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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 2
+       "Hearing" to "Helmond"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 23, 2012 [EBook #39521]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13, SL 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HEAT: "This line of reasoning does not appear quite
+      satisfactory, because it is tacitly assumed, in the reasoning by
+      which Carnot's principle was established, ..." 'tacitly' amended
+      from 'tactitly'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE: "Clement himself, taking it for
+      granted that an epistle to Hebrews must have been written in
+      Hebrew, supposes that Luke translated it for the Greeks." 'been'
+      amended from 'beeen'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEBRIDES, THE: "The United Free Church has a strong hold on
+      the people, but in a few of the islands the Roman Catholics have a
+      great following." 'people' amended feom 'poeple'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEBRIDES, THE: "A new system of management and high rents
+      was imposed, in consequence of which numbers of the tacksmen, or
+      large tenants, emigrated to North America." 'was' amended from
+      'were'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEBRON: "It is an enclosure measuring 112 ft. east and west
+      by 198 north and south, surrounded with high rampart walls of
+      masonry similar in size and dressing to that of the Jerusalem Haram
+      walls." 'similar' amended from 'similiar'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEINE, HEINRICH: "... the beginning of a new era in German
+      journalism and a healthy revolt against the unwieldy prose of the
+      Romantic period." 'unwieldy' amended from 'unwieldly'.
+
+    ARTICLE HELIOMETER: "The reader is referred to that paper for an
+      exhaustive history and discussion of the instrument." 'instrument'
+      amended from 'intrument'.
+
+    ARTICLE HELIUM: "M. Travers, G. Senter and A. Jacquerod (Phil.
+      Trans. A. 1903, 200, p. 105) carefully examined the behaviour of a
+      constant volume gas thermometer filled with helium." 'behaviour'
+      amended from 'behavour'.
+
+    ARTICLE HELLENISM: "It has even been thought that some developments
+      of the Egyptian religion are due to Hellenistic influence, ..."
+      'Egyptian' amended from 'Egyptain'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XIII, SLICE II
+
+             HEARING to HELMOND
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HEARING                            HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH
+  HEARN, LAFCADIO                    HEIDELBERG (town of Germany)
+  HEARNE, SAMUEL                     HEIDELBERG (town of Transvaal)
+  HEARNE, THOMAS                     HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE
+  HEARSE                             HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON
+  HEART                              HEIDENHEIM
+  HEART-BURIAL                       HEIFER
+  HEARTH                             HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON
+  HEARTS                             HEIJERMANS, HERMANN
+  HEAT                               HEILBRONN
+  HEATH, BENJAMIN                    HEILIGENSTADT
+  HEATH, NICHOLAS                    HEILSBERG
+  HEATH, WILLIAM                     HEILSBRONN
+  HEATH                              HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN
+  HEATHCOAT, JOHN                    HEIM, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH
+  HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT             HEIMDAL
+  HEATHEN                            HEINE, HEINRICH
+  HEATHFIELD, GEORGE ELIOTT          HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB
+  HEATING                            HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH
+  HEAVEN                             HEINICKE, SAMUEL
+  HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH        HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM
+  HEBBURN                            HEINSIUS, DANIEL
+  HEBDEN BRIDGE                      HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES
+  HEBE                               HEIR
+  HEBEL, JOHANN PETER                HEIRLOOM
+  HEBER, REGINALD                    HEJAZ
+  HEBER, RICHARD                     HEJIRA
+  HEBERDEN, WILLIAM                  HEL
+  HÉBERT, EDMOND                     HELDENBUCH, DAS
+  HÉBERT, JACQUES RENÉ               HELDER
+  HEBREW LANGUAGE                    HELEN
+  HEBREW LITERATURE                  HELENA, ST
+  HEBREW RELIGION                    HELENA (Arkansas, U.S.A.)
+  HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE            HELENA (Montana, U.S.A.)
+  HEBRIDES, THE                      HELENSBURGH
+  HEBRON                             HELENUS
+  HECATAEUS OF ABDERA                HELGAUD
+  HECATAEUS OF MILETUS               HELGESEN, POVL
+  HECATE                             HELIACAL
+  HECATOMB                           HELIAND
+  HECATO OF RHODES                   HELICON (mountain range)
+  HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL       HELICON (contrabass tuba)
+  HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS               HELIGOLAND
+  HECKMONDWIKE                       HELIOCENTRIC
+  HECTOR                             HELIODORUS
+  HECUBA                             HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS)
+  HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ                HELIOGRAPH
+  HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER            HELIOMETER
+  HEDGEHOG                           HELIOPOLIS
+  HEDGES AND FENCES                  HELIOSTAT
+  HEDON                              HELIOTROPE
+  HEDONISM                           HELIOZOA
+  HEEL                               HELIUM
+  HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN              HELIX
+  HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN               HELL
+  HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ          HELLANICUS
+  HEER, OSWALD                       HELLEBORE
+  HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG      HELLENISM
+  HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON             HELLER, STEPHEN
+  HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH     HELLESPONT
+  HEGEMON OF THASOS                  HELLEVOETSLUIS
+  HEGEMONY                           HELLÍN
+  HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA               HELLO, ERNEST
+  HEGESIPPUS (Athenian orator)       HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK
+  HEGESIPPUS (early Christian writer) HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON
+  HEGESIPPUS (author of Jewish War)  HELMET
+  HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER       HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG VON
+  HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG              HELMOLD (historian)
+  HEIDE                              HELMOND (town in Holland)
+
+
+
+
+HEARING (formed from the verb "to hear," O. Eng. _hyran_, _heran_, &c.,
+a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. _hören_, Dutch _hooren_, &c.; the O.
+Teut. form is seen in Goth. _hausjan_; the initial _h_ makes any
+connexion with "ear," Lat. _audire_, or Gr. [Greek: akouein] very
+doubtful), in physiology, the function of the ear (q.v.), and the
+general term for the sense or special sensation, the cause of which is
+an excitation of the auditory nerves by the vibrations of sonorous
+bodies. The anatomy of the ear is described in the separate article on
+that organ. A description of sonorous vibrations is given in the article
+SOUND; here we shall consider the transmission of such vibrations from
+the external ear to the auditory nerve, and the physiological characters
+of auditory sensation.
+
+1. _Transmission in External Ear._--The external ear consists of the
+_pinna_, or auricle, and the _external auditory meatus_, or canal, at
+the bottom of which we find the _membrana tympani_, or drum head. In
+many animals the auricle is trumpet-shaped, and, being freely movable by
+muscles, serves to collect sonorous waves coming from various
+directions. The auricle of the human ear presents many irregularities of
+surface. If these irregularities are abolished by filling them up with a
+soft material such as wax or oil, leaving the entrance to the canal
+free, experiment shows that the intensity of sounds is weakened, and
+that there is more difficulty in judging of their direction. When waves
+of sound strike the auricle, they are partly reflected outwards, while
+the remainder, impinging at various angles, undergo a number of
+reflections so as to be directed into the auditory canal. Vibrations are
+transmitted along the auditory canal, partly by the air it contains and
+partly by its walls, to the membrana tympani. The absence of the
+auricle, as the result of accident or injury, does not cause diminution
+of hearing. In the auditory canal waves of sound are reflected from side
+to side until they reach the membrana tympani. From the obliquity in
+position and peculiar curvature of this membrane, most of the waves
+strike it nearly perpendicularly, and in the most advantageous
+direction.
+
+2. _Transmission in Middle Ear._--The middle ear is a small cavity, the
+walls of which are rigid with the exception of the portions consisting
+of the membrana tympani, and the membrane of the round window and of the
+apparatus filling the oval window. This cavity communicates with the
+pharynx by the _Eustachian tube_, which forms an air-tube between the
+pharynx and the tympanum for the purpose of regulating pressure on the
+membrana tympani. During rest the tube is open, but it is closed during
+the act of deglutition. As this action is frequently taking place, not
+only when food or drink is introduced, but when saliva is swallowed, it
+is evident that the pressure of the air in the tympanum will be kept in
+a state of equilibrium with that of the external air on the outer
+surface of the membrana tympani, and that thus the membrana tympani will
+be rendered independent of variations of atmospheric pressure such as
+occur when we descend in a diving bell or ascend in a balloon. By a
+forcible expiration, the oral and nasal cavities being closed, air may
+be driven into the tympanum, while a forcible inspiration (Valsalva's
+experiment) will draw air from that cavity. In the first case, the
+membrana tympani will bulge outwards, in the second case inwards, and in
+both, from excessive stretching of the membrane, there will be partial
+deafness, especially for sounds of high pitch. Permanent occlusion of
+the tube is one of the most common causes of deafness.
+
+The membrana tympani is capable of being set into vibration by a sound
+of any pitch included in the range of perceptible sounds. It responds
+exactly as to number of vibrations (pitch), intensity of vibrations
+(intensity), and complexity of vibration (quality or timbre).
+Consequently we can hear a sound of any given pitch, of a certain
+intensity, and in its own specific timbre or quality. Generally
+speaking, very high tones are heard more easily than low tones of the
+same intensity. As the membrana tympani is not only fixed by its margin
+to a ring or tube of bone, but is also adherent to the handle of the
+malleus, which follows its movements, its vibrations meet with
+considerable resistance. This diminishes the intensity of its
+vibrations, and prevents also the continued vibration of the membrane
+after an external pressure has ceased, so that a sound is not heard much
+longer than its physical cause lasts. The tension of the membrane may be
+affected (1) by differences of pressure on the two surfaces of the
+membrana tympani, as may occur during forcible expiration or
+inspiration, and (2) by muscular action, due to contraction of the
+_tensor tympani_ muscle. This small muscle arises from the apex of the
+petrous temporal and the cartilage of the Eustachian tube, enters the
+tympanum at its anterior wall, and is inserted into the malleus near its
+root. The handle of the malleus is inserted between the layers of the
+membrana tympani, and, as the malleus and incus move round an axis
+passing through the neck of the malleus from before backwards, the
+action of the muscle is to pull the membrana tympani inwards towards the
+tympanic cavity in the form of a cone, the meridians of which are not
+straight but curved, with convexity outwards. When the muscle contracts,
+the handle of the malleus is drawn still farther inwards, and thus a
+greater tension of the tympanic membrane is produced. On relaxation of
+the muscle, the membrane returns to its position of equilibrium by its
+elasticity and by the elasticity of the chain of bones. This power of
+varying the tension of the membrane is an accommodating mechanism for
+receiving and transmitting sounds of different pitch. With different
+degrees of tension it will respond more readily to sounds of different
+pitch. Thus, when the membrane is tense, it will readily respond to high
+sounds, while relaxation will be the condition most adapted for low
+tones. In addition, increased tension of the membrane, by increasing the
+resistance, will diminish the intensity of vibrations. This is
+especially the case for sounds of low pitch.
+
+The vibrations of the membrana tympani are transmitted to the internal
+ear partly by the air which the middle ear or tympanum contains, and
+partly by the chain of bones, consisting of the malleus, incus and
+stapes. Of these, transmission by the chain of bones is by far the most
+important. In birds and in the amphibia, this chain is represented by a
+single rod-like ossicle, the _columella_, but in man the two
+membranes--the membrana tympani and the membrane filling the fenestra
+ovalis--are connected by a compound lever consisting of three bones,
+namely, the _malleus_, or hammer, inserted into the membrana tympani,
+the _incus_, or anvil, and the _stapes_, or stirrup, the base of which
+is attached to a membrane covering the oval window. It must also be
+noted that in the transmission of vibrations of the membrana tympani to
+the fluid in the labyrinth or internal ear, through the oval window, the
+chain of ossicles vibrates as a whole and acts efficiently, although its
+length may be only a fraction of the wave-length of the sound
+transmitted. The chain is a lever in which the handle of the malleus
+forms the long arm, the fulcrum is where the short process of the incus
+abuts against the wall of the tympanum, while the long process of the
+incus, carrying the stapes, forms the short arm. The mechanism is a
+lever of the second order. Measurements show that the ratio of the
+lengths of the two arms is as 1.5 : 1; the ratio of the resulting force
+at the stapes is therefore as 1 : 1.5; while the amplitudes of the
+movements at the tip of the handle of the malleus and the stapes is as
+1.5 : 1. Hence, while there is a diminution in amplitude there is a gain
+in power, and thus the pressures are conveyed with great efficiency from
+the membrana tympani to the labyrinth, while the amplitude of the
+oscillation is diminished so as to be adapted to the small capacity of
+the labyrinth. As the drum-head is nearly twenty times greater in area
+than the membrane covering the oval window, with which the base of the
+stapes is connected, the energy of the movements of the membrana tympani
+is concentrated on an area twenty times smaller; hence the pressure is
+increased thirtyfold (1.5 × 20) when it acts at the base of the stapes.
+Experiments on the human ear have shown that the movement of greatest
+amplitude was at the tip of the handle of the malleus, 0.76 mm.; the
+movement of the tip of the long arm process of the incus was 0.21 mm.;
+while the greatest amplitude at the base of the stapes was only .0714
+mm. Other observations have shown the movements at the stapes to have a
+still smaller amplitude, varying from 0.001 to 0.032 mm. With tones of
+feeble intensity the movements must be almost infinitesimal. There may
+also be very minute transverse movements at the base of the stapes.
+
+3. _Transmission in the Internal Ear._--The internal ear is composed of
+the labyrinth, formed of the vestibule or central part, the semicircular
+canals, and the cochlea, each of which consists of an osseous and a
+membranous portion. The osseous labyrinth may be regarded as an osseous
+mould in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, lined by tesselated
+endothelium, and containing a small quantity of fluid called the
+_perilymph_. In this mould, partially surrounded by, and to some extent
+floating in, this fluid, there is the membranous labyrinth, in certain
+parts of which we find the terminal apparatus in connexion with the
+auditory nerve, immersed in another fluid called the _endolymph_. The
+membranous labyrinth consists of a vestibular portion formed by two
+small sac-like dilatations, called the _saccule_ and the _utricle_, the
+latter of which communicates with the semicircular canals by five
+openings. Each canal consists of a tube, bulging out at each extremity
+so as to form the so-called _ampulla_, in which, on a projecting ridge,
+called the _crista acustica_, there are cells bearing long _auditory
+hairs_, which are the peripheral end-organs of the vestibular branches
+of the auditory nerve. The cochlear division of the membranous labyrinth
+consists of the _ductus cochlearis_, a tube of triangular form fitting
+in between the two cavities in the cochlea, called the _scala
+vestibuli_, because it commences in the vestibule, and the _scala
+tympani_, because it ends in the tympanum, at the round window. These
+two scalae communicate at the apex of the cochlea. The roof of the
+ductus cochlearis is formed by a thin membrane called the _membrane of
+Reissner_, while its floor consists of the _basilar membrane_, on which
+we find the remarkable _organ of Corti_, which constitutes the terminal
+organ of the cochlear division of the auditory nerve. It is sufficient
+to state here that this organ consists essentially of an arrangement of
+epithelial cells bearing hairs which are in communication with the
+terminal filaments of this portion of the auditory nerve, and that
+groups of these hairs pass through holes in a closely investing
+membrane, _membrana reticularis_, which may act as a damping apparatus,
+so as quickly to stop their movements. The ductus cochlearis and the two
+scalae are filled with fluid. Sonorous vibrations may reach the fluid in
+the labyrinth by three different ways--(1) by the osseous walls of the
+labyrinth, (2) by the air in the tympanum and the round window, and (3)
+by the base of the stapes inserted into the oval window.
+
+When the head is plunged into water, or brought into direct contact with
+any vibrating body, vibrations must be transmitted directly. Vibrations
+of the air in the mouth and in the nasal passages are also communicated
+directly to the walls of the cranium, and thus pass to the labyrinth. In
+like manner, we may experience auditive sensations, such as blowing,
+rubbing and hissing sounds, due to muscular contraction or to the
+passage of blood in vessels close to the auditory organ. It is doubtful
+whether any vibrations are communicated to the fluid in the labyrinth by
+the round window. Vibrations which cause hearing are communicated by the
+chain of bones. When the base of the stirrup is pushed into the oval
+window, the pressure in the labyrinth increases, and, as the only mobile
+part of the wall of the labyrinth is the membrane covering the round
+window, this membrane is forced outwards; when the base of the stirrup
+moves outwards a reverse action takes place. Thus the fluid of the
+labyrinth receives a series of pulses isochronous with the movements of
+the base of the stirrup, and these pulses affect the terminal apparatus
+in connexion with the auditory nerve.
+
+The sacs of the internal ear, known as the utricle and saccule, receive
+the impulses of the base of the stapes. They are organs connected with
+the perception of sounds as sounds, without reference to pitch or
+quality. For the _analysis_ of tone a cochlea is necessary. Even in
+mammals all the parts of the ear may be destroyed or affected by
+disease, except these sacs, without causing complete deafness.
+
+It has been suggested by Lee (_Amer. Jour. of Physiol._ vol. i. No. 1,
+p. 128) that in fishes the sac has nothing to do with hearing, but
+serves for the perception of movements, such as those of rotation and
+translation through space, movements much coarser than those that form
+the physical basis of sound. He considers, also, that as fishes, with
+few exceptions, are dumb, they are also deaf. In the fish there are
+peculiar organs along the lateral line which are known to be connected
+with the perception of movements of the body as a whole, and Beard
+(_Zool. Anz. Leipzig_, 1884, Bd. vii. S. 140) has attempted to trace a
+phylogenetic connexion between the sacs of the internal ear and the
+organs in the lateral line. According to this view, when animals became
+air-breathers, a part of the ear (the _papilla acustica basilaris_) was
+gradually evolved for the perception of delicate vibrations of sound.
+(See EQUILIBRIUM.)
+
+It is by means of the cochlea that we discriminate pitch, hear beats,
+and are affected by quality of tone.
+
+Since the size of the membranous labyrinth is so small, measuring, in
+man, not more than ½ in. in length by 1/8 in. in diameter at its widest
+part, and since it is a chamber consisting partly of conduits of very
+irregular form, it is impossible to state accurately the course of
+vibrations transmitted to it by impulses communicated from the base of
+the stirrup. In the cochlea vibrations must pass from the saccule along
+the scala vestibuli to the apex, thus affecting the membrane of
+Reissner, which forms its roof; then, passing through the opening at the
+apex (the _helicotrema_), they must descend by the scala tympani to the
+round window, and affect in their passage the membrana basilaris, on
+which the organ of Corti is situated. From the round window impulses
+must be reflected backwards, but how they affect the advancing impulses
+is not known. But the problem is even more complex when we take into
+account the fact that impulses are transmitted simultaneously to the
+utricle and to the semicircular canals communicating with it by five
+openings. The mode of action of these vibrations or impulses upon the
+nervous terminations is still unknown; but to appreciate critically the
+hypothesis which has been advanced to explain it, it is necessary, in
+the first place, to refer to some of the general characters of auditory
+sensation.
+
+4. _General Characters of Auditory Sensations._--Certain conditions are
+necessary for excitation of the auditory nerve sufficient to produce a
+sensation. In the first place, the vibrations must have a certain
+_amplitude_ and _energy_; if too feeble, no impression will be produced.
+
+Various physicists have attempted to measure the sensitiveness of the
+ear by estimating the amplitude of the molecular movements necessary to
+call forth the feeblest audible sound. Thus A. Töpler and L. Boltzmann,
+on data founded on experiments with organ pipes, state that the ear is
+affected by vibrations of molecules of the air not more in amplitude
+than .0004 mm. at the ear, or 0.1 of the wave-length of green light, and
+that the energy of such a vibration on the drum-head is not more than
+1/543 billionth kilog., or 1/17th of that produced upon an equal surface
+of the retina by a single candle at the same distance (_Ann. d. Phys. u.
+Chem._, Leipzig. 1870, Bd. cxli. S. 321). Lord Rayleigh, by two other
+methods, arrived at the conclusion "that the streams of energy required
+to influence the eye and ear are of the same order of magnitude." He
+estimated the amplitude of the movement of the aërial particles, with a
+sound just audible, as less than the ten-millionth of a centimetre, and
+the energy emitted when the sound was first becoming audible, at 42.1
+ergs per second. He also states that in considering the amplitude or
+condensation in progressive aërial waves, at a distance of 27.4 metres
+from a tuning-fork, the maximum condensation was = 6.0 × 10^-9 cm., a
+result showing "that the ear is able to recognize the addition or
+subtraction of densities far less than those to be found in our highest
+vacua" (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1877, vol. xxvi. p. 248; _Lond. Edin. and
+Dub. Phil. Mag._, 1894, vol. xxxviii. p. 366).
+
+In the next place, vibrations must have a certain _duration_ to be
+perceived; and lastly, to excite a sensation of a continuous musical
+sound, a certain _number_ of impulses must occur in a given interval of
+time. The lower limit is about 30, and the upper about 30,000 vibrations
+per second. Below 30, the individual impulses may be observed, and above
+30,000 few ears can detect any sound at all. The extreme upper limit is
+not more than 35,000 vibrations per second. Auditory sensations are of
+two kinds--noises and musical sounds. _Noises_ are caused by impulses
+which are not regular in intensity or duration, or are not periodic, or
+they may be caused by a series of musical sounds occurring
+instantaneously so as to produce discords, as when we place our hand at
+random on the keyboard of a piano. _Musical tones_ are produced by
+periodic and regular vibrations. In musical sounds three characters are
+prominent--intensity, pitch and quality. _Intensity_ depends on the
+amplitude of the vibration, and a greater or lesser amplitude of the
+vibration will cause a corresponding movement of the transmitting
+apparatus, and a corresponding intensity of excitation of the terminal
+apparatus. _Pitch_, as a sensation, depends on the length of time in
+which a single vibration is executed, or, in other words, the number of
+vibrations in a given interval of time. The ear is capable of
+appreciating the relative pitch or height of a sound as compared with
+another, although it may not ascertain precisely the absolute pitch of a
+sound. What we call an acute or high tone is produced by a large number
+of vibrations, while a grave or low tone is caused by few. The musical
+tones which can be used with advantage range between 40 and 4000
+vibrations per second, extending thus from 6 to 7 octaves. According to
+E. H. Weber, practised musicians can perceive a difference of pitch
+amounting to only the 1/64th of a semitone, but this is far beyond
+average attainment. In a few individuals, and especially in early life,
+there may be an appreciation of absolute pitch. _Quality_ or _timbre_
+(or _Klang_) is that peculiar characteristic of a musical sound by which
+we may identify it as proceeding from a particular instrument or from a
+particular human voice. It depends on the fact that many waves of sound
+that reach the ear are compound wave systems, built up of constituent
+waves, each of which is capable of exciting a sensation of a simple tone
+if it be singled out and reinforced by a resonator (see SOUND), and
+which may sometimes be heard without a resonator, after special practice
+and tuition. Thus it appears that the ear must have some arrangement by
+which it resolves every wave system, however complex, into simple
+pendular vibrations. When we listen to a sound of any quality we
+recognize that it is of a certain pitch. This depends on the number of
+vibrations of one tone, predominant in intensity over the others, called
+the fundamental or ground tone, or first partial tone. The quality, or
+timbre, depends on the number and intensity of other tones added to it.
+These are termed _harmonic_ or _partial tones_, and they are related to
+the first partial or fundamental tone in a very simple manner, being
+multiples of the fundamental tone: thus--
+
+                Fundamental               Upper Partials or Harmonics.
+                   Tone
+  Notes            do^1      do^2 sol^2 do^3 mi^3 sol^3 si[flat]^3 do^4 re^4 mi^4
+  Partial tones     1         2     3    4    5     6       7       8    9    10
+  Number of
+    vibrations      33        66    99  132  165   198     231     264  297   330
+
+When a simple tone, or one free from partials, is heard, it gives rise
+to a simple, soft, somewhat insipid sensation, as may be obtained by
+blowing across the mouth of an open bottle or by a tuning-fork. The
+lower partials added to the fundamental tone give softness combined with
+richness; while the higher, especially if they be very high, produce a
+brilliant and thrilling effect, as is caused by the brass instruments of
+an orchestra. Such being the facts, how may they be explained
+physiologically?
+
+Little is yet known regarding the mode of action of the vibrations of
+the fluid in the labyrinth upon the terminal apparatus connected with
+the auditory nerve. There can be no doubt that it is a mechanical
+action, a communication of impulses to delicate hair-like processes, by
+the movements of which the nervous filaments are irritated. In the human
+ear it has been estimated that there are about 3000 small arches formed
+by the _rods of Corti._ Each arch rests on the basilar membrane, and
+supports rows of cells having minute hair-like processes. It would
+appear also that the filaments of the auditory nerve terminate in the
+basilar membrane, and possibly they may be connected with the
+hair-cells. At one time it was supposed by Helmholtz that these fibres
+of Corti were elastic and that they were tuned for particular sounds, so
+as to form a regular series corresponding to all the tones audible to
+the human ear. Thus 2800 fibres distributed over the tones of seven
+octaves would give 400 fibres for each octave, or nearly 33 for a
+semitone. Helmholtz put forward the hypothesis that, when a pendular
+vibration reaches the ear, it excites by sympathetic vibration the fibre
+of Corti which is tuned for its proper number of vibrations. If, then,
+different fibres are tuned to tones of different pitch, it is evident
+that we have here a mechanism which, by exciting different nerve fibres,
+will give rise to sensations of pitch. When the vibration is not simple
+but compound, in consequence of the blending of vibrations corresponding
+to various harmonics or partial tones, the ear has the power of
+resolving this compound vibration into its elements. It can only do so
+by different fibres responding to the constituent vibrations of the
+sound--one for the fundamental tone being stronger, and giving the
+sensation of a particular pitch to the sound, and the others,
+corresponding to the upper partial tones, being weaker, and causing
+undefined sensations, which are so blended together in consciousness as
+to terminate in a complex sensation of a tone of a certain quality or
+timbre. It would appear at first sight that 33 fibres of Corti for a
+semitone are not sufficient to enable us to detect all the gradations of
+pitch in that interval, since, as has been stated above, trained
+musicians may distinguish a difference of 1/64th of a semitone. To meet
+this difficulty, Helmholtz stated that if a sound is produced, the pitch
+of which may be supposed to come between two adjacent fibres of Corti,
+both of these will be set into sympathetic vibration, but the one which
+comes nearest to the pitch of the sound will vibrate with greater
+intensity than the other, and that consequently the pitch of that sound
+would be thus appreciated. These theoretical views of Helmholtz have
+derived much support from experiments of V. Hensen, who observed that
+certain hairs on the antennae of _Mysis_, a Crustacean, when seen with a
+low microscopic power, vibrated with certain tones produced by a keyed
+horn. It was seen that certain tones of the horn set some hairs into
+strong vibration, and other tones other hairs. Each hair responded also
+to several tones of the horn. Thus one hair responded strongly to
+d[sharp] and d´[sharp], more weakly to g, and very weakly to G. It was
+probably tuned to some pitch between d´´ and d´´[sharp]. (_Studien über
+das Gehörorgan der Decapoden_, Leipzig, 1863.)
+
+Histological researches have led to a modification of this hypothesis.
+It has been found that the rods or arches of Corti are stiff structures,
+not adapted for vibrating, but apparently constituting a support for the
+hair-cells. It is also known that there are no rods of Corti in the
+cochlea of birds, which are capable nevertheless of appreciating pitch.
+Hensen and Helmholtz suggested the view that not only may the segments
+of the membrana basilaris be stretched more in the radial than in the
+longitudinal direction, but different segments may be stretched radially
+with different degrees of tension so as to resemble a series of tense
+strings of gradually increasing length. Each string would then respond
+to a vibration of a particular pitch communicated to it by the
+hair-cells. The exact mechanism of the hair-cells and of the membrana
+reticularis, which looks like a damping apparatus, is unknown.
+
+5. _Physiological Characters of Auditory Sensation._--Under ordinary
+circumstances auditory sensations are referred to the outer world. When
+we hear a sound, we associate it with some external cause, and it
+appears to originate in a particular place or to come in a particular
+direction. This feeling of _exteriority_ of sound seems to require
+transmission through the membrana tympani. Sounds which are sent through
+the walls of the cranium, as when the head is immersed in, and the
+external auditory canals are filled with, water, appear to originate in
+the body itself.
+
+An auditory sensation lasts a short time after the cessation of the
+exciting cause, so that a number of separate vibrations, each capable of
+exciting a distinct sensation if heard alone, may succeed each other so
+rapidly that they are fused into a single sensation. If we listen to the
+puffs of a syren, or to vibrating tongues of low pitch, the single
+sensation is usually produced by about 30 or 35 vibrations per second;
+but when we listen to beats of considerable intensity, produced by two
+adjacent tones of sufficiently high pitch, the ear may follow as many as
+132 intermissions per second.
+
+The sensibility of the ear for sounds of different pitch is not the
+same. It is more sensitive for acute than for grave sounds, and it is
+probable that the maximum degree of acuteness is for sounds produced by
+about 3000 vibrations per second, that is near fa^5[sharp]. Sensibility
+as to pitch varies much with the individual. Thus some musicians may
+detect a difference of 1/1000th of the total number of vibrations, while
+other persons may have difficulty in appreciating a semitone.
+
+  6. _Analytical Power of the Ear._--When we listen to a compound tone,
+  we have the power of picking out these partials from the general mass
+  of sound. It is known that the frequencies of the partials as compared
+  with that of the fundamental tone are simple multiples of the
+  frequency of the fundamental, and also that physically the waves of
+  the partials so blend with each other as to produce waves of very
+  complicated forms. Yet the ear, or the ear and the brain together, can
+  resolve this complicated wave-form into its constituents, and this is
+  done more easily if we listen to the sound with resonators, the pitch
+  of which corresponds, or nearly corresponds, to the frequencies of the
+  partials. Much discussion has taken place as to how the ear
+  accomplishes this analysis. All are agreed that there is a complicated
+  apparatus in the cochlea which may serve this purpose; but while some
+  are of opinion that this structure is sufficient, others hold that the
+  analysis takes place in the brain. When a complicated wave falls on
+  the drum-head, it must move out and in in a way corresponding to the
+  variations of pressure, and these variations will, in a single
+  vibration, depend on the greater or less degree of complexity of the
+  wave. Thus a single tone will cause a movement like that of a
+  pendulum, a simple pendular vibration, while a complex tone, although
+  occurring in the same duration of time, will cause the drum-head to
+  move out and in in a much more complicated manner. The complex
+  movement will be conveyed to the base of the stapes, thence to the
+  vestibule, and thence to the cochlea, in which we find the ductus
+  cochlearis containing the organ of Corti. It is to be noted also that
+  the parts in the cochlea are so small as to constitute only a fraction
+  of the wave-length of most tones audible to the human ear. Now it is
+  evident that the cochlea must act either as a whole, all the nerve
+  fibres being affected by any variations of pressure, or the nerve
+  fibres may have a selective action, each fibre being excited by a wave
+  of a definite period, or there may exist small vibratile bodies
+  between the nerve filaments and the pressures sent into the organ. The
+  last hypothesis gives the most rational explanation of the phenomena,
+  and on it is founded a theory generally accepted and associated with
+  the names of Thomas Young and Hermann Helmholtz. It may be shortly
+  stated as follows:--
+
+  "(1) In the cochlea there are vibrators, tuned to frequencies within
+  the limits of hearing, say from 30 to 40,000 or 50,000 vibs. per
+  second. (2) Each vibrator is capable of exciting its appropriate nerve
+  filament or filaments, so that a nervous impulse, corresponding to the
+  frequency of the vibrator, is transmitted to the brain--not
+  corresponding necessarily, as regards the number of nervous impulses,
+  but in such a way that when the impulses along a particular nerve
+  filament reach the brain, a state of consciousness is aroused which
+  does correspond with the number of the physical stimuli and with the
+  period of the auditory vibrator. (3) The mass of each vibrator is such
+  that it will be easily set in motion, and after the stimulus has
+  ceased it will readily come to rest. (4) Damping arrangements exist in
+  the ear, so as quickly to extinguish movements of the vibrators. (5)
+  If a simple tone falls on the ear, there is a pendular movement of the
+  base of the stapes, which will affect all the parts, causing them to
+  move; but any part whose natural period is nearly the same as that of
+  the sound will respond on the principle of sympathetic resonance, a
+  particular nerve filament or nerve filaments will be affected, and a
+  sensation of a tone of definite pitch will be experienced, thus
+  accounting for discrimination in pitch. (6) Intensity or loudness will
+  depend on the amplitude of movement of the vibrating body, and
+  consequently on the intensity of nerve stimulation. (7) If a compound
+  wave of pressure be communicated by the base of the stapes, it will be
+  resolved into its constituents by the vibrators corresponding to tones
+  existing in it, each picking out its appropriate portion of the wave,
+  and thus irritating corresponding nerve filaments, so that nervous
+  impulses are transmitted to the brain, where they are fused in such a
+  way as to give rise to a sensation of a particular quality or
+  character, but still so imperfectly fused that each constituent, by a
+  strong effort of attention, may be specially recognized" (article
+  "Ear," by M'Kendrick, Schäfer's _Text-Book_, _loc. cit._).
+
+  The structure of the ductus cochlearis meets the demands of this
+  theory, it is highly differentiated, and it can be shown that in it
+  there are a sufficient number of elements to account for the delicate
+  appreciation of pitch possessed by the human ear, and on the basis
+  that the highly trained ear of a violinist can detect a difference of
+  1/64th of a semitone (M'Kendrick, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed._, 1896, vol.
+  xxxviii. p. 780; also Schäfer's _Text-Book_, loc. cit.). Measurements
+  of the cochlea have also shown such differentiation as to make it
+  difficult to imagine that it can act as a whole. A much less complex
+  organ might have served this purpose (M'Kendrick, _op. cit._). The
+  following table, given by Retzius (_Das Gehörorgan der Wirbelthiere_,
+  Bd. ii. S. 356), shows differentiations in the cochlea of man, the cat
+  and the rabbit, all of which no doubt hear tones, although in all
+  probability they have very different powers of discrimination:--
+
+                                       Man.      Cat.    Rabbit.
+
+    Ear-teeth                         2,490     2,430     1,550
+    Holes in habenula for nerves      3,985     2,780     1,650
+    Inner rods of Corti's organ       5,590     4,700     2,800
+    Outer rods of Corti's organ       3,848     3,300     1,900
+    Inner hair-cells (one row)        3,487     2,600     1,600
+    Outer hair-cells (several rows)  11,750     9,900     6,100
+    Fibres in basilar membrane       23,750    15,700    10,500
+
+  7. _Dissonance._--The theory can also be used to explain dissonance.
+  When two tones sufficiently near in pitch are simultaneously sounded,
+  beats are produced. If the beats are few in number they can be
+  counted, because they give rise to separate and distinct sensations;
+  but if they are numerous they blend so as to give roughness or
+  dissonance to the interval. The roughness or dissonance is most
+  disagreeable with about 33 beats falling on the ear per second. When
+  two compound tones are sounded, say a minor third on a harmonium in
+  the lower part of the keyboard, then we have beats not only between
+  the primaries, but also between the upper partials of each of the
+  primaries. The beating distance may, for tones of medium pitch, be
+  fixed at about a minor third, but this interval will expand for
+  intervals on low tones and contract for intervals on high ones. This
+  explains why the same interval in the lower part of the scale may give
+  slow beats that are not disagreeable, while in the higher part it may
+  cause harsh and unpleasant dissonance. The partials up to the seventh
+  are beyond beating distance, but above this they come close together.
+  Consequently instruments (such as tongues, or reeds) that abound in
+  upper partials cause an intolerable dissonance if one of the primaries
+  is slightly out of tune. Some intervals are pleasant and satisfying
+  when produced on instruments having few partials in their tones. These
+  are concords. Others are less so, and they may give rise to an
+  uncomfortable sensation. These are discords. In this way unison, 1/1,
+  minor third 6/5, major third 5/4, fourth 4/3, fifth 3/2, minor sixth
+  8/5, major sixth 5/3 and octave 2/1, are all concords; while a second
+  9/8, minor seventh 16/9 and major seventh 15/8, are discords.
+  Helmholtz compares the sensation of dissonance to that of a flickering
+  light on the eye. "Something similar I have found to be produced by
+  simultaneously stimulating the skin, or margin of the lips, by
+  bristles attached to tuning-forks giving forth beats. If the frequency
+  of the forks is great, the sensation is that of a most disagreeable
+  tickling. It may be that the instinctive effort at analysis of tones
+  close in pitch causes the disagreeable sensation" (Schäfer's
+  _Text-Book_, _op. cit._ p. 1187).
+
+  8. _Other Theories._--In 1865 Rennie objected to the analysis theory,
+  and urged that the cochlea acted as a whole (_Ztschr. f. rat. Med._,
+  Dritte Reihe, Bd. xxiv. Heft 1, S. 12-64). This view was revived by
+  Voltolini (Virchow's _Archiv_, Bd. c. S. 27) some years later, and in
+  1886 it was urged by E. Rutherford (_Rep. Brit. Assoc. Ad. Sc._,
+  1886), who compared the action of the cochlea to that of a telephone
+  plate. According to this theory, all the hairs of the auditory cells
+  vibrate to every note, and the hair-cells transform sound vibrations
+  into nerve vibrations or impulses, similar in frequency, amplitude and
+  character to the sound vibrations. There is no analysis in the
+  peripheral organ. A. D. Waller, in 1891 (_Proc. Physiol. Soc._, Jan.
+  20, 1891) suggested that the basilar membrane as a whole vibrates to
+  every note, thus repeating the vibrations of the membrana tympani; and
+  since the hair-cells move with the basilar membrane, they produce what
+  may be called pressure patterns against the tectorial membranes, and
+  filaments of the auditory nerve are stimulated by these pressures.
+  Waller admits a certain degree of peripheral analysis, but he
+  relegates ultimate analysis to the brain. These theories, dispensing
+  with peripheral analysis, leave out of account the highly complex
+  structure of the cochlea, or, in other words, they assign to that
+  structure a comparatively simple function which could be performed by
+  a simple membrane capable of vibrating. We find that the cochlea
+  becomes more elaborate as we ascend the scale of animals, until in
+  man, who possesses greater powers of analysis than any other being,
+  the number of hair-cells, fibres of the basilar membrane and arches of
+  Corti are all much increased in number (see Retzius's table, _supra_).
+  The principle of sympathetic resonance appears, therefore, to offer
+  the most likely solution of the problem. Hurst's view is that with
+  each movement of the stapes a wave is generated which travels up the
+  scala vestibuli, through the helicotrema into the scala tympani and
+  down the latter to the fenestra rotunda. The wave, however, is not
+  merely a movement of the basilar membrane, but an actual movement of
+  fluid or a transmission of pressure. As the one wave ascends while the
+  other descends, a pressure of the basilar membrane occurs at the point
+  where they meet; this causes the basilar membrane to move towards the
+  tectorial membrane, forcing this membrane suddenly against the apices
+  of the hair-cells, thus irritating the nerves. The point at which the
+  waves meet will depend on the time interval between the waves (Hurst,
+  "A New Theory of Hearing," _Trans. Biol. Soc. Liverpool_, 1895, vol.
+  ix. p. 321). More recently Max Mayer has advanced a theory somewhat
+  similar. He supposes that with each movement of the stapes
+  corresponding to a vibration, a wave travels up the scala vestibuli,
+  pressing the basilar membrane downwards. As it meets with resistance
+  in passing upwards, its amplitude therefore diminishes, and in this
+  way the distance up the scala through which the wave progresses will
+  be determined by its amplitude. The wave in its progress irritates a
+  certain number of nerve terminations, consequently feeble tones will
+  irritate only those nerve fibres that are near the fenestra ovalis,
+  while stronger tones will pass farther up and irritate a larger number
+  of nerve fibres the same number of times per unit of time. Pitch,
+  according to this view, depends on the number of stimuli per second,
+  while loudness depends on the number of nerve fibres irritated. Mayer
+  also applies the theory to the explanation of the powers of the
+  cochlea as an analyser, by supposing that with a compound tone these
+  are at maxima and minima of stimulation. As the compound wave travels
+  up the scala, portions of the wave corresponding to maxima and minima
+  die away in consecutive series, until only a maximum and minimum are
+  left; and, finally, as the wave travels farther, these also disappear.
+  With each maximum and minimum different parts of the basilar membrane
+  are affected, and affected a different number of times per second,
+  according to the frequencies of the partials existing in the compound
+  tone. Thus with a fifth, 2 : 3, there are three maxima and three
+  minima; but the compound tone is resolved into three tones having
+  vibration frequencies in the ratio of 3 : 2 : 1. According to Mayer,
+  we actually hear when a fifth is sounded tones of the relationship of
+  3 : 2 : 1, the last (1) being the differential tone. He holds, also,
+  that combinational tones are entirely subjective (Max Mayer, _Ztschr.
+  f. Psych. und Phys. d. Sinnesorgane_, Leipzig, Bd. xvi. and xvii.;
+  also _Verhandl. d. physiolog. Gesellsch. zu Berlin_, Feb. 18, 1898, S.
+  49). Two fatal objections can be urged to these theories, namely,
+  first, it is impossible to conceive of minute waves following each
+  other in rapid succession in the minute tubes forming the scalae--the
+  length of the scala being only a very small part of the wave-length of
+  the sound; and, secondly, neither theory takes into account the
+  differentiation of structure found in the epithelium of the organ of
+  Corti. Each push in and out of the base of the stapes must cause a
+  movement of the fluid, or a pressure, in the scalae as a whole.
+
+  There are difficulties in the way of applying the resonance theory to
+  the perception of noises. Noises have pitch, and also each noise has a
+  special character; if so, if the noise is analysed into its
+  constituents, why is it that it seems impossible to analyse a noise,
+  or to perceive any musical element in it? Helmholtz assumed that a
+  sound is noisy when the wave is irregular in rhythm, and he suggested
+  that the crista and macula acustica, structures that exist not in the
+  cochlea but in the vestibule, have to do with the perception of noise.
+  These structures, however, are concerned rather in the sense of the
+  perception of equilibrium than of sound (see EQUILIBRIUM).
+
+  9. Hitherto we have considered only the audition of a single sound,
+  but it is possible also to have simultaneous auditive sensations, as
+  in musical harmony. It is difficult to ascertain what is the limit
+  beyond which distinct auditory sensations may be perceived. We have in
+  listening to an orchestra a multiplicity of sensations which produces
+  a total effect, while, at the same time, we can with ease single out
+  and notice attentively the tones of one or two special instruments.
+  Thus the pleasure of music may arise partly from listening to
+  simultaneous, and partly from the effect of contrast or suggestion in
+  passing through successive, auditory sensations.
+
+  The principles of harmony belong to the subject of music (see
+  HARMONY), but it is necessary here briefly to refer to these from the
+  physiological point of view. If two musical sounds reach the ear at
+  the same moment, an agreeable or disagreeable sensation is
+  experienced, which may be termed a _concord_ or a _discord_, and it
+  can be shown by experiment with the syren that this depends upon the
+  vibrational numbers of the two tones. The octave (1 : 2), the twelfth
+  (1 : 3) and double octave (1 : 4) are absolutely consonant sounds; the
+  fifth (2 : 3) is said to be perfectly consonant; then follow, in the
+  direction of dissonance, the fourth (3 : 4), major sixth (3 : 5),
+  major third (4 : 5), minor sixth (5 : 8) and the minor third (5 : 6).
+  Helmholtz has attempted to account for this by the application of his
+  theory of _beats_.
+
+  Beats are observed when two sounds of nearly the same pitch are
+  produced together, and the number of beats per second is equal to the
+  difference of the number of vibrations of the two sounds. Beats give
+  rise to a peculiarly disagreeable intermittent sensation. The maximum
+  roughness of beats is attained by 33 per second; beyond 132 per
+  second, the individual impulses are blended into one uniform auditory
+  sensation. When two notes are sounded, say on a piano, not only may
+  the first, fundamental or prime tones beat, but partial tones of each
+  of the primaries may beat also, and as the difference of pitch of two
+  simultaneous sounds augments, the number of beats, both of prime tones
+  and of harmonics, augments also. The physiological effect of beats,
+  though these may not be individually distinguishable, is to give
+  roughness to the ear. If harmonics or partial tones of prime tones
+  coincide, there are no beats; if they do not coincide, the beats
+  produced will give a character of roughness to the interval. Thus in
+  the octave and twelfth, all the partial tones of the acute sound
+  coincide with the partial tones of the grave sound; in the fourth,
+  major sixth and major third, only two pairs of the partial tones
+  coincide, while in the minor sixth, minor third and minor seventh only
+  one pair of the harmonics coincide.
+
+  It is possible by means of beats to measure the sensitiveness of the
+  ear by determining the smallest difference in pitch that may give rise
+  to a beat. In no part of the scale can a difference smaller than 0.2
+  vibration per second be distinguished. The sensitiveness varies with
+  pitch. Thus at 120 vibs. per second 0.4 vib. per second, at 500 about
+  0.3 vib. per second, and at 1000, 0.5 vib. per second can be
+  distinguished. This is a remarkable illustration of the sensitiveness
+  of the ear. When tones of low pitch are produced that do not rapidly
+  die away, as by sounding heavy tuning-forks, not only may the beats be
+  perceived corresponding to the difference between the frequencies of
+  the forks, but also other sets of beats. Thus, if the two tones have
+  frequencies of 40 and 74, a two-order beat may be heard, one having a
+  frequency of 34 and the other of 6, as 74 ÷ 40 = 1 + a positive
+  remainder of 34, and 74 ÷ 40 = 2 - 6, or 80 - 74, a negative remainder
+  of 6. The lower beat is heard most distinctly when the number is less
+  than half the frequency of the lower primary, and the upper when the
+  number is greater. The beats we have been considering are produced
+  when two notes are sounded slightly differing in frequency, or at all
+  events their frequencies are not so great as those of two notes
+  separated by a musical interval, such as an octave or a fifth. But
+  Lord Kelvin has shown that beats may also be produced on slightly
+  inharmonious musical intervals (_Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed._ 1878, vol. ix.
+  p. 602). Thus, take two tuning-forks, ut2 = 256 and ut3 = 512;
+  slightly flatten ut3 so as to make its frequency 510, and we hear, not
+  a roughness corresponding to 254 beats, but a slow beat of 2 per
+  second. The sensation also passes through a cycle, the beats now
+  sounding loudly and fading away in intensity, again sounding loudly,
+  and so on. One might suppose that the beat occurred between 510 (the
+  frequency of ut3 flattened) and 512, the first partial of ut2, namely
+  ut3, but this is not so, as the beat is most audible when ut2 is
+  sounded feebly. In a similar way, beats may be produced on the
+  approximate harmonies 2 : 3, 3 : 4, 4 : 5, 5 : 6, 6 : 7, 7 : 8, 1 : 3,
+  3 : 5, and beats may even be produced on the major chord 4 : 5 : 6 by
+  sounding ut3, mi3, sol3, with sol3 or mi3 slightly flattened, "when a
+  peculiar beat will be heard as if a wheel were being turned against a
+  surface, one small part of which was rougher than the rest." These
+  beats on imperfect harmonies appear to indicate that the ear does
+  distinguish between an increase of pressure on the drum-head and a
+  diminution, or between a push and a pull, or, in other words, that it
+  is affected by phase. This was denied by Helmholtz.
+
+  10. _Beat Tones._--Considerable difference of opinion exists as to
+  whether beats can blend so as to give a sensation of tone; but R.
+  König, by using pure tones of high pitch, has settled the question.
+  These tones were produced by large tuning-forks. Thus ut6 = 2048 and
+  re6 = 2304. Then the beat tone is ut3 = 256 (2304-2048). If we strike
+  the two forks, ut3 sounds as a grave or lower beat tone. Again, ut6 =
+  2048 and si6 = 3840. Then (2048)2 - 3840 = 256, a negative remainder,
+  ut3, as before, and when both forks are sounded ut3 will be heard.
+  Again, ut6 = 2048 and sol6 = 3072, and 3072 - 2048 = 1024, or ut6,
+  which will be distinctly heard when ut6 and sol6 are sounded (König,
+  _Quelques expériences d'acoustique_, Paris, 1882, p. 87).
+
+  11. _Combination Tones._--Frequently, when two tones are sounded, not
+  only do we hear the compound sound, from which we can pick out the
+  constituent tones, but we may hear other tones, one of which is lower
+  in pitch than the lowest primary, and the other is higher in pitch
+  than the higher primary. These, known as combination tones, are of two
+  classes: _differential_ tones, in which the frequency is the
+  difference of the frequencies of the generating tones, and
+  _summational_ tones, having a frequency which is the sum of the
+  frequencies of the tones producing them. Differential tones, first
+  noticed by Sorge about 1740, are easily heard. Thus an interval of a
+  fifth, 2 : 3, gives a differential tone 1, that is, an octave below 2;
+  a fourth, 3 : 4, gives 1, a twelfth below 3; a major third, 4 : 5,
+  gives 1, two octaves below 4; a minor third, 5 : 6, gives 1, two
+  octaves and a major third below 5; a major sixth, 3 : 5, gives 2, that
+  is, a fifth below 3; and a minor sixth, 5 : 8, gives 3, that is, a
+  major sixth below 5. Summational tones, first noticed by Helmholtz,
+  are so difficult to hear that much controversy has taken place as to
+  their very existence. Some have contended that they are produced by
+  beats. It appears to be proved physically that they may exist in the
+  air outside of the ear. Further differential tones may be generated in
+  the middle ear. Helmholtz also demonstrated their independent
+  existence, and he states that "whenever the vibrations of the air or
+  of other elastic bodies, which are set in motion at the same time by
+  two generating simple tones, are so powerful that they can no longer
+  be considered infinitely small, mathematical theory shows that
+  vibrations of the air must arise which have the same vibrational
+  numbers as the combination tones" (Helmholtz, _Sensations of Tone_, p.
+  235). The importance of these combinational tones in the theory of
+  hearing is obvious. If the ear can only analyse compound waves into
+  simple pendular vibrations of a certain order (simple multiples of the
+  prime tone), how can it detect combinational tones, which do not
+  belong to that order? Again, if such tones are purely subjective and
+  only exist in the mind of the listener, the fact would be fatal to the
+  resonance theory. There can be no doubt, however, that the ear, in
+  dealing with them, vibrates in some part of its mechanism with each
+  generator, while it also is affected by the combinational tone itself,
+  according to its frequency.
+
+  12. Hearing with two ears does not appear materially to influence
+  auditive sensation, but probably the two organs are enabled, not only
+  to correct each other's errors, but also to aid us in determining the
+  locality in which a sound originates. It is asserted by G. T. Fechner
+  that one ear may perceive the same tone at a slightly higher pitch
+  than the other, but this may probably be due to some slight
+  pathological condition in one ear. If two tones, produced by two
+  tuning-forks, of equal pitch, are produced one near each ear, there is
+  a uniform single sensation; if one of the tuning-forks be made to
+  revolve round its axis in such a way that its tone increases and
+  diminishes in intensity, neither fork is heard continuously, but both
+  sound alternately, the fixed one being only audible when the revolving
+  one is not. It is difficult to decide whether excitations of
+  corresponding elements in the two ears can be distinguished from each
+  other. It is probable that the resulting sensations may be
+  distinguished, provided one of the generating tones differs from the
+  other in intensity or quality, although it may be the same in pitch.
+  Our judgment as to the direction of sounds is formed mainly from the
+  different degrees of intensity with which they are heard by two ears.
+  Lord Rayleigh states that diffraction of the sound-waves will occur as
+  they pass round the head to the ear farthest from the source of sound;
+  thus partial tones will reach the two ears with different intensities,
+  and thus quality of tone may be affected (_Trans. Music. Soc._,
+  London, 1876). Silvanus P. Thompson advocates a similar view, and he
+  shows that the direction of a complex tone can be more accurately
+  determined than the direction of a simple tone, especially if it be of
+  low pitch (_Phil. Mag._, 1882).     (J. G. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HEARN, LAFCADIO (1850-1904), author of books about Japan, was born on
+the 27th of June 1850 in Leucadia (pronounced Lefcadia, whence his name,
+which was one adopted by himself), one of the Greek Ionian Islands. He
+was the son of Surgeon-major Charles Hearn, of King's County, Ireland,
+who, during the English occupation of the Ionian Islands, was stationed
+there, and who married a Greek wife. Artistic and rather bohemian tastes
+were in Lafcadio Hearn's blood. His father's brother Richard was at one
+time a well-known member of the Barbizon set of artists, though he made
+no mark as a painter through his lack of energy. Young Hearn had rather
+a casual education, but was for a time (1865) at Ushaw Roman Catholic
+College, Durham. The religious faith in which he was brought up was,
+however, soon lost; and at nineteen, being thrown on his own resources,
+he went to America and at first picked up a living in the lower grades
+of newspaper work. The details are obscure, but he continued to occupy
+himself with journalism and with out-of-the-way observation and reading,
+and meanwhile his erratic, romantic and rather morbid idiosyncrasies
+developed. He was for some time in New Orleans, writing for the _Times
+Democrat_, and was sent by that paper for two years as correspondent to
+the West Indies, where he gathered material for his _Two Years in the
+French West Indies_ (1890). At last, in 1891, he went to Japan with a
+commission as a newspaper correspondent, which was quickly broken off.
+But here he found his true sphere. The list of his books on Japanese
+subjects tells its own tale: _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (1894); _Out
+of the East_ (1895); _Kokoro_ (1896); _Gleanings in Buddha Fields_
+(1897); _Exotics and Retrospections_ (1898); _In Ghostly Japan_ (1899);
+_Shadowings_ (1900); _A Japanese Miscellany_ (1901); _Kotto_ (1902);
+_Japanese Fairy Tales_ and _Kwaidan_ (1903), and (published just after
+his death) _Japan, an Attempt at Interpretation_ (1904), a study full of
+knowledge and insight. He became a teacher of English at the University
+of Tokyo, and soon fell completely under the spell of Japanese ideas. He
+married a Japanese wife, became a naturalized Japanese under the name of
+Yakumo Koizumi, and adopted the Buddhist religion. For the last two
+years of his life (he died on the 26th of September 1904) his health was
+failing, and he was deprived of his lecturersbip at the University. But
+he had gradually become known to the world at large by the originality,
+power and literary charm of his writings. This wayward bohemian genius,
+who had seen life in so many climes, and turned from Roman Catholic to
+atheist and then to Buddhist, was curiously qualified, among all those
+who were "interpreting" the new and the old Japan to the Western world,
+to see it with unfettered understanding, and to express its life and
+thought with most intimate and most artistic sincerity. Lafcadio Hearn's
+books were indeed unique for their day in the literature about Japan, in
+their combination of real knowledge with a literary art which is often
+exquisite.
+
+  See Elizabeth Bisland, _The Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn_ (2
+  vols., 1906); G. M. Gould, _Concerning Lafcadio Hearn_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745-1792), English explorer, was born in London. In
+1756 he entered the navy, and was some time with Lord Hood; at the end
+of the Seven Years' War (1763) he took service with the Hudson's Bay
+Company. In 1768 he examined portions of the Hudson's Bay coasts with a
+view to improving the cod fishery, and in 1769-1772 he was employed in
+north-western discovery, searching especially for certain copper mines
+described by Indians. His first attempt (from the 6th of November 1769)
+failed through the desertion of his Indians; his second (from the 23rd
+of February 1770) through the breaking of his quadrant; but in his third
+(December 1770 to June 1772) he was successful, not only discovering the
+copper of the Coppermine river basin, but tracing this river to the
+Arctic Ocean. He reappeared at Fort Prince of Wales on the 30th of June
+1772. Becoming governor of this fort in 1775, he was taken prisoner by
+the French under La Pérouse in 1782. He returned to England in 1787 and
+died there in 1792.
+
+  See his posthumous _Journey from Prince of Wales Fort in Hudson's Bay
+  to the Northern Ocean_ (London, 1795).
+
+
+
+
+HEARNE, THOMAS (1678-1735), English antiquary, was born in July 1678 at
+Littlefield Green in the parish of White Waltham, Berkshire. Having
+received his early education from his father, George Hearne, the parish
+clerk, he showed such taste for study that a wealthy neighbour, Francis
+Cherry of Shottesbrooke (c. 1665-1713), a celebrated nonjuror,
+interested himself in the boy, and sent him to the school at Bray "on
+purpose to learn the Latin tongue." Soon Cherry took him into his own
+house, and his education was continued at Bray until Easter 1696, when
+he matriculated at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. At the university he
+attracted the attention of Dr John Mill (1645-1707), the principal of St
+Edmund Hall, who employed him to compare manuscripts and in other ways.
+Having taken the degree of B.A. in 1699 he was made assistant keeper of
+the Bodleian Library, where he worked on the catalogue of books, and in
+1712 he was appointed second keeper. In 1715 Hearne was elected
+architypographus and esquire bedell in civil law in the university, but
+objection having been made to his holding this office together with that
+of second librarian, he resigned it in the same year. As a nonjuror he
+refused to take the oaths of allegiance to King George I., and early in
+1716 he was deprived of his librarianship. However he continued to
+reside in Oxford, and occupied himself in editing the English
+chroniclers. Having refused several important academical positions,
+including the librarianship of the Bodleian and the Camden professorship
+of ancient history, rather than take the oaths, he died on the 10th of
+June 1735.
+
+  Hearne's most important work was done as editor of many of the English
+  chroniclers, and until the appearance of the "Rolls" series his
+  editions were in many cases the only ones extant. Very carefully
+  prepared, they were, and indeed are still, of the greatest value to
+  historical students. Perhaps the most important of a long list are:
+  Benedict of Peterborough's (Benedictus Abbas) _De vita et gestis
+  Henrici II. et Ricardi I._ (1735); John of Fordun's _Scotichronicon_
+  (1722); the monk of Evesham's _Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II._
+  (1729); Robert Mannyng's translation of Peter Langtoft's _Chronicle_
+  (1725); the work of Thomas Otterbourne and John Whethamstede as _Duo
+  rerum Anglicarum scriptores veteres_ (1732); Robert of Gloucester's
+  _Chronicle_ (1724); J. Sprott's _Chronica_ (1719); the _Vita et gesta
+  Henrici V._, wrongly attributed to Thomas Elmham (1727); Titus Livy's
+  _Vita Henrici V._ (1716); Walter of Hemingburgh's _Chronicon_ (1731);
+  and William of Newburgh's _Historia rerum Anglicarum_ (1719). He also
+  edited John Leland's _Itinerary_ (1710-1712) and the same author's
+  _Collectanea_ (1715); W. Camden's _Annales rerum Anglicarum et
+  Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha_ (1717); Sir John Spelman's _Life of
+  Alfred_ (1709); and W. Roper's _Life of Sir Thomas More_ (1716). He
+  brought out an edition of Livy (1708); one of Pliny's _Epistolae et
+  panegyricus_ (1703); and one of the Acts of the Apostles (1715). Among
+  his other compilations may be mentioned: _Ductor historicus, a Short
+  System of Universal History_ (1704, 1705, 1714, 1724); _A Collection
+  of Curious Discourses by Eminent Antiquaries_ (1720); and _Reliquiae
+  Bodleianae_ (1703).
+
+  Hearne left his manuscripts to William Bedford, who sold them to Dr
+  Richard Rawlinson, who in his turn bequeathed them to the Bodleian.
+  Two volumes of extracts from his voluminous diary were published by
+  Philip Bliss (Oxford, 1857), and afterwards an enlarged edition in
+  three volumes appeared (London, 1869). A large part of his diary
+  entitled _Remarks and Collections, 1705-1714_, edited by C. E. Doble
+  and D. W. Rannie, has been published by the Oxford Historical Society
+  (1885-1898). _Bibliotheca Hearniana_, excerpts from the catalogue of
+  Hearne's library, has been edited by B. Botfield (1848).
+
+  See _Impartial Memorials of the Life and Writings of Thomas Hearne by
+  several hands_ (1736); and W. D. Macray, _Annals of the Bodleian
+  Library_ (1890). Hearne's autobiography is published in W.
+  Huddesford's _Lives of Leland, Hearne and Wood_ (Oxford, 1772). T.
+  Ouvry's _Letters addressed to Thomas Hearne_ has been privately
+  printed (London, 1874).
+
+
+
+
+HEARSE (an adaptation of Fr. _herse_, a harrow, from Lat. _hirpex_,
+_hirpicem_, rake or harrow, Greek [Greek: arpae], a vehicle for the
+conveyance of a dead body at a funeral. The most usual shape is a
+four-wheeled car, with a roofed and enclosed body, sometimes with glass
+panels, which contains the coffin. This is the only current use of the
+word. In its earlier forms it is usually found as "herse," and meant, as
+the French word did, a harrow (q.v.). It was then applied to other
+objects resembling a harrow, following the French. It was then used of a
+portcullis, and thus becomes a heraldic term, the "herse" being
+frequently borne as a "charge," as in the arms of the City of
+Westminster. The chief application of the word is, however, to various
+objects used in funeral ceremonies. A "herse" or "hearse" seems first to
+have been a barrow-shaped framework of wood, to hold lighted tapers and
+decorations placed on a bier or coffin; this later developed into an
+elaborate pagoda-shaped erection of woodwork or metal for the funerals
+of royal or other distinguished persons. This held banners, candles,
+armorial bearings and other heraldic devices. Complimentary verses or
+epitaphs were often attached to the "hearse." An elaborate "hearse" was
+designed by Inigo Jones for the funeral of James I. The "hearse" is also
+found as a permanent erection over tombs. It is generally made of iron
+or other metal, and was used, not only to carry lighted candles, but
+also for the support of a pall during the funeral ceremony. There is a
+brass "hearse" in the Beauchamp Chapel at Warwick Castle, and one over
+the tomb of Robert Marmion and his wife at Tanfield Church near Ripon.
+
+
+
+
+HEART, in anatomy.--The heart[1] is a four-chambered muscular bag, which
+lies in the cavity of the thorax between the two lungs. It is surrounded
+by another bag, the pericardium, for protective and lubricating purposes
+(see COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES). Externally the heart is somewhat
+conical, its base being directed upward, backward and to the right, its
+apex downward, forward and to the left. In transverse section the cone
+is flattened, so that there is an anterior and a posterior surface and a
+superior and inferior border. The superior border, running obliquely
+downward and to the left, is very thick, and so gains the name of _margo
+obtusus_, while the inferior border is horizontal and sharp and is
+called _margo acutus_ (see fig. 1). The divisions between the four
+chambers of the heart (namely, the two auricles and two ventricles) are
+indicated on the surface by grooves, and when these are followed it will
+be seen that the right auricle and ventricle lie on the front and right
+side, while the left auricle and ventricle are behind and on the left.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. The Thoracic Viscera.--In this diagram the lungs
+are turned to the side, and the pericardium removed to display the
+heart, a, upper, a´, lower lobe of left lung; b, upper, b´, middle, b´´,
+lower lobe of right lung; c, trachea; d, arch of aorta; e, superior vena
+cava; f, pulmonary artery; g, left, and h, right auricle; k, right, and
+l, left ventricle; m, inferior vena cava; n, descending aorta; 1,
+innominate artery; 2, right, and 4, left common carotid artery; 3,
+right, and 5, left subclavian artery; 6, 6, right and left innominate
+vein; 7 and 9, left and right internal jugular veins; 8 and 10, left and
+right subclavian veins; 11, 12, 13, left pulmonary artery, bronchus and
+vein; 14, 15, 16, right pulmonary bronchus, artery and vein; 17 and 18,
+left and right coronary arteries.]
+
+The _right auricle_ is situated at the base of the heart, and its
+outline is seen on looking at the organ from in front. Into the
+posterior part of it open the two venae cavae (see fig. 2), the superior
+(a) above and the inferior (b) below. In front and to the left of the
+superior vena cava is the right auricular appendage (e) which overlaps
+the front of the root of the aorta, while running obliquely from the
+front of one vena cava to the other is a shallow groove called the
+_sulcus terminalis_, which indicates the original separation between the
+true auricle in front and the sinus venosus behind. When the auricle is
+opened by turning the front wall to the right as a flap the following
+structures are exposed:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Cavities of the Right Side of the Heart.--a,
+superior, and b, inferior vena cava; c, arch of aorta; d, pulmonary
+artery; e, right, and f, left auricular appendage; g, fossa ovalis; h,
+Eustachian valve; k, mouth of coronary vein; l, m, n, cusps of the
+tricuspid valve; o, o, papillary muscles; p, semilunar valve; q, corpus
+Arantii; r, lunula.]
+
+1. A muscular ridge, called the _crista terminalis_, corresponding to
+the sulcus terminalis on the exterior.
+
+2. A series of ridges on the anterior wall and in the appendage, running
+downward from the last and at right angles to it, like the teeth of a
+comb; these are known as _Musculi pectinati_.
+
+3. The orifice of the superior vena cava (fig. 2, a) at the upper and
+back part of the chamber.
+
+4. The orifice of the inferior vena cava (fig. 2, b) at the lower and
+back part.
+
+5. Attached to the right and lower margins of this opening are the
+remains of the _Eustachian valve_ (fig. 2, h), which in the foetus
+directs the blood from the inferior vena cava, through the _foramen
+ovale_, into the left auricle.
+
+6. Below and to the left of this is the opening of the _coronary sinus_
+(fig. 2, k), which collects most of the veins returning blood from the
+substance of the heart.
+
+7. Guarding this opening is the _coronary valve_ or _valve of
+Thebesius_.
+
+8. On the posterior or septal wall, between the two auricles, is an oval
+depression, called the _fossa ovalis_ (fig. 2, g), the remains of the
+original communication between the two auricles. In about a quarter of
+all normal hearts there is a small valvular communication between the
+two auricles in the left margin of this depression (see "7th Report of
+the Committee of Collective Investigation," _J. Anat. and Phys._ vol.
+xxxii. p. 164).
+
+9. The _annulus ovalis_ is the raised margin surrounding this
+depression.
+
+10. On the left side, opening into the right ventricle, is the _right
+auriculo-ventricular opening_.
+
+11. On the right wall, between the two caval openings, may occasionally
+be seen a slight eminence, the _tubercle of Lower_, which is supposed to
+separate the two streams of blood in the embryo.
+
+12. Scattered all over the auricular wall are minute depressions, the
+_foramina Thebesii_, some of which receive small veins from the
+substance of the heart.
+
+The _right ventricle_ is a triangular cavity (see fig. 2) the base of
+which is largely formed by the auriculo-ventricular orifice. To the left
+of this it is continued up into the root of the pulmonary artery, and
+this part is known as the _infundibulum_. Its anterior wall forms part
+of the anterior surface of the heart, while its posterior wall is
+chiefly formed by the septum ventriculorum, between it and the left
+ventricle. Its lower border is the margo acutus already mentioned. In
+transverse section it is crescentic, since the septal wall bulges into
+its cavity. In its interior the following structures are seen:
+
+1. The _tricuspid valve_ (fig. 2, l, m, n) guarding against reflux of
+blood into the right auricle. This consists of a short cylindrical
+curtain of fibrous tissue, which projects into the ventricle from the
+margin of the auriculo-ventricular aperture, while from its free edge
+three triangular flaps hang down, the bases of which touch one another.
+These cusps are spoken of as septal, marginal and infundibular, from
+their position.
+
+2. The _chordae tendineae_ are fine fibrous cords which fasten the cusps
+to the musculi papillares and ventricular wall, and prevent the valve
+being turned inside out when the ventricle contracts.
+
+3. The _columnae carneae_ are fleshy columns, and are of three kinds.
+The first are attached to the wall of the ventricle in their whole
+length and are merely sculptured in relief, as it were; the second are
+attached by both ends and are free in the middle; while the third are
+known as the _musculi papillares_ and are attached by one end to the
+ventricular wall, the other end giving attachment to the chordae
+tendineae. These musculi papillares are grouped into three bundles (fig.
+2, o).
+
+4. The _moderator band_ is really one of the second kind of columnae
+carneae which stretches from the septal to the anterior wall of the
+ventricle.
+
+5. The _pulmonary valve_ (fig. 2, p) at the opening of the pulmonary
+artery has three crescentic, pocket-like cusps, which, when the
+ventricle is filling, completely close the aperture, but during the
+contraction of the ventricle fit into three small niches known as the
+_sinuses of Valsalva_, and so are quite out of the way of the escaping
+blood. In the middle of the free margin of each is a small knob called
+the _corpus Arantii_ (fig. 2, q), and on each side of this a thin
+crescent-shaped flap, the _lunula_ (fig. 2, r), which is only made of
+two layers of endocardium, whereas in the rest of the cusp there is a
+fibrous backing between these two layers.
+
+The _left auricle_ is situated at the back of the base of the heart,
+behind and to the left of the right auricle. Running down behind it are
+the oesophagus and the thoracic aorta. When it is opened it is seen to
+have a much lighter colour than the other cavities, owing to the greater
+thickness of its endocardium obscuring the red muscle beneath. There are
+no musculi pectinati except in the auricular appendage. The openings of
+the four pulmonary veins are placed two on each side of the posterior
+wall, but sometimes there may be three on the right side, and only one
+on the left. On the septal wall is a small depression like the mark of a
+finger-nail, which corresponds to the anterior part of the fossa ovalis
+and often forms a valvular communication with the right auricle. The
+auriculo-ventricular orifice is large and oval, and is directed downward
+and to the left. Foramina Thebesii and venae minimae cordis are found in
+this auricle, as in the right, although the chamber is one for arterial
+or oxidized blood.
+
+At the lower part of the posterior surface of the unopened auricle,
+lying in the left auriculo-ventricular furrow, is the coronary sinus,
+which receives most of the veins returning the blood from the heart
+substance; these are the right and left coronary veins at each extremity
+and the posterior and left cardiac veins from below. One small vein,
+called the oblique vein of Marshall, runs down into it across the
+posterior surface of the auricle, from below the left lower pulmonary
+vein, and is of morphological interest.
+
+The _left ventricle_ is conical, the base being above, behind and to the
+right, while the apex corresponds to the apex of the heart and lies
+opposite the fifth intercostal space, 3½ in. from the mid line. The
+following structures are seen inside it:--
+
+1. The _mitral valve_ guarding the auriculo-ventricular opening has the
+same arrangement as the tricuspid, already described, save that there
+are only two cusps, named marginal and aortic, the latter of which is
+the larger.
+
+2. The chordae tendineae and columnae carneae resemble those of the
+right ventricle, though there are only two bundles of musculi papillares
+instead of three. These are very large. A moderator band has been found
+as an abnormality (see _J. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxx. p. 568).
+
+3. The _aortic valve_ has the same structure as the pulmonary, though
+the cusps are more massive. From the anterior and left posterior sinuses
+of Valsalva the coronary arteries arise. That part of the ventricle just
+below the aortic valve, corresponding to the infundibulum on the right,
+is known as the aortic vestibule.
+
+The walls of the left ventricle are three times as thick as those of the
+right, except at the apex, where they are thinner. The septum
+ventriculorum is concave towards the left ventricle, so that a
+transverse section of that cavity is nearly circular. The greater part
+of it has nearly the same thickness as the rest of the left ventricular
+wall and is muscular, but a small portion of the upper part is
+membranous and thin, and is called the _pars membranacea septi_; it lies
+between the aortic and pulmonary orifices.
+
+_Structure of the Heart._--The arrangement of the muscular fibres of the
+heart is very complicated and only imperfectly known. For details one of
+the larger manuals, such as Cunningham's _Anatomy_ (London, 1910), or
+Gray's _Anatomy_ (London, 1909), should be consulted. The general scheme
+is that there are superficial fibres common to the two auricles and two
+ventricles and deeper fibres for each cavity. Until recently no fibres
+had been traced from the auricles to the ventricles, though Gaskell
+predicted that these would be found, and the credit for first
+demonstrating them is due to Stanley Kent, their details having
+subsequently been worked out by W. His, Junr., and S. Tawara. The fibres
+of this _auriculo-ventricular bundle_ begin, in the right auricle, below
+the opening of the coronary sinus, and run forward on the right side of
+the auricular septum, below the fossa ovalis, and close to the
+auriculo-ventricular septum. Above the septal flap of the tricuspid
+valve they thicken and divide into two main branches, one on either side
+of the ventricular septum, which run down to the bases of the anterior
+and posterior papillary muscles, and so reach the walls of the
+ventricle, where their secondary branches form the _fibres of Purkinje_.
+The bundle is best seen in the hearts of young Ruminants, and it is
+presumably through it that the wave of contraction passes from the
+auricles to the ventricles (see article by A. Keith and M. Flack,
+_Lancet_, 11th of August 1906, p. 359).
+
+The _central fibrous body_ is a triangular mass of fibro-cartilage,
+situated between the two auriculo-ventricular and the aortic orifices.
+The upper part of the septum ventriculorum blends with it. The
+_endocardium_ is a delicate layer of endothelial cells backed by a very
+thin layer of fibro-elastic tissue; it is continuous with the
+endothelium of the great vessels and lines the whole of the cavities of
+the heart.
+
+The heart is roughly about the size of the closed fist and weighs from 8
+to 12 oz.; it continues to increase in size up to about fifty years of
+age, but the increase is more marked in the male than in the female.
+Each ventricle holds about 4 f. oz. of blood, and each auricle rather
+less. The nerves of the heart are derived from the vagus, spinal
+accessory and sympathetic, through the superficial and deep cardiac
+plexuses.
+
+
+_Embryology._
+
+In the article on the arteries (q.v.) the formation and coalescence of
+the two _primitive ventral aortae_ to form the heart are noticed, so
+that we may here start with a straight median tube lying ventral to the
+pharynx and being prolonged cephalad into the ventral aortae and caudad
+into the vitelline veins. This soon shows four dilatations, which, from
+the tail towards the head end, are called the sinus venosus, the
+auricle, the ventricle and the truncus[2] arteriosus. As the tubular
+heart grows more rapidly than the pericardium which contains it, it
+becomes bent into the form of an S laid on its side ([rotated S]), the
+ventral convexity being the ventricle and the dorsal the auricle. The
+passage from the auricle to the ventricle is known as the _auricular
+canal_, and in the dorsal and ventral parts of this appear two
+thickenings known as _endocardial cushions_, which approach one another
+and leave a transverse slit between them (fig. 3, E.C.). Eventually
+these two cushions fuse in the middle line, obliterating the central
+part of the slit, while the lateral parts remain as the two
+auriculo-ventricular orifices; this fusion is known as the _septum
+intermedium_. From the bottom (ventral convexity) of the ventricle an
+antero-posterior median septum grows up, which is the _septum inferius_
+or _septum ventriculorum_ (fig. 3, V). Posteriorly (caudally) this
+septum fuses with the septum intermedium, but anteriorly it is free at
+the lower part of the truncus arteriosus. On referring to the
+development of the arteries (see ARTERIES) it will be seen that another
+septum starts between the last two pairs of aortic arches and grows
+downward (caudad) until it reaches and joins with the septum inferius
+just mentioned. This _septum aorticum_ (formed by two ingrowths from the
+wall of the vessel which fuse later) becomes twisted in such a way that
+the right ventricle is continuous with the last pair of aortic arches
+(pulmonary artery), while the left ventricle communicates with the other
+arches (the permanent ventral aorta and its branches); it joins the
+septum ventriculorum in the upper part of the ventricular cavity and so
+forms the _pars membranacea septi_ (fig. 3, T. Ar).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Formation of Septa. Diagram of the formation of
+some of the septa of the heart (viewed from the right side).
+
+  S.V.   Sinus venosus.
+  Au.    Auricle.
+  E.C.   Endocardial cushions forming septum intermedium.
+  V.     Septum ventriculorum.
+  T. Ar. Septum aorticum intruncus arteriosus.
+  V.A.   Ventral aorta.]
+
+The fate of the sinus venosus and auricle must now be followed. Into the
+former, at first, only the two vitelline veins open, but later, as they
+develop, the _ducts of Cuvier_ and the _umbilical veins_ join in (see
+VEINS). As the ducts of Cuvier come from each side the sinus spreads out
+to meet them and becomes transversely elongated. The slight
+constriction, which at first is the only separation between the sinus
+and the auricle, becomes more marked, and later the opening is into the
+right part of the auricle, and is guarded by two valvular folds of
+endocardium (the _venous valves_) which project into that cavity, and
+are continuous above with a temporary downgrowth from the roof, known as
+the _septum spurium_. Later the right side of the sinus enlarges, and so
+does the right part of the aperture, until the back part of the right
+side of the auricle and the right part of the sinus venosus are thrown
+into one, and the only remnants of the partition are the crista
+terminalis and the Eustachian and Thebesian Valves. The left part of the
+sinus venosus, which does not enlarge at the same rate as the right
+part, remains as the coronary sinus. It will now be seen why, in the
+adult heart, all the veins which open into the right auricle open into
+its posterior part, behind the crista terminalis. The septum spurium has
+been referred to as a temporary structure; the real division between the
+two auricles occurs at a later date than that between the ventricles and
+to the left of the septum spurium. It is formed by two partitions, the
+first of which, called the _septum primum_, grows down from the
+auricular roof. At first it does not quite reach the endocardial
+cushions in the auricular canal, already mentioned, but leaves a gap,
+called the _ostium primum_, between. This has nothing to do with the
+_foramen ovale_, which occurs as an independent perforation higher up,
+and at first is known as the _ostium secundum_. When it is established
+the septum primum grows down and meets the endocardial cushions, and so
+the ostium primum is obliterated. The _septum secundum_ grows down on
+the right of the septum primum and is never complete; it grows round and
+largely overlaps the foramen ovale and its edges form the annulus
+ovalis, so that, in the later months of foetal life, the foramen ovale
+is a valvular opening, the floor of which is formed by the septum primum
+and the margins by the septum secundum. The closure of the foramen is
+brought about by adhesion of the two septa.
+
+The pulmonary veins of the two sides at first join one another, dorsal
+to the left auricle, and open into that cavity by a single median trunk,
+but, as the auricle grows, this trunk and part of the right and left
+veins are absorbed into its cavity.
+
+The mitral and tricuspid valves are formed by the shortening of the
+auricular canal which becomes telescoped into the ventricle, and the
+cusps are the remnants of this telescoping process.
+
+The columnae carneae and chordae tendineae are the remains of a spongy
+network which originally filled the cavity of the primary ventricle.
+
+The aortic and pulmonary valves are laid down in the ventral aorta,
+before it is divided into aorta and pulmonary artery, as four
+endocardial cushions; anterior, posterior and two lateral. The septum
+aorticum cuts the latter two into two, so that each artery has the
+rudiments of three cusps.
+
+Abnormalities of the heart are very numerous, and can usually be
+explained by a knowledge of its development. They often cause grave
+clinical symptoms. A clear and well-illustrated review of the most
+important of them will be found in the chapter on congenital disease of
+the heart in _Clinical Applied Anatomy_, by C. R. Box and W. McAdam
+Eccles, London, 1906.
+
+  For further details of the embryology of the heart see Oscar Hertwig's
+  _Entwicklungslehre der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1902); G. Born,
+  "Entwicklung des Säugetierherzens," _Archiv f. mik. Anat._ Bd. 33
+  (1889); W. His, _Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen_ (Leipzig,
+  1881-1885); Quain's _Anatomy_, vol. i. (1908); C. S. Minot, _Human
+  Embryology_ (New York, 1892); and A. Keith, _Human Embryology and
+  Morphology_ (London, 1905).
+
+
+_Comparative Anatomy._
+
+In the Acrania (e.g. lancelet) there is no heart, though the vessels are
+specially contractile in the ventral part of the pharynx.
+
+In the Cyclostomata (lamprey and hag), and Fishes, the heart has the same
+arrangement which has been noticed in the human embryo. There is a smooth,
+thin-walled sinus venosus, a thin reticulate-walled auricle, produced
+laterally into two appendages, a thick-walled ventricle, and a _conus
+arteriosus_ containing valves. In addition to these the beginning of the
+ventral aorta is often thickened and expanded to form a _bulbus
+arteriosus_, which is non-contractile, and, strictly speaking, should
+rather be described with the arteries than with the heart. In relation to
+human embryology the smooth sinus venosus and reticulated auricle are
+interesting. Between the auricle and ventricle is the auriculo-ventricular
+valve, which primarily consists of two cusps, comparable to the two
+endocardial cushions of the human embryo, though in some forms they may be
+subdivided. In the interior of the ventricle is a network of muscular
+trabeculae. The conus arteriosus in the Elasmobranchs (sharks and rays)
+and Ganoids (sturgeon) is large and provided with several rows of
+semilunar valves, but in the Cyclostomes (lamprey) and Teleosts (bony
+fishes) the conus is reduced and only the anterior (cephalic) row of
+valves retained. With the reduction of the conus the bulbus arteriosus is
+enlarged. So far the heart is a single tubular organ expanded into various
+cavities and having the characteristic [rotated S]-shaped form seen in the
+human embryo; it contains only venous blood which is forced through the
+gills to be oxidized on its way to the tissues. In the Dipnoi (mud fish),
+in which rudimentary lungs, as well as gills, are developed, the auricle
+is divided into two, and the sinus venosus opens into the right auricle.
+The conus arteriosus too begins to be divided into two chambers, and in
+Protopterus this division is complete. This division of the heart is one
+instance in which mammalian ontogeny does not repeat the processes of
+phylogeny, because, in the human embryo, it has been shown that the
+ventricular septum appears before the auricular. This want of harmony is
+sometimes spoken of as the "falsification of the embryological record."
+
+In the Amphibia there are also two auricles and one ventricle, though in
+the Urodela (tailed amphibians) the auricular septum is often
+fenestrated. The sinus venosus is still a separate chamber, and the
+conus arteriosus, which may contain many or few valves, is usually
+divided into two by a spiral fold. Structurally the amphibian heart
+closely resembles the dipnoan, though the increased size of the left
+auricle is an advance. In the Anura (frogs and toads) the whole
+ventricle is filled with a spongy network which prevents the arterial
+and venous blood from the two auricles mixing to any great extent. (For
+the anatomy and physiology of the frog's heart, see _The Frog_, by
+Milnes Marshall.)
+
+In the Reptiles the ventricular septum begins to appear; this in the
+lizards is quite incomplete, but in the crocodiles, which are usually
+regarded as the highest order of living reptiles, the partition has
+nearly reached the top of the ventricle, and the condition resembles
+that of the human embryo before the pars membranacea septi is formed.
+The conus arteriosus becomes included in the ventricular cavity, but the
+sinus venosus still remains distinct, and its opening into the right
+ventricle is guarded by two valves which closely resemble the two venous
+valves in the auricle of the human embryo already referred to.
+
+In the Birds the auricular and ventricular septa are complete; the right
+ventricle is thin-walled and crescentic in section, as in Man, and the
+musculi papillares are developed. The left auriculo-ventricular valve
+has three membranous cusps with chordae tendineae attached to them, but
+the right auriculo-ventricular valve has a large fleshy cusp without
+chordae tendineae. The sinus venosus is largely included in the right
+auricle, but remains of the two venous valves are seen on each side of
+the orifice of the inferior vena cava.
+
+In the Mammals the structure of the heart corresponds closely with the
+description of that of Man already given. In the Ornithorynchus, among
+the Monotremes, the right auriculo-ventricular valve has two fleshy and
+two membranous cusps, thus showing a resemblance to that of the bird. In
+the Echidna, the other member of the order, however, both
+auriculo-ventricular valves are membranous. In the Edentates the remains
+of the venous valves at the opening of the inferior vena cava are better
+marked than in other orders. In the Ungulates the moderator band in the
+right ventricle is especially well developed, and the central fibrous
+body at the base of the heart is often ossified, forming the os cordis
+so well known in the heart of the ox.
+
+The position of the heart in the lower mammals is not so oblique as it
+is in Man.
+
+  For further details, see C. Rose, _Beitr. z. vergl. Anal. des Herzens
+  der Wirbelthiere Morph. Jahrb._, Bd. xvi. (1890); R. Wiedersheim,
+  _Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbelthiere_ (Jena, 1902) (for
+  literature); also Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_ (London, 1897).
+       (F. G. P.)
+
+
+HEART DISEASE.--In the early ages of medicine, the absence of correct
+anatomical, physiological and pathological knowledge prevented diseases
+of the heart from being recognized with any certainty during life, and
+almost entirely precluded them from becoming the object of medical
+treatment. But no sooner did Harvey (1628) publish his discovery of the
+circulation of the blood, and its dependence on the heart as its central
+organ, than derangements of the circulation began to be recognized as
+signs of disease of that central organ. (See also under VASCULAR
+SYSTEM.)
+
+Among the earliest to profit by this discovery and to make important
+contributions to the literature of diseases of the heart and circulation
+were, R. Lower (1631-1691), R. Vieussens (1641-1716). H. Boerhave
+(1668-1738) and the great pathologists at the beginning of the 18th
+century, G. M. Lancisi (1654-1720), G. B. Morgagni (1682-1771) and J. B.
+Senac (1693-1770). The works of these writers form very interesting
+reading, and it is remarkable how careful were the observations made,
+and how sound the conclusions drawn, by these pioneers of scientific
+medicine. J. N. Corvisart (1755-1821) was one of the earliest to make
+practical use of R. T. Auenbrugger's (1722-1809) invention of percussion
+to determine the size of the heart. R. T. H. Laennec (1781-1826) was the
+first to make a scientific application of mediate auscultation to the
+diagnosis of disease of the chest, by the invention of the stethoscope.
+J. Bouillaud (1796-1881) extended its use to the diagnosis of disease of
+the heart. To James Hope (1801-1841) we owe much of the precision we
+have now attained in diagnosis of valvular disease from abnormalities in
+the sounds produced during cardiac movements. This short list by no
+means exhausts the earlier literature on the subject, but each of these
+names marks an era in the progress of the diagnosis of cardiac disease.
+In later years the literature on this subject has become very copious.
+
+The heart and great vessels occupy a position immediately to the left of
+the centre of the thoracic cavity. The anterior surface of the heart is
+projected against the chest wall and is surrounded on either side by the
+lungs, which are resonant organs, so that any increase in the size of
+the heart, "dilatation," can be detected by percussion. By placing the
+hand on the chest, palpation, the impulse of the left ventricle, or apex
+beat, can normally be felt just below and internal to the nipple.
+Deviations from the normal in the position or force of the apex beat
+will afford important information as to the nature of the pathological
+changes in the heart. Thus, displacement downwards and outwards of the
+apex beat, with a forcible thrusting impulse, will indicate hypertrophy,
+or increase of the muscular wall and increased driving power of the left
+ventricle, whereas a similar displacement with a feeble diffuse impulse
+will indicate dilatation, or over-distension of its cavity from
+stretching of the walls.
+
+By auscultation, or listening with a suitable instrument named a
+stethoscope over appropriate areas, we can detect any abnormality in the
+sounds of the heart, and the presence of murmurs indicative of disease
+of one or other of the valves of the heart.
+
+The pericardium is a fibro-serous sac which loosely envelops the heart
+and the origin of the great vessels. Inflammation of this sac, or
+_pericarditis_, is apt to occur as a result of rheumatism, more
+especially in children. It may also occur as a complication of
+pneumonia. It is a serious affection associated with pain over the
+heart, fever, shortness of breath, rapid pulse and dilatation of the
+heart. As a result of the inflammation, fluid may accumulate in the
+pericardial sac, or the walls of the sac may become adherent to the
+heart and tend to embarrass its action. In favourable cases, however,
+recovery may take place without any untoward sequelae.
+
+Diseases of the heart may be classified in two main groups, (1) Disease
+of the valves, and (2) Disease of the walls of the heart.
+
+1. _Valvular Disease._--Inflammation of the valves of the heart, or
+_endocarditis_, is one of the most common complications of rheumatism in
+children and young adults. More severe types, which are apt to prove
+fatal from a form of blood poisoning, may result when the valves of the
+heart are attacked by certain micro-organisms, such as the pneumococcus,
+which is responsible for pneumonia, the streptococcus and the
+staphylococcus pyogenes, the gonococcus and the influenza bacillus.
+
+As a result of endocarditis, one or more of the valves may be seriously
+damaged, so that it leaks or becomes incompetent. The valves of the left
+side of the heart, the aortic and mitral valves, are affected far more
+commonly than those of the right side. It is indeed comparatively rarely
+that the latter are attacked. In the process of healing of a damaged
+valve, scar tissue is formed which has a tendency to contract, so that
+in some cases the orifice of the valve becomes narrowed, and the
+resulting stenosis or narrowing gives rise to obstruction of the blood
+stream. We may thus have incompetence or stenosis of a valve or both
+combined.
+
+Valvular lesions are detected on auscultation over appropriate areas by
+the blowing sounds or murmurs to which they give rise, which modify or
+replace the normal heart sounds. Thus, lesions of the mitral valve give
+rise to murmurs which are heard at the apex beat of the heart, and
+lesions of the aortic valves to murmurs which are heard over the aortic
+area, in the second right intercostal space. Accurate timing of the
+murmurs in relation to the heart sounds enables us to judge whether the
+murmur is due to stenosis or incompetence of the valve affected.
+
+If the valvular lesion is severe, it is essential for the proper
+maintenance of the circulation that certain changes should take place in
+the heart to compensate for or neutralize the effects of the
+regurgitation or obstruction, as the case may be. In affections of the
+aortic valve, the extra work falls on the left ventricle, which enlarges
+proportionately and undergoes hypertrophy. In affections of the mitral
+valve the effect is felt primarily by the left auricle, which is a thin
+walled structure incapable of undergoing the requisite increase in power
+to resist the backward flow through the mitral orifice in case of
+leakage, or to overcome the effects of obstruction in case of stenosis.
+The back pressure is therefore transmitted to the pulmonary circulation,
+and as the right ventricle is responsible for maintaining the flow of
+blood through the lungs, the strain and extra work fall on the right
+ventricle, which in turn enlarges and undergoes hypertrophy. The degree
+of hypertrophy of the left or right ventricle is thus, up to a certain
+point, a measure of the extent of the lesion of the aortic or mitral
+valve respectively. When the effects of the valvular lesion are so
+neutralized by these structural changes in the heart that the
+circulation is equably maintained, "compensation" is said to be
+efficient.
+
+When the heart gives way under the strain, compensation is said to break
+down, and dropsy, shortness of breath, cough and cyanosis, are among the
+distressing symptoms which may set in. The mere existence of a valvular
+lesion does not call for any special treatment so long as compensation
+is efficient, and a large number of people with slight valvular lesions
+are living lives indistinguishable from those of their neighbours. It
+will, however, be readily understood that in the case of the more
+serious lesions certain precautions should be observed in regard to
+over-exertion, excitement, over-indulgence in tobacco or alcohol, &c.,
+as the balance is more readily upset and any undue strain on the heart
+may cause a breakdown of compensation. When this occurs treatment is
+required. A period of rest in bed is often sufficient to enable the
+heart to recover, and this may be supplemented as required by the
+administration of mercurial and saline purgatives to relieve the
+embarrassed circulation, and of suitable cardiac tonics, such as
+digitalis and strychnin, to reinforce and strengthen the heart's action.
+
+2. _Affections of the Muscular Wall of the Heart._--Dilatation of the
+heart, or stretching of the walls of the heart, is an incident, as has
+already been stated, in pericarditis and in the earlier stages of
+valvular disease antecedent to hypertrophy. Temporary over-distension or
+dilatation of the cavities of the heart occurs in violent and protracted
+exertion, but rapidly subsides and is in no wise harmful to the sound
+and vigorous heart of the young. It is otherwise if the heart is weak
+and flabby from a too sedentary life or degenerative changes in its
+walls or during convalescence from a severe illness, when the same
+circumstances which will not injure a healthy heart, may give rise to
+serious dilatation from which recovery may be very protracted.
+
+Influenza is a common cause of cardiac dilatation, and is liable to be a
+source of trouble after the acute illness has subsided, if the patient
+goes about and resumes his ordinary avocations too soon.
+
+Fatty or fibroid degeneration of the heart wall may occur in later life
+from impaired nutrition of the muscle, due to partial obstruction of the
+blood-vessels supplying it, when they are the seat of the degenerative
+changes known as arteriosclerosis or atheroma. The affection known as
+_angina pectoris_ (q.v.) may be a further consequence of this defective
+blood-supply.
+
+The treatment will vary according to the nature of the case. In serious
+cases of dilatation, rest in bed, purgatives and cardiac tonics may be
+required.
+
+In commencing degenerative change the Oertel treatment, consisting of
+graduated exercise up a gentle slope, limitation of fluids and a special
+diet, may be indicated.
+
+In cases of slight dilatation after influenza or recent illness, the
+Schott treatment by baths and exercises as carried out at Nauheim may be
+sometimes beneficial. The change of air and scene, the enforced rest,
+the placid life, together with freedom from excitement and worry, are
+among the most important factors which contribute to success in this
+class of case.
+
+_Disorders of Rhythm of the Heart's Action._--Under this heading may be
+grouped a number of conditions to which the name "functional affections
+of the heart" has sometimes been applied, inasmuch as the disturbances
+in question cannot usually be attributed to definite organic disease of
+the heart. We must, of course, exclude from this category the
+irregularity in the force and frequency of the pulse, which is commonly
+associated with incompetence of the mitral valve.
+
+The heart is a muscular organ possessing certain properties,
+rhythmicity, excitability, contractility, conductivity and tonicity, as
+pointed out by Gaskell, in virtue of which it is able to maintain a
+regular automatic beat independently of nerve stimulation. It is,
+however, intimately connected with the brain, blood-vessels and the
+abdominal and thoracic viscera, by innumerable nerves, through which
+impulses or messages are being constantly sent to and received from
+these various portions of the body. Such messages may give rise to
+disturbances of rhythm with which we are all familiar. For instance,
+sudden fright or emotion may cause a momentary arrest of the heart's
+action, and excitement or apprehension may set up a rapid action of the
+heart or _palpitation_. Palpitation, again, is often the result of
+digestive disorders, the message in this case being received from the
+stomach, instead of the brain as in emotional disturbances. It may also
+result from over-indulgence in tobacco and alcohol.
+
+_Tachycardia_ is the name applied to a more or less permanent increase
+in the rate of the heart-beat. It is usually a prominent feature in the
+affection known as Graves' disease or exophthalmic goitre. It may also
+result from chronic alcoholism. In the condition known as paroxysmal
+tachycardia there appears to be no adequate explanation for its onset.
+
+_Bradycardia_ or abnormal slowness of the heart-beat, is the converse of
+tachycardia. An abnormally slow pulse is met with in melancholia,
+cerebral tumour, jaundice and certain toxic conditions, or may follow an
+attack of influenza. There is, however, a peculiar affection
+characterized by abnormal slowness of pulse (often ranging as low as
+30), and the onset, from time to time, of epileptiform or syncopal
+attacks. To this the name "Stokes-Adams disease" has been applied, as it
+was first called attention to by Adams in 1827, and subsequently fully
+described by Stokes in 1836. It is usually associated with senile
+degenerative change of the heart and vascular system, and is held to be
+due to impairment of conductivity in the muscular fibres (bundle of His)
+which transmit the wave of contraction from the auricle to the
+ventricle. It is of serious significance in view of the symptoms
+associated with it.
+
+_Intermittency of the Pulse._--By this is understood a pulse in which a
+beat is dropped from time to time. The dropping of a beat may occur at
+regular intervals every two, four or six beats, &c., or occasionally at
+irregular intervals after a series of normal beats. On examining the
+heart, it is found, as a rule, that the cause of the intermission at the
+wrist is not actual omission of a heart-beat, but the occurrence of a
+hurried imperfect cardiac contraction which does not transmit a
+pulse-wave to the wrist. It is not characteristic of any special form of
+heart affection, and is rarely of serious import. It may be due to
+reflex digestive disturbances, or be associated with conditions of
+nervous breakdown and irritability, or with an atonic and relaxed
+condition of the heart muscle. The treatment of these disorders of
+rhythm of the heart will vary greatly according to the cause and is
+often a matter of considerable difficulty.     (J. F. H. B.)
+
+_Surgery of Heart and Pericardium._--As the result of acute or chronic
+inflammation of the lining membrane of the fibrous sac which surrounds
+the heart and the neighbouring parts of the large blood-vessels, a
+dropsical or a purulent collection may form in it, or the sac may be
+quietly distended by a thin watery fluid. In either case, but especially
+in the latter, the heart may be so embarrassed in its work that death
+seems imminent. The condition is generally due to the cultivation in the
+pericardium of the germs of rheumatism, influenza or gonorrhoea, or of
+those of ordinary suppuration. Respiration as well as circulation is
+embarrassed, and there is a marked fulness and dulness of the front wall
+of the chest to the left of the breast-bone. In that region also pain
+and tenderness are complained of. By using the slender, hollow needle of
+an aspirator great relief may be afforded, but the tapping may have to
+be repeated from time to time. If the fluid drawn off is found to be
+purulent, it may be necessary to make a trap-door opening into the chest
+by cutting across the 4th and 5th ribs, incising and evacuating the
+pericardium and providing for drainage. In short, an abscess in the
+pericardium must be treated like an abscess in the pleura.
+
+Wounds of the heart are apt to be quickly fatal. If the probability is
+that the enfeebled action of the heart is due to pressure from blood
+which is leaking into, and is locked up in the pericardium, the proper
+treatment will be to open the pericardium, as described above, and, if
+possible, to close the opening in the auricle, ventricle or large
+vessel, by sutures.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In O. Eng. _heorte_; this is a common Teut. word, cf. Dut.
+    _hart_, Ger. _Herz_, Goth. _hairto_; related by root are Lat. _cor_
+    and Gr. [Greek: kardia]: the ultimate root is _kard_-, to quiver,
+    shake.
+
+  [2] This is often called bulbus arteriosus, but it will be seen that
+    the term is used rather differently in comparative anatomy.
+
+
+
+
+HEART-BURIAL, the burial of the heart apart from the body. This is a
+very ancient practice, the special reverence shown towards the heart
+being doubtless due to its early association with the soul of man, his
+affections, courage and conscience. In medieval Europe heart-burial was
+fairly common. Some of the more notable cases are those of Richard I.,
+whose heart, preserved in a casket, was placed in Rouen cathedral; Henry
+III., buried in Normandy; Eleanor, queen of Edward I., at Lincoln;
+Edward I., at Jerusalem; Louis IX., Philip III., Louis XIII. and Louis
+XIV., in Paris. Since the 17th century the hearts of deceased members of
+the house of Habsburg have been buried apart from the body in the
+Loretto chapel in the Augustiner Kirche, Vienna. The most romantic story
+of heart-burial is that of Robert Bruce. He wished his heart to rest at
+Jerusalem in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and on his deathbed
+entrusted the fulfilment of his wish to Douglas. The latter broke his
+journey to join the Spaniards in their war with the Moorish king of
+Granada, and was killed in battle, the heart of Bruce enclosed in a
+silver casket hanging round his neck. Subsequently the heart was buried
+at Melrose Abbey. The heart of James, marquess of Montrose, executed by
+the Scottish Covenanters in 1650, was recovered from his body, which had
+been buried by the roadside outside Edinburgh, and, enclosed in a steel
+box, was sent to the duke of Montrose, then in exile. It was lost on its
+journey, and years afterwards was discovered in a curiosity shop in
+Flanders. Taken by a member of the Montrose family to India, it was
+stolen as an amulet by a native chief, was once more regained, and
+finally lost in France during the Revolution. Of notable 17th-century
+cases there is that of James II., whose heart was buried in the church
+of the convent of the Visitation at Chaillot near Paris, and that of Sir
+William Temple, at Moor Park, Farnham. The last ceremonial burial of a
+heart in England was that of Paul Whitehead, secretary to the Monks of
+Medmenham club, in 1775, the interment taking place in the Le Despenser
+mausoleum at High Wycombe, Bucks. Of later cases the most notable are
+those of Daniel O'Connell, whose heart is at Rome, Shelley at
+Bournemouth, Louis XVII. at Venice, Kosciusko at the Polish museum at
+Rapperschwyll, Lake Zürich, and the marquess of Bute, taken by his widow
+to Jerusalem for burial in 1900. Sometimes other parts of the body,
+removed in the process of embalming, are given separate and solemn
+burial. Thus the viscera of the popes from Sixtus V. (1590) onward have
+been preserved in the parish church of the Quirinal. The custom of
+heart-burial was forbidden by Pope Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), but
+Benedict XI. withdrew the prohibition.
+
+  See Pettigrew, _Chronicles of the Tombs_ (1857).
+
+
+
+
+HEARTH (a word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic
+languages, cf. Dutch _haard_, German _Herd_, in the sense of "floor"),
+the part of a room where a fire is made, usually constructed of stone,
+bricks, tiles or earth, beaten hard and having a chimney above; the fire
+being lighted either on the hearth itself, or in a receptacle placed
+there for the purpose. Like the Latin _focus_, especially in the phrase
+for "hearth and home" answering to _pro aris et focis_, the word is used
+as equivalent to the home or household. The word is also applied to the
+fire and cooking apparatus on board ship; the floor of a smith's forge;
+the floor of a reverberatory furnace on which the ore is exposed to the
+flame; the lower part of a blast furnace through which the metal goes
+down into the crucible; in soldering, a portable brazier or chafing
+dish, and an iron box sunk in the middle of a flat iron plate or table.
+An "open-hearth furnace" is a regenerative furnace of the reverberatory
+type used in making steel, hence "open-hearth steel" (see IRON AND
+STEEL).
+
+Hearth-money, hearth tax or chimney-money, was a tax imposed in England
+on all houses except cottages at a rate of two shillings for every
+hearth. It was first levied in 1662, but owing to its unpopularity,
+chiefly caused by the domiciliary visits of the collectors, it was
+repealed in 1689, although it was producing £170,000 a year. The
+principle of the tax was not new in the history of taxation, for in
+Anglo-Saxon times the king derived a part of his revenue from a _fumage_
+or tax of smoke farthings levied on all hearths except those of the
+poor. It appears also in the hearth-penny or tax of a penny on every
+hearth, which as early as the 10th century was paid annually to the pope
+(see PETER'S PENCE).
+
+
+
+
+HEARTS, a game of cards of recent origin, though founded upon the same
+principle as many old games, such as _Slobberhannes_, _Four Jacks_ and
+_Enflé_, namely, that of losing instead of winning as many tricks as
+possible. Hearts is played with a full pack, ace counting highest and
+deuce lowest. In the four-handed game, which is usually played, the
+entire pack is dealt out as at whist (but without turning up the last
+card, since there are no trumps), and the player at the dealer's left
+begins by leading any card he chooses, the trick being taken by the
+highest card of the suit led. Each player must follow suit if he can; if
+he has no cards of the suit led he is privileged to throw away any card
+he likes, thus having an opportunity of getting rid of his hearts, which
+is the object of the game. When all thirteen tricks have been played
+each player counts the hearts he has taken in and pays into the pool a
+certain number of counters for them, according to an arrangement made
+before beginning play. In the four-handed, or sweepstake, game the
+method of settling called "Howell's," from the name of the inventor, has
+been generally adopted, according to which each player begins with an
+equal number of chips, say 100, and, after the hand has been played,
+pays into the pool as many chips for each heart he had taken as there
+are players besides himself. Then each player takes out of the pool one
+chip for every heart he did not win. The pool is thus exhausted with
+every deal. Hearts may be played by two, three, four or even more
+players, each playing for himself.
+
+  _Spot Hearts._--In this variation the hearts count according to the
+  number of spots on the cards, excepting that the ace counts 14, the
+  king 13, queen 12 and knave 11, the combined score of the thirteen
+  hearts being thus 104.
+
+  _Auction Hearts._--In this the eldest hand examines his hand and bids
+  a certain number of counters for the privilege of naming the suit to
+  be got rid of, but without naming the suit. The other players in
+  succession have the privilege of outbidding him, and whoever bids most
+  declares the suit and pays the amount of his bid into the pool, the
+  winner taking it.
+
+  _Joker Hearts._--Here the deuce of hearts is discarded, and an extra
+  card, called the joker, takes its place, ranking in value between ten
+  and knave. It cannot be thrown away, excepting when hearts are led and
+  an ace or court card is played, though if an opponent discards the ace
+  or a court card of hearts, then the holder of the joker may discard
+  it. The joker is usually considered worth five chips, which are either
+  paid into the pool or to the player who succeeds in discarding the
+  joker.
+
+  _Heartsette._--In this variation the deuce of spades is deleted and
+  the three cards left after dealing twelve cards to each player are
+  called the _widow_ (or _kitty_), and are left face downward on the
+  table. The winner of the first trick must take the widow without
+  showing it to his opponents.
+
+  _Slobberhannes._--The object of this older form of Hearts is to avoid
+  taking either the first or last trick or a trick containing the queen
+  of clubs. A euchre pack (thirty two-cards, lacking all below the 7) is
+  used, and each player is given 10 counters, one being forfeited to the
+  pool if a player takes the first or last trick, or that containing the
+  club queen. If he takes all three he forfeits four points.
+
+  _Four Jacks (Polignac or Quatre-Valets)_ is usually played with a
+  piquet pack, the cards ranking in France as at écarté, but in Great
+  Britain and America as at piquet. There is no trump suit. Counters are
+  used, and the object of the game is to avoid taking any trick
+  containing a knave, especially the knave of spades, called _Polignac_.
+  The player taking such a trick forfeits one counter to the pool.
+
+  _Enflé_ (or _Schwellen_) is usually played by four persons with a
+  piquet pack and for a pool. The cards rank as at Hearts, and there is
+  no trump suit. A player must follow suit if he can, but if he cannot
+  he may not discard, but must take up all tricks already won and add
+  them to his hand. Play is continued until one player gets rid of all
+  his cards and thus wins.
+
+
+
+
+HEAT (O. E. _haétu_, which like "hot," Old Eng. _hát_, is from the
+Teutonic type _haita, hit_, to be hot; cf. Ger. _hitze, heiss_; Dutch,
+_hitte, heet_, &c.), a general term applied to that branch of physical
+science which deals with the effects produced by heat on material
+bodies, with the laws of transference of heat, and with the
+transformations of heat into other kinds of energy. The object of the
+present article is to give a brief sketch of the historical development
+of the science of heat, and to indicate the relation of the different
+branches of the subject, which are discussed in greater detail with
+reference to the latest progress in separate articles.
+
+1. _Meanings of the Term Heat._--The term heat is employed in ordinary
+language in a number of different senses. This makes it a convenient
+term to employ for the general title of the science, but the different
+meanings must be carefully distinguished in scientific reasoning. For
+the present purpose, omitting metaphorical significations, we may
+distinguish four principal uses of the term: (a) Sensation of heat; (b)
+Temperature, or degree of hotness; (c) Quantity of thermal energy; (d)
+Radiant heat, or energy of radiation.
+
+  (a) From the sense of heat, aided in the case of very hot bodies by
+  the sense of sight, we obtain our first rough notions of heat as a
+  physical entity, which alters the state of a body and its condition in
+  respect of warmth, and is capable of passing from one body to another.
+  By touching a body we can tell whether it is warmer or colder than the
+  hand, and, by touching two similar bodies in succession, we can form a
+  rough estimate, by the acuteness of the sensation experienced, of
+  their difference in hotness or coldness over a limited range. If a hot
+  iron is placed on a cold iron plate, we may observe that the plate is
+  heated and the iron cooled until both attain appreciably the same
+  degree of warmth; and we infer from similar cases that something which
+  we call "heat" tends to pass from hot to cold bodies, and to attain
+  finally a state of equable diffusion when all the bodies concerned are
+  equally warm or cold. Ideas such as these derived entirely from the
+  sense of heat, are, so to speak, embedded in the language of every
+  nation from the earliest times.
+
+  (b) From the sense of heat, again, we naturally derive the idea of a
+  continuous scale or order, expressed by such terms as summer heat,
+  blood heat, fever heat, red heat, white heat, in which all bodies may
+  be placed with regard to their degrees of hotness, and we speak of the
+  _temperature_ of a body as denoting its place in the scale, in
+  contradistinction to the quantity of heat it may contain.
+
+  (c) The quantity of heat contained in a body obviously depends on the
+  size of the body considered. Thus a large kettleful of boiling water
+  will evidently contain more heat than a teacupful, though both may be
+  at the same temperature. The temperature does not depend on the size
+  of the body, but on the degree of concentration of the heat in it,
+  i.e. on the quantity of heat per unit mass, other things being equal.
+  We may regard it as axiomatic that a given body (say a pound of water)
+  in a given state (say boiling under a given pressure) must always
+  contain the same quantity of heat, and conversely that, if it contains
+  a given quantity of heat, and if it is under conditions in other
+  respects, it must be at a definite temperature, which will always be
+  the same for the same given conditions.
+
+  (d) It is a matter of common observation that rays of the sun or of a
+  fire falling on a body warm it, and it was in the first instance
+  natural to suppose that heat itself somehow travelled across the
+  intervening space from the sun or fire to the body warmed, in much the
+  same way as heat may be carried by a current of hot air or water. But
+  we now know that energy of radiation is not the same thing as heat,
+  though it is converted into heat when the rays strike an absorbing
+  substance. The term "radiant heat," however, is generally retained,
+  because radiation is commonly measured in terms of the heat it
+  produces, and because the transference of energy by radiation and
+  absorption is the most important agency in the diffusion of heat.
+
+2. _Evolution of the Thermometer._--The first step in the development of
+the science of heat was necessarily the invention of a thermometer, an
+instrument for indicating temperature and measuring its changes. The
+first requisite in the case of such an instrument is that it should
+always give, at least approximately the same indication at the same
+temperature. The air-thermoscope of Galileo, illustrated in fig. 1,
+which consisted of a glass bulb containing air, connected to a glass
+tube of small bore dipping into a coloured liquid, though very sensitive
+to variations of temperature, was not satisfactory as a measuring
+instrument, because it was also affected by variations of atmospheric
+pressure. The invention of the type of thermometer familiar at the
+present day, containing a liquid hermetically sealed in a glass bulb
+with a fine tube attached, is also generally attributed to Galileo at a
+slightly later date, about 1612. Alcohol was the liquid first employed,
+and the degrees, intended to represent thousandths of the volume of the
+bulb, were marked with small beads of enamel fused on the stem, as shown
+in fig. 2. In order to render the readings of such instruments
+comparable with each other, it was necessary to select a fixed point or
+standard temperature as the zero or starting-point of the graduations.
+Instead of making each degree a given fraction of the volume of the
+bulb, which would be difficult in practice, and would give different
+values for the degree with different liquids, it was soon found to be
+preferable to take _two fixed points_, and to divide the interval
+between them into the same number of degrees. It was natural in the
+first instance to take the temperature of the human body as one of the
+fixed points. In 1701 Sir Isaac Newton proposed a scale in which the
+freezing-point of water was taken as zero, and the temperature of the
+human body as 12°. About the same date (1714) Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit
+proposed to take as zero the lowest temperature obtainable with a
+freezing mixture of ice and salt, and to divide the interval between
+this temperature and that of the human body into 12°. To obtain finer
+graduations the number was subsequently increased to 96°. The
+freezing-point of water was at that time supposed to be somewhat
+variable, because as a matter of fact it is possible to cool water
+several degrees below its freezing-point in the absence of ice.
+Fahrenheit showed, however, that as soon as ice began to form the
+temperature always rose to the same point, and that a mixture of ice or
+snow with pure water always gave the same temperature. At a later period
+he also showed that the temperature of boiling water varied with the
+barometric pressure, but that it was always the same at the same
+pressure, and might therefore be used as the second fixed point (as
+Edmund Halley and others had suggested) provided that a definite
+pressure, such as the average atmospheric pressure, were specified. The
+freezing and boiling-points on one of his thermometers, graduated as
+already explained, with the temperature of the body as 96°, came out in
+the neighbourhood of 32° and 212° respectively, giving an interval of
+180° between these points. Shortly after Fahrenheit's death (1736) the
+freezing and boiling-points of water were generally recognized as the
+most convenient fixed points to adopt, but different systems of
+subdivision were employed. Fahrenheit's scale, with its small degrees
+and its zero below the freezing-point, possesses undoubted advantages
+for meteorological work, and is still retained in most English-speaking
+countries. But for general scientific purposes, the centigrade system,
+in which the freezing-point is marked 0° and the boiling-point 100°, is
+now almost universally employed, on account of its greater simplicity
+from an arithmetical point of view. For work of precision the fixed
+points have been more exactly defined (see THERMOMETRY), but no change
+has been made in the fundamental principle of graduation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2.]
+
+3. _Comparison of Scales based on Expansion._--Thermometers constructed
+in the manner already described will give strictly comparable readings,
+provided that the tubes be of uniform bore, and that the same liquid and
+glass be employed in their construction. But they possess one obvious
+defect from a theoretical point of view, namely, that the subdivision of
+the temperature scale depends on the expansion of the particular liquid
+selected as the standard. A liquid such as water, which, when
+continuously heated at a uniform rate from its freezing-point, first
+contracts and then expands, at a rapidly increasing rate, would
+obviously be unsuitable. But there is no a priori reason why other
+liquids should not behave to some extent in a similar way. As a matter
+of fact, it was soon observed that thermometers carefully constructed
+with different liquids, such as alcohol, oil and mercury, did not agree
+precisely in their indications at points of the scale intermediate
+between the fixed points, and diverged even more widely outside these
+limits. Another possible method, proposed in 1694 by Carlo Renaldeni
+(1615-1698), professor of mathematics and philosophy at Pisa, would be
+to determine the intermediate points of the scale by observing the
+temperatures of mixtures of ice-cold and boiling water in varying
+proportions. On this method, the temperature of 50° C. would be defined
+as that obtained by mixing equal weights of water at 0° C. and 100° C.;
+20° C., that obtained by mixing 80 parts of water at 0° C. with 20 parts
+of water at 100° C. and so on. Each degree rise of temperature in a mass
+of water would then represent the addition of the same quantity of heat.
+The scale thus obtained would, as a matter of fact, agree very closely
+with that of a mercury thermometer, but the method would be very
+difficult to put in practice, and would still have the disadvantage of
+depending on the properties of a particular liquid, namely, water, which
+is known to behave in an anomalous manner in other respects. At a later
+date, the researches of Gay-Lussac (1802) and Regnault (1847) showed
+that the laws of the expansion of gases are much simpler than those of
+liquids. Whereas the expansion of alcohol between 0° C. and 100° C. is
+nearly seven times as great as that of mercury, all gases (excluding
+easily condensible vapours) expand equally, or so nearly equally that
+the differences between them cannot be detected without the most refined
+observations. This equality of expansion affords a strong a priori
+argument for selecting the scale given by the expansion of a gas as the
+standard scale of temperature, but there are still stronger theoretical
+grounds for this choice, which will be indicated in discussing the
+absolute scale (§ 21). Among liquids mercury is found to agree most
+nearly with the gas scale, and is generally employed in thermometers for
+scientific purposes on account of its high boiling-point and for other
+reasons. The differences of the mercurial scale from the gas scale
+having been carefully determined, the mercury thermometer can be used as
+a secondary standard to replace the gas thermometer within certain
+limits, as the gas thermometer would be very troublesome to employ
+directly in ordinary investigations. For certain purposes, and
+especially at temperatures beyond the range of mercury thermometers,
+electrical thermometers, also standardized by reference to the gas
+thermometer, have been very generally employed in recent years, while
+for still higher temperatures beyond the range of the gas thermometer,
+thermometers based on the recently established laws of radiation are the
+only instruments available. For a further discussion of the theory and
+practice of the measurement of temperature, the reader is referred to
+the article THERMOMETRY.
+
+_4. Change of State._--Among the most important effects of heat is that
+of changing the state of a substance from solid to liquid, or from
+liquid to vapour. With very few exceptions, all substances, whether
+simple or compound, are known to be capable of existing in each of the
+three states under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure. The
+transition of any substance, from the state of liquid to that of solid
+or vapour under the ordinary atmospheric pressure, takes place at fixed
+temperatures, the freezing and boiling-points, which are very sharply
+defined for pure crystalline substances, and serve in fact as fixed
+points of the thermometric scale. A change of state cannot, however, be
+effected in any case without the addition or subtraction of a certain
+definite quantity of heat. If a piece of ice below the freezing-point is
+gradually heated at a uniform rate, its temperature may be observed to
+rise regularly till the freezing-point is reached. At this point it
+begins to melt, and its temperature ceases to rise. The melting takes a
+considerable time, during the whole of which heat is being continuously
+supplied without producing any rise of temperature, although if the same
+quantity of heat were supplied to an equal mass of water, the
+temperature of the water would be raised nearly 80° C. Heat thus
+absorbed in producing a change of state without rise of temperature is
+called "Latent Heat," a term introduced by Joseph Black, who was one of
+the first to study the subject of change of state from the point of view
+of heat absorbed, and who in many cases actually adopted the
+comparatively rough method described above of estimating quantities of
+heat by observing the time required to produce a given change when the
+substance was receiving heat at a steady rate from its surroundings. For
+every change of state a definite quantity of heat is required, without
+which the change cannot take place. Heat must be added to melt a solid,
+or to vaporize a solid or a liquid, and conversely, heat must be
+subtracted to reverse the change, i.e. to condense a vapour or freeze a
+liquid. The quantity required for any given change depends on the nature
+of the substance and the change considered, and varies to some extent
+with the conditions (as to pressure, &c.) under which the change is
+made, but is always the same for the same change under the same
+conditions. A rough measurement of the latent heat of steam was made as
+early as 1764 by James Watt, who found that steam at 212° F., when
+passed from a kettle into a jar of cold water, was capable of raising
+nearly six times its weight of water to the boiling point. He gives the
+volume of the steam as about 1800 times that of an equal weight of
+water.
+
+  The phenomena which accompany change of state, and the physical laws
+  by which such changes are governed, are discussed in a series of
+  special articles dealing with particular cases. The articles on FUSION
+  and ALLOYS deal with the change from the solid to the liquid state,
+  and the analogous case of solution is discussed in the article on
+  SOLUTION. The articles on CONDENSATION OF GASES, LIQUID GASES and
+  VAPORIZATION deal with the theory of the change of state from liquid
+  to vapour, and with the important applications of liquid gases to
+  other researches. The methods of measuring the latent heat of fusion
+  or vaporization are described in the article CALORIMETRY, and need not
+  be further discussed here except as an introduction to the history of
+  the evolution of knowledge with regard to the nature of heat.
+
+5. _Calorimetry by Latent Heat._--In principle, the simplest and most
+direct method of measuring quantities of heat consists in observing the
+effects produced in melting a solid or vaporizing a liquid. It was, in
+fact, by the fusion of ice that quantities of heat were first measured.
+If a hot body is placed in a cavity in a block of ice at 0° C., and is
+covered by a closely fitting slab of ice, the quantity of ice melted
+will be directly proportional to the quantity of heat lost by the body
+in cooling to 0° C. None of the heat can possibly escape through the
+ice, and conversely no heat can possibly get in from outside. The body
+must cool exactly to 0° C., and every fraction of the heat it loses must
+melt an equivalent quantity of ice. Apart from heat lost in transferring
+the heated body to the ice block, the method is theoretically perfect.
+The only difficulty consists in the practical measurement of the
+quantity of ice melted. Black estimated this quantity by mopping out the
+cavity with a sponge before and after the operation. But there is a
+variable film of water adhering to the walls of the cavity, which gives
+trouble in accurate work. In 1780 Laplace and Lavoisier used a
+double-walled metallic vessel containing broken ice, which was in many
+respects more convenient than the block, but aggravated the difficulty
+of the film of water adhering to the ice. In spite of this practical
+difficulty, the quantity of heat required to melt unit weight of ice was
+for a long time taken as the unit of heat. This unit possesses the great
+advantage that it is independent of the scale of temperature adopted. At
+a much later date R. Bunsen (_Phil. Mag._, 1871), adopting a suggestion
+of Sir John Herschel's, devised an ice-calorimeter suitable for
+measuring small quantities of heat, in which the difficulty of the water
+film was overcome by measuring the change in volume due to the melting
+of the ice. The volume of unit mass of ice is approximately 1.0920 times
+that of unit mass of water, so that the diminution of volume is 0.092 a
+cubic centimetre for each gramme of ice melted. The method requires
+careful attention to details of manipulation, which are more fully
+discussed in the article on CALORIMETRY.
+
+For measuring large quantities of heat, such as those produced by the
+combustion of fuel in a boiler, the most convenient method is the
+evaporation of water, which is commonly employed by engineers for the
+purpose. The natural unit in this case is the quantity of heat required
+to evaporate unit mass of water at the boiling point under atmospheric
+pressure. In boilers working at a higher pressure, or supplied with
+water at a lower temperature, appropriate corrections are applied to
+deduce the quantity evaporated in terms of this unit.
+
+For laboratory work on a small scale the converse method of condensation
+has been successfully applied by John Joly, in whose steam-calorimeter
+the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body from
+the atmospheric temperature to that of steam condensing at atmospheric
+pressure is observed by weighing the mass of steam condensed on it. (See
+CALORIMETRY.)
+
+6. _Thermometric Calorimetry._--For the majority of purposes the most
+convenient and the most readily applicable method of measuring
+quantities of heat, is to observe the rise of temperature produced in a
+known mass of water contained in a suitable vessel or calorimeter. This
+method was employed from a very early date by Count Rumford and other
+investigators, and was brought to a high pitch of perfection by Regnault
+in his extensive calorimetric researches (_Mémoires de l'Institut de
+Paris_, 1847); but it is only within comparatively recent years that it
+has really been placed on a satisfactory basis by the accurate
+definition of the units involved. The theoretical objections to the
+method, as compared with latent heat calorimetry, are that some heat is
+necessarily lost by the calorimeter when its temperature is raised above
+that of the surroundings, and that some heat is used in heating the
+vessel containing the water. These are small corrections, which can be
+estimated with considerable accuracy in practice. A more serious
+difficulty, which has impaired the value of much careful work by this
+method, is that the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature
+of a given mass of water 1° C. depends on the temperature at which the
+water is taken, and also on the scale of the thermometer employed. It is
+for this reason, in many cases, impossible to say, at the present time,
+what was the precise value, within ½ or even 1% of the heat unit, in
+terms of which many of the older results, such as those of Regnault,
+were expressed. For many purposes this would not be a serious matter,
+but for work of scientific precision such a limitation of accuracy would
+constitute a very serious bar to progress. The unit generally adopted
+for scientific purposes is the quantity of heat required to raise 1 gram
+(or kilogram) of water 1° C., and is called the calorie (or
+kilo-calorie). English engineers usually state results in terms of the
+British Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.), which is the quantity of heat required
+to raise 1 lb. of water 1° F.
+
+7. _Watt's Indicator Diagram; Work of Expansion._--The rapid development
+of the steam-engine (q.v.) in England during the latter part of the 18th
+century had a marked effect on the progress of the science of heat. In
+the first steam-engines the working cylinder served both as boiler and
+condenser, a very wasteful method, as most of the heat was transferred
+directly from the fire to the condensing water without useful effect.
+The first improvement (about 1700) was to use a separate boiler, but the
+greater part of the steam supplied was still wasted in reheating the
+cylinder, which had been cooled by the injection of cold water to
+condense the steam after the previous stroke. In 1769 James Watt showed
+how to avoid this waste by using a separate condenser and keeping the
+cylinder as hot as possible. In his earlier engines the steam at full
+boiler pressure was allowed to raise the piston through nearly the whole
+of its stroke. Connexion with the boiler was then cut off, and the steam
+at full pressure was discharged into the condenser. Here again there was
+unnecessary waste, as the steam was still capable of doing useful work.
+He subsequently introduced "expansive working," which effected still
+further economy. The connexion with the boiler was cut off when a
+fraction only, say ¼, of the stroke had been completed, the remainder of
+the stroke being effected by the expansion of the steam already in the
+cylinder with continually diminishing pressure. By the end of the
+stroke, when connexion was made to the condenser, the pressure was so
+reduced that there was comparatively little waste from this cause. Watt
+also devised an instrument called an _indicator_ (see STEAM ENGINE), in
+which a pencil, moved up and down vertically by the steam pressure,
+recorded the pressure in the cylinder at every point of the stroke on a
+sheet of paper moving horizontally in time with the stroke of the
+piston. The diagram thus obtained made it possible to study what was
+happening inside the cylinder, and to deduce the work done by the steam
+in each stroke. The method of the indicator diagram has since proved of
+great utility in physics in studying the properties of gases and
+vapours. The work done, or the useful effect obtained from an engine or
+any kind of machine, is measured by the product of the resistance
+overcome and the distance through which it is overcome. The result is
+generally expressed in terms of the equivalent weight raised through a
+certain height against the force of gravity.[1] If, for instance, the
+pressure on a piston is 50 lb. per sq. in., and the area of the piston
+is 100 sq. in., the force on the piston is 5000 lb. weight. If the
+stroke of the piston is 1 ft., the work done per stroke is capable of
+raising a weight of 5000 lb. through a height of 1 ft., or 50 lb.
+through a height of 100 ft. and so on.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Watt's Indicator Diagram. Patent of 1782.]
+
+  Fig. 3 represents an imaginary indicator diagram for a steam-engine,
+  taken from one of Watt's patents. Steam is admitted to the cylinder
+  when the piston is at the beginning of its stroke, at S. ST represents
+  the length of the stroke or the limit of horizontal movement of the
+  paper on which the diagram is drawn. The indicating pencil rises to
+  the point A, representing the absolute pressure of 60 lb. per sq. in.
+  As the piston moves outwards the pencil traces the horizontal line AB,
+  the pressure remaining constant till the point B is reached, at which
+  connexion to the boiler is cut off. The work done so far is
+  represented by the area of the rectangle ABSF, namely AS × SF,
+  multiplied by the area of the piston in sq. in. The result is in
+  foot-pounds if the fraction of the stroke SF is taken in feet. After
+  cut-off at B the steam expands under diminishing pressure, and the
+  pencil falls gradually from B to C, following the steam pressure until
+  the exhaust valve opens at the end of the stroke. The pressure then
+  falls rapidly to that of the condenser, which for an ideal case may be
+  taken as zero, following Watt. The work done during expansion is found
+  by dividing the remainder of the stroke FT into a number of equal
+  parts (say 8, Watt takes 20) and measuring the pressure at the points
+  1, 2, 3, 4, &c., corresponding to the middle of each. We thus obtain a
+  number of small rectangles, the sum of which is evidently very nearly
+  equal to the whole area BCTF under the expansion curve, or to the
+  remainder of the stroke FT multiplied by the average or mean value of
+  the pressure. The whole work done in the forward stroke is represented
+  by the area ABCTSA, or by the average value of the pressure P over the
+  whole stroke multiplied by the stroke L. This area must be multiplied
+  by the area of the piston A in sq. in. as before, to get the work done
+  per stroke in foot-pounds, which is PLA. If the engine repeats this
+  cycle N times per minute, the work done per minute is PLAN
+  foot-pounds, which is reduced to horse-power by dividing by 33,000. If
+  the steam is ejected by the piston at atmospheric pressure (15 lb. per
+  sq. in.) instead of being condensed at zero pressure, the area CDST
+  under the atmospheric line CD, representing work done against
+  back-pressure on the return stroke must be subtracted. If the engine
+  repeats the same cycle or series of operations continuously, the
+  indicator diagram will be a closed curve, and the nett work done per
+  cycle will be represented by the included area, whatever the form of
+  the curve.
+
+8. _Thermal Efficiency._--The thermal efficiency of an engine is the
+ratio of the work done by the engine to the heat supplied to it.
+According to Watt's observations, confirmed later by Clément and
+Désormes, the total heat required to produce 1 lb. of saturated steam at
+any temperature from water at 0° C. was approximately 650 times the
+quantity of heat required to raise 1 lb. of water 1° C. Since 1 lb. of
+steam represented on this assumption a certain quantity of heat, the
+efficiency could be measured naturally in foot-pounds of work obtainable
+per lb. of steam, or conversely in pounds of steam consumed per
+horse-power-hour.
+
+In his patent of 1782 Watt gives the following example of the
+improvement in thermal efficiency obtained by expansive working. Taking
+the diagram already given, if the quantity of steam represented by AB,
+or 300 cub. in. at 60 lb. pressure, were employed without expansion, the
+work realized, represented by the area ABSF, would be 6000/4 = 1500
+foot-pounds. With expansion to 4 times its original volume, as shown in
+the diagram by the whole area ABCTSA, the mean pressure (as calculated
+by Watt, assuming Boyle's law) would be 0.58 of the original pressure,
+and the work done would be 6000 × 0.58 = 3480 foot-pounds for the same
+quantity of steam, or the thermal efficiency would be 2.32 times
+greater. The advantage actually obtained would not be so great as this,
+on account of losses by condensation, back-pressure, &c., which are
+neglected in Watt's calculation, but the margin would still be very
+considerable. Three hundred cub. in. of steam at 60 lb. pressure would
+represent about .0245 of 1 lb. of steam, or 28.7 B.Th.U., so that,
+neglecting all losses, the possible thermal efficiency attainable with
+steam at this pressure and four expansions (¼ cut-off) would be
+3480/28.7, or 121 foot-pounds per B.Th.U. At a later date, about 1820,
+it was usual to include the efficiency of the boiler with that of the
+engine, and to reckon the efficiency or "duty" in foot-pounds per bushel
+or cwt. of coal. The best Cornish pumping-engines of that date achieved
+about 70 million foot-pounds per cwt., or consumed about 3.2 lb. per
+horse-power-hour, which is roughly equivalent to 43 foot-pounds per
+B.Th.U. The efficiency gradually increased as higher pressures were
+used, with more complete expansion, but the conditions upon which the
+efficiency depended were not fully worked out till a much later date.
+Much additional knowledge with regard to the nature of heat, and the
+properties of gases and vapours, was required before the problem could
+be attacked theoretically.
+
+9. _Of the Nature of Heat._--In the early days of the science it was
+natural to ascribe the manifestations of heat to the action of a subtle
+imponderable fluid called "caloric," with the power of penetrating,
+expanding and dissolving bodies, or dissipating them in vapour. The
+fluid was imponderable, because the most careful experiments failed to
+show that heat produced any increase in weight. The opposite property of
+levitation was often ascribed to heat, but it was shown by more cautious
+investigators that the apparent loss of weight due to heating was to be
+attributed to evaporation or to upward air currents. The fundamental
+idea of an imaginary fluid to represent heat was useful as helping the
+mind to a conception of something remaining invariable in quantity
+through many transformations, but in some respects the analogy was
+misleading, and tended greatly to retard the progress of science. The
+caloric theory was very simple in its application to the majority of
+calorimetric experiments, and gave a fair account of the elementary
+phenomena of change of state, but it encountered serious difficulties in
+explaining the production of heat by friction, or the changes of
+temperature accompanying the compression or expansion of a gas. The
+explanation which the calorists offered of the production of heat by
+friction or compression was that some of the latent caloric was squeezed
+or ground out of the bodies concerned and became "sensible." In the case
+of heat developed by friction, they supposed that the abraded portions
+of the material were capable of holding a smaller quantity of heat, or
+had less "capacity for heat," than the original material. From a logical
+point of view, this was a perfectly tenable hypothesis, and one
+difficult to refute. It was easy to account in this way for the heat
+produced in boring cannon and similar operations, where the amount of
+abraded material was large. To refute this explanation, Rumford (_Phil.
+Trans._, 1798) made his celebrated experiments with a blunt borer, in
+one of which he succeeded in boiling by friction 26.5 lb. of cold water
+in 2½ hours, with the production of only 4145 grains of metallic powder.
+He then showed by experiment that the metallic powder required the same
+amount of heat to raise its temperature 1°, as an equal weight of the
+original metal, or that its "capacity for heat" (in this sense) was
+unaltered by reducing it to powder; and he argued that "in any case so
+small a quantity of powder could not possibly account for all the heat
+generated, that the supply of heat appeared to be inexhaustible, and
+that heat could not be a material substance, but must be something of
+the nature of motion." Unfortunately Rumford's argument was not quite
+conclusive. The supporters of the caloric theory appear, whether
+consciously or unconsciously, to have used the phrase "capacity for
+heat" in two entirely distinct senses without any clear definition of
+the difference. The phrase "capacity for heat" might very naturally
+denote the total quantity of heat contained in a body, which we have no
+means of measuring, but it was generally used to signify the quantity of
+heat required to raise the temperature of a body one degree, which is
+quite a different thing, and has no necessary relation to the total
+heat. In proving that the powder and the solid metal required the same
+quantity of heat to raise the temperature of equal masses of either one
+degree, Rumford did not prove that they contained equal quantities of
+heat, which was the real point at issue in this instance. The metal tin
+actually changes into powder below a certain temperature, and in so
+doing evolves a measurable quantity of heat. A mixture of the gases
+oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportions in which they combine to form
+water, evolves when burnt sufficient heat to raise more than thirty
+times its weight of water from the freezing to the boiling point; and
+the mixture of gases may, in this sense, be said to contain so much more
+heat than the water, although its capacity for heat in the ordinary
+sense is only about half that of the water produced. To complete the
+refutation of the calorists' explanation of the heat produced by
+friction, it would have been necessary for Rumford to show that the
+powder when reconverted into the same state as the solid metal did not
+absorb a quantity of heat equivalent to that evolved in the grinding; in
+other words that the heat produced by friction was not simply that due
+to the change of state of the metal from solid to powder.
+
+Shortly afterwards, in 1799, Davy[2] described an experiment in which he
+melted ice by rubbing two blocks together. This experiment afforded a
+very direct refutation of the calorists' view, because it was a
+well-known fact that ice required to have a quantity of heat added to it
+to convert it into water, so that the water produced by the friction
+contained more heat than the ice. In stating as the conclusion to be
+drawn from this experiment that "friction consequently does not diminish
+the capacity of bodies for heat," Davy apparently uses the phrase
+capacity for heat in the sense of total heat contained in a body,
+because in a later section of the same essay he definitely gives the
+phrase this meaning, and uses the term "capability of temperature" to
+denote what we now term capacity for heat.
+
+The delay in the overthrow of the caloric theory, and in the acceptance of
+the view that heat is a mode of motion, was no doubt partly due to some
+fundamental confusion of ideas in the use of the term "capacity for heat"
+and similar phrases. A still greater obstacle lay in the comparative
+vagueness of the motion or vibration theory. Davy speaks of heat as being
+"repulsive motion," and distinguishes it from light, which is "projective
+motion"; though heat is certainly not a substance--according to Davy in
+the essay under discussion--and may not even be treated as an imponderable
+fluid, light as certainly is a material substance, and is capable of
+forming chemical compounds with ordinary matter, such as oxygen gas, which
+is not a simple substance, but a compound, termed phosoxygen, of light and
+oxygen. Accepting the conclusions of Davy and Rumford that heat is not a
+material substance but a mode of motion, there still remains the question,
+what definite conception is to be attached to a quantity of heat? What do
+we mean by a quantity of vibratory motion, how is the quantity of motion
+to be estimated, and why should it remain invariable in many
+transformations? The idea that heat was a "mode of motion" was applicable
+as a qualitative explanation of many of the effects of heat, but it lacked
+the quantitative precision of a scientific statement, and could not be
+applied to the calculation and prediction of definite results. The state
+of science at the time of Rumford's and Davy's experiments did not admit
+of a more exact generalization. The way was paved in the first instance by
+a more complete study of the laws of gases, to which Laplace, Dalton,
+Gay-Lussac, Dulong and many others contributed both on the experimental
+and theoretical side. Although the development proceeded simultaneously
+along many parallel lines, it is interesting and instructive to take the
+investigation of the properties of gases, and to endeavour to trace the
+steps by which the true theory was finally attained.
+
+10. _Thermal Properties of Gases._--The most characteristic property of
+a gaseous or elastic fluid, namely, the elasticity, or resistance to
+compression, was first investigated scientifically by Robert Boyle
+(1662), who showed that the pressure p of a given mass of gas varied
+inversely as the volume v, provided that the temperature remained
+constant. This is generally expressed by the formula pv = C, where C is
+a constant for any given temperature, and v is taken to represent the
+specific volume, or the volume of unit mass, of the gas at the given
+pressure and temperature. Boyle was well aware of the effect of heat in
+expanding a gas, but he was unable to investigate this properly as no
+thermometric scale had been defined at that date. According to Boyle's
+law, when a mass of gas is compressed by a small amount at constant
+temperature, the percentage increase of pressure is equal to the
+percentage diminution of volume (if the compression is v/100, the
+increase of pressure is very nearly p/100). Adopting this law, Newton
+showed, by a most ingenious piece of reasoning (_Principia_, ii., sect.
+8), that the velocity of sound in air should be equal to the velocity
+acquired by a body falling under gravity through a distance equal to
+half the height of the atmosphere, considered as being of uniform
+density equal to that at the surface of the earth. This gave the result
+918 ft. per sec. (280 metres per sec.) for the velocity at the freezing
+point. Newton was aware that the actual velocity of sound was somewhat
+greater than this, but supposed that the difference might be due in some
+way to the size of the air particles, of which no account could be taken
+in the calculation. The first accurate measurement of the velocity of
+sound by the French Académie des Sciences in 1738 gave the value 332
+metres per sec. as the velocity at 0° C. The true explanation of the
+discrepancy was not discovered till nearly 100 years later.
+
+The law of expansion of gases with change of temperature was
+investigated by Dalton and Gay-Lussac (1802), who found that the volume
+of a gas under constant pressure increased by 1/267th part of its volume
+at 0° C. for each 1° C. rise in temperature. This value was generally
+assumed in all calculations for nearly 50 years. More exact researches,
+especially those of Regnault, at a later date, showed that the law was
+very nearly correct for all permanent gases, but that the value of the
+coefficient should be 1/273rd. According to this law the volume of a gas
+at any temperature t° C. should be proportional to 273 + t, i.e. to the
+temperature reckoned from a zero 273° below that of the Centigrade
+scale, which was called the absolute zero of the gas thermometer. If T =
+273 + t, denotes the temperature measured from this zero, the law of
+expansion of a gas may be combined with Boyle's law in the simple
+formula
+
+  pv = RT   (1)
+
+which is generally taken as the expression of the gaseous laws. If equal
+volumes of different gases are taken at the same temperature and
+pressure, it follows that the constant R is the same for all gases. If
+equal masses are taken, the value of the constant R for different gases
+varies inversely as the molecular weight or as the density relative to
+hydrogen.
+
+Dalton also investigated the laws of vapours, and of mixtures of gases
+and vapours. He found that condensible vapours approximately followed
+Boyle's law when compressed, until the condensation pressure was
+reached, at which the vapour liquefied without further increase of
+pressure. He found that when a liquid was introduced into a closed
+space, and allowed to evaporate until the space was saturated with the
+vapour and evaporation ceased, the increase of pressure in the space was
+equal to the condensation pressure of the vapour, and did not depend on
+the volume of the space or the presence of any other gas or vapour
+provided that there was no solution or chemical action. He showed that
+the condensation or saturation-pressure of a vapour depended only on the
+temperature, and increased by nearly the same fraction of itself per
+degree rise of temperature, and that the pressures of different vapours
+were nearly the same at equal distances from their boiling points. The
+increase of pressure per degree C. at the boiling point was about 1/28th
+of 760 mm. or 27.2 mm., but increased in geometrical progression with
+rise of temperature. These results of Dalton's were confirmed, and in
+part corrected, as regards increase of vapour-pressure, by Gay-Lussac,
+Dulong, Regnault and other investigators, but were found to be as close
+an approximation to the truth as could be obtained with such simple
+expressions. More accurate empirical expressions for the increase of
+vapour-pressure of a liquid with temperature were soon obtained by
+Thomas Young, J. P. L. A. Roche and others, but the explanation of the
+relation was not arrived at until a much later date (see VAPORIZATION).
+
+11. _Specific Heats of Gases._--In order to estimate the quantities of
+heat concerned in experiments with gases, it was necessary in the first
+instance to measure their specific heats, which presented formidable
+difficulties. The earlier attempts by Lavoisier and others, employing
+the ordinary methods of calorimetry, gave very uncertain and discordant
+results, which were not regarded with any confidence even by the
+experimentalists themselves. Gay-Lussac (_Mémoires d'Arcueil_, 1807)
+devised an ingenious experiment, which, though misinterpreted at the
+time, is very interesting and instructive. With the object of comparing
+the specific heats of different gases, he took two equal globes A and B
+connected by a tube with a stop-cock. The globe B was exhausted, the
+other A being filled with gas. On opening the tap between the vessels,
+the gas flowed from A to B and the pressure was rapidly equalized. He
+observed that the fall of temperature in A was nearly equal to the rise
+of temperature in B, and that for the same initial pressure the change
+of temperature was very nearly the same for all the gases he tried,
+except hydrogen, which showed greater changes of temperature than other
+gases. He concluded from this experiment that equal volumes of gases had
+the same capacity for heat, except hydrogen, which he supposed to have a
+larger capacity, because it showed a greater effect. The method does not
+in reality afford any direct information with regard to the specific
+heats, and the conclusion with regard to hydrogen is evidently wrong. At
+a later date (_Ann. de Chim._, 1812, 81, p. 98) Gay-Lussac adopted A.
+Crawford's method of mixture, allowing two equal streams of different
+gases, one heated and the other cooled about 20° C., to mix in a tube
+containing a thermometer. The resulting temperature was in all cases
+nearly the mean of the two, from which he concluded that equal volumes
+of all the gases tried, namely, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, air, oxygen
+and nitrogen, had the same thermal capacity. This was correct, except as
+regards carbon dioxide, but did not give any information as to the
+actual specific heats referred to water or any known substance. About
+the same time, F. Delaroche and J. E. Bérard (_Ann. de chim._, 1813, 85,
+p. 72) made direct determinations of the specific heats of air, oxygen,
+hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and ethylene,
+by passing a stream of gas heated to nearly 100° C. through a spiral
+tube in a calorimeter containing water. Their work was a great advance
+on previous attempts, and gave the first trustworthy results. With the
+exception of hydrogen, which presents peculiar difficulties, they found
+that equal volumes of the permanent gases, air, oxygen and carbon
+monoxide, had nearly the same thermal capacity, but that the compound
+condensible gases, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and ethylene, had
+larger thermal capacities in the order given. They were unable to state
+whether the specific heats of the gases increased or diminished with
+temperature, but from experiments on air at pressures of 740 mm. and
+1000 mm., they found the specific heats to be .269 and .245
+respectively, and concluded that the specific heat diminished with
+increase of pressure. The difference they observed was really due to
+errors of experiment, but they regarded it as proving beyond doubt the
+truth of the calorists' contention that the heat disengaged on the
+compression of a gas was due to the diminution of its thermal capacity.
+
+Dalton and others had endeavoured to measure directly the rise of
+temperature produced by the compression of a gas. Dalton had observed a
+rise of 50° F. in a gas when suddenly compressed to half its volume, but
+no thermometers at that time were sufficiently sensitive to indicate
+more than a fraction of the change of temperature. Laplace was the first
+to see in this phenomenon the probable explanation of the discrepancy
+between Newton's calculation of the velocity of sound and the observed
+value. The increase of pressure due to a sudden compression, in which no
+heat was allowed to escape, or as we now call it an "adiabatic"
+compression, would necessarily be greater than the increase of pressure
+in a slow isothermal compression, on account of the rise of temperature.
+As the rapid compressions and rarefactions occurring in the propagation
+of a sound wave were perfectly adiabatic, it was necessary to take
+account of the rise of temperature due to compression in calculating the
+velocity. To reconcile the observed and calculated values of the
+velocity, the increase of pressure in adiabatic compression must be
+1.410 times greater than in isothermal compression. This is the ratio of
+the adiabatic elasticity of air to the isothermal elasticity. It was a
+long time, however, before Laplace saw his way to any direct
+experimental verification of the value of this ratio. At a later date
+(_Ann. de chim._, 1816, 3, p. 238) he stated that he had succeeded in
+proving that the ratio in question must be the same as the ratio of the
+specific heat of air at constant pressure to the specific heat at
+constant volume.
+
+  In the method of measuring the specific heat adopted by Delaroche and
+  Bérard, the gas under experiment, while passing through a tube at
+  practically constant pressure, contracts in cooling, as it gives up
+  its heat to the calorimeter. Part of the heat surrendered to the
+  calorimeter is due to the contraction of volume. If a gramme of gas at
+  pressure p, volume v and temperature T abs. is heated 1° C. at
+  constant pressure p, it absorbs a quantity of heat S = .238 calorie
+  (according to Regnault) the specific heat at constant pressure. At the
+  same time the gas expands by a fraction 1/T of v, which is the same as
+  1/273 of its volume at 0° C. If now the air is suddenly compressed by
+  an amount v/T, it will be restored to its original volume, and its
+  temperature will be raised by the liberation of a quantity of heat R´,
+  the latent heat of expansion for an increase of volume v/T. If no heat
+  has been allowed to escape, the air will now be in the same state as
+  if a quantity of heat S had been communicated to it at its original
+  volume v without expansion. The rise of temperature above the original
+  temperature T will be S/s degrees, where s is the specific heat at
+  constant volume, which is obviously equal to S - R´. Since p/T is the
+  increase of pressure for 1° C. rise of temperature at constant volume,
+  the increase of pressure for a rise of S/s degrees will be [gamma]p/T,
+  where [gamma] is the ratio S/s. But this is the rise of pressure
+  produced by a sudden compression v/T, and is seen to be [gamma] times
+  the rise of pressure p/T produced by the same compression at constant
+  temperature. The ratio of the adiabatic to the isothermal elasticity,
+  required for calculating the velocity of sound, is therefore the same
+  as the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to that at
+  constant volume.
+
+  12. _Experimental Verification of the Ratio of Specific Heats._--This
+  was a most interesting and important theoretical relation to discover,
+  but unfortunately it did not help much in the determination of the
+  ratio required, because it was not practically possible at that time
+  to measure the specific heat of air at constant volume in a closed
+  vessel. Attempts had been made to do this, but they had signally
+  failed, on account of the small heat capacity of the gas as compared
+  with the containing vessel. Laplace endeavoured to extract some
+  confirmation of his views from the values given by Delaroche and
+  Bérard for the specific heat of air at 1000 and 740 mm. pressure. On
+  the assumption that the quantities of heat contained in a given mass
+  of air increased in direct proportion to its volume when heated at
+  constant pressure, he deduced, by some rather obscure reasoning, that
+  the ratio of the specific heats S and s should be about 1.5 to 1,
+  which he regarded as a fairly satisfactory agreement with the value
+  [gamma] = 1.41 deduced from the velocity of sound.
+
+  The ratio of the specific heats could not be directly measured, but a
+  few years later, Clément and Désormes (_Journ. de Phys._, Nov. 1819)
+  succeeded in making a direct measurement of the ratio of the
+  elasticities in a very simple manner. They took a large globe
+  containing air at atmospheric pressure and temperature, and removed a
+  small quantity of air. They then observed the defect of pressure p0
+  when the air had regained its original temperature. By suddenly
+  opening the globe, and immediately closing it, the pressure was
+  restored almost instantaneously to the atmospheric, the rise of
+  pressure p0 corresponding to the sudden compression produced. The air,
+  having been heated by the compression, was allowed to regain its
+  original temperature, the tap remaining closed, and the final defect
+  of pressure p^1 was noted. The change of pressure for the same
+  compression performed isothermally is then p0 - p^1. The ratio p0/(p0
+  - p^1) is the ratio of the adiabatic and isothermal elasticities,
+  provided that p0 is small compared with the whole atmospheric
+  pressure. In this way they found the ratio 1.354, which is not much
+  smaller than the value 1.410 required to reconcile the observed and
+  calculated values of the velocity of sound. Gay-Lussac and J. J.
+  Welter (_Ann. de chim._, 1822) repeated the experiment with slight
+  improvements, using expansion instead of compression, and found the
+  ratio 1.375. The experiment has often been repeated since that time,
+  and there is no doubt that the value of the ratio deduced from the
+  velocity of sound is correct, the defect of the value obtained by
+  direct experiment being due to the fact that the compression or
+  expansion is not perfectly adiabatic. Gay-Lussac and Welter found the
+  ratio practically constant for a range of pressure 144 to 1460 mm.,
+  and for a range of temperature from -20° to +40° C. The velocity of
+  sound at Quito, at a pressure of 544 mm. was found to be the same as
+  at Paris at 760 mm. at the same temperature. Assuming on this evidence
+  the constancy of the ratio of the specific heats of air, Laplace
+  (_Mécanique céleste_, v. 143) showed that, if the specific heat at
+  constant pressure was independent of the temperature, the specific
+  heat per unit volume at a pressure p must vary as p^(1/[gamma]),
+  according to the caloric theory. The specific heat per unit mass must
+  then vary as p^(1/[gamma]-1) which he found agreed precisely with the
+  experiment of Delaroche and Bérard already cited. This was undoubtedly
+  a strong confirmation of the caloric theory. Poisson by the same
+  assumptions (_Ann. de chim._, 1823, 23, p. 337) obtained the same
+  results, and also showed that the relation between the pressure and
+  the volume of a gas in adiabatic compression or expansion must be of
+  the form pv^[gamma] = constant.
+
+  P. L. Dulong (_Ann. de chim._, 1829, 41, p. 156), adopting a method
+  due to E. F. F. Chladni, compared the velocities of sound in different
+  gases by observing the pitch of the note given by the same tube when
+  filled with the gases in question. He thus obtained the values of the
+  ratios of the elasticities or of the specific heats for the gases
+  employed. For oxygen, hydrogen and carbonic oxide, these ratios were
+  the same as for air. But for carbonic acid, nitrous oxide and olefiant
+  gas, the values were much smaller, showing that these gases
+  experienced a smaller change of temperature in compression. On
+  comparing his results with the values of the specific heats for the
+  same gases found by Delaroche and Bérard, Dulong observed that the
+  changes of temperature for the same compression were in the inverse
+  ratio of the specific heats at constant volume, and deduced the
+  important conclusion that "_Equal volumes of all gases under the same
+  conditions evolve on compression the same quantity of heat_." This is
+  equivalent to the statement that the difference of the specific heats,
+  or the latent heat of expansion R´ per 1°, is the same for all gases
+  if equal volumes are taken. Assuming the ratio [gamma] = 1.410, and
+  taking Delaroche and Bérard's value for the specific heat of air at
+  constant pressure S = .267, we have s = S/1.41 = .189, and the
+  difference of the specific heats per unit mass of air S - s = R´ =
+  .078. Adopting Regnault's value of the specific heat of air, namely, S
+  = .238, we should have S - s = .069. This quantity represents the heat
+  absorbed by unit mass of air in expanding at constant temperature T by
+  a fraction 1/T of its volume v, or by 1/273rd of its volume 0° C.
+
+  If, instead of taking unit mass, we take a volume v0 = 22.30 litres at
+  0° C. and 760 mm. being the volume of the molecular weight of the gas
+  in grammes, the quantity of heat evolved by a compression equal to v/T
+  will be approximately 2 calories, and is the same for all gases. The
+  work done in this compression is pv/T = R, and is also the same for
+  all gases, namely, 8.3 joules. Dulong's experimental result,
+  therefore, shows that the heat evolved in the compression of a gas is
+  proportional to the work done. This result had previously been deduced
+  theoretically by Carnot (1824). At a later date it was assumed by
+  Mayer, Clausius and others, on the evidence of these experiments, that
+  the heat evolved was not merely proportional to the work done, but was
+  equivalent to it. The further experimental evidence required to
+  justify this assumption was first supplied by Joule.
+
+  Latent heat of expansion R´ = .069 calorie per gramme of air, per 1° C.
+                              = 2.0 calories per gramme-molecule of any
+                                  gas.
+     Work done in expansion R = .287 joule per gramme of air per 1° C.
+                              = 8.3 joules per gramme-molecule of any
+                                  gas.
+
+13. _Carnot: On the Motive Power of Heat._--A practical and theoretical
+question of the greatest importance was first answered by Sadi Carnot
+about this time in his _Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat_ (1824).
+How much motive power (defined by Carnot as weight lifted through a
+certain height) can be obtained from heat alone by means of an engine
+repeating a regular succession or "cycle" of operations continuously? Is
+the efficiency limited, and, if so, how is it limited? Are other agents
+preferable to steam for developing motive power from heat? In discussing
+this problem, we cannot do better than follow Carnot's reasoning which,
+in its main features could hardly be improved at the present day.
+
+Carnot points out that in order to obtain an answer to this question, it
+is necessary to consider the essential conditions of the process, apart
+from the mechanism of the engine and the working substance or agent
+employed. Work cannot be said to be produced _from heat alone_ unless
+nothing but heat is supplied, and the working substance and all parts of
+the engine are at the end of the process in precisely the same state as
+at the beginning.[3]
+
+_Carnot's Axiom._--Carnot here, and throughout his reasoning, makes a
+fundamental assumption, which he states as follows: "When a body has
+undergone any changes and after a certain number of transformations is
+brought back identically to its original state, considered relatively to
+density, temperature and mode of aggregation, it must contain the same
+quantity of heat as it contained originally."[4]
+
+Heat, according to Carnot, in the type of engine we are considering, can
+evidently be a cause of motive power only by virtue of changes of volume
+or form produced by alternate heating and cooling. This involves the
+existence of cold and hot bodies to act as boiler and condenser, or
+source and sink of heat, respectively. Wherever there exists a
+difference of temperature, it is possible to have the production of
+motive power from heat; and conversely, production of motive power, from
+heat alone, is impossible without difference of temperature. In other
+words the production of motive power from heat is not merely a question
+of the consumption of heat, but always requires transference of heat
+from hot to cold. What then are the conditions which enable the
+difference of temperature to be most advantageously employed in the
+production of motive power, and how much motive power can be obtained
+with a given difference of temperature from a given quantity of heat?
+
+_Carnot's Rule for Maximum Effect._--In order to realize the maximum
+effect, it is necessary that, in the process employed, there should not
+be any direct interchange of heat between bodies at different
+temperatures. Direct transference of heat by conduction or radiation
+between bodies at different temperatures is equivalent to wasting a
+difference of temperature which might have been utilized to produce
+motive power. The working substance must throughout every stage of the
+process be in equilibrium with itself (i.e. at uniform temperature and
+pressure) and also with external bodies, such as the boiler and
+condenser, at such times as it is put in communication with them. In the
+actual engine there is always some interchange of heat between the steam
+and the cylinder, and some loss of heat to external bodies. There may
+also be some difference of temperature between the boiler steam and the
+cylinder on admission, or between the waste steam and the condenser at
+release. These differences represent losses of efficiency which may be
+reduced indefinitely, at least in imagination, by suitable means, and
+designers had even at that date been very successful in reducing them.
+All such losses are supposed to be absent in deducing the ideal limit of
+efficiency, beyond which it would be impossible to go.
+
+14. _Carnot's Description of his Ideal Cycle._--Carnot first gives a
+rough illustration of an incomplete cycle, using steam much in the same
+way as it is employed in an ordinary steam-engine. After expansion down
+to condenser pressure the steam is completely condensed to water, and is
+then returned as cold water to the hot boiler. He points out that the
+last step does not conform exactly to the condition he laid down,
+because although the water is restored to its initial state, there is
+direct passage of heat from a hot body to a cold body in the last
+process. He points out that this difficulty might be overcome by
+supposing the difference of temperature small, and by employing a series
+of engines, each working through a small range, to cover a finite
+interval of temperature. Having established the general notions of a
+perfect cycle, he proceeds to give a more exact illustration, employing
+a gas as the working substance. He takes as the basis of his
+demonstration the well-established experimental fact that a gas is
+heated by rapid compression and cooled by rapid expansion, and that if
+compressed or expanded slowly in contact with conducting bodies, the gas
+will give out heat in compression or absorb heat in expansion while its
+temperature remains constant. He then goes on to say:--
+
+  "This preliminary notion being settled, let us imagine an elastic
+  fluid, atmospheric air for example, enclosed in a cylinder _abcd_,
+  fig. 4, fitted with a movable diaphragm or piston cd. Let there also
+  be two bodies A, B, each maintained at a constant temperature, that of
+  A being more elevated than that of B. Let us now suppose the following
+  series of operations to be performed:
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 4. Carnot's Cylinder.]
+
+  "1. Contact of the body A with the air contained in the space _abcd_,
+  or with the bottom of the cylinder, which we will suppose to transmit
+  heat easily. The air is now at the temperature of the body A, and _cd_
+  is the actual position of the piston.
+
+  "2. The piston is gradually raised, and takes the position _ef_. The
+  air remains in contact with the body A, and is thereby maintained at a
+  constant temperature during the expansion. The body A furnishes the
+  heat necessary to maintain the constancy of temperature.
+
+  "3. The body A is removed, and the air no longer being in contact with
+  any body capable of giving it heat, the piston continues nevertheless
+  to rise, and passes from the position _ef_ to _gh_. The air expands
+  without receiving heat and its temperature falls. Let us imagine that
+  it falls until it is just equal to that of the body B. At this moment
+  the piston is stopped and occupies the position _gh_.
+
+  "4. The air is placed in contact with the body B; it is compressed by
+  the return of the piston, which is brought from the position _gh_ to
+  the position _cd_. The air remains meanwhile at a constant
+  temperature, because of its contact with the body B to which it gives
+  up its heat.
+
+  "5. The body B is removed, and the compression of the air is
+  continued. The air being now isolated, rises in temperature. The
+  compression is continued until the air has acquired the temperature of
+  the body A. The piston passes meanwhile from the position _cd_ to the
+  position _ik_.
+
+  "6. The air is replaced in contact with the body A, and the piston
+  returns from the position _ik_ to the position _ef_, the temperature
+  remaining invariable.
+
+  "7. The period described under (3) is repeated, then successively the
+  periods (4), (5), (6); (3), (4), (5), (6); (3), (4), (5), (6); and so
+  on.
+
+  "During these operations the air enclosed in the cylinder exerts an
+  effort more or less great on the piston. The pressure of the air
+  varies both on account of changes of volume and on account of changes
+  of temperature; but it should be observed that for equal volumes, that
+  is to say, for like positions of the piston, the temperature is higher
+  during the dilatation than during the compression. Since the pressure
+  is greater during the expansion, the quantity of motive power produced
+  by the dilatation is greater than that consumed by the compression. We
+  shall thus obtain a balance of motive power, which may be employed for
+  any purpose. The air has served as working substance in a heat-engine;
+  it has also been employed in the most advantageous manner possible,
+  since no useless re-establishment of the equilibrium of heat has been
+  allowed to occur.
+
+  "All the operations above described may be executed in the reverse
+  order and direction. Let us imagine that after the sixth period, that
+  is to say, when the piston has reached the position _ef_, we make it
+  return to the position _ik_, and that at the same time we keep the air
+  in contact with the hot body A; the heat furnished by this body during
+  the sixth period will return to its source, that is, to the body A,
+  and everything will be as it was at the end of the fifth period. If
+  now we remove the body A, and if we make the piston move from _ik_ to
+  _cd_, the temperature of the air will decrease by just as many degrees
+  as it increased during the fifth period, and will become that of the
+  body B. We can evidently continue in this way a series of operations
+  the exact reverse of those which were previously described; it
+  suffices to place oneself in the same circumstances and to execute for
+  each period a movement of expansion in place of a movement of
+  compression, and vice versa.
+
+  "The result of the first series of operations was the production of a
+  certain quantity of motive power, and the transport of heat from the
+  body A to the body B; the result of the reverse operations is the
+  consumption of the motive power produced in the first case, and the
+  return of heat from the body B to the body A, in such sort that these
+  two series of operations annul and neutralize each other.
+
+  "The impossibility of producing by the agency of heat alone a quantity
+  of motive power greater than that which we have obtained in our first
+  series of operations is now easy to prove. It is demonstrated by
+  reasoning exactly similar to that which we have already given. The
+  reasoning will have in this case a greater degree of exactitude; the
+  air of which we made use to develop the motive power is brought back
+  at the end of each cycle of operations precisely to its initial state,
+  whereas this was not quite exactly the case for the vapour of water,
+  as we have already remarked."
+
+15. _Proof of Carnot's Principle._--Carnot considered the proof too
+obvious to be worth repeating, but, unfortunately, his previous
+demonstration, referring to an incomplete cycle, is not so exactly
+worded that exception cannot be taken to it. We will therefore repeat
+his proof in a slightly more definite and exact form. Suppose that a
+reversible engine R, working in the cycle above described, takes a
+quantity of heat H from the source in each cycle, and performs a
+quantity of useful work W_r. If it were possible for any other engine S,
+working with the same two bodies A and B as source and refrigerator, to
+perform a greater amount of useful work W_s per cycle for the same
+quantity of heat H taken from the source, it would suffice to take a
+portion W_r of this motive power (since W_s is by hypothesis greater
+than W_r) to drive the engine R backwards, and return a quantity of heat
+H to the source in each cycle. The process might be repeated
+indefinitely, and we should obtain at each repetition a balance of
+useful work W_s - W_r, _without taking any heat from the source_, which
+is contrary to experience. Whether the quantity of heat taken from the
+condenser by R is equal to that given to the condenser by S is
+immaterial. The hot body A might be a comparatively small boiler, since
+no heat is taken from it. The cold body B might be the ocean, or the
+whole earth. We might thus obtain without any consumption of fuel a
+practically unlimited supply of motive power. Which is absurd.
+
+_Carnot's Statement of his Principle._[5]--If the above reasoning be
+admitted, we must conclude with Carnot that _the motive power obtainable
+from heat is independent of the agents employed to realize it_. _The
+efficiency is fixed solely by the temperatures of the bodies between
+which, in the last resort, the transfer of heat is effected._ "We must
+understand here that each of the methods of developing motive power
+attains the perfection of which it is susceptible. This condition is
+fulfilled if, according to our rule, there is produced in the body no
+change of temperature that is not due to change of volume, or in other
+words, if there is no direct interchange of heat between bodies of
+sensibly different temperatures."
+
+It is characteristic of a state of frictionless mechanical equilibrium
+that an indefinitely small difference of pressure suffices to upset the
+equilibrium and reverse the motion. Similarly in thermal equilibrium
+between bodies at the same temperature, an indefinitely small difference
+of temperature suffices to reverse the transfer of heat. Carnot's rule
+is therefore the criterion of the reversibility of a cycle of operations
+as regards transfer of heat. It is assumed that the ideal engine is
+mechanically reversible, that there is not, for instance, any
+communication between reservoirs of gas or vapour at sensibly different
+pressures, and that there is no waste of power in friction. If there is
+equilibrium both mechanical and thermal at every stage of the cycle, the
+ideal engine will be perfectly reversible. That is to say, all its
+operations will be exactly reversed as regards transfer of heat and
+work, when the operations are performed in the reverse order and
+direction. On this understanding Carnot's principle may be put in a
+different way, which is often adopted, but is really only the same thing
+put in different words: _The efficiency of a perfectly reversible engine
+is the maximum possible, and is a function solely of the limits of
+temperature between which it works_. This result depends essentially on
+the existence of a state of thermal equilibrium defined by equality of
+temperature, and independent, in the majority of cases, of the state of
+a body in other respects. In order to apply the principle to the
+calculation and prediction of results, it is sufficient to determine the
+manner in which the efficiency depends on the temperature for one
+particular case, since the efficiency must be the same for all
+reversible engines.
