, etc. The finest specimens +which exist are in the Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the +Palaces of Madrid and Aranjuez of which the walls are completely covered +with china plaques and looking-glasses, modelled in the most admirable +manner with figures, fruits, and flowers. The room at Aranjuez is +covered with a bold ornamentation of figures in the Japanese style, in +high relief, painted with colours and gold with the most exquisite +details. The figures unite the fine Italian modelling with the Japanese +decoration. The chandelier is in the same style. Upon a vase on the +wainscot to the right of the entrance door is the following inscription: + + JOSEPH + GRICC^{I} + DELINEAV^{it} + ET + SCUL^{it} + 1763. + +This same date is repeated in the angles, and in some shields near the +roof we find, + + AO + 1765; + +probably the year the work was terminated. Antonio Conca, in his +"Descrizione Odeporica della Spagna in cui spezialmente si da notizia +delle cose spettanti alle Belle Arti," Parma, 1793, Vol. III., p. 310, +says, "Il Gabineto abbelitto di porcellana della Fabbricca del Retiro ha +meritato le bodi de curiozi viaggiatori." We also find in p. 119, "Un +altro Gabinetto vien chiamato della Cina pel sud principal ornata di bei +putti, di bassi relievi, e di altre opere di porcellana della nuova Real +Fabbricca del Ritiro." Ponz, in his "Viage de Espaa," Madrid, 1782, +describes the room at the Palace of Madrid, saying, "it is covered with +large plaques of porcelain made at Buen Retiro. In some are represented +figures of children copied from models, and between each compartment +looking-glasses are let in." (See woodcut.) + +[Illustration: ROOM DECORATED WITH BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN, IN THE PALACE +AT MADRID.] + +From the establishment of the manufactory in 1759 by Charles III. +until 1803 the styles adopted at Capo di Monte had been followed. At the +beginning of this century Dn. Bartolom Sureda went to Paris to learn +the manner in which Svres porcelain was made. On his return in 1803 he +was appointed director of the works at Buen Retiro and endeavoured to +imitate the paste and brilliancy of decoration of Svres. Two workmen +came over from Paris--Victor Perche, and Vivien. + +Among the finest specimens of this period of the manufactory are a +splendid clock and four vases, two mtres high, with porcelain flowers, +which exist in one of the state rooms of the Palace of Madrid. The vases +are placed in the four corners of the room. The clock is ornamented with +large biscuit figures. A large number of vases exist at the royal +Palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, and Escorial, of Retiro china. They are +often finely mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or porcelain flowers. +The blue of the imitations of Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the +biscuit work so fine as the English. Gold is often added to these +specimens. + +We find at the archives of the Ministry of Finance interesting details +of a dinner service made in 1798 for Charles IV., and a centre-piece, +which probably is that now in the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez. + +When the French made their entry into Madrid in the spring of 1808 they +took possession of the position occupied by the royal manufactory. In +July of the same year it continued in the hands of the French, who +forced open the doors of the laboratory. Porcelain continued, however, +to be made there during the reign of Joseph I.; we find in "Travels +through Spain and part of Portugal," London, 1808, p. 23, that, the +author says, "the gardens of the Buen Retiro are open to the public. In +the neighbourhood of these the royal porcelain manufacture is carried on +in a large white building." Lord Blayney, in his "Narrative of a Journey +through Spain and France in 1810-1814," London, 1814, says that "the +royal manufactures of tapestry and porcelain have declined since the +death of Charles III. and have now entirely ceased." + +We find in "Paseos por Madrid," Madrid, 1815-8, p. 87, it stated that +"The English, at the second entry of our troops in Madrid, ruined this +building in order that it should not be used as a fortress by the French +troops." + +Richard Ford, in his "Handbook for Travellers in Spain," London, 1845, +says, "Everything was destroyed by the invaders, who turned the +manufactory into a fortification, which surrendered with 200 cannon, +Aug. 14th, 1812, to the Duke of Wellington. Ferdinand VII., on his +restoration, re-created La China, removing the workshops and ware rooms +to the Moneloa." + +The South Kensington Museum contains an interesting collection of Buen +Retiro porcelain of different kinds, of which may be named: + +No. 344-'66. A vase of biscuit porcelain, two-handled, with frieze of +classic dancing figures and flowers. + +Nos. 333, 4-'66. Two small vases for tea, white porcelain, covered with +flowers in relief. + +No. 892-'75. A pair of vases painted with young bacchanals in rose +camaeu, and gilt. + +No. 893-'75. A pair of draped female figures, each holding a cornucopia, +standing on an altar-shaped plinth. + +No. 894-'75. A clock case, white porcelain, of rock and scroll work, +with flowers and groups of amorini. + +No. 332-'76. A group of Ariadne and the panther. + +No. 1068-'73. A pair of tall vases, with gilt serpent handles, the necks +fluted with gold, the upper part of the body painted with classic +groups, and with coloured scroll foliage in relief, the lower part +painted with leaves and scrolls on white ground. (See woodcut on next +page.) + +[Illustration: BUEN RETIRO VASE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] + +MARKS USED AT THE PORCELAIN MANUFACTORY OF BUEN RETIRO. + +[Illustration] + +The usual mark in blue. + +[Illustration] + +In blue, and sometimes in violet and gold. + +[Illustration] + +Cayetano or Carlos Fumo. The initials and date are graved in the clay +under the glaze; the fleur-de-lis is pencilled in blue. On a fine group +of children playing with a goat. + +[Illustration] + +This mark is graved in the clay, under the glaze, on a fine group +modelled by Salvador Nofri. + +[Illustration] + +Ochogavia? graved in the soft clay on a figure. + +[Illustration] + +1798, Sorrentini? These marks are pencilled in red on a pink cup and +saucer, with landscapes painted _en grisaille._ + +[Illustration] + +Pedro Antonio Georgi? The initials P. G. are gilt; the M crowned in red; +the V and M graved in the clay; on a cup and saucer buff coloured. + +[Illustration] + +Provinciale? The letters Po are graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in +blue; on two saucers, beautifully painted with children. + +[Illustration] + +Probably the initial of the king. On two jardinires; the interlaced C's +graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in blue. + +[Illustration] + +On two large vases imitating Wedgwood's blue and white jasper, with +white biscuit flowers. + +[Illustration] + +On a group of biscuit Retiro porcelain of two figures representing +Painting. The same mark appears on a figure of Apollo, about one foot +high. This mark is stamped on the porcelain; the letters are in relief +tinted rose colour. + +[Illustration] + +At the room decorated with Buen Retiro plaques at Aranjuez. It appears +on a vase in relief, which is placed on the basement to the right on +entering. The date 1765 appears on the ceiling, probably the year when +the work was finished. + +[Illustration] + +Graven on the clay on a white soft paste bracket painted with coloured +flowers belonging to Count Valencia de D^{n} Juan. + +[Illustration] + +On a cup at the Museo Arqueologico, Mad., painted with landscapes. The +initials are of Pedro Antonio Giorgi, who painted from 1802 to 1808. + +[Illustration] + +Engraved on the clay on a plaque of blue biscuit porcelain imitating +Wedgwood jasper ware, representing a mythological subject. + +[Illustration] + +On a dessert plate representing a vine leaf at the Museo Arqueologico. +The initials appear to be those of Felipe Gricci, a son of the first +modeller Jos, who came with Charles III. from Naples. + +[Illustration] + +Fleur-de-lis graven in the clay on a fine group of three figures. + + +LIST OF DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE ROYAL MANUFACTORY +OF THE BUEN RETIRO FROM ITS FOUNDATION, IN 1759, UNTIL 1808: + +DIRECTORS. + +Bonicelli, Juan Thomas, principal Director at the establishment of the +manufactory in 1759. + +Bonicelli, Domingo. In 1786 he was Director; in 1796 he solicits his +retirement, and died soon after. + +Cristobal de Torrijos, appointed Director in 1797, after the death of +Don Domingo Bonicelli. + +Sureda, Bartolom, Director in 1804, and continues in 1808. + + +PRINCIPAL MODELLERS AND SUPERINTENDENTS, POSSESSING THE SECRETS OF THE +FABRICATION (SECRETISTAS). + +Schepers, Cayetano, first Modeller in 1759. + +Gricci, Carlos, son of Joseph Gricci, came to Spain, 1759. He appears in +a list of artists employed in 1764: he died 1795. + +Gricci, Felipe, 1785. In 1802 he was first Modeller. + +Forni, Antonio, second Modeller in 1802. + + +SCULPTORS. + +Agreda, Esteban, born at Logroo, 1759. He obtained several prizes at +the Academy of San Fernando; employed in 1797, and continued to work +there in 1808. + +Avila, Ceferino de, employed 1799, and continued there in 1808. + +Avila, Juan de, 1771, and continued there in 1808. + +Bautista, Bautista de, 1759. + +Bautista, Cayetano, 1785. + +Bautista, Juan Lopez, employed from 1799 to 1808. + +Benedictis, Cayetano, 1785, 1802. + +Benincasa, Miguel, 1778, and continues to work in 1808. + +Benincasa, Vicente, 1785. + +Bergaz, Alonso, 1764. + +Bescia, Juan, 1759. + +Borbon, Geronimo, 1802 + +Borbon, Genaro, 1784 and 1808. + +Caravielo, Miguel, 1785. + +Chaves, Alonso, born at Madrid in 1741. In 1760 was appointed Modeller, +and in 1763 obtained a Second Prize at the Academy, and a First Prize in +1766. + +Chaves, Justo, 1785. + +Esplores, Felipe, 1759. + +Estebe, Antonio, 1778 and 1808. + +Flores, Josef, 1785. + +Forni, Pablo, 1759. + +Francholy, Angel, 1776 to 1808. + +Francholy, Jos, 1804 to 1808. + +Francholy, Luis, 1785. + +Frate, Carlos, 1785 to 1802. + +Frate, Josef, 1785. + +Frates, Juan, 1794 to 1808. + +Frate, Pablo, from 1759 to 1785. + +Frates, Mateo, 1797 to 1808. + +Frates, Mateo, born at Madrid in 1788. First Prize of the Academy in +1805; in 1829 was appointed Director of the China establishment at the +Moncloa. + +Frates, Francisco, 1764 to 1808. + +Fumo, Basilio, in 1759 was Director of the China manufactory; in 1779 he +was appointed a Member of the Academy of San Fernando; died in 1797. + +Fumo, Carlos, 1759. + +Fumo, Cayetano, 1759. + +Fumo, Joseph, 1759; died in 1799. + +Fumo, Macedonio, 1759, and continues in 1802. + +Fumo, Bernab, 1802. + +Giorgi, Pedro Antonio de, 1759, and continues in 1785. + +Giorgi, Carlos, 1785 to 1808. + +Giorgi, Ambrosio de, 1759. + +Giorgi, Antonio, 1795 to 1808. + +Gricchi, Joseph, 1759. In 1766 was appointed Honorary Director of the +Academy of San Fernando; died in 1769. + +Gricci, Esteban, 1759. + +Guijarro, Dionisio, 1798 to 1808. + +Llorente, Manuel, 1764 to 1785. + +Morelly, Antonio, 1759 to 1785. + +Nofri, Salvador, 1759 to 1785. + +Nofri, Justo, 1778 to 1808. + +Nofri, or Noferi, Juan, 1802. + +Ochogavia, Manuel, 1764. Born in Galicia in 1744; in 1760 won a Second +Prize of Sculpture at the Academy, and in 1763 a First Prize. + +Palmerani, Domingo, 1795, 1808. + +Palmerani, Angel, 1799 to 1808. + +Penaba, Joseph, 1793 to 1808. + +Rodriguez, Antonio, 1797 to 1808. + +Sancho, Dionisio, 1788. Born at Cienpozuelos in 1762; won a Prize at the +Academy in 1793; was appointed a Member of the Academy, 1796; in 1810 he +went to Mexico, where he died, 1829. + +Santorum, Joseph, 1759. + +Sorrentini, Fernando, 1785 to 1808. + +Sorrentini, Rafael, 1785. + +Sorrentini, Francisco, 1802. + +Valentin, Jos, 1779 to 1808. + +Valentin, Miguel, 1785. + + +PAINTERS. + +Alonso, Francisco, 1764. + +Boltri, Genaro, 1756. Born in Naples in 1730; in 1759 he came to Madrid +with Charles III.'s household, and worked at the Retiro; died in Madrid +in 1788. + +Brancasio, Xavier, 1759. + +Brancacho, Domingo, 1762 to 1803. + +Branga, Ignacio de, 1800, painter of figures; he continues there in +1808. + +Camaron, Josef, 1802. Born at Segorbe in 1760; in 1776 he won a prize of +painting at Valencia; he was pensioned to Rome, and appointed Painter in +Ordinary to the King. + +Castillo, Fernando del, born at Madrid in 1740. He was appointed Painter +at the manufactory, and worked there until his death in 1777. + +Coco, Joseph del, 1759. + +Cruz, Mariano de la, 1807, 1808. + +Domeu, Carlos, 1785. + +Donadio, Nicolas, 1759. + +Giorgi, Pedro Antonio, 1802. + +Martinez, Antonio, 1764. + +Martinez, Pedro, 1796 to 1808. + +Nani, Mariano, 1759. His wife received a pension from 1804, probably the +year of his death. + +Peshorn, Jorge, 1788, and continues working in 1802. + +Provinciale, Antonio, 1759 and 1785. + +Quirs, Juan Jos, 1802. + +Rimini, Carlos, 1759. + +Romero, Juan Bautista, 1800. Flowers and fruit; appears in lists of +1802. + +Rubio, Joseph, 1799 to 1808. + +Semini, Francisco, 1759. + +Soriano, Joaquin, 1799. Landscape painter in 1800; continues in 1808. + +Sorrentini, Josef, 1756, probably from Capo di Monte. In 1802 he asks +for a retiring pension. + +Sorrentini, Fernando, 1759. + +Sorrentini, Pablo, 1764 to 1808. + +Sorrentini, Gabriel, 1769 to 1808. + +Sorrentini, Manuel, 1785 to 1802. + +Torre, Joseph de la, 1759. + +Torre, Nicolas de la, 1759. In 1802 asks for a retiring pension. + +Torre, Raphael de la, 1759. + +Torre, Juan Bautista de la, 1759 and 1808. + +Torre, Josef de la, 1785 and 1802. + +Torre, Francisco de la, 1796 to 1808. + +Torre, Julian de la, 1802. + +Velasquez, Castor, 1807, and continued in 1808. Born in Madrid in 1768 +and obtained a prize at the Academy in 1787. + + +VARIOUS ARTISTS EMPLOYED IN THE MANUFACTORY. + +Agreda, Manuel, Sculptor, a brother of Esteban Agreda; he superintended +the making of biscuit china; born at Haro in 1773; won prizes at the +Academy; and was employed at the Manufactory from 1805 to 1808. + +Bautista, Juan, employed to make porcelain flowers from 1785 to 1808. + +Bautista, Francisco, appears in 1802 as maker of porcelain flowers. + +Bautista, Sebastian, appears in 1802 as a maker of porcelain flowers. + +Chevalier, Pedro, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1759, and continued to +work at the Manufactory in 1763. + +Escalera, Josef, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1781, and continued to work +at the Manufactory in 1808. + +Perche, Jaime Victor, French workman brought from Paris to prepare +porcelain, from 1803 to 1809. + +Vivien, French workman, brought from Paris to prepare porcelain, from +1803 to 1809. + +At the same time that porcelain was made at Retiro and Alcora, other +manufactories of a similar kind were established in Spain; but none of +them could compete with these. The most important was established at +Sargadelos, Galicia, in 1804. One of the finest specimens which have +reached us of this manufactory is a large bas relief representing the +massacres of the Spaniards by the French in Madrid on the 2nd of May, +1808. + + + + +GLASS. + + +Since the South Kensington Museum purchased the largest collection of +old and modern Spanish glass in Europe, the taste for and study of this +branch of industry has increased to a very great extent. It is evident +that this manufacture attained great importance during the three last +centuries, and possibly existed at an earlier period; and that glass +objects made in Spain possess a special and distinct character, +different to those made in other countries. Before the objects at the +Kensington Museum were collected, the existence of this industry in +Spain was comparatively unknown. + +The earliest mention of glass works in Spain will be found in Pliny, +who, while explaining the proceedings which were employed in this +industry, says that glass was made in a similar manner in France and +Spain: "Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo harenae +temperantur."--L. XXXVI. cap. 66. + +The next allusion to this industry will be found in the works of San +Isidoro. This eminent man lived in the 7th century, and after quoting +the observations of the Roman author, gives us to understand that this +industry existed before his time in Italy, France, and Spain: "Olim +fiebat et in Italia, et per Gallias, et Hispaniam arena alba mollissima +pila mola que terebatur." [Divi. Isid. Hisp. Etymologiarum, I. XVI. cap. +16.] It is evident, therefore, from this passage, that glass was made to +a large extent in the Spanish Peninsula during the Roman period. This is +confirmed by the number of specimens which are constantly found in +ruins. We learn also that the manufacture had ceased to exist in the +seventh century. + +Glass vessels of the Roman period found in Spain are similar in form and +manufacture to those which we know were made in France and Italy. This +is not to be wondered at, if we remember that the Romans imposed their +artistic forms on the countries they conquered. It is impossible to +classify the specimens of this industry into determined localities. The +study of the glass paste may, at some future period, give materials for +such a classification. + +One special characteristic of Roman glass may be taken into account to +be applied to Spanish glass of a later period. We find ancient specimens +constantly ornamented with a sort of thread or line which runs all over +the vase. These lines are sometimes made of transparent glass, and +sometimes of white opaque glass, termed in Italy _latticinio_ from its +milky whiteness. When the industry of glass making was revived in Europe +during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, classical forms were +copied in this as in other industries; this line ornamentation was +copied on a much smaller scale in Italy than in Spain, where it +constituted the chief and constant characteristic of glass making. It is +an interesting fact that objects of a traditional Moorish form have the +greatest amount of lines of this style of ornamentation. We cannot, +until this subject is more thoroughly investigated, do otherwise than +infer either that the tradition of this industry was preserved in Spain, +or that the Arabs imported this style of decoration from the same +localities from which it had been copied by the Romans centuries before. + +The comparison of these different styles of glass making can be carried +out in a most satisfactory manner in London by examining the fine +specimens of glass in the British Museum (Slade collection), and the old +Spanish glass at South Kensington. + +We have no specimens of glass of the Visigothic period. If, as is most +probable, glass was used by the Visigoths, they may have imported it +from the East, for the text I have quoted from the works of St. Isidore +seems to prove that this industry had ceased to exist in his time. The +glass paste of different colours must, however, be mentioned, which is +set in gold in the Visigothic crowns found at Guarrazar, near Toledo. It +imitates precious stones, and was very generally used during the +Byzantine period; its occurrence here makes it appear probable that at +any rate the tradition of this industry existed in Spain. + +From the 8th to the end of the 15th century, during the Mahomedan +domination, I infer that the industry of glass making became as +important in Spain as that of pottery. No specimens, however, of the +earlier period have reached us, and we must judge of what it was from +the glass vessels in the Kensington Museum, belonging to the Renaissance +period, which preserve their Oriental form, and are of a different style +to that of Venice and other localities in Europe. + +A most interesting fact, which confirms this theory, will be found in a +translation made from Hebrew to Arabic of a work which treats of the +virtues of precious stones, _Lapidario_ [MS. Biblioteca del Escorial], +quoted by Rico y Sinobas in "Almanaque de la Industria," 1873. We do not +know exactly when the author Abolais lived, but in the prologue to this +MS. it is mentioned that D^{n}. Alfonso el Sabio found this book at +Toledo, and gave orders to a Jew called Juda Mosca, and a priest, Garci +Perez, to translate it into Spanish. The translation was terminated in +1250. Technical details are given in this volume concerning the +substances which are employed in glass making, and some of the minerals +found in Spain which are used in painting or enamelling it, but as this +work was written to explain the properties of minerals, as they were +understood in the author's time, he does not enter into any interesting +details, or describe the forms of these objects. Another allusion to +glass making in Spain will be found in Al Makkari, the Arabian author of +"Mohamedan Dynasties in Spain," [London, 1840, 2 vols. 4to], who quotes +an Oriental writer of the 13th century, who says, "Almeria was also +famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils, whether +of iron, copper, or glass." (Vol. I. p. 51.) + +The tradition of this industry has been undoubtedly preserved at Almeria +until the present day, for in this province, and in the adjoining +villages of the province of Granada, we find that specimens are to be +met with, which possess a marked Oriental form, and are completely free +from the influence of Italian models which existed in other localities. +The most characteristic specimens consist of jars of two, four and eight +handles, bowls with ribs and handles, pilgrim's bottles, etc., of which +interesting examples exist at the South Kensington Museum. Woodcuts of +several of these are given. + +All these objects are decorated with a serrated ornamentation of +buttons, trellis-work, and the lines to which I have already alluded +which were placed there after the object was made, in the Roman style. +The paste is generally of a dark green colour, and when we find these +same features in vessels of white clear glass, we may affirm that they +are contemporary imitations made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they are +very seldom to be met with in the provinces of Almeria and Granada, and +are generally found at Toledo and other localities; it is, moreover, a +common condition of Oriental art that its general form complies with a +geometrical tracery, and we never find as in Italian works of art, forms +and capricious ornamentations which interfere with the symmetry of the +general lines, and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole. + +[Illustration: GLASS VASE.--SPANISH, 16TH CENTURY.] + +I have been unable to find the glass industries of this period mentioned +by any contemporary author, but I owe to the courtesy of S^{r}. Romero +Ortiz some interesting details which have been taken from the archives +of certain villages, which although of a more modern date prove that +this industry existed in these localities. At about 14 miles from the +Puebla de D^{n}. Fadrique, there is a locality called Pinar de la +Vidriera, where traces of ovens and scori exist belonging to an +ancient glass manufactory, which is likewise mentioned in documents of +the municipality as continuing to work in 1620. At Castril de la Pea, a +manufactory yet exists where glass is still made, and which has existed +from time immemorial in the village. The building itself is decorated +with the escutcheon of the family of Hernando de Zafra, one of the +secretaries of Queen Isabel, late in the 15th century, who must have +purchased it with other lands which he possessed there, towards the year +1492. A gallery, one mile long, which exists at the entrance of the town +from whence the sand has been extracted for this manufacture, gives an +idea of the antiquity of this industry in this particular locality. It +has been calculated that about two tons of sand were used at these glass +works every month. At Royo Molino, in the province of Jaen, a very +ancient building still exists, now half in ruins, which has been used +until very lately as a glass factory. At Maria, in the province of +Almeria, several glass manufactories have existed. The oldest, it is +believed, was about two miles from the town, and is called traditionally +"del Campo," but I have not found mention of it in any document. Three +glass ovens existed inside the town: one was established by Vicente +Botia, towards the year 1750, which lasted until 1790. Juan Martinez +established at about this period an industry of a similar kind near the +former one, which continued to work until 1854. The same green glass has +been constantly made in these localities, the same forms have been +copied, the only difference between the older and more modern specimens +consisting in the coarser and heavier quality of the glass. + +[Illustration: PILGRIMS' GLASS BOTTLE.--SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.] + +In treating of the glass manufactures in Spain, where Italian models +were imitated to a very great extent, we find very few allusions in +contemporary authors of the Middle Ages; it may be because glass vessels +were chiefly used with wooden and pottery utensils by the poorer +classes, and metal utensils of all kinds by those who were able to +afford them. At any rate, it is only towards the end of the Middle Ages +that we meet with information concerning this industry, which continues +uninterrupted until the present day. + +Barcelona is one of the towns distinguished for the antiquity and +excellence of its glass. In a municipal edict of 1324, we find a special +prohibition that the glass ovens should not be inside the city, owing to +the danger they might cause to the rest of the population. In 1455, +permission was granted to the _vidrieros_, glassmakers, to form a guild +under the patronage of St. Bernardino, and from this period some of its +members figure as holding municipal charges. Capmany, "Memorias," Vol. +I. p. 134. According to this author, the special Ordinances of this +corporation are not known, but only those which were given by the +municipality in 1659. He adds that the master _vidrieros_ required six +years of apprenticeship and practice to be admitted to work. + +From the 15th century several authors praise the glass made at +Barcelona. In a MS. by Jeronimo Paulo, who writes in 1491, a description +in Latin of the most remarkable things at Barcelona, he says, "they also +send to Rome and other places many glass vessels of different sorts and +kinds which may well compete with those of Venice." In the account of +Philip le Bel's journey to Spain on his marriage with Queen Joanna we +find the following mention of the town of Barcelona: "Et sont l faicts +les plus beauls ouvrages de voires (verres) et de cire qui soient faicts +au monde. Le Jordi (19 Janvier, 1503) Monsigneur alla au dehors de la +ville vioir ung jour o on faict voires (verres) de cristallin trs +beaus." ["Collection des Voyages," Bruxelles, 1876, Vol. I., p. 257.] +Marineus Siculus, who writes early in the 16th century says, "the best +glass made in Spain is that of Barcelona," and Gaspar Barreiros in his +"Chorographia," [Coimbra, 1569,] tells us, "they made excellent glass at +Barcelona, almost equal to the Venetian." At the beginning of the 17th +century the authors, Jaime Rebullosa, in his "Descripcion del mundo," +[Barcelona, 1603, 8vo,] and Luis Nuez in "Hispania," [Antverpi, 1607, +8vo, p. 279,] continue to praise the glass made at Barcelona, and from +that period we find its merit and the vast quantity which was exported +constantly alluded to. The fame of Spanish glass must have been +justified, for in the "Viage del Cardinal Infante," by Aedo, printed in +1639, we find it stated that when the Infant Cardinal was at Barcelona, +in 1632, he went with his galleys to Matar, four leagues from +Barcelona, to see the "glass made there which was so abundantly sold all +over the country." The Spanish translator of "La Piazza universale di +tutte le professioni," [Madrid, 1615,] adds the name of Barcelona to the +Italian author's mention of glass objects made in Venice, saying, "This +industry has reached such a degree of excellence at Murano and Barcelona +that nothing can be compared to it; there is nothing now which cannot be +made of glass and crystal, even cabinets have been made, and castles +with their towers, battlements, artillery, and fortifications." Mendez +Silva in his "Poblacion de Espaa, [Madrid, 1654, p. 243,] repeats the +same idea when he says they made at Barcelona, "fine glass which might +compete with the Venetian." This industry continued in Catalua to a +great extent in the last century, and was praised by the following +writers. The author of the "Atlante Espaol," [Vol. IV., Madrid, +1778-1795,] tells us that "they continued to make excellent glass at +Barcelona, in imitation of the Venetian, with which it might compete," +and that this industry was carried out to a great extent at Matar, +Cervell, and Almatret, all three towns of Catalua; he says that in +this last mentioned town the glass made was "so excellent, and the +number of workmen employed was so large, that an oratory had been built +in order that the workmen should hear mass there." + +The constant comparisons which we find between the glass made at +Barcelona with that of Murano suggests two things--that Spanish glass +must have been of a first-rate order, and that the form of the glass +vessels was similar to those made at Venice. It is highly probable that +a great part of the specimens of glass of different kinds which are +classified as Italian in several collections, are really Spanish, +although it is extremely difficult to point out the difference. In this, +as in other branches of industry, the mania for classifying has gone too +far, and comparative studies of a more concrete order are necessary; +until these are made, the principal fact to be borne in mind in +classifying glass vessels is to compare them with objects of a similar +manufacture which have been made until very lately in Catalua, and of +which an extremely interesting collection exists at the South Kensington +Museum, proceeding from Barcelona, Matar and Cervell, (Nos. 149 to +193) which will enable the amateur to see how the industry of +glass-making has continued traditionally to be preserved in that +province. See woodcut opposite representing a glass bottle, also the +central vessel in woodcut on p. 238. + +Among the specimens of old Spanish glass we may consider to have +proceeded from Catalua the following examples, forming part of the +collection acquired in 1873. Bottles, Nos. 249 to 262, cups, Nos. 336 to +339, and tumblers, Nos. 303 to 305, 312 to 314, and 328, '29. Among +these, there are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality. +The most characteristic are the _arruxiads_, or _borracha_, a vessel +spirally ribbed with several narrow spouts, used by the peasant girls of +the villages to sprinkle rose water in the festival of the patron saint +of the district; the _porrones_, a bottle with a long spout, used by the +peasantry for drinking wine; the _cantaro_, a jug, funnel shaped with +wide mouth, handle and curved spout, and the _pilas de agua bendita_, a +holy water vessel of different shapes. + +[Illustration: GLASS BOTTLE.--MODERN SPANISH.] + +Very few details have reached us of the famous glass works which existed +at Cadalso, in the province of Toledo; we know, however, that the glass +made there was as excellent as that made at Catalua, and was compared +in a similar manner to the Venetian. The unknown author of "El +Crotalon," published by the Spanish Bibliophiles, from a rare MS., in +1871, writing in the time of the Emperor Charles V., mentions "the fine +glass made at Cadalso." Marineus Siculus also writes in 1517 in his "De +las Cosas Memorables de Espaa," [Alcala de Henares, 1539, fol., Vol. +I.,] that "Glass was made in several towns of Castile, the most +important of them being Cadalso, which supplied the whole kingdom." It +would appear therefore that this glass manufactory was already +established in that locality in the 16th century, and we frequently meet +with allusions to the excellence of its productions in contemporary +authors. The town itself has continually been called "Cadalso de los +vidrios." Mendez Silva in his "Poblacion general de Espaa," [Madrid, +1645, p. 40] says: "They make in three glass ovens fine glass of +beautiful colours and forms, which can compete with the Venetian." At +the South Kensington Museum, there are two fine specimens of glass made +at Cadalso--No. 1068, '73, a drinking vessel of white glass, the upper +part in form of the Spanish vessel called "bucaro," ribbed and streaked +with colours; the stem pineapple shape, with remains of gilding (this is +represented in the woodcut); and No. 1082, '73, a bowl of plain glass, +the lower part spirally waved, and decorated with scale pattern in gold +and coloured dots. Both these objects proceed from a nunnery in a +village near Cadalso. + +[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +Larruga says in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1791, Vol. X., p. 53,] that +"two glass ovens existed at Cadalso, which belonged to the Marchioness +of Villena; they are worked by the inhabitants of this town. One of the +ovens has fallen into disuse from the beginning of the present (18th) +century, and the fame of the glass made there, formerly so renowned for +its clearness and variety of the objects made, has declined. In +examining the state of this industry during the reign of Charles II. we +find how much it had fallen off, for Dn. Antonio de Obando in 1692, +undertook to reestablish it, and to make glass vessels, and window +glasses as had been made there formerly. It appears that 200 dozens of +objects of different kinds were sent out from there yearly." The vase, +No. 333, '73 represented in the woodcut is an example of the coloured +glass of Cadalso. + +[Illustration: GLASS VASE.--SPANISH (CADALSO), 17TH CENTURY.] + +Glass ovens existed from a very early period in the central provinces +of Spain, which probably imitated from the 16th century the productions +of Cadalso. We know from papers at the Archives of the Convent, of two +of these which paid a yearly rent to the monastery of San Jeronimo de +Guisando, from 1478 to 1480. One of these glass works was situated at +the Venta del Cojo on the borders of Escalona, and the other at the +Venta de los Toros de Guisando. + +It is evident that a glass manufactory existed at Toledo, from some +accounts which I have found in the Archives of the Cathedral, in which +Bartolom Lopez, vidriero, is mentioned in 1546--Pedro Fernandez in +1590, and Tomas Nuez in 1660; as furnishing glass vessels, principally +lamps for the cathedral. Tomas Nuez is also paid for "three crosses of +crystalline glass." In a letter written in 1690 to Count Gondomar, the +celebrated ambassador to James I., (Archives of the Palace at Madrid), I +find a glass manufactory mentioned which existed at Cebreros in the +province of Segovia. The writer says, "Your lordship knows we have a +glass oven here; this week we have made the glass called crystalline, of +which I send in a basket sixteen specimens for my lady Dna. Costanza." + +Larruga tells us in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1792, Vol. XVI., p. 222,] +"That in 1680 a glass manufactory was established at San Martin de +Valdeiglesias, where glass in the Venetian style was made--the glass was +excellent. This manufactory was under the direction of Diodonet Lambot a +native of Namur. He was succeeded by Santiago Bandoleto, who was by no +means as skilful. Glass ovens were also established at the Torre de +Estevan, Hambroz, under the direction of Guillermo Torcada." At +Recuenco, in the province of Cuenca, glass works existed at the +beginning of the 16th century; but in 1722 Don Fernando Lopez de Aragon +established a manufactory on a large scale. The glass made there was +used by the king and the greater part of the rich people at Madrid. In +1739 two other glass works existed there, which continued their +operations during the rest of the century. In the same province several +glass ovens existed towards the middle of the last century. The +principal ones were established in the villages of Arbetota, Vindel and +Armallones; only coarse specimens were made there, but at an earlier +period their productions had been, Larruga tells us in the nineteenth +volume of his "Memorias," very important. The glass works which we find +mentioned in the "Atlante Espaol," [Madrid, 1795,] were also of a very +inferior quality; they were established at the end of the last century +at Busot, in the province of Alicante, Hinojares and Carolina, province +of Jaen. The "Correo de Espaa," [Vol. I. Madrid, 1771,] mentions an +important glass manufactory which existed at Andorra near Alcaiz, and +one where glass of an inferior quality was made at Cabra, in the +province of Cordova. Cabanilles, "Historia y descripcion del reino de +Valencia," Barcelona, mentions the existence from a very early period of +glass works at Olleria, a village of the kingdom of Valencia. + +The only mention which I have found in which Seville appears as a centre +of this industry, is an interesting allusion to the village of Cala, +which was represented in a festival which was given to Philip II. in +1578, "with a crystal glass in its hand, and several others at its feet, +because a famous glass oven existed there." ["Recibimiento que hizo +Sevilla al Rey Don Phelipe." Por Juan de Mallara, Sevilla, 1570, p. 89.] + +In the 17th century, during the reign of Philip IV., the glass made at +Valdemaqueda in the province of Avila was very celebrated. In a royal +schedule, dated 1680, which states the price at which things were sold +at Madrid, "the glass made at Barcelona, Valdemaqueda, and Villafranca" +are mentioned. We find the glass of Valdemaqueda was sold for a higher +price than that made at the other localities. + +The principal value of these extracts is to prove that the industry of +glass-making existed in these localities; none of the authors mentions +the principal characteristics by which the vessels made may be +classified. Those made at Almeria and Barcelona are more easily known, +for they have kept until very recently their general character; while at +Cadalso and other localities of the centre of Spain, the tradition of +the Italian models has quite disappeared. In one fact every author +agrees, namely, that the glass made in those provinces closely resembled +the Venetian, and was completely different to the system followed by the +Arabs. It is, therefore, highly probable, as I have already stated, that +a large number of objects of glass of different kinds, which have been +hitherto considered Italian, were made in Spain. + +[Illustration: VASE OF GREEN GLASS, WITH BLACK HANDLES AND +RIBS.--SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.] + +The following observations may serve as a guide in the difficult task of +classifying this group. The specimens of glass vessels most generally +met with in the neighbourhood of Cadalso are:-- + +Objects of white transparent glass, sweetmeat dishes ornamented with +ribs, buttons, and reticulated rims with touches of gold. + +Objects of clear greenish glass of a paler hue than is made in the +province of Almeria, decorated with blue, or some opaque colour (see +woodcut); in some instances part of the object is decorated with a rough +crackled surface. + +Objects of opaque glass with different colours, vases, glasses, cups and +saucers, of thin milk-white texture with blue spots, or imitations in +the Japanese style of different colours. Vases for holding flowers, and +other objects, of dark blue glass, milk-white cups, glass and other +objects ornamented with lines of red or blue of a thicker paste than the +preceding ones. + +Although these objects are copied from Venetian models, they are coarser +in every detail, they are heavier and thicker, and the delicate and +elegant ornamentation which we find on Italian specimens is almost +always wanting, we seldom find examples of the beautiful _millefiori_ +chalcedony or tortoise-shell paste, and the outline of these objects is +symmetrical and Oriental in style. + + * * * * * + +The royal glass manufactory at La Granja de San Ildefonso, was founded +on the remains of an important one which had been established some years +before, under the protection of Philip the 5th, at the Nuevo Bastan, in +the province of Madrid. + +Towards the years 1712 to 1718, this king commissioned D^{n}. Tomas del +Burgo and D^{n}. Juan B. Pomerague to establish glass-works at the Bastan; +twenty foreign workmen were brought over with this purpose, with their +families, and the necessary implements. These gentlemen did not carry +out the undertaking to the king's satisfaction, and in 1720 his majesty +gave D^{n}. Juan de Goyeneche special privileges that he might "make every +kind of glass manufacture up to the height of twenty inches, and have +these glasses worked and polished, embroidered and covered with metal; +to make looking-glass and similar decorations, and every kind of glass +vessels, and white glass for window-panes, and every sort of glass +vessel of different kinds and forms which have been invented in the +present time, or likely to be invented in this art." In order to carry +this out, the king allowed them to have as many foreign masters and +workmen as they might require, with the sole condition that a fourth +part of the workmen employed should be Spaniards. It was prohibited that +any industry of a similar kind should be established in Spain for thirty +years, or that glass made abroad should be imported into the country. + +After a long series of annoyances of every kind, Goyeneche succeeded in +meeting with the king's approbation, but as fuel was very scarce at the +Bastan, he removed the glass works to Villanueva de Alcorcon, in the +province of Cuenca. From the ruins of this glass manufactory, Larruga +says in his "Memorias," [vol. xiii., p. 274], "was founded the splendid +glass manufactory of San Ildefonso." + +Ventura Sit, a native of Catalonia, constructed an oven there, which +worked from 1728 to 1736 with great success. Queen Doa Isabel +encouraged Sit, and the king ordered him to make some glasses which +might serve for mirrors. Those he made at first were small, but Sit +began by making them 30 inches long and ended by making them as large as +145 inches. The machine for polishing them was invented by a Catalan +called Pedro Fronvila. + +The section of glass vessels of a superior quality began to work in +1771. Glasses, bottles, and objects of all kinds were made there under +the direction of a glass worker called Eder, a Swede, and Sivert, a +Frenchman. Another section where the same quality of glass was made was +directed by Don Segismundo Brun, a native of Hanover, but who had been +brought up from a very early age at La Granja. It was this artist who +invented gilded glass _a feu_. A large number of foreign artists worked +at this manufacture; they impressed their special style on the objects +they made, which were similar to those of the same kind manufactured in +France, England, and Germany. + +From the time of Ventura Sit, towards the year 1734, the manufactory of +glass at La Granja belonged to the crown, and continued under the +protection of the Spanish kings, who spared no expense to obtain its +development. Early in the present century this industry began to decay. +Towards 1828 it passed into private hands, and continued to work until +1849. The manufactory is now closed, although there is some talk of +reviving this industry. + +[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.] + +The glass objects made at La Granja possess a very marked French style, +which renders them liable to be mistaken for French and German +productions of a similar kind. The greater part of the objects which +were made were of white clear transparent glass, richly cut and +engraved, or ornamented with gold (see woodcut). The cut glass is +generally engraved with inscriptions, views, flowers, and devices, and +until very lately has been made there in a rougher style. Coloured and +enamelled glass has also been made there, but not to so great an +extent. Glass for window panes and mirrors were ordered for the Royal +palaces. Lustres of all kinds of white and coloured glass were also made +there in the Venetian style, richly ornamented with coloured flowers. A +small chandelier of this kind is in the South Kensington Museum (No. +998, '73), the only example I have seen of a lustre of latticinio glass. +In the collection of old Spanish glass at the Museum will be found a +sufficient variety of specimens of this manufacture to give an idea of +the different styles made at La Granja. A fac-simile of one of the +engraved mirrors and a fine cut glass will be found in "Museo Espaol de +Antiguedades, vol. IX." + +Besides glass vessels and objects of a similar kind, painted glass +windows have been made in Spain from a very early time, of which most +important specimens exist at Toledo, Leon, and other Spanish cathedrals. +The proceedings employed in this industry are too well known to require +repetition in this volume. The industry was undoubtedly imported by +foreign workmen from France and the north of Europe, and as was the case +with other industries it took root in the country, and a large number of +Spanish artists followed and took part in this industry. + + * * * * * + +In order to convey an idea of the height of this industry in Spain, I +give a list of the painters who worked on glass which I have collected +from the following works, to which I refer the student who may wish for +further details on the subject. Cean Bermudez, "Dicc. Hist. de los mas +ilustres Profesores de las Bellas Artes en Espaa. Madrid, 1800." +Villanueva, "Viage las Iglesias de Espaa." Piferrer, "Recuerdos y +Bellezas. Mallorca." "Documentos Ineditos." Zarco del Valle. + + +GLASS PAINTERS IN SPAIN. + + Years in which + they worked Artists. Residence. + + 1682. Alcalde, Francisco Burgos. + 1504. Aleman, Cristoval Toledo. + 1458. Aleman, Pedro Toledo. + 1645. Alonso, Francisco Burgos. + 1544. Arce, Juan de Burgos. + 1581. Arce Burgos. + 1613. Argete, Luis de Leon. + 1424. Aragan, Maestro Joan Leon. + Arfian, Antonio Sevilla. + Arteaga, Matias Sevilla. + 1516. Ayala, Francisco Palencia. + 1605. Babel, Jorge Madrid. + 1442. Baldovin, Maestro Leon. + 1519. Bernal, Juan Sevilla. + 1533. Borgoa, Jorge Palencia. + 1439. Bonifacio, Pedro Toledo. + 1562. Bruges, Carlos Cuenca. + 1602. Campo, Diego del Madrid. + 1522. Campa, Juan Toledo. + 1674. Chilberri, Pierres de Segovia. + 1509. Cuesta, Juan de Toledo. + 1513. Cordova, Gonzalo de Toledo. + 1538. Cotin, Gaspar de Burgos. + 1459. Cristoval, El Maestro Toledo. + 1566 to } Dangles, Sebastian Mallorca. + 1573 } + 1676. Danis, Juan Segovia. + 1565. Diaz, Diego Escorial. + 1418. Dolfin, El Maestro Toledo. + 1485. Enrique, Maestro Toledo. + 1566. Estaenheyl, Ulrrique Madrid. + 1565. Espinosa, Francisco de Escorial. + 1565. Espinosa, Hernando de Escorial. + 1551. Ferrera, Rodrigo de Leon. + 1526. Fernandez, Pedro Sevilla. + 1557. Flandes, Arnao de Sevilla. + 1494. Fontanet, Gil Barcelona. + 1459. Frances, Pedro Toledo. + 1571. Galceran, Il Maestro Escorial. + 1518. Gelandia, Bernardino de Sevilla. + 1608. Guillermo, Maestro Leon. + 1571. Guasch, Juan Tarragona. + 1674. Herranz, Francisco Segovia. + 1520. Holanda, Alberto de Burgos. + 1548. Holanda, Geraldo de Cuenca. + 1535. Holanda, Nicolas de Burgos. + 1509. Jacques, Juan Sevilla. + 1427. Juan, Maestro Burgos. + 1510. Juan, Hijo de Jacobo Sevilla. + 1458. Juanico Toledo. + 1428. Loys, Maestro Toledo. + 1600. Ludeque, Diego de Madrid. + 1569. Menandro, Vicente Sevilla. + 1538. Ortega, Alonso de Toledo. + 1534. Ortega, Juan de Toledo. + 1458. Pablo, Fray Toledo. + 1459. Pedro, Maestro Toledo. + 1639. Perez, Sebastian Leon. + 1559. Pesquera, Sebastian de Sevilla. + 1600. Pierres, Antonio Madrid. + ---- Resen, Pelegrin ---- + 1565. Resen, Renerio Madrid. + 1500. Rolando, Alberto de Avila. + 1500. Rolando, Nicolas de Avila. + 1624. Ruiz, Valentin Burgos. + 1625. Ruiz, Simon Burgos. + 1368-- } Sacoma, Francisco Mallorca. + 1369. } + 1420 to } Sala, Antonio Mallorca. + 1447. } + 1542. Salcedo, Diego de Palencia. + 1512. Santillana, Diego Palencia. + 1498. Santillana, Juan de Burgos. + 1392. San Amat, Juan Lerida. + 1503. Troya, Vasco de Toledo. + 1579. Valerio, Octavio Malaga. + 1562. Valdivieso, Diego de Cuenca. + 1497. Valdivieso, Juan Burgos. + 1538. Vergara, Arnao de Sevilla. + 1521. Vergara, Nicolas de Burgos. + 1606. Vergara, Nicolas de, El Mozo Toledo. + 1574. Vergara, Nicolas de, el Viejo Toledo. + 1590. Vegara, Juan de Toledo. + 1518. Vivan, Juan Sevilla. + 1605. Volui, Gil Leon. + 1509. Ximenez, Alexo Toledo. + 1458. Ximeno. Toledo. + + + + +TEXTILE FABRICS. + + +The silence of San Isidoro on the subject of textile fabrics in Spain +would lead us to suppose that this industry only became important during +the Arab domination; the Moors probably imported this industry into +Spain from the earliest times of their conquest. A great number of +provinces were famed then for the excellence of their textile fabrics; +the most important of them, according to the testimony of Moorish and +Christian writers, was Almeria. The Cordovese historian, Ash Shakandi, +who wrote at the beginning of the 13th century, says: "Almeria is an +opulent and magnificent city, whose fame has spread far and wide; the +inhabitants are very elegant in their dress. Almeria is the greatest +mart in Andalus, Christians of all nations came to its port to buy and +sell, and they had factories established in it. From thence the +Christian merchants who came to its port travelled to other parts in the +interior of the country, where they loaded their vessels with such goods +as they wanted. Costly silken robes of the brightest colours are +manufactured in Almeria," [Moh. Dyn. in Spain, I. 52]. Almakkari adds, +[p. 51]: "But what made Almeria superior to any other city in the world +was its various manufactures of silks and other articles of dress, such +as the _dibaj_ [silken stuff of many colours], a sort of silken cloth +surpassing in quality and durability anything else manufactured in other +countries; the _tiraz_ or costly stuff on which the names of sultans, +princes, and other wealthy individuals are inscribed, and of which no +less than 800 looms existed at one time; of more inferior articles such +as the _holol_ (striped silks) and brocades, there were 1000 looms, the +same number were continually employed in weaving the stuffs called +_iskaltn_ (scarlet). There were also 1000 for weaving robes called Al +jorjni (Georgian), and another 1000 for weaving robes called Isbahani, +from Isfahan, and a similar number for Atabi. The manufacture of damask +for curtains and turbans for the women, of gay and dazzling colours, +employed a number of hands equal to that of those engaged in the +manufacture of the above mentioned articles." + +An oriental author asserts that Abd-ul-Rahman II. A.D. 825-852 was the +first sultan of his race who introduced into Spain the use of the +_tiraz_ [_ib._ Vol. II. 434]. Another explains that Atabi took the name +of a suburb of Bagdad "where were made the stuffs called _otabi_, +composed of cotton and silk of different colours." [Consult Dozy, 'Dict. +des vtements.'] + +Ash Shakandi also mentions Malaga as famous for its textile fabrics; he +says--"Malaga is also famous for its manufactures of silks of all +colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a suit made out of +them will cost many thousands; such are the brocades with beautiful +drawings, and the names of khalifs, amirs, and other wealthy people, +woven in them." [Moham. Dynast. Vol. I. 49.] Further on the same writer +adds, "As at Malaga and Almeria, there are at Murcia several +manufactures of silken cloth called _al washiu thalathat_, [variegated, +of many colours.] It is likewise famous for the fabric of carpets called +_tantili_, which are exported to all countries of the east and west; as +also a sort of mat, of the brightest colours, with which the Murcians +cover the walls of their houses." [_ib._ p. 69.] + +Arabic texts are frequently met with which allude to the manufactures of +textile fabrics of Granada, Seville, and other towns, in which their +productions are praised, and there is no doubt that they were very +remarkable; for Christian authors of the middle ages refer to them so +continually. Students who wish for a more extensive idea of this subject +must remember the quotations and information given by Francisque Michel +concerning Spanish stuffs, [Recherches sur le Comm., la Fabric. etc., +des Etoffes, etc. Paris, 1852.] He tells us--"Nous trouverons tout +d'abord les pailles d'Almrie, ville de la cte meridionale d'Espagne, +qui jouissait d'une rputation proverbiale pour la beaut et la finesse +de ses tissus de soie, vants dans mille endroits de nos vieilles +chansons de geste, de nos anciens pomes" [Vol. I. p. 284]. Further on +he continues [Vol. I. p. 286], " l'poque laquelle appartiennent les +textes, et mme auparavant, la culture et la fabrication de la soie +taient des plus prospres Almrie et en gnral dans le royaume de +Grenade. 'Du royaume de Grenade vient cire, soie, figues, etc.' ... ce +qu'il y a de bien certain, c'est que les toffes d'Espagne taient +clbres ds le 9^{e} sicle. Anastase le Bibliothcaire en parle en +quatre endroits sous le nom de _spaniscum_; et en placant ce tissu la +suite de _fundatum_ et du _stauracin_ il nous donne suffisamment +entendre qu'il tait de grand prix, et de soie comme eux. Un biographe +de Saint Ansegise, mort en 835, plac de mme une couverture d'Espagne, +_stragulum_, _Hispanicum unum_, la suite de tapis ou teintures. + +"Il est malaise de dterminer la matire des toffes qu'un crivain +byzantin du 12^{e} sicle nous dit fabriques en Espagne et aux colonnes +d'Hercule--tout nous permet de croire qu'elles taient de soie de tout +ou en partie, ou du moins qu'elles taient comptes parmi les tissus +prcieux.... Saragosse produisait aussi des draps d'or--et nous trouvons +au 13^{e} sicle que le gographe Edrisi pouvait dire qu'il y avait dans +le seul territoire de Jaen 3000 villages o l'on levait des vers de +soie. Nous savons qu' Seville, sous la domination des Maures, elle +comptait 6000 mtiers pour ces toffes de soie. Les rglements +municipaux dont les royaumes de Grenade et de Seville ont t l'objet +suffisaient pour nous apprendre que l'industrie de la soie fut +florissante durant le moyen ge. Nous signalerons les draps d'or et de +soie que D. Pedro de Luna en 1327 apporta l'infante Lonore, s[oe]ur +d'Alphonse XI., l'occasion de son mariage, et nous savons qu'un +ministre de Pedro le cruel possdait Toledo 125 coffres de drap d'or +et de soie." + +Edrisi in his "Dscrip. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne," [Leyde, 1866,] +writing in the 12th century, says p. 239: "Almrie tait la ville +principale des Musulmans l'Espagne des moravides. Elle tait alors +trs industrieuse, et on y comptait entre autres 800 mtiers tisser la +soie, o l'on fabriquait des toffes connus sous le nom de _holla_, de +_debady_, de _siglaton_, d'_espahani_, de _djordjani_: des rideaux orns +de fleurs, des toffes orns de clous, de petits tapis, des toffes +connus sous les noms de _attabi_, de _mi djar_." + +To complete this historical information, and especially in order to add +details as to the technical character of this manufacture, the Rev. +Daniel Rock's interesting introduction to "Textile Fabrics, a +Descriptive Catalogue, London, 1870," must be consulted; although, +notwithstanding the learned author's remarks, it is extremely difficult, +in my opinion, to classify textile fabrics proceeding from Syria, +Sicily, or the Spanish Arabs, as all, whether imitations or originals, +are similar in manufacture. + +M. Michel and Dr. Rock enter into numerous details concerning the +ancient names of stuffs, and in order further to illustrate this subject +I venture to propose a different etymology than the one given by these +writers of the word Samit, Samitum, or Xamet, which, although slightly +different in orthography, is met with everywhere in Europe. My opinion +is that it means stuff made at Damascus, for the word Sham +[Illustration: Arabic writing] is applied to the name of this town as +well as to that of Syria, and the appellative Shami and Shamit +[Illustration: Arabic writing] appears in the lexicon to express what +comes from Damascus or Syria. + +The oldest specimen which I know of Spanish Arab textile fabric, is a +woollen fragment of very fine quality embroidered in colours, which is +at the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. It is about 1-1/2 yards +long, by 18 inches wide. In medallions embroidered in silks are +represented seated figures which appear to be a king, a lady, lions, +birds, and quadrupeds. In two borders occurs the following inscription, +repeated in cufic characters: "In the name of God, clement and merciful: +The blessing of God and happiness for the caliph Iman Abdallah Hixem, +favoured of God, prince of believers." + +[Illustration: Arabic] + +Hixem reigned from A.D. 979 until the first years of the 11th century. +This fragment was found inside a small casket on the altar of a church +in the town of San Esteban de Gormaz, province of Soria, where it was +probably taken as a war trophy: it may be classified as a stuff called +_tiraz_ [Illustration: Arabic], the skirt of a robe. An oriental author +tells us that among the customs which contribute to give splendour to +sovereignty is that of putting the name, or some other sign belonging to +kings on the stuffs of their robes; that these inscriptions are woven +into the material with gold or coloured thread of a different hue to the +ground, and that royal robes were always made of _tiraz._ The caliphs of +Cordova had a place set apart in their palaces where this stuff was +kept: this custom lasted until the 11th century when it disappeared, and +was re-established in the 13th century with the kings of Granada. (Moh. +Dyn. vol. i., pp. 356 and 397; Mus. Esp. de Ant. vol. vi. pp. 464 and +465.) + +Another most important object, although less ancient than the former +one, is an Arabian banner which is traditionally believed to have been +taken from the Almohades at the battle of Las Navas, A.D. 1212. This +banner, which is preserved at the monastery of Las Huelgas of Burgos, is +ten feet high by seven feet three inches wide. It is made of a crimson +stuff, covered with an ornamentation woven and embroidered in gold and +colours. In the centre is a large circle, placed within a square, which +is enlarged in parallel bands. The four largest bands, which are also +the last, are covered with inscriptions in blue African characters. The +upper part of this banner is prolonged with several bands, one of which +has inscriptions of a similar kind to those already mentioned; other +borders contain several sentences in small African letters. The lower +part is also prolonged and is terminated by eight points cut in a +semicircle, inside which there are discs with illegible inscriptions. +Three violet coloured lions, similar in form to those which appear on +the arms of Leon, may be seen on three of the sides of the square. In +the large circle in the centre of this banner, appears eight times +repeated the word "The Empire," [Illustration: Arabic]. This inscription +is embroidered or woven in Cufic characters, in a similar style to those +at the Alhambra; it is a strange circumstance that the letters appear on +the wrong side, as if this was the back of the stuff; the word which +seems to be required to complete this sentence, "God," is also wanting. +The large inscriptions in blue of the five bands reproduce Suras of the +Koran, and pious sentences in one of the small ones on the upper part. +S^{r.} Fernandez, who has published an article on this banner in Mus. +Esp. [vol. vi., p. 469], thinks he finds a date which corresponds with +the year A.D. 1140. I am not, however, satisfied with his interpretation +of the inscription contained in the large centre circle, or the date he +gives; for comparing the ornamentation of this specimen with other +textiles, and the designs used in Moorish architecture, it appears to me +that it must be considered as belonging to the 14th century. This may be +easily accounted for by some historical mistake in the tradition +respecting it at the convent of Las Huelgas. It is highly probable that +King Alfonso XI. may have given this banner to the convent, and have +been mistaken for King Alfonso VIII.; the conqueror of the battle of Las +Navas. + +The specimens of Spanish moresco stuffs in the Kensington Museum, will +be found numbered 51, 121, 124, 125, 152, 160, 180, 241, 244. (V. Dr. +Rock's Catalogue.) + +The artistic industry of silk manufactures which was initiated in Spain +by the Arabs, continued to flourish during the Middle Ages and a great +part of the Renaissance. Malaga and Almeria were important centres, but +later on this industry was chiefly centred at Granada. The silk fabrics +made at Seville, Toledo, Murcia and Valencia were much esteemed. The +Moorish style of ornamentation in embroideries and stuffs must soon have +fallen into disuse. Owing to the materials of similar kinds imported +from Italy, France, Flanders, and other countries, these manufactures +were imitated to a great extent, as may be gathered by the immense +number of specimens which are still to be met with in Spanish churches. +The cathedral of Toledo is quite a museum of objects of this kind, but +all the textiles there are woven in the European manner. + +The Moorish style in stuffs was preserved at Granada longer than in any +other town in Spain. In 1502, ten years after its conquest by the +Christians, we find it stated in the "Voyage of Philip le Beau," the +father of the Emperor Charles V.: "Grenade est fort marchande, +principallement de soyes, car les marchans y achattent la pluspart des +soyes que l'on maine en Italie, pour faires les draps de soyes. Le lieu +o on les vendt est nomm le Sacquatin. Auprs de ce lieu est une place +appelle l'Allecasserie, o on vendt les draps de soyes ouvrs la +Moresque, qui sont moult beaus pour la multitude des couleurs et la +diversit des ouvrages, et en font une grande marchandise." ["Collect. +de Voyages, par M. Gachard, Bruxelles," 1870, i. 205.] Navagiero, who +visited Spain twenty years after, tells us in his "Viaggio fatto in +Spagna" [Vinegia 1563, p. 21]: "One enters a place called Alcaiceria +which is enclosed within two doors, and full of alleys where the Moors +sell silks and embroideries of every kind" [p. 29]: "All sorts of cloths +of silks are made there; the silks made at Granada are much esteemed all +over Spain; they are not so good as those which come from Italy. There +are several looms, but they do not yet know how to work them well; they +make good taffetas, sarcenet, and silk serges. The velvets are not bad, +but those that are made at Valencia are better in quality." + +Dr. Rock considers the following specimens in the Kensington Museum to +have been made at Granada: Nos. 26, 27, 60, 65, 73, 128, 161, 166. + +Larruga tells us in his "Memorias" [vol. vii. 205], that the silk +manufactures established at Toledo consumed in 1480 about 450,000 pounds +of silk: they decreased about forty years afterwards. In the ordinances +issued from that town in 1494, which were confirmed by the Emperor +Charles V. we find that the following stuffs were made at Toledo: + +"Stuffs of gold and silver which are made in the same manner as satin. + +"Satins woven with gold. + +"Satins brocaded with silk and gold or silver flowers. + +"Silver serges with double filigree. + +"Silver and gold materials, which are made like _gorgoran_ or serge. + +"Silver and gold stuffs which are made like taffetas, spring silver with +silk flowers. + +"Embroidered stuffs. + +"Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or _berguilla_. + +"_Lama_, cloth of silver, shaded with silver watering. + +"Plain silk stuffs woven with silver or gold called _restao_. + +"Silk stuffs woven with gold or silver called _relampagos_. + +"Serges woven with gold and silver for church vestments. + +"Plain filigree serges. + +"_Velillo_ of silver. + +"Satin woven with gold and silver. + +"Brocades of different kinds. + +"Church vestments. + +"Silver _primaveras_. + +"Serges for church vestments." + +("Ord. Ant. de Toledo," Tol. 1858, p. 223). + +Until the middle of the 17th century, Larruga tells us in vol. vii. p. +208 of his "Memorias," the silk manufacture of Toledo was one of those +most highly esteemed in Spain; from this time it was superseded by the +manufactures of Seville, Granada, Valencia, and others. These cheapened +their productions; but Toledo insisted on keeping to the old Spanish +yard and weight in every kind of stuffs. In 1651 fifty looms belonged to +this manufacture, although most of them were established in the suburbs. +In this year there was a great decrease in the price of the coin, and +the Genoese introduced a large quantity of silk stuffs, so much so that +only twenty looms could be kept working at Toledo. After this, in 1663, +2061 looms existed there. + +The silk manufacture of Toledo continued to lose its importance in +consequence of the vast importations of foreign silks, but the +traditions of this industry have never disappeared from the city. +Larruga, who enters into this subject at great length in the seventh and +eighth volumes of his "Memorias," mentions the silk manufacture of D^{n}. +Miguel Gregorio Molero, "who made from the year 1714, under his +direction and that of Christoval de Morales, his father-in-law, a large +quantity of silk fabrics of wide and narrow materials of every kind, and +stuffs woven with silver and gold." It is an interesting fact that the +manufactory of Molero continues to work in the present day, and gold and +silver stuffs are made there for ecclesiastical purposes similar in +design and manufacture to the early established one of 1714; specimens +exist at the South Kensington Museum of the silks made at Toledo by +Molero. + +Towards the middle of the 18th century the most important centre of +artistic silks existed at Talavera, where it was established on a very +large scale by King Fernando VI. and supported by the state. It was +founded in 1748 under the superintendence of a Frenchman called Jean +Roulire, who was educated at Lyon, a great mechanician, who entered the +manufactory with a yearly salary of 450, and 4 per cent. of the sale. +Fine church vestments were made there, and the richest stuffs woven +with silver and gold for decorating apartments and furniture, of which a +vast quantity remain in the palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, the Escorial +and La Granja. In 1762 the Spanish government handed over this +manufactory to the firm of Uztariz and Company; it remained in their +hands until 1780, and at this period it continued to be worked for five +years by the state; in 1785 it passed to the superintendence of the +Tribunal of Commerce entitled Cinco Gremios Mayores de Madrid. The +French invasion of 1808 and general decay of the country contributed +towards the extinction of this industry. + +In a similar manner to the silk manufactures established at Toledo, +silks of all kinds were made at Seville, Granada, Murcia, and other +provinces, to a very great extent during the 16th and 17th centuries. +This industry continues in the present day, and specimens exist at the +South Kensington Museum, made in 1874, which recall the ancient style of +these stuffs. + + +EMBROIDERIES. + +It is probable that the history of embroidery in Spain followed the same +steps as that of gold and silver stuffs, owing to the great similarity +which exists between these industries, as may be seen by the banner +called de las Navas, which is composed of both these materials. +Ornamentation in the Oriental style must have fallen sooner into disuse +than in woven fabrics owing to the fashion of introducing figures in +ecclesiastical vestments, which much before the Renaissance period +became so general in Europe. The first mention which I find of the +existence of this artistic industry appears in the Ordenanzas de +Sevilla, 1433; it refers to regulating this industry, and preventing +certain frauds, by which we may infer its existence from an earlier +period. Similar dispositions appear in one of the Ordinances of Toledo, +dated 1496, and as sumptuary laws were continually issued we have +constant references to the existence of this industry: [consult +"Sempere, Hist. del Lujo," vol. ii. 8vo]. These legal prohibitions did +not, however, reach church vestments; after the aggrandizement of the +monarchy by the conquest of the New World such enormous sums were spent +on these objects, that notwithstanding the ravages of time, wars, +disturbances of all kinds, and vandalisms and neglect, the cathedrals of +Toledo and Seville, and many other churches, are museums of this style +of art. + +The art of embroidery was imported by Italians and Germans early in the +16th century, in the same manner as wood carving, metal work, and other +industries. The comparative study of embroideries of different kinds +which are preserved in churches and museums in other countries confirms +this theory; some have been made in the north and others in the south, +while their historical origin may be traced to Italy. In Spain itself +this comparison may be made, and the Germanic influence is most +apparent. At the cathedral of Burgos there is a fine series of +ecclesiastical vestments which Bishop Alonso de Cartagena gave to the +cathedral on his return from the council of Ble, 1431-43. Another +series of most important specimens is at Toledo, a present to Cardinal +Mendoza by the German emperor Frederic in 1489. In both these instances +we find that the embroidery is identical with what was made in Spain at +this period, until they changed the Gothic for the Italian Renaissance +style. + +I must mention two splendid altar frontals of foreign workmanship which +exist in Spain, one of them is at the chapel of the Disputation of +Barcelona; it represents St. George slaying the dragon. This embroidery +is in high relief, and is so perfect in every detail that it appears to +be chiselled. Another altar frontal of the same style is at the +Colegiata of Manresa, Catalua; on this one the Crucifixion is +represented, with eighteen other subjects, taken from the Old and New +Testaments. This frontal is signed--_Geri Lapi Rachamatore Me fecit in +Florentia._ + +Almost all Spanish towns of importance are distinguished for their +embroidery, Toledo, Seville and Valencia are especially so; Ciudad +Rodrigo figures as an important centre of this industry during the 16th +century. We find the sentence, "obra de Ciudad Rodrigo" applied to +embroidery of gold thread, [Acad. de la Historia, MS. C. 122.] Father +Siguenza tells us in his "Hist. de la orden de San Jeronimo" that this +style of embroidery was exclusively Spanish, and probably the remains of +the Moorish influence. The principal localities where embroideries and +artistic work of every kind can be studied are the cathedrals of the +towns we have mentioned, which were great centres of artistic industries +in other times, and the monastery of the Escorial. The collection at the +cathedral of Toledo alone is sufficient to illustrate this subject. + +About forty sets of splendid vestments exist at this cathedral which are +embroidered with the most exquisite taste, belonging to the 15th and +16th centuries. Each set generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope, +altar frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces. +The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of saints, +are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MS. The _manga_, or case +which hangs round the processional cross given by Cardinal Ximenez, is +one of the most splendid specimens of this collection. As a fine +specimen of embroidery on a large scale must be mentioned the _dosel_ or +canopy called the tent of Ferdinand and Isabel, also at the cathedral of +Toledo, which is interesting as being the same which was used in the +reception of the English envoys Thomas Salvaige and Richard Nanfan who +were sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage of Prince Henry with +the Infanta D^{na.} Catalina. The ambassadors describe it in the +following manner: "After the tilting was over, the kings returned to the +palace, and took the ambassadors with them, and entered a large room: +and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of rich crimson velvet, +richly embroidered with the arms of Castile and Aragon, and covered +with the device of the king, which is a ... (blank in original), and his +motto, written at length, which is 'Tanto Monta.'" ("Memorials of King +Henry the Seventh," Gairdner, Lon. 1858, p. 348.) + +The most remarkable specimen of embroidery which exists in Spain, not so +much on account of its artistic merit as for the enormous value of the +materials employed, is the mantle of the Virgin del Sagrario at Toledo. +It is completely covered with pearls and jewels forming a most effective +ornamentation. This embroidery was made in the beginning of the 17th +century, during the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who presented it to +the church. S^{r.} Parro in his exhaustive volume of "Toledo en la +Mano," [vol. i., p. 574,] describes it in the following manner: "It is +made of twelve yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is +entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre there is a +jewel of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each side +of enamelled gold, emeralds and large rubies; a variety of other jewels +are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part are the +arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on gold and studded with sapphires +and rubies. The centre of this mantle is covered with flowers and +pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of different sizes. Round the +borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the gems which were employed +in this superb work of art, no less than 257 ounces of pearls of +different sizes, 300 ounces of gold thread, 160 ounces of small pieces +of enamelled gold, and eight ounces of emeralds were used." + +A fine altar frontal of a similar kind embroidered in corals may be seen +in the same room where this mantle of the Virgin is kept at the +cathedral of Toledo. + +We find in Madame de Villars' letters, [p. 39, Paris, 1823,] the +description of a similar embroidery. Writing in 1680 she says, "Ce que +j'ai vu de plus riche, de plus dor, de plus magnifique, est +l'appartement de la reine. Il y a entre autres meubles dans sa chambre, +une tapisserie, dont ce qu'on y voit de fond, est de perles. Ce ne sont +pas des personnages, on ne peut dire que l'or y soit massif, mais il +est employ d'une manire et d'une abondance extraordinaires. Il y a +quelques fleurs: ce sont des bandes de compartimens; mais il faudrait +tre plus habile que je ne suis pour reprsenter les choses, pour vous +faire comprendre la beaut que compose le corail employ dans cet +ouvrage. Ce n'est point une matire assez prcieuse pour en vanter la +quantit; mais la couleur et l'or qui paraissent dans cette broderie, +sont assurment ce qu'on aurait peine dcrire." + +From the period when these embroideries were made until the middle of +the 18th century, Spanish embroideries lost much of their artistic +character, although the work itself continued equally excellent. During +the whole of the 17th century, a style of embroidery became very general +in Spain, which appears to have been copied from eastern importations by +the Portuguese or the Spanish possessions in America. The specimens most +generally met with in Spain are chiefly bed covers, the ground of which +is either linen or satin, embroidered in chain stitch, with figures and +exotic birds and animals. Their effect is very rich, and the +ornamentation is arranged generally in circles. Specimens exist in +England of this kind of work; for example, a quilt, said to have been +made for an Archbishop of Toledo, lent by Lady Cornelia Guest to the +Special Exhibition of Embroidery held at South Kensington in 1873. + +At the Mus. Arq., Madrid, is a fine quilt of this kind embroidered with +maize-coloured silk on linen, with representations of figures and +animals. + +Embroideries were made in Spain to cover furniture. Sedan chairs, +coffers, &c., were ornamented in this manner. At the Kensington Museum +there is an interesting example of a trunk with silver lock, covered +with embroidery, which was given towards 1680 by Count Olivares to the +nuns at Loeches. Some fine embroidered tapestries belonging to the same +collection are at the Museo Arqueleogico, Madrid. A varied collection of +ecclesiastical vestments of the kinds described may also be studied at +the museum. (V. Nos. 78, 79, 84, 673, 1194, 1195, 1250, &c., in Dr. +Rock's Catalogue.) + +The sumptuary laws, and especially the Decrees issued by Philip IV. in +1622, prohibited any display or ostentation in costume, and embroideries +were confined to ecclesiastical purposes. In the middle of the 18th +century embroideries were introduced in the costumes of men and women +when French fashions were imported into Spain. Although many of them +came from France, they were imitated in Spain to a large extent. A guild +of embroiderers was formed in 1779, who submitted their statutes to the +Tribunal of Commerce. We find that Madrid was the principal centre of +this industry, and that French designs were universally copied, as was +the case in the whole of Europe. The splendid curtains and embroidered +hangings for apartments which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the +Escorial and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens of this industry. + +The following list of Spanish embroiderers is taken from Cean's "Dic. de +Prof de las Bellas Artes;" Martinez, "Hist. del Templo Cat. de Burgos;" +Suarez de Figueroa, "Plaza Universal," etc. + + Years in which + they worked. Artists. Residence. + + 1603. Alcala, Fr. Fernando de Escorial. + + 1526. Alonso, Esteban Toledo. + + 1688 to } Arroyo, Diego de Burgos. + 1715. } + + 1594. Aspe, Simeon de Burgos. + + 1646. Ansin, Francisco de Burgos. + + 1500. Barcelona, Fr. Rafael de Escorial. + + 1599. Berrio, Francisco de Burgos. + + 1452. Bilbao, Juan Burgos. + + 1514. Burgos, Pedro Toledo. + + 1574 to } Camia, Alonso Burgos. + 1580. } + + 1580 to } Camia, Miguel, a son of Alonso Burgos. + 1593. } + + 1580. Castillo, Juan del Madrid. + + 1571. Cordova, Fr. Francisco Escorial. + + 1616. Corral, Felipe de Toledo. + + 1514. Covarrubias, Marcos de Toledo. + + 1422. Fernandez, Garcia Burgos. + + 1422. Fernandez, Pedro Burgos. + + 1645. Garcia de Jalon, Juan Burgos. + + 1500. Gil, Francisco Madrid. + + 1688. Gomez, Juan Sevilla. + + 1514. Hernandez, Alonso Toledo. + + 1630. Landa, Alonso de Burgos. + + 1625. Martinez de Manurga, Sebastian Burgos. + + 1521. Monte, Cornieles de Burgos. + + 1576. Montserrate, Fr. Lorenzo scorial. + + 1580 to } Ochandiano, Andrs Burgos. + 1593. } + + 1595. Ortiz de Zarate, Pedro Burgos. + + 1565. Palenzuela, Francisco de Burgos. + + 1591. Palenzuela, Jeronimo Burgos. + + 1500. Perez, Gabriel Madrid. + + 1580. Perez, Juan Madrid. + + 1514. Rica, Hernando de la Toledo. + + 1500. Rosales Toledo. + + 1500. Rosicler, Lus de Madrid. + + 1514. Ruiz, Martin Toledo. + + 1716 to } Ruiz, Antonio Burgos. + 1734. } + + 1585. Rutinez, Diego Escorial. + + 1563. Salas, Juan de Granada. + + 1718. Santos Martires, Fr. Esteban de los { Cardea + { Burgos. + 1561. Sarabia Burgos. + + 1514. Talavera, Juan de Toledo. + + 1500. Toledo, Fr. Juan de Escorial. + + 1752. Transmontana, Fr. F. Javier de Burgos. + + 1684. Valle, Antonio del Burgos. + + 1500. Vega, Felicis de Madrid. + + 1563. Villegas, Nicolas de Granada. + + 1502. Xaques, el Maestro Toledo. + + +TAPESTRIES. + +The manufacture of tapestry or carpets was introduced into Spain by the +Arabs. The earliest historical information which I have been able to +find relating to this industry occurs in Edrisi, an oriental author of +the beginning of the 12th century, ["Descrip. de l'Afr. et de l'Esp., +trad. de Dozy el Goeje,"] when speaking of Chinchilla in the province of +Alicante, he says: "On y fabrique des tapis de laine qu'on ne saurait +imiter ailleurs, circonstance qui dpend de la qualit de l'air et des +eaux." In mentioning Cuenca, he says: "Les tapis de laine qu'on y fait +sont d'excellente qualit," p. 237. Although we find very few +descriptive details of this industry, it is undoubtedly the fact that in +a wide zone which comprehends from the kingdom of Valencia until that of +Granada, carpets have been constantly made; for even in the present day +this industry is alive in a number of towns, where not only the old +technical proceedings are continued, but also much of the primitive +character of the designs and colours. In confirmation of this, I find +frequent mention in books and MSS. of the 16th century of carpets of +Letur, made in the kingdom of Murcia, Alcaraz, and Baeza. + +The first time I find this industry mentioned by Christian authors is in +Francisque Michel's work on "toffes de Soie," vol. i., p. 292; he says: +"A une poque qu'il nous serait difficile de prciser un pote Latin +vantait les teintures prcieuses sujets, et les tapis d'Espagne." + +"Tunc preciosa suis surgunt aulaea figuris. + +"Ac in se raptis ora tenent animis. + +"Tunc operosa suis _Hispana tapetia_ villis. + +"Hinc rubras, virides inde ferunt species." + +At the cathedral of Gerona an extremely interesting tapestry of the 12th +century may be seen, which may have been made in the locality. + +[Illustration: TAPESTRY AT THE CATHEDRAL OF GERONA; REPRESENTING THE +CREATION, &C.