+
+  16. _Experimental Verification of Carnot's Principle._--Carnot
+  endeavoured to test his result by the following simple calculations.
+  Suppose that we have a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston,
+  containing 1 gram of water at 100° C., and that the pressure of the
+  steam, namely 760 mm., is in equilibrium with the external pressure on
+  the piston at this temperature. Place the cylinder in connexion with a
+  boiler or hot body at 101° C. The water will then acquire the
+  temperature of 101° C., and will absorb 1 gram-calorie of heat. Some
+  waste of motive power occurs here because heat is allowed to pass from
+  one body to another at a different temperature, but the waste in this
+  case is so small as to be immaterial. Keep the cylinder in contact
+  with the hot body at 101° C. and allow the piston to rise. It may be
+  made to perform useful work as the pressure is now 27.7 mm. (or 37.7
+  grams per sq. cm.) in excess of the external pressure. Continue the
+  process till all the water is converted into steam. The heat absorbed
+  from the hot body will be nearly 540 gram-calories, the latent heat of
+  steam at this temperature. The increase of volume will be
+  approximately 1620 c.c., the volume of 1 gram of steam at this
+  pressure and temperature. The work done by the excess pressure will be
+  37.7 × 1620 = 61,000 gram-centimetres or 0.61 of a kilogrammetre.
+  Remove the hot body, and allow the steam to expand further till its
+  pressure is 760 mm. and its temperature has fallen to 100° C. The work
+  which might be done in this expansion is less than 1/1000th part of a
+  kilogrammetre, and may be neglected for the present purpose. Place the
+  cylinder in contact with the cold body at 100° C., and allow the steam
+  to condense at this temperature. No work is done on the piston,
+  because there is equilibrium of pressure, but a quantity of heat equal
+  to the latent heat of steam at 100° C. is given to the cold body. The
+  water is now in its initial condition, and the result of the process
+  has been to gain 0.61 of a kilogrammetre of work by allowing 540
+  gram-calories of heat to pass from a body at 101° C. to a body at 100°
+  C. by means of an ideally simple steam-engine. The work obtainable in
+  this way from 1000 gram-calories of heat, or 1 kilo-calorie, would
+  evidently be 1.13 kilogrammetre (= 0.61 × 1000/540).
+
+  Taking the same range of temperature, namely 101° to 100° C., we may
+  perform a similar series of operations with air in the cylinder,
+  instead of water and steam. Suppose the cylinder to contain 1 gramme
+  of air at 100° C. and 760 mm. pressure instead of water. Compress it
+  without loss of heat (adiabatically), so as to raise its temperature
+  to 101° C. Place it in contact with the hot body at 101° C., and allow
+  it to expand at this temperature, absorbing heat from the hot body,
+  until its volume is increased by 1/374th part (the expansion per
+  degree at constant pressure). The quantity of heat absorbed in this
+  expansion, as explained in § 14, will be the difference of the
+  specific heats or the latent heat of expansion R´ = .069 calorie.
+  Remove the hot body, and allow the gas to expand further without gain
+  of heat till its temperature falls to 100° C. Compress it at 100° C.
+  to its original volume, abstracting the heat of compression by contact
+  with the cold body at 100° C. The air is now in its original state,
+  and the process has been carried out in strict accordance with
+  Carnot's rule. The quantity of external work done in the cycle is
+  easily obtained by the aid of the indicator diagram ABCD (fig. 5),
+  which is approximately a parallelogram in this instance. The area of
+  the diagram is equal to that of the rectangle BEHG, being the product
+  of the vertical height BE, namely, the increase of pressure per 1° at
+  constant volume, by the increase of volume BG, which is 1/273rd of the
+  volume at 0° C. and 760 mm., or 2.83 c.c. The increase of pressure BE
+  is 760/373, or 2.03 mm., which is equivalent to 2.76 gm. per sq. cm.
+  The work done in the cycle is 2.76 × 2.83 = 7.82 gm. cm., or .0782
+  gram-metre. The heat absorbed at 101° C. was .069 gram-calorie, so
+  that the work obtained is .0782/.069 or 1.13 gram-metre per
+  gram-calorie, or 1.13 kilogrammetre per kilogram-calorie. This result
+  is precisely the same as that obtained by using steam with the same
+  range of temperature, but a very different kind of cycle. Carnot in
+  making the same calculation did not obtain quite so good an agreement,
+  because the experimental data at that time available were not so
+  accurate. He used the value 1/267 for the coefficient of expansion,
+  and .267 for the specific heat of air. Moreover, he did not feel
+  justified in assuming, as above, that the difference of the specific
+  heats was the same at 100° C. as at the ordinary temperature of 15° to
+  20° C., at which it had been experimentally determined. He made
+  similar calculations for the vapour of alcohol, which differed
+  slightly from the vapour of water. But the agreement he found was
+  close enough to satisfy him that his theoretical deductions were
+  correct, and that the resulting ratio of work to heat should be the
+  same for all substances at the same temperature.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Elementary Carnot Cycle for Gas.]
+
+  17. _Carnot's Function. Variation of Efficiency with Temperature._--By
+  means of calculations, similar to those given above, Carnot
+  endeavoured to find the amount of motive power obtainable from one
+  unit of heat per degree fall at various temperatures with various
+  substances. The value found above, namely 1.13 kilogrammetre per
+  kilo-calorie per 1° fall, is the value of the efficiency per 1° fall
+  at 100° C. He was able to show that the efficiency per degree fall
+  probably diminished with rise of temperature, but the experimental
+  data at that time were too inconsistent to suggest the true relation.
+  He took as the analytical expression of his principle that the
+  efficiency W/H of a perfect engine taking in heat H at a temperature
+  t° C., and rejecting heat at the temperature 0° C., must be some
+  function Ft of the temperature t, which would be the same for all
+  substances. The efficiency per degree fall at a temperature t he
+  represented by F´t, the derived function of Ft. The function F´t would
+  be the same for all substances at the same temperature, but would have
+  different values at different temperatures. In terms of this function,
+  which is generally known as Carnot's function, the results obtained in
+  the previous section might be expressed as follows:--
+
+  "The increase of volume of a mixture of liquid and vapour per
+  unit-mass vaporized at any temperature, multiplied by the increase of
+  vapour-pressure per degree, is equal to the product of the function
+  F´t by the latent heat of vaporization.
+
+  "The difference of the specific heats, or the latent heat of expansion
+  for any substance multiplied by the function F´t, is equal to the
+  product of the expansion per degree at constant pressure by the
+  increase of pressure per degree at constant volume."
+
+  Since the last two coefficients are the same for all gases if equal
+  volumes are taken, Carnot concluded that: "The difference of the
+  specific heats at constant pressure and volume is the same for equal
+  volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure."
+
+  Taking the expression W = RT log _e r for the whole work done by a gas
+  obeying the gaseous laws pv = RT in expanding at a temperature T from
+  a volume 1 (unity) to a volume r, or for a ratio of expansion r, and
+  putting W´ = R log _e r for the work done in a cycle of range 1°,
+  Carnot obtained the expression for the heat absorbed by a gas in
+  isothermal expansion
+
+    H = R log_e r/F´t.   (2)
+
+  He gives several important deductions which follow from this formula,
+  which is the analytical expression of the experimental result already
+  quoted as having been discovered subsequently by Dulong. Employing the
+  above expression for the latent heat of expansion, Carnot deduced a
+  general expression for the specific heat of a gas at constant volume
+  on the basis of the caloric theory. He showed that if the specific
+  heat was independent of the temperature (the hypothesis already
+  adopted by Laplace and Poisson) the function F´t must be of the form
+
+    F´t = R/C(t + t0)   (3)
+
+  where C and t0 are unknown constants. A similar result follows from
+  his expression for the difference of the specific heats. If this is
+  assumed to be constant and equal to C, the expression for F´t becomes
+  R/CT, which is the same as the above if t0 = 273. Assuming the
+  specific heat to be also independent of the volume, he shows that the
+  function F´t should be constant. But this assumption is inconsistent
+  with the caloric theory of latent heat of expansion, which requires
+  the specific heat to be a function of the volume. It appears in fact
+  impossible to reconcile Carnot's principle with the caloric theory on
+  any simple assumptions. As Carnot remarks: "The main principles on
+  which the theory of heat rests require most careful examination. Many
+  experimental facts appear almost inexplicable in the present state of
+  this theory."
+
+Carnot's work was subsequently put in a more complete analytical form by
+B. P. E. Clapeyron (_Journ. de l'Éc. polytechn._, Paris, 1832, 14, p.
+153), who also made use of Watt's indicator diagram for the first time
+in discussing physical problems. Clapeyron gave the general expressions
+for the latent heat of a vapour, and for the latent heat of isothermal
+expansion of any substance, in terms of Carnot's function, employing the
+notation of the calculus. The expressions he gave are the same in form
+as those in use at the present day. He also gave the general expression
+for Carnot's function, and endeavoured to find its variation with
+temperature; but having no better data, he succeeded no better than
+Carnot. Unfortunately, in describing Carnot's cycle, he assumed the
+caloric theory of heat, and made some unnecessary mistakes, which Carnot
+(who, we now know, was a believer in the mechanical theory) had been
+very careful to avoid. Clapeyron directs one to compress the gas at the
+lower temperature in contact with the body B _until the heat disengaged
+is equal to that which has been absorbed at the higher temperature_.[6]
+He assumes that the gas at this point contains the same quantity of heat
+as it contained in its original state at the higher temperature, and
+that, when the body B is removed, the gas will be restored to its
+original temperature, when compressed to its initial volume. This
+mistake is still attributed to Carnot, and regarded as a fatal objection
+to his reasoning by nearly all writers at the present day.
+
+18. _Mechanical Theory of Heat._--According to the caloric theory, the
+heat absorbed in the expansion of a gas became latent, like the latent
+heat of vaporization of a liquid, but remained in the gas and was again
+evolved on compressing the gas. This theory gave no explanation of the
+source of the motive power produced by expansion. The mechanical theory
+had explained the production of heat by friction as being due to
+transformation of visible motion into a brisk agitation of the ultimate
+molecules, but it had not so far given any definite explanation of the
+converse production of motive power at the expense of heat. The theory
+could not be regarded as complete until it had been shown that in the
+production of work from heat, a certain quantity of heat disappeared,
+and ceased to exist as heat; and that this quantity was the same as that
+which could be generated by the expenditure of the work produced. The
+earliest complete statement of the mechanical theory from this point of
+view is contained in some notes written by Carnot, about 1830, but
+published by his brother (_Life of Sadi Carnot_, Paris, 1878). Taking
+the difference of the specific heats to be .078, he estimated the
+mechanical equivalent at 370 kilogrammetres. But he fully recognized
+that there were no experimental data at that time available for a
+quantitative test of the theory, although it appeared to afford a good
+qualitative explanation of the phenomena. He therefore planned a number
+of crucial experiments such as the "porous plug" experiment, to test the
+equivalence of heat and motive power. His early death in 1836 put a stop
+to these experiments, but many of them have since been independently
+carried out by other observers.
+
+The most obvious case of the production of work from heat is in the
+expansion of a gas or vapour, which served in the first instance as a
+means of calculating the ratio of equivalence, on the assumption that
+all the heat which disappeared had been transformed into work and had
+not merely become latent. Marc Séguin, in his _De l'influence des
+chemins de fer_ (Paris, 1839), made a rough estimate in this manner of
+the mechanical equivalent of heat, assuming that the loss of heat
+represented by the fall of temperature of steam on expanding was
+equivalent to the mechanical effect produced by the expansion. He also
+remarks (_loc. cit._ p. 382) that it was absurd to suppose that "a
+finite quantity of heat could produce an indefinite quantity of
+mechanical action, and that it was more natural to assume that a certain
+quantity of heat disappeared in the very act of producing motive power."
+J. R. Mayer (_Liebig's Annalen_, 1842, 42, p. 233) stated the
+equivalence of heat and work more definitely, deducing it from the old
+principle, _causa aequat effectum_. Assuming that the sinking of a
+mercury column by which a gas was compressed was equivalent to the heat
+set free by the compression, he deduced that the warming of a kilogramme
+of water 1° C. would correspond to the fall of a weight of one
+kilogramme from a height of about 365 metres. But Mayer did not adduce
+any fresh experimental evidence, and made no attempt to apply his theory
+to the fundamental equations of thermodynamics. It has since been urged
+that the experiment of Gay-Lussac (1807), on the expansion of gas from
+one globe to another (see above, § 11), was sufficient justification for
+the assumption tacitly involved in Mayer's calculation. But Joule was
+the first to supply the correct interpretation of this experiment, and
+to repeat it on an adequate scale with suitable precautions. Joule was
+also the first to measure directly the amount of heat liberated by the
+compression of a gas, and to prove that heat was not merely rendered
+latent, but disappeared altogether as heat, when a gas did work in
+expansion.
+
+19. _Joule's Determinations of the Mechanical Equivalent._--The honour
+of placing the mechanical theory of heat on a sound _experimental_ basis
+belongs almost exclusively to J. P. Joule, who showed by direct
+experiment that in all the most important cases in which heat was
+generated by the expenditure of mechanical work, or mechanical work was
+produced at the expense of heat, there was a constant ratio of
+equivalence between the heat generated and the work expended and vice
+versa. His first experiments were on the relation of the chemical and
+electric energy expended to the heat produced in metallic conductors and
+voltaic and electrolytic cells; these experiments were described in a
+series of papers published in the _Phil. Mag._, 1840-1843. He first
+proved the relation, known as Joule's law, that the heat produced in a
+conductor of resistance R by a current C is proportional to C²R per
+second. He went on to show that the total heat produced in any voltaic
+circuit was proportional to the electromotive force E of the battery and
+to the number of equivalents electrolysed in it. Faraday had shown that
+electromotive force depends on chemical affinity. Joule measured the
+corresponding heats of combustion, and showed that the electromotive
+force corresponding to a chemical reaction is proportional to the heat
+of combustion of the electrochemical equivalent. He also measured the
+E.M.F. required to decompose water, and showed that when part of the
+electric energy EC is thus expended in a voltameter, the heat generated
+is less than the heat of combustion corresponding to EC by a quantity
+representing the heat of combustion of the decomposed gases. His papers
+so far had been concerned with the relations between electrical energy,
+chemical energy and heat which he showed to be mutually equivalent. The
+first paper in which he discussed the relation of heat to mechanical
+power was entitled "On the Calorific Effects of Magneto-Electricity, and
+on the Mechanical Value of Heat" (_Brit. Assoc._, 1843; _Phil. Mag._,
+23, p. 263). In this paper he showed that the heat produced by currents
+generated by magneto-electric induction followed the same law as voltaic
+currents. By a simple and ingenious arrangement he succeeded in
+measuring the mechanical power expended in producing the currents, and
+deduced the mechanical equivalent of heat and of electrical energy. The
+amount of mechanical work required to raise 1 lb. of water 1° F. (1
+B.Th.U.), as found by this method, was 838 foot-pounds. In a note added
+to the paper he states that he found the value 770 foot-pounds by the
+more direct method of forcing water through fine tubes. In a paper "On
+the Changes of Temperature produced by the Rarefaction and Condensation
+of Air" (_Phil. Mag._, May 1845), he made the first direct measurements
+of the quantity of heat disengaged by compressing air, and also of the
+heat absorbed when the air was allowed to expand against atmospheric
+pressure; as the result he deduced the value 798 foot-pounds for the
+mechanical equivalent of 1 B.Th.U. He also showed that there was no
+appreciable absorption of heat when air was allowed to expand in such a
+manner as not to develop mechanical power, and he pointed out that the
+mechanical equivalent of heat could not be satisfactorily deduced from
+the relations of the specific heats, because the knowledge of the
+specific heats of gases at that time was of so uncertain a character. He
+attributed most weight to his later determinations of the mechanical
+equivalent made by the direct method of friction of liquids. He showed
+that the results obtained with different liquids, water, mercury and
+sperm oil, were the same, namely, 782 foot-pounds; and finally repeating
+the method with water, using all the precautions and improvements which
+his experience had suggested, he obtained the value 772 foot-pounds,
+which was accepted universally for many years, and has only recently
+required alteration on account of the more exact definition of the heat
+unit, and the standard scale of temperature (see CALORIMETRY). The great
+value of Joule's work for the general establishment of the principle of
+the conservation of energy lay in the variety and completeness of the
+experimental evidence he adduced. It was not sufficient to find the
+relation between heat and mechanical work or other forms of energy in
+one particular case. It was necessary to show that the same relation
+held in all cases which could be examined experimentally, and that the
+ratio of equivalence of the different forms of energy, measured in
+different ways, was independent of the manner in which the conversion
+was effected and of the material or working substance employed.
+
+As the result of Joule's experiments, we are justified in concluding
+that heat is a form of energy, and that all its transformations are
+subject to the general principle of the conservation of energy. As
+applied to heat, the principle is called the first law of
+thermodynamics, and may be stated as follows: _When heat is transformed
+into any other kind of energy, or vice versa, the total quantity of
+energy remains invariable; that is to say, the quantity of heat which
+disappears is equivalent to the quantity of the other kind of energy
+produced and vice versa._
+
+The number of units of mechanical work equivalent to one unit of heat is
+generally called the mechanical equivalent of heat, or Joule's
+equivalent, and is denoted by the letter J. Its numerical value depends
+on the units employed for heat and mechanical energy respectively. The
+values of the equivalent in terms of the units most commonly employed at
+the present time are as follows:--
+
+   777 foot-pounds (Lat. 45°) are equivalent to 1 B.Th.U. (lb. deg. Fahr.)
+  1399 foot-pounds    "         "        "      1 lb. deg. C.
+  426.3 kilogrammetres          "        "      1 kilogram-deg. C. or
+                                                    kilo-calorie.
+  426.3 grammetres              "        "      1 gram-deg. C. or calorie.
+  4.180 joules                  "        "      1 gram-deg. C. or calorie.
+
+The water for the heat units is supposed to be taken at 20° C. or 68°
+F., and the degree of temperature is supposed to be measured by the
+hydrogen thermometer. The acceleration of gravity in latitude 45° is
+taken as 980.7 C.G.S. For details of more recent and accurate methods of
+determination, the reader should refer to the article CALORIMETRY, where
+tables of the variation of the specific heat of water with temperature
+are also given.
+
+The second law of thermodynamics is a title often used to denote
+Carnot's principle or some equivalent mathematical expression. In some
+cases this title is not conferred on Carnot's principle itself, but on
+some axiom from which the principle may be indirectly deduced. These
+axioms, however, cannot as a rule be directly applied, so that it would
+appear preferable to take Carnot's principle itself as the second law.
+It may be observed that, as a matter of history, Carnot's principle was
+established and generally admitted before the principle of the
+conservation of energy as applied to heat, and that from this point of
+view the titles, first and second laws, are not particularly
+appropriate.
+
+20. _Combination of Carnot's Principle with the Mechanical Theory._--A
+very instructive paper, as showing the state of the science of heat
+about this time, is that of C. H. A. Holtzmann, "On the Heat and
+Elasticity of Gases and Vapours" (Mannheim, 1845; Taylor's _Scientific
+Memoirs_, iv. 189). He points out that the theory of Laplace and Poisson
+does not agree with facts when applied to vapours, and that Clapeyron's
+formulae, though probably correct, contain an undetermined function
+(Carnot's F´t, Clapeyron's 1/C) of the temperature. He determines the
+value of this function to be J/T by assuming, with Séguin and Mayer,
+that the work done in the isothermal expansion of a gas is a measure of
+the heat absorbed. From the then accepted value .078 of the difference
+of the specific heats of air, he finds the numerical value of J to be
+374 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie. _Assuming the heat equivalent of
+the work to remain in the gas_, he obtains expressions similar to
+Clapeyron's for the total heat and the specific heats. In consequence of
+this assumption, the formulae he obtained for adiabatic expansion were
+necessarily wrong, but no data existed at that time for testing them. In
+applying his formulae to vapours, he obtained an expression for the
+saturation-pressure of steam, which agreed with the empirical formula of
+Roche, and satisfied other experimental data on the supposition that the
+coefficient of expansion of steam was .00423, and its specific heat
+1.69--values which are now known to be impossible, but which appeared at
+the time to give a very satisfactory explanation of the phenomena.
+
+The essay of Hermann Helmholtz, _On the Conservation of Force_ (Berlin,
+1847), discusses all the known cases of the transformation of energy,
+and is justly regarded as one of the chief landmarks in the
+establishment of the energy-principle. Helmholtz gives an admirable
+statement of the fundamental principle as applied to heat, but makes no
+attempt to formulate the correct equations of thermodynamics on the
+mechanical theory. He points out the fallacy of Holtzmann's (and
+Mayer's) calculation of the equivalent, but admits that it is supported
+by Joule's experiments, though he does not seem to appreciate the true
+value of Joule's work. He considers that Holtzmann's formulae are well
+supported by experiment, and are much preferable to Clapeyron's, because
+the value of the undetermined function F´t is found. But he fails to
+notice that Holtzmann's equations are fundamentally inconsistent with
+the conservation of energy, because the heat equivalent of the external
+work done is supposed to remain in the gas.
+
+That a quantity of heat equivalent to the work performed actually
+disappears when a gas does work in expansion, was first shown by Joule
+in the paper on condensation and rarefaction of air (1845) already
+referred to. At the conclusion of this paper he felt justified by direct
+experimental evidence in reasserting definitely the hypothesis of Séguin
+(_loc. cit._ p. 383) that "the steam while expanding in the cylinder
+loses heat in quantity exactly proportional to the mechanical force
+developed, and that on the condensation of the steam the heat thus
+converted into power is not given back." He did not see his way to
+reconcile this conclusion with Clapeyron's description of Carnot's
+cycle. At a later date, in a letter to Professor W. Thomson (Lord
+Kelvin) (1848), he pointed out that, since, according to his own
+experiments, the work done in the expansion of a gas at constant
+temperature is equivalent to the heat absorbed, by equating Carnot's
+expressions (given in § 17) for the work done and the heat absorbed, the
+value of Carnot's function F´t must be equal to J/T, in order to
+reconcile his principle with the mechanical theory.
+
+Professor W. Thomson gave an account of Carnot's theory (_Trans. Roy.
+Soc. Edin._, Jan. 1849), in which he recognized the discrepancy between
+Clapeyron's statement and Joule's experiments, but did not see his way
+out of the difficulty. He therefore adopted Carnot's principle
+provisionally, and proceeded to calculate a table of values of Carnot's
+function F´t, from the values of the total-heat and vapour-pressure of
+steam-then recently determined by Regnault (_Mémoires de l'Institut de
+Paris_, 1847). In making the calculation, he assumed that the specific
+volume v of saturated steam at any temperature T and pressure p is that
+given by the gaseous laws, pv = RT. The results are otherwise correct so
+far as Regnault's data are accurate, because the values of the
+efficiency per degree F´t are not affected by any assumption with regard
+to the nature of heat. He obtained the values of the efficiency F´t over
+a finite range from t to 0° C., by adding up the values of F´t for the
+separate degrees. This latter proceeding is inconsistent with the
+mechanical theory, but is the correct method on the assumption that the
+heat given up to the condenser is equal to that taken from the source.
+The values he obtained for F´t agreed very well with those previously
+given by Carnot and Clapeyron, and showed that this function diminishes
+with rise of temperature roughly in the inverse ratio of T, as suggested
+by Joule.
+
+R. J. E. Clausius (_Pogg. Ann._, 1850, 79, p. 369) and W. J. M. Rankine
+(_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._, 1850) were the first to develop the correct
+equations of thermodynamics on the mechanical theory. When heat was
+supplied to a body to change its temperature or state, part remained in
+the body as intrinsic heat energy E, but part was converted into
+external work of expansion W and ceased to exist as heat. The part
+remaining in the body was always the same for the same change of state,
+however performed, as required by Carnot's fundamental axiom, but the
+part corresponding to the external work was necessarily different for
+different values of the work done. Thus in any cycle in which the body
+was exactly restored to its initial state, the heat remaining in the
+body would always be the same, or as Carnot puts it, the quantities of
+heat absorbed and given out in its diverse transformations are exactly
+"compensated," so far as the body is concerned. But the quantities of
+heat absorbed and given out are not necessarily equal. On the contrary,
+they differ by the equivalent of the external work done in the cycle.
+Applying this principle to the case of steam, Clausius deduced a fact
+previously unknown, that the specific heat of steam maintained in a
+state of saturation is negative, which was also deduced by Rankine (loc.
+cit.) about the same time. In applying the principle to gases Clausius
+assumes (with Mayer and Holtzmann) that the heat absorbed by a gas in
+isothermal expansion is equivalent to the work done, but he does not
+appear to be acquainted with Joule's experiment, and the reasons he
+adduces in support of this assumption are not conclusive. This being
+admitted, he deduces from the energy principle alone the propositions
+already given by Carnot with reference to gases, and shows in addition
+that the specific heat of a perfect gas must be independent of the
+density. In the second part of his paper he introduces Carnot's
+principle, which he quotes as follows: "The performance of work is
+equivalent to a transference of heat from a hot to a cold body without
+the quantity of heat being thereby diminished." This is not Carnot's way
+of stating his principle (see § 15), but has the effect of exaggerating
+the importance of Clapeyron's unnecessary assumption. By equating the
+expressions given by Carnot for the work done and the heat absorbed in
+the expansion of a gas, he deduces (following Holtzmann) the value J/T
+for Carnot's function F´t (which Clapeyron denotes by 1/C). He shows
+that this assumption gives values of Carnot's function which agree
+fairly well with those calculated by Clapeyron and Thomson, and that it
+leads to values of the mechanical equivalent not differing greatly from
+those of Joule. Substituting the value J/T for C in the analytical
+expressions given by Clapeyron for the latent heat of expansion and
+vaporization, these relations are immediately reduced to their modern
+form (see THERMODYNAMICS, § 4). Being unacquainted with Carnot's
+original work, but recognizing the invalidity of Clapeyron's description
+of Carnot's cycle, Clausius substituted a proof consistent with the
+mechanical theory, which he based on the axiom that "heat cannot of
+itself pass from cold to hot." The proof on this basis involves the
+application of the energy principle, which does not appear to be
+necessary, and the axiom to which final appeal is made does not appear
+more convincing than Carnot's. Strange to say, Clausius did not in this
+paper give the expression for the efficiency in a Carnot cycle of finite
+range (Carnot's Ft) which follows immediately from the value J/T assumed
+for the efficiency F´t of a cycle of infinitesimal range at the
+temperature t C or T Abs.
+
+Rankine did not make the same assumption as Clausius explicitly, but
+applied the mechanical theory of heat to the development of his
+hypothesis of molecular vortices, and deduced from it a number of
+results similar to those obtained by Clausius. Unfortunately the paper
+(loc. cit.) was not published till some time later, but in a summary
+given in the _Phil. Mag._ (July 1851) the principal results were
+detailed. Assuming the value of Joule's equivalent, Rankine deduced the
+value 0.2404 for the specific heat of air at constant pressure, in place
+of 0.267 as found by Delaroche and Bérard. The subsequent verification
+of this value by Regnault (_Comptes rendus_, 1853) afforded strong
+confirmation of the accuracy of Joule's work. In a note appended to the
+abstract in the _Phil. Mag._ Rankine states that he has succeeded in
+proving that the maximum efficiency of an engine working in a Carnot
+cycle of finite range t1 to t0 is of the form (t1 - t0)/(t1 - k), where
+k is a constant, the same for all substances. This is correct if t
+represents temperature Centigrade, and k = -273.
+
+Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in a paper "On the Dynamical Theory
+of Heat" (_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._, 1851, first published in the _Phil.
+Mag._, 1852) gave a very clear statement of the position of the theory
+at that time. He showed that the value F´t = J/T, assumed for Carnot's
+function by Clausius without any experimental justification, rested
+solely on the evidence of Joule's experiment, and might possibly not be
+true at all temperatures. Assuming the value J/T with this reservation,
+he gave as the expression for the efficiency over a finite range t1 to
+t0 C., or T1 to T0 Abs., the result,
+
+  W/H = (t1 - t0)/(t1 + 273) = (T1 - T0)/T1   (4)
+
+which, he observed, agrees in form with that found by Rankine.
+
+21. _The Absolute Scale of Temperature._--Since Carnot's function is the
+same for all substances at the same temperature, and is a function of
+the temperature only, it supplies a means of measuring temperature
+independently of the properties of any particular substance. This
+proposal was first made by Lord Kelvin (_Phil. Mag._, 1848), who
+suggested that the degree of temperature should be chosen so that the
+efficiency of a perfect engine at any point of the scale should be the
+same, or that Carnot's function F´t should be constant. This would give
+the simplest expression for the efficiency on the caloric theory, but
+the scale so obtained, when the values of Carnot's function were
+calculated from Regnault's observations on steam, was found to differ
+considerably from the scale of the mercury or air-thermometer. At a
+later date, when it became clear that the value of Carnot's function was
+very nearly proportional to the reciprocal of the temperature T measured
+from the absolute zero of the gas thermometer, he proposed a simpler
+method (_Phil. Trans._, 1854), namely, to define absolute temperature
+[theta] as proportional to the reciprocal of Carnot's function. On this
+definition of absolute temperature, the expression ([theta]1 -
+[theta]0)/[theta]1 for the efficiency of a Carnot cycle with limits
+[theta]1 and [theta]0 would be exact, and it became a most important
+problem to determine how far the temperature T by gas thermometer
+differed from the absolute temperature [theta]. With this object he
+devised a very delicate method, known as the "porous plug experiment"
+(see THERMODYNAMICS) of testing the deviation of the gas thermometer
+from the absolute scale. The experiments were carried out in conjunction
+with Joule, and finally resulted in showing (_Phil. Trans._, 1862, "On
+the Thermal Effects of Fluids in Motion") that the deviations of the air
+thermometer from the absolute scale as above defined are almost
+negligible, and that in the case of the gas hydrogen the deviations are
+so small that a thermometer containing this gas may be taken for all
+practical purposes as agreeing exactly with the absolute scale at all
+ordinary temperatures. For this reason the hydrogen thermometer has
+since been generally adopted as the standard.
+
+22. _Availability of Heat of Combustion._--Taking the value 1.13
+kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie for 1° C. fall of temperature at 100°
+C., Carnot attempted to estimate the possible performance of a
+steam-engine receiving heat at 160° C. and rejecting it at 40° C.
+Assuming the performance to be simply proportional to the temperature
+fall, the work done for 120° fall would be 134 kilogrammetres per
+kilo-calorie. To make an accurate calculation required a knowledge of
+the variation of the function F´t with temperature. Taking the accurate
+formula of § 20, the work obtainable is 118 kilogrammetres per
+kilo-calorie, which is 28% of 426, the mechanical equivalent of the
+kilo-calorie in kilogrammetres. Carnot pointed out that the fall of 120°
+C. utilized in the steam-engine was only a small fraction of the whole
+temperature fall obtainable by combustion, and made an estimate of the
+total power available if the whole fall could be utilized, allowing for
+the probable diminution of the function F´t with rise of temperature.
+His estimate was 3.9 million kilogrammetres per kilogramme of coal. This
+was certainly an over-estimate, but was surprisingly close, considering
+the scanty data at his disposal.
+
+In reality the fraction of the heat of combustion available, even in an
+ideal engine and apart from practical limitations, is much less than
+might be inferred from the efficiency formula of the Carnot cycle. In
+applying this formula to estimate the availability of the heat it is
+usual to take the temperature obtainable by the combustion of the fuel
+as the upper limit of temperature in the formula. For carbon burnt _in
+air_ at constant pressure without any loss of heat, the products of
+combustion might be raised 2300° C. in temperature, assuming that the
+specific heats of the products were constant and that there was no
+dissociation. If all the heat could be supplied to the working fluid at
+this temperature, that of the condenser being 40° C., the possible
+efficiency by the formula of § 20 would be 89%. But the combustion
+obviously cannot maintain so high a temperature if heat is being
+continuously abstracted by a boiler. Suppose that [theta]´ is the
+maximum temperature of combustion as above estimated, [theta]" the
+temperature of the boiler, and [theta]^0 that of the condenser. Of the
+whole heat supplied by combustion represented by the rise of temperature
+[theta]´ - [theta]^0, the fraction ([theta]´ - [theta]´´)/([theta]´ -
+[theta]^0) is the maximum that could be supplied to the boiler, the
+fraction ([theta]´´ - [theta]^0)/([theta]´ - [theta]^0) being carried
+away with the waste gases. Of the heat supplied to the boiler, the
+fraction ([theta]´ - [theta]^0)/[theta]´´ might theoretically be
+converted into work. The problem in the case of an engine using a
+separate working fluid, like a steam-engine, is to find what must be the
+temperature [theta]´´ of the boiler in order to obtain the largest
+possible fraction of the heat of combustion in the form of work. It is
+easy to show that [theta]´´ must be the geometric mean of [theta]´ and
+[theta]^0, or [theta]´´ = [root]([theta]´[theta]^0). Taking [theta]´ -
+[theta]^0 = 2300° C., and [theta]^0 = 313° Abs. as before, we find
+[theta]´´ = 903° Abs. or 630° C. The heat supplied to the boiler is then
+74.4% of the heat of combustion, and of this 65.3% is converted into
+work, giving a maximum possible efficiency of 49% in place of 89%. With
+the boiler at 160° C., the possible efficiency, calculated in a similar
+manner, would be 26.3%, which shows that the possible increase of
+efficiency by increasing the temperature range is not so great as is
+usually supposed. If the temperature of the boiler were raised to 300°
+C., corresponding to a pressure of 1260 lb. per sq. in., which is
+occasionally surpassed in modern flash-boilers, the possible efficiency
+would be 40%. The waste heat from the boiler, supposed perfectly
+efficient, would be in this case 11%, of which less than a quarter could
+be utilized in the form of work. Carnot foresaw that in order to utilize
+a larger percentage of the heat of combustion it would be necessary to
+employ a series of working fluids, the waste heat from one boiler and
+condenser serving to supply the next in the series. This has actually
+been effected in a few cases, e.g. steam and SO2, when special
+circumstances exist to compensate for the extra complication.
+Improvements in the steam-engine since Carnot's time have been mainly in
+the direction of reducing waste due to condensation and leakage by
+multiple expansion, superheating, &c. The gain by increased temperature
+range has been comparatively small owing to limitations of pressure, and
+the best modern steam-engines do not utilize more than 20% of the heat
+of combustion. This is in reality a very respectable fraction of the
+ideal limit of 40% above calculated on the assumption of 1260 lb.
+initial pressure, with a perfectly efficient boiler and complete
+expansion, and with an ideal engine which does not waste available
+motive power by complete condensation of the steam before it is returned
+to the boiler.
+
+23. _Advantages of Internal Combustion._--As Carnot pointed out, the
+chief advantage of using atmospheric air as a working fluid in a
+heat-engine lies in the possibility of imparting heat to it directly by
+internal combustion. This avoids the limitation imposed by the use of a
+separate boiler, which as we have seen reduces the possible efficiency
+at least 50%. Even with internal combustion, however, the full range of
+temperature is not available, because the heat cannot conveniently in
+practice be communicated to the working fluid at constant temperature,
+owing to the large range of expansion at constant temperature required
+for the absorption of a sufficient quantity of heat. Air-engines of this
+type, such as Stirling's or Ericsson's, taking in heat at constant
+temperature, though theoretically the most perfect, are bulky and
+mechanically inefficient. In practical engines the heat is generated by
+the combustion of an explosive mixture at constant volume or at constant
+pressure. The heat is not all communicated at the highest temperature,
+but over a range of temperature from that of the mixture at the
+beginning of combustion to the maximum temperature. The earliest
+instance of this type of engine is the lycopodium engine of M. M.
+Niepce, discussed by Carnot, in which a combustible mixture of air and
+lycopodium powder at atmospheric pressure was ignited in a cylinder, and
+did work on a piston. The early gas-engines of E. Lenoir (1860) and N.
+Otto and E. Langen (1866), operated in a similar manner with
+illuminating gas in place of lycopodium. Combustion in this case is
+effected practically at constant volume, and the maximum efficiency
+theoretically obtainable is 1 - log_e r/(r - 1), where r is the ratio of
+the maximum temperature [theta]´ to the initial temperature [theta]^0.
+In order to obtain this efficiency it would be necessary to follow
+Carnot's rule, and expand the gas after ignition without loss or gain of
+heat from [theta]´ down to [theta]^0, and then to compress it at
+[theta]^0 to its initial volume. If the rise of temperature in
+combustion were 2300° C., and the initial temperature were 0° C. or 273°
+Abs., the theoretical efficiency would be 73.3%, which is much greater
+than that obtainable with a boiler. But in order to reach this value, it
+would be necessary to expand the mixture to about 270 times its initial
+volume, which is obviously impracticable. Owing to incomplete expansion
+and rapid cooling of the heated gases by the large surface exposed, the
+actual efficiency of the Lenoir engine was less than 5%, and of the Otto
+and Langen, with more rapid expansion, about 10%. Carnot foresaw that in
+order to render an engine of this type practically efficient, it would
+be necessary to compress the mixture before ignition. Compression is
+beneficial in three ways: (1) it permits a greater range of expansion
+after ignition; (2) it raises the mean effective pressure, and thus
+improves the mechanical efficiency and the power in proportion to size
+and weight; (3) it reduces the loss of heat during ignition by reducing
+the surface exposed to the hot gases. In the modern gas or petrol motor,
+compression is employed as in Carnot's cycle, but the efficiency
+attainable is limited not so much by considerations of temperature as by
+limitations of volume. It is impracticable before combustion at constant
+volume to compress a rich mixture to much less than 1/5th of its initial
+volume, and, for mechanical simplicity, the range of expansion is made
+equal to that of compression. The cycle employed was patented in 1862 by
+Beau de Rochas (d. 1892), but was first successfully carried out by Otto
+(1876). It differs from the Carnot cycle in employing reception and
+rejection of heat at constant volume instead of at constant temperature.
+This cycle is not so efficient as the Carnot cycle for given limits of
+temperature, but, _for the given limits of volume imposed_, it gives a
+much higher efficiency than the Carnot cycle. The efficiency depends
+only on the range of temperature in expansion and compression, and is
+given by the formula ([theta]´ - [theta]´´)/[theta]´, where [theta]´ is
+the maximum temperature, and [theta]´´ the temperature at the end of
+expansion. The formula is the same as that for the Carnot cycle with the
+same range of temperature in expansion. The ratio [theta]´/[theta]´´ is
+r^([gamma] - 1), where r is the given ratio of expansion or compression,
+and [gamma] is the ratio of the specific heats of the working fluid.
+Assuming the working fluid to be a perfect gas with the same properties
+as air, we should have [gamma] = 1.41. Taking r = 5, the formula gives
+48% for the maximum possible efficiency. The actual products of
+combustion vary with the nature of the fuel employed, and have different
+properties from air, but the efficiency is found to vary with
+compression in the same manner as for air. For this reason a committee
+of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1905 recommended the adoption
+of the air-standard for estimating the effects of varying the
+compression ratio, and defined the relative efficiency of an internal
+combustion engine as the ratio of its observed efficiency to that of a
+perfect air-engine with the same compression.
+
+24. _Effect of Dissociation, and Increase of Specific Heat._--One of the
+most important effects of heat is the decomposition or dissociation of
+compound molecules. Just as the molecules of a vapour combine with
+evolution of heat to form the more complicated molecules of the liquid,
+and as the liquid molecules require the addition of heat to effect their
+separation into molecules of vapour; so in the case of molecules of
+different kinds which combine with evolution of heat, the reversal of
+the process can be effected either by the agency of heat, or indirectly
+by supplying the requisite amount of energy by electrical or other
+methods. Just as the latent heat of vaporization diminishes with rise of
+temperature, and the pressure of the dissociated vapour molecules
+increases, so in the case of compound molecules in general the heat of
+combination diminishes with rise of temperature, and the pressure of the
+products of dissociation increases. There is evidence that the compound
+carbon dioxide, CO2, is partly dissociated into carbon monoxide and
+oxygen at high temperatures, and that the proportion dissociated
+increases with rise of temperature. There is a very close analogy
+between these phenomena and the vaporization of a liquid. The laws which
+govern dissociation are the same fundamental laws of thermodynamics, but
+the relations involved are necessarily more complex on account of the
+presence of different kinds of molecules, and present special
+difficulties for accurate investigation in the case where dissociation
+does not begin to be appreciable until a high temperature is reached. It
+is easy, however, to see that the general effect of dissociation must be
+to diminish the available temperature of combustion, and all experiments
+go to show that in ordinary combustible mixtures the rise of temperature
+actually attained is much less than that calculated as in § 22, on the
+assumption that the whole heat of combustion is developed and
+communicated to products of constant specific heat. The defect of
+temperature observed can be represented by supposing that the specific
+heat of the products of combustion increases with rise of temperature.
+This is the case for CO2 even at ordinary temperatures, according to
+Regnault, and probably also for air and steam at higher temperatures.
+Increase of specific heat is a necessary accompaniment of dissociation,
+and from some points of view may be regarded as merely another way of
+stating the facts. It is the most convenient method to adopt in the case
+of products of combustion consisting of a mixture of CO2 and steam with
+a large excess of inert gases, because the relations of equilibrium of
+dissociated molecules of so many different kinds would be too complex to
+permit of any other method of expression. It appears from the researches
+of Dugald Clerk, H. le Chatelier and others that the apparent specific
+heat of the products of combustion in a gas-engine may be taken as
+approximately .34 to .33 in place of .24 at working temperatures between
+1000° C. and 1700° C., and that the ratio of the specific heats is about
+1.29 in place of 1.41. This limits the availability of the heat of
+combustion by reducing the rise of temperature actually obtainable in
+combustion at constant volume by 30 or 40%, and also by reducing the
+range of temperature [theta]´/[theta]´´ for a given ratio of expansions
+r from r^(.41) to r^(.29). The formula given in § 21 is no longer quite
+exact, because the ratio of the specific heats of the mixture during
+compression is not the same as that of the products of combustion during
+expansion. But since the work done depends principally on the expansion
+curve, the ratio of the range of temperature in expansion ([theta]´ -
+[theta]´´) to the maximum temperature [theta]´ will still give a very
+good approximation to the possible efficiency. Taking r = 5, as before,
+for the compression ratio, the possible efficiency is reduced from 48%
+to 38%, if [gamma] = 1.29 instead of 1.41. A large gas-engine of the
+present day with r = 5 may actually realize as much as 34% indicated
+efficiency, which is 90% of the maximum possible, showing how perfectly
+all avoidable heat losses have been minimized.
+
+It is often urged that the gas-engine is relatively less efficient than
+the steam-engine, because, although it has a much higher absolute
+efficiency, it does not utilize so large a fraction of its temperature
+range, reckoning that of the steam-engine from the temperature of the
+boiler to that of the condenser, and that of the gas-engine from the
+maximum temperature of combustion to that of the air. This is not quite
+fair, and has given rise to the mistaken notion that "there is an
+immense margin for improvement in the gas-engine," which is not the case
+if the practical limitations of volume are rightly considered. If
+expansion could be carried out in accordance with Carnot's principle of
+maximum efficiency, down to the lower limit of temperature [theta]0,
+with rejection of heat at [theta]0 during compression to the original
+volume V0, it would no doubt be possible to obtain an ideal efficiency
+of nearly 80%. But this would be quite impracticable, as it would
+require expansion to about 100 times v0, or 500 times the compression
+volume. Some advantage no doubt might be obtained by carrying the
+expansion beyond the original volume. This has been done, but is not
+found to be worth the extra complication. A more practical method, which
+has been applied by Diesel for liquid fuel, is to introduce the fuel at
+the end of compression, and adjust the supply in such a manner as to
+give combustion at nearly constant pressure. This makes it possible to
+employ higher compression, with a corresponding increase in the ratio of
+expansion and the theoretical efficiency. With a compression ratio of
+14, an indicated efficiency of 40% has been obtained In this way, but
+owing to additional complications the brake efficiency was only 31%,
+which is hardly any improvement on the brake efficiency of 30% obtained
+with the ordinary type of gas-engine. Although Carnot's principle makes
+it possible to calculate in every case what the limiting possible
+efficiency would be for any kind of cycle if all heat losses were
+abolished, it is very necessary, in applying the principle to practical
+cases, to take account of the possibility of avoiding the heat losses
+which are supposed to be absent, and of other practical limitations in
+the working of the actual engine. An immense amount of time and
+ingenuity has been wasted in striving to realize impossible margins of
+ideal efficiency, which a close study of the practical conditions would
+have shown to be illusory. As Carnot remarks at the conclusion of his
+essay: "Economy of fuel is only one of the conditions a heat-engine must
+satisfy; in many cases it is only secondary, and must often give way to
+considerations of safety, strength and wearing qualities of the machine,
+of smallness of space occupied, or of expense in erecting. To know how
+to appreciate justly in each case the considerations of convenience and
+economy, to be able to distinguish the essential from the accessory, to
+balance all fairly, and finally to arrive at the best result by the
+simplest means, such must be the principal talent of the man called on
+to direct and co-ordinate the work of his fellows for the attainment of
+a useful object of any kind."
+
+
+TRANSFERENCE OF HEAT
+
+25. _Modes of Transference._--There are three principal modes of
+transference of heat, namely (1) convection, (2) conduction, and (3)
+radiation.
+
+(1) In convection, heat is carried or conveyed by the motion of heated
+masses of matter. The most familiar illustrations of this method of
+transference are the heating of buildings by the circulation of steam or
+hot water, or the equalization of temperature of a mass of unequally
+heated liquid or gas by convection currents, produced by natural changes
+of density or by artificial stirring. (2) In conduction, heat is
+transferred by contact between contiguous particles of matter and is
+passed on from one particle to the next without visible relative motion
+of the parts of the body. A familiar illustration of conduction is the
+passage of heat through the metal plates of a boiler from the fire to
+the water inside, or the transference of heat from a soldering bolt to
+the solder and the metal with which it is placed in contact. (3) In
+radiation, the heated body gives rise to a motion of vibration in the
+aether, which is propagated equally in all directions, and is
+reconverted into heat when it encounters any obstacle capable of
+absorbing it. Thus radiation differs from conduction and convection in
+taking place most perfectly in the absence of matter, whereas conduction
+and convection require material communication between the bodies
+concerned.
+
+In the majority of cases of transference of heat all three modes of
+transference are simultaneously operative in a greater or less degree,
+and the combined effect is generally of great complexity. The different
+modes of transference are subject to widely different laws, and the
+difficulty of disentangling their effects and subjecting them to
+calculation is often one of the most serious obstacles in the
+experimental investigation of heat. In space void of matter, we should
+have pure radiation, but it is difficult to obtain so perfect a vacuum
+that the effects of the residual gas in transferring heat by conduction
+or convection are inappreciable. In the interior of an opaque solid we
+should have pure conduction, but if the solid is sensibly transparent in
+thin layers there must also be an internal radiation, while in a liquid
+or a gas it is very difficult to eliminate the effects of convection.
+These difficulties are well illustrated in the historical development of
+the subject by the experimental investigations which have been made to
+determine the laws of heat-transference, such as the laws of cooling, of
+radiation and of conduction.
+
+26. _Newton's Law of Cooling._--There is one essential condition common
+to all three modes of heat-transference, namely, that they depend on
+difference of temperature, that the direction of the transfer of heat is
+always from hot to cold, and that the rate of transference is, for small
+differences, directly proportional to the difference of temperature.
+Without difference of temperature there is no transfer of heat. When two
+bodies have been brought to the same temperature by conduction, they are
+also in equilibrium as regards radiation, and vice versa. If this were
+not the case, there could be no equilibrium of heat defined by equality
+of temperature. A hot body placed in an enclosure of lower temperature,
+e.g. a calorimeter in its containing vessel, generally loses heat by all
+three modes simultaneously in different degrees. The loss by each mode
+will depend in different ways on the form, extent and nature of its
+surface and on that of the enclosure, on the manner in which it is
+supported, on its relative position and distance from the enclosure, and
+on the nature of the intervening medium. But provided that the
+difference of temperature is small, the rate of loss of heat by all
+modes will be approximately proportional to the difference of
+temperature, the other conditions remaining constant. The rate of
+cooling or the rate of fall of temperature will also be nearly
+proportional to the rate of loss of heat, if the specific heat of the
+cooling body is constant, or the rate of cooling at any moment will be
+proportional to the difference of temperature. This simple relation is
+commonly known as Newton's law of cooling, but is limited in its
+application to comparatively simple cases such as the foregoing. Newton
+himself applied it to estimate the temperature of a red-hot iron ball,
+by observing the time which it took to cool from a red heat to a known
+temperature, and comparing this with the time taken to cool through a
+known range at ordinary temperatures. According to this law if the
+excess of temperature of the body above its surroundings is observed at
+equal intervals of time, the observed values will form a geometrical
+progression with a common ratio. Supposing, for instance, that the
+surrounding temperature were 0° C., that the red-hot ball took 25
+minutes to cool from its original temperature to 20° C., and 5 minutes
+to cool from 20° C. to 10° C., the original temperature is easily
+calculated on the assumption that the excess of temperature above 0° C.
+falls to half its value in each interval of 5 minutes. Doubling the
+value 20° at 25 minutes five times, we arrive at 640° C. as the original
+temperature. No other method of estimation of such temperatures was
+available in the time of Newton, but, as we now know, the simple law of
+proportionality to the temperature difference is inapplicable over such
+large ranges of temperature. The rate of loss of heat by radiation, and
+also by convection and conduction to the surrounding air, increases much
+more rapidly than in simple proportion to the temperature difference,
+and the rate of increase of each follows a different law. At a later
+date Sir John Herschel measured the intensity of the solar radiation at
+the surface of the earth, and endeavoured to form an estimate of the
+temperature of the sun by comparison with terrestrial sources on the
+assumption that the intensity of radiation was simply proportional to
+the temperature difference. He thus arrived at an estimate of several
+million degrees, which we now know would be about a thousand times too
+great. The application of Newton's law necessarily leads to absurd
+results when the difference of temperature is very large, but the error
+will not in general exceed 2 to 3% if the temperature difference does
+not exceed 10° C., and the percentage error is proportionately much
+smaller for smaller differences.
+
+27. _Dulong and Petit's Empirical Laws of Cooling._--One of the most
+elaborate experimental investigations of the law of cooling was that of
+Dulong and Petit (_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1817, 7, pp. 225 and 337), who
+observed the rate of cooling of a mercury thermometer from 300° C. in a
+water-jacketed enclosure at various temperatures from 0° C. to 80° C. In
+order to obtain the rate of cooling by radiation alone, they exhausted
+the enclosure as perfectly as possible after the introduction of the
+thermometer, but with the imperfect appliances available at that time
+they were not able to obtain a vacuum better than about 3 or 4 mm. of
+mercury. They found that the velocity of cooling V in a vacuum could be
+represented by a formula of the type
+
+  V = A(a^t - a^t0)   (5)
+
+in which t is the temperature of the thermometer, and t0 that of the
+enclosure, a is a constant having the value 1.0075, and the coefficient
+A depends on the form of the bulb and the nature of its surface. For the
+ranges of temperature they employed, this formula gives much better
+results than Newton's, but it must be remembered that the temperatures
+were expressed on the arbitrary scale of the mercury thermometer, and
+were not corrected for the large and uncertain errors of stem-exposure
+(see THERMOMETRY). Moreover, although the effects of cooling by
+convection currents are practically eliminated by exhausting to 3 or 4
+mm. (since the density of the gas is reduced to 1/200th while its
+viscosity is not appreciably affected), the rate of cooling by
+conduction is not materially diminished, since the conductivity, like
+the viscosity, is nearly independent of pressure. It has since been
+shown by Sir William Crookes (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1881, 21, p. 239) that
+the rate of cooling of a mercury thermometer in a vacuum suffers a very
+great diminution when the pressure is reduced from 1 mm. to .001 mm., at
+which pressure the effect of conduction by the residual gas has
+practically disappeared.
+
+Dulong and Petit also observed the rate of cooling under the same
+conditions with the enclosure filled with various gases. They found that
+the cooling effect of the gas could be represented by adding to the term
+already given as representing radiation, an expression of the form
+
+  V´ = Bp^c (t - t0)^(1.233).   (6)
+
+They found that the cooling effect of convection, unlike that of
+radiation, was independent of the nature of the surface of the
+thermometer, whether silvered or blackened, that it varied as some power
+c of the pressure p, and that it was independent of the absolute
+temperature of the enclosure, but varied as the excess temperature (t -
+t0) raised to the power 1.233. This highly artificial result undoubtedly
+contains some elements of truth, but could only be applied to
+experiments similar to those from which it was derived. F. Hervé de la
+Provostaye and P. Q. Desains (_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1846, 16, p. 337), in
+repeating these experiments under various conditions, found that the
+coefficients A and B were to some extent dependent on the temperature,
+and that the manner in which the cooling effect varied with the pressure
+depended on the form and size of the enclosure. It is evident that this
+should be the case, since the cooling effect of the gas depends partly
+on convective currents. which are necessarily greatly modified by the
+form of the enclosure in a manner which it would appear hopeless to
+attempt to represent by any general formula.
+
+28. _Surface Emissivity._--The same remark applies to many attempts
+which have since been made to determine the general value of the
+constant termed by Fourier and early writers the "exterior
+conductibility," but now called the surface emissivity. This coefficient
+represents the rate of loss of heat from a body per unit area of surface
+per degree excess of temperature, and includes the effects of radiation,
+convection and conduction. As already pointed out, the combined effect
+will be nearly proportional to the excess of temperature in any given
+case provided that the excess is small, but it is not necessarily
+proportional to the extent of surface exposed except in the case of pure
+radiation. The rate of loss by convection and conduction varies greatly
+with the form of the surface, and, unless the enclosure is very large
+compared with the cooling body, the effect depends also on the size and
+form of the enclosure. Heat is necessarily communicated from the cooling
+body to the layer of gas in contact with it by conduction. If the linear
+dimensions of the body are small, as in the case of a fine wire, or if
+it is separated from the enclosure by a thin layer of gas, the rate of
+loss depends chiefly on conduction. For very fine metallic wires heated
+by an electric current, W. E. Ayrton and H. Kilgour (_Phil. Trans._,
+1892) showed that the rate of loss is nearly independent of the surface,
+instead of being directly proportional to it. This should be the case,
+as Porter has shown (_Phil. Mag._, March 1895), since the effect depends
+mainly on conduction. The effects of conduction and radiation may be
+approximately estimated if the conductivity of the gas and the nature
+and forms of the surfaces of the body and enclosure are known, but the
+effect of convection in any case can be determined only by experiment.
+It has been found that the rate of cooling by a current of air is
+approximately proportional to the velocity of the current, other things
+being equal. It is obvious that this should be the case, but the result
+cannot generally be applied to convection currents. Values which are
+commonly given for the surface emissivity must therefore be accepted
+with great reserve. They can be regarded only as approximate, and as
+applicable only to cases precisely similar to those for which they were
+experimentally obtained. There cannot be said to be any general law of
+convection. The loss of heat is not necessarily proportional to the area
+of the surface, and no general value of the coefficient can be given to
+suit all cases. The laws of conduction and radiation admit of being more
+precisely formulated, and their effects predicted, except in so far as
+they are complicated by convection.
+
+29. _Conduction of Heat._--The laws of transference of heat in the
+interior of a solid body formed one of the earliest subjects of
+mathematical and experimental treatment in the theory of heat. The law
+assumed by Fourier was of the simplest possible type, but the
+mathematical application, except in the simplest cases, was so difficult
+as to require the development of a new mathematical method. Fourier
+succeeded in showing how, by his method of analysis, the solution of any
+given problem with regard to the flow of heat by conduction in any
+material could be obtained in terms of a physical constant, the thermal
+conductivity of the material, and that the results obtained by
+experiment agreed in a qualitative manner with those predicted by his
+theory. But the experimental determination of the actual values of these
+constants presented formidable difficulties which were not surmounted
+till a later date. The experimental methods and difficulties are
+discussed in a special article on CONDUCTION OF HEAT. It will suffice
+here to give a brief historical sketch, including a few of the more
+important results by way of illustration.
+
+30. _Comparison of Conducting Powers._--That the power of transmitting
+heat by conduction varied widely in different materials was probably
+known in a general way from prehistoric times. Empirical knowledge of
+this kind is shown in the construction of many articles for heating,
+cooking, &c., such as the copper soldering bolt, or the Norwegian
+cooking-stove. One of the earliest experiments for making an actual
+comparison of conducting powers was that suggested by Franklin, but
+carried out by Jan Ingenhousz (_Journ. de phys._, 1789, 34, pp. 68 and
+380). Exactly similar bars of different materials, glass, wood, metal,
+&c., thinly coated with wax, were fixed in the side of a trough of
+boiling water so as to project for equal distances through the side of
+the trough into the external air. The wax coating was observed to melt
+as the heat travelled along the bars, the distance from the trough to
+which the wax was melted along each affording an approximate indication
+of the distribution of temperature. When the temperature of each bar had
+become stationary the heat which it gained by conduction from the trough
+must be equal to the heat lost to the surrounding air, and must
+therefore be approximately proportional to the distance to which the wax
+had melted along the bar. But the temperature fall per unit length, or
+the temperature-gradient, in each bar at the point where it emerged from
+the trough would be inversely proportional to the same distance. For
+equal temperature-gradients the quantities of heat conducted (or the
+relative conducting powers of the bars) would therefore be proportional
+to the squares of the distances to which the wax finally melted on each
+bar. This was shown by Fourier and Despretz (_Ann. chim. phys._, 1822,
+19, p. 97).
+
+31. _Diffusion of Temperature._--It was shown in connexion with this
+experiment by Sir H. Davy, and the experiment was later popularized by
+John Tyndall, that the rate at which wax melted along the bar, or the
+rate of propagation of a given temperature, during the first moments of
+heating, as distinguished from the melting-distance finally attained,
+depended on the specific heat as well as the conductivity. Short prisms
+of iron and bismuth coated with wax were placed on a hot metal plate.
+The wax was observed to melt first on the bismuth, although its
+conductivity is less than that of iron. The reason is that its specific
+heat is less than that of iron in the proportion of 3 to 11. The
+densities of iron and bismuth being 7.8 and 9.8, the thermal capacities
+of equal prisms will be in the ratio .86 for iron to .29 for bismuth. If
+the prisms receive heat at equal rates, the bismuth will reach the
+temperature of melting wax nearly three times as quickly as the iron. It
+is often stated on the strength of this experiment that the rate of
+propagation of a temperature wave, which depends on the ratio of the
+conductivity to the specific heat per unit volume, is greater in bismuth
+than in iron (e.g. Preston, _Heat_, p. 628). This is quite incorrect,
+because the conductivity of iron is about six times that of bismuth, and
+the rate of propagation of a temperature wave is therefore twice as
+great in iron as in bismuth. The experiment in reality is misleading
+because the rates of reception of heat by the prisms are limited by the
+very imperfect contact with the hot metal plate, and are not
+proportional to the respective conductivities. If the iron and bismuth
+bars are properly faced and soldered to the top of a copper box (in
+order to ensure good metallic contact, and exclude a non-conducting film
+of air), and the box is then heated by steam, the rates of reception of
+heat will be nearly proportional to the conductivities, and the wax will
+melt nearly twice as fast along the iron as along the bismuth. A bar of
+lead similarly treated will show a faster rate of propagation than iron,
+because, although its conductivity is only half that of iron, its
+specific heat per unit volume is 2.5 times smaller.
+
+32. _Bad Conductors. Liquids and Gases._--Count Rumford (1792) compared
+the conducting powers of substances used in clothing, such as wool and
+cotton, fur and down, by observing the time which a thermometer took to
+cool when embedded in a globe filled successively with the different
+materials. The times of cooling observed for a given range varied from
+1300 to 900 seconds for different materials. The low conducting power of
+such materials is principally due to the presence of air in the
+interstices, which is prevented from forming convection currents by the
+presence of the fibrous material. Finely powdered silica is a very bad
+conductor, but in the compact form of rock crystal it is as good a
+conductor as some of the metals. According to the kinetic theory of
+gases, the conductivity of a gas depends on molecular diffusion. Maxwell
+estimated the conductivity of air at ordinary temperatures at about
+20,000 times less than that of copper. This has been verified
+experimentally by Kundt and Warburg, Stefan and Winkelmann, by taking
+special precautions to eliminate the effects of convection currents and
+radiation. It was for some time doubted whether a gas possessed any true
+conductivity for heat. The experiment of T. Andrews, repeated by Grove,
+and Magnus, showing that a wire heated by an electric current was raised
+to a higher temperature in air than in hydrogen, was explained by
+Tyndall as being due to the greater mobility of hydrogen which gave rise
+to stronger convection currents. In reality the effect is due chiefly to
+the greater velocity of motion of the ultimate molecules of hydrogen,
+and is most marked if molar (as opposed to molecular) convection is
+eliminated. Molecular convection or diffusion, which cannot be
+distinguished experimentally from conduction, as it follows the same
+law, is also the main cause of conduction of heat in liquids. Both in
+liquids and gases the effects of convection currents are so much greater
+than those of diffusion or conduction that the latter are very difficult
+to measure, and, except in special cases, comparatively unimportant as
+affecting the transference of heat. Owing to the difficulty of
+eliminating the effects of radiation and convection, the results
+obtained for the conductivities of liquids are somewhat discordant, and
+there is in most cases great uncertainty whether the conductivity
+increases or diminishes with rise of temperature. It would appear,
+however, that liquids, such as water and glycerin, differ remarkably
+little in conductivity in spite of enormous differences of viscosity.
+The viscosity of a liquid diminishes very rapidly with rise of
+temperature, without any marked change in the conductivity, whereas the
+viscosity of a gas increases with rise of temperature, and is always
+nearly proportional to the conductivity.
+
+33. _Difficulty of Quantitative Estimation of Heat Transmitted._--The
+conducting powers of different metals were compared by C. M. Despretz,
+and later by G. H. Wiedemann and R. Franz, employing an extension of the
+method of Jan Ingenhousz, in which the temperatures at different points
+along a bar heated at one end were measured by thermometers or
+thermocouples let into small holes in the bars, instead of being
+measured at one point only by means of melting wax. These experiments
+undoubtedly gave fairly accurate relative values, but did not permit the
+calculation of the absolute amounts of heat transmitted. This was first
+obtained by J. D. Forbes (_Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1852; _Trans. Roy. Soc.
+Ed._, 1862, 23, p. 133) by deducing the amount of heat lost to the
+surrounding air from a separate experiment in which the rate of cooling
+of the bar was observed (see CONDUCTION OF HEAT). Clément (_Ann. chim.
+phys._, 1841) had previously attempted to determine the conductivities
+of metals by observing the amount of heat transmitted by a plate with
+one side exposed to steam at 100° C., and the other side cooled by water
+at 28° C. Employing a copper plate 3 mm. thick, and assuming that the
+two surfaces of the plate were at the same temperatures as the water and
+the steam to which they were exposed, or that the temperature-gradient
+in the metal was 72° in 3 mm., he had thus obtained a value which we now
+know to be nearly 200 times too small. The actual temperature difference
+in the metal itself was really about 0.36° C. The remainder of the 72°
+drop was in the badly conducting films of water and steam close to the
+metal surface. Similarly in a boiler plate in contact with flame at
+1500° C. on one side and water at, say, 150° C. on the other, the actual
+difference of temperature in the metal, even if it is an inch thick, is
+only a few degrees. The metal, unless badly furred with incrustation, is
+but little hotter than the water. It is immaterial so far as the
+transmission of heat is concerned, whether the plates are iron or
+copper. The greater part of the resistance to the passage of heat
+resides in a comparatively quiescent film of gas close to the surface,
+through which film the heat has to pass mainly by conduction. If a
+Bunsen flame, preferably coloured with sodium, is observed impinging on
+a cold metal plate, it will be seen to be separated from the plate by a
+dark space of a millimetre or less, throughout which the temperature of
+the gas is lowered by its own conductivity below the temperature of
+incandescence. There is no abrupt change of temperature in passing from
+the gas to the metal, but a continuous temperature-gradient from the
+temperature of the metal to that of the flame. It is true that this
+gradient may be upwards of 1000° C. per mm., but there is no
+discontinuity.
+
+34. _Resistance of a Gas Film to the Passage of Heat._--It is possible
+to make a rough estimate of the resistance of such a film to the passage
+of heat through it. Taking the average conductivity of the gas in the
+film as 10,000 times less than that of copper (about double the
+conductivity of air at ordinary temperatures) a millimetre film would be
+equivalent to a thickness of 10 metres of copper, or about 1.2 metres of
+iron. Taking the temperature-gradient as 1000° C. per mm. such a film
+would transmit 1 gramme-calorie per sq. cm. per sec., or 36,000
+kilo-calories per sq. metre per hour. With an area of 100 sq. cms. the
+heat transmitted at this rate would raise a litre of water from 20° C.
+to 100° C. in 800 secs. By experiment with a strong Bunsen flame it
+takes from 8 to 10 minutes to do this, which would indicate that on the
+above assumptions the equivalent thickness of quiescent film should be
+rather less than 1 mm. in this case. The thickness of the film
+diminishes with the velocity of the burning gases impinging on the
+surface. This accounts for the rapidity of heating by a blowpipe flame,
+which is not due to any great increase in temperature of the flame as
+compared with a Bunsen. Similarly the efficiency of a boiler is but
+slightly reduced if half the tubes are stopped up, because the increase
+of draught through the remainder compensates partly for the diminished
+heating surface. Some resistance to the passage of heat into a boiler is
+also due to the water film on the inside. But this is of less account,
+because the conductivity of water is much greater than that of air, and
+because the film is continually broken up by the formation of steam,
+which abstracts heat very rapidly.
+
+35. _Heating by Condensation of Steam._--It is often stated that the
+rate at which steam will condense on a metal surface at a temperature
+below that corresponding to the saturation pressure of the steam is
+practically infinite (e.g. Osborne Reynolds, _Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed._,
+1873, p. 275), and conversely that the rate at which water will abstract
+heat from a metal surface by the formation of steam (if the metal is
+above the temperature of saturation of the steam) is limited only by the
+rate at which the metal can supply heat by conduction to its surface
+layer. The rate at which heat can be supplied by condensation of steam
+appears to be much greater than that at which heat can be supplied by a
+flame under ordinary conditions, but there is no reason to suppose that
+it is infinite, or that any discontinuity exists. Experiments by H. L.
+Callendar and J. T. Nicolson by three independent methods (_Proc. Inst.
+Civ. Eng._, 1898, 131, p. 147; _Brit. Assoc. Rep._ p. 418) appear to
+show that the rate of abstraction of heat by evaporation, or that of
+communication of heat by condensation, depends chiefly on the difference
+of temperature between the metal surface and the saturated steam, and is
+nearly proportional to the temperature difference (not to the pressure
+difference, as suggested by Reynolds) for such ranges of pressure as are
+common in practice. The rate of heat transmission they observed was
+equivalent to about 8 calories per sq. cm. per sec., for a difference of
+20° C. between the temperature of the metal surface and the saturation
+temperature of the steam. This would correspond to a condensation of 530
+kilogrammes of steam at 100° C. per sq. metre per hour, or 109 lb. per
+sq. ft. per hour for the same difference of temperature, values which
+are many times greater than those actually obtained in ordinary surface
+condensers. The reason for this is that there is generally some air
+mixed with the steam in a surface condenser, which greatly retards the
+condensation. It is also difficult to keep the temperature of the metal
+as much as 20° C. below the temperature of the steam unless a very free
+and copious circulation of cold water is available. For the same
+difference of temperature, steam can supply heat by condensation about a
+thousand times faster than hot air. This rate is not often approached in
+practice, but the facility of generation and transmission of steam,
+combined with its high latent heat and the accuracy of control and
+regulation of temperature afforded, render it one of the most convenient
+agents for the distribution of large quantities of heat in all kinds of
+manufacturing processes.
+
+36. _Spheroidal State._--An interesting contrast to the extreme rapidity
+with which heat is abstracted by the evaporation of a liquid in contact
+with a metal plate, is the so-called spheroidal state. A small drop of
+liquid thrown on a red-hot metal plate assumes a spheroidal form, and
+continues swimming about for some time, while it slowly evaporates at a
+temperature somewhat below its boiling-point. The explanation is simply
+that the liquid itself cannot come in actual contact with the metal
+plate (especially if the latter is above the critical temperature), but
+is separated from it by a badly conducting film of vapour, through
+which, as we have seen, the heat is comparatively slowly transmitted
+even if the difference of temperature is several hundred degrees. If the
+metal plate is allowed to cool gradually, the drop remains suspended on
+its cushion of vapour, until, in the case of water, a temperature of
+about 200° C. is reached, at which the liquid comes in contact with the
+plate and boils explosively, reducing the temperature of the plate, if
+thin, almost instantaneously to 100° C. The temperature of the metal is
+readily observed by a thermo-electric method, employing a platinum dish
+with a platinum-rhodium wire soldered with gold to its under side. The
+absence of contact between the liquid and the dish in the spheroidal
+state may also be shown by connecting one terminal of a galvanometer to
+the drop and the other through a battery to the dish, and observing that
+no current passes until the drop boils.
+
+37. _Early Theories of Radiation._--It was at one time supposed that
+there were three distinct kinds of radiation--thermal, luminous and
+actinic, combined in the radiation from a luminous source such as the
+sun or a flame. The first gave rise to heat, the second to light and the
+third to chemical action. The three kinds were partially separated by a
+prism, the actinic rays being generally more refracted, and the thermal
+rays less refracted than the luminous. This conception arose very
+naturally from the observation that the feebly luminous blue and violet
+rays produced the greatest photographic effects, which also showed the
+existence of dark rays beyond the violet, whereas the brilliant yellow
+and red were practically without action on the photographic plate. A
+thermometer placed in the blue or violet showed no appreciable rise of
+temperature, and even in the yellow the effect was hardly discernible.
+The effect increased rapidly as the light faded towards the extreme red,
+and reached a maximum beyond the extreme limits of the spectrum
+(Herschel), showing that the greater part of the thermal radiation was
+altogether non-luminous. It is now a commonplace that chemical action,
+colour sensation and heat are merely different effects of one and the
+same kind of radiation, the particular effect produced in each case
+depending on the frequency and intensity of the vibration, and on the
+nature of the substance on which it falls. When radiation is completely
+absorbed by a black substance, it is converted into heat, the quantity
+of heat produced being equivalent to the total energy of the radiation
+absorbed, irrespective of the colour or frequency of the different rays.
+The actinic or chemical effects, on the other hand, depend essentially
+on some relation between the period of the vibration and the properties
+of the substance acted on. The rays producing such effects are generally
+those which are most strongly absorbed. The spectrum of chlorophyll, the
+green colouring matter of plants, shows two very strong absorption bands
+in the red. The red rays of corresponding period are found to be the
+most active in promoting the growth of the plant. The chemically active
+rays are not necessarily the shortest. Even photographic plates may be
+made to respond to the red rays by staining them with pinachrome or some
+other suitable dye.
+
+The action of light rays on the retina is closely analogous to the
+action on a photographic plate. The retina, like the plate, is sensitive
+only to rays within certain restricted limits of frequency. The limits
+of sensitiveness of each colour sensation are not exactly defined, but
+vary slightly from one individual to another, especially in cases of
+partial colour-blindness, and are modified by conditions of fatigue. We
+are not here concerned with these important physiological and chemical
+effects of radiation, but rather with the question of the conversion of
+energy of radiation into heat, and with the laws of emission and
+absorption of radiation in relation to temperature. We may here also
+assume the identity of visible and invisible radiations from a heated
+body in all their physical properties. It has been abundantly proved
+that the invisible rays, like the visible, (1) are propagated in
+straight lines in homogeneous media; (2) are reflected and diffused from
+the surface of bodies according to the same law; (3) travel with the
+same velocity in free space, but with slightly different velocities in
+denser media, being subject to the same law of refraction; (4) exhibit
+all the phenomena of diffraction and interference which are
+characteristic of wave-motion in general; (5) are capable of
+polarization and double refraction; (6) exhibit similar effects of
+selective absorption. These properties are more easily demonstrated in
+the case of visible rays on account of the great sensitiveness of the
+eye. But with the aid of the thermopile or other sensitive radiometer,
+they may be shown to belong equally to all the radiations from a heated
+body, even such as are thirty to fifty times slower in frequency than
+the longest visible rays. The same physical properties have also been
+shown to belong to electromagnetic waves excited by an electric
+discharge, whatever the frequency, thus including all kinds of aetherial
+radiation in the same category as light.
+
+38. _Theory of Exchanges._--The apparent concentration of cold by a
+concave mirror, observed by G. B. Porta and rediscovered by M. A.
+Pictet, led to the enunciation of the theory of exchanges by Pierre
+Prevost in 1791. Prevost's leading idea was that all bodies, whether
+cold or hot, are constantly radiating heat. Heat equilibrium, he says,
+consists in an equality of exchange. When equilibrium is interfered
+with, it is re-established by inequalities of exchange. If into a
+locality at uniform temperature a refracting or reflecting body is
+introduced, it has no effect in the way of changing the temperature at
+any point of that locality. A reflecting body, heated or cooled in the
+interior of such an enclosure, will acquire the surrounding temperature
+more slowly than would a non-reflector, and will less affect another
+body placed at a little distance, but will not affect the final equality
+of temperature. Apparent radiation of cold, as from a block of ice to a
+thermometer placed near it, is due to the fact that the thermometer
+being at a higher temperature sends more heat to the ice than it
+received back from it. Although Prevost does not make the statement in
+so many words, it is clear that he regards the radiation from a body as
+depending only on its own nature and temperature, and as independent of
+the nature and presence of any adjacent body. Heat equilibrium in an
+enclosure of constant temperature such as is here postulated by Prevost,
+has often been regarded as a consequence of Carnot's principle. Since
+difference of temperature is required for transforming heat into work,
+no work could be obtained from heat in such a system, and no spontaneous
+changes of temperature can take place, as any such changes might be
+utilized for the production of work. This line of reasoning does not
+appear quite satisfactory, because it is tacitly assumed, in the
+reasoning by which Carnot's principle was established, as a result of
+universal experience, that a number of bodies within the same impervious
+enclosure, which contains no source of heat, will ultimately acquire the
+same temperature, and that difference of temperature is required to
+produce flow of heat. Thus although we may regard the equilibrium in
+such an enclosure as being due to equal exchanges of heat in all
+directions, the equal and opposite streams of radiation annul and
+neutralize each other in such a way that no actual transfer of energy in
+any direction takes place. The state of the medium is everywhere the
+same in such an enclosure, but its energy of agitation per unit volume
+is a function of the temperature, and is such that it would not be in
+equilibrium with any body at a different temperature.
+
+39. _"Full" and Selective Radiation. Correspondence of Emission and
+Absorption._--The most obvious difficulties in the way of this theory
+arise from the fact that nearly all radiation is more or less selective
+in character, as regards the quality and frequency of the rays emitted
+and absorbed. It was shown by J. Leslie, M. Melloni and other
+experimentalists that many substances such as glass and water, which are
+very transparent to visible rays, are extremely opaque to much of the
+invisible radiation of lower frequency; and that polished metals, which
+are perfect reflectors, are very feeble radiators as compared with dull
+or black bodies at the same temperature. If two bodies emit rays of
+different periods in different proportions, it is not at first sight
+easy to see how their radiations can balance each other at the same
+temperature. The key to all such difficulties lies in the fundamental
+conception, so strongly insisted on by Balfour Stewart, of the absolute
+uniformity (qualitative as well as quantitative) of the full or complete
+radiation stream inside an impervious enclosure of uniform temperature.
+It follows from this conception that the proportion of the full
+radiation stream absorbed by any body in such an enclosure must be
+exactly compensated in quality as well as quantity by the proportion
+emitted, or that the emissive and absorptive powers of any body at a
+given temperature must be precisely equal. A good reflector, like a
+polished metal, must also be a feeble radiator and absorber. Of the
+incident radiation it absorbs a small fraction and reflects the
+remainder, which together with the radiation emitted (being precisely
+equal to that absorbed) makes up the full radiation stream. A partly
+transparent material, like glass, absorbs part of the full radiation and
+transmits part. But it emits rays precisely equal in quality and
+intensity to those which it absorbs, which together with the transmitted
+portion make up the full stream. The ideal black body or perfect
+radiator is a body which absorbs all the radiation incident on it. The
+rays emitted from such a body at any temperature must be equal to the
+full radiation stream in an isothermal enclosure at the same
+temperature. Lampblack, which may absorb between 98 to 99% of the
+incident radiation, is generally taken as the type of a black body. But
+a closer approximation to full radiation may be obtained by employing a
+hollow vessel the internal walls of which are blackened and maintained
+at a uniform temperature by a steam jacket or other suitable means. If a
+relatively small hole is made in the side of such a vessel, the
+radiation proceeding through the aperture will be the full radiation
+corresponding to the temperature. Such a vessel is also a perfect
+absorber. Of radiation entering through the aperture an infinitesimal
+fraction only could possibly emerge by successive reflection even if the
+sides were of polished metal internally. A thin platinum tube heated by
+an electric current appears feebly luminous as compared with a blackened
+tube at the same temperature. But if a small hole is made in the side of
+the polished tube, the light proceeding through the hole appears
+brighter than the blackened tube, as though the inside of the tube were
+much hotter than the outside, which is not the case to any appreciable
+extent if the tube is thin. The radiation proceeding through the hole is
+nearly that of a perfectly black body if the hole is small. If there
+were no hole the internal stream of radiation would be exactly that of a
+black body at the same temperature however perfect the reflecting power,
+or however low the emissive power of the walls, because the defect in
+emissive power would be exactly compensated by the internal reflection.
+
+Balfour Stewart gave a number of striking illustrations of the
+qualitative identity of emission and absorption of a substance. Pieces
+of coloured glass placed in a fire appear to lose their colour when at
+the same temperature as the coals behind them, because they compensate
+exactly for their selective absorption by radiating chiefly those
+colours which they absorb. Rocksalt is remarkably transparent to thermal
+radiation of nearly all kinds, but it is extremely opaque to radiation
+from a heated plate of rocksalt, because it emits when heated precisely
+those rays which it absorbs. A plate of tourmaline cut parallel to the
+axis absorbs almost completely light polarized in a plane parallel to
+the axis, but transmits freely light polarized in a perpendicular plane.
+When heated its radiation is polarized in the same plane as the
+radiation which it absorbs. In the case of incandescent vapours, the
+exact correspondence of emission and absorption as regards wave-length
+of frequency of the light emitted and absorbed forms the foundation of
+the science of spectrum analysis. Fraunhofer had noticed the coincidence
+of a pair of bright yellow lines seen in the spectrum of a candle flame
+with the dark D lines in the solar spectrum, a coincidence which was
+afterwards more exactly verified by W. A. Miller. Foucault found that
+the flame of the electric arc showed the same lines bright in its
+spectrum, and proved that they appeared as dark lines in the otherwise
+continuous spectrum when the light from the carbon poles was transmitted
+through the arc. Stokes gave a dynamical explanation of the phenomenon
+and illustrated it by the analogous case of resonance in sound.
+Kirchhoff completed the explanation (_Phil. Mag._, 1860) of the dark
+lines in the solar spectrum by showing that the reversal of the spectral
+lines depended on the fact that the body of the sun giving the
+continuous spectrum was at a higher temperature than the absorbing layer
+of gases surrounding it. Whatever be the nature of the selective
+radiation from a body, the radiation of light of any particular
+wave-length cannot be greater than a certain fraction E of the radiation
+R of the same wave-length from a black body at the same temperature. The
+fraction E measures the emissive power of the body for that particular
+wave-length, and cannot be greater than unity. The same fraction, by the
+principle of equality of emissive and absorptive powers, will measure
+the proportion absorbed of incident radiation R´. If the black body
+emitting the radiation R´ is at the same temperature as the absorbing
+layer, R = R´, the emission balances the absorption, and the line will
+appear neither bright nor dark. If the source and the absorbing layer
+are at different temperatures, the radiation absorbed will be ER´, and
+that transmitted will be R´ - ER´. To this must be added the radiation
+emitted by the absorbing layer, namely ER, giving R´ - E(R´ - R). The
+lines will appear darker than the background R´ if R´ is greater than R,
+but bright if the reverse is the case. The D lines are dark in the sun
+because the photosphere is much hotter than the reversing layer. They
+appear bright in the candle-flame because the outside mantle of the
+flame, in which the sodium burns and combustion is complete, is hotter
+than the inner reducing flame containing the incandescent particles of
+carbon which give rise to the continuous spectrum. This qualitative
+identity of emission and absorption as regards wave-length can be most
+exactly and easily verified for luminous rays, and we are justified in
+assuming that the relation holds with the same exactitude for
+non-luminous rays, although in many cases the experimental proof is less
+complete and exact.
+
+40. _Diathermancy._--A great array of data with regard to the
+transmissive power or diathermancy of transparent substances for the
+heat radiated from various sources at different temperatures were
+collected by Melloni, Tyndall, Magnus and other experimentalists. The
+measurements were chiefly of a qualitative character, and were made by
+interposing between the source and a thermopile a layer or plate of the
+substance to be examined. This method lacked quantitative precision, but
+led to a number of striking and interesting results, which are admirably
+set forth in Tyndall's _Heat_. It also gave rise to many curious
+discrepancies, some of which were recognized as being due to selective
+absorption, while others are probably to be explained by imperfections
+in the methods of experiment adopted. The general result of such
+researches was to show that substances, like water, alum and glass,
+which are practically opaque to radiation from a source at low
+temperature, such as a vessel filled with boiling water, transmit an
+increasing percentage of the radiation when the temperature of the
+source is increased. This is what would be expected, as these substances
+are very transparent to visible rays. That the proportion transmitted is
+not merely a question of the temperature of the source, but also of the
+quality of the radiation, was shown by a number of experiments. For
+instance, K. H. Knoblauch (_Pogg. Ann._, 1847) found that a plate of
+glass interposed between a spirit lamp and a thermopile intercepts a
+larger proportion of the radiation from the flame itself than of the
+radiation from a platinum spiral heated in the flame, although the
+spiral is undoubtedly at a lower temperature than the flame. The
+explanation is that the spiral is a fairly good radiator of the visible
+rays to which the glass is transparent, but a bad radiator of the
+invisible rays absorbed by the glass which constitute the greater
+portion of the heat-radiation from the feebly luminous flame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Tyndall's Apparatus for observing absorption of
+heat by gas and vapours.]
+
+Assuming that the radiation from the source under investigation is
+qualitatively determinate, like that of a black body at a given
+temperature, the proportion transmitted by plates of various substances
+may easily be measured and tabulated for given plates and sources. But
+owing to the highly selective character of the radiation and absorption,
+it is impossible to give any general relation between the thickness of
+the absorbing plate or layer and the proportion of the total energy
+absorbed. For these reasons the relative diathermancies of different
+materials do not admit of any simple numerical statement as physical
+constants, though many of the qualitative results obtained are very
+striking. Among the most interesting experiments were those of Tyndall,
+on the absorptive powers of gases and vapours, which led to a good deal
+of controversy at the time, owing to the difficulty of the experiments,
+and the contradictory results obtained by other observers. The
+arrangement employed by Tyndall for these measurements is shown in Fig.
+6. A brass tube AB, polished inside, and closed with plates of highly
+diathermanous rocksalt at either end, was fitted with stopcocks C and D
+for exhausting and admitting air or other gases or vapours. The source
+of heat S was usually a plate of copper heated by a Bunsen burner, or a
+Leslie cube containing boiling water as shown at E. To obtain greater
+sensitiveness for differential measurements, the radiation through the
+tube AB incident on one face of the pile P was balanced against the
+radiation from a Leslie cube on the other face of the pile by means of
+an adjustable screen H. The radiation on the two faces of the pile being
+thus balanced with the tube exhausted, Tyndall found that the admission
+of dry air into the tube produced practically no absorption of the
+radiation, whereas compound gases such as carbonic acid, ethylene or
+ammonia absorbed 20 to 90%, and a trace of aqueous vapour in the air
+increased its absorption 50 to 100 times. H. G. Magnus, on the other
+hand, employing a thermopile and a source of heat, both of which were
+enclosed in the same exhausted receiver, in order to avoid interposing
+any rocksalt or other plates between the source and the pile, found an
+absorption of 11% on admitting dry air, but could not detect any
+difference whether the air were dry or moist. Tyndall suggested that the
+apparent absorption observed by Magnus may have been due to the cooling
+of his radiating surface by convection, which is a very probable source
+of error in this method of experiment. Magnus considered that the
+remarkable effect of aqueous vapour observed by Tyndall might have been
+caused by condensation on the polished internal walls of his
+experimental tube, or on the rocksalt plates at either end.[7] The
+question of the relative diathermancy of air and aqueous vapour for
+radiation from the sun to the earth and from the earth into space is one
+of great interest and importance in meteorology. Assuming with Magnus
+that at least 10% of the heat from a source at 100° C. is absorbed in
+passing through a single foot of air, a very moderate thickness of
+atmosphere should suffice to absorb practically all the heat radiated
+from the earth into space. This could not be reconciled with well-known
+facts in regard to terrestrial radiation, and it was generally
+recognized that the result found by Magnus must be erroneous. Tyndall's
+experiment on the great diathermancy of dry air agreed much better with
+meteorological phenomena, but he appears to have exaggerated the effect
+of aqueous vapour. He concluded from his experiments that the water
+vapour present in the air absorbs at least 10% of the heat radiated from
+the earth within 10 ft. of its surface, and that the absorptive power of
+the vapour is about 17,000 times that of air at the same pressure. If
+the absorption of aqueous vapour were really of this order of magnitude,
+it would exert a far greater effect in modifying climate than is
+actually observed to be the case. Radiation is observed to take place
+freely through the atmosphere at times when the proportion of aqueous
+vapour is such as would practically stop all radiation if Tyndall's
+results were correct. The very careful experiments of E. Lecher and J.
+Pernter (_Phil. Mag._, Jan. 1881) confirmed Tyndall's observations on
+the absorptive powers of gases and vapours satisfactorily in nearly all
+cases with the single exception of aqueous vapour. They found that there
+was no appreciable absorption of heat from a source at 100° C. in
+passing through 1 ft. of air (whether dry or moist), but that CO and CO2
+at atmospheric pressure absorbed about 8%, and ethylene (olefiant gas)
+about 50% in the same distance; the vapours of alcohol and ether showed
+absorptive powers of the same order as that of ethylene. They confirmed
+Tyndall's important result that the absorption does not diminish in
+proportion to the pressure, being much greater in proportion for smaller
+pressures in consequence of the selective character of the effect. They
+also supported his conclusion that absorptive power increases with the
+complexity of the molecule. But they could not detect any absorption by
+water vapour at a pressure of 7 mm., though alcohol at the same pressure
+absorbed 3% and acetic acid 10%. Later researches, especially those of
+S. P. Langley with the spectro-bolometer on the infra-red spectrum of
+sunlight, demonstrated the existence of marked absorption bands, some of
+which are due to water vapour. From the character of these bands and the
+manner in which they vary with the state of the air and the thickness
+traversed, it may be inferred that absorption by water vapour plays an
+important part in meteorology, but that it is too small to be readily
+detected by laboratory experiments in a 4 ft. tube, without the aid of
+spectrum analysis.
+
+41. _Relation between Radiation and Temperature._--Assuming, in
+accordance with the reasoning of Balfour Stewart and Kirchhoff, that the
+radiation stream inside an impervious enclosure at a uniform temperature
+is independent of the nature of the walls of the enclosure, and is the
+same for all substances at the same temperature, it follows that the
+full stream of radiation in such an enclosure, or the radiation emitted
+by an ideal black body or full radiator, is a function of the
+temperature only. The form of this function may be determined
+experimentally by observing the radiation between two black bodies at
+different temperatures, which will be proportional to the difference of
+the full radiation streams corresponding to their several temperatures.
+The law now generally accepted was first proposed by Stefan as an
+empirical relation. Tyndall had found that the radiation from a white
+hot platinum wire at 1200° C. was 11.7 times its radiation when dull red
+at 525° C. Stefan (_Wien. Akad. Ber._, 1879, 79, p. 421) noticed that
+the ratio 11.7 is nearly that of the fourth power of the absolute
+temperatures as estimated by Tyndall. On making the somewhat different
+assumption that the radiation between two bodies varied as the
+difference of the fourth powers of their absolute temperatures, he found
+that it satisfied approximately the experiments of Dulong and Petit and
+other observers. According to this law the radiation between a black
+body at a temperature [theta] and a black enclosure or a black
+radiometer at a temperature [theta]0 should be proportional to
+([theta]^4 - [theta]0^4). The law was very simple and convenient in
+form, but it rested so far on very insecure foundations. The
+temperatures given by Tyndall were merely estimated from the colour of
+the light emitted, and might have been some hundred degrees in error. We
+now know that the radiation from polished platinum is of a highly
+selective character, and varies more nearly as the fifth power of the
+absolute temperature. The agreement of the fourth power law with
+Tyndall's experiment appears therefore to be due to a purely accidental
+error in estimating the temperatures of the wire. Stefan also found a
+very fair agreement with Draper's observations of the intensity of
+radiation from a platinum wire, in which the temperature of the wire was
+deduced from the expansion. Here again the apparent agreement was
+largely due to errors in estimating the temperature, arising from the
+fact that the coefficient of expansion of platinum increases
+considerably with rise of temperature. So far as the experimental
+results available at that time were concerned, Stefan's law could be
+regarded only as an empirical expression of doubtful significance. But
+it received a much greater importance from theoretical investigations
+which were even then in progress. James Clerk Maxwell (_Electricity and
+Magnetism_, 1873) had shown that a directed beam of electromagnetic
+radiation or light incident normally on an absorbing surface should
+produce a mechanical pressure equal to the energy of the radiation per
+unit volume. A. G. Bartoli (1875) took up this idea and made it the
+basis of a thermodynamic treatment of radiation. P. N. Lebedew in 1900,
+and E. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull in 1901, proved the existence of this
+pressure by direct experiments. L. Boltzmann (1884) employing radiation
+as the working substance in a Carnot cycle, showed that the energy of
+full radiation at any temperature per unit volume should be proportional
+to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. This law was first
+verified in a satisfactory manner by Heinrich Schneebeli (_Wied. Ann._,
+1884, 22, p. 30). He observed the radiation from the bulb of an air
+thermometer heated to known temperatures through a small aperture in the
+walls of the furnace. With this arrangement the radiation was very
+nearly that of a black body. Measurements by J. T. Bottomley, August
+Schleiermacher, L. C. H. F. Paschen and others of the radiation from
+electrically heated platinum, failed to give concordant results on
+account of differences in the quality of the radiation, the importance
+of which was not fully realized at first. Later researches by Paschen
+with improved methods verified the law, and greatly extended our
+knowledge of radiation in other directions. One of the most complete
+series of experiments on the relation between full radiation and
+temperature is that of O. R. Lummer and Ernst Pringsheim (_Ann. Phys._,
+1897, 63, p. 395). They employed an aperture in the side of an enclosure
+at uniform temperature as the source of radiation, and compared the
+intensities at different temperatures by means of a bolometer. The
+fourth power law was well satisfied throughout the whole range of their
+experiments from -190° C. to 2300° C. According to this law, the rate of
+loss of heat by radiation R from a body of emissive power E and surface
+S at a temperature [theta] in an enclosure at [theta]0 is given by the
+formula
+
+  R = [sigma]ES([theta]^4 - [theta]0^4),
+
+where [sigma] is the radiation constant. The absolute value of [sigma]
+was determined by F. Kurlbaum using an electric compensation method
+(_Wied. Ann._, 1898, 65, p. 746), in which the radiation received by a
+bolometer from a black body at a known temperature was measured by
+finding the electric current required to produce the same rise of
+temperature in the bolometer. K. Ångstrom employed a similar method for
+solar radiation. Kurlbaum gives the value [sigma] = 5.32 × 10^(-5) ergs
+per sq. cm. per sec. C. Christiansen (_Wied. Ann._, 1883, 19, p. 267)
+had previously found a value about 5% smaller, by observing the rate of
+cooling of a copper plate of known thermal capacity, which is probably a
+less accurate method.
+
+  42. _Theoretical Proof of the Fourth Power Law._--The proof given by
+  Boltzmann may be somewhat simplified if we observe that full radiation
+  in an enclosure at constant temperature behaves exactly like a
+  saturated vapour, and must therefore obey Carnot's or Clapeyron's
+  equation given in section 17. The energy of radiation per unit volume,
+  and the radiation-pressure at any temperature, are functions of the
+  temperature only, like the pressure of a saturated vapour. If the
+  volume of the enclosure is increased by any finite amount, the
+  temperature remaining the same, radiation is given off from the walls
+  so as to fill the space to the same pressure as before. The heat
+  absorbed when the volume is increased corresponds with the latent heat
+  of vaporization. In the case of radiation, as in the case of a vapour,
+  the latent heat consists partly of internal energy of formation and
+  partly of external work of expansion at constant pressure. Since in
+  the case of full or undirected radiation the pressure is one-third of
+  the energy per unit volume, the external work for any expansion is
+  one-third of the internal energy added. The latent heat absorbed is,
+  therefore, four times the external work of expansion. Since the
+  external work is the product of the pressure P and the increase of
+  volume V, the latent heat per unit increase of volume is four times
+  the pressure. But by Carnot's equation the latent heat of a saturated
+  vapour per unit increase of volume is equal to the rate of increase of
+  saturation-pressure per degree divided by Carnot's function or
+  multiplied by the absolute temperature. Expressed in symbols we have,
+
+    [theta](dP/d[theta]) = L/V = 4P,
+
+  where (dP/d[theta]) represents the rate of increase of pressure. This
+  equation shows that the percentage rate of increase of pressure is
+  four times the percentage rate of increase of temperature, or that if
+  the temperature is increased by 1%, the pressure is increased by 4%.
+  This is equivalent to the statement that the pressure varies as the
+  fourth power of the temperature, a result which is mathematically
+  deduced by integrating the equation.
+
+43. _Wien's Displacement Law._--Assuming that the fourth power law gives
+the quantity of full radiation at any temperature, it remains to
+determine how the quality of the radiation varies with the temperature,
+since as we have seen both quantity and quality are determinate. This
+question may be regarded as consisting of two parts. (1) How is the
+wave-length or frequency of any given kind of radiation changed when its
+temperature is altered? (2) What is the form of the curve expressing the
+distribution of energy between the various wave-lengths in the spectrum
+of full radiation, or what is the distribution of heat in the spectrum?
+The researches of Tyndall, Draper, Langley and other investigators had
+shown that while the energy of radiation of each frequency increased
+with rise of temperature, the maximum of intensity was shifted or
+displaced along the spectrum in the direction of shorter wave-lengths or
+higher frequencies. W. Wien (_Ann. Phys._, 1898, 58, p. 662), applying
+Doppler's principle to the adiabatic compression of radiation in a
+perfectly reflecting enclosure, deduced that the wave-length of each
+constituent of the radiation should be shortened in proportion to the
+rise of temperature produced by the compression, in such a manner that
+the product [lambda][theta] of wave-length and the absolute temperature
+should remain constant. According to this relation, which is known as
+Wien's Displacement Law, the frequency corresponding to the maximum
+ordinate of the energy curve of the normal spectrum of full radiation
+should vary directly (or the wave-length inversely) as the absolute
+temperature, a result previously obtained by H. F. Weber (1888).
+Paschen, and Lummer and Pringsheim verified this relation by observing
+with a bolometer the intensity at different points in the spectrum
+produced by a fluorite prism. The intensities were corrected and reduced
+to a wave-length scale with the aid of Paschen's results on the
+dispersion formula of fluorite (_Wied. Ann._, 1894, 53, p. 301). The
+curves in fig. 7 illustrate results obtained by Lummer and Pringsheim
+(_Ber. deut. phys. Ges._, 1899, 1, p. 34) at three different
+temperatures, namely 1377°, 1087° and 836° absolute, plotted on a
+wave-length base with a scale of microns ([mu]) or millionths of a
+metre. The wave-lengths Oa, Ob, Oc, corresponding to the maximum
+ordinates of each curve, vary inversely as the absolute temperatures
+given. The constant value of the product [lambda][theta] at the maximum
+point is found to be 2920. Thus for a temperature of 1000° Abs. the
+maximum is at wave-length 2.92 [mu]; at 2000° the maximum is at 1.46
+[mu].
+
+44. _Form of the Curve representing the Distribution of Energy in the
+Spectrum._--Assuming Wien's displacement law, it follows that the form
+of the curve representing the distribution of energy in the spectrum of
+full radiation should be the same for different temperatures with the
+maximum displaced in proportion to the absolute temperature, and with
+the total area increased in proportion to the fourth power of the
+absolute temperature. Observations taken with a bolometer along the
+length of a normal or wave-length spectrum, would give the form of the
+curve plotted on a wave-length base. The height of the ordinate at each
+point would represent the energy included between given limits of
+wave-length, depending on the width of the bolometer strip and the slit.
+Supposing that the bolometer strip had a width corresponding to .01
+[mu], and were placed at 1.0 [mu] in the spectrum of radiation at 2000°
+Abs., it would receive the energy corresponding to wave-lengths between
+1.00 and 1.01 [mu]. At a temperature of 1000° Abs. the corresponding
+part of the energy, by Wien's displacement law, would lie between the
+limits 2.00 and 2.02 [mu], and the total energy between these limits
+would be 16 times smaller. But the bolometer strip placed at 2.0 [mu]
+would now receive only half of the energy, or the energy in a band .01
+[mu] wide, and the deflection would be 32 times less. Corresponding
+ordinates of the curves at different temperatures will therefore vary as
+the fifth power of the temperature, when the curves are plotted on a
+wave-length base. The maximum ordinates in the curves already given are
+found to vary as the fifth powers of the corresponding temperatures. The
+equation representing the distribution of energy on a wave-length base
+must be of the form
+
+  E = C[lambda]^(-5) F([lambda][theta]) =
+      C[theta]^5 ([lambda][theta])^(-5) F([lambda][theta])
+
+where F([lambda][theta]) represents some function of the product of the
+wave-length and temperature, which remains constant for corresponding
+wave-lengths when [theta] is changed. If the curves were plotted on a
+frequency base, owing to the change of scale, the maximum ordinates
+would vary as the cube of the temperature instead of the fifth power,
+but the form of the function F would remain unaltered. Reasoning on the
+analogy of the distribution of velocities among the particles of a gas
+on the kinetic theory, which is a very similar problem, Wien was led to
+assume that the function F should be of the form e^(-c/[lambda][theta]),
+where e is the base of Napierian logarithms, and c is a constant having
+the value 14,600 if the wave-length is measured in microns [mu]. This
+expression was found by Paschen to give a very good approximation to the
+form of the curve obtained experimentally for those portions of the
+visible and infra-red spectrum where observations could be most
+accurately made. The formula was tested in two ways: (1) by plotting the
+curves of distribution of energy in the spectrum for constant
+temperatures as illustrated in fig. 7; (2) by plotting the energy
+corresponding to a given wave-length as a function of the temperature.
+Both methods gave very good agreement with Wien's formula for values of
+the product [lambda][theta] not much exceeding 3000. A method of
+isolating rays of great wave-length by successive reflection was devised
+by H. Rubens and E. F. Nichols (_Wied. Ann._, 1897, 60, p. 418). They
+found that quartz and fluorite possessed the property of selective
+reflection for rays of wave-length 8.8 [mu] and 24 [mu] to 32 [mu]
+respectively, so that after four to six reflections these rays could be
+isolated from a source at any temperature in a state of considerable
+purity. The residual impurity at any stage could be estimated by
+interposing a thin plate of quartz or fluorite which completely
+reflected or absorbed the residual rays, but allowed the impurity to
+pass. H. Beckmann, under the direction of Rubens, investigated the
+variation with temperature of the residual rays reflected from fluorite
+employing sources from -80° to 600° C., and found the results could not
+be represented by Wien's formula unless the constant c were taken as
+26,000 in place of 14,600. In their first series of observations
+extending to 6 [mu] O. R. Lummer and E. Pringsheim (_Deut. phys. Ges._,
+1899, 1, p. 34) found systematic deviations indicating an increase in
+the value of the constant c for long waves and high temperatures. In a
+theoretical discussion of the subject, Lord Rayleigh (_Phil. Mag._,
+1900, 49, p. 539) pointed out that Wien's law would lead to a limiting
+value C[lambda]^(-5), of the radiation corresponding to any particular
+wave-length when the temperature increased to infinity, whereas
+according to his view the radiation of great wave-length should
+ultimately increase in direct proportion to the temperature. Lummer and
+Pringsheim (_Deut. phys. Ges._, 1900, 2, p. 163) extended the range of
+their observations to 18 [mu] by employing a prism of sylvine in place
+of fluorite. They found deviations from Wien's formula increasing to
+nearly 50% at 18 [mu], where, however, the observations were very
+difficult on account of the smallness of the energy to be measured.
+Rubens and F. Kurlbaum (_Ann. Phys._, 1901, 4, p. 649) extended the
+residual reflection method to a temperature range from -190° to 1500°
+C., and employed the rays reflected from quartz 8.8 [mu], and rocksalt
+51 [mu], in addition to those from fluorite. It appeared from these
+researches that the rays of great wave-length from a source at a high
+temperature tended to vary in the limit directly as the absolute
+temperature of the source, as suggested by Lord Rayleigh, and could not
+be represented by Wien's formula with any value of the constant c. The
+simplest type of formula satisfying the required conditions is that
+proposed by Max Planck (_Ann. Phys._, 1901, 4, p. 553) namely,
+
+  E = C[lambda]^(-5) (e^c/[lambda][theta] - 1)^(-1),
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Distribution of energy in the spectrum of a
+black body.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Distribution of energy in the spectrum of full
+radiation at 2000° Abs. according to formulae of Planck & Wien.]
+
+which agrees with Wien's formula when [theta] is small, where Wien's
+formula is known to be satisfactory, but approaches the limiting form E
+= C[lambda]^(-4)[theta]/c, when [theta] is large, thus satisfying the
+condition proposed by Lord Rayleigh. The theoretical interpretation of
+this formula remains to some extent a matter of future investigation,
+but it appears to satisfy experiment within the limits of observational
+error. In order to compare Planck's formula graphically with Wien's, the
+distribution curves corresponding to both formulae are plotted in fig. 8
+for a temperature of 2000° abs., taking the value of the constant c =
+14,600 with a scale of wave-length in microns [mu]. The curves in fig. 9
+illustrate the difference between the two formulae for the variation of
+the intensity of radiation corresponding to a fixed wave-length 30 [mu].
+Assuming Wien's displacement law, the curves may be applied to find the
+energy for any other wave-length or temperature, by simply altering the
+wave-length scale in inverse ratio to the temperature, or vice versa.
+Thus to find the distribution curve for 1000° abs., it is only necessary
+to multiply all the numbers in the wave-length scale of fig. 8 by 2; or
+to find the variation curve for wave-length 60 [mu], the numbers on the
+temperature scale of fig. 9 should be divided by 2. The ordinate scales
+must be increased in proportion to the fifth power of the temperature,
+or inversely as the fifth power of the wave-length respectively in figs.
+8 and 9 if comparative results are required for different temperatures
+or wave-lengths. The results hitherto obtained for cases other than full
+radiation are not sufficiently simple and definite to admit of
+profitable discussion in the present article.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Variation of energy of radiation corresponding
+to wave-length 30 [mu], with temperature of source.]
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--It would not be possible, within the limits of an
+  article like the present, to give tables of the specific thermal
+  properties of different substances so far as they have been
+  ascertained by experiment. To be of any use, such tables require to be
+  extremely detailed, with very full references and explanations with
+  regard to the value of the experimental evidence, and the limits
+  within which the results may be relied on. The quantity of material
+  available is so enormous and its value so varied, that the most
+  elaborate tables still require reference to the original authorities.
+  Much information will be found collected in Landolt and Bornstein's
+  _Physical and Chemical Tables_ (Berlin, 1905). Shorter tables, such as
+  Everett's _Units and Physical Constants_, are useful as illustrations
+  of a system, but are not sufficiently complete for use in scientific
+  investigations. Some of the larger works of reference, such as A. A.
+  Winkelmann's _Handbuch der Physik_, contain fairly complete tables of
+  specific properties, but these tables occupy so much space, and are so
+  misleading if incomplete, that they are generally omitted in
+  theoretical textbooks.
+
+  Among older textbooks on heat, Tyndall's _Heat_ may be recommended for
+  its vivid popular interest, and Balfour Stewart's _Heat_ for early
+  theories of radiation. Maxwell's _Theory of Heat_ and Tait's _Heat_
+  give a broad and philosophical survey of the subject. Among modern
+  textbooks, Preston's _Theory of Heat_ and Poynting and Thomson's
+  _Heat_ are the best known, and have been brought well up to date.
+  Sections on heat are included in all the general textbooks of Physics,
+  such as those of Deschanel (translated by Everett), Ganot (translated
+  by Atkinson), Daniell, Watson, &c. Of the original investigations on
+  the subject, the most important have already been cited. Others will
+  be found in the collected papers of Joule, Kelvin and Maxwell.
+  Treatises on special branches of the subject, such as Fourier's
+  _Conduction of Heat_, are referred to in the separate articles in this
+  encyclopaedia dealing with recent progress, of which the following is
+  a list: CALORIMETRY, CONDENSATION OF GASES, CONDUCTION OF HEAT,
+  DIFFUSION, ENERGETICS, FUSION, LIQUID GASES, RADIATION, RADIOMETER,
+  SOLUTION, THERMODYNAMICS, THERMOELECTRICITY, THERMOMETRY,
+  VAPORIZATION. For the practical aspects of heating see HEATING.
+       (H. L. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Units of Work, Energy and Power._--In English-speaking countries
+    work is generally measured in _foot-pounds_. Elsewhere it is
+    generally measured in _kilogrammetres_, or in terms of the work done
+    in raising 1 kilogramme weight through the height of 1 metre. In the
+    middle of the 19th century the terms "force" and "motive power" were
+    commonly employed in the sense of "power of doing work." The term
+    "energy" is now employed in this sense. A quantity of energy is
+    measured by the work it is capable of performing. A body may possess
+    energy in virtue of its state (gas or steam under pressure), or in
+    virtue of its position (a raised weight), or in various other ways,
+    when at rest. In these cases it is said to possess _potential
+    energy_. It may also possess energy in virtue of its motion or
+    rotation (as a fly-wheel or a cannon-ball). In this case it is said
+    to possess _kinetic energy_, or energy of motion. In many cases the
+    energy (as in the case of a vibrating body, like a pendulum) is
+    partly kinetic and partly potential, and changes continually from one
+    to the other throughout the motion. For instance, the energy of a
+    pendulum is wholly potential when it is momentarily at rest at the
+    top of its swing, but is wholly kinetic when the pendulum is moving
+    with its maximum velocity at the lowest point of its swing. The whole
+    energy at any moment is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy,
+    and this sum remains constant so long as the amplitude of the
+    vibration remains the same. The potential energy of a weight W lb.
+    raised to a height h ft. above the earth, is Wh foot-pounds. If
+    allowed to fall freely, without doing work, its kinetic energy on
+    reaching the earth would be Wh foot-pounds, and its velocity of
+    motion would be such that if projected upwards with the same velocity
+    it would rise to the height h from which it fell. We have here a
+    simple and familiar case of the conversion of one kind of energy into
+    a different kind. But the two kinds of energy are mechanically
+    equivalent, and they can both be measured in terms of the same units.
+    The units already considered, namely foot-pounds or kilogrammetres,
+    are gravitational units, depending on the force of gravity. This is
+    the most obvious and natural method of measuring the potential energy
+    of a raised weight, but it has the disadvantage of varying with the
+    force of gravity at different places. The natural measure of the
+    kinetic energy of a moving body is the product of its mass by half
+    the square of its velocity, which gives a measure in kinetic or
+    absolute units independent of the force of gravity. Kinetic and
+    gravitational units are merely different ways of measuring the same
+    thing. Just as foot-pounds may be reduced to kilogrammetres by
+    dividing by the number of foot-pounds in one kilogrammetre, so
+    kinetic may be reduced to gravitational units by dividing by the
+    kinetic measure of the intensity of gravity, namely, the work in
+    kinetic units done by the weight of unit mass acting through unit
+    distance. For scientific purposes, it is necessary to take account of
+    the variation of gravity. The scientific unit of energy is called the
+    _erg_. The erg is the kinetic energy of a mass of 2 gm. moving with a
+    velocity of 1 cm. per sec. The work in ergs done by a force acting
+    through a distance of 1 cm. is the absolute measure of the force. A
+    force equal to the weight of 1 gm. (in England) acting through a
+    distance of 1 cm. does 981 ergs of work. A force equal to the weight
+    of 1000 gm. (1 kilogramme) acting through a distance of 1 metre (100
+    cm.) does 98.1 million ergs of work. As the erg is a very small unit,
+    for many purposes, a unit equal to 10 million ergs, called a _joule_,
+    is employed. In England, where the weight of 1 gm. is 981 ergs per
+    cm., a foot-pound is equal to 1.356 joules, and a kilogrammetre is
+    equal to 9.81 joules.
+
+    The term _power_ is now generally restricted to mean "rate of
+    working." Watt estimated that an average horse was capable of raising
+    550 lb. 1 ft. in each second, or doing work at the rate of 550
+    foot-pounds per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. This
+    conventional horse-power is the unit commonly employed for estimating
+    the power of engines. The _horse-power-hour_, or the work done by one
+    horse-power in one hour, is nearly 2 million foot-pounds. For
+    electrical and scientific purposes the unit of power employed is
+    called the _watt_. The watt is the work per second done by an
+    electromotive force of 1 volt in driving a current of 1 ampere, and
+    is equal to 10 million ergs or 1 joule per second. One horse-power is
+    746 watts or nearly ¾ of a kilowatt. The _kilowatt-hour_, which is
+    the unit by which electrical energy is sold, is 3.6 million joules or
+    2.65 million foot-pounds, or 366,000 kilogrammetres, and is capable
+    of raising nearly 19 lb. of water from the freezing to the boiling
+    point.
+
+  [2] In an essay on "Heat, Light, and Combinations of Light,"
+    republished in Sir H. Davy's _Collected Works_, ii. (London, 1836).
+
+  [3] For instance a mass of compressed air, if allowed to expand in a
+    cylinder at the ordinary temperature, will do work, and will at the
+    same time absorb a quantity of heat which, as we now know, is the
+    thermal equivalent of the work done. But this work cannot be said to
+    have been produced solely from the heat absorbed in the process,
+    because the air at the end of the process is in a changed condition,
+    and could not be restored to its original state at the same
+    temperature without having work done upon it precisely equal to that
+    obtained by its expansion. The process could not be repeated
+    indefinitely without a continual supply of compressed air. The source
+    of the work in this case is work previously done in compressing the
+    air, and no part of the work is really generated at the expense of
+    heat alone, unless the compression is effected at a lower temperature
+    than the expansion.
+
+  [4] Clausius (_Pogg. Ann._ 79, p. 369) and others have misinterpreted
+    this assumption, and have taken it to mean that the quantity of heat
+    required to produce any given change of state is independent of the
+    manner in which the change is effected, which Carnot does not here
+    assume.
+
+  [5] Carnot's description of his cycle and statement of his principle
+    have been given as nearly as possible in his own words, because some
+    injustice has been done him by erroneous descriptions and statements.
+
+  [6] It was for this reason that Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
+    stated (_Phil. Mag._, 1852, 4) that "Carnot's original demonstration
+    utterly fails," and that he introduced the "corrections" attributed
+    to James Thomson and Clerk Maxwell respectively. In reality Carnot's
+    original demonstration requires no correction.
+
+  [7] In reference to this objection, Tyndall remarks (_Phil. Mag._,
+    1862, p. 422; _Heat_, p. 385); "In the first place the plate of salt
+    nearest the source of heat is never moistened, unless the experiments
+    are of the roughest character. Its proximity to the source enables
+    the heat to chase away every trace of humidity from its surface." He
+    therefore took precautions to dry only the circumferential portions
+    of the plate nearest the pile, assuming that the flux of heat through
+    the central portions would suffice to keep them dry. This reasoning
+    is not at all satisfactory, because rocksalt is very hygroscopic and
+    becomes wet, even in unsaturated air, if the vapour pressure is
+    greater than that of a saturated solution of salt at the temperature
+    of the plate. Assuming that the vapour pressure of the saturated salt
+    solution is only half that of pure water, it would require an
+    elevation of temperature of 10° C. to dry the rocksalt plates in
+    saturated air at 15° C. It is only fair to say that the laws of the
+    vapour pressures of solutions were unknown in Tyndall's time, and
+    that it was usual to assume that the plates would not become wetted
+    until the dew-point was reached. The writer has repeated Tyndall's
+    experiments with a facsimile of one of Tyndall's tubes in the
+    possession of the Royal College of Science, fitted with plates of
+    rocksalt cut from the same block as Tyndall's, and therefore of the
+    same hygroscopic quality. Employing a reflecting galvanometer in
+    conjunction with a differential bolometer, which is quicker in its
+    action than Tyndall's pile, there appears to be hardly any difference
+    between dry and moist air, provided that the latter is not more than
+    half saturated. Using saturated air with a Leslie cube as source of
+    heat, both rocksalt plates invariably become wet in a minute or two
+    and the absorption rises to 10 or 20% according to the thickness of
+    the film of deposited moisture. Employing the open tube method as
+    described by Tyndall, without the rocksalt plates, the absorption is
+    certainly less than 1% in 3 ft. of air saturated at 20° C., unless
+    condensation is induced on the walls of the tube. It is possible that
+    the walls of Tyndall's tube may have become covered with a very
+    hygroscopic film from the powder of the calcium chloride which he was
+    in the habit of introducing near one end. Such a film would be
+    exceedingly difficult to remove, and would account for the excessive
+    precautions which he found necessary in drying the air in order to
+    obtain the same transmitting power as a vacuum. It is probable that
+    Tyndall's experiments on aqueous vapour were effected by experimental
+    errors of this character.
+
+
+
+
+HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766), English classical scholar and bibliophile,
+was born at Exeter on the 20th of April 1704. He was the son of a
+wealthy merchant, and was thus able to devote himself mainly to travel
+and book-collecting. He became town clerk of his native city in 1752,
+and held the office till his death on the 13th of September 1766. In
+1763 he had published a pamphlet advocating the repeal of the cider tax
+in Devonshire, and his endeavours led to success three years later. As a
+classical scholar he made his reputation by his critical and metrical
+notes on the Greek tragedians, which procured him an honorary D.C.L.
+from Oxford (31st of March 1752). He also left MS. notes on Burmann's
+and Martyn's editions of Virgil, on Euripides, Catullus, Tibullus, and
+the greater part of Hesiod. In some of these he adopts the whimsical
+name Dexiades Ericius. His _Revisal of Shakespear's Text_ (1765) was an
+answer to the "insolent dogmatism" of Bishop Warburton. _The Essay
+towards a Demonstrative Proof of the Divine Existence, Unity and
+Attributes_ (1740) was intended to combat the opinions of Voltaire,
+Rousseau and Hume. Two of his sons (among a family of thirteen) were
+Benjamin, headmaster of Harrow (1771-1785), and George, headmaster of
+Eton (1796). His collection of rare classical works formed the nucleus
+of his son Benjamin's famous library (Bibliotheca Heathiana).
+
+  An account of the Heath family will be found in Sir W. R. Drake's
+  _Heathiana_ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+HEATH, NICHOLAS (c. 1501-1578), archbishop of York and lord chancellor,
+was born in London about 1501 and graduated B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He
+then migrated to Christ's College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in
+1520, M.A. in 1522, and was elected fellow in 1524. After holding minor
+preferments he was appointed archdeacon of Stafford in 1534 and
+graduated D.D. in 1535. He then accompanied Edward Fox (q.v.), bishop of
+Hereford, on his mission to promote a theological and political
+understanding with the Lutheran princes of Germany. His selection for
+this duty implies a readiness on Heath's part to proceed some distance
+along the path of reform; but his dealings with the Lutherans did not
+confirm this tendency, and Heath's subsequent career was closely
+associated with the cause of reaction. In 1539, the year of the Six
+Articles, he was made bishop of Rochester, and in 1543 he succeeded
+Latimer at Worcester. His Catholicism, however, was of a less rigid type
+than Gardiner's and Bonner's; he felt something of the force of the
+national antipathy to foreign influence, whether ecclesiastical or
+secular, and was always impressed by the necessity of national unity, so
+far as was possible, in matters of faith. Apparently he made no
+difficulty about carrying out the earlier reforms of Edward VI., and he
+accepted the first book of common prayer after it had been modified by
+the House of Lords in a Catholic direction.
+
+His definite breach with the Reformation occurred on the grounds, on
+which four centuries later Leo XIII. denied the Catholicity of the
+reformed English Church, namely, on the question of the Ordinal drawn up
+in February 1550. Heath refused to accept it, was imprisoned, and in
+1551 deprived of his bishopric. On Mary's accession he was released and
+restored, and made president of the council of the Marches and Wales. In
+1555 he was promoted to the archbishopric of York, which he did much to
+enrich after the Protestant spoliation; he built York House in the
+Strand. After Gardiner's death he was appointed lord chancellor,
+probably on Pole's recommendation; for Heath, like Pole himself,
+disliked the Spanish party in England. Unlike Pole, however, he seems to
+have been averse from the excessive persecution of Mary's reign, and no
+Protestants were burnt in his diocese. He exercised, however, little
+influence on Mary's secular or ecclesiastical policy.
+
+On Mary's death Heath as chancellor at once proclaimed Elizabeth. Like
+Sir Thomas More he held that it was entirely within the competence of
+the national state, represented by parliament, to determine questions of
+the succession to the throne; and although Elizabeth did not renew his
+commission as lord chancellor, he continued to sit in the privy council
+for two months until the government had determined to complete the
+breach with the Roman Catholic Church; and as late as April 1559 he
+assisted the government by helping to arrange the Westminster
+Conference, and reproving his more truculent co-religionists. He refused
+to crown Elizabeth because she would not have the coronation service
+accompanied with the elevation of the Host; and ecclesiastical
+ceremonies and doctrine could not, in Heath's view, be altered or
+abrogated by any mere national authority. Hence he steadily resisted
+Elizabeth's acts of supremacy and uniformity, although he had acquiesced
+in the acts of 1534 and 1549. Like others of Henry's bishops, he had
+been convinced by the events of Edward VI.'s reign that Sir Thomas More
+was right and Henry VIII. was wrong in their attitude towards the claims
+of the papacy and the Catholic Church. He was therefore necessarily
+deprived of his archbishopric in 1559, but he remained loyal to
+Elizabeth; and after a temporary confinement he was suffered to pass the
+remaining nineteen years of his life in peace and quiet, never attending
+public worship and sometimes hearing mass in private. The queen visited
+him more than once at his house at Chobham, Surrey; he died and was
+buried there at the end of 1578.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the Privy
+  Council; Cal. State Papers, Domestic, Addenda, Spanish and Venetian;
+  Kemp's Loseley MSS.; Froude's _History_; Burnet, Collier, Dixon and
+  Frere's _Church Histories_; Strype's _Works_ (General Index); Parker
+  Soc. Publications (Gough's Index); Birt's _Elizabethan Settlement_.
+       (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HEATH, WILLIAM (1737-1814), American soldier, was born in Roxbury,
+Massachusetts, on the 2nd of March 1737 (old style). He was brought up
+as a farmer and had a passion for military exercises. In 1765 he entered
+the Ancient and Honourable Artillery Company of Boston, of which he
+became commander in 1770. In the same year he wrote to the _Boston
+Gazette_ letters signed "A Military Countryman," urging the necessity of
+military training. He was a member of the Massachusetts General Court
+from 1770 to 1774, of the provincial committee of safety, and in
+1774-1775 of the provincial congress. He was commissioned a provincial
+brig.-general in December 1774, directed the pursuit of the British from
+Concord (April 19, 1775), was promoted to be provincial major-general on
+the 20th of June 1775, and two days later was commissioned fourth
+brig.-general in the Continental Army. He became major-general on the
+9th of August 1776, and was in active service around New York until
+early the next year. In January 1777 he attempted to take Fort
+Independence, near Spuyten Duyvil, then garrisoned by about 2000
+Hessians, but at the first sally of the garrison his troops became
+panic-stricken and a few days later he withdrew. Washington reprimanded
+him and never again entrusted to him any important operation in the
+field. Throughout the war, however, Heath was very efficient in muster
+service and in the barracks. From March 1777 to October 1778 he was in
+command of the Eastern Department with headquarters at Boston, and had
+charge (Nov. 1777-Oct. 1778) of the prisoners of war from Burgoyne's
+army held at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In May 1779 he was appointed a
+commissioner of the Board of War. He was placed in command of the troops
+on the E. side of the Hudson in June 1779, and of other troops and posts
+on the Hudson in November of the same year. In July 1780 he met the
+French allies under Rochambeau on their arrival in Rhode Island; in
+October of the same year he succeeded Arnold in command of West Point
+and its dependencies; and in August 1781, when Washington went south to
+meet Cornwallis, Heath was left in command of the Army of the Hudson to
+watch Clinton. After the war he retired to his farm at Roxbury, was a
+member of the state House of Representatives in 1788, of the
+Massachusetts convention which ratified the Federal Constitution in the
+same year, and of the governor's council in 1789-1790, was a state
+senator (1791-1793), and in 1806 was elected lieutenant-governor of
+Massachusetts but declined to serve. He died at Roxbury on the 24th of
+January 1814, the last of the major-generals of the War of American
+Independence.
+
+  See _Memoirs of Major-General Heath, containing Anecdotes, Details of
+  Skirmishes, Battles and other Military Events during the American War,
+  written by Himself_ (Boston, 1798; frequently reprinted, perhaps the
+  best edition being that published in New York in 1901 by William
+  Abbatt), particularly valuable for the descriptions of Lexington and
+  Bunker Hill, of the fighting around New York, of the controversies
+  with Burgoyne and his officers during their stay in Boston, and of
+  relations with Rochambeau; and his correspondence, _The Heath Papers_,
+  vols. iv.-v., seventh series, _Massachusetts Historical Society
+  Collections_ (Boston, 1904-1905).
+
+
+
+
+HEATH, the English form of a name given in most Teutonic dialects to the
+common ling or heather (_Calluna vulgaris_), but now applied to all
+species of _Erica_, an extensive genus of monopetalous plants, belonging
+to the order Ericaceae. The heaths are evergreen shrubs, with small
+narrow leaves, in whorls usually set rather thickly on the shoots; the
+persistent flowers have 4 sepals, and a 4-cleft campanulate or tubular
+corolla, in many species more or less ventricose or inflated; the dry
+capsule is 4-celled, and opens, in the true Ericae, in 4 segments, to
+the middle of which the partitions adhere, though in the ling the valves
+separate at the dissepiments. The plants are mostly of low growth, but
+several African kinds reach the size of large bushes, and a common South
+European species, _E. arborea_, occasionally attains almost the aspect
+and dimensions of a tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. _Calluna vulgaris._]
+
+One of the best known and most interesting of the family is the common
+heath, heather or ling, _Calluna vulgaris_ (fig. 1), placed by most
+botanists in a separate genus on account of the peculiar dehiscence of
+the fruit, and from the coloured calyx, which extends beyond the
+corolla, having a whorl of sepal-like bracts beneath. This shrub derives
+some economic importance from its forming the chief vegetation on many
+of those extensive wastes that occupy so large a portion of the more
+sterile lands of northern and western Europe, the usually desolate
+appearance of which is enlivened in the latter part of summer by its
+abundant pink blossoms. When growing erect to the height of 3 ft. or
+more, as it often does in sheltered places, its purple stems,
+close-leaved green shoots and feathery spikes of bell-shaped flowers
+render it one of the handsomest of the heaths; but on the bleaker
+elevations and more arid slopes it frequently rises only a few inches
+above the ground. In all moorland countries the ling is applied to many
+rural purposes; the larger stems are made into brooms, the shorter tied
+up into bundles that serve as brushes, while the long trailing shoots
+are woven into baskets. Pared up with the peat about its roots it forms
+a good fuel, often the only one obtainable on the drier moors. The
+shielings of the Scottish Highlanders were formerly constructed of heath
+stems, cemented together with peat-mud, worked into a kind of mortar
+with dry grass or straw; hovels and sheds for temporary purposes are
+still sometimes built in a similar way, and roofed in with ling. Laid on
+the ground, with the flowers above, it forms a soft springy bed, the
+luxurious couch of the ancient Gael, still gladly resorted to at times
+by the hill shepherd or hardy deer-stalker. The young shoots were in
+former days employed as a substitute for hops in brewing, while their
+astringency rendered them valuable as a tanning material in Ireland and
+the Western Isles. They are said also to have been used by the
+Highlanders for dyeing woollen yarn yellow, and other colours are
+asserted to have been obtained from them, but some writers appear to
+confuse the dyer's-weed, _Genista tinctoria_, with the heather. The
+young juicy shoots and the seeds, which remain long in the capsules,
+furnish the red grouse of Scotland with the larger portion of its
+sustenance; the ripe seeds are eaten by many birds. The tops of the ling
+afford a considerable part of the winter fodder of the hill flocks, and
+are popularly supposed to communicate the fine flavour to Welsh and
+Highland mutton, but sheep seldom crop heather while the mountain
+grasses and rushes are sweet and accessible. Ling has been suggested as
+a material for paper, but the stems are hardly sufficiently fibrous for
+that purpose. The purple or fine-leaved heath, _E. cinerea_ (fig. 2),
+one of the most beautiful of the genus, abounds on the lower moors and
+commons of Great Britain and western Europe, in such situations being
+sometimes more prevalent than the ling. The flowers of both these
+species yield much honey, furnishing a plentiful supply to the bees in
+moorland districts; from this heath honey the Picts probably brewed the
+mead said by Boetius to have been made from the flowers themselves.
+
+The genus contains about 420 known species, by far the greater part
+being indigenous to the western districts of South Africa, but it is
+also a characteristic genus of the Mediterranean region, while several
+species extend into northern Europe. No species is native in America,
+but ling occurs as an introduced plant on the Atlantic side from
+Newfoundland to New Jersey. Five species occur in Britain: _E. cinerea_,
+_E. tetralix_ (cross-leaved heath), both abundant on heaths and commons,
+_E. vagans_, Cornish heath, found only in West Cornwall, _E. ciliaris_
+in the west of England and Ireland and _E. mediterranea_ in Ireland. The
+three last are south-west European species which reach the northern
+limit of their distribution in the west of England and Ireland. _E.
+scoparia_ is a common heath in the centre of France and elsewhere in the
+Mediterranean region, forming a spreading bush several feet high. It is
+known as _bruyère_, and its stout underground rootstocks yield the
+briar-wood used for pipes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. _Erica cinerea._]
+
+The Cape heaths have long been favourite objects of horticulture. In the
+warmer parts of Britain several will bear exposure to the cold of
+ordinary winters in a sheltered border, but most need the protection of
+the conservatory. They are sometimes raised from seed, but are chiefly
+multiplied by cuttings "struck" in sand, and afterwards transferred to
+pots filled with a mixture of black peat and sand; the peat should be
+dry and free from sourness. Much attention is requisite in watering
+heaths, as they seldom recover if once allowed to droop, while they will
+not bear much water about their roots: the heath-house should be light
+and well ventilated, the plants requiring sun, and soon perishing in a
+close or permanently damp atmosphere; in England little or no heat is
+needed in ordinary seasons. The European heaths succeed well in English
+gardens, only requiring a peaty soil and sunny situation to thrive as
+well as in their native localities: _E. carnea_, _mediterranea_,
+_ciliaris_, _vagans_, and the pretty cross-leaved heath of boggy moors,
+_E. Tetralix_, are among those most worthy of cultivation. The beautiful
+large-flowered St Dabeoc's heath, belonging to the closely allied genus
+_Dabeocia_, is likewise often seen in gardens. It is found in boggy
+heaths in Connemara and Mayo, and is also native in West France, Spain
+and the Azores.
+
+  A beautiful work on heaths is that by H. C. Andrews, containing
+  coloured engravings of nearly 300 species and varieties, with
+  descriptions in English and Latin (4 vols., 1802-1805).
+
+
+
+
+HEATHCOAT, JOHN (1783-1861), English inventor, was born at Duffield near
+Derby on the 7th of August 1783. During his apprenticeship to a
+framesmith near Loughborough, he made an improvement in the construction
+of the warp-loom, so as to produce mitts of a lace-like appearance by
+means of it. He began business on his own account at Nottingham, but
+finding himself subjected to the intrusion of competing inventors he
+removed to Hathern. There in 1808 he constructed a machine capable of
+producing an exact imitation of real pillow-lace. This was by far the
+most expensive and complex textile apparatus till then existing; and in
+describing the process of his invention Heathcoat said in 1836, "The
+single difficulty of getting the diagonal threads to twist in the
+allotted space was so great that, if now to be done, I should probably
+not attempt its accomplishment." Some time before perfecting his
+invention, which he patented in 1809, he removed to Loughborough, where
+he entered into partnership with Charles Lacy, a Nottingham
+manufacturer; but in 1816 their factory was attacked by the Luddites and
+their 55 lace frames destroyed. The damages were assessed in the King's
+Bench at £10,000; but as Heathcoat declined to expend the money in the
+county of Leicester he never received any part of it. Undaunted by his
+loss, he began at once to construct new and greatly improved machines in
+an unoccupied factory at Tiverton, Devon, propelling them by water-power
+and afterwards by steam. His claim to the invention of the twisting and
+traversing lace machine was disputed, and a patent was taken out by a
+clever workman for a similar machine, which was decided at a trial in
+1816 to be an infringement of Heathcoat's patent. He followed his great
+invention by others of much ability, as, for instance, contrivances for
+ornamenting net while in course of manufacture and for making ribbons
+and platted and twisted net upon his machines, improved yarn
+spinning-frames, and methods for winding raw silk from cocoons. He also
+patented an improved process for extracting and purifying salt. An offer
+of £10,000 was made to him in 1833 for the use of his processes in
+dressing and finishing silk nets, but he allowed the highly profitable
+secret to remain undivulged. In 1832 he patented a steam plough.
+Heathcoat was elected member of parliament for Tiverton in 1832. Though
+he seldom spoke in the House he was constantly engaged on committees,
+where his thorough knowledge of business and sound judgment were highly
+valued. He retained his seat until 1859, and after two years of
+declining health he died on the 18th of January 1861 at Bolham House,
+near Tiverton.
+
+
+
+
+HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT (c. 1651-1733), lord mayor of London, belonged to
+an old Derbyshire family and was educated at Christ's College,
+Cambridge, afterwards becoming a merchant in London. His trading
+ventures were very successful; he was one of the promoters of the new
+East India company and he emerged victorious from a contest between
+himself and the old East India company in 1693; he was also one of the
+founders and first directors of the bank of England. In 1702 he became
+an alderman of the city of London and was knighted; he served as lord
+mayor in 1711, being the last lord mayor to ride on horseback in his
+procession. In 1700 Heathcote was sent to parliament as member for the
+city of London, but he was soon expelled for his share in the
+circulation of some exchequer bills; however, he was again elected for
+the city later in the same year, and he retained his seat until 1710. In
+1714 he was member for Helston, in 1722 for New Lymington, and in 1727
+for St Germans. He was a consistent Whig, and was made a baronet eight
+days before his death. Although extremely rich, Heathcote's meanness is
+referred to by Pope; and it was this trait that accounts largely for his
+unpopularity with the lower classes. He died in London on the 25th of
+January 1733 and was buried at Normanton, Rutland, a residence which he
+had purchased from the Mackworths.
+
+A descendant, Sir Gilbert John Heathcote, Bart. (1795-1867), was created
+Baron Aveland in 1856; and his son Gilbert Henry, who in 1888 inherited
+from his mother the barony of Willoughby de Eresby, became 1st earl of
+Ancaster in 1892.
+
+
+
+
+HEATHEN, a term originally applied to all persons or races who did not
+hold the Jewish or Christian belief, thus including Mahommedans. It is
+now more usually given to polytheistic races, thus excluding
+Mahommedans. The derivation of the word has been much debated. It is
+common to all Germanic languages; cf. German _Heide_, Dutch _heiden_. It
+is usually ascribed to a Gothic _haiþi_, heath. In Ulfilas' Gothic
+version of the Bible, the earliest extant literary monument of the
+Germanic languages, the Syrophoenician woman (Mark vii. 26) is called
+_haiþno_, where the Vulgate has _gentilis_. "Heathen," i.e. the people
+of the heath or open country, would thus be a translation of the Latin
+_paganus_, pagan, i.e. the people of the _pagus_ or village, applied to
+the dwellers in the country where the worship of the old gods still
+lingered, when the people of the towns were Christians (but see PAGAN
+for a more tenable explanation of that term). On the other hand it has
+been suggested (Prof. S. Bugge, _Indo-German. Forschungen_, v. 178,
+quoted in the _New English Dictionary_) that Ulfilas may have adopted
+the word from the Armenian _hetanos_, i.e. Greek [Greek: ethnê], tribes,
+races, the word used for the "Gentiles" in the New Testament. _Gentilis_
+in Latin, properly meaning "tribesman," came to be used of foreigners
+and non-Roman peoples, and was adopted in ecclesiastical usage for the
+non-Christian nations and in the Old Testament for non-Jewish races.
+
+
+
+
+HEATHFIELD, GEORGE AUGUSTUS ELIOTT, BARON (1717-1790), British general,
+a younger son of Sir Gilbert Eliott, Bart., of Stobs, Roxburghshire, was
+born on the 25th of December 1717, and educated abroad for the military
+profession. As a volunteer he fought with the Prussian army in 1735 and
+1736, and then entered the Grenadier Guards. He went through the war of
+the Austrian Succession, and was wounded at Dettingen, rising to be
+lieutenant-colonel in 1754. In 1759 he became colonel of a new regiment
+of light horse (afterwards the 15th Hussars) and became well known for
+the efficiency which it displayed in the subsequent campaigns. He became
+lieutenant-general in 1765. In 1775 he was selected to be governor of
+Gibraltar (q.v.), and it is in connexion with his magnificent defence in
+the great siege of 1779 that his name is famous. His portrait by Sir
+Joshua Reynolds is in the National Gallery. In 1787 he was created Baron
+Heathfield of Gibraltar, but died on the 6th of July 1790. He had
+married in 1748 the heiress of the Drake family, to which Sir Francis
+Drake belonged. His son, the 2nd baron, died in 1813 and the peerage
+became extinct, but the estates went to the family of Eliott-Drake
+(baronetcy of 1821) through his sister.
+
+
+
+
+HEATING. In temperate latitudes the climate is generally such as to
+necessitate in dwellings during a great portion of the year a
+temperature warmer than that out of doors. The object of the art of
+heating is to secure this required warmth with the greatest economy and
+efficiency. For reasons of health it may be assumed that no system of
+heating is advisable which does not provide for a constant renewal of
+the air in the locality warmed, and on this account there is a
+difficulty in treating as separate matters the subjects of heating and
+ventilation, which in practical schemes should be considered conjointly.
+(See VENTILATION).
+
+The object of all heating apparatus is the transference of heat from the
+fire to the various parts of the building it is intended to warm, and
+this transfer may be effected by radiation, by conduction or by
+convection. An open fire acts by radiation; it warms the air in a room
+by first warming the walls, floor, ceiling and articles in the room, and
+these in turn warm the air. Therefore in a room with an open fire the
+air is, as a rule, less heated than the walls. In many forms of
+fireplaces fresh air is brought in and passed around the back and sides
+of the stove before being admitted into the room. A closed stove acts
+mainly by convection; though when heated to a high temperature it gives
+out radiant heat. Windows have a chilling effect on a room, and in
+calculations extra allowance should be made for window areas.
+
+There are a number of methods available for adoption in the heating of
+buildings, but it is a matter of considerable difficulty to suit the
+method of warming to the class of building to be warmed. Heating may be
+effected by one of the following systems, or installations may be so
+arranged as to combine the advantages of more than one method: open
+fires, closed stoves, hot-air apparatus, hot water circulating in pipes
+at low or at high pressure, or steam at high or low pressure.
+
+
+  Open fires.
+
+The open grate still holds favour in England, though in America and on
+the continent of Europe it has been superseded by the closed stove. The
+old form of open fire is certainly wasteful of fuel, and the loss of
+heat up the chimney and by conduction into the brickwork backing of the
+stove is considerable. Great improvements, however, have been effected
+in the design of open fireplaces, and many ingenious contrivances of
+this nature are now in the market which combine efficiency of heating
+with economy of fuel. Unless suitable fresh air inlets are provided,
+this form of stove will cause the room to be draughty, the strong
+current of warm air up the flue drawing cold air in through the crevices
+in the doors and windows. The best form of open fireplace is the
+ventilating stove, in which fresh air is passed around the back and
+sides of the stove before being admitted through convenient openings
+into the room. This has immense advantages over the ordinary type of
+fireplace. The illustrations show two forms of ventilating fireplace,
+one (fig. 1) similar in appearance to the ordinary domestic grate, the
+other (fig. 2) with descending smoke flue suitable for hospitals and
+public rooms, where it might be fixed in the middle of the apartment.
+The fixing of stoves of this kind entails the laying of pipes or ducts
+from the open to convey fresh air to the back of the stove.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+
+  Closed stoves.
+
+With closed stoves much less heat is wasted, and consequently less fuel
+is burned, than with open grates, but they often cause an unpleasant
+sensation of dryness in the air, and the products of combustion also
+escape to some extent, rendering this method of heating not only
+unpleasant but sometimes even dangerous. The method in Great Britain is
+almost entirely confined to places of public assembly, but in America
+and on the continent of Europe it is much used for domestic heating. If
+the flue pipe be carried up a considerable distance inside the apartment
+to be warmed before being turned into the external air, practically the
+whole of the heat generated will be utilized. Charcoal, coke or
+anthracite coal are the fuels generally used in slow combustion heating
+stoves.
+
+
+  Gas fires.
+
+Gas fires, as a substitute for the open coal fire, have many points in
+their favour, for they are conducive to cleanliness, they need but
+little attention, and the heat is easily controlled. On the other hand,
+they may give off unhealthy fumes and produce unpleasant odours. They
+usually take the form of cast iron open stoves fitted with a number of
+Bunsen burners which heat perforated lumps of asbestos. The best form of
+stove is that with which perfect combustion is most nearly attained, and
+to which a pan of water is affixed to supply a desirable humidity to the
+air, the gas having the effect of drying the atmosphere. With another
+form of gas stove coke is used in place of the perforated asbestos; the
+fire is started with the gas, which, when the coke is well alight, may
+be dispensed with, and the fire kept up with coke in the usual way.
+
+
+  Electrical heating.
+
+Electrical heating appliances have only recently passed the experimental
+stage; there is, however, undoubtedly a great future for electric
+heating, and the perfecting of the stove, together with the cheapening
+of the electric current, may be expected to result in many of the other
+stoves and convectors being superseded. Hitherto the large bill for
+electric energy has debarred the general use of electrical heating, in
+spite of its numerous advantages.
+
+
+  Oil stoves.
+
+Oils are powerful fuels, but the high price of refined petroleum, the
+oil generally preferred, precludes its widespread use for many purposes
+for which it is suitable. In small stoves for warming and for cooking,
+petroleum presents some advantages over other fuels, in that there is no
+chimney to sweep, and if well managed no unpleasant fumes, and the
+stoves are easily portable. On the other hand, these stoves need a
+considerable amount of attention in filling, trimming and cleaning, and
+there is some risk of explosion and damage by accidental leaking and
+smoking. Crude or unrefined petroleum needs a special air-spray pressure
+burner for its use, and this suffers from the disadvantage of being
+noisy. Gas and oil radiators would be more properly termed "convectors,"
+since they warm mainly by converted currents. They are similar in
+appearance to a hot-water or steam radiator, and, indeed, some are
+designed to be filled with water and used as such. They should always be
+fitted with a pan of water to supply the necessary humidity to the
+warmed air, and a flue to carry off any disagreeable fumes.
+
+
+  Warm air.
+
+Heating by warmed air, one of the oldest methods in use, has been much
+improved by attention to the construction of the apparatus, and if
+properly installed will give as good effects as it is possible to
+obtain. The system is especially suitable for churches, assembly halls
+and large rooms. A stove of special design is placed in a chamber in the
+basement or cellar, and cold fresh air is passed through it, and led by
+means of flues to the various apartments for distribution by means of
+easily regulated inlet valves. To prevent the atmosphere from becoming
+unduly dry a pan of water is fitted to the stove; this serves to moisten
+the air before it passes into the distributing flues. If each
+distributing flue is connected by means of a mixing valve with a
+cold-air flue, the warmth of the incoming air can be regulated to a
+nicety (see VENTILATION).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+
+  Low pressure hot water.
+
+There are many different systems of heating by hot water circulating in
+pipes. The oldest and best known is the "two pipe" system, others being
+the "one pipe" or "simple circuit," and the "drop" or "overhead." The
+high pressure system is of later invention, having been first put to
+practical use by A. M. Perkins in 1845. All these methods warm chiefly
+by means of convected heat, the amount of true radiation from the pipes
+being small. The manner in which the circulation of hot water takes
+place in the tubes is as follows. Fire heats the water in a boiler from
+the top of which a "flow" pipe communicates with the rooms to be warmed
+(fig. 3). As the water is heated it becomes lighter, rises to the top of
+the boiler, and passes along the flow pipe. It is followed by more and
+more hot water, and so travels along the flow pipe, which is rising all
+the time, to the farthest point of the circuit, by which time it has in
+all probability cooled considerably. From this point the "return" pipe
+drops, usually at the same rate as the flow pipe rises; and in due
+course the water reaches its starting point, the boiler, and is again
+heated and again circulated through the system. The connexion of the
+return pipe is made with the lower part of the boiler. Branches may be
+made from the main pipes by means of smaller pipes arranged in the same
+manner as the mains, the branch flow pipe being connected with the main
+flow pipe and returning into the main return. To obtain a larger heating
+surface than a pipe affords, radiators are connected with the pipes
+where desired, and the water passing through them warms the surrounding
+air.
+
+The "one pipe" system (fig. 4) acts on precisely the same principle, but
+in place of two pipes being placed in adjacent positions one large main
+makes a complete circuit of the area to be warmed, starting from and
+returning to the boiler, and from this main flow and return branches are
+taken and connected with radiators and other heating appliances.
+
+In the "drop" or "overhead" system (fig. 5) a rising main is taken
+directly from the boiler to the topmost floor of the building, and from
+this branches are dropped to the lower floors, and connected by means of
+smaller branches to radiators or coils. The vertical branches descend to
+the basement and generally merge in a single return pipe which is
+connected to the lower part of the boiler.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+The rate of circulation in the ordinary low pressure hot-water system
+may be considerably accelerated by means of steam injections. The water
+after being heated passes into a circulating tank into which steam is
+introduced; this, mixing with the hot water, gives it additional motive
+power, resulting in a faster circulation. This steam condensing adds to
+the water in the pipe and naturally causes an overflow, which is led
+back to the boiler and re-used. In districts where the water is hard,
+this arrangement considerably lengthens the life of the boiler, as the
+same water is used over and over again, and no fresh deposit of fur
+occurs. Owing to the very rapid movement and the consequent increased
+rate of transmission of heat, the pipes and radiators may be reduced in
+size, in many circumstances a very desirable thing to achieve. With this
+system the temperature can be quickly raised and easily controlled. If
+the weather is mild, a moderate heat may be obtained by using the
+apparatus as an ordinary hot water system, and shutting off the steam
+injectors.
+
+The cold-water supply and expansion tank (fig. 3) are often combined in
+one tank placed at a point above the level of circulation. The tank
+should be of a size to hold not less than a twentieth part of the total
+amount of water held in the system. The automatic inlet of cold water to
+the hot water system from the main house tank or other source is
+controlled by a ball valve, which is so fixed as to allow the water to
+rise no more than an inch above the bottom of the tank, thus leaving the
+remainder of the space clear for expansion. An overflow is provided,
+discharging into the open air to allow the water to escape should the
+ball valve become defective.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+
+  High pressure hot water.
+
+The "Perkins" or "small bore high pressure" system (fig. 6) has many
+advantages, for it is safe, the boiler is small and is easily managed,
+the temperature is well under control and may be regulated to suit the
+changing weather, and the small pipes present a neat appearance in a
+room. The whole system is constructed of wrought iron pipe of small
+diameter, strong enough to resist a testing pressure of 2000 to 2500 lb.
+per sq. in. The boiler consists of similar pipe coiled up to form a
+fire-box, inside which the furnace is lighted. The coil is encased with
+firebricks and brickwork, and the smoke from the fire is carried off by
+a flue in the ordinary way. The flow pipe of similar section (usually
+having an internal diameter of about 1 in., the metal being nearly ¼ in.
+thick) continues from the top of the coil, and after travelling round
+the various apartments returns to, and is connected with, the lowest
+part of the boiler coil. The joints take a special form to enable them
+to withstand the great strain to which they are subjected (fig. 7). One
+end of a pipe is finished flat, the end of the other pipe being brought
+to a conical edge. On one end also a right-handed, and on the other a
+left-handed, screw-thread is turned. A coupling collar, tapped in the
+same manner, is screwed on, and causes the conical edge to impress
+itself tightly on the flat end, giving a sound and lasting joint. The
+system is hermetically sealed after being pumped full of water, an
+expansion chamber in the shape of a pipe of larger dimensions being
+provided at the top of the system above the highest point of
+circulation. Upon the application of heat to the fire-box coil the water
+naturally expands and forces its way up into the expansion chamber; but
+there it encounters the pressure of the confined air, and ebullition is
+consequently prevented. Thus at no time can steam form in the system.
+This system is trustworthy and safe in working. The smallness of the
+pipes renders it liable to damage by frost, but this accident may be
+prevented by always keeping in frosty weather a small fire in the
+furnace. If this course is inconvenient, some liquid of low
+freezing-point, such as glycerine, may be mixed with the water.
+
+
+  Steam heating.
+
+For large public buildings, factories, &c., heating by steam is
+generally adopted on account of the rapidity with which heat is
+available, and the great distance from the boiler at which warming is
+effected. In the case of factories the exhaust steam from the engines
+used for driving the working machinery is made use of and forms the most
+economical method of heating possible. There are several different
+systems of heating by steam--low pressure, high pressure and minus
+pressure.
+
+In the low pressure two pipe system the flow pipe is carried to a
+sufficient height directly above the boiler to allow of its gradual fall
+to a little beyond the most distant point at which connexion is to be
+made with the return pipe, which thence slopes towards the boiler.
+Branches are taken off the flow pipe, and after circulating through
+coils or radiators are connected with the return pipe. In a
+well-proportioned system the pressure need not exceed 2 or 3 lb. per sq.
+in. for excellent results to be obtained. The one-pipe system is similar
+in principle, the pipe rising to its greatest height above the boiler
+and being then carried around as a single pipe falling all the while. It
+resembles in many points the one-pipe low pressure hot-water system.
+Radiators are fed directly from the main. Where, as in factories or
+workshops, there are already installed engines working at a high steam
+pressure, say 120 to 180 lb. per sq. in., a portion of the steam
+generated in the boilers may be utilized for heating by the aid of a
+reducing valve. The steam is passed through the valve and emerges at the
+pressure required generally from 3 lb. upwards. It is then used for one
+of the systems described above.
+
+High-pressure steam-heating, compared with the heating by low pressure,
+is little used. The principles are the same as those applied to
+low-pressure work, but all fittings and appliances must, of course, be
+made to stand the higher strain to which they are subjected.
+
+The "minus pressure" steam system, sometimes termed "atmospheric" or
+"vacuum," is of more recent introduction than those just described. It
+is certainly the most scientific method of steam-heating, and heat can
+be made to travel a greater distance by its aid than by any other means.
+The heat of the pipes is great, but can be easily regulated. The system
+is economical in fuel, but needs skilled attendance to keep the
+appliances and fittings in order. The steam is introduced into the pipes
+at about the pressure of the atmosphere, and is sucked through the
+system by means of a vacuum pump, which at the same operation frees the
+pipes from air and from condensation water. This pumping action results
+in an extremely rapid circulation of the heating agent, enabling long
+distances to be traversed without much loss of heat.
+
+Compared with heating by hot water, steam-heating requires less piping,
+which, further, may be of much smaller diameter to attain a similar
+result, because of the higher temperature of the heat yielding surface.
+A drawback to the use of steam is the fact that the high temperature of
+the pipes and radiators attracts and spreads a great deal of dust. There
+is also a risk that woodwork near the pipes may warp and split. The
+apparatus needs constant attention, since neglect in stoking would
+result in stopping the generation of steam, and the whole system would
+almost immediately cool. To regulate the heat it is necessary either to
+instal a number of small radiators or to divide the radiators into
+sections, each section controlled by distinct valves; steam may then be
+admitted to all the sections of the radiator or to any less number of
+sections as desired. In a hot-water system the heat is given off at a
+lower temperature and is consequently more agreeable than that yielded
+by a steam-heating apparatus. The joint most commonly used for hot-water
+pipes is termed the "rust" joint, which is cheap to make, but
+unfortunately is inefficient. The materials required are iron borings,
+sal-ammoniac and sulphur; these are mixed together, moistened with
+water, and rammed into the socket, which is previously half filled with
+yarn, well caulked. The materials mixed with the iron borings cause them
+to rust into a solid mass, and in doing so a slight expansion takes
+place. On this account it is necessary to exercise some skill in forming
+the joint, or the socket of the pipe will be split; numbers of pipes are
+undoubtedly spoilt in this way. Suitable proportions of materials to
+form a rust joint are 90 parts by weight of iron borings well mixed with
+2 parts of flowers of sulphur, and 1 part of powdered sal-ammoniac.
+Another joint, less rigid but sound and durable, is made with yarn and
+white and red lead. The white and red lead are mixed together to form a
+putty, and are filled into the socket alternately with layers of
+well-caulked yarn, starting with yarn and finishing off with the lead
+mixture.
+
+
+  Joints for pipes.
+
+Iron expands when heated to the temperature of boiling water (212° F.)
+about 1 part in 900, that is to say, a pipe 100 ft. long would expand or
+increase in length when heated to this temperature about 1½ in., an
+amount which seems small but which would be quite sufficient to destroy
+one or more of the joints if provision were not made to prevent damage.
+The amount of expansion increases as the temperature is raised; at 340°
+F. it is 2½ in. in 100 ft. With wrought iron pipes bends may be
+arranged, as shown in fig. 8, to take up this expansion. With cast iron
+pipe this cannot be done, and no length of piping over 40 ft. should be
+without a proper expansion joint. The pipes are best supported on
+rollers which allow of movement without straining the joints.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+There are several joints in general use for the best class of work which
+are formed with the aid of india-rubber rings or collars, any expansion
+being divided amongst the whole number of joints. In the rubber ring
+joint an india-rubber ring is used; slightly less in diameter than the
+pipe. The rubber is circular in section, and about ½ in. thick, and is
+stretched on the extreme end of a pipe which is then forced into the
+next socket. This joint is durable, secure and easily made; it allows
+for expansion and by its use the risk of pipe sockets being cracked is
+avoided. It is much used for greenhouse heating works. Richardson's
+patent joint (fig. 9) is a good form of this class of joint. The pipes
+have specially shaped ends between which a rubber collar is placed, the
+joint being held together by clips. The result is very satisfactory and
+will stand heavy water pressure. Messenger's joint (fig. 10) is designed
+to allow more freedom of expansion and at the same time to withstand
+considerable pressure; one loose cast iron collar is used, and another
+is formed as a socket on the end of the pipe itself. One end of each
+pipe is plain, so that it may be cut to any desired length; pipes with
+shaped ends obviously must be obtained in the exact lengths required.
+Jones's expansion joint (fig. 11) is somewhat similar to Messenger's but
+it is not capable of withstanding so great a pressure. In this case both
+collars of cast iron are loose.
+
+
+  Radiators.
+
+Radiators (really convectors) were in their primitive design coils of
+pipe, used to give a larger heating area than the single pipe would
+afford. They are now usually of special design, and may be divided into
+three classes--indirect radiators, direct radiators and direct
+ventilating radiators. Indirect radiators are placed beneath the floor
+of the apartment to be heated and give off heat through a grating. This
+method is frequently adopted in combined schemes of heating and
+ventilating; the fresh air is warmed by being passed over their surfaces
+previously to being admitted through the gratings into the room. Direct
+radiators are a development of the early coil of pipe; they are made in
+various types and designs and are usually of cast iron. Ventilating
+radiators are similar, but have an inlet arrangement at the base to
+allow external air to pass over the heating surface before passing out
+through the perforations. Radiators should not be fixed directly on to
+the main heating pipe, but always on branches of smaller diameter
+leading from the flow pipe to one end of the radiator and back to the
+main return pipe from the other end; they may then be easily controlled
+by a valve placed on the branch from the flow pipe. To each radiator
+should be fitted an air tap, which when opened will permit the escape of
+any air that has accumulated in the coil; otherwise free circulation is
+impossible, and the full benefit of the heat is not obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+  Hot-water supply.
+
+A plentiful supply of hot water is a necessity in every house for
+domestic and hygienic purposes. In small houses all requirements may be
+satisfied with a boiler heated by the kitchen fire. For large buildings
+where large quantities of hot water are used an independent boiler of
+suitable size should be installed. Every installation is made up of a
+boiler or other water heater, a tank or cylinder to contain the water
+when heated, and a cistern of cold water, the supply from which to the
+system is regulated automatically by a ball valve. These containers,
+proportioned to the required supply of hot water, are connected with
+each other by means of pipes, a "flow" and a "return" connecting the
+boiler with the cylinder or tank (fig. 12). The flow pipe starts from
+the top of the boiler and is connected near the top of the cylinder, the
+return pipe joining the lower portions of the cylinder and boiler. The
+supply from the cold water cistern enters the bottom of the cylinder,
+and thence travels by way of the return pipe to the boiler, where it is
+heated, and back through the flow pipe to the cylinder, which is thus
+soon filled with hot water. A flow pipe which serves also for expansion
+is taken from the top of the cylinder to a point above the cold-water
+supply and turned down to prevent the ingress of dirt. From this pipe at
+various points are taken the supply pipes to baths, lavatories, sinks
+and other appliances. It will be observed that in fig. 12 the cylinder
+is placed in proximity to the boiler; this is the usual and most
+effective method, but it may be placed some distance away if desired.
+The tank system is of much earlier date than this cylinder system, and
+although the two resemble each other in many respects, the tank system
+is in practice the less effective. The tank is placed above the level of
+the topmost draw off, and often in a cupboard which it will warm
+sufficiently to permit of its being used as a linen airing closet. An
+expansion pipe is taken from the top of the tank to a point above the
+roof. All draw off services are taken off from the flow pipe which
+connects the boiler with the tank. This method differs from that adopted
+in the cylinder system, where all services are led from the top of the
+cylinder. A suitable proportion between the size of the tank or cylinder
+and that of the boiler is 8 or 10 to 1. Water may also be heated by
+placing a coil of steam or high-pressure hot-water pipes in a water tank
+(fig. 6), the water heated in this way circulating in the manner already
+described. An alternative plan is to pass the water through pipes placed
+in a steam chest.
+
+Cylinders, tanks and independent boilers should be encased in a
+non-conducting material such as silicate cotton, thick felt or asbestos
+composition. The two first mentioned are affixed by means of bands or
+straps or stitched on; the asbestos is laid on in the form of a plaster
+from 2 to 6 in. thick.
+
+Taps to baths and lavatories should be connected to the main services by
+a flow and return pipe so that hot water is constantly flowing past the
+tap, thus enabling hot water to be obtained immediately. Frequently a
+single pipe is led to the tap, but the water in this branch cools and
+must therefore be drawn off before hot water can be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+
+  Boilers.
+
+Two classes of boilers are chiefly used in hot-water heating
+installations, viz. those heated by the fire of the kitchen range, and
+those heated separately or independently. Of the first class there are
+two varieties in common use--a form of "saddle" boiler (fig. 13) and the
+"boot" boiler (fig. 14). Independent boilers are made in every
+conceivable size and form of construction, and many of them are capable
+of doing excellent work. In the choice of a boiler of this description
+it should be remembered that rapid heating, economical combustion of
+fuel, and facilities for cleaning, are requisites, the absence of any of
+which considerably lowers the efficiency of the apparatus. Boilers set
+in brickwork are sometimes used in domestic work, although they are more
+favoured for horticultural heating. The shape mostly used is the
+"saddle" boiler, or some variation upon this very old pattern. The
+coiled pipe fire-box of the high-pressure hot-water system previously
+described may be also classed with boilers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+A notable feature of modern boiler construction is the mode of building
+the apparatus of cast iron in either horizontal or vertical sections.
+Both the types intended to be set in brickwork and those working
+independently are formed on the sectional principle, which has many good
+points. The parts are easy of transport and can be handled without
+difficulty through narrow doorways and in confined situations. The size
+of the boiler may be increased or diminished by the addition or
+subtraction of one or more sections; these, being simple in design, are
+easily fitted together, and should a section become defective it is a
+simple matter to insert a new one in its place. Should a defect occur
+with a wrought iron boiler it is usually necessary for the purpose of
+repair to disconnect and remove the whole apparatus, the heating system
+of which it forms a part being in the meantime useless. In a type built
+with vertical sections each division is complete in itself, and is not
+directly connected with the next section, but communicates with flow and
+return drums. A defective section may thus be left in position and
+stopped off by means of plugs from the drums until it is convenient to
+fit a new one in its place. A boiler with horizontal sections is shown
+in fig. 15; it will be seen that each of the upper sections has a number
+of cross waterways which form a series of gratings over the fire-box and
+intercept most of the heat generated, effecting great economy of fuel.
+
+
+  Safety valves.
+
+In the ordinary working of a hot-water apparatus the expansion pipe
+already referred to will prevent any overdue pressure occurring in the
+boiler; should, however, the pipes become blocked in any way while the
+apparatus is in use, or the water in them become frozen, the lighting of
+the fire would cause the water to expand, and having no outlet it would
+in all probability burst the boiler. To prevent this a safety valve
+should be fitted on the top of the boiler, or be connected thereto with
+a large pipe so as to be visible. The valve may be of the dead weight
+(fig. 16), lever weight, spring (fig. 17) or diaphragm variety. The
+three first named are largely used. In the diaphragm valve a thin piece
+of metal is fixed to an outlet from the boiler, and when a moderate
+pressure is exceeded this gives way, allowing the water and steam to
+escape.
+
+Fusible plugs are little used; they consist of pieces of softer metal
+inserted on the side of the boiler, which melt should the heat of the
+water rise above a certain temperature.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+
+  Geysers.
+
+A "Geyser" is a very convenient form of apparatus for heating a quantity
+of water in a short time. A water pipe of copper or wrought iron is
+passed through a cylinder in which gas or oil heating burners are
+placed. The piping takes a winding or zigzag course, and by the time the
+outlet is reached, the water it contains has reached a high temperature.
+By this means a continuous stream of hot water is obtained, greater or
+smaller in proportion to the size and power of the apparatus. The
+improved types of gas geysers are provided with a single control to both
+gas and water supplies, with a small "pilot" burner to ignite the gas. A
+flue should in all cases be provided to carry off the fumes of the fuel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+
+  Incrustation.
+
+In districts where the water is of a "hard nature," that is, contains
+bicarbonate of lime in solution, the interior of the boiler, cylinders,
+tanks and pipes of a hot water system will become incrusted with a
+deposit of lime which is gradually precipitated as the water is heated
+to boiling point. With "very hard" water this deposit may require
+removal every three months; in London it is usual to clean out the
+boiler every six months and the cylinders and tanks at longer intervals.
+For this purpose manlids must be provided (figs. 13 and 14), and pipes
+should be fitted with removable caps at the bends to allow for
+periodical cleaning. The lime deposit or "fur" is a poor conductor of
+heat, and it is therefore most detrimental to the efficiency of the
+system to allow the interior of the boiler or any other portion to
+become furred up. Further, if not removed, the fur will in a short time
+bring about a fracture in the boiler. The use of soft water entails a
+disadvantage of another character--that of corroding iron and lead work,
+soft water exercising a very vigorous chemical action upon these metals.
+In districts supplied with soft water, copper should be employed to as
+large an extent as possible.
+
+The table given below will be useful in calculating the size of the
+radiating surface necessary to raise the temperature to the extent
+required when the external air is at freezing point (32° Fahr.):--
+
+  +-------------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+
+  |                         |           | Cubic Feet of Air heated by |
+  |                         |           |   1 sq. ft. of Radiator or  |
+  | Description of Building |Temperature|        Pipe Surface.        |
+  |      to be heated.      | required. +-----------------------------+
+  |                         |           | Low Pressure | Low Pressure |
+  |                         |           |  Water.      |    Steam.    |
+  +-------------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+
+  | Dwelling rooms          |  55°-60°  |     85-90    |    115-125   |
+  | Schools                 |    60°    |     90-100   |    120-130   |
+  | Churches and chapels    |  55°-60°  |    100-120   |    135-160   |
+  | Offices and shops       |  55°-60°  |    120-125   |    160-170   |
+  | Public halls, workshops,|           |              |              |
+  |   waiting-rooms         |    55°    |    130-150   |    175-200   |
+  | Warehouses, stores      |  50°-55°  |    140-160   |    190-220   |
+  +-------------------------+-----------+-----------------------------+
+
+
+  Steam supply at Lockport.