--SPANISH, 11TH CENTURY. _To face p. 267._] + +This tapestry is about 4-1/2 yards wide by 4 yards high. The composition +represents the Genesis. In the centre is a geometrical figure formed by +two concentric circles. In the lesser circle is a figure of Christ +holding an open book, on which appear the words, _Sanctus Deus_, and on +each side _Rex fortis_, surrounded by the inscription, _Dixit quoque +Deus, Fiat lux, Et facta est lux._ In the larger circle are the words, +_In principio creavit Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia qu in eis +sunt, et vidit Deus cuncta qu egerat et erant valde bona._ + +The space between the two circles is divided by radiating lines into +eight portions, in which are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of +light and darkness: the division of land from water, the creation of +sun, moon, and stars, of birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve. +In the angles outside the larger circle are the four winds, and the +whole is surrounded by a border, imperfect in parts, containing +representations of the months, and apparently of certain scriptural +incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out. The accompanying +engraving, though imperfect and inaccurate in some of its details, gives +a general idea of this work. + +Although this tapestry is embroidered with crewels on linen, it appears +advisable to include it in the description of Spanish tapestries, owing +to its similarity and general aspect to other tapestries. It is easy for +students of Spanish works of art of the Middle Ages to fix the period +and style to which this example belongs. Several remarkable +illuminations exist in Spain representing the Apocalypse which were +painted in the X. XI. and XIIth. centuries, which have already been +alluded to in other articles of this work. The figures of the tapestry +of Gerona are disposed in a precisely similar manner to the miniatures +of the 12th century. They are in the same style as the paintings on the +ceiling of the chapel of St. Catalina, at St. Isidoro of Leon, which +were painted at that period. There can be therefore no doubt that they +belong to that period and style. Several MSS. may be mentioned to +further illustrate the subject. An excellent specimen is at the +cathedral of Gerona, those at the National Library, Museo Arqueologico, +and Academia de la Historia, Madrid, Escorial, Bibliotheque Nationale, +Paris--and especially the fine MS. at the British Museum (Add. II. +695),--dated A. D. 1109, referred to in the chapter on Arms, page 90. +The illuminations of this volume are extremely similar to the design of +this tapestry. Plate 83, twelve inches by eight, within a circle, +representing Christ holding a book in his hand, may be given as an +example. + +I do not find any information of a later date which suggests the +existence of the manufacture of tapestries in Spain during the Middle +Ages. There are constant allusions to the splendid tapestries which were +brought from Flanders, many of which are at the Royal palace of Madrid. +The earliest mention I find is a memorial printed without date, in which +Pedro Gutierrez, tapestry maker of Salamanca, asks Philip II. to protect +this industry. He evidently gained his object, for in the documents +published by S^{r}. Cruzada in his "Tapices de Goya," [Madrid, 1870,] it +appears that in 1578 Queen Doa Ana appointed him to work in her Camara +as tapestry maker to make _reposteros_[B] and Philip II. in 1582 +confirms this appointment. Gutierrez worked at this period, at Salamanca +and Madrid. He was succeeded in his charge in 1625 by Antonio Ceron, who +established this industry definitively in the Calle de Santa Isabel at +Madrid. The fine picture by Velasquez, at the Madrid Gallery, "The +Weavers," which represents the interior of the tapestry manufactory, +belongs to this time. We find this industry soon fell into decay. In +1694 a Belgian named Juan Metier tried to revive it, but without +success; the same thing occurred with Nicolas Hernandez, a tapestry +maker of Salamanca, in 1707. + +[B] Reposteros is the ancient name given to the hangings which are +placed outside the balconies on state occasions in Spain. Several +splendid examples of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries may still +be seen at the houses of Spanish grandees, of which those belonging to +the Conde de Oate and Marques de Alcaices at Madrid are the most +remarkable for their artistic design. + +The tapestry manufactory of Santa Barbara at Madrid was founded soon +after; it was the most important of all, and continues to produce +excellent work in the present day. It appears that Jacobo Vandergoten of +Antwerp was engaged expressly by the king; he began to work in 1720, and +continued there until his death in 1724. He was succeeded by his sons, +Francisco, Jacobo, Cornelius, and Adrian, who worked in _basse lisse_ +looms until 1729, when a Frenchman, Antonio Lenger mounted a _haute +lisse_ one. + +On the occasion of the temporary removal of the court to Seville, the +king established a tapestry manufactory there in 1730; Jacobo +Vandergoten was put at the head of it, and the painter, Andres +Procaccini, helped him in the direction of the manufactory. It only +lasted three years, at the end of which the artists returned with their +implements to establish themselves in the old tapestry manufactory of +the Calle de Santa Isabel: and continued to work there until 1744, at +that time they again joined the works at Santa Barbara. + +Three of the brothers Vandergoten were already dead in 1774. Cornelius +alone was alive. In the same year the Spanish artists, Antonio Moreno, +Domingo Galan, Tomas del Castillo, and Manuel Sanchez were placed at the +head of these works, under the superintendence of Sanchez, who continued +there until his death in 1786, when he was succeeded by his nephew, +Livinio Stuck. This manufactory was much neglected at the end of the +last century; it was destroyed by the French in 1808, and was +rehabilitated in 1815 under the direction of a son of Stuck. This family +continues to work there in the present day. The carpets made at the +manufactory of S^{ta.} Barbara are of the highest excellence and +artistic order. + +Very fine tapestries have been made at this manufactory during the last +century, some after original cartoons of excellent painters and others +reproductions of ancient Flemish ones belonging to the royal +collections. During the years 1721 to 1724 the tapestries representing +pastoral subjects after Teniers were woven there, and a series of +hunting subjects which still exist at the Pardo and palace of Madrid. +The excellent copy of the series of tapestries representing the conquest +of Tunis, after cartoons by William Pannemaker were made partly at +Seville and partly at Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara. The tapestries +representing scenes from the life of Don Quixote, designed by the +painter Procaccini, were also made at the looms of Santa Barbara. + +Fine carpets in the Turkish style were made there under the +superintendence of Cornelius Vandergoten, who excelled in this special +industry. Carpets also in the French style of the Gobelin manufactory +were made at the same time. The best specimens of carpets and tapestries +of the manufactory of Santa Barbara, will be found at the palaces of the +Escorial, the Pardo, and Madrid. The series made from cartoons of +Teniers and the Spanish painter Goya are extremely interesting. A +complete collection of photographs of the foreign and Spanish tapestries +at the palace of Madrid will be found in the Art Library of the South +Kensington Museum. + + + + +LACE. + + +It is not easy to give a clear idea of the history of the manufacture of +ancient Spanish lace; the principal reason being that this industry was +carried out by private persons, who never formed themselves into Guilds +or corporations, as was the case during the middle ages and Renaissance +period with those who devoted their time to other arts and industries. +We find in the Royal Ordinances constant references to weavers, silver +and goldsmiths, tailors, etc., but in none do we find the manufacture of +lace mentioned. The most important Ordinances relating to Spanish +industries are those published at Toledo and Seville in the 15th and +16th centuries, and at Granada in the 16th and 17th centuries, and in +none of them do we find lace even alluded to. In the innumerable laws +which appeared from the middle ages until the 18th century for the +object of reforming costumes and checking their excessive luxury no +mention is made of lace; when it is referred to, it is only when +_puntas_ or _entredoses_, edgings or insertions, are mentioned in which +gold and silver are introduced. We never find any allusion in +contemporary writers to the fine heavy thread lace, sometimes called +Point d'Espagne or Point de Venise, the origin of which has been a +source of so much doubt to collectors of the present day. + +The only thing which we can do therefore at the present, until this +subject is more fully investigated, is to assert that lace of different +kinds has been made from the very earliest times in Spain, and do our +best to classify the different kinds by the differences which we observe +in those of other localities. + +Father Fr. Marcos Antonio de Campos in his "Microcosmia y Gobierno +Universal del Hombre Cristiano," [Barcelona, 1592, p. 225,] says: "I +will not be silent and fail to mention the time lost these last years in +the manufacture of _cadenetas_, a work of thread combined with gold and +silver; this extravagance and excess reached such a point that 100 and +1000 of ducats were spent in this work, which, besides destroying the +eyesight, wasting away the lives, and rendering consumptive the women +who worked it, and preventing them from spending their time with more +advantage to their souls, a few ounces of thread and years of time, were +wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I ask myself, after this fancy +has passed away, will the lady or gentleman find that the chemises that +cost them 50 ducats, or the _basquia_ (petticoats) that cost them 300, +are worth half their price, which certainly is the case with other +objects in which the material itself is worth more." This quotation is +interesting as proving that lace was made during the 16th century. The +friar, in following the prevalent fashion of preaching against luxury +and extravagance, shows us that this industry must have reached to a +great height in order to be an object of censure. + +From the 16th century until the end of the 18th we find this manufacture +continued in Spain, but that foreign lace of different kinds was +likewise imported to a great extent, although we may affirm that black +lace especially was made in Spain during the whole period. + +We find lace mentioned by ancient Spanish authors under the following +names: _punta_, _randa_, _cadeneta_, _entredos_, _red_, _deshilado_, +_franja_, _blonda_, and _encaje_, which may be translated as edging, or +points, rseuil, chain stitch, insertion, netting, ravelling, fringe, +blonde, and lace. + +M. H. de Cocheris in his introduction to "Patrons de Broderies," Paris, +1872, says that "gold and silver laces were made at Paris and Lyons." +The four books which are reproduced in this volume mention Lyons as +being a great centre of this particular branch of industry. Gold and +silver lace was, however, also made and copied in Spain during the 17th +century. We find in the "Pragmatica y Nueva Orden cerca de los Vestidos +y Trajes, asi de Hombres como de Mugeres," [fol. Madrid 1611, p. 5,] +"May we be allowed to border or edge the said silken materials with +thread lace, which are not to be made of chain stitch, or gold or +silver, and when these laces are mentioned we should understand they are +exclusively for women's use." We also find in an Ordinance of the time +of Philip III., dated 1623, that gold and silver lace was prohibited, +and that "simple edgings, and curls, and fraises for women were enjoined +for women's use." In the "Fenix de Catalua, compendio de sus Antiguas +Grandezas y Medio para Renovarlas," Barcelona, 1683, by Narciso Feliu, +the author states, p. 75, that "edgings of all sorts of gold, silver, +silk, thread, and aloe, is made there with greater perfection than in +Flanders." + +Many interesting details have reached us of the costume of a Spanish +lady in the 17th century. We will copy the description given by Madame +d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon 1628. "Under the vertingale of +black taffety they wear a dozen or more petticoats, one finer than the +other, of rich stuffs trimmed with lace of gold and silver to the +girdle. They wear at all times a white garment called sabenqua; it is +made of the finest English lace, and four ells in compass. I have seen +some worth 500 or 600 crowns, and so great is their vanity, they would +rather have one of those lace subenquas than a dozen coarse ones, and +either lie in bed till it is washed, or else dress themselves without +any, which they frequently enough do." A number of portraits exist in +the Spanish galleries, especially by Velasquez and Carreo, in which +these extravagant costumes are fully portrayed, but in very few Spanish +portraits of the seventeenth century does thread lace of the kind known +as Point d'Espagne or de Venise ever appear. Mrs. Palliser, in her +interesting "History of Lace," p. 80, quotes a vast number of +descriptions of these gold and silver laces. The celebrated bed at +Versailles, the interior lacings of the carriages, the costumes of the +gentlemen and ladies of court, and wedding dresses, were all trimmed +with this silver and gold lace, either made in Spain, or called Point +d'Espagne. + +We copy again Madame d'Aunoy's description of a Spanish bed. "It is of +gold and green damask lined with silver brocade and trimmed with point +of Spain. Her sheets were laced round with an English lace half an ell +deep. The young Princess of Monteleon bade her maids bring in her +wedding clothes. They brought in thirty silver baskets so heavy four +women could only carry one basket: the linen and lace were not inferior +to the rest." Beckford, in describing the apartment of a Spanish lady, +writes: "Her bed was of the richest blue velvet trimmed with point +lace." Aarsens de Sommerdyck in his "Voyage d'Espagne," [Paris, 1665,] +writes, in describing the costume worn by the men: "Leurs collets ou +cravates sont de grandes pointes, qui sans doute coustent beaucoup, bien +qu'elles ne paroissent pas belles. La mode en est presque la mesme qu'en +France, l'ayant prise de la princesse de Carignan quand elle estoit +Madrid, dont elles les nomment Valonas la Carignan." In the +interesting "Journal du Voyage d'Espagne," Paris, 1669, l'Abb Bertaut +tells us that on the 15th of October, 1659, on the occasion of his +embassy to Madrid, the king of Spain sent eight postilions, and forty +post-horses, the saddles and bridles of eight of which were covered with +gold and silver lace. + +Notwithstanding the opinion of so competent an authority as Mrs. +Palliser, I doubt the statement, finding no evidence to support it, that +thread lace of a very fine or artistic kind was ever made in Spain, or +exported as an article of commerce during early times. The lace alb, +which is mentioned, to prove this, as existing at Granada, a gift of +Ferdinand and Isabel, is of Flemish lace of the 17th century. The +chasuble, etc., splendid ecclesiastical vestments embroidered on crimson +velvet, were certainly the gift of these kings, and if Cardinal Wiseman +officiated in this vestment, it is probable he may have made a mistake +and not separated the alb from the chasuble, which certainly may be +worth 10,000 crowns. J. Barretti, in his "Journey from London to Genoa, +through Portugal and Spain," London, 1770, describing the fine church of +Las Salesas, lately built, writes, "The nuns showed me in the sacristy +some surplices for the mass priest, that are made of the finest Flanders +lace. Each surplice has cost about 1000 doubloons." In "Tassa de los +Precios a que se han de vender as Mercaderias," Madrid, 1628, we find +that the "puntas or edgings made in Spain are to be sold at the same +price as those imported from Paris." Puntas from Flanders are estimated +in this tariff at a much higher rate than those which were brought from +France; we may calculate they were sold for double the price. The +"Ordenaciones" made at Barcelona to settle commercial tariffs state in +1704: "As experience has shown us that most of the edgings or puntas +made in this principality are sent out of the country, and we do not +find them mentioned in the financial accounts, to the great disadvantage +of the community, it is determined--" + +We find reference to lace brought from Flanders, Paris, and Lyon, in the +first volume of "Apendice a la Educacion Popular," [p. 61.] [Madrid, +1775,] the author mentions the large sums of money which were taken out +of the country by the importations of foreign lace, and he adds, [vol. +ii., p. 61,] "Lace is employed to a very considerable extent; all the +fine qualities come from foreign lands, and the greater varieties of the +coarser ones. Spanish matrons, among other branches of their education, +are taught to make lace of different kinds, and many respectable people +live on this industry." Larruga, in his "Memorias," Madrid, 1788, +mentions, vol. ii., p. 149, a manufacture of gold and silver lace which +had been set up lately at Madrid; and in the 17th vol., p. 294, in +mentioning lace made at La Mancha, "the industry of lace has existed at +Almagro from time immemorial. D^{n}. Manuel Fernandez and D Rita +Lambert, his wife, natives of Madrid, established in this town in 1766 +a manufacture of silk and thread lace." This industry also existed at +Granatula, Manzanares, and other villages of La Mancha. At Zamora "lace +and blonde were made in private houses. The finest kinds are sold to +lace merchants." In Sempere, "Historia del Lujo," [Madrid, 1788, 8vo,] +we find that in the Ordinance issued in 1723, the "introduction of every +sort of edgings or foreign laces was prohibited, the only kinds allowed +were those made in the country." + +Cabanillas writes in his "Observaciones sobre la Historia natural del +Reino de Valencia," Madrid, 1797, that at Novelda a third part of the +inhabitants made lace, "more than 2000 among women and children worked +at this industry, and the natives themselves hawked these wares about +the country." Swinburne, in his "Travels in Spain in 1775," also says, +"The women of the hamlets were busy with their bobbins making lace." +Laborde writes that in 1809 the manufacture of blonde was almost +entirely confined to Catalua. Barcelona is in the present day the great +centre of this industry in Spain; the black and white blondes which are +made chiefly for mantillas are very fine. The white laces made there are +in the style of Lille and Buckinghamshire laces, Brussels and Duchesse +laces, and Chantilly is also made to a large extent. Gold and silver +blondes were revived during the years 1830-40; and it may interest my +readers to know that the late Queen Mercedes, in her wedding trousseaux, +had a garniture de robe, mantilla included, of gold blonde. + +Modern torchon laces are still made at Almagro to a very large extent. +Bed linen, even in the poorest houses, is elaborately trimmed with lace +or embroidery. Valances for beds of ravellings, point coup and lace +work are still constantly found to decorate beds at weddings in the +provinces of Spain. + +THE END. + +RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BUNGAY. + + * * * * * + +SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM SCIENCE AND ART HANDBOOKS. + +Handsomely printed in large crown 8vo. + +_Published for the Committee of Council on Education._ + +MARINE ENGINES AND BOILERS. By GEORGE C. V. 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With Portraits and Facsimiles, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN SPAIN. By JUAN F. RIAO. With numerous Woodcuts. +4_s._ + +GLASS. By ALEXANDER NESBITT. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +GOLD AND SILVER SMITHS' WORK. By JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN, M.A. With +numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +TAPESTRY. By ALFRED DE CHAMPEAUX. With Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +BRONZES. By C. DRURY E. FORTNUM, F.S.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ +6_d._ + +PLAIN WORDS ABOUT WATER. By A. H. CHURCH, M.A, Oxon. With Illustrations. +Sewed, 6_d._ + +ANIMAL PRODUCTS: their Preparation, Commercial Uses, and Value. By T. L. +SIMMONDS. With Illustrations, 7_s._ 6_d._ + +FOOD: Some Account of its Sources, Constituents, and Uses. By PROFESSOR +A. H. CHURCH, M.A. Oxon. New Edition, enlarged. 3_s._ + +ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. By ANDREW MURRAY, F.L.S. APTERA. With +Illustrations, 7_s._ 6_d._ + +JAPANESE POTTERY. Being a Native Report. With an Introduction and +Catalogue by A. W. FRANKS, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. With Illustrations and +Marks. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +HANDBOOK TO THE SPECIAL LOAN COLLECTION of Scientific Apparatus. 3_s._ + +INDUSTRIAL ARTS: Historical Sketches. With Numerous Illustrations. 3_s._ + +TEXTILE FABRICS. By the Very Rev. DANIEL ROCK, D.D. With numerous +Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +JONES COLLECTION IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. With Portrait and +Woodcuts, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +COLLEGE AND CORPORATION PLATE. A Handbook to the Reproductions of Silver +Plate in the South Kensington Museum from Celebrated English +Collections. By WILFRED JOSEPH CRIPPS, M.A. F.S.A. With Illustrations. +2_s._ 6_d._ + +IVORIES: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL. By WILLIAM MASKELL. With numerous +Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +ANCIENT AND MODERN FURNITURE AND WOODWORK. By JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN, +M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +MAIOLICA. By C. DRURY E. FORTNUM, F.S.A. With numerous Woodcuts, 2_s._ +6_d._ + +THE CHEMISTRY OF FOODS. With Microscopic Illustrations. By JAMES BELL, +Ph.D., &c., Principal of the Somerset House Laboratory. Part I.--Tea, +Coffee, Cocoa, Sugar. &c. 2_s._ 6_d._ Part II.--Milk, Butter, Cheese, +Cereals, Prepared Starches, &c. 3_s._ + +MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. By CARL ENGEL. With numerous Woodcuts, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +MANUAL OF DESIGN, compiled from the Writings and Addresses of RICHARD +REDGRAVE, R.A. By GILBERT R. REDGRAVE. With Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +PERSIAN ART. By MAJOR R. MURDOCK SMITH, R.E. With Map and Woodcuts. +Second Edition, enlarged, 2_s._ + + * * * * * + +These typographical errors were corrected by the etext transcriber: + +Guadamecis are made of leather=>Guadameciles are made of leather + +The French influence of the last century brought the same hions fasfor +furniture into Spain=>The French influence of the last century brought +the same fashions for furniture into Spain + +gilt bronze mounting were very much used.=>gilt bronze mountings were +very much used. + +It is of polished iron inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in +workmanhip.=>It is of polished iron inlaid with gold, and most exquisite +in workmanship. + +A wooodcut is given opposite.=>A woodcut is given opposite. + +Round the lid of of one them is a band=>Round the lid of one them is a +band + +there are some which are undoubtedly still made n the locality.=>there +are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality. + +same collection are at the Museo Arquelogico, Madrid=>same collection +are at the Museo Arqueleogico, Madrid + +the chaper on Arms, page 90=>the chapter on Arms, page 90 + +Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, +_Churriguesque=>Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, +_Churrigueresque + + * * * * * + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Industrial Arts in Spain, by Juan F. 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Riao + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: The Industrial Arts in Spain + +Author: Juan F. Riao + +Release Date: May 3, 2012 [EBook #39602] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN SPAIN *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images available at The Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/cover_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="348" height="550" alt="image of the book's cover +Spanish Arts +BY +JUAN F. RIAO." title="image of the book's cover +Spanish Arts +BY +JUAN F. RIAO." /></a> +</p> + +<table summary="note" border="4" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ffffff;"> + <tr> + <td valign="top">Typographical errors have been corrected (see <a href="#transcriber">list</a> following text.) No +attempt has been made to correct or normalize the spelling of place or +personal names. (note of etext transcriber.)</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="cb">SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS.<br /> +<br /> +SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ARTS.<br /> +</p> + +<div class="blk"> +<p><i>This Volume, forming one of the Series of Art Handbooks issued under +the authority of the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, has +been prepared by</i> <span class="smcap">Seor Juan F. Riao,</span> <i>of Madrid, whose Catalogue of +Art Objects of Spanish production in the South Kensington Museum, issued +in 1872, has proved of great value and interest.</i></p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><i>April, 1879.</i></p> +</div> + +<h1> +THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS<br /> +IN SPAIN.</h1> + +<p class="cb">BY<br /> +JUAN F. RIAO.<br /> +<br /><br /> +<span class="sans">WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS</span><br /> +<br /><br /><br /> +<img src="images/ill_pg_colophon_sml.jpg" width="123" height="188" alt="colophon" title="colophon" /> +<br /> +<br /><br /><br /> +<i>Published for the Committee of Council on Education,</i><br /> +BY<br /> +CHAPMAN AND HALL, LIMITED,<br /> +LONDON.<br /> +1890.</p> + +<p class="c"> +<br /><br /><br /> +<small><span class="smcap">Richard Clay and Sons, Limited,</span><br /> +LONDON AND BUNGAY.</small><br /><br /><br /> +</p> + +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#GOLD_AND_SILVER_WORK"><span class="smcap">Gold and Silver Work</span></a></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_001">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#IRON_WORK"><span class="smcap">Iron Work</span></a></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_058">58</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#BRONZES"><span class="smcap">Bronzes</span></a></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_068">68</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#ARMS"><span class="smcap">Arms</span></a></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_079">79</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#FURNITURE"><span class="smcap">Furniture</span></a></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_109">109</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#IVORIES"><span class="smcap">Ivories</span></a></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_126">126</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#POTTERY_AND_PORCELAIN"><span class="smcap">Pottery and Porcelain </span></a></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_143">143</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#GLASS"><span class="smcap">Glass</span></a></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_228">228</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#TEXTILE_FABRICS"><span class="smcap">Textile Fabrics</span></a></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_250">250</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#LACE"><span class="smcap">Lace</span></a></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_271">271</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td><small>NO</small>.</td> <td> </td> <td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_1">1.</a></td><td>Votive Crown of King Swinthila, Madrid</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_007">7</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_2">2.</a></td><td>Leaf of Triptych in Cathedral of Seville</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_017">17</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_3">3.</a></td><td>Processional Cross, 15th century, South Kensington Museum</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_020">20</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_4">4.</a></td><td>Chalice, 16th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_030">30</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_5">5.</a></td><td>Chalice, 17th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_031">31</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_6">6.</a></td><td>Pax, 16th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_033">33</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_7">7.</a></td><td>Jewel, 17th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_035">35</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_8">8.</a></td><td>Silver Dish, 17th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_036">36</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_9">9.</a></td><td>Breast Ornament set with emeralds, late 17th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_037">37</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_10">10.</a></td><td>Breast Ornament set with diamonds, late 17th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_039">39</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_11">11.</a></td><td>Moorish Keys in Cathedral of Seville</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_060">60</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_12">12.</a></td><td>Nail heads, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_13">13.</a></td><td>Moorish Lamp, Archological Museum, Madrid</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_072">72</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_14">14.</a></td><td>Tenebrarium in Cathedral of Seville</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_075">75</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_15">15.</a></td><td>Monstrance, dated 1537, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_077">77</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_16">16.</a></td><td>Sword of Boabdil, Villaseca Collection, Madrid</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_085">85</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_17">17.</a></td><td>Moorish Dagger, 15th century</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_089">89</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_18">18.</a></td><td>Rapiers, 16th and 17th centuries, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_097">97</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_19">19.</a></td><td>Breastplate, formerly in Bernal Collection</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_20">20.</a></td><td>Saddle of the Cid—Armoury, Madrid</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_099">99</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_21">21.</a></td><td>Muskets</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_100">100</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_22">22.</a></td><td>Botica de los Templarios, from Toledo, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_114">114</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_23">23.</a></td><td>Vargueo Cabinet, 16th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_121">121</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_24">24.</a></td><td>Ivory cylindrical box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_128">128</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_25">25.</a></td><td>Ivory rectangular box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_129">129</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_26">26.</a></td><td>Ivory Casket, Moorish, 11th century, Cathedral of Pamplona</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_131">131</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_27">27.</a></td><td>Cross of King Ferdinand I., Archological Museum, Madrid</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_136">136</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_28">28.</a></td><td>Samian Bowl</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_144">144</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_29">29.</a></td><td>Plateau, (probably of Valencia), S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_152">152</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_30">30.</a></td><td>Moorish Vase at the Alhambra</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_155">155</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_31">31.</a></td><td>Tile, (probably from the Alhambra)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_157">157</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_32">32.</a></td><td>Hispano-Moresco Vase, 14th or 15th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_159">159</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_33">33.</a></td><td>Hispano-Moresco Plateau with raised ribs and studs, 15th or 16th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_160">160</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_34">34.</a></td><td>Hispano-Moresco Salver, 15th or 16th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_161">161</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_35">35.</a></td><td>Wine Jar, "Tinaja," S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_164">164</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_36">36.</a></td><td>Brim of Well from Toledo, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_166">166</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_37">37.</a></td><td>Earthenware Bowl, Talavera ware, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_174">174</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_38">38.</a></td><td>Earthenware Plaque, Alcora ware, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_194">194</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_39">39.</a></td><td>Marks and Signatures of Painters who worked at Alcora</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_204">204—210</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_40">40.</a></td><td>Room decorated with Buen-Retiro porcelain in the Palace at Madrid</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_217">217</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_41">41.</a></td><td>Vase, Buen Retiro porcelain, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_220">220</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_42">42.</a></td><td>Marks used at the porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_221">221—223</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_43">43.</a></td><td>Glass Vase, 16th century, S.K.M</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_232">232</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_44">44.</a></td><td>Pilgrim's Bottle, Glass, 17th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_233">233</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_45">45.</a></td><td>Glass Bottle, modern, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_237">237</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_46">46.</a></td><td>Glass Vessels, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_238">238</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_47">47.</a></td><td>Glass Vase, Cadalso, 17th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_239">239</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_48">48.</a></td><td>Vase, Green glass with black handle and ribs, 17th century, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_242">242</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_49">49.</a></td><td>Glass Vessels, S.K.M.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_245">245</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#img_50">50.</a></td><td>Tapestry at Cathedral of Gerona, 11th century</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_267">267</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>The Department of Science and Art is indebted to</i> <span class="smcap">Mr. John Murray</span> <i>for +the use of the Woodcuts Nos. 19, 20, 30, and 31. No. 50 is from a +Spanish Woodcut.</i><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a></p> + +<h1>SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ART.</h1> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="GOLD_AND_SILVER_WORK" id="GOLD_AND_SILVER_WORK"></a>GOLD AND SILVER WORK.</h2> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> Greek and Latin authors who have described the Spanish Peninsula, +state that the quantity of gold and silver ore found there was very +great, and that hence the district became an important centre of +commercial activity of Phœnicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans. +Some authors have gone so far as to assert that the Phœnicians made +the anchors of their ships of gold and silver, and that the +Carthaginians were astonished to find in Andalusia, that the mangers and +vases for holding wine and oil were made of the same materials. These +references have been constantly mentioned in ancient Spanish authors. +Ambrosio de Morales, in his "Antiguedades de Espaa," Alcala 1577, +enters into every detail on this subject.</p> + +<p>I have seen a specimen of this period, a bowl of an earlier and +different style to Roman silversmiths' work, which belongs to a +collector in the province of Cordova. This bowl is of a conical shape: +it is perfectly plain, and has an inscription in Iberian characters +engraved on one of its sides: there are signs outside and at the bottom +which indicate that this bowl was made on the wheel. Velazquez in his +"Ensayo sobre las letras desconocidas," Madrid, 1752, describes a silver +bowl of a similar kind, which was found in Andalusia in 1618 full of +Iberian coins: this bowl<a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a> weighed ten ounces. Several ornaments, chiefly +consisting of necklaces and earrings, may be studied at the Academy of +History, and private collections, in Madrid; they have been classified +by antiquarians as belonging to this uncertain period, and are similar +in style to others which have been frequently found in England and the +north of Europe. The most interesting objects of this kind which I have +seen in Spain, are gold ornaments proceeding from Galicia; they were +found there by Sr. Villaamil, who gave a description of them in the +"Museo Espaol de Antiguedades," vol. iii. p. 545.</p> + +<p>The information and remains which have reached us illustrating silver +and gold work of the Roman domination are more important; we find, +however, in this and similar artistic industries that, as a general +rule, the Romans imposed their style and system on the inhabitants of +the countries which they conquered, and it is not easy to point out any +one example which can be given as an exception to this general rule. It +is, undoubtedly, a fact that objects of all kinds in gold and silver +were used in Spain to a very great extent—for, notwithstanding the +destruction of ages, we still possess inscriptions which allude to +silver statues, and a large number of objects in the precious metals +exist in museums and private collections. See "Inscrip. Hisp. lat.," by +Dr. Emile Hbner, Berlin, 1869. Of these it will be sufficient to +mention one of the most important. It is known in the province of +Santander by the name of the dish of Otaez; and belongs to a gentleman +who lives in that locality. It was found at Otaez at the end of the +last century, buried in a stone quarry. This dish is made of silver, it +weighs thirty-three ounces, and is covered with an ornamentation of +figures in relief, some of which are gilt, representing an allegorical +subject of the source of medicinal waters. In the upper part is a nymph +who pours water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects it in a vessel; +another gives a cup of it to a sick man; another fills with it a barrel +which is placed in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked<a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a> two mules. On +each side of the fountain are altars on which sacrifices and libations +are offered. Round it is the inscription: <span class="smcap">SALVS. VMERITANA</span>, and at the +back is engraved, in confused characters, the words: L. P. CORNELIANI. +PIII....</p> + +<p>Another very interesting silver dish may be seen at the Academia de la +Historia, Madrid. Although not of Spanish manufacture, it deserves +special notice in a description of works of this style. This dish was +found in 1847, buried in a field at Almendralejo, province of +Estremadura: it is 28-6/8 English inches in diameter, and weighs 533 +ounces. It is ornamented with fine figures in relief, representing the +Emperor Theodosius appointing a magistrate. The emperor is seated on his +throne in the centre, at the sides are his sons Arcadius and Honorius, +with four soldiers of the guard, and the magistrate, who receives the +volume. In the lower part there is an allegorical representation of a +nymph holding the horn of abundance, winged angels, and ears of wheat, +probably alluding to the abundance and plenty of the empire. Round the +rim is the following inscription:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">D. N. THEODOSIVS PERPET.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">AVG OB DIEM FELI CISSIMVM.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>At the back, in points, are the following Greek words.</p> + +<p class="c"><span title="Greek: POS N MET">ποc ↑Ν ΜεΤ</span> +</p> + +<p>We can form a very good idea of the jewel work of the Visigothic period +from the discovery of the treasure of Guarrazar. These jewels were found +in 1858 at the village of this name, six miles from Toledo, on the spot +where, in the Visigothic period, a Christian sanctuary had existed. The +objects found, which may be seen at the Museum of Cluny, Paris, and +Armeria Real, Madrid, constitute the most important collection in Europe +of the jewel work of that period. No less than eleven votive crowns, +some of extraordinary magnificence; two crosses with<a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a> inscriptions, and +a large number of fragments of all kinds, of gold and precious stones, +were found at Guarrazar. Unfortunately a great part of the treasure has +been lost, for the labourers, who were the first to find it, sold +several objects to the silversmiths at Toledo, who melted and destroyed +specimens of the highest artistic interest. Those that remain in Spain +are—</p> + +<p>At the Royal Armoury of Madrid: A gold crown of Swinthila inlaid with +precious stones, with pendent cross, and inscriptions of letters hanging +from it: SVINTHILANVS REX. OFFERET. See woodcut on <a href="#img_1">p. 7</a>. A similar crown +of Theodosius, with the inscription: OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM. SCO STEFANO +ETHODOSIVS. ABBA. The cross of Lucetius with the following inscription: ++ IN NOMINE DNI. IN NOMINE SCI OFFERET LVCETIVS: E. Fragments of another +crown and of large crosses: several stones and fragments, and an +emerald, on which is engraved <i>en creux</i> the Annunciation of the Virgin.</p> + +<p>At the Archological Museum, and in several private collections in +Spain, may be seen a large number of stones and pearls which were found +at Guarrazar.</p> + +<p>Among the objects at the Archological Museum at Madrid, a small +section, which proceed from a different locality, have also been +classified as Visigothic. They consist of necklaces, earrings, and +rings, and are less important in workmanship than those found at +Guarrazar. The student will find further details in "Museo Espaol de +Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 137.</p> + +<p>The objects forming part of the treasure of Guarrazar now in the Museum +of Cluny, Paris are: Crown of Recesvinthus, with pendent cross and +inscription: + RECESVINTHVS REX OFFERET. A similar crown, without +inscription. Four crowns formed to imitate basket work, with crosses +hanging from the centres. Three crowns, the rims of which are formed of +<i>repouss</i> work, only one of which is ornamented with precious stones, +and without pendent crosses. The cross of Sonnicus with the follow<a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a> ing +inscription: <span title="sign of Maltese cross">✠</span> IN D̄I NOMINE OFFERET SONNICA +S̄C̄Ē MARIE IN SORBACES.</p> + +<p>Swinthila reigned from 624 to 631, A.D.; Recesvinthus from 650 to 672 +A.D.; hence these crowns belong to the 7th century, and the remaining +objects are certainly of the same period.</p> + +<p>Much has been written on these Visigothic jewels by French and Spanish +authors, the most interesting and valuable studies are:—"Descrip. du +Trsor de Guarrazar, par M. Lasteyrie. Paris. 1860." "El arte Latino +Bizantino en Espaa y las Coronas de Guarrazar," by Seor Rios, Madrid, +1861. Consult also his article in "Monumentos Arq. de Espaa." "Coronas +de Guarrazar que se conservan en la Armeria Real de Madrid," by Seor +Rada. Museo Espaol, vol. iii. Madrid, 1874.</p> + +<p>The importance of this goldsmith's work has led these authors to discuss +several archaeological and artistic points which deserve attention. I +will also give my opinions on this subject, which in some respects +differ from those hitherto advanced. In the Middle Ages the name of +crown was equally applied to those worn on the head, to the votive +crowns hung before altars, and to the pendent lamps which were also of +this circular form. The "Etimologies" of San Isidoro help us, +unfortunately, but little on this subject; but Du Cange, in his +"Glossarium Medi et infim Latinitatis" gives us sufficient details to +understand the differences between them. I refer the student to two +works on this subject, which treat especially of crowns of light, which +none of the authors who have written on Guarrazar have consulted: +"Tratado de la Sagrada Luminaria," by Gonzalez Villar, Madrid, 1798. "De +Lucernis Pensilibus," by Fanceulli, Maceratae, 1802.</p> + +<p>The crowns found at Guarrazar were undoubtedly votive offerings, for +they all have chains by which they were suspended in the sanctuary in +which they were found. Their size and the structure of their rims lead +us to suppose that they may have been worn on the head. The same +observation applies to a<a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a> similar crown at the Cluny Museum; if so, the +chains, cross, and pendent letters were added when the crown was offered +to the sanctuary.</p> + +<p>Although details which appear in the handwork of these jewels betray a +certain rudeness, not uncommon in the time they were made, their beauty +and richness are truly surprising. These crowns are decorated round +their rims with rosettes of pearls and sapphires, and a delicate +ornamentation of <i>cloisonn</i> work, which encloses a substance resembling +red glass. From the upper part are attached four chains formed of leaves +<i>perces jour</i>, these are united to a double gold rosette with pendent +sapphires, in the centre of which is set a piece of rock crystal. In the +cross of Recesvinthus the pendant is in the form of a capital, and from +it hangs a small cross of the same style of work: from the lower rim of +the crown are suspended the letters, which are ornamented with the same +vitreous paste, <i>cloisonn</i>, and from each hang large single pearls and +sapphires.</p> + +<p>The border of some of these crowns is formed of a net-work of small gold +massive balustrades; having between them square spaces in which pearls +and sapphires are set. Others are made simply of <i>repouss</i> gold, their +chief interest consisting in the ornamentation which has been so +artistically carried out. Some of them have inscriptions and a few +stones set at intervals. The pendants from these crowns are inferior in +richness to the others already described. The pendent crosses are +ornamented in the same style, either with <i>cloisonn</i> work or <i>repouss</i> +inscriptions.</p> + +<p><a name="img_1" id="img_1"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_007_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_007_sml.jpg" width="256" height="719" alt="VOTIVE CROWN OF KING SWINTHILA, MADRID." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">VOTIVE CROWN OF KING SWINTHILA, MADRID.</span> +</p> + +<p>One of the most interesting results produced by the study of the +treasure of Guarrazar has been to show us the immense luxury which it +represents, if we remember the period of decay and poverty of the +Visigothic monarchy. We find this magnificence frequently alluded to by +ancient writers. The Arabs when they took possession of Toledo in the +8th century, mention in different works the immense quantity of jewels +of all kinds<a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a><a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a> which they found and carried away. The gold and +silversmith's work of this period was everywhere in a very high state of +development. We find it constantly alluded to in the works of Paul +Silentiarium and other writers of the time of Justinian, and in the +inventories and references given by Du Sommerard of the jewel work +anterior to the Carlovingian period in Italy and France. The Visigothic +kings, who copied from the Eastern emperors even their legal forms, +followed this rule to a great extent in everything which bore relation +to their daily life.</p> + +<p>The most important question is to determine the origin and locality +where these jewels were made. M. de Lasteyrie considers that jewellery +ornamented with red glass <i>cloisonn</i> work was only made by nations of +the Germanic race. To prove this he presents, among other arguments, the +comparison of a fragment of the ornamentation which appears on the crown +of Recesvinthus, with a similar one on the Evangelistiarium of +Theodolinda in the treasure of Monza, which he considers to be of German +workmanship. These theories are untenable. Sr. Rios is of a different +opinion, and considers these jewels to have been made in Spain, owing to +the similarity of ornamentation with different specimens which occur in +Spain in architectural remains of the Roman and Visigothic periods.</p> + +<p>Both these writers give in my opinion the decorative elements of the +crowns of Guarrazar an importance which they do not possess. The +ornamentation which most frequently occurs consists of a combination of +circles, imbrication, and palms of such an elementary kind that it would +be difficult to ascertain its origin; it appears equally in mosaic work +of the later Roman period, in vases and other objects of the best times +of Greek art, and in Asiatic and archaic works. It may be affirmed that +the ornamentation of the goldsmith's work of the north and south of +Europe are derived from a common origin; from the oriental civilization +which in the first centuries of the Middle Ages <a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a>penetrated into Europe; +it may also be affirmed that its manufacture and technical proceedings +are precisely similar. Later on, the ornamentation and manufacture of +these jewels received from the western nations some slight +modifications; but this artistic industry by no means proceeded from +them.</p> + +<p>One example will be enough to prove this. Setting apart the famous +<i>cloisonn pectorale</i> at the Boulac Museum, Cairo, and other jewels of +the queen, Aah-Hotep, 17th century <small>B.C.</small>; the hawk of a similar period, +Louvre Museum (Paris), and a number of analogous objects in the British +Museum, we have enough specimens of this kind to show that <i>cloisonn</i> +work was known in the east from the very earliest period. I will draw +especial attention to the <i>plaque</i> in the Museum of Wiesbaden, found at +Wolfsheim in 1870. It is formed of gold, with a circular and triangular +ornamentation and squares, <i>dcoups jour</i>, set with jacinths, or red +glass paste. At the back may be read an inscription in Persian +characters, which gives the name of a Sassanide king, Artachshaber, of +the 3rd century of our era. (See A. von Cohausen, "Roemischer +Schmelzenschmuck," Wiesbaden, 1873). I know no more ancient specimen in +the north of Europe of these jewels with coloured stones, nor can I give +a better example of their oriental origin. Those who may wish to make a +more profound study on this subject, can also examine the interesting +jewels with stones found at Petrossa, Wallachia, in 1835, now in the +Museum of Bucharest. They are attributed to the Visigothic King +Athanaric, who lived towards the middle of the 4th century of our era, +and are considered in the present day of undoubted Sassanide origin.</p> + +<p>The artistic and technical origin of the jewels of Guarrazar must be +looked for in the East; their manufacture was most probably Spanish. On +part of these jewels, inscriptions of the names of the <i>donatarios</i> +appear, and it is highly improbable that they were made in another +country. We cannot imagine the extraordinary magnificence of the +Visigothic court, so similar<a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a> to that of Constantinople and other +contemporary ones, without the presence at each of a group of artists +whose task was to satisfy these demands.</p> + +<p>The Visigothic style continued to be followed in Spain at the court of +the Christian kings, until the 11th century, notwithstanding the Moorish +invasion, and the poverty of the kingdom. The specimens at the treasury +of the cathedral of Oviedo, and others which will be described farther +on, will give a good idea of the manufacture of jewels of this period. +Among the relics which are kept in the shrine called the <i>Camara Santa</i>, +at Oviedo, are two most interesting gold processional crosses studded +with stones, which are known by the names of <i>Cruz de los Angeles</i>, and +<i>Cruz de la Victoria</i> or <i>de Pelayo</i>. The <i>Cruz de los Angeles</i> is +16 inches high, by 16 inches wide, it is covered at the back with an +ornamentation in fine filigree work, set with different stones. In the +front are five medallions, and an inscription in the vacant spaces. +Among the gems there is a good cameo, and seven engraved stones in the +Gnostic style. (Consult "Monumentos Arquitectonicos de Espaa, Camara +Santa"). The inscription on this cross shows us that it was made, A.D. +808.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xpi<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Hoc signo tuetur pius<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Hoc signo vincitur inimicus<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Fulmine divino intereat ipse<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Hoc opus perfectum est in Era <small>DCCCXLVI</small>."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The cross of Victory is supposed to have been the same wooden one borne +by Don Pelayo when he began, early in the 8th century, his struggles +against the Mahomedan invasion, it was decorated in the next century +with gold platings and precious stones. It is 36 inches high by 28 +inches wide; the ornamentation is similar to the former one, and in the +vacant spaces at the back appears<a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a> the following inscription, by which +we learn it was made at the Castle of Gauzon, Asturias, A.D. 828.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemna Regina<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Fulmine divino intereat ipse<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus<br /></span> +<span class="ist">Et opera us est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri.<br /></span> +<span class="i9"><small>XLII</small>. discurrente Era <small>DCCCLXVI</small>."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Another most interesting object at this shrine is Don Fruela's casket, +which is ornamented with agates set in gold, and is similar in style. +The inscription, which appears outside, gives the date A.D. 910.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Operatum est Era <small>DCCCCXLVIII</small>."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>A diptych which belongs to the same shrine may also be mentioned. It was +given by Bishop Don Gonzalo, who was bishop of Oviedo from <small>A.D.</small> 1162 to +1175. Round it are the words—<i>Gundisalvus Episcopus me jussit fieri.</i> +This diptych is 5 inches long by 7 wide: it is ornamented with ivory +figures, stones, crystals and engraved gems. Although I do not consider +it to be of Spanish workmanship, it is necessary to mention the splendid +<i>Arca Santa</i>, in which it is believed many of the relics were taken to +Oviedo. It is covered with silver plates, with <i>repouss</i> and chiselled +work representing different religious subjects: the Crucifixion, Our +Lord surrounded by the attributes of the Evangelists, saints, apostles, +angels, and a fine ornamental border with letters, imitating Cufic +inscriptions. This splendid casket is 3 feet 9 inches long, by 3 and +3 wide, and 28 inches high, and appears to have been made +between the 10th and 12th centuries. The figures are similar in style to +the paintings and sculpture of this period, and it is highly probable +that it may have been the work of Italian artists. The Cufic inscription +is illegible, and is interrupted in the angles by the symbols of the<a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a> +Evangelists. This style of simulated inscriptions was frequently used by +Italian artists.</p> + +<p>A cross of the same style as those already described exists at the +cathedral of Santiago. It is made of wood covered with gold platings and +precious stones; some of these are old intagli, which are set in +delicate filigree work. Round it runs a long inscription, from which it +appears that it was a present from <i>Adefonsus Princeps cum conjuge +Scemena Regina</i>, and that it was made in Era DCCCCA. Duodecima; <small>A.D.</small> +874. The number of gems which have reached us, after so many centuries +of ruin, the similarity of the different specimens, and the statement +which appears on the cross of King Pelayo, that it was made at the +castle of Gauzon, prove that the goldsmith's industry had attained great +importance in Spain during this period.</p> + +<p>By studying the different objects of silver and gold work which still +exist in Spanish churches, we can form a good idea of the historical +progress of this industry in the following centuries of the Middle Ages; +but before we do so, it is well to make some observations upon objects +of <i>orfvrerie</i>, the work of the Moors. There is a constant connection +between these objects and those made of ivory: the same characteristics +exist which I shall hereafter point out as appearing in Moorish ivory +carvings. The art of ivory carving was imported from the East, the +subjects are much alike in ivory and metal when men and animals are +represented, and the inscriptions and bands of ornamentation are similar +in style. The main variations consist in the different systems employed +in metal work, by which the work differs according to the proceedings +adopted, of <i>repouss</i> or chiselling, filigree, niellos or enamels.</p> + +<p>A fine Casket belongs to this kind of oriental work which still may be +seen on the high altar of the cathedral of Gerona, Spain. This casket is +15 inches long by 9 wide and 10 high. It is made in the usual manner +of wood covered with silver gilt platings with a heavy <i>repouss</i> +ornamentation of leaves enclosed<a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a> within circles of pearls. Round the +rim of the cover runs the following Cufic inscription:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_013_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_013_sml.png" width="449" height="85" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"In the name of God. The blessing of God and happiness and prosperity +and permanent joy for the servant of God, Alhakem Emir Amumenin +Almostanser Billah, because he ordered this casket to be made for Abdul +walid Hischem, heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished by the +hands of Hudzen Ibn Bothla."</p> + +<p>Alhakem reigned in Spain from <small>A.D.</small> 961 to 976, in which year he was +succeeded by his son Hischem II. This casket belongs, therefore, to this +period, and is especially interesting as giving the artist's name. Two +other silver Arabian caskets may be seen at the Archological Museum, +Madrid, which were formerly at the shrine of San Isidoro of Leon, but +they possess less artistic interest than the casket at Gerona. One of +these is elliptical in form; it is ornamented with a good design of +leaves and tendrils, and Cufic inscription; the whole of the casket is +enamelled in black. The ornamentation belongs to the 12th century. The +inscription only mentions the owner's name, Abdo Shakir. The other +casket is silver-gilt, square in form, and rather poorly ornamented. The +two Cufic inscriptions which surround it are laudatory. At the cathedral +of Oviedo there is another silver casket with a laudatory inscription +and medallions with figures, in which from very early times, the remains +of S<sup>ta.</sup> Eulalia have been kept. I suspect that this casket and the +former one are not of Spanish Arab workmanship, for besides the +circumstance that their inscriptions can be applied to any owner, their +ornamentation is unlike others of the same kind. In the first casket it +is insignificant, but on the shrine of S<sup>ta.</sup> Eulalia the background +of<a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a> the medallions is covered with an imbricated pattern which I have +never seen repeated on any Arab or Moorish example in Spain. It is +highly probable that they were productions of Oriental industry and were +imported commercially.</p> + +<p>Several specimens of the 14th and 15th centuries, the last period of the +Moorish domination, exist in Spain. They consist of jewels and sword +handles. The most interesting trinkets are a bracelet and fragments of a +necklace and earrings which are at the Archological Museum, Madrid. +They are made of gold, covered with a geometrical <i>repouss</i> +ornamentation, and a delicate filigree pattern. There are specimens also +at the Kensington Museum, Nos. 1455 to 1447, 70, consisting of a +bracelet, silver-gilt, formed of seven alternate oval and rectangular +plaques, with impressed pattern and applied filigree and bossed +ornament, and earrings made of gold, formed of clusters of united +circles and lozenges with filigree bosses. Other jewels of less +importance are known to exist, consisting of bracelets, amulets, +earrings, and rings, mostly made of silver niello-work, these are +ornamented with geometrical patterns and inscriptions of little +importance.</p> + +<p>Moorish arms are most artistic; they are fully described in the article +Arms. The most important specimens are in the Royal Armoury, and noble +house of Villaseca, Madrid; another fine example of a similar style is +at the Generalife of Granada. The hilt and settings of the sheath are of +solid silver, gilt, and covered with geometrical patterns ornamented in +high relief, parts of which are filled with translucid <i>cloisonn</i> +enamel. In some instances the hilt is made of ivory. It is impossible +(see plate on p. 85) to find anything more beautiful than the +ornamentation of these swords, or greater perfection in every detail. It +is evident, therefore, that this industry had reached a very high grade +of perfection at Granada in the second part of the 15th century. The +sword now in the possession of the Villaseca family belonged to Boabdil, +the last Moorish king; the one at Granada to one of Boabdil's nearest +relations.<a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a></p> + +<p>In continuing our description of Christian silver-work in the 11th and +12th centuries, we meet with two historical chalices of the highest +interest. One was made by the order of Saint Domingo de Silos [<small>A.D.</small> +1045-1074] when abbot of this church. This chalice still exists there, +with the following inscription:—</p> + + <p class="c"><i>In nomine Domini ob honorem Sci Sebastiani Dominico abbas + fecit.</i></p> + +<p>It is ornamented with fine filigree work, forming zones and horse-shoe +arches, in a similar style to that of the silversmiths' work of +Asturias, which has never been completely abandoned in Spain. The author +of the life of this saint, Fr. Juan de Castro, Madrid 1688, says, p. +297, that he does not consider it was ever used for the sacrifice of the +mass, owing to its great height [13 inches]. The other chalice might +have been seen until very lately at San Isidoro, Leon; it has been +temporarily concealed owing to political disturbances. The cup and foot +are of agate, probably specimens of the classic period; the mounting, +which dates from the time of D<sup>na</sup>. Urraca, is studded with a profusion +of precious stones and pastes. Some of the gems of the chalice and paten +are antiques.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> In the centre of the paten is set a splendid flat onyx. +Round the lower part runs the following inscription:—</p> + +<p class="c">+ <i>In nomine Dn̄i Urraca Fredin̄ādi.</i></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> For further details of this interesting work of art, see +"Monumentos Arquitectonicos de Espaa," in which a good reproduction is +given.</p></div> + +<p>Dona Urraca, who was a sister of Alfonso VI., and was generally called +<i>Urraca Fernandez</i>, bestowed many important gifts on the church of San +Isidoro. She died <small>A.D.</small> 1101. Another interesting chalice of the same +period, although not of the same importance as those just named, belongs +to Cardinal Moreno, archbishop of Toledo. Round the stem are represented +the emblems of the Evangelists, and the inscription: <i>Pelagius abbas me +fecit</i>; this<a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a> formula appears so frequently that it must be understood +in the sense of <i>fecit fieri</i>, ordered to be made.</p> + +<p>The Santo Caliz at Valencia has been traditionally held as the cup used +by Our Saviour at the Last Supper. This chalice consists of a circular +cup hollowed out from a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded +round the lip. The base is formed of another inverted sardonyx. These +are united by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by handles, which +are inlaid with delicate arabesque in black enamel. Oriental pearls are +set round the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, sapphires and +emeralds. This chalice is a work of the Roman imperial epoch, and the +mounts are of a later date. Other specimens of jewellers' work of the +Roman period might be mentioned which exist in Spain, but I do not find +sufficient evidence to justify the opinion that they were made in that +country. I consider those that I have described to be of Spanish origin, +for they keep to the same technical modes of workmanship as the jewel +work of Asturias, and the inscriptions which appear on them refer to +historical personages. It would be difficult, considering all things, to +suppose they were imported.</p> + +<p><a name="img_2" id="img_2"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_017_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_017_sml.jpg" width="664" height="337" alt="ONE LEAF OF TRIPTYCH IN CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">ONE LEAF OF TRIPTYCH IN CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.</span> +</p> + +<p>We can mention in the thirteenth century a specimen of Spanish +silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition to the new style, +and the progress in the design of the figures owing to the Italian +Renaissance—I refer to the interesting triptych at the Cathedral of +Seville, known as the "Tablas Alfonsinas," made by the order of Don +Alfonso el Sabio for holding relics. It is of wood, covered inside and +out with silver-gilt plates; it is 22 inches high by 39 wide when its +three leaves are open (the woodcut opposite represents the outside of +left leaf), and is divided inside into fifteen compartments full of +minute ornamentation, among which are set a large number of capsules +covered with rock crystal containing relics, each one with an +inscription of enamelled gold, <i>cloisonn</i>. Several good cameos with +sacred subjects appear near the edge of the side leaves. The outside of +this triptych is decorated<a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a> with twelve medallions containing the arms +of Castile and Aragon, and forty-eight others in which are repeated +alternately the<a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a> subjects of the Adoration of the Magi and Annunciation +of the Virgin, which are also <i>repouss</i>. In the centres are eagles, +which S<sup>r</sup>. Rios supposes to allude to Don Alonso's claim to be crowned +Emperor, in which case it was made in the year 1274. (See Mus. esp. de +Antig., vol. ii. p. 83.) The ornamentation which surrounds the panels +belongs to the 16th century. S<sup>r</sup>. Rios suggests that the possible or +probable author of this interesting object of silversmith work was +Maestro Jorge, a silversmith of Toledo, who is praised by Don Alonso in +his Cantigas—he also mentions the names of Don Lorenzo and Don Niculas +as silversmiths of Seville who worked in this period.</p> + +<p>The most important example of Spanish silversmith's work of the 14th +century is the Retablo and Baldaquino of the cathedral of Gerona. Mr. +Street, in his Gothic Arch. in Spain, p. 326, describes this work of art +in the following manner: "The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with +silver plates, and divided vertically into three series of niches and +canopies: each division has a subject, and a good deal of enamelling is +introduced in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels. +Each panel has a cinque-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and +pinnacles on either side. The straight line of the top is broken by +three niches, which rise in the centre and at either end. In the centre +is the Blessed Virgin with our Lord; on the right San Narcisso; and on +the left St. Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain figures of +saints, subjects from the life of the Blessed Virgin, and subjects from +the life of our Lord."</p> + +<p>At the base of this Retablo may be read the words—<i>Pere Bernec me +feu</i>—Peter Bernec made me. Bernec was a silversmith of Valencia, and in +another document he was called Barners. It has been supposed that two +other contemporary silversmiths, whose names appear in papers of the +cathedral, worked also at the Retablo. Their names were Raimundo Andreu, +and Master Bartolom. Formerly in front of this altar there was a +magnificent silver and gold frontal studded with<a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a> stones, a fine work of +the 11th century—which was unfortunately carried off by the French in +their invasion of the Peninsula early in the present century, and was +probably with other innumerable priceless treasures melted by them. See +further details in "Viage Literario de Villanueva," vol. xii. p. 180.</p> + +<p>In the Sala Capitular of the Cathedral of Gerona there are three +splendid processional crosses belonging to the 15th and 16th centuries; +one of them is of enamelled gold, and is undoubtedly one of the most +artistic works of the kind in Spain.</p> + +<p>Among Spanish art treasures of the 15th century of a historical style +must be mentioned the splendid silver throne of king Don Martin de +Aragon, d. 1410, still existing in the cathedral of Barcelona; it is +covered with chiselled ornamentation, and a band of velvet embroidered +with gold and completely studded with precious stones. This throne is +carried in the procession of Corpus Christi. The monstrance, a splendid +work of art in the Gothic style, ornamented with delicate pinnacles and +jewel work, is placed on a fine silver foot and carried on this day in +front of this throne. This monstrance is covered also with jewels of +great value which almost conceal it, the gifts of royal personages. The +fine Gothic silver-gilt cross must also be mentioned, known at Toledo by +the name of <i>Guion de Mendoza</i>; it was borne before the great Cardinal +Mendoza, and was the first cross placed on the highest point of the +Alhambra Torre de la Vela on the day of the conquest, 2nd January, 1492.</p> + +<p>The following woodcut represents a processional cross of Spanish work of +the beginning of the 15th century, in the South Kensington Museum, No. +514-'73. It is of wood covered with plates of silver-gilt <i>repouss</i> +work. On one side is a rood with the Virgin and St. John. Over the +figure of Christ is the word Inri. At the extremities angels in high +relief bear the emblems of the Passion. On each side of the figure of +Christ are plaques of translucent enamel representing the penitent and +impenitent thief, at the foot of the cross the Resurrection and<a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a><a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a> +Adoration of the Magi, and above the figure of Christ the Nativity.</p> + +<p><a name="img_3" id="img_3"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_020_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_020_sml.jpg" width="401" height="802" alt="SPANISH PROCESSIONAL CROSS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SPANISH PROCESSIONAL CROSS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>At the back there is a figure in high relief of the Almighty; in the +four extremities the emblems of the Evangelists in high relief and +enamelled plaques representing the Annunciation, Flight into Egypt, +Christ's descent into Hades.</p> + +<p>This cross, which is three feet in height, is marked in several places +with the name of</p> + +<table style="text-align:center;" border="0" +cellpadding="8" cellspacing="5" summary=""> +<tr><td class="brdfull">PE<br /> +DRO</td> +<td> </td> +<td +class="brdfull">MAR<br /> +TIN</td></tr></table> + +<p>A large number of images exist in Spain belonging to this period, and +even to an earlier date, chiefly consisting of images of the Blessed +Virgin; their garments are formed of silver platings, chiselled and +<i>repouss</i> in the traditional Byzantine style. Among the most remarkable +may be mentioned those preserved in the cathedrals of Seville, Pamplona +and Astorga. The following document undoubtedly alludes to one of these +figures. It is dated 12th May, 1367:—</p> + +<p>"I Sancho Martinez Orebse, silversmith, native of Seville, inform you, +the dean and chapter of the church of Seville, that it was agreed I +should make an image of Saint Mary with its tabernacle, that it should +be finished at a given time, and that you were to give me the silver and +stones required to make it."</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the poverty of the Spanish monarchs, their personal +ornaments were rich and splendid. We find in "Memorials of Henry the +VIIth," edited by Gairdner, an interesting description by Machado, the +herald or king-of-arms of Henry VII., of the embassy sent to Spain in +1489, to ask for the hand of the Princess Catharine for the Prince of +Wales. The account he gives us of the jewels worn by Queen Isabel la +Catolica is most interesting. They varied at every interview.<a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a> In one of +these she wore "a line of trimming composed of oblong bosses, of gold, +each decorated with fine and valuable jewels, so rich that no one has +ever seen the like. She wore round her waist a girdle of leather made in +a man's style; the pouch was decorated with a large balass ruby, the +size of a tennis ball, between five rich diamonds and other stones, the +size of a bean. The rest of the girdle was decorated with other precious +stones. Round her neck she wore a rich gold necklace composed of white +and red roses, adorned with jewels. Two ribbons were suspended from her +breast adorned with diamonds, balass and other rubies, pearls, and other +jewels of great value to the number of a hundred or more" (p. 341.)</p> + +<p>"After the King came the Queen, mounted on a fine mule, and all the +harness of the said mule was adorned with pearls and other precious +stones. She was dressed in a robe of a rich woven cloth of gold made in +the fashion of the kingdom, and over that a mantilla all spangled with +lozenges of crimson and black velvet, and on each lozenge was a large +pearl. And with each of these pearls was a rich balass ruby the size of +a beech nut, the richest thing that could be seen, no man ever saw +anything equal to it. She had on her neck a large necklace, adorned with +large diamonds, balass rubies, carbuncles, large pearls, and a great +number of other rich precious stones. She had upon her head-dress two +balass rubies as pendants, the size of a pigeon's egg, and at the end of +the said rubies a large pearl, which jewel was supposed to be worth +12,000 crowns" (p. 348.)</p> + +<p>In the specimens described belonging to the Visigothic period, and many +others to which we might refer, we find constant similarity in form with +silversmith's work of other European countries. It is true that we +occasionally meet with Moorish <i>orfvrerie</i>, and some details, such as +filigree work, due to oriental influence; but in general Byzantine, +Roman, and Gothic styles were adopted and copied in Spain; and the +technical details<a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a> were the same with those followed in other countries, +with the exception of <i>champlev</i> enamel, which appears to have been +almost exclusively used at Limoges in the middle ages. It is +interesting, however, and worthy of remark, that important objects are +also found in Spain decorated with <i>champlev</i> enamel, such as the +splendid altars of San Miguel in Excelsis (Navarre), and Santo Domingo +de Silos (Rioja), and the image of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban +(Salamanca), three specimens of the greatest importance.</p> + +<p>In the Renaissance period, Spanish <i>orfvrerie</i> enters into its most +brilliant epoch, not only on account of the beauty of the form of the +objects produced, but also owing to its great richness. Among objects of +this period the most important are the <i>Custodias</i> or monstrances of the +cathedrals; these are exclusively peculiar to Spanish art. The almost +incalculable quantity of silver-work produced at this period is +accounted for by the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors, the +discovery and possession of America, and other circumstances which +increased the power and wealth of Spain, and elevated the country to +great importance.</p> + +<p>We find frequent mention at this time of silversmiths, many of whom came +from Germany, France, or Italy, attracted by the large number of works +ordered. Many settled in Spain, such as Enrique de Arphe, Jacome Trezzo, +Mateo Aleman, Hans Belta, and others. The Spaniards who joined them were +greater in number, and not inferior in merit. Silversmiths were already +at that time divided into different groups, according to the technical +proceedings which each one adopted: <i>plateros de la plata</i>, workers in +silver, was the name given to those who worked exclusively in <i>repouss</i> +and chiselled work, and imitated sculpture and architectural models; +goldsmiths, those who worked jewels with stones, enamels, and +niello-work. Even within these groups were workers in filigree, and +those who decorated different objects with painted or mosaic work, +<i>atauxia</i>, in the Moorish style. Almost all the<a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a> most important Spanish +towns were large centres of these industries. Leon, Burgos, Valladolid, +Cuenca, Toledo, Cordova, and Seville rivalled each other in the number +and quality of their productions. The Venetian ambassador, Navagiero, +who visited Valladolid in 1527, says, "Sono in Valladolid assai artefici +di ogni sorte, e se vi lavora benissimo di tutti le arti, e sopra tutto +d' argenti, e vi son tanti argenten quanti non sono in due altri terre, +le prime di Spagna" ("Il Viaggio di Spagna," Vinegia, 1563, p. 35.)</p> + +<p>In order to complete the study of this subject, it is necessary, +besides, to give some notice of the legal dispositions contained in the +Municipal Ordinances and in other laws of a more general character.</p> + +<p>In Capmany's "Memorias," vol. i., part 3, p. 88, are to be found several +statutes concerning the silversmiths of Barcelona from the 14th century, +proving the importance of this guild in 1301. At this period three of +its members formed part of the town Council. The introduction of a +statute of 1489 proves the excellence of the works which they made. +"Experience having shown us in past times, and proof existing at the +present time, that such clever silversmiths have existed and exist at +Barcelona that their works are highly reputed by kings and great people, +and held in great honour and estimation in the town itself." The +Silversmiths' guild still preserve the folio volumes full of drawings, +and the description of the different objects which they presented for +the approbation of the jury, during the 16th and 17th centuries. The +designs contained in these volumes constitute a most interesting +collection of jewels, giving a good idea of the great height of this +industry in Barcelona.</p> + +<p>Baron C. H. Davillier is about to publish a volume on Spanish +silversmiths, in which etchings of several of these designs will be +reproduced. In the list of artists which follows I give the names of the +most remarkable of those who worked at Barcelona.</p> + +<p>In the Municipal Ordinances of Toledo of the year 1494,<a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a> some laws +relating to silversmiths appeared; they are, however, uninteresting. The +same thing occurs with the Ordinances of Seville, which were re-compiled +in 1526. The guild of silversmiths of Toledo must have been most +important, for in 1423 they already formed a brotherhood or guild under +the protection of St. Eloy, in which they agreed to help the members of +the guild in every way. See "Documentos Ineditos," published by Zarco +del Valle, p. 166. The Ordinances of Granada enter more into details +concerning the technical proceedings of silversmith's work. These +Ordinances appeared in 1538; the work in the Moorish style is described +in full detail; it appears to have been preserved in this locality more +than elsewhere.</p> + +<p>We can judge of the enormous quantities of objects which were made by +those still to be seen in Spanish cathedrals and churches, having +survived the French invasion of the present century. For full details of +the barbarous treatment of these works of art during the French +invasion, see Ford's "Handbook of Spain." The expropriations of the +Spanish government during the civil wars of 1833 to 1840, and the +injudicious law of expropriations of 1869 for the purpose of collecting +artistic objects, have brought about the destruction and disappearance +of numberless works of art in order not to give them up to the +government.</p> + +<p>The same splendour and abundance of silver objects of every kind existed +in the royal palaces and houses of the grandees. Madame d'Aunoy in her +"Voyage en Espagne, Lyon, 1643," p. 109, says: "L'on ne se sert point de +vaisselle d'tain, celle d'argent ou de terre sont les seules qui soient +en usage. Le duc d'Alburquerque est mort, il y a dj quelque tems; l'on +m'a dit que l'on avoit employ six semaines crire sa vaisselle d'or +et d'argent. Il y avoit 1400 douzaines d'assiettes, 500 grands plats, et +700 petits, tout le reste proportion, et 40 chelles d'argent pour +monter au haut de son buffet, qui toit par gradins comme un autel plac +dans une grande salle." The splendid silver table belonging to the +Marquis of Villaseca at Madrid gives a good<a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a> idea of the furniture of +this time. In the Inventories, a great number of which exist, we find +numerous details of silver objects of every kind. In one which was drawn +up in 1574, of the effects of Princess Da Juana (MS. folio, Acad. de la +Historia), the sister of Philip II., we find mention, without counting +the jewels, of a silver balustrade, weighing 121 pounds, to be placed +round the bed. The greater part of the kitchen utensils were also made +of silver.</p> + +<p>Among the most important objects of Spanish silversmith work are +undoubtedly, as I have said before, the custodias.</p> + +<p>The name of custodia is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance or +ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, but also to a sort of +temple or tabernacle, of large size, made also of silver, inside which +is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession on Corpus +Christi day. In order to distinguish these objects one from another, the +name of <i>viril</i> is given to the object which holds the consecrated host; +it is generally made of rock crystal, with a gold stem and mount +ornamented with precious stones. The small tabernacles are generally +objects of the greatest importance both from their artistic and +intrinsic value. The description of one of them will be sufficient to +give an idea of their construction.