+
+In closing this account of heating and the practical methods of
+application of heat, an example may be mentioned to show the great
+capabilities of a carefully planned system. At the city of Lockport in
+New York state, America, an interesting example of the direct
+application of steam-heating on a large scale has been carried out under
+the direction of Mr Birdsill Holly of that city. Houses within a radius
+of 3 m. from the boiler house are supplied with superheated steam at a
+pressure of 35 lb. to the in. The mains, the largest of which are 4 in.
+in diameter, and the smallest 2 in., are wrapped in asbestos, felt and
+other non-conducting materials, and are placed in wooden tubes laid
+under ground like water and gas pipes. The house branches pipes are 1½
+in. in diameter, and ¾-in. pipes are used inside the houses. The steam
+is employed for warming apartments by means of pipe radiators, for
+heating water by steam injections, and for all cooking purposes. The
+steam mains to the houses are laid by the supply company; the internal
+pipes and fittings are paid for or rented by the occupier, costing for
+an installation from £30 for an ordinary eight-roomed house to £100 or
+more for larger buildings. With the success of this undertaking in view
+it is a matter of wonder that the example set in this instance has not
+been adopted to a much greater extent elsewhere.
+
+  The principal publications on heating are: Hood, _Practical Treatise
+  on Warming Buildings by Hot Water_; Baldwin, _Hot Water Heating and
+  Fittings_; Baldwin, _Steam Heating for Buildings_; Billings,
+  _Ventilation and Heating_; Carpenter, _Heating and Ventilating
+  Buildings_; Jones, _Heating by Hot Water_, _Ventilation and Hot Water
+  Supply_; Dye, _Hot Water Supply_.     (J. Bt.)
+
+
+
+
+HEAVEN (O. Eng. _hefen_, _heofon_, _heofone_; this word appears in O.S.
+_hevan_; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. _Himmel_, Dutch _hemel_;
+there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the
+ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the suggestion that it is
+connected with "to heave," in the sense of something "lifted up," is
+erroneous), properly the expanse, taking the appearance of a domed vault
+above the earth, in which the sun, moon, planets and stars seem to be
+placed, the firmament; hence also used, generally in the plural, of the
+space immediately above the earth, the atmospheric region of winds,
+rain, clouds, and of the birds of the air. The heaven and the earth
+together, therefore, to the ancient cosmographers, and still in poetical
+language, make up the universe. In the cosmogonies of many ancient
+peoples there was a plurality of heavens, probably among the earlier
+Hebrews, the idea being elaborated in rabbinical literature, among the
+Babylonians and in Zoroastrianism. The number of these heavens, the
+higher transcending the lower in glory, varied from three to seven.
+Heaven, as in the Hebrew _shamayim_, the Greek [Greek: ouranos], the
+Latin _caelum_, is the abode of God, and as such in Christian
+eschatology is the place of the blessed in the next world (see
+ESCHATOLOGY and PARADISE).
+
+
+
+
+HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1813-1863), German poet and dramatist, was
+born at Wesselburen in Ditmarschen, Holstein, on the 18th of March 1813.
+Though only the son of a poor bricklayer, he early showed a talent for
+poetry, which was first displayed to the world by the publication, in
+the Hamburg _Modezeitung_, of verses which he had sent to Amalie Schoppe
+(1791-1858), a then popular journalist and author of nursery tales.
+Through the kindness of this lady, who interested several of her friends
+on his behalf, he was enabled to go to Hamburg and there prepare himself
+for the university. A year later he went to Heidelberg to study law, but
+finding this uncongenial he passed on to the university of Munich, where
+he devoted himself to philosophy, history and literature. In 1839 Hebbel
+left Munich and wandered back to Hamburg on foot, where he resumed his
+relations with Elsie Lensing, whose self-sacrificing assistance had
+helped him over the darkest days in Munich. In the same year he wrote
+his first tragedy _Judith_ (published 1841), which in the following year
+was performed in Hamburg and Berlin and made his name known throughout
+Germany. In 1840 he wrote the tragedy _Genoveva_, and the following year
+finished a comedy, _Der Diamant_, which he had begun at Munich. In 1842
+he visited Copenhagen, where he obtained from the king of Denmark a
+small travelling studentship, which enabled him to spend some time in
+Paris and two years (1844-1846) in Italy. In Paris he wrote his fine
+"tragedy of common life," _Maria Magdalene_ (1844). On his return from
+Italy Hebbel met at Vienna two Polish noblemen, the brothers Zerboni di
+Sposetti, who in their enthusiasm for his genius urged him to remain,
+and supplied him with the means to mingle in the best intellectual
+society of the Austrian capital. The unwonted life of ease had its
+effect. The old precarious existence became a horror to him, he made a
+deliberate breach with it by marrying (in 1846) the beautiful and
+wealthy actress Christine Enghaus, ruthlessly sacrificing the girl who
+had given up all for him and who remained faithful till her death, on
+the ground that "a man's first duty is to the most powerful force within
+him, that which alone can give him happiness and be of service to the
+world": in his case the poetical faculty, which would have perished "in
+the miserable struggle for existence." This "deadly sin," which, "if
+peace of conscience be the test of action," was, he considered, the best
+act of his life, established his fortunes. Elise, however, still
+provided useful inspiration for his art. As late as 1855, shortly after
+her death, he wrote the little epic _Mutter und Kind_, intended to show
+that the relation of parent and child is the essential factor which
+makes the quality of happiness among all classes and under all
+conditions equal. Long before this Hebbel had become famous. German
+sovereigns bestowed decorations upon him; and in foreign capitals he was
+fêted as the greatest of living German dramatists. From the grand-duke
+of Saxe-Weimar he received a flattering invitation to take up his
+residence at Weimar, where several of his plays were first performed. He
+remained, however, at Vienna until his death on the 13th of December
+1863.
+
+Besides the works already mentioned, Hebbel's principal tragedies are
+_Herodes und Mariamne_ (1850); _Julia_ (1851); _Michel Angelo_ (1851);
+_Agnes Bernauer_ (1855); _Gyges und sein Ring_ (1856), and the
+magnificently conceived trilogy _Die Nibelungen_ (1862), his last work
+(consisting of a prologue, _Der gehörnte Siegfried_, and the tragedies,
+_Siegfrieds Tod_ and _Kriemhilds Rache_), which won for the author the
+Schiller prize. Of his comedies _Der Diamant_ (1847), _Der Rubin_
+(1850), and the tragi-comedy _Ein Trauerspiel in Sizilien_ (1845), are
+the more important, but they are heavy and hardly rise above mediocrity.
+All his dramatic productions, however, exhibit skill in
+characterization, great glow of passion, and a true feeling for dramatic
+situation; but their poetic effect is frequently marred by extravagances
+which border on the grotesque, and by the introduction of incidents the
+unpleasant character of which is not sufficiently relieved. In many of
+his lyric poems, and especially in _Mutter und Kind_, published in 1859,
+Hebbel showed that his poetic gifts were not restricted to the drama.
+
+  His collected works were first published by E. Kuh (12 vols., Hamburg,
+  1866-1868); revised by H. Krumm (12 vols., Hamburg, 1892). The best
+  critical edition is that by R. M. Werner (12 vols., 1901-1903), to
+  which have been added Hebbel's Diaries (4 vols.) and Correspondence (6
+  vols.). Hebbel's _Briefwechsel mit Freunden und berühmten
+  Zeitgenossen_ was issued by F. Bamberg (1890-1892). The chief
+  biographies of Hebbel are those by E. Kuh (1877) and R. M. Werner
+  (1905). See also L. A. Frankl, _Zur Biographie F. Hebbels_ (1884); T.
+  Poppe, _F. Hebbel und sein Drama_ (1900); A. Scheunert, _Der
+  Pantragismus als System der Weltanschauung und Ästhetik Hebbels_
+  (1903); E. A. Georgy, _Die Tragödie F. Hebbels nach ihrem Ideengehalt_
+  (1904).
+
+
+
+
+HEBBURN, an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary division of
+Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne, 4½ m. below Newcastle,
+and on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1881), 11,802;
+(1901), 20,901. It has extensive shipbuilding and engineering works,
+rope and sail factories, chemical, colour and cement works, and
+collieries.
+
+
+
+
+HEBDEN BRIDGE, an urban district in the Sowerby parliamentary division
+of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the Calder and Hebden
+rivers, 7 m. W. by N. of Halifax by the Lancashire and Yorkshire
+railway. Pop. (1901), 7536. The town has cotton factories, dye-works,
+foundries and manufactories of shuttles. The upper Calder valley,
+between Halifax and Todmorden, is walled with bold hills, the summits of
+which consist of wild moorland. The vale itself is densely populated,
+but its beauty is not destroyed, and the contrast with its desolate
+surroundings is remarkable.
+
+
+
+
+HEBE, in Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus and Hera, the goddess of
+youth. In the Homeric poems she is the female counterpart of Ganymede,
+and acts as cupbearer to the gods (_Iliad_, iv. 2). She was the special
+attendant of her mother, whose horses she harnessed (_Iliad_, v. 722).
+When Heracles was received amongst the gods, Hebe was bestowed upon him
+in marriage (_Odyssey_, xi. 603). When the custom of the heroic age,
+which permitted female cupbearers, fell into disuse, Hebe was replaced
+by Ganymede in the popular mythology. To account for her retirement from
+her office, it was said that she fell down in the presence of the gods
+while handing the wine, and was so ashamed that she refused to appear
+before them again. Hebe exhibits many striking points of resemblance
+with the pure Greek goddess Aphrodite. She is the daughter of Zeus and
+Hera, Aphrodite of Zeus and Dione; but Dione and Hera are often
+identified. Hebe is called Dia, a regular epithet of Aphrodite; at
+Phlius, a festival called [Greek: Kissotomoi] (the days of ivy-cutting)
+was annually celebrated in her honour (Pausanias, ii. 13); and ivy was
+sacred also to Aphrodite. The apotheosis of Heracles and his marriage
+with Hebe became a favourite subject with poets and painters, and many
+instances occur on vases. In later art she is often represented, like
+Ganymede, caressing the eagle.
+
+  See R. Kekulé, _Hebe_ (1867), mainly dealing with the representations
+  of Hebe in art; and P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio's
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquités_.
+
+The meaning of the word Hebe tended to transform the goddess into a mere
+personification of the eternal youth that belongs to the gods, and this
+conception is frequently met with. Then she becomes identical with the
+Roman Juventas, who is simply an abstraction of an attribute of Jupiter
+Juventus, the god of increase and blessing and youth. To Juventas, as
+personifying the eternal youth of the Roman state, a chapel was
+dedicated in very early times in the _cella_ of Minerva in the temple of
+Jupiter Capitolinus. With this temple is connected the legend of
+Juventas and Terminus, who alone of all the gods refused to give way
+when it was being built--an indication of the eternal solidity and youth
+of Rome. The cult of Juventas did not, however, become firmly
+established until the time of the second Punic war. In 218 the Sibylline
+books ordered a lectisternium in honour of Juventas and a supplicatio in
+honour of Hercules, and in 191 a temple was dedicated in her honour in
+the Circus Maximus. In later times Juventas became the personification,
+not of the Roman youth, but of the emperor, who assumed the attributes
+of a god (Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 69; G.
+Wissowa in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_).
+
+
+
+
+HEBEL, JOHANN PETER (1760-1826), German poet and popular writer, was
+born at Basel on the 10th of May 1760. The father dying when the child
+was little over a year old, he was brought up amidst poverty-stricken
+conditions in the village of Hausen in the Wiesental, where he received
+his earliest education. Being of brilliant promise, he found friends who
+enabled him to complete his school education and to study theology
+(1778-1780) at Erlangen. At the end of his university course he was for
+a time a private tutor, then became teacher at the Gymnasium in
+Karlsruhe, and in 1808 was appointed director of the school. He was
+subsequently appointed member of the Consistory and "evangelical
+prelate." He died at Schwetzingen, near Heidelberg, on the 22nd of
+September 1826. Hebel is one of the most widely read of all German
+popular poets and writers. His poetical narratives and lyric poems,
+written in the "Alemanic" dialect, are "popular" in the best sense. His
+_Allemannische Gedichte_ (1803) "bucolicize," in the words of Goethe,
+"the whole world in the most attractive manner" (_verbauert das ganze
+Universum auf die anmutigste Weise_). Indeed, few modern German poets
+surpass him in fidelity, _naïveté_, humour, and in the freshness and
+vigour of his descriptions. His poem, _Die Wiese_, has been described by
+Johannes Scherr as the "pearl of German idyllic poetry"; while his prose
+writings, especially the narratives and essays contained in the
+_Schatzkästlein des rheinischen Hausfreundes_ (Tübingen, 1811; new
+edition, Stuttg. 1869, 1888), belong to the best class of German
+stories, and according to August Friedrich Christian Vilmar (1800-1868)
+in his _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_ are "worth more than a
+cartload of novels" (_wiegen ein ganzes Fuder Romane auf_). Memorials
+have been erected to him at Karlsruhe, Basel and Schwetzingen.
+
+  A complete edition of Hebel's works--_Sämtliche Werke_--was first
+  published at Stuttgart in 8 vols. (1832-1834); subsequent editions
+  appeared in 1847 (3 vols.), 1868 (2 vols.), 1873 (edited by G. Wendt,
+  2 vols.), 1883-1885 (edited by O. Behaghel, 2 vols.) and 1905 (edited
+  by E. Keller, 5 vols.), as well as innumerable reprints. Hebel's
+  correspondence has been edited by O. Behaghel (1883). See G. Längin,
+  _J. P. Hebel, ein Lebensbild_ (1894), and the introduction to
+  Behaghel's edition.
+
+
+
+
+HEBER, REGINALD (1783-1826), English bishop and hymn-writer, was born at
+Malpas in Cheshire on the 21st of April 1783. His father, who belonged
+to an old Yorkshire family, held a moiety of the living of Malpas.
+Reginald Heber early showed remarkable promise, and was entered in
+November 1800 at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he proved a
+distinguished student, carrying off prizes for a Latin poem entitled
+_Carmen seculare_, an English poem on _Palestine_, and a prose essay on
+_The Sense of Honour_. In November 1804 he was elected a fellow of All
+Souls College; and, after finishing his distinguished university career,
+he made a long tour in Europe. He was admitted to holy orders in 1807,
+and was then presented to the family living of Hodnet in Shropshire. In
+1809 Heber married Amelia, daughter of Dr Shipley, dean of St Asaph. He
+was made prebendary of St Asaph in 1812, appointed Bampton lecturer for
+1815, preacher at Lincoln's Inn in 1822, and bishop of Calcutta in
+January 1823. Before sailing for India he received the degree of D.D.
+from the university of Oxford. In India Bishop Heber laboured
+indefatigably, not only for the good of his own diocese, but for the
+spread of Christianity throughout the East. He undertook numerous tours
+in India, consecrating churches, founding schools and discharging other
+Christian duties. His devotion to his work in a trying climate told
+severely on his health. At Trichinopoly he was seized with an apoplectic
+fit when in his bath, and died on the 3rd of April 1826. A statue of
+him, by Chantrey, was erected at Calcutta.
+
+Heber was a pious man of profound learning, literary taste and great
+practical energy. His fame rests mainly on his hymns, which rank among
+the best in the English language. The following may be instanced: "Lord
+of mercy and of might"; "Brightest and best of the sons of the morning";
+"By cool Siloam's shady rill"; "God, that madest earth and heaven"; "The
+Lord of might from Sinai's brow"; "Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty";
+"From Greenland's icy mountains"; "The Lord will come, the earth shall
+quake"; "The Son of God goes forth to war." Heber's hymns and other
+poems are distinguished by finish of style, pathos and soaring
+aspiration; but they lack originality, and are rather rhetorical than
+poetical in the strict sense.
+
+  Among Heber's works are: _Palestine: a Poem, to which is added the
+  Passage of the Red Sea_ (1809); _Europe: Lines on the Present War_
+  (1809); a volume of poems in 1812; _The Personality and Office of the
+  Christian Comforter asserted and explained_ (being the Bampton
+  Lectures for 1815); _The Whole Works of Bishop Jeremy Taylor, with a
+  Life of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings_
+  (1822); _Hymns written and adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the
+  Year, principally by Bishop Heber_ (1827); _A Journey through India_
+  (1828); _Sermons preached in England_, and _Sermons preached in India_
+  (1829); _Sermons on the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle for every
+  Sunday in the Year_ (1837). _The Poetical Works of Reginald Heber_
+  were collected in 1841.
+
+  See the _Life of Reginald Heber, D.D. ..._, by his widow, Amelia Heber
+  (1830), which also contains a number of Heber's miscellaneous
+  writings; _The Last Days of Bishop Heber_, by Thomas Robinson, A.M.,
+  archdeacon of Madras (1830); T. S. Smyth, The Character and Religious
+  Doctrine of Bishop Heber (1831), and _Memorials of a Quiet Life_, by
+  Augustus J. C. Hare (1874).
+
+
+
+
+HEBER, RICHARD (1773-1833), English book-collector, the half-brother of
+Reginald Heber, was born in London on the 5th of January 1773. As an
+undergraduate at Brasenose College, Oxford, he began to collect a purely
+classical library, but his taste broadening, he became interested in
+early English drama and literature, and began his wonderful collection
+of rare books in these departments. He attended continental book-sales,
+purchasing sometimes single volumes, sometimes whole libraries. Sir
+Walter Scott, whose intimate friend he was, and who dedicated to him the
+sixth canto of _Marmion_, classed Heber's library as "superior to all
+others in the world"; Campbell described him as "the fiercest and
+strongest of all the bibliomaniacs." He did not confine himself to the
+purchase of a single copy of a work which took his fancy. "No
+gentleman," he remarked, "can be without three copies of a book, one for
+show, one for use, and one for borrowers." To such a size did his
+library grow that it over-ran eight houses, some in England, some on the
+Continent. It is estimated to have cost over £100,000, and after his
+death the sale of that part of his collection stored in England realized
+more than £56,000. He is known to have owned 150,000 volumes, and
+probably many more. He possessed extensive landed property in Shropshire
+and Yorkshire, and was sheriff of the former county in 1821, was member
+of Parliament for Oxford University from 1821-1826, and in 1822 was made
+a D.C.L. of that University. He was one of the founders of the Athenaeum
+Club, London. He died in London on the 4th of October 1833.
+
+
+
+
+HEBERDEN, WILLIAM (1710-1801), English physician, was born in London in
+1710. In the end of 1724 he was sent to St John's College, Cambridge,
+where he obtained a fellowship about 1730, became master of arts in
+1732, and took the degree of M.D. in 1739. He remained at Cambridge
+nearly ten years longer practising medicine, and gave an annual course
+of lectures on materia medica. In 1746 he became a fellow of the Royal
+College of Physicians in London; and two years later he settled in
+London, where he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1749, and
+enjoyed an extensive medical practice for more than thirty years. At the
+age of seventy-two he partially retired, spending his summers at a house
+which he had taken at Windsor, but he continued to practise in London
+during the winter for some years longer. In 1778 he was made an honorary
+member of the Paris Royal Society of Medicine. He died in London on the
+17th of May 1801. Heberden, who was a good classical scholar, published
+several papers in the Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society, and among his
+noteworthy contributions to the _Medical Transactions_ (issued, largely
+at his suggestion, by the College of Physicians) were papers on
+chicken-pox (1767) and angina pectoris (1768). His _Commentarii de
+morborum historia et curatione_, the result of careful notes made in his
+pocket-book at the bedside of his patients, were published in 1802; in
+the following year an English translation appeared, believed to be from
+the pen of his son, William Heberden (1767-1845), also a distinguished
+scholar and physician, who attended King George III. in his last
+illness.
+
+
+
+
+HÉBERT, EDMOND (1812-1890), French geologist, was born at Villefargau,
+Yonne, on the 12th of June 1812. He was educated at the Collège de
+Meaux, Auxerre, and at the École Normale in Paris. In 1836 he became
+professor at Meaux, in 1838 demonstrator in chemistry and physics at the
+École Normale, and in 1841 sub-director of studies at that school and
+lecturer on geology. In 1857 the degree of D. ès Sc. was conferred upon
+him, and he was appointed professor of geology at the Sorbonne. There he
+was eminently successful as a teacher, and worked with great zeal in the
+field, adding much to the knowledge of the Jurassic and older strata. He
+devoted, however, special attention to the subdivisions of the
+Cretaceous and Tertiary formations in France, and to their correlation
+with the strata in England and in southern Europe. To him we owe the
+first definite arrangement of the Chalk into palaeontological zones (see
+Table in _Geol. Mag._, 1869, p. 200). During his later years he was
+regarded as the leading geologist in France. He was elected a member of
+the Institute in 1877, Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1885, and he
+was three times president of the Geological Society of France. He died
+in Paris on the 4th of April 1890.
+
+
+
+
+HÉBERT, JACQUES RENÉ (1757-1794), French Revolutionist, called "Père
+Duchesne," from the newspaper he edited, was born at Alençon, on the
+15th of November 1757, where his father, who kept a goldsmith's shop,
+had held some municipal office. His family was ruined, however, by a
+lawsuit while he was still young, and Hébert came to Paris, where in his
+struggle against poverty he endured great hardships; the accusations of
+theft directed against him later by Camille Desmoulins were, however,
+without foundation. In 1790 he attracted attention by some pamphlets,
+and became a prominent member of the club of the Cordeliers in 1791. On
+the 10th of August 1792 he was a member of the revolutionary Commune of
+Paris, and became second substitute of the _procureur_ of the Commune on
+the 2nd of December 1792. His violent attacks on the Girondists led to
+his arrest on the 24th of May 1793, but he was released owing to the
+threatening attitude of the mob. Henceforth very popular, Hébert
+organized with P. G. Chaumette (q.v.) the "worship of Reason," in
+opposition to the theistic cult inaugurated by Robespierre, against whom
+he tried to excite a popular movement. The failure of this brought about
+the arrest of the Hébertists, or _enragés_, as his partisans were
+called. Hébert was guillotined on the 24th of March 1794. His wife, who
+had been a nun, was executed twenty days later. Hébert's influence was
+mainly due to his articles in his journal _Le Père Duchesne_,[1] which
+appeared from 1790 to 1794. These articles, while not lacking in a
+certain cleverness, were violent and abusive, and purposely couched in
+foul language in order to appeal to the mob.
+
+  See Louis Duval, "Hébert chez lui," in _La Révolution Française, revue
+  d'histoire moderne et contemporaine_, t. xii. and t. xiii.; D. Mater,
+  _J. R. Hébert, l'auteur du Père Duchesne avant la journée du 10 août
+  1792_ (Bourges, Comm. Hist. du Cher, 1888); F. A. Aulard, _Le Culte de
+  la raison et de l'être suprême_ (Paris, 1892).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There were several journals of this name, the best known of the
+    others being that edited by Lemaire.
+
+
+
+
+HEBREW LANGUAGE. The name "Hebrew" is derived, through the Greek [Greek:
+Hebraios], from _'ibhray_, the Aramaic equivalent of the Old Testament
+word _'ibhri_, denoting the people who commonly spoke of themselves as
+Israel or Children of Israel from the name of their common ancestor (see
+JEWS). The later derivative _Yisra'eli_, Israelite, from Yisra'el, is
+not found in the Old Testament.[1] Other names used for the language of
+Israel are _speech of Canaan_ (Isa. xix. 18) and _Yehudhith_, Jewish, (2
+Kings xviii. 26). In later times it was called the _holy tongue_. The
+real meaning of the word _'ibhri_ must ultimately be sought in the root
+_'abhar_, to pass across, to go beyond, from which is derived the noun
+_'ebher_, meaning the "farther bank" of a river. The usual explanation
+of the term is that of Jewish tradition that _'ibhri_ means the man
+"from the other side," i.e. either of the Euphrates or the Jordan. Hence
+the Septuagint in Gen. xiv. 13 render Abram _ha-'ibhri_ by [Greek: ho
+peratês], the "crosser," and Aquila, following the same tradition, has
+[Greek: ho peraitês], the man "from beyond." This view of course implies
+that the term was originally applied to Abram or his descendants by a
+people living on the west of the Euphrates or of the Jordan. It has been
+suggested that the root _'abhar_ is to be taken in the sense of
+"travelling," and that Abram the wandering Aramaean (Deut. xxvi. 5) was
+called _ha-'ibhri_ because he travelled about for trading purposes, his
+language, _'ibhri_, being the _lingua franca_ of Eastern trade. The use
+of the term [Greek: hebraisti] for biblical Hebrew is first found in the
+Greek prologue to Ecclesiasticus (c. 130 B.C.). In the New Testament it
+denotes the native language of Palestine (Aramaic and Hebrew being
+popularly confused) as opposed to Greek. In modern usage the name Hebrew
+is applied to that branch of the northern part of the Semitic family of
+languages which was used by the Israelites during most of the time of
+their national existence in Palestine, and in which nearly all their
+sacred writings are composed. As to its characteristics and relation to
+other languages of the same stock, see SEMITIC LANGUAGES. It also
+includes the later forms of the same language as used by Jewish writers
+after the close of the Canon throughout the middle ages (Rabbinical
+Hebrew) and to the present day (New Hebrew).
+
+Before the rise of comparative philology it was a popular opinion that
+Hebrew was the original speech of mankind, from which all others were
+descended. This belief, derived from the Jews (cf. Pal. Targ. Gen. xi.
+1), was supported by the etymologies and other data supplied by the
+early chapters of Genesis. But though Hebrew possesses a very old
+literature, it is not, as we know it, structurally as early as, e.g.
+Arabic, or, in other words, it does not come so near to that primitive
+Semitic speech which may be pre-supposed as the common parent of all the
+Semitic languages. Owing to the imperfection of the Hebrew alphabet,
+which, like that of most Semitic languages, has no means of expressing
+vowel-sounds, it is only partly possible to trace the development of the
+language. In its earliest form it was no doubt most closely allied to
+the Canaanite or Phoenician stock, to the language of Moab, as revealed
+by the stele of Mesha (c. 850 B.C.), and to Edomite. The vocalization of
+Canaanite, as far as it is known to us, e.g. from glosses in the
+Tell-el-Amarna tablets (15th century B.C.)[2] and much later from the
+Punic passages in the _Poenulus_ of Plautus, differs in many respects
+from that of the Hebrew of the Old Testament, as also does the
+Septuagint transcription of proper names. The uniformity, however, of
+the Old Testament text is due to the labours of successive schools of
+grammarians who elaborated the Massorah (see HEBREW LITERATURE), thereby
+obliterating local or dialectic differences, which undoubtedly existed,
+and establishing the pronunciation current in the synagogues about the
+7th century A.D. The only mention of such differences in the Old
+Testament is in Judges xii. 6, where it is stated that the Ephraimites
+pronounced [Hebrew: sh] (sh) as [Hebrew: s] or [Hebrew: s] (s). In Neh.
+xiii. 24, the "speech of Ashdod" is more probably a distinct
+(Philistine) language. Certain peculiarities in the language of the
+Pentateuch ([Hebrew: hu] for [Hebrew: hi], [Hebrew: naar] for [Hebrew:
+naara]), which used to be regarded as archaisms, are to be explained as
+purely orthographical.[3] In a series of writings, however, extending
+over so long a period as those of the Old Testament, some variation or
+development in language is to be expected apart from the natural
+differences between the poetic (or prophetic) and prose styles. The
+consonantal text sometimes betrays these in spite of the Massorah. In
+general, the later books of the Old Testament show, roughly speaking, a
+greater simplicity and uniformity of style, as well as a tendency to
+Aramaisms. For some centuries after the Exile, the people of Palestine
+must have been bilingual, speaking Aramaic for ordinary purposes, but
+still at least understanding Hebrew. Not that they forgot their own
+tongue in the Captivity and learnt Aramaic in Babylon, as used to be
+supposed. In the western provinces of the Persian empire Aramaic was the
+official language, spoken not only in Palestine but in all the
+surrounding countries, even in Egypt and among Arab tribes such as the
+Nabateans. It is natural, therefore, that it should influence and
+finally supplant Hebrew in popular use, so that translations even of the
+Old Testament eventually appear in it (TARGUMS). Meanwhile Hebrew did
+not become a dead language--indeed it can hardly be said ever to have
+died, since it has continued in use till the present day for the
+purposes of ordinary life among educated Jews in all parts of the world.
+It gradually became a literary rather than a popular tongue, as appears
+from the style of the later books of the Old Testament (Chron., Dan.,
+Eccles.), and from the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus (c. 170 B.C.).
+During the 1st century B.C. and the 1st century A.D. we have no direct
+evidence of its characteristics. After that period there is a great
+development in the language of the Mishna. It was still living Hebrew,
+although mainly confined to the schools, with very clear differences
+from the biblical language. In the Old Testament the range of subjects
+was limited. In the Mishna it was very much extended. Matters relating
+to daily life had to be discussed, and words and phrases were adopted
+from what was no doubt the popular language of an earlier period. A
+great many foreign words were also introduced. The language being no
+longer familiar in the same sense as formerly, greater definiteness of
+expression became necessary in the written style. In order to avoid the
+uncertainty arising from the lack of vowels to distinguish forms
+consisting of the same consonants (for the vowel-points were not yet
+invented), the aramaising use of the reflexive conjugations (Hithpa'el,
+Nithpa'el) for the internal passives (Pu'al, Hoph'al) became common;
+particles were used to express the genitive and other relations, and in
+general there was an endeavour to avoid the obscurities of a purely
+consonantal writing. What is practically Mishnic Hebrew continued to be
+used in Midrash for some centuries. The language of both Talmuds, which,
+roughly speaking, were growing contemporaneously with Midrash, is a
+mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic (Eastern Aram. in the Babylonian, Western
+in the Jerusalem Talmud), as was also that of the earlier commentators.
+As the popular use of Aramaic was gradually restricted by the spread of
+Arabic as the vernacular (from the 7th century onwards), while the
+dispersion of the Jews became wider, biblical Hebrew again came to be
+the natural standard both of East and West. The cultivation of it is
+shown and was no doubt promoted by the many philological works
+(grammars, lexicons and masorah) which are extant from the 10th century
+onward. In Spain, under Moorish dominion, most of the important works of
+that period were composed in Arabic, and the influence of Arabic writers
+both on language and method may be seen in contemporaneous Hebrew
+compositions. No other vernacular (except, of course, Aramaic) ever had
+the same influence upon Hebrew, largely because no other bears so close
+a relation to it. At the present day in the East, and among learned Jews
+elsewhere, Hebrew is still cultivated conversationally, and it is widely
+used for literary purposes. Numerous works on all kinds of subjects are
+produced in various countries, periodicals flourish, and Hebrew is the
+vehicle of correspondence between Jews in all parts of the world.
+Naturally its quality varies with the ability and education of the
+writer. In the modern _pronunciation_ the principal differences are
+between the Ashkenazim (German and Polish Jews) and the Sephardim
+(Spanish and Portuguese Jews), and concern not only the vowels but also
+certain consonants, and in some cases probably go back to early times.
+As regards _writing_, it is most likely that the oldest Hebrew records
+were preserved in some form of cuneiform script. The alphabet (see
+WRITING) subsequently adopted is seen in its earliest form on the stele
+of Mesha, and has been retained, with modifications, by the Samaritans.
+According to Jewish tradition Ezra introduced the Assyrian character
+([Hebrew: ktav ashuri]), a much-debated statement which no doubt means
+that the Aramaic hand in use in Babylonia was adopted by the Jews about
+the 5th century B.C. Another form of the same hand, allowing for
+differences of material, is found in Egyptian Aramaic papyri of the 5th
+and 4th centuries B.C. From this were developed (a) the _square_
+character used in MSS. of the Bible or important texts, and in most
+printed books, (b) the _Rabbinic_ (or Rashi) character, used in
+commentaries and treatises of all kinds, both in MS. and in printed
+books, (c) the _Cursive_ character, used in letters and for informal
+purposes, not as a rule printed. In the present state of Hebrew
+palaeography it is not possible to determine accurately the date of a
+MS., but it is easy to recognize the country in which it was written.
+The most clearly marked distinctions are between Spanish, French,
+German, Italian, Maghrebi, Greek, Syrian (including Egyptian), Yemenite,
+Persian and Qaraite hands. It is in the Rabbinic and Cursive characters
+that the differences are most noticeable. The Hebrew alphabet is also
+used, generally with the addition of some diacritical marks, by Jews to
+write other languages, chiefly Arabic, Spanish, Persian, Greek, Tatar
+(by Qaraites) and in later times German.
+
+The philological study of Hebrew among the Jews is described below,
+under Hebrew Literature, of which it formed an integral part. Among
+Christian scholars there was no independent school of Hebraists before
+the revival of learning. In the Greek and Latin Church the few fathers
+who, like Origen and Jerome, knew something of the language, were wholly
+dependent on their Jewish teachers, and their chief value for us is as
+depositaries of Jewish tradition. Similarly in the East, the Syriac
+version of the Old Testament is largely under the influence of the
+synagogue, and the homilies of Aphraates are a mine of Rabbinic lore. In
+the middle ages some knowledge of Hebrew was preserved in the Church by
+converted Jews and even by non-Jewish scholars, of whom the most notable
+were the Dominican controversialist Raymundus Martini (in his _Pugio
+fidei_) and the Franciscan Nicolaus of Lyra, on whom Luther drew largely
+in his interpretation of Scripture. But there was no tradition of Hebrew
+study apart from the Jews, and in the 15th century when an interest in
+the subject was awakened, only the most ardent zeal could conquer the
+obstacles that lay in the way. Orthodox Jews refused to teach those who
+were not of their faith, and on the other hand many churchmen
+conscientiously believed in the duty of entirely suppressing Jewish
+learning. Even books were to be had only with the greatest difficulty,
+at least north of the Alps. In Italy things were somewhat better. Jews
+expelled from Spain received favour from the popes. Study was
+facilitated by the use of the printing-press, and some of the earliest
+books printed were in Hebrew. The father of Hebrew study among
+Christians was the humanist Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), the author of
+the _Rudimenta Hebraica_ (Pforzheim, 1506), whose contest with the
+converted Jew Pfefferkorn and the Cologne obscurantists, established the
+claim of the new study to recognition by the Church. Interest in the
+subject spread rapidly. Among Reuchlin's own pupils were Melanchthon,
+Oecolampadius and Cellarius, while Sebastian Münster in Heidelberg
+(afterwards professor at Basel), and Büchlein (Fagius) at Isny,
+Strasburg and Cambridge, were pupils of the liberal Jewish scholar Elias
+Levita. France drew teachers from Italy. Santes Pagninus of Lucca was at
+Lyons; and the trilingual college of Francis I. at Paris, with Vatablus
+and le Mercier, attracted, among other foreigners, Giustiniani, bishop
+of Nebbio, the editor of the Genoa psalter of 1516. In Rome the
+converted Jew Felix Pratensis taught under the patronage of Leo X., and
+did useful work in connexion with the great Bomberg Bibles. In Spain
+Hebrew learning was promoted by Cardinal Ximenes, the patron of the
+Complutensian Polyglot. The printers, as J. Froben at Basel and Etienne
+at Paris, also produced Hebrew books. For a time Christian scholars
+still leaned mainly on the Rabbis. But a more independent spirit soon
+arose, of which le Mercier in the 16th, and Drusius early in the 17th
+century, may be taken as representatives. In the 17th century too the
+cognate languages were studied by J. Selden, E. Castell (Heptaglott
+lexicon) and E. Pococke (Arabic) in England, Ludovicus de Dieu in
+Holland, S. Bochart in France, J. Ludolf (Ethiopic) and J. H. Hottinger
+(Syriac) in Germany, with advantage to the Hebrew grammar and lexicon.
+Rabbinic learning moreover was cultivated at Basel by the elder Buxtorf
+who was the author of grammatical works and a lexicon. With the rise of
+criticism Hebrew philology soon became a necessary department of
+theology. Cappellus (d. 1658) followed Levita in maintaining, against
+Buxtorf, the late introduction of the vowel-points, a controversy in
+which the authority of the massoretic text was concerned. He was
+supported by J. Morin and R. Simon in France. In the 18th century in
+Holland A. Schultens and N. W. Schroeder used the comparative method,
+with great success, relying mainly on Arabic. In Germany there was the
+meritorious J. D. Michaelis and in France the brilliant S. de Sacy. In
+the 19th century the greatest name among Hebraists is that of Gesenius,
+at Halle, whose shorter grammar (of Biblical Hebrew) first published in
+1813, is still the standard work, thanks to the ability with which his
+pupil E. Rödiger and recently E. Kautzsch have revised and enlarged it.
+Important work was also done by G. H. A. Ewald, J. Olshausen and P. A.
+de Lagarde, not to mention later scholars who have utilized the valuable
+results of Assyriological research.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the numerous works dealing with the study of
+  Hebrew, the following are some of the most practically useful.
+
+  Grammars, Introductory.--Davidson, _Introductory Hebrew Grammar_ (9th
+  ed., Edinburgh, 1888); and _Syntax_ (Edinburgh, 1894). Advanced:
+  Gesenius's _Hebräische Grammatik_, ed. Kautzsch (28th ed., Leipzig,
+  1909; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1910); also Driver, _Treatise on the Use of
+  the Tenses in Hebrew_ (3rd ed., Oxford, 1892). For post-biblical
+  Hebrew, Strack and Siegfried, _Lehrbuch d. neuhebräischen Sprache_
+  (Leipzig, 1884).
+
+  Comparative Grammar.--Wright, _Lectures on the Comp. Grammar of the
+  Sem. Lang._ (Cambridge, 1890); Brockelmann, _Grundriss der
+  vergleichenden Grammatik_ (Berlin, 1907, &c.).
+
+  Lexicons.--Gesenius's _Thesaurus philologicus_ (Leipzig, 1829-1858),
+  and his _Hebräisches Handwörterbuch_ (15th ed. by Zimmern and Buhl,
+  Leipzig, 1910); Brown, Briggs and Driver, _Hebrew and Eng. Lexicon_
+  (Oxford, 1892-1906). For later Hebrew: Levy, _Neuhebräisches
+  Wörterbuch_ (Leipzig, 1876-1889); Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumi,
+  &c. (New York, 1886, &c.); Dalman, _Aramaisches neuhebräisches
+  Wörterbuch_ (Frankfort a. M., 1897); Kohut, _Aruch completum_ (Vienna,
+  1878-1890) (in Hebrew) is valuable for the language of the Talmud.
+       (A. Cy.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In 2 Sam. xvii. 25 _Israelite_ should be _Ishmaelite_, as in the
+    parallel passage 1 Chron. ii. 17.
+
+  [2] See Zimmern, in _Ztsch. für Assyriol._ (1891), p. 154.
+
+  [3] See Gesenius-Kautzsch, _Hebr. Gram._ § 17 c.
+
+
+
+
+HEBREW LITERATURE. Properly speaking, "Hebrew Literature" denotes all
+works written in the Hebrew language. In catalogues and bibliographies,
+however, the expression is now generally used, conveniently if
+incorrectly, as synonymous with Jewish literature, including all works
+written by Jews in Hebrew characters, whether the language be Aramaic,
+Arabic or even some vernacular not related to Hebrew.
+
+
+  Old Testament-Scriptures.
+
+The literature begins with, as it is almost entirely based upon, the Old
+Testament. There were no doubt in the earliest times popular songs
+orally transmitted and perhaps books of annals and laws, but except in
+so far as remnants of them are embedded in the biblical books, they have
+entirely disappeared. Thus the Book of the Wars of the Lord is mentioned
+in Num. xxi. 14; the Book of Jashar in Josh. x. 13, 2. Sam. i. 18; the
+Song of the Well is quoted in Num. xxi. 17, 18, and the song of Sihon
+and Moab, ib. 27-30; of Lamech, Gen. iv. 23, 24; of Moses, Exod. xv. As
+in other literatures, these popular elements form the foundation on
+which greater works are gradually built, and it is one function of
+literary criticism to show the way in which the component parts were
+welded into a uniform whole. The traditional view that Moses was the
+author of the Pentateuch in its present form, would make this the
+earliest monument of Hebrew literature. Modern inquiry, however, has
+arrived at other conclusions (see BIBLE, _Old Testament_), which may be
+briefly summarized as follows: the Pentateuch is compiled from various
+documents, the earliest of which is denoted by J (beginning at Gen. ii.
+4) from the fact that its author regularly uses the divine name Jehovah
+(Yahweh). Its date is now usually given as about 800 B.C.[1] In the next
+century the document E was composed, so called from its using Elohim
+(God) instead of Yahweh. Both these documents are considered to have
+originated in the Northern kingdom, Israel, where also in the 8th
+century appeared the prophets Amos and Hosea. To the same period belong
+the book of Micah, the earlier parts of the books of Samuel, of Isaiah
+and of Proverbs, and perhaps some Psalms. In 722 B.C. Samaria was taken
+and the Northern kingdom ceased to exist. Judah suffered also, and it is
+not until a century later that any important literary activity is again
+manifested. The main part of the book of Deuteronomy was "found" shortly
+before 621 B.C. and about the same time appeared the prophets Jeremiah
+and Zephaniah, and perhaps the book of Ruth. A few years later (about
+600) the two Pentateuchal documents J and E were woven together, the
+books of Kings were compiled, the book of Habakkuk and parts of the
+Proverbs were written. Early in the next century Jerusalem was taken by
+Nebuchadrezzar, and the prophet Ezekiel was among the exiles with
+Jehoiachin. Somewhat later (c. 550) the combined document JE was edited
+by a writer under the influence of Deuteronomy, the later parts of the
+books of Samuel were written, parts of Isaiah, the books of Obadiah,
+Haggai, Zechariah and perhaps the later Proverbs. In the exile, but
+probably after 500 B.C., an important section of the Hexateuch, usually
+called the Priest's Code (P), was drawn up. At various times in the same
+century are to be placed the book of Job, the post-exilic parts of
+Isaiah, the books of Joel, Jonah, Malachi and the Song of Songs. The
+Pentateuch (or Hexateuch) was finally completed in its present form at
+some time before 400 B.C. The latest parts of the Old Testament are the
+books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah (c. 330 B.C.), Ecclesiastes and
+Esther (3rd century) and Daniel, composed either in the 3rd century or
+according to some views as late as the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (c.
+168 B.C.). With regard to the date of the Psalms, internal evidence,
+from the nature of the case, leads to few results which are convincing.
+The most reasonable view seems to be that the collection was formed
+gradually and that the process was going on during most of the period
+sketched above.
+
+
+  Apocryphal literature.
+
+  Targum.
+
+It is not to be supposed that all the contents of the Old Testament were
+immediately accepted as sacred, or that they were ever all regarded as
+being on the same level. The Torah, the Law delivered to Moses, held
+among the Jews of the 4th century B.C. as it holds now, a pre-eminent
+position. The inclusion of other books in the Canon was gradual, and was
+effected only after centuries of debate. The Jews have always been,
+however, an intensely literary people, and the books ultimately accepted
+as canonical were only a selection from the literature in existence at
+the beginning of the Christian era. The rejected books receiving little
+attention have mostly either been altogether lost or have survived only
+in translations, as in the case of the Apocrypha. Hence from the
+composition of the latest canonical books to the redaction of the Mishna
+(see below) in the 2nd century A.D., the remains of Hebrew literature
+are very scanty. Of books of this period which are known to have existed
+in Hebrew or Aramaic up to the time of Jerome (and even later) we now
+possess most of the original Hebrew text of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus) in
+a somewhat corrupt form, and fragments of an Aramaic text of a recension
+of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, both discovered within
+recent years. Besides definite works of this kind, there was also being
+formed during this period a large body of exegetical and legal material,
+for the most part orally transmitted, which only received its literary
+form much later. As Hebrew became less familiar to the people, a system
+of translating the text of the Law into the Aramaic vernacular verse by
+verse, was adopted in the synagogue. The beginnings of it are supposed
+to be indicated in Neh. viii. 8. The translation was no doubt originally
+extemporary, and varied with the individual translators, but its form
+gradually became fixed and was ultimately written down. It was called
+_Targum_, from the Aramaic _targem_, to translate. The earliest to be
+thus edited was the Targum of Onkelos (Onqelos), the proselyte, on the
+Law. It received its final form in Babylonia probably in the 3rd century
+A.D. The Samaritan Targum, of about the same date, clearly rests on the
+same tradition. Parallel to Onkelos was another Targum on the Law,
+generally called pseudo-Jonathan, which was edited in the 7th century in
+Palestine, and is based on the same system of interpretation but is
+fuller and closer to the original tradition. There is also a fragmentary
+Targum (Palestinian) the relation of which to the others is obscure. It
+may be only a series of disconnected glosses on Onkelos. For the other
+books, the recognized Targum on the Prophets is that ascribed to
+Jonathan ben Uzziel (4th century?), which originated in Palestine, but
+was edited in Babylonia, so that it has the same history and linguistic
+character as Onkelos. Just as there is a Palestinian Targum on the Law
+parallel to the Babylonian Onkelos, so there is a Palestinian Targum
+(called _Yerushalmi_) on the Prophets parallel to that of Ben Uzziel,
+but of later date and incomplete. The Law and the Prophets being alone
+used in the services of the synagogue, there was no authorized version
+of the rest of the Canon. There are, however, Targumim on the Psalms and
+Job, composed in the 5th century, on Proverbs, resembling the Peshitta
+version, on the five Meghilloth, paraphrastic and agadic (see below) in
+character, and on Chronicles--all Palestinian. There is also a second
+Targum on Esther. There is none on Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah.
+
+
+  Halakhah.
+
+We must now return to the 2nd century. During the period which followed
+the later canonical books, not only was translation, and therefore
+exegesis, cultivated, but even more the amplification of the Law.
+According to Jewish teaching (e.g. Abhoth i. 1) Moses received on Mount
+Sinai not only the written Law as set down in the Pentateuch, but also
+the Oral Law, which he communicated personally to the 70 elders and
+through them by a "chain of tradition" to succeeding ages. The
+application of this oral law is called _Halakhah_, the rules by which a
+man's daily "walk" is regulated. The halakhah was by no means inferior
+in prestige to the written Law. Indeed some teachers even went so far as
+to ascribe a higher value to it, since it comes into closer relation
+with the details of everyday life. It was not independent of the written
+Law, still less could it be in opposition to it. Rather it was
+implicitly contained in the Torah, and the duty of the teacher was to
+show this. It was therefore of the first importance that the chain of
+tradition should be continuous and trustworthy. The line is traced
+through biblical teachers to Ezra, the first of the Sopherim or scribes,
+who handed on the charge to the "men of the Great Synagogue," a
+much-discussed term for a body or succession of teachers inaugurated by
+Ezra. The last member of it, Simon the Just (either Simon I., who died
+about 300 B.C., or Simon II., who died about 200 B.C.), was the first of
+the next series, called Elders, represented in the tradition by _pairs_
+of teachers, ending with Hillel and Shammai about the beginning of the
+Christian era. Their pupils form the starting-point of the next series,
+the Tannaim (from Aram. _tena_ to teach), who occupy the first two
+centuries A.D.
+
+
+  Mishnah.
+
+By this time the collection of halakhic material had become very large
+and various, and after several attempts had been made to reduce it to
+uniformity, a code of oral tradition was finally drawn up in the 2nd
+century by Judah ha-Nasi, called Rabbi _par excellence_. This was the
+Mishnah. Its name is derived from the Hebrew _shanah_, corresponding to
+the Aramaic _tena_, and therefore a suitable name for a tannaitic work,
+meaning the _repetition_ or _teaching_ of the oral law. It is written in
+the Hebrew of the schools (_leshon hakhamim_) which differs in many
+respects from that of the Old Testament (see HEBREW LANGUAGE). It is
+divided into six "orders," according to subject, and each order is
+subdivided into chapters. In making his selection of halakhoth, Rabbi
+used the earlier compilations, which are quoted as "words of Rabbi
+'Aqiba" or of R. Me'ir, but rejected much which was afterwards collected
+under the title of Tosefta (_addition_) and Baraita (_outside_ the
+Mishnah).
+
+
+  Midrash.
+
+Traditional teaching was, however, not confined to halakhah. As observed
+above, it was the duty of the teachers to show the connexion of
+practical rules with the written Law, the more so since the Sadducees
+rejected the authority of the oral law as such. Hence arises Midrash,
+_exposition_, from _darash_ to "investigate" a scriptural passage. Of
+this halakhic Midrash we possess that on Exodus, called Mekhilta, that
+on Leviticus, called Sifra, and that on Numbers and Deuteronomy, called
+Sifre. All of these were drawn up in the period of the Amoraim, the
+order of teachers who succeeded the Tannaim, from the close of the
+Mishnah to about A.D. 500. The term Midrash, however, more commonly
+implies _agada_, i.e. the homiletical exposition of the text, with
+illustrations designed to make it more attractive to the readers or
+hearers. Picturesque teaching of this kind was always popular, and
+specimens of it are familiar in the Gospel discourses. It began, as a
+method, with the Sopherim (though there are traces in the Old Testament
+itself), and was most developed among the Tannaim and Amoraim, rivalling
+even the study of halakhah. As the existing halakhoth were collected and
+edited in the Mishnah, so the much larger agadic material was gathered
+together and arranged in the Midrashim. Apart from the agadic parts of
+the earlier Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre, the most important of these
+collections (which are anonymous) form a sort of continuous commentary
+on various books of the Bible. They were called _Rabboth_ (_great_
+Midrashim) to distinguish them from preceding smaller collections.
+_Bereshith Rabba_, on Genesis, and _Ekhah Rabbati_, on Lamentations,
+were probably edited in the 7th century. Of the same character and of
+about the same date are the _Pesiqta_, on the lessons for Sabbaths and
+feast-days, and _Wayyiqra R._ on Leviticus. A century perhaps later is
+the _Tanhuma_, on the sections of the Pentateuch, and later still the
+_Pesiqta Rabbati_, _Shemoth R._ (on Exodus), _Bemidhbar R._ (on
+Numbers), _Debharim R._ (on Deuteronomy). There are also Midrashim on
+the Canticle, Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and the Psalms, belonging to
+this later period, the _Pirqe R. Eliezer_, of the 8th or 9th century, a
+sort of history of creation and of the patriarchs, and the _Tanna debe
+Eliyahu_ (an ethical work of the 10th century but containing much that
+is old), besides a large number of minor compositions.[2] In general,
+these performed very much the same function as the lives of saints in
+the early and medieval church. Very important for the study of Midrashic
+literature are the _Yalqut (gleaning) Shim'oni_, on the whole Bible, the
+_Yalqut Mekhiri_, on the Prophets, Psalms, Proverbs and Job, and the
+_Midrash ha-gadhol_,[3] all of which are of uncertain but late date and
+preserve earlier material. The last, which is preserved in MSS. from
+Yemen, is especially valuable as representing an independent tradition.
+
+
+  Talmud.
+
+Meanwhile, if agadic exegesis was popular in the centuries following the
+redaction of the Mishna, the study of halakhah was by no means
+neglected. As the discussion of the Law led up to the compilation of the
+Mishnah, so the Mishnah itself became in turn the subject of further
+discussion. The material thus accumulated, both halakhic and agadic,
+forming a commentary on and amplification of the Mishnah, was eventually
+written down under the name of _Gemara_ (from _gemar_, to learn
+completely), the two together forming the _Talmud_ (properly
+"_instruction_"). The tradition, as in the case of the Targums, was
+again twofold; that which had grown up in the Palestinian Schools and
+that of Babylonia. The foundation, however, the Mishnah, was the same in
+both. Both works were due to the Amoraim and were completed by about
+A.D. 500, though the date at which they were actually committed to
+writing is very uncertain. It is probable that notes or selections were
+from time to time written down to help in teaching and learning the
+immense mass of material, in spite of the fact that even in Sherira's
+time (11th century) such aids to memory were not officially recognized.
+Both Talmuds are arranged according to the six orders of the Mishnah,
+but the discussion of the Mishnic text often wanders off into widely
+different topics. Neither is altogether complete. In the Palestinian
+Talmud (_Yerushalmi_) the gemara of the 5th order (_Qodashim_) and of
+nearly all the 6th (_Tohoroth_) is missing, besides smaller parts. In
+the Babylonian Talmud (_Babhli_) there is no gemara to the smaller
+tractates of Order 1, and to parts of ii., iv., v., vi. The language of
+both gemaras is in the main the Aramaic vernacular (western Aramaic in
+Yerushalmi, eastern in Babhli), but early halakhic traditions (e.g. of
+Tannaitic origin) are given in their original form, and the discussion
+of them is usually also in Hebrew. Babhli is not only greater in bulk
+than Yerushalmi, but has also received far greater attention, so that
+the name Talmud alone is often used for it. As being a constant object
+of study numerous commentaries have been written on the Talmud from the
+earliest times till the present. The most important of them for the
+understanding of the gemara (Babhli) is that of Rashi[4] (Solomon ben
+Isaac, d. 1104) with the Tosafoth (_additions_, not to be confused with
+the Tosefta) chiefly by the French school of rabbis following Rashi.
+These are always printed in the editions on the same page as the Mishnah
+and Gemara, the whole, with various other matter, filling generally
+about 12 folio volumes. Since the introduction of printing, the Talmud
+is always cited by the number of the leaf in the first edition (Venice,
+1520, &c.), to which all subsequent editions conform. In order to
+facilitate the practical study of the Talmud, it was natural that
+abridgements of it should be made. Two of these may be mentioned which
+are usually found in the larger editions: that by Isaac Alfasi (i.e. of
+Fez) in the 11th century, often cited in the Jewish manner as _Rif_; and
+that by Asher ben Yehiel (d. 1328) of Toledo, usually cited as _Rabbenu
+Asher_. The object of both was to collect all halakhoth having a
+practical importance, omitting all those which owing to circumstances no
+longer possess more than an academic interest, and excluding the
+discussions on them and all agada. Both add notes and explanations of
+their own, and both have in turn formed the text of commentaries.
+
+
+  Masorah.
+
+With the Talmud, the anonymous period of Hebrew literature may be
+considered to end. Henceforward important works are produced not by
+schools but by particular teachers, who, however, no doubt often
+represent the opinions of a school. There are two branches of work which
+partake of both characters, the Masorah and the Liturgy. The name
+Masorah (Massorah) is usually derived from _masar_, to hand on, and
+explained as "tradition." According to others[5] it is the word found in
+Ezek. xx. 37, meaning a "fetter." Its object was to fix the biblical
+text unalterably. It is generally divided into the Great and the Small
+Masorah, forming together an _apparatus criticus_ which grew up
+gradually in the course of centuries and now accompanies the text in
+most MSS. and printed editions to a greater or less extent. There are
+also separate masoretic treatises. Some system of the kind was necessary
+to guard against corruptions of copyists, while the care bestowed upon
+it no doubt reacted so as to enhance the sanctity ascribed to the text.
+Many apparent puerilities, such as the counting of letters and the
+marking of the middle point of books, had a practical use in enabling
+copyists of MSS. to determine the amount of work done. The registration
+of anomalies, such as the suspended letters, inverted _nuns_ and larger
+letters, enabled any one to test the accuracy of a copy. But the work of
+the Masoretes was much greater than this. Their long lists of the
+occurrences of words and forms fixed with accuracy the present
+(Masoretic) text, which they had produced, and were invaluable to
+subsequent lexicographers, while their system of vowel-points and
+accents not only gives us the pronunciation and manner of reading
+traditional about the 7th century A.D., but frequently serves also the
+purpose of an explanatory commentary. (See further under BIBLE.) Most of
+the Masorah is anonymous, including the _Massekheth Soferim_ (of various
+dates from perhaps the 6th to the 9th century) and the _Okhlah
+we-Okhlah_, but when the period of anonymous literature ceases, there
+appear (in the 10th century) Ben Asher of Tiberias, the greatest
+authority on the subject, and his opponent Ben Naphthali. Later on,
+Jacob ben Hayyim arranged the Masorah for the great Bomberg Bible of
+1524. Elias Levita's _Massoreth ha-Massoreth_ (1538) and Buxtorf's
+_Tiberias_ (1620) are also important.
+
+
+  Liturgy.
+
+We must now turn back to a most difficult subject--the growth of the
+Liturgy. We are not concerned here with indications of the ritual used
+in the Temple. Of the prayer-book as it is at present, the earliest
+parts are the Shema' (Deut. vi. 4, &c.) and the anonymous blessings
+commonly called Shemoneh 'Esreh (the Eighteen), together with certain
+Psalms. (Readings from the Law and the Prophets [Haphtarah] also formed
+part of the service.) To this framework were fitted, from time to time,
+various prayers, and, for festivals especially, numerous hymns. The
+earliest existing codification of the prayer-book is the _Siddur_
+(_order_) drawn up by Amram Gaon of Sura about 850. Half a century later
+the famous Gaon Seadiah, also of Sura, issued his _Siddur_, in which the
+rubrical matter is in Arabic. Besides the _Siddur_, or order for
+Sabbaths and general use, there is the _Mahzor_ (_cycle_) for festivals
+and fasts. In both there are ritual differences according to the
+Sephardic (Spanish), Ashkenazic (German-Polish), Roman (Greek and South
+Italian) and some minor uses, in the later additions to the Liturgy. The
+Mahzor of each rite is also distinguished by hymns (_piyyutim_) composed
+by authors (_payyetanim_) of the district. The most important writers
+are Yoseh ben Yoseh, probably in the 6th century, chiefly known for his
+compositions for the day of Atonement, Eleazar Qalir, the founder of the
+payyetanic style, perhaps in the 7th century, Seadiah, and the Spanish
+school consisting of Joseph ibn Abitur (died in 970), Ibn Gabirol, Isaac
+Gayyath, Moses ben Ezra, Abraham ben Ezra and Judah ha-levi, who will be
+mentioned below; later, Moses ben Nahman and Isaac Luria the
+Kabbalist.[6]
+
+
+  The Geonim.
+
+The order of the Amoraim, which ended with the close of the Talmud (A.D.
+500), was succeeded by that of the Saboraim, who merely continued and
+explained the work of their predecessors, and these again were followed
+by the Geonim, the heads of the schools of Sura and Pumbeditha in
+Babylonia. The office of Gaon lasted for something over 400 years,
+beginning about A.D. 600, and varied in importance according to the
+ability of the holders of it. Individual Geonim produced valuable works
+(of which later), but what is perhaps most important from the point of
+view of the development of Judaism is the literature of their Responsa
+or answers to questions, chiefly on halakhic matters, addressed to them
+from various countries. Some of these were actual decisions of
+particular Geonim; others were an official summary of the discussion of
+the subject by the members of the School. They begin with Mar Rab
+Sheshna (7th century) and continue to Hai Gaon, who died in 1038, and
+are full of historical and literary interest.[7] The She'iltoth
+(_questions_) of Rab Ahai (8th century) also belong probably to the
+school of Pumbeditha, though their author was not Gaon. Besides the
+Responsa, but closely related to them, we have the lesser Halakhoth of
+Yehudai Gaon of Sura (8th century) and the great Halakhoth of Simeon
+Qayyara of Sura (not Gaon) in the 9th century. In a different department
+there is the first Talmud lexicon (_'Arukh_) now lost, by Zemah ben
+Paltoi, Gaon of Pumbeditha in the 9th century. The _Siddur_ of Amram ben
+Sheshna has been already mentioned. All these writers, however, are
+entirely eclipsed by the commanding personality of the most famous of
+the Geonim, SEADIAH ben Joseph (q.v.) of Sura, often called al-Fayyumi
+(of the Fayum in Egypt), one of the greatest representatives of Jewish
+learning of all times, who died in 942. The last three holders of the
+office were also distinguished. Sherira of Pumbeditha (d. 998) was the
+author of the famous "Letter" (in the form of a Responsum to a question
+addressed to him by residents in Kairawan), an historical document of
+the highest value and the foundation of our knowledge of the history of
+tradition. His son Hai, last Gaon of Pumbeditha (d. 1038), a man of wide
+learning, wrote (partly in Arabic) not only numerous Responsa, but also
+treatises on law, commentaries on the Mishnah and the Bible, a lexicon
+called in Arabic _al-Hawi_, and poems such as the _Musar Haskel_, but
+most of them are now lost or known only from translations or quotations.
+Though his teaching was largely directed against superstition, he seems
+to have been inclined to mysticism, and perhaps for this reason various
+kabbalistic works were ascribed to him in later times. His father-in-law
+Samuel ben Hophni, last Gaon of Sura (d. 1034), was a voluminous writer
+on law, translated the Pentateuch into Arabic, commented on much of the
+Bible, and composed an Arabic introduction to the Talmud, of which the
+existing Hebrew introduction (by Samuel the Nagid) is perhaps a
+translation. Most of his works are now lost.
+
+
+  The Karaites.
+
+In the Geonic period there came into prominence the sect of the Karaites
+(_Bene miqra_), "followers of the Scripture", the protestants of
+Judaism, who rejected rabbinical authority, basing their doctrine and
+practice exclusively on the Bible. The sect was founded by 'Anan in the
+8th century, and, after many vicissitudes, still exists. Their
+literature, with which alone we are here concerned, is largely polemical
+and to a great extent deals with grammar and exegesis. Of their first
+important authors, Benjamin al-Nehawendi and Daniel al-Qumisi (both in
+the 9th century), little is preserved. In the 10th century Jacob
+al-Qirqisani wrote his _Kitab al-anwar_, on law, Solomon ben Yeruham
+(against Seadiah) and Yefet ben 'Ali wrote exegetical works; in the 11th
+century Abu'l-faraj Furqan, exegesis, and Yusuf al-Basir against Samuel
+ben Hophni. Most of these wrote in Arabic. In the 12th century and in S.
+Europe, Judah Hadassi composed his _Eshkol ha-Kopher_, a great
+theological compendium in the form of a commentary on the Decalogue.
+Other writers are Aaron (the elder) ben Joseph, 13th century, who wrote
+the commentary _Sepher ha-mibhhar_; Aaron (the younger) of Nicomedia
+(14th century), author of _'Ez Hayyim_, on philosophy, _Gan 'Eden_, on
+law, and the commentary _Kether Torah_; in the 15th century Elijah
+Bashyazi, on law (_Addereth Eliyahu_), and Caleb Efendipoulo, poet and
+theologian; in the 16th century Moses Bashyazi, theologian. From the
+12th century onward the sect gradually declined, being ultimately
+restricted mainly to the Crimea and Lithuania, learning disappeared and
+their literature became merely popular and of little interest. Much of
+it in later times was written in a curious Tatar dialect. Mention need
+only be made further of Isaac of Troki, whose anti-Christian polemic
+_Hizzuq Emunah_ (1593) was translated into English by Moses Mocatta
+under the title of _Faith Strengthened_ (1851); Solomon of Troki, whose
+_Appiryon_, an account of Karaism, was written at the request of
+Pufendorf (about 1700); and Abraham Firkovich, who, in spite of his
+impostures, did much for the literature of his people about the middle
+of the 19th century. (See also QARAITES.)
+
+
+  Medieval scholarship.
+
+To return to the period of the Geonim. While the schools of Babylonia
+were flourishing as the religious head of Judaism, the West, and
+especially Spain under Moorish rule, was becoming the home of Jewish
+scholarship. On the breaking up of the schools many of the fugitives
+fled to the West and helped to promote rabbinical learning there. The
+communities of Fez, Kairawan and N. Africa were in close relation with
+those of Spain, and as early as the beginning of the 9th century Judah
+ben Quraish of Tahort had composed his _Risalah_ (_letter_) to the Jews
+of Fez on grammatical subjects from a comparative point of view, and a
+dictionary now lost. His work was used in the 10th century by Menahem
+ben Saruq, of Cordova, in his _Mahbereth_ (dictionary). Menahem's system
+of bi-literal and uni-literal roots was violently attacked by Dunash ibn
+Labrat, and as violently defended by the author's pupils. Among these
+was Judah Hayyuj of Cordova, the father of modern Hebrew grammar, who
+first established the principle of tri-literal roots. His treatises on
+the verbs, written in Arabic, were translated into Hebrew by Moses
+Giqatilla (11th century), himself a considerable grammarian and
+commentator, and by Ibn Ezra. His system was adopted by Abu'l-walid ibn
+Jannah, of Saragossa (died early in the 11th century), in his lexicon
+(_Kitab al-usul_, in Arabic) and other works. In Italy appeared the
+invaluable Talmud-lexicon (_'Arukh_) by Nathan b. Yehiel, of Rome (d.
+1106), who was indirectly indebted to Babylonian teaching. He does not
+strictly follow the system of Hayyuj. Other works of a different kind
+also originated in Italy about this time: the very popular history of
+the Jews, called _Josippon_ (probably of the 10th or even 9th century),
+ascribed to Joseph ben Gorion (Gorionides)[8]; the medical treatises of
+Shabbethai Donnolo (10th century) and his commentary on the _Sepher
+Yezirah_, the anonymous and earliest Hebrew kabbalistic work ascribed to
+the patriarch Abraham. In North Africa, probably in the 9th century,
+appeared the book known under the name of _Eldad ha-Dani_, giving an
+account of the ten tribes, from which much medieval legend was
+derived;[9] and in Kairawan the medical and philosophical treatises of
+Isaac Israeli, who died in 932.
+
+
+  Exegesis.
+
+The aim of the grammatical studies of the Spanish school was ultimately
+exegesis. This had already been cultivated in the East. In the 9th
+century Hivi of Balkh wrote a rationalistic treatise[10] on difficulties
+in the Bible, which was refuted by Seadiah. The commentaries of the
+Geonim have been mentioned above. The impulse to similar work in the
+West came also from Babylonia. In the 10th century Hushiel, one of four
+prisoners, perhaps from Babylonia, though that is doubtful, was ransomed
+and settled at Kairawan, where he acquired great reputation as a
+Talmudist. His son Hananeel (d. 1050) wrote a commentary on (probably
+all) the Talmud, and one now lost on the Pentateuch. Hananeel's
+contemporary Nissim ben Jacob, of Kairawan, who corresponded with Hai
+Gaon of Pumbeditha as well as with Samuel the Nagid in Spain, likewise
+wrote on the Talmud, and is probably the author of a collection of
+_Ma'asiyyoth_ or edifying stories, besides works now lost. The activity
+in North Africa reacted on Spain. There the most prominent figure was
+that of Samuel ibn Nagdela (or Nagrela), generally known as Samuel the
+Nagid or head of the Jewish settlement, who died in 1055. As vizier to
+the Moorish king at Granada, he was not only a patron of learning, but
+himself a man of wide knowledge and a considerable author. Some of his
+poems are extant, and an Introduction to the Talmud mentioned above. In
+grammar he followed Hayyuj, whose pupil he was. Among others he was the
+patron of Solomon ibn Gabirol (q.v.), the poet and philosopher. To this
+period belong Hafz al-Quti (the Goth?) who made a version of the Psalms
+in Arabic rhyme, and Bahya (more correctly Behai) ibn Paquda, dayyan at
+Saragossa, whose Arabic ethical treatise has always had great popularity
+among the Jews in its Hebrew translation, _Hobhoth ha-lebhabhoth_. He
+also composed liturgical poems. At the end of the 11th century Judah ibn
+Bal'am wrote grammatical works and commentaries (on the Pentateuch,
+Isaiah, &c.) in Arabic; the liturgist Isaac Gayyath (d. in 1089 at
+Cordova) wrote on ritual. Moses Giqatilla has been already mentioned.
+
+
+  Rashi.
+
+The French school of the 11th century was hardly less important. Gershom
+ben Judah, the "Light of the Exile" (d. in 1040 at Mainz), a famous
+Talmudist and commentator, his pupil Jacob ben Yaqar, and Moses of
+Narbonne, called ha-Darshan, the "Exegete," were the forerunners of the
+greatest of all Jewish commentators, Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi), who died
+at Troyes in 1105. Rashi was a pupil of Jacob ben Yaqar, and studied at
+Worms and Mainz. Unlike his contemporaries in Spain, he seems to have
+confined himself wholly to Jewish learning, and to have known nothing of
+Arabic or other languages except his native French. Yet no commentator
+is more valuable or indeed more voluminous, and for the study of the
+Talmud he is even now indispensable. He commented on all the Bible and
+on nearly all the Talmud, has been himself the text of several
+super-commentaries, and has exercised great influence on Christian
+exegesis. The biblical commentary was translated into Latin by
+Breithaupt (Gotha, 1710-1714), that on the Pentateuch rather freely into
+German by L. Dukes (Prag, 1838, in Hebrew-German characters, with the
+text), and parts by others. Closely connected with Rashi, or of his
+school, are Joseph Qara, of Troyes (d. about 1130), the commentator, and
+his teacher Menahem ben Helbo, Jacob ben Me'ir, called Rabbenu Tam (d.
+1171), the most important of the Tosaphists (_v. sup._), and later in
+the 12th century the liberal and rationalizing Joseph Bekhor Shor, and
+Samuel ben Me'ir (d. about 1174) of Ramerupt, commentator and Talmudist.
+
+In the 12th and 13th centuries literature maintained a high level in
+Spain. Abraham bar Hiyya, known to Christian scholars as Abraham Judaeus
+(d. about 1136), was a mathematician, astronomer and philosopher much
+studied in the middle ages. Moses ben Ezra, of Granada (d. about 1140),
+wrote in Arabic a philosophical work based on Greek and Arabic as well
+as Jewish authorities, known by the name of the Hebrew translation as
+_'Arugath ha-bosem_, and the _Kitab al-Mahadarah_, of great value for
+literary history. He is even better known as a poet, for his _Diwan_ and
+the _'Anaq_, and as a hymn-writer. His relative Abraham ben Ezra,
+generally called simply Ibn Ezra,[11] was still more distinguished. He
+was born at Toledo, spent most of his life in travel, wandering even to
+England and to the East, and died in 1167. Yet he contrived to write his
+great commentary on the Pentateuch and other books of the Bible,
+treatises on philosophy (as the _Yesodh mora_), astronomy, mathematics,
+grammar (translation of Hayyuj), besides a Diwan. The man, however, who
+shares with Ibn Gabirol the first place in Jewish poetry is Judah
+Ha-levi, of Toledo, who died in Jerusalem about 1140. His poems, both
+secular and religious, contained in his Diwan and scattered in the
+liturgy, are all in Hebrew, though he employed Arabic metres. In Arabic
+he wrote his philosophical work, called in the Hebrew translation
+_Sepher ha-Kuzari_, a defence of revelation as against non-Jewish
+philosophy and Qaraite doctrine. It shows considerable knowledge of
+Greek and Arabic thought (Avicenna). Joseph ibn Migash (d. 1141 at
+Lucena), a friend of Judah Ha-levi and of Moses ben Ezra, wrote Responsa
+and Hiddushin (_annotations_) on parts of the Talmud. In another sphere
+mention must be made of the travellers Benjamin of Tudela (d. after
+1173), whose Massa'oth are of great value for the history and geography
+of his time, and (though not belonging to Spain) Pethahiah, of
+Regensburg (d. about 1190), who wrote short notes of his journeys.
+Abraham ben David, of Toledo (d. about 1180), in philosophy an
+Aristotelian (through Avicenna) and the precursor of Maimonides, is
+chiefly known for his _Sepher ha-qabbalah_, written as a polemic against
+Karaism, but valuable for the history of tradition.
+
+
+  Maimonides.
+
+  Maimonists and anti-Maimonists.
+
+The greatest of all medieval Jewish scholars was Moses ben Maimon
+(Rambam), called _Maimonides_ by Christians. He was born at Cordova in
+1135, fled with his parents from persecution in 1148, settled at Fez in
+1160, passing there for a Moslem, fled again to Jerusalem in 1165, and
+finally went to Cairo where he died in 1204. He was distinguished in his
+profession as a physician, and wrote a number of medical works in Arabic
+(including a commentary on the aphorisms of Hippocrates), all of which
+were translated into Hebrew, and most of them into Latin, becoming the
+textbooks of Europe in the succeeding centuries. But his fame rests
+mainly on his theological works. Passing over the less important, these
+are the _Moreh Nebhukhim_ (so the Hebrew translation of the Arabic
+original), an endeavour to show philosophically the reasonableness of
+the faith, parts of which, translated into Latin, were studied by the
+Christian schoolmen, and the _Mishneh Torah_, also called _Yad
+hahazaqah_ ([Hebrew: id] = 14, the number of the parts), a classified
+compendium of the Law, written in Hebrew and early translated into
+Arabic. The latter of these, though generally accepted in the East, was
+much opposed in the West, especially at the time by the Talmudist
+Abraham ben David of Posquières (d. 1198). Maimonides also wrote an
+Arabic commentary on the Mishnah, soon afterwards translated into
+Hebrew, commentaries on parts of the Talmud (now lost), and a treatise
+on Logic. His breadth of view and his Aristotelianism were a
+stumbling-block to the orthodox, and subsequent teachers may be mostly
+classified as Maimonists or anti-Maimonists. Even his friend Joseph ibn
+'Aqnin (d. 1226), author of a philosophical treatise in Arabic and of a
+commentary on the Song of Solomon, found so much difficulty in the new
+views that the _Moreh Nebhukhim_ was written in order to convince him.
+Maimonides' son Abraham (d. 1234), also a great Talmudist, wrote in
+Arabic _Ma'aseh Yerushalmi_, on oaths, and _Kitab al-Kifayah_, theology.
+His grandson David was also an author. A very different person was Moses
+ben Nahman (Ramban) or Nahmanides, who was born at Gerona in 1194 and
+died in Palestine about 1270. His whole tendency was as conservative as
+that of Maimonides was liberal, and like all conservatives he may be
+said to represent a lost though not necessarily a less desirable cause.
+Much of his life was spent in controversy, not only with Christians (in
+1293 before the king of Aragon), but also with his own people and on the
+views of the time. His greatest work is the commentary on the Pentateuch
+in opposition to Maimonides and Ibn Ezra. He had a strong inclination to
+mysticism, but whether certain kabbalistic works are rightly attributed
+to him is doubtful. It is, however, not a mere coincidence that the two
+great kabbalistic textbooks, the _Bahir_ and the _Zohar_ (both meaning
+"brightness"), appear first in the 13th century. If not due to his
+teaching they are at least in sympathy with it. The _Bahir_, a sort of
+outline of the _Zohar_, and traditionally ascribed to Nehunya (1st
+century), is believed by some to be the work of Isaac the Blind ben
+Abraham of Posquières (d. early in the 13th century), the founder of the
+modern Kabbalah and the author of the names for the 10 Sephiroth. The
+_Zohar_, supposed to be by Simeon ben Yohai (2nd century), is now
+generally attributed to Moses of Leon (d. 1305), who, however, drew his
+material in part from earlier written or traditional sources, such as
+the Sepher Yezirah. At any rate the work was immediately accepted by the
+kabbalists, and has formed the basis of all subsequent study of the
+subject. Though put into the form of a commentary on the Pentateuch, it
+is really an exposition of the kabbalistic view of the universe, and
+incidentally shows considerable acquaintance with the natural science of
+the time. A pupil, though not a follower of Nahmanides, was Solomon
+Adreth (not Addereth), of Barcelona (d. 1310), a prolific writer of
+Talmudic and polemical works (against the Kabbalists and Mahommedans) as
+well as of responsa. He was opposed by Abraham Abulafia (d. about 1291)
+and his pupil Joseph Giqatilla (d. about 1305), the author of numerous
+kabbalistic works. Solomon's pupil Bahya ben Asher, of Saragossa (d.
+1340) was the author of a very popular commentary on the Pentateuch and
+of religious discourses entitled _Kad ha-qemah_, in both of which,
+unlike his teacher, he made large use of the Kabbalah. Other studies,
+however, were not neglected. In the first half of the 13th century,
+Abraham ibn Hasdai, a vigorous supporter of Maimonides, translated (or
+adapted) a large number of philosophical works from Arabic, among them
+being the _Sepher ha-tappuah_, based on Aristotle's _de Anima_, and the
+_Mozene Zedeq_ of Ghazzali on moral philosophy, of both of which the
+originals are lost. Another Maimonist was Shem Tobh ben Joseph Falaquera
+(d. after 1290), philosopher (following Averroes), poet and author of a
+commentary on the Moreh. A curious mixture of mysticism and
+Aristotelianism is seen in Isaac Aboab (about 1300), whose _Menorath
+ha-Ma'or_, a collection of agadoth, attained great popularity and has
+been frequently printed and translated. Somewhat earlier in the 13th
+century lived Judah al-Harizi, who belongs in spirit to the time of Ibn
+Gabirol and Judah ha-levi. He wrote numerous translations, of Galen,
+Aristotle, Hariri, Hunain ben Isaac and Maimonides, as well as several
+original works, a _Sepher 'Anaq_ in imitation of Moses ben Ezra, and
+treatises on grammar and medicine (_Rephuath geviyyah_), but he is best
+known for his _Tahkemoni_, a diwan in the style of Hariri's _Maqamat_.
+
+Meanwhile the literary activity of the Jews in Spain had its effect on
+those of France. The fact that many of the most important works were
+written in Arabic, the vernacular of the Spanish Jews under the Moors,
+which was not understood in France, gave rise to a number of
+translations into Hebrew, chiefly by the family of Ibn Tibbon (or
+Tabbon). The first of them, Judah ibn Tibbon, translated works of Bahya
+ibn Paqudah, Judah ha-levi, Seadiah, Abu'lwalid and Ibn Gabirol, besides
+writing works of his own. He was a native of Granada, but migrated to
+Lunel, where he probably died about 1190. His son Samuel, who died at
+Marseilles about 1230, was equally prolific. He translated the _Moreh
+Nebhukhim_ during the life of the author, and with some help from him,
+so that this may be regarded as the authorized version; Maimonides'
+commentary on the Mishnah tractate _Pirqe Abhoth_, and some minor works;
+treatises of Averroes and other Arabic authors. His original works are
+mostly biblical commentaries and some additional matter on the Moreh.
+His son Moses, who died about the end of the 13th century, translated
+the rest of Maimonides, much of Averroes, the lesser Canon of Avicenna,
+Euclid's _Elements_ (from the Arabic version), Ibn al-Jazzar's
+_Viaticum_, medical works of Hunain ben Isaac (Johannitius) and Razi
+(Rhazes), besides works of less-known Arabic authors. His original works
+are commentaries and perhaps a treatise on immortality. His nephew Jacob
+ben Makhir, of Montpellier (d. about 1304), translated Arabic scientific
+works, such as parts of Averroes and Ghazzali, Arabic versions from the
+Greek, as Euclid's _Data_, Autolycus, Menelaus (Hebrew: Milium) and
+Theodosius on the Sphere, and Ptolemy's _Almagest_. He also compiled
+astronomical tables and a treatise on the quadrant. The great importance
+of these translations is that many of them were afterwards rendered into
+Latin,[12] thus making Arabic and, through it, Greek learning accessible
+to medieval Europe. Another important family about this time is that of
+Qimhi (or Qamhi). It also originated in Spain, where Joseph ben Isaac
+Qimhi was born, who migrated to S. France, probably for the same reason
+which caused the flight of Maimonides, and died there about 1170. He
+wrote on grammar (_Sepher ha-galui_ and _Sepher Zikkaron_), commentaries
+on Proverbs and the Song of Solomon, an apologetic work, _Sepher
+ha-berith_, and a translation of Bahya's _Hobhoth ha-lebhabhoth_. His
+son Moses (d. about 1190) also wrote on grammar and some commentaries,
+wrongly attributed to Ibn Ezra. A younger son, David (Radaq) of Narbonne
+(d. 1235) is the most famous of the name. His great work, the _Mikhlol_,
+consists of a grammar and lexicon; his commentaries on various parts of
+the Bible are admirably luminous, and, in spite of his anti-Christian
+remarks, have been widely used by Christian theologians and largely
+influenced the English authorized version of the Bible. A friend of
+Joseph Qimhi, Jacob ben Me'ir, known as Rabbenu Tam of Ramerupt (d.
+1171), the grandson of Rashi, wrote the _Sepher ha-yashar_ (hiddushin
+and responsa) and was one of the chief Tosaphists. Of the same school
+were Menahem ben Simeon of Posquières, a commentator, who died about the
+end of the 12th century, and Moses ben Jacob of Coucy (13th century),
+author of the _Semag_ (book of precepts, positive and negative) a very
+popular and valuable halakhic work. A younger contemporary of David
+Qimhi was Abraham ben Isaac Bedersi (i.e. of Béziers), the poet, and
+some time in the 13th century lived Joseph Ezobhi of Perpignan, whose
+ethical poem, _Qe'arath Yoseph_, was translated by Reuchlin and later by
+others. Berachiah,[13] the compiler of the "Fox Fables" (which have much
+in common with the "Ysopet" of Marie de France), is generally thought to
+have lived in Provence in the 13th century, but according to others in
+England in the 12th century. In Germany, Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (d.
+1238), besides being a Talmudist, was an earnest promoter of kabbalistic
+studies. Isaac ben Moses (d. about 1270), who had studied in France,
+wrote the famous _Or Zarua'_ (from which he is often called), an
+halakhic work somewhat resembling Maimonides' _Mishneh Torah_, but more
+diffuse. In the course of his wanderings he settled for a time at
+Würzburg, where he had as a pupil Me'ir of Rothenburg (d. 1293). The
+latter was a prolific writer of great influence, chiefly known for his
+Responsa, but also for his halakhic treatises, hiddushin and tosaphoth.
+He also composed a number of piyyutim. Me'ir's pupil, Mordecai ben
+Hillel of Nürnberg (d. 1298), had an even greater influence through his
+halakhic work, usually known as the _Mordekhai_. This is a codification
+of halakhoth, based on all the authorities then known, some of them now
+lost. Owing to the fact that the material collected by Mordecai was left
+to his pupils to arrange, the work was current in two recensions, an
+Eastern (in Austria) and a Western (in Germany, France, &c.). In the
+East, Tanhum ben Joseph of Jerusalem was the author of commentaries (not
+to be confounded with the _Midrash Tanhuma_) on many books of the Bible,
+and of an extensive lexicon (_Kitab al-Murshid_) to the Mishnah, all in
+Arabic.
+
+With the 13th century Hebrew literature may be said to have reached the
+limit of its development. Later writers to a large extent used over
+again the materials of their predecessors, while secular works tend to
+be influenced by the surrounding civilization, or even are composed in
+the vernacular languages. From the 14th century onward only the most
+notable names can be mentioned. In Italy Immanuel ben Solomon, of Rome
+(d. about 1330), perhaps the friend and certainly the imitator of Dante,
+wrote his diwan, of which the last part, "Topheth ve-'Eden," is
+suggested by the _Divina Commedia_. In Spain Israel Israeli, of Toledo
+(d. 1326), was a translator and the author of an Arabic work on ritual
+and a commentary on _Pirqe Abhoth_. About the same time Isaac Israeli
+wrote his _Yesodh 'Olam_ and other astronomical works which were much
+studied. Asher ben Jehiel, a pupil of Me'ir of Rothenburg, was the
+author of the popular Talmudic compendium, generally quoted as _Rabbenu
+Asher_, on the lines of Alfasi, besides other halakhic works. He
+migrated from Germany and settled at Toledo, where he died in 1328. His
+son Jacob, of Toledo (d. 1340), was the author of the _Tur_ (or the four
+Turim), a most important manual of Jewish law, serving as an abridgement
+of the _Mishneh Torah_ brought up to date. His pupil David Abudrahim, of
+Seville (d. after 1340), wrote a commentary on the liturgy. Both the
+14th and 15th centuries in Spain were largely taken up with controversy,
+as by Isaac ibn Pulgar (about 1350), and Shem Tobh ibn Shaprut (about
+1380), who translated St Matthew's gospel into Hebrew. In France Jedaiah
+Bedersi, i.e. of Béziers (d. about 1340), wrote poems (_Behinath
+ha-'olam_), commentaries on agada and a defence of Maimonides against
+Solomon Adreth. Levi ben Gershom (d. 1344), called Ralbag, the great
+commentator on the Bible and Talmud, in philosophy a follower of
+Aristotle and Averroes, known to Christians as Leo Hebraeus, wrote also
+many works on halakhah, mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Kaspi, i.e. of
+Largentière (d. 1340), wrote a large number of treatises on grammar and
+philosophy (mystical), besides commentaries and piyyutim. In the first
+half of the 14th century lived the two translators Qalonymos ben David
+and Qalonymos ben Qalonymos, the latter of whom translated many works of
+Galen and Averroes, and various scientific treatises, besides writing
+original works, e.g. one against Kaspi, and an ethical work entitled
+_Eben Bohan_. At the end of the century Isaac ben Moses, called Profiat
+Duran (Efodi), is chiefly known as an anti-Christian controversialist
+(letter to Me'ir Alguadez), but also wrote on grammar (_Ma'aseh Efod_)
+and a commentary on the Moreh. In philosophy he was an Aristotelian.
+About the same time in Spain controversy was very active. Hasdai Crescas
+(d. 1410) wrote against Christianity and in his _Or Adonai_ against the
+Aristotelianism of the Maimonists. His pupil Joseph Albo in his
+_'Iqqarim_ had the same two objects. On the side of the Maimonists was
+Simeon Duran (d. at Algiers 1444) in his _Magen Abhoth_ and in his
+numerous commentaries. Shem Tobh ibn Shem Tobh, the kabbalist, was a
+strong anti-Maimonist, as was his son Joseph of Castile (d. 1480), a
+commentator with kabbalistic tendencies but versed in Aristotle,
+Averroes and Christian doctrine. Joseph's son Shem Tobh was, on the
+contrary, a follower of Maimonides and the Aristotelians. In other
+subjects, Saadyah ibn Danan, of Granada (d. at Oran after 1473), is
+chiefly important for his grammar and lexicon, in Arabic; Judah ibn
+Verga, of Seville (d. after 1480), was a mathematician and astronomer;
+Solomon ibn Verga, somewhat later, wrote _Shebet Yehudah_, of doubtful
+value historically; Abraham Zakkuth or Zakkuto, of Salamanca (d. after
+1510), astronomer, wrote the _Sepher Yuhasin_, an historical work of
+importance. In Italy, Obadiah Bertinoro (d. about 1500) compiled his
+very useful commentary on the Mishnah, based on those of Rashi and
+Maimonides. His account of his travels and his letters are also of great
+interest. Isaac Abravanel (d. 1508) wrote commentaries (not of the first
+rank) on the Pentateuch and Prophets and on the Moreh, philosophical
+treatises and apologetics, such as the _Yeshu'oth Meshiho_, all of which
+had considerable influence. Elijah Delmedigo, of Crete (d. 1497), a
+strong opponent of Kabbalah, was the author of the philosophical
+treatise _Behinath ha-dath_, but most of his work (on Averroes) was in
+Latin.
+
+
+  Later writers.
+
+The introduction of printing (first dated Hebrew printed book, Rashi,
+Reggio, 1475) gave occasion for a number of scholarly compositors and
+proof-readers, some of whom were also authors, such as Jacob ben Hayyim
+of Tunis (d. about 1530), proof-reader to Bomberg, chiefly known for his
+masoretic work in connexion with the Rabbinic Bible and his introduction
+to it; Elias Levita, of Venice (d. 1549), also proof-reader to Bomberg,
+author of the _Massoreth ha-Massoreth_ and other works on grammar and
+lexicography; and Cornelius Adelkind, who however was not an author. In
+the East, Joseph Karo (Qaro) wrote his _Beth Yoseph_ (Venice, 1550), a
+commentary on the _Tur_, and his _Shulhan 'Arukh_ (Venice, 1564) an
+halakhic work like the _Tur_, which is still a standard authority. The
+influence of non-Jewish methods is seen in the more modern tendency of
+Azariah dei Rossi, who was opposed by Joseph Karo. In his _Me'or
+'Enayim_ (Mantua, 1573) Del Rossi endeavoured to investigate Jewish
+history in a scientific spirit, with the aid of non-Jewish authorities,
+and even criticizes Talmudic and traditional statements. Another
+historian living also in Italy was Joseph ben Joshua, whose _Dibhre
+ha-yamim_ (Venice, 1534) is a sort of history of the world, and his
+_'Emeq ha-bakhah_ an account of Jewish troubles to the year 1575. In
+Germany David Gans wrote on astronomy, and also the historical work
+_Zemah David_ (Prag, 1592). The study of Kabbalah was promoted and the
+practical Kabbalah founded by Isaac Luria in Palestine (d. 1572).
+Numerous works, representing the extreme of mysticism, were published by
+his pupils as the result of his teaching. Foremost among these was
+Hayyim Vital, author of the _'Ez hayyim_, and his son Samuel, who wrote
+an introduction to the Kabbalah, called _Shemoneh She'arim_. To the same
+school belonged Moses Zakkuto, of Mantua (d. 1697), poet and kabbalist.
+Contemporary with Luria and also living at Safed, was Moses Cordovero
+(d. 1570), the kabbalist, whose chief work was the _Pardes Rimmonim_
+(Cracow, 1591). In the 17th century Leon of Modena (d. 1648) wrote his
+_Beth Yehudah_, and probably _Qol Sakhal_, against traditionalism,
+besides many controversial works and commentaries. Joseph Delmedigo, of
+Prag (d. 1655), wrote almost entirely on scientific subjects. Also
+connected with Prag was Yom Tobh Lipmann Heller, a voluminous author,
+best known for the _Tosaphoth Yom Tobh_ on the Mishna (Prag, 1614;
+Cracow, 1643). Another important Talmudist, Shabbethai ben Me'ir, of
+Wilna (d. 1662), commented on the _Shulhan 'Arukh_. In the East, David
+Conforte (d. about 1685) wrote the historical work _Qore ha-doroth_
+(Venice, 1746), using Jewish and other sources; Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah,
+kabbalist and student of Luria, wrote _Qol be-ramah_, a commentary on
+the _Zohar_ and on the liturgy; Abraham Hayekini, kabbalist, chiefly
+remembered as a supporter of the would-be Messiah, Shabbethai Zebhi,
+wrote _Hod Malkuth_ (Constantinople, 1655) and sermons. In the 18th
+century the study of the kabbalah was cultivated by Moses Hayyim
+Luzzatto (d. 1747) and by Elijah ben Solomon, called Gaon, of Wilna (d.
+1797), who commented on the whole Bible and on many Talmudic and
+kabbalistic works. In spite of his own leaning towards mysticism he was
+a strong opponent of the Hasidim, a mystical sect founded by Israel
+Ba'al Shem Tobh (Besht) and promoted by Baer of Meseritz. Elijah's son
+Abraham (d. 1808), the commentator, is valuable for his work on Midrash.
+An historical work which makes an attempt to be scientific, is the
+_Seder ha-doroth_ of Yehiel Heilprin (d. 1746). These, however, belong
+in spirit to the previous century.
+
+
+  Modernizing tendencies.
+
+The characteristic of the 18th and 19th centuries is the endeavour,
+connected with the name of Moses Mendelssohn, to bring Judaism more into
+relation with external learning, and in using the Hebrew language to
+purify and develop it in accordance with the biblical standard. The
+result, while linguistically more uniform and pleasing, often lacks the
+spontaneity of medieval literature. It was Moses Mendelssohn's German
+translation of the Pentateuch (1780-1793) which marked the new spirit,
+while the views of his opponents belong to a bygone age. In fact the
+controversy of which he was the centre may fitly be compared with the
+earlier battles between the Maimonists and anti-Maimonists. One of the
+most remarkable writers of the new Hebrew was Mendelssohn's friend N. H.
+Wessely, of Hamburg (d. 1805), author of _Shire Tiphe'reth_, a long poem
+on the Exodus, _Dibhre Shalom_, a plea for liberalism, _Sepher
+ha-middoth_, on ethics, besides philological works and commentaries. A
+curious combination of new and old was Hayyim Azulai (d. 1807), a
+kabbalist, but also the author of _Shem ha-gedholim_, a valuable
+contribution to literary history.
+
+In the 19th century the modernizing tendency continued to grow, though
+always side by side with a strong conservative opposition, and the most
+prominent names on both sides are those of scholars rather than literary
+men. Among them may be mentioned, Akiba ('Aqibha) Eger (d. 1837),
+Talmudist of the orthodox, conservative school; W. Heidenheim (d. 1832),
+a liberal, and editor of the Pentateuch and Mahzor; N. Krochmal, of
+Galicia (d. 1840), author of _Moreh Nebhukhe ha-zeman_, on Jewish
+history and literature; his son Abraham (d. 1895), conservative
+commentator and philosopher. One consequence of the Mendelssohn movement
+was that many writers used their vernacular language besides or instead
+of Hebrew, or translated from one to the other. Thus Isaac Samuel Reggio
+(d. 1855), a strong liberal, wrote both in Hebrew and Italian; Joseph
+Almanzi, of Padua (d. 1860), a poet, translated Italian poems into
+Hebrew; S. D. Luzzatto, of Padua (d. 1865), a distinguished scholar and
+opponent of the philosophy of Maimonides, wrote much in Italian; M. H.
+Letteris, of Vienna (d. 1871), translated German poems into Hebrew; S.
+Bacher, of Hungary (d. 1891), was a poet and moderate liberal; L. Gordon
+(d. 1892), poet and prose-writer in Hebrew and Russian, of liberal
+views; A. Jellinek, of Vienna (d. 1893), preacher and scholar; Jacob
+Reifmann (d. 1895), scholar, wrote only in Hebrew. The endeavour to
+bring Judaism into relation with the modern world and to change the
+current impressions about Jews by making their teaching accessible to
+the rest of the world, is connected chiefly with the names of Z. Frankel
+(d. 1875), the first Jewish scholar to study the Septuagint; Abraham
+Geiger (d. 1874), critic of the first rank; L. Zunz (d. 1884) and L.
+Dukes (d. 1891), both scholarly investigators of Jewish literary
+history. Their most important works are in German. The question of the
+use of the vernacular or of Hebrew is bound up with the differences
+between the orthodox and the liberal or reform parties, complicated by
+the many problems involved. Patriotic efforts are made to encourage the
+use of Hebrew both for writing and speaking, but the continued existence
+of it as a literary language depends on the direction in which the
+future history of the Jews will develop.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Only the more comprehensive works are mentioned here,
+  omitting those relating to particular authors, and those already
+  cited.
+
+  Introductory: Abrahams, _Short History of Jewish Literature_ (London,
+  1906); Steinschneider, _Jewish Literature_ (London, 1857); Winter and
+  Wünsche, _Die jüdische Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1893-1895) (containing
+  selections translated into German).
+
+  For further study: Graetz, _Geschichte der Juden_ (Leipzig, 1853, &c.)
+  (the volumes are in various editions), with special reference to the
+  notes; English translation by B. Löwy (London, 1891-1892) (without the
+  notes); Zunz, _Gottesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden_ (new ed.,
+  Frankfort-on-Main, 1892); _Zur Geschichte und Literatur_ (Berlin,
+  1845). The _Synagogale Poesie_ has been mentioned above.
+  Steinschneider, _Arabische Literatur der Juden_ (Frankfort-on-Main,
+  1902); _Hebräische Übersetzungen des Mittelalters_ (Berlin, 1893).
+
+  On particular authors and subjects there are many excellent monographs
+  in the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_ (New York, 1901-6), to which the present
+  article is much indebted.
+
+  Bibliographies of printed books: Steinschneider, _Catalogus libr.
+  Hebr. in Bibl. Bodleiana_ (Berlin, 1852-1860) (more than a catalogue);
+  Zedner, _Catalogue of the Hebr. Books in the British Museum_ (London,
+  1867; continued by van Straalen, London, 1894). Of manuscripts:
+  Neubauer, _Catal. of the Hebrew MSS. in the Bodleian Library_ (Oxford,
+  1886), vol. ii. by Neubauer and Cowley (Oxford, 1906); G. Margoliouth,
+  _Catal. of the Hebr. ... MSS. in the British Museum_ (London, 1899,
+  &c.). Of both: Benjacob, _Ozar ha-sepharim_ (Wilna, 1880) (in Hebrew;
+  arranged by titles).
+
+  Periodicals: _Jewish Quarterly Review_; _Revue des études juives_;
+  _Hebräische Bibliographie_.     (A. Cy.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The dating of these documents is extremely difficult, since it is
+    based entirely on internal evidence. Various scholars, while agreeing
+    on the actual divisions of the text, differ on the question of
+    priority. The dates here given are those which seem to be most
+    generally accepted at the present time. They are not put forward as
+    the result of an independent review of the evidence.
+
+  [2] See especially A. Jellinek's _Bet-ha-Midrasch_ (Leipzig, 1853),
+    for these lesser midrashim.
+
+  [3] That on Genesis was edited for the first time by Schechter
+    (Cambridge, 1902).
+
+  [4] In Hebrew [Hebrew: rashi], from the initial letters of Rabbi
+    Shelomoh Yiz[h.]aqi, a convenient method used by Jewish writers in
+    referring to well-known authors. The name Jarchi, formerly used for
+    Rashi, rests on a misunderstanding.
+
+  [5] So Bacher in _J.Q.R._ iii. 785 sqq.
+
+  [6] For the history of the very extensive literature of this class,
+    Zunz, _Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie_ (Berlin, 1865), is
+    indispensable.
+
+  [7] See the edition of them in Harkavy, _Studien_, iv. (Berlin,
+    1885).
+
+  [8] Two different texts of it exist: (1) in the ed. pr. (Mantua,
+    1476); (2) ed. by Seb. Münster (Basel, 1541). There is also an early
+    Arabic recension, but its relation to the Hebrew and to the Arabic 2
+    Maccabees is still obscure. See _J. Q. R._, xi. 355 sqq. The Hebrew
+    text was edited with a Latin translation by Breithaupt (Gotha, 1707).
+
+  [9] On the various recensions of the text see D. H. Müller in the
+    _Denkschriften_ of the Vienna Academy (_Phil.-hist. Cl._, xli. 1, p.
+    41) and Epstein's ed. (Pressburg, 1891).
+
+  [10] A fragment of such a work, probably emanating from the school of
+    Hivi was found by Schechter and published in _J.Q.R._, xiii. 345 sqq.
+
+  [11] See M. Friedländer in _Publications of the Society of Hebrew
+    Lit._, 1st ser. vol. i., and 2nd ser. vol. iv.
+
+  [12] The fullest account of them is to be found in Steinschneider's
+    _Hebräische Übersetzungen des Mittelalters_ (Berlin, 1893).
+
+  [13] See H. Gollancz, _The Ethical Treatises of Berachya_ (London,
+    1902).
+
+
+
+
+HEBREW RELIGION (1) _Introductory._--To trace the history of the
+religion of the Hebrews is a complex task, because the literary sources
+from which our knowledge of that history is derived are themselves
+complex and replete with problems as to age and authorship, some of
+which have been solved according to the consensus of nearly all the best
+scholars, but some of which still await solution or are matters of
+dispute. Even if the analysis of the literature into component documents
+were complete, we should still possess a most imperfect record, since
+the documents themselves have passed through many redactions, and these
+redactions have proceeded from varying standpoints of religious
+tradition, successively eliminating or modifying certain elements deemed
+inconsistent with the canons of religious usage or propriety which
+prevailed in the age when the redaction took place. Lastly it should be
+recollected that the entire body of the fragments of tradition and
+literature belonging to _northern_ Israel has come down to us through
+the channel of _Judaean_ recensions.
+
+The influence of the Deuteronomic tradition in redaction is seen in such
+passages as Genesis xxxiii. 20 (cf. xxxi. 45 fol.); Josh. iv. 9-20,
+xxiv. 26 fol.; 1 Sam. vii. 12, where the _massebhah_ or stone symbol of
+deity (forbidden in Deut. xii. 3, xvi. 22) is in some way got rid of (in
+Gen. xxxiii. 20 the word "altar" in Hebrew is substituted). Similarly in
+Gen. xiii. 18, xiv. 13, xviii. 1, the Septuagint shows that the singular
+form "terebinth" stood in the original text. But the Massoretes altered
+this to the plural as this form was less suggestive of tree-worship (see
+Smend, _A. Tliche Religionsgesch_. i. p. 134, footnote 1; Nowack, _Heb.
+Archäol._ p. 12, footnote 1). Many other examples might be cited, as the
+"suspended _nun_" which transforms the pronunciation of the original
+Mosheh (Moses) into Menashsheh (Manasseh) owing to the irregular
+practices of his descendant, Jonathan ben Gershom (Jud. xviii. 30). It
+is not improbable that in 2 Kings iii. 27 the words "from Kemosh" stood
+after "great wrath" in the original document, as the phraseology seems
+bald without them, and the motives for their suppression are obvious.
+
+So far as concerns the critical problems which stand at the threshold of
+our task, it must suffice to say that the main conclusions reached by
+the school of Kuenen and Wellhausen as to the literary problems of the
+Old Testament are assumed throughout this sketch of the evolution of
+Hebrew religion. The documents underlying the Pentateuch and book of
+Joshua, represented by the ciphers J, E, D and P, are assumed to have
+been drawn up in the chronological order in which those ciphers are here
+set down, and the period of their composition extends from the 9th
+century B.C., in which the earlier portions of J were written, to the
+5th century B.C., in which P finally took shape. The view of Professor
+Dillmann, who placed P before D in the regal period (though he admitted
+exilic and post-exilic additions in Exod., Levit. and Numb.), a view
+which he maintained in his commentary on Genesis (edition of 1892), has
+now been abandoned by nearly all scholars of repute. In the following
+pages we shall not attempt to do more than to sketch in very succinct
+outline the general results of investigation into the origins and growth
+of Hebrew religion.
+
+2. _Pre-Mosaic Religion._--Can any clear indications be found to guide
+us as to the religion of the Hebrew clans before the time of Moses? That
+Moses united the scattered tribes, probably consisting at first mainly
+of the Josephite, under the common worship of Yahweh, and that upon the
+religion of Yahweh a distinctly ethical character was impressed, is
+generally recognized. The tradition of the earliest document J ascribes
+the worship of Yahweh to much earlier times, in fact to the dawn of
+human life. A close survey of the facts, however, would lead us to
+regard it as probable that some at least of the Hebrew clans had
+patron-deities of their own.
+
+(a) Both Moab and Ammon as well as Edom had their separate tribal
+deities, viz. Chemosh (Moab) and Milk (Milcom), the god of Ammon, and in
+the case of Edom a deity known from the inscriptions as Kos (in Assyrian
+Kaus).[1] From the patriarchal narratives and genealogies in Genesis we
+infer that these races were closely allied to Israel. That in early
+pre-Mosaic times parallel cults existed among the various Hebrew tribes
+is by no means improbable. It would be reasonable to assume that Moab,
+Ammon, Edom and kindred tribes of Israel in the 15th and preceding
+centuries were included in the generic term Habiri (or Hebrews)
+mentioned in the Tell el-Amarna inscriptions as forming predatory bands
+that disturbed the security of the Canaanite dwellers west of the
+Jordan. Lastly pre-Mosaic polytheism seems to be implied in the Mosaic
+prohibition Ex. xx. 3, xxii. 20.
+
+(b) The tribal names Gad and Asher are suggestive of the worship of a
+deity of fortune (Gad) and of the male counterpart of the goddess,
+Asherah. Under the name Shaddai (which Nöldeke suggests[2] was
+originally Shedi "my demon") it is possible to discern the name of a
+deity who in later times came to be identified with Yahweh. On the other
+hand, the connexion of the name Samson with sun-worship throws light on
+the period of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan and not on pre-Mosaic
+times. Nor is it possible to agree with Baudissin (_Studien zur semit.
+Religionsgesch._ i. 55) that Elohim as a plural form for the name of the
+Hebrew deity "can hardly be understood otherwise than as a comprehensive
+expression for the multitude of gods embraced in the One God of Old
+Testament religion," in other words that it presupposes an original
+polytheism. For (1) Elohim is also applied in Judges xi. 24 to the
+Moabite Chemosh (Kemosh); in 1 Sam. v. 7 to Dagon; in 1 Kings xi. 5 to
+Ashtoreth; in 2 Kings i. 2, iii. 6, 16 to Ba'al Zebul of Ekron. (2) It
+is merely a plural of dignity (_pluralis majestatis_) parallel to
+_adonim_ (applied to a king in 1 Kings xviii. 8, whereas in the previous
+verse the _singular_ form _adoni_ is applied to the prophet Elijah). (3)
+The Tell el-Amarna inscriptions indicate that the term _Elohim_ might
+even be applied in abject homage to an Egyptian monarch as the use of
+the term _ilani_ in this connexion obviously implies.[3]
+
+The religion of the Arabian tribes in the days of Mahomet, of which a
+picture is presented to us by Wellhausen in his _Remains of Arabic
+Heathendom_, furnishes some suggestive indications of the religion that
+prevailed in nomadic Israel before as well as during the lifetime of
+Moses. It is true that Arabian polytheism in the time of Mahomet was in
+a state of decay. Nevertheless the life of the desert changes but
+slowly. We may therefore infer that ancient Israel during the period
+when they inhabited the _negebh_ (S. of Canaan) stood in awe of the
+demons (Jinn) of the desert, just as the Arabs at the present day
+described in Doughty's _Arabia deserta_. We know that diseases were
+attributed by the Israelites to malignant demons which they, like the
+Arabs, identified with serpents. The counterspell took the form of a
+bronze image of the serpent-demon; see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, ii. 426;
+and I Sam. v. 6, vi. 4, 5 (LXX. and Heb.) as well as Buchanan Gray's
+instructive note in _Numbers_, p. 276. The slaughter of a lamb at the
+Passover or Easter season, whose blood was smeared on the door-post, as
+described in Ex. xii. 21-23, probably points back to an immemorial
+custom. In this case the counterspell assumed a different form.
+Westermarck has shown from his observations in Morocco that the blood of
+the victim was considered to visit a curse upon the object to whom the
+sacrifice is offered and thereby the latter is made amenable to the
+sacrificer.[4] It is hardly possible to doubt that in the original form
+of the rite described in Exodus the blood offering was made to the
+plague demon ("the destroyer") and possessed over him a magic power of
+arrest.
+
+It is therefore certain that belief in demons and magic spells prevailed
+in pre-Mosaic times[5] among the Israelite clans. And it is also
+probable that certain persons combined in their own individuality the
+functions of magician and sacrificer as well as soothsayer. For we know
+that in Arabic the _Kahin_, or soothsayer, is the same participial form
+that we meet with in the Hebrew _Kohen_, or priest, and in the early
+period of Hebrew history (e.g. in the days of Saul and David) it was the
+priest with the ephod or image of Yahweh who gave answers to those who
+consulted him. How far _totemism_, or belief in deified animal
+ancestors, existed in prehistoric Israel, as evidenced by the tribal
+names Simeon (hyena, wolf), Caleb (dog), Hamor (ass), Rahel (ewe) and
+Leah (wild cow), &c.,[6] as well as by the laws respecting clean and
+unclean animals, is too intricate and speculative a problem to be
+discussed here. That the food-taboo against eating the flesh of a
+particular animal would prevail in the clan of which that animal was the
+deified totem-ancestor is obvious, and it would be a plausible theory to
+hold that the laws in question arose when the Israelite tribes were to
+be consolidated into a national unity (i.e. in the time of David and
+Solomon), but the application of this theory to the list of unclean
+foods in Deut. xiv. (Lev. xi.) seems to present insuperable
+difficulties. In fact, while Robertson Smith (in _Kinship and Marriage
+in Early Arabia_, as well as his _Religion of the Semites_, followed by
+Stade and Benzinger) strongly advocated the view that clear traces of
+totemism can be found in early Israel, later writers, such as Marti,
+_Gesch. der israelit. Religion_, 4th ed., p. 24, Kautzsch in his
+_Religion of Israel_ already cited, p. 613, and recently Addis in his
+_Hebrew Religion_, p. 33 foll., have abandoned the theory as applied to
+Israel.[7] On the other hand, the evidence for the existence of
+ancestor-worship in primitive Israel cannot be so easily disposed of as
+Kautzsch (_ibid._ p. 615) appears to think. We have examples (1 Sam.
+xxviii. 13) in which _Elohim_ is the term which is applied to departed
+spirits. Oracles were received from them (Isa. viii. 19, xxviii. 15, 18;
+Deut. xviii. 10 foll.). At the graves of national heroes or ancestors
+worship was paid. In Gen. xxxv. 20 we read that a _massebah_ or sacred
+pillar was erected at Rahel's tomb. That the Teraphim, which we know to
+have resembled the human form (1 Sam. xix. 13, 16), were ancestral
+images is a reasonable theory. That they were employed in divination is
+consonant with the facts already noted. Lastly, the rite of circumcision
+(q.v.), which the Hebrews practised in common with their Semitic
+neighbours as well as the Egyptians, belonged to ages long anterior to
+the time of Moses. This is a fact which has long been recognized: cf.
+Gen. xvii. 10 foll., Herod. ii. 104, and Barton, _Semitic Origins_, pp.
+98-100. Probably the custom was of African origin, and came from eastern
+Africa along with the Semitic race. Respecting Arabia, see Doughty,
+_Arabia deserta_, i. 340 foll.
+
+It is necessary here to advert to a subject much debated during recent
+years, viz. the effects of Babylonian culture in western Asia on Israel
+and Israel's religion in early times even preceding the advent of Moses.
+The great influence exercised by Babylonian culture over Palestine
+between 2000 and 1400 B.C. (_circa_), which has been clearly revealed to
+us since 1887 by the discovery of the Tell el Amarna tablets, is now
+universally acknowledged. The subsequent discovery of a document written
+in Babylonian cuneiform at Lachish (Tell el Hesy), and more recently
+still of another in the excavations at Ta'annek, have established the
+fact beyond all dispute. The last discovery had tended to confirm the
+views of Fried. Delitzsch, Jeremias (_Monotheistische Strömungen_) and
+Baentsch, that monotheistic tendencies are to be found in the midst of
+Babylonian polytheism. Page Renouf, in his Hibbert lectures, _Origin and
+Growth of Religion as illustrated by that of Ancient Egypt_ (1879), p.
+89 foll., pointed out this monotheistic tendency in Egyptian religion,
+as did de Rougé before him. Baentsch draws attention to this feature in
+his monograph _Altorientalischer u. israelitischer Monotheismus_ (1906).
+This tendency, however, he, unlike the earlier conservative writers,
+rightly considers to have emerged out of polytheism. He ventures into a
+more disputable region when he penetrates into the obscure realm of the
+Abrahamic migration and finds in the Abrahamic traditions of Genesis the
+higher Canaanite monotheistic tendencies evolved out of Babylonian
+astral religion, and reflected in the name El 'Elyon (Gen. xiv. 18, 22).
+Further discoveries like Sellin's find at Ta'annek may elucidate the
+problem. See Baudissin in _Theolog. lit. Zeitung_ (27th October 1906).
+
+3. _The Era of Moses._--We are now on safer ground though still obscure.
+Moses was the first historic individuality who can be said to have
+welded the Israelite clans into a whole. This could never have been
+accomplished without unity of worship. The object of this worship was
+Yahweh. As we have already indicated, the document J assumes that Yahweh
+was worshipped by the Hebrew race from the first. On the other hand,
+according to P (Ex. vi. 2), God spake to Moses and said to him: "I am
+Yahweh. But I appeared to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as El Shaddai and by
+my name Yahweh I did not make myself known to them." According to this
+later tradition Yahweh was unknown till the days of Moses, and under the
+aegis of His power the Hebrew tribes were delivered from Egyptian
+thraldom. The truth probably lies somewhere between these two sharply
+contrasted traditions. So much is clear. Yahweh now becomes the supreme
+deity of the Hebrew people, and an ark analogous to the Egyptian and
+Babylonian arks portrayed on the monuments[8] was constructed as
+embodiment of the _numen_ of Yahweh and was borne in front of the Hebrew
+army when it marched to war. It was the signal victory won by Moses at
+the exodus against the Egyptians and in the subsequent battle at
+Rephidim against 'Amalek (Ex. xvii.) that consolidated the prestige of
+Yahweh, Israel's war-god. Indications in the Old Testament itself
+clearly point to the celestial or atmospheric character of the Yahweh of
+the Hebrews. The supposition that the name originally contained the
+notion of permanent or eternal being, and was derived from the verbal
+root signifying "to be," involves too abstract a conception to be
+probable, though it is based on Ex. iii. 15 (E) representing a tradition
+which may have prevailed in the 8th century B.C. Kautzsch, however,
+supports it (Hastings's _D.B._, extra vol. "Rel. of Isr." p. 625 foll.)
+against the other derivations proposed by recent scholars (see JEHOVAH).
+That the name also prevailed as that of a god among other Semitic races
+(or even non-Semitic) is rendered certain by the proper names
+Jau-bi'-di (= Ilu-bi'di) of Hamath in Sargon's inscriptions, Ahi-jawi
+(mi) in Sellin's discovered tablet at Ta'annek, to say nothing of those
+which have been found in the documents of Khammurabi's reign. It has
+generally been held that Stade's supposition has much to recommend it,
+that it was derived by Moses from the Kenites, and should be connected
+with the Sinai-Horeb region. The name Sinai suggests moon-worship and
+the moon-god Sin; and it also suggests Babylonian influence (cf. also
+Mount Nebo, which was a place-name both in Moab and in Judah, and
+naturally connects itself with the name of the Babylonian deity).
+Several indications favour the view of the connexion in the age of Moses
+between the Yahweh-cult at Sinai and the moon-worship of Babylonian
+origin to which the name Sinai points (Sin being the Babylonian
+moon-god). We note (a) that in the worship of Yahweh the sacred seasons
+of new moon and Sabbath are obviously _lunar_. Recent investigations
+have even been held to disclose the fact that the Sabbath coincided
+originally, i.e. in early pre-exilian days, with the full moon.[9] (b)
+It also accords with the name bestowed on Yahweh as "Lord of Hosts"
+(_sebaoth_) or stars, which were regarded as personified beings (Job
+xxxviii. 7) and attendants on the celestial Yahweh, constituting His
+retinue (1 Kings xxii. 19) which fought on high while the earthly armies
+of Israel, His people, contended below (Judges v. 20).
+
+The atmospheric and celestial character which belonged from the first to
+the Hebrew conception of Yahweh explains to us the ease with which the
+idea of His universal sovereignty arose, which the Yahwistic creation
+account (belonging to the earlier stratum of J, Gen. ii. 4b foll.)
+presupposes. How this came to be overlaid by narrow local limitations of
+His power and province will be shown later. It is probable that Moses
+held the larger rather than the narrower conception of Yahweh's sphere
+of influence. While the ark carried with Israel's host symbolized His
+presence in their midst, He was also known to be present in the cloud
+which hovered before the host and in the lightning ('_esh Yahweh_ or
+"fire of Yahweh") and the thunder (_kol Yahweh_ or "voice of Yahweh")
+which played around Mount Sinai. Moreover, it is hardly probable that a
+great leader like Moses remained unaffected by the higher conceptions
+tending towards monotheism which prevailed in the great empires on the
+Nile and on the Euphrates. In Egypt we know that Amenophis IV. came
+under this monotheistic movement, and attempted to suppress all other
+cults except that of the sun-deity, of which he was a devoted
+worshipper. We also know that between 2000 and 1400 B.C. the Babylonian
+language as well as Babylonian civilization and ideas spread over
+Palestine (as the Tell el Amarna tables clearly testify). The ancient
+Babylonian psalms clearly reveal that the highest minds were moving out
+of polytheism to a monotheistic identification of various deities as
+diverse phases of one underlying essence. A remarkable Babylonian tablet
+discovered by Dr Pinches represents Marduk, the god of light, as
+identified in his person with all the chief deities of Babylonia, who
+are evidently regarded as his varying manifestations.[10]
+
+Through the influence of Mosaic teaching and law a definitely ethical
+character was ascribed to Yahweh. It was His "finger" that wrote the
+brief code which has come down to us in the decalogue. At first, as
+Erdmanns suggests, it may have consisted of only seven commands. So also
+Kautzsch, _ibid._ p. 634. The most strongly distinguishing feature of
+the code is the rigid exclusion of the worship of other gods than
+Yahweh. Moreover, the definitely ethical character of the religion of
+Yahweh established by Moses is exhibited in the strict exclusion of all
+sexual impurity in His worship. Unlike the Canaanite Baal, Yahweh has no
+female consort, and this remained throughout a distinguishing trait of
+the original and unadulterated Hebrew religion (see Bäthgen, _Beiträge_,
+p. 265). Indeed, Hebrew, unlike Assyrian or Phoenician, has no
+distinctive form for "goddess." From first to last the true religion of
+Yahweh was pure of sexual taint. The kedeshim and kedeshoth, the male
+and female priest attendants in the Baal and 'Ashtoreth shrines (cf. the
+_kadishtu_ of the temples of the Babylonian Ishtar) were foreign
+Canaanite elements which became imported into Hebrew worship during the
+period of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan.
+
+Lastly, the earliest codes of Hebrew legislation (Ex. xxi.-xxiii.) bear
+the distinct impress of the high ethical character of Yahweh's
+requirements originally set forth by Moses. Of this tradition the Naboth
+incident in the time of Ahab furnishes a clear example which brings to
+light the contrast between the Tyrian Baal-cult, which was scarcely
+ethical, and of which Jezebel and Ahab were devotees, and the moral
+requirements of the religion of Yahweh of which Elijah was the prophet
+and impassioned exponent. It was this definite basis of ethical Mosaic
+religion to which the prophets of the 8th century appealed, and apart
+from which their denunciations become meaningless. To this early
+standard of life and practice Ephraim was faithless in the days of the
+prophet Hosea (see his oracles _passim_--especially chaps. i.-iv. and
+xiv.), and Judah in the time of Isaiah turned a deaf ear (Isa. i. 2-4,
+21).
+
+4. _Influence of Canaan._--The entrance of Israel into Canaan marks the
+beginning of a new epoch in the development of Israel's religious life.
+For it involved a transition from the simple nomadic relations to those
+of the agricultural and more highly civilized Canaanite life. This
+subject has been recently treated with admirable clearness by Marti in
+his useful treatise _Die Religion des A.T._ (1906), pp. 25-41.
+
+It is in the festivals of the annual calendar that this agricultural
+impress is most fully manifested. To the original nomadic _Pesah_
+(Passover)--sacrifice of a lamb--there was attached a distinct and
+agricultural festival of unleavened cakes (_massoth_) which marks the
+beginning of the corn harvest in the middle of the month _Abib_ (the
+name of which points to its Canaanite and agricultural origin). The
+close of the corn-harvest was marked by the festival _Shabhuoth_ (weeks)
+or _Kasir_ (harvest) held seven weeks after massoth. The last and most
+characteristic festival of Canaanite life was that of _Asiph_ or
+"ingathering" which after the Deuteronomic reformation (621 B.C.) had
+made a single sanctuary and therefore a considerable journey with a
+longer stay necessary, came to be called _Succoth_ or booths. This was
+the autumn festival held at the close of September or beginning of
+October. It marked the close of the year's agricultural operations when
+the olives and grapes had been gathered [Ex. xxiii. 14-17 (E), xxxiv.
+18, 22, 23 (J)]; see FEASTS, PASSOVER, PENTECOST and TABERNACLES.
+Another special characteristic of Israel's religion in Canaan was the
+considerable increase of sacrificial offerings. Animal sacrifices became
+much more frequent, and included not only the bloody sacrifice (Zebah)
+but also burnt offerings (_kalil_, _'olah_) whereby the whole animal was
+consumed (see SACRIFICE). But we have in addition to the animal
+sacrifices, vegetable offerings of meal, oil and cakes (_massoth_,
+_ashishah_ and _kawwan_, which last is specially connected with the
+'Ashtoreth cult: Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 19), as well as the "bread of the
+Presence" (_lehem happanim_), 1 Sam. xxi. 6. Whether the primitive rite
+of _water-offerings_ (1 Sam. vii. 6; 2 Sam. xxiii. 16) belonged to early
+nomadic Israel (as seems probable) it is not possible to determine with
+any certainty.
+
+Again, the conception of Yahweh suffered modification. In the desert he
+was worshipped as an atmospheric deity, who manifested himself in
+thunder and lightning, whose abode was in the sky, whose sanctuary was
+on the mountain summit of Horeb-Sinai, and whose movable palladium was
+the ark of the covenant. But when the nomadic clans of Israel came to
+occupy the settled abodes of the agricultural Canaanites who had a stake
+in the soil which they cultivated, these conditions evidently reacted on
+their religion. Now the local Baal was the divine owner of the fertile
+spot where his sanctuary (_qodesh_) was marked by the upright stone
+pillar, the symbol of his presence, on which the blood of the
+slaughtered victim was smeared. To this Baal the productiveness of the
+soil was due. Consequently it was needful to secure his favour, and in
+order to gain this, gifts were made to him by the local resident
+population who depended on the produce of the land (see BAAL, especially
+_ad init._). Now when the Hebrews succeeded to these agricultural
+conditions and acquired possession of the Canaanite abodes, they
+naturally fell into the same cycle of religious ideas and tradition.
+Yahweh ceased to be exclusively regarded as god of the atmosphere,
+worshipped in a distant mountain, Horeb-Sinai, situated in the south
+country (_negebh_), and moving in the clouds of heaven before the
+Israelites in the desert, but he came to be associated with Israel's
+life in Canaan. He manifested His presence either by a signal victory
+over Israel's foes (Josh. x. 10, 11; 1 Sam. vii. 10-12) or by a
+thunderstorm (1 Sam. xii. 18) or through a dream (Gen. xxviii. 16 foll.;
+cf. 1 Kings iii. 5 foll.) at a sacred spot like Bethel. Accordingly,
+whenever His presence and power were displayed in places where the
+Canaanite Baal had been worshipped, they came to be attached to these
+spots. He had "put his name," i.e. power and presence (_numen_) there,
+and the same festivals and sacrifices which had previously been devoted
+to the cult of the Canaanite Baal were now annexed to the service of
+Yahweh, the war-god of the conquering race. The process of transference
+was facilitated by two potent causes: (a) Both Canaanite and Hebrew
+spoke a common language; (b) the name Baal is not in reality an
+individual proper name like Kemosh (Chemosh), Ramman or Hadad, but is,
+like El (Ilu) "god," an appellative meaning "lord," "owner" or
+"husband." The name Baal might therefore be used for any deity such as
+Milk (Milcom) or Shemesh ("sun") who was the divine owner of the spot.
+It was simply a covering epithet, and like the word "god" could be
+transferred from one deity to another. In this way Yahweh came to be
+called the Baal or "lord" of any sacred place where the armies of Israel
+by their victories attested "his mighty hand and outstretched arm." (See
+Kautzsch in Hastings's _D.B._, extra vol., p. 645 foll.)
+
+Such was the path of syncretism, and it was fraught with peril to the
+older and purer faith. For when Yahweh gradually became Israel's local
+Baal he became worshipped like the old Canaanite deity, and all the
+sensuous accompaniments of Kedeshoth,[11] as well as the presence of the
+_asherah_ or sacred pole, became attached to his cult. But the symbol
+carried with it the _numen_ of the goddess symbolized, and there can be
+little doubt that Asherah came to be regarded as Yahweh's consort. In
+the days of Manasseh syncretism went on unchecked even in the Jerusalem
+temple and its precincts, and it was not till the year of Jesiah's
+reformation (621 B.C.) that the Kedeshim and Kedeshoth as well as the
+Asherah were banished for ever from Yahweh's sanctuary (2 Kings xxi. 7,
+xxiii. 7), which their presence had profaned.
+
+Now local worship means the differentiation of the personality
+worshipped in the varied local shrines, in other words Ba'alim or Baals.
+Just as we have in Assyria an Ishtar of Arbela and an Ishtar of Nineveh
+(treated in Assur-bani-pal's (Rassam) cylinder[12] like two distinct
+deities), as we have local Madonnas in Roman Catholic countries, so must
+it have been with the cults of Yahweh in the regal period carried on in
+the numerous high places, Bethel, Shechem, Shiloh (till its destruction
+in the days of Eli) and Jerusalem. Each in turn claimed that Yahweh had
+placed his name (i.e. personal presence and power or numen) _there_.
+Each had a Yahweh of its own.
+
+On the other hand, old deities still lurked in old spots which had been
+for centuries their abode. It was no easy task to establish Yahweh in
+permanent possession of the new lands conquered by the Hebrew settlers.
+The old gods were not to be at once discrowned of might. Of this we have
+a vivid example in the episode 2 Kings xviii. 24-28. The inhabitants of
+Babylonia and other regions whom the Assyrian kings had settled in
+Ephraim after 721 B.C. (cf. Ezra iv. 10) are described as suffering from
+the depredations of lions, and a priest from the deported Ephraimites is
+sent to them to teach them the worship of Yahweh, the god of the land.
+Similarly in the earlier pre-exilian period of Israel's occupation of
+Canaanite territory the Hebrews were always subject to this tendency to
+worship the _old_ Baal or 'Ashtoreth (the goddess who made the cattle
+and flocks prolific).[13] A few years of drought or of bad seasons would
+make a Hebrew settler betake himself to the old Canaanite gods. Even in
+the days of Hosea the rivalry between Yahweh and the old Canaanite Baal
+still continued. The prophet reproaches his Ephraimite countrymen for
+going after their "lovers," the old local Baals who were supposed to
+have bestowed on them the bread, water, wool, flax and oil, and for not
+knowing that "it is I (Yahweh) who have bestowed on her (i.e. Israel)
+the corn, the new wine and the oil, and have bestowed on her silver and
+gold in abundance which they have wrought into a Baal image" (Hos. ii.
+10).
+
+External danger from a foreign foe, such as Midian or the Philistines,
+at once brought into prominence the claim and power of Yahweh, Israel's
+national war-god since the great days of the exodus. The religion of
+Yahweh (as Wellhausen said) meant patriotism, and in war-time tended to
+weld the participating tribes into a national unity. The book of Judges
+with its "monotonous tempo--religious declension, oppression,
+repentance, peace," to which Wellhausen[14] refers as its ever-recurring
+cycle, makes us familiar with these alternating phases of action and
+reaction. Times of peace meant national disintegration and the lapse of
+Israel into the Canaanite local cults, which is interpreted by the
+redactor as the prophets of the 8th century would have interpreted it,
+viz. as defection from Yahweh. On the other hand, times of war against a
+foreign foe meant on the religious side the unification, partial or
+complete, of the Israelite tribes by the rallying cry "the sword of
+Yahweh" (Judges vii. 20). In this way 'Ophrah became the centre of the
+coalition under Gideon in the tribe of Manasseh. Its importance is
+attested by Judges viii. 22-28, and we may disregard the "snare" which
+the Deuteronomic writer condemns in accordance with the later canons of
+orthodoxy. What 'Ophrah became on a small scale in the days of Gideon,
+Jerusalem became on a larger scale in the days of David and his
+successors. It was the religious expression of the unity of Israel which
+the life and death struggle with the Philistines had gradually wrought
+out.
+
+Despite the capture of the ark after the disastrous battle of Shiloh,
+Yahweh had in the end shown himself through a destructive plague
+superior in might to the Philistine Dagon. There are indeed abundant
+indications that prove that in the prevalent popular religion of the
+regal period monotheistic conceptions had no place. Yahweh was god only
+of Israel and of Israel's land. An invasion of foreign territory would
+bring Israel under the power of its patron-deity. The wrath with which
+the Israelite armies believed themselves to be visited (probably an
+outbreak of pestilence) when the king of Moab was reduced to his last
+extremity, was obviously the wrath of Chemosh the god of Moab, which the
+king's sacrifice of his only son had awakened against the invading army
+(2 Kings iii. 27). In other words, the ordinary Israelite worshipper of
+Yahweh was at this time far removed from monotheism, and still remained
+in the preliminary stage of henotheism, which regarded Yahweh as sole
+god of Israel and Israel's land, but at the same time recognized the
+existence and power of the deities of other lands and peoples. Of this
+we have recurring examples in pre-exilian Hebrew history. See 1 Sam.
+xxvi. 19; Judges xi. 23, 24; Ruth i. 16.
+
+
+  Material objects.
+
+5. _Characteristics and Constituent Elements._--It is only possible here
+to refer in briefest enumeration to the material and external objects
+and forms of popular Hebrew religion. These were of the simplest
+character. The upright stone (or _massebah_) was the material symbol of
+deity on which the blood of sacrifice was smeared, and in which the
+_numen_ of the god resided. It is probable that in some primitive
+sanctuaries no real distinction was made between this stone-pillar and
+the altar or place where the animal was slaughtered. In ordinary
+pre-exilian high places the custom described in the primitive compend of
+laws (Ex. xx. 24) would be observed. A mound of earth was raised which
+would serve as a platform on which the victim would be slaughtered in
+the presence of the concourse of spectators. In the more important
+shrines, as at Jerusalem or Samaria, there would be an altar of stone or
+of bronze. Another accompaniment of the sanctuary would be the sacred
+tree--most frequently a terebinth (cf. Judges ix. 37 "terebinth of
+soothsayers"), or it might be a palm tree (cf. "palm tree of Deborah" in
+Judges iv. 5), or a tamarisk (_'eshel_), or pomegranate (_rimmon_), as
+at the high place in Gibeah where Saul abode. Moreover, we have frequent
+references to sacred springs, as that of _Beer-sheba_, _'Enharod_
+(_'eyn-harod_) (Judges vii. 1; cf. also Judges 19, _'En-hakkore_
+[_'eyn-haqqore'_]). (On this subject of holy trees, holy waters and holy
+stones, consult article TREE-WORSHIP, and Robertson Smith's _Religion of
+the Semites_, 2nd ed., pp. 165-197.)
+
+The wide prevalence of magic and soothsaying may be illustrated from the
+historical books of the Old Testament as well as from the pre-exilian
+prophets. The latter indeed tolerated the _qosem_ (soothsayer) as they
+did the seer (ro'eh). The rhabdomancy denounced by Hosea (iv. 12) was
+associated with idolatry at the high places. But the arts of the
+necromancer were always and without exception treated as foreign to the
+religion of Yahweh. The necromancer of _ba'al 'obh'_ was held to be
+possessed of the spirit who spoke through him with a hollow voice.
+Indeed both necromancer and the spirit that possessed him were sometimes
+identified, and the former was simply called _obh_. It is probable that
+necromancy, like the worship of Asherah and 'Ashtoreth, as well as the
+cult of graven images, was a Canaanite importation into Israel's
+religious practices. (See Marti, _Religion des A.T._, p. 32.)
+
+
+  Priesthood.
+
+The history of the rise of the priesthood in Israel is exceedingly
+obscure. In the nomadic period and during the earlier years of the
+settlement of Israel in Canaan the head of every family could offer
+sacrifices. In the primitive codes, Ex. xx. 22-xxiii. 19 (E), xxxiv.
+10-28 (J), we have no allusion to any separate order of men who were
+qualified to offer sacrifices. In Ex. xxiv. 5 (E) we read that Moses
+simply commissioned young men to offer sacrifices. On the other hand the
+_addendum_ to the book of Judges, chaps. xvii., xviii. (which Budde,
+Moore and other critics consider to belong to the two sources of the
+narratives in Judges, viz. J[15] as well as E), makes reference to a
+Levite of Bethlehem-Judah, expressly stated in xvii. 7 as belonging to a
+clan of Judah. This man Micah took into his household as priest. This
+narrative has all the marks of primitive simplicity. There can be no
+reasonable doubt that the Levite here was member of a priestly tribe or
+order, and this view is confirmed by the discovery of what is really the
+same word in south Arabian inscriptions.[16] The narrative is of some
+value as it shows that while it was possible to appoint any one as a
+priest, since Micah, like David, appointed one of his own sons (xvii.
+5), yet a special priest-tribe or order also existed, and Micah
+considered that the acquisition of one of its members was for his
+household a very exceptional advantage: "Now I know that Yahweh will
+befriend me because I have the _Levite_ as priest."[17] In other words a
+priest who was a Levite possessed a superior professional qualification.
+He is paid ten shekels per annum, together with his food and clothing,
+and is dignified by the appellation "father" (cf. the like epithet of
+"mother" applied to the prophetess Deborah, Judges v. 7; see also 2
+Kings ii. 12, vi. 21, xiii. 14). This same narrative dwells upon the
+graven images, ephod and teraphim, as forming the apparatus of religious
+ceremonial in Micah's household. Now the ephod and teraphim are
+constantly mentioned together (cf. Hos. iii. 4) and were used in
+divination. The former was the plated image of Yahweh (cf. Judges viii.
+26, 27) and the latter were ancestral images (see Marti, _op. cit._ pp.
+27, 29; Harper, _Int. Comm._ "Amos and Hosea," p. 222). In other words
+the function of the priest was not merely sacrificial (a duty which
+Kautzsch unnecessarily detaches from the services which he originally
+rendered), nor did he merely bear the ark of the covenant and take
+charge of God's house; but he was also and mainly (as the Arabic name
+_kahin_ shows) the _soothsayer_ who consulted the ephod and gave the
+answers required on the field of battle (see 1 Sam. and 2 Sam. _passim_)
+and on other occasions. This is clearly shown in the "blessing of Moses"
+(Deut. xxxiii. 8), where the Levite is specially associated with another
+apparatus of inquiry, viz. the sacred lots, _Urim_ and _Thummim_. The
+true character of _Urim_ (as expressing "aye") and _Thummim_ (as
+expressing "nay") is shown by the reconstructed text of 1 Sam. xiv. 41
+on the basis of the Septuagint. See Driver _ad loc._
+
+
+  Geniality of Worship.
+
+The chief and most salient characteristic of the worship of the high
+places was geniality. The sacrifice was a feast of social communion
+between the deity and his worshippers, and knit both deity and
+clan-members together in the bonds of a close fellowship. This genial
+aspect of Hebrew worship is nowhere depicted more graphically than in
+the old narrative (a J section = Budde's G) 1 Sam. ix. 19-24, where a
+day of sacrifice in the high place is described. Saul and his attendant
+are invited by the seer-priest Samuel into the banqueting chamber
+(_lishkah_) where thirty persons partake of the sacrificial meal. It was
+the _'asiph_ or festival of ingathering, when the agricultural
+operations were brought to a close, which exhibited these genial
+features of Canaanite-Hebrew life most vividly. References to them
+abound in pre-exilian literature: Judges xxi. 21 (cf. ix. 27); Amos
+viii. 1 foll.; Hos. ix. 1 foll., Jer. xxxi. 4; Isa. xvi. 10 (Jer.
+xlviii. 33). These festivals formed the veins and arteries of ancient
+Hebrew clan and tribal life.[18] Wellhausen's characterization of the
+Arabian _hajj_[19] applies with equal force to the Hebrew _hagg_
+(festival): "They formed the rendezvous of ancient life. Here came under
+the protection of the peace of God the tribes and clans which otherwise
+lived apart from one another and only knew peace and security within
+their own frontiers." 1 Sam. xx. 28 foll. indicates the strong claims on
+personal attendance exercised on each individual member by the local
+clan festival at Bethlehem-Judah.
+
+It is easy to discern from varied allusions in the Old Testament that
+the Canaanite impress of sensuous life clung to the autumnal vintage
+festivals. They became orgiastic in character and scenes of drunkenness,
+cf. Judges ix. 27; 1 Sam. 14-16; Isa. xxviii. 7, 8. Against this
+tendency the _Nazirite_ order and tradition was a protest. Cf. Amos ii.
+11 foll.; Judges xiii. 7, 14. As certain sanctuaries, Shiloh, Shechem,
+Bethel, &c., grew in importance, the priesthoods that officiated at them
+would acquire special prestige. Eli, the head priest at Shiloh in the
+early youth of Samuel, held an important position in what was then the
+chief religious and political centre of Ephraim; and the office passed
+by inheritance to the sons in ordinary cases. In the regal period the
+royal residence gave the priesthood of that place an exceptional
+position. Thus Zadok, who obtained the priestly office at Jerusalem in
+the reign of Solomon and was succeeded by his sons, was regarded in
+later days as the founder of the true and legitimate succession of the
+priesthood descended from Levi (Ezek. xl. 46, xliii. 19, xliv. 15; cf. 1
+Kings ii. 27, 35). His descent, however, from Eleazar, the elder brother
+of Aaron, can only be regarded as the later artificial construction of
+the post-exilian chronicler (1 Chron. vi. 4-15, 50-53, xxiv. 1 foll.),
+who was controlled by the traditions which prevailed in the 4th century
+B.C. and after.
+
+6. _The Prophets._--The rise of the order of prophets, who gradually
+emerged out of and became distinct from the old Hebrew "seer" or augur
+(1 Sam. ix. 9),[20] marks a new epoch in the religious development of
+the Hebrews. Over the successive stages of this growth we pass lightly
+(see PROPHET). The life-and-death struggle between Israel and the
+Philistines in the reign of Saul called forth under Samuel's leadership
+a new order of "men of God," who were called "prophets" or divinely
+inspired speakers.[21] These men were distributed in various
+settlements, and their exercises were usually of an ecstatic character.
+The closest modern analogy would be the orders of dervishes in Islam.
+Probably there was little externally to distinguish the prophet of
+Yahweh in the days of Samuel from the Canaanite-Phoenician prophets of
+Baal and Asherah (1 Kings xviii. 19, 26, 28), for the practices of both
+were ecstatic and orgiastic (cf. 1 Sam. x. 5 foll., xviii. 10, xix. 23
+foll.). The special quality which distinguished these prophetic gilds or
+companies was an intense patriotism combined with enthusiastic devotion
+to the cause of Yahweh. This necessarily involved in that primitive age
+an extreme jealousy of foreign importations or innovations in ritual. It
+is obvious from numerous passages that these prophetic gilds recognized
+the superior position and leadership of Samuel, or of any other
+distinguished prophet such as Elijah or Elisha. Thus 1 Sam. xix. 20, 23
+et seq. show that Samuel was regarded as head of the prophetic
+settlement at Naioth. With reference to Elijah and Elisha, see 2 Kings
+ii. 3, 5, 15, iv. 1, 38 et seq., vi. 1 et seq. There cannot be any doubt
+that such enthusiastic devotees of Yahweh, in days when religion meant
+patriotism, did much to keep alive the flame of Israel's hope and
+courage in the dark period of national disaster. It is significant that
+Saul in his last unavailing struggle against the overwhelming forces of
+the Philistines sought through the medium of a sorceress for an
+interview with the deceased prophet Samuel. It was the advice of Elisha
+that rescued the armies of Jehoram and Jehoshaphat in their war against
+Moab when they were involved in the waterless wastes that surrounded
+them (2 Kings iii. 14 foll.). We again find Elisha intervening with
+effect on behalf of Israel in the wars against Syria, so that his fame
+spread to Syria itself (2 Kings v.-viii. 7 foll.). Lastly it was the
+fiery counsels of the dying prophet, accompanied by the acted magic of
+the arrow shot through the open window, and also of the thrice smitten
+floor, that gave nerve and courage to Joash, king of Israel, when the
+armies of Syria pressed heavily on the northern kingdom (2 Kings xiii.
+14-19).
+
+We see that the prophet had now definitely emerged from the old position
+of "seer." Prophetic personality now moved in a larger sphere than that
+of divination, important though that function be in the social life of
+the ancient state[22] as instrumental in declaring the will of the deity
+when any enterprise was on foot. For the prophet's function became in an
+increasing degree a function of _mind_, and not merely of traditional
+routine or mechanical technique, like that of the diviner with his
+arrows or his lots which he cast in the presence of the ephod or plated
+Yahweh image. The new name _nabhi'_ became necessary to express this
+function of more exalted significance, in which human personality played
+its larger rôle. Even as early as the time of David it would seem that
+Nathan assumed this more developed function as interpreter of Yahweh's
+righteous will to David. But both in 2 Sam. xii. 1-15 as well as in 2
+Sam. vii. we have sections which are evidently coloured by the
+conceptions of a later time. We stand on safer ground when we come to
+Elijah's bold intervention on behalf of righteousness when he declared
+in the name of Yahweh the divine judgment on Ahab and his house for the
+judicial murder of Naboth. We here observe a great advance in the
+vocation of the prophet. He becomes the interpreter and vindicator of
+divine justice, the vocal exponent of a nation's conscience. For Elijah
+was in this case obviously no originator or innovator. He represents the
+old ethical Mosaism, which had not disappeared from the national
+consciousness, but still remained as the moral pre-supposition on which
+the prophets of the following century based their appeals and
+denunciations. It is highly significant that Elijah, when driven from
+the northern kingdom by the threats of the Tyrian Jezebel, retreats to
+the old sanctuary at Horeb, whence Moses derived his inspiration and his
+Torah.
+
+We have hitherto dealt with isolated examples of prophetism and its rare
+and distinguished personalities. The ordinary Hebrew _nabhi'_ still
+remained not the reflective visionary, stirred at times by music into
+strange raptures (2 Kings iii. 15), but the ecstatic and orgiastic
+dervish who was _meshuggah_ or "frenzied," a term which was constantly
+applied to him from the days of Elisha to those of Jeremiah (2 Kings ix.
+11; in Hos. ix. 7 and Jer. xxix. 26 it is regarded as a term of
+reproach). It is only in rare instances that some exalted personality is
+raised to a higher level. Of this we have an interesting example in the
+vivid episode that preceded the battle of Ramoth-Gilead described in 1
+Kings xxii., when Micaiah appears as the true prophet of Yahweh, who in
+his rare independence stands in sharp contrast with the conventional
+court prophets, who prophesied then, as their descendants prophesied
+more than two centuries later, smooth things.
+
+It is not, however, till the 8th century that prophecy attained its
+highest level as the interpreter of God's ways to men. This is due to
+the fact that it for the first time unfolded the true character of
+Yahweh, implicit in the old Mosaic religion and submerged in the
+subsequent centuries of Israel's life in Canaan, but now at length made
+clear and explicit to the mind of the nation. It became now detached
+from the limitations of nationalism and local association with which it
+had been hitherto circumscribed.
+
+Even Elisha, the greatest prophet of the 9th century, had remained
+within these national limitations which characterized the popular
+conceptions of Yahweh. Yahweh was Israel's war-god. His power was
+asserted in and from Canaanite soil. If Naaman was to be healed, it
+could only be in a Palestinian river, and two mules' load of earth would
+be the only permanent guarantee of Yahweh's effective blessing on the
+Syrian general in his Syrian home.
+
+That larger conceptions prevailed in some of the loftier minds of
+Israel, and may be held to have existed even as far back as the age of
+Moses, is a fact which the Yahwistic cosmogony in Gen. ii. 4b-9 (which
+may have been composed in the 9th century B.C.) clearly suggests, and it
+is strongly sustained by the overwhelming evidence of the powerful
+influence of Babylonian culture in the Palestinian region during the
+centuries 2000-1400 B.C.[23] Probably in our modern construction of
+ancient Hebrew history sufficient consideration has not been given to
+the inevitable coexistence of different types and planes of thought,
+each evolved from earlier and more primordial forms. In other words we
+have to deal not with _one_ evolution but with evolutions.
+
+The existence of the purer and larger conception of Yahweh's character
+and power before the advent of Amos indicates that the transition from
+the past was not so sudden as Wellhausen's graphic portrayal in the 9th
+edition of this _Encyclopaedia_ (art. ISRAEL) would have led us to
+suppose. There were pre-existent ideas upon which that prophet's
+epoch-making message was based. Yet this consideration should in no way
+obscure the fact that the prophet lived and worked in the all-pervading
+atmosphere of the popular syncretic Yahweh religion, intensely national
+and local in its character. In Wellhausen's words, each petty state
+"revolved on its own axis" of social-religious life till the armies of
+Tiglath-Pileser III. broke up the security within the Canaanite borders.
+According to the dominating popular conception, the destruction of the
+national power by a foreign army meant the overthrow of the prestige of
+the national deity by the foreign nation's god. If Assyria finally
+overthrew Israel and carried off Yahweh's shrine, Assur (Asur), the
+tutelary deity of Assyria, was mightier than Yahweh. This was precisely
+what was happening among the northern states, and Amos foresaw that this
+might eventually be Israel's doom. Rabshakeh's appeal to the besieged
+inhabitants of Jerusalem was based on these same considerations. He
+argued from past history that Yahweh would be powerless in the presence
+of Ashur (2 Kings xviii. 33-35).
+
+This problem of religion was solved by Amos and by the prophets who
+succeeded him through a more exalted conception of Yahweh and His sphere
+of working, which tended to detach Him from His limited realm as a
+national deity. Amos exhibited Him to his countrymen as lord of the
+universe, who made the seven stars and Orion and turns the deep midnight
+darkness into morning. He calls to the waters of the sea and pours them
+on the earth's surface (chap. v. 8). Such a universal God of the world
+would hardly make Israel His exclusive concern. Thus He not only brought
+the Israelites out of Egypt, but also the Philistines from Caphtor and
+the Syrians from Kir (ix. 7). But Amos went beyond this. Yahweh was not
+only the lord of the universe and possessed of sovereign power. The
+prophet also emphasized with passionate earnestness that Yahweh was a
+God whose character was righteous, and God's demand upon His people
+Israel was not for sacrifices but for _righteous conduct_. Sacrifice, as
+this prophet, like his successor Jeremiah, insisted (Amos v. 25; cf.
+Jer. vii. 22) played no part in Mosaic religion. In words which
+evidently impressed his younger contemporary Isaiah (cf. esp. Is. chap.
+i. 11-17), Amos denounced the non-ethical ceremonial formalism of his
+countrymen which then prevailed (chap. v. 21 foll.):--
+
+  "I hate, I contemn your festivals and in your feasts I delight not;
+  for when you offer me your burnt-offerings and gifts, I do not regard
+  them with favour and your fatted peace-offerings I will not look at.
+  Take away from me the clamour of your songs; and the music of your
+  viols I will not hear. But let judgment roll down like waters and
+  justice like a perennial brook."
+
+In the younger contemporary prophet of Ephraim, Hosea, the stress is
+laid on the relation of love (_hesed_) between Yahweh, the divine
+husband, and Israel, the faithless spouse. Israel's faithlessness is
+shown in idolatry and the prevailing corruption of the high places in
+which the old Canaanite Baal was worshipped instead of Yahweh. It is
+shown, moreover, in foreign alliances. Compacts with a powerful foreign
+state, under whose aegis Israel was glad to shelter, involved covenants
+sealed by sacrificial rites in which the deity or deities of the foreign
+state were involved as well as Yahweh, the god of the weaker
+vassal-state. And so Yahweh's honour was compromised. While these
+aspects of Israel's relation to Yahweh are emphasized by the Ephraimite
+prophet, the larger conceptions of Yahweh's character as universal Lord
+and the God of righteousness, whose government of the world is ethical,
+emphasized by the prophet of Tekoah, are scarcely presented.
+
+In Isaiah both aspects--divine universal sovereignty and justice, taught
+by Amos, and divine loving-kindness to Israel and God's claims on His
+people's allegiance, taught by Hosea--are fully expressed. Yahweh's
+relation of love to Israel is exhibited under the purer symbol of
+fatherhood (Isa. i. 2-4), a conception which was as ancient and familiar
+as that of husband, though perhaps the latter recurs more frequently in
+prophecy (Isa. i. 21; Ezek. xvi. &c.). Even more insistently does Isaiah
+present the great truth of God's universal sovereignty. As with his
+elder contemporary, the foreign peoples--(but in Isaiah's oracles
+Assyria and Egypt as well as the Palestinian races)--come within his
+survey. The "fullness of the earth" is Yahweh's glory (vi. 3) and the
+nations of the earth are the instruments of His irresistible and
+righteous will. Assyria is the "bee" and Egypt the "fly" for which
+Yahweh hisses. Assyria is the "hired razor" (Isa. vii. 18, 19), or the
+"rod of His wrath," for the chastisement of Israel (x. 5). But the
+instrument unduly exalts itself, and Assyria itself shall suffer
+humiliation at the hands of the world's divine sovereign (x. 7-15).
+
+And so the old limitations of Israel's popular religion,--the same
+limitations that encumbered also the religions of all the neighbouring
+races that succumbed in turn to Assyria's invincible progress,--now
+began to disappear. Therefore, while every other religion which was
+purely national was extinguished in the nation's overthrow, the religion
+of Israel survived even amid exile and dispersion. For Amos and Isaiah
+were able to single out those loftier spiritual and ethical elements
+which lay implicit in Mosaism and to lift them into their due place of
+prominence. National _sacra_ and the ceremonial requirements were made
+to assume a secondary rôle or were even ignored.[24] The centre of
+gravity in Hebrew religion was shifted from ceremonial observance and
+local sacra to righteous conduct. Religion and righteousness were
+henceforth welded into an indissoluble whole. The religion of Yahweh was
+no longer to rest upon the narrow perishable basis of locality and
+national sacra, but on the broad adamantine foundations of a universal
+divine sovereignty over all mankind and of righteousness as the
+essential element in the character of Yahweh and in his claims on man.
+This was the "corner-stone of precious solid foundation": "I will make
+judgment the measuring-line and righteousness the plummet" (Isa. xxviii.
+16, 17). The religion of the Hebrew race--properly the Jews--now enters
+on a new stage, for it should be observed that it was Amos, Isaiah and
+Micah--prophets of Judah--who laid the actual foundations. The latter
+half of the 8th century, which witnessed a rapid succession of reigns in
+the northern kingdom accompanied by dismemberment of its territory and
+final overthrow, witnessed also the humiliating vassalage and religious
+decline of the kingdom of Judah. Unlike Amos and Micah, Isaiah was not
+only the prophet of denunciation but also the prophet of hope. Though
+Yahweh's chastisements on Ephraim and Judah would continue to fall till
+scarcely a remnant was left (Isa. vi. 13, LXX.), yet all was not to be
+lost. A remnant of the people was to return, i.e. be converted to
+Yahweh. The name given to an infant child--Immanuel--was to become the
+mystic symbol of a growing hope. God's presence was to abide in
+Jerusalem, and, as the century drew near its close, "Immanuel" became
+the watchword and talisman of a strong faith that God would never permit
+Jerusalem to be captured by the Assyrians. In fact it is not improbable
+that the words of consolation uttered by the prophet (Isa. viii. 9-10)
+in the dark days of Ahaz (735-734 B.C.) were among the oracles which God
+commanded Isaiah "to seal up among his disciples" (verse 16), and that
+they were quoted once more with effect as the armies of Sennacherib
+closed around Jerusalem. The talismanic name Immanuel became the nucleus
+out of which the later _Messianic_ prophecies of Isaiah grew. To this
+age alone can we probably assign Isa. ix. 1-7, xi. 1-9, xxxii. 1-3. The
+hopes expressed in the word Immanuel, "God with us," were to become
+embodied in a personality of the royal seed of David, an ideal righteous
+ruler who was to bring peace to the war-distraught realm. Thus Isaiah
+became in that troubled age the true founder of _Messianic_ prophecy.
+The strange contrast between the succession of dynasties and kings cut
+off by assassination in the northern kingdom, ending in the tragic
+overthrow of 721 B.C., and the persistent succession through three
+centuries of the seed of David on the throne of Jerusalem, as well as
+the marvellous escape of Jerusalem in 701 B.C. from the fate of Samaria,
+must have invested the seed of David in the eyes of all thoughtful
+observers with a mysterious and divine significance. The Messianic
+prophecies of Isaiah, the prophet of faith and deliverance, were
+destined to reverberate through all subsequent centuries. We hear the
+echoes in Jeremiah and Ezekiel and lastly in Haggai in ever feebler
+tones, and they were destined to reawaken in the Psalter (Pss. ii. and
+lxxii.), in the psalms of Solomon and in the days of Christ. See MESSIAH
+(and also the article "Messiah" in Hastings's _Dict. of Christ and the
+Gospels_).
+
+The next notable contribution to the permanent growth of Hebrew
+prophetic religion was made about a century after the lifetime of Isaiah
+by Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The reaction into idolatry and Babylonian star
+worship in the long reign of Manasseh synchronized and was connected
+with vassalage to Assyria, while the reformation in the reign of Josiah
+(621 B.C.) is conversely associated with the decay of Assyrian power
+after the death of Assur-bani-pal. That reformation failed to effect its
+purifying mission. The hurt of the daughter of God's people was but
+lightly healed (Jer. vi. 14, 15; cf. viii. 11, 12). No possibility of
+recovery now remained to the diseased Hebrew state. The outlook appeared
+indeed far darker to Jeremiah than it seemed more than a century before
+to Isaiah in the evil days of Jotham and Ahaz, "when the whole head was
+sick and the whole heart faint" (Isa. i. 5). Jeremiah foresaw that there
+was now no possibility of recovery. The Hebrew state was doomed and even
+its temple was to be destroyed. This involved an entire reconstruction
+of theological ideas which went beyond even the reconstructions of Amos
+and Isaiah. In the old religion the race or clan was the unit of
+religion as well as of social life. Properly speaking, the individual
+was related to God only through the externalities of the clan or tribal
+life, its common temple and its common _sacra_. But now that these
+external bases of the old religion were to be swept away, a
+reconstruction of religious ideas became necessary. For the external
+supports which had vanished Jeremiah substituted a basis which was
+_internal, personal and spiritual_ (i.e. _ethical_). In place of the old
+covenant based on external observance, which had been violated, there
+was to be a _new covenant_ which was to consist not in outward
+prescription, but in the law which God would place _in the heart_ (Jer.
+xxxi. 30-33). This was to take place by an act of divine grace (Jer.
+xxiv. 5 foll.): "I will give them an heart to know me that I am the
+Lord" (verse 7). Ezekiel, who borrowed both Jeremiah's language and
+ideas, expresses the same thought in the well-known words that Yahweh
+would give the people instead of a heart of stone a heart of flesh
+(Ezek. xi. 19, 20, xx. 40 foll., xxxvi. 25-27), and would shame them by
+his loving-kindness into repentance, and there "shall ye remember your
+ways and all your doings wherein ye have been defiled and ye shall
+loathe yourselves in your own sight" (xx. 43).
+
+_Personal religion_ now became an important element in Hebrew piety and
+upon this there logically followed the idea of _personal
+responsibility_. The solidarity of race or family was expressed in the
+old tradition reflected in Deut. v. 9, 10, that God would visit the sins
+of the fathers upon the children, and it lived on in later Judaism under
+exaggerated forms. The hopes of the individual Jew were based on the
+piety of holy ancestors. "We have Abraham as our father." But _Ezekiel_
+expressed the strong reaction which had set in against this belief in
+its older forms. He denies that the individual ever dies for the sins of
+the father. "The soul that sinneth, it (the pronoun emphasized in the
+original) shall die" (Ezek. xviii. 4). Neither Noah, Daniel nor Job
+could have rescued by his righteousness any but his own soul (xiv. 14).
+And as a further consequence _individual freedom_ is strongly asserted.
+It is possible for every sinner to turn to God and escape punishment,
+and conversely for a righteous man to backslide and fall. In the
+presence of these awful truths which Ezekiel preached of individual
+freedom and of impending judgment, the prophet is weighted with a heavy
+responsibility. It is his duty to warn every individual, for no sinner
+is to be punished without warning (Ezek. iii. 16 foll. xxxiii.).
+
+The closing years of the Judaean kingdom and the final destruction of
+the temple (586 B.C.) shattered the Messianic ideals cherished in the
+evening of Isaiah's lifetime and again in the opening years of the reign
+of Josiah. The untimely death of that monarch upon the battlefield of
+Megiddo (608 B.C.), followed by the inglorious reigns of the kings who
+succeeded him, who became puppets in turn of Egypt or of Babylonia,
+silenced for a while the Messianic hopes for a future king or line of
+kings of Davidic lineage who would rule a renovated kingdom in
+righteousness and peace. Even in the darkness of the exile period hopes
+did not die. Yet they no longer remained the same. In the Deutero-Isaiah
+(chaps. xl.-lv.) we have no longer a Jewish but a _foreign_ messiah. The
+onward progress of the Persian Cyrus and his anticipated conquest of
+Babylonia marked him out as Yahweh's anointed instrument for effecting
+the deliverance of exiled Israel and their restoration to their old home
+and city (Isa. xli. 2, xliv. 24, xlv.). This was, however, but a
+subsidiary issue and possesses no permanent spiritual significance. Of
+far more vital importance is the conception of Israel as God's
+_suffering servant_. This is not the place to enter into the prolonged
+controversy as to the real significance of this term, whether it
+signifies the nation Israel or the righteous community only, or finally
+an idealized prophetic individual who, like the prophet Jeremiah, was
+destined to suffer for the well-being of his people. Duhm, in his
+epoch-making commentary, distinguishes on the grounds of metre and
+contents _the four servant-passages_, in the last of which (lii.
+13-liii. 12) the ideal suffering servant of Yahweh is portrayed most
+definitely as an individual. In the "servant-passages" he is innocent,
+while in the rest of the Deutero-Isaiah he appears as by no means
+faultless, and the personal traits are not prominent. These views of
+Duhm, in which a severe distinction is thus drawn between the
+representation of Yahweh's servant in the servant-passages, and that
+which meets us in the rest of the Deutero-Isaiah, have been challenged
+by a succession of critics.[25] It is only necessary for us to take note
+of the ideal in its general features. It probably arose from the fact
+that the calamities from which Israel had suffered both before and
+during the exile had drawn the reflective minds of the race to the
+contemplation of the problem of suffering. The "servant of Yahweh"
+presents one aspect of the problem and its attempted solution, the book
+of Job another, while in the Psalms, e.g. Pss. xxii., xlii.-xliii.,
+lxxiii., lxxvii., other phases of the problem are presented. In the
+Deutero-Isaiah the meaning of Israel's sufferings is exhibited as
+vicarious. Israel is suffering for a great end. He suffers, is despised,
+rejected, chastened and afflicted that others may be blessed and be at
+peace through his chastisement. This noble conception of Israel's great
+destiny is conveyed in Isa. xlix. 6, in words which may be regarded as
+perhaps the noblest utterance in Hebrew prophecy: "To establish the
+tribes of Jacob and bring back the preserved of Israel is less important
+than being my servant. Yea, I will make you a light to the _Gentiles_
+that my salvation may be unto the end of the earth."[26] This passage,
+which belongs to the second of the brief "servant-songs," sets the
+mission of Israel in its true relation to the world. It is the necessary
+corollary to the teaching of Amos, that God is the righteous lord of all
+the world. If Jerusalem has been chosen as His sanctuary and Israel as
+His own people, it is only that Israel may diffuse God's blessings in
+the world even at the cost of Israel's own humiliation, exile and
+dispersion.
+
+The Deutero-Isaiah closes a great prophetic succession, which begins
+with Amos, continues in Isaiah in even greater splendour with the added
+elements of hope and Messianic expectation, and receives further
+accession in Jeremiah with his special teaching on inward spiritual and
+personal religion which constituted the new covenant of divine grace.
+Finally the Deutero-Isaiah conveyed to captive Israel the message of
+Yahweh's unceasing love and care, and the certainty of their return to
+Judaea and the restoration of the national prosperity which Ezekiel had
+already announced in the earlier period of the exile. To this is united
+the noble ideal of the suffering servant, which serves both as a
+contribution to the great problem of suffering as purifying and
+vicarious and as the interpretation to the mind of the nation itself of
+that nation's true function in the future, a lesson which the actual
+future showed that Israel was slow to receive. Nowhere in the Old
+Testament does the doctrine taught by Amos of Yahweh's universal power
+and sovereignty receive ampler and more splendid exposition than in the
+great lyrical passages of chap. xl. It marks the highest point to which
+the Hebrew race attained in its progress from henotheism to monotheism.
+Here again we see the wholesome influences of the exile. The Jew had
+passed from the narrow confines of his homeland into a wider world, and
+this larger vision of human life reacted on the prophet's theology. This
+closes the evolution of Hebrew prophetism. What immediately follows is
+on a descending slope with some striking exceptions, e.g. the book of
+Job and the book of Jonah.
+
+7. _Deuteronomic Legalism._--The book of Deuteronomy was the product of
+prophetic teaching operating on traditional custom, which was
+represented in its essential features by the two codes of legislation
+contained in Ex. xx. 24-xxiii. 19 (E) and Ex. xxxiv. 10-26 (J), but had
+also become tainted and corrupted by centuries of Canaanite influence
+and practice which especially infected the cult of the _high places_.
+The existence of "high places" is pre-supposed in those two ancient
+codes and is also presumed in the narratives of the documents E and J
+which contain them. But the prevalence of the worship of "other gods"
+and of graven images in these "high places," and the moral debasement of
+life which accompanied these cults, made it clear that the "high places"
+were sources of grave injury to Israel's social life. In all probability
+the reformation instituted in the reign of Hezekiah, to which 2 Kings
+xviii. 4 (cf. verse 22) refers, was only partial. It is hardly possible
+that all the high places were suppressed. The idolatrous reaction in the
+reign of Manasseh appears to have restored all the evils of the past and
+added to them. Another and more drastic reform than that which had been
+previously initiated (probably at the instigation of Isaiah and Micah)
+now became necessary to save the state. It is universally held by
+critics that our present book of Deuteronomy (certainly chaps.
+xii.-xxvi.) is closely connected with the reformation in the reign of
+Josiah. It is quite clear that many provisions in the old codes of J and
+E expanded lie at the basis of the book of Deuteronomy. But new features
+were added. We note for the first time definite regulations respecting
+Passover and the close union of that celebration with _Massoth_ or
+"unleavened bread." We note the laws respecting the clean and unclean
+animals (certainly based on ancient custom). Moreover, the prohibitions
+are strengthened and multiplied. In addition to the bare interdict of
+the sorceress (Ex. xxii. 18), of stone pillars to the Canaanite Baal, of
+the Asherah-pole, molten images and the worship of other gods than
+Yahweh (Ex. xxxiv. 13-17), we now have the strict prohibition of _any
+employment whatever_ of the stone-symbol (_Massebhah_), and of all forms
+of sorcery, soothsaying and necromancy (Deut. xviii. 10, 11. Respecting
+the stone-pillar see xvi. 22). But of much more far-reaching importance
+was the _law of the central sanctuary_ which constantly meets us in
+Deuteronomy in the reference to "the place (i.e. Jerusalem) which Yahweh
+your God shall choose out of all your tribes to put His name there"
+(xii. 5, xvi. 5, 11, 16, xxvi. 2). There alone all offerings of any kind
+were to be presented (xii. 6, 7, xvi. 7). By this positive enactment all
+the high places outside the one sanctuary in Jerusalem became
+illegitimate. A further consequence directly followed from the
+limitation as to sanctuary, viz. limitation as to the officiating
+ministers of the sanctuary. In the "book of the covenant" (Ex. xx.