</p> + +<p>Although a fine custodia existed formerly at Toledo, which we know +weighed 164 pounds, Cardinal Ximenez de Cisneros wished a finer one to +be made, and caused the plan to be furnished by competition. Diego +Copin, Juan de Borgoa, and Enrique de Arphe presented designs; the one +by Enrique de Arphe was selected. Arphe began his work in 1517, and +continued exclusively employed in this, and without the help of other +master silversmiths, until April, 1524, when he gave up the monstrance +to the authorities of the cathedral. The silversmith, Lainez, finished +in 1523 the gold and jewelled cross which is on the top. It represents a +Gothic hexagonal temple, 8 feet high, of three orders, with all the +variety and number of necessary architectural details<a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a> such as +pilasters, arches, columns, pyramids, canopies, crest-work, &c., to the +closing of the vaulted roof; the whole is <i>perc jour</i>, and so +delicate that it looks like lace. From the roof hang bells and +incense-holders of filigree work; in the key-stone are studded precious +gems. Carvings in relief, representing passages of the life of Our +Saviour, appear on the base of the six pedestals; they are admirably +carved. In the centre of the second order is a figure representing the +Resurrection of Our Lord. On the pilasters and brackets which appear in +the temple there are more than 260 statues of different sizes, all of +which are executed with the same skill. This monstrance was mounted on +iron wires; and Archbishop Fonseca, wishing that the whole of it should +be made of silver, gave orders that Arphe himself should alter it, which +he did in 1525, when the total weight was found to be 388 pounds. The +<i>viril</i> was then placed inside it, this was made of the first gold +brought from America. It is completely covered with precious stones, and +was bought by Cisneros from Queen Isabel (the Catholic); it weighs 29 +pounds of gold. The tabernacle was ordered to be gilt in 1595 by +Archbishop Quiroga; this was done by the Masters Diego de Valdivieso and +Francisco Merino. This splendid work of art remains in this state, and +may be seen at the cathedral of Toledo; it was most fortunately saved +from the rapacity of the French, by being sent to Cadiz during the war. +In 1513 the monstrance at the cathedral of Cordova was also made by +Arphe, it is similar in style and importance to that of Toledo. Before +this, he had also finished the splendid one formerly at Leon, which was +destroyed by the French, as was likewise a similar smaller one, also by +Arphe, formerly at the Monastery of St. Benito, at Sahagun.</p> + +<p>The custodia made by Juan de Arphe in 1587, a Leonese artist, and +grandson of Enrique, for the cathedral of Seville, competes with that of +Toledo. It is formed in the same manner as a temple, but in the +Grco-Roman style, covered with an immense number of statuettes, some of +which are upwards of a foot high,<a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a> and reliefs of all kinds, and +delicate ornamentation, worked with the utmost skill. The chapter of the +cathedral commissioned the theologian, Francisco Pacheco, to direct the +subjects which were to be represented, and when it was finished Arphe +published a full description of the monstrance, which he does not +hesitate to call "the largest and finest work in silver known of its +kind." This opinion is hardly an exaggerated one if we look at this +splendid work of art. Its plan is circular, and measures 3 yards +high, and weighs 1082 pounds of silver. For details consult Cean +Bermudez' "Diccionario," Descripcion de la Catedral de Sevilla, Museo +Espaol de Antiguedades, vol. viii., p. I.</p> + +<p>Besides these two celebrated silversmiths there was another of the same +family, the son of Enrique, and father of Juan, Antonio Arphe, an artist +also of great merit, who made in 1554 the custodia which still exists at +the cathedral of Santiago.</p> + +<p>Cean Bermudez says in his "Diccionario," "that in the same manner as the +city of Leon gave Spain three illustrious silversmiths, Cuenca gave them +other three in the Becerrils," these were Alonso and Francisco Becerril +brothers, and Christoval, the son of Francisco. They all worked at the +famous and splendid custodia of Cuenca, and between them they produced a +most important series of works from 1528 to 1584.</p> + +<p>It is extremely difficult to give in so small a space the description of +the works and names of the numerous artists on silver and gold work, who +worked in Spain during the 16th century. At the present time, +notwithstanding the innumerable objects lost, a long list would remain +of the specimens which have reached us, and their different forms and +applications, still visible in the churches of Toledo, Seville, +Zaragoza, Palencia, Santiago, and others of the Spanish peninsula. Some +idea may be gathered of the importance this art attained in Spain by +looking through the following list of artists who worked in silver and +gold, upwards of 450 of whom I have added to the 95 given by Cean in his +dictionary. It must<a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a> be borne in mind that the objects on a large scale +which reproduce an architectural model, adopt three styles during the +century, all three of them admirable as regards beauty of form. The +first is Gothic, a reminiscence of the former time, improved by the +change which had already taken place, in drawing and modelling. The +second style is known by the name of <i>plateresque</i>, when applied to +architecture, and consists in copying the general structure of buildings +in the classical style, and applying the orders and pointed arch, while +keeping to the profusion of decoration of the earlier period, and +modifying the general plan with the object of introducing the greatest +quantity of ornamentation. The third style is the Greco-Roman; it is +more sober in decoration, and has a greater tendency to keep to the +imitation of the classical school.</p> + +<p>Besides the objects described, which may be considered as original works +and the most important examples of Spanish silversmiths' work, I must +mention those which came from South America, chiefly from Mexico, which +possess a certain aspect; they consist of carved and <i>repouss</i> work +ornamented with flora of the country adapted in an oriental style; +others consist of filigree work, double-headed crowned eagles are +frequently met with in the same style as those made at Cordova and +Salamanca.</p> + +<p>There are interesting specimens at the Kensington Museum which give an +excellent idea of Spanish silversmiths' work. Besides those already +described attention must be drawn to</p> + +<p>No. 305-66. A silver-gilt cross ornamented with foliage, statuettes of +saints and the Evangelists with their emblems, Marked <small><sup>NOE</sup>/<sub>M.</sub></small> About 1560. +Height 3 feet 2 inches.</p> + +<p>No. 302-66. Silver-gilt chalice, ornamented with foliated scroll work +and half figures beaten and chiselled. Marked Estorga. About 1540.</p> + +<p>No. 132-73. A silver-gilt chalice, the bowl inscribed outside "+ Sangvis +mevs vere est potvs;" the stem is of baluster form, in several tiers, +ornamented with brackets and large chatons set<a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a> with crystal, and a band +of cherubim. The foot is chased with masques, festoons, harpies, and +birds, and surrounded by eight semicircular projections, on which are an +armorial shield and a cross set with emeralds and lapis lazuli. Engraved +at bottom "S. I. de Salinas." [See woodcut] With it is a paten dated +1549.</p> + +<p><a name="img_4" id="img_4"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_030_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_030_sml.jpg" width="193" height="241" alt="SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>No. 481-75. Chalice, silver-gilt; the bowl chased in relief with the +instruments of the Passion; on the knop are ten applied figures of +Apostles on ground of translucent blue enamel; the foot, which has eight +semicircular projections, is <i>repouss</i> with representations of the +Evangelists, cherub and other heads, the Crucifixion, and a shield with +the initials L. B. P. around a crown of thorns enclosing a heart. 17th +century. [<a href="#img_5">See woodcut, p. 31.</a>]</p> + +<p>No. 314-64. Silver-gilt pax of architectural design; in the centre is a +group in full relief of the Virgin giving the chasuble to St. Ildefonso. +About 1540-50. [<a href="#img_6">See woodcut, p. 33.</a>]</p> + +<p>No. 1129-64. Incense holder, boat-shaped, of rock crystal mounted in +silver-gilt. Around the rim is a band of guilloche pattern, set with +amethysts and garnets; on the lids a band inscribed "Oratio mea +dirigatur sicut incensum." About 1540-50.</p> + +<p><a name="img_5" id="img_5"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_031_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_031_sml.jpg" width="419" height="670" alt="SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>No. 93-65. Silver triptych with suspending chain, the<a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a> interior painted +in oils, the exterior engraved in arabesque. About 1550.<a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a></p> + +<p>We find that Spanish jewels were as magnificent in the 16th century as +were the large architectural objects for ecclesiastical use. One of the +most important in richness and artistic merit was the splendid crown +belonging to the Virgen del Sagrario at Toledo, which it is deeply to be +regretted disappeared in 1868. This crown was made in 1556 by the +silversmith Hernando de Carrion; it then consisted of a gold circle with +chiselled and enamelled ornamentation, set with pearls, emeralds and +rubies. In 1574 Cardinal Loaisa wished to enrich it, and ordered a +silver worker called Alejo de Montoya to add to it an upper part, formed +as an imperial crown, which Montoya agreed to do by a special agreement. +This addition was formed of small figures of angels of enamelled gold, +in pairs supporting the side bands, which met in the upper part forming +a group of allegorical figures, upon which was placed a spherical +emerald, without a flaw, 1 inches in diameter, which served as a +base to the cross. The bands were studded with precious stones and +ornamented inside with subjects of the life of the Blessed Virgin in +enamel. The height of this crown was 10 inches by 8 wide. +Montoya took 12 years to do this work—he finished it in 1586. The fine +bracelets belonging to this crown, which have also disappeared, were +made at the same time by Julian Hernando.</p> + +<p>The jewels worn by the Spanish kings and grandees were equally +magnificent. In the description of the gems which Prince Don Carlos, the +son of Philip II, left to be distributed at his death, are included a +sword the hilt of which was of solid gold enamelled in different +colours: this Don Carlos bequeathed to the Grand Master of the Order of +St. John:—a halberd composed of 27 pieces of enamelled gold in high +relief; and a sword with gold mount enamelled in colours with masks, +medals and festoons in the Roman style, made by Rodrigo Reynalti. +Consult "Coleccion de Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de Espaa," +vol. 27, Madrid, 1855. I owe to the courtesy of Count Valencia de Don +Juan, the following description of arms made by <i>Toto platero de<a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a> su +Alteza</i> in 1554. [Archives of Simancas legajo, No. 37.] These arms +belonged to Prince Don Carlos.<a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a></p> + +<p><a name="img_6" id="img_6"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_033_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_033_sml.jpg" width="423" height="667" alt="SPANISH PAX. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SPANISH PAX. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>A gold sword, the cross of which is ornamented with masks of white, +grey, and black enamel.</p> + +<p>A gold dagger, and sword-belt belonging to the same sword, ornamented in +a similar manner.</p> + +<p>Also a gold sword, belt and dagger ornamented with figures of children +in solid gold and enamel.</p> + +<p>Although the greater part of these silversmiths were Spaniards, the +Milanese artist, Jacome de Trezzo was very celebrated during the reign +of Philip II. He made several jewels of great importance for the king +and royal family. The splendid tabernacle which was taken by the French +in 1810 from the Escorial was one of his finest works; they carried off +at the same time the superb shrines, the gifts of kings and princes, and +everything they could lay their hands on of gold and silver, loading ten +campaign carts. Consult, "Historia del Escorial," by Quevedo. Madrid, +1849, p. 220.</p> + +<p>At the South Kensington Museum are several objects of this kind, which +will give an excellent idea of Spanish jewel work.</p> + +<p>No. 334-70. A gold enamelled pendant, in form of a chained dog, +supported on a scroll from which small pearls depend, and suspended by +two chains of alternate enamelled and plain links, united to a fastening +crowned by a bird.</p> + +<p>No. 335-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a pelican and her young, +enriched with a carbuncle and pearls, and suspended by pearl links.</p> + +<p>No. 336-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a dog enriched with +jewels.</p> + +<p>No. 337-70. Enamelled gold pendant, in form of a parrot, set with +hyacinth, suspended by chains.</p> + +<p>No.340-70. Enamelled gold pendant representing the Virgin of the +Immaculate Conception.</p> + +<p>Nos. 341 and 342-70. Pendants representing the Virgen del Pilar +Saragossa, attended by saints. [See woodcut opposite.]</p> + +<p><a name="img_7" id="img_7"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_035_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_035_sml.jpg" width="238" height="445" alt="SPANISH JEWEL, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SPANISH JEWEL, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>Spanish jewel work does not decrease during the 17th century,<a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a> the +number of artists who worked was very great, and the quantity of objects +of all kinds which were made by them to enrich the shrines of churches, +and the houses of grandees, was remarkable, although their artistic +merit was far inferior to the work of the 16th century. The general +decay of art, which produces in Europe the <i>barroco</i> style, appears in +Spain more exaggerated and to a greater extent than elsewhere. The +objects made during this period reproduce until the beginning of the +18th century the lines and extravagant ornamentation which we meet with +in architecture, the handiwork however continued to be excellent, and no +expense was spared to give an aspect of richness to the objects made.<a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a></p> + +<p><a name="img_8" id="img_8"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_036_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_036_sml.jpg" width="487" height="385" alt="SILVER DISH. SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SILVER DISH. SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON +MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>The large quantity of objects of all kinds made of silver, and the +quantity also used in wearing apparel, gave rise to constant +prohibitions restricting its use from the reign of Ferdinand and Isabel, +and even to a far greater extent at the beginning of the 16th century. +In a Decree, issued at Madrid in 1594, "it is forbidden to make or sell +cabinets, escritoires, caskets, brasiers, <i>chapines</i> (clogs), tables, +commodes decorated with silver, either beat in <i>repouss</i>, stamped, +carved or plain, and whoever makes, sells, or buys them, is to lose +them." Notwithstanding this and other restrictions which appeared in the +17th century, this abuse can hardly have been checked, judging by the +number of these objects which have reached us, not counting those +preserved in the shrines of Spanish churches and cathedrals.</p> + +<p>The luxury which was apparent in this century of great decay<a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a> for Spain +will be found in the numerous descriptions which exist of different +feasts and ceremonies.</p> + +<p>A good idea may be had of this style of silversmiths' work from the +silver dishes in the South Kensington Museum. An engraving of one of +these appears on the preceding page.</p> + +<p><a name="img_9" id="img_9"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_037_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_037_sml.jpg" width="463" height="360" alt="BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH EMERALDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH +CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH EMERALDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH +CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>During the 17th century, jewellery underwent a complete +transformation—the proceedings and <i>renaissance</i> forms of the Italian +school were abandoned, with all their richness of sculptures, enamels, +and variety of stones. Instead of this, jewels were formed of emeralds, +diamonds or rubies in gold setting, <i>percs jour</i>, producing an +excellent effect. The exceptions to this rule are the objects in which +enamelled work still predominates, a reminiscence of the former century. +Among the finest and best examples may be mentioned the gold crown of +the Virgen de los Desamparados of Toledo, made in Mexico in the<a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a> 17th +century. It is formed like a basket of flowers, of delicate tracery, and +richly studded with fine emeralds. Several most interesting specimens +exist at Kensington of Spanish jewellery of this kind, bought at the +sale which took place in 1870 of the jewels belonging to the Virgen del +Pilar at Zaragoza.</p> + +<p>No. 325-70 is a breast ornament of gold scroll open work, with enamelled +flowers, set with emeralds. [<a href="#img_9">See woodcut on p. 37.</a>]</p> + +<p>No. 320-70, a gold breast ornament with five bosses and seven pendants, +set with rose diamonds.</p> + +<p>No. 406-73. Breast ornament, gold open strap work and floral filigree, +the lower part an oval pendant, set with table diamonds. [<a href="#img_10">See woodcut on +p. 39.</a>]</p> + +<p>The following fine Spanish jewels of the 17th century in the Kensington +Museum are also worthy of attention:</p> + +<p>No. 330-64. A pectoral cross, with medallions containing relics.</p> + +<p>No. 298-66. Gold filigree cross, within which is an ivory crucifix.</p> + +<p>No. 344-70. Enamelled gold pectoral cross set with amethysts.</p> + +<p>No. 417, 417A.-69. A pair of earrings of gold open work, branches set +with white crystals.</p> + +<p>No. 323, 323A.-70. Silver open work earrings set with rose diamonds.</p> + +<p>No. 330 to 330C.-70. Four miniature ewers of silver filigree open work, +the bodies of Chinese enamelled copper.</p> + +<p>No. 1224-71. Silver frame <i>repouss</i>, with the Holy Dove, and a bleeding +heart encircled with thorns.</p> + +<p>Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, <i>Churrigueresque</i> +styles continued to be copied during the beginning of the 18th century, +in the same manner as in the 17th century. At this time, as in the rest +of Europe, a reaction begins in every branch of art, due in Spain to the +influence of French and Italian artists who accompanied the family of +Bourbon. The Academy of Fine Arts of St. Fernando was founded by a king +of that House<a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a> towards the middle of the century, the teaching was +reduced to copying Greco-Roman models, such as they were understood at +that time.</p> + +<p><a name="img_10" id="img_10"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_039_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_039_sml.jpg" width="327" height="507" alt="BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH DIAMONDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH +CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH DIAMONDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH<br /> +CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>The great centres which in the 16th century had produced such splendid +works of art had almost completely ceased. No great silversmiths +remained at Valladolid, Leon, Toledo, or Seville. The only localities +which have preserved even to the present day the traditional forms of +these ornaments are Salamanca, Cordova,<a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a> Astorga, and Santiago. Madrid +absorbed from the middle of the 17th century the whole of this industry. +In Larruga's "Memorias," Vol. IV., will be found every detail given on +this subject. Several important establishments for the object of making +silver work on a large scale were founded at Madrid, the most important +being that of Tomas de Buenafuente, which passed after to Francisco +Novi. Two Frenchmen called Isaac and Miguel Naudin established a +manufactory in 1772. In each the greater part of the work was machine +made. Others were founded to cut and polish precious stones, and mount +paste stones. This was done with great skill by Antonio Martinez in +1778, in a building fitted up for the purpose, which still exists +opposite the Botanical Garden of Madrid. Martinez was pensioned by +Charles III. in Paris and London to study the improvements in this +industry. The principal object of the manufactory was to teach the +technical proceedings required in order to extend this industry in the +country, and supply a school in which machinery, models, drawings, &c., +were to be met with. Pupils of both sexes were admitted; machinery was +made in the workshops, and Martinez undertook to teach the manufacture +of gold, doubl, or steel trinkets, with or without enamel or stones. +Sword-hilts, buckles, snuff-boxes, needle-cases, handles for sticks, +brooches, necklaces, orders, and other different objects, were made +either of open work or enamelled gold.</p> + +<p>Inkstands, dishes, dinner services, chocolate stands, cruets, knives and +forks, were made of silver in different styles, generally imitating the +English manner. [Consult Larruga, "Memorias Politicas y Economicas." +Madrid, 1789. Vol. IV., p. 116.]</p> + +<p>The results obtained by the manufactory of Martinez were most +satisfactory; a large number of apprentices were taught there; but their +work was completely French in character; the manner and style of the +Spanish school of silversmiths was completely forgotten.</p> + +<p>As I have already mentioned, the traditional forms were<a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a> preserved in +some localities which require to be mentioned here in order to finish +this account of this industry in Spain. An interesting and varied +collection of modern Spanish peasant jewellery exists at the South +Kensington Museum. Strange to say, although this collection was formed a +very few years ago, in 1870, it would be very difficult now to make +another; for owing to the means of communication having been of late +years so much improved in Spain, the peasantry are leaving off their +national costumes, and substituting in every detail modern fashions. +Among this peasant jewellery the silver gilt necklace and reliquaries of +Astorga, No. 1114-73, deserve special attention. These necklaces were +worn round the neck and part of the body. The neck ornaments of gold and +seed pearls made at Salamanca, those of silver gilt of Santiago; the +filigree work of Cordova in the Moorish style, and the long earrings of +Catalua wnces of older +times.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="3">LIST OF SPANISH GOLDSMITHS AND SILVERSMITHS.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="3">10<small>TH</small> C<small>ENTURY</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">Years in which<br /> +they worked. </td><td> </td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Residence.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">961. </td><td>Hudzen ben Bozla, a Moor. He made a silver<br />casket which exists still at Gerona Cathedral</td><td align="right">Gerona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="3">13<small>TH</small> C<small>ENTURY</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top"></td><td>Maestre Jorge</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top"></td><td>Modova, Pablo de<br /> +Niculas (Don)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1262.</td><td>Perez, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="3">14<small>TH</small> C<small>ENTURY</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1357.</td><td>Andreu, Raimundo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Gerona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1358.</td><td>Barners, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Gerona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1325.</td><td>Bartolom, Maestro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Gerona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td> +<td>Bernec, Pere, V. Barners</td> +<td align="right">——</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1382 to 1393.</td><td>Capellades, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Tortosa.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1378.</td><td>Fernai, Rodrigo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Oviedo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1334.</td><td>Frau, Ramon</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Palma de Mallorca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1367.</td><td>Martinez, Sancho</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1382 to 1393.</td><td>Paris, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Tortosa.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1373.</td><td>Perpia, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1370.</td><td>Ponce, Bartolom</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Palma de Mallorca.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="3">15<small>TH</small> C<small>ENTURY</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1417.</td><td>Abello, Joan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Daroca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1495.</td><td>Alcaar, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1477.</td><td>Almerique</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1494.</td><td>Berenguer, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1499.</td><td>Castellano</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1454.</td><td>Castelnou, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1460.</td><td>Castelnou, Jayme de, son of Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1470.</td><td>Cetina, Mestre</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1458 to 1463.</td><td>Diez, Pedro el Cabalan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1494.</td><td>Diaz, Thomas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1417.</td><td>Diaz, or Diez Caro, Ferrando</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Daroca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1418 to 1426.</td><td>Garcia de Valladolid, Alfonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1438.</td><td>Garcia, Alonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1442.</td><td>Garcia de Pielagos, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1477.</td><td>Gomez, Garcia</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1424 to 1459.</td><td>Gonzalez de Madrid, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1477.</td><td>Hance<br />Lorenzo, Don</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">——</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1425.</td><td>Medina, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1499.</td><td>Medina, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1470.</td><td>Nadal Yvo, Maestre</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1493.</td><td>Narbona, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1495.</td><td>Nuez, Alonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1485.</td><td>Oviedo, Fernando de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1487.</td><td>Pizarro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Guadalupe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1457.</td><td>Rodriguez de Villareal, Alonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1459.</td><td>Rodriguez de Villareal, Anton</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1483.</td><td>Rodriguez, Gonzalo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1496.</td><td>Rodriguez, Geronimo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1459.</td><td>Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1417 to 1423.</td><td>Roiz, Pero</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Darroca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1489 to 1491.</td><td>Ruby, Maestre</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1416.</td><td>Ruiz de Astudillo, Alfonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1431.</td><td>Ruiz de Medina</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1426.</td><td>Ruiz, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1498.</td><td>Ruiz, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1404.</td><td>Sanchez, Martinez</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1424.</td><td>Sanchez, Anton</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1417.</td><td>Sancho, Manuel Hernando</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1487.</td><td>Segovia, Fr. Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Guadalupe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1418.</td><td>Valles, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1484 to 1488.</td><td>Vigil, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valladolid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Yvo V. Nadal Yvo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">——</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="3">16<small>TH</small> C<small>ENTURY</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1586.</td><td>Abedo de Villandrando, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Aguirre, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1515.</td><td>Aleman, Mateo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Aleman, Nicolas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1596.</td><td>Alfaro, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1539.</td><td>Alonso, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1552.</td><td>Alvarez, Baltasar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Palencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1568.</td><td>Alvarez, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Alvarez, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1560.</td><td>Alvarez, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1538.</td><td>Alvear, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Alvear, Nicolas de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1520 to 1521.</td><td>Andino, Cristoval de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Angel, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1565.</td><td>Anrique, Joan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1570.</td><td>Avila, Alonso de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1567.</td><td>Avila Cimbron, Diego de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1544.</td><td>Arfe, Antonio de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Leon.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1595.</td><td>Arfe y Villafae, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1506 to 1525.</td><td>Arphe, Enrique de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Leon.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Baeza, Francisco de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Baeza, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1580.</td><td>Ballesteros, Fernando de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1560.</td><td>Baptista, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1584 to 1601.</td><td>Baroxa, Gregorio de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1534.</td><td>Becerril, Alonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cuenca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1575.</td><td>Becerril, Cristoval</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cuenca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1552.</td><td>Becerril, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cuenca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1590.</td><td>Belta, Hanz<br />Belthae, V.—see Hanz Belthae</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1582.</td><td>Benavente, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Palencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1546.</td><td>Benavente, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1556.</td><td>Borgoes, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1538.</td><td>Buentalante, Alonso de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1586.</td><td>Camps, Bernat</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1547 to 1561.</td><td>Carrion, Hernando</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1556.</td><td>Carrion, Fernando</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1586.</td><td>Castro, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Castro, Luis de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1505.</td><td>Cetina, Bernardo Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1546.</td><td>Comes, Gabriel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1553.</td><td>Conill, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Cordova, Anton de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Cordova, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1514.</td><td>Cota, Martin</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1567.</td><td>Davila Cimbron, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1558.</td><td>Davila, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1593.</td><td>Diaz, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1526.</td><td>Diaz, Hernando</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1586.</td><td>Dominguez, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1513.</td><td>Donanti, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1564 to 1598.</td><td>Dueas, Alonso de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Salamanca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Dueas, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1537.</td><td>Escripian, Luis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Fernandez, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1554.</td><td>Fernandez, Manuel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1567 to 1593.</td><td>Fernandez, Marcos</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Fernandez del Moral</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Flores, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1572.</td><td>Font, Joan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1555.</td><td>Francs, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1561 to 1590.</td><td>Gallego, Miguel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Garcia, Thome</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1561.</td><td>Gallo, Gaspar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1555.</td><td>Goden, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1509.</td><td>Gomez, Heros de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1573.</td><td>Gomez, Baltasar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">——</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1574.</td><td>Gonzalez, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Uveda.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1513.</td><td>Gueran, Ferrer</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Hermosilla, Bartolom de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1567.</td><td>Hernandez, Gonzalo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Hernandez, Luis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1567.</td><td>Hernandez, Marcos</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1524 to 1544.</td><td>Hernandez, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Herrera, Gonzalo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1524.</td><td>Herreros y Manzanas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1585 to 1587.</td><td>Hanz, Belthae</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1582 to 1599.</td><td>Honrado, Julian</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Jaen, Fernando de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1562 to 1573.</td><td>Lainez, Juan Bautista</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1524.</td><td>Laynez, Rodrigo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1559.</td><td>Leon, Leoni</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1597.</td><td>Leoni, Miguel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Lopez, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1548 to 1570.</td><td>Lopez, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1530.</td><td>Lopez de Leon, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1508.</td><td>Madrid, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Mar, Alonso de la</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1588 to 1614.</td><td>Marques, Lorenzo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1522.</td><td>Marquez, Cristoval</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Martinez, Pero</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1544 to 1547.</td><td>Martinez, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1553.</td><td>Mas, Miguel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1534.</td><td>Masanell, Joan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1517.</td><td>Mayquez, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1500 to 1515.</td><td>Medina, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1538.</td><td>Mendoza, Alonso de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Mendoza, Blas de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Mendoza, Diego de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1564 to 1601.</td><td>Merino, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1579 to 1586.</td><td>Montoya, Alejo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1598.</td><td>Morales, Luis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1592.</td><td>Morales, Tomas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1515 to 1517.</td><td>Moran</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1556.</td><td>Moran, Pedro Fernandez de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1561.</td><td>Morel, Thomas du (an Englishman)</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1574 to 1590.</td><td>Montoya, Alexo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1573.</td><td>Muoz, Alonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1598.</td><td>Muoz, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1573.</td><td>Niebre, Matias de, a native of Burgundy,<br />living at</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1512.</td><td>Nuez, Alonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Nuez, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1532 to 1560.</td><td>Oa, Antonio de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Oate, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1537 to 1546.</td><td>Ordoez, Andres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1507 to 1510.</td><td>Ordoez, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1537 to 1528.</td><td>Orna, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1581.</td><td>Ortiz, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1529 to 1546.</td><td>Oviedo, Diego de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1586.</td><td>Pan, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1594.</td><td>Pardo, Martin</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Escorial.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1534.</td><td>Parra, Juan de la</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1577.</td><td>Pastrana, Luis de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1595.</td><td>Pedraza, Diego de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Estremadura.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1593.</td><td>Pedraza, Esteban</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">——</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1559.</td><td>Perez, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1598.</td><td>Perez, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1535.</td><td>Pierres, a Frenchman, residing at</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1587.</td><td>Poch, Pero Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1568.</td><td>Poggini, Juan Pablo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1532.</td><td>Pons, Pere</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1574.</td><td>Portigniani, Juan Bautista</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1541 to 1554.</td><td>Ramirez, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1590.</td><td>Reynalte, Francisco de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Reynalte, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Reynalte, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1590.</td><td>Reynalte, Rodrigo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Rivera, Diego Lopez de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1590.</td><td>Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid and<br />Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1557 to 1586.</td><td>Rodriguez de Babia, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1596.</td><td>Rodriguez del Castillo, Melchor</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Segovia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1551.</td><td>Rodriguez, Duarte</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1568.</td><td>Rodriguez Machado, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1567.</td><td>Ros, Felipe</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1537.</td><td>Rozas, Gregorio de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1538.</td><td>Rozas, Jeronimo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1584 to 1590.</td><td>Ruiz, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Ruiz, Jeronimo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1524.</td><td>Ruiz, Julian, lapidary</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1590.</td><td>Ruiz, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Ruiz, Juan, el Vandolino</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla,<br />Jaen and Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1545.</td><td>Sabat, Benedicti</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1566.</td><td>Salamanca, Antonio de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1590.</td><td>Sanchez, Andres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1522.</td><td>San Roman, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1531.</td><td>Sevilla, Hernando de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1524.</td><td>Sigenza, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1595.</td><td>Tamarit, Andreu</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1590.</td><td>Tello de Moreta</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1554.</td><td>Toto</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Trezzo, Jacome de, an Italian, who worked at</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1589.</td><td>Trezzo, a nephew of Jacome</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1590.</td><td>Urbano, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1580.</td><td>Usatigni, Juan Alonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1537.</td><td>Valdes, Antonio de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1589.</td><td>Valdes, Lucas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1564 to 1598.</td><td>Valdivieso, Diego de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1593.</td><td>Valdivieso, Lucas de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1575.</td><td>Valla, Narcisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1548.</td><td>Valladolid, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1566.</td><td>Valle, Antonio del</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1524.</td><td>Valles, Hernando de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1512.</td><td>Vargas, Gutierre de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1563.</td><td>Vazquez, Baptista</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1512 to 1543.</td><td>Vazquez, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1558.</td><td>Velasco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1580.</td><td>Velez</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1569.</td><td>Vergara, Nicolas de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1546.</td><td>Vicente, Mateo, lapidary</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1561.</td><td>Vida, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1534.</td><td>Villagran, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1590.</td><td>Villanueva, Juan Domingo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1552.</td><td>Villaseca, Alexo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1538.</td><td>Vitoria, Francisco de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1538.</td><td>Vitoria, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1528.</td><td>Vozmediano, Diego de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1536.</td><td>Vozmediano, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1561.</td><td>Ximenez, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1537.</td><td>Ximenis, Rafael</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1599.</td><td>Zepes, Bartolom de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="3">17<small>TH</small> C<small>ENTURY</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1618 to 1627.</td><td>Adeba, Jusepe</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1677.</td><td>Alcario, Francisco de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1664.</td><td>Aleman, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1623.</td><td>Alonso, Jeronimo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1676 to 1714.</td><td>Alonso de Prado, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1622.</td><td>Alvarado, Ambrosio de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1635.</td><td>Alvarez Brizuela, Blas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Alvarez, Blas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1636.</td><td>Alvarez de Peralta, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>v</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1640.</td><td>Alvear, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1617.</td><td>Alvear, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1691.</td><td>Arandas, Gaspar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Tarragona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Arfe, Joseph, a grandson of Juan de Arfe</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1613.</td><td>Avalos, Diego de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1604.</td><td>Avendao de Tudela, Luis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1677.</td><td>Avila, Agustin de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1620.</td><td>Barinci, Juan Bautista</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Escorial.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1624.</td><td>Baraona, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1638.</td><td>Barona, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Bellicis, V. Bardi</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">——</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1650.</td><td>Bardi, Bellicis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1604.</td><td>Belta, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1602.</td><td>Benavente, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1645.</td><td>Belorado, Antonio de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1630.</td><td>Bonino, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1616.</td><td>Bracho, Alexandro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1628.</td><td>Brizuela, Gaspar Miguel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1622.</td><td>Calvo, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1626.</td><td>Camanyes or Comanes, Aloy</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Tortosa.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1650.</td><td>Campo, Juan del</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1646.</td><td>Campo, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1643 to 1664.</td><td>Carcaba, Felipa, the wife of<br />Andres Salinas, worked at</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1621.</td><td>Carranza Alvear, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1622.</td><td>Carranza, Martin de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1615.</td><td>Castro, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1651 to 1670.</td><td>Ciga, Miguel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1646.</td><td>Comaes, Aloy</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Tortosa.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1668.</td><td>Concepcion, Friar Juan de la</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Escorial.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Cruz, Friar Eugenio de la</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Escorial.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1620.</td><td>Cuello, Amaro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1661.</td><td>Dandez, Agustin</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1623.</td><td>Delgado Maldonado, Miguel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1660.</td><td>Diaz, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Segovia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1619.</td><td>Dominguez, Luis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1613.</td><td>Duarte, Cristoval de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1671.</td><td>Duran, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1613 to 1624.</td><td>Duran, Jusepe</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1664.</td><td>Ebrart, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1660.</td><td>Elizes, Alonso de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1642.</td><td>Espinosa, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1640.</td><td>Espluga, Tomas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Estrada, Manuel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1624.</td><td>Estrada, Sebastian</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1655 to 1678.</td><td>Faneli, Virgilio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1630.</td><td>Franconio, Juan Bautista</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1657.</td><td>Fernandez, Andres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1679 to 1694.</td><td>Fernandez, Gamonal Joseph</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1631.</td><td>Fernandez de Angulo, Miguel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1612.</td><td>Fernandez de Castro, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1618.</td><td>Fernandez, Martin</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1627.</td><td>Fernandez de Tapia, Andres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Fernandez de Tapia, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1667 to 1670.</td><td>Fortuna, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1629.</td><td>Gallo, Alonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1615.</td><td>Gamonar, Mathieu de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1600 to 1635.</td><td>Garcia, Alonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1622.</td><td>Garcia, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1618.</td><td>Garcia, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1613.</td><td>Garcia, Martin</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1600.</td><td>Garrido, Gaspar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1620.</td><td>Generino, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Escorial.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1610.</td><td>Gomez, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Gomez, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1626.</td><td>Gomez, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1610.</td><td>Gomez, Marcelo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1615.</td><td>Gonzales, Gonzalo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1613.</td><td>Gonzales, Enrique</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1634.</td><td>Gonzales, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1630 to 1640.</td><td>Gonzales, Pascual</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1654.</td><td>Gonzales, Rafael</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Segovia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1607.</td><td>Guardia, Melchor, a native of Milan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1679.</td><td>Gergo, Domingo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1639.</td><td>Guigelmo, Eugenio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1627 to 1634.</td><td>Guigelmo, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1618.</td><td>Heredia, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Heredia, Sebastian</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1631.</td><td>Hurtado, Luis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1694 to 1698.</td><td>Jaranta, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1650.</td><td>Landeras, Jeronimo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1611.</td><td>Leal, Sebastian</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1606.</td><td>Leoni, Pompeyo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1620.</td><td>Lopez, Domingo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1639.</td><td>Lopez, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1611.</td><td>Lopez de Alvarado, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1676.</td><td>Lopez Barona, Andres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1617.</td><td>Lorenzo, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valladolid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1638 to 1646.</td><td>Maestre, Luis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1611.</td><td>Marisanz, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1653.</td><td>Martinez, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1673.</td><td>Mata, Francisco de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1677.</td><td>Mata, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1686.</td><td>Mayares, Miguel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1614 to 1625.</td><td>Maym, Bernardo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Tarragona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1639.</td><td>Medina, Juan Bautista de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1628.</td><td>Medina Requexo, Bautista de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1641.</td><td>Mendez, Duarte</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1614.</td><td>Mexia, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1604.</td><td>Mimbreo, Alonso Roman</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1641.</td><td>Miano, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1626.</td><td>Miranda, Alonso de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1611.</td><td>Moles, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1639.</td><td>Montero, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1630.</td><td>Morales, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Morales, Manuel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1695.</td><td>Muoz, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1661.</td><td>Nadal, Andres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1620.</td><td>Nadal, Martin</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1621 to 1629.</td><td>Navarrete Escarraman, Bartolom de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1613 to 1623.</td><td>Navarro, Cristoval</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1624 to 1628.</td><td>Navarro, Manuel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1626.</td><td>Nuez, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1630.</td><td>Oliva, Gregorio de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1650 to 1675.</td><td>Ortiz de la Revilla, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1615.</td><td>Oviedo, Martin de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1619.</td><td>Oviedo, Pedro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1611.</td><td>Paiba, Vicente de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1665.</td><td>Palomo, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1640.</td><td>Pallares, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1628.</td><td>Pancorvo, Cristoval de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1624.</td><td>Paradias, Andres de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1659.</td><td>Pedraza, Bernardo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1632.</td><td>Perez, Alonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1652 to 1658.</td><td>Perez, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1680.</td><td>Perez de Montalto, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1685 to 1688.</td><td>Perez de Montalto, Miguel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1630.</td><td>Puig, Luis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1627.</td><td>Quero, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1632.</td><td>Quixano, Marcos</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1617.</td><td>Ramirez, Agustin</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1627.</td><td>Ramos, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1628.</td><td>Reynalte, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1660.</td><td>Riba, Manuel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1624.</td><td>Ribera, Martin de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1617.</td><td>Rios, Esteban de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1626 to 1646.</td><td>Roda, Agustin</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Tortosa.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1626.</td><td>Rodriguez, Bartolom</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1631.</td><td>Rodriguez, Eugenio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1645.</td><td>Rodriguez, Gabriel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1618.</td><td>Rodriguez, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1613.</td><td>Rodriguez, Jeronimo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1617.</td><td>Rodriguez, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1623.</td><td>Romano Valmaseda, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1607 to 1625.</td><td>Ros, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1617.</td><td>Rosales, Francisco de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1611.</td><td>Ruiz, Eugenio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Ruiz, Juan Bautista</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Ruiz de Valdevieso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1675.</td><td>Ruiz de Velasco, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1684.</td><td>Salazar, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1604 to 1635.</td><td>Salinas, Andres de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo and Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1639 to 1670.</td><td>Salinas, Francisco de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1639 to 1680.</td><td>Salinas, Vicente de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1616.</td><td>Sanchez, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1659 to 1661.</td><td>Sanchez Ormachea, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1614.</td><td>San Martin, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1610 to 1617.</td><td>Santillana, Antonio de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1642.</td><td>Santo Domingo, Hipolito</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1653.</td><td>San Vicente, Jacinto de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1640.</td><td>Sarabia, Cristoval de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1668.</td><td>Segura, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1632.</td><td>Serrano, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1640.</td><td>Soler, Baltasar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1629.</td><td>Soria, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1608.</td><td>Soria, Jeronimo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1617.</td><td>Soria, Lucas de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1620.</td><td>Spagna, Juliano</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1694.</td><td>Scase, Gaspar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1662.</td><td>Suer, or Sueur, Esteban, a Frenchman who<br />worked at</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1671.</td><td>Tellez, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Tebres, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1677.</td><td>Tello, Mateo, a German, worked at</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1617.</td><td>Tofino, Alonso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1618 to 1623.</td><td>Valera, Domingo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1619.</td><td>Valedomar, Angel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1626.</td><td>Valle, Juan del</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Valmaseda, V. Juan Romano</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">——</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1624.</td><td>Vega, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1672.</td><td>Velasco Ganado, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1625.</td><td>Velasquez, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1627.</td><td>Villalta, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1600 to 1626.</td><td>Villamayor, Baltasar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1638.</td><td>Villarago, J.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1622.</td><td>Villarroel, Andres de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1614.</td><td>Villegas, Martin de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1645.</td><td>Vivanco, Simon</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1615.</td><td>Xabier, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1610.</td><td>Zabalza, Diego de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1615 to 1633.</td><td>Zaldivia, Lucas de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Zoga, Miguel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">——</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="3">18<small>TH</small> C<small>ENTURY</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Aguilar, Geronimo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1794.</td><td>Alamo, Bernardo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1703.</td><td>Aragon, Diego de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Segovia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1716.</td><td>Aranda, Alberto</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Aviles, Manuel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">End of 18th cent.</td><td>Balmet, Bartolom</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1740.</td><td>Ballestero, Manuel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1730 to 1752.</td><td>Bargas, Manuel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1702.</td><td>Bargas, Mateo de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1739.</td><td>Bargas y Machuca, Manuel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1789 to 1797.</td><td>Bargas Machuca, Manuel Timoteo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1753.</td><td>Bautista, Vicente</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">18th cent.</td><td>Benitez, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Salamanca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">End of 18th cent.</td><td>Buenafuente, Tomas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Bustamante, Franco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1734.</td><td>Bustos, Floro de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1784.</td><td>Calzado, Jos, enameller</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Malaga.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Camacho, Lorenzo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Camacho, Rafael</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1713.</td><td>Campo, Matias del</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Soria.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1734.</td><td>Castillo, Matias del</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Aranda del Duero.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Castro, Damian de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1748.</td><td>Castro, Diego</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">18th cent.</td><td>Chevalier, Luis Claudio, a Frenchman, residing at</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1728.</td><td>Colomes, Pedro, worked at the mounts of silver<br />knives made at</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Alcora.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">End of 18th cent.</td><td>Conde, Domingo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1754.</td><td>Cros, Josef</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Cuerda, Feliz de la</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1738 to 1745.</td><td>Cuerda, Jose de la</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1722 to 1748.</td><td>Dominguez, Juan Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1776.</td><td>Elosua, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1776.</td><td>Elosua, Manuel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1790.</td><td>Fernandez, Pablo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">18th cent.</td><td>Fernandez Clemente, Melchor</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Salamanca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1741.</td><td>Fernandez de la Fuente, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1778.</td><td>Ferroni, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1701.</td><td>Figueroa, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Salamanca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1688.</td><td>Fornaguera, Buenaventura</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1790.</td><td>Gallardo, Vicente</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1710.</td><td>Gamonal y Guzman, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Garcia, Jose</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1760 to 1766.</td><td>Garcia Reyna, Manuel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1753.</td><td>Garcia Crespo, Manuel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Salamanca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1772.</td><td>Gaudin, Isaac, a Frenchman, residing at</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Gaudin, Miguel, a Frenchman, residing at</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1714.</td><td>Gomez, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Alcala de Henares.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Hidalgo, Gabriel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1700 to 1717.</td><td>Jaranta, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1743.</td><td>Jaranta y Zapata, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1717 to 1732.</td><td>Jaranta, Lorenzo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Jurado, Jose</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Lara, Diego de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1790.</td><td>Lecaroz, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1745.</td><td>Lopez, Bernardino</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1784.</td><td>Lopez, Manuel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Luna, Andres de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Luque, Juan de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1700.</td><td>Llanos, Manuel de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Madueo, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1790.</td><td>Mairod y Vassner, Jos</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1734.</td><td>Manrique, Franco Esteban</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Aranda de Duero.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1784.</td><td>Marti, Jose</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1778.</td><td>Martinez, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Martinez.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1754.</td><td>Martinez, Estanislao</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">End of 18th cent.</td><td>Martinez, Gregorio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1703.</td><td>Martinez del Valle, Jose</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Segovia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1693.</td><td>Matons, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Tarragona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">End of 18th cent.</td><td>Mendeluce, Fermin</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Navarra.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">End of 18th cent.</td><td>Molinez, Francisco </td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Zaragoza.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1722.</td><td>Monteman y Cusens, Lorenzo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Salamanca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Moreno, Manuel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1725.</td><td>Muoz de Amador, Bernardo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Muoz, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Navas, Fernando de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1784.</td><td>Nieva, Antonio de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Malaga.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1770 to 1776.</td><td>Nio, Jose</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1767 to 1777.</td><td>Nio, Jose Bernardo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">End of 18th cent.</td><td>Nivel, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">End of 18th cent.</td><td>Novi, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1786.</td><td>Olivares, Fermin</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Palomino, Jose</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1784.</td><td>Pechenet, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1734.</td><td>Perez de Oviedo, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Pineda, Manuel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Quintero, Jos</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">——</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1760 to 1777.</td><td>Reyna, Manuel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1743.</td><td>Reyno, Tomas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">End of 18th cent.</td><td>Roche, Nicholas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1715 to 1757.</td><td>Rodriguez de Castro, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1784.</td><td>Rovira, Jos</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Barcelona.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Roxelio, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1791.</td><td>Ruiz, Donata</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Ruiz, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Ruiz, Miguel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1777.</td><td>Ruiz, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Sanchez, Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1731.</td><td>Sanchez Renentes, Tomas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1767 to 1777.</td><td>Sanchez Nio, Jose</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1731.</td><td>Sanz, Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">18th cent.</td><td>Sanz de Velasco, Toribio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Salamanca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1700.</td><td>Simancas, Francisco de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1716.</td><td>Supuesta, Juan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1731.</td><td>Tamaral, Ignacio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Torralvo, Sebastian</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1755.</td><td>Torrijos, Lucas de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1771.</td><td>Urqueza, Domingo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Valadrez Romero, Luis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1746.</td><td>Vargas, Jose de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">——</td><td>Vega, Pedro de la</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1754.</td><td>Vicente, Bautista</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1728.</td><td>Vicente, Luis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Valencia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1734.</td><td>Villa, Andres de</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1713 to 1715.</td><td>Zurreo, Antonio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">1799 to 1800.</td><td>Ximenez, Manuel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Toledo.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>I owe to the courtesy of Baron Ch. Davillier the names of the following +artists, which appear in his "Histoire des Principaux Orfvres +Espagnols," Paris, 1879.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>Perez de las Cellas, Antonio, a native of Saragossa; he worked at Rome in</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1456</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ruiz, Alonso; he worked at Toledo in</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1431</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ferrandez, Garci; he worked at Toledo in</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1431</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pielagos, Juan Garcia, Burgos</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1442</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fernai, Rodrigo, a Frenchman, who worked at Oviedo in</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1368</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bells, Antonio, Barcelona</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1458</td></tr> +<tr><td>Closes, Francisco, Barcelona</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1464</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope, Toledo</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1466</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sano, Salvador, Barcelona</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1475</td></tr> +<tr><td>Zobarola, Francisco, Banet</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1480</td></tr> +<tr><td>Jujuce, a Valencian jew, Pamplona</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1356</td></tr> +<tr><td>Freset, Perrin,<br />Rodez, Conrat de,</td><td align="right" +valign="middle" +style="border-left:1px solid black;padding-left:1em;">—Frenchmen working at Olite, Navarre, in</td><td align="right">1444</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bonte, Daniel de, a German, working at Olite, in Navarre</td><td align="right">about</td><td align="right">1400</td></tr> +<tr><td>Valdubia, Maestro Ferrando, Rome</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1525</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fuente, Gonsalvo de, Rome</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1539</td></tr> +<tr><td>Alfonso, Rome</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">1546</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="IRON_WORK" id="IRON_WORK"></a>IRON WORK.</h2> + +<p>N<small>UMEROUS</small> iron mines have existed in Spain, especially in the Cantabrian +provinces, and have been worked from very early times. They are +mentioned by Pliny, lib. 34, cap. xii., and have given rise to the +development of excellent metal works in the Spanish Peninsula: although +in many localities this tradition has been continued until our days, the +Basque Provinces have in all times excelled in this artistic industry.</p> + +<p>The want of durability and the little care taken of objects of +iron-work, owing to the insignificant value of the material employed, +prevent us from being able to mention any important examples of a very +early date. After drawing attention to some interesting specimens which +have reached us from the Spanish-Arabs, we must begin the history of +iron-work in Spain in the second half of the 15th century; it continues +to progress in the 16th, and produced undoubtedly at that period works +which were unrivalled in Europe. The <i>rejas</i> or chancel screens +enclosing chapels in the cathedrals of Toledo, Seville, Granada, +Salamanca, and other churches in Spain, of which it is much to be +deplored no drawings or photographs exist, deserve the especial +attention of those who follow this industry in the present day, owing to +the beauty of their forms, and the inexhaustible variety of models which +they present to the manufacturer.</p> + +<p>Besides specimens of Iron-work connected with arms which will be +described in a separate article, the most interesting examples of +Moorish manufacture which have reached us are<a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a> keys of most delicate +tracery; their perfect state of preservation shows that they have only +been used as symbols of cities or fortresses, which on given occasions +were offered to kings or great people. Even in the present day the +ceremony is still kept up of offering a key to the foreign princes who +stay at the royal palace of Madrid, and in a similar manner as far back +as the Middle Ages, keys have been presented to Spanish sovereigns on +their visiting such towns as Toledo or Seville, and a ceremonial is gone +through of swearing to uphold their privileges, a reminiscence probably +of what occurred when these towns were conquered from the Moors.</p> + +<p>One of these keys at Valencia, belonging to Count de Trigona, measures +9 inches long, and was originally gilt; its handle or bow is closed, +and covered with delicate work in relief. The wards are ornamented in +the same manner with a combination of several words written in Cufic +letters of difficult interpretation. Round the handle we can read most +distinctly in Arabic the name of the artist: "It was made by Ahmed +Ahsan."</p> + +<p>This key appears to be of the 13th to 14th century. Two similar ones +existed in the town hall of Valencia of a most monumental character; +they were considered of great antiquity, but it has been ascertained +that they were made in 1632, by the locksmith Juan Marti.</p> + +<p>In the shrine of the Cathedral of Seville there are two interesting keys +(<i>see</i> woodcut); one of them is of iron, the other of silver, of a +similar style. For further details see "Museo Espaol de Antiguedades," +vol. ii., p. <small>I</small>. The first, which is represented to the right, is of +genuine Moorish workmanship; the wards are covered with letters in Cufic +characters, which several oriental scholars have tried to interpret, +without coming to a satisfactory conclusion, probably owing to the +confused, or double meaning of the letters. It is supposed with good +foundation that this was the identical key which was given to King St. +Ferdinand, the conqueror of Seville, in 1248, the day he took possession +of the<a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a> city. The silver key, to the left of the plate, has traces of +gold and niello work, representing in the upper part, ships, castles and +lions. Round the handle runs an inscription in Hebrew—"The King of +Kings will open; the King of the whole Earth will enter." In the wards +appear in delicate open work carving the following words in Spanish, +"God will open; the king will enter. Dios abrir; rey entrar." It may +be affirmed to have been made in the 14th century, and in that case, +symbolizes some event of the life of King Pedro the Cruel, a great +protector of the Jewish race. Five Moorish keys of a similar kind, but +inferior merit, may be seen in the local Museum of Segovia, and the +Archological Museum of Madrid.</p> + +<p><a name="img_11" id="img_11"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 188px;"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_060_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_060_sml.jpg" width="188" height="588" alt="MOORISH KEYS IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">MOORISH KEYS IN THE<br />CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.</span> +</div> + +<p>The objects of iron-work made by the Christian artists of this period in +Spain must have been good, for although no specimens exist, we have at +any rate historical information which confirms this. In the Consistorial +Ordinances of Barcelona, Capmany, "Memoirs," vol. i., we find that +ironsmiths formed an extensive guild in the 13th century; in 1257 four +of its members formed part of the chief municipal council; this guild +increased in importance in the following centuries. The Ordinances of +Seville of the 15th century, which were reformed in 1502, and those of<a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a> +Toledo, also re-enforced in 1582, give an idea of what was done by +workers in bronze, the methods of workmanship and other details of +interest. The Ordinances of Seville mention <i>rejas</i> made in Biscay, and +give a good idea of the styles adopted by the iron-masters there. The +Ordinances of Granada repeat almost exactly the former prescriptions.</p> + +<p>The Cathedrals and large churches in Spain lent themselves in an +admirable manner to the construction of objects of all kinds in iron +work, especially the railings enclosing the side chapels, or sepulchres, +and the double screens required for the <i>Capilla Mayor</i> and <i>Coro</i>, +owing to the ancient Spanish custom of constructing the choir in the +centre of the principal nave of the cathedral. Hence we meet with names +of the iron-masters, <i>rejeros</i>, mentioned in early documents as attached +to the different cathedrals in the same manner as painters and +architects. We find Bartolom Morey working at Palma de Mallorca in 1389 +to 1397. He was succeeded by his son Juan, from 1401 to 1407. See +Piferrer, "Recuerdos y Bellezas de Espaa." Maestro Basil worked at +Burgos, and Maestro Pablo at Toledo and its dioceses towards the end of +the same century. Maestro Juan Francs worked at Toledo in 1482. By this +same artist is the beautiful <i>reja</i> of the Capilla Mayor of the +<i>Colegiata</i> of Alcala de Henares; it is signed, "Maestre Juan Francs, +maestro mayor de las obras de fierro en Espaa." From this time the +names of iron-masters are well known and numerous; we may safely affirm +that those who lived in the 16th century have left us the most important +works.</p> + +<p>One of the finest specimens of this artistic industry is the splendid +<i>reja</i> which divides the nave at the royal chapel of Granada. Its +immense size has enabled the artist to carry out a splendid +ornamentation in the "plateresque style," combined with reliefs on a +large scale of figures of apostles and saints, terminated at the upper +part with a wide band of ornamentation of leaves and flowers, crowned +with a Rood, with the Virgin and St. John on<a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a> either side. The splendid +balustrades and supports are forged with the hammer; the figures and +circular piers are formed of large plates, <i>repouss</i> and carved in the +most admirable manner, and give a good idea of the difficulties of this +work, which the artists of this time had overcome, long before the +various technical facilities of the present day existed. The +ornamentation of this <i>reja</i> was originally gilt, and the figures are +painted in oils. It was made about the year 1520 to 1530; in the lock, +formed as a Gothic pinnacle, is a small inscription, "Maestro Bartolome +me fec." This same artist worked at Jaen and Seville. Cean Bermudez +calls him "sculptor and iron-master."