+22-xxii. 19), as we have already seen, and in the general practice of
+the regal period, there was no limitation as to the priesthood, but a
+definite order of priesthood, viz. Levites, existed, to whom a higher
+professional prestige belonged. As it was impossible to find a place for
+the officiating priests of the high places, non-levitical as well as
+levitical, in the single sanctuary, it became necessary to restrict the
+functions of sacrifice to the Levites only as well as to the existing
+official priesthood of the Jerusalem temple (see PRIEST). Doubtless such
+a reform met with strong resistance from the disestablished and vested
+interests, but it was firmly supported by royal influence and by the
+Jerusalem priesthood as well as by the true prophets of Yahweh who had
+protested against the idolatrous usages and corruptions of the high
+places.
+
+The strong impress of Hebrew prophecy is to be found in the deeply
+marked ethical spirit of the Deuteronomic legislation. Love to God and
+love to man is stamped on a large number of its provisions. Love to God
+is emphasized in Deut. vi. 5, while love to man meets us in the constant
+reference to the fatherless and the widow (cf. especially Deut. xvi.).
+This note of philanthropy is frequently found as a mitigating element
+(e.g. in the laws respecting slavery and war)[27] that subdues or even
+removes the harshness of earlier laws or usages. It should be noted,
+however, that the spirit of brotherly love was confined within national
+barriers. It did not operate as a rule beyond the limits of race.
+
+The book of Deuteronomy, in conjunction with the reformation of Josiah's
+reign (which synchronizes with the rapid decline of Assyria and the
+reviving prestige of Yahweh), appeared to mark the triumph of the great
+prophetic movement. It became at once a codified standard of purer
+religious life and ultimately served as a beacon of light for the
+future. But there was shadow as well as light. We note (a) that though
+the book of Deuteronomy bears the prophetic impress, the priestly
+impress is perhaps more marked. The writer "evinces a warm regard for
+the priestly tribe; he guards its privileges (xviii. 1-8), demands
+obedience for its decisions (xxiv. 8; cf. xvii. 10-12) and earnestly
+commends its members to the Israelites' benevolence (xii. 18-19, xiv.
+27-29, &c.)."[28] (b) In many passages Jewish particularism is painfully
+manifest. Yahweh's care for other peoples does not appear. The flesh of
+a dead (unslaughtered) beast is not to be eaten, but it may be given to
+the "stranger within the gates"! (Deut. xiv. 21).[29] (c) Prophetic
+religion was a religion of the spirit which came to the messenger (Isa.
+lxi. 1) and expressed itself as a word of instruction of Yahweh
+(_torah_); see Isa. 1. 10. Now when the Hebrew religion was reduced to
+written form it began to be a book-religion, and since the book
+consisted of fixed rules and enactments, religion began to acquire a
+stereotyped character. It will be seen in the sequel that this was
+destined to be the growing tendency of Jewish religious life--to conform
+itself to prescribed rules, in other words, it became _legalism_. (d)
+Lastly, the old genial life of the high places, in which the "new moon"
+or Sabbath or the annual festival was a sacrificial feast of communion,
+in which the members of the local community or clan enjoyed fellowship
+with one another--all this picturesque life ceased to be. And though
+there was positive gain in the removal of idolatrous and corrupt modes
+of worship, there was also positive loss in the disappearance of this
+old genial phase of Hebrew social life and worship. It involved a vast
+difference to many a Judaean village when the festival pilgrimage was no
+longer made to the familiar local sanctuary with its hoary associations
+of ancient heroic or patriarchal story, but to a distant and
+comparatively unfamiliar city with its stately shrine and priesthood.
+
+8. _Ezekiel's System._--Ezekiel was the successor of Jeremiah and
+inherited his conceptions. But though the younger prophet adopted the
+ideas respecting personal religion and individual responsibility from
+the elder, the characters of the two men were very different. Jeremiah,
+when he foretold the destruction of the external state and temple
+ritual, found no resource save in a reconstruction that was internal and
+spiritual. In this he was true to his prophetic impulse and genius. But
+Ezekiel was, as Wellhausen well describes him, "a priest in prophet's
+mantle." While Jeremiah's tendency was spiritual and ideal, Ezekiel's
+was constructive and practical. He was the first to foretell with
+clearness the return of his people from captivity foreshadowed by
+Jeremiah, and he set himself the task even in the midnight darkness of
+Israel's exile to prepare for the nation's renewed life. The external
+bases of Israel's religion had been swept away, and in exchange for
+these Jeremiah had led his countrymen to the more permanent internal
+grounds of a spiritual renewal. But a religion could not permanently
+subsist in this world of space and time without some external concrete
+embodiment. It was the task of Ezekiel to take up once more the broken
+threads of Israel's religious traditions, and weave them anew into
+statelier forms of ritual and national polity. The priest-prophet's keen
+eye for detail, manifested in the elaborate vision of the wheels and
+living creatures (Ezek. i.) and in his lamentation on Tyre (chap.
+xxvii.), is also exhibited in the visions contained in chaps.
+xl.-xlviii., which describe the ideal reconstructed temple and theocracy
+of the restored Israel. The foreground is filled by the temple and its
+precincts. The officiating priests are now the descendants of the line
+of Zadok belonging to the tribe of Levi. Thus the priesthood is still
+further restricted as compared with the restriction already noted in the
+Deuteronomic legislation. It is the sons of Zadok only that have any
+right to offer sacrifice at the altar of burnt offering (xliii. 19,
+xliv. 15 foll.). The Levites, who formerly ministered in the high
+places, now discharge the subordinate offices of gate-keepers and
+slaughterers of the sacrificial victims.
+
+Another element in this ideal scheme which comes into prominence is the
+sharp distinction between _holy_ and _profane_. The word _holiness_
+(_qodesh_) in primitive Hebrew usage partook of the nature of taboo, and
+came to be applied to whatever, whether thing or person, stood in close
+relation to deity and belonged to him, and could not, therefore, be used
+or treated like other objects not so related, and so was separated or
+stood apart. The idea underlying the word, which to _us_ is invested
+with deep ethical meaning, had only this non-ethical, ritual
+significance in Ezekiel. Unlike the old temple and city, the ideal
+temple of Ezekiel is entirely separate from the city of Jerusalem. In
+the immediate surroundings of the temple there is an open space. Then
+come two concentric forecourts of the temple. The temple stands in the
+midst of what is called the _gizrah_ or space severed off. The outer
+court lies higher than the open space, the inner court higher still, and
+the temple-building in the centre highest of all. No heathen may tread
+the outer court, no layman the inner court, while the holiest of all may
+not be trodden even by the priest Ezekiel but only by the angel who
+accompanies him. "The temple-house has a graduated series of
+compartments increasing in sanctity inwards" (Davidson). In the
+innermost the presence of Yahweh abides.
+
+We are here moving in a realm of ideas prevailing in ancient Israel
+respecting _holiness_, _uncleanness_ and _sin_, which are ceremonial and
+not ethical; see especially Robertson Smith's _Religion of the Semites_,
+2nd ed., p. 446 foll. (additional note B.) on holiness, uncleanness and
+taboo. It is, of course, true that the ethical conception of sin as
+violation of righteousness and an act of rebellion against the divine
+righteous will had been developed since the days of Amos and Isaiah;
+but, as we have already observed, cultus and prophetic teaching were
+separated by an immense gulf, and in spite of the reformation of 621
+B.C. still remain separated. In the sacrificial system of sin-offerings
+(_hattath_ and _'asham_) we have to do with sin as ceremonial violation
+and neglect (frequently involuntary), or violation of holiness in the
+old sense of the term or as personal uncleanness (touching a corpse,
+eating unclean food, sexual impurity, &c.). In the historical evolution
+of Hebrew sacrifice it is remarkable how long this non-ethical and
+primitive survival of old custom still survived, even far into
+post-exilian times. (See SACRIFICE; also Moore's art. "Sacrifice" in
+_Ency. Bibl._)
+
+One conspicuous feature of Ezekiel's system is the predominance of
+piacular sacrifice. It undoubtedly existed in pre-exilian Israel,
+especially in times of crisis or calamity, for the appeasement of an
+offended deity (2 Sam. xxiv. 18 foll.), and in Deut. xxi. 1-9, we have
+details of the purificatory rite which was necessary when human blood
+was shed; but now and in the future propitiatory sacrifice and ideas of
+propitiation began to overshadow all the other forms of sacrifice and
+their ideas. Ezekiel prescribes a half-yearly ritual of sin-offering
+whereby atonement was to be made (xlv. 18-20). We shall see subsequently
+to what great institution this led the way.
+
+Ezekiel's system constituted an _ecclesiastical_ in place of a political
+organization, a _church-state_ in place of a nation. We clearly discern
+how this reacted on his Messianic conceptions. In his earlier oracles
+(xxxiv. 23 foll.) we find one shepherd ruling over united Israel, viz.
+Yahweh's servant David, whereas in the ideal scheme detailed in chap.
+xl. et seq. the rôle of the prince as a ruler is a very shadowy one. The
+prince, it is true, has a central domain, but his functions are
+ecclesiastical and subordinate and his powers strictly limited (xlvi.
+3-8, 12, 16-18).
+
+Thus the exile period marks the parting of the ways in the development
+of Hebrew religion. In the Deutero-Isaiah we reach the highest point in
+the evolution of prophetism. It is true that we have some noble
+resounding echoes in the lyrical passages lx.-lxii. In the Trito-Isaiah
+during the post-exilian period, and in such psalm literature as Pss.
+xxii., xxxvii., l., lxii., cvii., cxlv. 9-12 and others; and also in
+Isa. xxxv., which is obviously a lyrical reproduction of earlier
+literature. But it cannot be said that we possess in later literature
+any fresh contribution to the conception of God or any presentation of a
+higher ideal of human life[30] or national destiny than that which meets
+us in chap. xl. or in the servant-passages of the Deutero-Isaiah. It may
+with truth be said that _after Jeremiah we discern the parting of the
+ways_. The _first_ is represented by the Deutero-Isaiah, who constitutes
+the climax and close of Hebrew prophetism, which is henceforth (with the
+possible exception of the Trito-Isaiah, Malachi and Jonah, who reproduce
+some features of the earlier prophecy) a virtually arrested development.
+The _second path_ is that which is traced out by the priest-prophet
+Ezekiel, and is that of _legalism_, which was destined to secure a
+permanent place in the life and literature of the Jewish people. It is
+essentially the path which may be summed up in the word _Judaism_,
+though, as will be shown in the sequel, Judaism came to include many
+other factors. The statement, however, remains virtually true, since
+Judaism is mainly constituted by the body of legal precepts called the
+Torah, and, moreover, by the post-exilian Torah.
+
+9. _Post-exilian Law--The Priestercodex._[31]--The oracles of Malachi
+clearly reveal the continued influence of the book of Deuteronomy in his
+day. But the new conditions created by the return of the exiles and the
+germinating influence of Ezekiel's ideas developed a process of new
+legislative construction. The code of holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.) is the
+most obvious product of that influence. The ideas of expiation and
+atonement so prevalent in Ezekiel's scheme, which there find expression
+in the half-yearly sacrificial celebrations, are expressed in Lev. xvi.
+in the single _annual great fast of atonement_. It is impossible to
+enter here into the numerous details of that impressive ceremonial. Two
+special features, however, which characterize the celebration should
+here be noted: (a) The person of the _high priest_, who is throughout
+the entire drama the chief and indeed the sole actor. This supreme
+official, who was destined ultimately to take the place of the king in
+the church-nation of post-exilian Judaism, is mentioned for the first
+time in Zech. iii. 1[32] (in the person of Joshua). In the Priestercodex
+he stands at the head of the priests, who are, in the post-exilian
+system, the _sons of Aaron_ and possessed the sole right to offer the
+temple sacrifices. On the great day of atonement the high priest appears
+in a vicarious and representative capacity, and offers on behalf of the
+whole nation which he was considered to embody in his sacred person. (b)
+The rite of the _goat devoted to Azazel_. There can be little doubt
+that _Azazel_ was an evil demon (like an Arabic Jinn) of the desert. The
+goat set apart for Azazel was in the concluding part of the ceremonial
+brought before the high priest, who laid both his hands upon it and
+confessed over it the sins of the people. It was then carried off by an
+appointed person to a lonely spot and there set free.
+
+In later post-exilian times this great day of atonement became to an
+increasing degree a day of humiliation for sin and penitent sorrow,
+accompanied by confession; and the sins confessed were not only of a
+purely ceremonial character, whether voluntary or inadvertent, but also
+sins against righteousness and the duties which we owe to God and man.
+This element of public confession for sin became more prominent in the
+days when synagogal worship developed, and prayer took the place of the
+sacrificial offerings which could only be offered in the Jerusalem
+temple. The development of the priestly code of legislation
+(Priestercodex) was a gradual process, and probably occupied a
+considerable part of the 5th century B.C. The Hebrew race now definitely
+entered upon the new path of organized Jewish legalism which had been
+originally marked out for it by Ezekiel in the preceding century. It
+became a holy people on holy ground. Circumcision and Sabbath,
+separation from marriage with a foreigner, which rendered a Jew unclean,
+as well as strict conformity to the precepts of the Torah, constituted
+henceforth an adamantine bond which was to preserve the Jewish
+communities from disintegration.
+
+10. _The later Post-exilian Developments in Jewish Religion._--These may
+be briefly referred to under the following aspects:
+
+(a) _Codified law_ and the written record of the patriarchal history, as
+well as the life and work of the lawgiver Moses (to whom the entire body
+of law came to be ascribed), assumed an ever greater importance. The
+reverence felt for the canonized _Torah_ or law (the Pentateuch or
+so-called five books of Moses) grew even into worship. Of this spirit we
+find clear expression in some of the later psalms, e.g. the elaborate
+alphabetic Ps. cxix. and the latter portion of Ps. xix. There were
+various causes which combined to enhance the importance of the written
+_Torah_ (the "instruction" _par excellence_ communicated by God through
+Moses). Chief among these were (1) _The conception of God as
+transcendent_. We have taken due note of Amos, who unfolded the
+character of Yahweh as universal righteous sovereign; and also the
+sublime portrayal of His exalted nature in Isa. xl. (verse 15; cf.
+22-26, and Job xxxvi. 22-xlii. 6). The intellectual influence of Greece,
+manifested in Alexandrian philosophy, tended to remove God still further
+from the human world of phenomena into that of an inaccessible
+transcendental abstraction. Little, therefore, was possible for the Jew
+save strict performance of the requirements of the Torah, once for all
+given to Moses on Sinai, and, in his approach to the awful and unknown
+mystery, to rely on ceremonial and ascetic performances (see Wendt's
+_Teaching of Jesus_, i. 55 foll.). The same tendency led the pious
+worshippers to avoid His awful name and to substitute _Adonai_ in their
+scriptures or to use in the Mishna the term "name" (_shem_) or "heaven."
+(2) The _Maccabean conflict_ (165 B.C.) tended to accentuate the
+national sentiment of antagonism to Hellenic influence. The Hasidim or
+pious devotees, who arose at that time, were the originators of the
+Pharisaic movement which was conservative as well as national, and laid
+stress on the strict performance of the law.
+
+(b) _Eschatology_ in the Judaism of the Greek period began to assume a
+new form. The pre-exilian prophets (especially Isaiah) spoke of the
+forthcoming crisis in the world's history as a "day of the Lord." These
+were usually regarded as visitations of chastisement for national sins
+and vindications of divine righteousness or judgments, i.e. assertions
+of God's power as judge (_shophet_). By the older prophets this judgment
+of God or "day of Yahweh" was never held to be far removed from the
+horizon of the present or the world in which they lived. But now as we
+enter the Greek period (320 B.C. and onwards) there is a gradual change
+from prophecy to _apocalyptic_. "It may be asserted in general terms
+that whereas prophecy foretells a definite future which has its
+foundation in the present, apocalyptic directs its anticipations solely
+and simply to the future, to a new world-period which stands sharply
+contrasted with the present. The classical model for all apocalyptic is
+to be found in Dan. vii. It is only after a great war of destruction, a
+day of Yahweh's great judgment, that the dominion of God will begin"
+(Bousset). Ezek. xxxviii. and xxxix. clearly bear the apocalyptic
+character; so also Isa. xxxiv. and notably Isa. xxiv.-xxvii.
+Apocalyptic, as Baldensperger has shown, formed a counterpoise to the
+normal current of conformity to law. It arose from a spiritual movement
+in answer to the yearning of the heart: "O that Thou mightest rend the
+heavens and come down and the mountains quake at Thy presence!" (Isa.
+lxiv. 1 [Heb. lxiii. 19]); and it was intended to meet the craving of
+souls sick with waiting and disappointment. The present outlook was
+hopeless, but in the enlarged horizon of time as well as space the
+thoughts of some of the most spiritual minds in Judaism were directed to
+the transcendent and ultimate. The present world was corrupt and subject
+to Satan and the powers of darkness. This they called "the present
+_aeon_" (age). Their hopes were therefore directed to "the coming aeon."
+Between the two aeons there would take place the _advent of the
+Messiah_, who would lead the struggle with evil powers which was called
+"the agonies of the Messiah." This terrible intermezzo was no longer
+terrestrial, but was a cosmic and universal crisis in which the Messiah
+would emerge victorious from the final conflict with the heathen and
+demonic powers. This victory inaugurates the entrance of the "aeon to
+come," in which the faithful Jews would enter their inheritance. In this
+way we perceive the transformation of the old Messianic doctrine through
+apocalyptic. Of apocalyptic literature we have numerous examples
+extending from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. (See
+especially Charles's _Book of Enoch_.)
+
+The doctrine of the _resurrection of the righteous_ to life in the
+heavenly world became engrafted on to the old doctrine of Sheol, or the
+dark shadowy underworld (Hades), where life was joyless and feeble, and
+from which the soul might be for a brief space summoned forth by the
+arts of the necromancer. The most vivid portraiture of Sheol is to be
+found in the exilian passage Isa. xiv. 9-20 (cf. Job x. 21-22). With
+this also compare the Babylonian _Descent of Ishtar to Hades_. The added
+conception of the resurrection of the righteous does not appear in the
+world of Jewish thought till the early Greek period in Isa. xxvi. 19. R.
+H. Charles thinks that in this passage the idea of resurrection is of
+purely Jewish and not of Mazdaan (or Zoroastrian) origin, but it is
+otherwise with Dan. xii. 2; see his _Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and
+Christian_. Corresponding to heaven, the abode of the righteous, we have
+_Ge-henna_ (originally _Ge-Hinnom_, the scene of the Moloch rites of
+human sacrifice), the place of punishment after death for apostate Jews.
+
+(c) _Doctrine of Angels and of Hypostases._--In the writings of the
+pre-exilian period we have frequent references to supernatural
+personalities good and bad. It is only necessary to refer to them by
+name. _Sebaoth_, or "hosts," attached to the name of Yahweh, denoted the
+heavenly retinue of stars. The _seraphim_ were burning serpentine forms
+who hovered above the enthroned Yahweh and chanted the Trisagion in
+Isaiah's consecration vision (Isa. vi.). We have also constant
+references to "angels" (_malachim_) of God, divine messengers who
+represent Him and may be regarded as the manifestation of His power and
+presence. This especially applies to the "angel of Yahweh" or angel of
+His Presence [Ex. xxiii. 20, 23 (E). Note in Ex. xxxiii. 14 (J) he is
+called "my face" or "presence"[33] (cf. Isa. lxiii. 9)]. We also know
+that from earliest times Israel believed in the evil as well as good
+spirits. Like the Arabs they held that demons became incorporate in
+serpents, as in Gen. iii. The _nephilim_ were a monstrous brood begotten
+of the intercourse of the supernatural beings called "sons of God" with
+the women of earth. We also read of the "evil spirit" that came upon
+Saul. Contact with Babylonia tended to stimulate the angelology and
+demonology of Israel. The Hebrew word _shed_ or "demon" is no more than
+a Babylonian loan word, and came to designate the deities of foreign
+peoples degraded into the position of demons.[34] _Lilith_, the
+blood-sucking night-hag of the post-exilian Isa. xxxiv. 14, is the
+Babylonian _Lilatu_. Whether the _se'irim_ or shaggy satyrs (Isa. xiii.
+31; Lev. xvii. 7) and _Azazel_ were of Babylonian origin it is difficult
+to determine. The emergence of _Satan_ as a definite supernatural
+personality, the head or prince of the world of evil spirits, is
+entirely a phenomenon of post-exilian Judaism. He is portrayed as the
+arch-adversary and accuser of man. It is impossible to deny Persian
+influence in the development of this conception, and that the Persian
+Ahriman (Angromainyu), the evil personality opposed to the good, Ahura
+Mazda, moulded the Jewish counterpart, Satan. But in Judaism
+monotheistic conceptions reigned supreme, and the Satan of Jewish belief
+as opposed to God stops short of the dualism of Persian religion. Of
+this we see evidence in the multiplication of Satans in the Book of
+Enoch. In the Book of Jubilees he is called _mastema_. In later Judaism
+_Sammael_ is the equivalent of Satan. Persian influence is also
+responsible for the _vast multiplication of good spirits or angels_,
+Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, &c., who play their part in apocalyptic
+works, such as the Book of Daniel and the Book of Enoch.
+
+Probably the transcendent nature of the deity in the Judaism of this
+later period made the interposition of mediating spirits an intellectual
+necessity (cf. Ps. civ. 4). It also stimulated the creation of _divine
+hypostases_. First among these may be mentioned _Wisdom_. The roots of
+this conception belong to pre-exilian times, in which the "word" of
+divine denunciation was regarded as a quasi-material thing. (It is
+hurled against offending Israel, Isa. ix. 8.). In the post-exilian
+cosmogony it is the divine word or fiat that creates the world (Gen. i.;
+cf. Ps. xxxiii. 6, 9). Out of these earlier conceptions the idea of the
+divine wisdom (Heb. _hokhmah_) gradually arose during the Persian
+period. The expression "wisdom," as it is employed in the _locus
+classicus_, Prov. viii., connotes the contents of the Divine reason--His
+conscious life, out of which created things emerge. This wisdom is
+personified. It dwelt with God (Prov. viii. 22 foll.) before the world
+was made. It is the companion of His throne, and by it He made the world
+(Prov. iii. 19, viii. 27; cf. Ps. civ. 24). It, moreover, enters into
+the life of the world and especially man (Prov. viii. 31). This
+conception of wisdom became still further hypostatized. It becomes
+redemptive of man. In the Wisdom of Solomon it is the sharer of God's
+throne ([Greek: paredros]), the effulgence of the eternal light and the
+outflow of His glory (Wisd. vii. 25, viii. 3 foll., ix. 4, 9); "Them
+that love her the Lord doth love" (Ecclesiasticus iv. 14). This group of
+ideas culminated in the Logos of Philo, expressing the world of divine
+ideas which God first of all creates and which becomes the mediating and
+formative power between the absolute and transcendent deity and passive
+formless matter, transmuted thereby into a rational, ordered universe.
+
+In later Jewish literature we meet with further examples of similar
+hypostases in the form of _Memra_, _Metatron_, _Shechinah_, _Holy
+Spirit_ and _Bath kol_.
+
+(d) The doctrine of _pre-existence_ is another product of the
+speculative tendency of the Jewish mind. The Messiah's pre-existent
+state before the creation of the world is asserted in the Book of Enoch
+(xlviii. 6, 7). Pre-existence is also asserted of Moses and of sacred
+institutions such as the New Jerusalem, the Temple, Paradise, the Torah,
+&c. (Apocal. of Baruch iv. 3-lix. 4; Assumptio Mosis i. 14, 17);
+Edersheim's _Life and Times of the Messiah_, i. 175 and footnote 1.
+
+11. _Christ resumes the Broken Tradition of Prophetism._--The Psalms of
+Solomon and the synoptic Gospels (70 B.C.-A.D. 100) clearly reveal the
+powerful revival of Messianic hopes of a national deliverer of the seed
+of David. This Messianic expectation had been a fermenting leaven since
+the great days of Judas Maccabaeus. The conceptions of Jesus of
+Nazareth, however, were not the Messianic conceptions of his
+fellow-countrymen, but of the spiritual "son of man" destined to found
+a kingdom of God which was righteousness and peace. The Torah of Jesus
+was essentially prophetic and in no sense priestly or legal. The
+arrested prophetic movement of Jeremiah and Deutero-Isaiah reappears in
+John the Baptist and Jesus after an interval of more than five
+centuries. The new covenant of redeeming grace--the righteousness which
+is in the heart and not in externalities of legal observance or
+ceremonial--are once more proclaimed, and the exalted ideals of the
+suffering servant of Isa. xlix. 6 and Isa. liii. (nearly suppressed in
+the Targum of Jonathan) are reasserted and vindicated by the words and
+life of Jesus. Like Jeremiah He foretold the destruction of the temple
+and suffered the extreme penalties of anti-patriotism. And thus Israel's
+old prophetic Torah was at length to achieve its victory, for after
+Jesus came St Paul. "Many shall come from the east and the west and sit
+down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven" (Matt.
+viii. 11, 12). The fetters of nationalism were to be broken, and the
+Hebrew religion in its essential spiritual elements was to become the
+heritage of all humanity.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--1. On Semitic religion generally: Wellhausen's _Reste
+  des arabischen Heidentums_ (2nd ed.) and Robertson Smith's _Religion
+  of the Semites_ (2nd ed.) are chiefly to be recommended. Barton's
+  _Semitic Origins_ is extremely able, but his doctrine of the
+  derivation of male from original female deities is pushed to an
+  extreme. Bäthgen's _Beiträge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_
+  (1888) is most useful, and contains valuable epigraphic material.
+  Baudissin's _Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_ (1876) is
+  still valuable. See also Kuenen's _National Religions and Universal
+  Religions_ (Hibbert lectures) and Lagrange's _Études sur les religions
+  sémitiques_ (2nd ed.).
+
+  2. On Hebrew religion in particular: specially full and helpful is
+  Kautzsch's article "Religion of Israel" in Hastings's D.B., extra
+  vol.; Marti's recent _Religion des A.T._ (1906) and his _Geschichte
+  der israelitischen Religion_, are clear, compact and most serviceable,
+  and the former work presents the subject in fresh and suggestive
+  aspects. Wellhausen's _Prolegomena_ and _Jüdische Geschichte_ should
+  be read both for criticism and Hebrew history generally. Duhm's
+  _Theologie der Propheten_ and Robertson Smith's _Prophets of Israel_
+  should also be consulted. Strongly to be recommended are Smend,
+  _Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte_; Bennett,
+  _Theology of the Old Testament_ and _Religion of the Post-Exilic
+  Prophets_; A. B. Davidson, _The Theology of the Old Testament_, as
+  well as the sections devoted to "Sacralaltertümer" in the _Hebräische
+  Archäologie_ both of Benzinger and also of Nowack. Budde's _Die
+  Religion des Volkes Israel bis zur Verbannung_, as well as Addis's
+  recent _Hebrew Religion_ (1906), is a most careful and scholarly
+  compendium. Harper's Introd. to his _Commentary on Amos and Hosea_ (I.
+  and T. Clark) contains a useful survey of the history of Hebrew
+  religion before the 8th century. Buchanan Gray's _Divine Discipline of
+  Israel_, and A. S. Peake's _Problem of Suffering in the O.T._, are
+  suggestive. See also S. A. Cook, _Religion of Ancient Palestine_.
+
+  3. On the history of Judaism till the time of Christ, Schürer's
+  _Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Christi_ (3rd ed.), vol.
+  ii. and in part vol. iii., are indispensable. Bousset's _Religion des
+  Judentums_ (2nd ed.), and Volz, _Die jüdische Eschatologie von Daniel
+  bis Akiba_, are highly to be commended. Weber's _Jüdische Theologie_
+  is a useful compendium of the theology of later Judaism.
+
+  4. On the special department of eschatology the standard works are R.
+  H. Charles, _Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and Christian_, and Schwally,
+  _Das Leben nach dem Tode_, as well as Gressmann's suggestive work _Der
+  Ursprung der israelitisch-jüdischen Eschatologie_, which contains,
+  however, much that is speculative. On apocalyptic generally the
+  introductions to Charles's Book of Enoch, Apocalypse of Baruch,
+  Ascension of Isaiah and Book of Jubilees, should be carefully noted.
+  See also ESCHATOLOGY.
+
+  5. On the religion of Babylonia, Jastrow's work is the standard one.
+  Zimmern's Heft ii. in _K.A.T._ (3rd ed.) is specially important to the
+  Old Testament student. See also W. Schrank, _Babylonische Sühnriten_.
+       (O. C. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Bäthgen, _Beiträge zur semit. Religionsgesch._ p. 11 (Edom);
+    and cf. Schrader, C.O.T. i. 137; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), p. 472 foll. See
+    also _Beiträge_, pp. 13-15; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), pp. 469-472.
+
+  [2] _Z.D.M.G._ (1886). It is impossible to discuss the other theories
+    of the origin of this name. See Driver, _Commentary on Genesis_,
+    excursus i. pp. 404-406.
+
+  [3] The Tell el-Amarna despatches are crowded with evidences of
+    Canaanite forms and idioms impressed on the Babylonian language of
+    these cuneiform documents. _Ilani_ here simply corresponds to the
+    Canaanite _Elohim_. See opening of the letters of Abimelech of Tyre,
+    Bezold's _Oriental Diplomacy_, Nos. 28, 29, 30.
+
+  [4] "Magic and Social Relations" in _Sociological Papers_, ii. 160.
+
+  [5] See Kautzsch, "Religion of Israel," in Hastings's _Dict. of the
+    Bible_, extra vol., p. 614.
+
+  [6] See Benzinger, _Hebräische Archäologie_, pp. 152, 297 foll. (1st
+    ed.).
+
+  [7] The theory was opposed by Nöldeke, 1886 (_Z.D.M.G._ p. 157
+    foll.), as well as Wellhausen, and since then by Jacobs and Zapletal.
+    (_Der Totemismus u. die Religion Israels_). See Stanley A. Cook,
+    "Israel and Totemism," in _J.Q.R._ (April, 1902).
+
+  [8] These sacred arks were carried in procession accompanied by
+    symbolic figures. We note in this connexion the form of a sacred bark
+    represented in Meyer's _Hist. of Egypt_ (Oncken series), p. 257, viz.
+    the procession carrying the sacred ark and the bark of the god Amon
+    belonging to the reign of Rameses II. (Lepsius, _Denkmäler_, iii.
+    189b). See also Birch, _Egypt_ (S.P.C.K.), p. 151 (ark of Khonsu);
+    cf. Jeremias, _Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_ (2nd ed.), pp.
+    436-441.
+
+  [9] Cf. Zimmern in _Z.D.M.G._ (1904), pp. 199 foll., 458 foll. This
+    view is based on Dr Pinches's discovered list in which _Sapatti_ is
+    called the 15th day (_Proc. of the Soc. of Biblical Arch._, p. 51
+    foll.). See A. Jeremias, _Das A. T. im Lichte des alten Orients_ (2nd
+    ed.), pp. 182-187. Marti, in his stimulating work _Religion des
+    A.T._, pp. 5, 72, advocates the exclusive reference of the word
+    Sabbath to the full moon until the time of Ezekiel on the basis of
+    Meinhold's arguments in _Sabbat u. Woche im A.T._ The latter regards
+    Ezekiel as the organizer of the Jewish community and the originator
+    of the sanctity of the Sabbath as a seventh day (Ezek. xlvi. 1; cf.
+    Ezek. xx. 12, 13, 16, 20, 24, xxii. 8, 26, xxiii. 38, in which the
+    reproaches for the profanation or neglect of the Sabbath in no way
+    sustain Meinhold's view). In opposition to Meinhold, see Lotz in
+    _P.R.E._ (3rd ed., art. "Sabbath," vol. xvii. pp. 286-289). To this
+    Meinhold replies in _Z.A.T.W._ (1909), p. 81 f. Cf. also Hehn,
+    _Siebenzahl und Sabbat_. While admitting that a special significance
+    may have been attached in pre-exilian times to the full-moon Sabbath,
+    and that the latter may have been specially intended in the
+    combination "new moon and Sabbath" in the 8th-century prophets (Hos.
+    ii. 13; Amos viii. 5; Isa. i. 13), we are not prepared to deny that
+    the institution of a seventh-day Sabbath was an ancient pre-exilian
+    tradition. The sacredness of the number seven is based on the seven
+    planetary deities to whom each day of the week was respectively
+    dedicated, i.e. was astral in origin. Cf. _C.O.T._ i. 18 foll., and
+    Winckler, _Religionsgeschichtlicher u. geschichtlicher Orient_, p.
+    39. See also _K.A.T._ (3rd ed.), pp. 620-626. In the Old Testament
+    the sanctity of the number seven is clearly fundamental (e.g. in the
+    Nif'al form _nisba'_, "to swear," in the derivative subst. for
+    "oath," in Beer-sheba', &c.). The seventh day of rest was parallel to
+    the seventh year of release and of the fallow field. It is,
+    therefore, impossible to detach Ex. xxiii. 12 from Ex. xxi. 2. xxiii.
+    10 foll.; cf. Ex. xxxiv. 21. We therefore hold that the law of the
+    seventh-day Sabbath goes back to the Mosaic age. The general
+    coincidence of the Sabbath or seventh day with the easily recognized
+    first quarter and full moon established its sacred character as
+    _lunar_ as well as planetary.
+
+  [10] The tablet is neo-Babylonian and published by Dr Pinches in the
+    _Transactions of the Victoria Institute_, and is cited by Professor
+    Fried. Delitzsch in the notes appended to his first lecture _Babel u.
+    Bibel_ (5th German ed., p. 81 ad fin. and p. 82). On this subject of
+    Babylonian influence over Israel see Jeremias, _Monotheistische
+    Strömungen innerhalb der babylonischen Religion_, and E. Baentsch,
+    _Altorientalischer u. israelitischer Monotheismus_. The text and
+    rendering of the passage are doubtful in the cuneiform letter
+    discovered by Sellin in Ta'annek (biblical Ta'anach, near Megiddo)
+    addressed by Ahi-jawi (? Ahijah) to Ishtar-wasur, in which the
+    following remarkable phrases are read: "May the Lord of the gods
+    protect thy life.... Above thy head is one who is above the towns.
+    See now whether he will show thee good. When he reveals his face,
+    then will they be put to shame and the victory will be complete." The
+    letter appears to belong to about 1400 B.C. See A. Jeremias, _Das
+    A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_ (2nd ed.), pp. 315, 316, 323.
+    Sellin, _Ertrag der Ausgrabungen im Orient_.
+
+  [11] The allusion in Amos ii. 7; Hos. iv. 13, 14 is sufficiently
+    explicit; cf. Jer. ii. 20-23, iii. 6-11, v. 7, 8. The practice is
+    prohibited in Deut. xxiii. 17.
+
+  [12] Column i. 15, 16, 42, 43, ii. 128, iii. 30, 31, iv. 47, 48, &c.
+    Probably we should regard them as differentiated _hypostases_.
+
+  [13] Hence the 'Ashtaroth or offspring of flocks in Deut. vii. 13,
+    xxviii. 18. A like function belonged to the Babylonian Ishtar. See
+    "Descent of Ishtar to Hades," Rev. lines 6-10, where universal
+    non-intercourse of sexes follows Ishtar's departure from earth to
+    Hades.
+
+  [14] _Proleg. Gesch. Israels_ (2nd ed.), p. 240 foll., cf. p. 258.
+
+  [15] _Internat. Crit. Commentary, Judges_, Introd. p. xxx., also p.
+    367 foll.
+
+  [16] [Hebrew: leva] "priest," [Hebrew: levat] "priestess"; see
+    Hommel, _Süd-arabische Chrestomathie_, p. 127; _Ancient Hebrew
+    Tradition_, p. 278 foll.
+
+  [17] Moore regards this verse as belonging to the J or older
+    document, _op. cit._ p. 367.
+
+  [18] Similarly in ancient Greece. See the instructive passage in
+    Aristotle, _Nic. Eth._ viii. 9 (4, 5), on the relation of Greek
+    sacrifices and festivals to [Greek: koinôniai] and politics: [Greek:
+    ai gar archaiai thusiai kai sunodoi phainontai gignesthai met a tas
+    tôn karpôn sugkomidàs oion aparchai]; cf. Grote on Pan-Hellenic
+    festivals, _History of Greece_, vol. iii., ch. 28.
+
+  [19] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentums_ (2nd ed.), p. 89.
+
+  [20] Though this be an interpolated gloss (Thenius, Budde), it states
+    a significant truth as Kautzsch clearly shows, _op. cit._ p. 672. In
+    Micah iii. 7 the _hozeh_ is mentioned in a sense analogous to the
+    _ro'eh_ or "seer," and coupled with the _qosem_ or "soothsayer," viz.
+    as spurious; cf. Deut. xviii. 10.
+
+  [21] No better derivation is forthcoming of the word _nabhi'_,
+    "prophet," than that it is a Katil form of the root _naba_ = Assyr.
+    _nabu_, "speak."
+
+  [22] In Isa. iii. 2 the soothsayer is placed on a level with the
+    judge, prophet and elder.
+
+  [23] Kautzsch, in his profoundly learned article on the "Religion of
+    Israel," to which frequent reference has been made, exhibits (pp.
+    669-671) an excess of scepticism, in our opinion, towards the views
+    propounded by Gunkel in 1895 (_Schöpfung und Chaos_) respecting the
+    intimate connexion between the early Hebrew cosmogonic ideas and
+    those of Babylonia. Stade indeed (_Z.A.T.W._, 1903, pp. 176-178)
+    maintained that the conception of Yahweh as creator of the world
+    could not have arisen till after the middle of the 8th century as the
+    result of prophetic teaching, and that it was not till the time of
+    Ezekiel that Babylonian conceptions entered the world of Hebrew
+    thought in any fulness. Such a theory appears to ignore the
+    remarkable results of archaeology since 1887. At that time Stade's
+    position might have appeared reasonable. It was the conclusion to
+    which Wellhausen's brilliant literary analysis, when not supplemented
+    by the discoveries at Tell el-Amarna and Tell el-Hesi, appeared to
+    many scholars (by no means all) inevitably to conduct us. But the
+    years 1887 to 1891 opened many eyes to the fact that the Hebrews
+    lived their life on the great highways of intercourse between Egypt
+    on the one hand, and Babylonia, Assyria and the N. Palestinian states
+    on the other, and that they could scarcely have escaped the
+    all-pervading Babylonian influences of 2000-1400 B.C. It is now
+    becoming clearer every day, especially since the discovery of the
+    laws of Khammurabi, that, if we are to think sanely about Hebrew
+    history _before_ as well as after the exile, we can only think of
+    Israel as part of the great complex of Semitic and especially
+    Canaanite humanity that lived its life in western Asia between 2000
+    and 600 B.C.; and that while the Hebrew race maintained by the aid of
+    prophetism its own individual and exalted place, it was not less
+    susceptible _then_, than it has been since, to the moulding
+    influences of great adjacent civilizations and ideas. Cf. C. H. W.
+    Johns in _Interpreter_, pp. 300-304 (in April 1906), on prophetism in
+    Babylonia.
+
+  [24] There is some danger in too strictly construing the language of
+    the prophets and also the psalmists. It is not to be supposed that
+    either Amos or Isaiah would have countenanced the total suppression
+    of all sacrificial observance. It was the existing ceremonial
+    observance _divorced from the ethical piety_ that they denounced. The
+    speech of prophecy is poetical and rhetorical, not strictly defined
+    and logical like that of a modern essayist. See Moore in _Encyc.
+    Bibl._, "Sacrifice," col. 4222.
+
+  [25] Viz. Budde in _Die so-genannten Ebed-Jahweh Lieder u. die
+    Bedeutung des Knechtes Jahwehs in Jes. xl.-lv._ (Giessen, 1900); Karl
+    Marti in his well-known commentary on Isaiah, and F. Giesebrecht,
+    _Der Knecht Jahwes des Deuterojesaja_. The special servant-songs
+    which Duhm asserts can be readily detached from the texture of the
+    Deutero-Isaiah without disturbance to its integrity are Isa. xlii.
+    1-4, xlix. 1-6, l. 4-9, lii. 13-liii. 12.
+
+  [26] We have here followed Dillmann's construction of a difficult
+    passage which Duhm attempts to simplify by omission of the
+    complicating clause without altering the general sense.
+
+  [27] Thus in comparison with the "book of the covenant," Deuteronomy
+    adds the stipulation in reference to the release of the slave; that
+    his master was to provide him liberally from his flocks, his corn and
+    his wine (Deut. xv. 13, 14). See Hastings's _D.B._, arts. "Servant,"
+    "Slave," p. 464, where other examples may be found. In war
+    fruit-trees are to be spared (Deut. xx. 19 foll.), whereas the old
+    universal practice is the barbarous custom Elisha commended (2 Kings
+    iii. 19) of ruthlessly destroying them.
+
+  [28] Driver, _Internat. Commentary on Deuteronomy_, Introd. p. xxx.
+
+  [29] It should be noted that in P (Code of Holiness) Lev. xvii. 15
+    foll. the resident alien (_ger_) is placed on an equality with the
+    Jew.
+
+  [30] We shall have to note the emergence of the doctrine of the
+    _resurrection of the righteous_ in later Judaism, which is obviously
+    a fresh contribution of permanent value to Hebrew doctrine. On the
+    other hand, the doctrine of _pre-existence_ is speculative rather
+    than religious, and applies to institutions rather than persons.
+
+  [31] The legislative portions are mainly comprised in Ex. xxxv.-end,
+    Leviticus entire and Num. i.-x.
+
+  [32] But this term (literally the _chief_ priest) was already in use
+    during the regal period to designate the head priest of an important
+    sanctuary such as Jerusalem (2 Kings xii. 11).
+
+  [33] Cf. the Phoenician parallel of "Face of Baal," worshipped as
+    Tanit, "queen of Heaven" (Bäthgen, _Beiträge zur Semit.
+    Religionsgeschichte_, p. 55 foll.); also the place Penuel (face of
+    God).
+
+  [34] Deut. xxxii. 17; Ps. cvi. 37. Baal Zebub of the Philistine Ekron
+    became the Beelzebub who was equivalent to Satan.
+
+
+
+
+HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the books of the New Testament. In the
+oldest MSS. it bears no other title than "To Hebrews." This brief
+heading embraces all that on which Christian tradition from the end of
+the 2nd century was unanimous; and it says no more than that the readers
+addressed were Christians of Jewish extraction. This would be no
+sufficient address for an epistolary writing (xiii. 22) directed to a
+definite circle of readers, to whose history repeated reference is made,
+and with whom the author had personal relations (xiii. 19, 23).
+Probably, then, the original and limited address, or rather salutation,
+was never copied when this treatise in letter form, like the epistle to
+the Romans, passed into the wider circulation which its contents
+merited. In any case the Roman Church, where the first traces of the
+epistle occur, about A.D. 96 (1 Clement), had nothing to contribute to
+the question of authorship except the negative opinion that it was not
+by Paul (Euseb. _Eccl. Hist._ iii. 3): yet this central church was in
+constant connexion with provincial churches.
+
+The earliest positive traditions belong to Alexandria and N. Africa. The
+Alexandrine tradition can be traced back as far as a teacher of Clement,
+presumably Pantaenus (Euseb. _Eccl. Hist._ vi. 14), who sought to
+explain why Paul did not name himself as usual at the head of the
+epistle. Clement himself, taking it for granted that an epistle to
+Hebrews must have been written in Hebrew, supposes that Luke translated
+it for the Greeks. Origen implies that "the men of old" regarded it as
+Paul's, and that some churches at least in his own day shared this
+opinion. But he feels that the language is un-Pauline, though the
+"admirable" thoughts are not second to those of Paul's unquestioned
+writings. Thus he is led to the view that the ideas were orally set
+forth by Paul, but that the language and composition were due to some
+one giving from memory a sort of free interpretation of his teacher's
+mind. According to some this disciple was Clement of Rome; others name
+Luke; but the truth, says Origen, is known to God alone (Euseb. vi. 25,
+cf. iii. 38). Still from the time of Origen the opinion that Paul wrote
+the epistle became prevalent in the East. The earliest African
+tradition, on the other hand, preserved by Tertullian[1] (_De
+pudicitia_, c. 20), but certainly not invented by him, ascribed the
+epistle to Barnabas. Yet it was perhaps, like those named by Origen,
+only an inference from the epistle itself, as if a "word of exhortation"
+(xiii. 22) by the Son of Exhortation (Acts iv. 36; see BARNABAS). On the
+whole, then, the earliest traditions in East and West alike agree in
+effect, viz. that our epistle was not by Paul, but by one of his
+associates.
+
+This is also the twofold result reached by modern scholarship with
+growing clearness. The vacillation of tradition and the dissimilarity of
+the epistle from those of Paul were brought out with great force by
+Erasmus. Luther (who suggests Apollos) and Calvin (who thinks of Luke or
+Clement) followed with the decisive argument that Paul, who lays such
+stress on the fact that his gospel was not taught him by man (Gal. i.),
+could not have written Heb. ii. 3. Yet the wave of reaction which soon
+overwhelmed the freer tendencies of the first reformers, brought back
+the old view until the revival of biblical criticism more than a century
+ago. Since then the current of opinion has set irrevocably against any
+form of Pauline authorship. Its type of thought is quite unique. The
+Jewish Law is viewed not as a code of ethics or "works of
+righteousness," as by Paul, but as a system of religious rites (vii. 11)
+shadowing forth the way of access to God in worship, of which the Gospel
+reveals the archetypal realities (ix. 1, 11, 15, 23 f., x. 1 ff., 19
+ff.). The Old and the New Covenants are related to one another as
+imperfect (earthly) and perfect (heavenly) forms of the same method of
+salvation, each with its own type of sacrifice and priesthood. Thus the
+conception of Christ as High Priest emerges, for the first time, as a
+central point in the author's conception of Christianity. The Old
+Testament is cited after the Alexandrian version more exclusively than
+by Paul, even where the Hebrew is divergent. Nor is this accidental.
+There is every appearance that the author was a Hellenist who lacked
+knowledge of the Hebrew text, and derived his metaphysic and his
+allegorical method from the Alexandrian rather than the Palestinian
+schools. Yet the epistle has manifest Pauline affinities, and can hardly
+have originated beyond the Pauline circle, to which it is referred not
+only by the author's friendship with Timothy (xiii. 23), but by many
+echoes of the Pauline theology and even, it seems, of passages in Paul's
+epistles (see Holtzmann, _Einleitung in das N. T._, 1892, p. 298). These
+features early suggested Paul as the author of a book which stood in
+MSS. immediately after the epistles of that apostle, and contained
+nothing in its title to distinguish it from the preceding books with
+like headings, "To the Romans," "To the Corinthians," and the like. A
+similar history attaches to the so-called Second Epistle of Clement (see
+CLEMENTINE LITERATURE).
+
+Everything turns, then, on internal criticism of the epistle, working on
+the distinctive features already noticed, together with such personal
+allusions as it affords. As to its first readers, with whom the author
+stood in close relations (xiii. 19, 23, cf. vi. 10, x. 32-34), it used
+generally to be agreed that they were "Hebrews" or Christians of Jewish
+birth. But, for a generation or so, it has been denied that this can be
+inferred simply from the fact that the epistle approaches all Christian
+truth through Old Testament forms. This, it is said, was the common
+method of proof, since the Jewish scriptures were the Word of God to all
+Christians alike. Still it remains true that the exclusive use of the
+argument from Mosaism, as itself implying the Gospel of Jesus the Christ
+as final cause ([Greek: telos]), does favour the view that the readers
+were of Jewish origin. Further there is no allusion to the incorporation
+of "strangers and foreigners" (Eph. ii. 19) with the people of God. Yet
+the readers are not to be sought in Jerusalem (see e.g. ii. 3), nor
+anywhere in Judaea proper. The whole Hellenistic culture of the epistle
+(let alone its language), and the personal references in it, notably
+that to Timothy in xiii. 23, are against any such view: while the doubly
+emphatic "all" in xiii. 24 suggests that those addressed were but part
+of a community composed of both Jews and Gentiles. Caesarea, indeed, as
+a city of mixed population and lying just outside Judaea proper--a
+place, moreover, where Timothy might have become known during Paul's two
+years' detention there--would satisfy many conditions of the problem.
+Yet these very conditions are no more than might exist among intensely
+Jewish members of the Dispersion, like "the Jews of Asia" (cf. Sir W. M.
+Ramsay, _The Letters to the Seven Churches_, 155 f.), whose zeal for the
+Temple and the Mosaic ritual customs led to Paul's arrest in Jerusalem
+(Acts xix. 27 f., cf. 20 f.), in keeping both with his former
+experiences at their hands and with his forebodings resulting therefrom
+(xx. 19, 22-24). Our "Hebrews" had obviously high regard for the
+ordinances of Temple worship. But this was the case with the dispersed
+Jews generally, who kept in touch with the Temple, and its intercessory
+worship for all Israel, in every possible way; in token of this they
+sent with great care their annual contribution to its services, the
+Temple tribute. This bond was doubtless preserved by Christian
+Hellenists, and must have tended to continue their reliance on the
+Temple services for the forgiveness of their recurring "sins of
+ignorance"--subsequent to the great initial Messianic forgiveness coming
+with faith in Jesus. Accordingly many of them, while placing their hope
+for the future upon Messiah and His eagerly expected return in power,
+might seek assurance of present forgiveness of daily offences and
+cleansing of conscience in the old mediatorial system. In particular the
+annual Day of Atonement would be relied on, and that in proportion as
+the expected Parousia tarried, and the first enthusiasm of a faith that
+was largely eschatological died away, while ever-present temptation
+pressed the harder as disappointment and perplexity increased.
+
+Such was the general situation of the readers of this epistle, men who
+rested partly on the Gospel and partly on Judaism. For lack of a true
+theory as to the relation between the two, they were now drifting away
+(ii. 1) from effective faith in the Gospel, as being mainly future in
+its application, while Judaism was a very present, concrete, and
+impressive system of religious aids--to which also their sacred
+scriptures gave constant witness. The points at which it chiefly touched
+them may be inferred from the author's counter-argument, with its
+emphasis in the spiritual ineffectiveness of the whole Temple-system,
+its high-priesthood and its supreme sacrifice on the Day of Atonement.
+With passionate earnestness he sets over against these his constructive
+theory as to the efficacy, the heavenly yet unseen reality, of the
+definitive "purification of sins" (i. 3) and perfected access to God's
+inmost presence, secured for Christians as such by Jesus the Son of God
+(x. 9-22), and traces their moral feebleness and slackened zeal to want
+of progressive insight into the essential nature of the Gospel as a
+"new covenant," moving on a totally different plane of religious reality
+from the now antiquated covenant given by Moses (viii. 13).
+
+The following plan of the epistle may help to make apparent the writer's
+theory of Christianity as distinct from Judaism, which is related to it
+as "shadow" to reality:
+
+  _Thesis_: The finality of the form of religion mediated in God's Son,
+  i. 1-4.
+
+  i. The supreme excellence of the Son's Person (i. 5-iii. 6), as
+  compared with (a) angels, (b) Moses.
+
+  Practical exhortation, iii. 7-iv. 13, leading up to:
+
+  ii. The corresponding efficacy of the Son's High-priesthood (iv.
+  14-ix.).
+
+  (1) The Son has the qualifications of all priesthood, especially
+  sympathy.
+
+  Exhortation, raising the reader's thought to the height of the topic
+  reached (v. 11-vi. 20).
+
+  (2) The Son as absolute high priest, in an order transcending the
+  Aaronic (vii.) and relative to a Tabernacle of ministry and a Covenant
+  higher than the Mosaic in point of reality and finality (viii., ix.).
+
+  (3) His Sacrifice, then, is definitive in its effects ([Greek:
+  teteleiôke]), and supersedes all others (x. 1-18).
+
+  iii. Appropriation of the benefits of the Son's high-priesthood, by
+  steadfast faith, the paramount duty (x. 19-xii.). More personal
+  epilogue (xiii.).
+
+As lack of insight lay at the root of their troubles, it was not enough
+simply to enjoin the moral fidelity to conviction which is three parts
+of faith to the writer, who has but little sense of the mystical side of
+faith, so marked in Paul. There was need of a positive theory based on
+real insight, in order to inspire faith for more strenuous conflict with
+the influences tending to produce the apostasy from Christ, and so from
+"the living God," which already threatened some of them (iii. 12). Such
+"apostasy" was not a formal abjuring of Jesus as Messiah, but the
+subtler lapse involved in ceasing to rely on relation to Him for daily
+moral and religious needs, summed up in purity of conscience and peace
+before God (x. 19-23, xiii. 20 f.). This "falling aside" (vi. 5, cf.
+xii. 12 f.), rather than conscious "turning back," is what is implied in
+the repeated exhortations which show the intensely practical spirit of
+the whole argument. These exhortations are directed chiefly against the
+dullness of spirit which hinders progressive moral insight into the
+genius of the New Covenant (v. 11-vi. 8), and which, in its blindness to
+the full work of Jesus, amounts to counting His blood as devoid of
+divine efficacy to consecrate the life (x. 26, 29), and so to a personal
+"crucifying anew" of the Son of God (vi. 6). The antidote to such
+"profane" negligence (ii. 1, 3, xii. 12 f., 15-17) is an earnestness
+animated by a fully-assured hope, and sustained by a "faith" marked by
+patient waiting ([Greek: makrothymia]) for the inheritance guaranteed by
+divine promise (x. ii f.). The outward expression of such a spirit is
+"bold confession," a glorying in that Hope, and mutual encouragement
+therein (iii. 6, 12 f.); while the sign of its decay is neglect to
+assemble together for mutual stimulus, as if it were not worth the odium
+and opposition from fellow Jews called forth by a marked Christian
+confession (x. 23-25, xii. 3)--a very different estimate of the new bond
+from that shown by readiness in days gone by to suffer for it (x. 32
+ff.). Their special danger, then, the sin which deceived (iii. 13) the
+more easily that it represented the line of least resistance (perhaps
+the best paraphrase of [Greek: euperistatos hamartia] in xii. i), was
+the exact opposite of "faith" as the author uses it, especially in the
+chapter devoted to its illustration by Old Testament examples. His
+readers needed most the moral heroism of fidelity to the Unseen, which
+made men "despise shame" due to aught that sinners in their unbelief
+might do to them (xii. 2-11, xiii. 5 f.)--and of which Jesus Himself was
+at once the example and the inspiration. To quicken this by awakening
+deeper insight into the real objects of "faith," as these bore on their
+actual life, he develops his high argument on the lines already
+indicated.
+
+Their situation was so dangerous just because it combined inward
+debility and outward pressure, both tending to the same result, viz.
+practical disuse of the distinctively Christian means of grace, as
+compared with those recognized by Judaism, and such conformity to the
+latter as would make the reproach of the Cross to cease (xiii. 13, cf.
+xi. 26). This might, indeed, relieve the external strain of the contest
+([Greek: agôn] xii. 1), which had become well-nigh intolerable to them.
+But the practical surrender of what was distinctive in their new faith
+meant a theoretic surrender of the value once placed on that element,
+when it was matter of a living religious experience far in advance of
+what Judaism had given them (vi. 4 [ff]., x. 26-29). This twofold
+infidelity, in thought and deed, God, the "living" God of progress from
+the "shadow" to the substance, would require at their hands (x. 30 f.,
+xii. 22-29). For it meant turning away from an appeal that had been
+known as "heavenly," for something inferior and earthly (xii. 25); from
+a call sanctioned by the incomparable authority of Him in whom it had
+reached men, a greater than Moses and all media of the Old Covenant,
+even the Son of God. Thus the key of the whole exhortation is struck in
+the opening words, which contrast the piecemeal revelation "to the
+fathers" in the past, with the complete and final revelation to
+themselves in the last stage of the existing order of the world's
+history, in a Son of transcendent dignity (i. 1 ff., cf. ii. 1 ff., x.
+28 f., xii. 18 ff.). This goes to the root of their difficulty,
+ambiguity as to the relation of the old and the new elements in
+Judaeo-Christian piety, so that there was constant danger of the old
+overshadowing the new, since national Judaism remained hostile. At a
+stroke the author separates the new from the old, as belonging to a new
+"covenant" or order of God's revealed will. It is a confusion, resulting
+in loss, not in gain, as regards spiritual power, to try to combine the
+two types of piety, as his readers were more and more apt to do. There
+is _no use_, religiously, in falling back upon the old forms, in order
+to avoid the social penalties of a sectarian position within Judaism,
+when the secret of religious "perfection" or maturity (vi. 1, cf. the
+frequent use of the kindred verb) lies elsewhere. Hence the moral of his
+whole argument as to the two covenants, though it is formulated only
+incidentally amid final detailed counsels (xiii. 13 f.) is to leave
+Judaism, and adopt a frankly Christian standing, on the same footing
+with their non-Jewish brethren in the local church. For this the time
+was now ripe; and in it lay the true path of safety--eternal safety as
+before God, whatever man might say or do (xiii. 5 f.).
+
+The obscure section, xiii. 9 f., is to be taken as "only a symptom of
+the general retrogression of religious energy" (Jülicher), and not as
+bearing directly on the main danger of these "Hebrews." The "foods" in
+question probably refer neither to temple sacrifices nor to the
+Levitical laws of clean and unclean foods, nor yet to ascetic scruples
+(as in Rom. xiv., Col. ii. 20 ff.), but rather to some form of the idea,
+found also among the Essenes, that food might so be partaken of as to
+have the value of a sacrifice (see verse 15 foll.) and thus ensure
+divine favour. Over against this view, which might well grow up among
+the Jews of the Dispersion as a sort of substitute for the possibility
+of offering sacrifices in the Temple--but which would be a lame addition
+to the Christianity of their own former leaders (xiii. 7 f.)--the author
+first points his readers to its refutation from experience, and then to
+the fact that the Christian's "altar" or sacrifice (i.e. the supreme
+sin-offering) is of the kind which the Law itself forbids to be
+associated with "eating." If Christians wish to offer any special
+sacrifice to God, let it be that of grateful praise or deeds of
+beneficence (15 f.).
+
+In trying further to define the readers addressed in the epistle, one
+must note the stress laid on suffering as part of the divinely appointed
+discipline of sonship (ii. 10, v. 8, xii. 7 f.), and the way in which
+the analogy in this respect between Jesus, as Messianic Son, and those
+united to Him by faith, is set in relief. He is not only the inspiring
+example for heroic faith in the face of opposition due to unbelievers
+(xii. 3 ff.), but also the mediator qualified by his very experience of
+suffering to sympathize with His tried followers, and so to afford them
+moral aid (ii. 17 f., v. 8 f., cf. iv. 15). This means that suffering
+for Christianity, at least in respect of possessions (xiii. 5 f., cf. x.
+34) and social standing, was imminent for those addressed: and it seems
+as if they were mostly men of wealth and position (xiii. 1-6, vi. 10
+f., x. 34), who would feel this sort of trial acutely (cf. Jas. i. 10).
+Such men would also possess a superior mental culture (cf. v. 11 f.),
+capable of appreciating the form of an epistle "far too learned for the
+average Christian" (Jülicher), yet for which its author apologizes to
+them as inadequate (xiii. 22). It was now long since they themselves had
+suffered seriously for their faith (x. 32 f.); but others had recently
+been harassed even to the point of imprisonment (xiii. 3); and the
+writer's very impatience to hurry to their side implies that the crisis
+was both sudden and urgent. The finished form of the epistle's argument
+is sometimes urged to prove that it was not originally an epistle at
+all, written more or less on the spur of the moment, but a literary
+composition, half treatise and half homily, to which its author--as an
+afterthought--gave the suggestion of being a Pauline epistle by adding
+the personal matter in ch. xiii. (so W. Wrede, _Das literarische Rätsel
+des Hebräerbriefs_, 1906, pp. 70-73). The latter part of this theory
+fails to explain why the Pauline origin was not made more obvious, e.g.
+in an opening address. But even the first part of it overlooks the
+probability that our author was here only fusing into a fresh form
+materials often used before in his oral ministry of Christian
+instruction.
+
+Many attempts have been made to identify the home of the Hellenistic
+Christians addressed in this epistle. For Alexandria little can be urged
+save a certain strain of "Alexandrine" idealism and allegorism, mingling
+with the more Palestinian realism which marks the references to Christ's
+sufferings, as well as the eschatology, and recalling many a passage in
+Philo. But Alexandrinism was a mode of thought diffused throughout the
+Eastern Mediterranean, and the divergences from Philo's spirit are as
+notable as the affinities (cf. Milligan, _ut infra_, 203 ff.). For Rome
+there is more to be said, in view of the references to Timothy and to
+"them of Italy" (xiii. 23 f.); and the theory has found many supporters.
+It usually contemplates a special Jewish-Christian house-church (so
+Zahn), like those which Paul salutes at the end of Romans, e.g. that
+meeting in the house of Prisca and Aquila (xvi. 5); and Harnack has gone
+so far as to suggest that they, and especially Prisca, actually wrote
+our epistle. There is, however, really little that points to Rome in
+particular, and a good deal that points away from it. The words in xii.
+4, "Not yet unto blood have ye resisted," would ill suit Rome after the
+Neronian "bath of blood" in A.D. 64 (as is usually held), save at a date
+too late to suit the reference to Timothy. Nor does early currency in
+Rome prove that the epistle was written to Rome, any more than do the
+words "they of Italy salute you." This clause must in fact be read in
+the light of the reference to Timothy, which suggests that he had been
+in prison in Rome and was about to return, possibly in the writer's
+company, to the region which was apparently the headquarters of both.
+Now this in Timothy's case, as far as we can trace his steps, was
+Ephesus; and it is natural to ask whether it will not suit all the
+conditions of the problem. It suits those of the readers,[2] as analysed
+above; and it has the merit of suggesting to us as author the very
+person of all those described in the New Testament who seems most
+capable of the task, Apollos, the learned Alexandrian (Acts xviii. 24
+ff.), connected with Ephesus and with Paul and his circle (cf. 1 Cor.
+xvi. 12), yet having his own distinctive manner of presenting the Gospel
+(1 Cor. iv. 6). That Apollos visited Italy at any rate once during
+Paul's imprisonment in Rome is a reasonable inference from Titus iii. 13
+(see Paul); and if so, it is quite natural that he should be there again
+about the time of Paul's martyrdom. With that event it is again natural
+to connect Timothy's imprisonment, his release from which our author
+records in closing; while the news of Jewish success in Paul's case
+would enhance any tendency among Asian Jewish Christians to shirk
+"boldness" of confession (x. 23, 35, 38 f.), in fear of further
+aggression from their compatriots. On the chronology adopted in the
+article Paul, this would yield as probable date for the epistle A.D.
+61-62. The place of writing would be some spot in Italy ("they of Italy
+salute you") outside Rome, probably a port of embarkation for Asia, such
+as Brundisium.
+
+Be this as it may, the epistle is of great historical importance, as
+reflecting a crisis inevitable in the development of the
+Jewish-Christian consciousness, when a definite choice between the old
+and the new form of Israel's religion had to be made, both for internal
+and external reasons. It seems to follow directly on the situation
+implied by the appeal of James to Israel in dispersion, in view of
+Messiah's winnowing-fan in their midst (i. 1-4, ii. 1-7, v. 1-6, and
+especially v. 7-11). It may well be the immediate antecedent of that
+revealed in 1 Peter, an epistle which perhaps shows traces of its
+influence (e.g. in i. 2, "sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ," cf.
+Heb. ix. 13 f., x. 22, xii. 24). It is also of high interest
+theologically, as exhibiting, along with affinities to several types of
+New Testament teaching (see Stephen), a type all its own, and one which
+has had much influence on later Christian thought (cf. Milligan, _ut
+infra_, ch. ix.). Indeed, it shares with Romans the right to be styled
+"the first treatise of Christian theology."
+
+  _Literature._--The older literature may be seen in the great work of
+  F. Bleek, _Der Brief an die Hebräer_ (1828-1840), still a valuable
+  storehouse of material, while Bleek's later views are to be found in a
+  posthumous work (Elberfeld, 1868); also in Franz Delitzsch's
+  _Commentary_ (Edinburgh, 1868). The more recent literature is given in
+  G. Milligan, _The Theology of the Epistle of the Hebrews_ (1899), a
+  useful summary of all bearing on the epistle, and in the large New
+  Testament Introductions and Biblical Theologies. See also Hastings's
+  _Dict. of the Bible_, the _Encycl. Biblica_ and T. Zahn's article in
+  Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_.     (J. V. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Also in Codex Claromontanus, the _Tractatus de libris_ (x.),
+    Philastrius of Brescia (c. A.D. 380), and a prologue to the Catholic
+    Epistles (_Revue bénédictine_, xxiii. 82 ff.). It is defended in a
+    monograph by H. H. B. Ayles (Cambridge, 1899).
+
+  [2] i.e. a house-church of upper-class Jewish Christians, not fully
+    in touch with the attitude even of their own past and present
+    "leaders" (xiii. 7, 17), as distinct from the local church generally
+    (xiii. 24). The Gospel had reached them, as also the writer himself
+    (cf. Acts xviii. 25), through certain hearers of the Lord (ii. 3),
+    not necessarily apostles.
+
+
+
+
+HEBRIDES, THE, or WESTERN ISLES, a group of islands off the west coast
+of Scotland. They are situated between 55° 35´ and 58° 30´ N. and 5° 26´
+and 8° 40´ W. Formerly the term was held to embrace not only all the
+islands off the Scottish western coast, including the islands in the
+Firth of Clyde, but also the peninsula of Kintyre, the Isle of Man and
+the Isle of Rathlin, off the coast of Antrim. They have been broadly
+classified into the Outer Hebrides and the Inner Hebrides, the Minch and
+Little Minch dividing the one group from the other. Geologically, they
+have also been differentiated as the Gneiss Islands and the Trap
+Islands. The Outer Hebrides being almost entirely composed of gneiss the
+epithet suitably serves them, but, strictly speaking, only the more
+northerly of the Inner Hebrides may be distinguished as Trap Islands.
+The chief islands of the Outer Hebrides are Lewis-with-Harris (or Long
+Island), North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist, Barra, the Shiants, St Kilda
+and the Flannan Isles, or Seven Hunters, an uninhabited group, about 20
+m. N.W. of Gallon Head in Lewis. Of these the Lewis portion of Long
+Island, the Shiants and the Flannan belong to the county of Ross and
+Cromarty, and the remainder to Inverness-shire. The total length of this
+group, from Barra Head to the Butt of Lewis, is 130 m., the breadth
+varying from less than 1 m. to 30 m. The Inner Hebrides are much more
+scattered and principally include Skye, Small Isles (Canna, Sanday, Rum,
+Eigg and Muck), Coll, Tyree, Lismore, Mull, Ulva, Staffa, Iona, Kerrera,
+the Slate Islands (Seil, Easdale, Luing, Shuna, Torsay), Colonsay,
+Oronsay, Scarba, Jura, Islay and Gigha. Of these Skye and Small Isles
+belong to Inverness-shire, and the rest to Argyllshire. The Hebridean
+islands exceed 500 in number, of which one-fifth are inhabited. Of the
+inhabited islands 11 belong to Ross and Cromarty, 47 to Inverness-shire,
+and 44 to Argyllshire, but of this total of 102 islands, one-third have
+a population of only 10 souls, or fewer, each. The population of the
+Hebrides in 1901 numbered 78,947 (or 28 to the sq. m.), of whom 41,031
+were females, who thus exceeded the males by 10%, and 22,733 spoke
+Gaelic only and 47,666 Gaelic and English. The most populous island is
+Lewis-with-Harris (32,160), and next to it are Skye (13,883), Islay
+(6857) and Mull (4334).
+
+Of the total area of 1,800,000 acres, or 2812 sq. m., only one-ninth is
+cultivated, most of the surface being moorland and mountain. The annual
+rainfall, particularly in the Inner Hebrides, is heavy (42.6 in. at
+Stornoway) but the temperature is high, averaging for the year 47° F.
+Potatoes and turnips are the only root crops that succeed, and barley
+and oats are grown in some of the islands. Sheep-farming and
+cattle-raising are carried on very generally, and, with the fisheries,
+provide the main occupation of the inhabitants, though they profit not a
+little from the tourists who flock to many of the islands throughout the
+summer. The principal industries include distilling, slate-quarrying and
+the manufacture of tweeds, tartans and other woollens. There are
+extensive deer forests in Lewis-with-Harris, Skye, Mull and Jura. On
+many of the islands there are prehistoric remains and antiquities within
+the Christian period. The more populous islands are in regular
+communication with certain points of the mainland by means of steamers
+from Glasgow, Oban and Mallaig. The United Free Church has a strong hold
+on the people, but in a few of the islands the Roman Catholics have a
+great following. In the larger inhabited islands board schools have been
+established. The islands unite with the counties to which they belong in
+returning members to parliament (one for each shire).
+
+_History._--The Hebrides are mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of
+[Greek: Eboudai] and by Pliny under that of _Hebudes_, the modern
+spelling having, it is said, originated in a misprint. By the Norwegians
+they were called _Sudreyjar_ or Southern Islands. The Latinized form was
+_Sodorenses_, preserved to modern times in the title of the bishop of
+Sodor and Man. The original inhabitants seem to have been of the same
+Celtic race as those settled on the mainland. In the 6th century
+Scandinavian hordes poured in with their northern idolatry and lust of
+plunder, but in time they adopted the language and faith of the
+islanders. Mention is made of incursions of the vikings as early as 793,
+but the principal immigration took place towards the end of the 9th
+century in the early part of the reign of Harald Fairhair, king of
+Norway, and consisted of persons driven to the Hebrides, as well as to
+Orkney and Shetland, to escape from his tyrannous rule. Soon afterwards
+they began to make incursions against their mother-country, and on this
+account Harald fitted out an expedition against them, and placed Orkney,
+Shetland, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man under Norwegian government.
+The chief seat of the Norwegian sovereignty was Colonsay. About the year
+1095 Godred Crovan, king of Dublin, Man and the Hebrides, died in Islay.
+His third son, Olaf, succeeded to the government about 1103, and the
+daughter of Olaf was married to Somerled, who became the founder of the
+dynasty known as Lords of the Isles. Many efforts were made by the
+Scottish monarchs to displace the Norwegians. Alexander II. led a fleet
+and army to the shores of Argyllshire in 1249, but he died on the island
+of Kerrera. On the other hand, Haakon IV., king of Norway, at once to
+restrain the independence of his jarls and to keep in check the ambition
+of the Scottish kings, set sail in 1263 on a great expedition, which,
+however, ended disastrously at Largs. Magnus, son of Haakon, concluded
+in 1266 a peace with the Scots, renouncing all claim to the Hebrides and
+other islands except Orkney and Shetland, and Alexander III. agreed to
+give him a sum of 4000 merks in four yearly payments. It was also
+stipulated that Margaret, daughter of Alexander, should be betrothed to
+Eric, the son of Magnus, whom she married in 1281. She died two years
+later, leaving an only daughter afterwards known as the Maid of Norway.
+
+The race of Somerled continued to rule the islands, and from a younger
+son of the same potentate sprang the lords of Lorne, who took the
+patronymic of Macdougall. John Macdonald of Islay, who died about 1386,
+was the first to adopt the title of Lord of the Isles. He was one of the
+most potent of the island princes, and was married to a daughter of the
+earl of Strathearn, afterwards Robert II. His son, Donald of the Isles,
+was memorable for his rebellion in support of his claim to the earldom
+of Ross, in which, however, he was unsuccessful. Alexander, son of
+Donald, resumed the hereditary warfare against the Scottish crown; and
+in 1462 a treaty was concluded between Alexander's son and successor
+John and Edward IV. of England, by which John, his son John, and his
+cousin Donald Balloch, became bound to assist King Edward and James,
+earl of Douglas, in subduing the kingdom of Scotland. The alliance seems
+to have led to no active operations. In the reign of James V. another
+John of Islay resumed the title of Lord of the Isles, but was compelled
+to surrender the dignity. The glory of the lordship of the isles--the
+insular sovereignty--had departed. From the time of Bruce the Campbells
+had been gaining the ascendancy in Argyll. The Macleans, Macnaughtons,
+Maclachlans, Lamonts, and other ancient races had sunk before this
+favoured family. The lordship of Lorne was wrested from the Macdougalls
+by Robert Bruce, and their extensive possessions, with Dunstaffnage
+Castle, bestowed on the king's relative, Stewart, and his descendants,
+afterwards lords of Lorne. The Macdonalds of Sleat, the direct
+representatives of Somerled, though driven from Islay and deprived of
+supreme power by James V., still kept a sort of insular state in Skye.
+There were also the Macdonalds of Clanranald and Glengarry (descendants
+of Somerled), with the powerful houses of Macleod of Dunvegan and
+Macleod of Harris, M'Neill of Barra and Maclean of Mull. Sanguinary
+feuds continued throughout the 16th and 17th centuries among these rival
+clans and their dependent tribes, and the turbulent spirit was not
+subdued till a comparatively recent period. James VI. made an abortive
+endeavour to colonize Lewis. William III. and Queen Anne attempted to
+subsidize the chiefs in order to preserve tranquillity, but the wars of
+Montrose and Dundee, and the Jacobite insurrections of 1715 and 1745,
+showed how futile were all such efforts. It was not till 1748, when a
+decisive blow was struck at the power of the chiefs by the abolition of
+heritable jurisdictions, and the appointment of sheriffs in the
+different districts, that the arts of peace and social improvement made
+way in these remote regions. The change was great, and at first not
+unmixed with evil. A new system of management and high rents was
+imposed, in consequence of which numbers of the tacksmen, or large
+tenants, emigrated to North America. The exodus continued for many
+years. Sheep-farming on a large scale was next introduced, and the
+crofters were thrust into villages or barren corners of the land. The
+result was that, despite the numbers who entered the army or emigrated
+to Canada, the standard of civilization sank lower, and the population
+multiplied in the islands. The people came to subsist almost entirely on
+potatoes and herrings; and in 1846, when the potato blight began its
+ravages, nearly universal destitution ensued--embracing, over the
+islands generally, 70% of the inhabitants. Temporary relief was
+administered in the shape of employment on roads and other works; and an
+emigration fund being raised, from 4000 to 5000 of the people in the
+most crowded districts were removed to Australia. Matters, however, were
+not really mended, and in 1884 a royal commission reported upon the
+condition of the crofters of the islands and mainland. As a result of
+their inquiry the Crofters' Holdings Act was passed in 1886, and in the
+course of a few years some improvement was evident and has since been
+sustained.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Martin Martin's _Description of the Western Islands of
+  Scotland_ (1703); T. Pennant's _Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the
+  Hebrides_ (1774); James Boswell's _Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel
+  Johnson, LL.D._ (1898); John Macculloch's _Geological Account of the
+  Hebrides_ (1819); Hugh Miller's _Cruise of the "Betsy"_ (1858); W. A.
+  Smith's _Lewisiana, or Life in the Outer Hebrides_ (1874); Alexander
+  Smith, _A Summer in Skye_ (1865); Robert Buchanan, _The Hebrid Isles_
+  (1883); C. F. Gordon-Cumming, _In the Hebrides_ (1883); _Report of the
+  Crofters' Commission_ (1884); A. Goodrich-Freer, _Outer Isles_ (1902);
+  and W. C. Mackenzie, _History of the Outer Hebrides_ (1903). Their
+  history under Norwegian rule is given in the _Chronica regum Manniae
+  et insularum_, edited, with learned notes, from the MS. in the British
+  Museum by Professor P. A. Münch of Christiania (1860).
+
+
+
+
+HEBRON (mod. _Khulil er-Rahman_, i.e. "the friend of the Merciful
+One"--an allusion to Abraham), a city of Palestine some 20 m. S. by S.W.
+of Jerusalem. The city, which lies 3040 ft. above the sea, is of extreme
+antiquity (see Num. xiii. 22, and Josephus, _War_, iv. 9, 7) and until
+taken by the Calebites (Josh. xv. 13) bore the name Kirjath-Arba.
+Biblical traditions connect it closely with the patriarch Abraham and
+make it a "city of refuge." The town figures prominently under David as
+the headquarters of his early rule, the scene of Abner's murder and the
+centre of Absalom's rebellion. In later days the Edomites held it for a
+time, but Judas Maccabaeus recovered it. It was destroyed in the great
+war under Vespasian. In A.D. 1167 Hebron became the see of a Latin
+bishop, and it was taken in 1187 by Saladin. In 1834 it joined the
+rebellion against Ibrahim Pasha, who took the town and pillaged it.
+Modern Hebron rises on the east slope of a shallow valley--a long narrow
+town of stone houses, the flat roofs having small stone domes. The main
+quarter is about 700 yds. long, and two smaller groups of houses exist
+north and south of this. The hill behind is terraced, and luxuriant
+vineyards and fruit plantations surround the place, which is well
+watered on the north by three principal springs, including the Well
+Sirah, now 'Ain Sara (2 Sam. iii. 26). Three conspicuous minarets rise,
+two from the _Haram_, the other in the north quarter. The population
+(10,000) includes Moslems and about 500 Jews. The Bedouins bring wool
+and camel's hair to the market; and glass bracelets, lamps and leather
+water-skins are manufactured in the town. The most conspicuous building
+is the _Haram_ built over the supposed site of the cave of Machpelah. It
+is an enclosure measuring 112 ft. east and west by 198 north and south,
+surrounded with high rampart walls of masonry similar in size and
+dressing to that of the Jerusalem Haram walls. These ramparts are
+ascribed by architectural authorities to the Herodian period. The
+interior area is partly occupied by a 12th-century Gothic church, and
+contains six modern cenotaphs of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebecca
+and Leah. The cave beneath the platform has probably not been entered
+for at least 600 years. The numerous traditional sites now shown round
+Hebron are traceable generally to medieval legendary topography; they
+include the Oak of Mamre (Gen. xiii. 18 R.V.) which has at various times
+been shown in different positions from ¾ to 2 m. from the town.
+
+There are a British medical mission, a German Protestant mission with
+church and schools, and, near Abraham's Oak, a Russian mission. Since
+1880 several notices of the Haram, within which are the tombs of the
+Patriarchs, have appeared.
+
+  See C. R. Conder, Pal. Exp. Fund, _Memoirs_, iii. 333, &c.; Riant,
+  _Archives de l'orient latin_, ii. 411, &c.; Dalton and Chaplin,
+  _P.E.F. Quarterly Statement_ (1897); Goldziher, "Das Patriarchengrab
+  in Hebron," in _Zeitschrift d. Dn. Pal. Vereins_, xvii.
+       (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HECATAEUS OF ABDERA (or of Teos), Greek historian and Sceptic
+philosopher, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He accompanied Ptolemy
+I. Soter in an expedition to Syria, and sailed up the Nile with him as
+far as Thebes (Diogenes Laërtius ix. 61). The result of his travels was
+set down by him in two works--[Greek: Aiguptiaka] and [Greek: Peri
+Uperboreôn], which were used by Diodorus Siculus. According to Suidas,
+he also wrote a treatise on the poetry of Hesiod and Homer. Regarding
+his authorship of a work on the Jews (utilized by Josephus in _Contra
+Apionem_), it is conjectured that portions of the [Greek: Aiguptiaka]
+were revised by a Hellenistic Jew from his point of view and published
+as a special work.
+
+  Fragments in C. W. Müller's _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_.
+
+
+
+
+HECATAEUS OF MILETUS (6th-5th century B.C.), Greek historian, son of
+Hegesander, flourished during the time of the Persian invasion. After
+having travelled extensively, he settled in his native city, where he
+occupied a high position, and devoted his time to the composition of
+geographical and historical works. When Aristagoras held a council of
+the leading Ionians at Miletus, to organize a revolt against the Persian
+rule, Hecataeus in vain tried to dissuade his countrymen from the
+undertaking (Herodotus v. 36, 125). In 494, when the defeated Ionians
+were obliged to sue for terms, he was one of the ambassadors to the
+Persian satrap Artaphernes, whom he persuaded to restore the
+constitution of the Ionic cities (Diod. Sic. x. 25). He is by some
+credited with a work entitled [Greek: Gês periodos] ("Travels round the
+Earth"), in two books, one on Europe, the other on Asia, in which were
+described the countries and inhabitants of the known world, the account
+of Egypt being especially comprehensive; the descriptive matter was
+accompanied by a map, based upon Anaximander's map of the earth, which
+he corrected and enlarged. The authenticity of the work is, however,
+strongly attacked by J. Wells in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_,
+xxix. pt. i. 1909. The only certainly genuine work of Hecataeus was the
+[Greek: Geneêlogiai] or [Greek: Historiai], a systematic account of the
+traditions and mythology of the Greeks. He was probably the first to
+attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical method to
+distinguish myth from historical fact, though he accepts Homer and the
+other poets as trustworthy authority. Herodotus, though he once at least
+controverts his statements, is indebted to Hecataeus not only for facts,
+but also in regard of method and general scheme, but the extent of the
+debt depends on the genuineness of the [Greek: Gês periodos].
+
+  See fragments in C. W. Müller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, i.;
+  H. Berger, _Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen_
+  (1903); E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_, i.; W. Mure,
+  _History of Greek Literature_, iv.; especially J. V. Prasek,
+  _Hekataios als Herodots Quelle zur Geschichte Vorderasiens. Beiträge
+  zur alten Geschichte (Klio)_, iv. 193 seq. (1904), and J. Wells in
+  _Journ. Hell. Stud._, as above.
+
+
+
+
+HECATE (Gr. [Greek: Hekatê], "she who works from afar"[1]), a goddess in
+Greek mythology. According to the generally accepted view, she is of
+Hellenic origin, but Farnell regards her as a foreign importation from
+Thrace, the home of Bendis, with whom Hecate has many points in common.
+She is not mentioned in the _Iliad_ or the _Odyssey_, but in Hesiod
+(_Theogony_, 409) she is the daughter of the Titan Perses and Asterie,
+in a passage which may be a later interpolation by the Orphists (for
+other genealogies see Steuding in Roscher's _Lexikon_). She is there
+represented as a mighty goddess, having power over heaven, earth and
+sea; hence she is the bestower of wealth and all the blessings of daily
+life. The range of her influence is most varied, extending to war,
+athletic games, the tending of cattle, hunting, the assembly of the
+people and the law-courts. Hecate is frequently identified with Artemis,
+an identification usually justified by the assumption that both were
+moon-goddesses. Farnell, who regards Artemis as originally an
+earth-goddess, while recognizing a "genuine lunar element" in Hecate
+from the 5th century, considers her a chthonian rather than a lunar
+divinity (see also Warr in _Classical Review_, ix. 390). He is of
+opinion that neither borrowed much from, nor exercised much influence
+on, the cult and character of the other.
+
+Hecate is the chief goddess who presides over magic arts and spells, and
+in this connexion she is the mother of the sorceresses Circe and Medea.
+She is constantly invoked, in the well-known idyll (ii.) of Theocritus,
+in the incantation to bring back a woman's faithless lover. As a
+chthonian power, she is worshipped at the Samothracian mysteries, and is
+closely connected with Demeter. Alone of the gods besides Helios, she
+witnessed the abduction of Persephone, and, torch in hand (a natural
+symbol for the moon's light, but see Farnell), assisted Demeter in her
+search for her daughter. On moonlight nights she is seen at the
+cross-roads (hence her name [Greek: trioditis], Lat. _Trivia_)
+accompanied by the dogs of the Styx and crowds of the dead. Here, on the
+last day of the month, eggs and fish were offered to her. Black puppies
+and she-lambs (black victims being offered to chthonian deities) were
+also sacrificed (Schol. on Theocritus ii. 12). Pillars like the Hermae,
+called Hecataea, stood, especially in Athens, at cross-roads and
+doorways, perhaps to keep away the spirits of evil. Like Artemis, Hecate
+is also a goddess of fertility, presiding especially over the birth and
+the youth of wild animals, and over human birth and marriage. She also
+attends when the soul leaves the body at death, and is found near
+graves, and on the hearth, where the master of the house was formerly
+buried. It is to be noted that Hecate plays little or no part in
+mythological legend. Her worship seems to have flourished especially in
+the wilder parts of Greece, such as Samothrace and Thessaly, in Caria
+and on the coasts of Asia Minor. In Greece proper it prevailed on the
+east coast and especially in Aegina, where her aid was invoked against
+madness.
+
+In older times Hecate is represented as single-formed, clad in a long
+robe, holding burning torches; later she becomes _triformis_,
+"triple-formed," with three bodies standing back to back--corresponding,
+according to those who regard her as a moon-goddess, to the new, the
+full and the waning moon. In her six hands are torches, sometimes a
+snake, a key (as wardress of the lower world), a whip or a dagger; her
+favourite animal was the dog, which was sacrificed to her--an indication
+of her non-Hellenic origin, since this animal very rarely fills this
+part in genuine Greek ritual.
+
+  See H. Steuding in Roscher's _Lexikon_, where the functions of Hecate
+  are systematically derived from the conception of her as a
+  moon-goddess; L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, ii., where
+  this view is examined; P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio's
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquités_; O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_,
+  ii. (1906) p. 1288.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] J. B. Bury, in _Classical Review_, iii. p. 416, suggests that the
+    name means "dog," against which see J. H. Vince, ib. iv. p. 47. G. C.
+    Warr, ib. ix. 390, takes the Hesiodic Hecate to be a moon-goddess,
+    daughter of the sun-god Perseus.
+
+
+
+
+HECATOMB (Gr. [Greek: hekatombê] from [Greek: hekaton], a hundred, and
+[Greek: bous], an ox), originally the sacrifice of a hundred oxen in the
+religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans; later a large number of
+any kind of animals devoted for sacrifice. Figuratively, "hecatomb" is
+used to describe the sacrifice or destruction by fire, tempest, disease
+or the sword of any large number of persons or animals; and also of the
+wholesale destruction of inanimate objects, and even of mental and moral
+attributes.
+
+
+
+
+HECATO OF RHODES, Greek Stoic philosopher and disciple of Panaetius
+(Cicero, _De officiis_, iii. 15). Nothing else is known of his life, but
+it is clear that he was eminent amongst the Stoics of the period. He was
+a voluminous writer, but nothing remains. A list is preserved by
+Diogenes, who mentions works on _Duty_, _Good_, _Virtues_, _Ends_. The
+first, dedicated to Tubero, is eulogized by Cicero in the _De officiis_,
+and Seneca refers to him frequently in the _De beneficiis_. According to
+Diogenes Laërtius, he divided the virtues into two kinds, those founded
+on scientific intellectual principles (i.e. wisdom and justice), and
+those which have no such basis (e.g. temperance and the resultant health
+and vigour). Cicero shows that he was much interested in casuistical
+questions, as, for example, whether a good man who had received a coin
+which he knew to be bad was justified in passing it on to another. On
+the whole, his moral attitude is cynical, and he is inclined to regard
+self-interest as the best criterion. This he modifies by explaining that
+self-interest is based on the relationships of life; a man needs money
+for the sake of his children, his friends and the state whose general
+prosperity depends on the wealth of its citizens. Like the earlier
+Stoics, Cleanthes and Chrysippus, he held that virtue may be taught.
+(See STOICS and PANAETIUS.)
+
+
+
+
+HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL (1811-1881), German revolutionist, was born
+at Eichtersheim in the Palatinate on the 28th of September 1811, his
+father being a revenue official. He studied law with the intention of
+becoming an advocate, but soon became absorbed in politics. On entering
+the Second Chamber of Baden in 1842, he at once began to take part in
+the opposition against the government, which assumed a more and more
+openly Radical character, and in the course of which his talents as an
+agitator and his personal charm won him wide popularity and influence. A
+speech, denouncing the projected incorporation of Schleswig and Holstein
+with Denmark, delivered in the Chamber of Baden on the 6th of February
+1845, spread his fame beyond the limits of his own state, and his
+popularity was increased by his expulsion from Prussia on the occasion
+of a journey to Stettin. After the death of his more moderate-minded
+friend Adolf Sander (March 9th, 1845), Hecker's tone towards the
+government became more and more bitter. In spite of the shallowness and
+his culture and his extremely weak character, he enjoyed an
+ever-increasing popularity. Even before the outbreak of the revolution
+he included Socialistic claims in his programme. In 1847 he was
+temporarily occupied with ideas of emigration, and with this object made
+a journey to Algiers, but returned to Baden and resumed his former
+position as the Radical champion of popular rights, later becoming
+president of the _Volksverein_, where he was destined to fall still
+further under the influence of the agitator Gustav von Struve. In
+conjunction with Struve he drew up the Radical programme carried at the
+great Liberal meeting held at Offenburg on the 12th of September 1847
+(entitled "Thirteen Claims put forward by the People of Baden"). In
+addition to the Offenburg programme, the _Sturmpetition_ of the 1st of
+March 1848 attempted to extort from the government the most far-reaching
+concessions. But it was in vain that on becoming a deputy Hecker
+endeavoured to carry out its impracticable provisions. He had to yield
+to the more moderate majority, but on this account was driven still
+further towards the Left. The proof lies in the new Offenburg demands of
+the 19th of March, and in the resolution moved by Hecker in the
+preliminary parliament of Frankfort that Germany should be declared a
+republic. But neither in Baden nor Frankfort did he at any time gain his
+point.
+
+This double failure, combined with various energetic measures of the
+government, which were indirectly aimed at him (e.g. the arrest of the
+editor of the _Constanzer Seeblatt_, a friend of Hecker's, in Karlsruhe
+station on the 8th of April), inspired Hecker with the idea of an armed
+rising under pretext of the foundation of the German republic. The 9th
+to the 11th of April was secretly spent in preliminaries. On the 12th of
+April Hecker and Struve sent a proclamation to the inhabitants of the
+_Seekreis_ and of the Black Forest "to summon the people who can bear
+arms to Donaueschingen at mid-day on the 14th, with arms, ammunition and
+provisions for six days." They expected 70,000 men, but only a few
+thousand appeared. The grand-ducal government of the _Seekreis_ was
+dissolved, and Hecker gradually gained reinforcements. But friendly
+advisers also joined him, pointing out the risks of his undertaking.
+Hecker, however, was not at all ready to listen to them; on the
+contrary, he added to violence an absurd defiance, and offered an
+amnesty to the German princes on condition of their retiring within
+fourteen days into private life. The troops of Baden and Hesse marched
+against him, under the command of General Friedrich von Gagern, and on
+the 20th of April they met near Kandern, where Gagern was killed, it is
+true, but Hecker was completely defeated.
+
+Like many of the revolutionaries of that period, Hecker retired to
+Switzerland. He was, it is true, again elected to the Chamber of Baden
+by the circle of Thiengen, but the government, no longer willing to
+respect his immunity as a deputy, refused its ratification. On this
+account Hecker resolved in September 1848 to emigrate to North America,
+and obtained possession of a farm near Belleville in the state of
+Illinois.
+
+During the second rising in Baden in the spring of 1849 he again made
+efforts to obtain a footing in his own state, but without success. He
+only came as far as Strassburg, but had to retreat before the victories
+of the Prussian troops over the Baden insurgents.
+
+On his return to America he won some distinction during the Civil War as
+colonel of a regiment which he had himself got together on the Federal
+side in 1861 and 1864. It was with great joy that he heard of the union
+of Germany brought about by the victory over France in 1870-71. It was
+then that he made his famous festival speech at St Louis, in which he
+gave an animated expression to the enthusiasm of the German Americans
+for their newly-united fatherland. He received a less favourable
+impression during a journey he made in Germany in 1873. He died at St
+Louis on the 24th of March 1881.
+
+Hecker was always very much beloved of all the German democrats. The
+song and the hat named after him (the latter a broad slouch hat with a
+feather) became famous as the symbols of the middle-classes in revolt.
+In America, too, he had won great esteem, not only on political grounds
+but also for his personal qualities.
+
+  See F. Hecker, _Die Erhebung des Volkes in Baden für die deutsche
+  Republik_ (Baden, 1848); F. Hecker, _Reden und Vorlesungen_ (Neerstadt
+  a. d. H., 1872); F. v. Weech, _Badische Biographien_, iv. (1891); L.
+  Mathy, _Aus dem Nachlasse von K. Matty, Briefe aus den Jahren
+  1846-1848_ (Leipzig, 1898).     (J. Hn.)
+
+
+
+
+HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS (1819-1888), American Roman Catholic priest, the
+founder of the "Paulist Fathers," was born in New York City, of German
+immigrant parents, on the 18th of December 1819. When barely twelve
+years of age, he had to go to work, and pushed a baker's cart for his
+elder brothers, who had a bakery in Rutgers Street. But he studied at
+every possible opportunity, becoming immersed in Kant's _Critique of
+Pure Reason_, and while still a lad took part in certain politico-social
+movements which aimed at the elevation of the working man. It was at
+this juncture that he met Orestes Brownson, who exercised a marked
+influence over him. Isaac was deeply religious, a characteristic for
+which he gave much credit to his prayerful mother, and remained so amid
+all the reading and agitating in which he engaged. Having grown into
+young manhood, he joined the Brook Farm movement, and in that colony he
+tarried some six months. Shortly after leaving it (in 1844) he was
+baptized into the Roman Catholic Church by Bishop McCloskey of New York.
+One year later he was entered in the novitiate of the Redemptorists in
+Belgium, and there he cultivated to a high degree the spirit of lofty
+mystical piety which marked him through life.
+
+Ordained a priest in London by Wiseman in 1849, he returned to America,
+and worked until 1857 as a Redemptorist missionary. With all his
+mysticism, Isaac Hecker had the wide-awake mind of the typical American,
+and he perceived that the missionary activity of the Catholic Church in
+the United States must remain to a large extent ineffective unless it
+adopted methods suited to the country and the age. In this he had the
+sympathy of four fellow Redemptorists, who like himself were of American
+birth and converts from Protestantism. Acting as their agent, and with
+the consent of his local superiors, Hecker went to Rome to beg of the
+Rector Major of his Order that a Redemptorist novitiate might be opened
+in the United States, in order thus to attract American youths to the
+missionary life. In furtherance of this request, he took with him the
+strong approval of some members of the American hierarchy. The Rector
+Major, instead of listening to Father Hecker, expelled him from the
+Order for having made the journey to Rome without sufficient
+authorization. The outcome of the trouble was that Hecker and the other
+four American Redemptorists were permitted by Pius IX. in 1858 to form
+the separate religious community of the Paulists. Hecker trained and
+governed this community in spiritual exercises and mission-preaching
+until his death in New York City, after seventeen years of suffering, on
+the 22nd of December 1888. He founded and was the director of the
+Catholic Publication Society, was the founder, and from 1865 until his
+death the editor, of the _Catholic World_, and wrote _Questions of the
+Soul_ (1855), _Aspirations of Nature_ (1857), _Catholicity in the United
+States_ (1879) and _The Church and the Age_ (1888).
+
+  The name of Hecker is closely associated with that of "Americanism."
+  To understand this movement it is necessary to comprehend the tendency
+  of events in Catholic Europe rather than in America itself. The steady
+  decline in the power and influence of French Catholicism since shortly
+  after 1870 is the most remarkable feature of the history of the Third
+  Republic. Not only did the French State pass laws bearing more and
+  more stringently on the Church, under each succeeding ministry, but
+  the bulk of the people acquiesced in the policy of its legislators.
+  The clergy, if not Catholicism, was rapidly losing its hold over the
+  once Catholic nation. Observing this fact, and encouraged by the
+  action of Leo XIII., who, in 1892 called on French Catholics loyally
+  to accept the Republic, a body of vigorous young French priests set
+  themselves to check the disaster. They studied the causes which
+  produced it. These causes, they considered to be, first, the clergy's
+  predominant sympathy with the monarchists, and in its undisguised
+  hostility to the Republic; secondly, the Church's aloofness from
+  modern men, methods and thought. The progressive party believed that
+  there was too little cultivation of individual, independent character,
+  while too much stress was laid upon what might be called the
+  mechanical or routine side of religion. The party perceived, too, that
+  Catholicism was making scarcely any use of modern aggressive modes of
+  propaganda; that, for example, the Church took but an insignificant
+  part in social movements, in the organization of clubs for social
+  study, in the establishing of settlements and similar philanthropic
+  endeavour. Lack of adaptability to modern needs expresses in short the
+  deficiencies in Catholicism which these men endeavoured to correct.
+  They began a domestic apostolate which had for one of its rallying
+  cries, "_Allons au peuple_,"--"Let us go to the people." They agitated
+  for the inauguration of social works, for a more intimate mingling of
+  priests with the people, and for general cultivation of personal
+  initiative, both in clergy and in laity.
+
+  Not unnaturally, they looked for inspiration to America. There they
+  saw a vigorous Church among a free people, with priests publicly
+  respected, and with a note of aggressive zeal in every project of
+  Catholic enterprise. From the American priesthood, Father Hecker stood
+  out conspicuous for sturdy courage, deep interior piety, an assertive
+  self-initiative and immense love of modern times and modern liberty.
+  So they took Father Hecker for a kind of patron saint. His biography
+  (New York, 1891), written in English by the Paulist Father Elliott,
+  was translated into French (1897), and speedily became the book of the
+  hour. Under the inspiration of Father Hecker's life and character, the
+  more spirited section of the French clergy undertook the task of
+  persuading their fellow-priests loyally to accept the actual political
+  establishment, and then, breaking out of their isolation, to put
+  themselves in touch with the intellectual life of the country, and
+  take an active part in the work of social amelioration.
+
+  In 1897 the movement received an impetus--and a warning--when Mgr
+  O'Connell, former Rector of the American College in Rome, spoke on
+  behalf of Father Hecker's ideas at the Catholic Congress in Friburg.
+  The conservatives took alarm at what they considered to be symptoms of
+  pernicious modernism or "Liberalism." Did not the watchword "_Allons
+  au peuple_" savour of heresy? Did it not tend toward breaking down the
+  divinely established distinction between the priest and the layman,
+  and conceding something to the laity in the management of the Church?
+  The insistence upon individual initiative was judged to be
+  incompatible with the fundamental principle of Catholicism, obedience
+  to authority. Moreover, the conservatives were, almost to a man,
+  anti-republicans who distrusted and disliked the democratic abbés.
+  Complaints were sent to Rome. A violent polemic against the new
+  movement was launched in Abbé Maignan's _Le père Hecker, est-il un
+  saint?_ (1898). Repugnance to American tendencies and influences had a
+  strong representation in the Curia and in powerful circles in Rome.
+  Leo XIII. was extremely reluctant to pronounce any strictures upon
+  American Catholics, of whose loyalty to the Roman See, and to their
+  faith, he had often spoken in terms of high approbation. But he
+  yielded, in a measure, to the pressure brought to bear upon him, and,
+  early in February 1899, addressed to Cardinal Gibbons the Brief
+  _Testem Benevolentiae_. This document contained a condemnation of the
+  following doctrines or tendencies: (a) undue insistence on interior
+  initiative in the spiritual life, as leading to disobedience; (b)
+  attacks on religious vows, and disparagement of the value in the
+  present age, of religious orders; (c) minimizing Catholic doctrine;
+  (d) minimizing the importance of spiritual direction. The brief did
+  not assert that any unsound doctrine on the above points had been held
+  by Hecker or existed among Americans. Its tenour was, that if such
+  opinions did exist, the Pope called upon the hierarchy to eradicate
+  the evil. Cardinal Gibbons and many other prelates replied to Rome.
+  With all but unanimity, they declared that the incriminated opinions
+  had no existence among American Catholics. It was well known that
+  Hecker never had countenanced the slightest departure from Catholic
+  principles in their fullest and most strict application. The
+  disturbance caused by the condemnation was slight; almost the entire
+  laity, and a considerable part of the clergy, never understood what
+  the noise was about. The affair was soon forgotten, but the result was
+  to strengthen the hands of the conservatives in France.     (J. J. F.)
+
+
+
+
+HECKMONDWIKE, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary
+division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. S.S.E. of
+Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Northern, and London &
+North-Western railways. Pop. (1901), 9459. Like the town of Dewsbury, on
+the south-east, it is an important centre of the blanket and carpet
+manufactures, and there are also machine works, dye works and iron
+foundries. Coal is extensively wrought in the vicinity.
+
+
+
+
+HECTOR, in Greek mythology, son of Priam and Hecuba, the husband of
+Andromache. Like Paris and other Trojans, he had an Oriental name,
+Darius. In Homer he is represented as an ideal warrior, the champion of
+the Trojans and the mainstay of the city. His character, is drawn in
+most favourable colours as a good son, a loving husband and father, and
+a trusty friend. His leave-taking of Andromache in the sixth book of the
+_Iliad_, and his departure to meet Achilles for the last time, are most
+touchingly described. He is an especial favourite of Apollo; and later
+poets even describe him as son of that god. His chief exploits during
+the war were his defence of the wounded Sarpedon, his fight with Ajax,
+son of Telamon (his particular enemy), and the storming of the Greek
+ramparts. When Achilles, enraged with Agamemnon, deserted the Greeks,
+Hector drove them back to their ships, which he almost succeeded in
+burning. Patroclus, the friend of Achilles, who came to the help of the
+Greeks, was slain by Hector with the help of Apollo. Then Achilles, to
+revenge his friend's death, returned to the war, slew Hector, dragged
+his body behind his chariot to the camp, and afterwards round the tomb
+of Patroclus. Aphrodite and Apollo preserved it from corruption and
+mutilation. Priam, guarded by Hermes, went to Achilles and prevailed on
+him to give back the body, which was buried with great honour. Hector
+was afterwards worshipped in the Troad by the Boeotian tribe Gephyraei,
+who offered sacrifices at his grave.
+
+
+
+
+HECUBA (Gr. [Greek: Hekabê]), wife of Priam, daughter of the Phrygian
+king Dymas (or of Cisseus, or of the river-god Sangarius). According to
+Homer she was the mother of nineteen of Priam's fifty sons. When Troy
+was captured and Priam slain, she was made prisoner by the Greeks. Her
+fate is told in various ways, most of which connect her with the
+promontory Cynossema, on the Thracian shore of the Hellespont. According
+to Euripides (in the _Hecuba_), her youngest son Polydorus had been
+placed during the siege of Troy under the care of Polymestor, king of
+Thrace. When the Greeks reached the Thracian Chersonese on their way
+home Hecuba discovered that her son had been murdered, and in revenge
+put out the eyes of Polymestor and murdered his two sons. She was
+acquitted by Agamemnon; but, as Polymestor foretold, she was turned into
+a dog, and her grave became a mark for ships (Ovid, _Metam._ xiii.
+399-575; Juvenal x. 271 and Mayor's note). According to another story,
+she fell to the lot of Odysseus, as a slave, and in despair threw
+herself into the Hellespont; or, she used such insulting language
+towards her captors that they put her to death (Dictys Cretensis v. 13.
+16). It is obvious from the tales of Hecuba's transformation and death
+that she is a form of some goddess to whom dogs were sacred; and the
+analogy with Scylla is striking.
+
+
+
+
+HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ (c. 1504-c. 1670), Dutch painter, born at Haarlem,
+was one of the earliest Dutchmen who devoted himself exclusively to the
+painting of still life. He was the contemporary and comrade of Dirk
+Hals, with whom he had in common pictorial touch and technical
+execution. But Heda was more careful and finished than Hals, and showed
+considerable skill and not a little taste in arranging and colouring
+chased cups and beakers and tankards of precious and inferior metals.
+Nothing is so appetizing as his "luncheon," with rare comestibles set
+out upon rich plate, oysters--seldom without the cut lemon--bread,
+champagne, olives and pastry. Even the commoner "refection" is also not
+without charm, as it comprises a cut ham, bread, walnuts and beer. One
+of Heda's early masterpieces, dated 1623, in the Munich Pinakothek is as
+homely as a later one of 1651 in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. A
+more luxurious repast is a "Luncheon in the Augsburg Gallery," dated
+1644. Most of Heda's pictures are on the European continent, notably in
+the galleries of Paris, Parma, Ghent, Darmstadt, Gotha, Munich and
+Vienna. He was a man of repute in his native city, and filled all the
+offices of dignity and trust in the gild of Haarlem. He seems to have
+had considerable influence in forming the younger Frans Hals.
+
+
+
+
+HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER (1828-1897), Scottish mineralogist, was born at
+Hoy in Orkney on the 28th of April 1828. After receiving his early
+education at the Edinburgh academy, he entered as a medical student at
+the university in that city, and subsequently studied chemistry and
+mineralogy at Klausthal and Freiburg. In 1851 he took his degree of M.D.
+at Edinburgh, and for about five years practised there. Medical work,
+however, possessed for him little attraction; he became assistant to
+Prof. Connell, who held the chair of chemistry at St Andrews, and in
+1862 succeeded him as professor. This post he held until in 1880 he was
+invited to report on some gold mines in South Africa. On his return he
+devoted himself with great assiduity to mineralogy, and formed one of
+the finest collections by means of personal exploration in almost every
+part of Scotland. His specimens are now in the Royal Scottish Museum at
+Edinburgh. It had been his intention to publish a comprehensive work on
+the mineralogy of Scotland. This he did not live to complete, but the
+MSS. fell into able hands, and _The Mineralogy of Scotland_, in 2 vols.,
+edited by J. G. Goodchild, was issued in 1901. Heddle was one of the
+founders of the Mineralogical Society, and he contributed many articles
+on Scottish minerals, and on the geology of the northern parts of
+Scotland, to the _Mineralogical Magazine_, as well as to the
+_Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_. He died on the 19th of
+November 1897.
+
+  See _Dr Heddle and his Geological Work_ (with portrait), by J. G.
+  Goodchild, _Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc._ (1898) vii. 317.
+
+
+
+
+HEDGEHOG, or URCHIN, a member of the mammalian order Insectivora,
+remarkable for its dentition, its armature of spines and its short tail.
+The upper jaw is longer than the lower, the snout is long and flexible,
+with the nostrils narrow, and the claws are long but weak. The animal is
+about 10 in. long, its eyes are small, and the lower surface covered
+with hairs of the ordinary character. The brain is remarkable for its
+low development, the cerebral hemispheres being small, and marked with
+but one groove, and that a shallow one, on each side. The hedgehog has
+the power of rolling itself up into a ball, from which the spines stand
+out in every direction. The spines are sharp, hard and elastic, and form
+so efficient a defence that there are few animals able to effect a
+successful attack on this creature. The moment it is touched, or even
+hears the report of a gun, it rolls itself up by the action of the
+muscles beneath the skin, while this contraction effects the erection of
+the spines. The most important muscle is the _orbicularis panniculi_,
+which extends over the anterior region of the skull, as far down the
+body as the ventral hairy region, and on to the tail, but three other
+muscles aid in the contraction.
+
+[Illustration: The Hedgehog (_Erinaceus europaeus_).]
+
+Though insectivorous, the hedgehog is reported to have a liking for
+mice, while frogs and toads, as well as plants and fruits, all seem to
+be acceptable. It will also eat snakes, and its fondness for eggs has
+caused it to meet with the enmity of game-preservers; and there is no
+doubt it occasionally attacks leverets and game-chicks. In a state of
+nature it does not emerge from its retreat during daylight, unless urged
+by hunger or by the necessities of its young. During winter it passes
+into a state of hibernation, when its temperature falls considerably;
+having provided itself with a nest of dry leaves, it is well protected
+from the influences of the rain, and rolling itself up, remains
+undisturbed till warmer weather returns. In July or August the female
+brings forth four to eight young, or, according to others, two to four
+at a somewhat earlier period; at birth the spines, which in the adult
+are black in the middle, are white and soft, but soon harden, though
+they do not attain their full size until the succeeding spring.
+
+The hedgehog, which is known scientifically as _Erinaceus europaeus_,
+and is the type of the family _Erinaceidae_, is found in woods and
+gardens, and extends over nearly the whole of Europe; and has been found
+at 6000 to 8000 ft. above the level of the sea. The adult is provided
+with thirty-six teeth; in the upper jaw are 6 incisors, 2 canines and 12
+cheek-teeth, and in the lower jaw 4 incisors, 2 canines and 10
+cheek-teeth. The genus is represented by about a score of species,
+ranging over Europe, Asia, except the Malay countries, and Africa.
+     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+HEDGES AND FENCES. The object of the hedge[1] or fence (abbreviation of
+"defence") is to mark a boundary or to enclose an area of land on which
+stock is kept. The hedge, i.e. a row of bushes or small trees, forms a
+characteristic feature of the scenery of England, especially in the
+midlands and south; it is more rarely found in other countries. Its
+disadvantages as a fence are that it is not portable, that it requires
+cutting and training while young, that it harbours weeds and vermin and
+that it occupies together with the ditch which usually borders it a
+considerable space of ground, the margins of which cannot be cultivated.
+For these reasons it is to some extent superseded by the fence proper,
+especially where shelter for cattle is not required. In Great Britain
+the hawthorn (q.v.) is by far the most important of hedge plants. Holly
+resembles the hawthorn in its amenability to pruning and in its prickly
+nature and closeness of growth, which make it an effective barrier to,
+and shelter for, stock, but it is less hardy and more slow-growing than
+the hawthorn. Hornbeam, beech, myrobalan or cherry plum and blackthorn
+also have their advantages, hornbeam being proof against great exposure,
+blackthorn thriving on poor land and possessing great impenetrability
+and so on. Box, yew, privet and many other plants are used for
+ornamental hedging; in the United States the osage orange and honey
+locust are favourite hedge plants. As fences, wooden posts and rails and
+stone walls may be conveniently used in districts where the requisite
+materials are plentiful. But the most modern form of fence is formed of
+wire strands either smooth or barbed (see BARBED WIRE), strained between
+iron standards or wooden or concrete posts. The wire may be interwoven
+with vertical strands or, if necessary, may be kept apart by iron
+droppers between the standards. Fences of a lighter description are
+machine-made with pickets of split chestnut or other wood closely set,
+woven with a few strands of wire; they are braced by posts at intervals.
+
+From the fact that tramps and vagabonds frequently sleep under hedges
+the word has come to be used as a term of contempt, as in
+"hedge-priest," an inferior and illiterate kind of parson at one time
+existing in England and Ireland, and in "hedge-school," a low class
+school held in the open air, formerly very common in Ireland. From the
+sense of "hedge" as an enclosure or barrier the verb "to hedge" means to
+enclose, to form a barrier or defence, to bound or limit. As a sporting
+term the word is used in betting to mean protection from loss, by
+betting on both sides, by "laying off" on one side, after laying odds on
+another or vice versa. The word was early used figuratively in the sense
+of to avoid committing oneself.
+
+  See articles in the _Cyclopaedia of American Agriculture_, vol. i.,
+  ed. by L. H. Bailey (New York, 1907); in the _Standard Cyclopaedia of
+  Modern Agriculture_, ed. by R. P. Wright (London, 1908-1909); and in
+  the _Encyclopaedia of Agriculture_, vol. ii., ed. by C. E. Green and
+  D. Young (Edinburgh, 1908).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Hedge is a Teutonic word, cf. Dutch _heg_, Ger. _Hecke_; the root
+    appears in other English words, e.g. "haw," as in "hawthorn."
+
+
+
+
+HEDON, a municipal borough in the Holderness parliamentary division of
+the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. E. of Hull by a branch of
+the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 1010. It stands in a low-lying,
+flat district bordering the Humber. It is 2 m. from the river, but was
+formerly reached by a navigable inlet, now dry, and was a considerable
+port. There is a small harbour, but the prosperity of the port has
+passed to Hull. The church of St Augustine is a splendid cruciform
+building with central tower. It is Early English, Decorated and
+Perpendicular, the tower being of the last period. The west front is
+particularly fine, and the church, with its noble proportions and lofty
+clerestories, resembles a cathedral in miniature. There are a
+manufacture of bricks and an agricultural trade. The corporation
+consists of a mayor, 3 aldermen and 9 councillors; and possesses a
+remarkable ancient mace, of 15th-century workmanship. Area, 321 acres.
+
+According to tradition the men of Hedon received a charter of liberties
+from King Æthelstan, but there is no evidence to prove this or indeed to
+prove any settlement in the town until after the Conquest. The manor is
+not mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but formed part of the lordship of
+Holderness which William the Conqueror granted to Odo, count of
+Albemarle. A charter of Henry II., which is undated, contains the first
+certain evidence of settlement. By it the king granted to William,
+count of Albemarle, free borough rights in Hedon so that his burgesses
+there might hold of him as freely and quietly as the burgesses of York
+or Lincoln held of the king. An earlier charter granted to the
+inhabitants of York shows that these rights included a trade gild and
+freedom from many dues not only in England but also in France. King John
+in 1200 granted a confirmation of these liberties to Baldwin, count of
+Albemarle, and Hawisia his wife and for this second charter the
+burgesses themselves paid 70 marks. In 1272 Henry III. granted to
+Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and Avelina his wife, then lord and lady of
+the manor, the right of holding a fair at Hedon on the eve, day, and
+morrow of the feast of St Augustine and for five following days. After
+the countess's death the manor came to the hands of Edward I. In 1280 it
+was found by an inquisition that the men of Hedon "were few and poor"
+and that if the town were demised at a fee-farm rent the town might
+improve. The grant, however, does not appear to have been made until
+1346. Besides this charter Edward III. also granted the burgesses the
+privilege of electing a mayor and bailiffs every year. At that time
+Hedon was one of the chief ports in the Humber, but its place was
+gradually taken by Hull after that town came into the hands of the king.
+Hedon was incorporated by Charles II. in 1661, and James II. in 1680
+gave the burgesses another charter granting among other privileges that
+of holding two extra fairs, but of this they never appear to have taken
+advantage. The burgesses returned two members to parliament in 1295, and
+from 1547 to 1832 when the borough was disfranchised.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Yorkshire_; J. R. Boyle, _The Early
+  History of the Town and Port of Hedon_ (Hull and York, 1895); G. H.
+  Park, _History of the Ancient Borough of Hedon_ (Hull, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+HEDONISM (Gr. [Greek: hêdonê], pleasure, from [Greek: hêdys], sweet,
+pleasant), in ethics, a general term for all theories of conduct in
+which the criterion is pleasure of one kind or another. Hedonistic
+theories of conduct have been held from the earliest times, though they
+have been by no means of the same character. Moreover, hedonism has,
+especially by its critics, been very much misrepresented owing mainly to
+two simple misconceptions. In the first place hedonism may confine
+itself to the view that, as a matter of observed fact, all men do in
+practice make pleasure the criterion of action, or it may go further and
+assert that men ought to seek pleasure as the sole human good. The
+former statement takes no view as to whether or not there is any
+absolute good: if merely denies that men aim at anything more than
+pleasure. The latter statement admits an ideal, _summum bonum_--namely,
+pleasure. The second confusion is the tacit assumption that the pleasure
+of the hedonist is necessarily or characteristically of a purely
+physical kind; this assumption is in the case of some hedonistic
+theories a pure perversion of the facts. Practically all hedonists have
+argued that what are known as the "lower" pleasures are not only
+ephemeral in themselves but also productive of so great an amount of
+consequent pain that the wise man cannot regard them as truly
+pleasurable; the sane hedonist will, therefore, seek those so-called
+"higher" pleasures which are at once more lasting and less likely to be
+discounted by consequent pain. It should be observed, however, that this
+choice of pleasures by a hedonist is conditioned not by "moral"
+(absolute) but by prudential (relative) considerations.
+
+The earliest and the most extreme type of hedonism is that of the
+Cyrenaic School as stated by Aristippus, who argued that the only good
+for man is the sentient pleasure of the moment. Since (following
+Protagoras) knowledge is solely of momentary sensations, it is useless
+to try, as Socrates recommended, to make calculations as to future
+pleasures, and to balance present enjoyment with disagreeable
+consequences. The true art of life is to crowd as much enjoyment as
+possible into every moment. This extreme or "pure" hedonism regarded as
+a definite philosophic theory practically died with the Cyrenaics,
+though the same spirit has frequently found expression in ancient and
+modern, especially poetical, literature.
+
+The confusion already alluded to between "pure" and "rational" hedonism
+is nowhere more clearly exemplified than in the misconceptions which
+have arisen as to the doctrine of the Epicureans. To identify
+Epicureanism with Cyrenaicism is a complete misunderstanding. It is true
+that pleasure is the _summum bonum_ of Epicurus, but his conception of
+that pleasure is profoundly modified by the Socratic doctrine of
+prudence and the eudaemonism of Aristotle. The true hedonist will aim at
+a life of enduring rational happiness; pleasure is the end of life, but
+true pleasure can be obtained only under the guidance of reason.
+Self-control in the choice of pleasures with a view to reducing pain to
+a minimum is indispensable. "Of all this, the beginning, and the
+greatest good, is prudence." The negative side of Epicurean hedonism was
+developed to such an extent by some members of the school (see HEGESIAS)
+that the ideal life is held to be rather indifference to pain than
+positive enjoyment. This pessimistic attitude is far removed from the
+positive hedonism of Aristippus.
+
+Between the hedonism of the ancients and that of modern philosophers
+there lies a great gulf. Practically speaking ancient hedonism advocated
+the happiness of the individual: the modern hedonism of Hume, Bentham
+and Mill is based on a wider conception of life. The only real happiness
+is the happiness of the community, or at least of the majority: the
+criterion is society, not the individual. Thus we pass from Egoistic to
+Universalistic hedonism, Utilitarianism, Social Ethics, more especially
+in relation to the still broader theories of evolution. These theories
+are confronted by the problem of reconciling and adjusting the claims of
+the individual with those of society. One of the most important
+contributions to the discussion is that of Sir Leslie Stephen (_Science
+of Ethics_), who elaborated a theory of the "social organism" in
+relation to the individual. The end of the evolution process is the
+production of a "social tissue" which will be "vitally efficient."
+Instead, therefore, of the criterion of "the greatest happiness of the
+greatest number," Stephen has that of the "health of the organism." Life
+is not "a series of detached acts, in each of which a man can calculate
+the sum of happiness or misery attainable by different courses." Each
+action must be regarded as directly bearing upon the structure of
+society.
+
+  A criticism of the various hedonistic theories will be found in the
+  article ETHICS (_ad fin._). See also, beside works quoted under
+  CYRENAICS, EPICURUS, &c., and the general histories of philosophy, J.
+  S. Mackenzie, _Manual of Ethics_ (3rd ed., 1897); J. H. Muirhead,
+  _Elements of Ethics_ (1892); J. Watson, _Hedonistic Theories_ (1895);
+  J. Martineau, _Types of Ethical Theory_ (2nd ed., 1886); F. H.
+  Bradley, _Ethical Studies_ (1876); H. Sidgwick, _Methods of Ethics_
+  (6th ed., 1901); Jas. Seth, _Ethical Principles_ (3rd ed., 1898);
+  other works quoted under ETHICS.
+
+
+
+
+HEEL. (1) (O. Eng. _héla_, cf. Dutch _hiel_; a derivative of O. Eng.
+hóh, hough, hock), that part of the foot in man which is situated below
+and behind the ankle; by analogy, the calcaneal part of the tarsus in
+other vertebrates. The heel proper in digitigrades and ungulates is
+raised off the ground and is commonly known as the "knee" or "hock,"
+while the term "heel" is applied to the hind hoofs. (2) (A variant of
+the earlier _hield_; cf. Dutch _hellen_, for _helden_), to turn over to
+one side, especially of a ship. It is this word probably, in the sense
+of "tip-up," used particularly of the tilting or tipping of a cask or
+barrel of liquor, that explains the origin of the expression "no
+heel-taps," a direction to the drinkers of a toast to drain their
+glasses and leave no dregs remaining. "Tap" is a common word for liquor,
+and a cask is said to be "heeled" when it is tipped and only dregs or
+muddy liquor are left. This suits the actual sense of the phrase better
+than the explanations which connect it with tapping the "heel" or bottom
+of the glass (see _Notes and Queries_, 4th series, vols. xi.-xii., and
+5th series, vol. i.).
+
+
+
+
+HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN (or JOHANNES DE), (c.1600-c.1683), Dutch painter.
+He was, if not the first, certainly the greatest painter of still life
+in Holland; no artist of his class combined more successfully perfect
+reality of form and colour with brilliancy and harmony of tints. No
+object of stone or silver, no flower humble or gorgeous, no fruit of
+Europe or the tropics, no twig or leaf, with which he was not familiar.
+Sometimes he merely represented a festoon or a nosegay. More frequently
+he worked with a purpose to point a moral or illustrate a motto. Here
+the snake lies coiled under the grass, there a skull rests on blooming
+plants. Gold and silver tankards or cups suggest the vanity of earthly
+possessions; salvation is allegorized in a chalice amidst blossoms,
+death as a crucifix inside a wreath. Sometimes de Heem painted alone,
+sometimes in company with men of his school, Madonnas or portraits
+surrounded by festoons of fruit or flowers. At one time he signed with
+initials, at others with Johannes, at others again with the name of his
+father joined to his own. At rare intervals he condescended to a date,
+and when he did the work was certainly of the best. De Heem entered the
+gild of Antwerp in 1635-1636, and became a burgher of that city in 1637.
+He steadily maintained his residence till 1667, when he moved to
+Utrecht, where traces of his presence are preserved in records of 1668,
+1669 and 1670. It is not known when he finally returned to Antwerp, but
+his death is recorded in the gild books of that place. A very early
+picture, dated 1628, in the gallery of Gotha, bearing the signature of
+Johannes in full, shows that de Heem at that time was familiar with the
+technical habits of execution peculiar to the youth of Albert Cuyp. In
+later years he completely shook off dependence, and appears in all the
+vigour of his own originality.
+
+Out of 100 pictures or more to be met with in European galleries
+scarcely eighteen are dated. The earliest after that of Gotha is a
+chased tankard, with a bottle, a silver cup, and a lemon on a marble
+table, dated 1640, in the museum of Amsterdam. A similar work of 1645,
+with the addition of fruit and flowers and a distant landscape, is in
+Lord Radnor's collection at Longford. A chalice in a wreath, with the
+radiant host amidst wheatsheaves, grapes and flowers, is a masterpiece
+of 1648 in the Belvedere of Vienna. A wreath round a Madonna of life
+size, dated 1650, in the museum of Berlin, shows that de Heem could
+paint brightly and harmoniously on a large scale. In the Pinakothek at
+Munich is the celebrated composition of 1653, in which creepers,
+beautifully commingled with gourds and blackberries, twigs of orange,
+myrtle and peach, are enlivened by butterflies, moths and beetles. A
+landscape with a blooming rose tree, a jug of strawberries, a selection
+of fruit, and a marble bust of Pan, dated 1655, is in the Hermitage at
+St Petersburg; an allegory of abundance in a medallion wreathed with
+fruit and flowers, in the gallery of Brussels, is inscribed with de
+Heem's monogram, the date of 1668, and the name of an obscure artist
+called Lambrechts. All these pieces exhibit the master in full
+possession of his artistic faculties.
+
+CORNELIUS DE HEEM, the son of Johannes, was in practice as a flower
+painter at Utrecht in 1658, and was still active in his profession in
+1671 at the Hague. His pictures are not equal to those of his father,
+but they are all well authenticated, and most of them in the galleries
+of the Hague, Dresden, Cassel, Vienna and Berlin. In the Staedel at
+Frankfort is a fruit piece, with pot-herbs and a porcelain jug, dated
+1658; another, dated 1671, is in the museum of Brussels. DAVID DE HEEM,
+another member of the family, entered the gild of Utrecht in 1668 and
+that of Antwerp in 1693. The best piece assigned to him is a table with
+a lobster, fruit and glasses, in the gallery of Amsterdam; others bear
+his signature in the museums of Florence, St Petersburg and Brunswick.
+It is well to guard against the fallacy that David de Heem above
+mentioned is the father of Jan de Heem. We should also be careful not to
+make two persons of the first artist, who sometimes signs Johannes,
+sometimes Jan Davidsz or J. D. Heem.
+
+
+
+
+HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN (1597-1656), Dutch poet, was born at Amsterdam in
+1597. He was educated as a child at Bayonne, and entered the university
+of Leiden in 1617. In 1621 he went abroad on the grand tour, leaving
+behind him his first volume of poems, _Minnekunst_ (The Art of Love),
+which appeared in 1622. He was absent from Holland four years. He was
+made master of arts at Bourges in 1623, and in 1624 visited Hugo Grotius
+in Paris. On his return in 1625 he published _Minnepligt_ (The Duty of
+Love), and began to practise as an advocate in the Hague. In 1628 he was
+sent to England in his legal capacity by the Dutch East India Company,
+to settle the dispute respecting Amboyna. In the same year he published
+the poem entitled _Minnekunde_, or the Science of Love. He proceeded to
+Amsterdam in 1640, where he married Alida, sister of the statesman Van
+Beuningen. In 1641 he published a Dutch version of Corneille's _The
+Cid_, a tragi-comedy, and in 1647 his most famous work, the pastoral
+romance of _Batavische Arcadia_, which he had written ten years before.
+During the last twelve years of his life Heemskerk sat in the upper
+chamber of the states-general. He died at Amsterdam on the 27th of
+February 1656.
+
+  The poetry of Heemskerk, which fell into oblivion during the 18th
+  century, is once more read and valued. His famous pastoral, the
+  _Batavische Arcadia_, which was founded on the _Astrée_ of Honoré
+  d'Urfé, enjoyed a great popularity for more than a century, and passed
+  through twelve editions. It provoked a host of more or less able
+  imitations, of which the most distinguished were the _Dordrechtsche
+  Arcadia_ (1663) of Lambert van den Bos (1610-1698), the _Saanlandsche
+  Arcadia_ (1658) of Hendrik Sooteboom (1616-1678) and the
+  _Rotterdamsche Arcadia_ (1703) of Willem den Elger (d. 1703). But the
+  original work of Heemskerk, in which a party of nymphs and shepherds
+  go out from the Hague to Katwijk, and there indulge in polite and
+  pastoral discourse, surpasses all these in brightness and versatility.
+
+
+
+
+HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ (1498-1574), Dutch painter, sometimes called
+Van Veen, was born at Heemskerk in Holland in 1498, and apprenticed by
+his father, a small farmer, to Cornelisz Willemsz, a painter at Haarlem.
+Recalled after a time to the paternal homestead and put to the plough or
+the milking of cows, young Heemskerk took the first opportunity that
+offered to run away, and demonstrated his wish to leave home for ever by
+walking in a single day the 50 miles which separate his native hamlet
+from the town of Delft. There he studied under a local master whom he
+soon deserted for John Schoreel of Haarlem. At Haarlem he formed what is
+known as his first manner, which is but a quaint and _gauche_ imitation
+of the florid style brought from Italy by Mabuse and others. He then
+started on a wandering tour, during which he visited the whole of
+northern and central Italy, stopping at Rome, where he had letters for a
+cardinal. It is evidence of the facility with which he acquired the
+rapid execution of a scene-painter that he was selected to co-operate
+with Antonio da San Gallo, Battista Franco and Francesco Salviati to
+decorate the triumphal arches erected at Rome in April 1536 in honour of
+Charles V. Vasari, who saw the battle-pieces which Heemskerk then
+produced, says they were well composed and boldly executed. On his
+return to the Netherlands he settled at Haarlem, where he soon (1540)
+became president of his gild, married twice, and secured a large and
+lucrative practice. In 1572 he left Haarlem for Amsterdam, to avoid the
+siege which the Spaniards laid to the place, and there he made a will
+which has been preserved, and shows that he had lived long enough and
+prosperously enough to make a fortune. At his death, which took place on
+the 1st of October 1574, he left money and land in trust to the
+orphanage of Haarlem, with interest to be paid yearly to any couple who
+should be willing to perform the marriage ceremony on the slab of his
+tomb in the cathedral of Haarlem. It was a superstition which still
+exists in Catholic Holland that a marriage so celebrated would secure
+the peace of the dead within the tomb.
+
+The works of Heemskerk are still very numerous. "Adam and Eve," and "St
+Luke painting the Likeness of the Virgin and Child" in presence of a
+poet crowned with ivy leaves, and a parrot in a cage--an altar-piece in
+the gallery of Haarlem, and the "Ecce Homo" in the museum of Ghent, are
+characteristic works of the period preceding Heemskerk's visit to Italy.
+An altar-piece executed for St Laurence of Alkmaar in 1538-1541, and
+composed of at least a dozen large panels, would, if preserved, have
+given us a clue to his style after his return from the south. In its
+absence we have a "Crucifixion" executed for the Riches Claires at Ghent
+(now in the Ghent Museum) in 1543, and the altar-piece of the Drapers
+Company at Haarlem, now in the gallery of the Hague, and finished in
+1546. In these we observe that Heemskerk studied and repeated the forms
+which he had seen at Rome in the works of Michelangelo and Raphael, and
+in Lombardy in the frescoes of Mantegna and Giulio Romano. But he never
+forgot the while his Dutch origin or the models first presented to him
+by Schoreel and Mabuse. As late as 1551 his memory still served him to
+produce a copy from Raphael's "Madonna di Loretto" (gallery of Haarlem).
+A "Judgment of Momus," dated 1561, in the Berlin Museum, proves him to
+have been well acquainted with anatomy, but incapable of selection and
+insensible of grace, bold of hand and prone to daring though tawdry
+contrasts of colour, and fond of florid architecture. Two altar-pieces
+which he finished for churches at Delft in 1551 and 1559, one complete,
+the other a fragment, in the museum of Haarlem, a third of 1551 in the
+Brussels Museum, representing "Golgotha," the "Crucifixion," the "Flight
+into Egypt," "Christ on the Mount," and scenes from the lives of St
+Bernard and St Benedict, are all fairly representative of his style.
+Besides these we have the "Crucifixion" in the Hermitage of St
+Petersburg, and two "Triumphs of Silenus" in the gallery of Vienna, in
+which the same relation to Giulio Romano may be noted as we mark in the
+canvases of Rinaldo of Mantua. Other pieces of varying importance are in
+the galleries of Rotterdam, Munich, Cassel, Brunswick, Karlsruhe, Mainz
+and Copenhagen. In England the master is best known by his drawings. A
+comparatively feeble picture by him is the "Last Judgment" in the palace
+of Hampton Court.
+
+
+
+
+HEER, OSWALD (1809-1883), Swiss geologist and naturalist, was born at
+Nieder-Utzwyl in Canton St Gallen on the 31st of August 1809. He was
+educated as a clergyman and took holy orders, and he also graduated as
+doctor of philosophy and medicine. Early in life his interest was
+aroused in entomology, on which subject he acquired special knowledge,
+and later he took up the study of plants and became one of the pioneers
+in palaeo-botany, distinguished for his researches on the Miocene flora.
+In 1851 he became professor of botany in the university of Zürich, and
+he directed his attention to the Tertiary plants and insects of
+Switzerland. For some time he was director of the botanic garden at
+Zürich. In 1863 (with W. Pengelly, _Phil. Trans._, 1862) he investigated
+the plant-remains from the lignite-deposits of Bovey Tracey in
+Devonshire, regarding them as of Miocene age; but they are now classed
+as Eocene. Heer also reported on the Miocene flora of Arctic regions, on
+the plants of the Pleistocene lignites of Dürnten on lake Zürich, and on
+the cereals of some of the lake-dwellings (_Die Pflanzen der
+Pfahlbauten_, 1866). During a great part of his career he was hampered
+by slender means and ill-health, but his services to science were
+acknowledged in 1873 when the Geological Society of London awarded to
+him the Wollaston medal. Dr Heer died at Lausanne on the 27th of
+September 1883. He published _Flora Tertiaria Helvetiae_ (3 vols.,
+1855-1859); _Die Urwelt der Schweiz_ (1865), and _Flora fossilis
+Arctica_ (1868-1883).
+
+
+
+
+HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG (1760-1842), German historian, was born on
+the 25th of October 1760 at Arbergen, near Bremen. He studied
+philosophy, theology and history at Göttingen, and thereafter travelled
+in France, Italy and the Netherlands. In 1787 he was appointed one of
+the professors of philosophy, and then of history at Göttingen, and he
+afterwards was chosen aulic councillor, privy councillor, &c., the usual
+rewards of successful German scholars. He died at Göttingen on the 6th
+of March 1842. Heeren's great merit as an historian was that he regarded
+the states of antiquity from an altogether fresh point of view. Instead
+of limiting himself to a narration of their political events, he
+examined their economic relations, their constitutions, their financial
+systems, and thus was enabled to throw a new light on the development of
+the old world. He possessed vast and varied learning, perfect calmness
+and impartiality, and great power of historical insight, and is now
+looked back to as the pioneer in the movement for the economic
+interpretation of history.
+
+  Heeren's chief works are: _Ideen über Politik, den Verkehr, und den
+  Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt_ (2 vols., Göttingen,
+  1793-1796; 4th ed., 6 vols., 1824-1826; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1833);
+  _Geschichte des Studiums der klassischen Litteratur seit dem
+  Wiederaufleben der Wissenschaften_ (2 vols., Göttingen, 1797-1802; new
+  ed., 1822); _Geschichte der Staaten des Altertums_ (Göttingen, 1799;
+  Eng. trans., Oxford, 1840); _Geschichte des europäischen
+  Staatensystems_ (Göttingen, 1800; 5th ed., 1830; Eng. trans., 1834);
+  _Versuch einer Entwicklung der Folgen der Kreuzzüge_ (Göttingen, 1808;
+  French trans., Paris, 1808), a prize essay of the Institute of
+  France. Besides these, Heeren wrote brief biographical sketches of
+  Johann von Müller (Leipzig, 1809); Ludwig Spittler (Berlin, 1812); and
+  Christian Heyne (Göttingen, 1813). With Friedrich August Ukert
+  (1780-1851) he founded the famous historical collection, _Geschichte
+  der europäischen Staaten_ (Gotha, 1819 seq.), and contributed many
+  papers to learned periodicals.
+
+  A collection of his historical works, with autobiographical notice,
+  was published in 15 volumes (Göttingen, 1821-1830).
+
+
+
+
+HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON (1809-1893), German theologian, was born at
+Unterkochen in Württemberg on the 15th of March 1809, and was educated
+at Tübingen, where in 1839 he became professor-ordinary of Church
+history and patristics in the Roman Catholic faculty of theology. From
+1842 to 1845 he sat in the National Assembly of Württemberg. In December
+1869 he was enthroned bishop of Rottenburg. His literary activity, which
+had been considerable, was in no way diminished by his elevation to the
+episcopate. Among his numerous theological works may be mentioned his
+well-known edition of the _Apostolic Fathers_, issued in 1839; his _Life
+of Cardinal Ximenes_, published in 1844 (Eng. trans., 1860); and his
+still more celebrated _History of the Councils of the Church_, in seven
+volumes, which appeared between 1855 and 1874 (Eng. trans., 1871, 1882).
+Hefele's theological opinions inclined towards the more liberal school
+in the Roman Catholic Church, but he nevertheless received considerable
+signs of favour from its authorities, and was a member of the commission
+that made preparations for the Vatican Council of 1870. On the eve of
+that council he published at Naples his _Causa Honorii Papae_, which
+aimed at demonstrating the moral and historical impossibility of papal
+infallibility. About the same time he brought out a work in German on
+the same subject. He took rather a prominent part in the discussions at
+the council, associating himself with Félix Dupanloup and with Georges
+Darboy, archbishop of Paris, in his opposition to the doctrine of
+Infallibility, and supporting their arguments from his vast knowledge of
+ecclesiastical history. In the preliminary discussions he voted against
+the promulgation of the dogma. He was absent from the important sitting
+of the 18th of June 1870, and did not send in his submission to the
+decrees until 1871, when he explained in a pastoral letter that the
+dogma "referred only to doctrine given forth _ex cathedra_, and therein
+to the definitions proper only, but not to its proofs or explanations."
+In 1872 he took part in the congress summoned by the Ultramontanes at
+Fulda, and by his judicious use of minimizing tactics he kept his
+diocese free from any participation in the Old Catholic schism. The last
+four volumes of the second edition of his _History of the Councils_ have
+been described as skilfully adapted to the new situation created by the
+Vatican decrees. During the later years of his life he undertook no
+further literary efforts on behalf of his church, but retired into
+comparative privacy. He died on the 6th of June 1893.
+
+  See Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, vii. 525.
+
+
+
+
+HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831), German philosopher, was born
+at Stuttgart on the 27th of August 1770. His father, an official in the
+fiscal service of Württemberg, is not otherwise known to fame; and of
+his mother we hear only that she had scholarship enough to teach him the
+elements of Latin. He had one sister, Christiana, who died unmarried,
+and a brother Ludwig, who served in the campaigns of Napoleon. At the
+grammar school of Stuttgart, where Hegel was educated between the ages
+of seven and eighteen, he was not remarkable. His main productions were
+a diary kept at intervals during eighteen months (1785-1787), and
+translations of the _Antigone_, the _Manual_ of Epictetus, &c. But the
+characteristic feature of his studies was the copious extracts which
+from this time onward he unremittingly made and preserved. This
+collection, alphabetically arranged, comprised annotations on classical
+authors, passages from newspapers, treatises on morals and mathematics
+from the standard works of the period. In this way he absorbed in their
+integrity the raw materials for elaboration. Yet as evidence that he was
+not merely receptive we have essays already breathing that admiration of
+the classical world which he never lost. His chief amusement was cards,
+and he began the habit of taking snuff.
+
+In the autumn of 1788 he entered at Tübingen as a student of theology;
+but he showed no interest in theology: his sermons were a failure, and
+he found more congenial reading in the classics, on the advantages of
+studying which his first essay was written. After two years he took the
+degree of Ph.D., and in the autumn of 1793 received his theological
+certificate, stating him to be of good abilities, but of middling
+industry and knowledge, and especially deficient in philosophy.
+
+As a student, his elderly appearance gained him the title "Old man," but
+he took part in the walks, beer-drinking and love-making of his fellows.
+He gained most from intellectual intercourse with his contemporaries,
+the two best known of whom were J. C. F. Hölderlin and Schelling. With
+Hölderlin Hegel learned to feel for the old Greeks a love which grew
+stronger as the semi-Kantianized theology of his teachers more and more
+failed to interest him. With Schelling like sympathies bound him. They
+both protested against the political and ecclesiastical inertia of their
+native state, and adopted the doctrines of freedom and reason. The story
+which tells how the two went out one morning to dance round a tree of
+liberty in a meadow is an anachronism, though in keeping with their
+opinions.
+
+On leaving college, he became a private tutor at Bern and lived in
+intellectual isolation. He was, however, far from inactive. He compiled
+a systematic account of the fiscal system of the canton Bern, but the
+main factor in his mental growth came from his study of Christianity.
+Under the impulse given by Lessing and Kant he turned to the original
+records of Christianity, and attempted to construe for himself the real
+significance of Christ. He wrote a life of Jesus, in which Jesus was
+simply the son of Joseph and Mary. He did not stop to criticize as a
+philologist, and ignored the miraculous. He asked for the secret
+contained in the conduct and sayings of this man which made him the hope
+of the human race. Jesus appeared as revealing the unity with God in
+which the Greeks in their best days unwittingly rejoiced, and as lifting
+the eyes of the Jews from a lawgiver who metes out punishment on the
+transgressor, to the destiny which in the Greek conception falls on the
+just no less than on the unjust.
+
+The interest of these ideas is twofold. In Jesus Hegel finds the
+expression for something higher than mere morality: he finds a noble
+spirit which rises above the contrasts of virtue and vice into the
+concrete life, seeing the infinite always embracing our finitude, and
+proclaiming the divine which is in man and cannot be overcome by error
+and evil, unless the man close his eyes and ears to the godlike presence
+within him. In religious life, in short, he finds the principle which
+reconciles the opposition of the temporal mind. But, secondly, the
+general source of the doctrine that life is higher than all its
+incidents is of interest. He does not free himself from the current
+theology either by rational moralizing like Kant, or by bold speculative
+synthesis like Fichte and Schelling. He finds his panacea in the
+concrete life of humanity. But although he goes to the Scriptures, and
+tastes the mystical spirit of the medieval saints, the Christ of his
+conception has traits that seem borrowed from Socrates and from the
+heroes of Attic tragedy, who suffer much and yet smile gently on a
+destiny to which they were reconciled. Instead of the Hebraic doctrine
+of a Jesus punished for our sins, we have the Hellenic idea of a man who
+is calmly tranquil in the consciousness of his unity with God.
+
+During these years Hegel kept up a slack correspondence with Schelling
+and Hölderlin. Schelling, already on the way to fame, kept Hegel abreast
+with German speculation. Both of them were intent on forcing the
+theologians into the daylight, and grudged them any aid they might
+expect from Kant's postulation of God and immortality to crown the
+edifice of ethics. Meanwhile, Hölderlin in Jena had been following
+Fichte's career with an enthusiasm with which he infected Hegel.
+
+It is pleasing to turn from these vehement struggles of thought to a
+tour which Hegel in company with three other tutors made through the
+Bernese Oberland in July and August 1796. Of this tour he left a minute
+diary. He was delighted with the varied play of the waterfalls, but no
+glamour blinded him to the squalor of Swiss peasant life. The glaciers
+and the rocks called forth no raptures. "The spectacle of these
+eternally dead masses gave me nothing but the monotonous and at last
+tedious idea, 'Es ist so.'"
+
+Towards the close of his engagement at Bern, Hegel had received hopes
+from Schelling of a post at Jena. Fortunately his friend Hölderlin, now
+tutor in Frankfort, secured a similar situation there for Hegel in the
+family of Herr Gogol, a merchant (January 1797). The new post gave him
+more leisure and the society he needed.
+
+About this time he turned to questions of economics and government. He
+had studied Gibbon, Hume and Montesquieu in Switzerland. We now find him
+making extracts from the English newspapers on the Poor-Law Bill of
+1796; criticising the Prussian land laws, promulgated about the same
+time; and writing a commentary on Sir James Steuart's _Inquiry into the
+Principles of Political Economy_. Here, as in contemporaneous criticisms
+of Kant's ethical writings, Hegel aims at correcting the abstract
+discussion of a topic by treating it in its systematic interconnexions.
+Church and state, law and morality, commerce and art are reduced to
+factors in the totality of human life, from which the specialists had
+isolated them.
+
+But the best evidence of Hegel's attention to contemporary politics is
+two unpublished essays--one of them written in 1798, "On the Internal
+Condition of Württemberg in Recent Times, particularly on the Defects in
+the Magistracy," the other a criticism on the constitution of Germany,
+written, probably, not long after the peace of Lunéville (1801). Both
+essays are critical rather than constructive. In the first Hegel showed
+how the supineness of the committee of estates in Württemberg had
+favoured the usurpations of the superior officials in whom the court had
+found compliant servants. And though he perceived the advantages of
+change in the constitution of the estates, he still doubted if an
+improved system could work in the actual conditions of his native
+province. The main feature in the pamphlet is the recognition that a
+spirit of reform is abroad. If Württemberg suffered from a bureaucracy
+tempered by despotism, the Fatherland in general suffered no less.
+"Germany," so begins the second of these unpublished papers, "is no
+longer a state." Referring the collapse of the empire to the retention
+of feudal forms and to the action of religious animosities, Hegel looked
+forward to reorganization by a central power (Austria) wielding the
+imperial army, and by a representative body elected by the geographical
+districts of the empire. But such an issue, he saw well, could only be
+the outcome of violence--of "blood and iron." The philosopher did not
+pose as a practical statesman. He described the German empire in its
+nullity as a conception without existence in fact. In such a state of
+things it was the business of the philosopher to set forth the outlines
+of the coming epoch, as they were already moulding themselves into
+shape, amidst what the ordinary eye saw only as the disintegration of
+the old forms of social life.
+
+His old interest in the religious question reappears, but in a more
+philosophical form. Starting with the contrast between a natural and a
+positive religion, he regards a positive religion as one imposed upon
+the mind from without, not a natural growth crowning the round of human
+life. A natural religion, on the other hand, was not, he thought, the
+one universal religion of every clime and age, but rather the
+spontaneous development of the national conscience varying in varying
+circumstances. A people's religion completes and consecrates their whole
+activity: in it the people rises above its finite life in limited
+spheres to an infinite life where it feels itself all at one. Even
+philosophy with Hegel at this epoch was subordinate to religion; for
+philosophy must never abandon the finite in the search for the infinite.
+Soon, however, Hegel adopted a view according to which philosophy is a
+higher mode of apprehending the infinite than even religion.
+
+At Frankfort, meanwhile, the philosophic ideas of Hegel first assumed
+the proper philosophic form. In a MS. of 102 quarto sheets, of which the
+first three and the seventh are wanting, there is preserved the original
+sketch of the Hegelian system, so far as the logic and metaphysics and
+part of the philosophy of nature are concerned. The third part of the
+system--the ethical theory--seems to have been composed afterwards; it
+is contained in its first draft in another MS. of 30 sheets. Even these
+had been preceded by earlier Pythagorean constructions envisaging the
+divine life in divine triangles.
+
+Circumstances soon put Hegel in the way to complete these outlines. His
+father died in January 1799; and the slender sum which Hegel received as
+his inheritance, 3154 gulden (about £260), enabled him to think once
+more of a studious life. At the close of 1800 we find him asking
+Schelling for letters of introduction to Bamberg, where with cheap
+living and good beer he hoped to prepare himself for the intellectual
+excitement of Jena. The upshot was that Hegel arrived at Jena in January
+1801. An end had already come to the brilliant epoch at Jena, when the
+romantic poets, Tieck, Novalis and the Schlegels made it the
+headquarters of their fantastic mysticism, and Fichte turned the results
+of Kant into the banner of revolutionary ideas. Schelling was the main
+philosophical lion of the time; and in some quarters Hegel was spoken of
+as a new champion summoned to help him in his struggle with the more
+prosaic continuators of Kant. Hegel's first performance seemed to
+justify the rumour. It was an essay on the difference between the
+philosophic systems of Fichte and Schelling, tending in the main to
+support the latter. Still more striking was the agreement shown in the
+_Critical Journal of Philosophy_, which Schelling and Hegel wrote
+conjointly during the years 1802-1803. So latent was the difference
+between them at this epoch that in one or two cases it is not possible
+to determine by whom the essay was written. Even at a later period
+foreign critics like Cousin saw much that was alike in the two
+doctrines, and did not hesitate to regard Hegel as a disciple of
+Schelling. The dissertation by which Hegel qualified for the position of
+_Privatdozent_ (_De orbitis planetarum_) was probably chosen under the
+influence of Schelling's philosophy of nature. It was an unfortunate
+subject. For while Hegel, depending on a numerical proportion suggested
+by Plato, hinted in a single sentence that it might be a mistake to look
+for a planet between Mars and Jupiter, Giuseppe Piazzi (q.v.) had
+already discovered the first of the asteroids (Ceres) on the 1st of
+January 1801. Apparently in August, when Hegel qualified, the news of
+the discovery had not yet reached him, but critics have made this
+luckless suggestion the ground of attack on a priori philosophy.
+
+Hegel's lectures, in the winter of 1801-1802, on logic and metaphysics
+were attended by about eleven students. Later, in 1804, we find him with
+a class of about thirty, lecturing on his whole system; but his average
+attendance was rather less. Besides philosophy, he once at least
+lectured on mathematics. As he taught, he was led to modify his original
+system, and notice after notice of his lectures promised a text-book of
+philosophy--which, however, failed to appear. Meanwhile, after the
+departure of Schelling from Jena in the middle of 1803, Hegel was left
+to work out his own views. Besides philosophical studies, where he now
+added Aristotle to Plato, he read Homer and the Greek tragedians, made
+extracts from books, attended lectures on physiology, and dabbled in
+other sciences. On his own representation at Weimar, he was in February
+1805 made a professor extraordinarius, and in July 1806 drew his first
+and only stipend--100 thalers. At Jena, though some of his hearers
+became attached to him, Hegel was not a popular lecturer any more than
+K. C. F. Krause (q.v.). The ordinary student found J. F. Fries (q.v.)
+more intelligible.
+
+Of the lectures of that period there still remain considerable notes.
+The language often had a theological tinge (never entirely absent), as
+when the "idea" was spoken of, or "the night of the divine mystery," or
+the dialectic of the absolute called the "course of the divine life."
+Still his view was growing clearer, and his difference from Schelling
+more palpable. Both Schelling and Hegel stand in a relation to art, but
+while the aesthetic model of Schelling was found in the contemporary
+world, where art was a special sphere and the artist a separate
+profession in no intimate connexion with the age and nation, the model
+of Hegel was found rather in those works of national art in which art
+is not a part but an aspect of the common life, and the artist is not a
+mere individual but a concentration of the passion and power of beauty
+in the whole community. "Such art," says Hegel, "is the common good and
+the work of all. Each generation hands it on beautified to the next;
+each has done something to give utterance to the universal thought.
+Those who are said to have genius have acquired some special aptitude by
+which they render the general shapes of the nation their own work, one
+in one point, another in another. What they produce is not their
+invention, but the invention of the whole nation; or rather, what they
+find is that the whole nation has found its true nature. Each, as it
+were, piles up his stone. So too does the artist. Somehow he has the
+good fortune to come last, and when he places his stone the arch stands
+self-supported." Hegel, as we have already seen, was fully aware of the
+change that was coming over the world. "A new epoch," he says, "has
+arisen. It seems as if the world-spirit had now succeeded in freeing
+itself from all foreign objective existence, and finally apprehending
+itself as absolute mind." These words come from lectures on the history
+of philosophy, which laid the foundation for his _Phänomenologie des
+Geistes_ (Bamberg, 1807).
+
+On the 14th of October 1806 Napoleon was at Jena. Hegel, like Goethe,
+felt no patriotic shudder at the national disaster, and in Prussia he
+saw only a corrupt and conceited bureaucracy. Writing to his friend F.
+J. Niethammer (1766-1848) on the day before the battle, he speaks with
+admiration of the "world-soul," the emperor, and with satisfaction of
+the probable overthrow of the Prussians. The scholar's wish was to see
+the clouds of war pass away, and leave thinkers to their peaceful work.
+His manuscripts were his main care; and doubtful of the safety of his
+last despatch to Bamberg, and disturbed by the French soldiers in his
+lodgings, he hurried off, with the last pages of the _Phänomenologie_,
+to take refuge in the pro-rector's house. Hegel's fortunes were now at
+the lowest ebb. Without means, and obliged to borrow from Niethammer, he
+had no further hopes from the impoverished university. He had already
+tried to get away from Jena. In 1805, when several lecturers left in
+consequence of diminished classes, he had written to Johann Heinrich
+Voss (q.v.), suggesting that his philosophy might find more congenial
+soil in Heidelberg; but the application bore no fruit. He was,
+therefore, glad to become editor of the _Bamberger Zeitung_ (1807-1808).
+Of his editorial work there is little to tell; no leading articles
+appeared in his columns. It was not a suitable vocation, and he gladly
+accepted the rectorship of the Aegidien-gymnasium in Nuremberg, a post
+which he held from December 1808 to August 1816. Bavaria at this time
+was modernizing her institutions. The school system was reorganized by
+new regulations, in accordance with which Hegel wrote a series of
+lessons in the outlines of philosophy--ethical, logical and
+psychological. They were published in 1840 by Rosenkranz from Hegel's
+papers.
+
+As a teacher and master Hegel inspired confidence in his pupils, and
+maintained discipline without pedantic interference in their
+associations and sports. On prize-days his addresses summing up the
+history of the school year discussed some topic of general interest.
+Five of these addresses are preserved. The first is an exposition of the
+advantages of a classical training, when it is not confined to mere
+grammar. "The perfection and grandeur of the master-works of Greek and
+Roman literature must be the intellectual bath, the secular baptism,
+which gives the first and unfading tone and tincture of taste and
+science." In another address, speaking of the introduction of military
+exercises at school, he says: "These exercises, while not intended to
+withdraw the students from their more immediate duty, so far as they
+have any calling to it, still remind them of the possibility that every
+one, whatever rank in society he may belong to, may one day have to
+defend his country and his king, or help to that end. This duty, which
+is natural to all, was formerly recognized by every citizen, though
+whole ranks in the state have become strangers to the very idea of it."
+
+On the 16th of September 1811 Hegel married Marie von Tucher
+(twenty-two years his junior) of Nuremberg. She brought her husband no
+fortune, but the marriage was entirely happy. The husband kept a careful
+record of income and expenditure. His income amounted at Nuremberg to
+1500 gulden (£130) and a house; at Heidelberg, as professor, he received
+about the same sum; at Berlin about 3000 thalers (£300). Two sons were
+born to them; the elder, Karl, became eminent as a historian. The
+younger, Immanuel, was born on the 24th of September 1816. Hegel's
+letters to his wife, written during his solitary holiday tours to
+Vienna, the Netherlands and Paris, breathe of kindly and happy
+affection. Hegel the tourist--recalling happy days spent together;
+confessing that, were it not because of his sense of duty as a
+traveller, he would rather be at home, dividing his time between his
+books and his wife; commenting on the shop windows at Vienna; describing
+the straw hats of the Parisian ladies--is a contrast to the professor of
+a profound philosophical system. But it shows that the enthusiasm which
+in his days of courtship moved him to verse had blossomed into a later
+age of domestic bliss.
+
+In 1812 appeared the first two volumes of his _Wissenschaft der Logik_,
+and the work was completed by a third in 1816. This work, in which his
+system was for the first time presented in what, with a few minor
+alterations, was its ultimate shape, found some audience in the world.
+Towards the close of his eighth session three professorships were almost
+simultaneously put within his reach--at Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg.
+The Prussian offer expressed a doubt that his long absence from
+university teaching might have made him rusty, so he accepted the post
+at Heidelberg, whence Fries had just gone to Jena (October 1816). Only
+four hearers turned up for one of his courses. Others, however, on the
+encyclopaedia of philosophy and the history of philosophy drew classes
+of twenty to thirty. While he was there Cousin first made his
+acquaintance, but a more intimate relation dates from Berlin. Among his
+pupils was Hermann F. W. Hinrichs (q.v.), to whose _Religion in its
+Inward Relation to Science_ (1822) Hegel contributed an important
+preface. The strangest of his hearers was an Esthonian baron, Boris
+d'Yrkull, who after serving in the Russian army came to Heidelberg to
+hear the wisdom of Hegel. But his books and his lectures were alike
+obscure to the baron, who betook himself by Hegel's advice to simpler
+studies before he returned to the Hegelian system.
+
+At Heidelberg Hegel was active in a literary way also. In 1817 he
+brought out the _Enzyklopädie d. philos. Wissenschaften im Grundrisse_
+(4th ed., Berlin, 1817; new ed., 1870) for use at his lectures. It is
+the only exposition of the Hegelian system as a whole which we have
+direct from Hegel's own hand. Besides this work he wrote two reviews for
+the Heidelberg _Jahrbücher_--the first on F. H. Jacobi, the other a
+political pamphlet which called forth violent criticism. It was entitled
+a _Criticism on the Transactions of the Estates of Württemberg in
+1815-1816_. On the 15th of March 1815 King Frederick of Württemberg, at
+a meeting of the estates of his kingdom, laid before them the draft of a
+new constitution, in accordance with the resolutions of the congress of
+Vienna. Though an improvement on the old constitution, it was
+unacceptable to the estates, jealous of their old privileges and
+suspicious of the king's intentions. A decided majority demanded the
+restitution of their old laws, though the kingdom now included a large
+population to which the old rights were strange. Hegel in his essay,
+which was republished at Stuttgart, supported the royal proposals, and
+animadverted on the backwardness of the bureaucracy and the landed
+interests. In the main he was right; but he forgot too much the
+provocation they had received, the usurpations and selfishness of the
+governing family, and the unpatriotic character of the king.
+
+In 1818 Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of philosophy at
+Berlin, vacant since the death of Fichte. The hopes which this offer
+raised of a position less precarious than that of a university teacher
+of philosophy were in one sense disappointed; for more than a professor
+Hegel never became. But his influence upon his pupils, and his
+solidarity with the Prussian government, gave him a position such as
+few professors have held.
+
+In 1821 Hegel published the _Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts_
+(2nd ed., 1840; ed. G. J. B. Bolland, 1901; Eng. trans., _Philosophy of
+Right_, by S. W. Dyde, 1896). It is a combined system of moral and
+political philosophy, or a sociology dominated by the idea of the state.
+It turns away contemptuously and fiercely from the sentimental
+aspirations of reformers possessed by the democratic doctrine of the
+rights of the omnipotent nation. Fries is stigmatized as one of the
+"ringleaders of shallowness" who were bent on substituting a fancied tie
+of enthusiasm and friendship for the established order of the state. The
+disciplined philosopher, who had devoted himself to the task of
+comprehending the organism of the state, had no patience with feebler or
+more mercurial minds who recklessly laid hands on established
+ordinances, and set them aside where they contravened humanitarian
+sentiments. With the principle that whatever is real is rational, and
+whatever is rational is real, Hegel fancied that he had stopped the
+mouths of political critics and constitution-mongers. His theory was not
+a mere formulation of the Prussian state. Much that he construed as
+necessary to a state was wanting in Prussia; and some of the reforms
+already introduced did not find their place in his system. Yet, on the
+whole, he had taken his side with the government. Altenstein even
+expressed his satisfaction with the book. In his disgust at the crude
+conceptions of the enthusiasts, who had hoped that the war of liberation
+might end in a realm of internal liberty, Hegel had forgotten his own
+youthful vows recorded in verse to Hölderlin, "never, never to live in
+peace with the ordinance which regulates feeling and opinion." And yet
+if we look deeper we see that this is no worship of existing powers. It
+is rather due to an overpowering sense of the value of organization--a
+sense that liberty can never be dissevered from order, that a vital
+interconnexion between all the parts of the body politic is the source
+of all good, so that while he can find nothing but brute weight in an
+organized public, he can compare the royal person in his ideal form of
+constitutional monarchy to the dot upon the letter i. A keen sense of
+how much is at stake in any alteration breeds suspicion of every reform.
+
+During his thirteen years at Berlin Hegel's whole soul seems to have
+been in his lectures. Between 1823 and 1827 his activity reached its
+maximum. His notes were subjected to perpetual revisions and additions.
+We can form an idea of them from the shape in which they appear in his
+published writings. Those on _Aesthetics_, on the _Philosophy of
+Religion_, on the _Philosophy of History_ and on the _History of
+Philosophy_, have been published by his editors, mainly from the notes
+of his students, under their separate heads; while those on logic,
+psychology and the philosophy of nature are appended in the form of
+illustrative and explanatory notes to the sections of his
+_Encyklopädie_. During these years hundreds of hearers from all parts of
+Germany, and beyond, came under his influence. His fame was carried
+abroad by eager or intelligent disciples. At Berlin Henning served to
+prepare the intending disciple for fuller initiation by the master
+himself. Edward Gans (q.v.) and Heinrich Gustav Hotho (q.v.) carried the
+method into special spheres of inquiry. At Halle Hinrichs maintained the
+standard of Hegelianism amid the opposition or indifference of his
+colleagues.
+
+Three courses of lectures are especially the product of his Berlin
+period: those on aesthetics, the philosophy of religion and the
+philosophy of history. In the years preceding the revolution of 1830,
+public interest, excluded from political life, turned to theatres,
+concert-rooms and picture-galleries. At these Hegel became a frequent
+and appreciative visitor and made extracts from the art-notes in the
+newspapers. In his holiday excursions, the interest in the fine arts
+more than once took him out of his way to see some old painting. At
+Vienna in 1824 he spent every moment at the Italian opera, the ballet
+and the picture-galleries. In Paris, in 1827, he saw Charles Kemble and
+an English company play Shakespeare. This familiarity with the facts of
+art, though neither deep nor historical, gave a freshness to his
+lectures on aesthetics, which, as put together from the notes of 1820,
+1823, 1826, are in many ways the most successful of his efforts.
+
+The lectures on the philosophy of religion are another application of
+his method. Shortly before his death he had prepared for the press a
+course of lectures on the proofs for the existence of God. In his
+lectures on religion he dealt with Christianity, as in his philosophy of
+morals he had regarded the state. On the one hand he turned his weapons
+against the rationalistic school, who reduced religion to the modicum
+compatible with an ordinary worldly mind. On the other hand he
+criticized the school of Schleiermacher, who elevated feeling to a place
+in religion above systematic theology. His middle way attempts to show
+that the dogmatic creed is the rational development of what was implicit
+in religious feeling. To do so, of course, philosophy becomes the
+interpreter and the superior. To the new school of E. W. Hengstenberg,
+which regarded Revelation itself as supreme, such interpretation was an
+abomination.
+
+A Hegelian school began to gather. The flock included intelligent
+pupils, empty-headed imitators, and romantic natures who turned
+philosophy into lyric measures. Opposition and criticism only served to
+define more precisely the adherents of the new doctrine. Hegel himself
+grew more and more into a belief in his own doctrine as the one truth
+for the world. He was in harmony with the government, and his followers
+were on the winning side. Though he had soon resigned all direct
+official connexion with the schools of Brandenburg, his real influence
+in Prussia was considerable, and as usual was largely exaggerated in
+popular estimate. In the narrower circle of his friends his birthdays
+were the signal for congratulatory verses. In 1826 a formal festival was
+got up by some of his admirers, one of whom, Herder, spoke of his
+categories as new gods; and he was presented with much poetry and a
+silver mug. In 1830 the students struck a medal in his honour, and in
+1831 he was decorated by an order from Frederick William III. In 1830 he
+was rector of the university; and in his speech at the tricentenary of
+the Augsburg Confession in that year he charged the Catholic Church with
+regarding the virtues of the pagan world as brilliant vices, and giving
+the crown of perfection to poverty, continence and obedience.
+
+One of the last literary undertakings in which he took part was the
+establishment of the Berlin _Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche Kritik_,
+in which he assisted Edward Gans and Varnhagen von Ense. The aim of this
+review was to give a critical account, certified by the names of the
+contributors, of the literary and philosophical productions of the time,
+in relation to the general progress of knowledge. The journal was not
+solely in the Hegelian interest; and more than once, when Hegel
+attempted to domineer over the other editors, he was met by vehement and
+vigorous opposition.
+
+The revolution of 1830 was a great blow to him, and the prospect of
+democratic advances almost made him ill. His last literary work, the
+first part of which appeared in the _Preussische Staatszeitung_, was an
+essay on the English Reform Bill of 1831. It contains primarily a
+consideration of its probable effects on the character of the new
+members of parliament, and the measures which they may introduce. In the
+latter connexion he enlarged on several points in which England had done
+less than many continental states for the abolition of monopolies and
+abuses. Surveying the questions connected with landed property, with the
+game laws, the poor, the Established Church, especially in Ireland, he
+expressed grave doubt on the legislative capacity of the English
+parliament as compared with the power of renovation manifested in other
+states of western Europe.
+
+In 1831 cholera first entered Europe. Hegel and his family retired for
+the summer to the suburbs, and there he finished the revision of the
+first part of his _Science of Logic_. On the beginning of the winter
+session, however, he returned to his house in the Kupfergraben. On this
+occasion an altercation occurred between him and his friend Gans, who in
+his notice of lectures on jurisprudence had recommended Hegel's
+_Philosophy of Right_. Hegel, indignant at what he deemed patronage,
+demanded that the note should be withdrawn. On the 14th of November,
+after one day's illness, he died of cholera and was buried, as he had
+wished, between Fichte and Solger.
+
+Hegel in his class-room was neither imposing nor fascinating. You saw a
+plain, old-fashioned face, without life or lustre--a figure which had
+never looked young, and was now prematurely aged; the furrowed face bore
+witness to concentrated thought. Sitting with his snuff-box before him,
+and his head bent down, he looked ill at ease, and kept turning the
+folios of his notes. His utterance was interrupted by frequent coughing;
+every sentence came out with a struggle. The style was no less
+irregular. Sometimes in plain narrative the lecturer would be specially
+awkward, while in abstruse passages he seemed specially at home, rose
+into a natural eloquence, and carried away the hearer by the grandeur of
+his diction.
+
+  _Philosophy._--Hegelianism is confessedly one of the most difficult of
+  all philosophies. Every one has heard the legend which makes Hegel
+  say, "One man has understood me, and even he has not." He abruptly
+  hurls us into a world where old habits of thought fail us. In three
+  places, indeed, he has attempted to exhibit the transition to his own
+  system from other levels of thought; but in none with much success. In
+  the introductory lectures on the philosophy of religion he gives a
+  rationale of the difference between the modes of consciousness in
+  religion and philosophy (between _Vorstellung_ and _Begriff_). In the
+  beginning of the _Encyklopädie_ he discusses the defects of dogmatism,
+  empiricism, the philosophies of Kant and Jacobi. In the first case he
+  treats the formal or psychological aspect of the difference; in the
+  latter he presents his doctrine less in its essential character than
+  in special relations to the prominent systems of his time. The
+  _Phenomenology of Spirit_, regarded as an introduction, suffers from a
+  different fault. It is not an introduction--for the philosophy which
+  it was to introduce was not then fully elaborated. Even to the last
+  Hegel had not so externalized his system as to treat it as something
+  to be led up to by gradual steps. His philosophy was not one aspect of
+  his intellectual life, to be contemplated from others; it was the ripe
+  fruit of concentrated reflection, and had become the one all-embracing
+  form and principle of his thinking. More than most thinkers he had
+  quietly laid himself open to the influences of his time and the
+  lessons of history.
+
+
+    The Phenomenology.
+
+  The _Phenomenology_ is the picture of the Hegelian philosophy in the
+  making--at the stage before the scaffolding has been removed from the
+  building. For this reason the book is at once the most brilliant and
+  the most difficult of Hegel's works--the most brilliant because it is
+  to some degree an autobiography of Hegel's mind--not the abstract
+  record of a logical evolution, but the real history of an intellectual
+  growth; the most difficult because, instead of treating the rise of
+  intelligence (from its first appearance in contrast with the real
+  world to its final recognition of its presence in, and rule over, all
+  things) as a purely subjective process, it exhibits this rise as
+  wrought out in historical epochs, national characteristics, forms of
+  culture and faith, and philosophical systems. The theme is identical
+  with the introduction to the _Encyklopädie_; but it is treated in a
+  very different style. From all periods of the world--from medieval
+  piety and stoical pride, Kant and Sophocles, science and art, religion
+  and philosophy--with disdain of mere chronology, Hegel gathers in the
+  vineyards of the human spirit the grapes from which he crushes the
+  wine of thought. The mind coming through a thousand phases of mistake
+  and disappointment to a sense and realization of its true position in
+  the universe--such is the drama which is consciously Hegel's own
+  history, but is represented objectively as the process of spiritual
+  history which the philosopher reproduces in himself. The
+  _Phenomenology_ stands to the _Encyklopädie_ somewhat as the dialogues
+  of Plato stand to the Aristotelian treatises. It contains almost all
+  his philosophy--but irregularly and without due proportion. The
+  personal element gives an undue prominence to recent phenomena of the
+  philosophic atmosphere. It is the account given by an inventor of his
+  own discovery, not the explanation of an outsider. It therefore to
+  some extent assumes from the first the position which it proposes
+  ultimately to reach, and gives not a proof of that position, but an
+  account of the experience (_Erfahrung_) by which consciousness is
+  forced from one position to another till it finds rest in _Absolutes
+  Wissen_.
+
+  The _Phenomenology_ is neither mere psychology, nor logic, nor moral
+  philosophy, nor history, but is all of these and a great deal more. It
+  needs not distillation, but expansion and illustration from
+  contemporary and antecedent thought and literature. It treats of the
+  attitudes of consciousness towards reality under the six heads of
+  consciousness, self-consciousness, reason (_Vernunft_), spirit
+  (_Geist_), religion and absolute knowledge. The native attitude of
+  consciousness towards existence is reliance on the evidence of the
+  senses; but a little reflection is sufficient to show that the reality
+  attributed to the external world is as much due to intellectual
+  conceptions as to the senses, and that these conceptions elude us when
+  we try to fix them. If consciousness cannot detect a permanent object
+  outside it, so self-consciousness cannot find a permanent subject in
+  itself. It may, like the Stoic, assert freedom by holding aloof from
+  the entanglements of real life, or like the sceptic regard the world
+  as a delusion, or finally, as the "unhappy consciousness"
+  (_Unglückliches Bewusstseyn_), may be a recurrent falling short of a
+  perfection which it has placed above it in the heavens. But in this
+  isolation from the world, self-consciousness has closed its gates
+  against the stream of life. The perception of this is reason. Reason
+  convinced that the world and the soul are alike rational observes the
+  external world, mental phenomena, and specially the nervous organism,
+  as the meeting ground of body and mind. But reason finds much in the
+  world recognizing no kindred with her, and so turning to practical
+  activity seeks in the world the realization of her own aims. Either in
+  a crude way she pursues her own pleasure, and finds that necessity
+  counteracts her cravings; or she endeavours to find the world in
+  harmony with the heart, and yet is unwilling to see fine aspirations
+  crystallized by the act of realizing them. Finally, unable to impose
+  upon the world either selfish or humanitarian ends, she folds her arms
+  in pharisaic virtue, with the hope that some hidden power will give
+  the victory to righteousness. But the world goes on in its life,
+  heedless of the demands of virtue. The principle of nature is to live
+  and let live. Reason abandons her efforts to mould the world, and is
+  content to let the aims of individuals work out their results
+  independently, only stepping in to lay down precepts for the cases
+  where individual actions conflict, and to test these precepts by the
+  rules of formal logic.
+
+  So far we have seen consciousness on one hand and the real world on
+  the other. The stage of _Geist_ reveals the consciousness no longer as
+  critical and antagonistic but as the indwelling spirit of a community,
+  as no longer isolated from its surroundings but the union of the
+  single and real consciousness with the vital feeling that animates the
+  community. This is the lowest stage of concrete consciousness--life,
+  and not knowledge; the spirit inspires, but does not reflect. It is
+  the age of unconscious morality, when the individual's life is lost in
+  the society of which he is an organic member. But increasing culture
+  presents new ideals, and the mind, absorbing the ethical spirit of its
+  environment, gradually emancipates itself from conventions and
+  superstitions. This _Aufklärung_ prepares the way for the rule of
+  conscience, for the moral view of the world as subject of a moral law.
+  From the moral world the next step is religion; the moral law gives
+  place to God; but the idea of Godhead, too, as it first appears, is
+  imperfect, and has to pass through the forms of nature-worship and of
+  art before it reaches a full utterance in Christianity. Religion in
+  this shape is the nearest step to the stage of absolute knowledge; and
+  this absolute knowledge--"the spirit knowing itself as spirit"--is not
+  something which leaves these other forms behind but the full
+  comprehension of them as the organic constituents of its empire; "they
+  are the memory and the sepulchre of its history, and at the same time
+  the actuality, truth and certainty of its throne." Here, according to
+  Hegel, is the field of philosophy.
+
+  The preface to the _Phenomenology_ signalled the separation from
+  Schelling--the adieu to romantic. It declared that a genuine
+  philosophy has no kindred with the mere aspirations of artistic minds,
+  but must earn its bread by the sweat of its brow. It sets its face
+  against the idealism which either thundered against the world for its
+  deficiencies, or sought something finer than reality. Philosophy is to
+  be the science of the actual world--it is the spirit comprehending
+  itself in its own externalizations and manifestations. The philosophy
+  of Hegel is idealism, but it is an idealism in which every idealistic
+  unification has its other face in the multiplicity of existence. It is
+  realism as well as idealism, and never quits its hold on facts.
+  Compared with Fichte and Schelling, Hegel has a sober, hard, realistic
+  character. At a later date, with the call of Schelling to Berlin in
+  1841, it became fashionable to speak of Hegelianism as a negative
+  philosophy requiring to be complemented by a "positive" philosophy
+  which would give reality and not mere ideas. The cry was the same as
+  that of Krug (q.v.), asking the philosophers who expounded the
+  absolute to construe his pen. It was the cry of the Evangelical school
+  for a personal Christ and not a dialectical Logos. The claims of the
+  individual, the real, material and historical fact, it was said, had
+  been sacrificed by Hegel to the universal, the ideal, the spiritual
+  and the logical.
+
+  There was a truth in these criticisms. It was the very aim of
+  Hegelianism to render fluid the fixed phases of reality--to show
+  existence not to be an immovable rock limiting the efforts of thought,
+  but to have thought implicit in it, waiting for release from its
+  petrifaction. Nature was no longer, as with Fichte, to be a mere
+  spring-board to evoke the latent powers of the spirit. Nor was it, as
+  in Schelling's earlier system, to be a collateral progeny with mind
+  from the same womb of indifference and identity. Nature and mind in
+  the Hegelian system--the external and the spiritual world--have the
+  same origin, but are not co-equal branches. The natural world proceeds
+  from the "idea," the spiritual from the idea and nature. It is
+  impossible, beginning with the natural world, to explain the mind by
+  any process of distillation or development, unless consciousness or
+  its potentiality has been there from the first. Reality, independent
+  of the individual consciousness, there must be; reality, independent
+  of all mind, is an impossibility. At the basis of all reality, whether
+  material or mental, there is thought. But the thought thus regarded as
+  the basis of all existence is not consciousness with its distinction
+  of ego and non-ego. It is rather the stuff of which both mind and
+  nature are made, neither extended as in the natural world, nor
+  self-centred as in mind. Thought in its primary form is, as it were,
+  thoroughly transparent and absolutely fluid, free and mutually
+  interpenetrable in every part--the spirit in its seraphic scientific
+  life, before creation had produced a natural world, and thought had
+  risen to independent existence in the social organism. Thought in this
+  primary form, when in all its parts completed, is what Hegel calls the
+  "idea." But the idea, though fundamental, is in another sense final,
+  in the process of the world. It only appears in consciousness as the
+  crowning development of the mind. Only with philosophy does thought
+  become fully conscious of itself in its origin and development.
+  Accordingly the history of philosophy is the pre-supposition of logic,
+  or the three branches of philosophy form a circle.
+
+
+    Logic.
+
+  The exposition or constitution of the "idea" is the work of the Logic.
+  As the total system falls into three parts, so every part of the
+  system follows the triadic law. Every truth, every reality, has three
+  aspects or stages; it is the unification of two contradictory
+  elements, of two partial aspects of truth which are not merely
+  contrary, like black and white, but contradictory, like same and
+  different. The first step is a preliminary affirmation and
+  unification, the second a negation and differentiation, the third a
+  final synthesis. For example, the seed of the plant is an initial
+  unity of life, which when placed in its proper soil suffers
+  disintegration into its constitutents, and yet in virtue of its vital
+  unity keeps these divergent elements together, and reappears as the
+  plant with its members in organic union. Or again, the process of
+  scientific induction is a threefold chain; the original hypothesis
+  (the first unification of the fact) seems to melt away when confronted
+  with opposite facts, and yet no scientific progress is possible unless
+  the stimulus of the original unification is strong enough to clasp the
+  discordant facts and establish a reunification. Thesis, antithesis and
+  synthesis, a Fichtean formula, is generalized by Hegel into the
+  perpetual law of thought.
+
+  In what we may call their psychological aspect these three stages are
+  known as the abstract stage, or that of understanding (_Verstand_),
+  the dialectical stage, or that of negative reason, and the speculative
+  stage, or that of positive reason (_Vernunft_). The first of these
+  attitudes taken alone is dogmatism; the second, when similarly
+  isolated, is scepticism; the third, when unexplained by its elements,
+  is mysticism. Thus Hegelianism reduces dogmatism, scepticism and
+  mysticism to factors in philosophy. The abstract or dogmatic thinker
+  believes his object to be one, simple and stationary, and intelligible
+  apart from its surrounding. He speaks, e.g., as if species and genera
+  were fixed and unchangeable; and fixing his eye on the ideal forms in
+  their purity and self-sameness, he scorns the phenomenal world, whence
+  this identity and persistence are absent. The dialectic of negative
+  reason rudely dispels these theories. Appealing to reality it shows
+  that the identity and permanence of forms are contradicted by history;
+  instead of unity it exhibits multiplicity, instead of identity
+  difference, instead of a whole, only parts. Dialectic is, therefore, a
+  dislocating power; it shakes the solid structures of material thought,
+  and exhibits the instability latent in such conceptions of the world.
+  It is the spirit of progress and change, the enemy of convention and
+  conservatism; it is absolute and universal unrest. In the realm of
+  abstract thought these transitions take place lightly. In the worlds
+  of nature and mind they are more palpable and violent. So far as this
+  Hegel seems on the side of revolution. But reason is not negative
+  only; while it disintegrates the mass or unconscious unity, it builds
+  up a new unity with higher organization. But this third stage is the
+  place of effort, requiring neither the surrender of the original unity
+  nor the ignoring of the diversity afterwards suggested. The stimulus
+  of contradiction is no doubt a strong one; but the easiest way of
+  escaping it is to shut our eyes to one side of the antithesis. What is
+  required, therefore, is to readjust our original thesis in such a way
+  as to include and give expression to both the elements in the process.
+
+  The universe, then, is a process or development, to the eye of
+  philosophy. It is the process of the absolute--in religious language,
+  the manifestation of God. In the background of all the absolute is
+  eternally present; the rhythmic movement of thought is the
+  self-unfolding of the absolute. God reveals Himself in the logical
+  idea, in nature and in mind; but mind is not alike conscious of its
+  absoluteness in every stage of development. Philosophy alone sees God
+  revealing Himself in the ideal organism of thought as it were a
+  possible deity prior to the world and to any relation between God and
+  actuality; in the natural world, as a series of materialized forces
+  and forms of life; and in the spiritual world as the human soul, the
+  legal and moral order of society, and the creations of art, religion
+  and philosophy.
+
+  This introduction of the absolute became a stumbling-block to
+  Feuerbach and other members of the "Left." They rejected as an
+  illegitimate interpolation the eternal subject of development, and,
+  instead of one continuing God as the subject of all the predicates by
+  which in the logic the absolute is defined, assumed only a series of
+  ideas, products of philosophic activity. They denied the theological
+  value of the logical forms--the development of these forms being in
+  their opinion due to the human thinker, not to a self-revealing
+  absolute. Thus they made man the creator of the absolute. But with
+  this modification on the system another necessarily followed; a mere
+  logical series could not create nature. And thus the material universe
+  became the real starting-point. Thought became only the result of
+  organic conditions--subjective and human; and the system of Hegel was
+  no longer an idealization of religion, but a naturalistic theory with
+  a prominent and peculiar logic.
+
+  The logic of Hegel is the only rival to the logic of Aristotle. What
+  Aristotle did for the theory of demonstrative reasoning, Hegel
+  attempted to do for the whole of human knowledge. His logic is an
+  enumeration of the forms or categories by which our experience exists.
+  It carried out Kant's doctrine of the categories as a priori synthetic
+  principles, but removed the limitation by which Kant denied them any
+  constitutive value except in alliance with experience. According to
+  Hegel the terms in which thought exhibits itself are a system of their
+  own, with laws and relations which reappear in a less obvious shape in
+  the theories of nature and mind. Nor are they restricted to the small
+  number which Kant obtained by manipulating the current subdivision of
+  judgments. But all forms by which thought holds sensations in unity
+  (the formative or synthetic elements of language) had their place
+  assigned in a system where one leads up to and passes over into
+  another.
+
+  The fact which ordinary thought ignores, and of which ordinary logic
+  therefore provides no account, is the presence of gradation and
+  continuity in the world. The general terms of language simplify the
+  universe by reducing its variety of individuals to a few forms, none
+  of which exists simply and perfectly. The method of the understanding
+  is to divide and then to give a separate reality to what it has thus
+  distinguished. It is part of Hegel's plan to remedy this one-sided
+  character of thought, by laying bare the gradations of ideas. He lays
+  special stress on the point that abstract ideas when held in their
+  abstraction are almost interchangeable with their opposites--that
+  extremes meet, and that in every true and concrete idea there is a
+  coincidence of opposites.
+
+  The beginning of the logic is an illustration of this. The logical
+  idea is treated under the three heads of being (_Seyn_), essence
+  (_Wesen_) and notion (_Begriff_). The simplest term of thought is
+  being; we cannot think less about anything than when we merely say
+  that it is. Being--the abstract "is"--is _nothing_ definite, and
+  nothing at least is. Being and not being are thus declared
+  identical--a proposition which in this unqualified shape was to most
+  people a stumbling-block at the very door of the system. Instead of
+  the mere "is" which is as yet nothing, we should rather say "becomes,"
+  and as "becomes" always implies "something," we have determinate
+  being--"a being" which in the next stage of definiteness becomes
+  "one." And in this way we pass on to the quantitative aspects of
+  being.
+
+  The terms treated under the first head, in addition to those already
+  mentioned, are the abstract principles of quantity and number, and
+  their application in measure to determine the limits of being. Under
+  the title of essence are discussed those pairs of correlative terms
+  which are habitually employed in the explanation of the world--such as
+  law and phenomenon, cause and effect, reason and consequence,
+  substance and attribute. Under the head of notion are considered,
+  firstly, the subjective forms of conception, judgment and syllogism;
+  secondly, their realization in objects as mechanically, chemically or
+  teleologically constituted; and thirdly, the idea first of life, and
+  next of science, as the complete interpenetration of thought and
+  objectivity. The third part of logic evidently is what contains the
+  topics usually treated in logic-books, though even here the province
+  of logic in the ordinary sense is exceeded. The first two
+  divisions--the "objective logic"--are what is usually called
+  metaphysics.
+
+  The characteristic of the system is the gradual way in which idea is
+  linked to idea so as to make the division into chapters only an
+  arrangement of convenience. The judgment is completed in the
+  syllogism; the syllogistic form as the perfection of subjective
+  thought passes into objectivity, where it first appears embodied in a
+  mechanical system; and the teleological object, in which the members
+  are as means and end, leads up to the idea of life, where the end is
+  means and means end indissolubly till death. In some cases these
+  transitions may be unsatisfactory and forced; it is apparent that the
+  linear development from "being" to the "idea" is got by transforming
+  into a logical order the sequence that has roughly prevailed in
+  philosophy from the Eleatics; cases might be quoted where the
+  reasoning seems a play upon words; and it may often be doubted whether
+  certain ideas do not involve extra-logical considerations. The order
+  of the categories is in the main outlines fixed; but in the minor
+  details much depends upon the philosopher, who has to fill in the gaps
+  between ideas, with little guidance from the data of experience, and
+  to assign to the stages of development names which occasionally deal
+  hardly with language. The merit of Hegel is to have indicated and to a
+  large extent displayed the filiation and mutual limitation of our
+  forms of thought; to have arranged them in the order of their
+  comparative capacity to give a satisfactory expression to truth in the
+  totality of its relations; and to have broken down the partition which
+  in Kant separated the formal logic from the transcendental analytic,
+  as well as the general disruption between logic and metaphysic. It
+  must at the same time be admitted that much of the work of weaving the
+  terms of thought, the categories, into a system has a hypothetical and
+  tentative character, and that Hegel has rather pointed out the path
+  which logic must follow, viz. a criticism of the terms of scientific
+  and ordinary thought in their filiation and interdependence, than
+  himself in every case kept to the right way. The day for a fuller
+  investigation of this problem will partly depend upon the progress of
+  the study of language in the direction marked out by W. von Humboldt.
+
+
+    Philosophy of nature.
+
+  The Philosophy of Nature starts with the result of the logical
+  development, with the full scientific "idea." But the relations of
+  pure thought, losing their inwardness, appear as relations of space
+  and time; the abstract development of thought appears as matter and
+  movement. Instead of thought, we have perception; instead of
+  dialectic, gravitation; instead of causation, sequence in time. The
+  whole falls under the three heads of mechanics, physics and
+  "organic"--the content under each varying somewhat in the three
+  editions of the _Encyklopädie_. The first treats of space, time,
+  matter, movement; and in the solar system we have the representation
+  of the idea in its general and abstract material form. Under the head
+  of physics we have the theory of the elements, of sound, heat and
+  cohesion, and finally of chemical affinity--presenting the phenomena
+  of material change and interchange in a series of special forces which
+  generate the variety of the life of nature. Lastly, under the head of
+  "organic," come geology, botany and animal physiology--presenting the
+  concrete results of these processes in the three kingdoms of nature.
+
+  The charges of superficial analogies, so freely urged against the
+  "Natur-philosophie" by critics who forget the impulse it gave to
+  physical research by the identification of forces then believed to be
+  radically distinct, do not particularly affect Hegel. But in general
+  it may be said that he looked down upon the mere natural world. The
+  meanest of the fancies of the mind and the most casual of its whims he
+  regarded as a better warrant for the being of God than any single
+  object of nature. Those who supposed astronomy to inspire religious
+  awe were horrified to hear the stars compared to eruptive spots on the
+  face of the sky. Even in the animal world, the highest stage of
+  nature, he saw a failure to reach an independent and rational system
+  of organization; and its feelings under the continuous violence and
+  menaces of the environment he described as insecure, anxious and
+  unhappy.
+
+  His point of view was essentially opposed to the current views of
+  science. To metamorphosis he only allowed a logical value, as
+  explaining the natural classification; the only real, existent
+  metamorphosis he saw in the development of the individual from its
+  embryonic stage. Still more distinctly did he contravene the general
+  tendency of scientific explanation. "It is held the triumph of science
+  to recognize in the general process of the earth the same categories
+  as are exhibited in the processes of isolated bodies. This is,
+  however, an application of categories from a field where the
+  conditions are finite to a sphere in which the circumstances are
+  infinite." In astronomy he depreciates the merits of Newton and
+  elevates Kepler, accusing Newton particularly, à propos of the
+  distinction of centrifugal and centripetal forces, of leading to a
+  confusion between what is mathematically to be distinguished and what
+  is physically separate. The principles which explain the fall of an
+  apple will not do for the planets. As to colour, he follows Goethe,
+  and uses strong language against Newton's theory, for the barbarism of
+  the conception that light is a compound, the incorrectness of his
+  observations, &c. In chemistry, again, he objects to the way in which
+  all the chemical elements are treated as on the same level.
+
+
+    Philosophy of mind. 1. Psychology.
+
+  The third part of the system is the Philosophy of Mind. Its three
+  divisions are the "subjective mind" (psychology), the "objective mind"
+  (philosophic jurisprudence, moral and political philosophy) and the
+  "absolute mind" (the philosophy of art, religion and philosophy). The
+  subjects of the second and third divisions have been treated by Hegel
+  with great detail. The "objective mind" is the topic of the
+  _Rechts-Philosophie_, and of the lectures on the Philosophy of
+  History; while on the "absolute mind" we have the lectures on
+  Aesthetic, on the Philosophy of Religion and on the History of
+  Philosophy--in short, more than one-third of his works.
+
+  The purely psychological branch of the subject takes up half of the
+  space allotted to _Geist_ in the _Encyklopädie_. It falls under the
+  three heads of anthropology, phenomenology and psychology proper.
+  Anthropology treats of the mind in union with the body--of the natural
+  soul--and discusses the relations of the soul with the planets, the
+  races of mankind, the differences of age, dreams, animal magnetism,
+  insanity and phrenology. In this obscure region it is rich in
+  suggestions and rapprochements; but the ingenuity of these
+  speculations attracts curiosity more than it satisfies scientific
+  inquiry. In the Phenomenology consciousness, self-consciousness and
+  reason are dealt with. The title of the section and the contents
+  recall, though with some important variations, the earlier half of his
+  first work; only that here the historical background on which the
+  stages in the development of the ego were represented has disappeared.
+  Psychology, in the stricter sense, deals with the various forms of
+  theoretical and practical intellect, such as attention, memory, desire
+  and will. In this account of the development of an independent, active
+  and intelligent being from the stage where man like the Dryad is a
+  portion of the natural life around him, Hegel has combined what may be
+  termed a physiology and pathology of the mind--a subject far wider
+  than that of ordinary psychologies, and one of vast intrinsic
+  importance. It is, of course, easy to set aside these questions as
+  unanswerable, and to find artificiality in the arrangement. Still it
+  remains a great point to have even attempted some system in the dark
+  anomalies which lie under the normal consciousness, and to have traced
+  the genesis of the intellectual faculties from animal sensitivity.
+
+
+    2. Law and history.
+
+  The theory of the mind as objectified in the institutions of law, the
+  family and the state is discussed in the "Philosophy of Right."
+  Beginning with the antithesis of a legal system and morality, Hegel,
+  carrying out the work of Kant, presents the synthesis of these
+  elements in the ethical life (_Sittlichkeit_) of the family and the
+  state. Treating the family as an instinctive realization of the moral
+  life, and not as the result of contract, he shows how by the means of
+  wider associations due to private interests the state issues as the
+  full home of the moral spirit, where intimacy of interdependence is
+  combined with freedom of independent growth. The state is the
+  consummation of man as finite; it is the necessary starting-point
+  whence the spirit rises to an absolute existence in the spheres of
+  art, religion and philosophy. In the finite world or temporal state,
+  religion, as the finite organization of a church, is, like other
+  societies, subordinate to the state. But on another side, as absolute
+  spirit, religion, like art and philosophy, is not subject to the
+  state, but belongs to a higher region.
+
+  The political state is always an individual, and the relations of
+  these states with each other and the "world-spirit" of which they are
+  the manifestations constitute the material of history. The _Lectures
+  on the Philosophy of History_, edited by Gans and subsequently by Karl
+  Hegel, is the most popular of Hegel's works. The history of the world
+  is a scene of judgment where one people and one alone holds for awhile
+  the sceptre, as the unconscious instrument of the universal spirit,
+  till another rises in its place, with a fuller measure of liberty--a
+  larger superiority to the bonds of natural and artificial
+  circumstance. Three main periods--the Oriental, the Classical and the
+  Germanic--in which respectively the single despot, the dominant order,
+  and the man as man possess freedom--constitute the history of the
+  world. Inaccuracy in detail and artifice in the arrangement of
+  isolated peoples are inevitable in such a scheme. A graver mistake,
+  according to some critics, is that Hegel, far from giving a law of
+  progress, seems to suggest that the history of the world is nearing an
+  end, and has merely reduced the past to a logical formula. The answer
+  to this charge is partly that such a law seems unattainable, and
+  partly that the idealistic content of the present which philosophy
+  extracts is always an advance upon actual fact, and so does throw a
+  light into the future. And at any rate the method is greater than
+  Hegel's employment of it.
+
+
+    3. Art, religion and philosophy.
+
+  But as with Aristotle so with Hegel--beyond the ethical and political
+  sphere rises the world of absolute spirit in art, religion and
+  philosophy. The psychological distinction between the three forms is
+  that sensuous perception (_Anschauung_) is the organon of the first,
+  presentative conception (_Vorstellung_) of the second and free thought
+  of the third. The work of art, the first embodiment of absolute mind,
+  shows a sensuous conformity between the idea and the reality in which
+  it is expressed. The so-called beauty of nature is for Hegel an
+  adventitious beauty. The beauty of art is a beauty born in the spirit
+  of the artist and born again in the spectator; it is not like the
+  beauty of natural things, an incident of their existence, but is
+  "essentially a question, an address to a responding breast, a call to
+  the heart and spirit." The perfection of art depends on the degree of
+  intimacy in which idea and form appear worked into each other. From
+  the different proportion between the idea and the shape in which it is
+  realized arise three different forms of art. When the idea, itself
+  indefinite, gets no further than a struggle and endeavour for its
+  appropriate expression, we have the symbolic, which is the Oriental,
+  form of art, which seeks to compensate its imperfect expression by
+  colossal and enigmatic structures. In the second or classical form of
+  art the idea of humanity finds an adequate sensuous representation.
+  But this form disappears with the decease of Greek national life, and
+  on its collapse follows the romantic, the third form of art; where the
+  harmony of form and content again grows defective, because the object
+  of Christian art--the infinite spirit--is a theme too high for art.
+  Corresponding to this division is the classification of the single
+  arts. First comes architecture--in the main, symbolic art; then
+  sculpture, the classical art _par excellence_; they are found,
+  however, in all three forms. Painting and music are the specially
+  romantic arts. Lastly, as a union of painting and music comes poetry,
+  where the sensuous element is more than ever subordinate to the
+  spirit.
+
+  The lectures on the Philosophy of Art stray largely into the next
+  sphere and dwell with zest on the close connexion of art and religion;
+  and the discussion of the decadence and rise of religions, of the
+  aesthetic qualities of Christian legend, of the age of chivalry, &c.,
+  make the _Ästhetik_ a book of varied interest.
+
+  The lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, though unequal in their
+  composition and belonging to different dates, serve to exhibit the
+  vital connexion of the system with Christianity. Religion, like art,
+  is inferior to philosophy as an exponent of the harmony between man
+  and the absolute. In it the absolute exists as the poetry and music of
+  the heart, in the inwardness of feeling. Hegel after expounding the
+  nature of religion passes on to discuss its historical phases, but in
+  the immature state of religious science falls into several mistakes.
+  At the bottom of the scale of nature-worships he places the religion
+  of sorcery. The gradations which follow are apportioned with some
+  uncertainty amongst the religions of the East. With the Persian
+  religion of light and the Egyptian of enigmas we pass to those faiths
+  where Godhead takes the form of a spiritual individuality, i.e. to the
+  Hebrew religion (of sublimity), the Greek (of beauty) and the Roman
+  (of adaptation). Last comes absolute religion, in which the mystery of
+  the reconciliation between God and man is an open doctrine. This is
+  Christianity, in which God is a Trinity, because He is a spirit. The
+  revelation of this truth is the subject of the Christian Scriptures.
+  For the Son of God, in the immediate aspect, is the finite world of
+  nature and man, which far from being at one with its Father is
+  originally in an attitude of estrangement. The history of Christ is
+  the visible reconciliation between man and the eternal. With the death
+  of Christ this union, ceasing to be a mere fact, becomes a vital
+  idea--the Spirit of God which dwells in the Christian community.
+
+  The lectures on the History of Philosophy deal disproportionately with
+  the various epochs, and in some parts date from the beginning of
+  Hegel's career. In trying to subject history to the order of logic
+  they sometimes misconceive the filiation of ideas. But they created
+  the history of philosophy as a scientific study. They showed that a
+  philosophical theory is not an accident or whim, but an exponent of
+  its age determined by its antecedents and environments, and handing on
+  its results to the future.     (W. W.; X.)
+
+  _Hegelianism in England._--On the continent of Europe the direct
+  influence of Hegelianism was comparatively short-lived. This was due
+  among other causes to the direction of attention to the rising science
+  of psychology, partly to the reaction against the speculative method.
+  In England and Scotland it had another fate. Both in theory and
+  practice it here seemed to supply precisely the counter-active to
+  prevailing tendencies towards empiricism and individualism that was
+  required. In this respect it stood to philosophy in somewhat the same
+  relation that the influence of Goethe stood to literature. This
+  explains the hold which it had obtained upon both English and Scottish
+  thought soon after the middle of the 19th century. The first impulse
+  came from J. F. Ferrier and J. H. Stirling in Edinburgh, and B. Jowett
+  in Oxford. Already in the seventies there was a powerful school of
+  English thinkers under the lead of Edward Caird and T. H. Green
+  devoted to the study and exposition of the Hegelian system. With the
+  general acceptance of its main principle that the real is the
+  rational, there came in the eighties a more critical examination of
+  the precise meaning to be attached to it and its bearing on the
+  problems of religion. The earlier Hegelians had interpreted it in the
+  sense that the world in its ultimate essence was not only spiritual
+  but self-conscious intelligence whose nature was reflected
+  inadequately but truly in the finite mind. They thus seemed to come
+  forward in the character of exponents rather than critics of the
+  Western belief in God, freedom and immortality. As time went on it
+  became obvious that without departure from the spirit of idealism
+  Hegel's principle was susceptible of a different interpretation.
+  Granted that rationality taken in the sense of inner coherence and
+  self-consistency is the ultimate standard of truth and reality, does
+  self-consciousness itself answer to the demands of this criterion? If
+  not, are we not forced to deny ultimate reality to personality whether
+  human or divine? The question was definitely raised in F. H. Bradley's
+  _Appearance and Reality_ (1893; 2nd ed., 1897) and answered in the
+  negative. The completeness and self-consistency which our ideal
+  requires can be realized only in a form of being in which subject and
+  object, will and desire, no longer stand as exclusive opposites, from
+  which it seemed at once to follow that the finite self could not be a
+  reality nor the infinite reality a self. On this basis Bradley
+  developed a theory of the Absolute which, while not denying that it
+  must be conceived of spiritually, insisted that its spirituality is of
+  a kind that finds no analogy in our self-conscious experience. More
+  recently J. M. E. McTaggart's _Studies in Hegelian Dialectic_ (1896),
+  _Studies in Hegelian Cosmology_ (1901) and _Some Dogmas of Religion_
+  (1906) have opened a new chapter in the interpretation of Hegelianism.
+  Truly perceiving that the ultimate metaphysical problem is, here as
+  ever, the relation of the One and the Many, McTaggart starts with a
+  definition of the ideal in which our thought upon it can come to rest.
+  He finds it where (a) the unity is for each individual, (b) the whole
+  nature of the individual is to be _for_ the unity. It follows from
+  such a conception of the relation that the whole cannot itself be an
+  individual apart from the individuals in whom it is realized, in other
+  words, the Absolute cannot be a Person. But for the same reason--viz.
+  that in it first and in it alone this condition is realized--the
+  individual soul must be held to be an ultimate reality reflecting in
+  its inmost nature, like the monad of Leibniz, the complete fulness and
+  harmony of the whole. In reply to Bradley's argument for the unreality
+  of the self, Hegel is interpreted as meaning that the opposition
+  between self and not-self on which it is founded is one that is
+  self-made and in being made is transcended. The fuller our knowledge
+  of reality the more does the object stand out as an invulnerable
+  system of ordered parts, but the process by which it is thus set in
+  opposition to the subject is also the process by which we understand
+  and transform it into the substance of our own thought. From this
+  position further consequences followed. Seeing that the individual
+  soul must thus be taken to stand in respect to its inmost essence in
+  complete harmony with the whole, it must eternally be at one with
+  itself: all change must be appearance. Seeing, moreover, that it is,
+  and is maintained in being, by a fixed relation to the Absolute, it
+  cannot fail of immortality. No pantheistic theory of an eternal
+  substance continuously expressing itself in different individuals who
+  fall back into its being like drops into the ocean will here be
+  sufficient. The ocean is the drops. "The Absolute requires each self
+  not to make up a sum or to maintain an average but in respect of the
+  self's special and unique nature." Finally as it cannot cease, neither
+  can the individual soul have had a beginning. Pre-existence is as
+  necessary and certain as a future life. If memory is lacking as a link
+  between the different lives, this only shows that memory is not of the
+  substance of the soul.
+
+  In view of these differences (amounting almost to an antinomy of
+  paradoxes) in interpretation, it is not surprising to find that recent
+  years have witnessed a violent reaction in some quarters against
+  Hegelian influence. This has taken the direction on the one hand of a
+  revival of realism (see METAPHYSICS), on the other of a new form of
+  subjective idealism (see PRAGMATISM). As yet neither of these
+  movements has shown sufficient coherence or stability to establish
+  itself as a rival to the main current of philosophy in England. But
+  they have both been urged with sufficient ability to arrest its
+  progress and to call for a reconsideration and restatement of the
+  fundamental principle of idealist philosophy and its relation to the
+  fundamental problems of religion. This will probably be the main work
+  of the next generation of thinkers in England (see IDEALISM).
+
+  Among Italian Hegelians are A. Vera, Raffaele Mariano and B. Spaventa
+  (1817-1883); see V. de Lucia, _L'Hegel in Italia_ (1891). In Sweden,
+  J. J. Borelius of Lund; in Norway, G. V. Lyng (d. 1884), M. J. Monrad
+  (1816-1897) and G. Kent (d. 1892) have adopted Hegelianism; in France,
+  P. Leroux and P. Prévost.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Shortly after Hegel's death his collected works were
+  published by a number of his friends, who combined for the purpose.
+  They appeared in eighteen volumes in 1832, and a second edition came
+  out about twelve years later. Volumes i.-viii. contain the works
+  published by himself; the remainder is made up of his lectures on the
+  Philosophy of History, Aesthetic, the Philosophy of Religion and the
+  History of Philosophy, besides some essays and reviews, with a few of
+  his letters, and the Philosophical Propaedeutic.
+
+  For his life see K. Rosenkranz, _Leben Hegels_ (Berlin, 1844); R. R.
+  Haym, _Hegel und seine Zeit_ (Berlin, 1857); K. Köstlin, _Hegel in
+  philosophischer, politischer und nationaler Beziehung_ (Tübingen,
+  1870); Rosenkranz, _Hegel als deutscher National-Philosoph_ (Berlin,
+  1870), and his _Neue Studien_, vol. iv. (Berlin, 1878); Kuno Fischer,
+  _Hegels Leben und Werke_.
+
+  For the philosophy see A. Ruge's _Aus früherer Zeit_, vol. iv.
+  (Berlin, 1867); Haym (as above); F. A. Trendelenburg (in _Logische
+  Untersuchungen_); A. L. Kym (_Metaphysische Untersuchungen_) and C.
+  Hermann (_Hegel und die logische Frage_ and other works) are
+  noticeable as modern critics. Georges Noël, _La Logique de Hegel_
+  (Paris, 1897); Aloys Schmid, _Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der
+  Hegelschen Logik_ (Regensburg, 1858). Vera has translated the
+  _Encyklopädie_ into French, with notes; C. Bénard, the _Ästhetik_. In
+  English J. Hutcheson Stirling's _Secret of Hegel_ (2 vols., London,
+  1865) contains a translation of the beginning of the _Wissenschaft der
+  Logik_; the "Logic" from the _Encyklopädie_ has been translated, with
+  Prolegomena, by W. Wallace (Oxford, 1874). W. Wallace also translated
+  the third part of the _Encyklopädie in Hegel's Philosophy of Mind_
+  (1894); R. B. Haldane the _History of Philosophy_ (1896); E. B.
+  Speirs, lectures on the _Philosophy of Religion_ (1895); J. Sibree,
+  lectures on _The Philosophy of History_ (1852); B. Bosanquet,
+  _Philosophy of Fine Art_, Introduction (1886); W. Hastie, _The
+  Philosophy of Art_ (1886); S. W. Dyde, _The Philosophy of Right_
+  (1896). Other recent expositions and criticisms in addition to those
+  mentioned above are W. T. Harris, _Hegel's Logic_ (1890); J. B.
+  Baillie, _Origin and Significance of Hegel's Logic_ (1901), and
+  _Outline of the Idealistic Construction of Experience_ (1906); P.
+  Barth, _Die Geschichtsphilosophie Hegels_ (1890); J. A. Marrast, _La
+  Philosophie du droit de Hegel_ (1869); L. Miraglia, _I Principii
+  fondamentali e la dottrina eticogiuridica di Hegel_ (1873); _Hegel's
+  Philosophy of the State and History_ (Germ. Phil. Classics, 1887); G.
+  Bolland, _Philosophie des Rechts_ (1902), and _Hegels Philosophie der
+  Religion_ (1901); E. Ott, _Die Religionsphilosophie Hegels_ (1904); J.
+  M. Sterrett, _Studies in Hegel's Philosophy of Religion_ (1891); M.
+  Ehrenhauss, _Hegels Gottesbegriff_ (1880); E. Caird, Hegel (1880); A.
+  Seth Pringle-Pattison, _Hegelianism and Personality_ (1893); Millicent
+  Mackenzie, _Hegel's Educational Theory and Practice_ (1909), with
+  biographical sketch; J. M. E. McTaggart, _Commentary on Hegel's Logic_
+  (1910).     (J. H. Mu.)
+
+
+
+
+HEGEMON OF THASOS, Greek writer of the old comedy, nicknamed [Greek:
+Phakê] from his fondness for lentils. Hardly anything is known of him,
+except that he flourished during the Peloponnesian War. According to
+Aristotle (_Poetics_, ii. 5) he was the inventor of a kind of parody; by
+slightly altering the wording in well-known poems he transformed the
+sublime into the ridiculous. When the news of the disaster in Sicily
+reached Athens, his parody of the _Gigantomachia_ was being performed;
+it is said that the audience were so amused by it that, instead of
+leaving to show their grief, they remained in their seats. He was also
+the author of a comedy called _Philinne_ (_Philine_), written in the
+manner of Eupolis and Cratinus, in which he attacked a well-known
+courtesan. Athenaeus (p. 698), who preserves some parodic hexameters of
+his, relates other anecdotes concerning him (pp. 5, 108, 407).
+
+  Fragments in T. Kock, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, i. (1880); B.
+  J. Peltzer, _De parodica Graecorum poesi_ (1855).
+
+
+
+
+HEGEMONY (Gr. [Greek: hêgemonia], leadership, from [Greek: hêgeisthai],
+to lead), the leadership especially of one particular state in a group
+of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in
+Greek history to the position claimed by different individual
+city-states, e.g. by Athens and Sparta, at different times to a position
+of predominance (_primus inter pares_) among other equal states, coupled
+with individual autonomy. The reversion of this position was claimed by
+Macedon (see GREECE: _Ancient History_, and DELIAN LEAGUE).
+
+
+
+
+HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA (in Lydia), Greek rhetorician and historian,
+flourished about 300 B.C. Strabo (xiv. 648), speaks of him as the
+founder of the florid style of composition known as "Asiatic" (cf.
+TIMAEUS). Agatharchides, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Cicero all speak
+of him in disparaging terms, although Varro seems to have approved of
+his work. He professed to imitate the simple style of Lysias, avoiding
+long periods, and expressing himself in short, jerky sentences, without
+modulation or finish. His vulgar affectation and bombast made his
+writings a mere caricature of the old Attic. Dionysius describes his
+composition as tinselled, ignoble and effeminate. It is generally
+supposed, from the fragment quoted as a specimen by Dionysius, that
+Hegesias is to be classed among the writers of lives of Alexander the
+Great. This fragment describes the treatment of Gaza and its inhabitants
+by Alexander after its conquest, but it is possible that it is only part
+of an epideictic or show-speech, not of an historical work. This view is
+supported by a remark of Agatharchides in Photius (_cod._ 250) that the
+only aim of Hegesias was to exhibit his skill in describing sensational
+events.
+
+  See Cicero, _Brutus_ 83, _Orator_ 67, 69, with J. E. Sandys's note,
+  _ad Att._ xii. 6; Dion. Halic. _De verborum comp._ iv.; Aulus Gellius
+  ix. 4; Plutarch, _Alexander_, 3; C. W. Müller, _Scriptores rerum
+  Alexandri Magni_, p. 138 (appendix to Didot ed. of Arrian, 1846);
+  Norden, _Die antike Kunstprosa_ (1898); J. B. Bury, _Ancient Greek
+  Historians_ (1909), pp. 169-172, on origin and development of
+  "Asiatic" style, with example from Hegesias.
+
+
+
+
+HEGESIPPUS, Athenian orator and statesman, nicknamed [Greek: Krôbylos]
+("knot"), probably from the way in which he wore his hair. He lived in
+the time of Demosthenes, of whose anti-Macedonian policy he was an
+enthusiastic supporter. In 343 B.C. he was one of the ambassadors sent
+to Macedonia to discuss, amongst other matters, the restoration of the
+island of Halonnesus, which had been seized by Philip. The mission was
+unsuccessful, but soon afterwards Philip wrote to Athens, offering to
+resign possession of the island or to submit to arbitration the question
+of ownership. In reply to this letter the oration De _Halonneso_ was
+delivered, which, although included among the speeches of Demosthenes,
+is generally considered to be by Hegesippus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus
+and Plutarch, however, favour the authorship of Demosthenes.
+
+  See Demosthenes, _De falsa legatione_ 364, 447, _De corona_ 250,
+  _Philippica_ iii. 129; Plutarch, _Demosthenes_ 17, _Apophthegmata_,
+  187D; Dionysius Halic. _ad Ammaeum_, i.; Grote, _History of Greece_,
+  ch. 90.
+
+
+
+
+HEGESIPPUS (fl. A.D. 150-180), early Christian writer, was of
+Palestinian origin, and lived under the Emperors Antoninus Pius, Marcus
+Aurelius and Commodus. Like Aristo of Pella he belonged to that group of
+Judaistic Christians which, while keeping the law themselves, did not
+attempt to impose on others the requirements of circumcision and Sabbath
+observance. He was the author of a treatise ([Greek: hypomnêmata]) in
+five books dealing with such subjects as Christian literature, the unity
+of church doctrine, paganism, heresy and Jewish Christianity, fragments
+of which are found in Eusebius, who obtained much of his information
+concerning early Palestinian church history and chronology from this
+source. Hegesippus was also a great traveller, and like many other
+leaders of his time came to Rome (having visited Corinth on the way)
+about the middle of the 2nd century. His journeyings impressed him with
+the idea that the continuity of the church in the cities he visited was
+a guarantee of its fidelity to apostolic orthodoxy: "in each succession
+and in every city, the doctrine is in accordance with that which the Law
+and the Prophets and the Lord [i.e. the Old Testament and the
+evangelical tradition] proclaim." To illustrate this opinion he drew up
+a list of the Roman bishops. Hegesippus is thus a significant figure
+both for the type of Christianity taught in the circle to which he
+belonged, and as accentuating the point of view which the church began
+to assume in the presence of a developing gnosticism.
+
+
+
+
+HEGESIPPUS, the supposed author of a free Latin adaptation of the
+_Jewish War_ of Josephus under the title _De bello Judaico et excidio
+urbis Hierosolymitanae_. The seven books of Josephus are compressed into
+five, but much has been added from the Antiquities and from the works of
+Roman historians, while several entirely new speeches are introduced to
+suit the occasion. Internal evidence shows that the work could not have
+been written before the 4th century A.D. The author, who is undoubtedly
+a Christian, describes it in his preface as a kind of revised edition of
+Josephus. Some authorities attribute it to Ambrose, bishop of Milan
+(340-397), but there is nothing to settle the authorship definitely. The
+name Hegesippus itself appears to be a corruption of Josephus, through
+the stages [Greek: Iôsêpos], Iosippus, Egesippus, Hegesippus, unless it
+was purposely adopted as reminiscent of Hegesippus, the father of
+ecclesiastical history (2nd century).
+
+  Best edition by C. F. Weber and J. Caesar (1864); authorities in E.
+  Schürer, _History of the Jewish People_ (Eng. trans.), i. 99 seq.; F.
+  Vogel, _De Hegesippo, qui dicitur, Josephi interprete_ (Erlangen,
+  1881).
+
+
+
+
+HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER (c. 1433-1498), German humanist, so called
+from his birthplace Heek in Westphalia. In his youth he was a pupil of
+Thomas à Kempis, at that time canon of the convent of St Agnes at
+Zwolle. In 1474 he settled down at Deventer in Holland, where he either
+founded or succeeded to the headship of a school, which became famous
+for the number of its distinguished alumni. First and foremost of these
+was Erasmus; others were Hermann von dem Busche, the missionary of
+humanism, Conrad Goclenius (Gockelen), Conrad Mutianus (Muth von Mudt)
+and pope Adrian VI. Hegius died at Deventer on the 7th of December 1498.
+His writings, consisting of short poems, philosophical essays,
+grammatical notes and letters, were published after his death by his
+pupil Jacob Faber. They display considerable knowledge of Latin, but
+less of Greek, on the value of which he strongly insisted. Hegius's
+chief claim to be remembered rests not upon his published works, but
+upon his services in the cause of humanism. He succeeded in abolishing
+the old-fashioned medieval textbooks and methods of instruction, and led
+his pupils to the study of the classical authors themselves. His
+generosity in assisting poor students exhausted a considerable fortune,
+and at his death he left nothing but his books and clothes.
+
+  See D. Reichling, "Beiträge zur Charakteristik des Alex. Hegius," in
+  the _Monatsschrift für Westdeutschland_ (1877); H. Hamelmann, _Opera
+  genealogico-historica_ (1711); H. A. Erhard, _Geschichte des
+  Wiederaufblühens wissenschaftlicher Bildung_ (1826); C. Krafft and W.
+  Crecelius, "Alexander Hegius und seine Schüler," from the works of
+  Johannes Butzbach, one of Hegius's pupils, in _Zeitschrift des
+  bergischen Geschichtsvereins_, vii. (Bonn, 1871).
+
+
+
+
+HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG (1791-1860), Danish poet and critic, son of the
+political writer Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841), and of the famous
+novelist, afterwards the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd, was born at
+Copenhagen on the 14th of December 1791. In 1800 his father was exiled
+and settled in Paris, where he was employed in the French foreign
+office, retiring in 1817 with a pension. His political and satirical
+writings continued to exercise great influence over his
+fellow-countrymen. Johan Ludvig Heiberg was taken by K. L. Rahbek and
+his wife into their house at Bakkehuset. He was educated at the
+university of Copenhagen, and his first publication, entitled _The
+Theatre for Marionettes_ (1814), included two romantic dramas. This was
+followed by _Christmas Jokes and New Year's Tricks_ (1816), _The
+Initiation of Psyche_ (1817), and _The Prophecy of Tycho Brahé_, a
+satire on the eccentricities of the Romantic writers, especially on the
+sentimentality of Ingemann. These works attracted attention at a time
+when Baggesen, Öhlenschläger and Ingemann possessed the popular ear, and
+were understood at once to be the opening of a great career. In 1817
+Heiberg took his degree, and in 1819 went abroad with a grant from
+government. He proceeded to Paris, and spent the next three years there
+with his father. In 1822 he published his drama of _Nina_, and was made
+professor of the Danish language at the university of Kiel, where he
+delivered a course of lectures, comparing the Scandinavian mythology as
+found in the _Edda_ with the poems of Öhlenschläger. These lectures were
+published in German in 1827.
+
+In 1825 Heiberg came back to Copenhagen for the purpose of introducing
+the vaudeville on the Danish stage. He composed a great number of these
+vaudevilles, of which the best known are _King Solomon and George the
+Hatmaker_ (1825); _April Fools_ (1826); _A Story in Rosenborg Garden_
+(1827); _Kjöge Huskors_ (1831); _The Danes in Paris_ (1833); _No_
+(1836); and _Yes_ (1839). He took his models from the French theatre,
+but showed extraordinary skill in blending the words and the music; but
+the subjects and the humour were essentially Danish and even topical.
+Meanwhile he was producing dramatic work of a more serious kind; in 1828
+he brought out the national drama of _Elverhöi_; in 1830 _The
+Inseparables_; in 1835 the fairy comedy of _The Elves_, a dramatic
+version of Tieck's _Elfin_; and in 1838 _Fata Morgana_. In 1841 Heiberg
+published a volume of _New Poems_ containing "A Soul after Death," a
+comedy which is perhaps his masterpiece, "The Newly Wedded Pair," and
+other pieces. He edited from 1827 to 1830 the famous weekly, the
+_Flyvende Post_ (The Flying Post), and subsequently the _Interimsblade_
+(1834-1837) and the _Intelligensblade_ (1842-1843). In his journalism he
+carried on his warfare against the excessive pretensions of the
+Romanticists, and produced much valuable and penetrating criticism of
+art and literature. In 1831 he married the actress Johanne Louise
+Paetges (1812-1890), herself the author of some popular vaudevilles.
+Heiberg's scathing satires, however, made him very unpopular; and this
+antagonism reached its height when, in 1845, he published his malicious
+little drama of _The Nut Crackers_. Nevertheless he became in 1847
+director of the national theatre. He filled the post for seven years,
+working with great zeal and conscientiousness, but was forced by
+intrigues from without to resign it in 1854. Heiberg died at Bonderup,
+near Ringsted, on the 25th of August 1860. His influence upon taste and
+critical opinion was greater than that of any writer of his time, and
+can only be compared with that of Holberg in the 18th century. Most of
+the poets of the Romantic movement in Denmark were very grave and
+serious; Heiberg added the element of humour, elegance and irony. He had
+the genius of good taste, and his witty and delicate productions stand
+almost unique in the literature of his country.
+
+  The poetical works of Heiberg were collected, in 11 vols., in
+  1861-1862, and his prose writings (11 vols.) in the same year. The
+  last volume of his prose works contains some fragments of
+  autobiography. See also G. Brandes, _Essays_ (1889). For the elder
+  Heiberg see monographs by Thaarup (1883) and by Schwanenflügel (1891).
+
+
+
+
+HEIDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, on a small plateau which stands between the marshes
+and moors bordering the North Sea, 35 m. N.N.W. of Glückstadt, at the
+junction of the railways Elmshorn-Hvidding and Neumünster-Tönning. Pop.
+(1905), 8758. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a
+high-grade school, and tobacco and cigar manufactories and breweries.
+Heide in 1447 became the capital of the Ditmarsh peasant republic, but
+on the 13th of June 1559 it was the scene of the complete defeat of the
+peasant forces by the Danes.
+
+
+
+
+HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1633-1698), Swiss theologian, was born at
+Bärentschweil, in the canton of Zürich, Switzerland, on the 1st of July
+1633. He studied at Marburg and at Heidelberg, where he became the
+friend of J. L. Fabricius (1632-1696), and was appointed _professor
+extraordinarius_ of Hebrew and later of philosophy. In 1659 he was
+called to Steinfurt to fill the chair of dogmatics and ecclesiastical
+history, and in the same year he became doctor of theology of
+Heidelberg. In 1660 he revisited Switzerland; and, after marrying, he
+travelled in the following year to Holland, where he made the
+acquaintance of Johannes Cocceius. He returned in 1665 to Zürich, where
+he was elected professor of moral philosophy. Two years later he
+succeeded J. H. Hottinger (1620-1667) in the chair of theology, which he
+occupied till his death on the 18th of January 1698, having declined an
+invitation in 1669 to succeed J. Cocceius at Leiden, as well as a call
+to Groningen. Heidegger was the principal author of the _Formula
+Consensus Helvetica_ in 1675, which was designed to unite the Swiss
+Reformed churches, but had an opposite effect. W. Gass describes him as
+the most notable of the Swiss theologians of the time.
+
+His writings are largely controversial, though without being bitter, and
+are in great part levelled against the Roman Catholic Church. The chief
+are _De historia sacra patriarcharum exercitationes selectae_
+(1667-1671); _Dissertatio de Peregrinationibus religiosis_ (1670); _De
+ratione studiorum, opuscula aurea_, &c. (1670); _Historia papatus_
+(1684; under the name Nicander von Hohenegg); _Manuductio in viam
+concordiae Protestantium ecclesiasticae_ (1686); _Tumulus concilii
+Tridentini_ (1690); _Exercitationes biblicae_ (1700), with a life of the
+author prefixed; _Corpus theologiae Christianae_ (1700, edited by J. H.
+Schweizer); _Ethicae Christianae elementa_ (1711); and lives of J. H.
+Hottinger (1667) and J. L. Fabricius (1698). His autobiography appeared
+in 1698, under the title _Historia vitae J. H. Heideggeri_.
+
+  See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ and the
+  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; and cf. W. Gass, _Geschichte der
+  protestantischen Dogmatik_, ii. 353 ff.
+
+
+
+
+HEIDELBERG, a town of Germany, on the south bank of the Neckar, 12 m.
+above its confluence with the Rhine, 13 m. S.E. from Mannheim and 54 m.
+from Frankfort-on-Main by rail. The situation of the town, lying between
+lofty hills covered with vineyards and forests, at the spot where the
+rapid Neckar leaves the gorge and enters the plain of the Rhine, is one
+of great natural beauty. The town itself consists practically of one
+long, narrow street--the Hauptstrasse--running parallel to the river,
+from the railway station on the west to the Karlstor on the east (where
+there is also a local station) for a distance of 2 m. To the south of
+this is the Anlage, a pleasant promenade flanked by handsome villas and
+gardens, leading directly to the centre of the place. A number of
+smaller streets intersect the Hauptstrasse at right angles and run down
+to the river, which is crossed by two fine bridges. Of these, the old
+bridge on the east, built in 1788, has a fine gateway and is adorned
+with statues of Minerva and the elector Charles Theodore of the
+Palatinate; the other, the lower bridge, on the west, built in 1877,
+connects Heidelberg with the important suburbs of Neuenheim and
+Handschuchsheim. Of recent years the town has grown largely towards the
+west on both sides of the river; but the additions have been almost
+entirely of the better class of residences. Heidelberg is an important
+railway centre, and is connected by trunk lines with Frankfort,
+Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Spires and Würzburg. Electric trams provide for
+local traffic, and there are also several light railways joining it with
+the neighbouring villages. Of the churches the chief are the Protestant
+Peterskirche dating from the 15th century and restored in 1873, to the
+door of which Jerome of Prague in 1460 nailed his theses; the Heilige
+Geist Kirche (Church of the Holy Ghost), an imposing Gothic edifice of
+the 15th century; the Jesuitenkirche (Roman Catholic), with a
+sumptuously decorated interior, and the new Evangelical Christuskirche.
+The town hall and the university buildings, dating from 1712 and
+restored in 1886, are commonplace erections; but to the south of the
+Ludwigsplatz, upon which most of the academical buildings lie, stands
+the new university library, a handsome structure of pink sandstone in
+German Renaissance style. In addition to the Ludwigsplatz with its
+equestrian statue of the emperor William I. there are other squares in
+the town, among them being the Bismarckplatz with a statue of Bismarck,
+and the Jubiläumsplatz.
+
+The chief attraction of Heidelberg is the castle, which overhangs the
+east part of the town. It stands on the Jettenbühl, a spur of the
+Königsstuhl (1800 ft.), at a height of 330 ft. above the Neckar. Though
+now a ruin, yet its extent, its magnificence, its beautiful situation
+and its interesting history render it by far the most noteworthy, as it
+certainly is the grandest and largest, of the old castles of Germany.
+The building was begun early in the 13th century. The elector palatine
+and German king Rupert III. (d. 1410) greatly improved it, and built the
+wing, Ruprechtsbau or Rupert's building, that bears his name. Succeeding
+electors further extended and embellished it (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate
+VII., figs. 78-80); notably Otto Henry "the Magnanimous" (d. 1559), who
+built the beautiful early Renaissance wing known as the
+Otto-Heinrichsbau (1556-1559); Frederick IV., for whom the fine late
+Renaissance wing called the Friedrichsbau was built (1601-1607); and
+Frederick V., the unfortunate "winter king" of Bohemia, who on the west
+side added the Elisabethenbau or Englischebau (1618), named after his
+wife, the daughter of James I. of Great Britain and ancestress of the
+present English reigning family. In 1648, at the peace of Westphalia,
+Heidelberg was given back to Frederick V.'s son, Charles Louis, who
+restored the castle to its former splendour. In 1688, during Louis
+XIV.'s invasion of the Palatinate, the castle was taken, after a long
+siege, by the French, who blew part of it up when they found they could
+not hope to hold it (March 2, 1689). In 1693 it was again captured by
+them and still further wrecked. Finally, in 1764, it was struck by
+lightning and reduced to its present ruinous condition.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Heidelberg.]
+
+Apart from the outworks, the castle forms an irregular square with round
+towers at the angles, the principal buildings being grouped round a
+central courtyard, the entrance to which is from the south through a
+series of gateways. In this courtyard, besides the buildings already
+mentioned, are the oldest parts of the castle, the so-called Alte Bau
+(old building) and the Bandhaus. The Friedrichsbau, which is decorated
+with statues of the rulers of the Palatinate, was elaborately restored
+and rendered habitable between 1897 and 1903. Other noteworthy objects
+in the castle are the fountain in the courtyard, decorated with four
+granite columns from Charlemagne's palace at Ingelheim; the
+Elisabethentor, a beautiful gateway named after the English princess;
+the beautiful octagonal bell-tower at the N.E. angle; the ruins of the
+Krautturm, now known as the Gesprengte Turm, or blown-up tower, and the
+castle chapel and the museum of antiquities in the Friedrichsbau. In a
+cellar entered from the courtyard is the famous Great Tun of Heidelberg.
+This vast vat was built in 1751, but has only been used on one or two
+occasions. Its capacity is 49,000 gallons, and it is 20 ft. high and 31
+ft. long. Behind the Friedrichsbau is the Altan (1610), or castle
+balcony, from which is obtained a view of great beauty, extending from
+the town beneath to the heights across the Neckar and over the broad
+luxuriant plain of the Rhine to Mannheim and the dim contours of the
+Hardt Mountains behind. On the terrace of the beautiful grounds is a
+statue of Victor von Scheffel, the poet of Heidelberg.
+
+The university of Heidelberg was founded by the elector Rupert I., in
+1385, the bull of foundation being issued by Pope Urban VI. in that
+year. It was constructed after the type of Paris, had four faculties,
+and possessed numerous privileges. Marselius von Inghen was its first
+rector. The electors Frederick I., the Victorious, Philip the Upright
+and Louis V. respectively cherished it. Otto Henry gave it a new
+organization, further endowed it and founded the library. At the
+Reformation it became a stronghold of Protestant learning, the
+Heidelberg catechism being drawn up by its theologians. Then the tide
+turned. Damaged by the Thirty Years' War, it led a struggling existence
+for a century and a half. A large portion of its remaining endowments
+was cut off by the peace of Lunéville (1801). In 1803, however, Charles
+Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, raised it anew and reconstituted it
+under the name of "Ruperto-Carola." The number of professors and
+teachers is at present about 150 and of students 1700. The library was
+first kept in the choir of the Heilige Geist Kirche, and then consisted
+of 3500 MSS. In 1623 it was sent to Rome by Maximilian I., duke of
+Bavaria, and stored as the Bibliotheca Palatina in the Vatican. It was
+afterwards taken to Paris, and in 1815 was restored to Heidelberg. It
+has more than 500,000 volumes, besides 4000 MSS. Among the other
+university institutions are the academic hospital, the maternity
+hospital, the physiological institution, the chemical laboratory, the
+zoological museum, the botanical garden and the observatory on the
+Königsstuhl.
+
+The other educational foundations are a gymnasium, a modern and a
+technical school. There is a small theatre, an art and several other
+scientific societies. The manufactures of Heidelberg include cigars,
+leather, cement, surgical instruments and beer, but the inhabitants
+chiefly support themselves by supplying the wants of a large and
+increasing body of foreign permanent residents, of the considerable
+number of tourists who during the summer pass through the town, and of
+the university students. A funicular railway runs from the Korn-Markt up
+to the level of the castle and thence to the Molkenkur (700 ft. above
+the town). The town is well lighted and is supplied with excellent water
+from the Wolfsbrunnen. Pop. (1885), 29,304; (1905), 49,527.
+
+At an early period Heidelberg was a fief of the bishop of Worms, who
+entrusted it about 1225 to the count palatine of the Rhine, Louis I. It
+soon became a town and the chief residence of the counts palatine.
+Heidelberg was one of the great centres of the reformed teaching and was
+the headquarters of the Calvinists. On this account it suffered much
+during the Thirty Years' War, being captured and plundered by Count
+Tilly in 1622, by the Swedes in 1633 and again by the imperialists in
+1635. By the peace of Westphalia it was restored to the elector Charles
+Louis. In 1688 and again in 1693 Heidelberg was sacked by the French. On
+the latter occasion the work of destruction was carried out so
+thoroughly that only one house escaped; this being a quaintly decorated
+erection in the Marktplatz, which is now the Hôtel zum Ritter. In 1720
+the elector Charles II. removed his court to Mannheim, and in 1803 the
+town became part of the grand-duchy of Baden. On the 5th of March 1848
+the Heidelberg assembly was held here, and at this meeting the steps
+were taken which led to the revolution in Germany in that year.
+
+  See Oncken, _Stadt, Schloss und Hochschule Heidelberg; Bilder aus
+  ihrer Vergangenheit_ (Heidelberg, 1885); Öchelhäuser, _Das
+  Heidelberger Schloss, bau- und kunstgeschichtlicher Führer_
+  (Heidelberg, 1902); Pfaff, _Heidelberg und Umgebung_ (Heidelberg,
+  1902); Lorentzen, _Heidelberg und Umgebung_ (Stuttgart, 1902); Durm,
+  _Das Heidelberger Schloss, eine Studie_ (Berlin, 1884); Koch and
+  Seitz, _Das Heidelberger Schloss_ (Darmstadt, 1887-1891); J. F. Hautz,
+  _Geschickte der Universität Heidelberg_ (1863-1864); A. Thorbecke,
+  _Geschichte der Universität Heidelberg_ (Stuttgart, 1886); the
+  _Urkundenbuch der Universität Heidelberg_, edited by Winkelmann
+  (Heidelberg, 1886); Bähr, _Die Entführung der Heidelberger Bibliothek
+  nach Rom_ (Leipzig, 1845); and G. Weber, _Heidelberger Erinnerungen_
+  (Stuttgart, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+HEIDELBERG, a town and district of the Transvaal. The district is
+bounded S. by the Vaal river and includes the south-eastern part of the
+Witwatersrand gold-fields. The town of Heidelberg is 42 m. S.E. of
+Johannesburg and 441 m. N.W. of Durban by rail. Pop. (1904), 3220, of
+whom 1837 were white. It was founded in 1865, is built on the slopes of
+the Rand at an elevation of 5029 ft., and is reputed the best sanatorium
+in the colony. It is the centre of the eastern Rand goldmines.
+
+
+
+
+HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE, the most attractive of all the catechisms of
+the Reformation, was drawn up at the bidding of Frederick III., elector
+of the Palatinate, and published on Tuesday the 19th of January 1563.
+The new religion in the Palatinate had been largely under the guidance
+of Philip Melanchthon, who had revived the old university of Heidelberg
+and staffed it with sympathetic teachers. One of these, Tillemann,
+Heshusius, who became general superintendent in 1558, held extreme
+Lutheran views on the Real Presence, and in his desire to force the
+community into his own position excommunicated his colleague Klebitz,
+who held Zwinglian views. When the breach was widening Frederick, "der
+fromme Kurfürst," came to the succession, dismissed the two chief
+combatants and referred the trouble to Melanchthon, whose guarded
+verdict was distinctly Swiss rather than Lutheran. In a decree of August
+1560 the elector declared for Calvin and Zwingli, and soon after he
+resolved to issue a new and unambiguous catechism of the evangelical
+faith. He entrusted the task to two young men who have won deserved
+remembrance by their learning and their character alike. Zacharias
+Ursinus was born at Breslau in July 1534 and attained high honour in the
+university of Wittenberg. In 1558 he was made rector of the gymnasium in
+his native town, but the incessant strife with the extreme Lutherans
+drove him to Zürich, whence Frederick, on the advice of Peter Martyr,
+summoned him to be professor of theology at Heidelberg and
+superintendent of the _Sapientiae Collegium_. He was a man of modest and
+gentle spirit, not endowed with great preaching gifts, but unwearied in
+study and consummately able to impart his learning to others. Deposed
+from his chair by the elector Louis in 1576, he lived with John Casimir
+at Neustadt and found a congenial sphere in the new seminary there,
+dying in his 49th year, in March 1583.
+
+Caspar Olevianus was born at Treves in 1536. He gave up law for
+theology, studied under Calvin in Geneva, Peter Martyr in Zürich, and
+Beza in Lausanne. Urged by William Farel he preached the new faith in
+his native city, and when banished therefrom found a home with Frederick
+of Heidelberg, where he gained high renown as preacher and
+administrator. His ardour and enthusiasm made him the happy complement
+of Ursinus. When the reaction came under Louis he was befriended by
+Ludwig von Sain, prince of Wittgenstein, and John, count of Nassau, in
+whose city of Herborn he did notable work at the high school until his
+death on the 15th of March 1587. The elector could have chosen no better
+men, young as they were, for the task in hand. As a first step each drew
+up a catechism of his own composition, that of Ursinus being naturally
+of a more grave and academic turn than the freer production of
+Olevianus, while each made full use of the earlier catechisms already in
+use. But when the union was effected it was found that the spirits of
+the two authors were most happily and harmoniously wedded, the exactness
+and erudition of the one being blended with the fervency and grace of
+the other. Thus the Heidelberg Catechism, which was completed within a
+year of its inception, has an individuality that marks it out from all
+its predecessors and successors. The Heidelberg synod unanimously
+approved of it, it was published in January 1563, and in the same year
+officially turned into Latin by Jos. Lagus and Lambert Pithopoeus.
+
+The ultra-Lutherans attacked the catechism with great bitterness, the
+assault being led by Heshusius and Flacius Illyricus. Maximilian II.
+remonstrated against it as an infringement of the peace of Augsburg. A
+conference was held at Maulbronn in April 1564, and a personal attack
+was made on the elector at the diet of Augsburg in 1566, but the defence
+was well sustained, and the Heidelberg book rapidly passed beyond the
+bounds of the Palatinate (where indeed it suffered eclipse from 1576 to
+1583, during the electorate of Louis), and gained an abundant success
+not only in Germany (Hesse, Anhalt, Brandenburg and Bremen) but also in
+the Netherlands (1588), and in the Reformed churches of Hungary,
+Transylvania and Poland. It was officially recognized by the synod of
+Dort in 1619, passed into France, Britain and America, and probably
+shares with the _De imitatione Christi_ and _The Pilgrim's Progress_ the
+honour of coming next to the Bible in the number of tongues into which
+it has been translated.
+
+This wide acceptance and high esteem are due largely to an avoidance of
+polemical and controversial subjects, and even more to an absence of the
+controversial spirit. There is no mistake about its Protestantism, even
+when we omit the unhappy addition made to answer 80 by Frederick himself
+(in indignant reply to the ban pronounced by the Council of Trent), in
+which the Mass is described as "nothing else than a denial of the one
+sacrifice and passion of Jesus Christ, and an accursed idolatry"--an
+addition which is the one blot on the [Greek: èpieíkeia] of the
+catechism. The work is the product of the best qualities of head and
+heart, and its prose is frequently marked by all the beauty of a lyric.
+It follows the plan of the epistle to the Romans (excepting chapters
+ix.-xi.) and falls into three parts: Sin, Redemption and the New Life.
+This arrangement alone would mark it out from the normal reformation
+catechism, which runs along the stereotyped lines of Decalogue, Creed,
+Lord's Prayer, Church and Sacraments. These themes are included, but are
+shown as organically related. The Commandments, e.g. "belong to the
+first part so far as they are a mirror of our sin and misery, but also
+to the third part, as being the rule of our new obedience and Christian
+life." The Creed--a panorama of the sublime facts of redemption--and the
+sacraments find their place in the second part; the Lord's Prayer (with
+the Decalogue) in the third.
+
+  See _The Heidelberg Catechism_, the _German Text, with a Revised
+  Translation and Introduction_, edited by A. Smellie (London, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON (1788-1865), German architect, the son of
+Victor Peter Heideloff, a painter, was born at Stuttgart. He studied at
+the art academy of his native town, and after following the profession
+of an architect for some time at Coburg was in 1818 appointed city
+architect at Nuremberg. In 1822 he became professor at the polytechnic
+school, holding his post until 1854, and some years later he was chosen
+conservator of the monuments of art. Heideloff devoted his chief
+attention to the Gothic style of architecture, and the buildings
+restored and erected by him at Nuremberg and in its neighbourhood attest
+both his original skill and his purity of taste. He also achieved some
+success as a painter in watercolour. He died at Hassfurt on the 28th of
+September 1865. Among his architectural works should be mentioned the
+castle of Reinhardsbrunn, the Hall of the Knights in the fortress at
+Coburg, the castle of Landsberg, the mortuary chapel in Meiningen, the
+little castle of Rosenburg near Bonn, the chapel of the castle of
+Rheinstein near Bingen, and the Catholic church in Leipzig. His powers
+in restoration are shown in the castle of Lichtenstein, the cathedral of
+Bamberg, and the Knights' Chapel (_Ritter Kapelle_) at Hassfurt.
+
+  Among his writings on architecture are _Die Lehre von den
+  Säulenordnungen_ (1827); _Der Kleine Vignola_ (1832); _Nürnbergs
+  Baudenkmäler der Vorzeit_ (1838-1843, complete edition 1854); and _Die
+  Ornamentik des Mittelalters_ (1838-1842).
+
+
+
+
+HEIDENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, 31 m. by
+rail north by east of Ulm. Pop. (1905), 12,173. It has an Evangelical
+and a Roman Catholic church, and several schools. Its industrial
+establishments include cotton, woollen, tobacco, machinery and chemical
+factories, bleach-works, dye-works and breweries, and corn and cattle
+markets. The town, which received municipal privileges in 1356, is
+overlooked by the ruins of the castle of Hellenstein, standing on a hill
+1985 ft. high. Heidenheim is also the name of a small place in Bavaria
+famous on account of the Benedictine abbey which formerly stood therein.
+Founded in 748 by Wilibald, bishop of Eichstätt, this was plundered by
+the peasantry in 1525 and was closed in 1537.
+
+
+
+
+HEIFER, a young cow that has not calved. The O. Eng. _heahfore_ or
+_heafru_, from which the word is derived, is of obscure origin. It is
+found in Bede's _History_ (A.D. 900) as _heahfore_, and has passed
+through many forms. It is possibly derived from _heah_, high, and
+_faren_ (fare), to go, meaning "high-stepper." It has also been
+suggested that the derivation is from _hea_, a stall, and _fore_, a cow.
+
+
+
+
+HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON (1835-1905), German novelist, was born, the son
+of a _régisseur_ or stage-manager of the court theatre, on the 25th of
+March 1835 at Munich. In this city he received his early schooling and
+studied (1854-1858) philosophy at the university. He was then appointed
+librarian to Prince Heinrich zu Carolath-Beuthen in Lower Silesia, and
+accompanied the nephew of the prince on travels. In 1863 he settled in
+Berlin, where from 1865 to 1875 he was engaged in journalism. He next
+resided at Munich, employed in literary work for the king, Ludwig II.,
+who in 1881 conferred upon him a title of nobility. On the death of the
+king in 1886 he removed to Riva on the Lago di Garda, where he died on
+the 6th of September 1905. Karl von Heigel attained some popularity with
+his novels: _Wohin?_ (1873), _Die Dame ohne Herz_ (1873), _Das Geheimnis
+des Königs_ (1891), _Der Roman einer Stadt_ (1898), _Der Maharadschah_
+(1900), _Die nervöse Frau_ (1900), _Die neuen Heiligen_ (1901), and
+_Brömels Glück und Ende_ (1902). He also wrote some plays, notably
+_Josephine Bonaparte_ (1892) and _Die Zarin_ (1883); and several
+collections of short stories, _Neue Erzählungen_ (1876), _Neueste
+Novellen_ (1878), and _Heitere Erzählungen_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+HEIJERMANS, HERMANN (1864-   ), Dutch writer, of Jewish origin, was born
+on the 3rd of December 1864 at Rotterdam. In the Amsterdam _Handelsblad_
+he published a series of sketches of Jewish family life under the
+pseudonym of "Samuel Falkland," which were collected in volume form. His
+novels and tales include _Trinette_ (1892), _Fles_ (1893),
+_Kamertjeszonde_ (2 vols., 1896), _Intérieurs_ (1897), _Diamantstadt_ (2
+vols., 1903). He created great interest by his play _Op Hoop van Zegen_
+(1900), represented at the Théâtre Antoine in Paris, and in English by
+the Stage Society as _The Good Hope_. His other plays are: _Dora Kremer_
+(1893), _Ghetto_ (1898), _Het zevende Gebot_ (1899), _Het Pantser_
+(1901), _Ora et labora_ (1901), and numerous one-act pieces. _A Case of
+Arson_, an English version of the one-act play _Brand in de Jonge Jan_,
+was notable for the impersonation (1904 and 1905) by Henri de Vries of
+all the seven witnesses who appear as characters.
+
+
+
+
+HEILBRONN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, situated in
+a pleasant and fruitful valley on the Neckar, 33 m. by rail N. of
+Stuttgart, and at the junction of lines to Jagdsfeld, Crailsheim and
+Eppingen. Pop. (1905), 40,026. In the older part of the town the streets
+are narrow, and contain a number of high turreted houses with quaintly
+adorned gables. The old fortifications have now been demolished, and
+their site is occupied by promenades, outside of which are the more
+modern parts of the town with wide streets and many handsome buildings.
+The principal public buildings are the church of St Kilian (restored
+1886-1895) in the Gothic and Renaissance styles, begun about 1019 and
+completed in 1529, with an elegant tower 210 ft. high, a beautiful
+choir, and a finely carved altar; the town hall (Rathaus), founded in
+1540, and possessing a curious clock made in 1580, and a collection of
+interesting letters and other documents; the house of the Teutonic
+knights (Deutsches Haus), now used as a court of law; the Roman Catholic
+church of St Joseph, formerly the church of the Teutonic Order; the
+tower (Diebsturm or Götzens Turm) on the Neckar, in which Götz von
+Berlichingen was confined in 1519; a fine synagogue; an historical
+museum and several monuments, among them those to the emperors William
+I. and Frederick I., to Bismarck, to Schiller and to Robert von Mayer
+(1814-1878), a native of the town, famous for his discoveries concerning
+heat. The educational establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial
+school and an agricultural academy. The town in a commercial point of
+view is the most important in Württemberg, and possesses an immense
+variety of manufactures, of which the principal are gold, silver, steel
+and iron wares, machines, sugar of lead, white lead, vinegar, beer,
+sugar, tobacco, soap, oil, cement, chemicals, artificial manure, glue,
+soda, tapestry, paper and cloth. Grapes, fruit, vegetables and flowering
+shrubs are largely grown in the neighbourhood, and there are large
+quarries for sandstone and gypsum and extensive salt-works. By means of
+the Neckar a considerable trade is carried on in wood, bark, leather,
+agricultural produce, fruit and cattle.
+
+Heilbronn occupies the site of an old Roman settlement; it is first
+mentioned in 741, and the Carolingian princes had a palace here. It owes
+its name--originally Heiligbronn, or holy spring--to a spring of water
+which until 1857 was to be seen issuing from under the high altar of the
+church of St Kilian. Heilbronn obtained privileges from Henry IV. and
+from Rudolph I. and became a free imperial city in 1360. It was
+frequently besieged during the middle ages, and it suffered greatly
+during the Peasants' War, the Thirty Years' War, and the various wars
+with France. In April 1633 a convention was entered into here between
+Oxenstierna, the Swabian and Frankish estates and the French, English
+and Dutch ambassadors, as a result of which the Heilbronn treaty, for
+the prosecution of the Thirty Years' War, was concluded. In 1802
+Heilbronn was annexed by Württemberg.
+
+  See Jäger, _Geschichte von Heilbronn_ (Heilbronn, 1828); Kuttler,
+  _Heilbronn, seine Umgebungen und seine Geschichte_ (Heilbronn, 1859);
+  Dürr, _Heilbronner Chronik_ (Halle, 1896); Schliz, _Die Entstehung der
+  Stadtgemeinde Heilbronn_ (Leipzig, 1903); and A. Küsel, _Der
+  Heilbrunner Konvent_ (Halle, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+HEILIGENSTADT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Leine, 32
+m. E.N.E. of Cassel, on the railway to Halle. Pop. (1905), 7955. It
+possesses an old castle, formerly belonging to the electors of Mainz,
+one Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, several educational
+establishments, and an infirmary. The principal manufactures are cotton
+goods, cigars, paper, cement and needles. Heiligenstadt is said to have
+been built by the Frankish king Dagobert and was formerly the capital of
+the principality of Eichsfeld. In 1022 it was acquired by the archbishop
+of Mainz, and in 1103 it came into the possession of Henry the Proud,
+duke of Saxony, but when his son Henry the Lion was placed under the ban
+of the Empire, it again came to Mainz. It was destroyed by fire in 1333,
+and was captured in 1525 by Duke Henry of Brunswick. In 1803 it came
+into possession of Prussia. The Jesuits had a celebrated college here
+from 1581 to 1773.
+
+
+
+
+HEILSBERG, a town of Germany, in the province of East Prussia, at the
+junction of the Simser and Alle, 38 m. S. of Königsberg. Pop. (1905),
+6042. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and an old
+castle formerly the seat of the prince-bishops of Ermeland, but now used
+as an infirmary. The principal industries are tanning, dyeing and
+brewing, and there is considerable trade in grain. The castle founded at
+Heilsberg by the Teutonic order in 1240 became in 1306 the seat of the
+bishops of Ermeland, an honour which it retained for 500 years. On the
+10th of June 1807 a battle took place at Heilsberg between the French
+under Soult and Murat, and the Russians and Prussians under Bennigsen.
+
+
+
+
+HEILSBRONN (or KLOSTER-HEILSBRONN), a village of Germany, in the
+Bavarian province of Middle Franconia, with a station on the railway
+between Nuremberg and Ansbach, has 1200 inhabitants. In the middle ages
+it was the seat of one of the great monasteries of Germany. This
+foundation, which belonged to the Cistercian order, owed its origin to
+Bishop Otto of Bamberg in 1132, and continued to exist till 1555. Its
+sepulchral monuments, many of which are figured by Hocker,
+_Heilsbronnischer Antiquitätenschatz_ (Ansbach, 1731-1740), are of
+exceptionally high artistic interest. It was the hereditary burial-place
+of the Hohenzollern family and ten burgraves of Nuremberg, five
+margraves and three electors of Brandenburg, and many other persons of
+note are buried within its walls. The buildings of the monastery have
+mostly disappeared, with the exception of the fine church, a Romanesque
+basilica, restored between 1851 and 1866, and possessing paintings by
+Albert Dürer. The "Monk of Heilsbronn" is the ordinary appellation of a
+didactic poet of the 14th century, whose _Sieben Graden_, _Tochter Syon_
+and _Leben des heiligen Alexius_ were published by J. F. L. T. Merzdorf
+at Berlin in 1870.
+
+  See Rehm, _Ein Gang durch und um die Münster-Kirche zu
+  Kloster-Heilsbronn_ (Ansbach, 1875); Stillfried, _Kloster-Heilsbronn,
+  ein Beitrag zu den Hohenzollernschen Forschungen_ (Berlin, 1877);
+  Muck, _Geschichte von Kloster-Heilsbronn_ (Nördlingen, 1879-1880); J.
+  Meyer, _Die Hohenzollerndenkmale in Heilsbronn_ (Ansbach, 1891); and
+  A. Wagner, _Über den Mönch von Heilsbronn_ (Strassburg, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN (1849-   ), Swiss geologist, was born at
+Zürich on the 12th of April 1849. He was educated at Zürich and Berlin
+universities. Very early in life he became interested in the physical
+features of the Alps, and at the age of sixteen he made a model of the
+Tödi group. This came under the notice of Arnold Escher von der Linth,
+to whom Heim was indebted for much encouragement and geological
+instruction in the field. In 1873 he became professor of geology in the
+polytechnic school at Zürich, and in 1875 professor of geology in the
+university. In 1882 he was appointed director of the Geological Survey
+of Switzerland, and in 1884 the hon. degree of Ph.D. was conferred upon
+him at Berne. He is especially distinguished for his researches on the
+structure of the Alps and for the light thereby thrown on the structure
+of mountain masses in general. He traced the plications from minor to
+major stages, and illustrated the remarkable foldings and overthrust
+faultings in numerous sections and with the aid of pictorial drawings.
+His magnificent work, _Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung_ (1878), is now
+regarded as a classic, and it served to inspire Professor C. Lapworth in
+his brilliant researches on the Scottish Highlands (see _Geol. Mag._
+1883). Heim also devoted considerable attention to the glacial phenomena
+of the Alpine regions. The Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1904 by
+the Geological Society of London.
+
+
+
+
+HEIM, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1787-1865), French painter, was born at Belfort
+on the 16th of December 1787. He early distinguished himself at the
+École Centrale of Strassburg, and in 1803 entered the studio of Vincent
+at Paris. In 1807 he obtained the first prize, and in 1812 his picture
+of "The Return of Jacob" (Musée de Bordeaux) won for him a gold medal of
+the first class, which he again obtained in 1817, when he exhibited,
+together with other works, a St John--bought by Vivant Denon. In 1819
+the "Resurrection of Lazarus" (Cathédral Autun), the "Martyrdom of St
+Cyr" (St Gervais), and two scenes from the life of Vespasian (ordered by
+the king) attracted attention. In 1823 the "Re-erection of the Royal
+Tombs at St Denis," the "Martyrdom of St Laurence" (Notre Dame) and
+several full-length portraits increased the painter's popularity; and in
+1824, when he exhibited his great canvas, the "Massacre of the Jews"
+(Louvre), Heim was rewarded with the legion of honour. In 1827 appeared
+the "King giving away Prizes at the Salon of 1824" (Louvre--engraved by
+Jazet)--the picture by which Heim is best known--and "Saint Hyacinthe."
+Heim was now commissioned to decorate the Gallery Charles X. (Louvre).
+Though ridiculed by the romantists, Heim succeeded Regnault at the
+Institute in 1834, shortly after which he commenced a series of drawings
+of the celebrities of his day, which are of much interest. His
+decorations of the Conference room of the Chamber of Deputies were
+completed in 1844; and in 1847 his works at the Salon--"Champ de Mai"
+and "Reading a Play at the Théâtre Français"--were the signal for
+violent criticisms. Yet something like a turn of opinion in his favour
+took place at the exhibition of 1851; his powers as a draughtsman and
+the occasional merits of his composition were recognized, and toleration
+extended even to his colour. Heim was awarded the great gold medal, and
+in 1855--having sent to the Salon no less than sixteen portraits,
+amongst which may be cited those of "Cuvier," "Geoffroy de St Hilaire,"
+and "Madame Hersent"--he was made officer of the legion of honour. In
+1859 he again exhibited a curious collection of portraits, sixty-four
+members of the Institute arranged in groups of four. He died on the 29th
+of September 1865. Besides the paintings already mentioned, there is to
+be seen in Notre Dame de Lorette (Paris) a work executed on the spot;
+and the museum of Strassburg contains an excellent example of his easel
+pictures, the subject of which is a "Shepherd Drinking from a Spring."
+
+
+
+
+HEIMDAL, or _Heimdall_, in Scandinavian mythology, the keeper of the
+gates of Heaven and the guardian of the rainbow bridge Bifrost. He is
+the son of Odin by nine virgins, all sisters. He is called "the god with
+the golden teeth." He lives in the stronghold of Himinsbiorg at the end
+of Bifrost. His chief attribute is a vigilance which nothing can escape.
+He sleeps less than a bird; sees at night and even in his sleep; can
+hear the grass, and even the wool on a lamb's back grow. He is armed
+with Gjallar, the magic horn, with which he will summon the gods on the
+day of judgment.
+
+
+
+
+HEINE, HEINRICH, (1797-1856), German poet and journalist, was born at
+Düsseldorf, of Jewish parents, on the 13th of December 1797. His father,
+after various vicissitudes in business, had finally settled in
+Düsseldorf, and his mother, who possessed much energy of character, was
+the daughter of a physician of the same place. Heinrich (or, more
+exactly, Harry) was the eldest of four children, and received his
+education, first in private schools, then in the Lyceum of his native
+town; although not an especially apt or diligent pupil, he acquired a
+knowledge of French and English, as well as some tincture of the
+classics and Hebrew. His early years coincided with the most brilliant
+period of Napoleon's career, and the boundless veneration which he is
+never tired of expressing for the emperor throughout his writings shows
+that his true schoolmasters were rather the drummers and troopers of a
+victorious army than the masters of the Lyceum. By freeing the Jews from
+many of the political disabilities under which they had hitherto
+suffered, Napoleon became, it may be noted, the object of particular
+enthusiasm in the circles amidst which Heine grew up. When he left
+school in 1815, an attempt was made to engage him in business in
+Frankfort, but without success. In the following year his uncle, Solomon
+Heine, a wealthy banker in Hamburg, took him into his office. A passion
+for his cousin Amalie Heine seems to have made the young man more
+contented with his lot in Hamburg, and his success was such that his
+uncle decided to set him up in business for himself. This, however,
+proved too bold a step; in a very few months the firm of "Harry Heine &
+Co." was insolvent. His uncle now generously provided him with money to
+enable him to study at a university, with the view to entering the legal
+profession, and in the spring of 1819 Heine became a student of the
+university of Bonn. During his stay there he devoted himself rather to
+the study of literature and history than to that of law; amongst his
+teachers A. W. von Schlegel, who took a kindly interest in Heine's
+poetic essays, exerted the most lasting influence on him. In the autumn
+of 1820 Heine left Bonn for Göttingen, where he proposed to devote
+himself more assiduously to professional studies, but in February of the
+following year he challenged to a pistol duel a fellow-student who had
+insulted him, and was, in consequence, rusticated for six months. The
+pedantic atmosphere of the university of Göttingen was, however, little
+to his taste; the news of his cousin's marriage unsettled him still
+more; and he was glad of the opportunity to seek distraction in Berlin.
+
+In the Prussian capital a new world opened up to him; a very different
+life from that of Göttingen was stirring in the new university there,
+and Heine, like all his contemporaries, sat at the feet of Hegel and
+imbibed from him, doubtless, those views which in later years made the
+poet the apostle of an outlook upon life more modern than that of his
+romantic predecessors. Heine was also fortunate in having access to the
+chief literary circles of the capital; he was on terms of intimacy with
+Varnhagen von Ense and his wife, the celebrated Rahel, at whose house he
+frequently met such men as the Humboldts, Hegel himself and
+Schleiermacher; he made the acquaintance of leading men of letters like
+Fouqué and Chamisso, and was on a still more familiar footing with the
+most distinguished of his co-religionists in Berlin. Under such
+favourable circumstances his own gifts were soon displayed. He
+contributed poems to the _Berliner Gesellschafter_, many of which were
+subsequently incorporated in the _Buch der Lieder_, and in December 1821
+a little volume came from the press entitled _Gedichte_, his first
+avowed act of authorship. He was also employed at this time as
+correspondent of a Rhenish newspaper, as well as in completing his
+tragedies _Almansor_ and _William Ratcliff_, which were published in
+1823 with small success. In that same year Heine, not in the most
+hopeful spirits, returned to his family, who had meanwhile moved to
+Lüneburg. He had plans of settling in Paris, but as he was still
+dependent on his uncle, the latter's consent had to be obtained. As was
+to be expected, Solomon Heine did not favour the new plan, but promised
+to continue his support on the condition that Harry completed his course
+of legal study. He sent the young student for a six weeks' holiday at
+Cuxhaven, which opened the poet's eyes to the wonders of the sea; and
+three weeks spent subsequently at his uncle's county seat near Hamburg
+were sufficient to awaken a new passion in Heine's breast--this time for
+Amalie's sister, Therese. In January 1824 Heine returned to Göttingen,
+where, with the exception of a visit to Berlin and the excursion to the
+Hartz mountains in the autumn of 1824, which is immortalized in the
+first volume of the _Reisebilder_, he remained until his graduation in
+the summer of the following year. It was on the latter of these journeys
+that he had the interview with Goethe which was so amusingly described
+by him in later years. A few weeks before obtaining his degree, he took
+a step which he had long meditated; he formally embraced Christianity.
+This "act of apostasy," which has been dwelt upon at unnecessary length
+both by Heine's enemies and admirers, was actuated wholly by practical
+considerations, and did not arise from any wish on the poet's part to
+deny his race. The summer months which followed his examination Heine
+spent by his beloved sea in the island of Norderney, his uncle having
+again generously supplied the means for this purpose. The question of
+his future now became pressing, and for a time he seriously considered
+the plan of settling as a solicitor in Hamburg, a plan which was
+associated in his mind with the hope of marrying his cousin Therese.
+Meanwhile he had made arrangements for the publication of the
+_Reisebilder_, the first volume of which, _Die Harzreise_, appeared in
+May 1826. The success of the book was instantaneous. Its lyric outbursts
+and flashes of wit; its rapid changes from grave to gay; its flexibility
+of thought and style, came as a revelation to a generation which had
+grown weary of the lumbering literary methods of the later Romanticists.
+
+In the spring of the following year Heine paid a long planned visit to
+England, where he was deeply impressed by the free and vigorous public
+life, by the size and bustle of London; above all, he was filled with
+admiration for Canning, whose policy had realized many a dream of the
+young German idealists of that age. But the picture had also its
+reverse; the sordidly commercial spirit of English life, and brutal
+egotism of the ordinary Englishman, grated on Heine's sensitive nature;
+he missed the finer literary and artistic tastes of the continent and
+was repelled by the austerity of English religious sentiment and
+observance. Unfortunately the latter aspects of English life left a
+deeper mark on his memory than the bright side. In October Baron Cotta,
+the well-known publisher, offered Heine--the second volume of whose
+_Reisebilder_ and the _Buch der Lieder_ had meanwhile appeared and won
+him fresh laurels--the joint-editorship of the _Neue allgemeine
+politische Annalen_. He gladly accepted the offer and betook himself to
+Munich. Heine did his best to adapt himself and his political opinions
+to the new surroundings, in the hope of coming in for a share of the
+good things which Ludwig I. of Bavaria was so generously distributing
+among artists and men of letters. But the stings of the _Reisebilder_
+were not so easily forgotten; the clerical party in particular did not
+leave him long in peace. In July 1828, the professorship on which he had
+set his hopes being still not forthcoming, he left Munich for Italy,
+where he remained until the following November, a holiday which provided
+material for the third and part of the fourth volumes of the
+_Reisebilder_. A blow more serious than the Bavarian king's refusal to
+establish him in Munich awaited him on his return to Germany--the death
+of his father. In the beginning of 1829 Heine took up his abode in
+Berlin, where he resumed old acquaintanceships; in summer he was again
+at the sea, and in autumn he returned to the city he now loathed above
+all others, Hamburg, where he virtually remained until May 1831. These
+years were not a happy period of the poet's life; his efforts to obtain
+a position, apart from that which he owed to his literary work, met with
+rebuffs on every side; his relations with his uncle were unsatisfactory
+and disturbed by constant friction, and for a time he was even seriously
+ill. His only consolation in these months of discontent was the
+completion and publication of the _Reisebilder_. When in 1830 the news
+of the July Revolution in the streets of Paris reached him, Heine hailed
+it as the beginning of a new era of freedom, and his thoughts reverted
+once more to his early plan of settling in Paris. All through the
+following winter the plan ripened, and in May 1831 he finally said
+farewell to his native land.
+
+Heine's first impressions of the "New Jerusalem of Liberalism" were
+jubilantly favourable; Paris, he proclaimed, was the capital of the
+civilized world, to be a citizen of Paris the highest of honours. He was
+soon on friendly terms with many of the notabilities of the capital, and
+there was every prospect of a congenial and lucrative journalistic
+activity as correspondent for German newspapers. Two series of his
+articles were subsequently collected and published under the titles
+_Französische Zustände_ (1832) and _Lutezia_ (written 1840-1843,
+published in the _Vermischte Schriften_, 1854). In December 1835,
+however, the German Bund, incited by W. Menzel's attacks on "Young
+Germany," issued its notorious decree, forbidding the publication of any
+writings by the members of that coterie; the name of Heine, who had been
+stigmatized as the leader of the movement headed the list. This was the
+beginning of a series of literary feuds in which Heine was, from now on,
+involved; but a more serious and immediate effect of the decree was to
+curtail considerably his sources of income. His uncle, it is true, had
+allowed him 4000 francs a year when he settled in Paris, but at this
+moment he was not on the best of terms with his Hamburg relatives. Under
+these circumstances he was induced to take a step which his
+fellow-countrymen have found it hard to forgive; he applied to the
+French government for support from a secret fund formed for the benefit
+of "political refugees" who were willing to place themselves at the
+service of France. From 1836 or 1837 until the Revolution of 1848 Heine
+was in receipt of 4800 francs annually from this source.
+
+In October 1834 Heine made the acquaintance of a young Frenchwoman,
+Eugénie Mirat, a saleswoman in a boot-shop in Paris, and before long had
+fallen passionately in love with her. Although ill-educated, vain and
+extravagant, she inspired the poet with a deep and lasting affection,
+and in 1841, on the eve of a duel in which he had become involved, he
+made her his wife. "Mathilde," as Heine called her, was not the comrade
+to help the poet in days of adversity, or to raise him to better things,
+but, in spite of passing storms, he seems to have been happy with her,
+and she nursed him faithfully in his last illness. Her death occurred in
+1883. His relations with Mathilde undoubtedly helped to weaken his ties
+with Germany; and notwithstanding the affection he professed to cherish
+for his native land, he only revisited it twice, in the autumn of 1843
+and the summer of 1847. In 1845 appeared the first unmistakable signs of
+the terrible spinal disease, which, for eight years, from the spring of
+1848 till his death, condemned him to a "mattress grave." These years of
+suffering--suffering which left his intellect as clear and vivacious as
+ever--seem to have effected what might be called a spiritual
+purification in Heine's nature, and to have brought out all the good
+sides of his character, whereas adversity in earlier years only
+intensified his cynicism. The lyrics of the _Romanzero_ (1851) and the
+collection of _Neueste Gedichte_ (1853-1854) surpass in imaginative
+depth and sincerity of purpose the poetry of the _Buch der Lieder_. Most
+wonderful of all are the poems inspired by Heine's strange mystic
+passion for the lady he called _Die Mouche_, a countrywoman of his
+own--her real name was Elise von Krienitz, but she had written in French
+under the _nom de plume_ of Camille Selden--who helped to brighten the
+last months of the poet's life. He died on the 17th of February 1856,
+and lies buried in the cemetery of Montmartre.
+
+Besides the purely journalistic work of Heine's Paris years, to which
+reference has already been made, he published a collection of more
+serious prose writings under the title _Der Salon_ (1833-1839). In this
+collection will be found, besides papers on French art and the French
+stage, the essays "Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in
+Deutschland," which he had written for the _Revue des deux mondes_.
+Here, too, are the more characteristic productions of Heine's genius,
+_Aus den Memoiren des Herrn von Schnabelewopski_, _Der Rabbi von
+Bacherach_ and _Florentinische Nächte_. _Die romantische Schule_ (1836),
+with its unpardonable personal attack on the elder Schlegel, is a less
+creditable essay in literary criticism. In 1839 appeared _Shakespeares
+Mädchen und Frauen_, which, however, was merely the text to a series of
+illustrations; and in 1840, the witty and trenchant satire on a writer,
+who, in spite of many personal disagreements, had been Heine's
+fellow-fighter in the liberal cause, Ludwig Börne. Of Heine's poetical
+work in these years, his most important publications were, besides the
+_Romanzero_, the two admirable satires, _Deutschland, ein Wintermärchen_
+(1844), the result of his visit to Germany, and _Atta Troll, ein
+Sommernachtstraum_ (1876), an attack on the political _Tendenzliteratur_
+of the 'forties.
+
+In the case of no other of the greater German poets is it so hard to
+arrive at a final judgment as in that of Heinrich Heine. In his _Buch
+der Lieder_ he unquestionably struck a new lyric note, not merely for
+Germany but for Europe. No singer before him had been so daring in the
+use of nature-symbolism as he, none had given such concrete and plastic
+expression to the spiritual forces of heart and soul; in this respect
+Heine was clearly the descendant of the Hebrew poets of the Old
+Testament. At times, it is true, his imagery is exaggerated to the
+degree of absurdity, but it exercised, none the less, a fascination over
+his generation. Heine combined with a spiritual delicacy, a fineness of
+perception, that firm hold on reality which is so essential to the
+satirist. His lyric appealed with particular force to foreign peoples,
+who had little understanding for the intangible, undefinable
+spirituality which the German people regard as an indispensable element
+in their national lyric poetry. Thus his fame has always stood higher in
+England and France than in Germany itself, where his lyric method, his
+self-consciousness, his cynicism in season and out of season, were
+little in harmony with the literary traditions. As far, indeed, as the
+development of the German lyric is concerned, Heine's influence has been
+of questionable value. But he introduced at least one new and refreshing
+element into German poetry with his lyrics of the North Sea; no other
+German poet has felt and expressed so well as Heine the charm of sea and
+coast.
+
+As a prose writer, Heine's merits were very great. His work was, in the
+main, journalism, but it was journalism of a high order, and, after all,
+the best literature of the "Young German" school to which he belonged
+was of this character. Heine's light fancy, his agile intellect, his
+straightforward, clear style stood him here in excellent stead. The
+prose writings of his French period mark, together with Börne's _Briefe
+aus Paris_, the beginning of a new era in German journalism and a
+healthy revolt against the unwieldy prose of the Romantic period. Above
+all things, Heine was great as a wit and a satirist. His lyric may not
+be able to assert itself beside that of the very greatest German
+singers, but as a satirist he had powers of the highest order. He
+combined the holy zeal and passionate earnestness of the "soldier of
+humanity" with the withering scorn and ineradicable sense of justice
+common to the leaders of the Jewish race. It was Heine's real mission to
+be a reformer, to restore with instruments of war rather than of peace
+"the interrupted order of the world." The more's the pity that his
+magnificent Aristophanic genius should have had so little room for its
+exercise, and have been frittered away in the petty squabbles of an
+exiled journalist.
+
+  The first collected edition of Heine's works was edited by A.
+  Strodtmann in 21 vols. (1861-1866), the best critical edition is the
+  _Sämtliche Werke_, edited by E. Elster (7 vols., 1887-1890). Heine has
+  been more translated into other tongues than any other German writer
+  of his time. Mention may here be made of the French translation of his
+  _Oeuvres complètes_ (14 vols., 1852-1868), and the English translation
+  (by C. G. Leland and others) recently completed, _The Works of
+  Heinrich Heine_ (13 vols., 1892-1905). For biography and criticism see
+  the following works: A. Strodtmann, _Heines Leben und Werke_ (3rd ed.,
+  1884); H. Hueffer, _Aus dem Leben H. Heines_ (1878); and by the same
+  author, _H. Heine: Gesammelte Aufsätze_ (1906); G. Karpeles, _H. Heine
+  und seine Zeitgenossen_ (1888), and by the same author, _H. Heine: aus
+  seinem Leben und aus seiner Zeit_ (1900); W. Bölsche, _H. Heine:
+  Versuch einer ästhetischkritischen Analyse seiner Werke und seiner
+  Weltanschauung_ (1888); G. Brandes, _Det unge Tyskland_ (1890; Eng.
+  trans., 1905). An English biography by W. Stigand, _Life, Works and
+  Opinions of Heinrich Heine_, appeared in 1875, but it has little
+  value; there is also a short life by W. Sharp (1888). The essays on
+  Heine by George Eliot and Matthew Arnold are well known. The best
+  French contributions to Heine criticism are J. Legras, _H. Heine,
+  poète_ (1897), and H. Lichtenberger, _H. Heine, penseur_ (1905). See
+  also L.P. Betz, _Heine in Frankreich_ (1895).     (J. W. F.; J. G. R.)
+
+
+
+
+HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1681-1741), German jurist, was born on the
+11th of September 1681 at Eisenberg, Altenburg. He studied theology at
+Leipzig, and law at Halle; and at the latter university he was appointed
+in 1713 professor of philosophy, and in 1718 professor of jurisprudence.
+He subsequently filled legal chairs at Franeker in Holland and at
+Frankfort, but finally returned to Halle in 1733 as professor of
+philosophy and jurisprudence. He died there on the 31st of August 1741.
+Heineccius belonged to the school of philosophical jurists. He
+endeavoured to treat law as a rational science, and not merely as an
+empirical art whose rules had no deeper source than expediency. Thus he
+continually refers to first principles, and he develops his legal
+doctrines as a system of philosophy.
+
+  His chief works were _Antiquitatum Romanarum jurisprudentiam
+  illustrantium syntagma_ (1718), _Historia juris civilis Romani ac
+  Germanici_ (1733), _Elementa juris Germanici_ (1735), _Elementa juris
+  naturae et gentium_ (1737; Eng. trans. by Turnbull, 2 vols., London,
+  1763). Besides these works he wrote on purely philosophical subjects,
+  and edited the works of several of the classical jurists. His _Opera
+  omnia_ (9 vols., Geneva, 1771, &c.) were edited by his son Johann
+  Christian Gottlieb Heineccius (1718-1791).
+
+Heineccius's brother, JOHANN MICHAEL HEINECCIUS (1674-1722), was a
+well-known preacher and theologian, but is remembered more from the fact
+that he was the first to make a systematic study of seals, concerning
+which he left a book, _De veteribus Germanorum aliarumque nationum
+sigillis_ (Leipzig, 1710; 2nd ed., 1719).
+
+
+
+
+HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH (1721-1725), a child remarkable for
+precocity of intellect, was born on the 6th of February 1721 at Lübeck,
+where his father was a painter. Able to speak at the age of ten months,
+by the time he was one year old he knew by heart the principal incidents
+in the Pentateuch. At two years of age he had mastered sacred history;
+at three he was intimately acquainted with history and geography,
+ancient and modern, sacred and profane, besides being able to speak
+French and Latin; and in his fourth year he devoted himself to the study
+of religion and church history. This wonderful precocity was no mere
+feat of memory, for the youthful savant could reason on and discuss the
+knowledge he had acquired. Crowds of people flocked to Lübeck to see the
+wonderful child; and in 1724 he was taken to Copenhagen at the desire of
+the king of Denmark. On his return to Lübeck he began to learn writing,
+but his sickly constitution gave way, and he died on the 22nd of June
+1725.
+
+  _The Life, Deeds, Travels and Death of the Child of Lübeck_ were
+  published in the following year by his tutor Schöneich. See also
+  _Teutsche Bibliothek_, xvii., and _Mémoires de Trévoux_ (Jan. 1731).
+
+
+
+
+HEINICKE, SAMUEL (1727-1790), the originator in Germany of systematic
+education for the deaf and dumb, was born on the 10th of April 1727, at
+Nautschütz, Germany. Entering the electoral bodyguard at Dresden, he
+subsequently supported himself by teaching. About 1754 his first deaf
+and dumb pupil was brought him. His success in teaching this pupil was
+so great that he determined to devote himself entirely to this work. The
+outbreak of the Seven Years' War upset his plans for a time. Taken
+prisoner at Pirna, he was brought to Dresden, but soon made his escape.
+In 1768, when living in Hamburg, he successfully taught a deaf and dumb
+boy to talk, following the methods prescribed by Amman in his book
+_Surdus loquens_, but improving on them. Recalled to his own country by
+the elector of Saxony, he opened in Leipzig, in 1778, the first deaf and
+dumb institution in Germany. This school he directed till his death,
+which took place on the 30th of April 1790. He was the author of a
+variety of books on the instruction of the deaf and dumb.
+
+
+
+
+HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM (1749-1803), German author, was born at
+Langewiesen near Ilmenau in Thuringia on the 16th of February 1749.
+After attending the gymnasium at Schleusingen he studied law at Jena and
+Erfurt. In Erfurt he became acquainted with Wieland and through him with
+"Father" Gleim who in 1772 procured him the post of tutor in a family at
+Quedlinburg. In 1774 he went to Düsseldorf, where he assisted the poet
+J. G. Jacobi to edit the periodical _Iris_. Here the famous picture
+gallery inspired him with a passion for art, to the study of which he
+devoted himself with so much zeal and insight that Jacobi furnished him
+with funds for a stay in Italy, where he remained for three years
+(1780-1783), He returned to Düsseldorf in 1784, and in 1786 was
+appointed reader to the elector Frederick Charles Joseph, archbishop of
+Mainz, who subsequently made him his librarian at Aschaffenburg, where
+he died on the 22nd of June 1803.
+
+The work upon which Heinse's fame mainly rests is _Ardinghello und die
+glückseligen Inseln_ (1787), a novel which forms the framework for the
+exposition of his views on art and life, the plot being laid in the
+Italy of the 16th century. This and his other novels _Laidion, oder die
+eleusinischen Geheimnisse_ (1774) and _Hildegard von Hohenthal_ (1796)
+combine the frank voluptuousness of Wieland with the enthusiasm of the
+"Sturm und Drang." Both as novelist and art critic, Heinse had
+considerable influence on the romantic school.
+
+  Heinse's complete works (_Sämtliche Schriften_) were published by H.
+  Laube in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1838). A new edition by C. Schüddekopf is
+  in course of publication (Leipzig, 1901 sqq.). See H. Pröhle,
+  _Lessing, Wieland, Heinse_ (Berlin, 1877), and J. Schober, _Johann
+  Jacob Wilhelm Heinse, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (Leipzig, 1882);
+  also K. D. Jessen, _Heinses Stellung zur bildenden Kunst_ (Berlin,
+  1903).
+
+
+
+
+HEINSIUS (or HEINS) DANIEL (1580-1655), one of the most famous scholars
+of the Dutch Renaissance, was born at Ghent on the 9th of June 1580. The
+troubles of the Spanish war drove his parents to settle first at Veere
+in Zeeland, then in England, next at Ryswick and lastly at Flushing. In
+1594, being already remarkable for his attainments, he was sent to the
+university of Franeker to perfect himself in Greek under Henricus
+Schotanus. He stayed at Franeker half a year, and then settled at Leiden
+for the remaining sixty years of his life. There he studied under Joseph
+Scaliger, and there he found Marnix de St Aldegonde, Janus Douza, Paulus
+Merula and others, and was soon taken into the society of these
+celebrated men as their equal. His proficiency in the classic languages
+won the praise of all the best scholars of Europe, and offers were made
+to him, but in vain, to accept honourable positions outside Holland. He
+soon rose in dignity at the university of Leiden. In 1602 he was made
+professor of Latin, in 1605 professor of Greek, and at the death of
+Merula in 1607 he succeeded that illustrious scholar as librarian to
+the university. The remainder of his life is recorded in a list of his
+productions. He died at the Hague on the 25th of February 1655. The
+Dutch poetry of Heinsius is of the school of Roemer Visscher, but
+attains no very high excellence. It was, however, greatly admired by
+Martin Opitz, who was the pupil of Heinsius, and who, in translating the
+poetry of the latter, introduced the German public to the use of the
+rhyming alexandrine.
+
+  He published his original Latin poems in three volumes--_Iambi_
+  (1602), _Elegiae_ (1603) and _Poëmata_ (1605); his _Emblemata
+  amatoria_, poems in Dutch and Latin, were first printed in 1604. In
+  the same year he edited Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, having edited
+  Hesiod in 1603. In 1609 he printed his Latin _Orations_. In 1610 he
+  edited Horace, and in 1611 Aristotle and Seneca. In 1613 appeared in
+  Dutch his tragedy of _The Massacre of the Innocents_; and in 1614 his
+  treatise _De politico sapientia_. In 1616 he collected his original
+  Dutch poems into a volume. He edited Terence in 1618, Livy in 1620,
+  published his oration _De contemptu mortis_ in 1621, and brought out
+  the _Epistles_ of Joseph Scaliger in 1627.
+
+
+
+
+HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES (1620-1681), Dutch scholar, son of Daniel Heinsius,
+was born at Leiden on the 20th of July 1620. His boyish Latin poem of
+_Breda expugnata_ was printed in 1637, and attracted much attention. In
+1642 he began his wanderings with a visit to England in search of MSS.
+of the classics; but he met with little courtesy from the English
+scholars. In 1644 he was sent to Spa to drink the waters; his health
+restored, he set out once more in search of codices, passing through
+Louvain, Brussels, Mechlin, Antwerp and so back to Leiden, everywhere
+collating MSS. and taking philological and textual notes. Almost
+immediately he set out again, and arriving in Paris was welcomed with
+open arms by the French savants. After investigating all the classical
+texts he could lay hands on, he proceeded southwards, and visited on the
+same quest Lyons, Marseilles, Pisa, Florence (where he paused to issue a
+new edition of Ovid) and Rome. Next year, 1647, found him in Naples,
+from which he fled during the reign of Masaniello; he pursued his
+labours in Leghorn, Bologna, Venice and Padua, at which latter city he
+published in 1648 his volume of original Latin verse entitled _Italica_.
+He proceeded to Milan, and worked for a considerable time in the
+Ambrosian library; he was preparing to explore Switzerland in the same
+patient manner, when the news of his father's illness recalled him
+hurriedly to Leiden. He was soon called away to Stockholm at the
+invitation of Queen Christina, at whose court he waged war with
+Salmasius, who accused him of having supplied Milton with facts from the
+life of that great but irritable scholar. Heinsius paid a flying visit
+to Leiden in 1650, but immediately returned to Stockholm. In 1651 he
+once more visited Italy; the remainder of his life was divided between
+Upsala and Holland. He collected his Latin poems into a volume in 1653.
+His latest labours were the editing of Velleius Paterculus in 1678, and
+of Valerius Flaccus in 1680. He died at the Hague on the 7th of October
+1681. Nikolaes Heinsius was one of the purest and most elegant of
+Latinists, and if his scholarship was not quite so perfect as that of
+his father, he displayed higher gifts as an original writer.
+
+His illegitimate son, NIKOLAES HEINSIUS (b. 1655), was the author of
+_The Delightful Adventures and Wonderful Life of Mirandor_ (1675), the
+single Dutch romance of the 17th century. He had to flee the country in
+1677 for committing a murder in the streets of the Hague, and died in
+obscurity.
+
+
+
+
+HEIR (Lat. _heres_, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in _herus_ or
+_erus_, master of a house, Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, Sans, _harana_,
+hand), in law, technically one who succeeds, by descent, to an estate of
+inheritance, in contradistinction to one who succeeds to personal
+property, i.e. next of kin. The word is now used generally to denote the
+person who is entitled by law to inherit property, titles, &c., of
+another. The rules regulating the descent of property to an heir will be
+found in the articles INHERITANCE, SUCCESSION, &c.
+
+An _heir apparent_ (Lat. _apparens_, manifest) is he whose right of
+inheritance is indefeasible, provided he outlives the ancestor, e.g. an
+eldest or only son.
+
+_Heir by custom_, or customary heir, he who inherits by a particular and
+local custom, as in borough-English, whereby the youngest son inherits,
+or in gavelkind, whereby all the sons inherit as parceners, and made but
+one heir.
+
+_Heir general_, or heir at law, he who after the death of his ancestor
+has, by law, the right to the inheritance.
+
+_Heir presumptive_, one who is next in succession, but whose right is
+defeasible by the birth of a nearer heir, e.g. a brother or nephew,
+whose presumptive right may be destroyed by the birth of a child, or a
+daughter, whose right may be defeated by the birth of a son.
+
+_Special heir_, one not heir at law (i.e. at common law), but by special
+custom.
+
+_Ultimate heir_, he to whom lands come by escheat on failure of proper
+heirs. In Scots law the technical use of the word "heir" is not confined
+to the succession to real property, but includes succession to personal
+property as well.
+
+
+
+
+HEIRLOOM, strictly so called in English law, a chattel ("loom" meaning
+originally a tool) which by immemorial usage is regarded as annexed by
+inheritance to a family estate. Any owner of such heirloom may dispose
+of it during his lifetime, but he cannot bequeath it by will away from
+the estate. If he dies intestate it goes to his heir-at-law, and if he
+devises the estate it goes to the devisee. At the present time such
+heirlooms are almost unknown, and the word has acquired a secondary and
+popular meaning and is applied to furniture, pictures, &c., vested in
+trustees to hold on trust for the person for the time being entitled to
+the possession of a settled house. Such things are more properly called
+settled chattels. An heirloom in the strict sense is made by family
+custom, not by settlement. A settled chattel may, under the Settled Land
+Act 1882, be sold under the direction of the court, and the money
+arising under such sale is capital money. The court will only sanction
+such a sale if it be shown that it is to the benefit of all parties
+concerned; and if the article proposed to be sold is of unique or
+historical character, it will have regard to the intention of the
+settlor and the wishes of the remainder men (Re _Hope_, _De Cetto_ v.
+_Hope_, 1899, 2 ch. 679).
+
+
+
+
+HEJAZ (HIJAZ), a Turkish vilayet and a province of Western Arabia,
+extending along the Red Sea coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba in
+29° 30´ N. to the south of Taif in 20° N. It is bounded N. by Syria, E.
+by the Nafud desert and by Nejd and S. by Asir. Its length is about 750
+m. and its greatest breadth from the Harra east of Khaibar to the coast
+is 200 m. The name Hejaz, which signifies "separating," is sometimes
+limited to the region extending from Medina in the north to Taif in the
+south, which separates the island province Nejd from the Tehama (Tihama)
+or coastal district, but most authorities, both Arab and European,
+define it in the wider sense. Though physically the most desolate and
+uninviting province in Arabia, it has a special interest and importance
+as containing the two sacred cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina (q.v.),
+respectively the birthplace and burial-place of Mahomet, which are
+visited yearly by large numbers of Moslem pilgrims from all parts of the
+world.
+
+Hejaz is divided longitudinally by the Tehama range of mountains into
+two zones, a narrow littoral and a broader upland. This range attains
+its greatest height in Jebel Shar, the Mount Seir of scripture,
+overlooking the Midian coast, which probably reaches 7000 ft., and Jebel
+Radhwa a little N.E. of Yambu rising to 6000 ft. It is broken through by
+several valleys which carry off the drainage of the inland zone; the
+principal of these is the Wadi Hamd, the main source of which is on the
+Harra east of Khaibar. Its northern tributary the Wadi Jizil drains the
+Harrat el Awerid and a southern branch comes from the neighbourhood of
+Medina. Farther south the Wadi es Safra cuts through the mountains and
+affords the principal access to the valley of Medina from Yambu or
+Jidda. None of the Hejaz Wadis has a perennial stream, but they are
+liable to heavy floods after the winter rains, and thick groves of
+date-palms and occasional settlements are met with along their courses
+wherever permanent springs are found. The northern part of Hejaz
+contains but few inhabited sites. Muwela, Damgha and El Wijh are small
+ports used by coasting craft. The last named was formerly an important
+station on the Egyptian pilgrim route, and in ancient days was a Roman
+settlement, and the port of the Nabataean towns of el Hajr 150 m. to the
+east. Inland the sandstone desert of El Hisma reaches from the Syrian
+border at Ma'an to Jebel Awerid, where the volcanic tracts known as
+_harra_ begin, and extend southwards along the western borders of the
+Nejd plateau as far as the latitude of Mecca. East of Jebel Awerid lies
+the oasis of Tema, identified with the Biblical Teman, which belongs to
+the Shammar tribe; its fertility depends on the famous well, known as
+Bir el Hudaj. Farther south and on the main pilgrim route is El 'Ala,
+the principal settlement of El Hajr, the Egra of Ptolemy, to whom it was
+known as an oasis town on the gold and frankincense road. Higher up the
+same valley are the rock-cut tombs of Medina Salih, similar to those at
+Petra and shown by the Nabataean coins and inscriptions discovered there
+by Doughty and Huber to date from the beginning of the Christian era. To
+the south-east again is the oasis of Khaibar, with some 2500
+inhabitants, chiefly negroes, the remnants of an earlier slave
+population. The citadel, known as the Kasr el Yahudi, preserves the
+tradition of its former Jewish ownership. With these exceptions there
+are no settled villages between Ma'an and Medina, the stations on the
+pilgrim road being merely small fortified posts with reservoirs, at
+intervals of 30 or 40 m., which are kept up by the Turkish government
+for the protection of the yearly caravan.
+
+The southern part of the province is more favoured by nature. Medina is
+a city of 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, situated in a broad plain
+between the coast range and the low hills across which lies the road to
+Nejd. Its altitude above the sea is about 2500 ft. It is well supplied
+with water and is surrounded by gardens and plantations; barley and
+wheat are grown, but the staple produce, as in all the cultivated
+districts of Hejaz, is dates, of which 100 different sorts are said to
+grow. Yambu' has a certain importance as the port for Medina. The route
+follows for part of the way along the Wadi es Safra, which contains
+several small settlements with abundant date groves; from Badr Hunen,
+the last of these, the route usually taken from Medina to Mecca runs
+near the coast, passing villages with some cultivation at each stage.
+The eastern route though more direct is less used; it passes through a
+barren country described by Burton as a succession of low plains and
+basins surrounded by rolling hills and intersected by torrent beds; the
+predominant formation is basalt. Suwerikiya and Es Safina are the only
+villages of importance on this route.
+
+Mecca and the holy places in its vicinity are described in a separate
+article; it is about 48 m. from the port of Jidda, the most important
+trade centre of the Hejaz province. The great majority of pilgrims for
+Mecca arrive by sea at Jidda. Their transport and the supply of their
+wants is therefore the chief business of the place; in 1904 the number
+was 66,500, and the imports amounted in value to £1,400,000.
+
+From the hot lowland in which Mecca is situated the country rises
+steeply up to the Taif plateau, some 6000 ft. above sea-level, a
+district resembling in climate and physical character the highlands of
+Asir and Yemen. Jebel el Kura at the northern edge of the plateau is a
+fertile well-watered district, producing wheat and barley and fruit.
+Taif, a day's journey farther south, lies in a sandy plain, surrounded
+by low mountains. The houses, though small, are well built of stone; the
+gardens for which it is celebrated lie at a distance of a mile or more
+to the S.W. at the foot of the mountains.
+
+Hejaz, together with the other provinces of Arabia which on the
+overthrow of the Bagdad Caliphate in 1258 had fallen under Egyptian
+domination, became by the conquest of Egypt in 1517 a dependency of the
+Ottoman empire. Beyond assuming the title of Caliph, neither Salim I.
+nor his successors interfered much in the government, which remained in
+the hands of the sharifs of Mecca until the religious upheaval which
+culminated at the beginning of the 19th century in the pillage of the
+holy cities by the Wahhabi fanatics. Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, was
+entrusted by the sultan with the task of establishing order, and after
+several arduous campaigns the Wahhabis were routed and their capital
+Deraiya in Nejd taken by Ibrahim Pasha in 1817. Hejaz remained in
+Egyptian occupation until 1845, when its administration was taken over
+directly by Constantinople, and it was constituted a vilayet under a
+vali or governor-general. The population is estimated at 300,000, about
+half of which are inhabitants of the towns and the remainder Bedouin,
+leading a nomad or pastoral life. The principal tribes are the Sherarat,
+Beni Atiya and Huwetat in the north; the Juhena between Yambu' and
+Medina, and the various sections of the Harb throughout the centre and
+south; the Ateba also touch the Mecca border on the south-east. All
+these tribes receive surra or money payments of large amount from the
+Turkish government to ensure the safe conduct of the annual pilgrimage,
+otherwise they are practically independent of the Turkish
+administration, which is limited to the large towns and garrisons. The
+troops occupying these latter belong to the 16th (Hejaz) division of the
+Turkish army.
+
+
+  The Hejaz railway.
+
+The difficulties of communication with his Arabian provinces, and of
+relieving or reinforcing the garrisons there, induced the sultan Abdul
+Hamid in 1900 to undertake the construction of a railway directly
+connecting the Hejaz cities with Damascus without the necessity of
+leaving Turkish territory at any point, as hitherto required by the Suez
+Canal. Actual construction was begun in May 1901 and on the 1st of
+September 1904 the section Damascus-Ma'an (285 m.) was officially
+opened. The line has a narrow gauge of 1.05 metre = 41 in., the same
+gauge as that of the Damascus-Beirut line; it has a ruling gradient of 1
+in 50 and follows generally the pilgrim track, through a desert country
+presenting no serious engineering difficulties. The graver difficulties
+due to the scarcity of water, and the lack of fuel, supplies and labour
+were successfully overcome; in 1906 the line was completed to El Akhdar,
+470 m. from Damascus and 350 from Medina, In time to be used by the
+pilgrim caravan of that year; and the section to Medina was opened in
+1908. Its military value was shown in the previous year, when it
+conveyed 28 battalions from Damascus to Ma'an, from which station the
+troops marched to Akaba for embarkation _en route_ to Hodeda. The length
+of the line from Damascus to Medina is approximately 820 m., and from
+Medina to Mecca 280 m.; the highest level attained is about 4000 ft. at
+Dar el Hamra in the section Ma'an-Medina.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J. L. Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1829);
+  'Ali Bey, _Travels_ (London, 1816); R. F. Burton, _Pilgrimage to
+  Medinah and Mecca_ (1893); _Land of Midian_ (London, 1879); J. S.
+  Hurgronje, _Mekka_ (Hague, 1888); C. M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_
+  (Cambridge, 1888); Auler Pasha, _Die Hedschasbahn_ (Gotha, 1906).
+       (R. A. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HEJIRA,[1] or HEGIRA (Arab. _hijra_, flight, departure from one's
+country, from _hajara_, to go away), the name of the Mahommedan era. It
+dates from 622, the year in which Mahomet "fled" from Mecca to Medina to
+escape the persecution of his kinsmen of the Koreish tribe. The years of
+this era are distinguished by the initials "A.H." (_anno hegirae_). The
+Mahommedan year is a lunar one, about 11 days shorter than the
+Christian; allowance must be made for this in translating _Hegira_ dates
+into Christian dates; thus A.H. 1321 corresponds roughly to A.D. 1903.
+The actual date of the "flight" is fixed as 8 Rabia I., i.e. 20th of
+September 622, by the tradition that Mahomet arrived at Kufa on the
+Hebrew Day of Atonement. Although Mahomet himself appears to have dated
+events by his flight, it was not till seventeen years later that the
+actual era was systematized by Omar, the second caliph (see CALIPHATE),
+as beginning from the 1st day of Muharram (the first lunar month of the
+year) which in that year (639) corresponded to July 16. The term
+_hejira_ is also applied in its more general sense to other
+"emigrations" of the faithful, e.g. to that to Abyssinia (see MAHOMET),
+and to that of Mahomet's followers to Medina before the capture of
+Mecca. These latter are known as _Muhajirun_.
+
+  For the problems of Moslem chronology and comparative tables of dates
+  see (beside the articles CALENDAR, CHRONOLOGY and MAHOMET),
+  Wüstenfeld, _Vergleichungstabellen der muhammedanischen und
+  christlichen Zeitrechnung_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1903); Mas Latrie,
+  _Trésor de chronologie_ (Paris, 1889); Durbaneh, _Universal Calendar_
+  (Cairo, 1896); Winckler, _Altorientalische Forschungen_, ii. 326-350;
+  D. Nielson, _Die altarabische Mondreligion_ (Strassburg, 1904);
+  Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, s.v. "Hijrah."
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The _i_ in the second syllable is short.
+
+
+
+
+HEL, or _Hela_, in Scandinavian mythology, the goddess of the dead. She
+was a child of Loki and the giantess Angurboda, and dwelt beneath the
+roots of the sacred ash, Yggdrasil. She was given dominion over the nine
+worlds of Helheim. In early myth all the dead went to her: in later
+legend only those who died of old age or sickness, and she then became
+synonymous with suffering and horror. Her dwelling was _Elvidnir_ (dark
+clouds), her dish _Hungr_ (hunger), her knife _Sullt_ (starvation), her
+servants _Ganglate_ (tardy feet), her bed _Kör_ (sickness), and her
+bed-curtains _Blikiandabol_ (splendid misery).
+
+
+
+
+HELDENBUCH, DAS, the title under which a large body of German epic
+poetry of the 13th century has come down to us. The subjects of the
+individual poems are taken from national German sagas which originated
+in the epoch of the Migrations (_Völkerwanderung_), although doubtless
+here, as in all purely popular sagas, motives borrowed from the forces
+and phenomena of nature were, in course of time, woven into events
+originally historical. While the saga of the Nibelungs crystallized in
+the 13th century into the _Nibelungenlied_ (q.v.), and the Low German
+Hilde-saga into the epic of _Gudrun_ (q.v.) the poems of the
+_Heldenbuch_, in the more restricted use of that term, belong almost
+exclusively to two cycles, (1) the Ostrogothic saga of Ermanrich,
+Dietrich von Bern (i.e. Dietrich of Verona, Theodorich the Great) and
+Etzel (Attila), and (2) the cycle of Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and
+Ortnit, which like the _Nibelungen_ saga, was probably of Franconian
+origin. The romances of the _Heldenbuch_ are of varying poetic value;
+only occasionally do they rise to the height of the two chief epics, the
+_Nibelungenlied_ and _Gudrun_. Dietrich von Bern, the central figure of
+the first and more important group, was the ideal type of German
+medieval hero, and, under more favourable literary conditions, he might
+have become the centre of an epic more nationally German than even the
+_Nibelungenlied_ itself. Of the romances of this group, the chief are
+_Biterolf und Dietlieb_, evidently the work of an Austrian poet, who
+introduced many elements from the court epic of chivalry into a milieu
+and amongst characters familiar to us from the _Nibelungenlied_. _Der
+Rosengarten_ tells of the conflicts which took place round Kriemhild's
+"rose garden" in Worms--conflicts from which Dietrich always emerges
+victor, even when he is confronted by Siegfried himself. In _Laurin und
+der kleine Rosengarten_, the Heldensage is mingled with elements of
+popular fairy-lore; it deals with the adventures of Dietrich and his
+henchman Witege with the wily dwarf Laurin, who watches over another
+rose garden, that of the Tyrol. Similar in character are the adventures
+of Dietrich with the giants Ecke (_Eckenlied_) and Sigenot, with the
+dwarf Goldemar, and the deeds of chivalry he performs for queen Virginal
+(_Dietrichs erste Ausfahrt_)--all of these romances being written in the
+fresh and popular tone characteristic of the wandering singers or
+_Spielleute_. Other elements of the Dietrich saga are represented by the
+poems _Alpharts Tod_, _Dietrichs Flucht_ and _Die Rabenschlacht_
+("Battle of Ravenna"). Of these, the first is much the finest poem of
+the entire cycle and worthy of a place beside the best popular poetry of
+the Middle High German epoch. Alphart, a young hero in Dietrich's army,
+goes out to fight single-handed with Witege and Heime, who had deserted
+to Ermanrich, and he falls, not in fair battle, but by the treachery of
+Witege whose life he had spared. The other two Dietrich epics belong to
+a later period, the end of the 13th century--the author being an
+Austrian, Heinrich der Vogler--and show only too plainly the decay that
+had by this time set in in Middle High German poetry.
+
+The second cycle of sagas is represented by several long romances, all
+of them unmistakably "popular" in tone--conflicts with dragons,
+supernatural adventures, the wonderland of the East providing the chief
+features of interest. The epics of this group are _Ortnit_,
+_Hugdietrich_, _Wolfdietrich_, the latter with its pathetic episode of
+the unswerving loyalty of Wolfdietrich's vassal Duke Berchtung and his
+ten sons. Although many of the incidents and motives of this cycle are
+drawn from the best traditions of the _Heldensage_, its literary value
+is not very high.
+
+  This collection of popular romances was one of the first German books
+  to be printed. The date of the first edition is unknown, but the
+  second edition appeared in the year 1491 and was followed by later
+  reprints in 1509, 1545, 1560 and 1590. The last of these forms the
+  basis of the text edited by A. von Keller for the Stuttgart
+  _Literarische Verein_ in 1867. In 1472 the _Heldenbuch_ was adapted to
+  the popular tastes of the time by being remodelled in rough
+  _Knittelvers_ or doggerel; the author, or at least copyist, of the MS.
+  was a certain Kaspar von dor Roen, of Münnerstadt in Franconia. This
+  version was printed by F. von der Hagen and S. Primisser in their
+  _Heldenbuch_ (1820-1825). _Das Heldenbuch_, which F. von der Hagen
+  published in 2 vols, in 1855, was the first attempt to reproduce the
+  original text by collating the MSS. A critical edition, based not
+  merely on the oldest printed text--the only one which has any value
+  for this purpose, as the others are all copies of it--but also on the
+  MSS., was published in 5 vols. by O. Jänicke, E. Martin, A. Amelung
+  and J. Zupitza at Berlin (1866-1873). A selection, edited by E.
+  Henrici, will be found in Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_,
+  vol. 7 (1887). Recent editions have appeared of _Der Rosengarten_ and
+  _Laurin_, by G. Holz (1893 and 1897). All the poems have been
+  translated into modern German by K. Simrock and others. See F. E.
+  Sandbach, _The Heroic Saga-Cycle of Dietrich of Bern_ (1906). The
+  literature of the _Heldensage_ is very extensive. See especially W.
+  Grimm, _Die deutsche Heldensage_ (3rd ed., 1889); L. Uhland,
+  "Geschichte der deutschen Poesie im Mittelalter," _Schriften_, vol. i.
+  (1866); O. L. Jiriczek, _Deutsche Heldensage_, vol. i. (1898); and
+  especially B. Symons, "Germanische Heldensage," in Paul's _Grundriss
+  der germanischen Philologie_ (2nd ed., 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HELDER, a seaport town at the northern extremity of the province of
+North Holland, in the kingdom of Holland, 51 m. by rail N.N.W. of
+Amsterdam. Pop. (1900) 25,842. It is situated on the Marsdiep, the
+channel separating the island of Texel from the mainland, and the main
+entrance to the Zuider Zee, and besides being the terminus of the North
+Holland canal from Amsterdam, it is an important naval and military
+station. On the east side of the town, called the Nieuwe Diep, is
+situated the fine harbour, which formerly served, as Ymuiden now does,
+as the outer port of Amsterdam. In this neighbourhood are the naval
+wharves and magazines, wet and dry docks, and the naval cadet school of
+Holland, the name Willemsoord being given to the whole naval
+establishment. From Nieuwe Diep to Fort Erfprins on the west side of the
+town, a distance of about 5 m., stretches the great sea-dike which here
+takes the place of the dunes. This dike descends at an angle of 40° for
+a distance of 200 ft. into the sea, and is composed of Norwegian granite
+and Belgian limestone, strengthened at intervals by projecting jetties
+of piles and fascines. A circle of forts and batteries defends the town
+and coast, and there is a permanent garrison of 7000 to 9000 men, while
+30,000 men can be accommodated within the lines, and the province
+flooded from this point. Besides several churches and a synagogue, there
+are a town hall (1836), a hospital, an orphan asylum, the "palace" of
+the board of marine, a meteorological observatory, a zoological station
+and a lighthouse. The industries of the town are sustained by the
+garrison and marine establishments.
+
+
+
+
+HELEN, or HELENA (Gr. [Greek: Elenê]),in Greek mythology, daughter of
+Zeus by Leda (wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta), sister of Castor,
+Pollux and Clytaemnestra, and wife of Menelaus. Other accounts make her
+the daughter of Zeus and Nemesis, or of Oceanus and Tethys. She was the
+most beautiful woman in Greece, and indirectly the cause of the Trojan
+war. When a child she was carried off from Sparta by Theseus to Attica,
+but was recovered and taken back by her brothers. When she grew up, the
+most famous of the princes of Greece sought her hand in marriage, and
+her father's choice fell upon Menelaus. During her husband's absence she
+was induced by Paris, son of Priam, with the connivance of Aphrodite, to
+flee with him to Troy. After the death of Paris she married his brother
+Deïphobus, whom she is said to have betrayed into the hands of Menelaus
+at the capture of the city (_Aeneid_, vi. 517 ff.). Menelaus thereupon
+took her back, and they returned together to Sparta, where they lived
+happily till their death, and were buried at Therapnae in Laconia.
+According to another story, Helen survived her husband, and was driven
+out by her stepsons. She fled to Rhodes, where she was hanged on a tree
+by her former friend Polyxo, to avenge the loss of her husband
+Tlepolemus in the Trojan War (Pausanias iii. 19). After death, Helen was
+said to have married Achilles in his home in the island of Leuke. In
+another version, Paris, on his voyage to Troy with Helen, was driven
+ashore on the coast of Egypt, where King Proteus, upon learning the
+facts of the case, detained the real Helen in Egypt, while a phantom
+Helen was carried off to Troy. Menelaus on his way home was also driven
+by stress of winds to Egypt, where he found his wife and took her home
+(Herodotus ii. 112-120; Euripides, _Helena_). Helen was worshipped as
+the goddess of beauty at Therapnae in Laconia, where a festival was held
+in her honour. At Rhodes she was worshipped under the name of Dendritis
+(the tree goddess), where the inhabitants built a temple in her honour
+to expiate the crime of Polyxo. The Rhodian story probably contains a
+reference to the worship connected with her name (cf. Theocritus xviii.
+48 [Greek: sebou m', Helenas phyton eimi]). She was the subject of a
+tragedy by Euripides and an epic by Colluthus. Originally, Helen was
+perhaps a goddess of light, a moon-goddess, who was gradually
+transformed into the beautiful heroine round whom the action of the
+_Iliad_ revolves. Like her brothers, the Dioscuri, she was a patron
+deity of sailors.
+
+  See E. Oswald, _The Legend of Fair Helen_ (1905); J. A. Symonds,
+  _Studies of the Greek Poets_, i. (1893); F. Decker, _Die griechische
+  Helena in Mythos und Epos_ (1894); Andrew Lang, _Helen of Troy_
+  (1883); P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquités_; the exhaustive article by R. Engelmann in Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_; and O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, i.
+  163, according to whom Helen originally represented, in the
+  Helenephoria (a mystic festival of Artemis, Iphigeneia or Tauropolos),
+  the sacred basket ([Greek: helenê]) in which the holy objects were
+  carried; and hence, as the personification of the initiation ceremony,
+  she was connected with or identified with the moon, the first
+  appearance of which probably marked the beginning of the festivity.
+
+
+
+
+HELENA, ST (c. 247-c. 327) the wife of the emperor Constantius I.
+Chlorus, and mother of Constantine the Great. She was a woman of humble
+origin, born probably at Drepanum, a town on the Gulf of Nicomedia,
+which Constantine named Helenopolis in her honour. Very little is known
+of her history. It is certain that, at an advanced age, she undertook a
+pilgrimage to Palestine, visited the holy places, and founded several
+churches. She was still living at the time of the murder of Crispus
+(326). Constantine had coins struck with the effigy of his mother. The
+name of Helena is intimately connected with the commonly received story
+of the discovery of the Cross. But the accounts which connect her with
+the discovery are much later than the date of the event. The Pilgrim of
+Bordeaux (333), Eusebius and Cyril of Jerusalem were unaware of this
+important episode in the life of the empress. It was only at the end of
+the 4th century and in the West that the legend appeared. The principal
+centre of the cult of St Helena in the West seems to be the abbey of
+Hautvilliers, near Reims, where since the 9th century they have claimed
+to be in possession of her body. In England legends arose representing
+her as the daughter of a prince of Britain. Following these Geoffrey of
+Monmouth makes her the daughter of Coel, the king who is supposed to
+have given his name to the town of Colchester. These legends have
+doubtless not been without influence on the cult of the saint in
+England, where a great number of churches are dedicated either to St
+Helena alone, or to St Cross and St Helena. Her festival is celebrated
+in the Latin Church on the 18th of August. The Greeks make no
+distinction between her festival and that of Constantine, the 21st of
+May.
+
+  See _Acta sanctorum_, Augusti iii. 548-580; Tixeront, _Les Origines de
+  l'église d'Édesse_ (Paris, 1888); F. Arnold-Forster, _Studies in
+  Church Dedications or England's Patron Saints_, i. 181-189, iii. 16,
+  365-366 (1899).     (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+HELENA, a city and the county-seat of Phillips county, Arkansas, U.S.A.,
+situated on and at the foot of Crowly's Ridge, about 150 ft. above
+sea-level, in the alluvial bottoms of the Mississippi river, about 65 m.
+by rail S.W. of Memphis, Tennessee. Pop. (1890) 5189, (1900) 5550, of
+whom 3400 were negroes; (1910) 8772. It is served by the Yazoo &
+Mississippi Valley (Illinois Central), the St Louis, Iron Mountain &
+Southern (Missouri Pacific), the Arkansas Midland, and the Missouri &
+North Arkansas railways. Built in part upon "made land," well protected
+by levees, and lying within the richest cotton-producing region of the
+south, the rich timber country of the St Francis river, and the
+Mississippi "bottom lands," Helena concentrates its economic interests
+in cotton-compressing and shipping, the manufacture of cotton-seed
+products, lumbering and wood-working. The city was founded about 1821,
+but so late as 1860 the population was only 800. During the Civil War
+the place was of considerable strategic importance. It was occupied in
+July 1862 by the Union forces, who strongly fortified it to guard their
+communications with the lower Mississippi; on the 4th of July 1863, when
+occupied by General Benjamin M. Prentiss (1819-1901) with 4500 men, it
+was attacked by a force of 9000 Confederates under General Theophilus H.
+Holmes (1804-1880), who hoped to raise the siege of Vicksburg or close
+the river to the Union forces. The attack was repulsed, with a loss to
+the Confederates of one-fifth their numbers, the Union loss being
+slight.
+
+
+
+
+HELENA, a city and the county-seat of Lewis and Clark county, Montana,
+U.S.A., and the capital of the state, at the E. base of the main range
+of the Rocky Mountains, 80 m. N.E. of Butte, at an altitude of about
+4000 ft. Pop. (1880) 3624; (1890) 13,834; (1900) 10,770, of whom 2793
+were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,515. It is served by the Great
+Northern and the Northern Pacific railways. Helena is delightfully
+situated with Mt Helena as a background in the hollow of the Prickly
+Pear valley, a rich agricultural region surrounded by rolling hills and
+lofty mountains, and contains many fine buildings, including the state
+capitol, county court house, the Montana club house, high school, the
+cathedral of St Helena, a federal building, and the United States assay
+office. It is the seat of the Montana Wesleyan University (Methodist
+Episcopal), founded in 1890; St Aloysius College and St Vincent's
+Academy (Roman Catholic); and has a public library with about 35,000
+volumes, the Montana state library with about 40,000 volumes, and the
+state law library with about 24,000 volumes. The city is the commercial
+and financial centre of the state (Butte being the mining centre), and
+is one of the richest cities in the United States in proportion to its
+population. It has large railway car-shops, extensive smelters and
+quartz crushers (at East Helena), and various manufacturing
+establishments; the value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,309,746,
+an increase of 68.7% over that of 1900. The surrounding country abounds
+in gold- and silver-bearing quartz deposits, and it is estimated that
+from the famous Last Chance Gulch alone, which runs across the city,
+more than $40,000,000 in gold has been taken. The street railway and the
+lighting system of the city are run by power generated at a plant and 40
+ft. dam at Canyon Ferry, on the Missouri river, 18 m. E. of Helena.
+There is another great power plant at Hauser Plant, 20 m. N. of Helena.
+Three miles W. of the city is the Broadwater Natatorium with swimming
+pool, 300 ft. long and 100 ft. wide, the water for which is furnished by
+hot springs with a temperature at the source of 160°. Fort Harrison, a
+United States army post, is situated 3 m. W. of the city. Helena was
+established as a placer mining camp in 1864 upon the discovery of gold
+in Last Chance Gulch. The town was laid out in the same year, and after
+the organization of Montana Territory it was designated as the capital.
+Helena was burned down in 1869 and in 1874. It was chartered as a city
+in 1881.
+
+
+
+
+HELENSBURGH, a municipal and police burgh and watering-place of
+Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the N. shore of the Firth of Clyde,
+opposite Greenock, 24 m. N.W. of Glasgow by the North British railway.
+Pop. (1901) 8554. There is a station at Upper Helensburgh on the West
+Highland railway, and from the railway pier at Craigendoran there is
+steamer communication with Garelochhead, Dunoon and other pleasure
+resorts on the western coast. In 1776 the site began to be built upon,
+and in 1802 the town, named after Lady Helen, wife of Sir James
+Colquhoun of Luss, the ground landlord, was erected into a burgh of
+barony, under a provost and council. The public buildings include the
+burgh hall, municipal buildings, Hermitage schools and two hospitals. On
+the esplanade stands an obelisk to Henry Bell, the pioneer of steam
+navigation, who died at Helensburgh in 1830.
+
+
+
+
+HELENUS, in Greek legend, son of Priam and Hecuba, and twin-brother of
+Cassandra. He is said to have been originally called Scamandrius, and to
+have received the name of Helenus from a Thracian soothsayer who
+instructed him in the prophetic art. In the _Iliad_ he is described as
+the prince of augurs and a brave warrior; in the _Odyssey_ he is not
+mentioned at all. Various details concerning him are added by later
+writers. It is related that he and his sister fell asleep in the temple
+of Apollo Thymbraeus and that snakes came and cleansed their ears,
+whereby they obtained the gift of prophecy and were able to understand
+the language of birds. After the death of Paris, Helenus and his brother
+Deïphobus became rivals for the hand of Helen. Deïphobus was preferred,
+and Helenus withdrew in indignation to Mount Ida, where he was captured
+by the Greeks, whom he advised to build the wooden horse and carry off
+the Palladium. According to other accounts, having been made prisoner by
+a stratagem of Odysseus, he declared that Philoctetes must be fetched
+from Lemnos before Troy could be taken; or he surrendered to Diomedes
+and Odysseus in the temple of Apollo, whither he had fled in disgust at
+the sacrilegious murder of Achilles by Paris in the sanctuary. After the
+capture of Troy, he and his sister-in-law Andromache accompanied
+Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus) as captives to Epirus, where Helenus persuaded him
+to settle. After the death of Neoptolemus, Helenus married Andromache
+and became ruler of the country. He was the reputed founder of Buthrotum
+and Chaonia, named after a brother or companion whom he had accidentally
+slain while hunting. He was said to have been buried at Argos, where his
+tomb was shown. When Aeneas, in the course of his wanderings, reached
+Epirus, he was hospitably received by Helenus, who predicted his future
+destiny.
+
+  Homer, _Iliad_, vi. 76, vii. 44, xii. 94, xiii. 576; Sophocles,
+  _Philoctetes_, 604, who probably follows the _Little Iliad_ of
+  Lesches; Pausanias i. 11, ii. 23; Conon, _Narrationes_, 34; Dictys
+  Cretensis iv. 18; Virgil, _Aeneid_, iii. 294-490; Servius on _Aeneid_,
+  ii. 166, iii. 334.
+
+
+
+
+HELGAUD, or HELGALDUS (d. c. 1048), French chronicler, was a monk of the
+Benedictine abbey of Fleury. Little else is known about him save that he
+was chaplain to the French king, Robert II. the Pious, whose life he
+wrote. This _Epitoma vitae Roberti regis_, which is probably part of a
+history of the abbey of Fleury, deals rather with the private than with
+the public life of the king, and its value is not great either from the
+literary or from the historical point of view. The only existing
+manuscript is in the Vatican, and the _Epitoma_ has been printed by J.
+P. Migne in the _Patrologia Latina_, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844); and by M.
+Bouquet in the _Recueil des historiens des Gaules_, tome x. (Paris,
+1760).
+
+  See _Histoire littéraire de la France_, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869);
+  and A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_, tome ii.
+  (Paris, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+HELGESEN, POVL,[1] Danish humanist, was born at Varberg in Halland about
+1480, of a Danish father and a Swedish mother. Helgesen was educated
+first at the Carmelite monastery of his native place and afterwards at
+another monastery at Elsinore, where he devoted himself to humanistic
+studies and adopted Erasmus as his model. None had a keener eye for the
+abuses of the Church; long before the appearance of Luther, he denounced
+the ignorance and immorality of the clergy, and, as lector at the
+university of Copenhagen, gathered round him a band of young
+enthusiasts, the future leaders of the Danish Reformation. But Helgesen
+desired an orderly, methodical, rational reformation, and denounced
+Luther, whose ablest opponent in Denmark he subsequently became, as a
+hot-headed revolutionist. Christian II. was also an object of Helgesen's
+detestation, and so boldly did he oppose that monarch's measures that,
+to save his life, he had to flee to Jutland. Under Frederick I.
+(1523-1533) he returned to Copenhagen and resumed his chair at the
+university, becoming soon afterwards provincial of the Carmelite Order
+for Scandinavia. But like all moderate men in a time of crisis, Helgesen
+could gain the confidence of neither party, and was frequently attacked
+as bitterly by the Catholics as by the Protestants. From 1530 to 1533 he
+and the Protestant champion Hans Tausen exhausted the whole vocabulary
+of vituperation in their fruitless polemics. In October 1534, however,
+Helgesen issued an eirenicon in which he attempted to reconcile the two
+contending confessions. After that every trace of him is lost. For a
+long time he was unjustly regarded as a turn-coat, but he was too
+superior to the prejudices of his age to be understood by his
+contemporaries. His ideal was a moral internal reformation of the Church
+on a rational basis, conducted not by ill-informed fanatics, but by an
+enlightened and well-educated clergy; and from this standpoint he never
+diverged. Helgesen was indisputably the greatest master of style of his
+age in Denmark, and as a historian he also occupies a prominent
+position. He always endeavours to probe down to the very soul of things,
+though his passionate nature made it very difficult for him to be
+impartial. His chief works are _Danmark's Kongers Historie_ and _Skibby
+Kröniken_.
+
+  See Ludwig Schmitt, _Der Karmeliter Paulus Heliä_ (Freiburg, 1893);
+  _Danmarks Riges Historie_ (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. iii.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] He wrote his name Heliae or Eliae.
+
+
+
+
+HELIACAL, relating to the sun ([Greek: hêlios]), a term applied in the
+ancient astronomy to the first rising of a star which could be seen
+after it emerged from the rays of the sun, or the last setting that
+could be seen before it was lost from sight by proximity to the sun.
+
+
+
+
+HELIAND. The 9th-century poem on the Gospel history, to which its first
+editor, J. A. Schmeller, gave the appropriate name of _Heliand_ (the
+word used in the text for "Saviour," answering to the O. Eng. _hælend_
+and the Ger. _Heiland_), is, with the fragments of a version of the
+story of Genesis believed to be by the same author, all that remains of
+the poetical literature of the old Saxons, i.e. the Saxons who continued
+in their original home. It contained when entire about 6000 lines, and
+portions of it are preserved in four MSS. The Cotton MS. in the British
+Museum, written probably late in the 10th century, is nearly complete,
+ending in the middle of the story of the journey to Emmaus. The Munich
+MS., formerly at Bamberg, begins at line 85, and has many lacunae, but
+continues the history down to the last verse of St Luke's Gospel,
+ending, however, in the middle of a sentence. A MS. discovered at Prague
+in 1881 contains lines 958-1106, and another, in the Vatican library,
+discovered by K. Zangemeister in 1894, contains lines 1279-1358. The
+poem is based, not directly on the New Testament, but on the
+pseudo-Tatian's harmony of the Gospels, and it shows acquaintance with
+the commentaries of Alcuin, Bæda and Hrabanus Maurus.
+
+The questions relating to the _Heliand_ cannot be adequately discussed
+without considering also the poem on the history of Genesis, which, on
+the grounds of similarity in style and vocabulary, and for other reasons
+afterwards to be mentioned, may with some confidence be referred to the
+same author. A part of this poem, as is mentioned in the article CÆDMON,
+is extant only in an Old English translation. The portions that have
+been preserved in the original language are contained in the same
+Vatican MS. that includes the fragment of the _Heliand_ referred to
+above. In the one language or the other, there are in existence the
+following three fragments: (1) The passage which appears as lines
+235-851 in the so-called "Cædmon's _Genesis_," on the revolt of the
+angels and the temptation and fall of Adam and Eve. Of this the part
+corresponding to lines 790-820 exists also in the original Old Saxon.
+(2) The story of Cain and Abel, in 124 lines. (3) The account of the
+destruction of Sodom, in 187 lines. The main source of the _Genesis_ is
+the Bible, but Professor E. Sievers has shown that considerable use was
+made of the two Latin poems by Alcimus Avitus, _De initio mundi_ and _De
+peccato originali_.
+
+The two poems give evidence of genius and trained skill, though the
+poet was no doubt hampered by the necessity of not deviating too widely
+from the sacred originals. Within the limits imposed by the nature of
+his task, his treatment of his sources is remarkably free, the details
+unsuited for poetic handling being passed over, or, in some instances,
+boldly altered. In many passages his work gives the impression of being
+not so much an imitation of the ancient Germanic epic, as a genuine
+example of it, though concerned with the deeds of other heroes than
+those of Germanic tradition. In the _Heliand_ the Saviour and His
+Apostles are conceived as a king and his faithful warriors, and the use
+of the traditional epic phrases appears to be not, as with Cynewulf or
+the author of _Andreas_, a mere following of accepted models, but the
+spontaneous mode of expression of one accustomed to sing of heroic
+themes. The _Genesis_ fragments have less of the heroic tone, except in
+the splendid passage describing the rebellion of Satan and his host. It
+is noteworthy that the poet, like Milton, sees in Satan no mere
+personification of evil, but the fallen archangel, whose awful guilt
+could not obliterate all traces of his native majesty. Somewhat
+curiously, but very naturally, Enoch the son of Cain is confused with
+the Enoch who was translated to heaven--an error which the author of the
+Old English _Genesis_ avoids, though (according to the existing text) he
+confounds the names of Enoch and Enos.
+
+Such external evidence as exists bearing on the origin of the _Heliand_
+and the companion poem is contained in a Latin document printed by
+Flacius Illyricus in 1562. This is in two parts; the one in prose,
+entitled (perhaps only by Flacius himself) "_Praefatio ad librum
+antiquum in lingua Saxonica conscriptum_"; the other in verse, headed
+"_Versus de poëta et Interpreta hujus codicis_." The Praefatio begins by
+stating that the emperor Ludwig the Pious, desirous that his subjects
+should possess the word of God in their own tongue, commanded a certain
+Saxon, who was esteemed among his countrymen as an eminent poet, to
+translate poetically into the German language the Old and New
+Testaments. The poet willingly obeyed, all the more because he had
+previously received a divine command to undertake the task. He rendered
+into verse all the most important parts of the Bible with admirable
+skill, dividing his work into _vitteas_, a term which, the writer says,
+may be rendered by "_lectiones_" or "_sententias_." The Praefatio goes
+on to say that it was reported that the poet, till then knowing nothing
+of the art of poetry, had been admonished in a dream to turn into verse
+the precepts of the divine law, which he did with so much skill that his
+work surpasses in beauty all other German poetry (_ut cuncta Theudisca
+poëmata suo vincat decore_). The _Versus_ practically reproduce in
+outline Bæda's account of Cædmon's dream, without mentioning the dream,
+but describing the poet as a herdsman, and adding that his poems,
+beginning with the creation, relate the history of the five ages of the
+world down to the coming of Christ.
+
+The suspicion of some earlier scholars that the _Praefatio_ and the
+_Versus_ might be a modern forgery is refuted by the occurrence of the
+word _vitteas_, which is the Old Saxon _fittea_, corresponding to the
+Old English _fitt_, which means a "canto" of a poem. It is impossible
+that a scholar of the 16th century could have been acquainted with this
+word, and internal evidence shows clearly that both the prose and the
+verse are of early origin. The _Versus_, considered in themselves, might
+very well be supposed to relate to Cædmon; but the mention of the five
+ages of the world in the concluding lines is obviously due to
+recollection of the opening of the _Heliand_ (lines 46-47). It is
+therefore certain that the _Versus_, as well as the _Praefatio_,
+attribute to the author of the _Heliand_ a poetic rendering of the Old
+Testament. Their testimony, if accepted, confirms the ascription to him
+of the Genesis fragments, which is further supported by the fact that
+they occur in the same MS. with a portion of the _Heliand_. As the
+_Praefatio_ speaks of the emperor Ludwig in the present tense, the
+former part of it at least was probably written in his reign, i.e. not
+later than A.D. 840. The general opinion of scholars is that the latter
+part, which represents the poet as having received his vocation in a
+dream, is by a later hand, and that the sentences in the earlier part
+which refer to the dream are interpolations by this second author. The
+date of these additions, and of the _Versus_, is of no importance, as
+their statements are incredible. That the author of the _Heliand_ was,
+so to speak, another Cædmon--an unlearned man who turned into poetry
+what was read to him from the sacred writings--is impossible, because in
+many passages the text of the sources is so closely followed that it is
+clear that the poet wrote with the Latin books before him. On the other
+hand, there is no reason for rejecting the almost contemporary testimony
+of the first part of the _Praefatio_ that the author of the _Heliand_
+had won renown as a poet before he undertook his great task at the
+emperor's command. It is certainly not impossible that a Christian
+Saxon, sufficiently educated to read Latin easily, may have chosen to
+follow the calling of a _scop_ or minstrel[1] instead of entering the
+priesthood or the cloister; and if such a person existed, it would be
+natural that he should be selected by the emperor to execute his design.
+As has been said above, the tone of many portions of the _Heliand_ is
+that of a man who was no mere imitator of the ancient epic, but who had
+himself been accustomed to sing of heroic themes.
+
+The commentary on the gospel of Matthew by Hrabanus Maurus was finished
+about 821, which is therefore the superior limit of date for the
+composition of the _Heliand_. It is usually maintained that this work
+was written before the Old Testament poems. The arguments for this view
+are that the _Heliand_ contains no allusion to any foregoing poetical
+treatment of the antecedent history, and that the Genesis fragments
+exhibit a higher degree of poetic skill. This reasoning does not appear
+conclusive, and if it be set aside, the limit of date for the beginning
+of the work is carried back to A.D. 814, the year of the accession of
+Ludwig.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first complete edition of the _Heliand_ was
+  published by J. A. Schmeller in 1830; the second volume, containing
+  the glossary and grammar, appeared in 1840. The standard edition is
+  that of E. Sievers (1877), in which the texts of the Cotton and Munich
+  MSS. are printed side by side. It is not provided with a glossary, but
+  contains an elaborate and most valuable analysis of the diction,
+  synonymy and syntactical features of the poem. Other useful editions
+  are those of M. Heyne (3rd ed., 1903), O. Behaghel (1882) and P. Piper
+  (1897, containing also the Genesis fragments). The fragments of the
+  _Heliand_ and the _Genesis_ contained in the Vatican MS. were edited
+  in 1894 by K. Zangemeister and W. Braune under the title _Bruchstücke
+  der altsächsischen Bibeldichtung_. Among the works treating of the
+  authorship, sources and place of origin of the poems, the most
+  important are the following: E. Windisch, _Der Heliand und seine
+  Quellen_ (1868); E. Sievers, _Der Heliand und die angelsächsische
+  Genesis_ (1875); R. Kögel, _Deutsche Literaturgeschichte_, Bd. i.
+  (1894) and _Die altsächsische Genesis_ (1895); R. Kögel and W.
+  Bruckner, "Althoch- und altniederdeutsche Literatur," in Paul's
+  _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, Bd. ii. (2nd ed., 1901),
+  which contains references to many other works; Hermann Collitz, _Zum
+  Dialekte des Heliand_ (1901).     (H. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The term _Volkssänger_, commonly used in German discussions of
+    this question, is misleading; the audience for heroic poetry was not
+    "the people" in the modern sense, but the nobles.
+
+
+
+
+HELICON, a mountain range, of Boeotia in ancient Greece, celebrated in
+classical literature as the favourite haunt of the Muses, is situated
+between Lake Copaïs and the Gulf of Corinth. On the fertile eastern
+slopes stood a temple and grove sacred to the Muses, and adorned with
+beautiful statues, which, taken by Constantine the Great to beautify his
+new city, were consumed there by a fire in A.D. 404. Hard by were the
+famous fountains, Aganippe and Hippocrene, the latter fabled to have
+gushed from the earth at the tread of the winged horse Pegasus, whose
+favourite browsing place was there. At the neighbouring Ascra dwelt the
+poet Hesiod, a fact which probably enhanced the poetic fame of the
+region. Pausanias, who describes Helicon in his ninth book, asserts that
+it was the most fertile mountain in Greece, and that neither poisonous
+plant nor serpent was to be found on it, while many of its herbs
+possessed a miraculous healing virtue. The highest summit, the present
+Palaeovouni (old hill), rises to the height of about 5000 ft. Modern
+travellers, aided by ancient remains and inscriptions, and guided by the
+local descriptions of Pausanias, have succeeded in identifying many of
+the ancient classical spots, and the French excavators have discovered
+the temple of the Muses and a theatre.
+
+  See also Clarke, _Travels in Various Countries_ (vol. vii., 1818);
+  Dodwell, _Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece_ (1818); W.
+  M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (vol. ii., 1835); J. G.
+  Frazer's edition of _Pausanias_, v. 150.
+
+
+
+
+HELICON (Fr. _hélicon, bombardon circulaire_; Ger. _Helikon_), the
+circular form of the B[flat] contrabass tuba used in military bands,
+worn round the body, with the enormous bell resting on the left shoulder
+and towering above the head of the performer. The pitch of the helicon
+is an octave below that of the euphonium. The idea of winding the long
+tube of the contrabass tuba and of wearing it round the shoulders was
+suggested by the ancient Roman buccina and cornu, represented in mosaics
+and on the sculptured reliefs surrounding Trajan's Column. The buccina
+and cornu[1] differed in the diameter of their respective bores, the
+former having the narrow, almost cylindrical bore and harmonic series of
+the trumpet and trombone, whereas the cornu, having a bore in the form
+of a wide cone, was the prototype of the bugle and tubas.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For illustrations of the cornu see the altar of Julius Victor ex
+    Collegio, reproduced in Bartoli, Pict. Ant. p. 76; Bellori, _Pict.
+    antiq. crypt. rom._ p. 76, pl. viii.; in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict.
+    des antiq. grecques et romaines_, under "Cornu," the buccina and
+    cornu have not been distinguished.