</p> + +<p>Two most important specimens of iron-work exist also at the cathedral of +Toledo, enclosing the <i>Capilla Mayor</i> and <i>Coro</i>. The <i>reja</i> of the +Capilla Mayor is 42 feet wide by 19 inches high; it rests on a pediment +of marble ornamented with masks and bronze work, upon which rises the +<i>reja</i>, which is divided horizontally by means of a frieze of +ornamentation, and this again vertically in five compartments. In each +vertical division there is a pilaster of four sides formed of <i>repouss</i> +plates, carved with a fine ornamentation in the renaissance style, this +is again terminated with life-size figures in high relief of bronze. The +second compartment rises upon the band which divides it in an horizontal +sense; it follows the same decoration in its pilasters, and is +terminated by a series of coats of arms, torches, angels, and a variety +of foliage which finishes the upper part. Upon the centre, hanging from +a thick chain supported from the roof, is suspended a life-size Rood, of +admirable effect, which completes the decoration. In several spots there +are labels with mottos in Latin; in one of them appears the following +inscription, and the date of 1548 when this splendid work was finished: +"Anno MDXLVIII. Paul III. P. M. Carol. V. Imper. Rege. Joannes Martinez +Siliccus. Archipiscopus. Tolet. Hispaniae. Primat." The railings of this +<i>reja</i> are silvered, and the reliefs and salient points gilt. The artist +who made it was Francisco Villalpando, a native of Valladolid;<a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a> this +model was chosen among those of several artists, who presented their +plans in competition before the ecclesiastical authorities; it is +calculated that ten years elapsed before it was finally finished in +1548. Villalpando was greatly distinguished likewise as a sculptor and +architect. In 1563 a book was printed after his death of a translation +he made of the work on architecture by Sebastian Serlio. Other +remarkable bronze works of art, which will be described further on, were +also by him.</p> + +<p>The <i>reja</i> of the coro, which is placed opposite that of the Capilla +Mayor, is almost exactly similar in size. It is less rich in +ornamentation, but so pure and sober in its general lines, and its +ornamentation is so perfect, that it is perhaps superior to the other. +This <i>reja</i> consists of a single architectonical body, divided in six +vertical compartments, covered with bas reliefs of such delicate work +that they appear rather to be by the hand of a silversmith than by an +iron-master. An innumerable number of figures are combined with the +ornamentation in the base, terminations of the columns and coronation; +in the same manner it is full of banderoles with Latin mottos, and gilt +and silvered; it was finished in 1548, as we see by the inscription. +This <i>reja</i> was made by Domingo de Cespedes, a native of Toledo, with +the help of his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo; the design was also chosen +by competition, and it was finished in seven years. Both these admirable +models of iron-work belong to the best productions of the renaissance +school, and contain models which might be adapted with great advantage +to ironwork of every description in the present day.</p> + +<p>It would be an interminable task to describe the multitude of railings +similar in richness and good taste to these which happily survive in +Spanish cathedrals and churches. It is sufficient to call attention to +the following. The <i>reja</i> of the Capilla del Condestable in the +cathedral of Burgos, by Christoval de Andino in 1523, has been +considered one of the finest specimens of its kind, owing to the +perfection with which every detail is carried<a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a> out. A contemporary +writer in describing it says: "Good workmen, and those who wish that +their work may have authority and be blameless, must endeavour to be +guided by ancient models, as your fellow-citizen, Cristoval de Andino; +his works are thereby more elegant and excellent than any others which I +have seen up to the present time; if not, judge of his work by looking +at the <i>reja</i> which he is making for your lord the Condestable, which is +undoubtedly superior to all those which have hitherto been made in +Spain." Sagredo—"Medidas del Romano," quoted by Cean Bermudez. In the +centre of the upper part, towards the middle, appears the inscription: +"Ab. Andino, <small>A.D.</small> <small>MDXXIII</small>." The <i>reja</i> of the <i>coro</i> of the cathedral of +Seville, made by the iron-master, Sancho Muoz in 1519, a native of +Cuenca, is also very remarkable; besides the finer ornamentation which +covers it, it has figures of kings and prophets representing the +genealogy of Our Lord. The <i>reja</i> belonging to the <i>capilla mayor</i> of +the same cathedral was the work of Friar Francisco de Salamanca, +1518-1533; it is covered with an open-work ornamentation, figures of +angels and bas-reliefs, and is terminated in the upper part with a +representation of the Entombment of Our Lord. The large <i>reja</i> of the +cathedral of Cuenca, made by Arenas in 1517, those at Palencia, by +Andino, 1520, and Rodriguez, 1555; the one at the church of Sn. Juan de +la Penitencia, Toledo; the beautiful railing at the chapel of +Palenzuela, in the cathedral of Salamanca, 1524, and a number of objects +of smaller size, such as iron pulpits in the cathedrals of Barcelona, +and in some chapels at Burgos, Avila, Palencia, and Toledo, several of +which are anterior to the 16th century, are all worthy of the student's +especial notice. Among these objects of smaller dimensions special +reference must be made to the fine and picturesque <i>reja</i> surrounding +the sepulchre of Archbishop Diego de Anaya, in the chapel of Sn. +Bartolom, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca. The beauty of +its details and the open-worked inscription which surrounds it,<a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a> place +it at once among the finest specimens of ironwork of the 15th century. +The two window <i>rejas</i> at the house called "de las Conchas" in the same +town—an admirable specimen of Burgundian architecture, although +restored—may be quoted as excellent models of ironwork applied to civil +buildings.</p> + +<p>Iron pulpits have been made in Spain with great success. Two interesting +examples of the end of the 15th century still exist at the cathedral of +Avila. They are hexagonal in shape, and supported by lions' claws; they +were originally gilt. One of these pulpits is ornamented in the +Flamboyant style, the other in good Renaissance; consult Sir Digby +Wyatt's "Architect's Note Book in Spain." Friar Francisco de Salamanca +made two interesting iron pulpits for the cathedral of Seville; they are +covered with bas-reliefs representing the Evangelists and subjects taken +from the Acts of the Apostles and the Apocalypse. The pulpit at the +parish church of S<sup>n</sup>. Gil de Burgos must also be mentioned. Mr. Street, +notwithstanding his want of sympathy with every object not strictly of +the Middle Ages, says: "It is of very late date, end of the 15th +century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration. The support is of +iron, resting on stone, and the staircase modern. The framework at the +angles, top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the ironwork is laid. The +traceries are cut out of two plates of iron, laid one over the other, +and the ironwork is in part gilded, but I do not think that this is +original. The canopy is of the same age and character, and the whole +effect is very rich at the same time that it is very novel. I saw other +pulpits, but none so old as this."</p> + +<p>Among the applications of iron to decorations of civil architecture must +be specially mentioned the nails and knockers on the doors of houses, +which are so characteristic of Toledo and other old Spanish towns. This +style was imitated from the Moors. Some doors still exist at the +Alhambra, Granada, covered with enormous heads of nails of a +half-spherical form with embossed pattern. These same nails are +constantly to be found on old<a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a> Spanish houses, to which are added in the +angles pieces of iron of a most artistic order. A large number of these +nails from Toledo, are in the Kensington Museum. Examples of two are +given.</p> + +<p><a name="img_12" id="img_12"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_066_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_066_sml.jpg" width="355" height="151" alt="SPANISH NAIL HEADS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SPANISH NAIL HEADS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>After the 16th century this industry loses its artistic interest and +importance. Ironwork becomes simply practical and useful, and ceases to +reproduce the grand carved and chiselled works of former times. The +artistic objects are reduced to specimens on a small scale: door-locks, +of which an excellent example exists at the church of Calatravas, +Madrid; a weighing machine, made by the locksmith Salinas for the Mint +in the 17th century, which was exhibited at the Special Loan Collection +of Scientific Apparatus at Kensington in 1876, the fine ornamentation of +the clock of the cathedral of Seville, made in the last century by Friar +Josef Cordero, and the very remarkable iron locks made by Millan at the +beginning of the present century, for the rooms at the palace of the +Escurial, called "Piezas de Maderas finas." The art of inlaying iron +with gold and silver, constitutes in Spain a special industry; the +principal artists who carry it out at the present time with great skill +are Messrs. Zuluaga at Madrid, and Alvarez at Toledo. The splendid +sepulchre of General Prim at the church of Atocha, Madrid, made entirely +of damasquin ironwork, is worthy of the greatest commendation; the fine +vases and shields of <i>repouss</i> ironwork inlaid with gold, made by +Alvarez of Toledo, are artistic and excellent revivals of the Milanese +work of the 16th century.<a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center">IRON MASTERS.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Year in which<br /> +they worked.</td><td align="center">Name.</td><td>Locality of<br />their Residence.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1520.</td><td>Avila, Fr. Juan de</td><td align="left">Guadalupe.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1527.</td><td>Andino, Pedro</td><td align="left">Seville.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1540.</td><td>Andino, Christoval</td><td align="left">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1557.</td><td>Arenas, Hernando</td><td align="left">Cuenca.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1523.</td><td>Bartolm, El Maestro</td><td align="left">Jaen and Seville.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1555.</td><td>Barco, Alonso</td><td align="left">Palencia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1559.</td><td>Brabo, Hernando</td><td align="left">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1579.</td><td>Cela, Juan Tomas</td><td align="left">Zaragoza.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1541.</td><td>Cespdes, Domingo de</td><td align="left">Burgos.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1561.</td><td>Corral, Ruy Diaz del</td><td align="left">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1604.</td><td>Celma, Juan Bautista</td><td align="left">Aragon y Galicia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1692.</td><td>Conde, Sebastian</td><td align="left">Seville.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1797.</td><td>Cordero, Fr. Josef</td><td align="left">Seville.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1537.</td><td>Delgado, Juan</td><td align="left">Seville.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1540.</td><td>Domingo, Maestro</td><td align="left">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1518.</td><td>Elias, Joan de</td><td align="left">Palencia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1519.</td><td>Esteban, Maestro</td><td align="left">Seville.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1494.</td><td>Frances, Juan</td><td align="left">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1555.</td><td>Herreros, Llorente</td><td align="left">Palencia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1522.</td><td>Idrobo, Diego</td><td align="left">Seville.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1524.</td><td>Juan, Fray</td><td align="left">Seville.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1518.</td><td>Lopez, Juan do Urisarri</td><td align="left">Palencia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1531.</td><td>Lemosin</td><td align="left">Cuenca.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1518.</td><td>Muoz, Sancho</td><td align="left">Cuenca.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1389.</td><td>Morey, Bartolomo</td><td align="left">Palma de Mallorca.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1555.</td><td>Moreno, Benegno</td><td align="left">Palencia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1565.</td><td>Pedro, Maestre</td><td align="left">Palencia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1533.</td><td>Palencia, Antonis de</td><td align="left">Seville.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1607.</td><td>Peafiel, Luis de</td><td align="left">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1510.</td><td>Prieto, Fernando</td><td align="left">Seville.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1512.</td><td>Prelojero, Juan</td><td align="left">Palencia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1555.</td><td>Rodriguez, Gaspar</td><td align="left">Palencia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1607.</td><td>Rodriguez, Bartolom</td><td align="left">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1607.</td><td>Silva, Francisco de</td><td align="left">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1533.</td><td>Salamanca, Francisco de </td><td align="left">Seville.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1518.</td><td>Urisarri, Lopez</td><td align="left">Palencia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1561.</td><td>Villalpando</td><td align="left">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1518.</td><td>Yepes, Juan de</td><td align="left">Seville.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="BRONZES" id="BRONZES"></a>BRONZES.</h2> + +<p>O<small>BJECTS</small> of bronze of native origin are less frequently met with in Spain +than those of silver and iron. Many foreign artists worked at this +industry, the history of which only begins in the 16th century. The +specimens of bronze work made by the Moors will be described in their +proper place. It is true that examples of bronze made by the Iberians +and Romans are frequently met with in excavations; they consist chiefly +of hatchets and other arms, bracelets, fibulas, etc., but they are +similar in every respect to objects of the same kind found in other +European countries. During the Middle Ages, objects of enamelled gilt +bronze were used on a very large scale in churches; specimens of a very +high order may be seen in Spain, such as the splendid altar at San +Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre; that at Santo Domingo de Silos, and the +statuette of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban, Salamanca. These +objects were, however, probably made at Limoges, or in some other +locality out of Spain. We hardly can trace any bronze of this period but +cathedral bells. One was made at Puig-Valencia as early as <small>A.D.</small> 622, +melted in 1550, the only trace of the early work being the inscription +and date, which are given by contemporary authors.</p> + +<p>Another bell, about half a foot high, of <small>A.D.</small> 875, exists at the Local +Museum of Cordova, with the inscription: "<i>Offert hoc munus Samson +abbatis in domum Sancti Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era</i> <small>DCCCCXIII</small>." We +find the name of "<i>Joannes Calcena me fecit Anno Domini 1306</i>," on a +bell at the cathedral of Valencia, and<a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a> on one of Lerida was to be read: +"<i>Fecit factum per magistrum Joannem Adam Anno Dei 1418 in mense +Aprili</i>;" the author appears to have been, by reference to the documents +of the church, "<i>de burgo Sanct Mari Turlensis diocesis regni +Franci</i>," for details see Villanueva, vol. ii., p. 147-152, xvi. 88.</p> + +<p>Before entering into the renaissance period, I must mention some +remarkable specimens which have reached us, the work of the Spanish +Arabs. Probably the most ancient and interesting is a sculpture +representing a stag, now at the Provincial Museum of Cordova, which +evidently belonged to a fountain. It was found in the ruins of the +palace of Medina Az Zahra, the construction of which corresponds to the +time of Abd er Rahman III., (961); it is undoubtedly work of this +period, and probably belonged to this palace, so celebrated by Oriental +writers. The fragments of a bronze fountain and several lamps, at the +Museum of Granada, are of a later date; they were found in the +excavations of the early city of Illiberis, which was abandoned in the +11th century, when its inhabitants chose the present site of Granada. +The fragments, which are supposed to have belonged originally to a +fountain, consist of a small temple 22 inches high, of an hexagonal +base, with twelve small columns supporting bands of open work, frescoes, +cupola, and turrets: in the angles are birds. There are six lamps, all +of which are mutilated and incomplete; their form and object is +indicated by the remains of chains which suspended them. Some of them +are half melted, giving testimony to the conflagration which the mosque +suffered in the time of the Arabs. Other bronze fragments have been +found in the same locality. All these objects are artistic in their +general lines, but the workmanship is indifferent, and the ornamentation +heavy and coarse.</p> + +<p>A bronze lion and a mortar, found some years since in the province of +Palencia, are more artistic in form and general details. The mortar was +found near Monzon, and the lion not far from it. Remains still exist of +a castle, which was founded by the Arabs,<a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a> in the locality, and which at +the beginning of the 11th century was in the hands of the Christians; it +is highly probable that these objects belonged to its Moorish +inhabitants. If we take into account how frequently we find Oriental +remains in this locality, both these objects may be safely classified as +belonging to the 10th century, although there are details in their +ornamentation which appear rather to be of a later period. The lion is +12 inches high by 14 inches long; an aperture in the lower part +which communicates with the mouth of the animal, appears to suggest that +it belonged to a fountain, the water of which issued, or not, owing to +the movement of the tail, which rotates and acts as a key. The shape of +this lion recalls those at the Alhambra; its forms are stiff and +angular, in the conventional Oriental manner of reproducing animated +beings. The surface is covered with ornamentation, the mane is arranged +in mannered and symmetrical curls, like those so common in Assyrian +sculptures. On the back and two sides is the following inscription in +Cufic characters:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_070_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_070_sml.png" width="148" height="24" alt="Arabic "Perfect blessing. Complete happiness."" title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">"Perfect blessing. Complete happiness."</span> +</p> + +<p class="nind">This object is similar in detail and the inscription to a bronze griffin +at the cemetery of Pisa; it belonged to the collection of the painter +Fortuny, and at the sale in 1875 it was bought by Mr. E. Piot.</p> + +<p>The mortar is circular in form, and is surrounded by twelve prismatic +sections. Two lions' heads serve to support the hanging rings or +handles. The whole of the outside is most delicately carved with +arabesques, among which are to be met frequently figures of birds and +quadrupeds. See "El arte en Esp.," vol. iii., Madrid, 1864. The +following inscription in elegant Cufic characters runs round the upper +part: it is repeated twice. "Complete blessing, and ever-increasing +happiness and<a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a> prosperity of every kind, and an elevated and happy +social position for its owner." From the richness of the ornamentation +of this object, it is probable that it was used to pound aromatic drugs.</p> + +<p>A bronze lamp of a similar ornamentation was found some years ago at +Cordova—it is not unlike in form and shape Roman lamps of the same kind +made of earthenware. It is engraved all over, and the subject of a dog +pursuing a hare appears often repeated. None of these objects of bronze +work are however equal in importance to a lamp made during the reign of +Mohammed III. of Granada, now at the Archological Museum, Madrid [See +Plate.] It is composed in its base of a body destined to hold the light, +upon which is supported a large four-sided piece in the form of a +pyramid, which is completed with an octagonal body which surmounts it. +Four graduated balls suspend it. The height of this lamp is 2 yards, +and taking into account its general structure, it appears as if the +chains or intermediate pieces are wanting, which probably existed on the +inverted bell of the base. The manufacture and elegance of decoration of +this object is of a very high order, and may be compared with bronze +work of Damascus. The greater part of the pieces are covered with +pierced open work, and the motto of the Kings of Granada, "There is no +conqueror but God." In the lower part of the large pyramid, truncated in +four sides, is a long inscription in Arabian characters, stating the +lamp to have been made by order of Mohammed III. year of the Hegira, 705 +(<small>A.D.</small> 1305).</p> + +<p>The remaining objects of bronze work of Spanish-Moorish production are +less important. They are interesting notwithstanding. The spherical +perfume-burners which were used to roll on the pavement are highly +artistic and might be adopted in the present day. One or two bronze +buckets of a well exist at the Madrid Archological Museum, with some +small objects of little importance found at Cordova. This artistic +industry has continued until the present day in Spain in the form of<a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a><a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a> +objects of domestic use, such as brasiers, mortars and lamps, several of +which preserve their ancient traditional form.</p> + +<p><a name="img_13" id="img_13"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_072_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_072_sml.jpg" width="295" height="751" alt="MOORISH LAMP. ARCHOLOGICAL MUSEUM, MADRID." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">MOORISH LAMP. ARCHOLOGICAL MUSEUM, MADRID.</span> +</p> + +<p>In metal work as in architecture, a large number of instances exist in +Spain in which the Christian and Moorish styles are blended—as an +example of this style may be mentioned the fine bronze gates of the +cathedral of Toledo. These doors, which are 18 ft. high by 12 ft. wide, +are covered on both sides with bronze plates; the outer side is +decorated with a geometrical Moorish design and small Arabic +inscriptions, alternating with castles and a number of Arabic mottoes. +In one of the side bands and in the lower part may be read in Spanish +the following inscription:</p> + +<p>"Estas puertas fueron acabadas en el mes de Marzo era de mil c ccc. +setanta e cinco aos."</p> + +<p>"These doors were finished in the month of March, in the era of 1375 +years" (<small>A.D.</small> 1337).</p> + +<p>The fine doors of the cathedral of Cordova, del Perdon, are similar in +style. They are made of wood and covered with bronze plating, and Gothic +and Arabic inscriptions,—the word "Deus," and</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_073_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_073_sml.png" width="80" height="17" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Arabic</span> +</p> + +<p class="nind">"The empire belongs to God, all is His." Round these doors, alternating +with the arms of Castille and Leon, is the following inscription. "Dia +dos del mes de Marzo de la era del Cesar de 1415 aos, (<small>A.D.</small> 1377.) +Reinante el muy alto et poderoso D. Enrique, rey de Castilla." These +doors were restored in 1539.</p> + +<p>The Puerta del Perdon of the cathedral of Seville is similar in style, +and a good example of moresque bronze work.</p> + +<p>Returning to the bronze work of the Christian artists of the renaissance +period, the general rule which may be established with reference to +statues is that they have been made by foreign artists. This is the case +with the splendid groups of figures at the high altar and presbytery of +the Escorial by Pompeyo Leoni, the equestrian statue of Philip IV. by +Pedro Tacca, and others<a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a> of a similar kind. One of the very few +exceptions to this rule occurs in Bartolom Morel, a Spaniard, the +author of the statue called the "Giralda" on the tower of the cathedral +of Seville, the desk of the choir, and <i>Tenebrarium</i> at the same church. +These objects were all by him, and are among the finest specimens of +bronze work in Spain. The <i>Tenebrarium</i> is described by Cean Bermudez in +his "Descripcion artistica de la catedral de Sevilla," p. 129, in the +following manner: "This object is better executed and more graceful in +design than any of its kind in Spain. It consists of a triangular +candelabrum, which is used during matins in the three last days of Holy +Week with fifteen tapers, which are extinguished on reading each psalm.</p> + +<p>"It was designed and executed by Bartolom Morel in 1562. Juan Giralte, +a native of the Low Countries, and Juan Bita Vazquez helped him to make +the statues which are at the head of this candelabrum, and Pedro +Delgado, a sculptor of great renown, worked at the foot.</p> + +<p>"It is 8 yards and a half high, and the triangular upper part is 3 yards +wide: it is surmounted by fifteen statues which represent Our Saviour, +the Apostles and two other disciples or evangelists. In the vacant space +of the triangle there is a circle ornamented with foliage, in the centre +of which is a figure in high relief of the Blessed Virgin, underneath is +a medallion bust of a king. This centre is of bronzed wood, and is +supported by four small bronze columns, below which are four caryatides, +resting on a nobly designed border ornamented with lions and other +animals in the renaissance style." See woodcut on next page.</p> + +<p><a name="img_14" id="img_14"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_075_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_075_sml.jpg" width="315" height="733" alt="THE TENEBRARIUM IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">THE TENEBRARIUM IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.</span> +</p> + +<p>Villalpando distinguished himself at the cathedral of Toledo in the same +way as Morel at Seville. The splendid <i>reja</i> at the Capilla Mayor with +the fine gilt bronze pulpits, the bas-reliefs of the doors of Lions, +1564, the font, and railing surrounding the altar of the Virgin in the +coro were all made by him. The pulpits, made as it is asserted out of +the bronze sepulchre of Dn. Alvaro de Luna are octagonal, six of their +sides are admirably decorated<a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a><a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a> with bas-reliefs of exquisite work +divided by pilasters and terminated by a finely designed frieze. The +door of Lions is covered in a similar manner with bronze plates +ornamented in the finest renaissance style; the knockers are models in +their way. In the opposite door del Reloj, these reliefs have been +copied in 1713 by the silversmiths Zurreo y Dominguez.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the great merit of these works, the stands for the choir +books are even finer and more exquisite in detail. They are made of gilt +bronze and represent subjects from the life of St. Ildefonso, the +Prophet David and the Apocalypse. They were modelled and designed by +Juan Navarro in 1562, and carved by Nicolas de Vergara and his son some +years afterwards.</p> + +<p>Two artists, natives of Aragon, were very famous during the same century +for their bronze work. One of these, Celma, made the pulpits of the +cathedral of Santiago, which are finely ornamented with busts between +the columns, and bas-reliefs representing subjects of the lives of the +saints, and a fine design of leaves and flowers. In one of the +inscriptions may be read: "<i>Joannes Baptista Celma, Aragonentis patria +pingendi artifex salutis anno 1563. Compostell faciebat.</i>" The other +artist was Cela, the author of the fine reja del coro of the church of +the Pilar at Saragossa, dated 1574-79.</p> + +<p>Two gilt metal Monstrances of Spanish work of the 16th century are in +the South Kensington Museum. No. 4310, 57, represents an architectural +shrine, decorated with strap and cartouche-work, columns, and arcades in +the renaissance style; it is dated 1537. See woodcut on next page. The +other, No. 190, 66, has an ornamented stem, with knob, on which stands a +triangular shrine with kneeling angels; above is a smaller shrine +surmounted by a crucifix.</p> + +<p><a name="img_15" id="img_15"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_077_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_077_sml.jpg" width="302" height="669" alt="SPANISH MONSTRANCE, DATED 1537. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SPANISH MONSTRANCE, DATED 1537. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>Objects of bronze work of the 17th century which are not by Fanelli, +Tacca, or other foreigners, are less numerous; most of them show signs +of the decline of art at this period. The chiselled and openworked altar +frontal, at the burial-place of the<a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a> kings of Spain at the Escorial, is +a very fine work of its kind. The shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa +Forma, also at the<a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a> Escorial, is an excellent piece of workmanship—both +these objects were made by lay brothers of the convent. Friar Eugenio de +la Cruz and Friar Juan de la Concepcion, silversmiths, worked during the +reign of Philip IV. at chiselling these and other objects of bronze.</p> + +<p>The exaggerations and bad taste, which were so common in every branch of +artistic industry, were as prominent in bronzes—the bas-reliefs of this +metal which ornament the back of the high altar of the cathedral of +Toledo, at the "Transparente," are generally mentioned as models of bad +taste. They are by Narciso Thom; the architecture, painting, statues +and carvings in marble, jasper and bronze are by the same person, as +appears in the inscription which he placed there at its termination in +1734.</p> + +<p>On the accession of King Charles III. from Naples in 1759, these defects +were corrected, in part owing to the classical influence which became so +general in Europe, and continued to the early part of the present +century. The silver manufactory of Martinez founded in Madrid under his +auspices, has already been mentioned in treating of silver work. Objects +of bronze of all kinds were made there in this classic style, and at the +porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, where splendid tables were made of +pietre dure, mounted in bronze. The most important objects there +produced may be seen at the chapel of the royal palace of Madrid, and +the palaces of Aranjuez and the Escurial.<a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="ARMS" id="ARMS"></a>ARMS.</h2> + +<p>T<small>HOSE</small> who have a taste for the study of prehistorical monuments in +Spain, will find a very extensive collection of arms and other utensils +of this period at the Muso Arqueologico, Madrid, which have been found +in different localities of the country. They chiefly consist of +hatchets, knives, and lance and arrow points made of flint, and are +similar in form to those which have been discovered in the north and +centre of Europe. There are therefore, constant analogies between the +implements used by the primitive Iberians, and those of other European +races of the prehistoric period.</p> + +<p>The arms and weapons of the following age, known as the age of bronze, +are less common in Spain, although a few specimens exist in the Muso of +Madrid, and the "Academia de la Historia." They chiefly consist of +swords, daggers, and lance and arrow points. The hilts are formed of the +same material as the blade in some instances, in others they consist of +a blade fitting into a wooden or ivory handle. The blades are cut on +both sides; they are straight, and finished off in a point; in the +centre runs a thick rim made for the purpose of strengthening the blade, +and that it should not bend. One of these specimens measures 30 inches +long. The daggers are about one-third smaller, with the same rim in the +centre; the bronze hilt is nailed to the blade, and the lance and arrow +points are of the same kind. These weapons are similar in style to the +numerous examples found in other countries, especially England. The<a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a> +hatchets are also the same, their manner of being fixed on to their +handles and their size and weight being identical with the English ones. +One of the few specimens which varies from this general rule, is a +dagger, with a cylindrical horn-like hilt, belonging to S<sup>r</sup>. Villaamil: +it was found at Galicia with other interesting arms. (Consult Muso +Espaol de Antiguedades, iv. 63.)</p> + +<p>The probable antiquity of these weapons always remains a matter of +doubt; this is especially the case with stone implements. When on their +discovery the geological structure of the soil has been studied, some +evidence exists on which to ground an opinion; but this is very seldom +the case in Spain, and Messrs. Prado, Villanova, Botella, and +MacPherson, are among the few and most trustworthy geologists who have +investigated this subject. With reference to bronze implements, Spanish +authors have a tendency to attribute them to prehistoric times. I see no +reason to justify this opinion, and it appears to me that when this +subject has been studied in a more satisfactory manner, it will appear +that these arms were used during the Roman domination at the same time +as the iron ones.</p> + +<p>In reaching the Iron period, already within historical times, we find +that the Spanish people, when once under the Roman rule, used the well +known arms and utensils which will be found reproduced in all elementary +books on archology. In this, as in every other sphere, the Romans +imposed their civilization on the races they conquered. Some important +exceptions, however, exist to this general rule. The Spanish swords must +have been excellent in quality, since the Romans adopted them after the +Carthaginian war: they were however, never able to imitate the manner in +which they were tempered. Suidas says: <i>Romani patriis gladiis depositis +Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium assumpserunt ... sed ferri boni atem et +fabrica solertiam imitari non potuerunt.</i> The locality where the best +swords were made in Spain was Bilbilis (Calatayud, province of Aragon), +the birthplace of the poet Martial, who, when praising the waters of the +river<a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a> Jalon and the excellence of its quality for tempering metals, +says, <i>Salone qui ferrum gelat.</i> These swords were wide, and cut on both +edges; their points were sharp, and all of them had in the centre signs +of a central groove running down its length. Several specimens may be +seen at the Museo Arqueologico, Madrid, which are 15 or 19 inches long. +The Spaniards used also swords of another form, which were known by the +name of <i>falcata</i>, from falx, sickle; the blade was curved, and it has +been supposed to be the genuine Spanish model. The blade was widened in +proportion from the hilt to the point, which was very sharp: it cut like +a sickle in the interior curve, and only a small part was sharpened in +the opposite side. The best specimen, which exists in the Madrid Museum, +is 22 inches long. The weapons made at Toledo must have been very +famous during the Roman period: Gracio Falisco, a poet of the time of +Julius Csar, says, in mentioning them: <i>Ima toletano prcingant ilia +cultro</i>; the sword manufactory there attained afterwards great +importance.</p> + +<p>I must end by mentioning the <i>funda</i>, or slings, and leaden plummets +(<i>glandes</i>), which were thrown so dexterously by the slingers of the +Balearic Islands. The slingers of this province are mentioned with great +praise by ancient authors. (V. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman +Antiquities. <i>Funda.</i>)</p> + +<p>During the Visigothic domination, some modifications must have been +introduced in the form and number of the arms used, probably owing to +the tradition of the Gothic race, and the Byzantine or Oriental +influences, which they accept in every sphere; but the names and +explanation of these weapons, given by San Isidoro in his "Etimologies," +lib. xviii., indicate that the Roman system was adopted as a general +rule. The chief modification which may be established for the Visigoths, +and the greater part of the European races, is that from their time the +breast-plates and metallic pieces, which served as a protection for the +legs and arms, fell into disuse, and were substituted by coats of mail +or chain armour. This is deduced from San Isidoro's not describing<a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a> +these metallic plates; although he gives numerous details on different +sorts of coats of mail, including those made of coarse stuffs woven in +Silisia. At this time, the use of planks or boards to protect the body +was abandoned, and did not prove acceptable until the end of the 13th +century, when they again became very generally adopted in Spain.</p> + +<p>During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Spanish Christians continued to +use the same weapons as in other European states. The history of Spanish +arms, in like manner with its artistic history and civilization, is +similar to that of other nations; it frequently occurs that objects of +this kind are classified with those of other countries, the only +exceptions to this general rule being those which result from the +Moorish conquest and influence.</p> + +<p>The Arabs, after they took possession of Spain at the beginning of the +8th century, imported, with their arts and industries, special arms and +weapons, the greater part of which were copied from Persian models; +their swords, helmets, and shields deserve special attention; in other +weapons the difference is not so great; and, indeed, in the two first it +is chiefly confined to their decoration.</p> + +<p>None of the arms made by the Moors have been so justly celebrated, or so +delicately worked as their swords. An Arabic author, El Camus, says the +Arabs had as many as 1000 names to designate swords. In the first years +of the Hegira, their historians praise the swords made at Yemen, and in +India; later on, those of Syria; Damascus was, however, the great centre +where arms of all kinds were made. Several interesting Arabic +manuscripts are known on this subject, such as the <i>Treatise on steel +blades</i> in the library of Gotha, that on <i>Different kinds of arms, with +the properties of lances, swords, and horses</i>, in the Library of Leyden, +and numerous articles by Oriental scholars, which have appeared in the +"Journal Asiatique," and other reviews. The manufacture in Syria decayed +in the 15th century; other centres gained in importance, specially those +in Egypt, Morocco, and Spain, which had rivalled the East in this +industry during the Middle Ages.<a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a></p> + +<p>The Arabs introduced their forms and manner of decorating arms when they +invaded the Peninsula; it is, however, highly probable that the +traditions still existed at Bilbilis and Toledo of the manner of +tempering steel. It is known that Abd-er Rahman II. (A.D. 822-852) +reformed the manufacture of arms at Toledo, and that in A.D. 965, Al +Hakem II. sent a rich present of specimens made in the locality to Don +Sancho, King of Leon. Notwithstanding the high reputation of the +industries of Cordova, the great centre and court of the Spanish Arabs +during the earlier period of their domination, "it never became famous +for its working steel," as Fernandez Gonzalez tells us in his study on +Spanish moresque swords, from which much of this information has been +derived. (V. Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades, <small>V</small>. <small>I</small>. and <small>V</small>.). Almeria, Murcia, +Seville, and Granada were greatly distinguished in this manufacture +during the domination of the Arabs in Spain.</p> + +<p>We know that Almeria, during the 12th and 13th centuries, "was also +famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils of iron, +copper, or glass." (Mohamadan Dynasties in Spain, by Al-Makkari, vol. i. +p. 51.) Abou Said, in writing in the 13th century of Murcia, says, +"Objects are made there of latteen and ron, consisting of knives and +scissors, with an ornamentation in gold. Other similar utensils, proper +for the outfit of a bride, or a soldier, in such large quantities, that +the mere thought of it confuses the imagination."</p> + +<p>The same author, when speaking of the swords of Seville, says, "The +steel which is made at Seville is most excellent; it would take too much +time to enumerate the delicate objects of every kind which are made in +this town." These industries must have continued in the hands of the +Moors after the town was conquered by Spaniards in the 13th century. In +the following century we find in the will of King D<sup>n</sup>. Pedro, "I also +endow my son with my Castilian sword, which I had made here in Seville, +ornamented with stones and gold."<a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a></p> + +<p>No specimens of Hispao moresque swords exist previous to the 15th +century. We possess some highly interesting examples of this period, +all, or the most part, of which were made at Granada, the last centre of +civilization of the Spanish Arabs. The most important are the sword, +dagger, and double-handed sword and knife, which, with the authentic +costume, belonging to Boabdil, the last king of Granada, are now in the +possession of the Marquis of Villaseca, at Madrid. These objects were +gained by an ancestor of the marquis, who took Boabdil prisoner in 1482 +at the battle of Lucena. In compliance with the chivalrous practice of +the time, the arms of the conquered king went to the conqueror, and have +been kept as heirlooms since that time.</p> + +<p>The sword of Villaseca is 39 inches long, this includes 12 inches of the +hilt. (See woodcut.) "The steel blade," says S<sup>r</sup>. Fernandez, in his +article, vol. v. p. 395, "is of a later date, and appears to have been +added to the sword after the older one had disappeared. It is a Toledo +blade, marked with the letter S, similar to the one used by Alonso +Sahagun the elder, and with a hollow line in the centre."</p> + +<p>I am of opinion, however, that it may be the original blade, for the +other sword, which still exists at Granada, of the same kind, has +likewise a blade marked T, Toledo. This coincidence appears to suggest +that those made there were preferred, and in both instances they exactly +fit the sheath, which is the original one.</p> + +<p>The hilt of this fine sword is formed of solid gold, enamelled in blue, +white, and red. This decoration runs along the pommel and cross bars. +The axle is made of ivory carved with the utmost skill. Two octagons are +on each side, with the following inscription in semi-Cufic letters:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_084-a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_084-a_sml.png" width="63" height="25" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p class="nind">(may +you) "obtain your object." On the other side:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_084-b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_084-b_sml.png" width="23" height="19" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p class="nind">"in saving his life."<a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a></p> + +<p><a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a></p> + +<p><a name="img_16" id="img_16"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_085_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_085_sml.jpg" width="443" height="629" alt="SWORD OF BOABDIL. VILLASECA COLLECTION, MADRID." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SWORD OF BOABDIL. VILLASECA COLLECTION, MADRID.</span> +</p> + +<p>Four shields surround in the upper part this axle, which contains the +following inscription in rather illegible characters:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_086-a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_086-a_sml.png" width="320" height="26" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"In the name of God, power belongs to him, there is no other divinity +but he, happiness proceeds from God alone."</p> + +<p>In the lower part in similar shields we read:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_086-b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_086-b_sml.png" width="380" height="32" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"Miracles belong to God, for certainly the ignorant do not know God at +first, for it is their habit to err."</p> + +<p>On the pommel is the following inscription:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_086-c_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_086-c_sml.png" width="176" height="25" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>Say, "He alone is God, Eternal God, who neither created, nor was +engendered."</p> + +<p>Under the pommel, on green enamel, appear the following letters:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_086-d_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_086-d_sml.png" width="103" height="106" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>Say, "The only God, Eternal, not ..."</p> + +<p>On the other side:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_086-e_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_086-e_sml.png" width="104" height="104" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p class="nind">"was neither created, nor engendered, and has no +equal."<a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a></p> + +<p>On a band which appears under the axle, on enamel, are the following +letters:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_087-a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_087-a_sml.png" width="60" height="110" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"God is clement and merciful," and on the other side:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_087-b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_087-b_sml.png" width="51" height="77" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"God is gifted with the best memory."</p> + +<p>The learned archaeologist and orientalist, D<sup>n</sup> Pascual de Gayangos, is +of opinion that this sword was worn hanging round the neck, between the +shoulder blades. A small bag, <i>tahali</i>, probably hung also from the +leather girdle, which still exists in the collection of Villaseca.</p> + +<p>The <i>montante</i>, or double-handed sword, has an iron cylindrical hilt +inlaid with ivory. On it appears the motto of the kings of Granada:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_087-c_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_087-c_sml.png" width="97" height="28" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"God alone is the conqueror."</p> + +<p>The blade, part of which is wanting, is marked with the crescent.</p> + +<p>The dagger is superior in artistic merit. The hilt is made of iron, +ornamented with ivory delicately engraved in arabesques. The blade is +damascened in gold, with inscriptions on one side, repeating:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_087-d_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_087-d_sml.png" width="176" height="31" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"Health, permanent glory, and lasting happiness [belong to God"].<a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a></p> + +<p>On the opposite side:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_088_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_088_sml.png" width="65" height="22" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Arabic</span> +</p> + +<p>"It was made by Reduan."</p> + +<p>The scabbard of this dagger is most beautiful, its chapes are made of +silver enamelled in green, and the remainder is of crimson velvet +embroidered in gold, from which hangs a fine tassel of silk and gold +thread. A small eating knife is fitted into this same scabbard, which +possesses no artistic interest.</p> + +<p>The woodcut on the next page will give a good idea of the blade of a +Moorish dagger of the 15th century.</p> + +<p>A sword of a similar kind to the one already described may be seen at +Granada at the <i>Administrador's</i> of the Generalife. It belongs to the +marquis of Campotejar, a descendant of Sidi Jahia, a Moorish prince who +was converted to Christianity. The marquis of Vega de Armijo has an +interesting sword of the same kind, and two others exist at the Museo de +Artilleria, Madrid, which belonged to Aliatar; Boabdil's sword is at the +Royal Armoury. The Hispano Arab sword, which for centuries had been in a +saint's hand at the church of San Marcelo, Leon, is now at the Museo +Arqueologico, Madrid.</p> + +<p>The Spanish Moors used helmets similar in form to those of the +Christians, though their manner of decoration was different; after the +importations made by the Crusaders, the similarity must every day have +been greater. The <i>almofar</i>, which appears by its name to have been +originally oriental, and which is constantly named in Spanish documents +from the poem of the Cid, was a protection for the head, of a similar +form to those used in France and other countries, consisting of a hood +made of chain armour, covering the head and leaving the face free; upon +it was placed the hood or helmet. Some helmets exist at the Royal +Armoury of Madrid of Spanish Moorish origin; among them are two very +remarkable ones, which have been attributed to Boabdil, the last king of +Granada. (Nos. 2345, 2356, of the Catalogue.) They<a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a> are decorated with +gold filigree, niellos, and geometrical ornamentation in the best +oriental style, most admirably worked, and different in this respect to +the helmets used in this time. Another interesting helmet, which +belonged to this ill-fated monarch, exists in the province of Almeria.</p> + +<p><a name="img_17" id="img_17"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_089_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_089_sml.jpg" width="130" height="860" alt="MOORISH DAGGER, 15TH CENTURY." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">MOORISH DAGGER, 15TH CENTURY.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>adargas</i>, or shields, are more varied: they were frequently adopted +by the Christians. They were generally round, with a salient point in +the centre, <i>ombilicus</i>, or a sort of iron grating made for the purpose +of entangling the adversary's sword. These shields were of wood or thick +cowhide, <i>vacaries</i>, and were decorated outside in a variety of ways, +sometimes with pierced iron plates or bands of leather, forming +arabesques; and at other times with an ornamentation of iron, and +leather embroidered with gold and silver, with rich hanging tassels and +pendants. Shields of a prolonged form were also very constantly used, +terminating in a semicircle in the upper part, and in the lower by a +sharp point or a semicircle at the top and bottom, as may be seen in the +paintings of the Sala de la Justicia at the Alhambra. A good collection +of round shields may be seen at the Armoury at Madrid: they are not +earlier in date than the 15th century, the most interesting among them +are Nos. 233, 253, 389, 595, and 607 of the Catalogue. Some of them are +exquisite in work and detail. These shields, although belonging to the<a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a> +latest period of the middle ages, were used before this time, for they +appear on the ivory casket existing at the cathedral of Pamplona, [V. +Ivories, p. 130], dated <small>A.D.</small> 1005, and in miniatures of Spanish MSS. of +that date. One of the best examples, which may be mentioned to confirm +these indications, will be found in a MS. at the British Museum (Add. +ii., 695), which was painted during a period of twenty years in the +monastery of Silos, near Burgos, and finished and completed A.D. 1109. +Mr. Shaw, in his "Dresses and Decorations," vol. v., reproduces some of +these figures, and says: "The figures which form our plate represent +Spanish warriors of the later part of the 11th century, and are +interesting on account of their remarkable resemblance to the +Anglo-Norman soldiers on the celebrated Bayeux tapestry. This +resemblance is observable in the style of the drawing, as well as in the +costumes. It is highly probable that the military habits of this period +were borrowed from the Saracens. This supposition is strengthened by the +fact that Arabic inscriptions in Cufic letters are found among the +ornaments of the several robes still preserved which belonged to German +and Frankish barons of the 10th and 11th centuries. One peculiarity of +our Spanish warriors is the round shield with the elegant ornaments on +the disc."</p> + +<p>These may be considered the chief varieties of Spanish arms in the +Middle Ages. In other instances the French and Italian forms are +adopted. The manufacture of arms was not reduced then as at a later date +to the monopoly of the Government or to determined localities. Besides +the arms made at Toledo, those of Seville, Granada, Valencia, Zaragoza, +Barcelona, the Basque provinces, and Cuellar, were very famous. Readers +of Shakespeare will remember Falstaff's <i>bilbo</i>, a rapier made at Bilbao +in the Basque provinces. The principal merit of these arms consisted in +the manner in which the artist tempered his metal. It was generally done +at night in order to distinguish in the darkness the exact colour of the +heated steel in dipping it into the water. The swords known by the name +of <i>perrillo</i> were highly esteemed<a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a> in Spain during the 15th and 16th +centuries; they were marked with a figure resembling a dog. Cervantes +mentions and praises these blades in his "Rinconete y Cortadillo" and +"Don Quixote." They were made by a Moor of Granada, who it is stated had +been swordsman of King Boabdil, and became a Christian under the name of +Julian del Rey. His godfather was King Ferdinand, and besides working at +Granada he did so at Zaragoza and Toledo. When an artist of merit +excelled in a given locality, it absorbed all the fame of this industry. +During the Renaissance larger centres of this industry were established +in large towns, and the fame of the objects they produced was +concentrated there. Toledo absorbed the importance in the industry of +sword making.</p> + +<p>We find that the Municipal Ordinances of the Middle Ages give very +little information by which we can judge of the merits of the objects +produced. A Guild of Armourers existed at Barcelona as early as 1257, +and of Sword makers from the 14th century; but the information given +concerning this subject is very slight. We find more details in the +Ordinances of Toledo, Seville, and Granada, whence we learn that +manufactories of arms existed in these towns.</p> + +<p>The sword manufactory of Toledo acquires its greatest importance during +the Renaissance period until the end of the 17th century, when it +terminated. It was re-established again in 1760 under the patronage of +the Government, and continues to work in the present day. Don Francisco +de Santiago Palomares wrote, in 1772, an "Account of the Sword +Manufactory of Toledo," the manuscript of which exists at the Academia +de la Historia (E. 41). The most interesting part of this study consists +in the details given upon the manner of tempering the blades. The names +he has collected of the most remarkable artists, are taken from the +original dies of their marks which existed at the Archives of the +Ayuntamiento at Toledo. These marks have been published in the "Catalogo +de la Armeria," Madrid, 1849, from which I copy them. It must be borne +in mind that Palomares, after quoting<a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a> the text by the Poet Gracio +Falisco, which I have given at the beginning, does not establish any +definite fact which enables us to study the historical progress of this +manufactory during the Middle Ages. The author says, p. 111: "At the +beginning of this industry there was no centralization or monopoly in +this manufactory, some armourers formed a guild, placing each artist in +his proper place. The kings of Castille granted them privileges of +different kinds."</p> + +<p>Bowles says, in his "Introduction to the Natural and Geographical +History of Spain," that the steel used at the manufactory of Toledo was +taken from an iron mine existing at a league from Mondragon, the only +one then known in Spain.</p> + +<p>The celebrity of Toledo blades has excited the curiosity of many who +wished to ascertain the cause of their great excellence and renown. Some +supposed the sword manufacturers of Toledo possessed a secret for +tempering their arms: it was not so, however; their only secret being +the waters of the Tagus and the fine white sand on its banks. This sand +was used for cooling the steel: when the steel was red-hot, and began to +give forth sparks, it was uncovered a little and sprinkled with sand, +and sent on to the forgers. As soon as the blade was ready it was +tempered in the following manner: a line of fire was made and the blade +placed in it in such a manner that only four-fifths of its length should +touch the fire. As soon as the blade was red-hot it was dropped +perpendicularly into a bucket of Tagus water; when cold, if it was found +to be bent, a small portion of sand was poured on the yoke, the blade +was placed upon it, and beaten until properly straightened. After this +the fifth part of the blade was fired, and when red-hot was seized with +tongs and rubbed with suet, which soon began to melt; after this the +blade was sent to the grinding-stones, and finished by being polished by +wooden wheels with emery powder.</p> + +<p>Charles the Third, a year after he became King of Spain, re-established +officially the manufactory of arms of Toledo. He<a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a> placed it in a +building near the Miradero Alto, and the works began in 1761. The king +soon found the building too small for the purpose, and ordered his +architect, Sabatini to build the present one, outside the town near the +river Tagus, which was finished in 1783, and from this time has been +under the superintendence of the Royal Artillery. Not a single sword +maker existed in 1760 of any note who was competent to be placed at the +head of the works, and it was found necessary to bring a proper person +from Valencia.</p> + +<p>Palomares, who was present, says: "As soon as the building was ready and +disposed for working, Luis Calisto, a famous sword maker, began to work. +Calisto was a native of Valencia, and more than 70 years of age when he +was appointed. Other artists were chosen at the same time by the +Director. In the short space of time in which that chief master armourer +lived, he made most excellent weapons; he was most skilful, and was +probably imitated by his successor."</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Names of the Sword Makers of Toledo.</span></p> + +<p>The numbers given correspond to the plates of their marks, given in +"Catalogo de la Real Armeria."</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="margin-left:2%;"> + +<tr><td align="right">1.</td><td>Alonso de Sahagun, el <i>viejo</i>, 1570.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">2.</td><td>Alonso de Sahagun, el <i>mozo</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">3.</td><td>Alonso Perez.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">4.</td><td>Alonso de los Rios; he also worked at Cordova.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">5.</td><td>Alonso de Cava.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">6.</td><td>Andres Martinez.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">7.</td><td>Andres Herraez; he also worked at Cuenca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">8.</td><td>Andres Munesten; worked at Calatayud.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">9.</td><td>Andres Garcia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">10.</td><td>Antonio de Baena.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">11.</td><td>Antonio Gutierrez.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">12.</td><td>Antonio Gutierrez, a son of the former.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">13.</td><td>Antonio Ruiz, 1520; he used the initial letter of his name.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">14.</td><td>Adrian de Zafra; worked at Sn. Clemente.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">15.</td><td>Bartolom de Nieva.<a name="page_094" id="page_094"></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">16.</td><td>Casaldo y Campaeros; worked at Cuellar and Badajoz.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">17.</td><td>Domingo de Orozco.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">18.</td><td>Domingo Maestre, el <i>viejo</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">19.</td><td>Domingo Maestre, el <i>mozo</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">20.</td><td>Domingo Rodriguez.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">21.</td><td>Domingo Sanchez; called el Tigerero.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">22.</td><td>Domingo de Aguirre.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">23.</td><td>Domingo de Lama.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">24.</td><td>Domingo Corrientes; worked also at Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">25.</td><td>Fabrian de Zafra; hijo de Adrian.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">26.</td><td>Francisco Ruiz, el <i>viejo</i>, 1617.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">27.</td><td>Francisco Ruiz, el <i>mozo</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">28.</td><td>Francisco Gomez.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">29.</td><td>Francisco de Zamora; worked also at Seville.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">30.</td><td>Francisco de Alcozer; worked at Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">31.</td><td>Francisco Lurdi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">32.</td><td>Francisco Cordiu.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">33.</td><td>Francisco Perez.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">34.</td><td>Giraldo Reliz.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">35.</td><td>Gonzalo Simon, 1617.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">36.</td><td>Gabriel Martinez.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">37.</td><td>Gil de Almau.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">38.</td><td>Hortuo de Aguirre, 1604.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">39.</td><td>Juan Martin.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">40.</td><td>Juan de Leizalde; worked at Seville.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">41.</td><td>Juan Martinez, el <i>viejo</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">42.</td><td>Juan Martinez, el <i>mozo</i>, 1617.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">43.</td><td>Juan de Almau, 1550.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">44.</td><td>Juan de Toro.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">45.</td><td>Juan Ruiz.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">46.</td><td>Juan Martinez de Garata.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">47.</td><td>Juan Martinez Menchaca; he lived at the beginning of the 16th +century, and worked at Lisbon, Seville, and Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">48.</td><td>Juan Ros.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">49.</td><td>Juan Moreno.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">50.</td><td>Juan de Saludo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">51.</td><td>Juan de Meladoria.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">52.</td><td>Juan de Vargas.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">53.</td><td>Juan de la Horta, 1545.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">54.</td><td>Juanes de Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">55.</td><td>Juanes de Algruniva.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">56.</td><td>Juanes de Muleto.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">57.</td><td>Juanes, el <i>viejo</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">58.</td><td>Juanes de Uriza.<a name="page_095" id="page_095"></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">59.</td><td>Julian del Rey, the Moor; he worked for Boabdil, King of +Granada, 15th century.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">60.</td><td>Julian Garcia; worked also at Cuenca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">61.</td><td>Julian de Zamora.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">62.</td><td>Jos Gomez.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">63.</td><td>Jusepe de la Hera, el <i>viejo</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">64.</td><td>Jusepe de la Hera, el <i>mozo</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">65.</td><td>Jusepe de la Hera, el <i>nieto</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">66.</td><td>Jusepe de la Hera, el <i>visnieto</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">67.</td><td>Jusepe del Haza.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">68.</td><td>Ignacio Fernandez, el <i>viejo</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">69.</td><td>Ignacio Fernandez, el <i>mozo</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">70.</td><td>Luis de Nieves.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">71.</td><td>Luis de Ayala.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">72.</td><td>Luis de Belmonte.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">73.</td><td>Luis de Sahagun.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">74.</td><td>Luis de Sahagun.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">75.</td><td>Luis de Nieva; worked at Calatayud.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">76.</td><td>Lupus Aguado, 1567.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">77.</td><td>Miguel Cantero, 1564.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">78.</td><td>Miguel Sanchez.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">79.</td><td>Melchor Suarez; worked at Lisbon.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">80.</td><td>Nicolas Hortuo de Aguirre, 1637.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">81.</td><td>Pedro de Toro.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">82.</td><td>Pedro de Arechiga.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">83.</td><td>Pedro Lopez; worked at Orgaz.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">84.</td><td>Pedro de Lerzama; worked at Seville.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">85.</td><td>Pedro de Lazaretea; worked at Bilbao.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">86.</td><td>Pedro de Orozco.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">87.</td><td>Pedro de Belmonte.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">88.</td><td>Roque Hernandez.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"> </td><td>Sarabal; used no mark.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">89.</td><td>Sebastian Hernandez, el <i>viejo</i>, 1637.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">90.</td><td>Sebastian Hernandez, el <i>mozo</i>; he worked also at Seville.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">91.</td><td>Silvestre Nieto.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">92.</td><td>Silvestre Nieto.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">93.</td><td>Tomas de Ayala, 1625.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">94.</td><td>Zamorano, el Toledano.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Nos. 95, 96, 97, 98, and 99, are the marks of sword makers whose names +are unknown.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Miguel y Manuel Fernandez; worked at Toledo in 1786.</p> + +<p>Pedro de Barreta; at Bilbao at the end of the 16th century.</p></div> + +<p>The following names may be added to this list—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Luis Calisto, 1760; and the four following artists are mentioned by +Palomares as working at Toledo.</p> + +<p>Juan de Valladolid.</p> + +<p>Sebastian Herbs, 1617.</p> + +<p>Manuel Ruiz, 1700.</p> + +<p>Ignacio Fernandez, 1708.</p> + +<p>Juan Orenga, 15th century; worked at Tortosa, and mentioned in the +"Corvacho" of the Arcipreste de Talavera, fol. xi.</p> + +<p>Martin Garro, v. p. 120, "Almanaque de la Industria."</p> + +<p>Alonso Gutierrez, master of sword making at Madrid in 1625.</p></div> + +<p>This artist, and the eleven following, are mentioned in original +documents at the Academia de San Fernando.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Francisco de Borja, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1634.</p> + +<p>Gaspar Martin, sword maker; working at Madrid in 1637.</p> + +<p>Juan Mazon de Santorcas, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1636.</p> + +<p>Juan de Medina; Madrid, 1620.</p> + +<p>Lorenzo de los Rios; Madrid, 1585.</p> + +<p>Miguel de Berrio; Madrid, 1575.</p> + +<p>Pedro Casado, sword maker; Madrid, 1636.</p> + +<p>Francisco de Elias, an apprentice of Pedro Casads.</p> + +<p>Francisco de Salinas; Madrid, 1636.</p> + +<p>Acheza——; Toledo.</p> + +<p>Camilo, 1500.</p></div> + +<p>Two fine rapiers are in the Kensington Museum, Nos. 626, '68, and 2214, +'55, which belong to the 16th and 17th centuries, and give a good idea +of this industry of Toledo. Woodcuts of these appear on the opposite +page. One of the blades is marked with the name of Francisco Ruiz. A +large and most important collection of rapiers, swords, and other arms +exists at the Royal Armoury of Madrid.</p> + +<p>The breastplates are unusually fine, but the finest among them are by +Milanese artists. A good example, which has been considered Spanish, was +formerly in the Bernal Collection (see woodcut on p. 98); it gives an +excellent idea of the artistic importance attained by this industry.</p> + +<p><a name="img_18" id="img_18"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_097_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_097_sml.jpg" width="409" height="594" alt="SPANISH RAPIERS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SPANISH RAPIERS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>The saddles used in Spain were similar to those of other<a name="page_097" id="page_097"></a> European +countries, for we find the same names adapted to the Spanish language. +In the poem of the Cid, 13th century, and other works of the Middle +Ages, <i>gallega</i> and <i>barda</i> saddles are mentioned which were peculiar to +Spain. The <i>gallega</i> saddles were called so from being made in Gallicia; +the <i>barda</i> proceeded<a name="page_098" id="page_098"></a> from the Moors. We find no details which explain +their exact structure.</p> + +<p><a name="img_19" id="img_19"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_098_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_098_sml.jpg" width="379" height="482" alt="BREASTPLATE, FORMERLY IN THE BERNAL COLLECTION." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">BREASTPLATE, FORMERLY IN THE BERNAL COLLECTION.</span> +</p> + +<p>A very remarkable collection of saddles of every description may be +studied at the fine collection of armour at Madrid; among them are two +of special interest—No. 2311 of "Catalogue of Armoury"—traditionally +supposed to have belonged to the Cid, and No. 1310, which was used by +King James the Conqueror in the 13th century. The Cid's saddle (see +woodcut) is intended for a war-horse; its bows are covered with black +metal plating, ornamented with a design of leaves and pilgrims' shells, +partially gilt,<a name="page_099" id="page_099"></a> and the word "Fides," considered to be the Cid's +devise. Much has been written on the origin and authenticity of this +saddle. Cervantes alludes to it in the 49th Chapter of "Don Quixote," +Part I. For further details see "Catalogue of the Armeria."</p> + +<p><a name="img_20" id="img_20"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_099_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_099_sml.jpg" width="387" height="315" alt="SADDLE OF THE CID. ARMOURY, MADRID." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SADDLE OF THE CID. ARMOURY, MADRID.</span> +</p> + +<p>The greatest novelty which was introduced during the Renaissance period +was the use of fire-arms. The only names of ancient artists that I have +met with, who had any connection with the manufactory of large pieces of +artillery were Pedro Burgues, an iron master of Barcelona, who lived in +1393; Rodrigo de Almanza, and Pedro Colomer, who made fire-arms at +Barcelona in 1413; and the Moor, Alfarax Darhin, an iron master of +Tarazona; V. Fernandez Duro. [Museo Espaol, vol. v. p. 18.]</p> + +<p>Portable fire-arms were introduced into Spain towards the middle of the +15th century. Count Clonard, in treating this subject in the "Memorias +de la Academia de la Historia," ix. p. 214, says:—"Alfonso de Palencia +tells us the <i>espingarda</i>, or large hand musket (see woodcut), and +<i>arbatana</i> culverin, were used in the<a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a> insurrection at Toledo in July, +1467. He assures us they had been very recently invented and named. They +had been mentioned as early as 1449. In the siege of Toledo, Don Alvaro +de Luna could not be kept back from the dangerous position in which he +had placed himself, notwithstanding the shower of stones, rockets, +arrows, and shots of <i>espingardas</i> which were thrown into the town."</p> + +<p><a name="img_21" id="img_21"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_100_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_100_sml.jpg" width="495" height="256" alt="SPANISH MUSKETS." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SPANISH MUSKETS.</span> +</p> + +<p>At the same time as these portable fire-arms were used in Spain, the +ancient <i>ballestas</i>, crossbows, so generally used in the Middle Ages, +were very popular. Several artists became very famous in their +manufacture. Alonso Martinez de Espinar enters into many details of this +implement in his rare volume on the "Arte de Ballesteria y Monteria," +Madrid, 1644, 4to, from which I copy the following passage, p. 11:—"The +crossbow is more secure and less dangerous than the arquebuse; for it +has never been known that a man's life has been lost by breaking the +string or cord, two things which are dangerous, but not to a +considerable extent. The crossbow has many advantages over the +arquebuse: it kills, but does not frighten game; this cannot be done +with the arquebuse, for the sound it makes alarms and frightens the +game,<a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a> and is heard everywhere. Once set, its shot is secure; which is +not the case with the arquebuse, which often misses fire.</p> + +<p>"This weapon has been used in Spain from very early times, and has been +made by the best masters; the most famous among them were—</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>Azcoitia el Viejo.<br /> +Pedro de la Fuente.<br /> +Christoval de Azcoitia.<br /> +Juan Hernandez.<br /> +Juan Perez de Villadiego.<br /> +Juan Azcoitia.<br /> +Vzedo.<br /> +Hortega.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>"The only famous maker of crossbows of the present time is Juan de +Lastra."</p> + +<p>Espinar does not mention the name of Miguel, a crossbow maker of +Zaragoza, or another celebrated maker who lived at Barbastro. The +ambassador Salinas alludes to them both in an hitherto unedited letter +written to King Ferdinand of Hungary, the brother of the Emperor Charles +V. He says:—"Before I was able to find a lodging in this town of Monzon +(Aragon), which was about five or six days, I went to Balbastro, +Barbastro, and there occupied myself in making a pair of crossbows for +your Majesty. I believe they are so made that they will satisfy the +desires which were required; they were made in my presence and according +to my wishes, and as your Majesty is annoyed when they do not go off as +you wish, I determined to make them in the following manner: One of them +weighs l. ounces, which is considered here a very great weight. I, +knowing your Majesty's wishes, had another made of lvi. ounces, that is +to say 3 lbs. of Castille, carved and worked in such a manner that +the cords should not break; and that it be pleasant to shoot, I can +affirm your Majesty that the maker is the best which exists in Spain, +and yet he has never made so fine a crossbow as this one which is now +sent to your Majesty; and if not to your liking, I do not expect you +ever<a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a> will be pleased with one. I have sent them to Victoria in order +that the screws may be made to fit the cords, and have ordered them to +be made without delay; and as soon as they are ready they are to be sent +to Bilbao to be forwarded to Flanders to the Queen, to whom your Majesty +must write, in order that whatever you may wish may be done with them. +When we leave here, it is said, we are to go to Zaragoza, where your +Majesty will stay ten or twelve days. I will order two crossbows from +<i>Maestro Michel</i>, who competes with the maker at Barbastro. I will do +the same with these as the others. I entreat your Majesty should provide +that the best of the two should not be lost. I am thoroughly satisfied +with it, and am sure it will please your Majesty. From Monzon, 27th day +of August, <small>MDXXXIII</small>." (Copy of a letter by Martin de Salinas to +Ferdinand, King of Bohemia and Hungary, MS. fol. Acad. of History, c. +71).</p> + +<p>Martinez de Espinar gives in his "Arte de Ballesteria," p. 41, the names +of the best Spanish arquebuse or musket makers, and says: "The first +cannon brought to Spain came from Germany; the artist who made them used +the following marks:—</p> + +<p>"Two heads.</p> + +<p>"A vase.</p> + +<p>"A vase and pine.</p> + +<p>"A pair of tongs.</p> + +<p>"Flames.</p> + +<p>"A knife.</p> + +<p>"An excellent artificer worked formerly in Italy called Lazari Cominaz, +but many bad cannons have been attributed to him.</p> + +<p>"The best Spanish masters were—</p> + +<p>"Maestre Simon, el viejo.</p> + +<p>"Maestre Pedro, his brother, who made at Madrid excellent cannon and +locks.</p> + +<p>"They came over with the Emperor Charles V., and worked also for the +Kings Philip II. and III., and marked the pieces they made with three +sickles.<a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a></p> + +<p>"Maestre Simon had four sons; all of them followed his profession. +Felipe and Simon Marcuarte have worked for Philip III. and IV. Simon +Marcuarte is still alive. They mark with a sickle in a shield, and make +also excellent hunting-knives, archers' knives, halberds, and other +things. Pedro, their brother, is also an excellent artificer.</p> + +<p>"Juan Salado worked in several localities, and died at Salamanca. He was +an excellent arquebuse maker. His mark was the letter of his name and a +horse.</p> + +<p>"Sanchez de Mirvea, his son-in-law, followed him. He marked with a lion +and his initials.</p> + +<p>"Gaspar Fernandez was brought by King Ferdinand from Salamanca, and the +arms he makes are the best in Spain.</p> + +<p>"Pedro Muoz worked at Seville. He was surnamed El Toledano, and marked +with all the letters of his name.</p> + +<p>"Juan de Metola did the same.</p> + +<p>"Leguizamo worked at Seville. He marked with his name and two stags.</p> + +<p>"Francisco Hernandez used his full name.</p> + +<p>"Andres Herraez was a native of Cuenca. He made every sort of arm, and +marked with an eagle and his initials.</p> + +<p>"Maestre Cristoval de Ricla marked with an X.</p> + +<p>"Pedro Palacios with P P."</p> + +<p>A fine musket exists by Palacios at the Royal Armoury of Madrid—No. +427. By Cristoval de Ricla there is a cannon of worked iron, No. 2319, +mounted on its gun-carriage, with the following inscription, "Hizome en +Ricla Cristoval Frisleva ao, 1565." A fine gun, also at the Armeria, is +by the same artist.</p> + +<p>Juan de Espinar does not mention the following artists, who lived at his +time at Madrid. I find their names given in original documents in the +Library of the Academia de San Fernando.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>Bartolom de Orgaz</td><td align="right">1643</td></tr> +<tr><td>Juan de la Cruz</td><td align="right">1629</td></tr> +<tr><td>Juan de Mazo</td><td align="right">1613</td></tr> +<tr><td>Juan de Pozo</td><td align="right">1625</td></tr> +<tr><td>Juan de Zuazo, armourer of his Majesty</td><td align="right">1645</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lucas de Ros, armourer of his Majesty</td><td align="right">1623-1628</td></tr> +<tr><td>Matias Suezo, was arquebusier of the guards of Seville in</td><td align="right">1625</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rafael Villato in</td><td align="right">1625</td></tr> +<tr><td> Pero Matia appears in documents of the archives of Simancas<br />as musket-maker +living at the Alhambra at the end of the 16th century.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>By extracting the information on this subject which is given in the +introduction to the Catalogue of the Armoury, we find this list can be +brought down to our time:—</p> + +<ul><li>Gaspar Hernandez had two excellent pupils.</li> + +<li>Domingo Garcia and Juan Belen, who marked with a lion with a lifted paw. +He was appointed gunsmith to King Charles II. in 1699.</li> + +<li>Alonso Martinez was an excellent artist; he marked his work with the +letters of his name.</li> + +<li>Luis Santos, 1739.</li> + +<li>Nicolas Bis.</li> + +<li>Matias Baeza, gunsmith of King Philip V., 1739.</li> + +<li>Alonso Martinez, 1732.</li> + +<li>Diego Esquivel.</li> + +<li>Juan Fernandez, appointed in 1726.</li> + +<li>Diego Ventura, appointed gunsmith to Charles III., 1760.</li> + +<li>Luis Santos.</li> + +<li>Matias Baeza, 1740.</li> + +<li>Francisco Bis.</li> + +<li>Ignacio Barcina.</li> + +<li>Sebastian Santos, 1752.</li> + +<li>Gabriel de Algora, appointed gunsmith to Ferdinand VI., 1746.</li> + +<li>Juan Fernandez.</li> + +<li>Manuel Sutil, an excellent artist.</li> + +<li>Jos Cano, 1740.</li> + +<li>Joaquin Celaya, 1749.</li> + +<li>Jos Lopez.</li> + +<li>Diego Ventura.</li> + +<li>Benito San Martin.</li> + +<li>Juan Santos.</li> + +<li>Francisco Lopez, a great artist, gunsmith of King Charles III., in 1761.</li> + +<li>Jos Cano.</li> + +<li>Diego Alvarez, 1775.</li> + +<li>Joaquin Celaya.</li> + +<li>Salvador Cenarro, 1762.<a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a></li> + +<li>Antonio Gomez, 1762.</li> + +<li>Pedro Ramirez.</li> + +<li>Agustin Bustindui.</li> + +<li>Sebastian Santos.</li> + +<li>Pedro Fernandez.</li> + +<li>Gabriel de Algora.</li> + +<li>Agustin Ortiz, 1761.</li> + +<li>Miguel Cegarra, 1768.</li> + +<li>Francisco Lopez.</li> + +<li>Francisco Garcia, 1788.</li> + +<li>Isidoro Soler, 1792.</li> + +<li>Francisco Targarona, 1792.</li> + +<li>Gregorio Lopez, 1792.</li> + +<li>Agustin Ortiz.</li> + +<li>Pedro Fernandez.</li> + +<li>Carlos Rodriguez.</li> + +<li>Antonio Navarro.</li> + +<li>Diego Alvarez.</li> + +<li>Valentin Lopez.</li> + +<li>Juan de Soto.</li> + +<li>Carlos Montargis, 1783.</li> + +<li>Manuel Cantero, 1792.</li> + +<li>Hilario Mateo.</li> + +<li>Antonio Gomez.</li> + +<li>Juan Lopez.</li> + +<li>Ramon Martinez.</li> + +<li>Basilio Escalante.</li> + +<li>Manuel Soler.</li> + +<li>Melchor Alvarez, the first gunsmith who forged spiral cannon in Spain, +and made double-barrelled guns.</li> + +<li>Gregorio Lopez.</li> + +<li>Aquilino Aparicio.</li> + +<li>Ramon Zuloaga.</li> + +<li>Eusebio Zuloaga.</li> +<li> </li> +<li>*<span class="subast">*</span>* The marks used by these artists are given in plate 9 of "Catalogo de +la Armeria de Madrid," 1849.</li></ul> + +<p>Daggers, knives, scissors, and other small arms made in Spain, have been +famous from early times. A good example of a dagger is No. 2238, 55 at +the Kensington Museum. A great number of towns have been distinguished +for this industry, such as Albacete, Murcia, Alcazar de San Juan, and +Guadix, where even in the<a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a> present day much cutlery is produced. The +cutlery made in Spain preserves the traditional Moorish forms. Al +Makkari says, in speaking of these objects, in his "Moham. Dyn. in +Spain," vol. i., p. 93:—"Murcia was likewise famous for the manufacture +of coats of mail, breast-plates, and steel armour inlaid with gold; all +kinds of instruments of brass and iron, such as knives, scissors, and +other trinkets, and especially weapons and other warlike instruments, +wrought in such perfection as to dazzle with their brightness the eyes +of the beholder." The translator adds, p. 393: "Several towns in the +province are renowned for this industry. At Albacete there are several +manufactures of well-tempered scissors, daggers, and knives, which, from +the shape of their blades, betray their Moorish origin. Since the +expulsion of the Moriscos, the Spaniards have kept up this manufacture, +and daggers and knives of the end of the last century are often met with +bearing Arabic inscriptions and verses from the Koran. I have seen one +which on one side has the following inscription, 'I shall certainly kill +thy enemies with the help of God,' and on the reverse, 'Fabrica de +Navajas de Antonio Gonzalez, Albacete, 1705.'"</p> + +<p>Sr. Rico y Sinovas has published an interesting article on ironwork in +the "Almanaque de el Museo de la Industria," 1872. He gives the names of +the following artists who were famous in this industry.</p> + +<ul><li>Aguas, Juan; he worked at Guadix in 1735.</li> + +<li>Albacete, signed Cel, 18th century.</li> + +<li>Ambrosio, worked at Mora in the 18th century.</li> + +<li>Arbell, Ramon, worked at Olot, Catalua, in the 17th century.</li> + +<li>Beson, Manuel, worked at Madrid.</li> + +<li>Castellanos, el <i>viejo</i>, worked at Albacete in 1766.</li> + +<li>Castellanos, el <i>mozo</i>, worked at Albacete in the 18th century.</li> + +<li>Castello, Gregorio, 16th century.</li> + +<li>Cerda, Miguel de la, worked at Madrid and Segovia in 1590.</li> + +<li>Diaz, Pedro, worked at Albacete in the early half of the 18th +century.</li> + +<li>Escobar, Cristoval, 16th century.</li> + +<li>Escobar, Juan, 17th century.<a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a></li> + +<li>Fernandez Manso de Payba, Jose, master cutler of the 18th century.</li> + +<li>Garcia de la Torre, Teodoro, 18th century.</li> + +<li>Garijo, master cutler of Albacete; he worked in 1771.</li> + +<li>Gomez, Mateo, worked at Albacete in 1659.</li> + +<li>Grande, Juan, 1643.</li> + +<li>Gutierrez, worked at Chinchilla, 1701.</li> + +<li>Herrezuelo, el <i>viejo</i>, worked at Baeza in 1643.</li> + +<li>Herrezuelo, el <i>mozo</i>, worked at Baeza in 1643.</li> + +<li>Horbeira, Angel, worked at Madrid in the second half of the 17th century.</li> + +<li>Lallave, Juan, locksmith of Madrid in 1820.</li> + +<li>Leon, worked at Albacete early in the 18th century.</li> + +<li>Llorens, Pablo, worked at Olot in 1699.</li> + +<li>Moro, worked at Madrid late in the last century.</li> + +<li>Ramirez, Juan, worked at Mexico in 1590.</li> + +<li>Romero, worked at Albacete in 1769.</li> + +<li>Rosel, worked at Mora.</li> + +<li>San Jos, worked at Jaen in 1673.</li> + +<li>Selva, Juan, worked at Cartagena in 1780.</li> + +<li>Segura, worked at Mora towards the end of the last century.</li> + +<li>Sierra, Juan, worked at Albacete in 1771.</li> + +<li>Sosa, Madrid, 17th century.</li> + +<li>Torres, Albacete, 17th century.</li> + +<li>Vicen Perez, worked at Albacete in 1674.</li> + +<li>Vilarosa, Antonio, worked in the 17th century.</li> + +<li>Vicen Perez, Julian, worked at Albacete in 1710.</li> + +<li>Zervantes, Francisco, Toledo, 17th century.</li> +</ul> + +<p>The following artists' names may be added; they consist of master +cutlers of Madrid, and are to be found in a bundle of original documents +at the Academy of San Fernando.</p> + +<ul><li>Alcocer, Francisco, 1635.</li> + +<li>Baltanos, Lucas de, 1611.</li> + +<li>Castillo, Rafael del, 1625.</li> + +<li>Cuenca, Francisco de, 1613.</li> + +<li>Fuente, Pedro de la, worked at Mora and Madrid in 1628.</li> + +<li>Garcia, Bartolom, 1642.</li> + +<li>Gonzalez, Marcos, 1624, 1625.</li> + +<li>Heras, Antonio de las, 1611.</li> + +<li>Luzon, Andres de, 1611.</li> + +<li>Martin, Alonso, 1643.</li> + +<li>Martinez de Machuca, Pedro, 1611.</li> + +<li>Morel, Alonso, 1643.<a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a></li> + +<li>Rodriguez de Quiones, Pedro, 1611.</li> + +<li>Torres, Antonio de, 1622.</li> + +<li>Valsarias, Lucas de, 1611.</li></ul> + +<p>The following names of artists are given in Calomarde's "Historia +Politica de Aragon."</p> + +<ul><li>Ferrara, Andres, Zaragoza, 16th century.</li> + +<li>Picado, Jeronimo, Calatayud, 1722.</li> + +<li>Nieva, Luis, Calatayud, 17th century.</li> + +<li>Munester, Andres, Calatayud, 18th century.</li></ul> + +<p><a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="FURNITURE" id="FURNITURE"></a>FURNITURE.</h2> + +<p>I<small>T</small> is difficult to give an account of the furniture used in Spain from +the earliest times, owing to the absence of specimens belonging to the +Roman or Visigothic period. We are safe, however, in affirming that, +during the domination of the Romans, the same models were used in Spain +as in Rome itself, the similarity between objects of other kinds which +exists, and the continual habit of the Romans of imposing their culture +on the countries which they conquered, is sufficient to justify this +idea. During the first period of the Christian era until about the 11th +century, other objects which have reached us as gold and silversmiths' +work, seem to prove that all industrial art work, including furniture +must have been Classic, Byzantine, or Oriental in form, according to the +period in which these styles predominated. The Roman or Classical style +must have lasted for a considerable time, if we judge by the texts given +by San Isidoro, in his "Etymologies," lib. xx., cap. xi. and xii. San +Isidoro lived in the 7th century of our era. We find he mentions the +words, <i>de lectis et sellis</i>, <i>de vehiculis</i>, which refer to furniture +of the Roman period; but we do not meet with any distinctive terms which +can be applied to the time in which he lived, on the contrary he +comments on phrases and alludes to the forms of objects in the same +manner as Rufus, Varrus, and other classical writers.</p> + +<p>At the invasion of the Arabs in the beginning of the 8th century the +Byzantine element increased in its application to furniture. During the +reign of the caliphs, contemporary authors tell us that<a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a> luxury of +decoration of every kind was carried to a great extent. The description +of the pulpit or <i>minbar</i> of the mosque of Cordova will give an idea of +its richness. Al Makkari, in his "History of Mohammedan Dynasties in +Spain," says, "the length of the Mihrab was 8 cubits; its breadth, 7 +cubits; the height of its dome, 13 cubits. There stood on one side a +pulpit, constructed by Alhahem, equalled by none other in the world for +workmanship and materials. It was made of ivory and exquisite woods, +such as ebony, sandal, Indian plantain, citron wood, aloe, and so forth, +at the expense of 3,575 dinars: the steps by which it was ascended were +nine in number. Another writer says it was formed of 36,000 pieces of +wood fastened together by gold and silver nails, occasionally encrusted +with precious stones, and its construction lasted for seven years; eight +artists being daily employed on it," vol. i. p. 222.</p> + +<p>Edrisi, who lived at Cordova at the beginning of the 12th century, +describes this pulpit in the same manner. It was to be seen in the +cathedral of Cordova as late as the 16th century, when it was destroyed, +and its materials employed in the construction of an altar. An Arab +<i>minbar</i> is in the South Kensington Museum, which came from Cairo, and +although belonging to the last centuries of the Middle Ages, it will +give an idea of this structure and its elaborate workmanship.</p> + +<p>The oldest specimen of furniture which exists in Spain, belonging to +Christian art, is the shrine of San Millan de la Cogulla, in the +province of La Rioja, described in <i>Ivories</i>, p. 134. This casket or +shrine was made by the orders of King Sancho el Mayor, in 1033, in order +to preserve the relics of San Millan. It is of wood, covered with 22 +compartments of highly interesting ivory plaques, representing episodes +from the life of the Saint. The names of the artists, <i>Apparitio</i> and +<i>Rodolpho</i>, appear on it. In 1808 the French stripped the shrine of its +gold and silver ornaments, but, most fortunately, left the casket and +its ivory carvings behind.<a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a></p> + +<p>Another interesting object, which is useful for illustrating furniture +in Spain in the 12th century, is the Bishop's throne in the cathedral of +Gerona. It is of white marble of one piece, covered with a simple +ornamentation in excellent taste, in a similar style, and for the same +purpose, as the throne of San Clemente in Rome. It is raised at the back +of the altar, and is ascended by thirteen steps. The Bishop sits on this +throne after the first purification, and continues there until the +Offertory, when he descends and finishes the mass at the altar; owing to +the existence of this chair, one of the most ancient rites of +Catholicism has been preserved at Gerona.</p> + +<p>Mention must also be made of the shrine in which the remains of Queen +Urraca are kept in the cathedral of Palencia, and the Cofre del Cid in +the cathedral of Burgos, although they are more interesting for their +antiquity than their artistic merit.</p> + +<p>During the 13th century furniture in Spain must have been similar to +that used in other countries, it was influenced by French and Italian +forms; from which, as was the case in architecture, these models were +constantly copied. Some idea of this is given in the triptych known by +the name of the Tablas Alfonsinas, which is fully described in Gold and +Silver Work. (<a href="#img_2">See woodcut on p. 17.</a>)</p> + +<p>The principal novelty which we find in Spain in this industry consists +in the combination of the Christian and Moorish styles applied to +furniture. A very remarkable specimen exists at the Academia de la +Historia, consisting of a reliquary, triptych or armoire of very large +dimensions, formerly in the church of the Monasterio of Piedra in +Aragon. It is 13 feet wide and 8 feet high. When the two doors are +closed six compartments appear on each, surrounded by a border headed by +a wide cornice. This cornice is divided in sixteen spaces formed by +arches adorned with stalactite ornamentation in the Moorish style; +inside each span is painted the figure of a saint. In the twelve +compartments which form the doors there are subjects from the life of<a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a> +Our Lord, beginning with the Annunciation, and ending with the Descent +from the Cross painted in excellent taste. The border which surrounds +these doors is formed of a beautiful geometrical ornamentation, in the +purest Oriental style; in the upper and lower part appears the following +inscription in Gothic characters, which gives us the date in which this +object was made.</p> + +<p>Tabernaculum hoc vocabitur aula Dei quia vere Dominis est in loco isto. +Fuit autem constructum ad honorem et reverentiam sacratissimi corporis +Domini nostri Ihu Xpi et pasionis ejusdem nec non ad honorem == et +reverentiam sanctissime genitricis ejusdem et totius celestis curie et +sanctorum ... at fuit ... depictum anno MCCCXC. anima ordinatoris +requiescat ... sinu salvatoris. Amen.</p> + +<p>When this triptych is opened several compartments appear, formed by +cusped Gothic arches, placed within others, in the form of a mitre +divided by pinnacles. The ornamentation which fills the vacant space +between the arches, and the seven banderoles in the lower part are in +pure Gothic style, without a reminiscence of Moorish art. In the central +banderole appears the name of <i>Dopnus Martinus Poncii Abbas</i>, the abbot +of the monastery where this reliquary was made, and the person by whom +the expense was probably borne. The inside of the doors is divided into +two horizontal zones, which include half the total size. The upper zone +is covered with geometrical tracery, similar to the outer borders. The +lower one is divided into four compartments for each leaf of the door, +eight within two, which are formed by cusped Gothic arches; within these +spaces are painted standing figures of angels holding musical +instruments in their hands and nimbi round their heads. The details and +forms of the instruments and delicate ornamentation of the costumes and +carpets, constitute one of the most beautiful details of this triptych. +These details and several of the architectural lines of the Gothic part +of this ornamentation denote an Italian influence, probably Sicilian, +for this province belonged then to the crown of Aragon.<a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a> This triptych +is richly gilt, and painted inside and out, and is one of the finest and +most remarkable specimens of the kind which exist in any country. A +plate may be seen in "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 307.</p> + +<p>A very interesting specimen of this combination of styles is a recess or +cupboard of the 14th century, which is at the Kensington Museum, No. +1764, 71, [see woodcut]. It is 5 feet 4 inches high, by 8 feet wide; and +is composed of an outer arch, with the tympani ornamented with fine +arabesques in relief, made of stucco,—representing vine tendrils, +leaves, and flowers, similar to those which appear in the Cosa de Mesa +and other Moorish houses at Toledo. The arch is surrounded by two Latin +inscriptions in Gothic characters, of which only the following words are +legible + Autem transies per medium ilorum.... mente +. The first of +these is from St. Luke, iv., v. 30, a passage often quoted by +alchemists.</p> + +<p>This arch serves as a portal to the cupboard, which is about a foot +deep, and is divided into two compartments with two rows of shelves. +Each of these is supported by a series of Moorish arches, the tympani of +which are ornamented with tracery, or an ornamentation of leaves in a +geometrical and Oriental manner. On the rim of the upper part is +repeated the following inscription in African characters:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_113_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_113_sml.png" width="84" height="24" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">"Felicity and Fortune."</span> +</p> + +<p>On the lower shelf are the following words in Spanish in Gothic +characters: + Dios: te: salve: estrella: de: la: mannana: medicina: de: +los: peccadores: reina + "Hail! morning star; medicine of sinners; +queen."</p> + +<p><a name="img_22" id="img_22"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_114_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_114_sml.jpg" width="728" height="487" alt=""BOTICA DE LOS TEMPLARIOS." FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">"BOTICA DE LOS TEMPLARIOS." FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>This "Alhacena," or cupboard, existed formerly in the court of an old +house at Toledo, known by the name of "Casa de la Parra," and is +constantly called "Botica de los Templarios," the Templars' dispensary, +probably because the Templars occupied the parish of<a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a><a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a> St. Michael, in +which the house stands, and because the word "medicine" is mentioned in +the inscription.</p> + +<p>In order to increase the list of these objects, which are unfortunately +so rare, it is necessary to mention the organ case, decorated with fine +Moorish tracery, in the chapel founded by Diego de Anaya, Archbishop of +Seville in 1374, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca.</p> + +<p>Another specimen of furniture of interest of the 14th century is the +shrine or casket containing the remains of San Isidoro, existing in the +parish church of San Andres at Madrid. This casket is 7 feet 5 inches +long; the cover is formed of two plain surfaces, forming a roof, which +leaves a triangular pediment at each end. The shrine is made of wood, +covered outside with a coat of painting in distemper, and is decorated +with a series of painted compartments simulating pointed tricuspid +arches let into others which are mitre-shaped; in the interior spaces +are painted a series of representations of the life of the saint. This +object is extremely interesting: it is evidently of Spanish workmanship, +although it has great resemblance with the Italian <i>cassoni</i> of the same +period. See vol. iv. "Mus. Esp." p. 593, and "Monumentos +Arquitectonicos"—livraison 67.</p> + +<p>The most important period of artistic furniture in Spain must be looked +for in the 15th and 16th centuries: we find in this time works decorated +with sculptured figures and most delicate and exquisite ornamentation. +Nothing gives a better idea of this than the choir seats of Spanish +cathedrals. The cathedrals in Spain are different to those of France and +the north of Europe owing to the circumstance that the choir, or <i>coro</i>, +is placed in the middle of the central nave, in the traditional form of +the primitive basilicas, such as San Clemente at Rome, with the +difference however, that towards the last centuries of the Middle Ages +the <i>pluteus</i> or walls that surround it, which are elevated about one +yard from the floor, were turned into an enclosure or wall four or five +yards in height. A space is therefore set apart in the middle<a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a> of the +church, which, although spoiling the general effect of the nave, +becomes, as is the case in most Spanish cathedrals, a museum of artistic +objects of all kinds. The side facing the presbytery or high altar is +enclosed by a <i>reja</i>. [See Iron and Bronze work.] In the three remaining +sides stalls are placed against the wall, forming two rows, one near the +floor, and the other raised about a yard from the lower ones. The +general system adopted is a row of stalls separated from each other by +the arms; the backs of the lower ones serving as stands for the books +which are used by those who sit in the upper range. The subsell are +prolonged and form canopies, pinnacles, crest-work, and other varied +ornamentation resting on columns. They are usually made of walnut wood, +and there is not a single vacant space which is left uncovered with +figures or ornamentation in relief: the effect produced by the whole is +admirable. The number of seats varies according to the size of the +choir, or importance of the church.</p> + +<p>It is probable that the earliest wood carvers who worked in Spain came +from Flanders or Holland, if we judge by the decided Germanic character +of the figures and ornamentation, and frequent mention made of foreign +masters; but this industry very soon took root in Spain, and Spanish +artists soon equalled or excelled their masters. The most important +choir stalls carved in the Gothic style in Spain belong only to the last +years of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century; those in the +Renaissance style come immediately afterwards, and include the whole +16th century.</p> + +<p>One of the finest is that of Leon, it is in the purest German-Gothic +style, and may be considered as a masterpiece in its way: the large +figures are as delicately carved as the small ones. The representations +of the "Last Judgment" and "Tree of Jesse" are as beautiful as can be +imagined. The choir at Zamora is also in the German style; the large +figures which ornament it are splendid in effect. These stalls are fully +described in "The Ecclesiologist," in the following manner: "The stalls, +though<a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a> not remarkably early, are very fine. The bishops, as usual, at +the centre of the west nave; then three dignitaries on each side; then +at each extremity of the west end a door into the nave; then on the +north and south sides respectively twenty stalls with subsell, which +also are returned. All the panelling is very fine: but that at the back +of the subsell I will give at full, because the types of, and legends +concerning Our Lord are so remarkably well chosen, that they may be +useful as giving ideas to our own church builders, and might be +introduced with great advantage in stained glass." "Ecclesiologist," +vol. xiv., p. 363.</p> + +<p>The stalls at the cathedral and church of Sto. Tomas of Avila, and +cathedral of Burgos are also very fine. The <i>coro</i> at Barcelona is +extremely picturesque; at the backs of the stalls are placed the coats +of arms of the knights of the Golden Fleece, in a similar manner to +those of St. George's Chapel at Windsor; among these we find the arms of +Henry the VIIIth. In 1519 the Emperor Charles V. held at Barcelona a +chapter of this Order, the only one which has ever been held in Spain.</p> + +<p>It would take too much space to enumerate the choir seats in Spain +worthy of notice; those at Toledo rank as the most important, as +including the last period of the Gothic and best Renaissance styles. +This <i>coro</i> contains 45 stalls in the lower, and 71 in the upper part. +Mr. Street fully describes the lower part in his "Gothic Architecture in +Spain," p. 252, and says: "The lower range of stalls, fifty in number, +are the work of Maestro Rodrigo, circa <small>A.D.</small> 1495; and the upper range +were executed, half by Berruguete and half by Felipe de Borgoa, <small>A.D.</small> +1543. The old stall ends are picturesque in outline, very large, and +covered with tracery, panels and carvings with monkeys and other animals +sitting on them. The upper range of stalls is raised by four steps, so +that between the elbows of the lower stalls and the desk above them, are +spaces filled in with a magnificent series of bas reliefs, illustrating +the various incidents of the conquest of Granada. They were executed +whilst the subjects depicted<a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a> were fresh in the minds of the people, and +are full of picturesque vigour and character. The names of the +fortresses are inscribed on the walls; in some we have the siege, in +others the surrender of the keys; in others the Catholic monarchs, +accompanied by Cardinal Ximenes riding in triumph through the gates." +The upper stalls, although considered by Mr. Street "heavy dull +Paganism," are among the most important artistic works existing in +Spain. Their sculptures and ornamentation reproduce the Renaissance +Italian style in its finest period. Columns of red jasper are combined +with the walnut-wood carvings, and the termination of the upper part +which rests on the wall is of white marble carved by the same artists.</p> + +<p>Choir stalls, sharing the fate of other architectural works, followed +the general path of decay after the 16th century. Those stalls at the +cathedral of Malaga, which were carved in the 17th century by Jos +Michael, Pedro de Mena, and Luis Ortiz, are worthy of mention: the +figures in high relief at the back are very fine. This falling off of +artistic feeling is particularly observable at the cathedral of Cordova; +the stalls there, which were carved by Pedro Duque Cornejo in the 18th +century, are admirable in richness of ornamentation, but the whole +decoration is in the worst possible taste. The fine lecterns which are +placed in the centres of the choirs are often good examples of carving. +An admirable model of this style exists at the cathedral of Zamora.</p> + +<p>In treating of furniture of other kinds, the silver chair or throne of +D<sup>n.</sup> Martin de Aragon must figure in the first instance. It is +described in "Gold and Silver Work," p. 19. In these and other objects +which are not Oriental in style, constant reminiscences are observable +of the similarity of ideas and forms with Italian or French objects. The +large chests or <i>cassoni</i> of different sizes which are constantly met +with in museums, or in private collections, are similar to objects of +the same kind which abound in Italy. Some are covered with fine Gothic +or Renaissance carvings<a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a> in the same taste as the choir stalls, and are +ornamented also with good iron-work. Some of them were made in the +province of Catalua of inlaid ivory, imitating in a coarse manner +Florentine and Milanese work. These objects were of the end of the 15th +and beginning of the 16th century. An excellent example exists at the +cathedral of Toledo, near the Puerta de los Leones, consisting of an +iron coffer covered with carved and repouss work.</p> + +<p>A fine cupboard of walnut wood may be seen at the same cathedral which +is unrivalled for its beauty. It is composed of an architectural order +with six pilasters, forming five vacant spaces completely covered with +medallions, groups of children, flowers, and a multitude of subjects of +ornamentation in reliefs, terminating with a frieze crowned with +candelabra and salient points. This piece of furniture was made in +1549-1551, by the sculptor, Pedro Pardo, for holding vestments of the +clergy. In 1780 a reproduction was made by Gregorio Lopez Durango: the +original and the copy face each other in the room which is passed on +entering the Sala Capitular. As Spanish carved wood work of the +beginning of the 16th century may be mentioned the specimens at the +Kensington Museum, Nos. 245 and 246-64, of two panels with armorial +shields.</p> + +<p>During the 16th, but more especially the 17th, century it became very +fashionable in Europe to use secretaires or cabinets to a great extent, +which, if we calculate by those that still are found in private houses +in Spain, have never been so numerous in any other country. A great +variety of every description may be seen at the South Kensington Museum. +In looking through old inventories at Madrid, the number of these +escritoires which decorated the rooms of the Palace is almost +incredible. Many of them came from Italy, Flanders, or Germany. In a +memorial drawn up by Pedro Gutierrez and presented to the King, begging +for protection for this industry, he says: "The cabinets and +escritoires, <i>contadores y bufetes</i>, which were worth 500, 600, and 700<a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a> +reales when brought from Germany, are now made in Spain for 250 and 300 +reales each." (Acad. de la Hist., N. 6, vol. iv. 371.) The quantity and +importance of those brought from Germany is to be inferred from an edict +promulgated by Philip III., in Valladolid in 1603, in which "cabinets of +every kind coming from Nuremberg are not allowed to enter the country," +ib. 518.</p> + +<p>These cabinets were made in a great variety of ways. Some were, as we +have seen, copied in Spain from foreign models, but the greater number +constituted a characteristic industry of the Peninsula. Some were +covered with wood carvings in a similar style to the large armoires in +the Sala Capitular at Toledo. Others were known by the name of +<i>Vargueos</i>, because the great centre of their manufacture is supposed +to have existed at the village of Vargas in the province of Toledo. +These cabinets are effective; their geometrical ornamentation is a +reminiscence of the Oriental style, and the iron work outside is very +striking. A good specimen may be seen at the Kensington Museum, No. +1073, '71; a woodcut of the upper portion is given on the next page.</p> + +<p>We also meet with cabinets and armoires with glass doors covered with +tortoise-shell and gilt bronze. A splendid series of inlaid work of +tortoise-shell, ebony, mother-of-pearl and ivory is preserved at the +Sacristy of the Cartuja at Granada, made by a friar of the same convent, +Manuel Vazquez, at the beginning of the last century. Cabinets of ebony, +inlaid and covered with repouss silver work, must have been very +generally made in Spain; silver was used to so great an extent after the +conquest of America, that a law was issued in 1574 prohibiting with the +utmost rigour the making and selling of this kind of merchandise, in +order not to increase the scarcity of silver. "No cabinets, desks, +coffers, braziers, etc., shall be manufactured of silver."</p> + +<p><a name="img_23" id="img_23"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_121_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_121_sml.jpg" width="496" height="314" alt="VARGUEO CABINET. SPANISH. 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">VARGUEO CABINET. SPANISH. 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>Cabinets of inlaid ivory or different coloured woods which were +originally imported from Italy and Germany were constantly reproduced in +Spain, as will appear by the following dialogue:—<a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a> "How much has your +worship paid for this cabinet? It is worth more than 40 ducats. What +wood is it made of? The red one is made of mahogany from the Habana, and +the black one is made of ebony, and the white one of ivory. You will +find the workmanship excellent. Here you will find a finer cabinet. +Where was it made? It was brought with these chairs from Salamanca." +("Dialogos Familiares," by J. de Luna, Paris, 1669, p. 111.) Among +cabinets inlaid with bone or ivory there is a peculiar style in which +furniture brought from the Portuguese possessions in the East was +imitated in a rough way. Some also have reached us in which the drawers +are covered with embroidery in silks of different colours, exquisitely +worked. In the 17th century furniture of different kinds was covered +with embroidered silks. At the Kensington Museum there is an interesting +coffer, which came from the Convent of Loeches, and was originally the +gift of Count Duke de Olivares, Philip the IVth's minister.<a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a></p> + +<p>The cabinets decorated with <i>pietre duri</i>, which are frequently met with +in Spain were of foreign make. Madame d'Aunoy, in describing the house +of a grandee of Spain in her "Voyage d'Espagne," p. 56, vol. ii., Lyon, +1643, says, "et de grands cabinets de pices de rapport enrichis de +pierreries, lesquels ne sont pas faits en Espagne: des tables d'argent +d'entre eux, et des miroirs admirables tant pour leur grandeur que pour +leurs riches bordures, dont les moins belles sont d'argent. Ce que j'ai +trouv de plus beau sont des <i>escaparates</i>; une espce de petit cabinet +ferm d'une seule glace et rempli de tout ce qu'on se peut figurer de +plus rare." Cabinets ornamented with paintings on glass, or copper, or +enamels came from Flanders, and some rare specimens of damasquine work +were most probably Milanese manufacture.</p> + +<p>In Cean Bermudez "Dicc Historico de los Profesores de Bellas Artes" +appear among the sculptors' names, those of the artists who carved the +most important stalls of the cathedrals, and other works of art of a +similar kind, but the names of those who made cabinets have never yet +been published. I have been fortunate enough to be able to collect the +following from unpublished documents which exist at the Library of the +Acad. de San Fernando at Madrid. They worked in the 16th and 17th +century.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>Aguayo, Urban de, wood carver</td><td align="right">1623</td></tr> +<tr><td>Carpintero, Francisco, wood carver</td><td align="right">1630</td></tr> +<tr><td>Garcia, Marcos, wood carver of his Majesty</td><td align="right">1637-42</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gomez, Juan, carver in wood</td><td align="right">1598</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gorostiza, Juan de, carver in wood</td><td align="right">1627</td></tr> +<tr><td>Higares, Nicolas de, carver in wood</td><td align="right">1625</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hispano, Francisco, carver in ivory</td><td align="right">1618</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hoz, Martin de la, carver in wood</td><td align="right">1624</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lara, Benardino, de, carver in wood</td><td align="right">1612</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lozano, Pedro</td><td align="right">1622</td></tr> +<tr><td>Marcos, Juan, carver in wood</td><td align="right">1636</td></tr> +<tr><td>Martinez, Andrs, carver in wood</td><td align="right">1622</td></tr> +<tr><td>Martinez, Dionisio, carver in wood</td><td align="right">1621-25</td></tr> +<tr><td>Martinez, Gabriel, carver in wood</td><td align="right">1623</td></tr> +<tr><td>Murga, Tomas de, carver of his royal Highness</td><td align="right">1614<a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Osoz, Martin de, wood carver</td><td align="right">1623</td></tr> +<tr><td>Parezano, Alonso, wood carver of his Majesty</td><td align="right">1623</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pelegrin, Joan, wood carver</td><td align="right">1614</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pea, Jeronimo de la, wood carver</td><td align="right">1622</td></tr> +<tr><td>Quero, Melchor de, carver in wood</td><td align="right">1586</td></tr> +<tr><td>Radis, Francisco, master maker of cabinets inebony and ivory</td><td align="right">1617</td></tr> +<tr><td>Riofrio, Martin de, wood carver</td><td align="right">1612</td></tr> +<tr><td>Riofrio, Tomas de, wood carver</td><td align="right">1626</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rodriguez, Bernardo de, wood carver</td><td align="right">1624</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rodriguez, Domingo, wood carver</td><td align="right">1633</td></tr> +<tr><td>Roxo, Domingo, wood carver</td><td align="right">1630</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sanchez, Matias, wood carver</td><td align="right">1565</td></tr> +<tr><td>Santana, Juan de, wood carver</td><td align="right">1617</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sierra, Francisco de, wood carver</td><td align="right">1634</td></tr> +<tr><td>Spano, Jeronimo, wood carver</td><td align="right">1617</td></tr> +<tr><td>Torres, Juan de, wood carver</td><td align="right">1658</td></tr> +<tr><td>Velasco, Lucas de, master in painting andgilding cabinets</td><td align="right">1633</td></tr> +<tr><td>Zorrilla, Domingo</td><td align="right">1642</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Large arm-chairs of a quadrangular form, with arms, back and seat of +leather or embroidered stuffs, were used to furnish rooms at the same +time as these cabinets; tables, and frames inlaid with ivory, +tortoise-shell, ebony, bronze and silver, were hung on the walls; +side-boards, beds, and braziers were made of inlaid woods or silver. +Women during the 16th and 17th centuries sat on low stools on the +ground. The beds were made of rich brocades embroidered with gold, +(<i>vide</i> Madame d'Aunoy), trimmed with point d'Espagne, and on the +splendid carpets were placed silver braziers which burnt crushed olive +stones. The walls were covered with tapestry and rich silks, and from +very early times stamped, painted or gilt leather <i>guadameciles</i> were +used in Spain to a very great extent. These <i>guadameciles</i> were imitated +in France and other countries in the 16th and 17th centuries; a very +large quantity of this stamped leather is to be met with in England. The +Baron Ch. Davillier has lately published an interesting notice on this +subject, from which I take the following information. ("Notes sur les +cuirs de Cordoue. Guadameciles d'Espagne," Paris, 1878.)<a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a></p> + +<p>The word guadamecil applied to this leather comes from the village of +<i>Ghadames</i> in Africa, celebrated from the 12th century for this +industry. It was imported by the Moors into Spain, and Cordova became +from the beginning of the Middle Ages the great centre of this +production, although other towns, such as Seville, Granada, Toledo, and +Barcelona, exported these leathers also. The chronicler Ambrosio de +Morales, in his "Las Antiguedades de las ciudades de Espaa," Alcala, +1575, says, p. 10, "A great commerce is produced by the exportation of +skins, and many have been enriched by it, those prepared at Cordova are +so excellent, that now in Spain any goat hide prepared in any locality +is called Cordovan. Guadameciles are made of leather, and are so well +fashioned in Cordova that none can compete with them; they are exported +to the Indies and all Europe. They produce much for the town, and +beautify the principal streets, for the hides are hung out to dry after +they are painted and gilt, and it is a fine sight to see the walls +covered with such variety of colour and form."</p> + +<p>A good collection of these guadameciles is in the South Kensington +Museum. See Nos. 471 to 485, '69, and 1651 to 1654, '71.</p> + +<p>At the end of the 17th and first half of the 18th century, the Baroque +or Churrigueresque architecture had such influence over furniture, that +although exaggerated examples were very common, they reached in no +country to such a pitch as they did in Spain. As specimens, the enormous +<i>retablos</i> over the high altars made of gilt carved wood may be +mentioned, which are so frequently to be seen in Spanish churches. The +exuberance of uncouth heavy ornamentation destroys the regularity and +harmony of the general effect. Chairs and tables were made then in the +same style, and the <i>cornucopias</i> or decorated mirrors which adorn +Spanish churches and sacristy, belong to this period. The name of +<i>cornucopia</i> was given in allusion to the horn of abundance.</p> + +<p>The French influence of the last century brought the same fashions for +furniture into Spain, and we also find there the styles<a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a> known as Louis +XVI. and Empire. Spain follows the general rule; porcelain plaques from +the manufactories of Alcora and Retiro were let into furniture, and gilt +bronze mountings were very much used. The most important specimens of +furniture of the early present century are the splendid rooms inlaid +with metal work at the Palace, called Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez, and +those known by the name of "Piezas de maderas finas," at the Palace del +Escorial. The description given by J. Quevdo, in his "Historia del Real +Monasterio de San Lorenzo," Madrid, 1849, gives a good idea of their +importance; he says, p. 343, "This series of four small rooms were +decorated at a cost of 28,000,000 of reales (280,000). The pavement, +friezes, windows, and doors, are made of the most delicate inlaid work +representing landscapes, vases and festoons of flowers, which look as if +they were painted with a brush. King Charles IV. helped in this work, +and they were finished in 1831 under the direction of Angel Maeso. The +splendid iron work was made by Ignacio Millan. It is of polished iron +inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in workmanship."<a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="IVORIES" id="IVORIES"></a>IVORIES.</h2> + +<p>N<small>O</small> artistic industry in Spain has left behind so little historical +information as ivory carving. Only a very small number of examples of +this art have reached us which are of undoubted Spanish manufacture, but +a group exists among them which has been but little examined or studied; +it is worthy of the utmost attention, on account of its artistic +character, and the inferences which may be drawn from it.</p> + +<p>We find no allusion in the works of Pliny or St. Isidoro to the +existence of the industry of ivory carving in Spain during the Roman and +Visigothic dominations. An interesting example of ivory work of the +Roman period, consisting of a consular diptych may be seen at the +cathedral of Oviedo, which, although certainly not carved in Spain, must +not be overlooked here, in order that it may be included among the +number of the carvings which have reached us of this period. The two +leaves of this diptych are complete, and in a perfect state of +preservation: they are 16 inches long by 6 inches wide; in the centres +are two medallions in relief with a bust of the consul, who is +represented in the act of throwing down with his right hand the <i>mappa</i> +or handkerchief, and holding in his left hand a sceptre. The right +angles are ornamented with masks, the rest of the surface is plain. The +two following inscriptions run along the upper part of the leaves: +FLSTRATEGIVS APION. STRATEGIVS APION V. ILL: COM. DEVV. DOMM. ET CONS + OR.</p> + +<p>Flavius Strategius Apius. Strategius Apius, illustrious man, count of +the most fervent servants, and consul in ordinary.<a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a></p> + +<p>This consul belongs to the period of Justinian, by which emperor he was +invested with this dignity in A.D. 539. We do not know how this diptych +came to Spain; it is generally supposed that it belonged originally to +the shrine of the cathedral of Toledo, from whence it was removed to +Asturias, with other relics, to be concealed there during the invasion +of the Arabs at the beginning of the 8th century. The student will find +further details in "Corpus Ins." by Hbner. "Monumentos +arquitectonicos." "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades." Vol. i. p. 385.</p> + +<p>From the invasion of the Arabs, which began early in the 8th century, +and on the foundation of the empire of the Caliphs of Cordova in the +year 756, an era of grandeur began for the Arabs in Spain, coinciding +with their independence from the Caliphs of Damascus, which lasted for +more than two centuries; during this time Cordova became the most +important literary and scientific centre in Europe. The direct influence +of the East and Constantinople may be traced without interruption from +this time on the culture of the Spanish Arabs. At times this culture was +transmitted by the objects of every kind which the Spaniards received +from the East, at others by the influence exercised by the artists who +established themselves on the territory of the Caliphate of Cordova. The +greater part of the industrial arts, which were imported at this time, +became naturalized in the country, and we find them developed in every +locality of the Peninsula, and although we do not possess any positive +historical information stating this fact, which distinctly bears on +ivory carvings, we are safe in affirming that the industry existed among +the Spanish Arabs in a very high state of perfection during the last +years of the Caliphate. The description and details of the most +important ivories which have reached us of this period confirms this +opinion.</p> + +<p>At the South Kensington Museum there is a cylindrical box No. 217-'65 +with rounded cover. I copy Mr. Maskell's description of this object, of +which a woodcut is given. (Vide "Ivories,<a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a> Ancient and Medival, in the +South Kensington Museum," London, 1872.)</p> + +<p>"This beautiful box is carved throughout, except the bottom of it, with +interlacing narrow bands forming quatrefoils, in which on the cover are +four eagles. These have spread wings and stand erect; well designed and +most delicately executed. A small knob serves to lift the lid.</p> + +<p><a name="img_24" id="img_24"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_128a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_128a_sml.jpg" width="474" height="315" alt="IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>"Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a star having a leaf +ornament. The same decoration is repeated in the spaces between the +larger quatrefoils on the cover.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_128b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_128b_sml.png" width="315" height="30" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"The whole is carved in pierced work, except a band which forms the +upper upright portion of the box, round the side of the lid. This band +has an Arabic inscription:</p> + +<p>"A favour of God to the servant of God, Al Hakem al Mostanser<a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a> Billah, +commander of the faithful." He was a Caliph who reigned at Cordova, A.D. +961-976."</p> + +<p>Another very interesting oblong box is preserved in the same Museum, No. +301-'66. The cover and sides are carved with scroll foliated ornament: +the hinges and clasp are of chased silver inlaid with niello. Round the +sides, immediately below the lid is the following Arabic inscription in +Cufic characters:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_129a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_129a_sml.png" width="461" height="56" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"In the name of God. This (box) was ordered to be made by Seidat Allah, +the wife of Abdo-r-rahman, prince of the believers. God be merciful and +satisfied with him."</p> + +<p><a name="img_25" id="img_25"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_129b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_129b_sml.jpg" width="491" height="244" alt="IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>This inscription must allude to Abd er Rahman III. the first Caliph of +Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el Mumenin. The formula "God be +merciful," &c., denotes that he was dead when it was written. He died +A.D. 961. (See woodcut.)</p> + +<p>Another casket, undoubtedly the most important in size which is known of +this period, proceeds from Sanguesa, in the province of Navarre, and is +now preserved in the treasury of the cathedral of Pamplona.<a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a></p> + +<p>This splendid box, hitherto undescribed, is 15 inches long, by 9 +wide. A woodcut is given opposite. It is completely covered with +carvings in relief, within circular cusped medallions, with figures in +the centres representing different subjects: men seated, hawking, or +struggling with wild beasts, and numerous single figures of lions, +stags, and other animals. The intermediate spaces contain an +ornamentation of leaves and flowers which is accommodated to the +geometrical style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of this box +appears an Arabic inscription in fine Cufic characters.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_130-a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_130-a_sml.png" width="463" height="85" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"In the name of God. The blessing of God, the complete felicity, the +happiness, the fulfilment of the hope of good works, and the adjourning +the fatal period (of death), be with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the +State), Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made by the orders (of +the said Hagib), under the inspection or direction of his chief eunuch, +Nomayr ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave in the year of 395," [<small>A.D.</small> +1005].</p> + +<p>In the centre medallion, on the opposite side to the lock, is +represented the standing figure of a man who is attacked by two lions. +He holds on his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an inscription, +with the following religious formula: "There is no God but God," or a +similar one, for the characters are very illegible and confused. In the +centre of this shield may be read <span class="arabic"><a href="images/ill_pg_130-b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_130-b_sml.png" width="74" height="26" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a></span> "made by +Hair," undoubtedly one of the artists who made the box. Another artist's +name may be read with difficulty in a similar inscription which appears +on one of the medallions on the left side: it is written on the thigh of +a stag, which is attacked by a lion <span class="arabic"><a href="images/ill_pg_130-c_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_130-c_sml.png" width="75" height="26" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a></span> "it was made +by Obeidat." Three other inscriptions of a similar character appear in +other<a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a><a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a> parts of this box, which probably give the names of other +artists, but I have been unable to decipher them.</p> + +<p><a name="img_26" id="img_26"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_131_sml.jpg" width="752" height="473" alt="MOORISH CASKET. 11TH CENTURY. CATHEDRAL OF PAMPLONA." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">MOORISH CASKET. 11TH CENTURY. CATHEDRAL OF PAMPLONA. +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_131_med.jpg">[Medium amplification]</a> +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_131_lg.jpg">[Largest amplification]</a></span> +</p> + +<p>Among other artistic objects in the shrine of the cathedral of Braga, in +Portugal, there is an ivory box of the same period, and the inscription, +which runs round the cover, mentions the same persons:</p> + +<p>"There is no God but God, and Mahomad is his prophet. In the name of +God, a blessing, prosperity and fortune for the Hagib Seifo, d. daula, +for this work, which he ordered to be made by the hands of"—here the +inscription has been broken off—"his principal eunuch." (Vide 'Artes e +Letras,' No. 6, 3rd series, p. 94, Lisbon, 1874.)</p> + +<p>Both these caskets were made for Hadjeb Abd el Melik, a minister of +Hischem the second.</p> + +<p>It is necessary to add to them an ivory diptych, preserved at the +Provincial Museum of Burgos, which, as we find by the following +inscription, was also made for Abder Rahman III, (A.D. 912-961).</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_132-a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_132-a_sml.png" width="311" height="29" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"This was ordered to be made by the Iman servant of God Abder Rahman, +prince of believers."</p> + +<p>Two other boxes of the same artistic character, belonging to a private +collection, must also be mentioned. They are both cylindrical, and are +terminated by a spherical cover. They measure 7 inches high, by +4-5/8 wide, and are covered with a profuse and splendid ornamentation of +figures and animals. Round the lid of one them is a band, with the +following inscription in fine Cufic character:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_132-b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_132-b_sml.png" width="457" height="62" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"The blessing of God and his favours, joy, and prosperity, for<a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a> +Almogueira, son of the Prince of the faithful, whom may God have +forgiven. It was made in the year 357 [<small>A.D.</small> 967]."</p> + +<p>Almogueira was the son of the Caliph of Cordova, Abder Rahman III.</p> + +<p>On the other may be read in similar characters—</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_133_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_133_sml.png" width="457" height="58" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>("In the name of God, clement and merciful, blessing")—this part of the +inscription is missing—"and prosperity and happiness for Riyadh ben +Aflah, captain of the superior guard. It was made in the year 359" [<small>A.D.</small> +969].</p> + +<p>The style of the objects which we have hitherto described is undoubtedly +Oriental, and we must seek in Persia the origin of this industry. There +is, however, every probability that these seven ivory boxes were made in +Spain by Spanish Arabs, or artists who had settled there from the East. +On all these carvings the names of Spanish historical persons appear, +and it is hardly possible that they were ordered in remote countries, +especially as some of these objects are small and comparatively +unimportant. It must also be borne in mind that we find in contemporary +authors many details on the luxury and magnificence of this period of +the Spanish Arabs, and the great height which the arts and industries +had reached at that time.</p> + +<p>The ivory carvings which I have described present all the +characteristics of the Oriental school, which was copied by European +Christian sculptors during the 11th and 12th centuries. We find in +Christian productions of this period, too constantly to require any +further comment, the same geometrical traceries, flowers, leaves, +animals, and birds. The subjects represented on monuments of Christian +art have been erroneously interpreted by modern ecclesiologists who have +endeavoured to demonstrate the<a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a> symbolism of these figures in a purely +Christian sense with only the unsatisfactory result of checking and +leading astray art students of the Middle Ages. It is of the utmost +importance to go to the primitive sources from which this art is derived +in order to illustrate this important theory. The Oriental school of +sculpture was soon transmitted, either through the influence of the +Spanish Arabs, or by other means, to Christian artists. As an +interesting example of this may be mentioned the shrine which King Dn. +Sancho ordered to be made, <small>A.D.</small> 1033, in which to deposit the bones of +San Millan, still preserved in San Millan de la Cogulla, in the province +of La Rioja, Spain. This fine shrine is 4 feet 6 inches long, by 2 feet +3 inches high. It is of wood, and covered with gold plates and +inlaid stones and crystals. Between this metal work are placed 22 +plaques of ivory carved with subjects representing passages from the +life of the saint, and single figures of the princes, monks, and +benefactors who helped to defray the expense of this work of art. Among +them there are two small figures with the names of Apparitio +Scholastico, Ramirus Rex. These have been generally supposed to be the +artists' names. A sculptor is also represented carving a shield, and +near him is one of his workmen. Underneath these figures ran formerly an +inscription, of which the first part only remains, containing the name +of the artist—"(Magis) tro et Rodolpho filio."</p> + +<p>Two other interesting specimens remain of Spanish Moresque art of the +11th century. One is a casket at the South Kensington Museum, No. 10, +66, which Mr. Maskell describes as "richly carved in deep relief with +foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing one another, and forming +larger and smaller circles. The top and each side is a single plaque of +ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back has two panels. On the two +are two animals, like does; a large bird stands on the back of each, +attacking it with his beak. The sloping sides have, in the large +circles, men on horseback, and animals fighting. The intermediate spaces +are<a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a> completely filled with foliage, and smaller beasts. Similar +subjects are repeated in the circles on the panels forming the lower +sides of the casket, and among them are two groups of men and women +sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on a guitar, another +holding a cup in one hand and a flower in the other." There is no +inscription on this casket, but in one of the medallions on the lid +there is a bust which is carried on the back of a horse, and which is +probably a representation of the prince for whom the casket was made.</p> + +<p>The other example of this period is that known as the cross of Don +Fernando, at the Archological Museum at Madrid. This cross is 20 +inches by 14. On the front is a figure in high relief of Our Lord with +the inscription: IHE. NAZARENVS REX IVDEORVM. In the upper part is +represented the figure of Our Lord at the moment of his Resurrection, +and in the lower a symbolical figure of Adam; both these figures are in +high relief. Underneath may be read in two lines,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">FERDINANDVS REX.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">SANCIA REGINA.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="nind">At the back of the cross appears in the centre the Lamb of God: in the +four corners the emblems of the Evangelists. Besides these purely +Christian symbols, the ground work is covered with foliage, circles +interlacing each other, figures of animals of different kinds, and men +struggling with wild beasts. The whole of the ornamentation corresponds +to the style of decoration of the moresque objects which I have already +described. King Ferdinand I. died <small>A.D.</small> 1065, his wife Sancha <small>A.D.</small> 1071; +and documents exist proving that in 1063 they gave this interesting work +of art with other artistic objects to the Church of San Isidoro of Leon, +where it remained until 1870, when it was given up by the authorities of +the church to the Museum at Madrid. The following woodcut represents the +back of the cross:—<a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a></p> + +<p><a name="img_27" id="img_27"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_136_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_136_sml.jpg" width="481" height="765" alt="BACK OF CROSS OF KING FERDINAND I. ARCHOLOGICAL MUSEUM. MADRID" title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">BACK OF CROSS OF KING FERDINAND I. ARCHOLOGICAL MUSEUM. MADRID</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a></p> + +<p>These different specimens represent, in my opinion, the most +satisfactory view of the art industry of ivory carving during the 10th +and 11th centuries. Several other examples of oriental carving in ivory +still exist in Spain in the shrines of different cathedrals; others of +less artistic interest may be seen at the Archological Museum at +Madrid. These caskets are for the most part not ornamented with carvings +in relief, but are decorated with inscriptions painted in gold and +colours. The most important are:—</p> + +<p>A large casket at the Archological Museum of Madrid, decorated with +painting in red and green, and a fine inscription in Cufic characters.</p> + +<p>A similar casket at the same museum, decorated with a design painted in +green, red, and blue; an inscription in cufic letters runs round a band +in the upper part.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_137_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_137_sml.png" width="126" height="27" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"Made by Mohammad Ben Assarag."</p> + +<p>An ivory casket at the Real Academia de la Historia at Madrid, with an +ornamentation and inscription painted in the style of the former ones +and the shield of arms of the Kings of Aragon. The inscription +reproduces several Suras of the Koran, and the arms of the house of +Aragon were probably added when the casket came into the possession of +some person belonging to the family.</p> + +<p>A casket exists at the Church of Santo Domingo de Silos (province of +Burgos), which merits a special mention on account of what has remained +to us of the inscription.</p> + +<p>This casket is 13 inches long by 7 inches wide and high. It is +ornamented in part with foliage and flowers in the moresque style, +alternating with hunting subjects, men shooting with bows and arrows, +riding upon lions, fantastic animals and leopards mounted on the back of +bulls. The work is inferior in art to the<a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a> caskets at Pamplona and South +Kensington. On a band which runs round the four sides of the lid is an +inscription in Cufic characters, of which unfortunately the two longer +sides have been destroyed, and have been substituted at a very early +period by bands of cloisonn enamel, evidently belonging to other +caskets. On the two sides an inscription remains, upon which may be read +the year Hegira 417 (<small>A.D.</small> 1026); the name of the artist who carved it, +Mohammad Ibn Zeiyan, and the two first letters of the town in which it +was made (probably Cuenca)</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_138a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_138a_sml.png" width="460" height="52" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p class="nind">".....for its owner (may God lengthen his days.) It was made in the town +of Cu[enca] in the year 417. (<small>A.D.</small> 1025.) By Mohammad—ibn Zeiyan, his +servant. May God glorify him."</p> + +<p>In the geography of Edrisi, an Oriental author who describes Spain in +the beginning of the 12th century, only two names of towns are mentioned +which agree with this inscription, Coria and Cuenca <span class="arabic"><a href="images/ill_pg_138b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_138b_sml.png" width="66" height="20" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a></span> +The first of these towns was always a less important centre +than Cuenca. Edrisi praises the woollen fabrics made at Cuenca, and +there is every probability that this casket was carved there, as there +is also an ivory monstrance at the cathedral of Perpian, which has +likewise an inscription in Cufic characters, stating it was made for the +Hageb Ismail.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_138c_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_138c_sml.png" width="276" height="31" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"The blessing of God. Made at the town of Cuenca, for the Hageb Ismail."</p> + +<p>Villanueva in his "Viage por Espaa," Vol. 5, p. 144, mentions two large +ivory caskets with Cufic inscriptions which still exist at the cathedral +of Tortosa, Catalua.<a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a></p> + +<p>Another of a similar description is preserved in the Treasury of the +cathedral of Bayeux.</p> + +<p>This casket is, as M. Andr tells us in a pamphlet on "Antiquites Arabes +de la Normandie," Rennes, 1869, O<sup>m</sup> 42 L. by O<sup>m</sup> 28 W. and 13 H. It +is decorated with bands of enamelled metal, and covered with a fine +running design of peacocks and other birds. Round the lock runs the +following inscription in Cufic characters:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_139_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_139_sml.png" width="286" height="29" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>"In the name of God, clement, merciful, the blessing and His benefits +complete."</p> + +<p>These ivory caskets were made originally to hold perfumes, jewels, or +precious stones. For besides the Arabic inscriptions which allude to +this, we find the idea distinctly expressed in an inscription in Cufic +letters on a casket which came from Cordova belonging to the Caliphate. +This casket was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1867; I do not know +where it is at present.</p> + +<p>It appears at first sight difficult to explain why the Spanish Moors +decorated these objects with the representations of animated beings, +against the precepts of the Koran, and the reason why these objects of +undoubtedly Moorish origin have been preserved until the present day in +the treasuries of Spanish cathedrals. The prohibition of the Koran to +represent animated beings is, however, not so strict as is generally +supposed; it is reduced to the following sentences. "O Believers! Wine +and games of chance, and statues and the divining arrows, are only an +abomination of Satan's work! Avoid them that ye may prosper." [Sura v. +ver. 22.] Later commentators on the Koran have added the severest +prohibitions against painters and artists who represented animated +beings, but to very little effect, and we find in contemporary authors +numerous details of the specimens of sculptures and<a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a> paintings which +were in the houses of Moorish magnates. Coins, textile fabrics, +furniture, and other objects which have reached us, leave no doubt that +the representations of animated beings were constantly used by the +Spanish and Eastern Arabs from the first century of the Hegira.</p> + +<p>The fact that these Moorish caskets should have been used for preserving +the relics of saints in Spanish churches, is explained by the custom +common in the middle ages in Spain and other countries, of offering war +spoils and treasures brought from long and distant peregrinations, and +even objects of natural history, to the different churches. Alligators +may still be seen hanging in churches in Seville, Toledo, Valencia, etc. +The Moors did the same thing: the famous warrior Almanssor, the minister +of Hischem II. at the end of the 10th century, carried off the bells +from the cathedral of Cordova, and had them turned into lamps and used +at the mosque of Cordova. We find in ancient writers frequent mention of +the custom of Spanish Christians of offering these ivory caskets to the +churches, as trophies taken in their warfares with the Moors. The +ecclesiastical authorities probably placed them at the time with other +valuable objects in the treasuries of the churches, filling them with +relics, for such is the manner in which they are found; they have +remained untouched from the earliest times and are constantly mentioned +in local histories of the cathedrals. We must not suppose that the +ecclesiastical authorities ignored their Mohamedan origin, for we find +at every step during the middle ages the names of priests who knew and +interpreted the Arabic language. The principal reason why these objects +of Oriental art have been preserved, is, that the hatred of race and +belief between Moors and Christians was by no means as great as has been +supposed by modern authors, and certainly never went so far as to +destroy objects of industrial and artistic interest. In the year <small>A.D.</small> +1275, certain privileges were granted to Moorish workmen who were set +apart and ordered to repair the Mosque at Cordova, at that time<a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a> already +converted into a christian cathedral. During the 13th, 14th and 15th +centuries a large number of parish churches were built in Spain in the +Moorish style, either by Oriental architects, or Spaniards who had +adopted their architecture, and numerous examples might be given of +inscriptions and details of ornamentation which confirm most fully these +theories.</p> + +<p>Objects of ivory carvings of the middle ages, posterior to the 12th +century, are frequently met with in Spain. Among the most remarkable is +the Virgin de las Batallas, in the cathedral of Seville. This image +belonged to St. Ferdinand, early in the 13th century, and the tradition +exists that it was carried on the king's saddle in battle. The fine +ivory diptychs at the Escorial and Archological Museum at Madrid must +also be mentioned, and a large number of ivory caskets, and fragments, +existing in the same Museum and in different Spanish churches.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding, however, the numerous examples of ivory carvings which +are still to be met with in Spanish churches and cathedrals, I find no +information which enables us to affirm that this artistic industry +existed in Spain during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. We find +artists mentioned who carved in wood, iron, and silver work, and +numerous details of their work, but ivory carvers are never mentioned, +if any existed, their number must have been comparatively small; and I +am led, therefore, to suppose that the specimens existing in Spain were +imported from Italy or France, and for this reason it is necessary to +end at the Renaissance the history of ivory carving in Spain.</p> + +<p>The inlaid ivory work so constantly used in Spanish furniture of the +16th and 17th centuries, cannot be included in this notice on ivory +carvers, owing to its limited character, and the use to which it was +employed. One branch of sculpture must be mentioned representing sacred +images, which were carved in the 16th and 17th centuries by natives of +the Philippine Islands or the Portuguese Colonies. They are frequently +met with in Spain, and are remarkable for their bad and careless +modelling, a<a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a> mannered unartistic style, combined with the exaggerated +rigidity so common in Chinese and Indian productions. As examples of +this style of art may be mentioned the representations of St. Erasmus, +and the Immaculate Conception (Nos. 9069, '63, 183, '64), in the South +Kensington Museum.<a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="POTTERY_AND_PORCELAIN" id="POTTERY_AND_PORCELAIN"></a>POTTERY AND PORCELAIN.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Roman and Visigothic.—Hispano Moresque earthenware.—Painted, +glazed and lustred pottery.—Terra-cotta.—<i>Azulejos</i> (Tile +decorations).—Pottery made at Talavera, Valencia, Seville, Triana, +Zamora, Puente del Arzobispo.—Unglazed pottery.—Bucaros.—Alcora +ware and porcelain.—Buen Retiro porcelain.</p></div> + +<h3>ROMAN AND VISIGOTHIC.</h3> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> productions of Ceramic Art have constituted from the earliest times +a very important industry in Spain. Fragments of vases of +greyish-coloured paste, ornamented with bands or zones, are constantly +found in excavations in different localities. It cannot, however, be +determined whether they were importations, or imitations made in the +Spanish Peninsula. The earliest mention which we find of this industry +in Spain is in Pliny (Lib. xxx., cap. xii., line 19, Edition of Paris, +1526-7), who, in praising vases of pottery made in different countries, +mentions those of Saguntum (Murviedro) near Valencia. An epigram by +Juvenal (Sat. v. xxix.), and several by Martial (iv. 45, viii. 6, xiv. +108) on the same subject, prove that the pottery from the eastern coast +of the Mediterranean was very famous at that time.</p> + +<p>Count Lumiares, in his work on pottery of Saguntum ("Barros Saguntinos," +Valencia, 1779, 8vo), mentions having examined more than 1500 specimens +of pottery of different kinds, which he classifies in four groups: grey +pottery, cream-coloured pottery, yellow pottery and red glazed ware, +with ornamentation in relief (Samian ware); this ornamentation +constitutes, in my opinion, the only distinctive feature of the pottery +made at Saguntum.<a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a></p> + +<p>Remains of this pottery are very frequently found in the ruins of former +Roman cities; a much larger number of specimens of all kinds have +appeared since Count Lumiares wrote his book, none however differ +materially from the terra-cottas of the Roman period found in Italy, or +in other countries. Some of the marks are identical with those given by +Birch and several authors who have written on Roman pottery; hence it +would appear that this industry was imported into Spain, or the forms +and marks copied there to a very large extent.</p> + +<p><a name="img_28" id="img_28"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_144_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_144_sml.jpg" width="333" height="176" alt="SAMIAN BOWL." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SAMIAN BOWL.</span> +</p> + +<p>The number of inscriptions and potters' marks met with on the vases and +fragments found in Spain is very great. Students who take a special +interest in this subject will find full details in Dr. Emile Hbner's +important work, "Inscrip. Hispani Latin," Berlin, 1869. This writer +has collected the greatest number of inscriptions. He mentions 43 which +appear on bricks, 36 on vases and drinking vessels, 63 on lamps, 579 on +vases of red pottery, 115 inscriptions of doubtful reading, 21 which are +incomplete, and 56 written by hand. He gives us, besides, other marks +without inscriptions, representing hands, horses, rabbits, butterflies, +bees, flowers, etc. In an inedited history of the ancient city of +Emporion (Catalua) [MS., Acad. of Hist., Madrid], the author, Dr. +Joaquin Botet y Sis, has collected 198 potters' marks. A large number +are still unpublished which have been met with on fragments of pottery +found in Extremadura and<a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a> Andalucia; we may therefore confidently assert +that the number amounts to upwards of 1500.</p> + +<p>During the Visigothic monarchy, after the downfall of the Roman empire, +which lasted until the invasion of the Arabs in the 8th century, the +same style of ceramic industry, copied from the Romans, continued in +Spain. No special study has been made of the pottery of this epoch, but, +judging by the large amount of fragments of vessels for domestic use, +which are constantly found in ruins of the Visigothic period, there can +be no doubt that pottery continued to be manufactured in Spain. What San +Isidoro, who died in 636, says in his "Etimologies, Book xx.," confirms +this opinion, and undoubtedly refers to vessels similar to those of the +Roman period. (<i>De vasis Escariis, potoriis vinariis et aquariis, +oleariis, coquinariis et luminariorum.</i>)</p> + +<p>After the Roman domination and Visigothic monarchy, ceramic art in Spain +may be divided into the following groups:—</p> + +<p>1st. Objects imported by the Moors into Spain; these consist of remains +of pottery belonging to the first period of their invasion; lustred +wares, manufactured in the Peninsula, which attained great importance +during the Middle Ages, and still continue to be made in the present +day; terra-cottas, and green and white glazed pottery; and lastly tiles, +<i>azulejos</i>, of bright colours in the Moorish style.</p> + +<p>2nd. Pottery of a distinct Italian style, made principally at Talavera; +porous, unglazed, coloured pottery, <i>bucaros</i>; white, unglazed pottery, +made at Andujar and La Rambla.</p> + +<p>3rd. Pottery and porcelain made at Alcora, and the porcelain manufactory +of Buen Retiro, near Madrid.</p> + +<h3>HISPANO MORESQUE EARTHENWARE.</h3> + +<p>The Spanish Peninsula was invaded by the Arabs about the year 711 A.D., +and they absorbed for several centuries the industries of the country. +Ceramic Art attained great importance<a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a> in their hands during the Middle +Ages and Renaissance period, for even while the pottery works +established at Talavera, Seville, and other localities, manufactured +pottery to a very great extent, which was chiefly imitated from Italian +models, the Moorish style still continued, and has never been +interrupted in the province of Valencia down to the present day.</p> + +<p>The Arabs had as early as the beginning of the 12th century, if not even +before, established the industry of metallic-lustred pottery in Spain. +It remains to be seen what were the leading characteristics of the +pottery of the period of the greatest importance of the Spanish Moors +from the 8th to the 11th century.</p> + +<p>Cordova, the capital of the independent Caliphs of Damascus, was the +centre from which works of art of all kinds of a high order were largely +exported. The ruins of the palaces at Medina Az zahra have, it is deeply +to be regretted, never been excavated, and Granada is the only locality +where some fragments of Moorish pottery may be studied belonging to this +time.</p> + +<p>Granada was almost unknown in the 8th century; the ancient Roman town of +Illiberis, about six miles from the present site of Granada, had alone +any importance: it was one of the bishoprics of Andalucia. The Arabs +first settled in the remains of the Roman city: in the 10th century they +removed to the spot occupied by the present town, and Illiberis was then +abandoned. Roman remains are frequently found at Illiberis, as are also +vestiges of the Moorish occupation, chiefly consisting of objects in +bronze and fragments of pottery. These specimens are decorated with +arabesques in green and black on a whitish ground. Some interesting +examples may be studied at the small <i>Museo Provincial</i> at Granada, +which certainly belong to the 10th or beginning of the 11th century. One +of these fragments has unreadable Arabic letters; another is decorated +with a stag; the most remarkable is a plate fourteen inches in diameter, +in the centre of which is represented a falcon on a horse's back. The +form and every detail of the horse, the plaited tail, ending in the<a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a> +form of a trident, all are identical with one on which is mounted a man +holding a hawk in his hand, carved on the ivory casket described on page +133 as dated 359 of the hegira (<small>A.D.</small> 969), and probably of Cordovese +manufacture. Both these objects possess a very decided Persian +character, and undoubtedly belong to the date ascribed; for besides the +circumstance of their having been found in ruins of this period, the +shape of the horse is conclusive; its character changes soon after, as +we find in the miniatures of the MS. of the 13th century at the Bib. +Nationale de Paris, containing the "Sances de Hariri." It is almost +impossible to assert whether this pottery was made in, or imported into +Spain. One argument in favour of its Spanish-Moorish origin is that the +glaze and paste are similar to pottery which we know was manufactured at +Granada. The common earthenware proceeding from that locality is +decorated in much the same manner.</p> + +<p>Soon after the fall of the Caliphate, metallic-lustred ware was made in +Spain: Edrisi, the most remarkable Arabic geographer of the Middle Ages, +in describing Calatayud, says: "Here the gold-coloured pottery is made +which is exported to all countries." ("Descrip. de l'Afrique et de +l'Espagne," Leyde, 1866.) Edrisi was born in the year 1100. He studied +at Cordova, and finished writing his book in 1154. The circumstance of +this pottery being mentioned in the 12th century as excellent enough for +exportation, certainly makes it appear probable that the <i>fabrique</i> +already existed at an earlier date, especially when we bear in mind that +Calatayud was conquered in the year 1120 by the Christians, and it is +impossible to suppose that they established an Oriental industry there +which was foreign to their culture, or to the contemporary Christian +art. This text of Edrisi's has hitherto not been properly interpreted. +In Jauber's translation (Edrisi, Paris, 1836-40), he interprets the word +<i>guidar</i>, <span class="arabic"><a href="images/ill_pg_147_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_147_sml.png" width="33" height="22" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a></span> +<i>lutum purum</i> of potters, as the name +of a gilt textile, perhaps because in his time it was difficult to +believe in the existence of metallic-lustred pottery. In the Edit. of +Leyden, by Messrs. Dozy and Goeje,<a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a> the sense of the word is properly +given; indeed, Jauber himself translates it by <i>porcelain</i> in the +chapter of this volume which refers to China.</p> + +<p>This text of Edrisi's has never yet been quoted by writers on Ceramic +Art; but once known it is impossible for a moment to state that the +earliest manufacture of Moorish lustred ware was that at Malaga, an +opinion which has been supported hitherto on the quotation from Ben +Batutah's works, which will be given later on. I regret to have found no +other allusion to the lustred ware of Aragon until the 10th century. No +mention is made of it in the geographical texts published by Juynboll, +Al Makkari, or other Arabic writers. From what we know of Aragon in the +16th century, it was a great centre of this industry, and its +productions rivalled those of Valencia and Andalucia.</p> + +<p>The next text which alludes to this manufacture is given by Ben Batutah, +a celebrated traveller, who, after travelling for twenty years in the +East, went from Tangiers to Granada, from 1349 to 1351. Passing by +Malaga, he says: "At Malaga, the fine golden pottery is made which is +exported to the furthermost countries." ("Voy. d'Ibn Batoutah," Paris, +1853-58, vol. iv. p. 367.) This text has been constantly reproduced and +commented upon, since Baron Charles Davillier first drew attention to it +in his interesting little <i>brochure</i> on "Faences Hispano-Moresques."</p> + +<p>The next time I find lustred pottery mentioned is in the 15th century. +Eximenus, in his "Regiment de la cosa publica," Valencia, 1499, in +speaking of the excellent things made in the kingdom of Valencia, says: +"The twenty-seventh excellent thing is that some artificial objects are +made there which bring great renown to the country, for they are +excellent and beautiful, and are now to be found in other localities ... +but above all is the beauty of the gold pottery so splendidly painted at +Manises, which enamours everyone so much, that the Pope, and the +cardinals, and the princes of the world obtain it by special<a name="page_149" id="page_149"></a> favour, +and are astonished that such excellent and noble works can be made of +earth."