+
+
+
+
+HELIGOLAND (Ger. _Helgoland_), an island of Germany, in the North Sea,
+lying off the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, 28 m. from the nearest
+point in the mainland. Pop. (1900) 2307. From 1807 to 1890 a British
+possession, it was ceded in 1890 to Germany, and since 1892 has formed
+part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It consists of two
+islets, the smaller, the Dünen-Insel, a quarter of a mile E. of the
+main, or Rock Island, connected until 1720, when it was severed by a
+violent irruption of the sea, with the other by a neck of land, and the
+main, or Rock Island. The latter is nearly triangular in shape and is
+surrounded by steep red cliffs, the only beach being the sandy spit near
+the south-east point, where the landing-stage is situated. The rocks
+composing the cliffs are worn into caves, and around the island are many
+fantastic arches and columns. The impression made by the red cliffs,
+fringed by a white beach and supporting the green Oberland, is commonly
+believed to have suggested the national colours, red, white and green,
+or, as the old Frisian rhyme goes:--
+
+  "Grön is dat Land,
+   Rood is de Kant,
+   Witt is de Sand,
+   Dat is de Flagg vun't hillige Land."
+
+The lower town of Unterland, on the spit, and the upper town, or
+Oberland, situated on the cliff above, are connected by a wooden stair
+and a lift. There is a powerful lighthouse, and since its cession by
+Great Britain to Germany, the main island has been strongly fortified,
+the old English batteries being replaced by armoured turrets mounting
+guns of heavy calibre. Inside the Dünen-Insel the largest ships can ride
+safely at anchor, and take in coal and other supplies. The greatest
+length of the main island, which slopes somewhat from west to east, is
+just a mile, and the greatest breadth less than a third of a mile, its
+average height 198 ft., and the highest point, crowned by the church,
+with a conspicuous spire, 216 ft. The Dünen-Insel is a sand-bank
+protected by groines. It is only about 200 ft. above the sea at its
+highest point, but the drifting sands make the height rather variable.
+The sea-bathing establishment is situated here; a shelving beach of
+white sand presenting excellent facilities for bathing. Most of the
+houses are built of brick, but some are of wood. There are a theatre, a
+Kurhaus, and a number of hotels and restaurants. In 1892 a biological
+institute, with a marine museum and aquarium (1900) attached, was
+opened.
+
+During the summer some 20,000 people visit the island for sea-bathing.
+German is the official language, though among themselves the natives
+speak a dialect of Frisian, barely intelligible to the other islands of
+the group. There is regular communication with Bremen and Hamburg.
+
+The winters are stormy. May and the early part of June are wet and
+foggy, so that few visitors arrive before the middle of the latter
+month.
+
+The generally accepted derivation of Heligoland (or Helgoland) from
+_Heiligeland_, i.e. "Holy Land," seems doubtful. According to northern
+mythology, Forseti, a son of Balder and Nanna, the god of justice, had a
+temple on the island, which was subsequently destroyed by St Ludger.
+This legend may have given rise to the derivation "Holy Land." The more
+probable etymology, however, is that of Hallaglun, or Halligland, i.e.
+"land of banks, which cover and uncover." Here Hertha, according to
+tradition, had her great temple, and hither came from the mainland the
+Angles to worship at her shrine. Here also lived King Radbod, a pagan,
+and on this isle St Willibrord in the 7th century first preached
+Christianity; and for its ownership, before and after that date, many
+sea-rovers have fought. Finally it became a fief of the dukes of
+Schleswig-Holstein, though often hypothecated for loans advanced to
+these princes by the free city of Hamburg. The island was a Danish
+possession in 1807, when the English seized and held it until it was
+formally ceded to them in 1814. In the picturesque old church there are
+still traces of a painted Dannebrog.
+
+In 1890 the island was ceded to Germany, and in 1892 it was incorporated
+with Prussia, when it was provided that natives born before the year
+1880 should be allowed to elect either for British or German
+nationality, and until 1901 no additional import duties were imposed.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Von der Decken, _Philosophisch-historisch-geographische
+  Untersuchungen über die Insel Helgoland, oder Heiligeland, und ihre
+  Bewohner_ (Hanover, 1826); Wiebel, _Die Insel Helgoland,
+  Untersuchungen über deren Grösse in Vorzeit und Gegenwart vom
+  Standpunkte der Geschichte und Geologie_ (Hamburg, 1848); J. M.
+  Lappenberg, _Über den ehemaligen Umfang und die alte Geschichte
+  Helgolands_ (Hamburg, 1831); F. Otker, _Helgoland. Schilderungen und
+  Erörterungen_ (Berlin, 1855); E. Hallier, _Helgoland, Nordseestudien_
+  (Hamburg, 1893); A. W. F. Möller, _Rechtsgeschichte der Insel
+  Helgoland_ (Weimar, 1904); W. G. Black, _Heligoland and the Islands of
+  the North Sea_ (Glasgow, 1888); E. Lindermann, _Die Nordseeinsel
+  Helgoland in topographischer, geschichtlicher, sanitärer Beziehung_
+  (Berlin, 1889); and Tittel, _Die natürlichen Veränderungen Helgolands_
+  (Leipzig, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+HELIOCENTRIC, i.e. referred to the centre of the sun ([Greek: hêlios])
+as an origin, a term designating especially co-ordinates or heavenly
+bodies referred to that origin.
+
+
+
+
+HELIODORUS, of Emesa in Syria, Greek writer of romance. According to his
+own statement his father's name was Theodosius, and he belonged to a
+family of priests of the sun. He was the author of the _Aethiopica_, the
+oldest and best of the Greek romances that have come down to us. It was
+first brought to light in modern times in a MS. from the library of
+Matthias Corvinus, found at the sack of Buda (Ofen) in 1526, and printed
+at Basel in 1534. Other codices have since been discovered. The title is
+taken from the fact that the action of the beginning and end of the
+story takes place in Aethiopia. The daughter of Persine, wife of
+Hydaspes, king of Aethiopia, was born white through the effect of the
+sight of a marble statue upon the queen during pregnancy. Fearing an
+accusation of adultery, the mother gives the babe to the care of
+Sisimithras, a gymnosophist, who carries her to Egypt and places her in
+charge of Charicles, a Pythian priest. The child is taken to Delphi, and
+made a priestess of Apollo under the name of Chariclea. Theagenes, a
+noble Thessalian, comes to Delphi and the two fall in love with each
+other. He carries off the priestess with the help of Calasiris, an
+Egyptian, employed by Persine to seek for her daughter. Then follow many
+perils from sea-rovers and others, but the chief personages ultimately
+meet at Meroë at the very moment when Chariclea is about to be
+sacrificed to the gods by her own father. Her birth is made known, and
+the lovers are happily married. The rapid succession of events, the
+variety of the characters, the graphic descriptions of manners and of
+natural scenery, the simplicity and elegance of the style, give the
+_Aethiopica_ great charm. As a whole it offends less against good taste
+and morality than others of the same class. Homer and Euripides were the
+favourite authors of Heliodorus, who in his turn was imitated by French,
+Italian and Spanish writers. The early life of Clorinda in Tasso's
+_Jerusalem Delivered_ (canto xii. 21 sqq.) is almost identical with that
+of Chariclea; Racine meditated a drama on the same subject; and it
+formed the model of the _Persiles y Sigismunda_ of Cervantes. According
+to the ecclesiastical historian Socrates (_Hist. eccles._ v. 22), the
+author of the _Aethiopica_ was a certain Heliodorus, bishop of Tricca in
+Thessaly. It is supposed that the work was written in his early years
+before he became a Christian, and that, when confronted with the
+alternative of disowning it or resigning his bishopric, he preferred
+resignation. But it is now generally agreed that the real author was a
+sophist of the 3rd century A.D.
+
+  The best editions are: A. Coraës (1804), G. A. Hirschig (1856); see
+  also M. Oeftering, _H. und seine Bedeutung für die Literatur_, with
+  full bibliographies (1901); J. C. Dunlop, _History of Prose Fiction_
+  (1888); and especially E. Rohde, _Der griechische Roman_ (1900). There
+  are translations in almost all European languages: in English, in
+  Bohn's _Classical Library_ and the "Tudor" series (v., 1895,
+  containing the old translation by T. Underdowne, 1587, with
+  introduction by C. Whibley); in French by Amyot and Zevort.
+
+
+
+
+HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS), Roman emperor (A.D. 218-222), was born at
+Emesa about 205. His real name was Varius Avitus. On the murder of
+Caracalla (217), Julia Maesa, Varius's grandmother and Caracalla's aunt,
+left Rome and retired to Emesa, accompanied by her grandsons (Varius and
+Alexander Severus). Varius, though still only a boy, was appointed high
+priest of the Syrian sun-god Elagabalus, one of the chief seats of whose
+worship was Emesa (Homs). His beauty, and the splendid ceremonials at
+which he presided, made him a great favourite with the troops stationed
+in that part of Syria, and Maesa increased his popularity by spreading
+reports that he was in reality the illegitimate son of Caracalla.
+Macrinus, the successor and instigator of the murder of Caracalla, was
+very unpopular with the army; an insurrection was easily set on foot,
+and on the 16th of May 218 Varius was proclaimed emperor as Marcus
+Aurelius Antoninus. The troops sent to quell the revolt went over to
+him, and Macrinus was defeated near Antioch on the 8th of June.
+Heliogabalus was at once recognized by the senate as emperor. After
+spending the winter in Nicomedia, he proceeded in 219 to Rome, where he
+made it his business to exalt the deity whose priest he was and whose
+name he assumed. The Syrian god was proclaimed the chief deity in Rome,
+and all other gods his servants; splendid ceremonies in his honour were
+celebrated, at which Heliogabalus danced in public, and it was believed
+that secret rites accompanied by human sacrifice were performed in his
+honour. In addition to these affronts upon the state religion, he
+insulted the intelligence of the community by horseplay of the wildest
+description and by childish practical joking. The shameless profligacy
+of the emperor's life was such as to shock even a Roman public. His
+popularity with the army declined, and Maesa, perceiving that the
+soldiers were in favour of Alexander Severus, persuaded Heliogabalus to
+raise his cousin to the dignity of Caesar (221), a step of which he soon
+repented. An attempt to murder Alexander was frustrated by the watchful
+Maesa. Another attempt in 222 produced a mutiny among the praetorians,
+in which Heliogabalus and his mother Soemias (Soaemias) were slain
+(probably in the first half of March).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Life by Aelius Lampridius in _Scriptores historiae
+  Augustae_; Herodian v. 3-8; Dio Cassius lxxviii. 30 sqq., lxxix. 1-21;
+  monograph by G. Duviquet, _Héliogabale_ (1903), containing a
+  translation of the various accounts of Heliogabalus in Greek and Latin
+  authors, notes, bibliography and illustrations; O. F. Butler, _Studies
+  in the Life of Heliogabalus_ (New York, 1908); Gibbon, _Decline and
+  Fall_, ch. 6; H. Schiller, _Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit_, i.
+  pt. ii. (1883), p. 759 ff. On the Syrian god see F. Cumont in
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_, v. pt. ii. (1905).
+
+
+
+
+HELIOGRAPH (from Gr. [Greek: êlios], sun, and [Greek: gráphein] to
+write), an instrument for reflecting the rays of the sun (or the light
+obtained from any other source) over a considerable distance. Its main
+application is in military signalling (see SIGNAL). A similar instrument
+is the heliotrope, used principally for defining distant points in
+geodetic surveys, such as in the triangulation of India, and in the
+verification of the African arc of the meridian. It is necessary to
+distinguish the method of signalling termed heliography from the
+photographic process of the same name (see PHOTOGRAPHY).
+
+
+
+
+HELIOMETER (from Gr. [Greek: hêlios], sun, and [Greek: metron], a
+measure), an instrument originally designed for measuring the variation
+of the sun's diameter at different seasons of the year, but applied now
+to the modern form of the instrument which is capable of much wider use.
+The present article also deals with other forms of double-image
+micrometer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  The discovery of the method of making measures by double images is
+  stated to have been first suggested by O. Roemer about 1768. But no
+  such suggestion occurs in the _Basis Astronomiae_ of Peter Horrebow
+  (Copenhagen, 1735), which contains the only works of Roemer that
+  remain to us. It would appear that to Servington Savary is due the
+  first invention of a micrometer for measurement by double image. His
+  heliometer (described in a paper communicated to the Royal Society in
+  1743, and printed, along with a letter from James Short, in _Phil.
+  Trans._, 1753, p. 156) was constructed by cutting from a complete lens
+  abcd the equal portions aghc and acfe (fig. 1). The segments gbh and
+  efd so formed were then attached to the end of a tube having an
+  internal diameter represented by the dotted circle (fig. 2). The width
+  of each of the portions aghc and acfe cut away from the lens was made
+  slightly greater than the focal length of lens × tangent of sun's
+  greatest diameter. Thus at the focus two images of the sun were formed
+  nearly in contact as in fig. 3. The small interval between the
+  adjacent limbs was then measured with a wire micrometer.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  Savary also describes another form of heliometer, on the same
+  principle, in which the segments aghc and acfe are utilized by
+  cementing their edges gh and ef together (fig. 4), and covering all
+  except the portion indicated by the unshaded circle. Savary expresses
+  preference for this second plan, and makes the pertinent remark that
+  in both these models "the rays of red light in the two solar images
+  will be next to each other, which will render the sun's disk more easy
+  to be observed than the violet ones." This he mentions "because the
+  glasses in these two sorts are somewhat prismatical, but mostly those
+  of the first model, which could therefore bear no great charge
+  (magnifying power)."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  A third model proposed by Savary consists of two complete lenses of
+  equal focal length, mounted in cylinders side by side, and attached to
+  a strong brass plate (fig. 5). Here, in order to fulfil the purposes
+  of the previous models, the distance of the centres of the lenses from
+  each other should only slightly exceed the tangent of sun's diameter ×
+  focal length of lenses. Savary dwells on the difficulty both of
+  procuring lenses sufficiently equal in focus and of accurately
+  adjusting and centring them.
+
+  In the _Mém. Acad. de Paris_ (1748), Pierre Bouguer describes an
+  instrument which he calls a heliometer. Lalande in his _Astronomie_
+  (vol. ii. p. 639) mentions such a heliometer which had been in his
+  possession from the year 1753, and of which he gives a representation
+  on Plate XXVIII., fig. 186, of the same volume. Bouguer's heliometer
+  was in fact similar to that of Savary's third model, with the
+  important difference that, instead of both object-glasses being fixed,
+  one of them is movable by a screw provided with a divided head. No
+  auxiliary filar micrometer was required, as in Savary's heliometer, to
+  measure the interval between the limbs of two adjacent images of the
+  sun, it being only necessary to turn the screw with the divided head
+  to change the distance between the object-glasses till the two images
+  of the sun are in contact as in fig. 6. The differences of the
+  readings of the screw, when converted into arc, afford the means of
+  measuring the variations of the sun's apparent diameter.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  On the 4th of April 1754 John Dollond communicated a paper to the
+  Royal Society of London (_Phil. Trans._, vol. xlviii. p. 551) in which
+  he shows that a micrometer can be much more easily constructed by
+  dividing a single object-glass through its axis than by the employment
+  of two object-glasses. He points out--(1) that a telescope with an
+  object-glass so divided still produces a single image of any object to
+  which it may be directed, provided that the optical centres of the
+  segments are in coincidence (i.e. provided the segments retain the
+  same relative positions to each other as before the glass was cut);
+  (2) that if the segments are separated in any direction two images of
+  the object viewed will be produced; (3) that the most convenient
+  direction of separation for micrometric purposes is to slide these
+  straight edges one along the other as the figure on the margin (fig.
+  7) represents them: "for thus they may be moved without suffering any
+  false light to come in between them; and by this way of removing them
+  the distance between their centres may be very conveniently measured,
+  viz. by having a vernier's division fixed to the brass work that holds
+  one segment, so as to slide along a scale on the plate to which the
+  other part of the glass is fitted."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  Dollond then points out three different types in which a glass so
+  divided and mounted may be used as a micrometer:--
+
+  "1. It may be fixed at the end of a tube, of a suitable length to its
+  focal distance, as an object-glass,--the other end of the tube having
+  an eye-glass fitted as usual in astronomical telescopes.
+
+  "2. It may be applied to the end of a tube much shorter than its focal
+  distance, by having another convex glass within the tube, to shorten
+  the focal distance of that which is cut in two.
+
+  "3. It may be applied to the open end of a reflecting telescope,
+  either of the Newtonian or the Cassegrain construction."
+
+  Dollond adds his opinion that the third type is "much the best and
+  most convenient of the three"; yet it is the first type that has
+  survived the test of time and experience, and which is in fact the
+  modern heliometer. It must be remembered, however, that when Dollond
+  expressed preference for this third type he had not then invented the
+  achromatic object-glass.
+
+  Some excellent instruments of the second type were subsequently made
+  by Dollond's eldest son Peter, in which for the "convex glass within
+  the tube" was substituted an achromatic object-glass, and outside that
+  a divided negative achromatic combination of long focus. In the fine
+  example of this instrument at the Cape Observatory the movable
+  negative lenses consist of segments of the shape gach and acfe (fig.
+  1) cut from a complete negative achromatic combination of 8¼ in.
+  aperture and about 41 ft. focal length, composed of a double concave
+  flint lens and a double convex crown. This was applied to an excellent
+  achromatic telescope of 3¼ in. aperture and 42 in. focal length. In
+  this instrument a considerable linear relative movement of the divided
+  lens corresponds with a comparatively small separation of the double
+  image, so that simple verniers reading to 1/1000 in. are sufficient
+  for measurement.
+
+  With one of these instruments of somewhat smaller dimensions
+  (telescope 2½ in. aperture and 3½ ft. focus), Franz von Paula
+  Triesnecker made a series of measurements at the observatory of Vienna
+  which has been reduced by Dr Wilhelm Schur of Strasburg (_Nova Acta
+  der Ksl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Natursforscher_, 1882,
+  xlv. No. 3). The angle between the stars [zeta] and g Ursae maj.
+  (708´´.55) was measured on four nights; the probable error of a
+  measure on one night was ±0´´.44. Jupiter was measured on eleven
+  nights in the months of June and July 1794; from these measures Schur
+  derives the values 35´´.39 and 37´´.94 for the polar and equatorial
+  diameter respectively, at mean distance, corresponding with a
+  compression 1/14.44. These agree satisfactorily with the corresponding
+  values 35´´.21, 37´´.60, 1/15.59 afterwards obtained by F. W. Bessel
+  (_Königsberger Beobachtungen_, xix. 102). From a series of measures of
+  the angle between Jupiter's satellites and the planet, made in June
+  and July 1794 and in August and September 1795, Schur finds the mass
+  of Jupiter = 1/1048.55 ± 1.45, a result which accords well within the
+  limits of its probable error with the received value of the mass
+  derived from modern researches. The probable errors for the measures
+  of one night are ±0´´.577, ±0´´.889, ±0´´.542, ±1´´.096, for
+  Satellites I., II., III. and IV. respectively.
+
+  Considering the accuracy of these measures (an accuracy far surpassing
+  that of any other contemporary observations), it is somewhat
+  surprising that this form of micrometer was never systematically used
+  in any sustained or important astronomical researches, although a
+  number of instruments of the kind were made by Dollond. Probably the
+  last example of its employment is an observation of the transit of
+  Mercury (November 4, 1868) by Mann, at the Royal Observatory, Cape of
+  Good Hope (_Monthly Notices R.A.S._ vol. xxix. p. 197-209). The most
+  important part, however, which this type of instrument seems to have
+  played in the history of astronomy arises from the fact that one of
+  them was in the possession of Bessel at Königsberg during the time
+  when his new observatory there was being built. In 1812 Bessel
+  measured with it the angle between the components of the double star
+  61 Cygni and observed the great comet of 1811. He also observed the
+  eclipse of the sun on May 4, 1818. In the discussion of these
+  observations (_Königsberger Beobacht_, Abt. 5, p. iv.) he found that
+  the index error of the scale changed systematically in different
+  position angles by quantities which were independent of the direction
+  of gravity relative to the position angle under measurement, but which
+  depended solely on the direction of the measured position angle
+  relative to a fixed radius of the object-glass. Bessel attributed this
+  to non-homogeneity in the object-glass, and determined with great care
+  the necessary corrections. But he was so delighted with the general
+  performance of the instrument, with the sharpness of the images and
+  the possibilities which a kindred construction offered for the
+  measurement of considerable angles with micrometric accuracy, that he
+  resolved, when he should have the choice of a new telescope for the
+  observatory, to secure some form of heliometer.
+
+  Nor is it difficult to imagine the probable course of reasoning which
+  led Bessel to select the model of his new heliometer. Why, he might
+  ask, should he not select the simple form of Dollond's first type?
+  Given the achromatic object-glass, why should not it be divided? This
+  construction would give all the advantage of the younger Dollond's
+  object-glass micrometer, and more than its sharpness of definition,
+  without liability to the systematic errors which may be due to want of
+  homogeneity of the object-glass; for the lenses will not be turned
+  with respect to each other, but, in measurement, will always have the
+  same relation in position angle to the line joining the objects under
+  observation. It is true that the scale will require to be capable of
+  being read with much greater accuracy than 1/1000th of an inch--for
+  that, even in a telescope of 10 ft. focus, would correspond with 2´´
+  of arc. But, after all, this is no practical difficulty, for screws
+  can be used to separate the lenses, and, by these screws, as in a
+  Gascoigne micrometer, the separation of the lenses can be measured; or
+  we can have scales for this purpose, read by microscopes, like the
+  Troughton[1] circles of Piazzi or Pond, or those of the Carey circle,
+  with almost any required accuracy.
+
+  Whether Bessel communicated such a course of reasoning to Fraunhofer,
+  or whether that great artist arrived independently at like
+  conclusions, we have been unable to ascertain with certainty. The fact
+  remains that before 1820[2] Fraunhofer had completed one or more of
+  the five heliometers (3 in. aperture and 39 in. focus) which have
+  since become historical instruments. In 1824 the great Königsberg
+  heliometer was commenced, and it was completed in 1829.
+
+  To sum up briefly the history of the development of the heliometer.
+  The first application of the divided object-glass and the employment
+  of double images in astronomical measures is due to Savary in 1743. To
+  Bouguer in 1748 is due the true conception of measurement by double
+  image without the auxiliary aid of a filar micrometer, viz. by
+  changing the distance between two object-glasses of equal focus. To
+  Dollond in 1754 we owe the combination of Savary's idea of the divided
+  object-glass with Bouguer's method of measurement, and the
+  construction of the first really practical heliometers. To Fraunhofer,
+  some time not long previous to 1820, is due, so far as we can
+  ascertain, the construction of the first heliometer with an achromatic
+  divided object-glass, i.e. the first heliometer of the modern type.
+
+
+  _The Modern Heliometer._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  The Königsberg heliometer is represented in fig. 8. No part of the
+  equatorial mounting is shown in the figure, as it resembles in every
+  respect the usual Fraunhofer mounting. An adapter h is fixed on a
+  telescope-tube, made of wood, in Fraunhofer's usual fashion. To this
+  adapter is attached a flat circular flange h. The slides carrying the
+  segments of the divided object-glass are mounted on a plate, which is
+  fitted and ground to rotate smoothly on the flange h. Rotation is
+  communicated by a pinion, turned by the handle c (concealed in the
+  figure), which works in teeth cut on the edge of the flange h. The
+  counterpoise w balances the head about its axis of rotation. The
+  slides are moved by the screws a and b, the divided heads of which
+  serve to measure the separation of the segments. These screws are
+  turned from the eye-end by bevelled wheels and pinions, the latter
+  connected with the handles a´, b´. The reading micrometers e, f also
+  serve to measure, independently, the separation of the segments, by
+  scales attached to the slides; such measurements can be employed as a
+  check on those made by the screws. The measurement of position angles
+  is provided for by a graduated circle attached to the head. There is
+  also a position circle, attached at m to the eye-end, provided with a
+  slide to move the eye-piece radially from the axis of the telescope,
+  and with a micrometer to measure the distance of an object from that
+  axis. The ring c, which carries the supports of the handles a´, b´, is
+  capable of a certain amount of rotation on the tube. The weight of the
+  handles and their supports is balanced by the counterpoise z. This
+  ring is necessary in order to allow the rods to follow the micrometer
+  heads when the position angle is changed. Complete rotation of the
+  head is obviously impossible because of the interference of the
+  declination axis with the rods, and therefore, in some angles, objects
+  cannot be measured in two positions of the circle. The object-glass
+  has an aperture of 6½ in. and 102 in. focal length.
+
+  There are three methods in which this heliometer can be used.
+
+  _First Method._--One of the segments is fixed in the axis of the
+  telescope, and the eye-piece is also placed in the axis. Measures are
+  made with the moving segment displaced alternately on opposite sides
+  of the fixed segment.
+
+  _Second Method._--One segment is fixed, and the measures are made as
+  in the first method, excepting that the eye-piece is placed
+  symmetrically with respect to the images under measurement. For this
+  purpose the position angle of the eye-piece micrometer is set to that
+  of the head, and the eye-piece is displaced from the axis of the tube
+  (in the direction of the movable segment) by an amount equal to half
+  the angle under measurement.
+
+  _Third Method._--The eye-piece is fixed in the axis, and the segments
+  are symmetrically displaced from the axis each by an amount equal to
+  half the angle measured.
+
+  Of these methods Bessel generally employed the first because of its
+  simplicity, notwithstanding that it involved a resetting of the right
+  ascension and declination of the axis of the tube with each reversal
+  of the segments. The chief objections to the method are that, as one
+  star is in the axis of the telescope and the other displaced from it,
+  the images are not both in focus of the eye-piece,[3] and the rays
+  from the two stars do not make the same angle with the optical axis of
+  each segment. Thus the two images under measurement are not defined
+  with equal sharpness and symmetry. The second method is free from the
+  objection of non-coincidence in focus of the images, but is more
+  troublesome in practice from the necessity for frequent readjustment
+  of the position of the eye-piece. The third method is the most
+  symmetrical of all, both in observation and reduction; but it was not
+  employed by Bessel, on the ground that it involved the determination
+  of the errors of two screws instead of one. On the other hand it is
+  not necessary to reset the telescope after each reversal of the
+  segments.[4]
+
+  When Bessel ordered the Königsberg heliometer, he was anxious to have
+  the segments made to move in cylindrical slides, of which the radius
+  should be equal to the focal length of the object-glass. Fraunhofer,
+  however, did not execute this wish, on the ground that the mechanical
+  difficulties were too great.
+
+  M. L. G. Wichmann states (_Königsb. Beobach._ xxx. 4) that Bessel had
+  indicated, by notes in his handbooks, the following points which
+  should be kept in mind in the construction of future heliometers: (1)
+  The segments should move in cylindrical slides;[5] (2) the screw
+  should be protected from dust;[6] (3) the zero of the position circle
+  should not be so liable to change;[7] (4) the distance of the optical
+  centres of the segments should not change in different position angles
+  or otherwise;[8] (5) the points of the micrometer screws should rest
+  on ivory plates;[9] (6) there should be an apparatus for changing the
+  screen.[10]
+
+  Wilhelm Struve, in describing the Pulkowa heliometer,[11] made by
+  Merz in 1839 on the model of Bessel's heliometer, submits the
+  following suggestions for its improvement:[12] (1) to give
+  automatically to the two segments simultaneous equal and opposite
+  movement;[13] and (2) to make the tube of metal instead of wood; to
+  attach the heliometer head firmly to this tube; to place the eye-piece
+  permanently in the axis of the telescope; and to fix a strong cradle
+  on the end of the declination axis, in which the tube, with the
+  attached head and eye-piece, could rotate on its axis.
+
+  Both suggestions are important. The first is originally the idea of
+  Dollond; its advantages were overlooked by his son, and it seems to
+  have been quite forgotten till resuggested by Struve. But the method
+  is not available if the separation is to be measured by screws; it is
+  found, in that case, that the direction of the final motion of turning
+  of the screw must always be such as to produce motion of the segment
+  against gravity, otherwise the "loss of time" is apt to be variable.
+  Thus the simple connexion of the two screws by cog-wheels to give them
+  automatic opposite motion is not an available method unless the
+  separation of the segments is independently measured by scales.
+
+  Struve's second suggestion has been adopted in nearly all succeeding
+  heliometers. It permits complete rotation of the tube and measurement
+  of all angles in reversed positions of the circle; the handles that
+  move the slides can be brought down to the eye-end, inside the tube,
+  and consequently made to rotate with it; and the position circle may
+  be placed at the end of the cradle next the eye-end where it is
+  convenient of access. Struve also points out that by attaching a fine
+  scale to the focusing slide of the eye-piece, and knowing the
+  coefficient of expansion of the metal tube, the means would be
+  provided for determining the absolute change of the focal length of
+  the object-glass at any time by the simple process of focusing on a
+  double star. This, with a knowledge of the temperature of the screw or
+  scale and its coefficient of expansion, would enable the change of
+  screw-value to be determined at any instant.
+
+  It is probable that the Bonn heliometer was in course of construction
+  before these suggestions of Struve were published or discussed, since
+  its construction resembles that of the Königsberg and Pulkowa
+  instruments. Its dimensions are similar to those of the former
+  instrument. Bessel, having been consulted by the celebrated statesman,
+  Sir Robert Peel, on behalf of the Radcliffe trustees, as to what
+  instrument, added to the Radcliffe Observatory, would probably most
+  promote the advancement of astronomy, strongly advised the selection
+  of a heliometer. The order for the instrument was given to the
+  Repsolds in 1840, but "various circumstances, for which the makers are
+  not responsible, contributed to delay the completion of the
+  instrument, which was not delivered before the winter of 1848."[14]
+  The building to receive it was commenced in March 1849 and completed
+  in the end of the same year. This instrument has a superb object-glass
+  of 7½ in. aperture and 126 in. focal length. The makers availed
+  themselves of Bessel's suggestion to make the segments move in
+  cylindrical slides, and of Struve's to have the head attached to a
+  brass tube; the eye-piece is set permanently in the axis, and the
+  whole rotates in a cradle attached to the declination axis. They
+  provided a splendid, rigidly mounted, equatorial stand, fitted with
+  every luxury in the way of slow motion, and scales for measuring the
+  displacement of the segments were read by powerful micrometers from
+  the eye-end.[15] It is somewhat curious that, though Struve's second
+  suggestion was adopted, his first was overlooked by the makers. But it
+  is still more curious that it was not afterwards carried out, for the
+  communication of automatic symmetrical motion to both segments only
+  involves a simple alteration previously described. But, as it came
+  from the hands of the makers in 1849, the Oxford heliometer was
+  incomparably the most powerful and perfect instrument in the world for
+  the highest order of micrometric research. It so remained, unrivalled
+  in every respect, till 1873.
+
+  As the transit of Venus of 1874 approached, preparations were set on
+  foot by the German Government in good time; a commission of the most
+  celebrated astronomers was appointed, and it was resolved that the
+  heliometer should be the instrument chiefly relied on. The four
+  long-neglected small heliometers made by Fraunhofer were brought into
+  requisition. Fundamental alterations were made upon them: their wooden
+  tubes were replaced by tubes of metal; means of measuring the focal
+  point were provided; symmetrical motion was given to the slides;
+  scales on each slide were provided instead of screws for measuring the
+  separation of the segments, and both scales were read by the same
+  micrometer microscope; a metallic thermometer was added to determine
+  the temperature of the scales. These small instruments have since done
+  admirable work in the hands of Schur, Hartwig, Küstner, Elkin, Auwers
+  and others.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  The Russian Government ordered three new heliometers (each of 4 in.
+  aperture and 5 ft. focal length) from the Repsolds, and the design for
+  their construction was superintended by Struve, Auwers and Winnecke,
+  the last-named making the necessary experiments at Carlsruhe. Fig. 9
+  represents the resulting type of instrument which was finally designed
+  and constructed by Repsolds. The brass tube, strengthened at the
+  bearing points by strong truly turned collars, rotates in the cast
+  iron cradle q attached to the declination axis, a is the eye-piece
+  fixed in the optical axis, b the micrometer for reading both scales, c
+  and d are telescopes for reading the position circle p, e the handle
+  for quick motion in position angle, f the slow motion in position
+  angle, g the handle for changing the separation of the segments by
+  acting on the bevel-wheel g´ (fig. 10). h is a milled head connected
+  by a rod with h´ (fig. 10), for the purpose of interposing at pleasure
+  the prism [pi] in the axis of the reading micrometer; this enables the
+  observer to view the graduations on the face of the metallic
+  thermometer [tau tau] (composed of a rod of brass and a rod of zinc),
+  i is a milled head connected with the wheel i´i´ (fig. 10), and
+  affords the means of placing the screen s (fig. 9), counterpoised by w
+  over either half of the object-glass. k clamps the telescope in
+  declination, n clamps it in right ascension, and the handles m and l
+  provide slow motion in declination and right ascension respectively.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  The details of the interior mechanism of the "head" will be almost
+  evident from fig. 10 without description. The screw, turned by the
+  wheels at g´, acts in a toothed arc, whence, as shown in the figure,
+  equal and opposite motion is communicated to the slides by the jointed
+  rods v, v. The slides are kept firmly down to their bearings by the
+  rollers r, r, r, r, attached to axes which are, in the middle, very
+  strong springs. Side-shake is prevented by the screws and pieces k, k,
+  k, k. The scales are at n, n; they are fastened only at the middle,
+  and are kept down by the brass pieces t, t.
+
+  A similar heliometer was made by the Repsolds to the order of Lord
+  Lindsay for his Mauritius expedition in 1874. It differed only from
+  the three Russian instruments in having a mounting by the Cookes in
+  which the declination circle reads from the eye-end.[16] This
+  instrument was afterwards most generously lent by Lord Lindsay to Gill
+  for his expedition to Ascension in 1877.[17]
+
+  These four Repsold heliometers proved to be excellent instruments,
+  easy and convenient in use, and yielding results of very high
+  accuracy in measuring distances. Their slow motion in position angle,
+  however, was not all that could be desired. When small movements were
+  communicated to the handle e (fig. 9) by the tangent screw f, acting
+  on a small toothed wheel clamped to the rod connected with the driving
+  pinion, there was apt to be a torsion of the rod rather than an
+  immediate action. Thus the slow motion would take place by jerks
+  instead of with the necessary smoothness and certainty. When the
+  heliometer-part of Lord Lindsay's heliometer was acquired by Gill in
+  1879, he changed the manner of imparting the motion in question. A
+  square toothed racked wheel was applied to the tube at r (fig. 9).
+  This wheel is acted on by a tangent screw whose bearings are attached
+  to the cradle; the screw is turned by means of a handle supported by
+  bearings attached to the cradle, and coming within convenient reach of
+  the observer's hand. The tube turns smoothly in the racked wheel, or
+  can be clamped to it at the will of the observer. This alteration and
+  the new equatorial mounting have been admirably made by Grubb; the
+  result is completely successful. The instrument so altered was in use
+  at the Cape Observatory from March 1881 till 1887 in determining the
+  parallax of some of the more interesting southern stars. The
+  instrument then passed, by purchase from Gill, to Lord McLaren, by
+  whom it was presented to the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+  Still more recently the Repsolds have completed a new heliometer for
+  Yale College, New Haven, United States. The object-glass is of 6 in.
+  aperture and 98 in. focal length. The mounting, the tube,
+  objective-cell, slides, &c., are all of steel.[18] The instrument is
+  shown in fig. 11. The circles for position angle and declination are
+  read by micrometer-microscopes illuminated by the lamp L; the scales
+  are illuminated by the lamp l. T is part of the tube proper, and turns
+  with the head. The tube V, on the contrary, is attached to the cradle,
+  and merely forms a support for the finder Q, the handles at f and p,
+  and the moving ring P. The latter gives quick motion in position
+  angle; the handles at p clamp and give slow motion in position angle,
+  those at f clamp and give slow motion in right ascension and
+  declination. a is the eye-piece, b the handle for moving the segments,
+  c the micrometer microscope for reading the scales and scale
+  micrometer, d the micrometer readers of the position and declination
+  circles, e the handle for rotating the large wheel E which carries the
+  screens. The hour circle is also read by microscopes, and the
+  instrument can be used in both positions (tube preceding and
+  following) for elimination of the effect of flexure on the position
+  angles. Elkin found that the chief drawbacks to speed and convenience
+  in working this heliometer were: (1) The loss of time involved in
+  entering the corresponding readings of the micrometer pointings on two
+  scales. (2) That an additional motion intermediate between the quick
+  and slow motion in position angle was necessary, because, whilst the
+  slow motion provided by Repsolds was admirably adapted for adjusting
+  the pointings in position angle, it was too slow for causing the
+  images to "cross through" each other in the process of measuring
+  distances. To remedy drawback (1) Repsolds devised the form of
+  printing micrometer which is shown in figs. 12 and 13. This micrometer
+  is provided with two pairs of parallel webs. One fixed pair of webs is
+  attached to the micrometer-box, the other pair is moved by the screw
+  S. The whole micrometer-box is moved by the screw attached to the
+  heads. Accordingly, in reading the scales A and B (attached to the
+  slides which carry the two halves of the object-glass), it is only
+  necessary to turn the screws until the fixed double web is pointed
+  symmetrically on one of the divisions of scale A, then to move the
+  other double web by the screw S until it is symmetrically pointed on
+  the adjoining division of scale B. By turning the quick acting screw P
+  (fig. 13) to the right, the cushion C (which is faced with
+  india-rubber) presses the paper ribbon (shown in fig. 13) against the
+  index-edge and type-wheels, and thus the beautifully cut divisions of
+  the micrometer-head, the numbers marking the 1/100 parts of the head,
+  the index and the total number of revolutions are all sharply embossed
+  together upon the paper ribbon. Fig. 14 shows the record of several
+  successive paintings on the same scale as that given by the
+  micrometer. The reverse motion of P automatically moves the paper
+  ribbon forward, ready to receive the next impression. It must be
+  mentioned that the pressure of the cushion C on the type-wheels has no
+  influence whatever upon the micrometer-screw, because the type-wheels
+  are mounted on a hollow cylindrical axis, concentric with the axis of
+  the screw, but entirely disconnected from the screw itself. The only
+  connexion between the type-wheel and the screw-head S is by the pin p
+  (which is screwed into S), the cylindrical end of which acts in a slot
+  cut in the type-wheel. To remedy drawback (2) Repsolds provided for
+  the Yale heliometer an additional handle for motion in position angle,
+  intermediate in velocity between the original quick and slow motions.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+  [Illustration: From _Engineering_, vol. xlix.
+
+  FIG. 15.]
+
+  In the 7-in. heliometer, completed in 1887 for the Royal Observatory
+  at the Cape of Good Hope, Repsolds, on Gill's suggestion, introduced
+  the following improvements: (a) Four different speeds of motion in
+  position angle were provided. The quickest movement is given by the
+  hand-ring, 73 (fig. 15). This ring runs between friction wheels and is
+  provided with teeth on its inner periphery, and these teeth transmit
+  motion to a pinion on a spindle having at its other end another pinion
+  which, through an intermediate wheel, rotates the heliometer tube. The
+  transmission spindle, just mentioned, carries at its end a head, 74,
+  which, if turned directly, gives the second speed. The slowest speed
+  is given by means of a tangent screw which is carried by a
+  ball-bearing on the flange of the telescope-sleeve, whilst its nut is
+  double-jointed to a ring that encircles the flange of the
+  heliometer-tube. This ring is provided with a clamping screw, which,
+  through the intervention of bevel-gear and rods, is operated by means
+  of the hand-wheel 78. With similar bevel-gear and rods the tangent
+  screw is connected to the hand-wheel, 79, by which the observer
+  communicates the fourth or slowest motion in position angle. Finally
+  the hand-wheel 80 is connected by gearing to the rod carrying the
+  hand-wheel 79, and it can thus be used to give the latter a more rapid
+  motion than if used direct; this constitutes the third speed of
+  movement.
+
+  (b) In lieu of oil-lamps, small, conveniently placed incandescent
+  electric 6-volt lamps are employed; and these are fitted with suitable
+  switches and variable resistances. Thus the scales, the position- and
+  declination-circles, the field of view, the heads of all the
+  micrometer-microscopes, the focusing scale, &c., are read without the
+  aid of a hand-lamp and with an amount of illumination that can be
+  regulated at the observer's pleasure.
+
+  (c) A button in the centre of the position-angle handle (74) connects
+  with a chronograph which enables the observer to record the instant of
+  observation. Little card-holders (81) (also illuminated) enable the
+  astronomer to enter beforehand the R.A. and Dec. of the object to be
+  observed, the scale divisions to be pointed upon, and thus, in
+  measures of distance, with the aid of the chronograph and printing
+  micrometer, enable the observer to adjust the instrument for
+  observation and obtain a record of his observations without the aid of
+  a hand-lamp or the necessity to make any records in his notebook. In
+  observations of position angle one of the two tablets 81 can be used
+  to record the readings.
+
+  (d) The scales are made of iridio-platinum instead of silver, and the
+  magnifying power of the reading microscope is increased fourfold (viz.
+  to 100 diameters). A special microscope is introduced for determining
+  the division errors of the scales. It enables the observer to compare
+  any division-interval on one half of either scale with any
+  corresponding interval on the other scale. With this apparatus Gill
+  was enabled (_Annals Cape Obs._ vii. 29-42, and _Monthly Notices,
+  R.A.S._, xlix. 105-115) to determine the division error of every line
+  on both scales with a probable error corresponding to ± 0´´.0092 arc.
+
+  (e) A position-micrometer is attached to the finder to enable the
+  observer to select comparison stars for observation with some
+  unexpected object. Thus a comet may be encountered in the morning dawn
+  or evening twilight, and without such an adjunct the astronomer may
+  lose the whole available opportunity for observation in the vain
+  endeavour to find a suitable comparison-star. But with such a
+  position-micrometer of large field he has no difficulty. Directing the
+  finder to the comet, he has at once in the field of view all available
+  comparison stars. Having selected the most suitable one he directs the
+  axis of the finder to the estimated middle point between the comet and
+  the star, turns the finder-micrometer in position angle until the
+  images of comet and star lie symmetrically between the parallel
+  position wires, and then turns the micrometer screw (which moves the
+  distance-wires symmetrically from the centre in opposite directions)
+  till one wire bisects the comet and the other the star. The reading of
+  the position-circle of the finder is then the reading to which the
+  position-circle of the heliometer should be set, and from the readings
+  of the micrometer-screw he finds, by a convenient table, the proper
+  settings of the heliometer scales in distance. When the scales and
+  position-circle of the heliometer have been set to these readings, the
+  comet and the selected comparison-star appear together in the field of
+  view.
+
+  Fig. 15 shows the very convenient arrangement of the eye-end of the
+  instrument. The disk, 30 with its small projecting handle enables the
+  2 segments of the divided object to be moved rapidly or with any
+  required delicacy relative to each other. The disk 32 operates the
+  wire gauze screens for equalizing the brightness of the two stars
+  under observation. The dial between 30 and 32 indicates the screen in
+  use. 18 clamps and 19 gives slow motion in declination; 20 clamps and
+  21 gives slow motion in right ascension. The two handles 82 serve for
+  manipulating the instrument. The microscopes adjoining 82 read the
+  position and declination circles; for, by an ingenious arrangement of
+  prisms and screens, the images of both circles can be read by each
+  single microscope as shown in fig. 16, thus avoiding the necessity for
+  the employment of two additional micrometers.
+
+  Experience has shown that there is little that can be advantageously
+  changed to improve this instrument either in convenience or precision
+  of working. A series of observations can be easily and more accurately
+  accomplished with the Cape heliometer in half an hour; with the Oxford
+  heliometer it would occupy 2 hours, and with the 4 in. Repsold
+  heliometer (fig. 9) 1 hour. Heliometers of 6 to 8 in. aperture have
+  subsequently been constructed by Repsolds on these plans for
+  Göttingen, Bamberg, Leipzig and the Kuffner Observatory (near Vienna),
+  and all of them have made important contributions to astronomy of
+  precision.
+
+  Heliometer observations of distance in their most refined sense cannot
+  be considered absolute measures of angles. Essentially the scale-value
+  of the instrument depends on the relation of the focal length of the
+  object-glass to the length of the unit of the scale. But _the eye is
+  tolerant of small changes in the focal adjustment which sensibly
+  affect the scale-value_. These changes may and do arise from the
+  following causes: (i.) The focal length of the object-glass and the
+  length of the tube are affected by temperature. (ii.) The focal length
+  is sensibly different for objects of different colour. (iii.) The
+  length of the scale is affected by temperature. (iv.) The state of
+  adaptation of the observer's eye is dependent on his state of health,
+  on a condition of greater or less fatigue, or on the inclination of
+  the head in consequence of the altitude of the object observed. (v.)
+  The temperature of the object-glass, of the scale and of the tube,
+  cannot be assumed to be identical.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Engineering_, vol. xlix.
+
+  FIG. 16.]
+
+  Thus, for refined purposes, it cannot be assumed with any certainty
+  that the instantaneous scale-value of the heliometer is known, or that
+  it is a function of the temperature. Of course, for many purposes,
+  mean conditions may be adopted and mean scale-values be found which
+  are applicable with considerable precision to small angles or to
+  comparatively crude observations of large distances; but the highest
+  refinement is lost unless means are provided for determining the
+  scale-value for each observer at each epoch of observation.
+
+  In determinations of stellar or solar parallax, comparison stars,
+  symmetrically situated with respect to the object whose parallax is
+  sought, should be employed, in which case the instantaneous
+  scale-value may be regarded as an unknown quantity which can be
+  derived in the process of the computation of the results. Examples of
+  this mode of procedure will be found, in the case of stellar parallax
+  in the _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xlviii. pp. 1-194, and in the _Annals of the
+  Cape Observatory_, vol. viii. parts 1 and 2; and in the case of
+  planetary parallax in the _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xlvi. pp. 1-171, and in
+  the _Annals of the Cape Observatory_, vol. vi. In other operations,
+  such as the triangulation of large groups of stars, it is necessary to
+  select a pair of standard stars, if possible near the middle of the
+  group, and to determine the scale-value by measures of this standard
+  distance at frequent intervals during the night (see _Annals of the
+  Cape Observatory_, vol. vi. pp. 3-224). In other cases, such as the
+  measurement of the mutual distances and position angles of the
+  satellites of Jupiter, for derivation of the elements of the orbits of
+  the satellites and the mass of Jupiter, reference must also be made to
+  measures of standard stars whose relative distance and position angle
+  is accurately determined by independent methods (see _Annals of the
+  Cape Observatory_, vol. xii. part 2).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+  Gill introduced a powerful auxiliary to the accuracy of heliometer
+  measures in the shape of a reversing prism placed in front of the
+  eye-piece, between the latter and the observer's eye. If measures are
+  made by placing the image of a star in the centre of the disk of a
+  planet, the observer may have a tendency to do so systematically in
+  error from some acquired habit or from natural astigmatism of the eye.
+  But by rotating the prism 90° the image is presented entirely reversed
+  to the eye, so that in the mean of measures made in two such positions
+  personal error is eliminated. Similarly the prism may be used for the
+  study and elimination of personal errors depending on the angle made
+  by a double star with the vertical. The best plan of mounting such a
+  prism has been found to be the following. l^1, l^2 (fig. 17) are the
+  eye lens and field lens respectively of a Merz positive eye-piece. In
+  this construction the lenses are much closer together and the
+  diaphragm for the eye is much farther from the lenses than in
+  Ramsden's eye-piece. The prism p is fitted accurately into brass
+  slides (care has to be taken in the construction to place the prism so
+  that an object in the centre of the field will so remain when the
+  eye-piece is rotated in its adapter). There is a collar, clamped by
+  the screw at S, which is so adjusted that the eye-piece is in focus
+  when pushed home, in its adapter, to this collar. The prism and
+  eye-piece are then rotated together in the adapter.
+
+  _The Double Image Micrometer._--Thomas Clausen in 1841 (_Ast. Nach._
+  No. 414) proposed a form of micrometer consisting of a divided plate
+  of parallel glass placed within the cone of rays from the object-glass
+  at right angles to the telescope axis. One-half of this plane remains
+  fixed, the other half is movable. When the inclination of the movable
+  half with respect to the axis of the telescope is changed by rotation
+  about an axis at right angles to the plane of division, two images are
+  produced. The amount of separation is very small, and depends on the
+  thickness of the glass, the index of refraction and the focal length
+  of the telescope. Angelo Secchi (_Comptes rendus_, xli., 1855, p. 906)
+  gives an account of some experiments with a similar micrometer; and
+  Ignarjio Porro (_Comptes rendus_, xli. p. 1058) claims the original
+  invention and construction of such a micrometer in 1842. Clausen,
+  however, has undoubted priority. Helmholtz in his "Ophthalmometer" has
+  employed Clausen's principle, but arranges the plates so that both
+  move symmetrically in opposite directions with respect to the
+  telescope axis. Should Clausen's micrometer be employed as an
+  astronomical instrument, it would be well to adopt the improvement of
+  Helmholtz.
+
+  _Double-Image Micrometers with Divided Lenses._--Various micrometers
+  have been invented besides the heliometer for measuring by double
+  image. Ramsden's dioptric micrometer consists of a divided lens placed
+  in the conjugate focus of the innermost lens of the erecting eye-tube
+  of a terrestrial telescope. The inventor claimed that it would
+  supersede the heliometer, but it has never done anything for
+  astronomy. Dollond claims the independent invention and first
+  construction of a similar instrument (Pearson's _Practical Astronomy_,
+  ii. 182). Of these and kindred instruments only two types have proved
+  of practical value. G. B. Amici of Modena (_Mem. Soc. Ital._ xvii.,
+  1815, pp. 344-359) describes a micrometer in which a negative lens is
+  introduced between the eye-piece and the object-glass. This lens is
+  divided and mounted like a heliometer object-glass; the separation of
+  the lenses produces the required double image, and is measured by a
+  screw. W. R. Dawes very successfully used this micrometer in
+  conjunction with a filar micrometer, and found that the precision of
+  the measures was in this way greatly increased (_Monthly Notices_,
+  vol. xviii. p. 58, and _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xxxv. p. 147).
+
+  In the improved form[19] of Airy's divided eye-glass micrometer (_Mem.
+  R.A.S._ vol. xv. pp. 199-209) the rays from the object-glass pass
+  successively through lenses as follows:
+
+    +-----------------------------------+---------------+---------------+
+    |               Lens.               | Distance from | Focal Length. |
+    |                                   |   next Lens.  |               |
+    +-----------------------------------+---------------+---------------+
+    | a. An equiconvex lens             |       p       | arbitrary = p |
+    | b.       "       "                |       2       |       5       |
+    | c. Plano-convex, convex towards b |       1¾      |       1       |
+    | d. Plano-convex, convex towards c |       "       |       1       |
+    +-----------------------------------+---------------+---------------+
+
+  The lens b is divided, and one of the segments is moved by a
+  micrometer screw. The magnifying power is varied by changing the lens
+  a for another in which p has a different value. The magnifying power
+  of the eye-piece is that of a single lens of focus = 4/5p.
+
+  In 1850 J. B. Valz pointed out that the other optical conditions could
+  be equally satisfied if the divided lens were made concave instead of
+  convex, with the advantage of giving a larger field of view (_Monthly
+  Notices_, vol. x. p. 160).
+
+  The last improvement on this instrument is mentioned in the _Report_
+  of the R.A.S. council, February 1865. It consists in the introduction
+  by Simms of a fifth lens, but no satisfactory description has ever
+  appeared. There is only one practical published investigation of
+  Airy's micrometer that is worthy of mention, viz. that of F. Kaiser
+  (_Annalen der Sternwarte in Leiden_, iii. 111-274). The reader is
+  referred to that paper for an exhaustive history and discussion of the
+  instrument.[20] It is somewhat surprising that, after Kaiser's
+  investigations, observers should continue, as many have done, to
+  discuss their observations with this instrument as if the screw-value
+  were constant for all angles.
+
+  Steinheil (_Journal savant de Munich_, Feb. 28, 1843) describes a
+  "heliomètre-oculaire" which he made for the great Pulkowa refractor,
+  the result of consultations between himself and the elder Struve. It
+  is essentially the same in principle as Amici's micrometer, except
+  that the divided lens is an achromatic positive instead of a negative
+  lens. Struve (_Description de l'Observatoire Central de Pulkowa_, pp.
+  196, 197) adds a few remarks to Steinheil's description, in which he
+  states that the images have not all desirable precision--a fault
+  perhaps inevitable in all micrometers with divided lenses, and which
+  is probably in this case aggravated by the fact that the rays falling
+  upon the divided lens have considerable convergence. He, however,
+  successfully employed the instrument in measuring double stars, so
+  close as 1´´ or 2´´, and using a power of 300 diameters, with results
+  that agreed satisfactorily amongst themselves and with those obtained
+  with the filar micrometer. If Struve had employed a properly
+  proportioned double circular diaphragm, fixed symmetrically with the
+  axis of the telescope in front of the divided lens and turning with
+  the micrometer, it is probable that his report on the instrument would
+  have been still more favourable. This particular instrument has
+  historical interest, having led Struve to some of those criticisms of
+  the Pulkowa heliometer which ultimately bore such valuable fruit (see
+  _ante_).
+
+  Ramsden (_Phil. Trans._ vol. xix. p. 419) suggested the division of
+  the small speculum of a Cassegrain telescope and the production of
+  double image by micrometric rotation of the semispecula in the plane
+  passing through their axis. Brewster (_Ency. Brit._ 8th ed. vol. xiv.
+  p. 749) proposed a plan on a like principle, by dividing the plane
+  mirror of a Newtonian telescope. Again, in an ocular heliometer by
+  Steinheil double image is similarly produced by a divided prism of
+  total reflection placed in parallel rays. But practically these last
+  three methods are failures. In the last the field is full of false
+  light, and it is not possible to give sufficiently minute and steady
+  separation to the images; and there are of necessity a collimator, two
+  prisms of total reflection, and a small telescope through which the
+  rays must pass; consequently there is great loss of light.
+
+  _Micrometers Depending on Double Refraction._--To the Abbé Rochon
+  (_Jour. de phys._ liii., 1801, pp. 169-198) is due the happy idea of
+  applying the two images formed by double refraction to the
+  construction of a micrometer. He fell upon a most ingenious plan of
+  doubling the amount of double refraction of a prism by using two
+  prisms of rock-crystal, so cut out of the solid as to give each the
+  same quantity of double refraction, and yet to double the quantity in
+  the effect produced. The combination so formed is known as Rochon's
+  prism. Such a prism he placed between the object-glass and eye-piece
+  of a telescope. The separation of the images increases as the prism is
+  approached to the object-glass, and diminishes as it is approached
+  towards the eye-piece.
+
+  D. F. J. Arago (_Comptes rendus_, xxiv., 1847, pp. 400-402) found that
+  in Rochon's micrometer, when the prism was approached close to the
+  eye-piece for the measurement of very small angles, the smallest
+  imperfections in the crystal or its surfaces were inconveniently
+  magnified. He therefore selected for any particular measurement such a
+  Rochon prism as when fixed between the eye and the eye-piece (i.e.
+  where a sunshade is usually placed) would, combined with the normal
+  eye-piece employed, bring the images about to be measured nearly in
+  contact. He then altered the magnifying power by sliding the field
+  lens of the eye-piece (which was fitted with a slipping tube for the
+  purpose) along the eye-tube, till the images were brought into
+  contact. By a scale attached to the sliding tube the magnifying power
+  of the eye-piece was deduced, and this combined with the angle of the
+  prism employed gave the angle measured. If p" is the refracting angle
+  of the prism, and n the magnifying power of the eye-piece, then p"/n
+  will be the distance observed. Arago made many measures of the
+  diameters of the planets with such a micrometer.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+  Dollond (_Phil. Trans._, 1821, pp. 101-103) describes a double-image
+  micrometer of his own invention, in which a sphere of rock-crystal is
+  substituted for the eye-lens of an ordinary eye-piece. In this
+  instrument (figs. 18, 19) a is the sphere, placed in half-holes on the
+  axis bb, so that when its principal axis is parallel to the axis of
+  the telescope it gives only one image of the object. In a direction
+  perpendicular to that axis it must be so placed that when it is moved
+  by rotation of the axis bb the separation of the images shall be
+  parallel to that motion. The angle of rotation is measured on the
+  graduated circle C. The angle between the objects measured is = r sin
+  2[theta], where r is a constant to be determined for each magnifying
+  power employed,[21] and [theta] the angle through which the sphere has
+  been turned from zero (i.e. from coincidence of its principal axis
+  with that of the telescope). The maximum separation is consequently at
+  45° from zero. The measures can be made on both sides of zero for
+  eliminating index error. There are considerable difficulties of
+  construction, but these have been successfully overcome by Dollond;
+  and in the hands of Dawes (_Mem. R.A.S._ xxxv. p. 144 seq.) such
+  instruments have done valuable service. They are liable to the
+  objection that their employment is limited to the measurement of very
+  small angles, viz. 13´´ or 14´´ when the magnifying power is 100, and
+  varying inversely as the power. Yet the beautiful images which these
+  micrometers give permit the measurement of very difficult objects as a
+  check on measures with the parallel-wire micrometer.
+
+  On the theory of the heliometer and its use consult Bessel,
+  _Astronomische Untersuchungen_, vol. i.; Hansen, _Ausführliche Methode
+  mit dem Fraunhoferschen Heliometer anzustellen_ (Gotha, 1827);
+  Chauvenet, _Spherical and Practical Astronomy_, vol. ii. (Philadelphia
+  and London, 1876); Seeliger, _Theorie des Heliometers_ (Leipzig,
+  1877); Lindsay and Gill, _Dunecht Publications_, vol. ii. (Dunecht,
+  for private circulation, 1877); Gill, _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xlvi. pp.
+  1-172, and references mentioned in the text.     (D. Gi.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The circles by Reichenbach, then almost exclusively used in
+    Germany, were read by verniers only.
+
+  [2] The diameter of Venus was measured with one of these heliometers
+    at the observatory of Breslau by Brandes in 1820 (_Berlin Jahrbuch_,
+    1824, p. 164).
+
+  [3] The distances of the optical centres of the segments from the
+    eye-piece are in this method as 1; secant of the angle under
+    measurement. In Bessel's heliometer this would amount to a difference
+    of 15/1000th of an inch when an angle of 1° is measured. For 2° the
+    difference would amount to nearly 1/10th of an inch. Bessel confined
+    his measures to distances considerably less than 1°.
+
+  [4] In criticizing Bessel's choice of methods, and considering the
+    loss of time involved in each, it must be remembered that Fraunhofer
+    provided no means of reading the screws or even the heads from the
+    eye-end. Bessel's practice was to unclamp in declination, lower and
+    read off the head, and then restore the telescope to its former
+    declination reading, the clockwork meanwhile following the stars in
+    right ascension. The setting of both lenses symmetrically would,
+    under such circumstances, be very tedious.
+
+  [5] This most important improvement would permit any two stars under
+    measurement each to be viewed in the optical axis of each segment.
+    The optical centres of the segments would also remain at the same
+    distance from the eye-piece at all angles of separation. Thus, in
+    measuring the largest as well as the smallest angles, the images of
+    both stars would be equally symmetrical and equally well in focus.
+    Modern heliometers made with cylindrical slides measure angles over
+    2°, the images remaining as sharp and perfect as when the smallest
+    angles are measured.
+
+  [6] Bessel found, in course of time, that the original corrections
+    for the errors of his screw were no longer applicable. He considered
+    that the changes were due to wear, which would be much lessened if
+    the screws were protected from dust.
+
+  [7] The tube, being of wood, was probably liable to warp and twist in
+    a very uncertain way.
+
+  [8] We have been unable to find any published drawing showing how the
+    segments are fitted in their cells.
+
+  [9] We have been unable to ascertain the reasons which led Bessel to
+    choose _ivory_ planes for the end-bearings of his screws. He actually
+    introduced them in the Königsberg heliometer in 1840, and they were
+    renewed in 1848 and 1850.
+
+  [10] A screen of wire gauze, placed in front of the segment through
+    which the fainter star is viewed, was employed by Bessel to equalize
+    the brilliancy of the images under observation. An arrangement,
+    afterwards described, has been fitted in modern heliometers for
+    placing the screen in front of either segment by a handle at the
+    eye-end.
+
+  [11] This heliometer resembles Bessel's, except that its foot is a
+    solid block of granite instead of the ill-conceived wooden structure
+    that supported his instrument. The object-glass is of 7.4 in.
+    aperture and 123 in. focus.
+
+  [12] _Description de l'observatoire central de Pulkowa_, p. 208.
+
+  [13] Steinheil applied such motion to a double-image micrometer made
+    for Struve. This instrument suggested to Struve the above-mentioned
+    idea of employing a similar motion for the heliometer.
+
+  [14] Manuel Johnson, M.A., Radcliffe observer, _Astronomical
+    Observations made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the Year
+    1850_, Introduction, p. iii.
+
+  [15] The illumination of these scales is interesting as being the
+    first application of electricity to the illumination of astronomical
+    instruments. Thin platinum wire was rendered incandescent by a
+    voltaic current; a small incandescent electric lamp would now be
+    found more satisfactory.
+
+  [16] For a detailed description of this instrument see _Dunecht
+    Publications_, vol. ii.
+
+  [17] _Mem. Royal Astronomical Society_, xlvi., 1-172.
+
+  [18] The primary object was to have the object-glass mounted in steel
+    cells, which more nearly correspond in expansion with glass. It
+    became then desirable to make the head of steel for sake of
+    uniformity of material, and the advantages of steel in lightness and
+    rigidity for the tube then became evident.
+
+  [19] For description of the earliest form see _Cambridge Phil.
+    Trans._ vol. ii., and _Greenwich Observations_ (1840).
+
+  [20] Dawes (_Monthly Notices_, January 1858, and _Mem. R.A.S._ vol.
+    xxxv. p. 150) suggested and used a valuable improvement for producing
+    round images, instead of the elongated images which are otherwise
+    inevitable when the rays pass through a divided lens of which the
+    optical centres are not in coincidence, viz. "the introduction of a
+    diaphragm having two circular apertures touching each other in a
+    point coinciding with the line of collimation of the telescope, and
+    the diameter of each aperture _exactly equal_ to the semidiameter of
+    the cone of rays at the distance of the diaphragm from the local
+    point of the object-glass." Practically the difficulty of making
+    these diaphragms for the different powers of the _exact_ required
+    equality is insuperable; but, if the observer is content to lose a
+    certain amount of light, we see no reason why they may not readily be
+    made slightly less. Dawes found the best method for the purpose in
+    question was to limit the aperture of the object-glass by a diaphragm
+    having a double circular aperture, placing the line joining the
+    centres of the circles approximately in the position angle under
+    measurement. Dawes successfully employed the double circular aperture
+    also with Amici's micrometer. The present writer has successfully
+    used a similar plan in measuring position angles of a Centauri with
+    the heliometer, viz. by placing circular diaphragms on the two
+    segments of the object-glass.
+
+  [21] Dollond provides for changing the power by sliding the lens d
+    nearer to or farther from a.
+
+
+
+
+HELIOPOLIS, one of the most ancient cities of Egypt, met with in the
+Bible under its native name On. It stood 5 m. E. of the Nile at the apex
+of the Delta. It was the principal seat of sun-worship, and in historic
+times its importance was entirely religious. There appear to have been
+two forms of the sun-god at Heliopolis in the New Kingdom--namely,
+Ra-Harakht, or Re'-Harmakhis, falcon-headed, and Etom, human-headed; the
+former was the sun in his mid-day strength, the latter the evening sun.
+A sacred bull was worshipped here under the name Mnevis (Eg. _Mreu_),
+and was especially connected with Etom. The sun-god Re' (see EGYPT:
+_Religion_) was especially the royal god, the ancestor of all the
+Pharaohs, who therefore held the temple of Heliopolis in great honour.
+Each dynasty might give the first place to the god of its
+residence--Ptah of Memphis, Ammon of Thebes, Neith of Sais, Bubastis of
+Bubastis, but all alike honoured Re'. His temple became in a special
+degree a depository for royal records, and Herodotus states that the
+priests of Heliopolis were the best informed in matters of history of
+all the Egyptians. The schools of philosophy and astronomy are said to
+have been frequented by Plato and other Greek philosophers; Strabo,
+however, found them deserted, and the town itself almost uninhabited,
+although priests were still there, and cicerones for the curious
+traveller. The Ptolemies probably took little interest in their "father"
+Re', and Alexandria had eclipsed the learning of Heliopolis; thus with
+the withdrawal of royal favour Heliopolis quickly dwindled, and the
+students of native lore deserted it for other temples supported by a
+wealthy population of pious citizens. In Roman times obelisks were taken
+from its temples to adorn the northern cities of the Delta, and even
+across the Mediterranean to Rome. Finally the growth of Fostat and
+Cairo, only 6 m. to the S.W., caused the ruins to be ransacked for
+building materials. The site was known to the Arabs as _'Ayin esh
+shems_, "the fountain of the sun," more recently as Tel Hisn. It has now
+been brought for the most part under cultivation, but the ancient city
+walls of crude brick are to be seen in the fields on all sides, and the
+position of the great temple is marked by an obelisk still standing (the
+earliest known, being one of a pair set up by Senwosri I., the second
+king of the Twelfth Dynasty) and a few granite blocks bearing the name
+of Rameses II.
+
+  See Strabo xvii. cap. 1. 27-28; Baedeker's _Egypt_.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HELIOSTAT (from Gr. [Greek: hêlios], the sun, [Greek: statos], fixed,
+set up), an instrument which will reflect the rays of the sun in a fixed
+direction notwithstanding the motion of the sun. The optical apparatus
+generally consists of a mirror mounted on an axis parallel to the axis
+of the earth, and rotated with the same angular velocity as the sun.
+This construction assumes that the sun describes daily a small circle
+about the pole of the celestial sphere, and ignores any diurnal
+variation in the declination. This variation is, however, so small that
+it can be neglected for most purposes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: From Jamin and Bouty, _Cours de physique_,
+Gauthier-Villars.
+
+FIG. 3.--Silbermann's Heliostat.]
+
+  Many forms of heliostats have been devised, the earliest having been
+  described by Wilhelm Jacob s' Gravesande in the 3rd edition of his
+  _Physices elementa_ (1742). One of the simplest consists of a plane
+  mirror rigidly connected with a revolving axis so that the angle
+  between the normal to the mirror and the axis of the instrument equals
+  half the sun's polar distance, the mirror being adjusted so that the
+  normal has the same right ascension as the sun. It is easily seen that
+  if the mirror be rotated at the same angular velocity as the sun the
+  right ascensions will remain equal throughout the day, and therefore
+  this device reflects the rays in the direction of the earth's axis; a
+  second fixed mirror reflects them in any other fixed direction.
+  Foucault's heliostat reflects the rays horizontally in any required
+  direction. The principle of the apparatus may be explained by
+  reference to fig. 1. The axis of rotation AB bears a rigidly attached
+  rod DBC inclined to it at an angle equal to the sun's polar distance.
+  By adjusting the right ascension of the plane ABC and rotating the
+  axis with the angular velocity of the sun, it follows that BC will be
+  the direction of the solar rays throughout the day. X is the mirror
+  rotating about the point E, and placed so that (if EB is the
+  horizontal direction in which the rays are to be reflected) (1) the
+  normal CE to the mirror is jointed to BC at C and is equal in length
+  to BE, (2) the rod DBC passes through a slot in a rod ED fixed to, and
+  in the plane of, the mirror. Since CE equals BE these directions are
+  equally inclined to, and coplanar with, the normal to the mirror.
+  Hence light incident along the direction BC will be reflected along
+  CE. Silbermann's heliostat reflects the rays in any direction. The
+  principle may be explained by means of fig. 2. AB is the axis of
+  rotation, BC an adjustable rod as in Foucault's construction, and BD
+  is another rod which can be set to the direction in which the rays are
+  to be reflected. The rods BC and DB carry two small rods EF, GF
+  jointed at F; at this joint there is a pin which slides in a slot on
+  the rod BH, which is normal to the mirror X. The rods EF, GF are such
+  that BEFG is a rhombus. It is easy to show that rays falling on the
+  mirror in the direction BC will be reflected along BD. One
+  construction of the instrument, described in Jamin's _Cours de
+  physique_, is shown in fig. 3. The mirror mm is attached to the
+  framework _pafe_, the members of which are parallel to the incident
+  and reflected rays SO, OR, and the diagonal pf is perpendicular to the
+  mirror. The framework is attached to two independent circular arcs Cs
+  and rr´ having their centres at O and provided with clamps D and A on
+  the axis F of the instrument. The arc Cs is graduated, and is set so
+  that the angle COD equals the complement of the sun's declination.
+  This can be effected (after setting the axis) by rotating Cs until a
+  needle indicates true time on the hour dial B. The arc rr´ is set so
+  as to reflect the rays in the required direction. The axis F of the
+  instrument is set at an angle equal to the latitude of the place of
+  observation and in the meridian by means of the screw K, and rotated
+  by clockwork contained in the barrel H. The setting in the meridian is
+  effected by turning the instrument after setting for latitude until a
+  pin-hole aperture s and a small screen P, placed so that Ps is
+  parallel to CO, are in a line with the sun.
+
+  Many other forms of heliostats have been designed, the chief
+  difference consisting in the mechanical devices for maintaining the
+  constant direction of the reflecting ray. One of the most important
+  applications of the heliostat is as an adjunct to the newer forms of
+  horizontal telescopes (q.v.) and in conjunction with spectroscopic
+  telescopes in observations of eclipses.
+
+
+
+
+HELIOTROPE, or TURNSOLE, _Heliotropium_ (Gr. [Greek: hêliotropion], i.e.
+a plant which follows the sun with its flowers or leaves, or, according
+to Theophrastus (_Hist, plant_, vii. 15), which flowers at the summer
+solstice), a genus of usually more or less hairy herbs or undershrubs of
+the tribe _Heliotropieae_ of the natural order Boraginaceae, having
+alternate, rarely almost opposite leaves; small white, lilac or blue
+flowers, in terminal or lateral one-sided simple or once or twice forked
+spikes, with a calyx of five deeply divided segments, a salver-shaped,
+hypogynous, 5-lobed corolla, and entire 4-celled ovary; fruit 2- to
+4-sulcate or lobed, at length separable into four 1-seeded nutlets or
+into two hard 2-celled carpels. The genus contains 220 species
+indigenous in the temperate and warmer parts of both hemispheres. A few
+species are natives of Europe, as _H. europaeum_, which is also a
+naturalized species in the southern parts of North America.
+
+[Illustration: _Heliotropium suaveolens._]
+
+The common heliotrope of English hothouses, _H. peruvianum_, popularly
+known as "cherry-pie," is on account of the delicious odour of its
+flowers a great favourite with florists. It was introduced into Europe
+by the younger Jussieu, who sent seed of it from Peru to the royal
+garden at Paris. About the year 1757 it was grown in England by Philip
+Miller from seed obtained from St Germains. _H. corymbosum_ (also a
+native of Peru), which was grown in Hammersmith nurseries as early as
+1812, has larger but less fragant flowers than _H. peruvianum_. The
+species commonly grown in Russian gardens is _H. suaveolens_, which has
+white, highly fragrant flowers.
+
+Heliotropes may be propagated either from seed, or, as commonly, by
+means of cuttings of young growths taken an inch or two in length.
+Cuttings when sufficiently ripened, are struck in spring or during the
+summer months; when rooted they should be potted singly into small pots,
+using as a compost fibry loam, sandy peat and well-decomposed stable
+manure from an old hotbed. The plants soon require to be shifted into a
+pot a size larger. To secure early-flowering plants, cuttings should be
+struck in August, potted off before winter sets in, and kept in a warm
+greenhouse. In the spring larger pots should be given, and the plants
+shortened back to make them bushy. They require frequent shiftings
+during the summer, to induce them to bloom freely.
+
+The heliotrope makes an elegant standard. The plants must in this case
+be allowed to send up a central shoot, and all the side growths must be
+pinched off until the necessary height is reached, when the shoot must
+be stopped and lateral growths will be produced to form the head. During
+winter they should be kept somewhat dry, and in spring the ball of soil
+should be reduced and the plants repotted, the shoots being slightly
+pruned, so as to maintain a symmetrical head. When they are planted out
+against the walls and pillars of the greenhouse or conservatory an
+abundance of highly perfumed blossoms will be supplied all the year
+round. From the end of May till October heliotropes are excellent for
+massing in beds in the open air by themselves or with other plants. Many
+florists' varieties of the common heliotrope are known in cultivation.
+
+Pliny (_Nat. hist._ xxii. 29) distinguishes two kinds of "heliotropium,"
+the _tricoccum_, and a somewhat taller plant, the _helioscopium_; the
+former, it has been supposed, is _Croton tinctorium_, and the latter the
+[Greek: hêliotropion mikron] of Dioscorides or _Heliotropium europaeum_.
+The helioscopium, according to Pliny, was variously employed in
+medicine; thus the juice of the leaves with salt served for the removal
+of warts, whence the term _herba verrucaria_ applied to the plant. What,
+from the perfume of its flowers, is sometimes called winter heliotrope,
+is the fragrant butterbur, or sweet-scented coltsfoot, _Petasites_
+(_Tussilago_) _fragrans_, a perennial Composite plant.
+
+HELIOTROPE, in mineralogy, is the mineral commonly called "bloodstone"
+(q.v.), and sometimes termed girasol--a name applied also to fire-opal.
+The name, like those of many ancient names of minerals, seems to have
+had a fanciful origin. According to Pliny the stone was so called
+because when thrown into the water it turned the sun's light falling
+upon it into a reflection like that of blood.
+
+
+
+
+HELIOZOA, in zoology, a group of the Sarcodina (q.v.) so named by E.
+Haeckel, 1866. They are characterized by the radiate pseudopods, finely
+tapering at the apex, springing abruptly from the superficial
+protoplasm, containing a denser, rather permanent axial rod (figs. 1
+(1), 2 (2)); protoplasm without a clear ectoplasm or pellicle, often
+frothy with large vacuoles, like the alveoli of Radiolaria; nucleus 1 or
+numerous; skeleton absent, gelatinous or of separate siliceous fibres,
+plates or spicules, rarely complete and latticed; reproduction by simple
+fission or by brood-formation, often syngamous; form usually nearly
+spherical, rarely changing slowly. This group was formerly included with
+the Rhizopoda; but was separated from it by Haeckel on account of the
+character of its pseudopods, and its general adaptation to a semipelagic
+existence correlated with the frothy cytoplasm (fig. 1 (1)).
+_Actinophrys sol_ and _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_ (fig. 2), known as
+sun animalcules to the older microscopists, float freely in stagnant or
+slow-flowing waters, and _Myriophrys_ is able by an investment of long
+flagelliform cilia to swim freely. The majority, however, lurk among
+confervae or the light débris of the bottom ooze; and come under the
+head of "sapropelic" rather than pelagic organisms. The body is usually
+of constant spherical form in relation to the floating habit.
+_Nuclearia_, however, shows amoeboid changes of general outline. The
+pseudopods are retractile, the axial filament being absorbed as the
+filament grows shorter and thicker and disappearing when the pseudopod
+merges into the ectoplasm, to be reformed at the same time with the
+pseudopod. There is often a distinction, clear, but never sharp, between
+the richly vacuolate, almost frothy ectoplasm and the denser endoplasm.
+One or more contractile vacuoles may protrude from the ectoplasm. The
+endoplasm contains the nucleus or nuclei. The nucleus when single may be
+central or excentric: in the latter case, the endoplasm contains a clear
+central sphere ("centrosome") on which abut the axial filaments of the
+pseudopods. The ectoplasm contains, in some species, constantly
+(_Raphidiophrys viridis_) or occasionally (_Actinosphaerium_), green
+cells belonging to the genera _Zoochlorella_ and _Sphaerocystis_, both
+probably--the latter certainly--vegetative stages of a Chlamydomonad
+(FLAGELLATA, q.v.) and of symbiotic significance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Heliozoa. 1. _Actinophrys sol_, Ehrb. a,
+food-particle lying in a large food-vacuole; b, deep-lying finely
+granular protoplasm; c, axial filament of a pseudopodium extended
+inwards to the nucleus; d, the central nucleus; e, contractile vacuole;
+f, superficial much vacuolated protoplasm. 2. _Clathrulina elegans_,
+Cienk. 3. _Heterophrys marina_, H. and L. a, nucleus; b, clearer
+protoplasm surrounding the nucleus; c, the peculiar felted envelope. 4.
+_Raphidiophrys pallida_, F. E. Schultze. a, food-particle; b,
+contractile vacuole; c, the nucleus; d, central granule in which all the
+axis-filaments of the pseudopodia meet. The tangentially disposed
+spicules are seen arranged in masses on the surface. 5. _Acanthocystis
+turfacea_, Carter. a, probably the central nucleus; b, clear protoplasm
+around the nucleus; c, more superficial protoplasm with vacuoles and
+chlorophyll corpuscles; d, coarser siliceous spicules; e, finer forked
+siliceous spicules; f, finely granular layer of protoplasm. The long
+pseudopodia reaching beyond the spicules are not lettered. 6.
+Bi-flagellate "flagellula" of _Acanthocystis aculeata_. a, nucleus. 7.
+Id. of _Clathrulina elegans_. a, nucleus; b, granules. 8. _Astrodisculus
+ruber_, Greeff. a, red-coloured central sphere (? nucleus); b,
+peripheral homogeneous envelope.]
+
+The Heliozoa can move by rolling over on their extended pseudopods;
+_Acanthocystis ludibunda_ traversing a path of as much as twenty times
+its diameter in a minute, according to Penard. Several species (e.g.
+_Raphidiophrys elegans_) remain associated by the union of their
+pseudopods, whether into social aggregates (due to approximation) or
+"colonies" due to lack of separation after fission, is not accurately
+known. The multinuclear species _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_ (fig. 2),
+normally apocytial (i.e. the nuclei divide repeatedly without division
+of the cytoplasm), may increase in size by the fusion ("plastogamic")
+of small individuals. If a large specimen be cut up or fragment itself
+under irritation, the small ones so produced soon approach one another
+and fuse completely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Heliozoa. 1. _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_, Ehr.;
+a, nuclei; b, deeper protoplasm with smaller vacuoles and numerous
+nuclei; c, contractile vacuoles; d, peripheral protoplasm with larger
+vacuoles. 2. A portion of the same specimen more highly magnified and
+seen in optical section. a, Nuclei; b, deeper protoplasm (so-called
+endosarc); d, peripheral protoplasm (so-called ectosarc); e, pseudopodia
+showing the granular protoplasm streaming over the stiff axial filament:
+f, food-particle in a good-vacuole. 3, 4. Nuclei of _Actinosphaerium_ in
+the resting condition. 5-13. Successive stages in the division of a
+nucleus of _Actinosphaerium_, showing fibrillation, and in 7 and 8
+formation of an equatorial plate of chromatin substance (after Hertwig).
+14. Cyst-phase of _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_, showing the protoplasm
+divided into twelve chlamydospores, each of which has a siliceous coat;
+a, nucleus of the spore; g, gelatinous wall of the cyst; h, siliceous
+coat of the spore.]
+
+  _Reproduction._--Binary fission has been repeatedly observed; in some
+  cases one or both of the daughter cells may swim for a time as a
+  biflagellate zoospore (fig. 1 (6, 7)). The process may take place when
+  the cell is naked or after preliminary encystment. Budding has been
+  well studied in _Acanthocystis_; the cell nucleus divides repeatedly
+  and most of the daughter nuclei pass to the periphery, aggregate part
+  of the cytoplasm, and with it are constricted off as independent
+  cells; one nucleus remains central and the process may be repeated.
+  The detached bud may assume the typical character after a short
+  amoeboid (lobose) stage, sometimes preceded by rest, or it may develop
+  2 flagella and swim off (fig. 1 (6)).
+
+  Brood formation is only known here in relation to a syngamic process;
+  this is a sharp contrast to Proteomyxa (q.v.) where brood formation is
+  the commonest mode of reproduction, and plasmodium-formation, rare
+  indeed, is the nearest approach to syngamy observed. Indeed, if we
+  knew the life-history of all the species this difference in the life
+  cycle would be a convenient critical character.
+
+  Equal conjugation was demonstrated fully by F. Schaudinn in
+  _Actinophrys_; two individuals approach and enter into close contact,
+  and are surrounded by a common cyst wall. The nucleus of either male
+  divides; and one nucleus passes to the surface at either side, and is
+  budded off with a small portion of the cytoplasm as an abortive cell;
+  the two remaining nuclei which are "first cousins" in cellular
+  relationship now fuse, as is the case with the cytoplasts. The
+  resulting coupled cell or zygote divides into two, which again encyst.
+
+  _Actinosphaerium_ (fig. 2) shows a still more remarkable process,
+  fully studied by R. Hertwig. The large multinucleate animal withdraws
+  its pseudopods, its vacuoles disappear, it encysts and its nuclei
+  diminish in number to about 1/20th partly by fusion, 2 and 2, probably
+  by digestion of the majority. Within the primary cyst the body is now
+  resolved into nuclear cells, which again surround themselves with
+  secondary cysts. The cell in each secondary cyst divides (by
+  karyokinesis), and these sister cells, or rather their offspring, pair
+  in much the same way as the individual cells of _Actinophrys_--the
+  chief difference is that after the first division and budding off of a
+  rudimentary cell, a second division of the same character takes place,
+  with the formation of a second rudimentary cell, which is the niece of
+  the first, absolutely in the same way as the 1st and 2nd polar bodies
+  are formed in the maturation of the ovum in Metazoa. The actual
+  pairing cells are thus second cousins, great-granddaughters of the
+  original cell of the secondary cysts. Complete fusion now takes place
+  to form the coupled cell, which is now contracted and forms a
+  gelatinous wall within the siliceous secondary cyst wall (fig. 2
+  (14)), During a resting stage nuclear divisions occur and finally a
+  brood of young 1-nuclear _Actinosphaerium_ leave the cyst.
+
+
+  _Classification._
+
+  Aphrothoraca. Body naked. Actinophrys Ehrb. (fig. 1 (1)) (nucleate),
+  Actinosphaerium Stein plurinucleate (fig. 2 (1)), Camptonema
+  (plurinucleate) Schaud., Dimorpha Gruber (sometimes 2 flagellate).
+
+  I. Chlamydophora. Investment gelatinous. Astrodiscus.
+
+  II. Chalarothoraca. Body protected by an investment of spicules or
+  fibre scattered or approximated, never fused into a continuous
+  skeleton.
+
+    § 1. Spicules netted or free in the protoplasm. Heterophrys Arch.
+    (fig. 1 (3)), Raphidiophrys Arch. (fig. 1 (4)), Pinacodocystis,
+    Hertw. and Less.
+
+    § 2. Spicules approximated radially. Pinaciophora Greeff,
+    Pompholyxophrys Arch., Lithocolla F. E. Schultze, Elaeorhanis Greeff
+    (in the two foregoing genera the spicules represented by sand
+    granules), Acanthocystis Carter (fig. 1 (5)), Pinacocystis (?)
+    Hertw. and Less, Myriophrys Penard. (Astrodisculus).
+
+  III. Desmothoraca. § 1 attached by a stalk. Clathrulina Cienk. (fig. 1
+  (2, 7)), Hedriocystis, Hertw. and Less.
+
+    § 2. Free Elaster, Grimin, Choanocystis.
+
+  _Literature._--The most important English original papers on this
+  group are those by W. Archer, "On some Freshwater Rhizopoda, new, or
+  little known," _Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science_, N.S.
+  ix.-xi. (1869-1871), and "Résumé of Recent Contributions to the
+  Knowledge of Freshwater Rhizopods," _ibid._ xvi., xvii. (1876-1877).
+  See also R. Hertwig and Lesser, "Über Rhizopoda und denselben
+  nahestehenden Organismen," in _Archiv für mikroscopische Anatomie_, x.
+  (1874), p. 35; R. Schaudinn, "Heliozoa" in _Tierreich_ (1896); E.
+  Penard, _Les Héliozoaires d'eau douce_ (1904); the two last named
+  contain full bibliographies.     (M. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+HELIUM (from Gr. [Greek: hêlios], the sun), a gaseous chemical element,
+the modern discovery of which followed closely on that of argon (q.v.).
+The Investigations of Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay had shown
+that indifference to chemical reagents did not sufficiently characterize
+an unknown gas as nitrogen, and it became necessary to reinvestigate
+other cases of the occurrence of "nitrogen" in nature. H. Miers drew
+Ramsay's attention to the work of W. F. Hillebrand, who had noticed, in
+examining the mineral uraninite, that an inert gas was evolved when the
+mineral was decomposed with acid. Ramsay, repeating these experiments,
+found that the inert gas emitted refused to oxidize when sparked with
+oxygen, and on examining it spectroscopically he saw that the spectrum
+was not that of argon, but was characterized by a bright yellow line
+near to, but not identical with, the D line of sodium. This was
+afterwards identified with the D3 line of the solar chromosphere,
+observed in 1868 by Sir J. Norman Lockyer, and ascribed by him to a
+hypothetical element _helium_. This name was adopted for the new gas.
+
+Helium is relatively abundant in many minerals, all of which are
+radioactive, and contain uranium or thorium as important constituents.
+(For the significance of this fact see RADIOACTIVITY.) The richest known
+source is thorianite, which consists mainly of thorium oxide, and
+contains 9.5 cc. of helium per gram. Monazite, a phosphate of thorium
+and other rare earths, contains on the average about 1 cc. per gram.
+Cleveite, samarskite and fergusonite contain a little more than
+monazite. The gas also occurs in minute quantities in the common
+minerals of the earth's crust. In this case too it is associated with
+radioactive matter, which is almost ubiquitous. In two cases, however,
+it has been found in the absence of appreciable quantities of uranium
+and thorium compounds, namely in beryl, and in sylvine (potassium
+chloride). Helium is contained almost universally in the gases which
+bubble up with the water of thermal springs. The proportion varies
+greatly. In the hot springs of Bath it amounts to about one-thousandth
+part of the gas evolved. Much larger percentages have been recorded in
+some French springs (_Compt. rend._, 1906, 143, p. 795, and 146, p.
+435), and considerable quantities occur in some natural gas (_Journ.
+Amer. Chem. Soc._ 29, p. 1524). R. J. Strutt has suggested that helium
+in hot springs may be derived from the disintegration of common rocks at
+great depths.
+
+Helium is present in the atmosphere, of which it constitutes four parts
+in a million. It is conspicuous by its absorption spectrum in many of
+the white stars. Certain stars and nebulae show a bright line helium
+spectrum.
+
+Much the best practical source of helium is thorianite, a mineral
+imported from Ceylon for the manufacture of thoria. It dissolves readily
+in strong nitric acid, and the helium contained is thus liberated. The
+gas contains a certain amount of hydrogen and oxides of carbon, also
+traces of nitrogen. In order to get rid of hydrogen, some oxygen is
+added to the helium, and the mixture exploded by an electric spark. All
+remaining impurities, including the excess of oxygen, can then be taken
+out of the gas by Sir James Dewar's ingenious method of absorption with
+charcoal cooled in liquid air. Helium alone refuses to be absorbed, and
+it can be pumped off from the charcoal in a state of absolute purity. In
+the absence of liquid air the helium must be purified by the methods
+employed for argon (q.v.). If thorianite cannot be obtained, monazite,
+which is more abundant, may be utilized. A part of the helium contained
+in minerals can be extracted by heat or by grinding (J. A. Gray, _Proc.
+Roy. Soc._, 1909, 82A, p. 301).
+
+_Properties._--All attempts to make helium enter into stable chemical
+union have hitherto proved unsuccessful. The gas is in all probability
+only mechanically retained in the minerals in which it is found.
+Jacquerod and Perrot have found that quartz-glass is freely permeable to
+helium below a red-heat (_Compt. rend._, 1904, 139, p. 789). The effect
+is even perceptible at a temperature as low as 220° C. Hydrogen, and, in
+a much less degree, oxygen and nitrogen, will also permeate silica, but
+only at higher temperatures. They have made this observation the basis
+of a practical method of separating helium from the other inert gases.
+M. Travers has suggested that it may explain the liberation of helium
+from minerals by heat, the gas being enabled to permeate the siliceous
+materials in which it is enclosed. Thorianite, however, contains no
+silica, and until it is shown that metallic oxides behave in the same
+way this explanation must be accepted with reserve.
+
+The density of helium has been determined by Ramsay and Travers as 1.98.
+Its ratio of specific heats has very nearly the ideal value 1.666,
+appropriate to a monatomic molecule. The accepted atomic weight is
+accordingly double the density, i.e. approximately four times that of
+hydrogen. The refractivity of helium is 0.1238 (air = 1). The solubility
+in water is the lowest known, being, at 18.2°, only .0073 vols. per unit
+volume of water. The viscosity is .96 (air = 1).
+
+The spectrum of helium as observed in a discharge tube is distinguished
+by a moderate number of brilliant lines, distributed over the whole
+visual spectrum. The following are the approximate wave-lengths of the
+most brilliant lines:
+
+  Red       7066
+  Red       6678
+  Yellow    5876
+  Green     4922
+  Blue      4472
+  Violet    4026
+
+When the discharge passes through helium at a pressure of several
+millimetres, the yellow line 5876 is prominent. At lower pressures the
+green line 4922 becomes more conspicuous. At atmospheric pressure the
+discharge is able to pass through a far greater distance in helium than
+in the common gases.
+
+M. Travers, G. Senter and A. Jacquerod (_Phil. Trans._ A. 1903, 200, p.
+105) carefully examined the behaviour of a constant volume gas
+thermometer filled with helium. For the pressure coefficient per degree,
+between 0° and 100° C., they give the value .00366255, when the initial
+pressure is 700 mm. This value is indistinguishable from that which they
+find for hydrogen. Thus at high temperatures a helium thermometer is of
+no special advantage. At low temperatures, on the other hand, they find,
+using an initial pressure of 1000 mm., that the temperatures on the
+helium scale are measurably higher than on the hydrogen scale, owing to
+the more perfectly gaseous condition of helium. This difference amounts
+to about 1/10° at the temperature of liquid oxygen, and about 1/5° at
+that of liquid hydrogen.
+
+The liquefaction of helium was achieved by H. Kamerlingh Onnes at Leiden
+in 1908. According to him its boiling point is 4.3° abs. (-268.7° C.),
+the density of the liquid 0.154, the critical temperature 5° abs., and
+the critical pressure 2.3 atmospheres (_Communications from the Physical
+Laboratory at Leiden_, No. 108; see also LIQUID GASES).
+
+  REFERENCES.--A bibliography and summary of the earlier work on helium
+  will be found in a paper by Ramsay, _Ann. chim. phys._ (1898) [7], 13,
+  p. 433. See also M. Travers, _The Study of Gases_ (1901).
+       (R. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HELIX (Gr. [Greek: helix], a spiral or twist), an architectural term for
+the spiral tendril which is carried up to support the angles of the
+abacus of the Corinthian capital; from the same stalk springs a second
+helix rising to the centre of the capital, its junction with one on the
+opposite side being sometimes marked by a flower. Sometimes the term
+"volute" is given to the angle helix, which is incorrect, as it is of a
+different design and rises from the same stalk as the central helices.
+Its origin is probably metallic, that is to say, it was copied from the
+conventional treatment in Corinthian bronze of the tendrils of a plant.
+
+
+
+
+HELL (O. Eng. _hel_, a Teutonic word from a root meaning "to cover," cf.
+Ger. _Hölle_, Dutch _hel_), the word used in English both of the place
+of departed spirits and of the place of torment of the wicked after
+death. It is used in the Old Testament to translate the Hebrew _Sheol_,
+and in the New Testament the Greek [Greek: hadês], Hades, and [Greek:
+geenna], Hebrew _Gehenna_ (see ESCHATOLOGY).
+
+
+
+
+HELLANICUS of Lesbos, Greek logographer, flourished during the latter
+half of the 5th century B.C. According to Suidas, he lived for some time
+at the court of one of the kings of Macedon, and died at Perperene, a
+town on the gulf of Adramyttium opposite Lesbos. Some thirty works are
+attributed to him--chronological, historical and episodical. Mention may
+be made of: _The Priestesses of Hera at Argos_, a chronological
+compilation, arranged according to the order of succession of these
+functionaries; the _Carneonikae_, a list of the victors in the Carnean
+games (the chief Spartan musical festival), including notices of
+literary events; an _Atthis_, giving the history of Attica from 683 to
+the end of the Peloponnesian War (404), which is referred to by
+Thucydides (i. 97), who says that he treated the events of the years
+480-431 briefly and superficially, and with little regard to
+chronological sequence: _Phoronis_, chiefly genealogical, with short
+notices of events from the times of Phoroneus the Argive "first man" to
+the return of the Heraclidae; _Troica_ and _Persica_, histories of Troy
+and Persia.
+
+Hellanicus marks a real step in the development of historiography. He
+transcended the narrow local limits of the older logographers, and was
+not content to repeat the traditions that had gained general acceptation
+through the poets. He tried to give the traditions as they were locally
+current, and availed himself of the few national or priestly registers
+that presented something like contemporary registration. He endeavoured
+to lay the foundations of a scientific chronology, based primarily on
+the list of the Argive priestesses of Hera, and secondarily on
+genealogies, lists of magistrates (e.g. the archons at Athens), and
+Oriental dates, in place of the old reckoning by generations. But his
+materials were insufficient and he often had recourse to the older
+methods. On account of his deviations from common tradition, Hellanicus
+is often called an untrustworthy writer by the ancients themselves, and
+it is a curious fact that he appears to have made no systematic use of
+the many inscriptions which were ready to hand. Dionysius of
+Halicarnassus censures him for arranging his history, not according to
+the natural connexion of events, but according to the locality or the
+nation he was describing; and undoubtedly he never, like his
+contemporary Herodotus, rose to the conception of a single current of
+events wider than the local distinction of race. His style, like that of
+the older logographers, was dry and bald.
+
+  Fragments in Müller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, i. and iv.;
+  see among older works L. Preller, _De Hellanico Lesbio historico_
+  (1840); Mure, _History of Greek Literature_, iv.; late criticism in H.
+  Kullmer, "Hellanikos" in _Jahrbücher für klass. Philologie_
+  (Supplementband, xxvii. 455 sqq.) (1902), which contains new edition
+  and arrangement of fragments; C. F. Lehmann-Haupt, "Hellanikos,
+  Herodot, Thukydides," in _Klio_ vi. 127 sqq. (1906); J. B. Bury,
+  _Ancient Greek Historians_ (1909), pp. 27 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+HELLEBORE (Gr. [Greek: helleboros]: mod. Gr. also [Greek: skaphê]: Ger.
+_Nieswurz_, _Christwurz_; Fr. _hellébore_, and in the district of
+Avranche, _herbe enragée_), a genus (_Helleborus_) of plants of the
+natural order Ranunculaceae, natives of Europe and western Asia. They
+are coarse perennial herbs with palmately or pedately lobed leaves. The
+flowers have five persistent petaloid sepals, within the circle of which
+are placed the minute honey-containing tubular petals of the form of a
+horn with an irregular opening. The stamens are very numerous, and are
+spirally arranged; and the carpels are variable in number, sessile or
+stipitate and slightly united at the base and dehisce by ventral suture.
+
+_Helleborus niger_, black hellebore, or, as from blooming in mid-winter
+it is termed the Christmas rose (Ger. _Schwarze Nieswurz_; Fr., _rose de
+Noël_ or _rose d'hiver_), is found in southern and central Europe, and
+with other species was cultivated in the time of Gerard (see _Herball_,
+p. 977, ed. Johnson, 1633) in English gardens. Its knotty root-stock is
+blackish-brown externally, and, as with other species, gives origin to
+numerous straight roots. The leaves spring from the top of the
+root-stock, and are smooth, distinctly pedate, dark-green above, and
+lighter below, with 7 to 9 segments and long petioles. The scapes, which
+end the branches of the rhizome, have a loose entire bract at the base,
+and terminate in a single flower, with two bracts, from the axis of one
+of which a second flower may be developed. The flowers have 5 white or
+pale-rose, eventually greenish sepals, 15 to 18 lines in breadth; 8 to
+13 tubular green petals containing honey; and 5 to 10 free carpels.
+There are several forms, the best being _maximus_. The Christmas rose is
+extensively grown in many market gardens to provide white flowers forced
+in gentle heat about Christmas time for decorations, emblems, &c.
+
+_H. orientalis_, the Lenten rose, has given rise to several fine hybrids
+with _H. niger_, some of the best forms being clear in colour and
+distinctly spotted. _H. foetidus_, stinking hellebore, is a native of
+England, where like _H. viridis_, it is confined chiefly to limestone
+districts; it is common in France and the south of Europe. Its leaves
+have 7- to 11-toothed divisions, and the flowers are in panicles,
+numerous, cup-shaped and drooping, with many bracts, and green sepals
+tinged with purple, alternating with the five petals.
+
+_H. viridis_, or green hellebore proper, is probably indigenous in some
+of the southern and eastern counties of England, and occurs also in
+central and southern Europe. It has bright yellowish-green flowers, 2 to
+4 on a stem, with large leaf-like bracts. O. Brunfels and H. Bock (16th
+century) regarded the plant as the black hellebore of the Greeks.
+
+_H. lividus_, holly-leaved hellebore, found in the Balearic Islands, and
+in Corsica and Sardinia, is remarkable for the handsomeness of its
+foliage. White hellebore is _Veratrum album_ (see VERATRUM), a
+liliaceous plant.
+
+[Illustration: _Helleborus niger_. 1, Vertical section of flower; 2,
+Nectary, side and front view.]
+
+Hellebores may be grown in any ordinary light garden mould, but thrive
+best in a soil of about equal parts of turfy loam and well-rotted
+manure, with half a part each of fibrous peat and coarse sand, and in
+moist but thoroughly-drained situations, more especially where, as at
+the margins of shrubberies, the plants can receive partial shade in
+summer. For propagation cuttings of the rhizome may be taken in August,
+and placed in pans of light soil, with a bottom heat of 60° to 70°
+Fahr.; hellebores can also be grown from seed, which must be sown as
+soon as ripe, since it quickly loses its vitality. The seedlings usually
+blossom in their third year. The exclusion of frost favours the
+production of flowers; but the plants, if forced, must be gradually
+inured to a warm atmosphere, and a free supply of air must be afforded,
+without which they are apt to become much affected by greenfly. For
+potting, _H. niger_ and its varieties, and _H. orientalis_, _atrorubens_
+and _olympicus_ have been found well suited. After lifting, preferably
+in September, the plants should receive plenty of light, with abundance
+of water, and once a week liquid manure, not over-strong. The flowers
+are improved in delicacy of hue, and are brought well up among the
+leaves, by preventing access of light except to the upper part of the
+plants. Of the numerous species of hellebore now grown, the
+deep-purple-flowered _H. colchicus_ is one of the handsomest; by
+crossing with _H. guttatus_ and other species several valuable garden
+forms have been produced, having variously coloured spreading or
+bell-shaped flowers, spotted with crimson, red or purple.
+
+The rhizome of _H. niger_ occurs in commerce in irregular and nodular
+pieces, from about 1 to 3 in. in length, white and of a horny texture
+within. Cut transversely it presents internally a circle of 8 to 12
+cuneiform ligneous bundles, surrounded by a thick bark. It emits a faint
+odour when cut or broken, and has a bitter and slightly acrid taste. The
+drug is sometimes adulterated with the rhizome of baneberry, _Actaea
+spicata_, which, however, may be recognized by the distinctly cruciate
+appearance of the central portion of the attached roots when cut
+across, and by its decoction giving the chemical reactions for
+tannin.[1] The rhizome is darker in colour in proportion to its degree
+of dryness, age and richness in oil. A specimen dried by Schroff lost in
+eleven days 65% of water.
+
+  _H. niger_, _orientalis_, _viridis_, _foetidus_, and several other
+  species of hellebore contain the glucosides _helleborin_, C36H42O6,
+  and _helleboreïn_, C23H20O15, the former yielding glucose and
+  _helleboresin_, C30H38O4, and the latter glucose and a violet-coloured
+  substance _helleboretin_, C14H20O3. Helleborin is most abundant in _H.
+  viridis_. A third and volatile principle is probably present in _H.
+  foetidus_. Both helleborin and helleboreïn act poisonously on animals,
+  but their decomposition-products helleboresin and helleboretin seem to
+  be devoid of any injurious qualities. Helleborin produces excitement
+  and restlessness, followed by paralysis of the lower extremities or
+  whole body, quickened respiration, swelling and injection of the
+  mucous membranes, dilatation of the pupil, and, as with helleboreïn,
+  salivation, vomiting and diarrhoea. Helleboreïn exercises on the heart
+  an action similar to that of digitalis, but more powerful, accompanied
+  by at first quickened and then slow and laboured respiration; it
+  irritates the conjunctiva, and acts as a sternutatory, but less
+  violently than veratrine. Pliny states that horses, oxen and swine are
+  killed by eating "black hellebore"; and Christison (_On Poisons_, p.
+  876, 11th ed., 1845) writes: "I have known severe griping produced by
+  merely tasting the fresh root in January." Poisonous doses of
+  hellebore occasion in man singing in the ears, vertigo, stupor,
+  thirst, with a feeling of suffocation, swelling of the tongue and
+  fauces, emesis and catharsis, slowing of the pulse, and finally
+  collapse and death from cardiac paralysis. Inspection after death
+  reveals much inflammation of the stomach and intestines, more
+  especially the rectum. The drug has been observed to exercise a
+  cumulative action. Its extract was an ingredient in Bacher's pills, an
+  empirical remedy once in great repute in France. In British medicine
+  the rhizome was formerly official. _H. foetidus_ was in past times
+  much extolled as an anthelmintic, and is recommended by Bisset (_Med.
+  Ess._, pp. 169 and 195, 1766) as the best vermifuge for children; J.
+  Cook, however, remarks of it (_Oxford Mag._, March 1769, p. 99):
+  "Where it killed not the patient, it would certainly kill the worms;
+  but the worst of it is, it will sometimes kill both." This plant, of
+  old termed by farriers ox-heel, setter-wort and setter-grass, as well
+  as _H. viridis_ (Fr. _Herbe à séton_), is employed in veterinary
+  surgery, to which also the use of _H. niger_ is now chiefly confined
+  in Britain.
+
+  In the early days of medicine two kinds of hellebore were recognized,
+  the white or _Veratrum album_ (see VERATRUM), and the black, including
+  the various species of _Helleborus_. The former, according to
+  Codronchius (_Comm.... de elleb._, 1610), Castellus (_De helleb.
+  epist._, 1622), and others, is the drug usually signified in the
+  writings of Hippocrates. Among the hellebores indigenous to Greece and
+  Asia Minor, _H. orientalis_, the rhizome of which differs from that of
+  _H. niger_ and of _H. viridis_ in the bark being readily separable
+  from the woody axis, is the species found by Schroff to answer best to
+  the descriptions given by the ancients of black hellebore, the [Greek:
+  helleboros melas] of Dioscorides. The rhizome of this plant, if
+  identical, as would appear, with that obtained by Tournefort at Prusa
+  in Asia Minor (_Rel. d'un voy. du Levant_, ii. 189, 1718), must be a
+  remedy of no small toxic properties. According to an early tradition,
+  black hellebore administered by the soothsayer and physician Melampus
+  (whence its name _Melampodium_), was the means of curing the madness
+  of the daughters of Proetus, king of Argos. The drug was used by the
+  ancients in paralysis, gout and other diseases, more particularly in
+  insanity, a fact frequently alluded to by classical writers, e.g.
+  Horace (_Sat._ ii. 3. 80-83, _Ep. ad Pis._ 300). Various superstitions
+  were in olden times connected with the cutting of black hellebore. The
+  best is said by Pliny (_Nat. hist._ xxv. 21) to grow on Mt Helicon. Of
+  the three Anticyras that in Phocis was the most famed for its
+  hellebore, which, being there used combined with "sesamoides," was,
+  according to Pliny, taken with more safety than elsewhere.
+
+The British Pharmaceutical Conference has recommended the preparation
+which it terms _the tinctura veratri viridis_, as the best form in which
+to administer this drug. It may be given in doses of 5-15 minims. The
+tincture is prepared from the dried rhizome and rootlets of green
+hellebore, containing the alkaloids jervine, veratrine and veratroidine.
+It is recommended as a cardiac and nervous sedative in cerebral
+haemorrhage and puerperal eclampsia. Black hellebore is a purgative and
+uterine stimulant.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For the microscopical characters and for figures of transverse
+    sections of the rhizome, see Lanessan, _Hist. des drogues_, i. 6
+    (1878).
+
+
+
+
+HELLENISM (from Gr. [Greek: hellênizein], to imitate the Greeks, who
+were known as [Greek: Hellênes], after [Greek: Hellên], the son of
+Deucalion). The term "Hellenism" is ambiguous. It may be used to denote
+ancient Greek culture in all its phases, and even those elements in
+modern civilization which are Greek in origin or in spirit; but, while
+Matthew Arnold made the term popular in the latter connexion as the
+antithesis of "Hebraism," the German historian J. G. Droysen introduced
+the fashion (1836) of using it to describe particularly the latter
+phases of Greek culture from the conquests of Alexander to the end of
+the ancient world, when those over whom this culture extended were
+largely not Greek in blood, i.e. _Hellenes_, but peoples who had adopted
+the Greek speech and way of life, _Hellenistai_. Greek culture had,
+however, both in "Hellenic" and "Hellenistic" times, a common essence,
+just as light is light whether in the original luminous body or in a
+reflection, and to describe this by the term Hellenism seems most
+natural. But whilst using the term in the larger sense, this article, in
+deference to the associations which have come to be specially connected
+with it, will devote its principal attention to Hellenism as it appeared
+in the world after the Macedonian conquests. But it will be first
+necessary to indicate briefly what Hellenism in itself implied.
+
+No verbal formula can really enclose the life of a people or an age, but
+we can best understand the significance of the old Greek cities and the
+life they developed, when, looking at the history of mankind as a whole,
+we see the part played by reason, active and critical, in breaking down
+the barriers by which custom hinders movement, in guiding movement to
+definite ends, in dissipating groundless beliefs and leading onwards to
+fresh scientific conquests--when we see this and then take note that
+among the ancient Greeks such an activity of reason began in an entirely
+novel degree and that its activity in Europe ever since is due to their
+impulsion. When Hellenism came to stand in the world for something
+concrete and organic, it was, of course, no mere abstract principle, but
+embodied in a language, a literature, an artistic tradition. In the
+earliest existing monument of the Hellenic genius, the Homeric poems,
+one may already observe that regulative sense of form and proportion,
+which shaped the later achievements of the race in the intellectual and
+artistic spheres. It was not till the great colonizing epoch of the 8th
+and 7th centuries B.C., when the name "Hellene" came into use as the
+antithesis of "barbarian," that the Greek race came to be conscious of
+itself as a peculiar people; it was yet some three centuries more before
+Hellenism stood fully declared in art and literature, in politics and in
+thought. There was now a new thing in the world, and to see how the
+world was affected by it is our immediate concern.
+
+I. THE EXPANSION OF HELLENISM BEFORE ALEXANDER.--In the 5th century B.C.
+Greek cities dotted the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea
+from Spain to Egypt and the Caucasus, and already Greek culture was
+beginning to pass beyond the limits of the Greek race. Already in the
+7th century B.C., when Hellenism was still in a rudimentary stage, the
+citizens of the Greek city-states had been known to the courts of
+Babylon and Egypt as admirable soldiers, combining hardihood with
+discipline, and Greek mercenaries came to be in request throughout the
+Nearer East. But as Hellenism developed, its social and intellectual
+life began to exercise a power of attraction. The proud old
+civilizations of the Euphrates and the Nile might ignore it, but the
+ruder barbarian peoples in East and West, on whose coasts the Greek
+colonies had been planted, came in various degrees under its spell. In
+some cases an outlying colony would coalesce with a native population,
+and a fusion of Hellenism with barbarian customs take place, as at
+Emporium in Spain (Strabo iii. p. 160) and at Locri in S. Italy (Polyb.
+xii. 5. 10). Perinthus included a Thracian phyle. The stories of
+Anacharsis and Scylas (Herod, iv. 76-80) show how the leading men of the
+tribes in contact with the Greek colonies in the Black Sea might be
+fascinated by the appeal which the exotic culture made to mind and to
+eye.
+
+The great developments of the century and a half before Alexander set
+the Greek people in a very different light before the world. In the
+sphere of material power the repulse of Xerxes and the extension of
+Athenian or Spartan supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean were large
+facts patent to the most obtuse. The kings of the East leant more than
+ever upon Greek mercenaries, whose superiority to barbarian levies was
+sensibly brought home to them by the expedition of Cyrus. But the
+developments within the Hellenic sphere itself were also of great
+consequence for its expansion outwards. The political disunion of the
+Greeks was to some extent neutralized by the rise of Athens to a leading
+position in art, in literature and in philosophy. In Athens the Hellenic
+genius was focussed, its tendencies drawn together and combined; nor was
+it a circumstance of small moment that the Attic dialect attained, for
+prose, a classical authority; for if Hellenism was to be propagated in
+the world at large, it was obviously convenient that it should have some
+one definite form of speech to be its medium.
+
+1. _The Persians._--The ruling race of the East, the Persian, was but
+little open to the influences of the new culture. The military qualities
+of the Greeks were appreciated, and so, too, was Greek science, where it
+touched the immediately useful; a Greek captain was entrusted by Darius
+with the exploration of the Indus; a Greek architect bridged the
+Bosporus for him; Greek physicians (e.g. Democedes, Ctesias) were
+retained for enormous fees at the Persian court. The brisk diplomatic
+intercourse between the Great King and the Greek states in the 4th
+century may have produced effects that were not merely political. We
+certainly find among those members of the Persian aristocracy, who came
+by residence in Asia Minor into closer contact with the Greeks, some
+traces of interest in the more ideal side of Hellenism. A man like the
+younger Cyrus invited Greek captains to his friendship for something
+more than their utility in war, and procured Greek hetaerae for
+something more than sensual pleasure. There is the Mithradates who
+presented the Academy with a statue of Plato by Silanion, not improbably
+identical (though the supposition implies a correction in the text of
+Diogenes Laërtius) with that Mithradates who, together with his father
+Ariobarzanes, received the citizenship of Athens (Dem. xxiii. 141, 202).
+Exactly how far Greek influence can be traced in the remains of Persian
+art, such as the royal palaces of Persepolis and Susa may be doubtful
+(see Gayet, _L'Art persan_; R. Phené Spiers, _Architecture East and
+West_, p. 245 f.), but it is certain that the engraved gems for which
+there was a demand in the Persian empire were largely the work of Greek
+artists (Furtwängler, _Antike Gemmen_, iii. p. 116 f.).
+
+2. _The Phoenicians._--As early as the first half of the 4th century we
+find communities of Phoenician traders established in the Peiraeus
+(_C.I.A._ ii. 86). In Cyprus, on the frontier between the Greek and
+Semitic worlds, a struggle for ascendancy went on. The Phoenician
+element seems to have been dominant in the island when Evagoras made
+himself king of Salamis in 412, and restored Hellenism with a strong
+hand. The words of Isocrates (even allowing for their rhetorical colour)
+give us a vivid insight into what such a process meant. "Before Evagoras
+established his rule, they were so hostile and exclusive, that those of
+their rulers were actually held to be the best who were the fiercest
+adversaries of the Greeks; but now such a change has taken place, that
+it is a matter of emulation who shall show himself the most ardent
+phil-hellen, that for the mothers of their children most of them choose
+wives from amongst us, and that they take pride in having Greek things
+about rather than native, in following the Greek fashion of life, whilst
+our masters of the fine arts and other branches of culture now resort to
+them in greater numbers than were once to be found in those quarters
+they specially frequented" (Isoc. 199 = _Evag._ §§ 49, 50). Even into
+the original seats of the Phoenicians Hellenism began to intrude.
+Evagoras at one time (about 386) made himself master of Tyre (Isoc.
+_Evag._ § 62; Diod. xv. 2, 4). His grandson Evagoras II. is found as
+governor of Sidon for the Persian king 349-346. (Babelon, _Perses
+Achéménides_, p. cxxii.; cf. Diod. xvi. 46, 3).
+
+Abdashtart, king of Sidon (374-362 B.C.), called Straton by the Greeks,
+had already entered into close relations with the Greek states, and
+imitated the Hellenic princes of Cyprus (_Athen._ xii. 531; _C.I.A._ ii.
+86; _Corp. inscr. Semit._ i. 114). The Phoenician colonists in Sardinia
+purchased or imitated the work of Greek artists (Furtwängler, _Antike
+Gemmen_, iii. 109).
+
+3. _The Carians and Lycians._--The seats of the Greeks in the East
+touched peoples more or less nearly related to the Hellenic stock, with
+native traditions not so far remote from those of the Greeks in a more
+primitive age, the Carians and the Lycians. It came about in the last
+century preceding Alexander that the first of these peoples was
+organized as a strong state under native princes, the line founded by
+Hecatomnus of Mylasa. Hecatomnus made himself master of Caria in the
+first decade of the 4th century, but it was under his son Mausolus, who
+succeeded him in 377-376 that the house rose to its zenith. These Carian
+princes ruled as satraps for the Great King, but they modelled
+themselves upon the pattern of the Greek tyrant. The capital of Mausolus
+was a Greek city, Halicarnassus, and all that we can still trace of his
+great works of construction and adornment shows conformity to the pure
+Hellenic type. His famous sepulchre, the Mausoleum (the remains of it
+are now in the British Museum), was a monument upon which the most
+eminent Greek sculptors of the time worked in rivalry (Plin. _N.H._
+xxxvi. 5, § 30; Vitruv. vii. 13). His court gave a welcome to the
+vagrant Greek philosopher (Diog. Laërt. viii. 8, § 87). Even the Carian
+town of Mylasa now shows the forms of a Greek city and records its
+public decrees in Greek (_C.I.G._ 2691 c, d, e = Michel 471). In Lycia,
+which in spite of "the son of Harpagus" and King Pericles, had never
+been brought under one man's rule, the Greek influence is more limited.
+Here, for the most part in the inscriptions, the native language
+maintains itself against Greek. The proper names are (if not native)
+mainly Persian. But the Greek language makes an occasional appearance;
+Greek names are borne by others beside Pericles. The coins are Greek in
+type. And above all the monumental remains of Lycia show strong Greek
+influence, especially the well-known "Nereid Monument" in the British
+Museum, whose date is held to go back to the 5th century (Gardner,
+_Handbook of Gk. Sculp._ p. 344).
+
+4. _South Russia._--Hellenic influences continued to penetrate the
+Scythian peoples from the Greek colonies of the Black Sea, at any rate
+in the matter of artistic fabrication. Our evidence is the actual
+objects recovered from the soil. (See SCYTHIA.)
+
+5. _Egypt._--From the time of Psammetichus (d. 610 B.C.) Greek
+mercenaries had been used to prop Pharaoh's throne. At the same time
+Greek merchants had begun to find their way up the Nile and even to the
+Oases. A Greek city Naucratis (q.v.) was allowed to arise at the
+Bolbitinic mouth of the Nile. But the racial repugnance to the Greek,
+which forbade an Egyptian even to eat an animal which had been carved
+with a Greek's knife (Hdt. ii. 41), probably kept the soul of the people
+more shut against Hellenic influences than was that of the other races
+of the East.
+
+6. _Macedonia._--In Macedonia the native chiefs had been attracted by
+the rich Hellenic life at any rate from the beginning of the 5th
+century, when Alexander I., surnamed "Phil-hellen," persuaded the judges
+at Olympia that the Temenid house was of good Argive descent (Hdt. v.
+22). And, although their enemies might stigmatize them as barbarians,
+the Macedonian kings maintained that they were not Macedonians, but
+Greeks (cf. [Greek: anêr Hellên Makedonôn hyparchos], Hdt. v. 20). It
+was not probably till the reorganization of the kingdom by Archelaus
+(413-399) that Greek culture found any abundant entrance into Macedonia.
+Now all that was most brilliant in Greek literature and Greek art was
+concentrated in the court of Aegae; the palace was decorated by Zeuxis;
+Euripides spent there the end of his days. From that time, no doubt, a
+certain degree of literary culture was general among the Macedonian
+nobility; their names in the days of Philip are largely Greek; the
+Macedonian service was full of men from the Greek cities within Philip's
+dominions. The values recognized at the court would naturally be
+recognized in noble families generally, and Philip chose Aristotle to be
+the educator of his son. How far the country generally may be regarded
+as Hellenized is a problem which involves the vexed question what right
+the Macedonian people itself has to be classed among the Hellenes, and
+Macedonian to be considered a dialect of Greek.[1] As the literary and
+official language, Greek alone would seem to have had any status.
+
+7. _In the West: the Native Races of Sicily._--Italy and the south of
+Gaul had not remained unaffected by the neighbourhood of the Greek
+colonies. Under the rule of the elder and younger Dionysius in the 4th
+century, the hellenization of the Sicels in the interior of Sicily seems
+to have become complete (Freeman, _History of Sicily_, ii. 387, 388,
+422-424; Beloch, _Griech. Gesch._ iii. [i.] 261).
+
+The alphabets used by the various Italian races from the 5th century
+were directly or indirectly learnt from the Greeks. The peoples of the
+south (Lucanians, Bruttians, Mamertines) show a Greek principle of
+nomenclature (Mommsen, _Unterital. Dialekt_, p. 240 f.). The Pythagorean
+philosophy, whose seat was in southern Italy, won adherents among the
+native chiefs (Cic. _De senec._ 12, cf. Dio Chrys. _Orat. Cor._ 37, §
+24). From the Greeks of southern Gaul Hellenic influences penetrated the
+Celtic races so far that imitations of Greek coins were struck even on
+the coasts of the Atlantic.
+
+II. AFTER ALEXANDER THE GREAT.--When we review generally the extent to
+which Hellenism had penetrated the outer world in the middle of the 4th
+century B.C., it must be admitted that it had not seriously affected any
+but the more primitive races which dwelt upon the borders of the
+Hellenic lands, and here it would seem, with the doubtful exception of
+the Macedonians, to have been an affair rather of the courts than of the
+life of the people. On the other hand it must be taken into account that
+Hellenism had as yet only been a very short while in the world. What
+would have happened had it continued to depend upon its spiritual force
+only for propagation we cannot say. Everything was changed when by the
+conquests of Alexander (334-323) it suddenly rose to material supremacy
+in all the East as far as India, and when cities of Greek speech and
+constitution were planted by the might of kings at all the cardinal
+points of intercourse within those lands. The values honoured by the
+rulers of the world must naturally impress themselves upon the subject
+multitudes. The Macedonian chiefs found their pride in being champions
+of Hellenism. Of Alexander there is no need to speak. The courts of his
+successors in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt were Greek in language and
+atmosphere. All kings liked to win the good word of the Greeks by
+munificence bestowed upon Greek cities and Greek institutions. All of
+them in some degree patronized Greek art and letters, and some sought
+fame for themselves as authors. Even the barbarian courts, their
+neighbours or vassals, were swayed by the dominant fashion to imitation.
+But by the courts alone Hellenism could never have been propagated far.
+Greek culture had been the product of the city-state, and Hellenism
+could not be dissevered from the city. It was upon the system of Greek
+and Macedonian cities, planted by Alexander and his successors, that
+their work rested, and though their dynasties crumbled, their work
+remained. Rome, when it stepped into their place, did no more than
+safeguard its continuance; in the East Rome acted as a Hellenistic
+power, and if, when the legions had thundered past, the brooding East
+"plunged in thought again," that thought was largely directed by the
+Greek schoolmaster who followed in the legions' train. From our present
+point of view we may therefore regard this work of Hellenism as one
+continuous process, initiated by the Macedonians and carried on under
+Roman protection, and ask in the first place what the institution of a
+Greek city implied.
+
+_The Character of the New Greek Cities._--The citizen bodies at the
+outset were really of Greek or Macedonian blood--soldiers who had served
+in the royal armies, or men attracted from the older Greek cities to the
+new lands thrown open to commerce. To fix their European soldiery upon
+the new soil was an obvious necessity for the Macedonian chiefs who had
+set up kingdoms among the barbarians, and the lots of the veterans
+(except in Egypt) were naturally attached to various urban centres. The
+cities, of course, drew in numbers beside of the people of the land;
+Alexander is specially said to have incorporated large bodies of natives
+in some of the new cities of the Eastern provinces (Arr. iv. 4, 1; Diod.
+xvii. 83, 2; Curtius ix. 10, 7). It may generally be taken for granted
+that the lower strata of the city-populations was mainly native; to be
+included in the city population was not, however, to be included in the
+citizen body, and it remains a question how far the latter admitted
+members of other than European origin (Beloch iii. [i.] 414). The
+statements, for instance, of Josephus that the Jews were given full
+citizen rights in the new foundations are probably false (Willrich,
+_Juden und Griechen vor der makkabäischen Erhebung_, 1895, p. 19 f.).
+The social organization of the citizen-body conformed to the regular
+Hellenic type with a division into _phylae_ and, in Egypt, at any rate,
+into _demi_ (Liban. Or. xix. 62; Satyrus, frag. 21 = _F.H.G._ iii. 164;
+Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics_, i. 60; Kenyon, _Archiv f.
+Papyr._ ii. 74; Jonguet, _Bull. corr. hell._ xxi., 1897, 184 f.;
+Liebenam, _Städteverwaltung_, 220 f.). The cities appear equally
+Hellenic in their political organs and functions with _boule_ and
+_demos_ and popularly elected magistrates. Life was filled with the
+universal Hellenic interests, which centred in the gymnasium and the
+religious festivals, these last including, of course, not only athletic
+contests but performances of the classical dramas or later imitations of
+them. The wandering sophist and rhetorician would find a hearing no less
+than the musical artist. The language of the upper classes was Greek;
+and the material background of building and decoration, of dress and
+furniture, was of Greek design. A greater regularity in the street-plans
+seems to have distinguished the new cities from the older slowly grown
+cities of the Greek lands, just as it distinguishes the cities of the
+New World to-day from those of Europe. Alexandria and Antioch were both
+traversed from end to end by one long straight street, crossed by
+shorter ones at right angles; Nicaea was a square from the centre of
+which all the four gates could be seen at the ends of the intersecting
+thoroughfares (Strabo xii. 565); similar characteristics are noted in
+the rebuilt Smyrna (ib. xiv. 646).
+
+Sometimes the Greek city was not an absolutely new foundation, but an
+old Oriental city, re-colonized and transformed. And in such cases the
+old name was often replaced by a Greek one. Thus Celaenae in Phrygia
+became Apamea; Haleb (Aleppo) in Syria became Beroea; Nisibis in
+Mesopotamia, Antioch; Rhagae (Rai) in Media, Europus. In some cases the
+old name was left unchallenged, e.g. Thyatira, Damascus and Samaria.
+Even where there was no new foundation the older cities of Phoenicia and
+Syria became transformed from the overwhelming prestige of Hellenic
+culture. In Tyre and Sidon, no less than in Antioch or Alexandria, Greek
+literature and philosophy were seriously cultivated, as we may see by
+the great names which they contributed. The process by which Hellenism
+thus leavened an older city we may trace with peculiar vividness in the
+case of Jerusalem; we see there the younger generation captivated by its
+ideals, the appearance of gymnasium and theatre, the eager adoption of
+Greek political forms (1 Macc. i. 13 f.; 2 Macc. 4., 10 f.).
+
+A. _Characteristics of Hellenism after Alexander._--To the number of
+Greek city-states existing before Alexander were now therefore added
+those which extended Hellas as far as India. With the enormous extension
+of Greek territory a great shifting took place in the old centres of
+gravity. What changes in the character of Greek culture did the new
+conditions of the world bring about?
+
+
+  Government.
+
+Hellenism had been the product of the free life of the Greek city-state,
+and after Chaeronea the great days of the city-state were past. Not that
+all liberty was everywhere extinguished. Under Alexander himself the
+Greek states were restive, and Aetolia unsubdued; and, with the break-up
+of the empire at Alexander's death, there was once more scope for the
+action of the individual cities among the rival great powers. In the
+history of the next two or three centuries the cities are by no means
+ciphers. Rhodes takes a great part in _Weltpolitik_, as a sovereign ally
+of one or other of the royal courts. In Greece itself the overlordship
+to which the Macedonian king aspires is imperfect in extent and only
+maintained to that extent by continual wars. The Greek states on their
+side show that they are capable even of progressive political
+development, the needs of the time being met by the federal system, by
+larger unions of equal members than the leading cities of the past would
+have tolerated, with their extreme unwillingness to forego the least
+shred of sovereign independence. The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues are
+independent powers, which the Macedonian can indeed check by garrisons
+in Corinth, Chalcis and elsewhere, but which keep a field clear for
+Hellenic freedom within their borders. Sparta also is a power which can
+cross swords with the Macedonian king, and Cleomenes III. aspires to
+unite the Peloponnesus under his headship. As to the cities outside
+Greece, within or around the royal realms, Seleucid, Ptolemaic or
+Attalid, their degree of freedom probably differed widely according to
+circumstances. At one end of the scale, cities of old renown, e.g.
+Lampsacus or Smyrna, could still make good their independence against
+Antiochus III. at the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. At the other end
+of the scale the cities which were royal capitals, e.g. Alexandria,
+Antioch and Pergamum, were normally controlled altogether by royal
+nominees. At Pergamum indeed and (at any rate after Antiochus IV.) at
+Antioch, forms of self-government subsisted upon which, of course, the
+court had its hand, whilst at Alexandria even such forms were wanting.
+Between the two extremes there was variation not only between city and
+city, but, no doubt, in one and the same city at different times. In
+Syria the independent action of the cities greatly increased during the
+last weakness of the Seleucid monarchy. With the extension of the single
+strong rule of Rome over this Hellenistic world, the conditions were
+changed. Just as the Macedonian conquest, whilst increasing the domain
+of Greek culture, had straitened Greek liberty, so Rome, whilst bringing
+Hellenism finally into secure possession of the nearer East,
+extinguished Greek freedom altogether. Even now the old forms were long
+religiously respected. Formally, the most illustrious Greek states,
+Athens, for instance, or Marseilles, or Rhodes, were not subjects of
+Rome, but free allies. Even in the case of _civitates stipendiariae_
+(tribute-paying states), municipal autonomy, subject indeed to
+interference on the part of the Roman governor, was allowed to go on.
+_Boule_ and _demos_ long continued to function. The old catchword,
+"autonomy of the Hellens," was still heard and indeed was solemnly
+proclaimed by Nero at the Isthmian games of A.D. 67. But during the
+first centuries of the Christian era, this municipal autonomy, by a
+process which can only be imperfectly traced in detail, decayed. The
+_demos_ first sank into political annihilation and the council, no
+longer popularly elected but an aristocratic order, concentrated the
+whole administration in its hands. By the end of the 2nd century A.D.,
+claims made by the imperial government upon the municipal senate are
+more and more changing membership of the order from an honour into an
+intolerable burden, and financial disorganization is calling on imperial
+officials in one place after another to undertake the business of
+government. After Diocletian and under the Eastern Empire the Greek
+world is organized on the principles of a vast bureaucracy.
+
+
+  Social changes.
+
+With this long process of political decline from Alexander to Diocletian
+correspond the inner changes in the temper of the Hellenic and
+Hellenistic peoples. There were, of course, marked differences between
+one region and another. But certain general characteristics
+distinguished at once Greek society after the Macedonian conquests from
+the society of the earlier age. When the vast field of the East was
+opened to Hellenic enterprise and the bullion of its treasuries flung
+abroad, fortunes were made on a scale before unparalleled. A new
+standard of sumptuousness and splendour was set up in the richest
+stratum of society. This material elaboration of life was furthered by
+the existence of Hellenistic courts, where the great ministers amassed
+fabulous riches (e.g. Dionysius, the state secretary of Antiochus IV.,
+Polyb. xxxi. 3, 16; Hermias, the chief minister of Seleucus III., and
+Antiochus III., Polyb. v. 50. 2; cf. Plutarch, _Agis_ 9), and of huge
+cities like Alexandria, Antioch and the enlarged Ephesus. It is
+significant that whereas the earlier Greeks had used precious stones
+only as a medium for the engraver's art, unengraven gems, valuable for
+their mere material, now came to be used in profusion for adornment.
+Already before Alexander pan-hellenic feeling had in various ways
+overridden the internal divisions of the Greek race, but now, with the
+vast mingling of Greeks of all sorts in the newly-conquered lands, a
+generalized Greek culture in which the old local characteristics were
+merged, came to overspread the world. The gradual supersession of the
+old dialects by the Koine the common speech of the Greeks, a
+modification of the Attic idiom coloured by Ionic, was one obvious sign
+of the new order of things (see GREEK LANGUAGE).
+
+
+  Art and literature.
+
+In its artistic, its literary, its spiritual products the age after
+Alexander gave evidence of the change. In no department did activity
+immediately stop; but the old freshness and creative exuberance was
+gone. Artistic pleasure, grown less delicate, required the stimulus of a
+more sensational effect or a more striking realism, as we may see by the
+Pergamene and Rhodian schools of sculpture, by the bas-reliefs with the
+_genre_ subjects drawn from the life of the countryside, or, in
+literature by the sort of historical writing which became popular with
+Cleitarchus and Duris, by the studied emotional or rhetorical point of
+Callimachus, and by the portrayal of country life in Theocritus. At the
+same time, artists and men of letters were now addressing themselves in
+most cases, not to their fellow-citizens in a free city, but to kings
+and courtiers, or the educated class generally of the Greek world. In
+those departments of intellectual activity which demand no high ideal
+faculty, in the study of the world of fact, the centuries immediately
+following Alexander witnessed notable advance. Scientific research might
+prosper, just as poetry withered, under the patronage of kings, and such
+research had now a vast amount of new material at its disposal and could
+profit by the old Babylonian and Egyptian traditions. The medical
+schools, especially that of Alexandria, really enlarged knowledge of the
+animal frame. Knowledge of the earth gained immensely by the Macedonian
+conquests. The literary schools of Alexandria and Pergamum built up
+grammatical science, and brought literary and artistic criticism to a
+fine point. If indeed the earlier ages had been those of creative and
+spontaneous life, the Hellenistic age was that of conscious criticism
+and book-learning. The classical products were registered, studied,
+assorted and commented upon. Men travelled and read more. Books were in
+demand and were multiplied. Libraries became a feature of the age, the
+kings leading the way as collectors, of books, especially the rival
+dynasties of Egypt and Pergamum. The library attached to the Museum at
+Alexandria is said to have contained at the time of its destruction in
+47 B.C. as many as 700,000 rolls (Aul. Gell. vi. 17. 3). Even smaller
+cities, like Aphrodisias in Caria, had public libraries for the
+instruction of their youth (Le Bas, III. No. 1618).
+
+With the general decay of ancient civilization under the Roman empire,
+even scientific research ceased, and though there were literary
+revivals, like that connected with the new Atticism under the Antonine
+emperors, these were mainly imitative and artificial, and even learning
+became at last under the Byzantine emperors a jejune and formal
+tradition (see GREEK LITERATURE).
+
+
+  Religion and philosophy.
+
+The diffusion of the Greek race far from the former centres of its life,
+the mingling of citizens of many cities, the close contact between Greek
+and barbarian in the conquered lands--all this had made the old
+sanctions of civic religion and civic morality of less account than
+ever. New guides of life were needed. The Stoic philosophy, with its
+cosmopolitan note, its fixed dogmas and plain ethical precepts, came
+into the world at the time of the Macedonian conquests to meet the needs
+of the new age. Its ideas became popular among ordinary men as the older
+philosophies had never been. The Stoic or Cynic preacher, attacking the
+ways of society, in pungent, often coarse, phrase, became a familiar
+figure of the Greek market-place (P. Wendland, _Beiträge zur Gesch. d.
+griech. Philosophie_, 1895).
+
+Although the cults of the old Greek deities in the new cities, with
+their splendid apparatus of festivals and sacrifice might still hold the
+multitude, men turned ever in large numbers to alien religions, felt as
+more potent because strange, and the various gods of Egypt and the East
+began to find larger entrance in the Greek world. Even in the old Greek
+religion before Alexander there had been large elements of foreign
+origin, and that the Greeks should now do honour to the gods of the
+lands into which they came, as we find the Cilician and Syrian Greeks
+doing to Baal-tars and Baal-marcod and the Egyptian Greeks to the gods
+of Egypt, was only in accordance with the primitive way of thinking. But
+it was a sign of the times when Serapis and Isis, Osiris and Anubis
+began to take place among the popular deities in the old Greek lands.
+The origin of the cult of Serapis, which Ptolemy I. found, or
+established, in Egypt is disputed; the familiar type of the god is the
+invention of a Greek artist, but the name and religion came from
+somewhere in the East (see discussion under SERAPIS). Before the end of
+the 2nd century B.C. there were temples of Serapis in Athens, Rhodes,
+Delos and Orchomenos in Boeotia. Under the Roman empire the cult of
+Isis, now furnished with an official priesthood and elaborate ritual,
+became really popular in the Hellenistic world. King Asoka in the 3rd
+century B.C. sent Buddhist missionaries from India to the Mediterranean
+lands; their preaching has, it is true, left little or no trace in our
+Western records. But other religions of Oriental origin penetrated far,
+the worship of the Phrygian Great Mother, and in the 2nd century A.D.
+the religion of the Mithras (Lafaye, _Culte des divinités alexandrines_,
+1884; Roscher, articles "Anubis," "Isis," &c.; F. Cumont, _Mystères de
+Mithra_, Eng. trans., 1903; _Les Religions orientales dans le paganisme
+romain_, 1906).
+
+The Jews, too, by the time of Christ were finding in many quarters an
+open door. Besides those who were ready to go the whole length and
+accept circumcision, numbers adopted particular Jewish practices,
+observing the Sabbath, for instance, or turned from polytheism to the
+doctrine of the One God. The synagogues in the Gentile cities had
+generally attached to them, in more or less close connexion a multitude
+of those "who feared God" and frequented the services (Schürer, _Gesch.
+d. jüd. Volks_, iii. 102-135).
+
+
+  Christianity.
+
+Among the religions which penetrated the Hellenistic world from an
+Eastern source, one ultimately overpowered all the rest and made that
+world its own. The inter-action of Christianity and Hellenism opens
+large fields of inquiry. The teaching of Christ Himself contained, as it
+is given to us, no Hellenic element; so far as He built with older
+material, that material was exclusively the sacred tradition of Israel.
+So soon, however, as the Gospel was carried in Greek to Greeks, Hellenic
+elements began to enter into it, in the writings, for instance, of St
+Paul, the appeal to what "nature" teaches would be generally admitted to
+be the adoption of a Greek mode of thought. It was, of course,
+impossible that speaking in Greek and living among Greeks, Christians
+should not to some extent use current conceptions for the expression of
+their faith. There was, at the same time, in the early Church a powerful
+current of feeling hostile to Greek culture, to the wisdom of the world.
+What the attitude of the New People should be to it, whether it was all
+bad, or whether there were good things in it which Christians should
+appropriate, was a vital question that always confronted them. The great
+Christian School of Alexandria represented by Clement and Origen
+effected a durable alliance between Greek education and Christian
+doctrine. In proportion as the Christian Church had to go deeper into
+metaphysics in the formulation of its belief as to God, as to Christ, as
+to the soul, the Greek philosophical terminology, which was the only
+vehicle then available for precise thought, had to become more and more
+an essential part of Christianity. At the same time Christian ethics
+incorporated much of the current popular philosophy, especially large
+Stoical elements. In this way the Church itself, as we shall see, became
+a propagator of Hellenism (see Hatch, _Hibbert Lectures_, 1888;
+Wendland, "Christentum u. Hellenismus" in _Neue Jahrb. f. kl. Alt._ ix.
+1902, p. 1 f.; and _Die hellenistisch-römische Kultur in ihren
+Beziehungen zu Judentum u. Christentum_, 1907).
+
+B. _Effect upon non-Hellenic Peoples._--Hellenism secured by the
+Macedonian conquest _points d'appui_ from the Mediterranean to India,
+and brought the system of commerce and intercourse into Greek hands.
+What effect did it produce in these various countries? What effect again
+in the lands of the West which fell under the sway of Rome?
+
+
+  Greek cities.
+
+  Greek art.
+
+(i.) _India._--In India (including the valleys of the Kabul and its
+northern tributaries, then inhabited by an Indian, not, as now, by an
+Iranian, population) Alexander planted a number of Greek towns.
+Alexandria "under the Caucasus" commanded the road from Bactria over the
+Hindu-Kush; it lay somewhere among the hills to the north of Kabul,
+perhaps at Opian near Charikar (MacCrindle, _Ancient India_, p. 87, note
+4); that it is the city meant by "Alasadda the capital of the Yona
+(Greek) country" in the Buddhist Mahavanso, as is generally affirmed,
+seems doubtful (Tarn, loc. cit. below, p. 269, note 7). We hear of a
+Nicaea in the Kabul valley itself (near Jalalabad?), another Nicaea on
+the Hydaspes (Jhelum) where Alexander crossed it, with Bucephala (see
+BUCEPHALUS) opposite, a city (unnamed) on the Acesines (Chenab) (Arr.
+vi. 29, 3), and a series of foundations strung along the Indus to the
+sea. Soon after 321, Macedonian supremacy beyond the Indus collapsed
+before the advance of the native Maurya dynasty, and about 303 even
+large districts west of the Indus were ceded by Seleucus. But the
+chapter of Greek rule in India was not yet closed. The Maurya dynasty
+broke up about 180 B.C., and at the same time the Greek rulers of
+Bactria began to lead expeditions across the Hindu-Kush. Menander in the
+middle of the 2nd century B.C. extended his rule from the Hindu-Kush to
+the Ganges. Then "Scythian" peoples from central Asia, Sakas and
+Yue-chi, having conquered Bactria, gradually squeezed within
+ever-narrowing limits the Greek power in India. The last Greek prince,
+Hermaeus, seems to have succumbed about 30 B.C. It was just at this time
+that the Graeco-Roman world of the West was consolidated as the Roman
+Empire, and, though Greek rule in India had disappeared, active
+commercial intercourse went on between India and the Hellenistic lands.
+How far, through these changes, did the Greek population settled by
+Alexander or his successors in India maintain their distinctive
+character? What influence did Hellenism during the centuries in which it
+was in contact with India exert upon the native mind? Only extremely
+qualified answers can be given to these questions. Capital data are
+possibly waiting there under ground--the Kabul valley for instance is
+almost virgin soil for the archaeologist--and any conclusion we can
+arrive at is merely provisional. If certain statements of classical
+authors were true, Hellenism in India flourished exceedingly. But the
+phil-hellenic Brahmins in Philostratus' life of Apollonius had no
+existence outside the world of romance, and the statement of Dio
+Chrysostom that the Indians were familiar with Homer in their own tongue
+(_Or._ liii. 6) is a traveller's tale. India, the sceptical observe, has
+yielded no Greek inscription, except, of course, on the coins of the
+Greek kings and their Scythian rivals and successors. To what extent can
+it be inferred from legends on coins that Greek was a living speech in
+India? Perhaps to no large extent outside the Greek courts. The fact,
+however, that the Greek character was still used on coins for two
+centuries after the last Greek dynasty had come to an end shows that the
+language had a prestige in India which any theory, to be plausible, must
+account for. If we argue by probability from what we know of the
+conditions, we have to consider that the Greek rule in India was all
+through fighting for existence, and can have had "little time or energy
+left for such things as art, science and literature" (Tarn, _loc. cit._
+p. 292), and it is pointed out that a casual reference to the Greeks in
+an Indian work contemporary with Menander characterizes them as
+"viciously valiant Yonas." How long is it probable that Greek colonies
+planted in the midst of alien races would have remained distinct? Mr
+Tarn builds much upon the fact that the descendants of the Greek
+Branchidae settled by Xerxes in central Asia had become bilingual in six
+generations (Curt. vii. 5, 29). But the Greek race before Alexander had
+not its later prestige, and we must consider such a sentiment as leads
+the Eurasian to-day to cling to his Western parentage, so that the
+instance of the Branchidae cannot be used straight away for the time
+after Alexander. Certainly, had the Greek colonies in India been active
+political bodies, we could hardly have failed to find some trace of
+them, in civic architecture or in inscriptions, by this time. Perhaps we
+should rather think of them as resembling the Greeks found to-day
+dispersed over the nearer East with interests mainly commercial, easily
+assimilating themselves to their environment. A notice derived from
+Agatharchides (about 140 B.C.) possibly refers to the activity of these
+Indian Greeks in the sea-borne trade of the Indian Ocean (Müller, _Geog.
+Graeci min._ i. p. 191; cf. Diod. iii. 47. 9). As to what India derived
+from Greece there has been a good deal of erudite debate. That the
+Indian drama took its origin from the Greek is still maintained by some
+scholars, though hardly proved. There is no doubt that Indian astronomy
+shows marked Hellenic features, including actual Greek words borrowed.
+But by far the most signal borrowing is in the sphere of art. The stream
+of Buddhist art which went out eastwards across Asia had its rise in
+North-West India, and the remains of architecture and sculpture
+unearthed in this region enable us to trace its development back to pure
+Greek types. It remains, of course, a question whether the tradition was
+transmitted by the Greek dynasties from Bactria or by intercourse with
+the Roman empire; the latter seems now almost certain; but the fact of
+the influence is equally striking on either theory. How far to the east
+the distinctive influence of Greece went is shown by the
+seal-impressions with Athena and Eros types found by Dr Stein in the
+buried cities of Khotan (_Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan_, p. 396), and
+according to Mr E. B. Havell, there exist "paintings treasured as the
+most precious relics and rarely shown to Europeans, which closely
+resemble the Graeco-Buddhist art of India" in some of the oldest temples
+of Japan (_Studio_, vol. xxvii. 1903, p. 26).
+
+  See A. A. Macdonell, _History of Sanskrit Literature_ (1900) p. 411
+  f., and the references on p. 452; V. A. Smith, _Early History of
+  India_ (1904); Grünwedel, _Buddhist Art in India_ (Eng. trans., edited
+  by Dr Burgess, 1901); W. W. Tarn, "Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and
+  India" in _Journ. of Hell. Studies_, xxii. (1902); Foucher, _L'Art
+  gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra_ (1905).
+
+
+  Greek cities.
+
+(ii.) _Iran and Babylonia._--The colonizing activity of Alexander and
+his successors found a large field in Iran where, up till his time,
+hardly any walled towns seem to have existed. Cities now arose in all
+its provinces, superseding in many cases native market places and
+villages, and holding the vantage-points of commerce. Media, Polybius
+says, was defended by a chain of Greek cities from barbarian incursion
+(x. 27. 3); in the neighbourhood of Teheran seem to have stood Heraclea
+and Europus. In Eastern Iran the cities which are its chief places
+to-day then bore Greek names, and looked upon Alexander or some other
+Hellenic prince as their founder. Khojend, Herat, Kandahar were
+Alexandrias, Merv was an Alexandria till it changed that name for
+Antioch. When the farther provinces broke away under independent Greek
+kings, a Eucratidea and a Demetrias attested their glory. Even in a town
+definitely barbarian like Syrinca in 209 B.C. there was a resident
+mercantile community of Greeks (Polyb. x. 31). The bulk of Greek
+historical literature having perished, and in the absence of both
+archaeological data from Iran, we can only speculate on the inner life
+of these Greek cities under a strange sky. One precious document is the
+decree of Antioch in Persis (about 206 B.C.) cited in a recently
+discovered inscription (Kern, _Inschr. v. Magnesia_, No. 61;
+Dittenberger, _Orient. gr. Inscr._ i. No. 233). This shows us the normal
+organs of a Greek city, _boule_, _ecclesia_, _prytaneis_, &c., in full
+working, with the annual election of magistrates, and ordinary forms of
+public action. But more than this, it throws a remarkable light upon the
+solidarity of the Hellenic Dispersion. The citizen body had been
+increased some generations before by colonists from Magnesia-on-Meander
+sent at the invitation of Antiochus I. The Magnesians are instigated by
+pan-hellenic enthusiasm. And we see a brisk diplomatic intercourse
+between the scattered Greek cities going on. It is especially the local
+religious festivals which bind them together. Antioch in Persis, of
+course, sends athletes to the great games of Greece, but in this decree
+it determines to take part in the new festival being started in honour
+of Artemis at Magnesia. The loyalty, too, expressed towards the Seleucid
+king implies a predominant interest in pan-hellenic unity, natural in
+colonies isolated among barbarians. A list is given (fragmentary) of
+other Greek cities in Babylonia and beyond from which similar decrees
+had come.
+
+
+  Greek kingdoms.
+
+In the middle of the 3rd century B.C. Bactria and Sogdiana broke away
+from the Seleucid empire; independent Greek kings reigned there till the
+country was conquered by nomads from Central Asia (Sacae and Yue-chi) a
+century later. Alexander had settled large masses of Greeks in these
+regions (Greeks, it would seem, not Macedonians), whose attempts to
+return home in 325 and 323 had been frustrated, and it may well be that
+a racial antagonism quickened the revolt against Macedonian rule in 250.
+The history of these Greek dynasties is for us almost a blank, and for
+estimating the amount and quality of Hellenism in Bactria during the 180
+years or so of Macedonian and Greek rule, we are reduced to building
+hypotheses upon the scantiest data. Probably nothing important bearing
+on the subject has been left out of view in W. W. Tarn's learned
+discussion (_Journ. of Hell. Stud._ xxii., 1902, p. 268 f.), and his
+result is mainly negative, that palpable evidences of an active
+Hellenism have not been found; he inclines to think that the Greek
+kingdoms mainly took on the native Iranian colour. The coins, of course,
+are adduced on the other side, being not only Greek in type and legend,
+but (in many cases) of a peculiarly fine and vigorous execution; and
+excellence in one branch of art is thought to imply that other branches
+flourished in the same _milieu_. Tarn suggests that they may be a
+"sport," a spasmodic outbreak of genius (see BACTRIA and works there
+quoted). In these outlying provinces the national Iranian sentiment
+seems to have been most intense, and it is interesting to see that under
+Alexander Hellenism appeared as "belligerent civilization," in the
+attempt to suppress practices like the exposure of the dying to the dogs
+(an exaggeration of Zoroastrianism) and, possibly also, abhorrent forms
+of marriage (Strabo xi. 517; Porphyr. _De abstin._ 4. 21; Plut. _De
+fort. Al._ 5).
+
+The west of Iran slipped from the Seleucids in the course of the 2nd
+century B.C. to be joined to the Parthian kingdom, or fall under petty
+native dynasties. Soon after 130 Babylonia too was conquered by the
+Parthian, and Mesopotamia before 88. Then the reconquest of the nearer
+East by Oriental dynasties was checked by the advance of Rome. Asia
+Minor and Syria remained substantial parts of the Roman Empire till the
+Mahommedan conquests of the 7th century A.D. began a new process of
+recoil on the part of the Hellenistic power. In Babylonia, also, in
+Susiana and Mesopotamia, Hellenism had been established in a system of
+cities for 200 years before the coming of the Parthian. The greatest of
+all of them stood here--almost on the site of Bagdad--Seleucia on the
+Tigris. It superseded Babylon as the industrial focus of Babylonia and
+counted some 600,000 inhabitants (_plebs urbana_) according to Pliny,
+_N.H._ vi. § 122 (cf. Joseph. _Arch._ xviii. § 372, 374; for coins,
+probably of Seleucia, with the type of Tyche issued in the years A.D.
+43-44 see Wroth, _Coins of Parthia_, p. xlvi.). The list of other Greek
+cities known to us in these regions is too long to give here (see
+Droysen, _loc. cit._, and E. Schwartz in Kern's _Inschr. v. Magnesia_,
+p. 171 f.). In Mesopotamia, Pliny especially notes how the character of
+the country was changed when the old village life was broken in upon by
+new centres of population in the cities of Macedonian foundation (Pliny,
+_N.H._ vi. § 117; cf. K. Regling, "Histor. geog. d. mesopot.
+Parallelograms," in Lehmann's _Beiträge_, i. p. 442 f.).
+
+
+  Hellenic-Iranian culture.
+
+We do not look in vain for notable names in Hellenistic literature and
+philosophy produced on an Asiatic soil. Diogenes, the Stoic philosopher
+(head of the school in 156 B.C.), was a "Babylonian," i.e. a citizen of
+Seleucia on the Tigris; so too was Seleucus, the mathematician and
+astronomer, being possibly a native Babylonian; Berossus, who wrote a
+Babylonian history in Greek (before 261 B.C.) was a Hellenized native.
+Apollodorus, Strabo's authority for Parthian history (c. 80 B.C.?), was
+from the Greek city of Artemita in Assyria. When the Parthians rent away
+provinces from the Seleucid empire, the Greek cities did not cease to
+exist by passing under barbarian rule. Gradually no doubt the Greek
+colonies were absorbed, but the process was a long one. In 140 and 130
+B.C. those of Iran were ready to rise in support of the Seleucid invader
+(Joseph. _Arch._ xiii. § 184; Justin xxxviii. 10.6-8). Just so, Crassus
+in 53 B.C. found a welcome in the Greek cities of Mesopotamia. Seleucia
+on the Tigris is spoken of by Tacitus as being in A.D. 36 "proof against
+barbarian influences and mindful of its founder Seleucus" (_Ann._ vi.
+42). How important an element the Greek population of their realm seemed
+to the Parthian kings we can see by the fact that they claimed to be
+themselves champions of Hellenism. From the reign of Artabanus I.
+(128/7-123 B.C.) they bear the epithet of "Phil-hellen" as a regular
+part of their title upon the coins. Under the later reigns the Tyche
+figure (the personification of a Greek city) becomes common as a coin
+type (Wroth, _Coins of Parthia_, pp. liii., lxxiv.). The coinage may, of
+course, give a somewhat one-sided representation of the Parthian
+kingdom, being specially designed for the commercial class, in which the
+population of the Greek cities was, we may guess, predominant. The state
+of things which prevails in modern Afghanistan, where trade is in the
+hands of a class distinct in race and speech (Persian in this case) from
+the ruling race of fighters is very probably analogous to that which we
+should have found in Iran under the Parthians.[2] That the Parthian
+court itself was to some extent Hellenized is shown by the story, often
+adduced, that a Greek company of actors was performing the _Bacchae_
+before the king when the head of Crassus was brought in. This single
+instance need not, it is true, show a Hellenism of any profundity; still
+it does show that certain parts of Hellenism had become so essential to
+the lustre of a court that even an Arsacid could not be without them.
+Artavasdes, king of Armenia (54?-34 B.C.) composed Greek tragedies and
+histories (Plut. _Crass._ 33). Then the prestige of the Roman Empire,
+with its prevailingly Hellenistic culture, must have told powerfully.
+The Parthian princes were in many cases the children of Greek mothers
+who had been taken into the royal harems (Plut. _Crass._ 32). Musa, the
+queen-mother, whose head appears on the coins of Phraataces (3/2
+B.C.-A.D. 4) had been an Italian slave-girl. Many of the Parthian
+princes resided temporarily, as hostages or refugees, in the Roman
+Empire; but one notes that the nation at large looked with anything but
+favour upon too liberal an introduction of foreign manners at the court
+(Tac. _Ann._ ii. 2).
+
+Such slight notices in Western literature do not give us any penetrating
+view into the operation of Hellenism among the Iranians. As an
+expression of the Iranian mind we have the Avesta and the Pehlevi
+theological literature. Unfortunately in a question of this kind the
+dating of our documents is the first matter of importance, and it seems
+that we can only assign dates to the different parts of the Avesta by
+processes of fine-drawn conjecture. And even if we could date the Avesta
+securely, we could only prove borrowing by more or less close
+coincidences of idea, a tempting but uncertain method of inquiry. Taking
+an opinion based on such data for what it is worth, we may note that
+Darmesteter believed in the influence of the later Greek philosophy
+(Philonian and Neo-platonic) as one of those which shaped the Avesta as
+we have it (_Sacred Books of the East_, iv. 54 f.), but we must also
+note that such an influence is emphatically denied by Dr L. Mills
+(_Zarathushtra and the Greeks_, Leipzig, 1906). Outside literature, we
+have to look to the artistic remains offered by the region to determine
+Hellenic influence. But here, too, the preliminary classification of the
+documents is beset with doubt. In the case of small objects like gems
+the place of manufacture may be far from the place of discovery. The
+architectural remains are solidly _in situ_, but we may have such vast
+disagreement as to date as that between Dieulafoy and M. de Morgan with
+respect to domed buildings of Susa, a disagreement of at least five
+centuries. It is enough then here to observe that Iran and Babylonia do,
+as a matter of fact, continually yield the explorer objects of
+workmanship either Greek or influenced by Greek models, belonging to the
+age after Alexander, and that we may hence infer at any rate such an
+influence of Hellenism upon the tastes of the richer classes as would
+create a demand for these things.
+
+  For gems see "Gobineau" in the _Rev. archéol._, vols. xxvii., xxviii.
+  (1874); Ménant, _Recherches sur la glyptique orientale_, ii. 189 f.;
+  E. Babelon, _Catalogue des camées de la Bibl. Nat._ (1897), p. 56; A.
+  Furtwängler, _Die antiken Gemmen_, pp. 165, 369 ff.; Figurines:
+  Heuzey, _Fig. ant. du Louvre_ (1883) p. 3; J. P. Peters, _Nippur_, ii.
+  128; Military standard: Heuzey, _Comptes rendus de l'Acad. d. Inscr._
+  (1895) p. 16; _Rev. d'Assyr._ v. (1903), p. 103 f. Alabaster vase:
+  Sykes, _Ten Thousand Miles in Persia_, p. 445. In the case of the
+  architectural remains, the Greek tradition is obvious at Hatra
+  (Jacquerel, _Rev. archéol._, 1897 [ii.], 343 f.), and in the relics of
+  the temple at Kingavar (Dieulafoy, _L'Art antique de la Perse_, v. p.
+  10 f.).
+
+
+  Sassanian empire.
+
+If any vestige of Hellenism still survived under the Sassanian kings,
+our records do not show it. The spirit of the Sassanian monarchy was
+more jealously national than that of the Arsacid, and alien grafts could
+hardly have flourished under it. Of course, if Darmesteter was right in
+seeing a Greek element in Zoroastrianism, Greek influence must still
+have operated under the new dynasty, which recognized the national
+religion. But, as we saw, the Greek influence has been authoritatively
+denied. At the court a limited recognition might be given, as fashion
+veered, to the values prevalent in the Hellenistic world. The story of
+Hormisdas in Zosimus is suggestive in this connexion (Zosim. _Hist.
+nov._ ii. 27). Chosroes I. interested himself in Greek philosophy and
+received its professors from the West with open arms (Agath. ii. 28 f.);
+according to one account, he had his palace at Ctesiphon built by Greeks
+(Theophylact. Simocat. v. 6).
+
+But the account of Chosroes' mode of action makes it plain that the
+Hellenism once planted in Iran had withered away; representatives of
+Greek learning and skill have all to be imported from across the
+frontier.
+
+  For Hellenism in Babylonia and Iran, see the useful article of M.
+  Victor Chapot in the _Bull. et mémoires de la Soc. Nat. des
+  Antiquaires de France_ for 1902 (published 1904), p. 206 f., which
+  gives a conspectus of the relevant literature.
+
+(iii.) _Asia Minor._--Very different were the fortunes of Hellenism in
+those lands which became annexed to the Roman Empire.
+
+
+  Greek cities of the Diadochi.
+
+In Asia Minor, we have seen how, even before Alexander, Hellenism had
+begun to affect the native races and Persian nobility. During
+Alexander's own reign, we cannot trace any progress in the Hellenization
+of the interior, nor can we prove here his activity as a builder of
+cities. But under the dynasties of his successors a great work of
+city-building and colonization went on. Antigonus fixed his capital at
+the old Phrygian town of Celaenae, and the famous cities of Nicaea and
+Alexandria Troas owed to him their first foundation, each as an
+Antigonia; they were refounded and renamed by Lysimachus (301-281 B.C.).
+Then we have the great system of Seleucid foundations. Sardis, the
+Seleucid capital in Asia Minor, had become a Greek city before the end
+of the 3rd century B.C. The main high road between the Aegean coast and
+the East was held by a series of new cities. Going west from the
+Cilician Gates we have Laodicea Catacecaumene, Apamea, the Phrygian
+capital which absorbed Celaenae, Laodicea on the Lycus,
+Antioch-on-Meander, Antioch-Nysa, Antioch-Tralles. To the south of this
+high road we have among the Seleucid foundations Antioch in Pisidia
+(colonized with Magnesians from the Meander) and Stratonicea in Caria;
+in the region to the north of it the most famous Seleucid colony was
+Thyatira. Along the southern coast, where the houses of Seleucus and
+Ptolemy strove for predominance, we find the names of Berenice, Arsinoë
+and Ptolemais confronting those of Antioch and Seleucia. With the rise
+of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum, a system of Pergamene foundation
+begins to oppose the Seleucid in the interior, bearing such names as
+Attalia, Philetaeria, Eumenia, Apollonis. Of these, one may note for
+their later celebrity Philadelphia in Lydia and Attalia on the
+Pamphylian coast. The native Bithynian dynasty became Hellenized in the
+course of the 3rd century, and in the matter of city building Prusias
+(the old Cius), Apamea (the old Myrlea), probably Prusa, and above all
+Nicomedia attested its activity. While new Greek cities were rising in
+the interior, the older Hellenism of the western coast grew in material
+splendour under the munificence of Hellenistic kings. Its centres of
+gravity to some extent shifted. There was a tendency towards
+concentration in large cities of the new type, which caused many of the
+lesser towns, like Lebedus, Myus or Colophon, to sink to insignificance,
+while Ephesus grew in greatness and wealth, and Smyrna rose again after
+an extinction of four centuries. The great importance of Rhodes belongs
+to the days after Alexander, when it received the riches of the East
+from the trade-routes which debouched into the Mediterranean at
+Alexandria and Antioch. In Aeolis, of course, the centre of gravity
+moved to the Attalid capital, Pergamum. It was the irruption of the
+Celts, beginning in 278-277 B.C., which checked the Hellenization of the
+interior. Not only did the Galatian tribes take large tracts towards the
+north of the plateau in possession, but they were an element of
+perpetual unrest, which hampered and distracted the Hellenistic
+monarchies. The wars, therefore, in which the Pergamene kings in the
+latter part of the 3rd century stemmed their aggressions, had the glory
+of a Hellenic crusade.
+
+
+  Native dynasties.
+
+The minor dynasties of non-Greek origin, the native Bithynian and the
+two Persian dynasties in Pontus and Cappadocia, were Hellenized before
+the Romans drove the Seleucid out of the country. In Bithynia the upper
+classes seem to have followed the fashion of the court (Beloch iii. [i.],
+278); the dynasty of Pontus was phil-hellenic by ancestral tradition;
+the dynasty of Cappadocia, the most conservative, dated its conversion
+to Hellenism from the time when a Seleucid princess came to reign there
+early in the 2nd century B.C. as the wife of Ariarathes V. (Diod. xxxi.
+19. 8). But Hellenism in Cappadocia was for centuries to come still
+confined to the castles of the king and the barons, and the few towns.
+
+
+  Hellenism under Roman sway.
+
+When Rome began to interfere in Asia Minor, its first action was to
+break the power of the Gauls (189 B.C.). In 133 Rome entered formally
+upon the heritage of the Attalid kingdom and became the dominant power
+in the Anatolian peninsula for 1200 years. Under Rome the process of
+Hellenization, which the divisions and weakness of the Macedonian
+kingdoms had checked, went forward. The coast regions of the west and
+south the Romans found already Hellenized. In Lydia "not a trace" of the
+old language was left in Strabo's time (Strabo xiv. 631); in Lycia, the
+old language became obsolete in the early days of Macedonian rule (see
+Kalinka, _Tituli Asiae minoris_, i. 8). But inland, in Phrygia,
+Hellenism had as yet made little headway outside the Greek cities. Even
+the Attalids had not effected much here (Körte, _Athen. Mitth._ xxiii.,
+1898, p. 152), and under the Romans, the penetration of the interior by
+Hellenism was slow. It was not till the reign of Hadrian that city life
+on the Phrygian plateau became rich and vigorous, with its material
+circumstances of temples, theatres and baths. Among the villages of the
+north and east of Phrygia, Hellenism "was only beginning to make itself
+felt in the middle of the 3rd century A.D." (Ramsay in Kuhn's _Zeitsch.
+f. vergleich. Sprachforschung_, xxviii., 1885, p. 382). Gravestones in
+this region as late as the 4th century curse violators in the old
+Phrygian speech. The lower classes at Lystra in St Paul's time spoke
+Lycaonian (Acts xiv. 11). In that part of Phrygia, which by the
+settlement of the Celtic invaders became Galatia, the larger towns seem
+to have become Hellenized by the time of the Christian era, whilst the
+Celtic speech maintained itself in the country villages till the 4th
+century A.D. (Jerome, Preface to Comment, in _Epist. ad Gal._ book ii.;
+see J. G. C. Anderson, _Journ. of Hell. Stud._ xix., 1899, p. 312 f.).
+Cappadocia at the beginning of the Christian era was still comparatively
+townless (Strabo xii. 537), a country of large estates with a servile
+peasantry. Even in the 4th century its Hellenization was still far from
+complete; but Christianity had assimilated so much of the older Hellenic
+culture that the Church was now a main propagator of Hellenism in the
+backward regions. The native languages of Asia Minor all ultimately gave
+way to Greek (unless Phrygian lingered on in parts till the Turkish
+invasions; see Mordtmann, _Sitzungsb. d. bayer. Ak._ 1862, i. p. 30; K.
+Holl in _Hermes_, xliii., 1908, p. 240 f.). The effective Hellenization
+of Armenia did not take place till the 5th century, when the school of
+Mesrop and Sahak gave Armenia a literature translated from, or
+imitating, Greek books (Gelzer in I. v. Müller's _Handbuch_, vol. ix.
+Abt. i. p. 916.)
+
+
+  Seleucid empire.
+
+  Roman period.
+
+(iv.) _Syria._--In Syria, which with Cilicia and Mesopotamia, formed the
+central part of the Seleucid empire, the new colonies were especially
+numerous. Alexander himself had perhaps made a beginning with
+Alexandria-by-Issus (mod. Alexandretta), Samaria, Pella (the later
+Apamea), Carrhae, &c. Antigonus founded Antigonia, which was absorbed a
+few years later by Antioch, and after the fall of Antigonus in 301, the
+work of planting Syria with Greek cities was pursued effectively north
+of the Lebanon by the house of Seleucus, and, less energetically, south
+of the Lebanon by the house of Ptolemy. In the north of Syria four
+cities stood pre-eminent above the rest, (1) Antioch on the Orontes, the
+Seleucid capital; (2) Seleucia-in-Pieria near the mouth of the Orontes,
+which guarded the approach to Antioch from the sea; (3) Apamea (mod.
+Famia), on the middle Orontes, the military headquarters of the kingdom;
+and (4) Laodicea "on sea" (_ad mare_), which had a commercial importance
+in connexion with the export of Syrian wine. Of the Ptolemaic
+foundations in Coele-Syria only one attained an importance comparable
+with that of the larger Seleucid foundations, Ptolemais on the coast,
+which was the old Semitic Acco transformed (mod. Acre). The group of
+Greek cities east of the Jordan also fell within the Ptolemaic realm
+during the 3rd century B.C., though their greatness belonged to a
+somewhat later day. The whole of Syria was brought under the Seleucid
+sceptre, together with Cilicia, by Antiochus III. the Great (223-187
+B.C.). Under his son, Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164), a fresh impulse
+was given to Syrian Hellenism. In 1 Maccabees he is represented as
+writing an order to all his subjects to forsake the ways of their
+fathers and conform to a single prescribed pattern, and though in this
+form the account can hardly be exact, it does no doubt represent the
+spirit of his action. Other facts there are which point the same way. We
+now find a sudden issue of bronze money by a large number of the cities
+of the kingdom in their own name--an indication of liberties extended or
+confirmed. Many of them exchange their existing name for that of Antioch
+(Adana, Tarsus, Gadara, Ptolemais), Seleucia (Mopsuestia, Gadara) or
+Epiphanea (Oeniandus, Hamath). At Antioch itself great public works were
+carried out, such as were involved in the addition of a new quarter to
+the city, including, we may suppose, the civic council chamber which is
+afterwards spoken of as being here. With the ever-growing weakness of
+the Seleucid dynasty, the independence and activity of the cities
+increased, although, if, on the one hand, they were less suppressed by a
+strong central government, they were less protected against military
+adventurers and barbarian chieftains. Accordingly, when Pompey annexed
+Syria in 64 B.C. as a Roman province, he found it a chaos of city-states
+and petty principalities. The Nabataeans and the Jews above all had
+encroached upon the Hellenistic domain; in the south the Jewish raids
+had spread desolation and left many cities practically in ruins. Under
+Roman protection, the cities were soon rebuilt and Hellenism secured
+from the barbarian peril. Greek city life, with its political forms, its
+complement of festivities, amusements and intellectual exercise, went on
+more largely than before. The great majority of the Hellenistic remains
+in Syria belong to the Roman period. Such local dynasties as were
+suffered by the Romans to exist had, of course, a Hellenistic
+complexion. Especially was this the case with that of the Herods. Not
+only were such marks of Hellenism as a theatre introduced by Herod the
+Great (37-34 B.C.) at Jerusalem, but in the work of city-building this
+dynasty showed itself active. Sebaste (the old Samaria), Caesarea,
+Antipatris were built by Herod the Great, Tiberias by Herod Antipas (4
+B.C.-A.D. 39). The reclaiming of the wild district of Hauran for
+civilization and Hellenistic life was due in the first instance to the
+house of Herod (Schürer, _Gesch. d. jüd. Volk._ 3rd ed., ii. p. 12 f.).
+In Syria, too, Hellenism under the Romans advanced upon new ground.
+Palmyra, of which we hear nothing before Roman times, is a notable
+instance.
+
+
+  Greek culture in Syria.
+
+As to the effect of this network of Greek cities upon the aboriginal
+population of Syria, we do not find here the same disappearance of
+native languages and racial characteristics as in Asia Minor. Still less
+was this the case in Mesopotamia, where a strong native element in such
+a city as Edessa is indicated by its epithet [Greek: mixobarbaros]. The
+old cults naturally went on, and at Carrhae (Harran) even survived the
+establishment of Christianity. The lower classes at Antioch, and no
+doubt in the cities generally, were in speech Aramaic or bilingual; we
+find Aramaic popular nicknames of the later Seleucids (K. O. Müller,
+_Antiq. Ant._ p. 29). The villages, of course, spoke Aramaic. The richer
+natives, on the other hand, those who made their way into the educated
+classes of the towns, and attained official position, would become
+Hellenized in language and manners, and the "Syrian Code" shows how far
+the social structure was modified by the Hellenic tradition (Mitteis,
+_Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in den öst. Provinzen des röm.
+Kaiserreichs_, 1891; Arnold Meyer, _Jesu Muttersprache_, 1896). Of the
+Syrians who made their mark in Greek literature, some were of native
+blood, e.g. Lucian of Samosata.
+
+One may notice the great part taken by natives of the Phoenician cities
+in the history of later Greek philosophy, and in the poetic movement of
+the last century B.C., which led to fresh cultivation of the epigram.
+Greek, in fact, held the field as the language of literature and polite
+society. Possibly at places like Edessa, which for some 350 years (till
+A.D. 216) was under a dynasty of native princes, Aramaic was cultivated
+as a literary language. There was a Syriac-speaking church here as early
+as the 2nd century, and with the spread of Christianity Syriac asserted
+itself against Greek. The Syriac literature which we possess is all
+Christian.
+
+_But where Greek gave place to Syriac, Hellenism was not thereby
+effaced. It was to some extent the passing over of the Hellenic
+tradition into a new medium._ We must remember the marked Hellenic
+elements in Christian theology. The earliest Syriac work which we
+possess, the book "On Fate," produced in the circle of the heretic
+Bardaisan or Bardesanes (end of the 2nd century), largely follows Greek
+models. There was an extensive translation of Greek works into Syriac
+during the next centuries, handbooks of philosophy and science for the
+most part. The version of Homer into Syriac verses made in the 8th
+century has perished, all but a few lines (R. Duval, _La Litt.
+syriaque_, 1900, p. 325).
+
+
+  The Jews.
+
+(v.) _The relation of the Jews to Hellenism_ in the first century and a
+half of Macedonian rule is very obscure, since the statements made by
+later writers like Josephus, as to the visit of Alexander to Jerusalem
+or the privileges conferred upon the Jews in the new Macedonian realms
+are justly suspected of being fiction. It has been maintained that Greek
+influence is to be traced in parts of the Old Testament assigned to this
+period, as, for instance, the Book of Proverbs; but even in the case of
+Ecclesiastes, the canonical writing whose affinity with Greek thought is
+closest, the coincidence of idea need not necessarily prove a Greek
+source. The one solid fact in this connexion is the translation of the
+Jewish Law into Greek in the 3rd century B.C., implying a Jewish
+Diaspora at Alexandria, so far Hellenized as to have forgotten the
+speech of Palestine. Early in the 2nd century B.C. we see that the
+priestly aristocracy of Jerusalem had, like the well-to-do classes
+everywhere in Syria, been carried away by the Hellenistic current, its
+strength being evidenced no less by the intensity of the conservative
+opposition embodied in the party of the "Pious" (Assideans, _Hasidim_).
+
+Under Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-165) the Hellenistic aristocracy
+contrived to get Jerusalem converted into a Greek city; the gymnasium
+appeared, and Greek dress became fashionable with the young men. But
+when Antiochus, owing to political developments, interfered violently at
+Jerusalem, the conservative opposition carried the nation with them. The
+revolt under the Hasmonaean family (Judas Maccabaeus and his brethren)
+followed, ending in 143-142 in the establishment of an independent
+Jewish state under a Hasmonaean prince. But whilst the old Hellenistic
+party had been crushed the Hasmonaean state was of the nature of a
+compromise. The Mosaic Law was respected, but Hellenism still found an
+entrance in various forms. The first Hasmonaean "king," Aristobulus I.
+(104-103), was known to the Greeks as Phil-hellen. He and all later
+kings of the dynasty bear Greek names as well as Hebrew ones, and after
+Jannaeus Alexander (103-76) the Greek legends are common on the coins
+beside the Hebrew. Herod, who supplanted the Hasmonaean dynasty (37-34
+B.C.) made, outside Judaea, a display of Phil-hellenism, building new
+Greek cities and temples, or bestowing gifts upon the older ones of
+fame. His court, at the same time, welcomed Greek men of letters like
+Nicolaus of Damascus. Even in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, he erected
+a theatre and an amphitheatre. We have already noticed the work done by
+the Herodian dynasty in furthering Hellenism in Syria (see Schürer,
+_Gesch. des jüdisch. Volkes_, vols. i. and ii.). Meanwhile a great part
+of the Jewish people was living dispersed among the cities of the Greek
+world, speaking Greek as their mother-tongue, and absorbing Greek
+influences in much larger measure than their brethren of Palestine.
+These are the Jews whom we find contrasted as "Hellenists" with the
+"Hebrews" in Acts. They still kept in touch with the mother-city, and
+indeed we hear of special synagogues in Jerusalem in which the
+Hellenists temporarily resident there gathered (Acts vi. 9). A large
+Jewish literature in Greek had grown up since the translation of the Law
+in the 3rd century. Beside the other canonical books of the Old
+Testament, translated in many cases with modifications or additions, it
+included translations of other Hebrew books (Ecclesiasticus, Judith,
+&c.), works composed originally in Greek but imitating to some extent
+the Hebraic style (like Wisdom), works modelled more closely on the
+Greek literary tradition, either historical, like 2 Maccabees, or
+philosophical, like the productions of the Alexandrian school,
+represented for us by Aristobulus and Philo, in which style and thought
+are almost wholly Greek and the reference to the Old Testament a mere
+pretext; or Greek poems on Jewish subjects, like the epic of the elder
+Philo and Ezechiel's tragedy, _Exagoge_. It included also a number of
+forgeries, circulated under the names of famous Greek authors, verses
+fathered upon Aeschylus or Sophocles, or books like the false Hecataeus,
+or above all the pretended prophecies of ancient Sibyls in epic verse.
+These frauds were all contrived for the heathen public, as a means of
+propaganda, calculated to inspire them with respect for Jewish antiquity
+or turn them from idols to God.
+
+  For Jewish Hellenism see Schürer, _op. cit._ iii.; Susemihl, _Gesch.
+  der griech. Lit. in der Alexandrinerzeit_, ii. 601 f.; Willrich,
+  _Juden und Griechen_ (1895), _Judaica_ (1900); Hastings' _Dict. of the
+  Bible_, art. "Greece"; _Encyclop. Biblica_, art. "Hellenism";
+  Pauly-Wissowa, art. "Aristobulus (15)"; also the work of P. Wendland
+  cited above.
+
+Through the Hellenistic Jews, Greek influences reached Jerusalem itself,
+though their effect upon the Aramaic-speaking Rabbinical schools was
+naturally not so pronounced. The large number of Greek words, however,
+in the language of the Mishnah and the Talmud is a significant
+phenomenon. The attitude of the Rabbinic doctors to a Greek education
+does not seem to have been hostile till the time of Hadrian. The sect of
+the Essenes probably shows an intermingling of the Greek with other
+lines of tradition among the Jews of Palestine.
+
+  See Schürer ii. 42-67, 583; S. Krauss, _Griech. u. latein. Lehnwörter
+  im Talmud_ (1898); _Jewish Encyclopedia_, art. "Greek Language."
+
+
+  Ptolemaic kingdom.
+
+(vi.) _In Egypt_ the Ptolemies were hindered by special considerations
+from building Greek cities after the manner of the other Macedonian
+houses. One Greek city they found existing, Naucratis; Alexander had
+called Alexandria into being; the first Ptolemy added Ptolemais as a
+Greek centre for Upper Egypt. They seem to have suffered no other
+community in the Nile Valley with the independent life of a Greek city,
+for the Greek and Macedonian soldier-colonies settled in the Fayum or
+elsewhere had no political self-existence. And even at Alexandria
+Hellenism was not allowed full development. Ptolemais, indeed, enjoyed
+all the ordinary forms of self-government, but Alexandria was governed
+despotically by royal officials. In its population, too, Alexandria was
+only semi-Hellenic; for besides the proportion of Egyptian natives in
+its lower strata, its commercial greatness drew in elements from every
+quarter; the Jews, for instance, formed a majority of the population in
+two out of the five divisions of the city. At the same time the
+prevalent tone of the populace was, no doubt, Hellenistic, as is shown
+by the fact that the Jews who settled there acquired Greek in place of
+Aramaic as their mother-tongue, and in its upper circles Alexandrian
+society under the Ptolemies was not only Hellenistic, but notable among
+the Hellenes for its literary and artistic brilliance. The state
+university, the "Museum," was in close connexion with the court, and
+gave to Alexandria the same pre-eminence in natural science and literary
+scholarship which Athens had in moral philosophy.
+
+Probably in no other country, except Judaea, did Hellenism encounter as
+stubborn a national antagonism as in Egypt. The common description of
+"the Oriental" as indurated in his antagonism to the alien conqueror
+here perhaps has some truth in it. The assault made upon the Macedonian
+devotee in the temple of Serapis at Memphis "because he was a Greek" is
+significant (_Papyr. Brit. Mus._ i. No. 44; cf. Grenfell, _Amherst
+Papyr._ p. 48). And yet even here one must observe qualifications The
+papyri show us habitual marriage of Greeks and native women and a
+frequent adoption by natives of Greek names. It has even been thought
+that some developments of the Egyptian religion are due to Hellenistic
+influence, such as the deification of Imhotp (Bissing, _Deutsche
+Literaturzeitung_, 1902, col. 2330) or the practice of forming voluntary
+religious associations (Otto, _Priester und Tempel_, i. 125). The
+worship of Serapis was patronized by the court with the very object of
+affording a mixed cultus in which Greek and native might unite. In
+Egypt, too, the triumph of Christianity brought into being a native
+Christian literature, and if this was in one way the assertion of the
+native against Hellenistic predominance, one must remember that Coptic
+literature, like Syriac, necessarily incorporated those Greek elements
+which had become an essential part of Christian theology.
+
+
+  Ethiopia.
+
+From the Ptolemaic kingdom Hellenism early travelled up the Nile into
+Ethiopia. Ergamenes, the king of the Ethiopians in the time of the
+second Ptolemy, "who had received a Greek education and cultivated
+philosophy," broke with the native priesthood (Diod. iii. 6), and from
+that time traces of Greek influence continue to be found in the
+monuments of the Upper Nile. When Ethiopia became a Christian country in
+the 4th century, its connexion with the Hellenistic world became closer.
+
+
+  Greek culture in the Roman world.
+
+(vii.) _Hellenism in the West._--Whilst in the East Hellenism had been
+sustained by the political supremacy of the Greeks, in Italy _Graecia
+capta_ had only the inherent power and charm of her culture wherewith to
+win her way. At Carthage in the 3rd century the educated classes seem
+generally to have been familiar with Greek culture (Bernhardy,
+_Grundriss d. griech. Lit._ § 77). The philosopher Clitomachus, who
+presided over the Academy at Athens in the 2nd century, was a
+Carthaginian. Even before Alexander, as we saw, Hellenism had affected
+the peoples of Italy, but it was not till the Greeks of south Italy and
+Sicily were brought under the supremacy of Rome in the 3rd century B.C.
+that the stream of Greek influence entered Rome in any volume. It was
+now that the Greek freedman, L. Livius Andronicus, laid the foundation
+of a new Latin literature by his translation of the _Odyssey_, and that
+the Greek dramas were recast in a Latin mould. The first Romans who set
+about writing history wrote in Greek. At the end of the 3rd century
+there was a circle of enthusiastic phil-hellenes among the Roman
+aristocracy, led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, who in Rome's name
+proclaimed the autonomy of the Greeks at the Isthmian games of 196. In
+the middle of the 2nd century Roman Hellenism centred in the circle of
+Scipio Aemilianus, which included men like Polybius and the philosopher
+Panaetius. The visit of the three great philosophers, Diogenes the
+"Babylonian," Critolaus and Carneades in 155, was an epoch-making event
+in the history of Hellenism at Rome. Opposition there could not fail to
+be, and in 161 a _senatus consultum_ ordered all Greek philosophers and
+rhetoricians to leave the city. The effect of such measures was, of
+course, transient. Even though the opposition found so doughty a
+champion as the elder Cato (censor in 184), it was ultimately of no
+avail. The Italians did not indeed surrender themselves passively to the
+Greek tradition. In different departments of culture the degree of their
+independence was different. The system of government framed by Rome was
+an original creation. Even in the spheres of art and literature, the
+Italians, while so largely guided by Greek canons, had something of
+their own to contribute. The mere fact that they produced a literature
+in Latin argues a power of creation as well as receptivity. The great
+Latin poets were imitators indeed, but _mere_ imitators they were no
+more than Petrarch or Milton. On the other hand, even where the creative
+originality of Rome was most pronounced, as in the sphere of Law, there
+were elements of Hellenic origin. It has been often pointed out how the
+Stoic philosophy especially helped to shape Roman jurisprudence
+(Schmekel, _Philos. d. mittl. Stoa_, p. 454 f.).
+
+Whilst the upper classes in Italy absorbed Greek influences by their
+education, by the literary and artistic tradition, the lower strata of
+the population of Rome became largely hellenized by the actual influx on
+a vast scale of Greeks and hellenized Asiatics, brought in for the most
+part as slaves, and coalescing as freedmen with the citizen body. Of the
+Jewish inscriptions found at Rome some two-thirds are in Greek. So too
+the early Christian church in Rome, to which St Paul addressed his
+epistle, was Greek-speaking, and continued to be till far into the 3rd
+century.
+
+
+  The middle ages.
+
+  Islam.
+
+III. LATER HISTORY.--It remains only to glance at the ultimate destinies
+of Hellenism in West and East. In the Latin West knowledge of Greek,
+first-hand acquaintance with the Greek classics, became rarer and rarer
+as general culture declined, till in the dark ages (after the 5th
+century) it existed practically nowhere but in Ireland (Sandys, _History
+of Classical Scholarship_, i. 438). In Latin literature, however, a
+great mass of Hellenistic tradition in a derived form was maintained in
+currency, wherever, that is, culture of any kind continued to exist. It
+was a small number of monkish communities whose care of those narrow
+channels prevented their ever drying up altogether. Then the stream
+began to rise again, first with the influx of the learning of the
+Spanish Moors, then with the new knowledge of Greek brought from
+Constantinople in the 14th century. With the Renaissance and the new
+learning, Hellenism came in again in flood, to form a chief part of that
+great river on which the modern world is being carried forward into a
+future, of which one can only say that it must be utterly unlike
+anything that has gone before. In the East it is popularly thought that
+Hellenism, as an exotic, withered altogether away. This view is
+superficial. During the dark ages, in the Byzantine East, as well as in
+the West, Hellenism had become little more than a dried and shrivelled
+tradition, although the closer study of Byzantine culture in latter
+years has seemed to discover more vitality than was once supposed.
+Ultimately the Greek East was absorbed by Islam; the popular mistake
+lies in supposing that the Hellenistic tradition thereby came to an end.
+The Mahommedan conquerors found a considerable part of it taken over,
+as we saw, by the Syrian Christians, and Greek philosophical and
+scientific classics were now translated from Syriac into Arabic. These
+were the starting-points for the Mahommedan schools in these subjects.
+Accordingly we find that Arabian philosophy (q.v.), mathematics,
+geography, medicine and philology are all based professedly upon Greek
+works (Brockelmann, _Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur_, 1898, vol. i.; R.
+A. Nicholson, _A Literary History of the Arabs_, 1907, pp. 358-361).
+Aristotle in the East no less than in the West was the "master of them
+that know"; and Moslem physicians to this day invoke the names of
+Hippocrates and Galen. The Hellenistic strain in Mahommedan civilization
+has, it is true, flagged and failed, but only as that civilization as a
+whole has declined. It was not that the Hellenistic element failed,
+whilst the native elements in the civilization prospered; the culture of
+Islam has, as a whole (from whatever causes), sunk ever lower during the
+centuries that have witnessed the marvellous expansion of Europe.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For the inner history of Hellenism after Alexander, the
+  general historical literature dealing with later Greece and Rome
+  supplies material in various degrees. See works quoted in articles
+  GREECE, _History_; ROME, _History_; PTOLEMIES; SELEUCID DYNASTY;
+  BACTRIA, &c.
+
+  Different elements (literature, philosophy, art, &c.) are dealt with
+  in works dealing specially with these subjects, among which those of
+  Susemihl, Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Erwin Rohde and E. Schwartz are of
+  especial importance for the literature; those of Schreiber and
+  Strzygowski for the later Greek art.
+
+  Sketches of Hellenistic civilization generally are found in J. P.
+  Mahaffy's _Greek Life and Thought_ (1887), _The Greek World under
+  Roman Sway_ (1890); _The Silver Age of the Greek World_ (1906); Julius
+  Kaerst, _Gesch. d. hellenist. Zeitalters_ (Band ii., publ. 1909); and
+  in Beloch's _Griechische Geschichte_, vol. iii. (for the century
+  immediately succeeding Alexander). R. von Scala's "The Greeks after
+  Alexander," in Helmolt's _History of the World_ (vol. v.), covers the
+  whole period from Alexander to the end of the Byzantine Empire. P.
+  Wendland's _Hellenistisch-römische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu
+  Judentum u. Christentum_ (1907) is an illuminating monograph, giving a
+  conspectus of the material. For Hellenistic Egypt, Bouché-Leclercq,
+  _Histoire des Lagides_, vol. iii. (1906).     (E. R. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See, among recent writers, on one side Kaerst, _Gesch. des
+    hellenist. Zeitalters_, pp. 97 f., and on the other Beloch, _Griech.
+    Gesch._, iii. [i.] 1-9; Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Gesch. d.
+    griech. Sprache_, p. 283 f.; O. Hoffmann, _Die Makedonen, ihre
+    Sprache u. ihr Volkstum_ (1906).
+
+  [2] "Ce sont les Tadjik de l'Afghanistan qui constituent les
+    trente-deux corps de métier, qui tiennent boutique, expédient les
+    marchandises, représentent, en un mot, la vie industrielle et
+    commerciale de la nation. Ce sont aussi les Tadjik des villes qui
+    forment la classe lettrée, et qui ont empêché les Afghans de retomber
+    dans la barbarie." (Reclus, _Nouvelle Géograph. univ._ ix. p. 71.)
+
+
+
+
+HELLER, STEPHEN (1815-1888), Austrian pianist and composer, was born at
+Pest on the 15th of May 1815. (Fétis's dictionary says 1814, but this is
+almost certainly wrong.) He was at first intended for a lawyer, but at
+nine years of age performed so successfully at a concert that he was
+sent to Vienna to study under Czerny. Halm was his principal master, and
+from the age of twelve he gave concerts in Vienna, and made a tour
+through Hungary, Poland and Germany. At Augsburg he had the good fortune
+to be befriended when ill by a wealthy family, who practically adopted
+him and gave him the opportunity to complete his musical education. In
+1838 he went to Paris, and soon became intimate with Liszt, Chopin,
+Berlioz and their set, among whom was Hallé, throughout his life an
+indefatigable performer of Heller's music. In 1849 he came to England
+and played a few times, and in 1862 he appeared with Hallé at the
+Crystal Palace. He outlived the great reputation he had enjoyed among
+cultivated amateurs for so many years, and was almost forgotten when he
+died at Paris on the 14th of January 1888. His pianoforte pieces, almost
+all of them published in sets and provided with fancy names, do not show
+very startling originality, but their grace and refinement could not but
+make them popular with players and listeners of all classes.
+
+
+
+
+HELLESPONT (i.e. "Sea of Helle"; variously named in classical literature
+[Greek: Hellêspontos], [Greek: ho Hellês pontos], _Hellespontum
+Pelagus_, and _Fretum Hellesponticum_), the ancient name of the
+Dardanelles (q.v.). It was so-called from Helle, the daughter of Athamas
+(q.v.), who was drowned here. See ARGONAUTS.
+
+
+
+
+HELLEVOETSLUIS, or HELVOETSLUIS, a fortified seaport in the province of
+South Holland, the kingdom of Holland, on the south side of the island
+of Voorne-and-Putten, on the sea-arm known as the Haringvliet, 5½ m. S.
+of Brielle. It has daily steamboat connexion with Rotterdam by the
+Voornsche canal. Pop. (1900), 4152. Hellevoetsluis is an important naval
+station, and possesses a naval arsenal, dry and wet docks, wharves and a
+naval college for engineers. Among the public buildings are the
+communal chambers, a Reformed church (1661), a Roman Catholic church and
+a synagogue.
+
+
+
+
+HELLÍN, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Albacete, on
+the Albacete-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 12,558. Hellín is built on the
+outskirts of the low hills which line the left bank of the river Mundo.
+It possesses the remains of an old Roman castle and a beautiful parish
+church, the masonry and marble pavement at the entrance of which are
+worthy of special notice. The surrounding country yields wine, oil and
+saffron in abundance; within the town there are manufactures of coarse
+cloth, leather and pottery. Sulphur is obtained from the celebrated
+mining district of Minas del Mundo, 12 m. S., at the junction between
+the Mundo and the Segura; and there are warm sulphurous springs in the
+neighbouring village of Azaraque. Hellín was known to the Romans who
+first exploited its sulphur as Illunum.
+
+
+
+
+HELLO, ERNEST (1828-1885), French critic, was born at Tréguier. He was
+the son of a lawyer who held posts of great importance at Rennes and in
+Paris, and was well educated at both places, but took to no profession
+and resided much, for a time, in his father's country-house in Brittany.
+A very strong Roman Catholic, he appears to have been specially excited
+by his countryman Renan's attitude to religious matters, and coming
+under the influence of J. A. Barbey d'Aurevilly and Louis Veuillot, the
+two most brilliant crusaders of the Church in the press, he started a
+newspaper of his own, _Le Croisé_, in 1859; but it only lasted two
+years. He wrote, however, much in other papers. He had very bad health,
+suffering apparently from spinal or bone disease. But he was fortunate
+enough to meet with a wife, Zoe Berthier, who, ten years older than
+himself, and a friend for some years before their marriage, became his
+devoted nurse, and even brought upon herself abuse from gutter
+journalists of the time for the care with which she guarded him. He died
+in 1885. Hello's work is somewhat varied in form but uniform in spirit.
+His best-known book, _Physionomie de saints_ (1875), which has been
+translated into English (1903) as _Studies in Saintship_, does not
+display his qualities best. _Contes extraordinaires_, published not long
+before his death, is better and more original. But the real Hello is to
+be found in a series of philosophical and critical essays, from _Renan,
+l'Allemagne et l'athéisme_ (1861), through _L'Homme_ (1871) and _Les
+Plateaux de la balance_ (1880), perhaps his chief book, to the
+posthumously published _Le Siècle_. The peculiarity of his standpoint
+and the originality and vigour of his handling make his studies, of
+Shakespeare, Hugo and others, of abiding importance as literary
+"triangulations," results of object, subject and point of view.
+
+
+
+
+HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK (1767-1813), Dutch poet, was born at Amsterdam on
+the 7th of March 1767. His early poems, _Night_ (1788) and _Socrates_
+(1790), were tame and sentimental, but after 1805 he determined, in
+company with his brother-in-law, Cornelis Loots (1765-1834), to rouse
+national feeling by a burst of patriotic poetry. His _Poems_ (2 vols.,
+1809-1810), but especially his great work _The Dutch Nation_, a poem in
+six cantos (1812), created great enthusiasm and enjoyed immense success.
+Helmers died at Amsterdam on the 26th of February 1813. He owed his
+success mainly to the integrity of his patriotism and the opportune
+moment at which he sounded his counterblast to the French oppression.
+His posthumous poems were collected in 1815.
+
+
+
+
+HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON (1803-1885), Russian geologist, was born at
+Laugut-Duckershof, near Dorpat, on the 29th of September (O.S.) 1803. He
+received an engineering training and became major-general in the corps
+of Mining Engineers. In 1837 he was appointed professor of geology in
+the mining institute at St Petersburg. He was author of numerous memoirs
+on the geology of Russia, especially on the coal and other mineral
+deposits of the country; and he wrote also some explanations to
+accompany separate sheets of the geological map of Russia. His
+geological work was continued to an advanced age, one of the later
+publications being _Studien über die Wanderblöcke und die
+Diluvialgebilde Russlands_ (1869 and 1882). Most of his memoirs were
+published by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg. He died
+at St Petersburg on the 3rd of February (O.S.) 1885.
+
+
+
+
+HELMET (from an obsolete diminutive of O. Fr. _helme_, mod. _heaume_;
+the English word is "helm," as in O. Eng., Dutch and Ger.; all are from
+the Teutonic base _hal_-, pre-Teut. _kal_-, to cover; cf. Lat. _celare_,
+to hide, Eng. "hell," &c.), a defensive covering for the head. The
+present article deals with the helmet during the middle ages down to the
+close of the period when body armour was worn. For the helmet worn by
+the Greeks and Romans see ARMS AND ARMOUR.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Casque with Neck-guard.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Casque with Nasal and Mail Hood.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Heaume, early 13th century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Heaume, 15th century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Heaume, 15th century.]
+
+The head-dress of the warriors of the dark ages and of the earlier
+feudal period was far from being the elaborate helmet which is
+associated in the imagination with the knight in armour and the tourney.
+It was a mere casque, a cap with or without additional safeguards for
+the ears, the nape of the neck and the nose (fig. 1). By those warriors
+who possessed the means to equip themselves fully, the casque was worn
+over a hood of mail, as shown in fig. 2. In manuscripts, &c., armoured
+men are sometimes portrayed fighting in their hoods, without casques,
+basinets or other form of helmet. The casque was, of course, normally of
+plate, but in some instances it was a strong leather cap covered with
+mail or imbricated plates. The most advanced form of this early helmet
+is the conical steel or iron cap with nasal (fig. 2), worn in
+conjunction with the hood of mail. This is the typical helmet of the
+11th-century warrior, and is made familiar by the Bayeux Tapestry. From
+this point however (c. 1100) the evolution of war head-gear follows two
+different paths for many years. On the one hand the simple casque easily
+transformed itself into the _basinet_, originally a pointed iron
+skull-cap without nasal, ear-guards, &c. On the other hand the knight in
+armour, especially after the fashion of the tournament set in, found the
+mere cap with nasal insufficient, and the _heaume_ (or "helmet")
+gradually came into vogue. This was in principle a large heavy iron pot
+covering the head and neck. Often a light basinet was worn underneath
+it--or rather the knight usually wore his basinet and only put the
+heaume on over it at the last moment before engaging. The earlier (12th
+century) war heaumes are intended to be worn with the mail hood and have
+nasals (fig. 3). Towards the end of the 13th century, however, the
+basinet grew in size and strength, just as the casque had grown, and
+began to challenge comparison with the heavy and clumsy heaume.
+Thereupon the heaume became, by degrees, the special head-dress of the
+tournament, and grew heavier, larger and more elaborate, while the
+basinet, reinforced with camail and vizor, was worn in battle. Types of
+the later, purely tilting, heaume are shown in figs. 4 and 5.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Basinets.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Salades or Sallets.]
+
+The basinet, then, is the battle head-dress of nobles, knights and
+sergeants in the 14th century. Its development from the 10th-century cap
+to the towering helmet of 1350, with its long snouted vizor and ample
+drooping "camail," is shown in fig. 6, a, b, c and d, the two latter
+showing the same helmet with vizor down and up. But the tendency set in
+during the earlier years of the 15th century to make all parts of the
+armour thicker. Chain "mail" gradually gave way to plate on the body and
+the limbs, remaining only in those parts, such as neck and elbows, where
+flexibility was essential, and even there it was in the end replaced by
+jointed steel bands or small plates. The final step was the discarding of
+the "camail" and the introduction of the "armet." The latter will be
+described later. Soon after the beginning of the 15th century the
+high-crowned basinet gave place to the _salade_ or _sallet_, a helmet
+with a low rounded crown and a long brim or neck-guard at the back. This
+was the typical headpiece of the last half of the Hundred Years' War as
+the vizored basinet had been of the first. Like the basinet it was worn
+in a simple form by archers and pikemen and in a more elaborate form by
+the knights and men-at-arms. The larger and heavier salades were also
+often used instead of the heaume in tournaments. Here again, however,
+there is a great difference between those worn by light armed men,
+foot-soldiers and archers and those of the heavy cavalry. The former,
+while possessing as a rule the bowl shape and the lip or brim of the
+type, and always destitute of the conical point which is the
+distinguishing mark of the basinet, are cut away in front of the face
+(fig. 7 a). In some cases this was remedied in part by the addition of a
+small pivoted vizor, which, however, could not protect the throat. In the
+larger salades of the heavy cavalry the wide brim served to protect the
+whole head, a slit being made in that part of the brim which came in
+front of the eyes (in some examples the whole of the front part of the
+brim was made movable). But the chin and neck, directly opposed to the
+enemy's blows, were scarcely protected at all, and with these helmets a
+large volant-piece or beaver (_mentonnière_)--usually a continuation of
+the body armour up to the chin or even beyond--was worn for this purpose,
+as shown in fig. 7 b. This arrangement combined, in a rough way, the
+advantages of freedom of movement for the head with adequate protection
+for the neck and lower part of the face. The _armet_, which came into use
+about 1475-1500 and completely superseded the salade, realized these
+requirements far better, and later at the zenith of the armourer's art
+(about 1520) and throughout the period of the decline of armour it
+remained the standard pattern of helmet, whether for war or for
+tournament. It figures indeed in nearly all portraits of kings, nobles
+and soldiers up to the time of Frederick the Great, either with the suit
+of armour or half-armour worn by the subject of the portrait or in
+allegorical trophies, &c. The armet was a fairly close-fitting rounded
+shell of iron or steel, with a movable vizor in front and complete
+plating over chin, ears and neck, the latter replacing the mentonnière or
+beaver. The armet was connected to the rest of the suit by the gorget,
+which was usually of thin laminated steel plates. With a good armet and
+gorget there was no weak point for the enemy's sword to attack, a roped
+lower edge of the armet generally fitting into a sort of flange round the
+top of the gorget. Thus, and in other and slightly different ways, was
+solved the problem which in the early days of plate armour had been
+attempted by the clumsy heaume and the flexible, if tough, camail of the
+vizored basinet, and still more clumsily in the succeeding period by the
+salade and its grotesque mentonnière. As far as existing examples show,
+the wide-brimmed salade itself first gave way to the more rounded armet,
+the mentonnière being carried up to the level of the eyes. Then the use
+(growing throughout the 15th century) of laminated armour for the joints
+of the harness probably suggested the gorget, and once this was applied
+to the lower edge of the armet by a satisfactory joint, it was an easy
+step to the elaborate pivoted vizor which completed the new head-dress.
+Types of armets are shown in fig. 8.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Armets.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Burgonets.]
+
+The _burgonet_, often confused with the armet, is the typical helmet of
+the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In its simple form it was worn
+by the foot and light cavalry--though the latter must not be held to
+include the pistol-armed _chevaux-légers_ of the wars of religion, these
+being clad in half-armour and vizored burgonet--and consisted of a
+(generally rounded) cap with a projecting brim shielding the eyes, a
+neck-guard and earpieces. It had almost invariably a crest or comb, as
+shown in the illustrations (fig. 9). Other forms of infantry head-gear
+much in vogue during the 16th century are shown in figs. 10 and 11,
+which represent the _morion_ and _cabasset_ respectively. Both these
+were lighter and smaller than the burgonet; indeed much of their
+popularity was due to the ease with which they were worn or put on and
+off, for in the matter of protection they could not compare with the
+burgonet, which in one form or another was used by cavalry (and often by
+pikemen) up to the final disappearance of armour from the field of
+battle about 1670. Fig. 9 b gives the general outline of richly
+decorated 16th-century Italian burgonet which is preserved in Vienna.
+The archetype of the burgonet is perhaps the casque worn by the Swiss
+infantry (fig. 9 a) at the epoch of Marignan (1515). This was probably
+copied by them from their former Burgundian antagonists, whose connexion
+with this helmet is sufficiently indicated by its name. The lower part
+of the more elaborate burgonets worn by nobles and cavalrymen is often
+formed into a complete covering for the ears, cheek and chin, and
+connected closely with the gorget. They therefore resemble the armets
+and have often been confused with them, but the distinguishing feature
+of the burgonet is invariably the front peak. Various forms of vizor
+were fitted to such helmets; these as a rule were either fixed bars
+(fig. 9 c) or mere upward continuations of the chin piece. Often a nasal
+was the only face protection (fig. 9 d, a Hungarian type). The latest
+form of the burgonet used in active service is the familiar Cromwellian
+cavalry helmet with its straight brim, from which depends the slight
+vizor of three bars or stout wires joined together at the bottom.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Morion.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Cabasset.]
+
+The above are of course only the main types. Some writers class all
+remaining examples either as casques or as "war-hats," the latter term
+conveniently covering all those helmets which resemble in any way the
+head-gear of civil life. For illustrations of many curiosities of this
+sort, including the famous iron hat of King Charles I. of England, and
+also for examples of Russian, Mongolian, Indian and Chinese helmets, the
+reader is referred to pp. 262-269 and 285-286 of Demmin's _Arms and
+Armour_ (English edition 1894). The helmets in brass, steel or cloth,
+worn by troops since the general introduction of uniforms and the disuse
+of armour, depend for their shape and material solely on considerations
+of comfort and good appearance. From time to time, however, the
+readoption of serviceable helmets is advocated by cavalrymen, and there
+is much to be said in favour of this. The burgonet, which was the final
+type of war helmet evolved by the old armourers, would certainly appear
+to be by far the best head-gear to adopt should these views prevail, and
+indeed it is still worn, in a modified yet perfectly recognizable form,
+by the German and other cuirassiers.
+
+
+
+
+HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON (1821-1894), German philosopher
+and man of science, was born on the 31st of August 1821 at Potsdam, near
+Berlin. His father, Ferdinand, was a teacher of philology and philosophy
+in the gymnasium, while his mother was a Hanoverian lady, a lineal
+descendant of the great Quaker William Penn. Delicate in early life,
+Helmholtz became by habit a student, and his father at the same time
+directed his thoughts to natural phenomena. He soon showed mathematical
+powers, but these were not fostered by the careful training
+mathematicians usually receive, and it may be said that in after years
+his attention was directed to the higher mathematics mainly by force of
+circumstances. As his parents were poor, and could not afford to allow
+him to follow a purely scientific career, he became a surgeon of the
+Prussian army. In 1842 he wrote a thesis in which he announced the
+discovery of nerve-cells in ganglia. This was his first work, and from
+1842 to 1894, the year of his death, scarcely a year passed without
+several important, and in some cases epoch-making, papers on scientific
+subjects coming from his pen. He lived in Berlin from 1842 to 1849, when
+he became professor of physiology in Königsberg. There he remained from
+1849 to 1855, when he removed to the chair of physiology in Bonn. In
+1858 he became professor of physiology in Heidelberg, and in 1871 he was
+called to occupy the chair of physics in Berlin. To this professorship
+was added in 1887 the post of director of the physico-technical
+institute at Charlottenburg, near Berlin, and he held the two positions
+together until his death on the 8th of September 1894.
+
+His investigations occupied almost the whole field of science, including
+physiology, physiological optics, physiological acoustics, chemistry,
+mathematics, electricity and magnetism, meteorology and theoretical
+mechanics. At an early age he contributed to our knowledge of the causes
+of putrefaction and fermentation. In physiological science he
+investigated quantitatively the phenomena of animal heat, and he was one
+of the earliest in the field of animal electricity. He studied the
+nature of muscular contraction, causing a muscle to record its movements
+on a smoked glass plate, and he worked out the problem of the velocity
+of the nervous impulse both in the motor nerves of the frog and in the
+sensory nerves of man. In 1847 Helmholtz read to the Physical Society of
+Berlin a famous paper, _Über die Erhaltung der Kraft_ (on the
+conservation of force), which became one of the epoch-making papers of
+the century; indeed, along with J. R. Mayer, J. P. Joule and W. Thomson
+(Lord Kelvin), he may be regarded as one of the founders of the now
+universally received law of the conservation of energy. The year 1851,
+while he was lecturing on physiology at Königsberg, saw the brilliant
+invention of the ophthalmoscope, an instrument which has been of
+inestimable value to medicine. It arose from an attempt to demonstrate
+to his class the nature of the glow of reflected light sometimes seen in
+the eyes of animals such as the cat. When the great ophthalmologist, A.
+von Gräfe, first saw the fundus of the living human eye, with its optic
+disc and blood-vessels, his face flushed with excitement, and he cried,
+"Helmholtz has unfolded to us a new world!" Helmholtz's contributions to
+physiological optics are of great importance. He investigated the
+optical constants of the eye, measured by his invention, the
+ophthalmometer, the radii of curvature of the crystalline lens for near
+and far vision, explained the mechanism of accommodation by which the
+eye can focus within certain limits, discussed the phenomena of colour
+vision, and gave a luminous account of the movements of the eyeballs so
+as to secure single vision with two eyes. In particular he revived and
+gave new force to the theory of colour-vision associated with the name
+of Thomas Young, showing the three primary colours to be red, green and
+violet, and he applied the theory to the explanation of
+colour-blindness. His great work on _Physiological Optics_ (1856-1866)
+is by far the most important book that has appeared on the physiology
+and physics of vision. Equally distinguished were his labours in
+physiological acoustics. He explained accurately the mechanism of the
+bones of the ear, and he discussed the physiological action of the
+cochlea on the principles of sympathetic vibration. Perhaps his greatest
+contribution, however, was his attempt to account for our perception of
+quality of tone. He showed, both by analysis and by synthesis, that
+quality depends on the order, number and intensity of the overtones or
+harmonics that may, and usually do, enter into the structure of a
+musical tone. He also developed the theory of differential and of
+summational tones. His work on _Sensations of Tone_ (1862) may well be
+termed the _principia_ of physiological acoustics. He may also be said
+to be the founder of the fixed-pitch theory of vowel tones, according to
+which it is asserted that the pitch of a vowel depends on the resonance
+of the mouth, according to the form of the cavity while singing it, and
+this independently of the pitch of the note on which the vowel is sung.
+For the later years of his life his labours may be summed up under the
+following heads: (1) On the conservation of energy; (2) on
+hydro-dynamics; (3) on electro-dynamics and theories of electricity; (4)
+on meteorological physics; (5) on optics; and (6) on the abstract
+principles of dynamics. In all these fields of labour he made important
+contributions to science, and showed himself to be equally great as a
+mathematician and a physicist. He studied the phenomena of electrical
+oscillations from 1869 to 1871, and in the latter year he announced that
+the velocity of the propagation of electromagnetic induction was about
+314,000 metres per second. Faraday had shown that the passage of
+electrical action involved time, and he also asserted that electrical
+phenomena are brought about by changes in intervening non-conductors or
+dielectric substances. This led Clerk Maxwell to frame his theory of
+electro-dynamics, in which electrical impulses were assumed to be
+transmitted through the ether by waves. G. F. Fitzgerald was the first
+to attempt to measure the length of electric waves; Helmholtz put the
+problem into the hands of his favourite pupil, Heinrich Hertz, and the
+latter finally gave an experimental demonstration of electromagnetic
+waves, the "Hertzian waves," on which wireless telegraphy depends, and
+the velocity of which is the same as that of light. The last
+investigations of Helmholtz related to problems in theoretical
+mechanics, more especially as to the relations of matter to the ether,
+and as to the distribution of energy in mechanical systems. In
+particular he explained the principle of least action, first advanced by
+P. L. M. de Maupertuis, and developed by Sir W. R. Hamilton, of
+quaternion fame. Helmholtz also wrote on philosophical and aesthetic
+problems. His position was that of an empiricist, denying the doctrine
+of innate ideas and holding that all knowledge is founded on experience,
+hereditarily transmitted or acquired.
+
+The life of Helmholtz was uneventful in the usual sense. He was twice
+married, first, in 1849, to Olga von Velten (by whom he had two
+children, a son and daughter), and secondly, in 1861, to Anna von Mohl,
+of a Würtemberg family of high social position. Two children were born
+of this marriage, a son, Robert, who died in 1889, after showing in
+experimental physics indications of his father's genius, and a daughter,
+who married a son of Werner von Siemens. Helmholtz was a man of simple
+but refined tastes, of noble carriage and somewhat austere manner. His
+life from first to last was one of devotion to science, and he must be
+accounted, on intellectual grounds, one of the foremost men of the 19th
+century.
+
+  See L. Königsberger, _Hermann von Helmholtz_ (1902; English
+  translation by F. A. Welby, Oxford, 1906); J. G. McKendrick, _H. L. F.
+  von Helmholtz_ (1899).     (J. G. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HELMOLD, an historian of the 12th century, was a priest at Bosau near
+Plön. He was a friend of the two bishops of Oldenburg, Vicelin (d. 1154)
+and Gerold (d. 1163), who did much to Christianize the Slavs. At Bishop
+Gerold's instigation Helmold wrote his _Chronica Slavorum_, a history of
+the conquest and conversion of the Slavonic countries from the time of
+Charlemagne. For the life and times of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
+Helmold's chronicle, as that of a contemporary who had exceptional means
+for gaining information, is of first-rate importance. The history was
+continued down to 1209 by Abbot Arnold of Lübeck.
+
+  The _Chronica_ were first edited by Siegmund Schorkel (Frankfort a.
+  M., 1556). The best edition is by J. M. Lappenberg in _Mon. Germ.
+  hist. scriptores_, xxi. (1869). For critical works on the _Chronica_
+  see A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi_, s. "Helmoldus."
+
+
+
+
+HELMOND, a town in the province of North Brabant, Holland, on the small
+river Aa, and on the canal (Zuid-Willems Vaart) between 's Hertogenbosch
+and Maastricht, 24½ m. by rail W.N.W. of Venlo. It is connected by steam
+tramway with 's Hertogenbosch (21 m. N.W.), a branch line northwards to
+Osch being given off at Veghel. Pop. (1900) 11,465. The castle of
+Helmond, built in 1402, is a beautiful specimen of architecture, and
+among the other buildings of note in the town are the spacious church of
+St Lambert, the Reformed church and the town hall. Helmond is one of the
+industrial centres of the province, and possesses over a score of
+factories for cotton and silk weaving, cotton printing, dyeing, iron
+founding, brewing, soap boiling and tobacco dressing, as well as engine
+works and a margarine factory. There is an art school in the
+town.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 2, by Various
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 2
+       "Hearing" to "Helmond"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 23, 2012 [EBook #39521]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13, SL 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XIII SLICE II<br /><br />
+Hearing to Helmond</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HEARING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HEARN, LAFCADIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HEIDELBERG</a> (town of Germany)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HEARNE, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HEIDELBERG</a> (town of Transvaal)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HEARNE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HEARSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HEART</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HEIDENHEIM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HEART-BURIAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HEIFER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HEARTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HEARTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HEIJERMANS, HERMANN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HEAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HEILBRONN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HEATH, BENJAMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HEILIGENSTADT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HEATH, NICHOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HEILSBERG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HEATH, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HEILSBRONN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HEATH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HEATHCOAT, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HEIM, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HEIMDAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HEATHEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HEINE, HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HEATHFIELD, GEORGE AUGUSTUS ELIOTT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HEATING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HEAVEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HEINICKE, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HEBBURN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HEINSIUS, DANIEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HEBDEN BRIDGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HEBE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HEIR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HEBEL, JOHANN PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HEIRLOOM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HEBER, REGINALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HEJAZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HEBER, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HEJIRA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HEBERDEN, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HÉBERT, EDMOND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HELDENBUCH, DAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HÉBERT, JACQUES RENÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HELDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HEBREW LANGUAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HELEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HEBREW LITERATURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HELENA, ST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HEBREW RELIGION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HELENA</a> (Arkansas, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HELENA</a> (Montana, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HEBRIDES, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HELENSBURGH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HEBRON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HELENUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HECATAEUS OF ABDERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HELGAUD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HECATAEUS OF MILETUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HELGESEN, POVL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HECATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HELIACAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HECATOMB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HELIAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HECATO OF RHODES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HELICON</a> (mountain range)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HELICON</a> (contrabass tuba)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HELIGOLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HECKMONDWIKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HELIOCENTRIC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HECTOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HELIODORUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HECUBA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS)</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HELIOGRAPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HELIOMETER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HEDGEHOG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HELIOPOLIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HEDGES AND FENCES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HELIOSTAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HEDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HELIOTROPE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HEDONISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HELIOZOA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HEEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HELIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HELIX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HELLANICUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HEER, OSWALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HELLEBORE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HELLENISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HELLER, STEPHEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HELLESPONT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HEGEMON OF THASOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HELLEVOETSLUIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HEGEMONY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HELLÍN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HELLO, ERNEST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HEGESIPPUS</a> (Athenian orator)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HEGESIPPUS</a> (early Christian writer)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HEGESIPPUS</a> (author of Jewish War)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HELMET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HELMOLD</a> (historian)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HEIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HELMOND</a> (town in Holland)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>122</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">HEARING<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (formed from the verb &ldquo;to hear,&rdquo; O. Eng. <i>hyran</i>,
+<i>heran</i>, &amp;c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. <i>hören</i>, Dutch
+<i>hooren</i>, &amp;c.; the O. Teut. form is seen in Goth. <i>hausjan</i>; the
+initial <i>h</i> makes any connexion with &ldquo;ear,&rdquo; Lat. <i>audire</i>, or Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="akouein">&#7936;&#954;&#959;&#973;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span> very doubtful), in physiology, the function of the ear
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and the general term for the sense or special sensation, the
+cause of which is an excitation of the auditory nerves by the
+vibrations of sonorous bodies. The anatomy of the ear is
+described in the separate article on that organ. A description of
+sonorous vibrations is given in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sound</a></span>; here we shall
+consider the transmission of such vibrations from the external
+ear to the auditory nerve, and the physiological characters of
+auditory sensation.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Transmission in External Ear</i>.&mdash;The external ear consists
+of the <i>pinna</i>, or auricle, and the <i>external auditory meatus</i>, or
+canal, at the bottom of which we find the <i>membrana tympani</i>,
+or drum head. In many animals the auricle is trumpet-shaped,
+and, being freely movable by muscles, serves to collect
+sonorous waves coming from various directions. The auricle
+of the human ear presents many irregularities of surface. If
+these irregularities are abolished by filling them up with a soft
+material such as wax or oil, leaving the entrance to the canal free,
+experiment shows that the intensity of sounds is weakened, and
+that there is more difficulty in judging of their direction. When
+waves of sound strike the auricle, they are partly reflected
+outwards, while the remainder, impinging at various angles,
+undergo a number of reflections so as to be directed into the
+auditory canal. Vibrations are transmitted along the auditory
+canal, partly by the air it contains and partly by its walls, to
+the membrana tympani. The absence of the auricle, as the
+result of accident or injury, does not cause diminution of hearing.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span>
+In the auditory canal waves of sound are reflected from side
+to side until they reach the membrana tympani. From the
+obliquity in position and peculiar curvature of this membrane,
+most of the waves strike it nearly perpendicularly, and in the
+most advantageous direction.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Transmission in Middle Ear</i>.&mdash;The middle ear is a small
+cavity, the walls of which are rigid with the exception of the
+portions consisting of the membrana tympani, and the membrane
+of the round window and of the apparatus filling the oval window.
+This cavity communicates with the pharynx by the <i>Eustachian
+tube</i>, which forms an air-tube between the pharynx and the
+tympanum for the purpose of regulating pressure on the membrana
+tympani. During rest the tube is open, but it is closed
+during the act of deglutition. As this action is frequently
+taking place, not only when food or drink is introduced, but when
+saliva is swallowed, it is evident that the pressure of the air in
+the tympanum will be kept in a state of equilibrium with that
+of the external air on the outer surface of the membrana tympani,
+and that thus the membrana tympani will be rendered
+independent of variations of atmospheric pressure such as occur
+when we descend in a diving bell or ascend in a balloon. By a
+forcible expiration, the oral and nasal cavities being closed, air
+may be driven into the tympanum, while a forcible inspiration
+(Valsalva&rsquo;s experiment) will draw air from that cavity. In the
+first case, the membrana tympani will bulge outwards, in the
+second case inwards, and in both, from excessive stretching of
+the membrane, there will be partial deafness, especially for
+sounds of high pitch. Permanent occlusion of the tube is one of
+the most common causes of deafness.</p>
+
+<p>The membrana tympani is capable of being set into vibration
+by a sound of any pitch included in the range of perceptible
+sounds. It responds exactly as to number of vibrations (pitch),
+intensity of vibrations (intensity), and complexity of vibration
+(quality or timbre). Consequently we can hear a sound of any
+given pitch, of a certain intensity, and in its own specific timbre
+or quality. Generally speaking, very high tones are heard more
+easily than low tones of the same intensity. As the membrana
+tympani is not only fixed by its margin to a ring or tube of bone,
+but is also adherent to the handle of the malleus, which follows
+its movements, its vibrations meet with considerable resistance.
+This diminishes the intensity of its vibrations, and prevents also
+the continued vibration of the membrane after an external
+pressure has ceased, so that a sound is not heard much longer
+than its physical cause lasts. The tension of the membrane
+may be affected (1) by differences of pressure on the two surfaces
+of the membrana tympani, as may occur during forcible expiration
+or inspiration, and (2) by muscular action, due to contraction
+of the <i>tensor tympani</i> muscle. This small muscle arises
+from the apex of the petrous temporal and the cartilage of the
+Eustachian tube, enters the tympanum at its anterior wall, and
+is inserted into the malleus near its root. The handle of the
+malleus is inserted between the layers of the membrana tympani,
+and, as the malleus and incus move round an axis passing
+through the neck of the malleus from before backwards, the
+action of the muscle is to pull the membrana tympani inwards
+towards the tympanic cavity in the form of a cone, the meridians
+of which are not straight but curved, with convexity outwards.
+When the muscle contracts, the handle of the malleus is drawn
+still farther inwards, and thus a greater tension of the tympanic
+membrane is produced. On relaxation of the muscle, the membrane
+returns to its position of equilibrium by its elasticity and
+by the elasticity of the chain of bones. This power of varying
+the tension of the membrane is an accommodating mechanism
+for receiving and transmitting sounds of different pitch. With
+different degrees of tension it will respond more readily to sounds
+of different pitch. Thus, when the membrane is tense, it will
+readily respond to high sounds, while relaxation will be the
+condition most adapted for low tones. In addition, increased
+tension of the membrane, by increasing the resistance, will
+diminish the intensity of vibrations. This is especially the case
+for sounds of low pitch.</p>
+
+<p>The vibrations of the membrana tympani are transmitted to
+the internal ear partly by the air which the middle ear or tympanum
+contains, and partly by the chain of bones, consisting
+of the malleus, incus and stapes. Of these, transmission by the
+chain of bones is by far the most important. In birds and in the
+amphibia, this chain is represented by a single rod-like ossicle,
+the <i>columella</i>, but in man the two membranes&mdash;the membrana
+tympani and the membrane filling the fenestra ovalis&mdash;are connected
+by a compound lever consisting of three bones, namely,
+the <i>malleus</i>, or hammer, inserted into the membrana tympani,
+the <i>incus</i>, or anvil, and the <i>stapes</i>, or stirrup, the base of which is
+attached to a membrane covering the oval window. It must
+also be noted that in the transmission of vibrations of the membrana
+tympani to the fluid in the labyrinth or internal ear,
+through the oval window, the chain of ossicles vibrates as a whole
+and acts efficiently, although its length may be only a fraction
+of the wave-length of the sound transmitted. The chain is a
+lever in which the handle of the malleus forms the long arm,
+the fulcrum is where the short process of the incus abuts against
+the wall of the tympanum, while the long process of the incus,
+carrying the stapes, forms the short arm. The mechanism is a
+lever of the second order. Measurements show that the ratio
+of the lengths of the two arms is as 1.5 : 1; the ratio of the
+resulting force at the stapes is therefore as 1 : 1.5; while the
+amplitudes of the movements at the tip of the handle of the
+malleus and the stapes is as 1.5 : 1. Hence, while there is a
+diminution in amplitude there is a gain in power, and thus the
+pressures are conveyed with great efficiency from the membrana
+tympani to the labyrinth, while the amplitude of the oscillation
+is diminished so as to be adapted to the small capacity of the
+labyrinth. As the drum-head is nearly twenty times greater in
+area than the membrane covering the oval window, with which
+the base of the stapes is connected, the energy of the movements
+of the membrana tympani is concentrated on an area twenty
+times smaller; hence the pressure is increased thirtyfold
+(1.5 × 20) when it acts at the base of the stapes. Experiments
+on the human ear have shown that the movement of greatest
+amplitude was at the tip of the handle of the malleus, 0.76 mm.;
+the movement of the tip of the long arm process of the incus
+was 0.21 mm.; while the greatest amplitude at the base of the
+stapes was only .0714 mm. Other observations have shown
+the movements at the stapes to have a still smaller amplitude,
+varying from 0.001 to 0.032 mm. With tones of feeble intensity
+the movements must be almost infinitesimal. There may also
+be very minute transverse movements at the base of the stapes.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Transmission in the Internal Ear</i>.&mdash;The internal ear is
+composed of the labyrinth, formed of the vestibule or central
+part, the semicircular canals, and the cochlea, each of which
+consists of an osseous and a membranous portion. The osseous
+labyrinth may be regarded as an osseous mould in the petrous
+portion of the temporal bone, lined by tesselated endothelium,
+and containing a small quantity of fluid called the <i>perilymph</i>.
+In this mould, partially surrounded by, and to some extent
+floating in, this fluid, there is the membranous labyrinth, in
+certain parts of which we find the terminal apparatus in connexion
+with the auditory nerve, immersed in another fluid called the
+<i>endolymph</i>. The membranous labyrinth consists of a vestibular
+portion formed by two small sac-like dilatations, called the
+<i>saccule</i> and the <i>utricle</i>, the latter of which communicates with the
+semicircular canals by five openings. Each canal consists of
+a tube, bulging out at each extremity so as to form the so-called
+<i>ampulla</i>, in which, on a projecting ridge, called the <i>crista acustica</i>,
+there are cells bearing long <i>auditory hairs</i>, which are the peripheral
+end-organs of the vestibular branches of the auditory nerve.
+The cochlear division of the membranous labyrinth consists of
+the <i>ductus cochlearis</i>, a tube of triangular form fitting in between
+the two cavities in the cochlea, called the <i>scala vestibuli</i>, because
+it commences in the vestibule, and the <i>scala tympani</i>, because it
+ends in the tympanum, at the round window. These two scalae
+communicate at the apex of the cochlea. The roof of the ductus
+cochlearis is formed by a thin membrane called the <i>membrane
+of Reissner</i>, while its floor consists of the <i>basilar membrane</i>,
+on which we find the remarkable <i>organ of Corti</i>, which constitutes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span>
+the terminal organ of the cochlear division of the auditory
+nerve. It is sufficient to state here that this organ consists
+essentially of an arrangement of epithelial cells bearing hairs
+which are in communication with the terminal filaments of this
+portion of the auditory nerve, and that groups of these hairs
+pass through holes in a closely investing membrane, <i>membrana
+reticularis</i>, which may act as a damping apparatus, so as quickly
+to stop their movements. The ductus cochlearis and the two
+scalae are filled with fluid. Sonorous vibrations may reach the
+fluid in the labyrinth by three different ways&mdash;(1) by the osseous
+walls of the labyrinth, (2) by the air in the tympanum and the
+round window, and (3) by the base of the stapes inserted into
+the oval window.</p>
+
+<p>When the head is plunged into water, or brought into direct
+contact with any vibrating body, vibrations must be transmitted
+directly. Vibrations of the air in the mouth and in the nasal
+passages are also communicated directly to the walls of the
+cranium, and thus pass to the labyrinth. In like manner, we
+may experience auditive sensations, such as blowing, rubbing
+and hissing sounds, due to muscular contraction or to the passage
+of blood in vessels close to the auditory organ. It is doubtful
+whether any vibrations are communicated to the fluid in the
+labyrinth by the round window. Vibrations which cause hearing
+are communicated by the chain of bones. When the base of the
+stirrup is pushed into the oval window, the pressure in the labyrinth
+increases, and, as the only mobile part of the wall of the
+labyrinth is the membrane covering the round window, this
+membrane is forced outwards; when the base of the stirrup
+moves outwards a reverse action takes place. Thus the fluid
+of the labyrinth receives a series of pulses isochronous with the
+movements of the base of the stirrup, and these pulses affect
+the terminal apparatus in connexion with the auditory nerve.</p>
+
+<p>The sacs of the internal ear, known as the utricle and saccule,
+receive the impulses of the base of the stapes. They are organs
+connected with the perception of sounds as sounds, without
+reference to pitch or quality. For the <i>analysis</i> of tone a cochlea
+is necessary. Even in mammals all the parts of the ear may
+be destroyed or affected by disease, except these sacs, without
+causing complete deafness.</p>
+
+<p>It has been suggested by Lee (<i>Amer. Jour. of Physiol.</i> vol. i.
+No. 1, p. 128) that in fishes the sac has nothing to do with
+hearing, but serves for the perception of movements, such as
+those of rotation and translation through space, movements much
+coarser than those that form the physical basis of sound. He
+considers, also, that as fishes, with few exceptions, are dumb,
+they are also deaf. In the fish there are peculiar organs along the
+lateral line which are known to be connected with the perception
+of movements of the body as a whole, and Beard (<i>Zool. Anz.
+Leipzig</i>, 1884, Bd. vii. S. 140) has attempted to trace a phylogenetic
+connexion between the sacs of the internal ear and the
+organs in the lateral line. According to this view, when animals
+became air-breathers, a part of the ear (the <i>papilla acustica
+basilaris</i>) was gradually evolved for the perception of delicate
+vibrations of sound. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equilibrium</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>It is by means of the cochlea that we discriminate pitch,
+hear beats, and are affected by quality of tone.</p>
+
+<p>Since the size of the membranous labyrinth is so small, measuring,
+in man, not more than ½ in. in length by <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. in diameter
+at its widest part, and since it is a chamber consisting partly of
+conduits of very irregular form, it is impossible to state accurately
+the course of vibrations transmitted to it by impulses communicated
+from the base of the stirrup. In the cochlea vibrations
+must pass from the saccule along the scala vestibuli to the apex,
+thus affecting the membrane of Reissner, which forms its roof;
+then, passing through the opening at the apex (the <i>helicotrema</i>),
+they must descend by the scala tympani to the round window,
+and affect in their passage the membrana basilaris, on which the
+organ of Corti is situated. From the round window impulses
+must be reflected backwards, but how they affect the advancing
+impulses is not known. But the problem is even more complex
+when we take into account the fact that impulses are transmitted
+simultaneously to the utricle and to the semicircular
+canals communicating with it by five openings. The mode of
+action of these vibrations or impulses upon the nervous terminations
+is still unknown; but to appreciate critically the hypothesis
+which has been advanced to explain it, it is necessary, in the first
+place, to refer to some of the general characters of auditory
+sensation.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>General Characters of Auditory Sensations.</i>&mdash;Certain conditions
+are necessary for excitation of the auditory nerve sufficient
+to produce a sensation. In the first place, the vibrations must
+have a certain <i>amplitude</i> and <i>energy</i>; if too feeble, no impression
+will be produced.</p>
+
+<p>Various physicists have attempted to measure the sensitiveness
+of the ear by estimating the amplitude of the molecular movements
+necessary to call forth the feeblest audible sound. Thus
+A. Töpler and L. Boltzmann, on data founded on experiments
+with organ pipes, state that the ear is affected by vibrations
+of molecules of the air not more in amplitude than .0004 mm.
+at the ear, or 0.1 of the wave-length of green light, and that the
+energy of such a vibration on the drum-head is not more than
+<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">543</span> billionth kilog., or <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">17</span>th of that produced upon an equal
+surface of the retina by a single candle at the same distance
+(<i>Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem.</i>, Leipzig. 1870, Bd. cxli. S. 321). Lord
+Rayleigh, by two other methods, arrived at the conclusion
+&ldquo;that the streams of energy required to influence the eye and ear
+are of the same order of magnitude.&rdquo; He estimated the amplitude
+of the movement of the aërial particles, with a sound just
+audible, as less than the ten-millionth of a centimetre, and the
+energy emitted when the sound was first becoming audible, at
+42.1 ergs per second. He also states that in considering the
+amplitude or condensation in progressive aërial waves, at a
+distance of 27.4 metres from a tuning-fork, the maximum condensation
+was = 6.0 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;9</span> cm., a result showing &ldquo;that the ear
+is able to recognize the addition or subtraction of densities far
+less than those to be found in our highest vacua&rdquo; (<i>Proc. Roy.
+Soc.</i>, 1877, vol. xxvi. p. 248; <i>Lond. Edin. and Dub. Phil. Mag.</i>,
+1894, vol. xxxviii. p. 366).</p>
+
+<p>In the next place, vibrations must have a certain <i>duration</i> to
+be perceived; and lastly, to excite a sensation of a continuous
+musical sound, a certain <i>number</i> of impulses must occur in a given
+interval of time. The lower limit is about 30, and the upper
+about 30,000 vibrations per second. Below 30, the individual
+impulses may be observed, and above 30,000 few ears can detect
+any sound at all. The extreme upper limit is not more than
+35,000 vibrations per second. Auditory sensations are of two
+kinds&mdash;noises and musical sounds. <i>Noises</i> are caused by
+impulses which are not regular in intensity or duration, or are
+not periodic, or they may be caused by a series of musical sounds
+occurring instantaneously so as to produce discords, as when we
+place our hand at random on the keyboard of a piano. <i>Musical
+tones</i> are produced by periodic and regular vibrations. In musical
+sounds three characters are prominent&mdash;intensity, pitch and
+quality. <i>Intensity</i> depends on the amplitude of the vibration,
+and a greater or lesser amplitude of the vibration will cause a
+corresponding movement of the transmitting apparatus, and a
+corresponding intensity of excitation of the terminal apparatus.
+<i>Pitch</i>, as a sensation, depends on the length of time in which
+a single vibration is executed, or, in other words, the number
+of vibrations in a given interval of time. The ear is capable of
+appreciating the relative pitch or height of a sound as compared
+with another, although it may not ascertain precisely the absolute
+pitch of a sound. What we call an acute or high tone is produced
+by a large number of vibrations, while a grave or low tone is
+caused by few. The musical tones which can be used with
+advantage range between 40 and 4000 vibrations per second,
+extending thus from 6 to 7 octaves. According to E. H. Weber,
+practised musicians can perceive a difference of pitch amounting
+to only the <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">64</span>th of a semitone, but this is far beyond average
+attainment. In a few individuals, and especially in early life,
+there may be an appreciation of absolute pitch. <i>Quality</i> or <i>timbre</i>
+(or <i>Klang</i>) is that peculiar characteristic of a musical sound by
+which we may identify it as proceeding from a particular instrument
+or from a particular human voice. It depends on the fact
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span>
+that many waves of sound that reach the ear are compound wave
+systems, built up of constituent waves, each of which is capable of
+exciting a sensation of a simple tone if it be singled out and
+reinforced by a resonator (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sound</a></span>), and which may sometimes
+be heard without a resonator, after special practice and tuition.
+Thus it appears that the ear must have some arrangement by which
+it resolves every wave system, however complex, into simple
+pendular vibrations. When we listen to a sound of any quality
+we recognize that it is of a certain pitch. This depends on the
+number of vibrations of one tone, predominant in intensity over
+the others, called the fundamental or ground tone, or first partial
+tone. The quality, or timbre, depends on the number and
+intensity of other tones added to it. These are termed <i>harmonic</i>
+or <i>partial tones</i>, and they are related to the first partial or fundamental
+tone in a very simple manner, being multiples of the
+fundamental tone: thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Fundamental<br />Tone</td> <td class="tcc" colspan="9">Upper Partials or Harmonics.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Notes</td> <td class="tcc">do<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcc">do<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">sol<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">do<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcc">mi<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcc">sol<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcc">si&#9837;<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcc">do<span class="sp">4</span></td> <td class="tcc">re<span class="sp">4</span></td> <td class="tcc">mi<span class="sp">4</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Partial tones</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">2</td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">4</td> <td class="tcc">5</td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc">7</td> <td class="tcc">8</td> <td class="tcc">9</td> <td class="tcc">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Number of vibrations</td> <td class="tcc">33</td> <td class="tcc">66</td> <td class="tcc">99</td> <td class="tcc">132</td> <td class="tcc">165</td> <td class="tcc">198</td> <td class="tcc">231</td> <td class="tcc">264</td> <td class="tcc">297</td> <td class="tcc">330</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>When a simple tone, or one free from partials, is heard, it
+gives rise to a simple, soft, somewhat insipid sensation, as may
+be obtained by blowing across the mouth of an open bottle or
+by a tuning-fork. The lower partials added to the fundamental
+tone give softness combined with richness; while the higher,
+especially if they be very high, produce a brilliant and thrilling
+effect, as is caused by the brass instruments of an orchestra.
+Such being the facts, how may they be explained physiologically?</p>
+
+<p>Little is yet known regarding the mode of action of the vibrations
+of the fluid in the labyrinth upon the terminal apparatus
+connected with the auditory nerve. There can be no doubt
+that it is a mechanical action, a communication of impulses to
+delicate hair-like processes, by the movements of which the
+nervous filaments are irritated. In the human ear it has been
+estimated that there are about 3000 small arches formed by the
+<i>rods of Corti.</i> Each arch rests on the basilar membrane, and
+supports rows of cells having minute hair-like processes. It
+would appear also that the filaments of the auditory nerve
+terminate in the basilar membrane, and possibly they may be
+connected with the hair-cells. At one time it was supposed by
+Helmholtz that these fibres of Corti were elastic and that they
+were tuned for particular sounds, so as to form a regular series
+corresponding to all the tones audible to the human ear. Thus
+2800 fibres distributed over the tones of seven octaves would give
+400 fibres for each octave, or nearly 33 for a semitone. Helmholtz
+put forward the hypothesis that, when a pendular vibration
+reaches the ear, it excites by sympathetic vibration the fibre of
+Corti which is tuned for its proper number of vibrations. If,
+then, different fibres are tuned to tones of different pitch, it is
+evident that we have here a mechanism which, by exciting
+different nerve fibres, will give rise to sensations of pitch. When
+the vibration is not simple but compound, in consequence of the
+blending of vibrations corresponding to various harmonics or
+partial tones, the ear has the power of resolving this compound
+vibration into its elements. It can only do so by different fibres
+responding to the constituent vibrations of the sound&mdash;one for
+the fundamental tone being stronger, and giving the sensation
+of a particular pitch to the sound, and the others, corresponding
+to the upper partial tones, being weaker, and causing undefined
+sensations, which are so blended together in consciousness as to
+terminate in a complex sensation of a tone of a certain quality
+or timbre. It would appear at first sight that 33 fibres of Corti
+for a semitone are not sufficient to enable us to detect all the
+gradations of pitch in that interval, since, as has been stated
+above, trained musicians may distinguish a difference of <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">64</span>th
+of a semitone. To meet this difficulty, Helmholtz stated that if
+a sound is produced, the pitch of which may be supposed to come
+between two adjacent fibres of Corti, both of these will be set
+into sympathetic vibration, but the one which comes nearest
+to the pitch of the sound will vibrate with greater intensity than
+the other, and that consequently the pitch of that sound would be
+thus appreciated. These theoretical views of Helmholtz have
+derived much support from experiments of V. Hensen, who
+observed that certain hairs on the antennae of <i>Mysis</i>, a Crustacean,
+when seen with a low microscopic power, vibrated with certain
+tones produced by a keyed horn. It was seen that certain tones
+of the horn set some hairs into strong vibration, and other tones
+other hairs. Each hair responded also to several tones of the
+horn. Thus one hair responded strongly to d&#9839; and d&prime;&#9839;, more
+weakly to g, and very weakly to G. It was probably tuned to
+some pitch between d&Prime; and d&Prime;&#9839;. (<i>Studien über das Gehörorgan
+der Decapoden</i>, Leipzig, 1863.)</p>
+
+<p>Histological researches have led to a modification of this
+hypothesis. It has been found that the rods or arches of Corti
+are stiff structures, not adapted for vibrating, but apparently
+constituting a support for the hair-cells. It is also known that
+there are no rods of Corti in the cochlea of birds, which are
+capable nevertheless of appreciating pitch. Hensen and Helmholtz
+suggested the view that not only may the segments of the
+membrana basilaris be stretched more in the radial than in the
+longitudinal direction, but different segments may be stretched
+radially with different degrees of tension so as to resemble a
+series of tense strings of gradually increasing length. Each
+string would then respond to a vibration of a particular pitch
+communicated to it by the hair-cells. The exact mechanism
+of the hair-cells and of the membrana reticularis, which looks
+like a damping apparatus, is unknown.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Physiological Characters of Auditory Sensation.</i>&mdash;Under
+ordinary circumstances auditory sensations are referred to the
+outer world. When we hear a sound, we associate it with some
+external cause, and it appears to originate in a particular place
+or to come in a particular direction. This feeling of <i>exteriority</i>
+of sound seems to require transmission through the membrana
+tympani. Sounds which are sent through the walls of the
+cranium, as when the head is immersed in, and the external
+auditory canals are filled with, water, appear to originate in
+the body itself.</p>
+
+<p>An auditory sensation lasts a short time after the cessation
+of the exciting cause, so that a number of separate vibrations,
+each capable of exciting a distinct sensation if heard alone,
+may succeed each other so rapidly that they are fused into a
+single sensation. If we listen to the puffs of a syren, or to
+vibrating tongues of low pitch, the single sensation is usually
+produced by about 30 or 35 vibrations per second; but when
+we listen to beats of considerable intensity, produced by two
+adjacent tones of sufficiently high pitch, the ear may follow
+as many as 132 intermissions per second.</p>
+
+<p>The sensibility of the ear for sounds of different pitch is not
+the same. It is more sensitive for acute than for grave sounds,
+and it is probable that the maximum degree of acuteness is for
+sounds produced by about 3000 vibrations per second, that
+is near fa<span class="sp">5</span>&#9839;. Sensibility as to pitch varies much with the
+individual. Thus some musicians may detect a difference of
+<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1000</span>th of the total number of vibrations, while other persons
+may have difficulty in appreciating a semitone.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>6. <i>Analytical Power of the Ear.</i>&mdash;When we listen to a compound
+tone, we have the power of picking out these partials from the
+general mass of sound. It is known that the frequencies of the
+partials as compared with that of the fundamental tone are simple
+multiples of the frequency of the fundamental, and also that physically
+the waves of the partials so blend with each other as to produce
+waves of very complicated forms. Yet the ear, or the ear and the
+brain together, can resolve this complicated wave-form into its
+constituents, and this is done more easily if we listen to the sound
+with resonators, the pitch of which corresponds, or nearly corresponds,
+to the frequencies of the partials. Much discussion has taken
+place as to how the ear accomplishes this analysis. All are agreed
+that there is a complicated apparatus in the cochlea which may
+serve this purpose; but while some are of opinion that this structure
+is sufficient, others hold that the analysis takes place in the brain.
+When a complicated wave falls on the drum-head, it must move out
+and in in a way corresponding to the variations of pressure, and these
+variations will, in a single vibration, depend on the greater or less
+degree of complexity of the wave. Thus a single tone will cause a
+movement like that of a pendulum, a simple pendular vibration,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span>
+while a complex tone, although occurring in the same duration of
+time, will cause the drum-head to move out and in in a much more
+complicated manner. The complex movement will be conveyed to
+the base of the stapes, thence to the vestibule, and thence to the
+cochlea, in which we find the ductus cochlearis containing the organ
+of Corti. It is to be noted also that the parts in the cochlea are so
+small as to constitute only a fraction of the wave-length of most
+tones audible to the human ear. Now it is evident that the cochlea
+must act either as a whole, all the nerve fibres being affected by any
+variations of pressure, or the nerve fibres may have a selective action,
+each fibre being excited by a wave of a definite period, or there may
+exist small vibratile bodies between the nerve filaments and the
+pressures sent into the organ. The last hypothesis gives the most
+rational explanation of the phenomena, and on it is founded a theory
+generally accepted and associated with the names of Thomas
+Young and Hermann Helmholtz. It may be shortly stated as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;(1) In the cochlea there are vibrators, tuned to frequencies
+within the limits of hearing, say from 30 to 40,000 or 50,000 vibs.
+per second. (2) Each vibrator is capable of exciting its appropriate
+nerve filament or filaments, so that a nervous impulse, corresponding
+to the frequency of the vibrator, is transmitted to the brain&mdash;not
+corresponding necessarily, as regards the number of nervous
+impulses, but in such a way that when the impulses along a particular
+nerve filament reach the brain, a state of consciousness is aroused
+which does correspond with the number of the physical stimuli
+and with the period of the auditory vibrator. (3) The mass of
+each vibrator is such that it will be easily set in motion, and after
+the stimulus has ceased it will readily come to rest. (4) Damping
+arrangements exist in the ear, so as quickly to extinguish movements
+of the vibrators. (5) If a simple tone falls on the ear, there is a
+pendular movement of the base of the stapes, which will affect
+all the parts, causing them to move; but any part whose natural
+period is nearly the same as that of the sound will respond on the
+principle of sympathetic resonance, a particular nerve filament or
+nerve filaments will be affected, and a sensation of a tone of definite
+pitch will be experienced, thus accounting for discrimination in
+pitch. (6) Intensity or loudness will depend on the amplitude of
+movement of the vibrating body, and consequently on the intensity
+of nerve stimulation. (7) If a compound wave of pressure be communicated
+by the base of the stapes, it will be resolved into its
+constituents by the vibrators corresponding to tones existing in it,
+each picking out its appropriate portion of the wave, and thus
+irritating corresponding nerve filaments, so that nervous impulses
+are transmitted to the brain, where they are fused in such a way as
+to give rise to a sensation of a particular quality or character,
+but still so imperfectly fused that each constituent, by a strong effort
+of attention, may be specially recognized&rdquo; (article &ldquo;Ear,&rdquo; by
+M&lsquo;Kendrick, Schäfer&rsquo;s <i>Text-Book</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The structure of the ductus cochlearis meets the demands of this
+theory, it is highly differentiated, and it can be shown that in it
+there are a sufficient number of elements to account for the delicate
+appreciation of pitch possessed by the human ear, and on the basis
+that the highly trained ear of a violinist can detect a difference of
+<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">64</span>th of a semitone (M&lsquo;Kendrick, <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed.</i>, 1896, vol.
+xxxviii. p. 780; also Schäfer&rsquo;s <i>Text-Book</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>). Measurements
+of the cochlea have also shown such differentiation as to make it
+difficult to imagine that it can act as a whole. A much less complex
+organ might have served this purpose (M&lsquo;Kendrick, <i>op. cit.</i>). The
+following table, given by Retzius (<i>Das Gehörorgan der Wirbelthiere</i>,
+Bd. ii. S. 356), shows differentiations in the cochlea of man, the cat
+and the rabbit, all of which no doubt hear tones, although in all
+probability they have very different powers of discrimination:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Man.</td> <td class="tcc">Cat.</td> <td class="tcc">Rabbit.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ear-teeth</td> <td class="tcr">2,490</td> <td class="tcr">2,430</td> <td class="tcr">1,550</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Holes in habenula for nerves</td> <td class="tcr">3,985</td> <td class="tcr">2,780</td> <td class="tcr">1,650</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Inner rods of Corti&rsquo;s organ</td> <td class="tcr">5,590</td> <td class="tcr">4,700</td> <td class="tcr">2,800</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Outer rods of Corti&rsquo;s organ</td> <td class="tcr">3,848</td> <td class="tcr">3,300</td> <td class="tcr">1,900</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Inner hair-cells (one row)</td> <td class="tcr">3,487</td> <td class="tcr">2,600</td> <td class="tcr">1,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Outer hair-cells (several rows)</td> <td class="tcr">11,750</td> <td class="tcr">9,900</td> <td class="tcr">6,100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fibres in basilar membrane</td> <td class="tcr">23,750</td> <td class="tcr">15,700</td> <td class="tcr">10,500</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>7. <i>Dissonance.</i>&mdash;The theory can also be used to explain dissonance.
+When two tones sufficiently near in pitch are simultaneously sounded,
+beats are produced. If the beats are few in number they can be
+counted, because they give rise to separate and distinct sensations;
+but if they are numerous they blend so as to give roughness or dissonance
+to the interval. The roughness or dissonance is most disagreeable
+with about 33 beats falling on the ear per second. When
+two compound tones are sounded, say a minor third on a harmonium
+in the lower part of the keyboard, then we have beats not only
+between the primaries, but also between the upper partials of each
+of the primaries. The beating distance may, for tones of medium
+pitch, be fixed at about a minor third, but this interval will expand
+for intervals on low tones and contract for intervals on high ones.
+This explains why the same interval in the lower part of the scale
+may give slow beats that are not disagreeable, while in the higher
+part it may cause harsh and unpleasant dissonance. The partials
+up to the seventh are beyond beating distance, but above this they
+come close together. Consequently instruments (such as tongues,
+or reeds) that abound in upper partials cause an intolerable dissonance
+if one of the primaries is slightly out of tune. Some intervals are
+pleasant and satisfying when produced on instruments having few
+partials in their tones. These are concords. Others are less so,
+and they may give rise to an uncomfortable sensation. These are
+discords. In this way unison, <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1</span>, minor third <span class="spp">6</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span>, major third <span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span>,
+fourth <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>, fifth <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">2</span>, minor sixth <span class="spp">8</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span>, major sixth <span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> and octave <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1</span>, are all
+concords; while a second <span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>, minor seventh <span class="spp">16</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">9</span> and major seventh <span class="spp">15</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>,
+are discords. Helmholtz compares the sensation of dissonance to
+that of a flickering light on the eye. &ldquo;Something similar I have
+found to be produced by simultaneously stimulating the skin, or
+margin of the lips, by bristles attached to tuning-forks giving forth
+beats. If the frequency of the forks is great, the sensation is that
+of a most disagreeable tickling. It may be that the instinctive effort
+at analysis of tones close in pitch causes the disagreeable sensation&rdquo;
+(Schäfer&rsquo;s <i>Text-Book</i>, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 1187).</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Other Theories.</i>&mdash;In 1865 Rennie objected to the analysis
+theory, and urged that the cochlea acted as a whole (<i>Ztschr. f. rat.
+Med.</i>, Dritte Reihe, Bd. xxiv. Heft 1, S. 12-64). This view was
+revived by Voltolini (Virchow&rsquo;s <i>Archiv</i>, Bd. c. S. 27) some years
+later, and in 1886 it was urged by E. Rutherford (<i>Rep. Brit. Assoc.
+Ad. Sc.</i>, 1886), who compared the action of the cochlea to that of
+a telephone plate. According to this theory, all the hairs of the
+auditory cells vibrate to every note, and the hair-cells transform
+sound vibrations into nerve vibrations or impulses, similar in frequency,
+amplitude and character to the sound vibrations. There
+is no analysis in the peripheral organ. A. D. Waller, in 1891 (<i>Proc.
+Physiol. Soc.</i>, Jan. 20, 1891) suggested that the basilar membrane
+as a whole vibrates to every note, thus repeating the vibrations of
+the membrana tympani; and since the hair-cells move with the
+basilar membrane, they produce what may be called pressure patterns
+against the tectorial membranes, and filaments of the auditory nerve
+are stimulated by these pressures. Waller admits a certain degree
+of peripheral analysis, but he relegates ultimate analysis to the brain.
+These theories, dispensing with peripheral analysis, leave out of
+account the highly complex structure of the cochlea, or, in other
+words, they assign to that structure a comparatively simple function
+which could be performed by a simple membrane capable of vibrating.
+We find that the cochlea becomes more elaborate as we ascend the
+scale of animals, until in man, who possesses greater powers of
+analysis than any other being, the number of hair-cells, fibres of the
+basilar membrane and arches of Corti are all much increased in
+number (see Retzius&rsquo;s table, <i>supra</i>). The principle of sympathetic
+resonance appears, therefore, to offer the most likely solution of the
+problem. Hurst&rsquo;s view is that with each movement of the stapes
+a wave is generated which travels up the scala vestibuli, through
+the helicotrema into the scala tympani and down the latter to the
+fenestra rotunda. The wave, however, is not merely a movement
+of the basilar membrane, but an actual movement of fluid or a
+transmission of pressure. As the one wave ascends while the other
+descends, a pressure of the basilar membrane occurs at the point
+where they meet; this causes the basilar membrane to move towards
+the tectorial membrane, forcing this membrane suddenly
+against the apices of the hair-cells, thus irritating the nerves. The
+point at which the waves meet will depend on the time interval
+between the waves (Hurst, &ldquo;A New Theory of Hearing,&rdquo; <i>Trans.
+Biol. Soc. Liverpool</i>, 1895, vol. ix. p. 321). More recently Max Mayer
+has advanced a theory somewhat similar. He supposes that with
+each movement of the stapes corresponding to a vibration, a wave
+travels up the scala vestibuli, pressing the basilar membrane downwards.
+As it meets with resistance in passing upwards, its amplitude
+therefore diminishes, and in this way the distance up the scala
+through which the wave progresses will be determined by its amplitude.
+The wave in its progress irritates a certain number of nerve
+terminations, consequently feeble tones will irritate only those nerve
+fibres that are near the fenestra ovalis, while stronger tones will pass
+farther up and irritate a larger number of nerve fibres the same
+number of times per unit of time. Pitch, according to this view,
+depends on the number of stimuli per second, while loudness depends
+on the number of nerve fibres irritated. Mayer also applies the
+theory to the explanation of the powers of the cochlea as an analyser,
+by supposing that with a compound tone these are at maxima and
+minima of stimulation. As the compound wave travels up the scala,
+portions of the wave corresponding to maxima and minima die away
+in consecutive series, until only a maximum and minimum are left;
+and, finally, as the wave travels farther, these also disappear. With
+each maximum and minimum different parts of the basilar membrane
+are affected, and affected a different number of times per second,
+according to the frequencies of the partials existing in the compound
+tone. Thus with a fifth, 2 : 3, there are three maxima and three
+minima; but the compound tone is resolved into three tones having
+vibration frequencies in the ratio of 3 : 2 : 1. According to Mayer,
+we actually hear when a fifth is sounded tones of the relationship of
+3 : 2 : 1, the last (1) being the differential tone. He holds, also, that
+combinational tones are entirely subjective (Max Mayer, <i>Ztschr. f.
+Psych. und Phys. d. Sinnesorgane</i>, Leipzig, Bd. xvi. and xvii.; also
+<i>Verhandl. d. physiolog. Gesellsch. zu Berlin</i>, Feb. 18, 1898, S. 49).
+Two fatal objections can be urged to these theories, namely, first, it
+is impossible to conceive of minute waves following each other in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span>
+rapid succession in the minute tubes forming the scalae&mdash;the length
+of the scala being only a very small part of the wave-length of the
+sound; and, secondly, neither theory takes into account the differentiation
+of structure found in the epithelium of the organ of Corti.
+Each push in and out of the base of the stapes must cause a movement
+of the fluid, or a pressure, in the scalae as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>There are difficulties in the way of applying the resonance theory
+to the perception of noises. Noises have pitch, and also each noise
+has a special character; if so, if the noise is analysed into its constituents,
+why is it that it seems impossible to analyse a noise,
+or to perceive any musical element in it? Helmholtz assumed that
+a sound is noisy when the wave is irregular in rhythm, and he
+suggested that the crista and macula acustica, structures that exist
+not in the cochlea but in the vestibule, have to do with the perception
+of noise. These structures, however, are concerned rather
+in the sense of the perception of equilibrium than of sound (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equilibrium</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>9. Hitherto we have considered only the audition of a single
+sound, but it is possible also to have simultaneous auditive sensations,
+as in musical harmony. It is difficult to ascertain what is the
+limit beyond which distinct auditory sensations may be perceived.
+We have in listening to an orchestra a multiplicity of sensations
+which produces a total effect, while, at the same time, we can with
+ease single out and notice attentively the tones of one or two special
+instruments. Thus the pleasure of music may arise partly
+from listening to simultaneous, and partly from the effect of
+contrast or suggestion in passing through successive, auditory
+sensations.</p>
+
+<p>The principles of harmony belong to the subject of music (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmony</a></span>), but it is necessary here briefly to refer to these from the
+physiological point of view. If two musical sounds reach the ear
+at the same moment, an agreeable or disagreeable sensation is
+experienced, which may be termed a <i>concord</i> or a <i>discord</i>, and it can
+be shown by experiment with the syren that this depends upon the
+vibrational numbers of the two tones. The octave (1 : 2), the
+twelfth (1 : 3) and double octave (1 : 4) are absolutely consonant
+sounds; the fifth (2 : 3) is said to be perfectly consonant; then
+follow, in the direction of dissonance, the fourth (3 : 4), major sixth
+(3 : 5), major third (4 : 5), minor sixth (5 : 8) and the minor third
+(5 : 6). Helmholtz has attempted to account for this by the application
+of his theory of <i>beats</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Beats are observed when two sounds of nearly the same pitch are
+produced together, and the number of beats per second is equal to
+the difference of the number of vibrations of the two sounds. Beats
+give rise to a peculiarly disagreeable intermittent sensation. The
+maximum roughness of beats is attained by 33 per second; beyond
+132 per second, the individual impulses are blended into one uniform
+auditory sensation. When two notes are sounded, say on a piano,
+not only may the first, fundamental or prime tones beat, but partial
+tones of each of the primaries may beat also, and as the difference
+of pitch of two simultaneous sounds augments, the number of beats,
+both of prime tones and of harmonics, augments also. The physiological
+effect of beats, though these may not be individually distinguishable,
+is to give roughness to the ear. If harmonics or partial
+tones of prime tones coincide, there are no beats; if they do not
+coincide, the beats produced will give a character of roughness to
+the interval. Thus in the octave and twelfth, all the partial tones
+of the acute sound coincide with the partial tones of the grave
+sound; in the fourth, major sixth and major third, only two pairs
+of the partial tones coincide, while in the minor sixth, minor third
+and minor seventh only one pair of the harmonics coincide.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible by means of beats to measure the sensitiveness of
+the ear by determining the smallest difference in pitch that may
+give rise to a beat. In no part of the scale can a difference smaller
+than 0.2 vibration per second be distinguished. The sensitiveness
+varies with pitch. Thus at 120 vibs. per second 0.4 vib. per second,
+at 500 about 0.3 vib. per second, and at 1000, 0.5 vib. per second
+can be distinguished. This is a remarkable illustration of the
+sensitiveness of the ear. When tones of low pitch are produced
+that do not rapidly die away, as by sounding heavy tuning-forks,
+not only may the beats be perceived corresponding to the difference
+between the frequencies of the forks, but also other sets of beats.
+Thus, if the two tones have frequencies of 40 and 74, a two-order
+beat may be heard, one having a frequency of 34 and the other
+of 6, as 74 ÷ 40 = 1 + a positive remainder of 34, and 74 ÷ 40 = 2 &minus; 6,
+or 80 &minus; 74, a negative remainder of 6. The lower beat is heard most
+distinctly when the number is less than half the frequency of the
+lower primary, and the upper when the number is greater. The beats
+we have been considering are produced when two notes are sounded
+slightly differing in frequency, or at all events their frequencies are
+not so great as those of two notes separated by a musical interval,
+such as an octave or a fifth. But Lord Kelvin has shown that beats
+may also be produced on slightly inharmonious musical intervals
+(<i>Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed.</i> 1878, vol. ix. p. 602). Thus, take two tuning-forks,
+<i>ut</i><span class="su">2</span> = 256 and <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> = 512; slightly flatten <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> so as to make its
+frequency 510, and we hear, not a roughness corresponding to 254
+beats, but a slow beat of 2 per second. The sensation also passes
+through a cycle, the beats now sounding loudly and fading away in
+intensity, again sounding loudly, and so on. One might suppose that
+the beat occurred between 510 (the frequency of <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> flattened) and
+512, the first partial of <i>ut</i><span class="su">2</span>, namely <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span>, but this is not so, as the beat
+is most audible when <i>ut</i><span class="su">2</span> is sounded feebly. In a similar way, beats
+may be produced on the approximate harmonies 2 : 3, 3 : 4, 4 : 5,
+5 : 6, 6 : 7, 7 : 8, 1 : 3, 3 : 5, and beats may even be produced on the
+major chord 4 : 5 : 6 by sounding <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span>, <i>mi</i><span class="su">3</span>, <i>sol</i><span class="su">3</span>, with <i>sol</i><span class="su">3</span> or <i>mi</i><span class="su">3</span>
+slightly flattened, &ldquo;when a peculiar beat will be heard as if a wheel
+were being turned against a surface, one small part of which was
+rougher than the rest.&rdquo; These beats on imperfect harmonies
+appear to indicate that the ear does distinguish between an increase
+of pressure on the drum-head and a diminution, or between a push
+and a pull, or, in other words, that it is affected by phase. This
+was denied by Helmholtz.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Beat Tones.</i>&mdash;Considerable difference of opinion exists as to
+whether beats can blend so as to give a sensation of tone; but
+R. König, by using pure tones of high pitch, has settled the question.
+These tones were produced by large tuning-forks. Thus <i>ut</i><span class="su">6</span> = 2048
+and <i>re</i><span class="su">6</span> = 2304. Then the beat tone is <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> = 256 (2304-2048). If
+we strike the two forks, <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> sounds as a grave or lower beat tone.
+Again, <i>ut</i><span class="su">6</span> = 2048 and <i>si</i><span class="su">6</span> = 3840. Then (2048)<span class="su">2</span> &minus; 3840 = 256, a
+negative remainder, <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span>, as before, and when both forks are sounded
+<i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> will be heard. Again, <i>ut</i><span class="su">6</span> = 2048 and <i>sol</i><span class="su">6</span> = 3072, and 3072 &minus; 2048 = 1024,
+or <i>ut</i><span class="su">6</span>, which will be distinctly heard when <i>ut</i><span class="su">6</span> and <i>sol</i><span class="su">6</span> are
+sounded (König, <i>Quelques expériences d&rsquo;acoustique</i>, Paris, 1882,
+p. 87).</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Combination Tones.</i>&mdash;Frequently, when two tones are sounded,
+not only do we hear the compound sound, from which we can pick
+out the constituent tones, but we may hear other tones, one of
+which is lower in pitch than the lowest primary, and the other
+is higher in pitch than the higher primary. These, known as
+combination tones, are of two classes: <i>differential</i> tones, in which
+the frequency is the difference of the frequencies of the generating
+tones, and <i>summational</i> tones, having a frequency which is the
+sum of the frequencies of the tones producing them. Differential
+tones, first noticed by Sorge about 1740, are easily heard. Thus
+an interval of a fifth, 2 : 3, gives a differential tone 1, that is, an octave
+below 2; a fourth, 3 : 4, gives 1, a twelfth below 3; a major third,
+4 : 5, gives 1, two octaves below 4; a minor third, 5 : 6, gives 1, two
+octaves and a major third below 5; a major sixth, 3 : 5, gives 2,
+that is, a fifth below 3; and a minor sixth, 5 : 8, gives 3, that is,
+a major sixth below 5. Summational tones, first noticed by Helmholtz,
+are so difficult to hear that much controversy has taken
+place as to their very existence. Some have contended that they
+are produced by beats. It appears to be proved physically that
+they may exist in the air outside of the ear. Further differential
+tones may be generated in the middle ear. Helmholtz also demonstrated
+their independent existence, and he states that &ldquo;whenever
+the vibrations of the air or of other elastic bodies, which are set in
+motion at the same time by two generating simple tones, are so
+powerful that they can no longer be considered infinitely small,
+mathematical theory shows that vibrations of the air must arise
+which have the same vibrational numbers as the combination tones&rdquo;
+(Helmholtz, <i>Sensations of Tone</i>, p. 235). The importance of these
+combinational tones in the theory of hearing is obvious. If the ear
+can only analyse compound waves into simple pendular vibrations
+of a certain order (simple multiples of the prime tone), how can it
+detect combinational tones, which do not belong to that order?
+Again, if such tones are purely subjective and only exist in the
+mind of the listener, the fact would be fatal to the resonance theory.
+There can be no doubt, however, that the ear, in dealing with
+them, vibrates in some part of its mechanism with each generator,
+while it also is affected by the combinational tone itself, according to
+its frequency.</p>
+
+<p>12. Hearing with two ears does not appear materially to influence
+auditive sensation, but probably the two organs are enabled, not
+only to correct each other&rsquo;s errors, but also to aid us in determining
+the locality in which a sound originates. It is asserted by
+G. T. Fechner that one ear may perceive the same tone at a slightly
+higher pitch than the other, but this may probably be due to some
+slight pathological condition in one ear. If two tones, produced by
+two tuning-forks, of equal pitch, are produced one near each ear,
+there is a uniform single sensation; if one of the tuning-forks be
+made to revolve round its axis in such a way that its tone increases
+and diminishes in intensity, neither fork is heard continuously, but
+both sound alternately, the fixed one being only audible when the
+revolving one is not. It is difficult to decide whether excitations
+of corresponding elements in the two ears can be distinguished from
+each other. It is probable that the resulting sensations may be
+distinguished, provided one of the generating tones differs from the
+other in intensity or quality, although it may be the same in pitch.
+Our judgment as to the direction of sounds is formed mainly from
+the different degrees of intensity with which they are heard by two
+ears. Lord Rayleigh states that diffraction of the sound-waves
+will occur as they pass round the head to the ear farthest from the
+source of sound; thus partial tones will reach the two ears with
+different intensities, and thus quality of tone may be affected
+(<i>Trans. Music. Soc.</i>, London, 1876). Silvanus P. Thompson advocates
+a similar view, and he shows that the direction of a
+complex tone can be more accurately determined than the
+direction of a simple tone, especially if it be of low pitch (<i>Phil.
+Mag.</i>, 1882).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. M.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEARN, LAFCADIO<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1850-1904), author of books about
+Japan, was born on the 27th of June 1850 in Leucadia (pronounced
+Lefcadia, whence his name, which was one adopted
+by himself), one of the Greek Ionian Islands. He was the son
+of Surgeon-major Charles Hearn, of King&rsquo;s County, Ireland,
+who, during the English occupation of the Ionian Islands, was
+stationed there, and who married a Greek wife. Artistic and
+rather bohemian tastes were in Lafcadio Hearn&rsquo;s blood. His
+father&rsquo;s brother Richard was at one time a well-known member
+of the Barbizon set of artists, though he made no mark as a
+painter through his lack of energy. Young Hearn had rather a
+casual education, but was for a time (1865) at Ushaw Roman
+Catholic College, Durham. The religious faith in which he was
+brought up was, however, soon lost; and at nineteen, being
+thrown on his own resources, he went to America and at first
+picked up a living in the lower grades of newspaper work. The
+details are obscure, but he continued to occupy himself with
+journalism and with out-of-the-way observation and reading,
+and meanwhile his erratic, romantic and rather morbid idiosyncrasies
+developed. He was for some time in New Orleans,
+writing for the <i>Times Democrat</i>, and was sent by that paper
+for two years as correspondent to the West Indies, where he gathered
+material for his <i>Two Years in the French West Indies</i> (1890).
+At last, in 1891, he went to Japan with a commission as a newspaper
+correspondent, which was quickly broken off. But here
+he found his true sphere. The list of his books on Japanese
+subjects tells its own tale: <i>Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan</i>
+(1894); <i>Out of the East</i> (1895); <i>Kokoro</i> (1896); <i>Gleanings in
+Buddha Fields</i> (1897); <i>Exotics and Retrospections</i> (1898); <i>In
+Ghostly Japan</i> (1899); <i>Shadowings</i> (1900); <i>A Japanese
+Miscellany</i> (1901); <i>Kotto</i> (1902); <i>Japanese Fairy Tales</i> and
+<i>Kwaidan</i> (1903), and (published just after his death) <i>Japan,
+an Attempt at Interpretation</i> (1904), a study full of knowledge
+and insight. He became a teacher of English at the University
+of Tokyo, and soon fell completely under the spell
+of Japanese ideas. He married a Japanese wife, became a
+naturalized Japanese under the name of Yakumo Koizumi, and
+adopted the Buddhist religion. For the last two years of his life
+(he died on the 26th of September 1904) his health was failing,
+and he was deprived of his lecturersbip at the University. But
+he had gradually become known to the world at large by the
+originality, power and literary charm of his writings. This
+wayward bohemian genius, who had seen life in so many climes,
+and turned from Roman Catholic to atheist and then to Buddhist,
+was curiously qualified, among all those who were &ldquo;interpreting&rdquo;
+the new and the old Japan to the Western world, to see it with
+unfettered understanding, and to express its life and thought
+with most intimate and most artistic sincerity. Lafcadio Hearn&rsquo;s
+books were indeed unique for their day in the literature about
+Japan, in their combination of real knowledge with a literary
+art which is often exquisite.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Elizabeth Bisland, <i>The Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn</i>
+(2 vols., 1906); G. M. Gould, <i>Concerning Lafcadio Hearn</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEARNE, SAMUEL<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1745-1792), English explorer, was born
+in London. In 1756 he entered the navy, and was some time
+with Lord Hood; at the end of the Seven Years&rsquo; War (1763)
+he took service with the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company. In 1768 he
+examined portions of the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay coasts with a view to
+improving the cod fishery, and in 1769-1772 he was employed
+in north-western discovery, searching especially for certain
+copper mines described by Indians. His first attempt (from
+the 6th of November 1769) failed through the desertion of his
+Indians; his second (from the 23rd of February 1770) through
+the breaking of his quadrant; but in his third (December 1770
+to June 1772) he was successful, not only discovering the copper
+of the Coppermine river basin, but tracing this river to the
+Arctic Ocean. He reappeared at Fort Prince of Wales on the
+30th of June 1772. Becoming governor of this fort in 1775,
+he was taken prisoner by the French under La Pérouse in 1782.
+He returned to England in 1787 and died there in 1792.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his posthumous <i>Journey from Prince of Wales Fort in Hudson&rsquo;s
+Bay to the Northern Ocean</i> (London, 1795).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEARNE, THOMAS<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1678-1735), English antiquary, was
+born in July 1678 at Littlefield Green in the parish of White
+Waltham, Berkshire. Having received his early education from
+his father, George Hearne, the parish clerk, he showed such taste
+for study that a wealthy neighbour, Francis Cherry of Shottesbrooke
+(<i>c.</i> 1665-1713), a celebrated nonjuror, interested himself
+in the boy, and sent him to the school at Bray &ldquo;on purpose to
+learn the Latin tongue.&rdquo; Soon Cherry took him into his own
+house, and his education was continued at Bray until Easter
+1696, when he matriculated at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. At
+the university he attracted the attention of Dr John Mill (1645-1707),
+the principal of St Edmund Hall, who employed him to
+compare manuscripts and in other ways. Having taken the
+degree of B.A. in 1699 he was made assistant keeper of the
+Bodleian Library, where he worked on the catalogue of books,
+and in 1712 he was appointed second keeper. In 1715 Hearne
+was elected architypographus and esquire bedell in civil law
+in the university, but objection having been made to his holding
+this office together with that of second librarian, he resigned
+it in the same year. As a nonjuror he refused to take the oaths
+of allegiance to King George I., and early in 1716 he was deprived
+of his librarianship. However he continued to reside in Oxford,
+and occupied himself in editing the English chroniclers. Having
+refused several important academical positions, including the
+librarianship of the Bodleian and the Camden professorship of
+ancient history, rather than take the oaths, he died on the 10th
+of June 1735.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hearne&rsquo;s most important work was done as editor of many of
+the English chroniclers, and until the appearance of the &ldquo;Rolls&rdquo; series
+his editions were in many cases the only ones extant. Very carefully
+prepared, they were, and indeed are still, of the greatest value to
+historical students. Perhaps the most important of a long list are:
+Benedict of Peterborough&rsquo;s (Benedictus Abbas) <i>De vita et gestis
+Henrici II. et Ricardi I.</i> (1735); John of Fordun&rsquo;s <i>Scotichronicon</i>
+(1722); the monk of Evesham&rsquo;s <i>Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II.</i>
+(1729); Robert Mannyng&rsquo;s translation of Peter Langtoft&rsquo;s <i>Chronicle</i>
+(1725); the work of Thomas Otterbourne and John Whethamstede
+as <i>Duo rerum Anglicarum scriptores veteres</i> (1732); Robert of
+Gloucester&rsquo;s <i>Chronicle</i> (1724); J. Sprott&rsquo;s <i>Chronica</i> (1719); the
+<i>Vita et gesta Henrici V.</i>, wrongly attributed to Thomas Elmham
+(1727); Titus Livy&rsquo;s <i>Vita Henrici V.</i> (1716); Walter of Hemingburgh&rsquo;s
+<i>Chronicon</i> (1731); and William of Newburgh&rsquo;s <i>Historia
+rerum Anglicarum</i> (1719). He also edited John Leland&rsquo;s <i>Itinerary</i>
+(1710-1712) and the same author&rsquo;s <i>Collectanea</i> (1715); W. Camden&rsquo;s
+<i>Annales rerum Anglicarum et Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha</i> (1717);
+Sir John Spelman&rsquo;s <i>Life of Alfred</i> (1709); and W. Roper&rsquo;s <i>Life of
+Sir Thomas More</i> (1716). He brought out an edition of Livy (1708);
+one of Pliny&rsquo;s <i>Epistolae et panegyricus</i> (1703); and one of the Acts
+of the Apostles (1715). Among his other compilations may be
+mentioned: <i>Ductor historicus, a Short System of Universal History</i>
+(1704, 1705, 1714, 1724); <i>A Collection of Curious Discourses by
+Eminent Antiquaries</i> (1720); and <i>Reliquiae Bodleianae</i> (1703).</p>
+
+<p>Hearne left his manuscripts to William Bedford, who sold them to
+Dr Richard Rawlinson, who in his turn bequeathed them to the
+Bodleian. Two volumes of extracts from his voluminous diary
+were published by Philip Bliss (Oxford, 1857), and afterwards an
+enlarged edition in three volumes appeared (London, 1869). A large
+part of his diary entitled <i>Remarks and Collections, 1705-1714</i>, edited
+by C. E. Doble and D. W. Rannie, has been published by the Oxford
+Historical Society (1885-1898). <i>Bibliotheca Hearniana</i>, excerpts
+from the catalogue of Hearne&rsquo;s library, has been edited by B.
+Botfield (1848).</p>
+
+<p>See <i>Impartial Memorials of the Life and Writings of Thomas Hearne
+by several hands</i> (1736); and W. D. Macray, <i>Annals of the Bodleian
+Library</i> (1890). Hearne&rsquo;s autobiography is published in W. Huddesford&rsquo;s
+<i>Lives of Leland, Hearne and Wood</i> (Oxford, 1772). T. Ouvry&rsquo;s
+<i>Letters addressed to Thomas Hearne</i> has been privately printed
+(London, 1874).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEARSE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (an adaptation of Fr. <i>herse</i>, a harrow, from Lat.
+<i>hirpex</i>, <i>hirpicem</i>, rake or harrow, Greek <span class="grk" title="arpae">&#7941;&#961;&#960;&#945;&#958;</span>, a vehicle for
+the conveyance of a dead body at a funeral. The most usual
+shape is a four-wheeled car, with a roofed and enclosed body,
+sometimes with glass panels, which contains the coffin. This is
+the only current use of the word. In its earlier forms it is usually
+found as &ldquo;herse,&rdquo; and meant, as the French word did, a harrow
+(<i>q.v.</i>). It was then applied to other objects resembling a harrow,
+following the French. It was then used of a portcullis, and thus
+becomes a heraldic term, the &ldquo;herse&rdquo; being frequently borne
+as a &ldquo;charge,&rdquo; as in the arms of the City of Westminster. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span>
+chief application of the word is, however, to various objects
+used in funeral ceremonies. A &ldquo;herse&rdquo; or &ldquo;hearse&rdquo; seems
+first to have been a barrow-shaped framework of wood, to hold
+lighted tapers and decorations placed on a bier or coffin; this
+later developed into an elaborate pagoda-shaped erection of
+woodwork or metal for the funerals of royal or other distinguished
+persons. This held banners, candles, armorial bearings and
+other heraldic devices. Complimentary verses or epitaphs
+were often attached to the &ldquo;hearse.&rdquo; An elaborate &ldquo;hearse&rdquo;
+was designed by Inigo Jones for the funeral of James I. The
+&ldquo;hearse&rdquo; is also found as a permanent erection over tombs.
+It is generally made of iron or other metal, and was used,
+not only to carry lighted candles, but also for the support
+of a pall during the funeral ceremony. There is a brass
+&ldquo;hearse&rdquo; in the Beauchamp Chapel at Warwick Castle, and
+one over the tomb of Robert Marmion and his wife at Tanfield
+Church near Ripon.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEART,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> in anatomy.&mdash;The heart<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> is a four-chambered
+muscular bag, which lies in the cavity of the thorax between
+the two lungs. It is surrounded by another bag, the pericardium,
+for protective and lubricating purposes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coelom and Serous
+Membranes</a></span>). Externally the heart is somewhat conical, its
+base being directed upward, backward and to the right, its
+apex downward, forward and to the left. In transverse section
+the cone is flattened, so that there is an anterior and a posterior
+surface and a superior and inferior border. The superior border,
+running obliquely downward and to the left, is very thick, and
+so gains the name of <i>margo obtusus</i>, while the inferior border is
+horizontal and sharp and is called <i>margo acutus</i> (see fig. 1).
+The divisions between the four chambers of the heart (namely,
+the two auricles and two ventricles) are indicated on the surface
+by grooves, and when these are followed it will be seen that the
+right auricle and ventricle lie on the front and right side, while
+the left auricle and ventricle are behind and on the left.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:483px; height:431px" src="images/img129a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span> The Thoracic Viscera.&mdash;In this diagram the lungs are
+turned to the side, and the pericardium removed to display the
+heart, <i>a</i>, upper, a&prime;, lower lobe of left lung; <i>b</i>, upper, <i>b</i>&prime;, middle,
+<i>b</i>&Prime;, lower lobe of right lung; <i>c</i>, trachea; <i>d</i>, arch of aorta; <i>e</i>,
+superior vena cava; <i>f</i>, pulmonary artery; <i>g</i>, left, and <i>h</i>, right
+auricle; <i>k</i>, right, and <i>l</i>, left ventricle; <i>m</i>, inferior vena cava; <i>n</i>,
+descending aorta; 1, innominate artery; 2, right, and 4, left
+common carotid artery; 3, right, and 5, left subclavian artery;
+6, 6, right and left innominate vein; 7 and 9, left and right internal
+jugular veins; 8 and 10, left and right subclavian veins; 11, 12, 13,
+left pulmonary artery, bronchus and vein; 14, 15, 16, right pulmonary
+bronchus, artery and vein; 17 and 18, left and right coronary arteries.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:316px; height:465px" src="images/img129b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span> Cavities of the Right Side of the
+Heart.&mdash;<i>a</i>, superior, and <i>b</i>, inferior vena
+cava; <i>c</i>, arch of aorta; <i>d</i>, pulmonary
+artery; <i>e</i>, right, and <i>f</i>, left auricular appendage;
+<i>g</i>, fossa ovalis; <i>h</i>, Eustachian valve;
+<i>k</i>, mouth of coronary vein; <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, cusps
+of the tricuspid valve; <i>o</i>, <i>o</i>, papillary
+muscles; <i>p</i>, semilunar valve; <i>q</i>, corpus
+Arantii; <i>r</i>, lunula.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The <i>right auricle</i> is situated at the base of the heart, and its
+outline is seen on looking at the organ from in front. Into the
+posterior part of it open the two venae cavae (see fig. 2), the
+superior (<i>a</i>) above and the inferior (<i>b</i>) below. In front and to the
+left of the superior vena cava is the right auricular appendage (<i>e</i>)
+which overlaps the
+front of the root of the
+aorta, while running
+obliquely from the
+front of one vena cava
+to the other is a shallow
+groove called the
+<i>sulcus terminalis</i>, which
+indicates the original
+separation between the
+true auricle in front
+and the sinus venosus
+behind. When the
+auricle is opened by
+turning the front wall
+to the right as a flap
+the following structures
+are exposed:</p>
+
+<p>1. A muscular ridge,
+called the <i>crista terminalis</i>,
+corresponding to
+the sulcus terminalis
+on the exterior.</p>
+
+<p>2. A series of ridges
+on the anterior wall
+and in the appendage,
+running downward
+from the last and at
+right angles to it, like
+the teeth of a comb;
+these are known as
+<i>Musculi pectinati</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. The orifice of the superior vena cava (fig. 2, <i>a</i>) at the upper
+and back part of the chamber.</p>
+
+<p>4. The orifice of the inferior vena cava (fig. 2, <i>b</i>) at the lower
+and back part.</p>
+
+<p>5. Attached to the right and lower margins of this opening
+are the remains of the <i>Eustachian valve</i> (fig. 2, <i>h</i>), which in the
+foetus directs the blood from the inferior vena cava, through the
+<i>foramen ovale</i>, into the left auricle.</p>
+
+<p>6. Below and to the left of this is the opening of the <i>coronary
+sinus</i> (fig. 2, <i>k</i>), which collects most of the veins returning blood
+from the substance of the heart.</p>
+
+<p>7. Guarding this opening is the <i>coronary valve</i> or <i>valve of
+Thebesius</i>.</p>
+
+<p>8. On the posterior or septal wall, between the two auricles,
+is an oval depression, called the <i>fossa ovalis</i> (fig. 2, <i>g</i>), the remains
+of the original communication between the two auricles. In
+about a quarter of all normal hearts there is a small valvular
+communication between the two auricles in the left margin of
+this depression (see &ldquo;7th Report of the Committee of Collective
+Investigation,&rdquo; <i>J. Anat. and Phys.</i> vol. xxxii. p. 164).</p>
+
+<p>9. The <i>annulus ovalis</i> is the raised margin surrounding this
+depression.</p>
+
+<p>10. On the left side, opening into the right ventricle, is the
+<i>right auriculo-ventricular opening</i>.</p>
+
+<p>11. On the right wall, between the two caval openings, may
+occasionally be seen a slight eminence, the <i>tubercle of Lower</i>,
+which is supposed to separate the two streams of blood in the
+embryo.</p>
+
+<p>12. Scattered all over the auricular wall are minute depressions,
+the <i>foramina Thebesii</i>, some of which receive small veins
+from the substance of the heart.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>right ventricle</i> is a triangular cavity (see fig. 2) the base of
+which is largely formed by the auriculo-ventricular orifice. To
+the left of this it is continued up into the root of the pulmonary
+artery, and this part is known as the <i>infundibulum</i>. Its anterior
+wall forms part of the anterior surface of the heart, while its
+posterior wall is chiefly formed by the septum ventriculorum,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span>
+between it and the left ventricle. Its lower border is the margo
+acutus already mentioned. In transverse section it is crescentic,
+since the septal wall bulges into its cavity. In its interior the
+following structures are seen:</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>tricuspid valve</i> (fig. 2, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>) guarding against reflux
+of blood into the right auricle. This consists of a short cylindrical
+curtain of fibrous tissue, which projects into the ventricle from
+the margin of the auriculo-ventricular aperture, while from its
+free edge three triangular flaps hang down, the bases of which
+touch one another. These cusps are spoken of as septal, marginal
+and infundibular, from their position.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>chordae tendineae</i> are fine fibrous cords which fasten
+the cusps to the musculi papillares and ventricular wall, and
+prevent the valve being turned inside out when the ventricle
+contracts.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>columnae carneae</i> are fleshy columns, and are of three
+kinds. The first are attached to the wall of the ventricle in
+their whole length and are merely sculptured in relief, as it were;
+the second are attached by both ends and are free in the middle;
+while the third are known as the <i>musculi papillares</i> and are
+attached by one end to the ventricular wall, the other end giving
+attachment to the chordae tendineae. These musculi papillares
+are grouped into three bundles (fig. 2, <i>o</i>).</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>moderator band</i> is really one of the second kind of
+columnae carneae which stretches from the septal to the anterior
+wall of the ventricle.</p>
+
+<p>5. The <i>pulmonary valve</i> (fig. 2, <i>p</i>) at the opening of the
+pulmonary artery has three crescentic, pocket-like cusps, which,
+when the ventricle is filling, completely close the aperture, but
+during the contraction of the ventricle fit into three small niches
+known as the <i>sinuses of Valsalva</i>, and so are quite out of the way
+of the escaping blood. In the middle of the free margin of each
+is a small knob called the <i>corpus Arantii</i> (fig. 2, <i>q</i>), and on each
+side of this a thin crescent-shaped flap, the <i>lunula</i> (fig. 2, <i>r</i>), which
+is only made of two layers of endocardium, whereas in the rest
+of the cusp there is a fibrous backing between these two layers.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>left auricle</i> is situated at the back of the base of the heart,
+behind and to the left of the right auricle. Running down behind
+it are the oesophagus and the thoracic aorta. When it is opened it
+is seen to have a much lighter colour than the other cavities,
+owing to the greater thickness of its endocardium obscuring the
+red muscle beneath. There are no musculi pectinati except in
+the auricular appendage. The openings of the four pulmonary
+veins are placed two on each side of the posterior wall, but
+sometimes there may be three on the right side, and only one
+on the left. On the septal wall is a small depression like the
+mark of a finger-nail, which corresponds to the anterior part of
+the fossa ovalis and often forms a valvular communication with
+the right auricle. The auriculo-ventricular orifice is large and
+oval, and is directed downward and to the left. Foramina
+Thebesii and venae minimae cordis are found in this auricle,
+as in the right, although the chamber is one for arterial or
+oxidized blood.</p>
+
+<p>At the lower part of the posterior surface of the unopened
+auricle, lying in the left auriculo-ventricular furrow, is the
+coronary sinus, which receives most of the veins returning the
+blood from the heart substance; these are the right and left
+coronary veins at each extremity and the posterior and left
+cardiac veins from below. One small vein, called the oblique
+vein of Marshall, runs down into it across the posterior surface
+of the auricle, from below the left lower pulmonary vein, and
+is of morphological interest.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>left ventricle</i> is conical, the base being above, behind and
+to the right, while the apex corresponds to the apex of the heart
+and lies opposite the fifth intercostal space, 3½ in. from the mid
+line. The following structures are seen inside it:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>mitral valve</i> guarding the auriculo-ventricular opening
+has the same arrangement as the tricuspid, already described,
+save that there are only two cusps, named marginal and aortic,
+the latter of which is the larger.</p>
+
+<p>2. The chordae tendineae and columnae carneae resemble
+those of the right ventricle, though there are only two bundles
+of musculi papillares instead of three. These are very large.
+A moderator band has been found as an abnormality (see
+<i>J. Anat. and Phys.</i> vol. xxx. p. 568).</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>aortic valve</i> has the same structure as the pulmonary,
+though the cusps are more massive. From the anterior and left
+posterior sinuses of Valsalva the coronary arteries arise. That
+part of the ventricle just below the aortic valve, corresponding
+to the infundibulum on the right, is known as the aortic vestibule.</p>
+
+<p>The walls of the left ventricle are three times as thick as those
+of the right, except at the apex, where they are thinner. The
+septum ventriculorum is concave towards the left ventricle, so
+that a transverse section of that cavity is nearly circular. The
+greater part of it has nearly the same thickness as the rest of the
+left ventricular wall and is muscular, but a small portion of the
+upper part is membranous and thin, and is called the <i>pars
+membranacea septi</i>; it lies between the aortic and pulmonary
+orifices.</p>
+
+<p><i>Structure of the Heart.</i>&mdash;The arrangement of the muscular
+fibres of the heart is very complicated and only imperfectly
+known. For details one of the larger manuals, such as Cunningham&rsquo;s
+<i>Anatomy</i> (London, 1910), or Gray&rsquo;s <i>Anatomy</i> (London,
+1909), should be consulted. The general scheme is that there are
+superficial fibres common to the two auricles and two ventricles
+and deeper fibres for each cavity. Until recently no fibres had
+been traced from the auricles to the ventricles, though Gaskell
+predicted that these would be found, and the credit for first
+demonstrating them is due to Stanley Kent, their details having
+subsequently been worked out by W. His, Junr., and S. Tawara.
+The fibres of this <i>auriculo-ventricular bundle</i> begin, in the right
+auricle, below the opening of the coronary sinus, and run forward
+on the right side of the auricular septum, below the fossa ovalis,
+and close to the auriculo-ventricular septum. Above the septal
+flap of the tricuspid valve they thicken and divide into two main
+branches, one on either side of the ventricular septum, which run
+down to the bases of the anterior and posterior papillary muscles,
+and so reach the walls of the ventricle, where their secondary
+branches form the <i>fibres of Purkinje</i>. The bundle is best seen
+in the hearts of young Ruminants, and it is presumably through
+it that the wave of contraction passes from the auricles to the
+ventricles (see article by A. Keith and M. Flack, <i>Lancet</i>, 11th of
+August 1906, p. 359).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>central fibrous body</i> is a triangular mass of fibro-cartilage,
+situated between the two auriculo-ventricular and the aortic
+orifices. The upper part of the septum ventriculorum blends
+with it. The <i>endocardium</i> is a delicate layer of endothelial cells
+backed by a very thin layer of fibro-elastic tissue; it is continuous
+with the endothelium of the great vessels and lines the whole of
+the cavities of the heart.</p>
+
+<p>The heart is roughly about the size of the closed fist and weighs
+from 8 to 12 oz.; it continues to increase in size up to about
+fifty years of age, but the increase is more marked in the male
+than in the female. Each ventricle holds about 4 f. oz. of blood,
+and each auricle rather less. The nerves of the heart are derived
+from the vagus, spinal accessory and sympathetic, through the
+superficial and deep cardiac plexuses.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Embryology.</i></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:224px" src="images/img131.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Formation of Septa. Diagram
+of the formation of some of the septa of
+the heart (viewed from the right side).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p>S.V.   Sinus venosus.</p>
+<p>Au.    Auricle.</p>
+<p>E.C.   Endocardial cushions forming septum intermedium.</p>
+<p>V.     Septum ventriculorum.</p>
+<p>T. Ar. Septum aorticum intruncus arteriosus.</p>
+<p>V.A.   Ventral aorta.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the article on the arteries (<i>q.v.</i>) the formation and coalescence
+of the two <i>primitive ventral aortae</i> to form the heart are
+noticed, so that we may here start with a straight median tube
+lying ventral to the pharynx and being prolonged cephalad into
+the ventral aortae and caudad into the vitelline veins. This
+soon shows four dilatations, which, from the tail towards the
+head end, are called the sinus venosus, the auricle, the ventricle
+and the truncus<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> arteriosus. As the tubular heart grows more
+rapidly than the pericardium which contains it, it becomes bent
+into the form of an S laid on its side (&#8766;), the ventral convexity
+being the ventricle and the dorsal the auricle. The passage
+from the auricle to the ventricle is known as the <i>auricular canal</i>,
+and in the dorsal and ventral parts of this appear two thickenings
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span>
+known as <i>endocardial cushions</i>, which approach one another and
+leave a transverse slit between them (fig. 3, E.C.). Eventually
+these two cushions fuse in the middle line, obliterating the
+central part of the slit, while the lateral parts remain as the two
+auriculo-ventricular orifices; this fusion is known as the <i>septum
+intermedium</i>. From the bottom (ventral convexity) of the
+ventricle an antero-posterior median septum grows up, which is
+the <i>septum inferius</i> or
+<i>septum ventriculorum</i>
+(fig. 3, V). Posteriorly
+(caudally) this septum
+fuses with the septum
+intermedium, but anteriorly
+it is free at the
+lower part of the truncus
+arteriosus. On referring
+to the development of the
+arteries (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arteries</a></span>) it
+will be seen that another
+septum starts between
+the last two pairs of
+aortic arches and grows
+downward (caudad) until
+it reaches and joins with
+the septum inferius just
+mentioned. This <i>septum
+aorticum</i> (formed by two
+ingrowths from the wall
+of the vessel which fuse
+later) becomes twisted in such a way that the right ventricle
+is continuous with the last pair of aortic arches (pulmonary
+artery), while the left ventricle communicates with the other
+arches (the permanent ventral aorta and its branches); it
+joins the septum ventriculorum in the upper part of the
+ventricular cavity and so forms the <i>pars membranacea septi</i>
+(fig. 3, T. Ar).</p>
+
+<p>The fate of the sinus venosus and auricle must now be followed.
+Into the former, at first, only the two vitelline veins open, but
+later, as they develop, the <i>ducts of Cuvier</i> and the <i>umbilical
+veins</i> join in (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Veins</a></span>). As the ducts of Cuvier come from
+each side the sinus spreads out to meet them and becomes
+transversely elongated. The slight constriction, which at first
+is the only separation between the sinus and the auricle, becomes
+more marked, and later the opening is into the right part of
+the auricle, and is guarded by two valvular folds of endocardium
+(the <i>venous valves</i>) which project into that cavity, and are
+continuous above with a temporary downgrowth from the
+roof, known as the <i>septum spurium</i>. Later the right side of the
+sinus enlarges, and so does the right part of the aperture, until
+the back part of the right side of the auricle and the right part
+of the sinus venosus are thrown into one, and the only remnants
+of the partition are the crista terminalis and the Eustachian
+and Thebesian Valves. The left part of the sinus venosus,
+which does not enlarge at the same rate as the right part, remains
+as the coronary sinus. It will now be seen why, in the adult
+heart, all the veins which open into the right auricle open into
+its posterior part, behind the crista terminalis. The septum
+spurium has been referred to as a temporary structure; the
+real division between the two auricles occurs at a later date
+than that between the ventricles and to the left of the septum
+spurium. It is formed by two partitions, the first of which,
+called the <i>septum primum</i>, grows down from the auricular roof.
+At first it does not quite reach the endocardial cushions in the
+auricular canal, already mentioned, but leaves a gap, called
+the <i>ostium primum</i>, between. This has nothing to do with the
+<i>foramen ovale</i>, which occurs as an independent perforation higher
+up, and at first is known as the <i>ostium secundum</i>. When it is
+established the septum primum grows down and meets the
+endocardial cushions, and so the ostium primum is obliterated.
+The <i>septum secundum</i> grows down on the right of the septum
+primum and is never complete; it grows round and largely
+overlaps the foramen ovale and its edges form the annulus
+ovalis, so that, in the later months of foetal life, the foramen
+ovale is a valvular opening, the floor of which is formed by the
+septum primum and the margins by the septum secundum.
+The closure of the foramen is brought about by adhesion of the
+two septa.</p>
+
+<p>The pulmonary veins of the two sides at first join one another,
+dorsal to the left auricle, and open into that cavity by a single
+median trunk, but, as the auricle grows, this trunk and part of
+the right and left veins are absorbed into its cavity.</p>
+
+<p>The mitral and tricuspid valves are formed by the shortening
+of the auricular canal which becomes telescoped into the ventricle,
+and the cusps are the remnants of this telescoping process.</p>
+
+<p>The columnae carneae and chordae tendineae are the remains
+of a spongy network which originally filled the cavity of the
+primary ventricle.</p>
+
+<p>The aortic and pulmonary valves are laid down in the ventral
+aorta, before it is divided into aorta and pulmonary artery,
+as four endocardial cushions; anterior, posterior and two
+lateral. The septum aorticum cuts the latter two into two, so
+that each artery has the rudiments of three cusps.</p>
+
+<p>Abnormalities of the heart are very numerous, and can
+usually be explained by a knowledge of its development. They
+often cause grave clinical symptoms. A clear and well-illustrated
+review of the most important of them will be found in the chapter
+on congenital disease of the heart in <i>Clinical Applied Anatomy</i>,
+by C. R. Box and W. McAdam Eccles, London, 1906.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further details of the embryology of the heart see Oscar
+Hertwig&rsquo;s <i>Entwicklungslehre der Wirbeltiere</i> (Jena, 1902); G. Born,
+&ldquo;Entwicklung des Säugetierherzens,&rdquo; <i>Archiv f. mik. Anat.</i> Bd. 33
+(1889); W. His, <i>Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen</i> (Leipzig, 1881-1885);
+Quain&rsquo;s <i>Anatomy</i>, vol. i. (1908); C. S. Minot, <i>Human
+Embryology</i> (New York, 1892); and A. Keith, <i>Human Embryology
+and Morphology</i> (London, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Comparative Anatomy.</i></p>
+
+<p>In the Acrania (<i>e.g.</i> lancelet) there is no heart, though the
+vessels are specially contractile in the ventral part of the pharynx.</p>
+
+<p>In the Cyclostomata (lamprey and hag), and Fishes, the
+heart has the same arrangement which has been noticed in the
+human embryo. There is a smooth, thin-walled sinus venosus,
+a thin reticulate-walled auricle, produced laterally into two
+appendages, a thick-walled ventricle, and a <i>conus arteriosus</i>
+containing valves. In addition to these the beginning of the
+ventral aorta is often thickened and expanded to form a <i>bulbus
+arteriosus</i>, which is non-contractile, and, strictly speaking,
+should rather be described with the arteries than with the heart.
+In relation to human embryology the smooth sinus venosus
+and reticulated auricle are interesting. Between the auricle
+and ventricle is the auriculo-ventricular valve, which primarily
+consists of two cusps, comparable to the two endocardial cushions
+of the human embryo, though in some forms they may be subdivided.
+In the interior of the ventricle is a network of muscular
+trabeculae. The conus arteriosus in the Elasmobranchs (sharks
+and rays) and Ganoids (sturgeon) is large and provided with
+several rows of semilunar valves, but in the Cyclostomes (lamprey)
+and Teleosts (bony fishes) the conus is reduced and only the
+anterior (cephalic) row of valves retained. With the reduction of
+the conus the bulbus arteriosus is enlarged. So far the heart is
+a single tubular organ expanded into various cavities and having
+the characteristic &#8766;-shaped form seen in the human embryo;
+it contains only venous blood which is forced through the gills
+to be oxidized on its way to the tissues. In the Dipnoi (mud
+fish), in which rudimentary lungs, as well as gills, are developed,
+the auricle is divided into two, and the sinus venosus opens
+into the right auricle. The conus arteriosus too begins to be
+divided into two chambers, and in Protopterus this division
+is complete. This division of the heart is one instance in which
+mammalian ontogeny does not repeat the processes of phylogeny,
+because, in the human embryo, it has been shown that the
+ventricular septum appears before the auricular. This want
+of harmony is sometimes spoken of as the &ldquo;falsification of the
+embryological record.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the Amphibia there are also two auricles and one ventricle,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span>
+though in the Urodela (tailed amphibians) the auricular septum
+is often fenestrated. The sinus venosus is still a separate
+chamber, and the conus arteriosus, which may contain many
+or few valves, is usually divided into two by a spiral fold.
+Structurally the amphibian heart closely resembles the dipnoan,
+though the increased size of the left auricle is an advance. In
+the Anura (frogs and toads) the whole ventricle is filled with a
+spongy network which prevents the arterial and venous blood
+from the two auricles mixing to any great extent. (For the
+anatomy and physiology of the frog&rsquo;s heart, see <i>The Frog</i>,
+by Milnes Marshall.)</p>
+
+<p>In the Reptiles the ventricular septum begins to appear;
+this in the lizards is quite incomplete, but in the crocodiles,
+which are usually regarded as the highest order of living reptiles,
+the partition has nearly reached the top of the ventricle, and the
+condition resembles that of the human embryo before the pars
+membranacea septi is formed. The conus arteriosus becomes
+included in the ventricular cavity, but the sinus venosus still
+remains distinct, and its opening into the right ventricle is
+guarded by two valves which closely resemble the two venous
+valves in the auricle of the human embryo already referred to.</p>
+
+<p>In the Birds the auricular and ventricular septa are complete;
+the right ventricle is thin-walled and crescentic in section, as in
+Man, and the musculi papillares are developed. The left auriculo-ventricular
+valve has three membranous cusps with chordae
+tendineae attached to them, but the right auriculo-ventricular
+valve has a large fleshy cusp without chordae tendineae. The
+sinus venosus is largely included in the right auricle, but remains
+of the two venous valves are seen on each side of the orifice of the
+inferior vena cava.</p>
+
+<p>In the Mammals the structure of the heart corresponds closely
+with the description of that of Man already given. In the
+Ornithorynchus, among the Monotremes, the right auriculo-ventricular
+valve has two fleshy and two membranous cusps,
+thus showing a resemblance to that of the bird. In the Echidna,
+the other member of the order, however, both auriculo-ventricular
+valves are membranous. In the Edentates the remains of the
+venous valves at the opening of the inferior vena cava are better
+marked than in other orders. In the Ungulates the moderator
+band in the right ventricle is especially well developed, and the
+central fibrous body at the base of the heart is often ossified,
+forming the os cordis so well known in the heart of the ox.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the heart in the lower mammals is not so
+oblique as it is in Man.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further details, see C. Rose, <i>Beitr. z. vergl. Anal. des Herzens
+der Wirbelthiere Morph. Jahrb.</i>, Bd. xvi. (1890); R. Wiedersheim,
+<i>Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbelthiere</i> (Jena, 1902) (for literature);
+also Parker and Haswell&rsquo;s <i>Zoology</i> (London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. G. P.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Heart Disease.</span>&mdash;In the early ages of medicine, the absence
+of correct anatomical, physiological and pathological knowledge
+prevented diseases of the heart from being recognized with any
+certainty during life, and almost entirely precluded them from
+becoming the object of medical treatment. But no sooner did
+Harvey (1628) publish his discovery of the circulation of the
+blood, and its dependence on the heart as its central organ, than
+derangements of the circulation began to be recognized as signs
+of disease of that central organ. (See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vascular
+System</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest to profit by this discovery and to make
+important contributions to the literature of diseases of the heart
+and circulation were, R. Lower (1631-1691), R. Vieussens
+(1641-1716). H. Boerhave (1668-1738) and the great pathologists
+at the beginning of the 18th century, G. M. Lancisi
+(1654-1720), G. B. Morgagni (1682-1771) and J. B. Senac
+(1693-1770). The works of these writers form very interesting
+reading, and it is remarkable how careful were the observations
+made, and how sound the conclusions drawn, by these pioneers
+of scientific medicine. J. N. Corvisart (1755-1821) was one of the
+earliest to make practical use of R. T. Auenbrugger&rsquo;s (1722-1809)
+invention of percussion to determine the size of the heart.
+R. T. H. Laennec (1781-1826) was the first to make a scientific
+application of mediate auscultation to the diagnosis of disease of
+the chest, by the invention of the stethoscope. J. Bouillaud
+(1796-1881) extended its use to the diagnosis of disease of the
+heart. To James Hope (1801-1841) we owe much of the precision
+we have now attained in diagnosis of valvular disease from
+abnormalities in the sounds produced during cardiac movements.
+This short list by no means exhausts the earlier literature on the
+subject, but each of these names marks an era in the progress of
+the diagnosis of cardiac disease. In later years the literature on
+this subject has become very copious.</p>
+
+<p>The heart and great vessels occupy a position immediately to
+the left of the centre of the thoracic cavity. The anterior surface
+of the heart is projected against the chest wall and is surrounded
+on either side by the lungs, which are resonant organs, so that
+any increase in the size of the heart, &ldquo;dilatation,&rdquo; can be detected
+by percussion. By placing the hand on the chest, palpation,
+the impulse of the left ventricle, or apex beat, can normally
+be felt just below and internal to the nipple. Deviations from
+the normal in the position or force of the apex beat will afford
+important information as to the nature of the pathological
+changes in the heart. Thus, displacement downwards and outwards
+of the apex beat, with a forcible thrusting impulse,
+will indicate hypertrophy, or increase of the muscular wall
+and increased driving power of the left ventricle, whereas a
+similar displacement with a feeble diffuse impulse will indicate
+dilatation, or over-distension of its cavity from stretching of
+the walls.</p>
+
+<p>By auscultation, or listening with a suitable instrument named
+a stethoscope over appropriate areas, we can detect any abnormality
+in the sounds of the heart, and the presence of murmurs
+indicative of disease of one or other of the valves of the heart.</p>
+
+<p>The pericardium is a fibro-serous sac which loosely envelops the
+heart and the origin of the great vessels. Inflammation of this
+sac, or <i>pericarditis</i>, is apt to occur as a result of rheumatism,
+more especially in children. It may also occur as a complication of
+pneumonia. It is a serious affection associated with pain over
+the heart, fever, shortness of breath, rapid pulse and dilatation
+of the heart. As a result of the inflammation, fluid may accumulate
+in the pericardial sac, or the walls of the sac may become
+adherent to the heart and tend to embarrass its action. In
+favourable cases, however, recovery may take place without any
+untoward sequelae.</p>
+
+<p>Diseases of the heart may be classified in two main groups,
+(1) Disease of the valves, and (2) Disease of the walls of the
+heart.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Valvular Disease.</i>&mdash;Inflammation of the valves of the heart,
+or <i>endocarditis</i>, is one of the most common complications of
+rheumatism in children and young adults. More severe types,
+which are apt to prove fatal from a form of blood poisoning, may
+result when the valves of the heart are attacked by certain
+micro-organisms, such as the pneumococcus, which is responsible
+for pneumonia, the streptococcus and the staphylococcus
+pyogenes, the gonococcus and the influenza bacillus.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of endocarditis, one or more of the valves may be
+seriously damaged, so that it leaks or becomes incompetent.
+The valves of the left side of the heart, the aortic and mitral
+valves, are affected far more commonly than those of the right
+side. It is indeed comparatively rarely that the latter are
+attacked. In the process of healing of a damaged valve, scar
+tissue is formed which has a tendency to contract, so that in some
+cases the orifice of the valve becomes narrowed, and the resulting
+stenosis or narrowing gives rise to obstruction of the blood
+stream. We may thus have incompetence or stenosis of a valve
+or both combined.</p>
+
+<p>Valvular lesions are detected on auscultation over appropriate
+areas by the blowing sounds or murmurs to which they give rise,
+which modify or replace the normal heart sounds. Thus, lesions
+of the mitral valve give rise to murmurs which are heard at the
+apex beat of the heart, and lesions of the aortic valves to murmurs
+which are heard over the aortic area, in the second right intercostal
+space. Accurate timing of the murmurs in relation to the
+heart sounds enables us to judge whether the murmur is due to
+stenosis or incompetence of the valve affected.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span></p>
+
+<p>If the valvular lesion is severe, it is essential for the proper
+maintenance of the circulation that certain changes should take
+place in the heart to compensate for or neutralize the effects of
+the regurgitation or obstruction, as the case may be. In affections
+of the aortic valve, the extra work falls on the left ventricle,
+which enlarges proportionately and undergoes hypertrophy. In
+affections of the mitral valve the effect is felt primarily by the
+left auricle, which is a thin walled structure incapable of undergoing
+the requisite increase in power to resist the backward flow
+through the mitral orifice in case of leakage, or to overcome the
+effects of obstruction in case of stenosis. The back pressure is
+therefore transmitted to the pulmonary circulation, and as the
+right ventricle is responsible for maintaining the flow of blood
+through the lungs, the strain and extra work fall on the right
+ventricle, which in turn enlarges and undergoes hypertrophy.
+The degree of hypertrophy of the left or right ventricle is thus,
+up to a certain point, a measure of the extent of the lesion of the
+aortic or mitral valve respectively. When the effects of the
+valvular lesion are so neutralized by these structural changes in
+the heart that the circulation is equably maintained, &ldquo;compensation&rdquo;
+is said to be efficient.</p>
+
+<p>When the heart gives way under the strain, compensation
+is said to break down, and dropsy, shortness of breath, cough
+and cyanosis, are among the distressing symptoms which may
+set in. The mere existence of a valvular lesion does not call
+for any special treatment so long as compensation is efficient,
+and a large number of people with slight valvular lesions are
+living lives indistinguishable from those of their neighbours.
+It will, however, be readily understood that in the case of the
+more serious lesions certain precautions should be observed
+in regard to over-exertion, excitement, over-indulgence in
+tobacco or alcohol, &amp;c., as the balance is more readily upset
+and any undue strain on the heart may cause a breakdown of
+compensation. When this occurs treatment is required. A
+period of rest in bed is often sufficient to enable the heart to
+recover, and this may be supplemented as required by the
+administration of mercurial and saline purgatives to relieve
+the embarrassed circulation, and of suitable cardiac tonics,
+such as digitalis and strychnin, to reinforce and strengthen
+the heart&rsquo;s action.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Affections of the Muscular Wall of the Heart.</i>&mdash;Dilatation of
+the heart, or stretching of the walls of the heart, is an incident,
+as has already been stated, in pericarditis and in the earlier
+stages of valvular disease antecedent to hypertrophy. Temporary
+over-distension or dilatation of the cavities of the heart occurs
+in violent and protracted exertion, but rapidly subsides and is
+in no wise harmful to the sound and vigorous heart of the young.
+It is otherwise if the heart is weak and flabby from a too sedentary
+life or degenerative changes in its walls or during convalescence
+from a severe illness, when the same circumstances which will
+not injure a healthy heart, may give rise to serious dilatation
+from which recovery may be very protracted.</p>
+
+<p>Influenza is a common cause of cardiac dilatation, and is
+liable to be a source of trouble after the acute illness has subsided,
+if the patient goes about and resumes his ordinary avocations
+too soon.</p>
+
+<p>Fatty or fibroid degeneration of the heart wall may occur in
+later life from impaired nutrition of the muscle, due to partial
+obstruction of the blood-vessels supplying it, when they are
+the seat of the degenerative changes known as arteriosclerosis
+or atheroma. The affection known as <i>angina pectoris</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) may
+be a further consequence of this defective blood-supply.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment will vary according to the nature of the case.
+In serious cases of dilatation, rest in bed, purgatives and cardiac
+tonics may be required.</p>
+
+<p>In commencing degenerative change the Oertel treatment,
+consisting of graduated exercise up a gentle slope, limitation
+of fluids and a special diet, may be indicated.</p>
+
+<p>In cases of slight dilatation after influenza or recent illness,
+the Schott treatment by baths and exercises as carried out at
+Nauheim may be sometimes beneficial. The change of air and
+scene, the enforced rest, the placid life, together with freedom
+from excitement and worry, are among the most important
+factors which contribute to success in this class of case.</p>
+
+<p><i>Disorders of Rhythm of the Heart&rsquo;s Action.</i>&mdash;Under this heading
+may be grouped a number of conditions to which the name
+&ldquo;functional affections of the heart&rdquo; has sometimes been applied,
+inasmuch as the disturbances in question cannot usually be
+attributed to definite organic disease of the heart. We must,
+of course, exclude from this category the irregularity in the
+force and frequency of the pulse, which is commonly associated
+with incompetence of the mitral valve.</p>
+
+<p>The heart is a muscular organ possessing certain properties,
+rhythmicity, excitability, contractility, conductivity and tonicity,
+as pointed out by Gaskell, in virtue of which it is able
+to maintain a regular automatic beat independently of nerve
+stimulation. It is, however, intimately connected with the brain,
+blood-vessels and the abdominal and thoracic viscera, by
+innumerable nerves, through which impulses or messages are
+being constantly sent to and received from these various portions
+of the body. Such messages may give rise to disturbances of
+rhythm with which we are all familiar. For instance, sudden
+fright or emotion may cause a momentary arrest of the heart&rsquo;s
+action, and excitement or apprehension may set up a rapid
+action of the heart or <i>palpitation</i>. Palpitation, again, is often
+the result of digestive disorders, the message in this case being
+received from the stomach, instead of the brain as in emotional
+disturbances. It may also result from over-indulgence in tobacco
+and alcohol.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tachycardia</i> is the name applied to a more or less permanent
+increase in the rate of the heart-beat. It is usually a prominent
+feature in the affection known as Graves&rsquo; disease or exophthalmic
+goitre. It may also result from chronic alcoholism. In the
+condition known as paroxysmal tachycardia there appears to
+be no adequate explanation for its onset.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bradycardia</i> or abnormal slowness of the heart-beat, is the
+converse of tachycardia. An abnormally slow pulse is met
+with in melancholia, cerebral tumour, jaundice and certain
+toxic conditions, or may follow an attack of influenza. There
+is, however, a peculiar affection characterized by abnormal
+slowness of pulse (often ranging as low as 30), and the onset,
+from time to time, of epileptiform or syncopal attacks. To
+this the name &ldquo;Stokes-Adams disease&rdquo; has been applied, as it
+was first called attention to by Adams in 1827, and subsequently
+fully described by Stokes in 1836. It is usually associated
+with senile degenerative change of the heart and vascular system,
+and is held to be due to impairment of conductivity in the
+muscular fibres (bundle of His) which transmit the wave of
+contraction from the auricle to the ventricle. It is of serious
+significance in view of the symptoms associated with it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Intermittency of the Pulse.</i>&mdash;By this is understood a pulse in
+which a beat is dropped from time to time. The dropping of
+a beat may occur at regular intervals every two, four or six
+beats, &amp;c., or occasionally at irregular intervals after a series
+of normal beats. On examining the heart, it is found, as a rule,
+that the cause of the intermission at the wrist is not actual
+omission of a heart-beat, but the occurrence of a hurried imperfect
+cardiac contraction which does not transmit a pulse-wave to
+the wrist. It is not characteristic of any special form of heart
+affection, and is rarely of serious import. It may be due to
+reflex digestive disturbances, or be associated with conditions
+of nervous breakdown and irritability, or with an atonic
+and relaxed condition of the heart muscle. The treatment of
+these disorders of rhythm of the heart will vary greatly
+according to the cause and is often a matter of considerable
+difficulty.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. F. H. B.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Surgery of Heart and Pericardium.</i>&mdash;As the result of acute or
+chronic inflammation of the lining membrane of the fibrous
+sac which surrounds the heart and the neighbouring parts of
+the large blood-vessels, a dropsical or a purulent collection may
+form in it, or the sac may be quietly distended by a thin
+watery fluid. In either case, but especially in the latter, the
+heart may be so embarrassed in its work that death seems
+imminent. The condition is generally due to the cultivation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span>
+in the pericardium of the germs of rheumatism, influenza
+or gonorrhoea, or of those of ordinary suppuration. Respiration
+as well as circulation is embarrassed, and there is a marked
+fulness and dulness of the front wall of the chest to the left of
+the breast-bone. In that region also pain and tenderness are
+complained of. By using the slender, hollow needle of an
+aspirator great relief may be afforded, but the tapping may have
+to be repeated from time to time. If the fluid drawn off is found
+to be purulent, it may be necessary to make a trap-door opening
+into the chest by cutting across the 4th and 5th ribs, incising
+and evacuating the pericardium and providing for drainage.
+In short, an abscess in the pericardium must be treated like an
+abscess in the pleura.</p>
+
+<p>Wounds of the heart are apt to be quickly fatal. If the
+probability is that the enfeebled action of the heart is due to
+pressure from blood which is leaking into, and is locked up
+in the pericardium, the proper treatment will be to open
+the pericardium, as described above, and, if possible, to
+close the opening in the auricle, ventricle or large vessel, by
+sutures.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In O. Eng. <i>heorte</i>; this is a common Teut. word, cf. Dut. <i>hart</i>,
+Ger. <i>Herz</i>, Goth. <i>hairto</i>; related by root are Lat. <i>cor</i> and Gr. <span class="grk" title="kardia">&#954;&#945;&#961;&#948;&#943;&#945;</span>;
+the ultimate root is <i>kard</i>-, to quiver, shake.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This is often called bulbus arteriosus, but it will be seen that
+the term is used rather differently in comparative anatomy.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEART-BURIAL,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> the burial of the heart apart from the body.
+This is a very ancient practice, the special reverence shown
+towards the heart being doubtless due to its early association
+with the soul of man, his affections, courage and conscience.
+In medieval Europe heart-burial was fairly common. Some
+of the more notable cases are those of Richard I., whose heart,
+preserved in a casket, was placed in Rouen cathedral; Henry III.,
+buried in Normandy; Eleanor, queen of Edward I., at Lincoln;
+Edward I., at Jerusalem; Louis IX., Philip III., Louis XIII.
+and Louis XIV., in Paris. Since the 17th century the hearts
+of deceased members of the house of Habsburg have been buried
+apart from the body in the Loretto chapel in the Augustiner
+Kirche, Vienna. The most romantic story of heart-burial is
+that of Robert Bruce. He wished his heart to rest at Jerusalem in
+the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and on his deathbed entrusted
+the fulfilment of his wish to Douglas. The latter broke his
+journey to join the Spaniards in their war with the Moorish king
+of Granada, and was killed in battle, the heart of Bruce enclosed
+in a silver casket hanging round his neck. Subsequently the
+heart was buried at Melrose Abbey. The heart of James,
+marquess of Montrose, executed by the Scottish Covenanters in
+1650, was recovered from his body, which had been buried by
+the roadside outside Edinburgh, and, enclosed in a steel box,
+was sent to the duke of Montrose, then in exile. It was lost on
+its journey, and years afterwards was discovered in a curiosity
+shop in Flanders. Taken by a member of the Montrose family
+to India, it was stolen as an amulet by a native chief, was once
+more regained, and finally lost in France during the Revolution.
+Of notable 17th-century cases there is that of James II., whose
+heart was buried in the church of the convent of the Visitation
+at Chaillot near Paris, and that of Sir William Temple, at Moor
+Park, Farnham. The last ceremonial burial of a heart in England
+was that of Paul Whitehead, secretary to the Monks of Medmenham
+club, in 1775, the interment taking place in the Le
+Despenser mausoleum at High Wycombe, Bucks. Of later cases
+the most notable are those of Daniel O&rsquo;Connell, whose heart is
+at Rome, Shelley at Bournemouth, Louis XVII. at Venice,
+Kosciusko at the Polish museum at Rapperschwyll, Lake Zürich,
+and the marquess of Bute, taken by his widow to Jerusalem for
+burial in 1900. Sometimes other parts of the body, removed in
+the process of embalming, are given separate and solemn burial.
+Thus the viscera of the popes from Sixtus V. (1590) onward have
+been preserved in the parish church of the Quirinal. The custom
+of heart-burial was forbidden by Pope Boniface VIII. (1294-1303),
+but Benedict XI. withdrew the prohibition.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Pettigrew, <i>Chronicles of the Tombs</i> (1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEARTH<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (a word which appears in various forms in several
+Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch <i>haard</i>, German <i>Herd</i>, in the sense
+of &ldquo;floor&rdquo;), the part of a room where a fire is made, usually
+constructed of stone, bricks, tiles or earth, beaten hard and
+having a chimney above; the fire being lighted either on the
+hearth itself, or in a receptacle placed there for the purpose.
+Like the Latin <i>focus</i>, especially in the phrase for &ldquo;hearth and
+home&rdquo; answering to <i>pro aris et focis</i>, the word is used as equivalent
+to the home or household. The word is also applied to the
+fire and cooking apparatus on board ship; the floor of a smith&rsquo;s
+forge; the floor of a reverberatory furnace on which the ore is
+exposed to the flame; the lower part of a blast furnace through
+which the metal goes down into the crucible; in soldering, a
+portable brazier or chafing dish, and an iron box sunk in the
+middle of a flat iron plate or table. An &ldquo;open-hearth furnace&rdquo;
+is a regenerative furnace of the reverberatory type used in making
+steel, hence &ldquo;open-hearth steel&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron and Steel</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Hearth-money, hearth tax or chimney-money, was a tax imposed
+in England on all houses except cottages at a rate of
+two shillings for every hearth. It was first levied in 1662, but
+owing to its unpopularity, chiefly caused by the domiciliary visits
+of the collectors, it was repealed in 1689, although it was producing
+£170,000 a year. The principle of the tax was not new
+in the history of taxation, for in Anglo-Saxon times the king
+derived a part of his revenue from a <i>fumage</i> or tax of smoke
+farthings levied on all hearths except those of the poor. It
+appears also in the hearth-penny or tax of a penny on every
+hearth, which as early as the 10th century was paid annually
+to the pope (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peter&rsquo;s Pence</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEARTS,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a game of cards of recent origin, though founded
+upon the same principle as many old games, such as <i>Slobberhannes</i>,
+<i>Four Jacks</i> and <i>Enflé</i>, namely, that of losing instead of
+winning as many tricks as possible. Hearts is played with a full
+pack, ace counting highest and deuce lowest. In the four-handed
+game, which is usually played, the entire pack is dealt out as at
+whist (but without turning up the last card, since there are no
+trumps), and the player at the dealer&rsquo;s left begins by leading any
+card he chooses, the trick being taken by the highest card of the
+suit led. Each player must follow suit if he can; if he has no
+cards of the suit led he is privileged to throw away any card he
+likes, thus having an opportunity of getting rid of his hearts, which
+is the object of the game. When all thirteen tricks have been
+played each player counts the hearts he has taken in and pays
+into the pool a certain number of counters for them, according
+to an arrangement made before beginning play. In the four-handed,
+or sweepstake, game the method of settling called
+&ldquo;Howell&rsquo;s,&rdquo; from the name of the inventor, has been generally
+adopted, according to which each player begins with an equal
+number of chips, say 100, and, after the hand has been played,
+pays into the pool as many chips for each heart he had taken as
+there are players besides himself. Then each player takes out
+of the pool one chip for every heart he did not win. The pool
+is thus exhausted with every deal. Hearts may be played by
+two, three, four or even more players, each playing for himself.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Spot Hearts.</i>&mdash;In this variation the hearts count according to the
+number of spots on the cards, excepting that the ace counts 14,
+the king 13, queen 12 and knave 11, the combined score of the
+thirteen hearts being thus 104.</p>
+
+<p><i>Auction Hearts.</i>&mdash;In this the eldest hand examines his hand
+and bids a certain number of counters for the privilege of naming
+the suit to be got rid of, but without naming the suit. The other
+players in succession have the privilege of outbidding him, and
+whoever bids most declares the suit and pays the amount of his bid
+into the pool, the winner taking it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Joker Hearts.</i>&mdash;Here the deuce of hearts is discarded, and an extra
+card, called the joker, takes its place, ranking in value between ten
+and knave. It cannot be thrown away, excepting when hearts
+are led and an ace or court card is played, though if an opponent
+discards the ace or a court card of hearts, then the holder of the joker
+may discard it. The joker is usually considered worth five chips,
+which are either paid into the pool or to the player who succeeds
+in discarding the joker.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heartsette.</i>&mdash;In this variation the deuce of spades is deleted and
+the three cards left after dealing twelve cards to each player are
+called the <i>widow</i> (or <i>kitty</i>), and are left face downward on the table.
+The winner of the first trick must take the widow without showing it
+to his opponents.</p>
+
+<p><i>Slobberhannes.</i>&mdash;The object of this older form of Hearts is to avoid
+taking either the first or last trick or a trick containing the queen of
+clubs. A euchre pack (thirty two-cards, lacking all below the 7) is
+used, and each player is given 10 counters, one being forfeited to the
+pool if a player takes the first or last trick, or that containing the
+club queen. If he takes all three he forfeits four points.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Four Jacks</i> (<i>Polignac or Quatre-Valets</i>) is usually played with a
+piquet pack, the cards ranking in France as at écarté, but in Great
+Britain and America as at piquet. There is no trump suit. Counters
+are used, and the object of the game is to avoid taking any trick
+containing a knave, especially the knave of spades, called <i>Polignac</i>.
+The player taking such a trick forfeits one counter to the pool.</p>
+
+<p><i>Enflé</i> (or <i>Schwellen</i>) is usually played by four persons with a piquet
+pack and for a pool. The cards rank as at Hearts, and there is no
+trump suit. A player must follow suit if he can, but if he cannot
+he may not discard, but must take up all tricks already won and add
+them to his hand. Play is continued until one player gets rid of all
+his cards and thus wins.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEAT<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (O. E. <i>haétu</i>, which like &ldquo;hot,&rdquo; Old Eng. <i>hát</i>, is from the
+Teutonic type <i>haita, hit</i>, to be hot; cf. Ger. <i>hitze, heiss</i>; Dutch,
+<i>hitte, heet</i>, &amp;c.), a general term applied to that branch of physical
+science which deals with the effects produced by heat on material
+bodies, with the laws of transference of heat, and with the
+transformations of heat into other kinds of energy. The object
+of the present article is to give a brief sketch of the historical
+development of the science of heat, and to indicate the relation
+of the different branches of the subject, which are discussed in
+greater detail with reference to the latest progress in separate
+articles.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Meanings of the Term Heat.</i>&mdash;The term heat is employed in
+ordinary language in a number of different senses. This makes it
+a convenient term to employ for the general title of the science,
+but the different meanings must be carefully distinguished in
+scientific reasoning. For the present purpose, omitting metaphorical
+significations, we may distinguish four principal uses
+of the term: (<i>a</i>) Sensation of heat; (<i>b</i>) Temperature, or
+degree of hotness; (<i>c</i>) Quantity of thermal energy; (<i>d</i>) Radiant
+heat, or energy of radiation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) From the sense of heat, aided in the case of very hot bodies
+by the sense of sight, we obtain our first rough notions of heat as
+a physical entity, which alters the state of a body and its condition
+in respect of warmth, and is capable of passing from one body to
+another. By touching a body we can tell whether it is warmer or
+colder than the hand, and, by touching two similar bodies in succession,
+we can form a rough estimate, by the acuteness of the
+sensation experienced, of their difference in hotness or coldness
+over a limited range. If a hot iron is placed on a cold iron plate,
+we may observe that the plate is heated and the iron cooled until
+both attain appreciably the same degree of warmth; and we infer
+from similar cases that something which we call &ldquo;heat&rdquo; tends to
+pass from hot to cold bodies, and to attain finally a state of equable
+diffusion when all the bodies concerned are equally warm or cold.
+Ideas such as these derived entirely from the sense of heat, are,
+so to speak, embedded in the language of every nation from the
+earliest times.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) From the sense of heat, again, we naturally derive the idea
+of a continuous scale or order, expressed by such terms as summer
+heat, blood heat, fever heat, red heat, white heat, in which all bodies
+may be placed with regard to their degrees of hotness, and we speak
+of the <i>temperature</i> of a body as denoting its place in the scale, in
+contradistinction to the quantity of heat it may contain.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The quantity of heat contained in a body obviously depends
+on the size of the body considered. Thus a large kettleful of boiling
+water will evidently contain more heat than a teacupful, though both
+may be at the same temperature. The temperature does not depend
+on the size of the body, but on the degree of concentration of the
+heat in it, <i>i.e.</i> on the quantity of heat per unit mass, other things
+being equal. We may regard it as axiomatic that a given body (say
+a pound of water) in a given state (say boiling under a given
+pressure) must always contain the same quantity of heat, and
+conversely that, if it contains a given quantity of heat, and if it
+is under conditions in other respects, it must be at a definite temperature,
+which will always be the same for the same given conditions.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) It is a matter of common observation that rays of the sun
+or of a fire falling on a body warm it, and it was in the first instance
+natural to suppose that heat itself somehow travelled across the
+intervening space from the sun or fire to the body warmed, in
+much the same way as heat may be carried by a current of hot air
+or water. But we now know that energy of radiation is not the
+same thing as heat, though it is converted into heat when the rays
+strike an absorbing substance. The term &ldquo;radiant heat,&rdquo; however,
+is generally retained, because radiation is commonly measured
+in terms of the heat it produces, and because the transference of
+energy by radiation and absorption is the most important agency in
+the diffusion of heat.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:165px; height:328px" src="images/img135.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span> &emsp;&emsp; <span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>2. <i>Evolution of the Thermometer.</i>&mdash;The first step in the development
+of the science of heat was necessarily the invention of a
+thermometer, an instrument for indicating temperature and
+measuring its changes. The first requisite in the case of such an
+instrument is that it should always give, at least approximately
+the same indication at the same temperature. The air-thermoscope
+of Galileo, illustrated in fig. 1, which consisted of a
+glass bulb containing air, connected to a glass tube of
+small bore dipping into a coloured liquid, though very sensitive
+to variations of temperature, was not satisfactory as
+a measuring instrument, because it was also affected by variations
+of atmospheric pressure. The invention of the type of
+thermometer familiar at the present day, containing a liquid
+hermetically sealed in a glass bulb with a fine tube attached,
+is also generally attributed to Galileo at
+a slightly later date, about 1612. Alcohol
+was the liquid first employed, and
+the degrees, intended to represent
+thousandths of the volume of the bulb,
+were marked with small beads of enamel
+fused on the stem, as shown in fig. 2.
+In order to render the readings of such
+instruments comparable with each other,
+it was necessary to select a fixed point
+or standard temperature as the zero or
+starting-point of the graduations. Instead
+of making each degree a given
+fraction of the volume of the bulb, which
+would be difficult in practice, and would
+give different values for the degree with
+different liquids, it was soon found to
+be preferable to take <i>two fixed points</i>,
+and to divide the interval between
+them into the same number of degrees. It was natural in the
+first instance to take the temperature of the human body as one
+of the fixed points. In 1701 Sir Isaac Newton proposed a scale
+in which the freezing-point of water was taken as zero, and the
+temperature of the human body as 12°. About the same date
+(1714) Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit proposed to take as zero the
+lowest temperature obtainable with a freezing mixture of ice
+and salt, and to divide the interval between this temperature and
+that of the human body into 12°. To obtain finer graduations
+the number was subsequently increased to 96°. The freezing-point
+of water was at that time supposed to be somewhat variable,
+because as a matter of fact it is possible to cool water several
+degrees below its freezing-point in the absence of ice. Fahrenheit
+showed, however, that as soon as ice began to form the temperature
+always rose to the same point, and that a mixture of ice
+or snow with pure water always gave the same temperature.