</p> + +<p>Lustred pottery had already attained great importance in Aragon early in +the 16th century. We find in a deed granted at Calatayud in 1507, that +"Muhamed ben Suleyman Attaalab, an inhabitant of the suburb of the Moors +at Calatayud, and an artificer of lustred golden earthenware, engaged +himself with Abdallah Alfoquey of the same locality, to teach him the +said industry, in the space of four years and a half, from the date of +the deed." ("Estado social de los mudejares de Castilla, by Fernandez y +Gonzalez," Madrid 1866, p. 437.) At Muel, a village in the province of +Aragon near Zaragoza, this industry existed to a great extent in 1585. +In the travels of Henrique Cock ("Relacion del viage hecho por Felipe +II. en 1585," por Henrique Cock, publicado por Morel Fatio y Rodriguez +Villa, Madrid, 1876,) we find the following interesting details of the +manner in which this pottery was made, p. 30:—</p> + +<p>"Almost all the inhabitants of this village are potters, and all the +earthenware sold at Zaragoza is manufactured in the following manner. +First the vessels are fashioned of a certain ingredient the earth +furnishes them in that locality, in the shape they may require. Once +made, they bake them in an oven fitted for the purpose. They then remove +them to varnish with white varnish and polish them, and afterwards make +a wash of certain materials in the following manner: twenty-five pounds, +<i>one arroba</i>, of lead, with which they mix three or four pounds of tin, +and as many pounds of a certain sand which is to be found there. All +these ingredients are mixed into a paste like ice; it is broken into +small pieces and pounded like flour, and kept by them in powder. This +powder is mixed with water, the dishes are passed through it, and they +are rebaked in the oven, and keep their lustre. Afterwards, in order +that the pottery may be gilt, they take very strong vinegar, mixed with +about two reales (a small coin equivalent to 6<i>d.</i>) of silver in powder, +vermilion, and red<a name="page_150" id="page_150"></a> ochre, and a little wire. When all is mixed +together, they paint with a feather on the dishes any decoration they +may like, rebake them, and then they remain gold-coloured for ever. This +was told me by the potters themselves."</p> + +<p>But nothing can be compared in exactitude to the following receipt of +the manner of preparing this lustred ware, which I was fortunate enough +to find in a manuscript in the British Museum. (Egerton, No. 507, MS. +fol. 102).</p> + +<p>Count Florida Blanca wishing in 1785 to establish at Madrid a +manufactory of metallic-lustred ware, had the following report on the +actual state of the industry sent to him from Manises with full details +of the manner in which it was required to be carried out.</p> + +<p>"After the pottery is baked, it is varnished with white and blue, the +only colours used besides the gold lustre; the vessels are again baked; +if the objects are to be painted with gold colour, this can only be put +on the white varnish, after they have gone twice through the oven. The +vessels are then painted with the said gold colour and are baked a third +time, with only dry rosemary for fuel.</p> + +<p>"The white varnish used is composed of lead and tin, which are melted +together in an oven made on purpose; after these materials are +sufficiently melted, they become like earth, and when in this state the +mixture is removed and mixed with an equal quantity in weight of sand: +fine salt is added to it, it is boiled again, and when cold, pounded +into powder. The only sand which can be used is from a cave at +Benalguacil, three leagues from Manises. In order that the varnish +should be fine, for every <i>arroba</i>, 25 pounds of lead, 6 to 12 ounces of +tin must be added, and half a bushel of fine-powered salt: if a coarse +kind is required, it is sufficient to add a very small quantity of tin, +and three or four <i>cuartos</i> worth of salt, which in this case must be +added when the ingredient is ready for varnishing the vessel.</p> + +<p>"Five ingredients enter into the composition of the gold colour:<a name="page_151" id="page_151"></a> +copper, which is better the older it is; silver, as old as possible; +sulphur; red ochre, and strong vinegar, which are mixed in the following +proportions: of copper three ounces, of red ochre twelve ounces, of +silver one <i>peseta</i> (about a shilling), sulphur three ounces, vinegar a +quart; three pounds (of twelve ounces) of the earth or scori, which is +left after this pottery is painted with the gold colour, is added to the +other ingredients.</p> + +<p>"They are mixed in the following manner: a small portion of sulphur in +powder is put into a casserole with two small bits of copper, between +them a coin of one silver <i>peseta</i>; the rest of the sulphur and copper +is then added to it. When this casserole is ready, it is placed on the +fire, and is made to boil until the sulphur is consumed, which is +evident when no flame issues from it. The preparation is then taken from +the fire, and when cold is pounded very fine; the red ochre and scori +are then added to it; it is mixed up by hand and again pounded into +powder. The preparation is placed in a basin and mixed with enough water +to make a sufficient paste to stick on the sides of the basin; the +mixture is then rubbed on the vessel with a stick; it is therefore +indispensable that the water should be added very gradually until the +mixture is in the proper state.</p> + +<p>"The basin ready prepared must be placed in an oven for six hours. At +Manises it is customary to do so when the vessels of common pottery are +baked; after this the mixture is scratched off the sides of the basin +with some iron instrument; it is then removed from there and broken up +into small pieces, which are pounded fine in a hand-mortar with the +quantity of vinegar already mentioned, and after having been well ground +and pounded together for two hours the mixture is ready for decorating. +It is well to observe that the quantity of varnish and gold-coloured +mixture which is required for every object can only be ascertained by +practice."</p> + +<p>Excellent lustred ware was made at Murcia, and in several villages of +the province of Valencia; a good example exists of<a name="page_152" id="page_152"></a> this pottery at the +museum (see woodcut); none, however, was so important as the manufactory +of Manises. Diago, in his "Anales del reyno de Valencia, 1613-40," +repeats the words of Eximeno: "That the pottery made at Valencia is +painted and gilt with so much art, that it has enamoured every one, so +much so that the pope, the cardinals, and princes send for it, +astonished that things of such beauty can be made of earth."</p> + +<p><a name="img_29" id="img_29"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_152_sml.jpg" width="520" height="524" alt="PLATEAU, PROBABLY OF VALENCIA. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">PLATEAU, PROBABLY OF VALENCIA. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_152_med.jpg">[Medium amplification]</a> +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_152_lg.jpg">[Largest amplification]</a></span> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_153" id="page_153"></a></p> + +<p>This and similar texts relating to the exportation of Spanish pottery +explains the fact of these specimens being so frequently met with in +Italy. Pottery of a dark copper-coloured lustre is made at the present +time at Manises, and the imitations and forgeries to be met with at the +dealers' shops in Madrid are made in that locality.</p> + +<p>I have mentioned the different historical texts which allude to this +industry, and the technical receipts showing the ingredients employed to +give the lustre. It is now no longer possible to doubt that this pottery +came originally from the East. This opinion has gained ground of late +years; for among the objects discovered by Sir Henry Layard at Nineveh, +and in more recent excavations in Ephesus and Asia Minor, fragments of +pottery have been found with metallic lustre. This and other important +examples of artistic culture undoubtedly arose in Persia. No examples +which may be mentioned can give a better or more distinct idea of this +than a comparison between the Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares at the +South Kensington Museum. The technical proceedings and effect produced +by the metallic lustre on a white ground, with touches here and there of +blue, are exactly the same in both cases. The principal difference +consists in a greater richness and variety of ornamentation which we +find in the specimens brought from Persia, especially those covered with +a turquoise blue lustre, those of a dark blue and metallic lustre, and +those on which gold is applied <i>en froid</i>, of which I know no similar +examples in Spain. It is possible they may have existed in the mosques, +but no traces remain of mosques built by the Spanish Moors during the +13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. The mosques at Cordova and Toledo which +still exist are of an earlier date. If we judge by the mosque of Amru at +Cairo, and others of the same early period, tile decorations were not +used in their ornamentation, and it appears probable that this industry +only became important after the 10th century. The similarity of objects +used in Spain and Persia is constantly observed by travellers in that +country. Ruy Gonzalez<a name="page_154" id="page_154"></a> de Clavijo, who was sent there as ambassador from +the King of Castille from 1403 to 1406, gives a most interesting +description of tile decoration, by which we find they were used in the +same manner as in Spain. ("Historia del gran Tamorlan," Seville, 1582, +fol.) Another Spanish traveller, Silva de Figueroa, in a MS. belonging +to Don Pascual de Gayangos, in describing his embassy to Persia in 1618 +mentions the manner in which these tiles were used. I do not quote from +many other travellers, for their remarks are hardly so valuable as those +of Spaniards, who were accustomed to see these objects in their native +country.</p> + +<p>After mentioning the historical sources from which I have traced the +manufactory of Hispano-Moresque lustred ware in Spain, it is advisable +to enumerate the most important examples which have reached us belonging +to the 14th century, or to an earlier date.</p> + +<p>The fine vase at the Alhambra, Granada. (See woodcut.)</p> + +<p>A vase of the same character which exists at the Archological Museum of +Madrid.</p> + +<p>A vase of the same kind, which belonged to the painter, Mariano Fortuny, +and which was sold at the sale of his art objects in Paris, April 30th, +1875. (<i>Vide</i> "Atelier de Fortuny," Paris, 1875.)</p> + +<p>A fragment of another vase, which belonged also to Fortuny, and was sold +at the same time.</p> + +<p>A fragment of a vase at the Museo of Granada; it is similar to the +others in form and size, but without metallic lustre.</p> + +<p>A large plaque, or <i>azulejo</i>, which belonged also to Fortuny.</p> + +<p>The <i>azulejos</i>, or tile decorations of the house known by the name of +Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo at Granada.</p> + +<p>Several dishes and bowls at the Kensington, Madrid, and Cluny Museums, +which belong to this period.</p> + +<p>Baron Charles Davillier in his article on Hispano-Moresque lustred ware, +in "Atelier de Fortuny," Paris, 1875, says that interesting specimens of +this pottery exist also at the Museum of<a name="page_155" id="page_155"></a> Stockholm, and the Cathedral +of Mezzara in Sicily, but that he had not had the opportunity of +studying them.</p> + +<p><a name="img_30" id="img_30"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_155_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_155_sml.jpg" width="230" height="497" alt="MOORISH VASE AT THE ALHAMBRA." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">MOORISH VASE AT THE ALHAMBRA.</span> +</p> + +<p>All these objects have hitherto been considered to have proceeded from +Malaga, writers on ceramic art derived their evidence from the text +already mentioned, given in Ben Batutah's travels, the only one which +alluded to the existence of this industry in Spain before the 15th +century; but since I have found in Edrisi's Geography a manufacture +mentioned of lustred pottery which existed at Calatayud at the beginning +of the 12th century, that<a name="page_156" id="page_156"></a> is to say, more than <i>two centuries</i> earlier +than Ben Batutah's travels, I consider it extremely difficult to +classify them.</p> + +<p>The fine vase at the Alhambra is 4 feet 5 inches high by 8 feet +2 inches in circumference. It is decorated in the centre with two +antelopes, and a series of elegant traceries of knots, stems, and leaves +which cover the body of the vase. The colours employed are brown and +blue on a yellow ground, the metallic lustre is extremely pale, of a +mother-of-pearl colour. The following inscriptions are repeated all over +the vase in African characters:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_156-a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_156-a_sml.png" width="84" height="25" alt="Arabic + +Felicity and Fortune." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Felicity and Fortune.</span> +</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_156-b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_156-b_sml.png" width="64" height="20" alt="Arabic + +Permanent prosperity." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Permanent prosperity.</span> +</p> + +<p>A similar vase was at the Alhambra until the beginning of the present +century; it disappeared at that time, and its present whereabouts is +unknown. Drawings exist of this vase which have been published in +Lozano's "Ant. Arab. de Espaa," and Murphy's Atlas of "Arabian Ant. of +Spain."</p> + +<p>The fine vase at the Museo Arq. of Madrid is similar in style. It has +been reproduced in a chromo-lithograph in Mus. Esp. de Ant. VI. p. 435. +Both these vases are decorated with colours which are disposed in quite +a distinct manner to all the other specimens of this pottery hitherto +known. The vase at Granada is ornamented in the centre with two +antelopes, and from drawings which have reached us of the companion +vase, we find birds are introduced in the decoration of the handles. +Animals combined with ornamentation are never met with in the immense +number of Moorish traceries of all kinds which may be studied at +Granada. This circumstance has induced me to consider these objects to +have been brought from Persia, for Ben Batutah tells us that several +Persians of importance had settled at Granada;<a name="page_157" id="page_157"></a> and it is highly +probable that a direct communication existed between these two +countries. It is fair, however, to mention a detail which is against +this argument. The arms of the Moorish kings of Granada appear on the +vase which has disappeared from Granada, and although it may have been +ordered from Persia, it is also possible that it was made in the +province of Andalucia.</p> + +<p>The vase which belonged to Fortuny, and the large <i>azulejo</i>, Nos. 42, 44 +(<i>vide</i> "Atelier de Fortuny"), are very different in style. They have no +colours, and their metallic lustre is very low in tone, a common +circumstance in Hispano-Moorish pottery. The following inscription,</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_157a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_157a_sml.png" width="183" height="37" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p><a name="img_31" id="img_31"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_157b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_157b_sml.jpg" width="357" height="338" alt="TILE PROBABLY FROM THE ALHAMBRA; FORMERLY IN THE MARRYAT COLLECTION." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">TILE PROBABLY FROM THE ALHAMBRA; FORMERLY IN THE MARRYAT COLLECTION.</span> +</p> + +<p>"Glory to Our Lord the Sultan Abul Hajaj," [<small>A.D.</small> 1333-1354.] occurs on +this tile, an inscription very frequently met with also on<a name="page_158" id="page_158"></a> the walls of +the Alhambra. Abul Hajaj carried out works of restoration to a very +large extent at the Palace. The two large tiles on either side of the +entrance-door of the Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo at Granada, although +not so fine as the vase and tile which belonged to Fortuny, are similar +in general character, and it is safe therefore to consider these +objects, and others of a similar kind, to have proceeded from the +manufacture of Malaga mentioned by Ben Batutah, or other pottery works +of the same kind, which probably existed at that time in the province of +Granada.</p> + +<p>Metallic-lustred dishes have at times an even surface without +ornamentation in relief, and sometimes are ornamented with ribs and +convex dots, which appear to suggest that they are meant to imitate the +structure of nails, bars, or other work common to metal vessels, in the +manner of Etruscan vases.</p> + +<p>The finest specimens of Hispano-Moresque ware at the Kensington Museum +are—</p> + +<p>No. 8968-'63. A vase which belonged to the Soulages Collection. Mr. +Fortnum, in his "Majolica, Hispano-Moresco, Persian, Damascus and +Rhodian Wares, at the Kensington Museum," London, 1873, describes this +vase as spherical on a trumpet-shaped base, the neck of elongated funnel +form, flanked by two large wing-shaped handles perforated with circular +holes. The surface, except the mouldings, is entirely covered with a +diaper-pattern of ivory or briony leaves, tendrils and small flowers in +brownish lustre, and blue on the white ground. Spanish. 14th or 15th +century. (See woodcut.)</p> + +<p>No. 486-'64. Bowl, funnel-shaped, with representation of a ship in full +sail, with the royal arms of Portugal, 15th century.</p> + +<p>The following are also especially worthy of mention:—</p> + +<p>No. 7659-'62. Bowl and cover, painted with a scroll diaper in alternate +compartments of gold lustre and blue, the cover surmounted by a +cupola-shaped ornament in gold lustre. 16th century.</p> + +<p><a name="img_32" id="img_32"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_159_sml.jpg" width="446" height="661" alt="VASE DIAPERED WITH IVY OR BRYONY IN GOLDEN LUSTRE. +HISPANO-MORESCO, 14TH OR 15TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">VASE DIAPERED WITH IVY OR BRYONY IN GOLDEN LUSTRE. +HISPANO-MORESCO, 14TH OR 15TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_159_med.jpg">[Medium amplification]</a> +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_159_lg.jpg">[Largest amplification]</a></span> +</p> + +<p>No. 489-'64. Plateau with lustred arabesque ornaments in<a name="page_159" id="page_159"></a><a name="page_160" id="page_160"></a> compartments. +In the centre are two simulated Arabic inscriptions. 15th century.</p> + +<p><a name="img_33" id="img_33"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_160_sml.jpg" width="524" height="533" alt="PLATEAU, DIAPERED AND WITH RAISED RIBS AND STUDS, IN BLUE +AND GOLDEN LUSTRE. THE ARMS OF LEON, CASTILE, AND ARAGON. +HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">PLATEAU, DIAPERED AND WITH RAISED RIBS AND STUDS, IN BLUE<br /> +AND GOLDEN LUSTRE. THE ARMS OF LEON, CASTILE, AND ARAGON.<br /> +HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_160_med.jpg">[Medium amplification]</a> +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_160_lg.jpg">[Largest amplification]</a></span> +</p> + +<p>No. 1680-'55. Plateau, gold shield in the centre, with the arms of Leon, +Castille, and Aragon. The diapered ground is curiously ribbed, and +dotted with raised studs. (See woodcut.)<a name="page_161" id="page_161"></a></p> + +<p>No. 243-'53. Plateau, in the centre an escutcheon of arms of Aragon, +Leon, and Castile. (See woodcut.)</p> + +<p><a name="img_34" id="img_34"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_161_sml.jpg" width="531" height="532" alt="SALVER, DIAPERED IN GOLDEN LUSTRE, WITH THE SHIELD OF +ARAGON, LEON, AND CASTILE. HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">SALVER, DIAPERED IN GOLDEN LUSTRE, WITH THE SHIELD OF<br /> +ARAGON, LEON, AND CASTILE. HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY.<br />SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_161_med.jpg">[Medium amplification]</a> +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_161_lg.jpg">[Largest amplification]</a></span> +</p> + +<p>No. 104-'69. Vase, with shield of arms, seemingly of Sicily and +Portugal.</p> + +<p>Specimens of a later date are distinguished by the redness of<a name="page_162" id="page_162"></a> the +lustre, such as No. 327-'66, a bowl, with feather-like ornament in the +centre; Nos. 326-'66 and 328-'66 are good examples of this lustred ware +of the last and early present century made at Manises, Valencia.</p> + +<p>It is almost impossible to classify the existing specimens of +Hispano-Moresque pottery. A few examples are marked with the monogram of +Manises, or possess some special sign, such as the Eagle of St. John, +which would make it appear they were made in the province of Valencia, +but as the texts from ancient authors only praise this pottery and give +no details of its general characteristics, it is very difficult to +assign any given specimens to the manufactories of Aragon and Valencia. +The receipts which I have given prove that the ingredients used were the +same, the modification in lustre was owing to the different combinations +of silver and copper. The system hitherto adopted of classifying this +ware by the localities in which it has been purchased is not a safe one, +unless borne out by further evidence. All that can be done at the +present time is to point out the oldest specimens, and probable period +of their manufacture. As a general rule the finest specimens are also +the oldest, for this industry decayed after the Moors were expelled from +Spain, and Italian pottery was imported into that country in the 16th +century.</p> + +<p>The opinion which has been so generally accepted that gold lustred +pottery was made and exported from the Balearic Islands has been +contradicted by D<sup>n</sup>. Alvaro Campaner y Fuertes in a letter addressed to +Baron Davillier which appeared in the "Museo Balear," Palma, 1875, in +which he refutes the Baron's arguments on the pottery which he supposes +to have come from that locality.<a name="page_163" id="page_163"></a></p> + +<h3>TERRA COTTAS.—<i>AZULEJOS</i>, OR WALL DECORATIONS OF +TILES.—EARTHENWARE.—BUCAROS AND UNGLAZED POTTERY.</h3> + +<p>The earliest historical notice which I have met with of Terracottas is +in a grant made in <small>A.D.</small> 1222, by King Don Fernando el Santo, in favour +of the manufacturers of bricks or tiles at Talavera (M. S. Bibl. +Nacional Madrid, Dd. 114, p. 17), and another document of a similar kind +by his son, King Don Alonso el Sabio <small>A.D.</small> 1281, in favour of the +Cathedral of Cordova, "that no pottery works should be allowed inside +the town, unless they were established in the same manner as in the time +of the Moors." (Mem. Hist. Espaol, t. ii. p. 45). Although this +information is not of great importance, it enables us to infer that in +the 13th century an industry existed in Spain which was closely +connected with pottery. Baron Davillier mentions a privilege granted by +King D<sup>n</sup>. Jaime de Aragon to the inhabitants of Jativa, province of +Valencia, in which he commands, "that any master potter who made jars, +pots, pans, tiles, and bricks, should pay a tribute of one <i>besant</i> +yearly for each oven, and be permitted to carry out his industry with no +other obligation or service." (Col. Doc. Ineditos, vol. xviii. p. 67.)</p> + +<p>The details concerning this industry in Catalua are more interesting; +especially on account of the references given to the marks of the +objects proceeding from this manufacture. The potters, who were known by +the generic name of <i>olleros</i> sent, in 1257, two individuals to form +part of the town council. They formed at that time a guild; in 1314 they +agree in their regulations as to the mark to be adopted for their +pottery, and the actual spot is mentioned on which every potter was to +stamp his wares. This stamp was ordered to be very visible, and +instructions are given as to the quality of the clay, and its +manipulation, in order to<a name="page_164" id="page_164"></a> produce pottery of a first-class order. We +find statutes in this sense up to 1355. But we cannot find in the "Libro +de Ordenanzas" of the potter's guild that any laws existed touching the +technical details of this manufacture; most of the regulations refer to +the management of the guild from 1304, which was composed of potters, +bricklayers, jar-makers, and manufacturers of pottery for domestic +purposes of Barcelona. (Capmany, Memorias Historicas, 1779-92, vol. i. +part 3, p. 69.)</p> + +<p><a name="img_35" id="img_35"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_164_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_164_sml.jpg" width="390" height="461" alt="WINE JAR—"TINAJA." SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">WINE JAR—"TINAJA." SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>These references are not, however, sufficient to identify the kind of +pottery made at that time in Catalua. It is highly probable<a name="page_165" id="page_165"></a> that +lustred ware was also made there to a great extent, not only because it +was the most characteristic produce of the Peninsula, but also because +this ware was exported to a great extent, and highly esteemed.</p> + +<p>The most important examples of Spanish terra-cotta which have reached us +are <i>tinajas</i>, large jars for holding wine and oil.</p> + +<p>One of the best <i>tinajas</i> which I know is at the South Kensington +Museum, No. 330-'66. (See woodcut.) It is a wine jar, amphora-shaped, +and ornamented with incised pattern of vine leaves, and stamped diaper +of a Gothic character. This and similar specimens have always been found +in Andalusia and the province of Toledo, and hence we may infer that the +chief centres of this industry existed at Toledo and Seville. They +continue to be made there, and are used for the same purposes as in the +Middle Ages, for keeping stores of wine, oil, meat, grain, etc.</p> + +<p>Belonging to this section of objects of a large size, are some specimens +of glazed earthenware made for brims of wells. I only know four or five +examples in the local museums of Toledo and Cordova; the font of the +church of San Salvador, Toledo, belongs also to the same pottery. The +brim of a well, at the South Kensington Museum, No. 1763-'71, is of the +same manufacture. It was bought at Toledo for three guineas at a +shoemaker's shop. It is made of glazed white and green earthenware, with +ornamental Cufic characters in high relief all round, which appear to be +of the 14th century (see woodcut on next page). The inscription, which +is repeated, is imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the words:</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_165_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_165_sml.png" width="129" height="23" alt="Arabic + +"The power, the excellence, and the peace."" title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">"The power, the excellence, and the peace."</span> +</p> + +<p>There is no difficulty in affirming that this form of earthenware was +made at Toledo, for Marineo Siculo, in his interesting volume<a name="page_166" id="page_166"></a> treating +of "De las Cosas Memorables de Espaa," Alcala, 1539, says, "much coarse +green and white pottery is made at Toledo."</p> + +<p><a name="img_36" id="img_36"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_166_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_166_sml.jpg" width="336" height="404" alt="BRIM OF WELL FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">BRIM OF WELL FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>The manufacture of tiles, as was the case with so many other industries +in Spain, was imported by the Arabs. In the Middle Ages it attained +great importance, and has never ceased in Spain up to the present day. +The earliest tiles (<i>azulejos</i>) made in Spain are composed of small +pieces let into the wall, forming geometrical patterns. The proceeding +is similar to that employed by the workers of Byzantine mosaic,—tile +decoration undoubtedly took the place of this mosaic work in Moorish +buildings. It is difficult to fix the precise period when they were +first made, but it must have been posterior to the 10th century, when +Moorish architecture underwent a radical change in its system of +decoration. The<a name="page_167" id="page_167"></a> oldest tiles which exist in Spain are at the Palace of +the Alhambra, Granada. They belong to the 14th century. The great +variety of their design may be seen in Owen Jones' "Plans and elevations +of the Alhambra," London, fol. 1842, and the fine work published by the +Spanish government, "Monumentos Arquitectonicos." We can judge of the +style adopted by two interesting fragments, both of which came from the +Alhambra, No. 1104-'53, No. 324-'64, South Kensington Museum.</p> + +<p>The earliest mention which I have found of this manufacture occurs in a +letter from Doa Juana de Mendoza, the wife of the Almirante de +Castilla, which is addressed to the lady abbess of the nunnery of Santo +Domingo at Toledo. She begs that a large number of "azulejos" of +different colours, black, white, yellow, and green should be sent to +her. She alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and says she was +expecting a master potter from Seville to place these tiles in their +proper places. This shows us that it was only in the province of +Andalusia that the art was known of cutting these tiles into geometrical +sections and mosaic patterns. This letter is not dated, but it is bound +up with other documents of 1422, and evidence exists to prove that both +the Almirante and his wife were dead in 1431. The locality for which the +tiles were required was probably Palencia; the convent of Santa Clara +was built by them at that time, and they both were buried there. It was +extremely difficult to cut and join together these tiles; the workmen +who did so had to pass through a regular examination in compliance with +the municipal ordinances drawn up in the 15th century; without this +requisite they were not allowed to exercise their trade.</p> + +<p>We know, from documents existing at the Archives of the Alhambra, at +Granada, that tiles were made there at the end of the 16th and beginning +of the 17th century. We find the names of Antonio Tenorio, Gaspar +Hernandez, and Pedro Tenorio working there at that time as master +potters.</p> + +<p>The use of these <i>azulejos</i> was not restricted to Moorish buildings;<a name="page_168" id="page_168"></a> +they were largely employed to decorate the walls of Christian churches, +convents, palaces, and private houses. The style of work, however, soon +changed, for instead of being made of mosaic work, they were formed of a +single piece like the ordinary tiles, but imitating the Moorish colours. +In the 16th century designs of the Renaissance style alternated with +these, although the system and colouring continued the same. This style +continued in vogue until the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1610. A fine +collection may be seen at the South Kensington Museum of 200 tiles, in +which upwards of 150 varieties of design will be found, Nos. 308-'66 and +367-'66. Their chief characteristic is that only pure colours are used +without gradations or half tints. Lustred reflets are very seldom met +with in tiles; the only examples I know are two beautiful plaques of the +14th century of a pale lustre which are on either side of the entrance +door of the Moorish saloon called Cuarto Real de S<sup>to</sup>. Domingo, at +Granada; some small polygons of copper-coloured lustre at the Tower of +la Cautiva, Granada: some few details in the coats of arms which are let +into the tiles which adorn the walls of the Chapel at the Alhambra, and +some few tiles with the arms of the Mendozas at the Casa de Pilatos, +Seville.</p> + +<p>A few dishes belong also to the 15th century, ornamented with the same +colouring as the tiles without metallic lustre, and generally decorated +with fantastic animals. They are very scarce. Two examples exist at the +South Kensington Museum, Nos. 1459 and 1461-'70. They probably were made +at Seville; all those I have seen come from there, and we know that the +pottery from Seville was much esteemed. In Pedro de Medina's "Libro de +Grandezas y Cosas Memorables de Espaa," Sevilla, 1549, fol. Iii., he +says, "In this town of Triana much excellent pottery of Malaga is made, +coloured white and yellow, and of different sorts and kinds. This +pottery is made in about fifty houses, and it is exported from here to +many localities. In the same manner excellent <i>azulejos</i> are made, of +great variety of colour and design. And likewise<a name="page_169" id="page_169"></a> fine reliefs of men +and other things. Great quantities of these <i>azulejos</i> are taken to +different localities."</p> + +<p>At the introduction of Italian forms of art in Spain, at the beginning +of the 16th century, artistic pottery divided itself into two +schools—one kept to the traditional designs and strong tones of colour, +the other used shaded colours, and especially yellow and blue tints, at +times imitating Italian maiolica, but always following the decoration +characteristic of the Renaissance style.</p> + +<p>The Italian influence, and its finest results in Spain may be favourably +studied in Seville, in the tile decorations of the chapel at the +Alcazar, the doorway of the convent of Santa Paula, and a remarkable +sepulchre decorated with tiles at the church of St. Anne at Triana. All +these tile decorations are signed by the same person, and it would be +difficult to find any more remarkable.</p> + +<p>The <i>azulejos</i> at the Alcazar represent a picture in the manner and +style of Pietro Perugino; they are admirable in colour and design. Those +which decorate the sepulchre at the church of St. Anne have the +following inscription, "<i>Niculoso Francesco italiano me fecit, en el +agno del mil ccccciii.</i>" Some very interesting tiles also may be seen in +one of the rooms in the lower part of the Alcazar; they are marked in +the following manner: A.V.S.T.A.—A.V.G.W.S.T.A. 1577-1578. On the floor +of the pavilion of the Emperor Charles V. in the garden there are also +some fine tiles which are signed Juan Hernandez, 1540.</p> + +<p>We find mention in Cean Bermudez of a painter of <i>azulejos</i> named Juan +Flores, a native of Flanders; he painted tiles for the royal palaces of +Madrid, the Pardo and Segovia; he was appointed Maestro Azulejero by +Philip II. in 1565.</p> + +<p>Returning to other examples of earthenware we meet with the ancient +manufactures of the Balearic Islands, although it is not easy to +determine the kind of pottery which was really made there. Bernardo da +Uzzano, in 1442, made a commercial treaty, (vide Davillier, "Faences +Hispano Moresques," p. 26), in which he mentions the "faence" made at +Mallorca and Minorca, which "was exported<a name="page_170" id="page_170"></a> to a very large extent." The +royal Ordinances for the island of Iviza, which have not been mentioned +by either of these authors, state that the principal traffic and the +greatest industry of ancient times of the island of Iviza consisted in +some vessels of the finest earthenware, well baked and curiously worked, +of which an innumerable quantity were sent off to Africa and other +places, not only on account of the excellence of their worth, which was +admirable, but the speciality of the clay, which preserved from poison. +("Reales Ordinaciones de Iviza," Palma, 1751).</p> + +<p>Manufactures of pottery also existed in a great number of localities in +Spain; the most important centres were at Talavera, Valencia, and +Triana. Judging by the manner in which different authors praise the +earthenware of Talavera, its productions were evidently the most +esteemed. The earliest mention we find of Talavera pottery occurs in a +MS. volume dated 1560—a history of this town, in which mention is made +of "white, green, blue and other coloured Talavera ware." In the +inventory of the effects of D<sup>na</sup>. Juana, a sister of Philip II., 1573, +several objects of "white earthenware of Talavera" are mentioned. In a +report drawn up by order of Philip II. 1576, it is stated that Talavera +"produced fine white glazed earthenware-tiles, and other pottery, which +supplied the country, part of Portugal and India." Father Ramon de la +Higuera in his "Republicas del Mundo," 1595, mentions the ware of +Talavera in terms of the highest praise. In a MS. history of Talavera +written in 1651, (Bib. Nac. Madrid, G. 112,) the author, Father Alfonso +de Ajofrin, says that "the pottery is as good as that of Pisa, a large +number of <i>azulejos</i> are also made to adorn the front of altars, +churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers, and large and small +specimens of every kind. Two hundred workmen work at eight different +kilns. Four other kilns are kept to make common earthenware. Red porous +clay vases and drinking cups are baked in two other kilns, in a thousand +different shapes in imitation of birds and other animals,<a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a> also +<i>brinquios</i> for the use of ladies, so deliciously flavoured that after +drinking the water they contained, they eat the cup in which it was +brought them." In another MS. history of Talavera (Bibl. Nac. G. 187) we +find mention of "perfect imitations of oriental china," and that the +pottery made there, "was used all over Spain, and sent to India, France, +Flanders, Italy and other countries, and was esteemed everywhere for the +perfection of the colouring and brilliancy of the glaze."</p> + +<p>This information may be increased by quoting another interesting MS. on +the history of this town (Bib. Nac. F. 142) in which the writer, Fr. +Andres de Torrejon, who professed in the convent of Santa Catalina in +1568, says:—"The earthenware pottery made here has reached to a great +height of perfection; it is formed of white and red clay. Vases, cups, +<i>bucaros</i> and <i>brinquios</i> are made of different kinds, dishes and table +centres, and imitations of snails, owls, dogs and every kind of fruits, +olives, and almonds. These objects are painted with great perfection, +and the imitations of porcelain brought from the Portuguese Indies are +most excellent. Every one wonders that in so small a town such excellent +things should be made. The varnish used for the white pottery is made +with tin and sand, it is now found to be more acceptable than coloured +earthenware, so much so, that persons of importance who pass by this +town although they have in their houses dinner services of silver, buy +earthenware made at Talavera, on account of its excellence. The sand +which was used to make the white varnish was brought from Hita, it is +now found at Mejorada, near Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as +silk."</p> + +<p>"The red pottery made at Talavera is much to be commended, for besides +the great variety of objects which they make, the different medals which +they place upon them, they have invented some small <i>brinquios</i> of so +small and delicate a kind, that the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also +made of the same material. A certain scent is added in the manufacture +of this pottery which excites the appetite and taste of the women, who +eat the pottery<a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a> so frequently that it gives great trouble to their +confessors to check this custom."</p> + +<p>In a volume of "Relaciones Topograficas de los Pueblos de Espaa hechas +en 1576," (MS. in fol. t. ii.) we find, in speaking of Talavera, that +the author says: "What is most excellent there is the white pottery, and +tiles and other objects of this earthenware with which the kingdom and +part of Portugal are provided."</p> + +<p>In Larruga's "Memorias Politicas y Economicas," (vol. x. Madrid, 1741,) +we find, p. 22, that "the manufactory of fine earthenware of Talavera de +la Reyna continued to make much pottery of importance until 1720: eight +kilns existed then, which employed more than 400 persons, men, women and +children. These manufactories possessed at that time large sums of +money. From that time this industry decayed to such an extent, that in +1730 only four kilns existed where pottery of a very inferior kind was +produced."</p> + +<p>The industry was revived later on in the century, but the finest +specimens are of an earlier date. Larruga adds, in p. 17, vol. x., of +his "Memorias," that "Talavera ware is of a lighter clay than the +imitations of this earthenware which were made in other localities."</p> + +<p>Pottery of a similar kind was also made in different other localities of +Spain. Mendez Silva says that at Puente del Arzobispo, near Toledo, +"fine pottery is manufactured in about 8 kilns, which produce more than +40,000 ducats yearly." ("Relacion General de Espaa," Madrid, 1645, fo1. +32.) Paton likewise in his "Historia de Jaen," 1628, writes that "the +white unglazed earthenware made at these towns, is very remarkable for +the curious manner in which they imitate different figures of animals, +such as porcupines, fish, syrens, tortoises, &c." Objects of a similar +kind are still made in Spain.</p> + +<p>The English traveller Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish +Nation during the years 1760-1761," London, 1763, p. 263, says, "the +pottery fabrics are very numerous and excellent,<a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a> particularly +Talavera." And in "Annales de l'Espagne," by Alvarez de Colmenares, +Amsterdam, 1741, we find, p. 187, in speaking of Talavera, that "On y +fait des ouvrages vernisss d'une faon ingnieuse, avec des peintures +de bon got; on estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes +Orientales; on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce ngoce rend plus de +50,000 ducats par an."</p> + +<p>Udal ap Rhys in his "An Account of the Most Remarkable Places and +Curiosities in Spain and Portugal," London, 1749, in speaking of +Talavera says, "It is noted also for a very curious kind of earthenware +that is made in imitation of China."</p> + +<p>Although we find by the remarks we have quoted from contemporary authors +that earthenware of every description was made at Talavera, the +specimens which are more generally met with may be divided into two +groups, which are painted on a white ground, either in blue, or in +colours in the manner of Italian maiolica. The most important examples +which have reached us consist of bowls of different sizes, dishes, +vases, tinajas, holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decorations. +Blue oriental china was imitated to a vast extent, the colouring was +successful but the design was an imitation of the baroque school of the +time, and the figures, landscapes, and decoration follow the bad taste +so general in Spain in the 18th century. The imitations of Italian +maiolica are effective. The colours most commonly used are manganese, +orange, blue and green.</p> + +<p>Several specimens of this manufacture are in the South Kensington +Museum; among these may be noted—</p> + +<p>No. 327-'76. A large vase painted in blue with cavaliers and men on foot +in a hilly landscape, on the shoulder are the words "Silva Coronel."</p> + +<p>No. 1282-'71. Holy-water vessel, with raised flowers and scrolls of +foliage with polychrome decoration.</p> + +<p>No. 1281-'71. Soup tureen and cover, white, with raised scrolls and +groups of painted flowers.<a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a></p> + +<p>No. 351-'76. Another soup tureen with cover and stand, painted with +garlands and the arms of Portugal. On the cover is a group of fishes and +shells in relief.</p> + +<p>No. 1279-'71. A bowl decorated within with a bull-fight; outside are +storks and trees in green, orange, and manganese. (See woodcut.)</p> + +<p><a name="img_37" id="img_37"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_174_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_174_sml.jpg" width="463" height="457" alt="EARTHENWARE BOWL. TALAVERA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">EARTHENWARE BOWL. TALAVERA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>Several pottery works were established in Spain in the 18th century, all +of them, in the same manner as the earlier fabriques, modified the +system of decorating their wares. In some instances the colours and +designs of Italian maiolica were imitated, others<a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a> copy the blue +faences of Pisa, Genoa, and Savona, while others adopted the styles of +Moustiers, Nevers, and Rouen, or English earthenwares.</p> + +<p>Ten or twelve manufactories existed at Toledo in the 17th century which +imitated Talavera ware; in the 18th they hardly produced anything of +importance. Ignacio de Velasco in 1735 founded one at great expense at +Toledo in which imitations of Genoese pottery were chiefly made. At the +death of Ignacio in 1738, these works passed to his son George; in 1742 +Francisco Hernandez directed them, and in 1747 imitated Japanese models. +Several specimens proceeding from Toledo, at the South Kensington +Museum, painted blue on a white ground, in the style of Savona and +Japan, belong to this period.</p> + +<p>In 1755 thirteen pottery kilns existed at Puente del Arzobispo near +Toledo; they still worked in 1791, but their productions were very +inferior in artistic merit.</p> + +<p>Earthenware pottery was made at Segovia from a very early period, +chiefly for domestic use, until a manufactory was founded by two +brothers—Manuel and Toms Ledesma in 1752—they had seen some specimens +which were made at Bolonia for Isabel Farnesio, the widow of King Philip +V., and they endeavoured to imitate them. In 1774 they tried with a most +unsatisfactory result to imitate English wares. This industry fell into +decay towards the end of the century, and only ware of a very common +description was made there.</p> + +<p>Talavera ware was also imitated at Zamora. At the middle of the 18th +century works existed there where pottery was made in the manner adopted +at Alcora with few results, for soon after it was established the master +potter, who was at the head of these works, left the locality. +["Memorias," Larruga, Vols. 13 and 34.]</p> + +<p>The further we advance into the 18th century, the more we find the +tendency in Spanish ceramic art to imitate the pottery most in vogue in +other countries. Francisco Cavalli, a potter of Ruidoms, won a prize at +Tarragona in 1787, for his excellent<a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a> imitations of brown and white +Genoese ware. [MS. fol. Bibl. de S. Magestad el Rey, S. 2, E. B. pt. 8.]</p> + +<p>The efforts made by King Charles III. towards increasing industrial arts +in Spain, contributed to the reproductions and efforts made to imitate +foreign wares. When the king founded in 1768 the villages of La Carolina +and La Carlota in Andalucia, he ordered that pottery works should be set +up there. At the same time that he established at Madrid the important +porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, he wished that earthenware works +should exist in the same locality, where specimens should be made in +imitation of the best work produced elsewhere. The king was most anxious +to revive to a great extent the almost extinct industry of metallic +lustred pottery, and thanks to this we are able to know most accurately +the receipt and manner in which this lustre was applied. In the same +volume in which I found these documents, [Brit. Mus. MS. Egerton, 507], +are two reports addressed to Count Florida Blanca in 1786, by Iriarte +and Vargas, who were instructed to facilitate the development of this +industry. The first report contains information relating to the pottery +works of the county of Stafford; the second tells us that in the +building of San Isidro el Real, essays had been made to reproduce +English wares, and the lustred productions of Manises, with an idea of +establishing inside or outside of Madrid pottery works on a large scale, +under the protection of Count Florida Blanca. Iriarte and Vargas were of +opinion that these works should be established far from Madrid, +suggesting as the best spot El Viso in La Mancha, owing to the excellent +quality of the clay. Don Sebastian Schepers, a son or brother of +Cayetano Schepers, was at the head of these works. Cayetano was the +chief modeller at the Retiro manufactory. Their imitations of English +earthenware did not succeed; the varnish turned out badly, and they +determined to bring out English workmen. Their imitations of gold +lustred ware were eminently successful, so much so that competent judges +declared it was equal to what was made at Manises. Pottery<a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a> works where +earthenwares of different descriptions were made existed also at this +time in Madrid; the best were those of Rodriguez and Reato, mentioned in +Larruga's "Memorias Economicas."</p> + +<p>At the end of the 18th, and beginning of the 19th century, Valencia and +Aragon supplied the country with painted tiles. One of the finest +examples of this class which have reached us is the pavement of the +chapter house of the cathedral of Saragossa, on which landscapes, +medallions, and animals are finely designed in the Italian renaissance +style. In a shield may be read the following inscription:</p> + +<p class="c"> +Real<sup>s</sup> Fb<sup>cas</sup><br /> +D E<br /> +D Maria Salb<br /> +adora<br /> +Disdier<br /> +Bru f<sup>t</sup><br /> +Ao 1808.</p> + +<p>Valencia has been much renowned for its manufacture of painted tiles, +<i>azulejos</i>, which continue to be made there in a very creditable manner +at the present time. J. Townsend, in his "Journey through Spain in the +Years 1786-1787, London," 1792, says: "I was most delighted with the +manufacture of painted tiles. In Valencia their best apartments are +floored with these, and are remarkable for their neatness and elegance. +They are stronger and more beautiful than those brought from Holland." +In a "Nouveau Voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1789, p. 56, the author says: +"L'industrie des Valenciens tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les +productions de leur sol. Il contient une espce de terre, dont ils font +ces carreaux de faence colore connus sous le nom de azulejos, et qu'on +ne fabrique qu' Valence. On en pave les appartements, et on en revt +leurs lambris; on y peint les sujets les plus compliqus, tels par +exemple qu'un bal masqu,<a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a> une fte de taureaux. La couleur rouge est la +seule qui ne puisse tre fixe sur cette espce de faence. Elle +s'altre par la cuisson." In "Voyage en Espagne, 1797-1798," Paris 1801, +the author says, p. 245: "Les plats sont faits de faence bleutre ou +toute autre couleur orn de figures d'oies."</p> + +<p>Before we pass to describe another most important branch of Spanish +pottery the unglazed earthenware must be mentioned, which from a very +early period has constituted and still constitutes a most important +branch of its industry. This pottery, generally used for cooling water, +consists of white porous vessels of which a large modern collection may +be seen at the South Kensington Museum proceeding from Andujar and La +Rambla (Andalusia). This industry remains in precisely the same state as +in the time of the Arabs.</p> + +<p>The earthenware vessels called <i>Bucaros</i> are similar to these. This +porous pottery was made to a very large extent at Talavera. It was +imported originally from America; the great centre existed at Mejico. +The paste of this ware is unglazed and whitish, black or red—when +painted the colours chosen are generally red, black, and gold. It was +made in Spain as early as the 16th century, and we constantly find +<i>Bucaros</i> alluded to in documents of this period. In the inventory of +the effects belonging to D<sup>na</sup> Juana, the sister of Philip the Second, +drawn up in 1573, <i>bucaros</i> made at Lisbon, Estremoz, and Montemayor in +Portugal, and those of Ciudad Rodrigo and Castille, are also mentioned. +Madame d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon, [<small>MDCXCIII</small>.], mentions +the habit of Spanish ladies of eating this porous clay. At the South +Kensington Museum there are several good specimens of red pottery of +this kind, Nos. 285 to 318—'72, which, as we have remarked were made at +Talavera and Toledo.<a name="page_179" id="page_179"></a></p> + +<h3>ALCORA POTTERY AND PORCELAIN.</h3> + +<p>Don Buenaventura Pedro de Alcantara inherited in 1725 the estates +belonging to the title of Aranda in the province of Valencia. Count +Aranda found that the inhabitants of the village of Alcora made coarse +earthenware of every description, and that their vicinity to the sea +coast favoured exportation; he determined, therefore, upon establishing +in 1726 a manufacture of pottery there, in which fine wares might be +made in imitation of those imported from Italy, Germany, France and +England. The count's efforts were so successful that in less than two +years specimens of different kinds of Alcora pottery were exported to a +very large extent.</p> + +<p>No account has hitherto been published which gives any idea of the +importance of this manufactory, nor have the names of the artists who +worked there been known, or the works which they executed. Wishing to +ascertain this, I applied to the Duchess of Hijar, the present +representative of the house of Aranda, and permission was granted me, +thanks to the kindness of the Duchess's <i>Apoderado general</i>, Sr. Robles, +to look through the Archives, where the accounts, contracts, and details +of the manufactory are kept. This has enabled me to give an idea of the +importance of this industry, and the names of the artists who worked +there, which have been ignored until the present time by writers on +ceramic art.</p> + +<p>Count Aranda spent in 1726 about 10,000 in establishing the manufactory +of Alcora, and in May, 1727, the first specimens appeared, consisting of +pottery made "in the manner of China, Holland, and other localities." +The manufactory was at that time under the superintendence of Dn. +Joaquin Joseph de Sayas and Joseph Ollery, a Frenchman, chief +draughtsman and<a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a> carver, who was engaged at a good salary in 1726, and +brought to Alcora from Moustiers by the painter, Edward Roux. In 1728 +Count Aranda increased his salary owing to the "excellent manner in +which Ollery has worked at Alcora, the fine and numerous models which he +constructed, which have contributed to make my manufacture the first in +Spain."</p> + +<p>Five painters and two modellers from Catalua and six Valencian painters +and two modellers joined these French artists. The personnel of the +fabrique was completed with eleven potters from the locality. The French +painters, M. Pierre Maurissy and M. Gras, and the master of the +modellers, M. Sebastian Carvonel, were engaged in 1728 for two years to +work at the manufactory. Ollery only appears in the lists up to 1737. +The Count granted him a yearly pension of 500 francs besides his salary, +"for his especial zeal in the improvement of the manufactory, and his +great skill in directing the construction of every kind of work." From +this date until the manufacture of porcelain in 1764, only Spanish +artists worked at Alcora.</p> + +<p>The Count was able from the year 1729 to circulate the pottery made at +Alcora through the Spanish dominions, free of custom-house duties. The +government granted him several other privileges and the manufactory +continued to improve, and spared no pains to import the foreign shapes +and designs which were most acceptable. No Spanish pottery manufactory +could compare with Alcora in the excellence and beauty of its work.</p> + +<p>Among the obligations of the artists engaged, whether Spaniards or +Frenchmen, was that of teaching drawing and modelling to a certain +number of pupils. A special Academy was created for this purpose, which +at one time held more than one hundred pupils, who were constantly +renewed and increased with those who appear henceforward in the works at +Alcora. In 1736 there were fifty-six painters, eleven masters, twenty +workers at the wheel, and twenty-five apprentices. In this same year, +1736, specimens of pottery made at Alcora were sent "to all the +dominions of<a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a> Spain, Rome, Naples, Malta, many Italian cities, Portugal, +and some provinces of France."</p> + +<p>The manufactory produced yearly about 300,000 specimens of different +kinds. The ordinances are interesting which in 1732-1733 prescribe, +"that in our manufactory only pottery of the most excellent kind should +be made, similar to the Chinese, to be equally fine as to the earths +employed, that the models and wheels should be perfect, the drawing of a +first-rate kind, and the varnish and colours excellent, and the pottery +light and of good quality, for it is our express wish that the best +pottery should only be distinguished from that of an inferior kind by +the greater or less amount of painting which covers it."</p> + +<p>Miguel Soliva, Christobal Cros, Francisco Grangel, Miguel Vilar, +Christobal Rocafort, Vicente Serrania, and Joseph Pastor were the best +painters at Alcora in 1743; they decorated a fine dinner service made +for the Tribunal of Commerce, and the large slabs for the Convent of Las +Descalzas Reales at Madrid, representing the Virgin as the Divine +Shepherdess.</p> + +<p>Pottery painted with metallic lustre was made in 1749. We find among the +receipts used in that year one brought from Manises for this object.</p> + +<p>We find it also stated in the communications which passed between the +Tribunal of Commerce and the count in 1746, that "the perfection of the +earthenware of Alcora consisted in the excellent models which had been +made by competent foreign artists, the quality of the earth and receipts +brought at great expense from abroad." Joseph Ochando is mentioned in +that year as an excellent painter, and Juan Lopez as the best carver and +modeller. This document tells us "that from the earliest period of the +manufacture pyramids with figures of children, holding garlands of +flowers and baskets of fruits on their heads, were made with great +perfection, likewise brackets, centre and three-cornered tables, large +objects, some as large as five feet high, to be placed upon them, +chandeliers, cornucopias, statues of different kinds, and animals of<a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a> +different sorts and sizes. The entire ornamentation of a room has also +been made here; the work is so perfect that nothing in Spain, France, +Italy or Holland could equal it in merit."</p> + +<p>The objects which were made to a great extent at this time consisted in:</p> + +<ul><li>Vases of different shapes.</li> + +<li>Small pots, Chinese fashion.</li> + +<li>Teapots and covers, Chinese fashion.</li> + +<li>Teapots and covers, Dutch fashion.</li> + +<li>Cruets, complete sets, Chinese style.</li> + +<li>Entre dishes.</li> + +<li>Salt-cellars, Chinese style.</li> + +<li>Escudillas (bowls) of Constantinople.</li> + +<li>Barquillos (sauce bowls), Chinese style.</li> + +<li>Bottles, in the Chinese manner.</li> + +<li>Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds with good painted +borders in imitation of lace-work (<i>puntilla</i>); some were designed +in the Chinese manner, and especial care was taken with +fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes.</li> + +<li>Trays and refrigerators.</li></ul> + +<p>In 1750 Count Aranda passed the pottery works on to a private company, +in whose hands they remained until 1766. We know the pottery continued +to be excellent. Unfortunately almost all the details of this period are +missing from the Archives. One of the few documents remaining is a +contract drawn up in October, 1741, with Franois Haly (the name of this +artist is given by Baron Davillier), a Frenchman, in which he agreed to +work at the manufactory during a period of ten years with a yearly +salary of over 1000 francs, under the following conditions:</p> + +<p>"That the travelling expenses of his wife and children should be given +him, and that his salary should be paid as soon as he made before the +Director and two competent judges the different kinds of porcelain which +he had undertaken to make." He agreed to give up his receipts, and it +was promised him that he should have two modellers and one painter +working by his side, and that if in one year Haly's porcelain was +satisfactory<a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a> the Count undertook to make him a present of 1000 livres +(<i>tornoises</i>).</p> + +<p>Towards the middle of the century, porcelain was made for the first time +at Alcora. A contract was drawn up on 24th March, 1764, with a German, +called John Christian Knipfer, who had already worked there in the +pottery section. By the original agreement, which exists at the +Archives, we find he was to prepare works of "porcelain and painting +similar to those made at Dresden, during a period of six years, under +the following conditions:"</p> + +<p>"That the said Knipfer obliges himself to make and teach the apprentices +the composition and perfection of porcelain paste, its varnishes, and +colours, and whatever he may know at the present time, or discover +during this period of six years; he is not to prevent the Director of +the Works from being present at all the essays made."</p> + +<p>"The said Knipfer offers to make and varnish porcelain, and to employ +gold and silver in its decoration, and in that of the ordinary wares; +likewise the colours of crimson, purple, violet, blues of different +shades, yellow, greens, browns, reds, and black.</p> + +<p>"That Knipfer will give up an account of his secrets, and the management +and manner of using them, in order that in all times the truth of what +he has asserted may be verified."</p> + +<p>From the original documents which exist we gather that Knipfer was +chiefly famed for his excellence in the painting and decoration of +porcelain.</p> + +<p>Franois Martin was engaged in 1774 for his skill in preparing different +pastes for manufacturing porcelain and pipeclay. He agreed to make "hard +paste porcelain, Japanese faence, English paste (pipeclay), and +likewise to mould and bake it. The necessary materials were to be +provided by the Count of Aranda." His expenses were to be paid if the +specimens he presented to the competent authorities gave a satisfactory +result, and his salary was to be increased to 1200 francs a year.</p> + +<p>Knipfer and Martin greatly added to the importance of the<a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a> works made at +the manufactory. Don Pedro Abadia, the Count's steward, an intelligent +man, possessing great scientific knowledge, who had studied this subject +in Paris and London, writes to the Count that the presence of both these +artists was of absolute necessity at Alcora, "until the workmen who were +near them perfected themselves." For owing to the carelessness of the +managers of the porcelain works in 1776 Count Aranda wrote from Paris, +during his embassy there: "My pottery of Alcora, notwithstanding every +effort which has been made, the money spent, and foreign masters which +have been brought over, gets worse every day instead of improving." +Abadia repeats this in his reports. Porcelain of other kinds decidedly +improved. He says also that the pipeclay which Martin had found at +Alcora was the best in Europe.</p> + +<p>In my opinion, a large number of unmarked white biscuit and +demi-porcelain figures which are so constantly found in collections +belong to this period of the manufactory of Alcora. They have hitherto +been classified with very great difficulty, and attributed to the +porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, without any reason which justifies +this opinion. For the help of collectors I will mention the subjects +which they represent, which I have found in a document, dated 1777, of +the figures and groups and other objects made during that year.</p> + +<h3>FIGURES OF DEMI-PORCELAIN.</h3> + +<ul> +<li>Figures of tritons.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of soldiers, two sizes.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span><span class="ditto">"</span>one-third <i>palmos</i> high.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of the four seasons (two sizes).</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of dancers.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of tritons in form of children.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>with brackets.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of different animals.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.</li> + +<li>Dancing figures in the German style.</li> + +<li>Figures of Neptune.<a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a></li> + +<li>Figures of shepherd and shepherdess.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of the Moorish king, Armenius.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of the four parts of the world, two sizes.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of peasant and his wife.</li> + +<li>Small figures holding musical instruments.</li> + +<li>Figures representing different monarchies.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span><span class="ditto">"</span>historical personages.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span><span class="ditto">"</span>the history of Alexander the Great, two sizes.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span><span class="ditto">"</span>Marius Curtius, two sizes.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of elephants.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of a man mounted on an elephant.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>representing Chinese figures.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of Heliogabalus.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of a general on horseback.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.</li> + +<li>Large figures representing Julius Csar.</li> + +<li>Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets.</li> + +<li>Groups of Chinese figures.</li> + +<li>Snuff-boxes, sugar basins, inkstands.</li> + +<li>Rabbits, horns, and pug dogs for holding scent.</li> + +<li>Small scent bottles.</li> + +<li>Needle cases.</li> + +<li>Large vases with foot and cover.</li> + +<li>Brackets.</li> + +<li>Walking-stick handles.</li> + +<li>Knife handles.</li> + +<li>Tea-spoons.</li> + +</ul> + +<h3>FIGURES OF WHITE BISCUIT CHINA.</h3> + +<ul> +<li>Figures representing Spanish costumes, two sizes.</li> + +<li>Groups of two figures.</li> + +<li>Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.</li> + +<li>Figures of the four seasons, two sizes.</li> +</ul> + +<p>We find also the following figures of painted and glazed porcelain:</p> + +<ul><li>Four seasons, two sizes.</li> + +<li>Groups of two figures.</li> + +<li>Figure of a Moorish king.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of musicians and huntsmen.</li> + +<li>Figure of peasants.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>of Chinese.</li> + +<li>Small figures of a gardener and female companion.</li> + +<li>Figures of soldiers in the German style.</li> +</ul> + +<p>In 1780 four rival pottery works were established in the neighbourhood +which copied and imitated the pottery made at Alcora. The two most +important were at Rivasalbes and Onda, the other two at Alcora itself. +Many of the artists who belonged to the works established by Count +Aranda worked at the rival factories; among them were Mariano Causada, +Joaquin Ten, Francisco Marsal, Vicente Alvaro, Christoval Mascars, +Francisco and Miguel Badenas, and Nadal Nebot; some of these artists +returned to the Count's manufactory. In order to distinguish the genuine +pottery from imitations, orders were given, with the authorization of +the Tribunal of Commerce, that the pottery made there should be marked +henceforward with the letter A; no special mark had hitherto been used +at the manufactory, the artists very often signed the specimens they +made with their monograms or signatures, of which those most frequently +met with will be found accompanying the list of artists' names, for the +help of collectors; all of them have been copied from original +documents. It is interesting for collectors to bear in mind, that all +specimens which are marked with the letter A are <i>posterior</i> to 1784. +The pottery works founded in imitation of the manufactory belonging to +Count Aranda came to an end before 1790, some by special agreement with +the owners themselves, and others by the express orders of the +authorities, in virtue of the privileges granted to the Count.</p> + +<p>Mr. Martin died at Alcora in the month of May, 1786. Knipfer left soon +afterwards, and was succeeded by a French artist, M. Pierre +Cloostermans, a skilful man, and well versed in the manufacture of +porcelain pastes, as well as in painting and decorating them. According +to his contract, which was drawn up in Paris in 1787, "Pierre +Cloostermans, chemiste, natif de Paris, demeurant<a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a> Paris, Rue de +Clery, au coin de celle Montmartre," agreed to "live for thirty years at +Alcora as director and workman, to make soft and hard porcelains, and +all the necessary colours with which to paint and decorate it."</p> + +<p>He also promised to make good pipeclay pottery and marbled wares which +were to be as excellent as those of Strasburg. The expenses of his +journey were paid, his sons were to be employed in the works, and it was +stipulated that if the works increased to a great extent, 500 pounds +(Valencian money), was to be added to his yearly salary. It was against +the Count's express desire that pottery of an exclusively artistic +character should be produced at Alcora; his chief object was to improve +the industry itself. In one of his letters to Abadia, written in +October, 1789, he says: "I wish to export the porcelain of my +manufactory, but chiefly in common objects, such as cups of different +kinds, tea and coffee services, etc. These may be varied in form and +colour, the principal point being that the paste should bear hot +liquids, for we Spaniards above everything wish that nothing we buy +should ever break. By no means let time be wasted in making anything +that requires much loss of time. The chief object is that the pastes +should be of first-rate excellence and durability."</p> + +<p>Cloostermans suffered much discomfort and annoyance from other workmen +at Alcora, who were envious of his merit: they put every difficulty in +his path, insulted him daily with pasquins, accused him of not +fulfilling his religious duties, and annoyed him incessantly. His +letters are full of these complaints. Count Aranda treated him with +every consideration. During Cloostermans' stay at Alcora, the pottery +made improved greatly in artistic merit. Figures and groups of many +kinds were attempted, and even Wedgwood jasper ware was creditably +imitated. In 1789, among other pottery that was sent to Madrid were "two +hard paste porcelain cups, adorned with low relief in the English +style." The most important one was moulded by Francisco Garcs, the<a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a> +garlands and low reliefs by Joaquin Ferrer, sculptor, the flowers on the +covers by an apprentice, helped by Cloostermans. The composition of +these objects was suggested by Abadia, who brought some specimens from +Paris which came from England.</p> + +<p>Cloostermans sent the Count in 1789 a number of objects of different +kinds made of porcelain. Among them the most interesting were "a tea and +coffee service painted and gilt of glazed porcelain, and ten unglazed +figures. Those painted by Albaro are marked A, those by Escuder, E, and +by Mas, M, and Cloostermans' son." A large and varied collection of +marbled wares and toys were sent at the same time. Cloostermans' marbled +wares are pronounced superb.</p> + +<p>Count Aranda writes in July, 1790, to Diez Robles alluding to a large +collection of pots for plants, which were made at Alcora for the King, +decorated with the royal arms. Another series are still to be met with +at the Royal Gardens; they are of pipeclay, and ornamented with rams' +heads.</p> + +<p>In 1784 the Count sent two potters, Christoval Pastor and Vicente +Alvaro, to Paris to study the last improvements in porcelain. They +returned in 1789, and the porcelain they made was much commended and +highly approved. They write to the Count in September, 1789: "We know +that Don Domingo has sent your Excellency 97 objects made by us, marked +No. 3, 1, No. 4, No. 3, with a dot, and No. 3 with the letter 'P'; No. 4 +with the letter 'H,' all made by me in clay, and varnished with the +greatest care. Three flask-stands and two toothpick-stands were made by +me, Pastor, before I went to Paris. The marble wares, Nos. 3 and 4, and +other similar objects with gold lines, are also made by me."</p> + +<p>In 1784, Mariano Garcia of Valencia made some experiments before the +Directors of laying on gold, and different shades of purples. A number +of specimens were sent to the Count, but Knipfer did not approve of the +plan adopted, and it was afterwards abandoned.<a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a></p> + +<p>Marbled wares of different colours were made at Alcora in vast +quantities in 1790. A large dept was established in 1791 of Alcora ware +in the Calle de Luzon at Madrid. The printed prospectuses which were +issued give a long and detailed list of the different productions of the +manufactory, which chiefly consisted of dinner and tea services, and +other objects of domestic use.</p> + +<p>In 1792 nearly 100 painters and modellers existed at the manufactory; 45 +were employed to work in porcelain and pipeclays, and 26 were +apprentices.</p> + +<p>Cloostermans was forced to leave Alcora in April, 1793, owing to certain +disturbances which occurred at Valencia, when, owing to a proclamation +of the Captain-Generals, he and other Frenchmen residing in the province +of Valencia, were ordered to leave the country. The Count gives +instructions that Cloostermans should want for nothing on his journey; +he writes ordering that 3000 reales should be given him, and his yearly +pension of 1200 pounds (<i>tornoises</i>). Cloostermans left with his three +sons after giving up the receipts and other documents connected with the +manufactory. In 1795 permission was given that Frenchmen might return to +Spain, and he resumed his post in the manufactory.</p> + +<p>The principal efforts at Alcora since Knipfer, Martin, and Cloostermans +entered the manufactory, had been centred in making porcelain and +pipeclay wares of different kinds. A great number of essays with foreign +earths were made; and all those of a suitable kind which were known in +Spain. Count Aranda was always most anxious that Spanish materials +should be used in the manufactory; he says, in a letter written in 1790, +"the Kaolin of Catalua may be good or bad, but it is acknowledged to be +Kaolin, and if not used these works must be closed." This Kaolin had +been found by Christobal Pastor and Vicente Albaro on their return from +Paris.</p> + +<p>Baron Davillier has been good enough to inform me that he<a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a> has found +mention of some objects of Alcora wares which Count Aranda sent as a +present to his friend Voltaire, at Ferney.</p> + +<p>From 1789 to 1797 the following kinds of pottery were made at Alcora:—</p> + +<ul><li>Hard paste porcelain (French).</li> + +<li>Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.</li> + +<li>Porcelain of pipe-clay (English).</li> + +<li>Blue pipe-clay porcelain.</li> + +<li>Marbled pipe-clay porcelain.</li> + +<li><i>Bucaro</i>, painted and gilt.</li> + +<li>Strasburg Ware.</li> + +<li>Porcelain painted <i>en froid.</i></li> + +<li>Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.</li> +</ul> + +<h3>P<small>ORCELAIN</small> (<small>FRITA</small>).</h3> + +<ul> +<li>Procelain painted with gilt lines.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span><span class="ditto">"</span>without gold.</li> + +<li>Porcelain (frita), canary colour.</li> + +<li>Boxes in relief.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span>plain.</li> + +<li>Porcelain (frita), painted with marble wares.</li> + +<li>Plain boxes of the same kind.</li> + +<li>Porcelain (frita), of blue and brown ground.</li> + +<li>Cups and saucers of a similar kind.</li></ul> + +<h3>B<small>ISCUIT</small> P<small>ORCELAIN</small>.</h3> + +<ul><li>Figures.</li> + +<li>Vases.</li> + +<li>Pedestals.</li> + +<li>White porcelain (frita) cups of different kinds.</li> + +<li><span class="ditto">"</span><span class="ditto">"</span>ornamented and plain.</li> + +<li>Boxes with busts.</li> + +<li>Boxes with ornamentations in relief.</li> + +<li>Figures.</li> + +<li>Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.</li> + +<li>Large figures of the Four Seasons.</li> + +<li>Flower vases with rams' heads.</li> + +<li>Plain boxes.</li> + +<li>Boxes with ornaments in relief.</li></ul> + +<p><a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a></p> + +<h3>W<small>HITE</small> P<small>ORCELAIN</small>.</h3> + +<ul> +<li>Plates, cups, etc.</li> + +<li>Figures of different kinds.</li> +</ul> + +<h3>P<small>AINTED</small> P<small>ORCELAIN</small>.</h3> + +<ul> +<li>Cups, saucers, plates, etc.</li> + +<li>Cream pots.</li> + +<li>Plain snuff boxes, or in the shape of a dog.</li> + +<li>Fruit stands in relief.</li> +</ul> + +<p>In 1799 we find mention made of partridges modelled by Christoval Mas, +and Clemente Aycart much commended for his dogs, ducks, tortoises and +frogs.</p> + +<p>Joseph Ferrer writes to the Duke of Hijar in the same year, that "he had +just seen a bust of D<sup>n</sup> Jos Delgado, a trifle smaller than the one +previously sent of your excellency." These busts and some medallion +portraits were made of porcelain <i>frite</i>. Ferrer complains in the same +letter that Delgado the manager had asked for a fine jug and basin of +Svres, which had been given by the King of France to the late Count, +and that he had been obliged to hide it away with some English specimens +which were in the warehouse.</p> + +<p>Count Aranda died in January, 1798, and was succeeded by his son the +Duke of Hijar. Cloostermans died the same year; Vicente Prats is stated +to be the best painter and decorator at Alcora at this date. In an +extract drawn up of the state of the pottery works in 1798, it appears +that 200 workmen were employed, and pottery of every description was +made, common earthenware, pipeclays in imitation of the English ones, +and porcelain in small quantities; common wares were made in large +quantities; the pipeclays were pronounced superior to the English in +brilliancy, but were so porous that they were easily stained, a large +number of snuff-boxes and other small objects belong to this period.</p> + +<p>In 1800, the Duke of Hijar, who succeeded the Count of Aranda in the +management of the manufactory, writes to D<sup>n</sup><a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a> Josef Ferrer, saying: +"As I do not know the authors of the pipe-clay porcelain or that of +other kinds which is sent here, I beg you to order the master workmen of +porcelain and common pottery to engrave, in making it, the initials of +their names, as it will enable me to distinguish the good from the bad."</p> + +<p>Twelve porcelain baths with the arms of Spain in blue were made at +Alcora for Queen Maria Louisa in 1800.</p> + +<p>The Duke of Hijar ordered in 1800 that a dinner-service should be made +there for his use. He sent instructions that it should be of the same +kind as a tea-service previously sent to his son the Duke of Aliaga. The +painter chosen to decorate it was Mariano Alvaro, and the designs +selected by Ferrer were taken from the Loggie of Raphael.</p> + +<p>In the same year some cases of pottery were sent to the Duke; in one of +them was a fine soup tureen modelled by Josef Ferrer, Cloostermans' son, +Pierre, writes at this time, asking to be appointed to the post left +vacant by his father's death; his petition however was not granted.</p> + +<p>We have already seen that pottery and porcelain continued to be +manufactured in the present century at Alcora in the same manner as in +the 18th century, but owing to the French invasion of 1808 this industry +suffered the consequences of war, and the work done there greatly +diminished in excellence and quantity. Even before this the Director, +D<sup>n</sup> Jos Delgado complains in several documents of the bad state of +the manufactory, the Directors who replaced him, D<sup>n</sup> Juan Bautista +Cabot and D<sup>n</sup> Pedro Bezarco, write continually repeating the same +thing. After the French were turned out of Spain, the industry was +revived and strengthened by fresh artists from the porcelain manufactory +of Madrid. D<sup>n</sup> Luis Poggetti was appointed drawing master there in 1815, +and D<sup>n</sup> Domingo Palmera master of ornamental art, both these artists +had worked at Buen Retiro, Poggetti as Director of pietre dure, and +Palmera as second-class sculptor. After this time the manufactory<a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a> of +pottery at Alcora ceased to produce artistic works, and limited itself +to send out common wares for domestic purposes; this system continued +until 1858, when the Duke of Hijar sold the manufactory to D<sup>n</sup> Ramon +Girona, who brought over English workmen from Staffordshire in order to +improve the wares. Many imitations of the older styles have also been +made at Alcora of late years.</p> + +<p>One of the most important results of the present study is the necessity +of changing the classifications of a great number of specimens which +have been believed to be manufactured at Moustiers and other localities +in France, but which in fact were made at Alcora. It is sufficient to +mention the names of Grangel, Cros, Soliva, and Vilar, which one of the +best informed writers on Ceramic industry, Baron Davillier, has +discovered on different specimens of pottery, and which, in his "Hist. +des faences et porcelaines de Moustiers, etc., Paris, 1863," he +considers to be the names of artists who worked in France, although all +of them belonged exclusively to Alcora, as will be seen in the subjoined +list of artists' names. I am in hopes, also, that many errors may be +corrected in future, touching French and English pottery, which was +imitated to a great extent, and with much success at Alcora.</p> + +<p>We gather also by this information that an immense number of objects +were made of pipeclay porcelain, in imitation of English wares; and, in +my opinion, a great quantity of objects of white pipeclay porcelain +which have been found of late years in Spain are of Alcora manufacture. +They have been hitherto classified by amateurs as Leeds pottery. We +find, in papers relating to Alcora, that a decided distinction is made +between white and straw-coloured pottery. This indication may be +sufficient to distinguish it from English wares.</p> + +<p>Townsend, in "A Journey to Spain in the years 1786-1787," London, 1792, +p. 255, says: "At Alcora, in the neighbourhood of Valencia, a +manufacture of porcelain has been successfully<a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a> established by Count +Aranda, and deserves encouragement. I was much pleased with their +imitations of gilding. It is very natural, and the manager informed me +that after many years' trial it was found to be durable."</p> + +<p><a name="img_38" id="img_38"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_194_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_194_sml.jpg" width="448" height="476" alt="EARTHENWARE PLAQUE, ALCORA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">EARTHENWARE PLAQUE, ALCORA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>Specimens exist of Alcora ware and porcelain at the South Kensington +Museum.</p> + +<p>Nos. 1051, 1052-'71. Two fine plaques, painted with mythological +subjects of Pomona and Galatea, the borders raised in form of a frame, +with scroll ornaments [see woodcut of No. 1052].<a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a></p> + +<p>No. 341-'76. A porcelain cup and saucer, blue ground, gilt; painted with +flowers in white medallions.</p> + +<p>No. 333-'76. A plate painted with sprigs, and containing models of fruit +in full relief.</p> + +<h3>A LIST OF THE DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE +MANUFACTORY OF POTTERY AND PORCELAIN OF ALCORA FROM ITS FOUNDATION, +1726, UNTIL THE BEGINNING OF THE PRESENT CENTURY.</h3> + +<h4>D<small>IRECTORS</small>.</h4> + +<ul><li>Dr. Joaquin Joseph de Sayas, 1727.</li> + +<li>Joseph Ollery, 1727 to 1733.</li> + +<li>Manuel de Molina, 1727 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Cayetano Allue, 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Marcial Guirandeta, 1778 to 1783.</li> + +<li>Juan Villalonga, 1789.</li> + +<li>Pierre Cloostermans, 1789.</li> + +<li>Domingo Abadia, 1789.</li> + +<li>Gabriel Berenguer y Cebrian, 1789.</li> + +<li>Josef Ferrer, 1799.</li> + +<li>Josef Delgado, 1800.</li></ul> + +<h4>A<small>RTISTS</small>.</h4> +<ul> +<li>Abella, Francisco, 1750, at Alcora.</li> + +<li>Alvaro, Cristobal, 1750.</li> + +<li>Alvaro, Joseph, paints pottery in 1743, 1750.</li> + +<li>Alvaro, Vicente, el mayor, works at the wheel in 1750.</li> + +<li>Alvaro, Vicente, painted with Knipfer in 1783; he was sent by Count +Aranda in 1784 to Paris to learn the making of porcelain; he returned to +Spain in 1789, and continued to work at Alcora.</li> + +<li>Alvaro, Tiburcio, painted with Knipfer in 1783.</li> + +<li>Andrs, Cristoval, modeller and carver in 1783.</li> + +<li>Andrs, Francisco, modeller in 1783.</li> + +<li>Andrs, Francisco, modeller, 1743 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Andrs, Gabriel, painter, 1743 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Andrs, Gabriel, figures as one of the leading painters in 1794.</li> + +<li>Andrs, Jaime, painter, from 1728 to 1737.</li> + +<li>Andrs, Mariano, paints from 1739 to 1750.<a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a></li> + +<li>Andrs, Mariano, works in 1789.</li> + +<li>Andrs, Miguel, painter, 1743 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Aparicio, Manuel, painter, 1750.</li> + +<li>Arqua, Vicente, 1750.</li> + +<li>Aycart, Clemente, sculptor, worked at the porcelain works in 1789.</li> + +<li>Aycart, Roque, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Aycart, Ventura, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Bachero, Vicente, painted porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Badenas, Cristoval, painter, 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Badenes, Francisco, establishes with Miguel Badenas pottery works, where +pottery was made in imitation of Alcora: it was put a stop to by +agreement in 1789.</li> + +<li>Badenes, Miguel; see Francisco.</li> + +<li>Beltran, Pedro, retouched painting on porcelain in 1783 to 1789.</li> + +<li>Berenguer, Cristoval, painter, painted from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Blasco, Bautista, painted from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Blasco, Francisco, painted from 1731 to 1738.</li> + +<li>Blasco, Joaquin, painted in 1750.</li> + +<li>Blasco, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735; he painted in 1750.</li> + +<li>Blasco, Manuel, painter, 1728 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Blasco, Vicente, painted 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Buxads, Ildefonso, painted 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Buxads, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783.</li> + +<li>Calvo Perales, Joseph, painter from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Calvo, Manuel, painter of common pottery in 1783.</li> + +<li>Calvo, Ramon, painted common earthenware from 1750 to 1783.</li> + +<li>Campion, Juan, a Frenchman, worked at the wheel in 1743.</li> + +<li>Carnicer, Juan, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Carnicer, Vicente, modeller from 1783 to 1789.</li> + +<li>Carbonel, Sebastian, a Frenchman; he modelled in 1728.</li> + +<li>Catal, Cristoval, modelled in 1783.</li> + +<li>Catal, Juan, 1750.</li> + +<li>Catal, Manuel, 1750.</li> + +<li>Catal, Pascual, painter from 1729 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Catal, Pedro Juan, painted common pottery in 1783.</li> + +<li>Caussada, mayor, Jacinto, painted from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Caussada, menor, Jacinto, from 1727.</li> + +<li>Caussada, Joseph, a son of Jacinto, painted from 1743 to 1750. He ran +away from the manufactory and went to work at Talavera, and was brought +back to Alcora.</li> + +<li>Caussada, Mariano. It was proposed that he should be turned out of the +manufactory, owing to his having gone over to the works established at +Onda, where he gave them the receipts of the colours and varnishes used +at Alcora; he returned to Alcora in 1789.<a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a></li> + +<li>Caveta, Pascual, painter, 1743.</li> + +<li>Chiva, Cristoval de, painted porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Chiva, Joseph, painted from 1727 to 1738.</li> + +<li>Chiva, Manuel, painted in 1789.</li> + +<li>Cloostermans, Pierre, a French artist; he entered the manufactory in +1787, and continued to work there until his death in 1798.</li> + +<li>Cloostermans, a son of Pierre's, was an excellent painter on porcelain +in 1789.</li> + +<li>Corrs, Ignacio, a native of Catalua, painted from 1727 to 1728.</li> + +<li>Coll, Jaime, a native of Catalua, painted from 1727 to 1736.</li> + +<li>Cros, Cristoval, painted from May, 1727 to 1743; he was one of the best +artists who painted at Alcora.</li> + +<li>Cros, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Cros, Manuel, 1750.</li> + +<li>Cros, Pascual, painted from 1727 to 1736.</li> + +<li>Cros, menor, Vicente, painted porcelain from 1750 to 1789.</li> + +<li>Cros, Vicente, 1735 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Datos, Gaspar, modeller, 1731 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Datos, Julian, modeller, in 1783.</li> + +<li>Datos, Ramon, painted in 1750.</li> + +<li>Datos, Vicente, 1750.</li> + +<li>Escuder, Vicente, painted with Knipfer from 1783 to 1789.</li> + +<li>Fabra, Francisco, painted from 1730 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Fabra, Vicente, painter, 1727 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Falco, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Falco, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Feliu, Vicente Tomas, painter, from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Feliu y Thomas, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783.</li> + +<li>Ferrer, Joaquin, a carver, who worked with Mr. Martin from 1783 to 1789.</li> + +<li>Ferrer, Esteban, painted porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Ferrer y Carnicer, Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783. In December, +1789, he had an oven on his own account at Alcora, the only one which +remained out of four which had been established four years previously +there.</li> + +<li>Ferrer, menor, Vicente, 1750.</li> + +<li>Ferrer, Vicente, painted from 1727 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Flor, Antonio, painted common pottery from 1750 to 1783.</li> + +<li>Fores, Joseph, painter, 1727.</li> + +<li>Fornench, Joseph, painted in 1739.</li> + +<li>Fornench, Phelipe, painted common pottery in 1783.</li> + +<li>Fornench, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Fornench, Phelipe, painter, 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Fuste, Salvador, painter, 1727.</li> + +<li>Galvez, Juan, modeller, 1731 to 1735.<a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a></li> + +<li>Garcs, Joaquin, painter. He worked with Joaquin Ter at the manufactory +which he established at Alcora, and returned to the Counts in 1789.</li> + +<li>Garcs, Francisco, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin in 1783, and was +considered by Cloostermans, in 1789, his most able workman.</li> + +<li>Garcs, Joseph, painter, 1727.</li> + +<li>Garcs, Pedro, 1743.</li> + +<li>Garcia, Mariano, a native of Valencia. He went to Alcora to try a system +of gilding and purple which he had invented, which produced an +unsatisfactory result.</li> + +<li>Gasch, Agustin, painter from 1728 to 1750, although he was absent from +the works from 1735 to 1741.</li> + +<li>Gasch, Bruno, a son of Juan's, worked at the wheel from 1743 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Gasch, Cristoval, worked with the turners, 1731 to 1741, and joined the +painters until 1750.</li> + +<li>Gasch, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1729 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Gasch, mayor, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Gasch, Joseph, painter, 1731 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Gasch, Juan, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Gasch, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Gasch, Miguel, the son of Juan, painted in 1743.</li> + +<li>Gasch, Vicente, 1750.</li> + +<li>Gasch, Correo Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Gardo, Juan, painter and modeller, 1731 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Gil, Francisco, modeller, 1783.</li> + +<li>Giner, Manuel, painter, 1727.</li> + +<li>Gomez, Cristoval, painter on common pottery, 1783.</li> + +<li>Gomez, Francisco, modeller, 1731 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Gomez, Vicente, painter, 1750, 1783.</li> + +<li>Gomez, menor, Vicente, worked at the wheel and painted from 1783 to +1789.</li> + +<li>Gorris, Joseph, 1750.</li> + +<li>Granell, Cristoval, painter, 1729, 1750.</li> + +<li>Granell, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Granell, Vicente, 1731 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Grangel, Francisco, pintor, painted from 1727 to 1783. In 1743 the +finest work was given to him.</li> + +<li>Grangel, Juan, painted from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Gras, Monsieur, painter, 1728.</li> + +<li>Haly, Franois, 1751.</li> + +<li>Herrando, Francisco, 1727.</li> + +<li>Herrando, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1736.</li> + +<li>Herrando, Juan, painted from 1729 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Herrando, Manuel, modeller, 1783.</li> + +<li>Herrando, Pascual, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Herrando, Thadeo, 1750.<a name="page_199" id="page_199"></a></li> + +<li>Huguet, Cristobal, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Huguet, Francisco, worked at the wheel and modelled in porcelain from +1783 to 1789.</li> + +<li>Huguet y Mascars, Joseph, painter, 1783 to 1794.</li> + +<li>Huguet, Vicente, painter. He worked at the manufactory established by +Joaquin Ten at Alcora, and returned to Count Arandas in 1789, and +continued there in 1794.</li> + +<li>Huguet Serra, Joseph, modeller in 1783.</li> + +<li>Ibaez, Juan, painter from 1727 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Knipfer, Juan, a native of Saxony, 1783.</li> + +<li>Lazaro, Joseph, painter, 1727.</li> + +<li>Lopez, Julian, 1792.</li> + +<li>Llorente, Francisco, 1750.</li> + +<li>Lloscos, Joaquin, painter, 1783.</li> + +<li>Llosca, menor, painter, 1783.</li> + +<li>Malanco, Nicolas, painter, 1727.</li> + +<li>Marin, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1736.</li> + +<li>Marques, Miguel, painter, 1794.</li> + +<li>Marras, Francisco, painter and modeller in 1727.</li> + +<li>Marsal, Bautista, painter from 1727 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Marsal, Francisco. He worked at Alcora, and left it for the manufactory +of Onda; in 1783 he returned to Count Aranda's works.</li> + +<li>Marti, Miguel, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Martin, Francisco, modeller in 1783.</li> + +<li>Martir, Pedro, worked at the wheel in 1739.</li> + +<li>Mas, Cristoval, modeller from 1783 to 1789.</li> + +<li>Mas, Francisco, painted common pottery in 1783.</li> + +<li>Mas, Julian, a skilful painter on porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Mas, menor, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783.</li> + +<li>Mas, Manuel, painted from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Mas, Pedro, painter in 1743.</li> + +<li>Mascars, Cristobal, painter from 1728 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Mascars y Thomas, Cristoval, painted on pottery from 1783 to 1794.</li> + +<li>Mascars, Francisco, 1743 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Mascars, Joseph, painted porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Mascars, Jos, painter in 1735 to 1736.</li> + +<li>Mascars, Pedro Martin, painted from 1729 to 1736.</li> + +<li>Mascars, Vicente, worked at the wheel from 1750 to 1780.</li> + +<li>Masso y Fabra, Vicente, painted in 1727.</li> + +<li>Mass, Joseph, 1750.</li> + +<li>Mass y Fabra, Francisco, painter, 1739, 1750.</li> + +<li>Mass Nadal, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Mallol, Joaquin, modeller, 1783.</li> + +<li>Mallol, Cristoval, modeller in 1783.<a name="page_200" id="page_200"></a></li> + +<li>Mallol, Vicente, modeller, 1783.</li> + +<li>Maurisi, Pedro, a Frenchman, began to work in 1728.</li> + +<li>Mezquita y Chiva, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Mezquita, Francisco, painted in 1750.</li> + +<li>Mezquita, Jaime, painter, 1731 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Mezquita, Pascual, painter from 1727 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Miguel, Vicente, 1750.</li> + +<li>Miralles, Vicente, worked in clay from 1731 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Moliner, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Moliner, Miguel, painted from 1728 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Moliner, Vicente, modeller in 1783.</li> + +<li>Monfort, Agustin, modeller in 1783.</li> + +<li>Monfort, Pablo, modeller in 1783.</li> + +<li>Montemenor, Joseph, modeller in 1783.</li> + +<li>Montolin, Jacinto, painter, from 1731 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Montolin, Juan, painter, the son of Jacinto, from 1735 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Montolin, Juan, varnisher and painter in 1783.</li> + +<li>Montolin, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Montolin, Vicente, painter of common pottery in 1783.</li> + +<li>Montolin, Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Moya, Crisostomo, retouched porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Nadal, Felix, 1727 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Nadal, Juan, master at the wheel, painter and carver from 1727 to 1737.</li> + +<li>Nadal, Miguel, 1783.</li> + +<li>Nadal, Nebot, works from 1743 to 1783.</li> + +<li>Navarro, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783, and painted porcelain +in 1789.</li> + +<li>Nebot, Bautista, painter, 1794.</li> + +<li>Nebot, Cristoval, modeller, 1750.</li> + +<li>Nebot, Cristoval, menor, 1794.</li> + +<li>Nebot, Francisco, 1750.</li> + +<li>Nebot, Francisco, painter in 1794.</li> + +<li>Nebot, Joseph, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1740.</li> + +<li>Nebot, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1794.</li> + +<li>Nebot, Juan, painter, 1750 to 1783.</li> + +<li>Nebot, Miguel, painter, 1783 to 1794.</li> + +<li>Nebot, Narciso, painter, 1794.</li> + +<li>Negre, Deodato, painter, 1727.</li> + +<li>Negre, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1783 to 1794.</li> + +<li>Negre, Julian, worked at the wheel in 1794.</li> + +<li>Negre, Manuel, modeller, 1783 to 1794.</li> + +<li>Negre, Ramon, painter, 1783 to 1794.</li> + +<li>Negre, Vicente, modeller, 1727.</li> + +<li>Nondedeu, Cristoval, modeller, 1729.</li> + +<li>Nondedeu, Miguel, turner, 1731 to 1743.<a name="page_201" id="page_201"></a></li> + +<li>Ochando, Joseph, draughtsman and carver, from 1727 to 1742.</li> + +<li>Olery, Joseph, director of the works from 1735 to 1737. In August, 1729, +he was appointed principal draughtsman.</li> + +<li>Pacor, Bartolom, painter, 1728 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Palau, Francisco, painter, from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Palmera, Domingo, master of ornamental art, 1815.</li> + +<li>Pardo, Cristoval, turner, from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Pardo, Francisco, 1750.</li> + +<li>Pardo, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Pardo, Vicente, master at the wheel in 1728.</li> + +<li>Pastor Bartolo, Antonio, painter, 1750.</li> + +<li>Pastor Butoni, Antonio, painter, 1750.</li> + +<li>Pastor, Bartolom, a brother of Vicente's, from 1729 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Pastor, Bautista, varnisher, 1783.</li> + +<li>Pastor, Cristoval, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin from 1783 to +1789.</li> + +<li>Pastor, Gaspar, 1750.</li> + +<li>Pastor, Joseph, painted in common pottery and porcelain from 1783 to +1789.</li> + +<li>Pastor, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750; his name appears in 1743 +among the best artists of Alcora.</li> + +<li>Pastor, Vicente, painter, from 1728 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Pastor, Vicente, painter, was pensioned in Paris by Count Aranda in +1784; he returned to the works in 1789, and continued there for several +years afterwards.</li> + +<li>Pea, Vicente, modeller, 1783.</li> + +<li>Perales, Ramon de, painter, 1750.</li> + +<li>Periz, Joseph, modeller, from 1727 to 1731.</li> + +<li>Periz, Joseph, mayor, painter, from 1750 to 1783.</li> + +<li>Periz, Joseph, menor, modeller, 1783.</li> + +<li>Perpian, Cristoval, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1740.</li> + +<li>Perpian, Vicente, modeller, from 1731 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Pinazo, Andres, draughtsman and carver, 1727.</li> + +<li>Poggetti, Luis, drawing master, 1815.</li> + +<li>Porcar, Cristoval, painter, from 1727 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Porcar, Pascual, modeller, from 1729 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Prast, Antonio, painter of common pottery in 1783.</li> + +<li>Prats, Cristoval, modeller, 1783.</li> + +<li>Prats, Cristoval, turner, from 1731 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Prats, Francisco, modeller, from 1750 to 1783.</li> + +<li>Prats, Fulgencio, painter, 1783.</li> + +<li>Prats, Vicente, painter, from 1750 to 1794. In 1789 he ranked among the +first artists at Alcora.</li> + +<li>Querol, Vicente, 1743.</li> + +<li>Querol, Joseph, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Querol, Manuel, painter, from 1750 to 1783.<a name="page_202" id="page_202"></a></li> + +<li>Rech, Joseph, a native of Catalua, painter, in 1727.</li> + +<li>Redolat, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Ribot, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Ricart, Antonio, turner, from 1729 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Ricart, Clemente, modeller, in 1783.</li> + +<li>Ricart, Joaquin, modeller, in 1783.</li> + +<li>Robert, a Frenchman, painted in 1729.</li> + +<li>Rocafort, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750; he was one of the best +artists at the manufactory in 1743.</li> + +<li>Roman, Juan, painted from 1731 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Roman, Manuel, painted from 1735 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Romualdo, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Roux, Edouard, a French painter, who worked at Alcora, where he had been +brought by Ollery in 1728 until 1735.</li> + +<li>Rules, Joseph de, turner, from 1731 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Saborit, Cristoval, modeller, in 1783.</li> + +<li>Saborit, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1736.</li> + +<li>Saborit, Joaquin, painter, 1783.</li> + +<li>Saborit, Joaquin, painted from 1728 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Saborit, Manuel, modeller, in 1783.</li> + +<li>Sagao, Rafael, draughtsman and carver, 1727.</li> + +<li>Salvada, Joseph, 1789.</li> + +<li>Sancho, Joaquin, painted in 1783.</li> + +<li>Serrania, Cristoval, 1750.</li> + +<li>Serrania, Vicente, painted from 1728 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Soliva, Joaquin, painted pottery in 1783, and retouched porcelain in +1789.</li> + +<li>Soliva, Miguel, painted from 1727 to 1750. In 1743 he was considered the +best artist at Alcora.</li> + +<li>Soriano, Joseph, turner from 1731 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Soriano, Nicasio, turner from 1731 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Sorolla, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Tarazona, menor, Cristoval, modeller, 1783.</li> + +<li>Tarazona, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Tarazona, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1783.</li> + +<li>Tarrag, Joseph, painter from 1728 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Tarrag, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Ten, Francisco, modeller in 1783.</li> + +<li>Ten, Joaquin, painter from 1732 to 1750. In 1789 he closes the pottery +works which he had established in imitation of those of Alcora.</li> + +<li>Ten, Joseph, 1750.</li> + +<li>Ten, Jaime, painter from 1735 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Terra, Cristobal, modeller, 1783.</li> + +<li>Terra, Vicente, varnisher, 1783.</li> + +<li>Thomas, Antonio, modeller, 1783.<a name="page_203" id="page_203"></a></li> + +<li>Thomas, Gaspar, 1750.</li> + +<li>Thomas, Joaquin, modeller in 1783.</li> + +<li>Thomas, Jos, 1750.</li> + +<li>Thomas, Jos, worked at the wheel in 1783.</li> + +<li>Thomas, Juan, 1743, 1750.</li> + +<li>Thomas, Mateo, 1750.</li> + +<li>Thomas Feliu, Vicente, painter from 1729 to 1740.</li> + +<li>Thomas, Vicente, 1783.</li> + +<li>Torres, Cristoval, painter from 1728 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Torres, Juan, from 1731 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Vadenes, Cristobal, 1770.</li> + +<li>Valentin, Pedro, painter from 1727 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Vilar, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Vilar, Cristobal, sculptor, works in porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Vilar, Francisco, 1750.</li> + +<li>Vilar, Joseph, modeller in 1783.</li> + +<li>Vilar, Miguel, painter from 1727 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Vilar, Pedro, worked in the ovens from 1735 to 1750.</li> + +<li>Vilar, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Vilar y Bordoan, Cristobal, modeller in 1783.</li> + +<li>Vilar y Bordoan, Mariano, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789.</li> + +<li>Vilar Perpian, Cristobal, painted from 1739 to 1743.</li> + +<li>Vilar Ricart, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Vilar Porcar, Cristobal, painter, 1727.</li> + +<li>Vilar Ricart, Joseph, painter from January, 1731, to 1735.</li> + +<li>Vilar Porcar, Joaquin, painter from 1727 to 1735.</li> + +<li>Vilar Saboret, Joaquin, painter in 1729.</li> + +<li>Yguet, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783.</li> + +<li>Zaragoza, Friar, worker in porcelain, 1799.</li> +</ul> + +<hr /> + +<h3>MARKS AND SIGNATURES OF THE PAINTERS WHO WORKED AT ALCORA.</h3> + +<p>From 1727 to 1784 no special mark was used at Alcora. In several +instances specimens were signed with the painter's name or initials.</p> + +<p>In order to distinguish the qualities or sizes, coloured numbers were +frequently added.</p> + +<p>From 1784 the letter A in gold or colours was used to mark the pottery +and porcelain made at Alcora.<a name="page_204" id="page_204"></a></p> + +<p>The following marks were used after 1784. The a underlined, <span class="undr">A</span>, +sometimes in blue.</p> + +<p>A number and letter, No. 4 A, G 8; No. 3 P. In 1799 the pottery made by +Friar Joseph de Zaragoza was marked M. O. X.</p> + +<p><a name="img_39" id="img_39"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_204_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_204_sml.png" width="384" height="632" alt="Signatures" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_205" id="page_205"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_205_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_205_sml.png" width="565" height="742" alt="Signatures" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_206" id="page_206"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_206_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_206_sml.png" width="406" height="748" alt="Signatures" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_207" id="page_207"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_207_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_207_sml.png" width="455" height="777" alt="Signatures" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_208" id="page_208"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_208_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_208_sml.png" width="402" height="745" alt="Signatures" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_209" id="page_209"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_209_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_209_sml.png" width="379" height="747" alt="Signatures" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_210" id="page_210"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_210_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_210_sml.png" width="269" height="215" alt="Signatures" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_211" id="page_211"></a></p> + +<h3>MADRID.—BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN.</h3> + +<p>In 1759 King Charles III. came from Naples, having inherited the Spanish +crown on the death of his brother Ferdinand VI. Soon after his arrival +he determined to establish a porcelain manufactory at Madrid in the same +style as one which in 1736 he had founded at Naples. The documents which +exist relating to this manufactory at the archives of the Royal Palace, +Madrid, Alcala, Ministry of Finance, etc., state that before the King +left Naples, he ordered the following letter to be written to the +Secretary of State, Richard Wall, on September 11, 1759: "Likewise the +workmen and utensils used at the royal manufactory of porcelain of Capo +di Monte must be embarked from Naples to Alicant, in the vessels +prepared for that purpose, in order to continue from there the journey +to Madrid. The necessary conveyances are to be provided, and the +expenses to be charged to his Majesty's account."</p> + +<p>Charles III. landed at Barcelona on the 17th of October, 1759, and we +find a letter written by order of the King, by the Marquis of Esquilace +to Secretary Wall, in November of the same year, in which he says that +the King had heard of the arrival in Spain of the workmen from Capo di +Monte, and gives orders that money should be supplied to the Director, +Don Juan Thomas Bonicelli. Wall answers that he "will give orders and +help the workmen who are to establish the manufactory, and let them have +every facility to examine different sorts of earths and localities which +may suit them, and that the Director, Bonicelli, should have the money +he might require."</p> + +<p>It appears also that 300 gold ducats were given to Giuseppe Gricci, +"modeller," in absence of Bonicelli. The King ordered Wall to be +informed that he understood that a place had been found near Madrid to +establish these works, and that he was<a name="page_212" id="page_212"></a> anxious to see a plan of the +exact locality. Giuseppe Gricci drew the plan of the spot chosen, and +was paid 100 gold doubloons for works connected with the manufactory. +Bonicelli sends the following list of workmen who had arrived from +Naples to the King.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>Cayetano Schepers,</td><td align="center">chief composer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pablo Forni.</td><td align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td>Joseph Gricci,</td><td align="center">principal modeller.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Carlos Gricci.</td><td align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td>Esteban Gricci,</td><td align="center">modeller.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cayetano Fumo,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Basilio Fumo,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Joseph Fumo,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Carlos Fumo,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Macedonio Fumo,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Joseph Santorum,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Juan Bescia,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bautista de Bautista,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Antonio Morelly,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Salvador Nofri,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Phelipe Esplores,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ambrosio de Giorgi,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pedro Antonio de Giorgi,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pablo Frate,</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" +class="smcap">Workmen employed in the Kilns.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Jenaro Bonincosa.<br /> +Nicolas Rocio.<br /> +Pasqual Rocco.<br /> +Juan Frate.<br /> +Baldo de Beneditis. </td> +<td class="blt">Vincenzio Frate.<br /> +Matheo Mayni.<br /> +Giorchino Amable.<br /> +Joseph Esclavo.<br /> +Antonio Aquaviva Esclavo.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> </p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" +class="smcap">Workmen who Pounded the Colours.</td></tr> +<tr valign="top"><td>Francisco Conte.<br /> +Nicolas Conte.<br /> +Angelo Lionelli.</td> +<td class="blt">Joseph Caramello.<br /> +Joachim Pataroti,<br />carver in pietri dure.</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> </p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" +class="smcap">Workmen employed at the Wheel.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Joseph Grossi.<br /> +Nicolas Botino. </td> +<td class="blt">Juan Remini, gold beater.<br /> +Pedro Chevalier, mounter.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> </p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" +class="smcap">Painters.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Jos de la Torre.<br /> +Juan Bautista de la Torre.<br /> +Nicolas de la Torre. <br /> +Fernando Sorrentini.<br /> +Mariano Nani.<br /> +Jenaro Boltri.<br /> +Nicolas Donadio.</td> + +<td class="blt">Antonio Provinciale.<br /> +Joseph del Coco.<br /> +Carlos Remissi.<br /> +Francesco Simini.<br /> +Xavier Brancacio.<br /> +Joseph Esclavo.<br /> +Francisco Esclavo.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="page_213" id="page_213"></a></p> + +<p>On the 19th of December, 1759, Don Carlos de Borbon, the King's +architect, presented him with the plans of the porcelain manufactory. +The spot selected was inside the gardens of the Royal Palace of Buen +Retiro. Ponz tells us in his "Viage," Vol. VI. p. 108, that the building +was large and of regular architecture. We know it cost 179,130 reals.</p> + +<p>Don Carlos de Borbon was a black slave who had been captured with other +blacks during the reign of Ferdinand VI. The Queen-mother sent them to +Naples, and Charles III. gave them an artistic education.</p> + +<p>Don Carlos Antonio became the King's architect. On the 22nd of May, +1760, the building was finished, the money then spent amounted to +upwards of 145,000 reals, and Larruga tells us, in his Memorias, "The +King spent in establishing this manufactory 115,000, with a yearly cost +to keep it up of 20,000."</p> + +<p>William Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish Nation during the +years 1760-1761," London, 1763, says, p. 262: "At Madrid is lately set +up a manufacture of porcelain in the gardens of the King's palace at the +Retiro, wrought by artificers brought from Saxony." Documents exist +proving that in 1760-1761, they were already working there. Townsend, in +his "Journey through Spain in 1786 and 1787," London, 1792, says, Vol. +II., p. 278:—</p> + +<p>"I tried to obtain admission to the china manufacture, which is likewise +administered on the King's account, but His Majesty's injunctions are so +severe that I could neither get introduced to see it, nor meet with any +one who had ever been able to procure that favour for himself. I was the +less mortified upon this occasion because, from the specimens which I +have seen, both in the palace at Madrid, and in the provinces, it +resembles the manufacture of Svres which I had formerly visited in a +tour through France."</p> + +<p>In the "Nouveau voyage en Espagne, ou Tableau de l'tat<a name="page_214" id="page_214"></a> actuel de cette +monarchie," Paris, 1789, Vol. I. p. 233, the author tells us, how "Le +monarque actuel tabli dans leur interieur une fabrique de porcelaine, +dont l'entre est jusqu present interdite tout le monde. On veut sans +doute que ses essais se perfectionment dans le silence, avant de les +exposer aux yeux des curieux. Ses productions ne peuvent encore se voir +que dans les Palais des Souverains, ou dans quelques Cours d'Italie, +auxquelles il les envoie en presens."</p> + +<p>We find in a "Nouveau voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1805, p. 34, in +describing this porcelain manufactory that the author says; "Cet +tablissement tres couteux ne travaille que pour le Roi et a son compte; +il en sort des vases d'une beaute et d'un fini qui ne le cedent point +ceux de Svres."</p> + +<p>Citoyen Alquier, in 1800, the envoy of the French Republic, was allowed +to visit the manufactory.</p> + +<p>We do not know the precise date when porcelain began to be manufactured +at the Retiro. Clarke, writing in 1761, says the works had begun, and in +1764 pupils attended the classes at the Academy of S<sup>n</sup> Fernando. +Larruga, in his "Memorias," says that as soon as the building was +finished, china was made under the superintendence of Don Cayetano +Schepers; the works, during his superintendence, proved very +unsatisfactory, to his great astonishment, as the same process and +workmen were employed as at Naples. Schepers attributes it to squabbles +between the Spanish and Italian workmen. Sebastian Schepers, from 1783, +a son of Cayetano's, tried various experiments with different clays of +the country.</p> + +<p>The porcelain made at Buen Retiro was kept for the first thirty years +for the exclusive use of the royal family, or to be sent as presents to +foreign courts. Nothing was offered for sale until January, 1789, after +Charles III.'s death, 1788, when Charles IV. determined that the china +manufactured at Buen Retiro might be sold. Even in Spain the specimens +of this china are very scarce; it is only at the palaces of Madrid, +Aranjuez, the Escorial and La<a name="page_215" id="page_215"></a> Granja that an idea can be formed of the +perfection of this manufacture.</p> + +<p>The director at that time was Don Domingo Bonicelli, a son of Don Juan +Bonicelli. Don Domingo chose a room within the Retiro, which was +arranged at a cost of 350, in which to exhibit the objects for sale. +Another room was taken in the Calle del Turco, which is mentioned in +"Noticias varias y curiosas de Madrid," Valero Chicarro, 1762-1793, +which we find was closed in 1800, as the "objects manufactured at the +Retiro were simply for ornament, and could only be bought by very rich +persons." Southey in his "Letters from Spain," London, 1797, p. 118, +says, "The old palace of Buen Retiro is converted into a royal porcelain +manufactory; the prices are extravagantly high, but they have arrived at +great excellence in the manufacture. The false taste of the people is +displayed in all the vases I saw there, which though made from Roman +models, are all terminated by porcelain flowers."</p> + +<p>Every kind of porcelain was made at Buen Retiro, hard and soft paste, +white china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and modelled in the style of +Capo di Monte. A great many existed imitating the blue jasper ware of +Wedgwood, and they also made flowers, coloured and biscuit, groups, and +single figures, and painted porcelain of different kinds. Great +quantities of tiles for pavements were also made there, which may still +be seen at the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez; they are mentioned in the +accounts which exist at the Ministry of Finance for 1807 and 1808. We +find in these same accounts interesting details of the objects made +monthly. In January, 1808, a large number of figures were made, +including 151 heads for the table centre which was made for the king, +306 objects ornamented with paintings, 2,056 tiles, 577 objects of less +artistic importance, such as dishes, plates, etc. The finest specimens +which exist are in the Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the +Palaces of Madrid and Aranjuez of which the walls are completely covered +with china plaques and looking-<a name="page_216" id="page_216"></a>glasses, modelled in the most admirable +manner with figures, fruits, and flowers. The room at Aranjuez is +covered with a bold ornamentation of figures in the Japanese style, in +high relief, painted with colours and gold with the most exquisite +details. The figures unite the fine Italian modelling with the Japanese +decoration. The chandelier is in the same style. Upon a vase on the +wainscot to the right of the entrance door is the following inscription:</p> + +<p class="c"> +JOSEPH<br /> +GRICC<sup>I</sup><br /> +DELINEAV<sup>it</sup><br /> +ET<br /> +SCUL<sup>it</sup><br /> +1763. +</p> + +<p class="nind">This same date is repeated in the angles, and in some shields near the +roof we find,</p> + +<p class="c">AO<br /> +1765;</p> + +<p class="nind">probably the year the work was terminated. Antonio Conca, in his +"Descrizione Odeporica della Spagna in cui spezialmente si da notizia +delle cose spettanti alle Belle Arti," Parma, 1793, Vol. III., p. 310, +says, "Il Gabineto abbelitto di porcellana della Fabbricca del Retiro ha +meritato le bodi de curiozi viaggiatori." We also find in p. 119, "Un +altro Gabinetto vien chiamato della Cina pel sud principal ornata di bei +putti, di bassi relievi, e di altre opere di porcellana della nuova Real +Fabbricca del Ritiro." Ponz, in his "Viage de Espaa," Madrid, 1782, +describes the room at the Palace of Madrid, saying, "it is covered with +large plaques of porcelain made at Buen Retiro. In some are represented +figures of children copied from models, and between each compartment +looking-glasses are let in." (See woodcut.)</p> + +<p><a name="img_40" id="img_40"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_217_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_217_sml.jpg" width="465" height="745" alt="ROOM DECORATED WITH BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN, IN THE PALACE AT MADRID." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">ROOM DECORATED WITH BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN, IN THE PALACE AT MADRID.</span> +</p> + +<p>From the establishment of the manufactory in 1759 by<a name="page_217" id="page_217"></a><a name="page_218" id="page_218"></a> Charles III. +until 1803 the styles adopted at Capo di Monte had been followed. At the +beginning of this century Dn. Bartolom Sureda went to Paris to learn +the manner in which Svres porcelain was made. On his return in 1803 he +was appointed director of the works at Buen Retiro and endeavoured to +imitate the paste and brilliancy of decoration of Svres. Two workmen +came over from Paris—Victor Perche, and Vivien.</p> + +<p>Among the finest specimens of this period of the manufactory are a +splendid clock and four vases, two mtres high, with porcelain flowers, +which exist in one of the state rooms of the Palace of Madrid. The vases +are placed in the four corners of the room. The clock is ornamented with +large biscuit figures. A large number of vases exist at the royal +Palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, and Escorial, of Retiro china. They are +often finely mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or porcelain flowers. +The blue of the imitations of Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the +biscuit work so fine as the English. Gold is often added to these +specimens.</p> + +<p>We find at the archives of the Ministry of Finance interesting details +of a dinner service made in 1798 for Charles IV., and a centre-piece, +which probably is that now in the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez.</p> + +<p>When the French made their entry into Madrid in the spring of 1808 they +took possession of the position occupied by the royal manufactory. In +July of the same year it continued in the hands of the French, who +forced open the doors of the laboratory. Porcelain continued, however, +to be made there during the reign of Joseph I.; we find in "Travels +through Spain and part of Portugal," London, 1808, p. 23, that, the +author says, "the gardens of the Buen Retiro are open to the public. In +the neighbourhood of these the royal porcelain manufacture is carried on +in a large white building." Lord Blayney, in his "Narrative of a Journey +through Spain and France in 1810-1814," London, 1814, says that "the +royal manufactures of tapestry and porcelain have declined since the +death of Charles III. and have now entirely ceased."<a name="page_219" id="page_219"></a></p> + +<p>We find in "Paseos por Madrid," Madrid, 1815-8, p. 87, it stated that +"The English, at the second entry of our troops in Madrid, ruined this +building in order that it should not be used as a fortress by the French +troops."</p> + +<p>Richard Ford, in his "Handbook for Travellers in Spain," London, 1845, +says, "Everything was destroyed by the invaders, who turned the +manufactory into a fortification, which surrendered with 200 cannon, +Aug. 14th, 1812, to the Duke of Wellington. Ferdinand VII., on his +restoration, re-created La China, removing the workshops and ware rooms +to the Moneloa."</p> + +<p>The South Kensington Museum contains an interesting collection of Buen +Retiro porcelain of different kinds, of which may be named:</p> + +<p>No. 344-'66. A vase of biscuit porcelain, two-handled, with frieze of +classic dancing figures and flowers.</p> + +<p>Nos. 333, 4-'66. Two small vases for tea, white porcelain, covered with +flowers in relief.</p> + +<p>No. 892-'75. A pair of vases painted with young bacchanals in rose +camaeu, and gilt.</p> + +<p>No. 893-'75. A pair of draped female figures, each holding a cornucopia, +standing on an altar-shaped plinth.</p> + +<p>No. 894-'75. A clock case, white porcelain, of rock and scroll work, +with flowers and groups of amorini.</p> + +<p>No. 332-'76. A group of Ariadne and the panther.</p> + +<p>No. 1068-'73. A pair of tall vases, with gilt serpent handles, the necks +fluted with gold, the upper part of the body painted with classic +groups, and with coloured scroll foliage in relief, the lower part +painted with leaves and scrolls on white ground. (See woodcut on next +page.)<a name="page_220" id="page_220"></a></p> + +<p><a name="img_41" id="img_41"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_220_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_220_sml.jpg" width="283" height="662" alt="BUEN RETIRO VASE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">BUEN RETIRO VASE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_221" id="page_221"></a></p> + +<p><a name="img_42" id="img_42"></a></p> + +<h3>MARKS USED AT THE PORCELAIN MANUFACTORY OF BUEN RETIRO.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_221a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_221a_sml.png" width="267" height="69" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />The usual mark in blue. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_221b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_221b_sml.png" width="267" height="58" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />In blue, and sometimes in violet and gold. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_221c_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_221c_sml.png" width="267" height="119" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />Cayetano or Carlos Fumo. The initials and date are graved in the clay +under the glaze; the fleur-de-lis is pencilled in blue. On a fine group +of children playing with a goat. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_221d_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_221d_sml.png" width="267" height="96" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />This mark is graved in the clay, under the glaze, on a fine group +modelled by Salvador Nofri. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_221e_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_221e_sml.png" width="267" height="61" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />Ochogavia? graved in the soft clay on a figure. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_221f_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_221f_sml.png" width="267" height="100" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />1798, Sorrentini? These marks are pencilled in red on a pink cup and +saucer, with landscapes painted <i>en grisaille.</i> +</div> + +<p><a name="page_222" id="page_222"></a></p> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_221g_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_221g_sml.png" width="267" height="146" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />Pedro Antonio Georgi? The initials P. G. are gilt; the M crowned in red; +the V and M graved in the clay; on a cup and saucer buff coloured. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_222a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_222a_sml.png" width="267" height="70" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />Provinciale? The letters Po are graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in +blue; on two saucers, beautifully painted with children. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_222b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_222b_sml.png" width="267" height="64" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />Probably the initial of the king. On two jardinires; the interlaced C's +graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in blue. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_222c_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_222c_sml.png" width="267" height="76" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />On two large vases imitating Wedgwood's blue and white jasper, with +white biscuit flowers. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_222d_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_222d_sml.png" width="267" height="114" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />On a group of biscuit Retiro porcelain of two figures representing +Painting. The same mark appears on a figure of Apollo, about one foot +high. This mark is stamped on the porcelain; the letters are in relief +tinted rose colour. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_222e_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_222e_sml.png" width="267" height="221" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />At the room decorated with Buen Retiro plaques at Aranjuez. It appears +on a vase in relief, which is placed on the basement to the right on +entering. The date 1765 appears on the ceiling, probably the year when +the work was finished. +</div> + +<p><a name="page_223" id="page_223"></a></p> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_222f_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_222f_sml.png" width="267" height="145" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />Graven on the clay on a white soft paste bracket painted with coloured +flowers belonging to Count Valencia de D<sup>n</sup> Juan. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_223a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_223a_sml.png" width="267" height="168" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />On a cup at the Museo Arqueologico, Mad., painted with landscapes. The +initials are of Pedro Antonio Giorgi, who painted from 1802 to 1808. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_223b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_223b_sml.png" width="267" height="108" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />Engraved on the clay on a plaque of blue biscuit porcelain imitating +Wedgwood jasper ware, representing a mythological subject. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_223c_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_223c_sml.png" width="267" height="148" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />On a dessert plate representing a vine leaf at the Museo Arqueologico. +The initials appear to be those of Felipe Gricci, a son of the first +modeller Jos, who came with Charles III. from Naples. +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_223d_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_223d_sml.png" width="267" height="254" alt="" title="" /></a> +<br />Fleur-de-lis graven in the clay on a fine group of three figures. +</div> + +<p><a name="page_224" id="page_224"></a></p> + +<h3>LIST OF DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE ROYAL MANUFACTORY +OF THE BUEN RETIRO FROM ITS FOUNDATION, IN 1759, UNTIL 1808:</h3> + +<h4>D<small>IRECTORS</small>.</h4> + +<ul><li>Bonicelli, Juan Thomas, principal Director at the establishment of the manufactory in 1759.</li> + +<li>Bonicelli, Domingo. In 1786 he was Director; in 1796 he solicits his retirement, and died soon after.</li> + +<li>Cristobal de Torrijos, appointed Director in 1797, after the death of Don Domingo Bonicelli.</li> + +<li>Sureda, Bartolom, Director in 1804, and continues in 1808.</li></ul> + +<h4>PRINCIPAL MODELLERS AND SUPERINTENDENTS, POSSESSING THE +SECRETS OF THE FABRICATION (SECRETISTAS).</h4> + +<ul><li>Schepers, Cayetano, first Modeller in 1759.</li> + +<li>Gricci, Carlos, son of Joseph Gricci, came to Spain, 1759. He appears in a list of artists employed in 1764: he died 1795.</li> + +<li>Gricci, Felipe, 1785. In 1802 he was first Modeller.</li> + +<li>Forni, Antonio, second Modeller in 1802.</li></ul> + +<h4>S<small>CULPTORS</small>.</h4> + +<ul><li>Agreda, Esteban, born at Logroo, 1759. He obtained several prizes at the Academy of San Fernando; employed in 1797, and continued to work there in 1808.</li> + +<li>Avila, Ceferino de, employed 1799, and continued there in 1808.</li> + +<li>Avila, Juan de, 1771, and continued there in 1808.</li> + +<li>Bautista, Bautista de, 1759.</li> + +<li>Bautista, Cayetano, 1785.</li> + +<li>Bautista, Juan Lopez, employed from 1799 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Benedictis, Cayetano, 1785, 1802.</li> + +<li>Benincasa, Miguel, 1778, and continues to work in 1808.</li> + +<li>Benincasa, Vicente, 1785.</li> + +<li>Bergaz, Alonso, 1764.</li> + +<li>Bescia, Juan, 1759.</li> + +<li>Borbon, Geronimo, 1802</li> + +<li>Borbon, Genaro, 1784 and 1808.</li> + +<li>Caravielo, Miguel, 1785.</li> + +<li>Chaves, Alonso, born at Madrid in 1741. In 1760 was appointed Modeller, and in 1763 obtained a Second Prize at the Academy, and a First Prize in 1766.</li> + +<li>Chaves, Justo, 1785.</li> + +<li>Esplores, Felipe, 1759.</li> + +<li>Estebe, Antonio, 1778 and 1808.</li> + +<li>Flores, Josef, 1785.</li> + +<li>Forni, Pablo, 1759.</li> + +<li>Francholy, Angel, 1776 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Francholy, Jos, 1804 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Francholy, Luis, 1785.</li> + +<li>Frate, Carlos, 1785 to 1802.</li> + +<li>Frate, Josef, 1785.</li> + +<li>Frates, Juan, 1794 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Frate, Pablo, from 1759 to 1785.</li> + +<li>Frates, Mateo, 1797 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Frates, Mateo, born at Madrid in 1788. First Prize of the Academy in 1805; in 1829 was appointed Director of the China establishment at the Moncloa.</li> + +<li>Frates, Francisco, 1764 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Fumo, Basilio, in 1759 was Director of the China manufactory; in 1779 he was appointed a Member of the Academy of San Fernando; died in 1797.</li> + +<li>Fumo, Carlos, 1759.</li> + +<li>Fumo, Cayetano, 1759.</li> + +<li>Fumo, Joseph, 1759; died in 1799.</li> + +<li>Fumo, Macedonio, 1759, and continues in 1802.</li> + +<li>Fumo, Bernab, 1802.</li> + +<li>Giorgi, Pedro Antonio de, 1759, and continues in 1785.</li> + +<li>Giorgi, Carlos, 1785 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Giorgi, Ambrosio de, 1759.</li> + +<li>Giorgi, Antonio, 1795 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Gricchi, Joseph, 1759. In 1766 was appointed Honorary Director of the</li> +<li>Academy of San Fernando; died in 1769.</li> + +<li>Gricci, Esteban, 1759.</li> + +<li>Guijarro, Dionisio, 1798 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Llorente, Manuel, 1764 to 1785.</li> + +<li>Morelly, Antonio, 1759 to 1785.</li> + +<li>Nofri, Salvador, 1759 to 1785.</li> + +<li>Nofri, Justo, 1778 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Nofri, or Noferi, Juan, 1802.</li> + +<li>Ochogavia, Manuel, 1764. Born in Galicia in 1744; in 1760 won a Second Prize of Sculpture at the Academy, and in 1763 a First Prize.</li> + +<li>Palmerani, Domingo, 1795, 1808.</li> + +<li>Palmerani, Angel, 1799 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Penaba, Joseph, 1793 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Rodriguez, Antonio, 1797 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Sancho, Dionisio, 1788. Born at Cienpozuelos in 1762; won a Prize at the Academy in 1793; was appointed a Member of the Academy, 1796; in 1810 he went to Mexico, where he died, 1829.</li> + +<li>Santorum, Joseph, 1759.</li> + +<li>Sorrentini, Fernando, 1785 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Sorrentini, Rafael, 1785.</li> + +<li>Sorrentini, Francisco, 1802.</li> + +<li>Valentin, Jos, 1779 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Valentin, Miguel, 1785.</li></ul> + +<h4>P<small>AINTERS</small>.</h4> +<ul> + +<li>Alonso, Francisco, 1764.</li> + +<li>Boltri, Genaro, 1756. Born in Naples in 1730; in 1759 he came to Madrid with Charles III.'s household, and worked at the Retiro; died in Madrid in 1788.</li> + +<li>Brancasio, Xavier, 1759.</li> + +<li>Brancacho, Domingo, 1762 to 1803.</li> + +<li>Branga, Ignacio de, 1800, painter of figures; he continues there in 1808.</li> + +<li>Camaron, Josef, 1802. Born at Segorbe in 1760; in 1776 he won a prize of painting at Valencia; he was pensioned to Rome, and appointed Painter in Ordinary to the King.</li> + +<li>Castillo, Fernando del, born at Madrid in 1740. He was appointed Painter at the manufactory, and worked there until his death in 1777.</li> + +<li>Coco, Joseph del, 1759.</li> + +<li>Cruz, Mariano de la, 1807, 1808.</li> + +<li>Domeu, Carlos, 1785.</li> + +<li>Donadio, Nicolas, 1759.</li> + +<li>Giorgi, Pedro Antonio, 1802.</li> + +<li>Martinez, Antonio, 1764.</li> + +<li>Martinez, Pedro, 1796 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Nani, Mariano, 1759. His wife received a pension from 1804, probably the year of his death.</li> + +<li>Peshorn, Jorge, 1788, and continues working in 1802.</li> + +<li>Provinciale, Antonio, 1759 and 1785.</li> + +<li>Quirs, Juan Jos, 1802.</li> + +<li>Rimini, Carlos, 1759.</li> + +<li>Romero, Juan Bautista, 1800. Flowers and fruit; appears in lists of 1802.</li> + +<li>Rubio, Joseph, 1799 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Semini, Francisco, 1759.</li> + +<li>Soriano, Joaquin, 1799. Landscape painter in 1800; continues in 1808.</li> + +<li>Sorrentini, Josef, 1756, probably from Capo di Monte. In 1802 he asks for a retiring pension.</li> + +<li>Sorrentini, Fernando, 1759.</li> + +<li>Sorrentini, Pablo, 1764 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Sorrentini, Gabriel, 1769 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Sorrentini, Manuel, 1785 to 1802.</li> + +<li>Torre, Joseph de la, 1759.</li> + +<li>Torre, Nicolas de la, 1759. In 1802 asks for a retiring pension.</li> + +<li>Torre, Raphael de la, 1759.</li> + +<li>Torre, Juan Bautista de la, 1759 and 1808.</li> + +<li>Torre, Josef de la, 1785 and 1802.</li> + +<li>Torre, Francisco de la, 1796 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Torre, Julian de la, 1802.</li> + +<li>Velasquez, Castor, 1807, and continued in 1808. Born in Madrid in 1768 and obtained a prize at the Academy in 1787.</li> +</ul> + +<h4>V<small>ARIOUS</small> A<small>RTISTS EMPLOYED IN THE</small> M<small>ANUFACTORY</small>.</h4> + +<ul> +<li>Agreda, Manuel, Sculptor, a brother of Esteban Agreda; he superintended the making of biscuit china; born at Haro in 1773; won prizes at the Academy; and was employed at the Manufactory from 1805 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Bautista, Juan, employed to make porcelain flowers from 1785 to 1808.</li> + +<li>Bautista, Francisco, appears in 1802 as maker of porcelain flowers.</li> + +<li>Bautista, Sebastian, appears in 1802 as a maker of porcelain flowers.</li> + +<li>Chevalier, Pedro, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1759, and continued to work at the Manufactory in 1763.</li> + +<li>Escalera, Josef, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1781, and continued to work at the Manufactory in 1808.</li> + +<li>Perche, Jaime Victor, French workman brought from Paris to prepare porcelain, from 1803 to 1809.</li> + +<li>Vivien, French workman, brought from Paris to prepare porcelain, from 1803 to 1809.</li> + +</ul> + +<p>At the same time that porcelain was made at Retiro and Alcora, other +manufactories of a similar kind were established in Spain; but none of +them could compete with these. The most important was established at +Sargadelos, Galicia, in 1804. One of the finest specimens which have +reached us of this manufactory is a large bas relief representing the +massacres of the Spaniards by the French in Madrid on the 2nd of May, +1808.<a name="page_228" id="page_228"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="GLASS" id="GLASS"></a>GLASS.</h2> + +<p>S<small>INCE</small> the South Kensington Museum purchased the largest collection of +old and modern Spanish glass in Europe, the taste for and study of this +branch of industry has increased to a very great extent. It is evident +that this manufacture attained great importance during the three last +centuries, and possibly existed at an earlier period; and that glass +objects made in Spain possess a special and distinct character, +different to those made in other countries. Before the objects at the +Kensington Museum were collected, the existence of this industry in +Spain was comparatively unknown.</p> + +<p>The earliest mention of glass works in Spain will be found in Pliny, +who, while explaining the proceedings which were employed in this +industry, says that glass was made in a similar manner in France and +Spain: "Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo harenae +temperantur."—L. XXXVI. cap. 66.</p> + +<p>The next allusion to this industry will be found in the works of San +Isidoro. This eminent man lived in the 7th century, and after quoting +the observations of the Roman author, gives us to understand that this +industry existed before his time in Italy, France, and Spain: "Olim +fiebat et in Italia, et per Gallias, et Hispaniam arena alba mollissima +pila mola que terebatur." [Divi. Isid. Hisp. Etymologiarum, I. XVI. cap. +16.] It is evident, therefore, from this passage, that glass was made to +a large extent in the Spanish Peninsula during the Roman period. This is +confirmed by the number of specimens which are constantly found<a name="page_229" id="page_229"></a> in +ruins. We learn also that the manufacture had ceased to exist in the +seventh century.</p> + +<p>Glass vessels of the Roman period found in Spain are similar in form and +manufacture to those which we know were made in France and Italy. This +is not to be wondered at, if we remember that the Romans imposed their +artistic forms on the countries they conquered. It is impossible to +classify the specimens of this industry into determined localities. The +study of the glass paste may, at some future period, give materials for +such a classification.</p> + +<p>One special characteristic of Roman glass may be taken into account to +be applied to Spanish glass of a later period. We find ancient specimens +constantly ornamented with a sort of thread or line which runs all over +the vase. These lines are sometimes made of transparent glass, and +sometimes of white opaque glass, termed in Italy <i>latticinio</i> from its +milky whiteness. When the industry of glass making was revived in Europe +during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, classical forms were +copied in this as in other industries; this line ornamentation was +copied on a much smaller scale in Italy than in Spain, where it +constituted the chief and constant characteristic of glass making. It is +an interesting fact that objects of a traditional Moorish form have the +greatest amount of lines of this style of ornamentation. We cannot, +until this subject is more thoroughly investigated, do otherwise than +infer either that the tradition of this industry was preserved in Spain, +or that the Arabs imported this style of decoration from the same +localities from which it had been copied by the Romans centuries before.</p> + +<p>The comparison of these different styles of glass making can be carried +out in a most satisfactory manner in London by examining the fine +specimens of glass in the British Museum (Slade collection), and the old +Spanish glass at South Kensington.</p> + +<p>We have no specimens of glass of the Visigothic period. If, as is most +probable, glass was used by the Visigoths, they may have<a name="page_230" id="page_230"></a> imported it +from the East, for the text I have quoted from the works of St. Isidore +seems to prove that this industry had ceased to exist in his time. The +glass paste of different colours must, however, be mentioned, which is +set in gold in the Visigothic crowns found at Guarrazar, near Toledo. It +imitates precious stones, and was very generally used during the +Byzantine period; its occurrence here makes it appear probable that at +any rate the tradition of this industry existed in Spain.</p> + +<p>From the 8th to the end of the 15th century, during the Mahomedan +domination, I infer that the industry of glass making became as +important in Spain as that of pottery. No specimens, however, of the +earlier period have reached us, and we must judge of what it was from +the glass vessels in the Kensington Museum, belonging to the Renaissance +period, which preserve their Oriental form, and are of a different style +to that of Venice and other localities in Europe.</p> + +<p>A most interesting fact, which confirms this theory, will be found in a +translation made from Hebrew to Arabic of a work which treats of the +virtues of precious stones, <i>Lapidario</i> [MS. Biblioteca del Escorial], +quoted by Rico y Sinobas in "Almanaque de la Industria," 1873. We do not +know exactly when the author Abolais lived, but in the prologue to this +MS. it is mentioned that D<sup>n</sup>. Alfonso el Sabio found this book at +Toledo, and gave orders to a Jew called Juda Mosca, and a priest, Garci +Perez, to translate it into Spanish. The translation was terminated in +1250. Technical details are given in this volume concerning the +substances which are employed in glass making, and some of the minerals +found in Spain which are used in painting or enamelling it, but as this +work was written to explain the properties of minerals, as they were +understood in the author's time, he does not enter into any interesting +details, or describe the forms of these objects. Another allusion to +glass making in Spain will be found in Al Makkari, the Arabian author of +"Mohamedan Dynasties in Spain," [London, 1840, 2 vols. 4to], who quotes +an Oriental writer of the 13th<a name="page_231" id="page_231"></a> century, who says, "Almeria was also +famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils, whether +of iron, copper, or glass." (Vol. I. p. 51.)</p> + +<p>The tradition of this industry has been undoubtedly preserved at Almeria +until the present day, for in this province, and in the adjoining +villages of the province of Granada, we find that specimens are to be +met with, which possess a marked Oriental form, and are completely free +from the influence of Italian models which existed in other localities. +The most characteristic specimens consist of jars of two, four and eight +handles, bowls with ribs and handles, pilgrim's bottles, etc., of which +interesting examples exist at the South Kensington Museum. Woodcuts of +several of these are given.</p> + +<p>All these objects are decorated with a serrated ornamentation of +buttons, trellis-work, and the lines to which I have already alluded +which were placed there after the object was made, in the Roman style. +The paste is generally of a dark green colour, and when we find these +same features in vessels of white clear glass, we may affirm that they +are contemporary imitations made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they are +very seldom to be met with in the provinces of Almeria and Granada, and +are generally found at Toledo and other localities; it is, moreover, a +common condition of Oriental art that its general form complies with a +geometrical tracery, and we never find as in Italian works of art, forms +and capricious ornamentations which interfere with the symmetry of the +general lines, and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole.</p> + +<p><a name="img_43" id="img_43"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_232_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_232_sml.jpg" width="254" height="427" alt="GLASS VASE.—SPANISH, 16TH CENTURY." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">GLASS VASE.—SPANISH, 16TH CENTURY.</span> +</p> + +<p>I have been unable to find the glass industries of this period mentioned +by any contemporary author, but I owe to the courtesy of S<sup>r</sup>. Romero +Ortiz some interesting details which have been taken from the archives +of certain villages, which although of a more modern date prove that +this industry existed in these localities. At about 14 miles from the +Puebla de D<sup>n</sup>. Fadrique, there is a locality called Pinar de la +Vidriera, where traces<a name="page_232" id="page_232"></a> of ovens and scori exist belonging to an +ancient glass manufactory, which is likewise mentioned in documents of +the municipality as continuing to work in 1620. At Castril de la Pea, a +manufactory yet exists where glass is still made, and which has existed +from time immemorial in the village. The building itself is decorated +with the escutcheon of the family of Hernando de Zafra, one of the +secretaries of Queen Isabel, late in the 15th century, who must have +purchased it with other lands which he possessed there, towards the year +1492. A gallery, one mile long, which exists at the entrance of the town +from whence the sand has been extracted for this manufacture, gives an +idea<a name="page_233" id="page_233"></a> of the antiquity of this industry in this particular locality. It +has been calculated that about two tons of sand were used at these glass +works every month. At Royo Molino, in the province of Jaen, a very +ancient building still exists, now half in ruins, which has been used +until very lately as a glass factory. At Maria, in the province of +Almeria, several glass manufactories have existed. The oldest, it is +believed, was about two miles from the town, and is called traditionally +"del Campo," but I have not found mention of it in any document. Three +glass ovens existed inside the town: one was established by Vicente +Botia, towards the year 1750, which lasted until 1790. Juan Martinez +established at about this period an industry of a similar kind near the +former one, which continued to work until 1854. The same green glass has +been constantly made in these localities, the same forms have<a name="page_234" id="page_234"></a> been +copied, the only difference between the older and more modern specimens +consisting in the coarser and heavier quality of the glass.</p> + +<p><a name="img_44" id="img_44"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_233_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_233_sml.jpg" width="352" height="369" alt="PILGRIMS' GLASS BOTTLE.—SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">PILGRIMS' GLASS BOTTLE.—SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.</span> +</p> + +<p>In treating of the glass manufactures in Spain, where Italian models +were imitated to a very great extent, we find very few allusions in +contemporary authors of the Middle Ages; it may be because glass vessels +were chiefly used with wooden and pottery utensils by the poorer +classes, and metal utensils of all kinds by those who were able to +afford them. At any rate, it is only towards the end of the Middle Ages +that we meet with information concerning this industry, which continues +uninterrupted until the present day.</p> + +<p>Barcelona is one of the towns distinguished for the antiquity and +excellence of its glass. In a municipal edict of 1324, we find a special +prohibition that the glass ovens should not be inside the city, owing to +the danger they might cause to the rest of the population. In 1455, +permission was granted to the <i>vidrieros</i>, glassmakers, to form a guild +under the patronage of St. Bernardino, and from this period some of its +members figure as holding municipal charges. Capmany, "Memorias," Vol. +I. p. 134. According to this author, the special Ordinances of this +corporation are not known, but only those which were given by the +municipality in 1659. He adds that the master <i>vidrieros</i> required six +years of apprenticeship and practice to be admitted to work.</p> + +<p>From the 15th century several authors praise the glass made at +Barcelona. In a MS. by Jeronimo Paulo, who writes in 1491, a description +in Latin of the most remarkable things at Barcelona, he says, "they also +send to Rome and other places many glass vessels of different sorts and +kinds which may well compete with those of Venice." In the account of +Philip le Bel's journey to Spain on his marriage with Queen Joanna we +find the following mention of the town of Barcelona: "Et sont l faicts +les plus beauls ouvrages de voires (verres) et de cire qui soient faicts +au monde. Le Jordi (19 Janvier, 1503) Monsigneur alla au dehors<a name="page_235" id="page_235"></a> de la +ville vioir ung jour o on faict voires (verres) de cristallin trs +beaus." ["Collection des Voyages," Bruxelles, 1876, Vol. I., p. 257.] +Marineus Siculus, who writes early in the 16th century says, "the best +glass made in Spain is that of Barcelona," and Gaspar Barreiros in his +"Chorographia," [Coimbra, 1569,] tells us, "they made excellent glass at +Barcelona, almost equal to the Venetian." At the beginning of the 17th +century the authors, Jaime Rebullosa, in his "Descripcion del mundo," +[Barcelona, 1603, 8vo,] and Luis Nuez in "Hispania," [Antverpi, 1607, +8vo, p. 279,] continue to praise the glass made at Barcelona, and from +that period we find its merit and the vast quantity which was exported +constantly alluded to. The fame of Spanish glass must have been +justified, for in the "Viage del Cardinal Infante," by Aedo, printed in +1639, we find it stated that when the Infant Cardinal was at Barcelona, +in 1632, he went with his galleys to Matar, four leagues from +Barcelona, to see the "glass made there which was so abundantly sold all +over the country." The Spanish translator of "La Piazza universale di +tutte le professioni," [Madrid, 1615,] adds the name of Barcelona to the +Italian author's mention of glass objects made in Venice, saying, "This +industry has reached such a degree of excellence at Murano and Barcelona +that nothing can be compared to it; there is nothing now which cannot be +made of glass and crystal, even cabinets have been made, and castles +with their towers, battlements, artillery, and fortifications." Mendez +Silva in his "Poblacion de Espaa, [Madrid, 1654, p. 243,] repeats the +same idea when he says they made at Barcelona, "fine glass which might +compete with the Venetian." This industry continued in Catalua to a +great extent in the last century, and was praised by the following +writers. The author of the "Atlante Espaol," [Vol. IV., Madrid, +1778-1795,] tells us that "they continued to make excellent glass at +Barcelona, in imitation of the Venetian, with which it might compete," +and that this industry was carried out to a great extent at Matar, +Cervell, and Almatret, all three towns of Catalua; he says that in +this<a name="page_236" id="page_236"></a> last mentioned town the glass made was "so excellent, and the +number of workmen employed was so large, that an oratory had been built +in order that the workmen should hear mass there."</p> + +<p>The constant comparisons which we find between the glass made at +Barcelona with that of Murano suggests two things—that Spanish glass +must have been of a first-rate order, and that the form of the glass +vessels was similar to those made at Venice. It is highly probable that +a great part of the specimens of glass of different kinds which are +classified as Italian in several collections, are really Spanish, +although it is extremely difficult to point out the difference. In this, +as in other branches of industry, the mania for classifying has gone too +far, and comparative studies of a more concrete order are necessary; +until these are made, the principal fact to be borne in mind in +classifying glass vessels is to compare them with objects of a similar +manufacture which have been made until very lately in Catalua, and of +which an extremely interesting collection exists at the South Kensington +Museum, proceeding from Barcelona, Matar and Cervell, (Nos. 149 to +193) which will enable the amateur to see how the industry of +glass-making has continued traditionally to be preserved in that +province. See woodcut opposite representing a glass bottle, also the +central vessel in woodcut on p. 238.</p> + +<p>Among the specimens of old Spanish glass we may consider to have +proceeded from Catalua the following examples, forming part of the +collection acquired in 1873. Bottles, Nos. 249 to 262, cups, Nos. 336 to +339, and tumblers, Nos. 303 to 305, 312 to 314, and 328, '29. Among +these, there are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality. +The most characteristic are the <i>arruxiads</i>, or <i>borracha</i>, a vessel +spirally ribbed with several narrow spouts, used by the peasant girls of +the villages to sprinkle rose water in the festival of the patron saint +of the district; the <i>porrones</i>, a bottle with a long spout, used by the +peasantry for drinking wine; the <i>cantaro</i>, a jug, funnel shaped with +wide mouth, handle and curved<a name="page_237" id="page_237"></a> spout, and the <i>pilas de agua bendita</i>, a +holy water vessel of different shapes.</p> + +<p><a name="img_45" id="img_45"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_237_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_237_sml.jpg" width="500" height="491" alt="GLASS BOTTLE.—MODERN SPANISH." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">GLASS BOTTLE.—MODERN SPANISH.</span> +</p> + +<p>Very few details have reached us of the famous glass works which existed +at Cadalso, in the province of Toledo; we know, however, that the glass +made there was as excellent as that made at Catalua, and was compared +in a similar manner to the Venetian. The unknown author of "El +Crotalon," published by the Spanish Bibliophiles, from a rare MS., in +1871, writing in the time of the Emperor Charles V., mentions "the fine +glass<a name="page_238" id="page_238"></a> made at Cadalso." Marineus Siculus also writes in 1517 in his "De +las Cosas Memorables de Espaa," [Alcala de Henares, 1539, fol., Vol. +I.,] that "Glass was made in several towns of Castile, the most +important of them being Cadalso, which supplied the whole kingdom." It +would appear therefore that this glass manufactory was already +established in that locality in the 16th century, and we frequently meet +with allusions to the excellence of its productions in contemporary +authors. The town itself has continually been called "Cadalso de los +vidrios." Mendez Silva in his "Poblacion general de Espaa," [Madrid, +1645, p. 40] says: "They make in three glass ovens fine glass of +beautiful colours and forms, which can compete with the Venetian." At +the South Kensington Museum, there are two fine specimens of glass made +at Cadalso—No. 1068, '73, a drinking vessel of white glass, the upper +part in form of the Spanish vessel called "bucaro," ribbed and streaked +with colours; the stem pineapple shape, with remains of gilding (this is +represented in the woodcut); and No. 1082, '73, a bowl of plain glass, +the lower part spirally waved, and decorated with scale pattern in gold +and coloured dots. Both these objects proceed from a nunnery in a +village near Cadalso.</p> + +<p><a name="img_46" id="img_46"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_238_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_238_sml.jpg" width="435" height="242" alt="GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_239" id="page_239"></a></p> + +<p>Larruga says in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1791, Vol. X., p. 53,] that +"two glass ovens existed at Cadalso, which belonged to the Marchioness +of Villena; they are worked by the inhabitants of this town. One of the +ovens has fallen into disuse from the beginning of the present (18th) +century, and the fame of the glass made there, formerly so renowned for +its clearness and variety of the objects made, has declined. In +examining the state of this industry during the reign of Charles II. we +find how much it had fallen off, for Dn. Antonio de Obando in 1692, +undertook to reestablish it, and to make glass vessels, and window +glasses as had been made there formerly. It appears that 200 dozens of +objects of different kinds were sent out from there yearly." The vase, +No. 333, '73 represented in the woodcut is an example of the coloured +glass of Cadalso.</p> + +<p><a name="img_47" id="img_47"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_239_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_239_sml.jpg" width="299" height="351" alt="GLASS VASE.—SPANISH (CADALSO), 17TH CENTURY." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">GLASS VASE.—SPANISH (CADALSO), 17TH CENTURY.</span> +</p> + +<p>Glass ovens existed from a very early period in the central<a name="page_240" id="page_240"></a> provinces +of Spain, which probably imitated from the 16th century the productions +of Cadalso. We know from papers at the Archives of the Convent, of two +of these which paid a yearly rent to the monastery of San Jeronimo de +Guisando, from 1478 to 1480. One of these glass works was situated at +the Venta del Cojo on the borders of Escalona, and the other at the +Venta de los Toros de Guisando.</p> + +<p>It is evident that a glass manufactory existed at Toledo, from some +accounts which I have found in the Archives of the Cathedral, in which +Bartolom Lopez, vidriero, is mentioned in 1546—Pedro Fernandez in +1590, and Tomas Nuez in 1660; as furnishing glass vessels, principally +lamps for the cathedral. Tomas Nuez is also paid for "three crosses of +crystalline glass." In a letter written in 1690 to Count Gondomar, the +celebrated ambassador to James I., (Archives of the Palace at Madrid), I +find a glass manufactory mentioned which existed at Cebreros in the +province of Segovia. The writer says, "Your lordship knows we have a +glass oven here; this week we have made the glass called crystalline, of +which I send in a basket sixteen specimens for my lady Dna. Costanza."</p> + +<p>Larruga tells us in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1792, Vol. XVI., p. 222,] +"That in 1680 a glass manufactory was established at San Martin de +Valdeiglesias, where glass in the Venetian style was made—the glass was +excellent. This manufactory was under the direction of Diodonet Lambot a +native of Namur. He was succeeded by Santiago Bandoleto, who was by no +means as skilful. Glass ovens were also established at the Torre de +Estevan, Hambroz, under the direction of Guillermo Torcada." At +Recuenco, in the province of Cuenca, glass works existed at the +beginning of the 16th century; but in 1722 Don Fernando Lopez de Aragon +established a manufactory on a large scale. The glass made there was +used by the king and the greater part of the rich people at Madrid. In +1739 two other glass works existed there, which continued their +operations during the rest of the century.<a name="page_241" id="page_241"></a> In the same province several +glass ovens existed towards the middle of the last century. The +principal ones were established in the villages of Arbetota, Vindel and +Armallones; only coarse specimens were made there, but at an earlier +period their productions had been, Larruga tells us in the nineteenth +volume of his "Memorias," very important. The glass works which we find +mentioned in the "Atlante Espaol," [Madrid, 1795,] were also of a very +inferior quality; they were established at the end of the last century +at Busot, in the province of Alicante, Hinojares and Carolina, province +of Jaen. The "Correo de Espaa," [Vol. I. Madrid, 1771,] mentions an +important glass manufactory which existed at Andorra near Alcaiz, and +one where glass of an inferior quality was made at Cabra, in the +province of Cordova. Cabanilles, "Historia y descripcion del reino de +Valencia," Barcelona, mentions the existence from a very early period of +glass works at Olleria, a village of the kingdom of Valencia.</p> + +<p>The only mention which I have found in which Seville appears as a centre +of this industry, is an interesting allusion to the village of Cala, +which was represented in a festival which was given to Philip II. in +1578, "with a crystal glass in its hand, and several others at its feet, +because a famous glass oven existed there." ["Recibimiento que hizo +Sevilla al Rey Don Phelipe." Por Juan de Mallara, Sevilla, 1570, p. 89.]</p> + +<p>In the 17th century, during the reign of Philip IV., the glass made at +Valdemaqueda in the province of Avila was very celebrated. In a royal +schedule, dated 1680, which states the price at which things were sold +at Madrid, "the glass made at Barcelona, Valdemaqueda, and Villafranca" +are mentioned. We find the glass of Valdemaqueda was sold for a higher +price than that made at the other localities.</p> + +<p>The principal value of these extracts is to prove that the industry of +glass-making existed in these localities; none of the authors mentions +the principal characteristics by which the vessels made may be +classified. Those made at Almeria and Barcelona<a name="page_242" id="page_242"></a> are more easily known, +for they have kept until very recently their general character; while at +Cadalso and other localities of the centre of Spain, the tradition of +the Italian models has quite disappeared. In one fact every author +agrees, namely, that the glass made in those provinces closely resembled +the Venetian, and was completely different to the system followed by the +Arabs. It is, therefore, highly probable, as I have already stated, that +a large number of objects of glass of different kinds, which have been +hitherto considered Italian, were made in Spain.</p> + +<p><a name="img_48" id="img_48"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_242_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_242_sml.jpg" width="346" height="375" alt="VASE OF GREEN GLASS, WITH BLACK HANDLES AND RIBS.—SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">VASE OF GREEN GLASS, WITH BLACK HANDLES AND RIBS.—SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.</span> +</p> + +<p>The following observations may serve as a guide in the difficult task of +classifying this group. The specimens of glass vessels most generally +met with in the neighbourhood of Cadalso are:—</p> + +<p>Objects of white transparent glass, sweetmeat dishes ornamented with +ribs, buttons, and reticulated rims with touches of gold.<a name="page_243" id="page_243"></a></p> + +<p>Objects of clear greenish glass of a paler hue than is made in the +province of Almeria, decorated with blue, or some opaque colour (see +woodcut); in some instances part of the object is decorated with a rough +crackled surface.</p> + +<p>Objects of opaque glass with different colours, vases, glasses, cups and +saucers, of thin milk-white texture with blue spots, or imitations in +the Japanese style of different colours. Vases for holding flowers, and +other objects, of dark blue glass, milk-white cups, glass and other +objects ornamented with lines of red or blue of a thicker paste than the +preceding ones.</p> + +<p>Although these objects are copied from Venetian models, they are coarser +in every detail, they are heavier and thicker, and the delicate and +elegant ornamentation which we find on Italian specimens is almost +always wanting, we seldom find examples of the beautiful <i>millefiori</i> +chalcedony or tortoise-shell paste, and the outline of these objects is +symmetrical and Oriental in style.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The royal glass manufactory at La Granja de San Ildefonso, was founded +on the remains of an important one which had been established some years +before, under the protection of Philip the 5th, at the Nuevo Bastan, in +the province of Madrid.</p> + +<p>Towards the years 1712 to 1718, this king commissioned D<sup>n</sup>. Tomas del +Burgo and D<sup>n</sup>. Juan B. Pomerague to establish glass-works at the Bastan; +twenty foreign workmen were brought over with this purpose, with their +families, and the necessary implements. These gentlemen did not carry +out the undertaking to the king's satisfaction, and in 1720 his majesty +gave D<sup>n</sup>. Juan de Goyeneche special privileges that he might "make every +kind of glass manufacture up to the height of twenty inches, and have +these glasses worked and polished, embroidered and covered with metal; +to make looking-glass and similar decorations, and every kind of glass +vessels, and white glass for window-panes, and every sort of glass +vessel of different kinds and forms which have been invented in the +present time, or likely to be invented in this art."<a name="page_244" id="page_244"></a> In order to carry +this out, the king allowed them to have as many foreign masters and +workmen as they might require, with the sole condition that a fourth +part of the workmen employed should be Spaniards. It was prohibited that +any industry of a similar kind should be established in Spain for thirty +years, or that glass made abroad should be imported into the country.</p> + +<p>After a long series of annoyances of every kind, Goyeneche succeeded in +meeting with the king's approbation, but as fuel was very scarce at the +Bastan, he removed the glass works to Villanueva de Alcorcon, in the +province of Cuenca. From the ruins of this glass manufactory, Larruga +says in his "Memorias," [vol. xiii., p. 274], "was founded the splendid +glass manufactory of San Ildefonso."</p> + +<p>Ventura Sit, a native of Catalonia, constructed an oven there, which +worked from 1728 to 1736 with great success. Queen Doa Isabel +encouraged Sit, and the king ordered him to make some glasses which +might serve for mirrors. Those he made at first were small, but Sit +began by making them 30 inches long and ended by making them as large as +145 inches. The machine for polishing them was invented by a Catalan +called Pedro Fronvila.</p> + +<p>The section of glass vessels of a superior quality began to work in +1771. Glasses, bottles, and objects of all kinds were made there under +the direction of a glass worker called Eder, a Swede, and Sivert, a +Frenchman. Another section where the same quality of glass was made was +directed by Don Segismundo Brun, a native of Hanover, but who had been +brought up from a very early age at La Granja. It was this artist who +invented gilded glass <i>a feu</i>. A large number of foreign artists worked +at this manufacture; they impressed their special style on the objects +they made, which were similar to those of the same kind manufactured in +France, England, and Germany.</p> + +<p>From the time of Ventura Sit, towards the year 1734, the manufactory of +glass at La Granja belonged to the crown, and<a name="page_245" id="page_245"></a> continued under the +protection of the Spanish kings, who spared no expense to obtain its +development. Early in the present century this industry began to decay. +Towards 1828 it passed into private hands, and continued to work until +1849. The manufactory is now closed, although there is some talk of +reviving this industry.</p> + +<p><a name="img_49" id="img_49"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_245_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_245_sml.jpg" width="492" height="372" alt="GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM." title="" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.</span> +</p> + +<p>The glass objects made at La Granja possess a very marked French style, +which renders them liable to be mistaken for French and German +productions of a similar kind. The greater part of the objects which +were made were of white clear transparent glass, richly cut and +engraved, or ornamented with gold (see woodcut). The cut glass is +generally engraved with inscriptions, views, flowers, and devices, and +until very lately has been made there in a rougher style. Coloured and +enamelled glass<a name="page_246" id="page_246"></a> has also been made there, but not to so great an +extent. Glass for window panes and mirrors were ordered for the Royal +palaces. Lustres of all kinds of white and coloured glass were also made +there in the Venetian style, richly ornamented with coloured flowers. A +small chandelier of this kind is in the South Kensington Museum (No. +998, '73), the only example I have seen of a lustre of latticinio glass. +In the collection of old Spanish glass at the Museum will be found a +sufficient variety of specimens of this manufacture to give an idea of +the different styles made at La Granja. A fac-simile of one of the +engraved mirrors and a fine cut glass will be found in "Museo Espaol de +Antiguedades, vol. IX."</p> + +<p>Besides glass vessels and objects of a similar kind, painted glass +windows have been made in Spain from a very early time, of which most +important specimens exist at Toledo, Leon, and other Spanish cathedrals. +The proceedings employed in this industry are too well known to require +repetition in this volume. The industry was undoubtedly imported by +foreign workmen from France and the north of Europe, and as was the case +with other industries it took root in the country, and a large number of +Spanish artists followed and took part in this industry.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>In order to convey an idea of the height of this industry in Spain, I +give a list of the painters who worked on glass which I have collected +from the following works, to which I refer the student who may wish for +further details on the subject. Cean Bermudez, "Dicc. Hist. de los mas +ilustres Profesores de las Bellas Artes en Espaa. Madrid, 1800." +Villanueva, "Viage las Iglesias de Espaa." Piferrer, "Recuerdos y +Bellezas. Mallorca." "Documentos Ineditos." Zarco del Valle.<a name="page_247" id="page_247"></a></p> + +<h3>GLASS PAINTERS IN SPAIN.</h3> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td align="center">Years in which<br />they worked</td> <td align="center">Artists.</td> <td align="right"> Residence.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1682.</td><td>Alcalde</td><td align="right">Francisco.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1504.</td><td>Aleman</td><td align="right">Cristoval.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1458.</td><td>Aleman</td><td align="right">Pedro.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1645.</td><td>Alonso</td><td align="right">Francisco.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1544.</td><td>Arce, Juan de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1581.</td><td>Arce</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1613.</td><td>Argete, Luis de</td><td align="right">Leon.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1424.</td><td>Aragan, Maestro Joan</td><td align="right">Leon.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">—— </td><td> Arfian, Antonio</td><td align="right">Sevilla.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">—— </td><td> Arteaga, Matias</td><td align="right">Sevilla.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1516.</td><td>Ayala</td><td align="right">Francisco.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1605.</td><td>Babel</td><td align="right">Jorge.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1442.</td><td>Baldovin</td><td align="right">Maestro.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1519.</td><td>Bernal</td><td align="right">Juan.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1533.</td><td>Borgoa</td><td align="right">Jorge.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1439.</td><td>Bonifacio</td><td align="right">Pedro.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1562.</td><td>Bruges</td><td align="right">Carlos.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1602.</td><td>Campo, Diego del</td><td align="right">Madrid.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1522.</td><td>Campa</td><td align="right">Juan.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1674.</td><td>Chilberri, Pierres de</td><td align="right">Segovia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1509.</td><td>Cuesta, Juan de</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1513.</td><td>Cordova, Gonzalo de</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1538.</td><td>Cotin, Gaspar de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1459.</td><td>Cristoval, El Maestro</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1566 to 1573</td><td>Dangles, Sebastian</td><td align="right">Mallorca.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1676.</td><td>Danis</td><td align="right">Juan.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1565.</td><td>Diaz</td><td align="right">Diego.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1418.</td><td>Dolfin, El Maestro</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1485.</td><td>Enrique</td><td align="right">Maestro.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1566.</td><td>Estaenheyl</td><td align="right">Ulrrique.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1565.</td><td>Espinosa, Francisco de</td><td align="right">Escorial.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1565.</td><td>Espinosa, Hernando de</td><td align="right">Escorial.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1551.</td><td>Ferrera, Rodrigo de</td><td align="right">Leon.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1526.</td><td>Fernandez</td><td align="right">Pedro.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1557.</td><td>Flandes, Arnao de</td><td align="right">Sevilla.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1494.</td><td>Fontanet</td><td align="right">Gil.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1459.</td><td>Frances</td><td align="right">Pedro.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1571.</td><td>Galceran, Il Maestro</td><td align="right">Escorial.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1518.</td><td>Gelandia, Bernardino de</td><td align="right">Sevilla.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1608.</td><td>Guillermo</td><td align="right">Maestro.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1571.</td><td>Guasch</td><td align="right">Juan.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1674.</td><td>Herranz</td><td align="right">Francisco.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1520.</td><td>Holanda, Alberto de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1548.</td><td>Holanda, Geraldo de</td><td align="right">Cuenca.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1535.</td><td>Holanda, Nicolas de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1509.</td><td>Jacques</td><td align="right">Juan.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1427.</td><td>Juan</td><td align="right">Maestro.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1510.</td><td>Juan, Hijo de Jacobo</td><td align="right">Sevilla.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1458.</td><td>Juanico</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1428.</td><td>Loys</td><td align="right">Maestro.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1600.</td><td>Ludeque, Diego de</td><td align="right">Madrid.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1569.</td><td>Menandro</td><td align="right">Vicente.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1538.</td><td>Ortega, Alonso de</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1534.</td><td>Ortega, Juan de</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1458.</td><td>Pablo</td><td align="right">Fray.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1459.</td><td>Pedro</td><td align="right">Maestro.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1639.</td><td>Perez</td><td align="right">Sebastian.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1559.</td><td>Pesquera, Sebastian de</td><td align="right">Sevilla.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1600.</td><td>Pierres</td><td align="right">Antonio.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">—— </td><td> Resen, Pelegrin </td><td align="right"> ——</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1565.</td><td>Resen</td><td align="right">Renerio.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1500.</td><td>Rolando, Alberto de</td><td align="right">Avila.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1500.</td><td>Rolando, Nicolas de</td><td align="right">Avila.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1624.</td><td>Ruiz</td><td align="right">Valentin.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1625.</td><td>Ruiz</td><td align="right">Simon.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1368—1369. </td><td> Sacoma, Francisco </td><td align="right"> Mallorca.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1420 to 1447. </td><td> Sala, Antonio </td><td align="right"> Mallorca.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1542.</td><td>Salcedo, Diego de</td><td align="right">Palencia.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1512.</td><td>Santillana</td><td align="right">Diego.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1498.</td><td>Santillana, Juan de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1392.</td><td>San Amat, Juan</td><td align="right">Lerida.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1503.</td><td>Troya, Vasco de</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1579.</td><td>Valerio</td><td align="right">Octavio.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1562.</td><td>Valdivieso, Diego de</td><td align="right">Cuenca.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1497.</td><td>Valdivieso</td><td align="right">Juan.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1538.</td><td>Vergara, Arnao de</td><td align="right">Sevilla.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1521.</td><td>Vergara, Nicolas de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1606.</td><td>Vergara, Nicolas de, El Mozo</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1590.</td><td>Vegara, Juan de</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1518.</td><td>Vivan</td><td align="right">Juan.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1605.</td><td>Volui</td><td align="right">Gil.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1509.</td><td>Ximenez</td><td align="right">Alexo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1458.</td><td>Ximeno.</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="page_250" id="page_250"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="TEXTILE_FABRICS" id="TEXTILE_FABRICS"></a>TEXTILE FABRICS.</h2> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> silence of San Isidoro on the subject of textile fabrics in Spain +would lead us to suppose that this industry only became important during +the Arab domination; the Moors probably imported this industry into +Spain from the earliest times of their conquest. A great number of +provinces were famed then for the excellence of their textile fabrics; +the most important of them, according to the testimony of Moorish and +Christian writers, was Almeria. The Cordovese historian, Ash Shakandi, +who wrote at the beginning of the 13th century, says: "Almeria is an +opulent and magnificent city, whose fame has spread far and wide; the +inhabitants are very elegant in their dress. Almeria is the greatest +mart in Andalus, Christians of all nations came to its port to buy and +sell, and they had factories established in it. From thence the +Christian merchants who came to its port travelled to other parts in the +interior of the country, where they loaded their vessels with such goods +as they wanted. Costly silken robes of the brightest colours are +manufactured in Almeria," [Moh. Dyn. in Spain, I. 52]. Almakkari adds, +[p. 51]: "But what made Almeria superior to any other city in the world +was its various manufactures of silks and other articles of dress, such +as the <i>dibaj</i> [silken stuff of many colours], a sort of silken cloth +surpassing in quality and durability anything else manufactured in other +countries; the <i>tiraz</i> or costly stuff on which the names of sultans, +princes, and other wealthy individuals are inscribed, and of which no +less than 800 looms existed at one time; of more inferior<a name="page_251" id="page_251"></a> articles such +as the <i>holol</i> (striped silks) and brocades, there were 1000 looms, the +same number were continually employed in weaving the stuffs called +<i>iskaltn</i> (scarlet). There were also 1000 for weaving robes called Al +jorjni (Georgian), and another 1000 for weaving robes called Isbahani, +from Isfahan, and a similar number for Atabi. The manufacture of damask +for curtains and turbans for the women, of gay and dazzling colours, +employed a number of hands equal to that of those engaged in the +manufacture of the above mentioned articles."</p> + +<p>An oriental author asserts that Abd-ul-Rahman II. <small>A.D.</small> 825-852 was the +first sultan of his race who introduced into Spain the use of the +<i>tiraz</i> [<i>ib.</i> Vol. II. 434]. Another explains that Atabi took the name +of a suburb of Bagdad "where were made the stuffs called <i>otabi</i>, +composed of cotton and silk of different colours." [Consult Dozy, 'Dict. +des vtements.']</p> + +<p>Ash Shakandi also mentions Malaga as famous for its textile fabrics; he +says—"Malaga is also famous for its manufactures of silks of all +colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a suit made out of +them will cost many thousands; such are the brocades with beautiful +drawings, and the names of khalifs, amirs, and other wealthy people, +woven in them." [Moham. Dynast. Vol. I. 49.] Further on the same writer +adds, "As at Malaga and Almeria, there are at Murcia several +manufactures of silken cloth called <i>al washiu thalathat</i>, [variegated, +of many colours.] It is likewise famous for the fabric of carpets called +<i>tantili</i>, which are exported to all countries of the east and west; as +also a sort of mat, of the brightest colours, with which the Murcians +cover the walls of their houses." [<i>ib.</i> p. 69.]</p> + +<p>Arabic texts are frequently met with which allude to the manufactures of +textile fabrics of Granada, Seville, and other towns, in which their +productions are praised, and there is no doubt that they were very +remarkable; for Christian authors of the middle ages refer to them so +continually. Students who wish for a more extensive idea of this subject +must remember the quotations<a name="page_252" id="page_252"></a> and information given by Francisque Michel +concerning Spanish stuffs, [Recherches sur le Comm., la Fabric. etc., +des Etoffes, etc. Paris, 1852.] He tells us—"Nous trouverons tout +d'abord les pailles d'Almrie, ville de la cte meridionale d'Espagne, +qui jouissait d'une rputation proverbiale pour la beaut et la finesse +de ses tissus de soie, vants dans mille endroits de nos vieilles +chansons de geste, de nos anciens pomes" [Vol. I. p. 284]. Further on +he continues [Vol. I. p. 286], " l'poque laquelle appartiennent les +textes, et mme auparavant, la culture et la fabrication de la soie +taient des plus prospres Almrie et en gnral dans le royaume de +Grenade. 'Du royaume de Grenade vient cire, soie, figues, etc.' ... ce +qu'il y a de bien certain, c'est que les toffes d'Espagne taient +clbres ds le 9<sup>e</sup> sicle. Anastase le Bibliothcaire en parle en +quatre endroits sous le nom de <i>spaniscum</i>; et en placant ce tissu la +suite de <i>fundatum</i> et du <i>stauracin</i> il nous donne suffisamment +entendre qu'il tait de grand prix, et de soie comme eux. Un biographe +de Saint Ansegise, mort en 835, plac de mme une couverture d'Espagne, +<i>stragulum</i>, <i>Hispanicum unum</i>, la suite de tapis ou teintures.</p> + +<p>"Il est malaise de dterminer la matire des toffes qu'un crivain +byzantin du 12<sup>e</sup> sicle nous dit fabriques en Espagne et aux colonnes +d'Hercule—tout nous permet de croire qu'elles taient de soie de tout +ou en partie, ou du moins qu'elles taient comptes parmi les tissus +prcieux.... Saragosse produisait aussi des draps d'or—et nous trouvons +au 13<sup>e</sup> sicle que le gographe Edrisi pouvait dire qu'il y avait dans +le seul territoire de Jaen 3000 villages o l'on levait des vers de +soie. Nous savons qu' Seville, sous la domination des Maures, elle +comptait 6000 mtiers pour ces toffes de soie. Les rglements +municipaux dont les royaumes de Grenade et de Seville ont t l'objet +suffisaient pour nous apprendre que l'industrie de la soie fut +florissante durant le moyen ge. Nous signalerons les draps d'or et de +soie que D. Pedro de Luna en 1327 apporta l'infante Lonore, sœur +d'Alphonse XI., l'occasion de son mariage, et nous savons<a name="page_253" id="page_253"></a> qu'un +ministre de Pedro le cruel possdait Toledo 125 coffres de drap d'or +et de soie."</p> + +<p>Edrisi in his "Dscrip. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne," [Leyde, 1866,] +writing in the 12th century, says p. 239: "Almrie tait la ville +principale des Musulmans l'Espagne des moravides. Elle tait alors +trs industrieuse, et on y comptait entre autres 800 mtiers tisser la +soie, o l'on fabriquait des toffes connus sous le nom de <i>holla</i>, de +<i>debady</i>, de <i>siglaton</i>, d'<i>espahani</i>, de <i>djordjani</i>: des rideaux orns +de fleurs, des toffes orns de clous, de petits tapis, des toffes +connus sous les noms de <i>attabi</i>, de <i>mi djar</i>."</p> + +<p>To complete this historical information, and especially in order to add +details as to the technical character of this manufacture, the Rev. +Daniel Rock's interesting introduction to "Textile Fabrics, a +Descriptive Catalogue, London, 1870," must be consulted; although, +notwithstanding the learned author's remarks, it is extremely difficult, +in my opinion, to classify textile fabrics proceeding from Syria, +Sicily, or the Spanish Arabs, as all, whether imitations or originals, +are similar in manufacture.</p> + +<p>M. Michel and Dr. Rock enter into numerous details concerning the +ancient names of stuffs, and in order further to illustrate this subject +I venture to propose a different etymology than the one given by these +writers of the word Samit, Samitum, or Xamet, which, although slightly +different in orthography, is met with everywhere in Europe. My opinion +is that it means stuff made at Damascus, for the word Sham +<span class="arabic"><a href="images/ill_pg_253a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_253a_sml.png" width="27" height="24" alt="Arabic writing" title="" /></a></span> +is applied to the name of this town as +well as to that of Syria, and the appellative Shami and Shamit +<span class="arabic"><a href="images/ill_pg_253b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_253b_sml.png" width="66" height="21" alt="Arabic writing" title="" /></a></span> +appears in the lexicon to express what +comes from Damascus or Syria.</p> + +<p>The oldest specimen which I know of Spanish Arab textile fabric, is a +woollen fragment of very fine quality embroidered in colours, which is +at the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. It is about 1 yards +long, by 18 inches wide. In medallions embroidered in silks are +represented seated figures which appear to be a king, a lady, lions, +birds, and quadrupeds. In two borders<a name="page_254" id="page_254"></a> occurs the following inscription, +repeated in cufic characters: "In the name of God, clement and merciful: +The blessing of God and happiness for the caliph Iman Abdallah Hixem, +favoured of God, prince of believers."</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_pg_254a_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_254a_sml.png" width="458" height="65" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a> +</p> + +<p>Hixem reigned from <small>A.D.</small> 979 until the first years of the 11th century. +This fragment was found inside a small casket on the altar of a church +in the town of San Esteban de Gormaz, province of Soria, where it was +probably taken as a war trophy: it may be classified as a stuff called +<i>tiraz</i> +<span class="arabic"><a href="images/ill_pg_254b_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_254b_sml.png" width="28" height="20" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a></span> the skirt of a robe. An oriental author +tells us that among the customs which contribute to give splendour to +sovereignty is that of putting the name, or some other sign belonging to +kings on the stuffs of their robes; that these inscriptions are woven +into the material with gold or coloured thread of a different hue to the +ground, and that royal robes were always made of <i>tiraz.</i> The caliphs of +Cordova had a place set apart in their palaces where this stuff was +kept: this custom lasted until the 11th century when it disappeared, and +was re-established in the 13th century with the kings of Granada. (Moh. +Dyn. vol. i., pp. 356 and 397; Mus. Esp. de Ant. vol. vi. pp. 464 and +465.)</p> + +<p>Another most important object, although less ancient than the former +one, is an Arabian banner which is traditionally believed to have been +taken from the Almohades at the battle of Las Navas, <small>A.D.</small> 1212. This +banner, which is preserved at the monastery of Las Huelgas of Burgos, is +ten feet high by seven feet three inches wide. It is made of a crimson +stuff, covered with an ornamentation woven and embroidered in gold and +colours. In the centre is a large circle, placed within a square, which +is enlarged in parallel bands. The four largest bands, which are also +the last, are covered with inscriptions in blue African characters. The<a name="page_255" id="page_255"></a> +upper part of this banner is prolonged with several bands, one of which +has inscriptions of a similar kind to those already mentioned; other +borders contain several sentences in small African letters. The lower +part is also prolonged and is terminated by eight points cut in a +semicircle, inside which there are discs with illegible inscriptions. +Three violet coloured lions, similar in form to those which appear on +the arms of Leon, may be seen on three of the sides of the square. In +the large circle in the centre of this banner, appears eight times +repeated the word "The Empire," +<span class="arabic"><a href="images/ill_pg_255_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_255_sml.jpg.png" width="36" height="15" alt="Arabic" title="" /></a></span> This inscription +is embroidered or woven in Cufic characters, in a similar style to those +at the Alhambra; it is a strange circumstance that the letters appear on +the wrong side, as if this was the back of the stuff; the word which +seems to be required to complete this sentence, "God," is also wanting. +The large inscriptions in blue of the five bands reproduce Suras of the +Koran, and pious sentences in one of the small ones on the upper part. +S<sup>r.</sup> Fernandez, who has published an article on this banner in Mus. +Esp. [vol. vi., p. 469], thinks he finds a date which corresponds with +the year <small>A.D.</small> 1140. I am not, however, satisfied with his interpretation +of the inscription contained in the large centre circle, or the date he +gives; for comparing the ornamentation of this specimen with other +textiles, and the designs used in Moorish architecture, it appears to me +that it must be considered as belonging to the 14th century. This may be +easily accounted for by some historical mistake in the tradition +respecting it at the convent of Las Huelgas. It is highly probable that +King Alfonso XI. may have given this banner to the convent, and have +been mistaken for King Alfonso VIII.; the conqueror of the battle of Las +Navas.</p> + +<p>The specimens of Spanish moresco stuffs in the Kensington Museum, will +be found numbered 51, 121, 124, 125, 152, 160, 180, 241, 244. (V. Dr. +Rock's Catalogue.)</p> + +<p>The artistic industry of silk manufactures which was initiated<a name="page_256" id="page_256"></a> in Spain +by the Arabs, continued to flourish during the Middle Ages and a great +part of the Renaissance. Malaga and Almeria were important centres, but +later on this industry was chiefly centred at Granada. The silk fabrics +made at Seville, Toledo, Murcia and Valencia were much esteemed. The +Moorish style of ornamentation in embroideries and stuffs must soon have +fallen into disuse. Owing to the materials of similar kinds imported +from Italy, France, Flanders, and other countries, these manufactures +were imitated to a great extent, as may be gathered by the immense +number of specimens which are still to be met with in Spanish churches. +The cathedral of Toledo is quite a museum of objects of this kind, but +all the textiles there are woven in the European manner.</p> + +<p>The Moorish style in stuffs was preserved at Granada longer than in any +other town in Spain. In 1502, ten years after its conquest by the +Christians, we find it stated in the "Voyage of Philip le Beau," the +father of the Emperor Charles V.: "Grenade est fort marchande, +principallement de soyes, car les marchans y achattent la pluspart des +soyes que l'on maine en Italie, pour faires les draps de soyes. Le lieu +o on les vendt est nomm le Sacquatin. Auprs de ce lieu est une place +appelle l'Allecasserie, o on vendt les draps de soyes ouvrs la +Moresque, qui sont moult beaus pour la multitude des couleurs et la +diversit des ouvrages, et en font une grande marchandise." ["Collect. +de Voyages, par M. Gachard, Bruxelles," 1870, i. 205.] Navagiero, who +visited Spain twenty years after, tells us in his "Viaggio fatto in +Spagna" [Vinegia 1563, p. 21]: "One enters a place called Alcaiceria +which is enclosed within two doors, and full of alleys where the Moors +sell silks and embroideries of every kind" [p. 29]: "All sorts of cloths +of silks are made there; the silks made at Granada are much esteemed all +over Spain; they are not so good as those which come from Italy. There +are several looms, but they do not yet know how to work them well; they +make good taffetas, sarcenet, and silk serges. The velvets are<a name="page_257" id="page_257"></a> not bad, +but those that are made at Valencia are better in quality."</p> + +<p>Dr. Rock considers the following specimens in the Kensington Museum to +have been made at Granada: Nos. 26, 27, 60, 65, 73, 128, 161, 166.</p> + +<p>Larruga tells us in his "Memorias" [vol. vii. 205], that the silk +manufactures established at Toledo consumed in 1480 about 450,000 pounds +of silk: they decreased about forty years afterwards. In the ordinances +issued from that town in 1494, which were confirmed by the Emperor +Charles V. we find that the following stuffs were made at Toledo:</p> + +<p>"Stuffs of gold and silver which are made in the same manner as satin.</p> + +<p>"Satins woven with gold.</p> + +<p>"Satins brocaded with silk and gold or silver flowers.</p> + +<p>"Silver serges with double filigree.</p> + +<p>"Silver and gold materials, which are made like <i>gorgoran</i> or serge.</p> + +<p>"Silver and gold stuffs which are made like taffetas, spring silver with +silk flowers.</p> + +<p>"Embroidered stuffs.</p> + +<p>"Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or <i>berguilla</i>.</p> + +<p>"<i>Lama</i>, cloth of silver, shaded with silver watering.</p> + +<p>"Plain silk stuffs woven with silver or gold called <i>restao</i>.</p> + +<p>"Silk stuffs woven with gold or silver called <i>relampagos</i>.</p> + +<p>"Serges woven with gold and silver for church vestments.</p> + +<p>"Plain filigree serges.</p> + +<p>"<i>Velillo</i> of silver.</p> + +<p>"Satin woven with gold and silver.</p> + +<p>"Brocades of different kinds.</p> + +<p>"Church vestments.</p> + +<p>"Silver <i>primaveras</i>.</p> + +<p>"Serges for church vestments."</p> + +<p>("Ord. Ant. de Toledo," Tol. 1858, p. 223).<a name="page_258" id="page_258"></a></p> + +<p>Until the middle of the 17th century, Larruga tells us in vol. vii. p. +208 of his "Memorias," the silk manufacture of Toledo was one of those +most highly esteemed in Spain; from this time it was superseded by the +manufactures of Seville, Granada, Valencia, and others. These cheapened +their productions; but Toledo insisted on keeping to the old Spanish +yard and weight in every kind of stuffs. In 1651 fifty looms belonged to +this manufacture, although most of them were established in the suburbs. +In this year there was a great decrease in the price of the coin, and +the Genoese introduced a large quantity of silk stuffs, so much so that +only twenty looms could be kept working at Toledo. After this, in 1663, +2061 looms existed there.</p> + +<p>The silk manufacture of Toledo continued to lose its importance in +consequence of the vast importations of foreign silks, but the +traditions of this industry have never disappeared from the city. +Larruga, who enters into this subject at great length in the seventh and +eighth volumes of his "Memorias," mentions the silk manufacture of D<sup>n</sup>. +Miguel Gregorio Molero, "who made from the year 1714, under his +direction and that of Christoval de Morales, his father-in-law, a large +quantity of silk fabrics of wide and narrow materials of every kind, and +stuffs woven with silver and gold." It is an interesting fact that the +manufactory of Molero continues to work in the present day, and gold and +silver stuffs are made there for ecclesiastical purposes similar in +design and manufacture to the early established one of 1714; specimens +exist at the South Kensington Museum of the silks made at Toledo by +Molero.</p> + +<p>Towards the middle of the 18th century the most important centre of +artistic silks existed at Talavera, where it was established on a very +large scale by King Fernando VI. and supported by the state. It was +founded in 1748 under the superintendence of a Frenchman called Jean +Roulire, who was educated at Lyon, a great mechanician, who entered the +manufactory with a yearly salary of 450, and 4 per cent. of the sale. +Fine church vestments were<a name="page_259" id="page_259"></a> made there, and the richest stuffs woven +with silver and gold for decorating apartments and furniture, of which a +vast quantity remain in the palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, the Escorial +and La Granja. In 1762 the Spanish government handed over this +manufactory to the firm of Uztariz and Company; it remained in their +hands until 1780, and at this period it continued to be worked for five +years by the state; in 1785 it passed to the superintendence of the +Tribunal of Commerce entitled Cinco Gremios Mayores de Madrid. The +French invasion of 1808 and general decay of the country contributed +towards the extinction of this industry.</p> + +<p>In a similar manner to the silk manufactures established at Toledo, +silks of all kinds were made at Seville, Granada, Murcia, and other +provinces, to a very great extent during the 16th and 17th centuries. +This industry continues in the present day, and specimens exist at the +South Kensington Museum, made in 1874, which recall the ancient style of +these stuffs.</p> + +<h3>EMBROIDERIES.</h3> + +<p>It is probable that the history of embroidery in Spain followed the same +steps as that of gold and silver stuffs, owing to the great similarity +which exists between these industries, as may be seen by the banner +called de las Navas, which is composed of both these materials. +Ornamentation in the Oriental style must have fallen sooner into disuse +than in woven fabrics owing to the fashion of introducing figures in +ecclesiastical vestments, which much before the Renaissance period +became so general in Europe. The first mention which I find of the +existence of this artistic industry appears in the Ordenanzas de +Sevilla, 1433; it refers to regulating this industry, and preventing +certain frauds, by which we may infer its existence from an earlier +period. Similar dispositions appear in one of the Ordinances of Toledo, +dated 1496, and as sumptuary laws were continually issued we have +constant references<a name="page_260" id="page_260"></a> to the existence of this industry: [consult +"Sempere, Hist. del Lujo," vol. ii. 8vo]. These legal prohibitions did +not, however, reach church vestments; after the aggrandizement of the +monarchy by the conquest of the New World such enormous sums were spent +on these objects, that notwithstanding the ravages of time, wars, +disturbances of all kinds, and vandalisms and neglect, the cathedrals of +Toledo and Seville, and many other churches, are museums of this style +of art.</p> + +<p>The art of embroidery was imported by Italians and Germans early in the +16th century, in the same manner as wood carving, metal work, and other +industries. The comparative study of embroideries of different kinds +which are preserved in churches and museums in other countries confirms +this theory; some have been made in the north and others in the south, +while their historical origin may be traced to Italy. In Spain itself +this comparison may be made, and the Germanic influence is most +apparent. At the cathedral of Burgos there is a fine series of +ecclesiastical vestments which Bishop Alonso de Cartagena gave to the +cathedral on his return from the council of Ble, 1431-43. Another +series of most important specimens is at Toledo, a present to Cardinal +Mendoza by the German emperor Frederic in 1489. In both these instances +we find that the embroidery is identical with what was made in Spain at +this period, until they changed the Gothic for the Italian Renaissance +style.</p> + +<p>I must mention two splendid altar frontals of foreign workmanship which +exist in Spain, one of them is at the chapel of the Disputation of +Barcelona; it represents St. George slaying the dragon. This embroidery +is in high relief, and is so perfect in every detail that it appears to +be chiselled. Another altar frontal of the same style is at the +Colegiata of Manresa, Catalua; on this one the Crucifixion is +represented, with eighteen other subjects, taken from the Old and New +Testaments. This frontal is signed—<i>Geri Lapi Rachamatore Me fecit in +Florentia.</i></p> + +<p>Almost all Spanish towns of importance are distinguished for<a name="page_261" id="page_261"></a> their +embroidery, Toledo, Seville and Valencia are especially so; Ciudad +Rodrigo figures as an important centre of this industry during the 16th +century. We find the sentence, "obra de Ciudad Rodrigo" applied to +embroidery of gold thread, [Acad. de la Historia, MS. C. 122.] Father +Siguenza tells us in his "Hist. de la orden de San Jeronimo" that this +style of embroidery was exclusively Spanish, and probably the remains of +the Moorish influence. The principal localities where embroideries and +artistic work of every kind can be studied are the cathedrals of the +towns we have mentioned, which were great centres of artistic industries +in other times, and the monastery of the Escorial. The collection at the +cathedral of Toledo alone is sufficient to illustrate this subject.</p> + +<p>About forty sets of splendid vestments exist at this cathedral which are +embroidered with the most exquisite taste, belonging to the 15th and +16th centuries. Each set generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope, +altar frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces. +The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of saints, +are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MS. The <i>manga</i>, or case +which hangs round the processional cross given by Cardinal Ximenez, is +one of the most splendid specimens of this collection. As a fine +specimen of embroidery on a large scale must be mentioned the <i>dosel</i> or +canopy called the tent of Ferdinand and Isabel, also at the cathedral of +Toledo, which is interesting as being the same which was used in the +reception of the English envoys Thomas Salvaige and Richard Nanfan who +were sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage of Prince Henry with +the Infanta D<sup>na.</sup> Catalina. The ambassadors describe it in the +following manner: "After the tilting was over, the kings returned to the +palace, and took the ambassadors with them, and entered a large room: +and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of rich crimson velvet, +richly embroidered with the arms of Castile and <a name="page_262" id="page_262"></a>Aragon, and covered +with the device of the king, which is a ... (blank in original), and his +motto, written at length, which is 'Tanto Monta.'" ("Memorials of King +Henry the Seventh," Gairdner, Lon. 1858, p. 348.)</p> + +<p>The most remarkable specimen of embroidery which exists in Spain, not so +much on account of its artistic merit as for the enormous value of the +materials employed, is the mantle of the Virgin del Sagrario at Toledo. +It is completely covered with pearls and jewels forming a most effective +ornamentation. This embroidery was made in the beginning of the 17th +century, during the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who presented it to +the church. S<sup>r.</sup> Parro in his exhaustive volume of "Toledo en la +Mano," [vol. i., p. 574,] describes it in the following manner: "It is +made of twelve yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is +entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre there is a +jewel of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each side +of enamelled gold, emeralds and large rubies; a variety of other jewels +are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part are the +arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on gold and studded with sapphires +and rubies. The centre of this mantle is covered with flowers and +pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of different sizes. Round the +borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the gems which were employed +in this superb work of art, no less than 257 ounces of pearls of +different sizes, 300 ounces of gold thread, 160 ounces of small pieces +of enamelled gold, and eight ounces of emeralds were used."</p> + +<p>A fine altar frontal of a similar kind embroidered in corals may be seen +in the same room where this mantle of the Virgin is kept at the +cathedral of Toledo.</p> + +<p>We find in Madame de Villars' letters, [p. 39, Paris, 1823,] the +description of a similar embroidery. Writing in 1680 she says, "Ce que +j'ai vu de plus riche, de plus dor, de plus magnifique, est +l'appartement de la reine. Il y a entre autres meubles dans sa chambre, +une tapisserie, dont ce qu'on y voit de fond, est de perles. Ce ne sont +pas des personnages, on ne peut dire que l'or<a name="page_263" id="page_263"></a> y soit massif, mais il +est employ d'une manire et d'une abondance extraordinaires. Il y a +quelques fleurs: ce sont des bandes de compartimens; mais il faudrait +tre plus habile que je ne suis pour reprsenter les choses, pour vous +faire comprendre la beaut que compose le corail employ dans cet +ouvrage. Ce n'est point une matire assez prcieuse pour en vanter la +quantit; mais la couleur et l'or qui paraissent dans cette broderie, +sont assurment ce qu'on aurait peine dcrire."</p> + +<p>From the period when these embroideries were made until the middle of +the 18th century, Spanish embroideries lost much of their artistic +character, although the work itself continued equally excellent. During +the whole of the 17th century, a style of embroidery became very general +in Spain, which appears to have been copied from eastern importations by +the Portuguese or the Spanish possessions in America. The specimens most +generally met with in Spain are chiefly bed covers, the ground of which +is either linen or satin, embroidered in chain stitch, with figures and +exotic birds and animals. Their effect is very rich, and the +ornamentation is arranged generally in circles. Specimens exist in +England of this kind of work; for example, a quilt, said to have been +made for an Archbishop of Toledo, lent by Lady Cornelia Guest to the +Special Exhibition of Embroidery held at South Kensington in 1873.</p> + +<p>At the Mus. Arq., Madrid, is a fine quilt of this kind embroidered with +maize-coloured silk on linen, with representations of figures and +animals.</p> + +<p>Embroideries were made in Spain to cover furniture. Sedan chairs, +coffers, &c., were ornamented in this manner. At the Kensington Museum +there is an interesting example of a trunk with silver lock, covered +with embroidery, which was given towards 1680 by Count Olivares to the +nuns at Loeches. Some fine embroidered tapestries belonging to the same +collection are at the Museo Arqueleogico, Madrid. A varied collection of +ecclesiastical vestments of the kinds described may also be studied at +the<a name="page_264" id="page_264"></a> museum. (V. Nos. 78, 79, 84, 673, 1194, 1195, 1250, &c., in Dr. +Rock's Catalogue.)</p> + +<p>The sumptuary laws, and especially the Decrees issued by Philip IV. in +1622, prohibited any display or ostentation in costume, and embroideries +were confined to ecclesiastical purposes. In the middle of the 18th +century embroideries were introduced in the costumes of men and women +when French fashions were imported into Spain. Although many of them +came from France, they were imitated in Spain to a large extent. A guild +of embroiderers was formed in 1779, who submitted their statutes to the +Tribunal of Commerce. We find that Madrid was the principal centre of +this industry, and that French designs were universally copied, as was +the case in the whole of Europe. The splendid curtains and embroidered +hangings for apartments which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the +Escorial and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens of this industry.</p> + +<p>The following list of Spanish embroiderers is taken from Cean's "Dic. de +Prof de las Bellas Artes;" Martinez, "Hist. del Templo Cat. de Burgos;" +Suarez de Figueroa, "Plaza Universal," etc.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td align="center">Years in which<br />they worked</td> <td align="center">Artists.</td> <td align="right"> Residence.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1603.</td><td>Alcala, Fr. Fernando de</td><td align="right">Escorial.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1526.</td><td>Alonso, Esteban</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1688 to 1715.</td><td>Arroyo, Diego de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1594.</td><td>Aspe, Simeon de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1646.</td><td>Ansin, Francisco de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1500.</td><td>Barcelona, Fr. Rafael de</td><td align="right">Escorial.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1599.</td><td>Berrio, Francisco de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1452.</td><td>Bilbao, Juan</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1514.</td><td>Burgos, Pedro</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1574 to 1580.</td><td>Camia, Alonso</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1580 to 1593.</td><td>Camia, Miguel, a son of Alonso</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1580.</td><td>Castillo, Juan del</td><td align="right">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1571.</td><td>Cordova, Fr. Francisco</td><td align="right">Escorial.<a name="page_265" id="page_265"></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1616.</td><td>Corral, Felipe de</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1514.</td><td>Covarrubias, Marcos de</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1422.</td><td>Fernandez, Garcia</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1422.</td><td>Fernandez, Pedro</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1645.</td><td>Garcia de Jalon, Juan</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1500.</td><td>Gil, Francisco</td><td align="right">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1688.</td><td>Gomez, Juan</td><td align="right">Sevilla.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1514.</td><td>Hernandez, Alonso</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1630.</td><td>Landa, Alonso de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1625.</td><td>Martinez de Manurga, Sebastian</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1521.</td><td>Monte, Cornieles de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1576.</td><td>Montserrate, Fr. Lorenzo</td><td align="right">scorial.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1580 to 1593.</td><td>Ochandiano, Andrs</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1595.</td><td>Ortiz de Zarate, Pedro</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1565.</td><td>Palenzuela, Francisco de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1591.</td><td>Palenzuela, Jeronimo</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1500.</td><td>Perez, Gabriel</td><td align="right">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1580.</td><td>Perez, Juan</td><td align="right">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1514.</td><td>Rica, Hernando de la</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1500.</td><td>Rosales</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1500.</td><td>Rosicler, Lus de</td><td align="right">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1514.</td><td>Ruiz, Martin</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1716 to 1734.</td><td>Ruiz, Antonio</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1585.</td><td>Rutinez, Diego</td><td align="right">Escorial.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1563.</td><td>Salas, Juan de</td><td align="right">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1561.</td><td>Sarabia</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1514.</td><td>Talavera, Juan de</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1500.</td><td>Toledo, Fr. Juan de</td><td align="right">Escorial.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1752.</td><td>Transmontana, Fr. F. Javier de</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1684.</td><td>Valle, Antonio del</td><td align="right">Burgos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1500.</td><td>Vega, Felicis de</td><td align="right">Madrid.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1563.</td><td>Villegas, Nicolas de</td><td align="right">Granada.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">1502.</td><td>Xaques, el Maestro</td><td align="right">Toledo.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><a name="page_266" id="page_266"></a></p> + +<h3>TAPESTRIES.</h3> + +<p>The manufacture of tapestry or carpets was introduced into Spain by the +Arabs. The earliest historical information which I have been able to +find relating to this industry occurs in Edrisi, an oriental author of +the beginning of the 12th century, ["Descrip. de l'Afr. et de l'Esp., +trad. de Dozy el Goeje,"] when speaking of Chinchilla in the province of +Alicante, he says: "On y fabrique des tapis de laine qu'on ne saurait +imiter ailleurs, circonstance qui dpend de la qualit de l'air et des +eaux." In mentioning Cuenca, he says: "Les tapis de laine qu'on y fait +sont d'excellente qualit," p. 237. Although we find very few +descriptive details of this industry, it is undoubtedly the fact that in +a wide zone which comprehends from the kingdom of Valencia until that of +Granada, carpets have been constantly made; for even in the present day +this industry is alive in a number of towns, where not only the old +technical proceedings are continued, but also much of the primitive +character of the designs and colours. In confirmation of this, I find +frequent mention in books and MSS. of the 16th century of carpets of +Letur, made in the kingdom of Murcia, Alcaraz, and Baeza.</p> + +<p>The first time I find this industry mentioned by Christian authors is in +Francisque Michel's work on "toffes de Soie," vol. i., p. 292; he says: +"A une poque qu'il nous serait difficile de prciser un pote Latin +vantait les teintures prcieuses sujets, et les tapis d'Espagne."</p> + +<p>"Tunc preciosa suis surgunt aulaea figuris.</p> + +<p>"Ac in se raptis ora tenent animis.</p> + +<p>"Tunc operosa suis <i>Hispana tapetia</i> villis.</p> + +<p>"Hinc rubras, virides inde ferunt species."</p> + +<p>At the cathedral of Gerona an extremely interesting tapestry of the 12th +century may be seen, which may have been made in the locality.</p> + +<p><a name="img_50" id="img_50"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/ill_pg_267_sml.jpg" width="586" height="500" alt="TAPESTRY AT THE CATHEDRAL OF GERONA; REPRESENTING THE +CREATION, &C.—SPANISH, 11TH CENTURY. To face p. 267." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">TAPESTRY AT THE CATHEDRAL OF GERONA; REPRESENTING THE +CREATION, &C.—SPANISH, 11TH CENTURY. To face p. 267. +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_267_med.jpg">[Medium amplification]</a> +<br /> +<a href="images/ill_pg_267_lg.jpg">[Largest amplification]</a></span> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_267" id="page_267"></a></p> + +<p>This tapestry is about 4 yards wide by 4 yards high. The composition +represents the Genesis. In the centre is a geometrical figure formed by +two concentric circles. In the lesser circle is a figure of Christ +holding an open book, on which appear the words, <i>Sanctus Deus</i>, and on +each side <i>Rex fortis</i>, surrounded by the inscription, <i>Dixit quoque +Deus, Fiat lux, Et facta est lux.</i> In the larger circle are the words, +<i>In principio creavit Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia qu in eis +sunt, et vidit Deus cuncta qu egerat et erant valde bona.</i></p> + +<p>The space between the two circles is divided by radiating lines into +eight portions, in which are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of +light and darkness: the division of land from water, the creation of +sun, moon, and stars, of birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve. +In the angles outside the larger circle are the four winds, and the +whole is surrounded by a border, imperfect in parts, containing +representations of the months, and apparently of certain scriptural +incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out. The accompanying +engraving, though imperfect and inaccurate in some of its details, gives +a general idea of this work.</p> + +<p>Although this tapestry is embroidered with crewels on linen, it appears +advisable to include it in the description of Spanish tapestries, owing +to its similarity and general aspect to other tapestries. It is easy for +students of Spanish works of art of the Middle Ages to fix the period +and style to which this example belongs. Several remarkable +illuminations exist in Spain representing the Apocalypse which were +painted in the X. XI. and XIIth. centuries, which have already been +alluded to in other articles of this work. The figures of the tapestry +of Gerona are disposed in a precisely similar manner to the miniatures +of the 12th century. They are in the same style as the paintings on the +ceiling of the chapel of St. Catalina, at St. Isidoro of Leon, which +were painted at that period. There can be therefore no doubt that they +belong to that period and style. Several MSS. may be<a name="page_268" id="page_268"></a> mentioned to +further illustrate the subject. An excellent specimen is at the +cathedral of Gerona, those at the National Library, Museo Arqueologico, +and Academia de la Historia, Madrid, Escorial, Bibliotheque Nationale, +Paris—and especially the fine MS. at the British Museum (Add. II. +695),—dated <span class="smcap">A. D.</span> 1109, referred to in the chapter on Arms, page 90. +The illuminations of this volume are extremely similar to the design of +this tapestry. Plate 83, twelve inches by eight, within a circle, +representing Christ holding a book in his hand, may be given as an +example.</p> + +<p>I do not find any information of a later date which suggests the +existence of the manufacture of tapestries in Spain during the Middle +Ages. There are constant allusions to the splendid tapestries which were +brought from Flanders, many of which are at the Royal palace of Madrid. +The earliest mention I find is a memorial printed without date, in which +Pedro Gutierrez, tapestry maker of Salamanca, asks Philip II. to protect +this industry. He evidently gained his object, for in the documents +published by S<sup>r</sup>. Cruzada in his "Tapices de Goya," [Madrid, 1870,] it +appears that in 1578 Queen Doa Ana appointed him to work in her Camara +as tapestry maker to make <i>reposteros</i><a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> and Philip II. in 1582 +confirms this appointment. Gutierrez worked at this period, at Salamanca +and Madrid. He was succeeded in his charge in 1625 by Antonio Ceron, who +established this industry definitively in the Calle de Santa Isabel at +Madrid. The fine picture by Velasquez, at the Madrid Gallery, "The +Weavers," which represents the interior of the tapestry manufactory, +belongs to this time. We find this industry soon fell into decay. In +1694 a Belgian named Juan Metier tried to revive it, but without +success;<a name="page_269" id="page_269"></a> the same thing occurred with Nicolas Hernandez, a tapestry +maker of Salamanca, in 1707.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> Reposteros is the ancient name given to the hangings which +are placed outside the balconies on state occasions in Spain. Several +splendid examples of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries may still +be seen at the houses of Spanish grandees, of which those belonging to +the Conde de Oate and Marques de Alcaices at Madrid are the most +remarkable for their artistic design.</p></div> + +<p>The tapestry manufactory of Santa Barbara at Madrid was founded soon +after; it was the most important of all, and continues to produce +excellent work in the present day. It appears that Jacobo Vandergoten of +Antwerp was engaged expressly by the king; he began to work in 1720, and +continued there until his death in 1724. He was succeeded by his sons, +Francisco, Jacobo, Cornelius, and Adrian, who worked in <i>basse lisse</i> +looms until 1729, when a Frenchman, Antonio Lenger mounted a <i>haute +lisse</i> one.</p> + +<p>On the occasion of the temporary removal of the court to Seville, the +king established a tapestry manufactory there in 1730; Jacobo +Vandergoten was put at the head of it, and the painter, Andres +Procaccini, helped him in the direction of the manufactory. It only +lasted three years, at the end of which the artists returned with their +implements to establish themselves in the old tapestry manufactory of +the Calle de Santa Isabel: and continued to work there until 1744, at +that time they again joined the works at Santa Barbara.</p> + +<p>Three of the brothers Vandergoten were already dead in 1774. Cornelius +alone was alive. In the same year the Spanish artists, Antonio Moreno, +Domingo Galan, Tomas del Castillo, and Manuel Sanchez were placed at the +head of these works, under the superintendence of Sanchez, who continued +there until his death in 1786, when he was succeeded by his nephew, +Livinio Stuck. This manufactory was much neglected at the end of the +last century; it was destroyed by the French in 1808, and was +rehabilitated in 1815 under the direction of a son of Stuck. This family +continues to work there in the present day. The carpets made at the +manufactory of S<sup>ta.</sup> Barbara are of the highest excellence and +artistic order.</p> + +<p>Very fine tapestries have been made at this manufactory during the last +century, some after original cartoons of excellent painters<a name="page_270" id="page_270"></a> and others +reproductions of ancient Flemish ones belonging to the royal +collections. During the years 1721 to 1724 the tapestries representing +pastoral subjects after Teniers were woven there, and a series of +hunting subjects which still exist at the Pardo and palace of Madrid. +The excellent copy of the series of tapestries representing the conquest +of Tunis, after cartoons by William Pannemaker were made partly at +Seville and partly at Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara. The tapestries +representing scenes from the life of Don Quixote, designed by the +painter Procaccini, were also made at the looms of Santa Barbara.</p> + +<p>Fine carpets in the Turkish style were made there under the +superintendence of Cornelius Vandergoten, who excelled in this special +industry. Carpets also in the French style of the Gobelin manufactory +were made at the same time. The best specimens of carpets and tapestries +of the manufactory of Santa Barbara, will be found at the palaces of the +Escorial, the Pardo, and Madrid. The series made from cartoons of +Teniers and the Spanish painter Goya are extremely interesting. A +complete collection of photographs of the foreign and Spanish tapestries +at the palace of Madrid will be found in the Art Library of the South +Kensington Museum.<a name="page_271" id="page_271"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="LACE" id="LACE"></a>LACE.</h2> + +<p>I<small>T</small> is not easy to give a clear idea of the history of the manufacture of +ancient Spanish lace; the principal reason being that this industry was +carried out by private persons, who never formed themselves into Guilds +or corporations, as was the case during the middle ages and Renaissance +period with those who devoted their time to other arts and industries. +We find in the Royal Ordinances constant references to weavers, silver +and goldsmiths, tailors, etc., but in none do we find the manufacture of +lace mentioned. The most important Ordinances relating to Spanish +industries are those published at Toledo and Seville in the 15th and +16th centuries, and at Granada in the 16th and 17th centuries, and in +none of them do we find lace even alluded to. In the innumerable laws +which appeared from the middle ages until the 18th century for the +object of reforming costumes and checking their excessive luxury no +mention is made of lace; when it is referred to, it is only when +<i>puntas</i> or <i>entredoses</i>, edgings or insertions, are mentioned in which +gold and silver are introduced. We never find any allusion in +contemporary writers to the fine heavy thread lace, sometimes called +Point d'Espagne or Point de Venise, the origin of which has been a +source of so much doubt to collectors of the present day.</p> + +<p>The only thing which we can do therefore at the present, until this +subject is more fully investigated, is to assert that lace of different +kinds has been made from the very earliest times in Spain, and do our +best to classify the different kinds by the differences which we observe +in those of other localities.<a name="page_272" id="page_272"></a></p> + +<p>Father Fr. Marcos Antonio de Campos in his "Microcosmia y Gobierno +Universal del Hombre Cristiano," [Barcelona, 1592, p. 225,] says: "I +will not be silent and fail to mention the time lost these last years in +the manufacture of <i>cadenetas</i>, a work of thread combined with gold and +silver; this extravagance and excess reached such a point that 100 and +1000 of ducats were spent in this work, which, besides destroying the +eyesight, wasting away the lives, and rendering consumptive the women +who worked it, and preventing them from spending their time with more +advantage to their souls, a few ounces of thread and years of time, were +wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I ask myself, after this fancy +has passed away, will the lady or gentleman find that the chemises that +cost them 50 ducats, or the <i>basquia</i> (petticoats) that cost them 300, +are worth half their price, which certainly is the case with other +objects in which the material itself is worth more." This quotation is +interesting as proving that lace was made during the 16th century. The +friar, in following the prevalent fashion of preaching against luxury +and extravagance, shows us that this industry must have reached to a +great height in order to be an object of censure.</p> + +<p>From the 16th century until the end of the 18th we find this manufacture +continued in Spain, but that foreign lace of different kinds was +likewise imported to a great extent, although we may affirm that black +lace especially was made in Spain during the whole period.</p> + +<p>We find lace mentioned by ancient Spanish authors under the following +names: <i>punta</i>, <i>randa</i>, <i>cadeneta</i>, <i>entredos</i>, <i>red</i>, <i>deshilado</i>, +<i>franja</i>, <i>blonda</i>, and <i>encaje</i>, which may be translated as edging, or +points, rseuil, chain stitch, insertion, netting, ravelling, fringe, +blonde, and lace.</p> + +<p>M. H. de Cocheris in his introduction to "Patrons de Broderies," Paris, +1872, says that "gold and silver laces were made at Paris and Lyons." +The four books which are reproduced in this volume mention Lyons as +being a great centre of<a name="page_273" id="page_273"></a> this particular branch of industry. Gold and +silver lace was, however, also made and copied in Spain during the 17th +century. We find in the "Pragmatica y Nueva Orden cerca de los Vestidos +y Trajes, asi de Hombres como de Mugeres," [fol. Madrid 1611, p. 5,] +"May we be allowed to border or edge the said silken materials with +thread lace, which are not to be made of chain stitch, or gold or +silver, and when these laces are mentioned we should understand they are +exclusively for women's use." We also find in an Ordinance of the time +of Philip III., dated 1623, that gold and silver lace was prohibited, +and that "simple edgings, and curls, and fraises for women were enjoined +for women's use." In the "Fenix de Catalua, compendio de sus Antiguas +Grandezas y Medio para Renovarlas," Barcelona, 1683, by Narciso Feliu, +the author states, p. 75, that "edgings of all sorts of gold, silver, +silk, thread, and aloe, is made there with greater perfection than in +Flanders."</p> + +<p>Many interesting details have reached us of the costume of a Spanish +lady in the 17th century. We will copy the description given by Madame +d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon 1628. "Under the vertingale of +black taffety they wear a dozen or more petticoats, one finer than the +other, of rich stuffs trimmed with lace of gold and silver to the +girdle. They wear at all times a white garment called sabenqua; it is +made of the finest English lace, and four ells in compass. I have seen +some worth 500 or 600 crowns, and so great is their vanity, they would +rather have one of those lace subenquas than a dozen coarse ones, and +either lie in bed till it is washed, or else dress themselves without +any, which they frequently enough do." A number of portraits exist in +the Spanish galleries, especially by Velasquez and Carreo, in which +these extravagant costumes are fully portrayed, but in very few Spanish +portraits of the seventeenth century does thread lace of the kind known +as Point d'Espagne or de Venise ever appear. Mrs. Palliser, in her +interesting "History of Lace," p. 80, quotes a vast number of +descriptions of these gold and silver laces.<a name="page_274" id="page_274"></a> The celebrated bed at +Versailles, the interior lacings of the carriages, the costumes of the +gentlemen and ladies of court, and wedding dresses, were all trimmed +with this silver and gold lace, either made in Spain, or called Point +d'Espagne.</p> + +<p>We copy again Madame d'Aunoy's description of a Spanish bed. "It is of +gold and green damask lined with silver brocade and trimmed with point +of Spain. Her sheets were laced round with an English lace half an ell +deep. The young Princess of Monteleon bade her maids bring in her +wedding clothes. They brought in thirty silver baskets so heavy four +women could only carry one basket: the linen and lace were not inferior +to the rest." Beckford, in describing the apartment of a Spanish lady, +writes: "Her bed was of the richest blue velvet trimmed with point +lace." Aarsens de Sommerdyck in his "Voyage d'Espagne," [Paris, 1665,] +writes, in describing the costume worn by the men: "Leurs collets ou +cravates sont de grandes pointes, qui sans doute coustent beaucoup, bien +qu'elles ne paroissent pas belles. La mode en est presque la mesme qu'en +France, l'ayant prise de la princesse de Carignan quand elle estoit +Madrid, dont elles les nomment Valonas la Carignan." In the +interesting "Journal du Voyage d'Espagne," Paris, 1669, l'Abb Bertaut +tells us that on the 15th of October, 1659, on the occasion of his +embassy to Madrid, the king of Spain sent eight postilions, and forty +post-horses, the saddles and bridles of eight of which were covered with +gold and silver lace.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the opinion of so competent an authority as Mrs. +Palliser, I doubt the statement, finding no evidence to support it, that +thread lace of a very fine or artistic kind was ever made in Spain, or +exported as an article of commerce during early times. The lace alb, +which is mentioned, to prove this, as existing at Granada, a gift of +Ferdinand and Isabel, is of Flemish lace of the 17th century. The +chasuble, etc., splendid ecclesiastical vestments embroidered on crimson +velvet, were certainly the gift of these kings, and if Cardinal Wiseman +officiated in this vestment,<a name="page_275" id="page_275"></a> it is probable he may have made a mistake +and not separated the alb from the chasuble, which certainly may be +worth 10,000 crowns. J. Barretti, in his "Journey from London to Genoa, +through Portugal and Spain," London, 1770, describing the fine church of +Las Salesas, lately built, writes, "The nuns showed me in the sacristy +some surplices for the mass priest, that are made of the finest Flanders +lace. Each surplice has cost about 1000 doubloons." In "Tassa de los +Precios a que se han de vender as Mercaderias," Madrid, 1628, we find +that the "puntas or edgings made in Spain are to be sold at the same +price as those imported from Paris." Puntas from Flanders are estimated +in this tariff at a much higher rate than those which were brought from +France; we may calculate they were sold for double the price. The +"Ordenaciones" made at Barcelona to settle commercial tariffs state in +1704: "As experience has shown us that most of the edgings or puntas +made in this principality are sent out of the country, and we do not +find them mentioned in the financial accounts, to the great disadvantage +of the community, it is determined—"</p> + +<p>We find reference to lace brought from Flanders, Paris, and Lyon, in the +first volume of "Apendice a la Educacion Popular," [p. 61.] [Madrid, +1775,] the author mentions the large sums of money which were taken out +of the country by the importations of foreign lace, and he adds, [vol. +ii., p. 61,] "Lace is employed to a very considerable extent; all the +fine qualities come from foreign lands, and the greater varieties of the +coarser ones. Spanish matrons, among other branches of their education, +are taught to make lace of different kinds, and many respectable people +live on this industry." Larruga, in his "Memorias," Madrid, 1788, +mentions, vol. ii., p. 149, a manufacture of gold and silver lace which +had been set up lately at Madrid; and in the 17th vol., p. 294, in +mentioning lace made at La Mancha, "the industry of lace has existed at +Almagro from time immemorial. D<sup>n</sup>. Manuel Fernandez and D Rita +Lambert, his wife, natives of Madrid,<a name="page_276" id="page_276"></a> established in this town in 1766 +a manufacture of silk and thread lace." This industry also existed at +Granatula, Manzanares, and other villages of La Mancha. At Zamora "lace +and blonde were made in private houses. The finest kinds are sold to +lace merchants." In Sempere, "Historia del Lujo," [Madrid, 1788, 8vo,] +we find that in the Ordinance issued in 1723, the "introduction of every +sort of edgings or foreign laces was prohibited, the only kinds allowed +were those made in the country."</p> + +<p>Cabanillas writes in his "Observaciones sobre la Historia natural del +Reino de Valencia," Madrid, 1797, that at Novelda a third part of the +inhabitants made lace, "more than 2000 among women and children worked +at this industry, and the natives themselves hawked these wares about +the country." Swinburne, in his "Travels in Spain in 1775," also says, +"The women of the hamlets were busy with their bobbins making lace." +Laborde writes that in 1809 the manufacture of blonde was almost +entirely confined to Catalua. Barcelona is in the present day the great +centre of this industry in Spain; the black and white blondes which are +made chiefly for mantillas are very fine. The white laces made there are +in the style of Lille and Buckinghamshire laces, Brussels and Duchesse +laces, and Chantilly is also made to a large extent. Gold and silver +blondes were revived during the years 1830-40; and it may interest my +readers to know that the late Queen Mercedes, in her wedding trousseaux, +had a garniture de robe, mantilla included, of gold blonde.</p> + +<p>Modern torchon laces are still made at Almagro to a very large extent. +Bed linen, even in the poorest houses, is elaborately trimmed with lace +or embroidery. Valances for beds of ravellings, point coup and lace +work are still constantly found to decorate beds at weddings in the +provinces of Spain.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="c">THE END.</p> + +<p class="c"><small>RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BUNGAY.</small></p> + +<hr /> + +<p><a name="page_277" id="page_277"></a></p> + +<p class="cb"><big>SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM SCIENCE AND ART HANDBOOKS.</big></p> + +<p class="c">Handsomely printed in large crown 8vo.</p> + +<p class="c"><i>Published for the Committee of Council on Education.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">MARINE ENGINES AND BOILERS. By <span class="smcap">GEORGE C. V.</span> <span class="smcap">Holmes</span>, Secretary of the +Institution of Naval Architects, Whitworth Scholar. With Sixty-nine +Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, 3<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">EARLY CHRISTIAN ART IN IRELAND. By <span class="smcap">Margaret</span> <span class="smcap">Stokes.</span> With 106 Woodcuts. +Crown 8vo. 4<i>s.</i> A Library Edition, demy 8vo, 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">FOOD GRAINS OF INDIA. By <span class="smcap">Prof. A. H. Church</span>, M.A., F.C.S., F.I.C. With +numerous Woodcuts. Small 4to, 6<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">THE ART OF THE SARACENS IN EGYPT. By <span class="smcap">Stanley</span> <span class="smcap">Lane Poole</span>, B.A., M.A.R.S. +With 108 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 4<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">ENGLISH PORCELAIN: A Handbook to the China made in England during the +18th Century, as illustrated by Specimens chiefly in the National +Collections. By <span class="smcap">Prof. A. H. Church</span>, M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 3<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">RUSSIAN ART AND ART OBJECTS IN RUSSIA: A Handbook to the reproduction of +Goldsmiths' work and other Art Treasures from that country in the South +Kensington Museum. By <span class="smcap">Alfred Maskell</span>. With Illustrations. 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">FRENCH POTTERY. By <span class="smcap">Paul Gasnault</span> and <span class="smcap">Edouard</span> <span class="smcap">Garnier</span>. With Illustrations +and Marks. 3<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">ENGLISH EARTHENWARE: A Handbook to the Wares made in England during the +17th and 18th Centuries, as illustrated by Specimens in the National +Collection. By <span class="smcap">Prof. A. H. Church</span>, M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 3<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF DENMARK. From the Earliest Times to the Danish +Conquest of England. By <span class="smcap">J. J. A. Worsaae</span>, Hon. F.S.A., &c. &c. With Map +and Woodcuts. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF SCANDINAVIA IN THE PAGAN Time. By <span class="smcap">Hans Hildebrand</span>, +Royal Antiquary of Sweden. With numerous Woodcuts. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">PRECIOUS STONES: Considered in their Scientific and Artistic relations, +with a Catalogue of the Townsend Collection of Gems in the South +Kensington Museum. By <span class="smcap">Prof. A. H. Church</span>, M.A. With a Coloured Plate and +Woodcuts. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF INDIA. By Sir <span class="smcap">George C. M.</span> <span class="smcap">Birdwood</span>, C.S.I., &c. With +Map and Woodcuts. Demy 8vo, 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">HANDBOOK TO THE DYCE AND FORSTER COLLECTIONS in the South Kensington +Museum. With Portraits and Facsimiles, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN SPAIN. By <span class="smcap">Juan F. Riao</span>. With numerous Woodcuts. +4<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">GLASS. By <span class="smcap">Alexander Nesbitt</span>. With numerous Woodcuts. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">GOLD AND SILVER SMITHS' WORK. By <span class="smcap">John Hungerford</span> <span class="smcap">Pollen</span>, M.A. With +numerous Woodcuts. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">TAPESTRY. By <span class="smcap">Alfred de Champeaux</span>. With Woodcuts. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">BRONZES. By <span class="smcap">C. Drury E. Fortnum</span>, F.S.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 2<i>s.</i> +6<i>d.</i><a name="page_278" id="page_278"></a></p> + +<p class="hang">PLAIN WORDS ABOUT WATER. By <span class="smcap">A. H. Church</span>, M.A, Oxon. With Illustrations. +Sewed, 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">ANIMAL PRODUCTS: their Preparation, Commercial Uses, and Value. By <span class="smcap">T. L. +Simmonds</span>. With Illustrations, 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">FOOD: Some Account of its Sources, Constituents, and Uses. By <span class="smcap">Professor +A. H. Church</span>, M.A. Oxon. New Edition, enlarged. 3<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. By <span class="smcap">Andrew Murray</span>, F.L.S. <span class="smcap">Aptera</span>. With +Illustrations, 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">JAPANESE POTTERY. Being a Native Report. With an Introduction and +Catalogue by <span class="smcap">A. W. Franks</span>, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. With Illustrations and +Marks. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">HANDBOOK TO THE SPECIAL LOAN COLLECTION of Scientific Apparatus. 3<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">INDUSTRIAL ARTS: Historical Sketches. With Numerous Illustrations. 3<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">TEXTILE FABRICS. By the Very Rev. <span class="smcap">Daniel Rock</span>, D.D. With numerous +Woodcuts. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">JONES COLLECTION IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. With Portrait and +Woodcuts, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">COLLEGE AND CORPORATION PLATE. A Handbook to the Reproductions of Silver +Plate in the South Kensington Museum from Celebrated English +Collections. By <span class="smcap">Wilfred Joseph Cripps</span>, M.A. F.S.A. With Illustrations. +2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">IVORIES: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL. By <span class="smcap">William</span> <span class="smcap">Maskell</span>. With numerous +Woodcuts. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">ANCIENT AND MODERN FURNITURE AND WOODWORK. By <span class="smcap">John Hungerford Pollen</span>, +M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">MAIOLICA. By <span class="smcap">C. Drury E. Fortnum</span>, F.S.A. With numerous Woodcuts, 2<i>s.</i> +6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">THE CHEMISTRY OF FOODS. With Microscopic Illustrations. By <span class="smcap">James Bell</span>, +Ph.D., &c., Principal of the Somerset House Laboratory. Part I.—Tea, +Coffee, Cocoa, Sugar. &c. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> Part II.—Milk, Butter, Cheese, +Cereals, Prepared Starches, &c. 3<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. By <span class="smcap">Carl Engel</span>. With numerous Woodcuts, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">MANUAL OF DESIGN, compiled from the Writings and Addresses of <span class="smcap">Richard +Redgrave</span>, R.A. By <span class="smcap">Gilbert R. Redgrave</span>. With Woodcuts. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="hang">PERSIAN ART. By <span class="smcap">Major R. Murdock Smith</span>, R.E. With Map and Woodcuts. +Second Edition, enlarged, 2<i>s.</i><a name="page_279" id="page_279"></a></p> + +<p><a name="transcriber" id="transcriber"></a></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="padding:2%;border:3px dotted gray;"> +<tr><th align="center">These typographical errors were corrected by the etext transcriber:</th></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><span class="un">Guadamecis</span> are made of leather=>Guadameciles are made of leather</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">The French influence of the last century brought the same <span class="un">hions fasfor</span> furniture into Spain=>The French influence of the last century brought the same fashions for furniture into Spain</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">gilt bronze <span class="un">mounting</span> were very much used.=>gilt bronze mountings were very much used.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">It is of polished iron inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in <span class="un">workmanhip</span>.=>It is of polished iron inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in workmanship.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">A <span class="un">wooodcut</span> is given opposite.=>A woodcut is given opposite.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Round the lid of of one them is a band=>Round the lid of one them is a band</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">there are some which are undoubtedly still <span class="un">made n the locality</span>.=>there are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">same collection are at the Museo <span class="un">Arquelogico</span>, Madrid=>same collection are at the Museo Arqueleogico, Madrid</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">the <span class="un">chaper</span> on Arms, page 90=>the chapter on Arms, page 90</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, <span class="un">Churriguesque</span>=>Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, Churrigueresque</td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Industrial Arts in Spain, by Juan F. 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