+At a later period he also showed that the temperature of boiling
+water varied with the barometric pressure, but that it was always
+the same at the same pressure, and might therefore be used
+as the second fixed point (as Edmund Halley and others had
+suggested) provided that a definite pressure, such as the average
+atmospheric pressure, were specified. The freezing and boiling-points
+on one of his thermometers, graduated as already explained,
+with the temperature of the body as 96°, came out in
+the neighbourhood of 32° and 212° respectively, giving an interval
+of 180° between these points. Shortly after Fahrenheit&rsquo;s death
+(1736) the freezing and boiling-points of water were generally
+recognized as the most convenient fixed points to adopt, but
+different systems of subdivision were employed. Fahrenheit&rsquo;s
+scale, with its small degrees and its zero below the freezing-point,
+possesses undoubted advantages for meteorological work, and
+is still retained in most English-speaking countries. But for
+general scientific purposes, the centigrade system, in which the
+freezing-point is marked 0° and the boiling-point 100°, is now
+almost universally employed, on account of its greater simplicity
+from an arithmetical point of view. For work of precision the
+fixed points have been more exactly defined (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>),
+but no change has been made in the fundamental principle of
+graduation.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Comparison of Scales based on Expansion.</i>&mdash;Thermometers
+constructed in the manner already described will give strictly
+comparable readings, provided that the tubes be of uniform
+bore, and that the same liquid and glass be employed in their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span>
+construction. But they possess one obvious defect from a theoretical
+point of view, namely, that the subdivision of the temperature
+scale depends on the expansion of the particular liquid
+selected as the standard. A liquid such as water, which, when continuously
+heated at a uniform rate from its freezing-point, first
+contracts and then expands, at a rapidly increasing rate, would
+obviously be unsuitable. But there is no a priori reason why other
+liquids should not behave to some extent in a similar way. As
+a matter of fact, it was soon observed that thermometers carefully
+constructed with different liquids, such as alcohol, oil and
+mercury, did not agree precisely in their indications at points of
+the scale intermediate between the fixed points, and diverged
+even more widely outside these limits. Another possible method,
+proposed in 1694 by Carlo Renaldeni (1615-1698), professor
+of mathematics and philosophy at Pisa, would be to determine
+the intermediate points of the scale by observing the temperatures
+of mixtures of ice-cold and boiling water in varying proportions.
+On this method, the temperature of 50° C. would be defined
+as that obtained by mixing equal weights of water at 0° C. and
+100° C.; 20° C., that obtained by mixing 80 parts of water at
+0° C. with 20 parts of water at 100° C. and so on. Each degree
+rise of temperature in a mass of water would then represent
+the addition of the same quantity of heat. The scale thus
+obtained would, as a matter of fact, agree very closely with that
+of a mercury thermometer, but the method would be very
+difficult to put in practice, and would still have the disadvantage
+of depending on the properties of a particular liquid, namely,
+water, which is known to behave in an anomalous manner in
+other respects. At a later date, the researches of Gay-Lussac
+(1802) and Regnault (1847) showed that the laws of the expansion
+of gases are much simpler than those of liquids. Whereas the
+expansion of alcohol between 0° C. and 100° C. is nearly seven
+times as great as that of mercury, all gases (excluding easily
+condensible vapours) expand equally, or so nearly equally that
+the differences between them cannot be detected without the
+most refined observations. This equality of expansion affords
+a strong a priori argument for selecting the scale given by the
+expansion of a gas as the standard scale of temperature, but there
+are still stronger theoretical grounds for this choice, which will
+be indicated in discussing the absolute scale (§ 21). Among
+liquids mercury is found to agree most nearly with the gas scale,
+and is generally employed in thermometers for scientific purposes
+on account of its high boiling-point and for other reasons.
+The differences of the mercurial scale from the gas scale having
+been carefully determined, the mercury thermometer can be
+used as a secondary standard to replace the gas thermometer
+within certain limits, as the gas thermometer would be very
+troublesome to employ directly in ordinary investigations.
+For certain purposes, and especially at temperatures beyond
+the range of mercury thermometers, electrical thermometers,
+also standardized by reference to the gas thermometer, have
+been very generally employed in recent years, while for still
+higher temperatures beyond the range of the gas thermometer,
+thermometers based on the recently established laws of radiation
+are the only instruments available. For a further discussion of
+the theory and practice of the measurement of temperature,
+the reader is referred to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Change of State.</i>&mdash;Among the most important effects of
+heat is that of changing the state of a substance from solid to
+liquid, or from liquid to vapour. With very few exceptions, all
+substances, whether simple or compound, are known to be capable
+of existing in each of the three states under suitable conditions
+of temperature and pressure. The transition of any substance,
+from the state of liquid to that of solid or vapour under the
+ordinary atmospheric pressure, takes place at fixed temperatures,
+the freezing and boiling-points, which are very sharply defined
+for pure crystalline substances, and serve in fact as fixed points
+of the thermometric scale. A change of state cannot, however,
+be effected in any case without the addition or subtraction of a
+certain definite quantity of heat. If a piece of ice below the
+freezing-point is gradually heated at a uniform rate, its temperature
+may be observed to rise regularly till the freezing-point
+is reached. At this point it begins to melt, and its temperature
+ceases to rise. The melting takes a considerable time, during the
+whole of which heat is being continuously supplied without
+producing any rise of temperature, although if the same quantity
+of heat were supplied to an equal mass of water, the temperature
+of the water would be raised nearly 80° C. Heat thus absorbed
+in producing a change of state without rise of temperature is
+called &ldquo;Latent Heat,&rdquo; a term introduced by Joseph Black, who
+was one of the first to study the subject of change of state from
+the point of view of heat absorbed, and who in many cases
+actually adopted the comparatively rough method described
+above of estimating quantities of heat by observing the time
+required to produce a given change when the substance was
+receiving heat at a steady rate from its surroundings. For
+every change of state a definite quantity of heat is required,
+without which the change cannot take place. Heat must be
+added to melt a solid, or to vaporize a solid or a liquid, and
+conversely, heat must be subtracted to reverse the change, <i>i.e.</i>
+to condense a vapour or freeze a liquid. The quantity required
+for any given change depends on the nature of the substance
+and the change considered, and varies to some extent with the
+conditions (as to pressure, &amp;c.) under which the change is made,
+but is always the same for the same change under the same
+conditions. A rough measurement of the latent heat of steam
+was made as early as 1764 by James Watt, who found that steam
+at 212° F., when passed from a kettle into a jar of cold water,
+was capable of raising nearly six times its weight of water to
+the boiling point. He gives the volume of the steam as about
+1800 times that of an equal weight of water.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The phenomena which accompany change of state, and the
+physical laws by which such changes are governed, are discussed
+in a series of special articles dealing with particular cases. The
+articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fusion</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span> deal with the change from the
+solid to the liquid state, and the analogous case of solution is discussed
+in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solution</a></span>. The articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Condensation
+of Gases</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquid Gases</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vaporization</a></span> deal with the theory
+of the change of state from liquid to vapour, and with the important
+applications of liquid gases to other researches. The methods of
+measuring the latent heat of fusion or vaporization are described in
+the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>, and need not be further discussed here
+except as an introduction to the history of the evolution of knowledge
+with regard to the nature of heat.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>5. <i>Calorimetry by Latent Heat.</i>&mdash;In principle, the simplest
+and most direct method of measuring quantities of heat consists
+in observing the effects produced in melting a solid or vaporizing
+a liquid. It was, in fact, by the fusion of ice that quantities
+of heat were first measured. If a hot body is placed in a cavity
+in a block of ice at 0° C., and is covered by a closely fitting slab
+of ice, the quantity of ice melted will be directly proportional to
+the quantity of heat lost by the body in cooling to 0° C. None
+of the heat can possibly escape through the ice, and conversely
+no heat can possibly get in from outside. The body must cool
+exactly to 0° C., and every fraction of the heat it loses must melt
+an equivalent quantity of ice. Apart from heat lost in transferring
+the heated body to the ice block, the method is theoretically
+perfect. The only difficulty consists in the practical
+measurement of the quantity of ice melted. Black estimated this
+quantity by mopping out the cavity with a sponge before and
+after the operation. But there is a variable film of water adhering
+to the walls of the cavity, which gives trouble in accurate work.
+In 1780 Laplace and Lavoisier used a double-walled metallic
+vessel containing broken ice, which was in many respects more
+convenient than the block, but aggravated the difficulty of the film
+of water adhering to the ice. In spite of this practical
+difficulty, the quantity of heat required to melt unit weight of
+ice was for a long time taken as the unit of heat. This unit
+possesses the great advantage that it is independent of the scale
+of temperature adopted. At a much later date R. Bunsen
+(<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1871), adopting a suggestion of Sir John Herschel&rsquo;s,
+devised an ice-calorimeter suitable for measuring small quantities
+of heat, in which the difficulty of the water film was overcome
+by measuring the change in volume due to the melting of
+the ice. The volume of unit mass of ice is approximately 1.0920
+times that of unit mass of water, so that the diminution of volume
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span>
+is 0.092 a cubic centimetre for each gramme of ice melted.
+The method requires careful attention to details of manipulation,
+which are more fully discussed in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>For measuring large quantities of heat, such as those produced
+by the combustion of fuel in a boiler, the most convenient method
+is the evaporation of water, which is commonly employed by
+engineers for the purpose. The natural unit in this case is the
+quantity of heat required to evaporate unit mass of water at the
+boiling point under atmospheric pressure. In boilers working at
+a higher pressure, or supplied with water at a lower temperature,
+appropriate corrections are applied to deduce the quantity
+evaporated in terms of this unit.</p>
+
+<p>For laboratory work on a small scale the converse method of
+condensation has been successfully applied by John Joly, in
+whose steam-calorimeter the quantity of heat required to raise
+the temperature of a body from the atmospheric temperature
+to that of steam condensing at atmospheric pressure is observed
+by weighing the mass of steam condensed on it. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Thermometric Calorimetry.</i>&mdash;For the majority of purposes
+the most convenient and the most readily applicable method
+of measuring quantities of heat, is to observe the rise of temperature
+produced in a known mass of water contained in a
+suitable vessel or calorimeter. This method was employed from
+a very early date by Count Rumford and other investigators,
+and was brought to a high pitch of perfection by Regnault in his
+extensive calorimetric researches (<i>Mémoires de l&rsquo;Institut de Paris</i>,
+1847); but it is only within comparatively recent years that it
+has really been placed on a satisfactory basis by the accurate
+definition of the units involved. The theoretical objections to
+the method, as compared with latent heat calorimetry, are that
+some heat is necessarily lost by the calorimeter when its temperature
+is raised above that of the surroundings, and that some
+heat is used in heating the vessel containing the water. These are
+small corrections, which can be estimated with considerable
+accuracy in practice. A more serious difficulty, which has
+impaired the value of much careful work by this method, is that
+the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a given
+mass of water 1° C. depends on the temperature at which the
+water is taken, and also on the scale of the thermometer employed.
+It is for this reason, in many cases, impossible to say, at the
+present time, what was the precise value, within ½ or even 1%
+of the heat unit, in terms of which many of the older results,
+such as those of Regnault, were expressed. For many purposes
+this would not be a serious matter, but for work of scientific
+precision such a limitation of accuracy would constitute a very
+serious bar to progress. The unit generally adopted for scientific
+purposes is the quantity of heat required to raise 1 gram (or
+kilogram) of water 1° C., and is called the calorie (or kilo-calorie).
+English engineers usually state results in terms of the British
+Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.), which is the quantity of heat required
+to raise 1 &#8468; of water 1° F.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Watt&rsquo;s Indicator Diagram; Work of Expansion.</i>&mdash;The
+rapid development of the steam-engine (<i>q.v.</i>) in England during
+the latter part of the 18th century had a marked effect on the
+progress of the science of heat. In the first steam-engines the
+working cylinder served both as boiler and condenser, a very
+wasteful method, as most of the heat was transferred directly
+from the fire to the condensing water without useful effect.
+The first improvement (about 1700) was to use a separate boiler,
+but the greater part of the steam supplied was still wasted in
+reheating the cylinder, which had been cooled by the injection
+of cold water to condense the steam after the previous stroke.
+In 1769 James Watt showed how to avoid this waste by using
+a separate condenser and keeping the cylinder as hot as possible.
+In his earlier engines the steam at full boiler pressure was
+allowed to raise the piston through nearly the whole of its stroke.
+Connexion with the boiler was then cut off, and the steam at
+full pressure was discharged into the condenser. Here again
+there was unnecessary waste, as the steam was still capable of
+doing useful work. He subsequently introduced &ldquo;expansive
+working,&rdquo; which effected still further economy. The connexion
+with the boiler was cut off when a fraction only, say ¼, of the
+stroke had been completed, the remainder of the stroke being
+effected by the expansion of the steam already in the cylinder
+with continually diminishing pressure. By the end of the stroke,
+when connexion was made to the condenser, the pressure was
+so reduced that there was comparatively little waste from this
+cause. Watt also devised an instrument called an <i>indicator</i>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Steam Engine</a></span>), in which a pencil, moved up and down
+vertically by the steam pressure, recorded the pressure in the
+cylinder at every point of the stroke on a sheet of paper moving
+horizontally in time with the stroke of the piston. The diagram
+thus obtained made it possible to study what was happening
+inside the cylinder, and to deduce the work done by the steam
+in each stroke. The method of the indicator diagram has since
+proved of great utility in physics in studying the properties of
+gases and vapours. The work done, or the useful effect obtained
+from an engine or any kind of machine, is measured by the
+product of the resistance overcome and the distance through
+which it is overcome. The result is generally expressed in terms
+of the equivalent weight raised through a certain height against
+the force of gravity.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> If, for instance, the pressure on a piston
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span>
+is 50 &#8468; per sq. in., and the area of the piston is 100 sq. in., the
+force on the piston is 5000 &#8468; weight. If the stroke of the piston
+is 1 ft., the work done per stroke is capable of raising a
+weight of 5000 &#8468; through a height of 1 ft., or 50 &#8468; through a
+height of 100 ft. and so on.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:490px; height:224px" src="images/img138.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Watt&rsquo;s Indicator Diagram. Patent of 1782.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fig. 3 represents an imaginary indicator diagram for a steam-engine,
+taken from one of Watt&rsquo;s patents. Steam is admitted to
+the cylinder when the piston is at the beginning of its stroke, at S.
+ST represents the length of the stroke or the limit of horizontal
+movement of the paper on which the diagram is drawn. The indicating
+pencil rises to the point A, representing the absolute pressure of
+60 &#8468; per sq. in. As the piston moves outwards the pencil traces
+the horizontal line AB, the pressure remaining constant till the point
+B is reached, at which connexion to the boiler is cut off. The work
+done so far is represented by the area of the rectangle ABSF, namely
+AS × SF, multiplied by the area of the piston in sq. in. The
+result is in foot-pounds if the fraction of the stroke SF is taken in
+feet. After cut-off at B the steam expands under diminishing
+pressure, and the pencil falls gradually from B to C, following the
+steam pressure until the exhaust valve opens at the end of the stroke.
+The pressure then falls rapidly to that of the condenser, which for
+an ideal case may be taken as zero, following Watt. The work
+done during expansion is found by dividing the remainder of the
+stroke FT into a number of equal parts (say 8, Watt takes 20) and
+measuring the pressure at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, &amp;c., corresponding
+to the middle of each. We thus obtain a number of small rectangles,
+the sum of which is evidently very nearly equal to the whole area
+BCTF under the expansion curve, or to the remainder of the stroke
+FT multiplied by the average or mean value of the pressure. The
+whole work done in the forward stroke is represented by the area
+ABCTSA, or by the average value of the pressure P over the whole
+stroke multiplied by the stroke L. This area must be multiplied
+by the area of the piston A in sq. in. as before, to get the
+work done per stroke in foot-pounds, which is PLA. If the engine
+repeats this cycle N times per minute, the work done per minute is
+PLAN foot-pounds, which is reduced to horse-power by dividing
+by 33,000. If the steam is ejected by the piston at atmospheric
+pressure (15 &#8468; per sq. in.) instead of being condensed at zero pressure,
+the area CDST under the atmospheric line CD, representing work
+done against back-pressure on the return stroke must be subtracted.
+If the engine repeats the same cycle or series of operations continuously,
+the indicator diagram will be a closed curve, and the nett
+work done per cycle will be represented by the included area, whatever
+the form of the curve.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>8. <i>Thermal Efficiency.</i>&mdash;The thermal efficiency of an engine
+is the ratio of the work done by the engine to the heat supplied
+to it. According to Watt&rsquo;s observations, confirmed later by
+Clément and Désormes, the total heat required to produce
+1 &#8468; of saturated steam at any temperature from water at
+0° C. was approximately 650 times the quantity of heat required
+to raise 1 &#8468; of water 1° C. Since 1 &#8468; of steam represented
+on this assumption a certain quantity of heat, the efficiency
+could be measured naturally in foot-pounds of work obtainable
+per &#8468; of steam, or conversely in pounds of steam consumed
+per horse-power-hour.</p>
+
+<p>In his patent of 1782 Watt gives the following example of the
+improvement in thermal efficiency obtained by expansive working.
+Taking the diagram already given, if the quantity of steam
+represented by AB, or 300 cub. in. at 60 &#8468; pressure, were employed
+without expansion, the work realized, represented by the
+area ABSF, would be 6000/4 = 1500 foot-pounds. With expansion
+to 4 times its original volume, as shown in the diagram by the
+whole area ABCTSA, the mean pressure (as calculated by Watt,
+assuming Boyle&rsquo;s law) would be 0.58 of the original pressure,
+and the work done would be 6000 × 0.58 = 3480 foot-pounds for
+the same quantity of steam, or the thermal efficiency would be
+2.32 times greater. The advantage actually obtained would not
+be so great as this, on account of losses by condensation, back-pressure,
+&amp;c., which are neglected in Watt&rsquo;s calculation, but the
+margin would still be very considerable. Three hundred cub.
+in. of steam at 60 &#8468; pressure would represent about .0245 of
+1 &#8468; of steam, or 28.7 B.Th.U., so that, neglecting all losses,
+the possible thermal efficiency attainable with steam at this
+pressure and four expansions (¼ cut-off) would be 3480/28.7, or 121
+foot-pounds per B.Th.U. At a later date, about 1820, it was usual
+to include the efficiency of the boiler with that of the engine,
+and to reckon the efficiency or &ldquo;duty&rdquo; in foot-pounds per bushel
+or cwt. of coal. The best Cornish pumping-engines of that date
+achieved about 70 million foot-pounds per cwt., or consumed
+about 3.2 &#8468; per horse-power-hour, which is roughly equivalent to
+43 foot-pounds per B.Th.U. The efficiency gradually increased
+as higher pressures were used, with more complete expansion,
+but the conditions upon which the efficiency depended were
+not fully worked out till a much later date. Much additional
+knowledge with regard to the nature of heat, and the properties
+of gases and vapours, was required before the problem could
+be attacked theoretically.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Of the Nature of Heat</i>.&mdash;In the early days of the science it
+was natural to ascribe the manifestations of heat to the action
+of a subtle imponderable fluid called &ldquo;caloric,&rdquo; with the power
+of penetrating, expanding and dissolving bodies, or dissipating
+them in vapour. The fluid was imponderable, because the most
+careful experiments failed to show that heat produced any increase
+in weight. The opposite property of levitation was often
+ascribed to heat, but it was shown by more cautious investigators
+that the apparent loss of weight due to heating was to be attributed
+to evaporation or to upward air currents. The fundamental
+idea of an imaginary fluid to represent heat was useful
+as helping the mind to a conception of something remaining
+invariable in quantity through many transformations, but in
+some respects the analogy was misleading, and tended greatly
+to retard the progress of science. The caloric theory was very
+simple in its application to the majority of calorimetric experiments,
+and gave a fair account of the elementary phenomena
+of change of state, but it encountered serious difficulties in
+explaining the production of heat by friction, or the changes
+of temperature accompanying the compression or expansion
+of a gas. The explanation which the calorists offered of the
+production of heat by friction or compression was that some
+of the latent caloric was squeezed or ground out of the bodies
+concerned and became &ldquo;sensible.&rdquo; In the case of heat developed
+by friction, they supposed that the abraded portions of the
+material were capable of holding a smaller quantity of heat,
+or had less &ldquo;capacity for heat,&rdquo; than the original material.
+From a logical point of view, this was a perfectly tenable
+hypothesis, and one difficult to refute. It was easy to account
+in this way for the heat produced in boring cannon and similar
+operations, where the amount of abraded material was large.
+To refute this explanation, Rumford (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1798) made
+his celebrated experiments with a blunt borer, in one of
+which he succeeded in boiling by friction 26.5 &#8468; of cold
+water in 2½ hours, with the production of only 4145 grains
+of metallic powder. He then showed by experiment that the
+metallic powder required the same amount of heat to raise its
+temperature 1°, as an equal weight of the original metal, or that
+its &ldquo;capacity for heat&rdquo; (in this sense) was unaltered by reducing
+it to powder; and he argued that &ldquo;in any case so small a
+quantity of powder could not possibly account for all the heat
+generated, that the supply of heat appeared to be inexhaustible,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span>
+and that heat could not be a material substance, but must be
+something of the nature of motion.&rdquo; Unfortunately Rumford&rsquo;s
+argument was not quite conclusive. The supporters of the
+caloric theory appear, whether consciously or unconsciously,
+to have used the phrase &ldquo;capacity for heat&rdquo; in two entirely
+distinct senses without any clear definition of the difference.
+The phrase &ldquo;capacity for heat&rdquo; might very naturally denote
+the total quantity of heat contained in a body, which we have
+no means of measuring, but it was generally used to signify the
+quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body
+one degree, which is quite a different thing, and has no necessary
+relation to the total heat. In proving that the powder and the
+solid metal required the same quantity of heat to raise the
+temperature of equal masses of either one degree, Rumford
+did not prove that they contained equal quantities of heat,
+which was the real point at issue in this instance. The metal
+tin actually changes into powder below a certain temperature,
+and in so doing evolves a measurable quantity of heat. A
+mixture of the gases oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportions
+in which they combine to form water, evolves when burnt
+sufficient heat to raise more than thirty times its weight of water
+from the freezing to the boiling point; and the mixture of gases
+may, in this sense, be said to contain so much more heat than
+the water, although its capacity for heat in the ordinary sense
+is only about half that of the water produced. To complete
+the refutation of the calorists&rsquo; explanation of the heat produced
+by friction, it would have been necessary for Rumford to show
+that the powder when reconverted into the same state as the
+solid metal did not absorb a quantity of heat equivalent to that
+evolved in the grinding; in other words that the heat produced
+by friction was not simply that due to the change of state of
+the metal from solid to powder.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly afterwards, in 1799, Davy<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> described an experiment
+in which he melted ice by rubbing two blocks together. This
+experiment afforded a very direct refutation of the calorists&rsquo;
+view, because it was a well-known fact that ice required to have
+a quantity of heat added to it to convert it into water, so that
+the water produced by the friction contained more heat than the
+ice. In stating as the conclusion to be drawn from this experiment
+that &ldquo;friction consequently does not diminish the capacity
+of bodies for heat,&rdquo; Davy apparently uses the phrase capacity
+for heat in the sense of total heat contained in a body, because
+in a later section of the same essay he definitely gives the phrase
+this meaning, and uses the term &ldquo;capability of temperature&rdquo; to
+denote what we now term capacity for heat.</p>
+
+<p>The delay in the overthrow of the caloric theory, and in the
+acceptance of the view that heat is a mode of motion, was no
+doubt partly due to some fundamental confusion of ideas in the
+use of the term &ldquo;capacity for heat&rdquo; and similar phrases. A
+still greater obstacle lay in the comparative vagueness of the
+motion or vibration theory. Davy speaks of heat as being
+&ldquo;repulsive motion,&rdquo; and distinguishes it from light, which is
+&ldquo;projective motion&rdquo;; though heat is certainly not a substance&mdash;according
+to Davy in the essay under discussion&mdash;and may not
+even be treated as an imponderable fluid, light as certainly is a
+material substance, and is capable of forming chemical compounds
+with ordinary matter, such as oxygen gas, which is not a
+simple substance, but a compound, termed phosoxygen, of light
+and oxygen. Accepting the conclusions of Davy and Rumford
+that heat is not a material substance but a mode of motion,
+there still remains the question, what definite conception is to be
+attached to a quantity of heat? What do we mean by a quantity
+of vibratory motion, how is the quantity of motion to be estimated,
+and why should it remain invariable in many transformations?
+The idea that heat was a &ldquo;mode of motion&rdquo;
+was applicable as a qualitative explanation of many of the
+effects of heat, but it lacked the quantitative precision of a
+scientific statement, and could not be applied to the calculation
+and prediction of definite results. The state of science at the
+time of Rumford&rsquo;s and Davy&rsquo;s experiments did not admit of a
+more exact generalization. The way was paved in the first
+instance by a more complete study of the laws of gases, to which
+Laplace, Dalton, Gay-Lussac, Dulong and many others contributed
+both on the experimental and theoretical side. Although
+the development proceeded simultaneously along many parallel
+lines, it is interesting and instructive to take the investigation
+of the properties of gases, and to endeavour to trace the steps
+by which the true theory was finally attained.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Thermal Properties of Gases.</i>&mdash;The most characteristic
+property of a gaseous or elastic fluid, namely, the elasticity, or
+resistance to compression, was first investigated scientifically
+by Robert Boyle (1662), who showed that the pressure <i>p</i> of a
+given mass of gas varied inversely as the volume <i>v</i>, provided that
+the temperature remained constant. This is generally expressed
+by the formula <i>pv</i> = C, where C is a constant for any given
+temperature, and <i>v</i> is taken to represent the specific volume, or
+the volume of unit mass, of the gas at the given pressure
+and temperature. Boyle was well aware of the effect of heat
+in expanding a gas, but he was unable to investigate this properly
+as no thermometric scale had been defined at that date. According
+to Boyle&rsquo;s law, when a mass of gas is compressed by a small
+amount at constant temperature, the percentage increase of
+pressure is equal to the percentage diminution of volume (if the
+compression is <i>v</i>/100, the increase of pressure is very nearly
+<i>p</i>/100). Adopting this law, Newton showed, by a most ingenious
+piece of reasoning (<i>Principia</i>, ii., sect. 8), that the velocity of
+sound in air should be equal to the velocity acquired by a body
+falling under gravity through a distance equal to half the height
+of the atmosphere, considered as being of uniform density equal
+to that at the surface of the earth. This gave the result 918 ft.
+per sec. (280 metres per sec.) for the velocity at the freezing
+point. Newton was aware that the actual velocity of sound was
+somewhat greater than this, but supposed that the difference
+might be due in some way to the size of the air particles, of which
+no account could be taken in the calculation. The first accurate
+measurement of the velocity of sound by the French Académie
+des Sciences in 1738 gave the value 332 metres per sec. as the
+velocity at 0° C. The true explanation of the discrepancy was
+not discovered till nearly 100 years later.</p>
+
+<p>The law of expansion of gases with change of temperature was
+investigated by Dalton and Gay-Lussac (1802), who found that
+the volume of a gas under constant pressure increased by 1/267th
+part of its volume at 0° C. for each 1° C. rise in temperature.
+This value was generally assumed in all calculations for nearly
+50 years. More exact researches, especially those of Regnault,
+at a later date, showed that the law was very nearly correct for
+all permanent gases, but that the value of the coefficient should
+be <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">173</span>rd. According to this law the volume of a gas at any
+temperature <i>t</i>° C. should be proportional to 273 + <i>t</i>, <i>i.e.</i> to the
+temperature reckoned from a zero 273° below that of the
+Centigrade scale, which was called the absolute zero of the gas
+thermometer. If T = 273 + <i>t</i>, denotes the temperature measured
+from this zero, the law of expansion of a gas may be combined
+with Boyle&rsquo;s law in the simple formula</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>pv</i> = RT</p>
+<div class="author">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">which is generally taken as the expression of the gaseous laws.
+If equal volumes of different gases are taken at the same temperature
+and pressure, it follows that the constant R is the same for
+all gases. If equal masses are taken, the value of the constant R
+for different gases varies inversely as the molecular weight or as
+the density relative to hydrogen.</p>
+
+<p>Dalton also investigated the laws of vapours, and of mixtures
+of gases and vapours. He found that condensible vapours
+approximately followed Boyle&rsquo;s law when compressed, until the
+condensation pressure was reached, at which the vapour liquefied
+without further increase of pressure. He found that when a
+liquid was introduced into a closed space, and allowed to evaporate
+until the space was saturated with the vapour and evaporation
+ceased, the increase of pressure in the space was equal to the
+condensation pressure of the vapour, and did not depend on the
+volume of the space or the presence of any other gas or vapour
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span>
+provided that there was no solution or chemical action. He
+showed that the condensation or saturation-pressure of a vapour
+depended only on the temperature, and increased by nearly the
+same fraction of itself per degree rise of temperature, and that
+the pressures of different vapours were nearly the same at equal
+distances from their boiling points. The increase of pressure
+per degree C. at the boiling point was about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">28</span>th of 760 mm. or
+27.2 mm., but increased in geometrical progression with rise of
+temperature. These results of Dalton&rsquo;s were confirmed, and in
+part corrected, as regards increase of vapour-pressure, by Gay-Lussac,
+Dulong, Regnault and other investigators, but were found
+to be as close an approximation to the truth as could be obtained
+with such simple expressions. More accurate empirical expressions
+for the increase of vapour-pressure of a liquid with
+temperature were soon obtained by Thomas Young, J. P. L. A.
+Roche and others, but the explanation of the relation was not
+arrived at until a much later date (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vaporization</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Specific Heats of Gases.</i>&mdash;In order to estimate the quantities
+of heat concerned in experiments with gases, it was necessary
+in the first instance to measure their specific heats, which presented
+formidable difficulties. The earlier attempts by Lavoisier
+and others, employing the ordinary methods of calorimetry,
+gave very uncertain and discordant results, which were not
+regarded with any confidence even by the experimentalists
+themselves. Gay-Lussac (<i>Mémoires d&rsquo;Arcueil</i>, 1807) devised
+an ingenious experiment, which, though misinterpreted at the
+time, is very interesting and instructive. With the object of
+comparing the specific heats of different gases, he took two equal
+globes A and B connected by a tube with a stop-cock. The globe
+B was exhausted, the other A being filled with gas. On opening
+the tap between the vessels, the gas flowed from A to B and the
+pressure was rapidly equalized. He observed that the fall of
+temperature in A was nearly equal to the rise of temperature in
+B, and that for the same initial pressure the change of temperature
+was very nearly the same for all the gases he tried, except
+hydrogen, which showed greater changes of temperature than
+other gases. He concluded from this experiment that equal
+volumes of gases had the same capacity for heat, except hydrogen,
+which he supposed to have a larger capacity, because it showed
+a greater effect. The method does not in reality afford any
+direct information with regard to the specific heats, and the
+conclusion with regard to hydrogen is evidently wrong. At
+a later date (<i>Ann. de Chim.</i>, 1812, 81, p. 98) Gay-Lussac adopted
+A. Crawford&rsquo;s method of mixture, allowing two equal streams
+of different gases, one heated and the other cooled about 20° C.,
+to mix in a tube containing a thermometer. The resulting
+temperature was in all cases nearly the mean of the two, from
+which he concluded that equal volumes of all the gases tried,
+namely, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, air, oxygen and nitrogen,
+had the same thermal capacity. This was correct, except as
+regards carbon dioxide, but did not give any information as to
+the actual specific heats referred to water or any known substance.
+About the same time, F. Delaroche and J. E. Bérard (<i>Ann. de
+chim.</i>, 1813, 85, p. 72) made direct determinations of the specific
+heats of air, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
+nitrous oxide and ethylene, by passing a stream of gas heated
+to nearly 100° C. through a spiral tube in a calorimeter containing
+water. Their work was a great advance on previous attempts,
+and gave the first trustworthy results. With the exception of
+hydrogen, which presents peculiar difficulties, they found that
+equal volumes of the permanent gases, air, oxygen and carbon
+monoxide, had nearly the same thermal capacity, but that the
+compound condensible gases, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide
+and ethylene, had larger thermal capacities in the order given.
+They were unable to state whether the specific heats of the gases
+increased or diminished with temperature, but from experiments
+on air at pressures of 740 mm. and 1000 mm., they found the
+specific heats to be .269 and .245 respectively, and concluded
+that the specific heat diminished with increase of pressure.
+The difference they observed was really due to errors of experiment,
+but they regarded it as proving beyond doubt the truth
+of the calorists&rsquo; contention that the heat disengaged on the
+compression of a gas was due to the diminution of its thermal
+capacity.</p>
+
+<p>Dalton and others had endeavoured to measure directly the
+rise of temperature produced by the compression of a gas.
+Dalton had observed a rise of 50° F. in a gas when suddenly compressed
+to half its volume, but no thermometers at that time
+were sufficiently sensitive to indicate more than a fraction of
+the change of temperature. Laplace was the first to see in this
+phenomenon the probable explanation of the discrepancy between
+Newton&rsquo;s calculation of the velocity of sound and the observed
+value. The increase of pressure due to a sudden compression,
+in which no heat was allowed to escape, or as we now call it an
+&ldquo;adiabatic&rdquo; compression, would necessarily be greater than the
+increase of pressure in a slow isothermal compression, on account
+of the rise of temperature. As the rapid compressions and
+rarefactions occurring in the propagation of a sound wave were
+perfectly adiabatic, it was necessary to take account of the rise
+of temperature due to compression in calculating the velocity.
+To reconcile the observed and calculated values of the velocity,
+the increase of pressure in adiabatic compression must be 1.410
+times greater than in isothermal compression. This is the ratio
+of the adiabatic elasticity of air to the isothermal elasticity.
+It was a long time, however, before Laplace saw his way to any
+direct experimental verification of the value of this ratio. At
+a later date (<i>Ann. de chim.</i>, 1816, 3, p. 238) he stated that he
+had succeeded in proving that the ratio in question must be the
+same as the ratio of the specific heat of air at constant pressure
+to the specific heat at constant volume.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the method of measuring the specific heat adopted by Delaroche
+and Bérard, the gas under experiment, while passing through a tube
+at practically constant pressure, contracts in cooling, as it gives up
+its heat to the calorimeter. Part of the heat surrendered to the
+calorimeter is due to the contraction of volume. If a gramme of
+gas at pressure <i>p</i>, volume <i>v</i> and temperature T abs. is heated 1° C.
+at constant pressure <i>p</i>, it absorbs a quantity of heat S = .238 calorie
+(according to Regnault) the specific heat at constant pressure. At
+the same time the gas expands by a fraction 1/T of v, which is the
+same as 1/273 of its volume at 0° C. If now the air is suddenly
+compressed by an amount <i>v</i>/T, it will be restored to its original
+volume, and its temperature will be raised by the liberation of a
+quantity of heat R&prime;, the latent heat of expansion for an increase of
+volume <i>v</i>/T. If no heat has been allowed to escape, the air will now
+be in the same state as if a quantity of heat S had been communicated
+to it at its original volume <i>v</i> without expansion. The rise of temperature
+above the original temperature T will be S/<i>s</i> degrees, where s
+is the specific heat at constant volume, which is obviously equal to
+S &minus; R&prime;. Since <i>p</i>/T is the increase of pressure for 1° C. rise of temperature
+at constant volume, the increase of pressure for a rise of S/<i>s</i>
+degrees will be &gamma;<i>p</i>/T, where &gamma; is the ratio S/<i>s</i>. But this is the rise
+of pressure produced by a sudden compression v/T, and is seen to be
+&gamma; times the rise of pressure <i>p</i>/T produced by the same compression
+at constant temperature. The ratio of the adiabatic to the isothermal
+elasticity, required for calculating the velocity of sound, is
+therefore the same as the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure
+to that at constant volume.</p>
+
+<p>12. <i>Experimental Verification of the Ratio of Specific Heats.</i>&mdash;This
+was a most interesting and important theoretical relation to discover,
+but unfortunately it did not help much in the determination
+of the ratio required, because it was not practically possible at that
+time to measure the specific heat of air at constant volume in a
+closed vessel. Attempts had been made to do this, but they had
+signally failed, on account of the small heat capacity of the gas as
+compared with the containing vessel. Laplace endeavoured to
+extract some confirmation of his views from the values given by
+Delaroche and Bérard for the specific heat of air at 1000 and 740
+mm. pressure. On the assumption that the quantities of heat contained
+in a given mass of air increased in direct proportion to its
+volume when heated at constant pressure, he deduced, by some rather
+obscure reasoning, that the ratio of the specific heats S and s should
+be about 1.5 to 1, which he regarded as a fairly satisfactory agreement
+with the value &gamma; = 1.41 deduced from the velocity of sound.</p>
+
+<p>The ratio of the specific heats could not be directly measured,
+but a few years later, Clément and Désormes (<i>Journ. de Phys.</i>, Nov.
+1819) succeeded in making a direct measurement of the ratio of
+the elasticities in a very simple manner. They took a large globe
+containing air at atmospheric pressure and temperature, and removed
+a small quantity of air. They then observed the defect of
+pressure <i>p</i><span class="su">0</span> when the air had regained its original temperature.
+By suddenly opening the globe, and immediately closing it, the
+pressure was restored almost instantaneously to the atmospheric,
+the rise of pressure <i>p</i><span class="su">0</span> corresponding to the sudden compression
+produced. The air, having been heated by the compression, was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span>
+allowed to regain its original temperature, the tap remaining closed,
+and the final defect of pressure <i>p</i><span class="sp">1</span> was noted. The change of pressure
+for the same compression performed isothermally is then <i>p</i><span class="su">0</span> &minus; <i>p</i><span class="sp">1</span>.
+The ratio <i>p</i><span class="su">0</span>/(<i>p</i><span class="su">0</span> &minus; <i>p</i><span class="sp">1</span>) is the ratio of the adiabatic and isothermal
+elasticities, provided that <i>p</i><span class="su">0</span> is small compared with the whole atmospheric
+pressure. In this way they found the ratio 1.354, which is
+not much smaller than the value 1.410 required to reconcile the
+observed and calculated values of the velocity of sound. Gay-Lussac
+and J. J. Welter (<i>Ann. de chim.</i>, 1822) repeated the experiment
+with slight improvements, using expansion instead of compression,
+and found the ratio 1.375. The experiment has often been
+repeated since that time, and there is no doubt that the value of the
+ratio deduced from the velocity of sound is correct, the defect of the
+value obtained by direct experiment being due to the fact that the
+compression or expansion is not perfectly adiabatic. Gay-Lussac
+and Welter found the ratio practically constant for a range of pressure
+144 to 1460 mm., and for a range of temperature from &minus;20° to
++40° C. The velocity of sound at Quito, at a pressure of 544 mm.
+was found to be the same as at Paris at 760 mm. at the same temperature.
+Assuming on this evidence the constancy of the ratio of the
+specific heats of air, Laplace (<i>Mécanique céleste</i>, v. 143) showed
+that, if the specific heat at constant pressure was independent of
+the temperature, the specific heat per unit volume at a pressure p
+must vary as <i>p</i><span class="sp">1/&gamma;</span>, according to the caloric theory. The specific
+heat per unit mass must then vary as <i>p</i><span class="sp">1/&gamma;&minus;1</span> which he found agreed
+precisely with the experiment of Delaroche and Bérard already cited.
+This was undoubtedly a strong confirmation of the caloric theory.
+Poisson by the same assumptions (<i>Ann. de chim.</i>, 1823, 23, p. 337)
+obtained the same results, and also showed that the relation between
+the pressure and the volume of a gas in adiabatic compression or
+expansion must be of the form <i>pv</i><span class="sp">&gamma;</span> = constant.</p>
+
+<p>P. L. Dulong (<i>Ann. de chim.</i>, 1829, 41, p. 156), adopting a method
+due to E. F. F. Chladni, compared the velocities of sound in different
+gases by observing the pitch of the note given by the same tube
+when filled with the gases in question. He thus obtained the values
+of the ratios of the elasticities or of the specific heats for the gases
+employed. For oxygen, hydrogen and carbonic oxide, these ratios
+were the same as for air. But for carbonic acid, nitrous oxide and
+olefiant gas, the values were much smaller, showing that these gases
+experienced a smaller change of temperature in compression. On
+comparing his results with the values of the specific heats for the
+same gases found by Delaroche and Bérard, Dulong observed that
+the changes of temperature for the same compression were in the
+inverse ratio of the specific heats at constant volume, and deduced
+the important conclusion that &ldquo;<i>Equal volumes of all gases under
+the same conditions evolve on compression the same quantity of heat</i>.&rdquo;
+This is equivalent to the statement that the difference of the specific
+heats, or the latent heat of expansion R&prime; per 1°, is the same for all
+gases if equal volumes are taken. Assuming the ratio &gamma; = 1.410,
+and taking Delaroche and Bérard&rsquo;s value for the specific heat of air
+at constant pressure S = .267, we have <i>s</i> = S/1.41 = .189, and the
+difference of the specific heats per unit mass of air S &minus; <i>s</i> = R&prime; = .078.
+Adopting Regnault&rsquo;s value of the specific heat of air, namely, S = .238,
+we should have S &minus; <i>s</i> = .069. This quantity represents the heat
+absorbed by unit mass of air in expanding at constant temperature
+T by a fraction 1/T of its volume <i>v</i>, or by <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">273</span>rd of its volume 0° C.</p>
+
+<p>If, instead of taking unit mass, we take a volume <i>v</i><span class="su">0</span> = 22.30 litres
+at 0° C. and 760 mm. being the volume of the molecular weight of
+the gas in grammes, the quantity of heat evolved by a compression
+equal to <i>v</i>/T will be approximately 2 calories, and is the same for
+all gases. The work done in this compression is <i>pv</i>/T = R, and is also
+the same for all gases, namely, 8.3 joules. Dulong&rsquo;s experimental
+result, therefore, shows that the heat evolved in the compression of
+a gas is proportional to the work done. This result had previously
+been deduced theoretically by Carnot (1824). At a later date it
+was assumed by Mayer, Clausius and others, on the evidence of these
+experiments, that the heat evolved was not merely proportional
+to the work done, but was equivalent to it. The further experimental
+evidence required to justify this assumption was first supplied by
+Joule.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Latent heat of expansion R&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">= .069 calorie per gramme of air, per 1° C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">= 2.0 calories per gramme-molecule of any gas.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Work done in expansion R</td> <td class="tcl">= .287 joule per gramme of air per 1° C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">= 8.3 joules per gramme-molecule of any gas.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>13. <i>Carnot: On the Motive Power of Heat.</i>&mdash;A practical and
+theoretical question of the greatest importance was first answered
+by Sadi Carnot about this time in his <i>Reflections on the Motive
+Power of Heat</i> (1824). How much motive power (defined by
+Carnot as weight lifted through a certain height) can be obtained
+from heat alone by means of an engine repeating a regular succession
+or &ldquo;cycle&rdquo; of operations continuously? Is the efficiency
+limited, and, if so, how is it limited? Are other agents preferable
+to steam for developing motive power from heat? In discussing
+this problem, we cannot do better than follow Carnot&rsquo;s reasoning
+which, in its main features could hardly be improved at the
+present day.</p>
+
+<p>Carnot points out that in order to obtain an answer to this
+question, it is necessary to consider the essential conditions of
+the process, apart from the mechanism of the engine and the
+working substance or agent employed. Work cannot be said
+to be produced <i>from heat alone</i> unless nothing but heat is supplied,
+and the working substance and all parts of the engine are at
+the end of the process in precisely the same state as at the
+beginning.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Carnot&rsquo;s Axiom.</i>&mdash;Carnot here, and throughout his reasoning,
+makes a fundamental assumption, which he states as follows:
+&ldquo;When a body has undergone any changes and after a certain
+number of transformations is brought back identically to its
+original state, considered relatively to density, temperature
+and mode of aggregation, it must contain the same quantity
+of heat as it contained originally.&rdquo;<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Heat, according to Carnot, in the type of engine we are considering,
+can evidently be a cause of motive power only by virtue
+of changes of volume or form produced by alternate heating and
+cooling. This involves the existence of cold and hot bodies to
+act as boiler and condenser, or source and sink of heat, respectively.
+Wherever there exists a difference of temperature, it
+is possible to have the production of motive power from heat;
+and conversely, production of motive power, from heat alone,
+is impossible without difference of temperature. In other words
+the production of motive power from heat is not merely a question
+of the consumption of heat, but always requires transference
+of heat from hot to cold. What then are the conditions which
+enable the difference of temperature to be most advantageously
+employed in the production of motive power, and how much
+motive power can be obtained with a given difference of temperature
+from a given quantity of heat?</p>
+
+<p><i>Carnot&rsquo;s Rule for Maximum Effect.</i>&mdash;In order to realize the
+maximum effect, it is necessary that, in the process employed,
+there should not be any direct interchange of heat between
+bodies at different temperatures. Direct transference of heat
+by conduction or radiation between bodies at different temperatures
+is equivalent to wasting a difference of temperature which
+might have been utilized to produce motive power. The working
+substance must throughout every stage of the process be in
+equilibrium with itself (<i>i.e.</i> at uniform temperature and pressure)
+and also with external bodies, such as the boiler and condenser,
+at such times as it is put in communication with them. In the
+actual engine there is always some interchange of heat between
+the steam and the cylinder, and some loss of heat to external
+bodies. There may also be some difference of temperature
+between the boiler steam and the cylinder on admission, or
+between the waste steam and the condenser at release. These
+differences represent losses of efficiency which may be reduced
+indefinitely, at least in imagination, by suitable means, and
+designers had even at that date been very successful in reducing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span>
+them. All such losses are supposed to be absent in deducing the
+ideal limit of efficiency, beyond which it would be impossible
+to go.</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Carnot&rsquo;s Description of his Ideal Cycle.</i>&mdash;Carnot first gives
+a rough illustration of an incomplete cycle, using steam much in
+the same way as it is employed in an ordinary steam-engine.
+After expansion down to condenser pressure the steam is
+completely condensed to water, and is then returned as cold water
+to the hot boiler. He points out that the last step does not
+conform exactly to the condition he laid down, because although
+the water is restored to its initial state, there is direct passage of
+heat from a hot body to a cold body in the last process. He
+points out that this difficulty might be overcome by supposing
+the difference of temperature small, and by employing a series
+of engines, each working through a small range, to cover a finite
+interval of temperature. Having established the general notions
+of a perfect cycle, he proceeds to give a more exact illustration,
+employing a gas as the working substance. He takes as the
+basis of his demonstration the well-established experimental
+fact that a gas is heated by rapid compression and cooled by
+rapid expansion, and that if compressed or expanded slowly in
+contact with conducting bodies, the gas will give out heat in
+compression or absorb heat in expansion while its temperature
+remains constant. He then goes on to say:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:173px; height:411px" src="images/img142.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span> 4.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Carnot&rsquo;s Cylinder.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;This preliminary notion being settled, let us imagine an elastic
+fluid, atmospheric air for example, enclosed in a cylinder <i>abcd</i>, fig. 4,
+fitted with a movable diaphragm or piston <i>cd</i>. Let there also be
+two bodies A, B, each maintained at a
+constant temperature, that of A being
+more elevated than that of B. Let us now
+suppose the following series of operations
+to be performed:</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;1. Contact of the body A with the air
+contained in the space <i>abcd</i>, or with the
+bottom of the cylinder, which we will
+suppose to transmit heat easily. The air is
+now at the temperature of the body A, and
+<i>cd</i> is the actual position of the piston.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;2. The piston is gradually raised, and
+takes the position <i>ef</i>. The air remains in
+contact with the body A, and is thereby
+maintained at a constant temperature during
+the expansion. The body A furnishes the
+heat necessary to maintain the constancy
+of temperature.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;3. The body A is removed, and the air
+no longer being in contact with any body
+capable of giving it heat, the piston continues
+nevertheless to rise, and passes from
+the position <i>ef</i> to <i>gh</i>. The air expands
+without receiving heat and its temperature
+falls. Let us imagine that it falls until it
+is just equal to that of the body B. At
+this moment the piston is stopped and
+occupies the position <i>gh</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;4. The air is placed in contact with the
+body B; it is compressed by the return of
+the piston, which is brought from the position <i>gh</i> to the position <i>cd</i>.
+The air remains meanwhile at a constant temperature, because of its
+contact with the body B to which it gives up its heat.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;5. The body B is removed, and the compression of the air is
+continued. The air being now isolated, rises in temperature. The
+compression is continued until the air has acquired the temperature
+of the body A. The piston passes meanwhile from the position <i>cd</i>
+to the position <i>ik</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;6. The air is replaced in contact with the body A, and the
+piston returns from the position <i>ik</i> to the position <i>ef</i>, the temperature
+remaining invariable.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;7. The period described under (3) is repeated, then successively
+the periods (4), (5), (6); (3), (4), (5), (6); (3), (4), (5), (6); and so on.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;During these operations the air enclosed in the cylinder exerts
+an effort more or less great on the piston. The pressure of the air
+varies both on account of changes of volume and on account of changes
+of temperature; but it should be observed that for equal volumes,
+that is to say, for like positions of the piston, the temperature is
+higher during the dilatation than during the compression. Since the
+pressure is greater during the expansion, the quantity of motive
+power produced by the dilatation is greater than that consumed by
+the compression. We shall thus obtain a balance of motive power,
+which may be employed for any purpose. The air has served as
+working substance in a heat-engine; it has also been employed in
+the most advantageous manner possible, since no useless re-establishment
+of the equilibrium of heat has been allowed to occur.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;All the operations above described may be executed in the
+reverse order and direction. Let us imagine that after the sixth
+period, that is to say, when the piston has reached the position <i>ef</i>,
+we make it return to the position <i>ik</i>, and that at the same time we
+keep the air in contact with the hot body A; the heat furnished
+by this body during the sixth period will return to its source, that
+is, to the body A, and everything will be as it was at the end of the
+fifth period. If now we remove the body A, and if we make the piston
+move from <i>ik</i> to <i>cd</i>, the temperature of the air will decrease by just
+as many degrees as it increased during the fifth period, and will
+become that of the body B. We can evidently continue in this way
+a series of operations the exact reverse of those which were previously
+described; it suffices to place oneself in the same circumstances and
+to execute for each period a movement of expansion in place of a
+movement of compression, and vice versa.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The result of the first series of operations was the production
+of a certain quantity of motive power, and the transport of heat from
+the body A to the body B; the result of the reverse operations is the
+consumption of the motive power produced in the first case, and the
+return of heat from the body B to the body A, in such sort that these
+two series of operations annul and neutralize each other.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The impossibility of producing by the agency of heat alone a
+quantity of motive power greater than that which we have obtained
+in our first series of operations is now easy to prove. It is demonstrated
+by reasoning exactly similar to that which we have already
+given. The reasoning will have in this case a greater degree of
+exactitude; the air of which we made use to develop the motive
+power is brought back at the end of each cycle of operations precisely
+to its initial state, whereas this was not quite exactly the case for the
+vapour of water, as we have already remarked.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>15. <i>Proof of Carnot&rsquo;s Principle.</i>&mdash;Carnot considered the proof
+too obvious to be worth repeating, but, unfortunately, his
+previous demonstration, referring to an incomplete cycle, is not
+so exactly worded that exception cannot be taken to it. We
+will therefore repeat his proof in a slightly more definite and
+exact form. Suppose that a reversible engine R, working in
+the cycle above described, takes a quantity of heat H from the
+source in each cycle, and performs a quantity of useful work W<span class="su">r</span>.
+If it were possible for any other engine S, working with the same
+two bodies A and B as source and refrigerator, to perform a
+greater amount of useful work W<span class="su">s</span> per cycle for the same quantity
+of heat H taken from the source, it would suffice to take a portion
+W<span class="su">r</span> of this motive power (since W<span class="su">s</span> is by hypothesis greater than
+W<span class="su">r</span>) to drive the engine R backwards, and return a quantity of
+heat H to the source in each cycle. The process might be repeated
+indefinitely, and we should obtain at each repetition a
+balance of useful work W<span class="su">s</span> &minus; W<span class="su">r</span>, <i>without taking any heat from the
+source</i>, which is contrary to experience. Whether the quantity
+of heat taken from the condenser by R is equal to that given to
+the condenser by S is immaterial. The hot body A might be a
+comparatively small boiler, since no heat is taken from it. The
+cold body B might be the ocean, or the whole earth. We might
+thus obtain without any consumption of fuel a practically
+unlimited supply of motive power. Which is absurd.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carnot&rsquo;s Statement of his Principle.</i><a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a>&mdash;If the above reasoning
+be admitted, we must conclude with Carnot that <i>the motive
+power obtainable from heat is independent of the agents employed
+to realize it</i>. <i>The efficiency is fixed solely by the temperatures of the
+bodies between which, in the last resort, the transfer of heat is
+effected.</i> &ldquo;We must understand here that each of the methods
+of developing motive power attains the perfection of which it
+is susceptible. This condition is fulfilled if, according to our rule,
+there is produced in the body no change of temperature that is
+not due to change of volume, or in other words, if there is no
+direct interchange of heat between bodies of sensibly different
+temperatures.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is characteristic of a state of frictionless mechanical equilibrium
+that an indefinitely small difference of pressure suffices
+to upset the equilibrium and reverse the motion. Similarly in
+thermal equilibrium between bodies at the same temperature,
+an indefinitely small difference of temperature suffices to reverse
+the transfer of heat. Carnot&rsquo;s rule is therefore the criterion of
+the reversibility of a cycle of operations as regards transfer
+of heat. It is assumed that the ideal engine is mechanically
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span>
+reversible, that there is not, for instance, any communication
+between reservoirs of gas or vapour at sensibly different pressures,
+and that there is no waste of power in friction. If there is
+equilibrium both mechanical and thermal at every stage of the
+cycle, the ideal engine will be perfectly reversible. That is to say,
+all its operations will be exactly reversed as regards transfer of
+heat and work, when the operations are performed in the reverse
+order and direction. On this understanding Carnot&rsquo;s principle
+may be put in a different way, which is often adopted, but is really
+only the same thing put in different words: <i>The efficiency of a
+perfectly reversible engine is the maximum possible, and is a
+function solely of the limits of temperature between which it works</i>.
+This result depends essentially on the existence of a state of
+thermal equilibrium defined by equality of temperature, and
+independent, in the majority of cases, of the state of a body in
+other respects. In order to apply the principle to the calculation
+and prediction of results, it is sufficient to determine the manner
+in which the efficiency depends on the temperature for one
+particular case, since the efficiency must be the same for all
+reversible engines.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>16. <i>Experimental Verification of Carnot&rsquo;s Principle.</i>&mdash;Carnot endeavoured
+to test his result by the following simple calculations.
+Suppose that we have a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston,
+containing 1 gram of water at 100° C., and that the pressure of the
+steam, namely 760 mm., is in equilibrium with the external pressure
+on the piston at this temperature. Place the cylinder in connexion
+with a boiler or hot body at 101° C. The water will then acquire
+the temperature of 101° C., and will absorb 1 gram-calorie of heat.
+Some waste of motive power occurs here because heat is allowed to
+pass from one body to another at a different temperature, but the
+waste in this case is so small as to be immaterial. Keep the cylinder
+in contact with the hot body at 101° C. and allow the piston to rise.
+It may be made to perform useful work as the pressure is now 27.7
+mm. (or 37.7 grams per sq. cm.) in excess of the external pressure.
+Continue the process till all the water is converted into steam.
+The heat absorbed from the hot body will be nearly 540 gram-calories,
+the latent heat of steam at this temperature. The increase
+of volume will be approximately 1620 c.c., the volume of 1 gram of
+steam at this pressure and temperature. The work done by the
+excess pressure will be 37.7 × 1620 = 61,000 gram-centimetres or
+0.61 of a kilogrammetre. Remove the hot body, and allow the
+steam to expand further till its pressure is 760 mm. and its temperature
+has fallen to 100° C. The work which might be done in this
+expansion is less than <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1000</span>th part of a kilogrammetre, and may be
+neglected for the present purpose. Place the cylinder in contact
+with the cold body at 100° C., and allow the steam to condense at
+this temperature. No work is done on the piston, because there is
+equilibrium of pressure, but a quantity of heat equal to the latent
+heat of steam at 100° C. is given to the cold body. The water is
+now in its initial condition, and the result of the process has been to
+gain 0.61 of a kilogrammetre of work by allowing 540 gram-calories
+of heat to pass from a body at 101° C. to a body at 100° C. by means
+of an ideally simple steam-engine. The work obtainable in this
+way from 1000 gram-calories of heat, or 1  kilo-calorie, would evidently
+be 1.13 kilogrammetre (= 0.61 × <span class="spp">1000</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">540</span>).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:249px" src="images/img143.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.&mdash;Elementary Carnot Cycle
+for Gas.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Taking the same range of temperature, namely 101° to 100° C.,
+we may perform a similar series of operations with air in the cylinder,
+instead of water and steam. Suppose the cylinder to contain 1
+gramme of air at 100° C. and 760 mm. pressure instead of water.
+Compress it without loss of heat (adiabatically), so as to raise its
+temperature to 101° C. Place it in contact with the hot body at
+101° C., and allow it to expand at this temperature, absorbing heat
+from the hot body, until its volume is increased by <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">374</span>th part (the
+expansion per degree at constant pressure). The quantity of heat
+absorbed in this expansion, as explained in § 14, will be the difference
+of the specific heats or the latent heat of expansion R&prime; = .069 calorie.
+Remove the hot body, and allow the gas to expand further without
+gain of heat till its temperature falls to 100° C. Compress it at
+100° C. to its original volume, abstracting the heat of compression by
+contact with the cold body at 100° C. The air is now in its original
+state, and the process has been carried out in strict accordance with
+Carnot&rsquo;s rule. The quantity of external work done in the cycle
+is easily obtained by the aid of the indicator diagram ABCD (fig. 5),
+which is approximately a parallelogram in this instance. The area
+of the diagram is equal to that of the rectangle BEHG, being the
+product of the vertical height BE, namely, the increase of pressure
+per 1° at constant volume, by the increase of volume BG, which is
+<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">273</span>rd of the volume at 0° C. and 760 mm., or 2.83 c.c. The increase
+of pressure BE is <span class="spp">760</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">373</span>, or 2.03 mm., which is equivalent to 2.76
+gm. per sq. cm. The work done in the cycle is 2.76 × 2.83 = 7.82
+gm. cm., or .0782 gram-metre. The heat absorbed at 101° C. was
+.069 gram-calorie, so that the work obtained is .0782/.069 or 1.13
+gram-metre per gram-calorie, or 1.13 kilogrammetre per kilogram-calorie.
+This result is precisely the same as that obtained by using
+steam with the same range of temperature, but a very different kind
+of cycle. Carnot in making the same calculation did not obtain quite
+so good an agreement, because the experimental data at that time
+available were not so accurate. He used the value <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">267</span> for the
+coefficient of expansion, and .267 for the specific heat of air. Moreover,
+he did not feel justified in assuming, as above, that the difference
+of the specific heats was the
+same at 100° C. as at the
+ordinary temperature of
+15° to 20° C., at which it had
+been experimentally determined.
+He made similar
+calculations for the vapour
+of alcohol, which differed
+slightly from the vapour of
+water. But the agreement
+he found was close enough
+to satisfy him that his theoretical
+deductions were correct,
+and that the resulting
+ratio of work to heat should
+be the same for all substances
+at the same temperature.</p>
+
+<p>17. <i>Carnot&rsquo;s Function.
+Variation of Efficiency with
+Temperature.</i>&mdash;By means of
+calculations, similar to those given above, Carnot endeavoured
+to find the amount of motive power obtainable from one unit of
+heat per degree fall at various temperatures with various substances.
+The value found above, namely 1.13 kilogrammetre
+per kilo-calorie per 1° fall, is the value of the efficiency per 1° fall at
+100° C. He was able to show that the efficiency per degree fall
+probably diminished with rise of temperature, but the experimental
+data at that time were too inconsistent to suggest the true relation.
+He took as the analytical expression of his principle that the efficiency
+W/H of a perfect engine taking in heat H at a temperature <i>t</i>° C.,
+and rejecting heat at the temperature 0° C., must be some function
+F<i>t</i> of the temperature <i>t</i>, which would be the same for all substances.
+The efficiency per degree fall at a temperature t he represented by
+F&prime;<i>t</i>, the derived function of F<i>t</i>. The function F&prime;<i>t</i> would be the same
+for all substances at the same temperature, but would have different
+values at different temperatures. In terms of this function, which
+is generally known as Carnot&rsquo;s function, the results obtained in the
+previous section might be expressed as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The increase of volume of a mixture of liquid and vapour per
+unit-mass vaporized at any temperature, multiplied by the increase
+of vapour-pressure per degree, is equal to the product of the function
+F&prime;<i>t</i> by the latent heat of vaporization.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The difference of the specific heats, or the latent heat of expansion
+for any substance multiplied by the function F&prime;<i>t</i>, is equal
+to the product of the expansion per degree at constant pressure by
+the increase of pressure per degree at constant volume.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Since the last two coefficients are the same for all gases if equal
+volumes are taken, Carnot concluded that: &ldquo;The difference of the
+specific heats at constant pressure and volume is the same for equal
+volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Taking the expression W = RT log <span class="su">e</span><i>r</i> for the whole work done by a
+gas obeying the gaseous laws <i>pv</i> = RT in expanding at a temperature
+T from a volume 1 (unity) to a volume <i>r</i>, or for a ratio of expansion
+r, and putting W&prime; = R log <span class="su">e</span><i>r</i> for the work done in a cycle of range 1°,
+Carnot obtained the expression for the heat absorbed by a gas in
+isothermal expansion</p>
+
+<p class="center">H = R log <span class="su">e</span><i>r</i>/F&prime;<i>t</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">He gives several important deductions which follow from this formula,
+which is the analytical expression of the experimental result already
+quoted as having been discovered subsequently by Dulong. Employing
+the above expression for the latent heat of expansion, Carnot
+deduced a general expression for the specific heat of a gas at constant
+volume on the basis of the caloric theory. He showed that if the
+specific heat was independent of the temperature (the hypothesis
+already adopted by Laplace and Poisson) the function F&prime;<i>t</i> must be
+of the form</p>
+
+<p class="center">F&prime;t = R/C (<i>t</i> + <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span>)</p>
+<div class="author">(3)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where C and <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span> are unknown constants. A similar result follows
+from his expression for the difference of the specific heats. If this is
+assumed to be constant and equal to C, the expression for F&prime;<i>t</i> becomes
+R/CT, which is the same as the above if <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span> = 273. Assuming the
+specific heat to be also independent of the volume, he shows that the
+function F&prime;t should be constant. But this assumption is inconsistent
+with the caloric theory of latent heat of expansion, which requires
+the specific heat to be a function of the volume. It appears in fact
+impossible to reconcile Carnot&rsquo;s principle with the caloric theory
+on any simple assumptions. As Carnot remarks: &ldquo;The main principles
+on which the theory of heat rests require most careful examination.
+Many experimental facts appear almost inexplicable in the
+present state of this theory.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Carnot&rsquo;s work was subsequently put in a more complete
+analytical form by B. P. E. Clapeyron (<i>Journ. de l&rsquo;Éc. polytechn.</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span>
+Paris, 1832, 14, p. 153), who also made use of Watt&rsquo;s indicator
+diagram for the first time in discussing physical problems.
+Clapeyron gave the general expressions for the latent heat of a
+vapour, and for the latent heat of isothermal expansion of any
+substance, in terms of Carnot&rsquo;s function, employing the notation
+of the calculus. The expressions he gave are the same in form as
+those in use at the present day. He also gave the general
+expression for Carnot&rsquo;s function, and endeavoured to find its
+variation with temperature; but having no better data, he
+succeeded no better than Carnot. Unfortunately, in describing
+Carnot&rsquo;s cycle, he assumed the caloric theory of heat, and made
+some unnecessary mistakes, which Carnot (who, we now know,
+was a believer in the mechanical theory) had been very careful
+to avoid. Clapeyron directs one to compress the gas at the lower
+temperature in contact with the body B <i>until the heat disengaged
+is equal to that which has been absorbed at the higher temperature</i>.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+He assumes that the gas at this point contains the same quantity
+of heat as it contained in its original state at the higher temperature,
+and that, when the body B is removed, the gas will be
+restored to its original temperature, when compressed to its
+initial volume. This mistake is still attributed to Carnot, and
+regarded as a fatal objection to his reasoning by nearly all
+writers at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>18. <i>Mechanical Theory of Heat.</i>&mdash;According to the caloric theory,
+the heat absorbed in the expansion of a gas became latent,
+like the latent heat of vaporization of a liquid, but remained
+in the gas and was again evolved on compressing the gas. This
+theory gave no explanation of the source of the motive power
+produced by expansion. The mechanical theory had explained
+the production of heat by friction as being due to transformation
+of visible motion into a brisk agitation of the ultimate molecules,
+but it had not so far given any definite explanation of the converse
+production of motive power at the expense of heat. The
+theory could not be regarded as complete until it had been
+shown that in the production of work from heat, a certain
+quantity of heat disappeared, and ceased to exist as heat; and
+that this quantity was the same as that which could be generated
+by the expenditure of the work produced. The earliest complete
+statement of the mechanical theory from this point of view
+is contained in some notes written by Carnot, about 1830, but
+published by his brother (<i>Life of Sadi Carnot</i>, Paris, 1878).
+Taking the difference of the specific heats to be .078, he estimated
+the mechanical equivalent at 370 kilogrammetres. But he
+fully recognized that there were no experimental data at that
+time available for a quantitative test of the theory, although
+it appeared to afford a good qualitative explanation of the
+phenomena. He therefore planned a number of crucial experiments
+such as the &ldquo;porous plug&rdquo; experiment, to test the
+equivalence of heat and motive power. His early death in 1836
+put a stop to these experiments, but many of them have since
+been independently carried out by other observers.</p>
+
+<p>The most obvious case of the production of work from heat
+is in the expansion of a gas or vapour, which served in the first
+instance as a means of calculating the ratio of equivalence, on
+the assumption that all the heat which disappeared had been
+transformed into work and had not merely become latent.
+Marc Séguin, in his <i>De l&rsquo;influence des chemins de fer</i> (Paris,
+1839), made a rough estimate in this manner of the mechanical
+equivalent of heat, assuming that the loss of heat represented
+by the fall of temperature of steam on expanding was equivalent
+to the mechanical effect produced by the expansion. He also
+remarks (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 382) that it was absurd to suppose that &ldquo;a
+finite quantity of heat could produce an indefinite quantity of
+mechanical action, and that it was more natural to assume
+that a certain quantity of heat disappeared in the very act of
+producing motive power.&rdquo; J. R. Mayer (<i>Liebig&rsquo;s Annalen</i>,
+1842, 42, p. 233) stated the equivalence of heat and work more
+definitely, deducing it from the old principle, <i>causa aequat
+effectum</i>. Assuming that the sinking of a mercury column by
+which a gas was compressed was equivalent to the heat set free
+by the compression, he deduced that the warming of a kilogramme
+of water 1° C. would correspond to the fall of a weight
+of one kilogramme from a height of about 365 metres. But
+Mayer did not adduce any fresh experimental evidence, and
+made no attempt to apply his theory to the fundamental
+equations of thermodynamics. It has since been urged that the
+experiment of Gay-Lussac (1807), on the expansion of gas from
+one globe to another (see above, § 11), was sufficient justification
+for the assumption tacitly involved in Mayer&rsquo;s calculation.
+But Joule was the first to supply the correct interpretation of
+this experiment, and to repeat it on an adequate scale with suitable
+precautions. Joule was also the first to measure directly
+the amount of heat liberated by the compression of a gas, and to
+prove that heat was not merely rendered latent, but disappeared
+altogether as heat, when a gas did work in expansion.</p>
+
+<p>19. <i>Joule&rsquo;s Determinations of the Mechanical Equivalent.</i>&mdash;The
+honour of placing the mechanical theory of heat on a sound
+<i>experimental</i> basis belongs almost exclusively to J. P. Joule,
+who showed by direct experiment that in all the most important
+cases in which heat was generated by the expenditure of
+mechanical work, or mechanical work was produced at the
+expense of heat, there was a constant ratio of equivalence
+between the heat generated and the work expended and vice
+versa. His first experiments were on the relation of the chemical
+and electric energy expended to the heat produced in metallic
+conductors and voltaic and electrolytic cells; these experiments
+were described in a series of papers published in the <i>Phil. Mag.</i>,
+1840-1843. He first proved the relation, known as Joule&rsquo;s
+law, that the heat produced in a conductor of resistance R by
+a current C is proportional to C²R per second. He went on to
+show that the total heat produced in any voltaic circuit was
+proportional to the electromotive force E of the battery and
+to the number of equivalents electrolysed in it. Faraday had
+shown that electromotive force depends on chemical affinity.
+Joule measured the corresponding heats of combustion, and
+showed that the electromotive force corresponding to a chemical
+reaction is proportional to the heat of combustion of the electrochemical
+equivalent. He also measured the E.M.F. required
+to decompose water, and showed that when part of the electric
+energy EC is thus expended in a voltameter, the heat generated
+is less than the heat of combustion corresponding to EC by a
+quantity representing the heat of combustion of the decomposed
+gases. His papers so far had been concerned with the relations
+between electrical energy, chemical energy and heat which
+he showed to be mutually equivalent. The first paper in which
+he discussed the relation of heat to mechanical power was entitled
+&ldquo;On the Calorific Effects of Magneto-Electricity, and on the
+Mechanical Value of Heat&rdquo; (<i>Brit. Assoc.</i>, 1843; <i>Phil. Mag.</i>,
+23, p. 263). In this paper he showed that the heat produced
+by currents generated by magneto-electric induction followed
+the same law as voltaic currents. By a simple and ingenious
+arrangement he succeeded in measuring the mechanical power
+expended in producing the currents, and deduced the mechanical
+equivalent of heat and of electrical energy. The amount of
+mechanical work required to raise 1 &#8468; of water 1° F. (1
+B.Th.U.), as found by this method, was 838 foot-pounds. In
+a note added to the paper he states that he found the value
+770 foot-pounds by the more direct method of forcing water
+through fine tubes. In a paper &ldquo;On the Changes of Temperature
+produced by the Rarefaction and Condensation of Air&rdquo; (<i>Phil.
+Mag.</i>, May 1845), he made the first direct measurements of
+the quantity of heat disengaged by compressing air, and also
+of the heat absorbed when the air was allowed to expand against
+atmospheric pressure; as the result he deduced the value 798
+foot-pounds for the mechanical equivalent of 1 B.Th.U. He also
+showed that there was no appreciable absorption of heat when
+air was allowed to expand in such a manner as not to develop
+mechanical power, and he pointed out that the mechanical
+equivalent of heat could not be satisfactorily deduced from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span>
+the relations of the specific heats, because the knowledge of
+the specific heats of gases at that time was of so uncertain a
+character. He attributed most weight to his later determinations
+of the mechanical equivalent made by the direct method
+of friction of liquids. He showed that the results obtained with
+different liquids, water, mercury and sperm oil, were the same,
+namely, 782 foot-pounds; and finally repeating the method with
+water, using all the precautions and improvements which his experience
+had suggested, he obtained the value 772 foot-pounds,
+which was accepted universally for many years, and has only
+recently required alteration on account of the more exact definition
+of the heat unit, and the standard scale of temperature (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>). The great value of Joule&rsquo;s work for the general
+establishment of the principle of the conservation of energy
+lay in the variety and completeness of the experimental evidence
+he adduced. It was not sufficient to find the relation between
+heat and mechanical work or other forms of energy in one
+particular case. It was necessary to show that the same relation
+held in all cases which could be examined experimentally, and
+that the ratio of equivalence of the different forms of energy,
+measured in different ways, was independent of the manner in
+which the conversion was effected and of the material or working
+substance employed.</p>
+
+<p>As the result of Joule&rsquo;s experiments, we are justified in concluding
+that heat is a form of energy, and that all its transformations
+are subject to the general principle of the conservation
+of energy. As applied to heat, the principle is called the first
+law of thermodynamics, and may be stated as follows:
+<i>When heat is transformed into any other kind of energy, or vice
+versa, the total quantity of energy remains invariable; that is to
+say, the quantity of heat which disappears is equivalent to the
+quantity of the other kind of energy produced and vice versa.</i></p>
+
+<p>The number of units of mechanical work equivalent to one unit
+of heat is generally called the mechanical equivalent of heat, or
+Joule&rsquo;s equivalent, and is denoted by the letter J. Its numerical
+value depends on the units employed for heat and mechanical
+energy respectively. The values of the equivalent in terms of
+the units most commonly employed at the present time are as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;777 foot-pounds (Lat. 45°)</td> <td class="tcl">are equivalent to</td> <td class="tcl">1 B.Th.U. (&#8468; deg. Fahr.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1399 foot-pounds &emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">1 &#8468; deg. C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">426.3 kilogrammetres</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">1 kilogram-deg. C. or kilo-calorie.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">426.3 grammetres</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">1 gram-deg. C. or calorie.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">4.180 joules</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">1 gram-deg. C. or calorie.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The water for the heat units is supposed to be taken at 20° C.
+or 68° F., and the degree of temperature is supposed to be
+measured by the hydrogen thermometer. The acceleration of
+gravity in latitude 45° is taken as 980.7 C.G.S. For details of
+more recent and accurate methods of determination, the reader
+should refer to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>, where tables of the
+variation of the specific heat of water with temperature are also
+given.</p>
+
+<p>The second law of thermodynamics is a title often used to
+denote Carnot&rsquo;s principle or some equivalent mathematical
+expression. In some cases this title is not conferred on Carnot&rsquo;s
+principle itself, but on some axiom from which the principle
+may be indirectly deduced. These axioms, however, cannot
+as a rule be directly applied, so that it would appear preferable
+to take Carnot&rsquo;s principle itself as the second law. It may be
+observed that, as a matter of history, Carnot&rsquo;s principle was
+established and generally admitted before the principle of the
+conservation of energy as applied to heat, and that from this point
+of view the titles, first and second laws, are not particularly
+appropriate.</p>
+
+<p>20. <i>Combination of Carnot&rsquo;s Principle with the Mechanical
+Theory</i>.&mdash;A very instructive paper, as showing the state of the
+science of heat about this time, is that of C. H. A. Holtzmann,
+&ldquo;On the Heat and Elasticity of Gases and Vapours&rdquo; (Mannheim,
+1845; Taylor&rsquo;s <i>Scientific Memoirs</i>, iv. 189). He points out
+that the theory of Laplace and Poisson does not agree with
+facts when applied to vapours, and that Clapeyron&rsquo;s formulae,
+though probably correct, contain an undetermined function
+(Carnot&rsquo;s F&prime;<i>t</i>, Clapeyron&rsquo;s 1/C) of the temperature. He determines
+the value of this function to be J/T by assuming, with
+Séguin and Mayer, that the work done in the isothermal expansion
+of a gas is a measure of the heat absorbed. From the then
+accepted value .078 of the difference of the specific heats of air,
+he finds the numerical value of J to be 374 kilogrammetres per
+kilo-calorie. <i>Assuming the heat equivalent of the work to remain
+in the gas</i>, he obtains expressions similar to Clapeyron&rsquo;s for the
+total heat and the specific heats. In consequence of this assumption,
+the formulae he obtained for adiabatic expansion were
+necessarily wrong, but no data existed at that time for testing
+them. In applying his formulae to vapours, he obtained an
+expression for the saturation-pressure of steam, which agreed with
+the empirical formula of Roche, and satisfied other experimental
+data on the supposition that the coefficient of expansion of steam
+was .00423, and its specific heat 1.69&mdash;values which are now
+known to be impossible, but which appeared at the time to give
+a very satisfactory explanation of the phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>The essay of Hermann Helmholtz, <i>On the Conservation of
+Force</i> (Berlin, 1847), discusses all the known cases of the transformation
+of energy, and is justly regarded as one of the chief
+landmarks in the establishment of the energy-principle. Helmholtz
+gives an admirable statement of the fundamental principle
+as applied to heat, but makes no attempt to formulate the correct
+equations of thermodynamics on the mechanical theory. He
+points out the fallacy of Holtzmann&rsquo;s (and Mayer&rsquo;s) calculation
+of the equivalent, but admits that it is supported by Joule&rsquo;s
+experiments, though he does not seem to appreciate the true
+value of Joule&rsquo;s work. He considers that Holtzmann&rsquo;s formulae
+are well supported by experiment, and are much preferable to
+Clapeyron&rsquo;s, because the value of the undetermined function
+F&prime;<i>t</i> is found. But he fails to notice that Holtzmann&rsquo;s equations
+are fundamentally inconsistent with the conservation of energy,
+because the heat equivalent of the external work done is supposed
+to remain in the gas.</p>
+
+<p>That a quantity of heat equivalent to the work performed
+actually disappears when a gas does work in expansion, was first
+shown by Joule in the paper on condensation and rarefaction
+of air (1845) already referred to. At the conclusion of this paper
+he felt justified by direct experimental evidence in reasserting
+definitely the hypothesis of Séguin (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 383) that &ldquo;the
+steam while expanding in the cylinder loses heat in quantity
+exactly proportional to the mechanical force developed, and that
+on the condensation of the steam the heat thus converted into
+power is not given back.&rdquo; He did not see his way to reconcile
+this conclusion with Clapeyron&rsquo;s description of Carnot&rsquo;s cycle.
+At a later date, in a letter to Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
+(1848), he pointed out that, since, according to his own experiments,
+the work done in the expansion of a gas at constant
+temperature is equivalent to the heat absorbed, by equating
+Carnot&rsquo;s expressions (given in § 17) for the work done and the
+heat absorbed, the value of Carnot&rsquo;s function F&prime;<i>t</i> must be equal to
+J/T, in order to reconcile his principle with the mechanical
+theory.</p>
+
+<p>Professor W. Thomson gave an account of Carnot&rsquo;s theory
+(<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i>, Jan. 1849), in which he recognized the
+discrepancy between Clapeyron&rsquo;s statement and Joule&rsquo;s experiments,
+but did not see his way out of the difficulty. He therefore
+adopted Carnot&rsquo;s principle provisionally, and proceeded
+to calculate a table of values of Carnot&rsquo;s function F&prime;<i>t</i>, from
+the values of the total-heat and vapour-pressure of steam-then
+recently determined by Regnault (<i>Mémoires de l&rsquo;Institut de Paris</i>,
+1847). In making the calculation, he assumed that the specific
+volume v of saturated steam at any temperature T and pressure
+<i>p</i> is that given by the gaseous laws, <i>pv</i> = RT. The results are
+otherwise correct so far as Regnault&rsquo;s data are accurate, because
+the values of the efficiency per degree F&prime;t are not affected by any
+assumption with regard to the nature of heat. He obtained the
+values of the efficiency F&prime;<i>t</i> over a finite range from <i>t</i> to 0° C., by
+adding up the values of F&prime;<i>t</i> for the separate degrees. This latter
+proceeding is inconsistent with the mechanical theory, but is the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span>
+correct method on the assumption that the heat given up to the
+condenser is equal to that taken from the source. The values he
+obtained for F&prime;<i>t</i> agreed very well with those previously given by
+Carnot and Clapeyron, and showed that this function diminishes
+with rise of temperature roughly in the inverse ratio of T, as
+suggested by Joule.</p>
+
+<p>R. J. E. Clausius (<i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1850, 79, p. 369) and W. J. M.
+Rankine (<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i>, 1850) were the first to develop
+the correct equations of thermodynamics on the mechanical
+theory. When heat was supplied to a body to change its temperature
+or state, part remained in the body as intrinsic heat energy
+E, but part was converted into external work of expansion W
+and ceased to exist as heat. The part remaining in the body was
+always the same for the same change of state, however performed,
+as required by Carnot&rsquo;s fundamental axiom, but the part corresponding
+to the external work was necessarily different for
+different values of the work done. Thus in any cycle in which
+the body was exactly restored to its initial state, the heat
+remaining in the body would always be the same, or as Carnot
+puts it, the quantities of heat absorbed and given out in its
+diverse transformations are exactly &ldquo;compensated,&rdquo; so far as
+the body is concerned. But the quantities of heat absorbed and
+given out are not necessarily equal. On the contrary, they differ
+by the equivalent of the external work done in the cycle. Applying
+this principle to the case of steam, Clausius deduced a fact
+previously unknown, that the specific heat of steam maintained
+in a state of saturation is negative, which was also deduced by
+Rankine (<i>loc. cit.</i>) about the same time. In applying the principle
+to gases Clausius assumes (with Mayer and Holtzmann) that the
+heat absorbed by a gas in isothermal expansion is equivalent
+to the work done, but he does not appear to be acquainted with
+Joule&rsquo;s experiment, and the reasons he adduces in support of
+this assumption are not conclusive. This being admitted, he
+deduces from the energy principle alone the propositions already
+given by Carnot with reference to gases, and shows in addition
+that the specific heat of a perfect gas must be independent
+of the density. In the second part of his paper he introduces
+Carnot&rsquo;s principle, which he quotes as follows: &ldquo;The performance
+of work is equivalent to a transference of heat from a hot
+to a cold body without the quantity of heat being thereby
+diminished.&rdquo; This is not Carnot&rsquo;s way of stating his principle
+(see § 15), but has the effect of exaggerating the importance of
+Clapeyron&rsquo;s unnecessary assumption. By equating the expressions
+given by Carnot for the work done and the heat absorbed
+in the expansion of a gas, he deduces (following Holtzmann)
+the value J/T for Carnot&rsquo;s function F&prime;<i>t</i> (which Clapeyron
+denotes by 1/C). He shows that this assumption gives values of
+Carnot&rsquo;s function which agree fairly well with those calculated
+by Clapeyron and Thomson, and that it leads to values of the
+mechanical equivalent not differing greatly from those of Joule.
+Substituting the value J/T for C in the analytical expressions
+given by Clapeyron for the latent heat of expansion and vaporization,
+these relations are immediately reduced to their modern
+form (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermodynamics</a></span>, § 4). Being unacquainted with
+Carnot&rsquo;s original work, but recognizing the invalidity of
+Clapeyron&rsquo;s description of Carnot&rsquo;s cycle, Clausius substituted
+a proof consistent with the mechanical theory, which he based
+on the axiom that &ldquo;heat cannot of itself pass from cold to hot.&rdquo;
+The proof on this basis involves the application of the energy
+principle, which does not appear to be necessary, and the axiom
+to which final appeal is made does not appear more convincing
+than Carnot&rsquo;s. Strange to say, Clausius did not in this paper
+give the expression for the efficiency in a Carnot cycle of finite
+range (Carnot&rsquo;s F<i>t</i>) which follows immediately from the value
+J/T assumed for the efficiency F&prime;t of a cycle of infinitesimal range
+at the temperature <i>t</i> C or T Abs.</p>
+
+<p>Rankine did not make the same assumption as Clausius
+explicitly, but applied the mechanical theory of heat to the
+development of his hypothesis of molecular vortices, and deduced
+from it a number of results similar to those obtained by Clausius.
+Unfortunately the paper (<i>loc. cit.</i>) was not published till some
+time later, but in a summary given in the <i>Phil. Mag.</i> (July 1851)
+the principal results were detailed. Assuming the value of
+Joule&rsquo;s equivalent, Rankine deduced the value 0.2404 for the
+specific heat of air at constant pressure, in place of 0.267 as
+found by Delaroche and Bérard. The subsequent verification
+of this value by Regnault (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1853) afforded strong
+confirmation of the accuracy of Joule&rsquo;s work. In a note appended
+to the abstract in the <i>Phil. Mag.</i> Rankine states that he has
+succeeded in proving that the maximum efficiency of an engine
+working in a Carnot cycle of finite range <i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> to <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span> is of the form
+(<i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> &minus; <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span>) / (<i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> &minus; <i>k</i>), where <i>k</i> is a constant, the same for all substances.
+This is correct if <i>t</i> represents temperature Centigrade, and
+<i>k</i> = &minus;273.</p>
+
+<p>Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in a paper &ldquo;On the
+Dynamical Theory of Heat&rdquo; (<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i>, 1851,
+first published in the <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1852) gave a very clear statement
+of the position of the theory at that time. He showed
+that the value F&prime;<i>t</i> = J/T, assumed for Carnot&rsquo;s function by
+Clausius without any experimental justification, rested solely
+on the evidence of Joule&rsquo;s experiment, and might possibly not
+be true at all temperatures. Assuming the value J/T with this
+reservation, he gave as the expression for the efficiency over a
+finite range <i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> to <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span> C., or T<span class="su">1</span> to T<span class="su">0</span> Abs., the result,</p>
+
+<p class="center">W/H = (<i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> &minus; <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span>) / (<i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> + 273) = (T<span class="su">1</span> &minus; T<span class="su">0</span>) / T<span class="su">1</span></p>
+<div class="author">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">which, he observed, agrees in form with that found by Rankine.</p>
+
+<p>21. <i>The Absolute Scale of Temperature.</i>&mdash;Since Carnot&rsquo;s
+function is the same for all substances at the same temperature,
+and is a function of the temperature only, it supplies a means of
+measuring temperature independently of the properties of any
+particular substance. This proposal was first made by Lord
+Kelvin (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1848), who suggested that the degree of
+temperature should be chosen so that the efficiency of a perfect
+engine at any point of the scale should be the same, or that
+Carnot&rsquo;s function F&prime;t should be constant. This would give the
+simplest expression for the efficiency on the caloric theory, but
+the scale so obtained, when the values of Carnot&rsquo;s function were
+calculated from Regnault&rsquo;s observations on steam, was found to
+differ considerably from the scale of the mercury or air-thermometer.
+At a later date, when it became clear that the value
+of Carnot&rsquo;s function was very nearly proportional to the reciprocal
+of the temperature T measured from the absolute zero
+of the gas thermometer, he proposed a simpler method (<i>Phil.
+Trans.</i>, 1854), namely, to define absolute temperature &theta; as
+proportional to the reciprocal of Carnot&rsquo;s function. On this
+definition of absolute temperature, the expression (&theta;<span class="su">1</span> &minus; &theta;<span class="su">0</span>) / &theta;<span class="su">1</span>
+for the efficiency of a Carnot cycle with limits &theta;<span class="su">1</span> and &theta;<span class="su">0</span> would
+be exact, and it became a most important problem to determine
+how far the temperature T by gas thermometer differed from
+the absolute temperature &theta;. With this object he devised a very
+delicate method, known as the &ldquo;porous plug experiment&rdquo;
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermodynamics</a></span>) of testing the deviation of the gas
+thermometer from the absolute scale. The experiments were
+carried out in conjunction with Joule, and finally resulted in
+showing (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1862, &ldquo;On the Thermal Effects of
+Fluids in Motion&rdquo;) that the deviations of the air thermometer
+from the absolute scale as above defined are almost negligible,
+and that in the case of the gas hydrogen the deviations are
+so small that a thermometer containing this gas may be
+taken for all practical purposes as agreeing exactly with the
+absolute scale at all ordinary temperatures. For this reason
+the hydrogen thermometer has since been generally adopted as
+the standard.</p>
+
+<p>22. <i>Availability of Heat of Combustion.</i>&mdash;Taking the value
+1.13 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie for 1° C. fall of temperature
+at 100° C., Carnot attempted to estimate the possible performance
+of a steam-engine receiving heat at 160° C. and rejecting
+it at 40° C. Assuming the performance to be simply proportional
+to the temperature fall, the work done for 120° fall would be
+134 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie. To make an accurate
+calculation required a knowledge of the variation of the function
+F&prime;t with temperature. Taking the accurate formula of § 20, the
+work obtainable is 118 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie, which is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span>
+28% of 426, the mechanical equivalent of the kilo-calorie in
+kilogrammetres. Carnot pointed out that the fall of 120° C.
+utilized in the steam-engine was only a small fraction of the
+whole temperature fall obtainable by combustion, and made an
+estimate of the total power available if the whole fall could be
+utilized, allowing for the probable diminution of the function
+F&prime;<i>t</i> with rise of temperature. His estimate was 3.9 million
+kilogrammetres per kilogramme of coal. This was certainly
+an over-estimate, but was surprisingly close, considering the
+scanty data at his disposal.</p>
+
+<p>In reality the fraction of the heat of combustion available,
+even in an ideal engine and apart from practical limitations, is
+much less than might be inferred from the efficiency formula of
+the Carnot cycle. In applying this formula to estimate the
+availability of the heat it is usual to take the temperature
+obtainable by the combustion of the fuel as the upper limit of
+temperature in the formula. For carbon burnt <i>in air</i> at constant
+pressure without any loss of heat, the products of combustion
+might be raised 2300° C. in temperature, assuming that the
+specific heats of the products were constant and that there was
+no dissociation. If all the heat could be supplied to the working
+fluid at this temperature, that of the condenser being 40° C.,
+the possible efficiency by the formula of § 20 would be 89%.
+But the combustion obviously cannot maintain so high a temperature
+if heat is being continuously abstracted by a boiler.
+Suppose that &theta;&prime; is the maximum temperature of combustion as
+above estimated, &theta;&rdquo; the temperature of the boiler, and &theta;<span class="sp">0</span> that
+of the condenser. Of the whole heat supplied by combustion
+represented by the rise of temperature &theta;&prime; &minus; &theta;<span class="sp">0</span>, the fraction
+(&theta;&prime; &minus; &theta;&Prime;) / (&theta;&prime; &minus; &theta;<span class="sp">0</span>) is the maximum that could be supplied to the
+boiler, the fraction (&theta;&Prime; &minus; &theta;<span class="sp">0</span>) / (&theta;&prime; &minus; &theta;<span class="sp">0</span>) being carried away with the
+waste gases. Of the heat supplied to the boiler, the fraction
+(&theta;&prime; &minus; &theta;<span class="sp">0</span>) / &theta;&Prime; might theoretically be converted into work. The
+problem in the case of an engine using a separate working fluid,
+like a steam-engine, is to find what must be the temperature &theta;&Prime;
+of the boiler in order to obtain the largest possible fraction of the
+heat of combustion in the form of work. It is easy to show that &theta;&rdquo;
+must be the geometric mean of &theta;&prime; and &theta;<span class="sp">0</span>, or &theta;&Prime; = &radic;<span class="ov">&theta;&prime;&theta;</span><span class="sp">0</span>. Taking
+&theta;&prime; &minus; &theta;<span class="sp">0</span> = 2300° C., and &theta;<span class="sp">0</span> = 313° Abs. as before, we find &theta;&Prime; =
+903° Abs. or 630° C. The heat supplied to the boiler is then
+74.4% of the heat of combustion, and of this 65.3% is converted
+into work, giving a maximum possible efficiency of 49% in
+place of 89%. With the boiler at 160° C., the possible efficiency,
+calculated in a similar manner, would be 26.3%, which shows
+that the possible increase of efficiency by increasing the temperature
+range is not so great as is usually supposed. If the
+temperature of the boiler were raised to 300° C., corresponding
+to a pressure of 1260 &#8468; per sq. in., which is occasionally surpassed
+in modern flash-boilers, the possible efficiency would be 40%.
+The waste heat from the boiler, supposed perfectly efficient,
+would be in this case 11%, of which less than a quarter could
+be utilized in the form of work. Carnot foresaw that in order
+to utilize a larger percentage of the heat of combustion it would
+be necessary to employ a series of working fluids, the waste heat
+from one boiler and condenser serving to supply the next in the
+series. This has actually been effected in a few cases, <i>e.g.</i>
+steam and SO<span class="su">2</span>, when special circumstances exist to compensate
+for the extra complication. Improvements in the steam-engine
+since Carnot&rsquo;s time have been mainly in the direction of reducing
+waste due to condensation and leakage by multiple expansion,
+superheating, &amp;c. The gain by increased temperature range
+has been comparatively small owing to limitations of pressure,
+and the best modern steam-engines do not utilize more than 20%
+of the heat of combustion. This is in reality a very respectable
+fraction of the ideal limit of 40% above calculated on the
+assumption of 1260 &#8468; initial pressure, with a perfectly efficient
+boiler and complete expansion, and with an ideal engine which
+does not waste available motive power by complete condensation
+of the steam before it is returned to the boiler.</p>
+
+<p>23. <i>Advantages of Internal Combustion.</i>&mdash;As Carnot pointed
+out, the chief advantage of using atmospheric air as a working
+fluid in a heat-engine lies in the possibility of imparting heat to
+it directly by internal combustion. This avoids the limitation
+imposed by the use of a separate boiler, which as we have seen
+reduces the possible efficiency at least 50%. Even with internal
+combustion, however, the full range of temperature is not
+available, because the heat cannot conveniently in practice
+be communicated to the working fluid at constant temperature,
+owing to the large range of expansion at constant temperature
+required for the absorption of a sufficient quantity of heat.
+Air-engines of this type, such as Stirling&rsquo;s or Ericsson&rsquo;s, taking
+in heat at constant temperature, though theoretically the most
+perfect, are bulky and mechanically inefficient. In practical
+engines the heat is generated by the combustion of an explosive
+mixture at constant volume or at constant pressure. The heat
+is not all communicated at the highest temperature, but over
+a range of temperature from that of the mixture at the beginning
+of combustion to the maximum temperature. The earliest
+instance of this type of engine is the lycopodium engine of
+M. M. Niepce, discussed by Carnot, in which a combustible
+mixture of air and lycopodium powder at atmospheric pressure
+was ignited in a cylinder, and did work on a piston. The
+early gas-engines of E. Lenoir (1860) and N. Otto and E.
+Langen (1866), operated in a similar manner with illuminating
+gas in place of lycopodium. Combustion in this case is effected
+practically at constant volume, and the maximum efficiency
+theoretically obtainable is 1 &minus; log<span class="su">e</span><i>r</i> / (<i>r</i> &minus; 1), where <i>r</i> is the ratio
+of the maximum temperature &theta;&prime; to the initial temperature &theta;<span class="sp">0</span>.
+In order to obtain this efficiency it would be necessary to follow
+Carnot&rsquo;s rule, and expand the gas after ignition without loss
+or gain of heat from &theta;&prime; down to &theta;<span class="sp">0</span>, and then to compress it
+at &theta;<span class="sp">0</span> to its initial volume. If the rise of temperature in combustion
+were 2300° C., and the initial temperature were 0° C.
+or 273° Abs., the theoretical efficiency would be 73.3%, which
+is much greater than that obtainable with a boiler. But in
+order to reach this value, it would be necessary to expand the
+mixture to about 270 times its initial volume, which is obviously
+impracticable. Owing to incomplete expansion and rapid
+cooling of the heated gases by the large surface exposed, the
+actual efficiency of the Lenoir engine was less than 5%, and of
+the Otto and Langen, with more rapid expansion, about 10%.
+Carnot foresaw that in order to render an engine of this type
+practically efficient, it would be necessary to compress the
+mixture before ignition. Compression is beneficial in three
+ways: (1) it permits a greater range of expansion after ignition;
+(2) it raises the mean effective pressure, and thus improves the
+mechanical efficiency and the power in proportion to size and
+weight; (3) it reduces the loss of heat during ignition by reducing
+the surface exposed to the hot gases. In the modern gas or
+petrol motor, compression is employed as in Carnot&rsquo;s cycle,
+but the efficiency attainable is limited not so much by considerations
+of temperature as by limitations of volume. It is impracticable
+before combustion at constant volume to compress a rich
+mixture to much less than <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span>th of its initial volume, and, for
+mechanical simplicity, the range of expansion is made equal
+to that of compression. The cycle employed was patented
+in 1862 by Beau de Rochas (d. 1892), but was first successfully
+carried out by Otto (1876). It differs from the Carnot cycle
+in employing reception and rejection of heat at constant volume
+instead of at constant temperature. This cycle is not so efficient
+as the Carnot cycle for given limits of temperature, but, <i>for the
+given limits of volume imposed</i>, it gives a much higher efficiency
+than the Carnot cycle. The efficiency depends only on the
+range of temperature in expansion and compression, and is
+given by the formula (&theta;&prime; &minus; &theta;&Prime;) / &theta;&prime;, where &theta;&prime; is the maximum
+temperature, and &theta;&Prime; the temperature at the end of expansion.
+The formula is the same as that for the Carnot cycle with the
+same range of temperature in expansion. The ratio &theta;&prime; / &theta;&Prime; is
+<i>r</i><span class="sp">&gamma;&minus;1</span>, where <i>r</i> is the given ratio of expansion or compression,
+and &gamma; is the ratio of the specific heats of the working fluid.
+Assuming the working fluid to be a perfect gas with the same
+properties as air, we should have &gamma; = 1.41. Taking <i>r</i> = 5, the
+formula gives 48% for the maximum possible efficiency. The
+actual products of combustion vary with the nature of the fuel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span>
+employed, and have different properties from air, but the
+efficiency is found to vary with compression in the same manner
+as for air. For this reason a committee of the Institution of Civil
+Engineers in 1905 recommended the adoption of the air-standard
+for estimating the effects of varying the compression ratio,
+and defined the relative efficiency of an internal combustion
+engine as the ratio of its observed efficiency to that of a perfect
+air-engine with the same compression.</p>
+
+<p>24. <i>Effect of Dissociation, and Increase of Specific Heat.</i>&mdash;One
+of the most important effects of heat is the decomposition or
+dissociation of compound molecules. Just as the molecules
+of a vapour combine with evolution of heat to form the more
+complicated molecules of the liquid, and as the liquid molecules
+require the addition of heat to effect their separation into
+molecules of vapour; so in the case of molecules of different
+kinds which combine with evolution of heat, the reversal of the
+process can be effected either by the agency of heat, or indirectly
+by supplying the requisite amount of energy by electrical or
+other methods. Just as the latent heat of vaporization diminishes
+with rise of temperature, and the pressure of the dissociated
+vapour molecules increases, so in the case of compound molecules
+in general the heat of combination diminishes with rise of temperature,
+and the pressure of the products of dissociation increases.
+There is evidence that the compound carbon dioxide, CO<span class="su">2</span>, is
+partly dissociated into carbon monoxide and oxygen at high
+temperatures, and that the proportion dissociated increases
+with rise of temperature. There is a very close analogy between
+these phenomena and the vaporization of a liquid. The laws
+which govern dissociation are the same fundamental laws of
+thermodynamics, but the relations involved are necessarily
+more complex on account of the presence of different kinds of
+molecules, and present special difficulties for accurate investigation
+in the case where dissociation does not begin to be appreciable
+until a high temperature is reached. It is easy, however, to
+see that the general effect of dissociation must be to diminish
+the available temperature of combustion, and all experiments
+go to show that in ordinary combustible mixtures the rise of
+temperature actually attained is much less than that calculated
+as in § 22, on the assumption that the whole heat of combustion
+is developed and communicated to products of constant specific
+heat. The defect of temperature observed can be represented
+by supposing that the specific heat of the products of combustion
+increases with rise of temperature. This is the case for CO<span class="su">2</span>
+even at ordinary temperatures, according to Regnault, and
+probably also for air and steam at higher temperatures. Increase
+of specific heat is a necessary accompaniment of dissociation,
+and from some points of view may be regarded as merely another
+way of stating the facts. It is the most convenient method to
+adopt in the case of products of combustion consisting of a
+mixture of CO<span class="su">2</span> and steam with a large excess of inert gases,
+because the relations of equilibrium of dissociated molecules
+of so many different kinds would be too complex to permit of
+any other method of expression. It appears from the researches
+of Dugald Clerk, H. le Chatelier and others that the apparent
+specific heat of the products of combustion in a gas-engine
+may be taken as approximately .34 to .33 in place of .24 at
+working temperatures between 1000° C. and 1700° C., and that
+the ratio of the specific heats is about 1.29 in place of 1.41.
+This limits the availability of the heat of combustion by reducing
+the rise of temperature actually obtainable in combustion at
+constant volume by 30 or 40%, and also by reducing the range
+of temperature &theta;&prime; / &theta;&Prime; for a given ratio of expansions r from <i>r</i><span class="sp">.41</span> to
+<i>r</i><span class="sp">.29</span>. The formula given in § 21 is no longer quite exact, because
+the ratio of the specific heats of the mixture during compression is
+not the same as that of the products of combustion during
+expansion. But since the work done depends principally on the
+expansion curve, the ratio of the range of temperature in expansion
+(&theta;&prime; &minus; &theta;&Prime;) to the maximum temperature &theta;&prime; will still give
+a very good approximation to the possible efficiency. Taking
+<i>r</i> = 5, as before, for the compression ratio, the possible efficiency
+is reduced from 48% to 38%, if &gamma; = 1.29 instead of 1.41. A
+large gas-engine of the present day with <i>r</i> = 5 may actually
+realize as much as 34% indicated efficiency, which is 90% of
+the maximum possible, showing how perfectly all avoidable heat
+losses have been minimized.</p>
+
+<p>It is often urged that the gas-engine is relatively less efficient
+than the steam-engine, because, although it has a much higher
+absolute efficiency, it does not utilize so large a fraction of its
+temperature range, reckoning that of the steam-engine from the
+temperature of the boiler to that of the condenser, and that of
+the gas-engine from the maximum temperature of combustion
+to that of the air. This is not quite fair, and has given rise to the
+mistaken notion that &ldquo;there is an immense margin for improvement
+in the gas-engine,&rdquo; which is not the case if the practical
+limitations of volume are rightly considered. If expansion could
+be carried out in accordance with Carnot&rsquo;s principle of maximum
+efficiency, down to the lower limit of temperature &theta;<span class="su">0</span>, with
+rejection of heat at &theta;<span class="su">0</span> during compression to the original volume
+V<span class="su">0</span>, it would no doubt be possible to obtain an ideal efficiency of
+nearly 80%. But this would be quite impracticable, as it would
+require expansion to about 100 times v<span class="su">0</span>, or 500 times the compression
+volume. Some advantage no doubt might be obtained
+by carrying the expansion beyond the original volume. This
+has been done, but is not found to be worth the extra complication.
+A more practical method, which has been applied by
+Diesel for liquid fuel, is to introduce the fuel at the end of
+compression, and adjust the supply in such a manner as to give
+combustion at nearly constant pressure. This makes it possible
+to employ higher compression, with a corresponding increase
+in the ratio of expansion and the theoretical efficiency. With a
+compression ratio of 14, an indicated efficiency of 40% has been
+obtained In this way, but owing to additional complications the
+brake efficiency was only 31%, which is hardly any improvement
+on the brake efficiency of 30% obtained with the ordinary
+type of gas-engine. Although Carnot&rsquo;s principle makes it possible
+to calculate in every case what the limiting possible efficiency
+would be for any kind of cycle if all heat losses were abolished,
+it is very necessary, in applying the principle to practical cases,
+to take account of the possibility of avoiding the heat losses
+which are supposed to be absent, and of other practical limitations
+in the working of the actual engine. An immense amount
+of time and ingenuity has been wasted in striving to realize
+impossible margins of ideal efficiency, which a close study of
+the practical conditions would have shown to be illusory. As
+Carnot remarks at the conclusion of his essay: &ldquo;Economy of
+fuel is only one of the conditions a heat-engine must satisfy;
+in many cases it is only secondary, and must often give way to
+considerations of safety, strength and wearing qualities of the
+machine, of smallness of space occupied, or of expense in erecting.
+To know how to appreciate justly in each case the considerations
+of convenience and economy, to be able to distinguish the
+essential from the accessory, to balance all fairly, and finally
+to arrive at the best result by the simplest means, such must be
+the principal talent of the man called on to direct and co-ordinate
+the work of his fellows for the attainment of a useful object of
+any kind.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Transference of Heat</p>
+
+<p>25. <i>Modes of Transference.</i>&mdash;There are three principal modes
+of transference of heat, namely (1) convection, (2) conduction,
+and (3) radiation.</p>
+
+<p>(1) In convection, heat is carried or conveyed by the motion
+of heated masses of matter. The most familiar illustrations of
+this method of transference are the heating of buildings by the
+circulation of steam or hot water, or the equalization of temperature
+of a mass of unequally heated liquid or gas by convection
+currents, produced by natural changes of density or by artificial
+stirring. (2) In conduction, heat is transferred by contact
+between contiguous particles of matter and is passed on from
+one particle to the next without visible relative motion of the
+parts of the body. A familiar illustration of conduction is the
+passage of heat through the metal plates of a boiler from the
+fire to the water inside, or the transference of heat from a soldering
+bolt to the solder and the metal with which it is placed in contact.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span>
+(3) In radiation, the heated body gives rise to a motion of
+vibration in the aether, which is propagated equally in all
+directions, and is reconverted into heat when it encounters any
+obstacle capable of absorbing it. Thus radiation differs from
+conduction and convection in taking place most perfectly in the
+absence of matter, whereas conduction and convection require
+material communication between the bodies concerned.</p>
+
+<p>In the majority of cases of transference of heat all three
+modes of transference are simultaneously operative in a greater
+or less degree, and the combined effect is generally of great
+complexity. The different modes of transference are subject
+to widely different laws, and the difficulty of disentangling their
+effects and subjecting them to calculation is often one of the
+most serious obstacles in the experimental investigation of heat.
+In space void of matter, we should have pure radiation, but it
+is difficult to obtain so perfect a vacuum that the effects of the
+residual gas in transferring heat by conduction or convection
+are inappreciable. In the interior of an opaque solid we should
+have pure conduction, but if the solid is sensibly transparent
+in thin layers there must also be an internal radiation,
+while in a liquid or a gas it is very difficult to eliminate the effects
+of convection. These difficulties are well illustrated in the
+historical development of the subject by the experimental
+investigations which have been made to determine the laws of
+heat-transference, such as the laws of cooling, of radiation
+and of conduction.</p>
+
+<p>26. <i>Newton&rsquo;s Law of Cooling.</i>&mdash;There is one essential condition
+common to all three modes of heat-transference, namely, that
+they depend on difference of temperature, that the direction
+of the transfer of heat is always from hot to cold, and that the
+rate of transference is, for small differences, directly proportional
+to the difference of temperature. Without difference of temperature
+there is no transfer of heat. When two bodies have been
+brought to the same temperature by conduction, they are also in
+equilibrium as regards radiation, and vice versa. If this were
+not the case, there could be no equilibrium of heat defined by
+equality of temperature. A hot body placed in an enclosure of
+lower temperature, <i>e.g.</i> a calorimeter in its containing vessel,
+generally loses heat by all three modes simultaneously in different
+degrees. The loss by each mode will depend in different ways
+on the form, extent and nature of its surface and on that of the
+enclosure, on the manner in which it is supported, on its relative
+position and distance from the enclosure, and on the nature of
+the intervening medium. But provided that the difference of
+temperature is small, the rate of loss of heat by all modes will
+be approximately proportional to the difference of temperature,
+the other conditions remaining constant. The rate of cooling
+or the rate of fall of temperature will also be nearly proportional
+to the rate of loss of heat, if the specific heat of the cooling body
+is constant, or the rate of cooling at any moment will be proportional
+to the difference of temperature. This simple relation
+is commonly known as Newton&rsquo;s law of cooling, but is limited
+in its application to comparatively simple cases such as the
+foregoing. Newton himself applied it to estimate the temperature
+of a red-hot iron ball, by observing the time which it took to
+cool from a red heat to a known temperature, and comparing
+this with the time taken to cool through a known range at
+ordinary temperatures. According to this law if the excess of
+temperature of the body above its surroundings is observed
+at equal intervals of time, the observed values will form a
+geometrical progression with a common ratio. Supposing, for
+instance, that the surrounding temperature were 0° C., that the
+red-hot ball took 25 minutes to cool from its original temperature
+to 20° C., and 5 minutes to cool from 20° C. to 10° C., the original
+temperature is easily calculated on the assumption that the excess
+of temperature above 0° C. falls to half its value in each interval
+of 5 minutes. Doubling the value 20° at 25 minutes five times,
+we arrive at 640° C. as the original temperature. No other method
+of estimation of such temperatures was available in the time of
+Newton, but, as we now know, the simple law of proportionality
+to the temperature difference is inapplicable over such large
+ranges of temperature. The rate of loss of heat by radiation,
+and also by convection and conduction to the surrounding air,
+increases much more rapidly than in simple proportion to the
+temperature difference, and the rate of increase of each follows
+a different law. At a later date Sir John Herschel measured the
+intensity of the solar radiation at the surface of the earth, and
+endeavoured to form an estimate of the temperature of the sun
+by comparison with terrestrial sources on the assumption that
+the intensity of radiation was simply proportional to the temperature
+difference. He thus arrived at an estimate of several
+million degrees, which we now know would be about a thousand
+times too great. The application of Newton&rsquo;s law necessarily
+leads to absurd results when the difference of temperature is
+very large, but the error will not in general exceed 2 to 3% if
+the temperature difference does not exceed 10° C., and the
+percentage error is proportionately much smaller for smaller
+differences.</p>
+
+<p>27. <i>Dulong and Petit&rsquo;s Empirical Laws of Cooling.</i>&mdash;One of the
+most elaborate experimental investigations of the law of cooling
+was that of Dulong and Petit (<i>Ann. Chim. Phys.</i>, 1817, 7, pp.
+225 and 337), who observed the rate of cooling of a mercury
+thermometer from 300° C. in a water-jacketed enclosure at
+various temperatures from 0° C. to 80° C. In order to obtain the
+rate of cooling by radiation alone, they exhausted the enclosure
+as perfectly as possible after the introduction of the thermometer,
+but with the imperfect appliances available at that time they
+were not able to obtain a vacuum better than about 3 or 4 mm.
+of mercury. They found that the velocity of cooling V in a
+vacuum could be represented by a formula of the type</p>
+
+<p class="center">V = A (<i>a</i><span class="sp">t</span> &minus; <i>a</i><span class="sp">t</span><span class="su">0</span>)</p>
+<div class="author">(5)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">in which <i>t</i> is the temperature of the thermometer, and <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span> that of
+the enclosure, <i>a</i> is a constant having the value 1.0075, and the
+coefficient A depends on the form of the bulb and the nature
+of its surface. For the ranges of temperature they employed,
+this formula gives much better results than Newton&rsquo;s, but it
+must be remembered that the temperatures were expressed on
+the arbitrary scale of the mercury thermometer, and were not
+corrected for the large and uncertain errors of stem-exposure
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>). Moreover, although the effects of cooling
+by convection currents are practically eliminated by exhausting
+to 3 or 4 mm. (since the density of the gas is reduced to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">200</span>th
+while its viscosity is not appreciably affected), the rate of cooling
+by conduction is not materially diminished, since the conductivity,
+like the viscosity, is nearly independent of pressure. It has
+since been shown by Sir William Crookes (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1881,
+21, p. 239) that the rate of cooling of a mercury thermometer
+in a vacuum suffers a very great diminution when the pressure
+is reduced from 1 mm. to .001 mm., at which pressure the effect
+of conduction by the residual gas has practically disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>Dulong and Petit also observed the rate of cooling under the
+same conditions with the enclosure filled with various gases.
+They found that the cooling effect of the gas could be represented
+by adding to the term already given as representing radiation,
+an expression of the form</p>
+
+<p class="center">V&prime; = B<i>p</i><span class="sp">c</span> (<i>t</i> &minus; <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span>)<span class="sp">1.233</span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(6)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">They found that the cooling effect of convection, unlike that of
+radiation, was independent of the nature of the surface of the
+thermometer, whether silvered or blackened, that it varied as
+some power <i>c</i> of the pressure <i>p</i>, and that it was independent
+of the absolute temperature of the enclosure, but varied as the
+excess temperature (<i>t</i> &minus; <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span>) raised to the power 1.233. This
+highly artificial result undoubtedly contains some elements of
+truth, but could only be applied to experiments similar to those
+from which it was derived. F. Hervé de la Provostaye and
+P. Q. Desains (<i>Ann. Chim. Phys.</i>, 1846, 16, p. 337), in repeating
+these experiments under various conditions, found that the
+coefficients A and B were to some extent dependent on the
+temperature, and that the manner in which the cooling effect
+varied with the pressure depended on the form and size of the
+enclosure. It is evident that this should be the case, since the
+cooling effect of the gas depends partly on convective currents.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span>
+which are necessarily greatly modified by the form of the
+enclosure in a manner which it would appear hopeless to
+attempt to represent by any general formula.</p>
+
+<p>28. <i>Surface Emissivity.</i>&mdash;The same remark applies to many
+attempts which have since been made to determine the general
+value of the constant termed by Fourier and early writers the
+&ldquo;exterior conductibility,&rdquo; but now called the surface emissivity.
+This coefficient represents the rate of loss of heat from a body
+per unit area of surface per degree excess of temperature, and
+includes the effects of radiation, convection and conduction.
+As already pointed out, the combined effect will be nearly
+proportional to the excess of temperature in any given case
+provided that the excess is small, but it is not necessarily proportional
+to the extent of surface exposed except in the case of
+pure radiation. The rate of loss by convection and conduction
+varies greatly with the form of the surface, and, unless the
+enclosure is very large compared with the cooling body, the effect
+depends also on the size and form of the enclosure. Heat is
+necessarily communicated from the cooling body to the layer
+of gas in contact with it by conduction. If the linear dimensions
+of the body are small, as in the case of a fine wire, or if it is
+separated from the enclosure by a thin layer of gas, the rate
+of loss depends chiefly on conduction. For very fine metallic
+wires heated by an electric current, W. E. Ayrton and H.
+Kilgour (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1892) showed that the rate of loss is
+nearly independent of the surface, instead of being directly
+proportional to it. This should be the case, as Porter has shown
+(<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, March 1895), since the effect depends mainly on
+conduction. The effects of conduction and radiation may be
+approximately estimated if the conductivity of the gas and the
+nature and forms of the surfaces of the body and enclosure are
+known, but the effect of convection in any case can be determined
+only by experiment. It has been found that the rate of cooling
+by a current of air is approximately proportional to the velocity
+of the current, other things being equal. It is obvious that this
+should be the case, but the result cannot generally be applied
+to convection currents. Values which are commonly given for
+the surface emissivity must therefore be accepted with great
+reserve. They can be regarded only as approximate, and as
+applicable only to cases precisely similar to those for which they
+were experimentally obtained. There cannot be said to be any
+general law of convection. The loss of heat is not necessarily
+proportional to the area of the surface, and no general value of
+the coefficient can be given to suit all cases. The laws of conduction
+and radiation admit of being more precisely formulated,
+and their effects predicted, except in so far as they are complicated
+by convection.</p>
+
+<p>29. <i>Conduction of Heat.</i>&mdash;The laws of transference of heat in
+the interior of a solid body formed one of the earliest subjects
+of mathematical and experimental treatment in the theory of
+heat. The law assumed by Fourier was of the simplest possible
+type, but the mathematical application, except in the simplest
+cases, was so difficult as to require the development of a new
+mathematical method. Fourier succeeded in showing how,
+by his method of analysis, the solution of any given problem
+with regard to the flow of heat by conduction in any material
+could be obtained in terms of a physical constant, the thermal
+conductivity of the material, and that the results obtained by
+experiment agreed in a qualitative manner with those predicted
+by his theory. But the experimental determination of the actual
+values of these constants presented formidable difficulties which
+were not surmounted till a later date. The experimental methods
+and difficulties are discussed in a special article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conduction
+of Heat</a></span>. It will suffice here to give a brief historical sketch,
+including a few of the more important results by way of
+illustration.</p>
+
+<p>30. <i>Comparison of Conducting Powers.</i>&mdash;That the power of
+transmitting heat by conduction varied widely in different
+materials was probably known in a general way from prehistoric
+times. Empirical knowledge of this kind is shown in the construction
+of many articles for heating, cooking, &amp;c., such as the
+copper soldering bolt, or the Norwegian cooking-stove. One
+of the earliest experiments for making an actual comparison of
+conducting powers was that suggested by Franklin, but
+carried out by Jan Ingenhousz (<i>Journ. de phys.</i>, 1789, 34,
+pp. 68 and 380). Exactly similar bars of different materials,
+glass, wood, metal, &amp;c., thinly coated with wax, were fixed
+in the side of a trough of boiling water so as to project for equal
+distances through the side of the trough into the external air.
+The wax coating was observed to melt as the heat travelled along
+the bars, the distance from the trough to which the wax was
+melted along each affording an approximate indication of
+the distribution of temperature. When the temperature of each
+bar had become stationary the heat which it gained by conduction
+from the trough must be equal to the heat lost to the surrounding
+air, and must therefore be approximately proportional to the
+distance to which the wax had melted along the bar. But the
+temperature fall per unit length, or the temperature-gradient,
+in each bar at the point where it emerged from the trough would
+be inversely proportional to the same distance. For equal
+temperature-gradients the quantities of heat conducted (or the
+relative conducting powers of the bars) would therefore be
+proportional to the squares of the distances to which the wax
+finally melted on each bar. This was shown by Fourier and
+Despretz (<i>Ann. chim. phys.</i>, 1822, 19, p. 97).</p>
+
+<p>31. <i>Diffusion of Temperature.</i>&mdash;It was shown in connexion
+with this experiment by Sir H. Davy, and the experiment was
+later popularized by John Tyndall, that the rate at which wax
+melted along the bar, or the rate of propagation of a given
+temperature, during the first moments of heating, as distinguished
+from the melting-distance finally attained, depended on the
+specific heat as well as the conductivity. Short prisms of iron
+and bismuth coated with wax were placed on a hot metal plate.
+The wax was observed to melt first on the bismuth, although its
+conductivity is less than that of iron. The reason is that its
+specific heat is less than that of iron in the proportion of 3 to 11.
+The densities of iron and bismuth being 7.8 and 9.8, the thermal
+capacities of equal prisms will be in the ratio .86 for iron to .29
+for bismuth. If the prisms receive heat at equal rates, the bismuth
+will reach the temperature of melting wax nearly three
+times as quickly as the iron. It is often stated on the strength
+of this experiment that the rate of propagation of a temperature
+wave, which depends on the ratio of the conductivity to the
+specific heat per unit volume, is greater in bismuth than in iron
+(<i>e.g.</i> Preston, <i>Heat</i>, p. 628). This is quite incorrect, because the
+conductivity of iron is about six times that of bismuth, and the
+rate of propagation of a temperature wave is therefore twice
+as great in iron as in bismuth. The experiment in reality is
+misleading because the rates of reception of heat by the prisms
+are limited by the very imperfect contact with the hot metal
+plate, and are not proportional to the respective conductivities.
+If the iron and bismuth bars are properly faced and soldered to
+the top of a copper box (in order to ensure good metallic contact,
+and exclude a non-conducting film of air), and the box is then
+heated by steam, the rates of reception of heat will be nearly
+proportional to the conductivities, and the wax will melt nearly
+twice as fast along the iron as along the bismuth. A bar of lead
+similarly treated will show a faster rate of propagation than
+iron, because, although its conductivity is only half that of iron,
+its specific heat per unit volume is 2.5 times smaller.</p>
+
+<p>32. <i>Bad Conductors. Liquids and Gases.</i>&mdash;Count Rumford
+(1792) compared the conducting powers of substances used in
+clothing, such as wool and cotton, fur and down, by observing
+the time which a thermometer took to cool when embedded in a
+globe filled successively with the different materials. The times
+of cooling observed for a given range varied from 1300 to 900
+seconds for different materials. The low conducting power of
+such materials is principally due to the presence of air in the
+interstices, which is prevented from forming convection currents
+by the presence of the fibrous material. Finely powdered silica
+is a very bad conductor, but in the compact form of rock crystal
+it is as good a conductor as some of the metals. According to the
+kinetic theory of gases, the conductivity of a gas depends on
+molecular diffusion. Maxwell estimated the conductivity of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span>
+air at ordinary temperatures at about 20,000 times less than that
+of copper. This has been verified experimentally by Kundt and
+Warburg, Stefan and Winkelmann, by taking special precautions
+to eliminate the effects of convection currents and radiation.
+It was for some time doubted whether a gas possessed any true
+conductivity for heat. The experiment of T. Andrews, repeated
+by Grove, and Magnus, showing that a wire heated by an electric
+current was raised to a higher temperature in air than in
+hydrogen, was explained by Tyndall as being due to the greater
+mobility of hydrogen which gave rise to stronger convection
+currents. In reality the effect is due chiefly to the greater
+velocity of motion of the ultimate molecules of hydrogen, and is
+most marked if molar (as opposed to molecular) convection is
+eliminated. Molecular convection or diffusion, which cannot be
+distinguished experimentally from conduction, as it follows the
+same law, is also the main cause of conduction of heat in liquids.
+Both in liquids and gases the effects of convection currents are
+so much greater than those of diffusion or conduction that the
+latter are very difficult to measure, and, except in special cases,
+comparatively unimportant as affecting the transference of heat.
+Owing to the difficulty of eliminating the effects of radiation
+and convection, the results obtained for the conductivities of
+liquids are somewhat discordant, and there is in most cases great
+uncertainty whether the conductivity increases or diminishes
+with rise of temperature. It would appear, however, that liquids,
+such as water and glycerin, differ remarkably little in conductivity
+in spite of enormous differences of viscosity. The viscosity
+of a liquid diminishes very rapidly with rise of temperature,
+without any marked change in the conductivity, whereas the
+viscosity of a gas increases with rise of temperature, and is
+always nearly proportional to the conductivity.</p>
+
+<p>33. <i>Difficulty of Quantitative Estimation of Heat Transmitted.</i>&mdash;The
+conducting powers of different metals were compared by
+C. M. Despretz, and later by G. H. Wiedemann and R. Franz,
+employing an extension of the method of Jan Ingenhousz, in
+which the temperatures at different points along a bar heated
+at one end were measured by thermometers or thermocouples
+let into small holes in the bars, instead of being measured at one
+point only by means of melting wax. These experiments undoubtedly
+gave fairly accurate relative values, but did not permit
+the calculation of the absolute amounts of heat transmitted.
+This was first obtained by J. D. Forbes (<i>Brit. Assoc. Rep.</i>, 1852;
+<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed.</i>, 1862, 23, p. 133) by deducing the amount
+of heat lost to the surrounding air from a separate experiment in
+which the rate of cooling of the bar was observed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conduction
+of Heat</a></span>). Clément (<i>Ann. chim. phys.</i>, 1841) had previously
+attempted to determine the conductivities of metals by
+observing the amount of heat transmitted by a plate with one
+side exposed to steam at 100° C., and the other side cooled by
+water at 28° C. Employing a copper plate 3 mm. thick, and
+assuming that the two surfaces of the plate were at the same
+temperatures as the water and the steam to which they were
+exposed, or that the temperature-gradient in the metal was
+72° in 3 mm., he had thus obtained a value which we now know
+to be nearly 200 times too small. The actual temperature
+difference in the metal itself was really about 0.36° C. The
+remainder of the 72° drop was in the badly conducting films
+of water and steam close to the metal surface. Similarly in a
+boiler plate in contact with flame at 1500° C. on one side and
+water at, say, 150° C. on the other, the actual difference of
+temperature in the metal, even if it is an inch thick, is only a
+few degrees. The metal, unless badly furred with incrustation,
+is but little hotter than the water. It is immaterial so far as
+the transmission of heat is concerned, whether the plates are
+iron or copper. The greater part of the resistance to the passage
+of heat resides in a comparatively quiescent film of gas close
+to the surface, through which film the heat has to pass mainly
+by conduction. If a Bunsen flame, preferably coloured with
+sodium, is observed impinging on a cold metal plate, it will be
+seen to be separated from the plate by a dark space of a millimetre
+or less, throughout which the temperature of the gas is lowered
+by its own conductivity below the temperature of incandescence.
+There is no abrupt change of temperature in passing from the gas
+to the metal, but a continuous temperature-gradient from the
+temperature of the metal to that of the flame. It is true that
+this gradient may be upwards of 1000° C. per mm., but there
+is no discontinuity.</p>
+
+<p>34. <i>Resistance of a Gas Film to the Passage of Heat.</i>&mdash;It is possible
+to make a rough estimate of the resistance of such a film to the
+passage of heat through it. Taking the average conductivity of
+the gas in the film as 10,000 times less than that of copper
+(about double the conductivity of air at ordinary temperatures)
+a millimetre film would be equivalent to a thickness of 10 metres
+of copper, or about 1.2 metres of iron. Taking the temperature-gradient
+as 1000° C. per mm. such a film would transmit 1
+gramme-calorie per sq. cm. per sec., or 36,000 kilo-calories per
+sq. metre per hour. With an area of 100 sq. cms. the heat
+transmitted at this rate would raise a litre of water from 20° C.
+to 100° C. in 800 secs. By experiment with a strong Bunsen
+flame it takes from 8 to 10 minutes to do this, which would
+indicate that on the above assumptions the equivalent thickness
+of quiescent film should be rather less than 1 mm. in this case.
+The thickness of the film diminishes with the velocity of the
+burning gases impinging on the surface. This accounts for
+the rapidity of heating by a blowpipe flame, which is not due
+to any great increase in temperature of the flame as compared
+with a Bunsen. Similarly the efficiency of a boiler is but slightly
+reduced if half the tubes are stopped up, because the increase
+of draught through the remainder compensates partly for the
+diminished heating surface. Some resistance to the passage
+of heat into a boiler is also due to the water film on the inside.
+But this is of less account, because the conductivity of water
+is much greater than that of air, and because the film is continually
+broken up by the formation of steam, which abstracts
+heat very rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>35. <i>Heating by Condensation of Steam.</i>&mdash;It is often stated that
+the rate at which steam will condense on a metal surface at a
+temperature below that corresponding to the saturation pressure
+of the steam is practically infinite (<i>e.g.</i> Osborne Reynolds,
+<i>Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed.</i>, 1873, p. 275), and conversely that the rate
+at which water will abstract heat from a metal surface by the
+formation of steam (if the metal is above the temperature of
+saturation of the steam) is limited only by the rate at which
+the metal can supply heat by conduction to its surface layer.
+The rate at which heat can be supplied by condensation of
+steam appears to be much greater than that at which heat can
+be supplied by a flame under ordinary conditions, but there is
+no reason to suppose that it is infinite, or that any discontinuity
+exists. Experiments by H. L. Callendar and J. T. Nicolson
+by three independent methods (<i>Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.</i>, 1898,
+131, p. 147; <i>Brit. Assoc. Rep.</i> p. 418) appear to show that the
+rate of abstraction of heat by evaporation, or that of communication
+of heat by condensation, depends chiefly on the difference
+of temperature between the metal surface and the saturated
+steam, and is nearly proportional to the temperature difference
+(not to the pressure difference, as suggested by Reynolds) for
+such ranges of pressure as are common in practice. The rate
+of heat transmission they observed was equivalent to about
+8 calories per sq. cm. per sec., for a difference of 20° C. between
+the temperature of the metal surface and the saturation temperature
+of the steam. This would correspond to a condensation
+of 530 kilogrammes of steam at 100° C. per sq. metre per hour,
+or 109 &#8468; per sq. ft. per hour for the same difference of temperature,
+values which are many times greater than those actually obtained
+in ordinary surface condensers. The reason for this is that there
+is generally some air mixed with the steam in a surface condenser,
+which greatly retards the condensation. It is also difficult to
+keep the temperature of the metal as much as 20° C. below the
+temperature of the steam unless a very free and copious circulation
+of cold water is available. For the same difference of
+temperature, steam can supply heat by condensation about a
+thousand times faster than hot air. This rate is not often
+approached in practice, but the facility of generation and
+transmission of steam, combined with its high latent heat
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span>
+and the accuracy of control and regulation of temperature
+afforded, render it one of the most convenient agents for the
+distribution of large quantities of heat in all kinds of manufacturing
+processes.</p>
+
+<p>36. <i>Spheroidal State.</i>&mdash;An interesting contrast to the extreme
+rapidity with which heat is abstracted by the evaporation of a
+liquid in contact with a metal plate, is the so-called spheroidal
+state. A small drop of liquid thrown on a red-hot metal plate
+assumes a spheroidal form, and continues swimming about for
+some time, while it slowly evaporates at a temperature somewhat
+below its boiling-point. The explanation is simply that the
+liquid itself cannot come in actual contact with the metal plate
+(especially if the latter is above the critical temperature), but
+is separated from it by a badly conducting film of vapour,
+through which, as we have seen, the heat is comparatively slowly
+transmitted even if the difference of temperature is several
+hundred degrees. If the metal plate is allowed to cool gradually,
+the drop remains suspended on its cushion of vapour, until, in
+the case of water, a temperature of about 200° C. is reached,
+at which the liquid comes in contact with the plate and boils
+explosively, reducing the temperature of the plate, if thin,
+almost instantaneously to 100° C. The temperature of the metal
+is readily observed by a thermo-electric method, employing a
+platinum dish with a platinum-rhodium wire soldered with gold
+to its under side. The absence of contact between the liquid
+and the dish in the spheroidal state may also be shown by
+connecting one terminal of a galvanometer to the drop and the
+other through a battery to the dish, and observing that no
+current passes until the drop boils.</p>
+
+<p>37. <i>Early Theories of Radiation.</i>&mdash;It was at one time supposed
+that there were three distinct kinds of radiation&mdash;thermal,
+luminous and actinic, combined in the radiation from a luminous
+source such as the sun or a flame. The first gave rise to heat,
+the second to light and the third to chemical action. The three
+kinds were partially separated by a prism, the actinic rays
+being generally more refracted, and the thermal rays less refracted
+than the luminous. This conception arose very naturally
+from the observation that the feebly luminous blue and violet
+rays produced the greatest photographic effects, which also
+showed the existence of dark rays beyond the violet, whereas the
+brilliant yellow and red were practically without action on the
+photographic plate. A thermometer placed in the blue or violet
+showed no appreciable rise of temperature, and even in the yellow
+the effect was hardly discernible. The effect increased rapidly
+as the light faded towards the extreme red, and reached a
+maximum beyond the extreme limits of the spectrum (Herschel),
+showing that the greater part of the thermal radiation was altogether
+non-luminous. It is now a commonplace that chemical
+action, colour sensation and heat are merely different effects
+of one and the same kind of radiation, the particular effect
+produced in each case depending on the frequency and intensity
+of the vibration, and on the nature of the substance on which
+it falls. When radiation is completely absorbed by a black
+substance, it is converted into heat, the quantity of heat produced
+being equivalent to the total energy of the radiation absorbed,
+irrespective of the colour or frequency of the different rays.
+The actinic or chemical effects, on the other hand, depend essentially
+on some relation between the period of the vibration and
+the properties of the substance acted on. The rays producing
+such effects are generally those which are most strongly absorbed.
+The spectrum of chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of plants,
+shows two very strong absorption bands in the red. The red
+rays of corresponding period are found to be the most active
+in promoting the growth of the plant. The chemically active
+rays are not necessarily the shortest. Even photographic
+plates may be made to respond to the red rays by staining them
+with pinachrome or some other suitable dye.</p>
+
+<p>The action of light rays on the retina is closely analogous to
+the action on a photographic plate. The retina, like the plate,
+is sensitive only to rays within certain restricted limits of
+frequency. The limits of sensitiveness of each colour sensation
+are not exactly defined, but vary slightly from one individual
+to another, especially in cases of partial colour-blindness, and
+are modified by conditions of fatigue. We are not here concerned
+with these important physiological and chemical effects of
+radiation, but rather with the question of the conversion of energy
+of radiation into heat, and with the laws of emission and absorption
+of radiation in relation to temperature. We may here also
+assume the identity of visible and invisible radiations from a
+heated body in all their physical properties. It has been abundantly
+proved that the invisible rays, like the visible, (1) are
+propagated in straight lines in homogeneous media; (2) are
+reflected and diffused from the surface of bodies according to the
+same law; (3) travel with the same velocity in free space, but
+with slightly different velocities in denser media, being subject
+to the same law of refraction; (4) exhibit all the phenomena
+of diffraction and interference which are characteristic of wave-motion
+in general; (5) are capable of polarization and double
+refraction; (6) exhibit similar effects of selective absorption.
+These properties are more easily demonstrated in the case of
+visible rays on account of the great sensitiveness of the eye.
+But with the aid of the thermopile or other sensitive radiometer,
+they may be shown to belong equally to all the radiations from
+a heated body, even such as are thirty to fifty times slower in
+frequency than the longest visible rays. The same physical
+properties have also been shown to belong to electromagnetic
+waves excited by an electric discharge, whatever the frequency,
+thus including all kinds of aetherial radiation in the same category
+as light.</p>
+
+<p>38. <i>Theory of Exchanges.</i>&mdash;The apparent concentration of
+cold by a concave mirror, observed by G. B. Porta and rediscovered
+by M. A. Pictet, led to the enunciation of the theory
+of exchanges by Pierre Prevost in 1791. Prevost&rsquo;s leading idea
+was that all bodies, whether cold or hot, are constantly radiating
+heat. Heat equilibrium, he says, consists in an equality of exchange.
+When equilibrium is interfered with, it is re-established
+by inequalities of exchange. If into a locality at uniform
+temperature a refracting or reflecting body is introduced, it has
+no effect in the way of changing the temperature at any point
+of that locality. A reflecting body, heated or cooled in the
+interior of such an enclosure, will acquire the surrounding
+temperature more slowly than would a non-reflector, and will
+less affect another body placed at a little distance, but will not
+affect the final equality of temperature. Apparent radiation of
+cold, as from a block of ice to a thermometer placed near it, is
+due to the fact that the thermometer being at a higher temperature
+sends more heat to the ice than it received back from it.
+Although Prevost does not make the statement in so many words,
+it is clear that he regards the radiation from a body as depending
+only on its own nature and temperature, and as independent of
+the nature and presence of any adjacent body. Heat equilibrium
+in an enclosure of constant temperature such as is here postulated
+by Prevost, has often been regarded as a consequence of Carnot&rsquo;s
+principle. Since difference of temperature is required for
+transforming heat into work, no work could be obtained from
+heat in such a system, and no spontaneous changes of temperature
+can take place, as any such changes might be utilized for the
+production of work. This line of reasoning does not appear
+quite satisfactory, because it is <span class="correction" title="amended from tactitly">tacitly</span> assumed, in the reasoning
+by which Carnot&rsquo;s principle was established, as a result of
+universal experience, that a number of bodies within the same
+impervious enclosure, which contains no source of heat, will
+ultimately acquire the same temperature, and that difference of
+temperature is required to produce flow of heat. Thus although
+we may regard the equilibrium in such an enclosure as being
+due to equal exchanges of heat in all directions, the equal and
+opposite streams of radiation annul and neutralize each other in
+such a way that no actual transfer of energy in any direction
+takes place. The state of the medium is everywhere the same
+in such an enclosure, but its energy of agitation per unit volume
+is a function of the temperature, and is such that it would not
+be in equilibrium with any body at a different temperature.</p>
+
+<p>39. <i>&rdquo;Full&rdquo; and Selective Radiation. Correspondence of
+Emission and Absorption.</i>&mdash;The most obvious difficulties in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span>
+way of this theory arise from the fact that nearly all radiation
+is more or less selective in character, as regards the quality
+and frequency of the rays emitted and absorbed. It was shown
+by J. Leslie, M. Melloni and other experimentalists that many
+substances such as glass and water, which are very transparent to
+visible rays, are extremely opaque to much of the invisible
+radiation of lower frequency; and that polished metals, which
+are perfect reflectors, are very feeble radiators as compared
+with dull or black bodies at the same temperature. If two
+bodies emit rays of different periods in different proportions,
+it is not at first sight easy to see how their radiations can balance
+each other at the same temperature. The key to all such
+difficulties lies in the fundamental conception, so strongly insisted
+on by Balfour Stewart, of the absolute uniformity (qualitative
+as well as quantitative) of the full or complete radiation stream
+inside an impervious enclosure of uniform temperature. It
+follows from this conception that the proportion of the full
+radiation stream absorbed by any body in such an enclosure
+must be exactly compensated in quality as well as quantity
+by the proportion emitted, or that the emissive and absorptive
+powers of any body at a given temperature must be precisely
+equal. A good reflector, like a polished metal, must also be a
+feeble radiator and absorber. Of the incident radiation it absorbs
+a small fraction and reflects the remainder, which together with
+the radiation emitted (being precisely equal to that absorbed)
+makes up the full radiation stream. A partly transparent material,
+like glass, absorbs part of the full radiation and transmits part.
+But it emits rays precisely equal in quality and intensity to
+those which it absorbs, which together with the transmitted
+portion make up the full stream. The ideal black body or perfect
+radiator is a body which absorbs all the radiation incident on it.
+The rays emitted from such a body at any temperature must be
+equal to the full radiation stream in an isothermal enclosure at
+the same temperature. Lampblack, which may absorb between
+98 to 99% of the incident radiation, is generally taken as the
+type of a black body. But a closer approximation to full radiation
+may be obtained by employing a hollow vessel the internal
+walls of which are blackened and maintained at a uniform
+temperature by a steam jacket or other suitable means. If
+a relatively small hole is made in the side of such a vessel, the
+radiation proceeding through the aperture will be the full radiation
+corresponding to the temperature. Such a vessel is also a
+perfect absorber. Of radiation entering through the aperture an
+infinitesimal fraction only could possibly emerge by successive
+reflection even if the sides were of polished metal internally.
+A thin platinum tube heated by an electric current appears
+feebly luminous as compared with a blackened tube at the same
+temperature. But if a small hole is made in the side of the
+polished tube, the light proceeding through the hole appears
+brighter than the blackened tube, as though the inside of the tube
+were much hotter than the outside, which is not the case to any
+appreciable extent if the tube is thin. The radiation proceeding
+through the hole is nearly that of a perfectly black body if the
+hole is small. If there were no hole the internal stream of radiation
+would be exactly that of a black body at the same temperature
+however perfect the reflecting power, or however low the
+emissive power of the walls, because the defect in emissive power
+would be exactly compensated by the internal reflection.</p>
+
+<p>Balfour Stewart gave a number of striking illustrations of the
+qualitative identity of emission and absorption of a substance.
+Pieces of coloured glass placed in a fire appear to lose their colour
+when at the same temperature as the coals behind them, because
+they compensate exactly for their selective absorption by
+radiating chiefly those colours which they absorb. Rocksalt
+is remarkably transparent to thermal radiation of nearly all
+kinds, but it is extremely opaque to radiation from a heated
+plate of rocksalt, because it emits when heated precisely those
+rays which it absorbs. A plate of tourmaline cut parallel to
+the axis absorbs almost completely light polarized in a plane
+parallel to the axis, but transmits freely light polarized in a
+perpendicular plane. When heated its radiation is polarized
+in the same plane as the radiation which it absorbs. In the case
+of incandescent vapours, the exact correspondence of emission
+and absorption as regards wave-length of frequency of the light
+emitted and absorbed forms the foundation of the science of
+spectrum analysis. Fraunhofer had noticed the coincidence of
+a pair of bright yellow lines seen in the spectrum of a candle
+flame with the dark D lines in the solar spectrum, a coincidence
+which was afterwards more exactly verified by W. A. Miller.
+Foucault found that the flame of the electric arc showed the same
+lines bright in its spectrum, and proved that they appeared as
+dark lines in the otherwise continuous spectrum when the light
+from the carbon poles was transmitted through the arc. Stokes
+gave a dynamical explanation of the phenomenon and illustrated
+it by the analogous case of resonance in sound. Kirchhoff
+completed the explanation (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1860) of the dark lines
+in the solar spectrum by showing that the reversal of the spectral
+lines depended on the fact that the body of the sun giving the
+continuous spectrum was at a higher temperature than the
+absorbing layer of gases surrounding it. Whatever be the nature
+of the selective radiation from a body, the radiation of light of
+any particular wave-length cannot be greater than a certain
+fraction E of the radiation R of the same wave-length from a
+black body at the same temperature. The fraction E measures
+the emissive power of the body for that particular wave-length,
+and cannot be greater than unity. The same fraction, by the
+principle of equality of emissive and absorptive powers, will
+measure the proportion absorbed of incident radiation R&prime;. If
+the black body emitting the radiation R&prime; is at the same temperature
+as the absorbing layer, R = R&prime;, the emission balances the
+absorption, and the line will appear neither bright nor dark. If
+the source and the absorbing layer are at different temperatures,
+the radiation absorbed will be ER&prime;, and that transmitted will be
+R&prime; &minus; ER&prime;. To this must be added the radiation emitted by the
+absorbing layer, namely ER, giving R&prime; &minus; E(R&prime; &minus; R). The lines
+will appear darker than the background R&prime; if R&prime; is greater than
+R, but bright if the reverse is the case. The D lines are dark in
+the sun because the photosphere is much hotter than the reversing
+layer. They appear bright in the candle-flame because the outside
+mantle of the flame, in which the sodium burns and combustion
+is complete, is hotter than the inner reducing flame containing
+the incandescent particles of carbon which give rise to the continuous
+spectrum. This qualitative identity of emission and
+absorption as regards wave-length can be most exactly and easily
+verified for luminous rays, and we are justified in assuming that
+the relation holds with the same exactitude for non-luminous
+rays, although in many cases the experimental proof is less
+complete and exact.</p>
+
+<p>40. <i>Diathermancy.</i>&mdash;A great array of data with regard to the
+transmissive power or diathermancy of transparent substances
+for the heat radiated from various sources at different temperatures
+were collected by Melloni, Tyndall, Magnus and other
+experimentalists. The measurements were chiefly of a qualitative
+character, and were made by interposing between the source
+and a thermopile a layer or plate of the substance to be examined.
+This method lacked quantitative precision, but led to a number
+of striking and interesting results, which are admirably set forth
+in Tyndall&rsquo;s <i>Heat</i>. It also gave rise to many curious discrepancies,
+some of which were recognized as being due to selective
+absorption, while others are probably to be explained by imperfections
+in the methods of experiment adopted. The general
+result of such researches was to show that substances, like water,
+alum and glass, which are practically opaque to radiation from
+a source at low temperature, such as a vessel filled with boiling
+water, transmit an increasing percentage of the radiation when
+the temperature of the source is increased. This is what would
+be expected, as these substances are very transparent to visible
+rays. That the proportion transmitted is not merely a question
+of the temperature of the source, but also of the quality of the
+radiation, was shown by a number of experiments. For instance,
+K. H. Knoblauch (<i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1847) found that a plate of glass
+interposed between a spirit lamp and a thermopile intercepts a
+larger proportion of the radiation from the flame itself than
+of the radiation from a platinum spiral heated in the flame,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span>
+although the spiral is undoubtedly at a lower temperature than
+the flame. The explanation is that the spiral is a fairly good
+radiator of the visible rays to which the glass is transparent,
+but a bad radiator of the invisible rays absorbed by the glass
+which constitute the greater portion of the heat-radiation from
+the feebly luminous flame.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:504px; height:163px" src="images/img154.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Tyndall&rsquo;s Apparatus for observing absorption of heat by
+gas and vapours.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Assuming that the radiation from the source under investigation
+is qualitatively determinate, like that of a black body at a
+given temperature, the proportion transmitted by plates of
+various substances may easily be measured and tabulated for
+given plates and sources. But owing to the highly selective character
+of the radiation and absorption, it is impossible to give
+any general relation between the thickness of the absorbing plate
+or layer and the proportion of the total energy absorbed. For
+these reasons the relative diathermancies of different materials
+do not admit of any simple numerical statement as physical
+constants, though many of the qualitative results obtained are
+very striking. Among the most interesting experiments were
+those of Tyndall, on the absorptive powers of gases and vapours,
+which led to a good deal of controversy at the time, owing to
+the difficulty of the experiments, and the contradictory results
+obtained by other observers. The arrangement employed by
+Tyndall for these measurements is shown in Fig. 6. A brass
+tube AB, polished inside, and closed with plates of highly
+diathermanous rocksalt at either end, was fitted with stopcocks
+C and D for exhausting and admitting air or other gases or
+vapours. The source of heat S was usually a plate of copper heated
+by a Bunsen burner, or a Leslie cube containing boiling water
+as shown at E. To obtain greater sensitiveness for differential
+measurements, the radiation through the tube AB incident on
+one face of the pile P was balanced against the radiation from
+a Leslie cube on the other face of the pile by means of an adjustable
+screen H. The radiation on the two faces of the pile being
+thus balanced with the tube exhausted, Tyndall found that the
+admission of dry air into the tube produced practically no absorption
+of the radiation, whereas compound gases such as carbonic
+acid, ethylene or ammonia absorbed 20 to 90%, and a trace
+of aqueous vapour in the air increased its absorption 50 to 100
+times. H. G. Magnus, on the other hand, employing a thermopile
+and a source of heat, both of which were enclosed in the same
+exhausted receiver, in order to avoid interposing any rocksalt
+or other plates between the source and the pile, found an absorption
+of 11% on admitting dry air, but could not detect any
+difference whether the air were dry or moist. Tyndall suggested
+that the apparent absorption observed by Magnus may have
+been due to the cooling of his radiating surface by convection,
+which is a very probable source of error in this method of experiment.
+Magnus considered that the remarkable effect of aqueous
+vapour observed by Tyndall might have been caused by condensation
+on the polished internal walls of his experimental
+tube, or on the rocksalt plates at either end.<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The question of
+the relative diathermancy of air and aqueous vapour for radiation
+from the sun to the earth and from the earth into space is one
+of great interest and importance in meteorology. Assuming
+with Magnus that at least 10% of the heat from a source at
+100° C. is absorbed in passing through a single foot of air, a very
+moderate thickness of atmosphere should suffice to absorb
+practically all the heat radiated from the earth into space. This
+could not be reconciled with well-known facts in regard to
+terrestrial radiation, and it was generally recognized that the
+result found by Magnus must be erroneous. Tyndall&rsquo;s experiment
+on the great diathermancy of dry air agreed much better
+with meteorological phenomena, but he appears to have
+exaggerated the effect of aqueous vapour. He concluded from
+his experiments that the water vapour present in the air absorbs
+at least 10% of the heat radiated from the earth within 10 ft.
+of its surface, and that the absorptive power of the vapour is
+about 17,000 times that of air at the same pressure. If the
+absorption of aqueous vapour were really of this order of magnitude,
+it would exert a far greater effect in modifying climate
+than is actually observed to be the case. Radiation is observed
+to take place freely through the atmosphere at times when the
+proportion of aqueous vapour is such as would practically stop
+all radiation if Tyndall&rsquo;s results were correct. The very careful
+experiments of E. Lecher and J. Pernter (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, Jan. 1881)
+confirmed Tyndall&rsquo;s observations on the absorptive powers of
+gases and vapours satisfactorily in nearly all cases with the
+single exception of aqueous vapour. They found that there was
+no appreciable absorption of heat from a source at 100° C. in
+passing through 1 ft. of air (whether dry or moist), but that
+CO and CO<span class="su">2</span> at atmospheric pressure absorbed about 8%, and
+ethylene (olefiant gas) about 50% in the same distance; the
+vapours of alcohol and ether showed absorptive powers of the
+same order as that of ethylene. They confirmed Tyndall&rsquo;s
+important result that the absorption does not diminish in proportion
+to the pressure, being much greater in proportion for
+smaller pressures in consequence of the selective character of
+the effect. They also supported his conclusion that absorptive
+power increases with the complexity of the molecule. But they
+could not detect any absorption by water vapour at a pressure
+of 7 mm., though alcohol at the same pressure absorbed 3%
+and acetic acid 10%. Later researches, especially those of
+S. P. Langley with the spectro-bolometer on the infra-red
+spectrum of sunlight, demonstrated the existence of marked
+absorption bands, some of which are due to water vapour.
+From the character of these bands and the manner in which
+they vary with the state of the air and the thickness traversed,
+it may be inferred that absorption by water vapour plays an
+important part in meteorology, but that it is too small to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span>
+readily detected by laboratory experiments in a 4 ft. tube, without
+the aid of spectrum analysis.</p>
+
+<p>41. <i>Relation between Radiation and Temperature.</i>&mdash;Assuming, in
+accordance with the reasoning of Balfour Stewart and Kirchhoff,
+that the radiation stream inside an impervious enclosure at a
+uniform temperature is independent of the nature of the walls
+of the enclosure, and is the same for all substances at the same
+temperature, it follows that the full stream of radiation in such
+an enclosure, or the radiation emitted by an ideal black body
+or full radiator, is a function of the temperature only. The form
+of this function may be determined experimentally by observing
+the radiation between two black bodies at different temperatures,
+which will be proportional to the difference of the full radiation
+streams corresponding to their several temperatures. The law
+now generally accepted was first proposed by Stefan as an
+empirical relation. Tyndall had found that the radiation from
+a white hot platinum wire at 1200° C. was 11.7 times its radiation
+when dull red at 525° C. Stefan (<i>Wien. Akad. Ber.</i>, 1879, 79,
+p. 421) noticed that the ratio 11.7 is nearly that of the fourth
+power of the absolute temperatures as estimated by Tyndall.
+On making the somewhat different assumption that the radiation
+between two bodies varied as the difference of the fourth powers
+of their absolute temperatures, he found that it satisfied approximately
+the experiments of Dulong and Petit and other observers.
+According to this law the radiation between a black body at
+a temperature &theta; and a black enclosure or a black radiometer
+at a temperature &theta;<span class="su">0</span> should be proportional to (&theta;<span class="sp">4</span> &minus; &theta;<span class="su">0</span><span class="sp">4</span>). The
+law was very simple and convenient in form, but it rested so far
+on very insecure foundations. The temperatures given by
+Tyndall were merely estimated from the colour of the light
+emitted, and might have been some hundred degrees in error.
+We now know that the radiation from polished platinum is
+of a highly selective character, and varies more nearly as the
+fifth power of the absolute temperature. The agreement of the
+fourth power law with Tyndall&rsquo;s experiment appears therefore
+to be due to a purely accidental error in estimating the temperatures
+of the wire. Stefan also found a very fair agreement with
+Draper&rsquo;s observations of the intensity of radiation from a
+platinum wire, in which the temperature of the wire was deduced
+from the expansion. Here again the apparent agreement was
+largely due to errors in estimating the temperature, arising
+from the fact that the coefficient of expansion of platinum
+increases considerably with rise of temperature. So far as the
+experimental results available at that time were concerned,
+Stefan&rsquo;s law could be regarded only as an empirical expression
+of doubtful significance. But it received a much greater importance
+from theoretical investigations which were even then in
+progress. James Clerk Maxwell (<i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>,
+1873) had shown that a directed beam of electromagnetic
+radiation or light incident normally on an absorbing surface
+should produce a mechanical pressure equal to the energy of the
+radiation per unit volume. A. G. Bartoli (1875) took up this idea
+and made it the basis of a thermodynamic treatment of radiation.
+P. N. Lebedew in 1900, and E. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull in 1901,
+proved the existence of this pressure by direct experiments.
+L. Boltzmann (1884) employing radiation as the working substance
+in a Carnot cycle, showed that the energy of full
+radiation at any temperature per unit volume should be proportional
+to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
+This law was first verified in a satisfactory manner by Heinrich
+Schneebeli (<i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1884, 22, p. 30). He observed the
+radiation from the bulb of an air thermometer heated to known
+temperatures through a small aperture in the walls of the furnace.
+With this arrangement the radiation was very nearly that of a
+black body. Measurements by J. T. Bottomley, August Schleiermacher,
+L. C. H. F. Paschen and others of the radiation from
+electrically heated platinum, failed to give concordant results
+on account of differences in the quality of the radiation, the
+importance of which was not fully realized at first. Later
+researches by Paschen with improved methods verified the law,
+and greatly extended our knowledge of radiation in other
+directions. One of the most complete series of experiments on
+the relation between full radiation and temperature is that of
+O. R. Lummer and Ernst Pringsheim (<i>Ann. Phys.</i>, 1897, 63,
+p. 395). They employed an aperture in the side of an enclosure
+at uniform temperature as the source of radiation, and compared
+the intensities at different temperatures by means of a bolometer.
+The fourth power law was well satisfied throughout the whole
+range of their experiments from &minus;190° C. to 2300° C. According
+to this law, the rate of loss of heat by radiation R from a body
+of emissive power E and surface S at a temperature &theta; in an
+enclosure at &theta;<span class="su">0</span> is given by the formula</p>
+
+<p class="center">R = &sigma;ES (&theta;<span class="sp">4</span> &minus; &theta;<span class="su">0</span><span class="sp">4</span>),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where &sigma; is the radiation constant. The absolute value of &sigma; was
+determined by F. Kurlbaum using an electric compensation
+method (<i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1898, 65, p. 746), in which the radiation received
+by a bolometer from a black body at a known temperature
+was measured by finding the electric current required to produce
+the same rise of temperature in the bolometer. K. Ångstrom
+employed a similar method for solar radiation. Kurlbaum gives
+the value &sigma; = 5.32 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;5</span> ergs per sq. cm. per sec. C. Christiansen
+(<i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1883, 19, p. 267) had previously found a value
+about 5% smaller, by observing the rate of cooling of a copper
+plate of known thermal capacity, which is probably a less accurate
+method.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>42. <i>Theoretical Proof of the Fourth Power Law.</i>&mdash;The proof given
+by Boltzmann may be somewhat simplified if we observe that full
+radiation in an enclosure at constant temperature behaves exactly
+like a saturated vapour, and must therefore obey Carnot&rsquo;s or Clapeyron&rsquo;s
+equation given in section 17. The energy of radiation per unit
+volume, and the radiation-pressure at any temperature, are functions
+of the temperature only, like the pressure of a saturated vapour.
+If the volume of the enclosure is increased by any finite amount,
+the temperature remaining the same, radiation is given off from the
+walls so as to fill the space to the same pressure as before. The
+heat absorbed when the volume is increased corresponds with the
+latent heat of vaporization. In the case of radiation, as in the case
+of a vapour, the latent heat consists partly of internal energy of
+formation and partly of external work of expansion at constant
+pressure. Since in the case of full or undirected radiation the pressure
+is one-third of the energy per unit volume, the external work
+for any expansion is one-third of the internal energy added. The
+latent heat absorbed is, therefore, four times the external work of
+expansion. Since the external work is the product of the pressure P
+and the increase of volume V, the latent heat per unit increase of
+volume is four times the pressure. But by Carnot&rsquo;s equation the
+latent heat of a saturated vapour per unit increase of volume is
+equal to the rate of increase of saturation-pressure per degree divided
+by Carnot&rsquo;s function or multiplied by the absolute temperature.
+Expressed in symbols we have,</p>
+
+<p class="center">&theta; (dP/d&theta;) = L/V = 4P,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where (dP/d&theta;) represents the rate of increase of pressure. This
+equation shows that the percentage rate of increase of pressure is
+four times the percentage rate of increase of temperature, or that if
+the temperature is increased by 1%, the pressure is increased by
+4%. This is equivalent to the statement that the pressure varies
+as the fourth power of the temperature, a result which is mathematically
+deduced by integrating the equation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>43. <i>Wien&rsquo;s Displacement Law.</i>&mdash;Assuming that the fourth
+power law gives the quantity of full radiation at any temperature,
+it remains to determine how the quality of the radiation
+varies with the temperature, since as we have seen both quantity
+and quality are determinate. This question may be regarded
+as consisting of two parts. (1) How is the wave-length or
+frequency of any given kind of radiation changed when its
+temperature is altered? (2) What is the form of the curve
+expressing the distribution of energy between the various wave-lengths
+in the spectrum of full radiation, or what is the distribution
+of heat in the spectrum? The researches of Tyndall,
+Draper, Langley and other investigators had shown that while
+the energy of radiation of each frequency increased with rise
+of temperature, the maximum of intensity was shifted or displaced
+along the spectrum in the direction of shorter wave-lengths
+or higher frequencies. W. Wien (<i>Ann. Phys.</i>, 1898,
+58, p. 662), applying Doppler&rsquo;s principle to the adiabatic compression
+of radiation in a perfectly reflecting enclosure, deduced
+that the wave-length of each constituent of the radiation should
+be shortened in proportion to the rise of temperature produced
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span>
+by the compression, in such a manner that the product &lambda;&theta; of
+wave-length and the absolute temperature should remain
+constant. According to this relation, which is known as Wien&rsquo;s
+Displacement Law, the frequency corresponding to the maximum
+ordinate of the energy curve of the normal spectrum of full
+radiation should vary directly (or the wave-length inversely)
+as the absolute temperature, a result previously obtained by
+H. F. Weber (1888). Paschen, and Lummer and Pringsheim
+verified this relation by observing with a bolometer the intensity
+at different points in the spectrum produced by a fluorite prism.
+The intensities were corrected and reduced to a wave-length
+scale with the aid of Paschen&rsquo;s results on the dispersion formula
+of fluorite (<i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1894, 53, p. 301). The curves in fig. 7
+illustrate results obtained by Lummer and Pringsheim (<i>Ber.
+deut. phys. Ges.</i>, 1899, 1, p. 34) at three different temperatures,
+namely 1377°, 1087° and 836° absolute, plotted on a wave-length
+base with a scale of microns (&mu;) or millionths of a metre.
+The wave-lengths O<i>a</i>, O<i>b</i>, O<i>c</i>, corresponding to the maximum
+ordinates of each curve, vary inversely as the absolute temperatures
+given. The constant value of the product &lambda;&theta; at the
+maximum point is found to be 2920. Thus for a temperature
+of 1000° Abs. the maximum is at wave-length 2.92 &mu;; at 2000°
+the maximum is at 1.46 &mu;.</p>
+
+<p>44. <i>Form of the Curve representing the Distribution of Energy
+in the Spectrum.</i>&mdash;Assuming Wien&rsquo;s displacement law, it follows
+that the form of the curve representing the distribution of
+energy in the spectrum of full radiation should be the same
+for different temperatures with the maximum displaced in
+proportion to the absolute temperature, and with the total area
+increased in proportion to the fourth power of the absolute
+temperature. Observations taken with a bolometer along the
+length of a normal or wave-length spectrum, would give the
+form of the curve plotted on a wave-length base. The height of
+the ordinate at each point would represent the energy included
+between given limits of wave-length, depending on the width
+of the bolometer strip and the slit. Supposing that the bolometer
+strip had a width corresponding to .01 &mu;, and were placed at
+1.0 &mu; in the spectrum of radiation at 2000° Abs., it would receive
+the energy corresponding to wave-lengths between 1.00 and
+1.01 &mu;. At a temperature of 1000° Abs. the corresponding part
+of the energy, by Wien&rsquo;s displacement law, would lie between
+the limits 2.00 and 2.02 &mu;, and the total energy between these
+limits would be 16 times smaller. But the bolometer strip
+placed at 2.0 &mu; would now receive only half of the energy, or the
+energy in a band .01 &mu; wide, and the deflection would be 32 times
+less. Corresponding ordinates of the curves at different temperatures
+will therefore vary as the fifth power of the temperature,
+when the curves are plotted on a wave-length base. The
+maximum ordinates in the curves already given are found to
+vary as the fifth powers of the corresponding temperatures.
+The equation representing the distribution of energy on a wave-length
+base must be of the form</p>
+
+<p class="center">E = C&lambda;<span class="sp">&minus;5</span>F (&lambda;&theta;) =
+C&theta;<span class="sp">5</span> (&lambda;&theta;)<span class="sp">&minus;5</span>F (&lambda;&theta;)</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:322px; height:296px" src="images/img156a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Distribution of energy in the
+spectrum of a black body.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:337px; height:245px" src="images/img156b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Distribution of energy in the
+spectrum of full radiation at 2000° Abs.
+according to formulae of Planck &amp; Wien.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where F (&lambda;&theta;) represents some function of the product of the
+wave-length and temperature, which remains constant for
+corresponding wave-lengths when &theta; is changed. If the curves
+were plotted on a frequency base, owing to the change of scale,
+the maximum ordinates would vary as the cube of the temperature
+instead of the fifth power, but the form of the function F would
+remain unaltered. Reasoning on the analogy of the distribution
+of velocities among the particles of a gas on the kinetic theory,
+which is a very similar problem, Wien was led to assume that
+the function F should be of the form <i>e</i><span class="sp">&minus;c/&lambda;&theta;</span>, where <i>e</i> is the base
+of Napierian logarithms, and <i>c</i> is a constant having the value
+14,600 if the wave-length is measured in microns &mu;. This
+expression was found by Paschen to give a very good approximation
+to the form of the curve obtained experimentally for those
+portions of the visible and infra-red spectrum where observations
+could be most accurately made. The formula was tested in
+two ways: (1) by plotting the curves of distribution of energy
+in the spectrum for constant temperatures as illustrated in
+fig. 7; (2) by plotting the energy corresponding to a given wave-length
+as a function of the temperature. Both methods gave
+very good agreement with Wien&rsquo;s formula for values of the
+product &lambda;&theta; not much exceeding 3000. A method of isolating
+rays of great wave-length by successive reflection was devised
+by H. Rubens and E.
+F. Nichols (<i>Wied. Ann.</i>,
+1897, 60, p. 418). They
+found that quartz and
+fluorite possessed the
+property of selective
+reflection for rays of
+wave-length 8.8&mu; and
+24&mu; to 32&mu; respectively,
+so that after
+four to six reflections
+these rays could be
+isolated from a source
+at any temperature in
+a state of considerable
+purity. The residual
+impurity at any stage
+could be estimated
+by interposing a thin plate of quartz or fluorite which
+completely reflected or absorbed the residual rays, but
+allowed the impurity to pass. H. Beckmann, under the
+direction of Rubens, investigated the variation with temperature
+of the residual rays reflected from fluorite employing
+sources from &minus;80° to 600° C., and found the results could not
+be represented by Wien&rsquo;s formula unless the constant c were
+taken as 26,000 in place of 14,600. In their first series of observations
+extending to 6&mu; O. R. Lummer and E. Pringsheim (<i>Deut.
+phys. Ges.</i>, 1899, 1, p. 34) found systematic deviations indicating
+an increase in the value of the constant <i>c</i> for long waves and
+high temperatures. In a theoretical discussion of the subject,
+Lord Rayleigh (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1900, 49, p. 539) pointed out that
+Wien&rsquo;s law would lead to a limiting value C&lambda;<span class="sp">&minus;5</span>, of the radiation
+corresponding to any particular wave-length when the temperature
+increased to infinity, whereas according to his view the
+radiation of great wave-length should ultimately increase in
+direct proportion to the temperature. Lummer and Pringsheim
+(<i>Deut. phys. Ges.</i>, 1900, 2, p. 163) extended the range of their
+observations to 18 &mu; by employing a prism of sylvine in place of
+fluorite. They found deviations from Wien&rsquo;s formula increasing
+to nearly 50% at 18&mu;, where, however, the observations were
+very difficult on account of the smallness of the energy to be
+measured. Rubens and F. Kurlbaum (<i>Ann. Phys.</i>, 1901, 4,
+p. 649) extended the residual reflection method to a temperature
+range from &minus;190° to 1500° C., and employed the rays reflected
+from quartz 8.8&mu;,
+and rocksalt 51&mu;, in
+addition to those
+from fluorite. It appeared
+from these
+researches that the
+rays of great wave-length
+from a source
+at a high temperature
+tended to vary in the
+limit directly as the
+absolute temperature
+of the source, as
+suggested by Lord
+Rayleigh, and could
+not be represented
+by Wien&rsquo;s formula with any value of the constant c. The
+simplest type of formula satisfying the required conditions
+is that proposed by Max Planck (<i>Ann. Phys.</i>, 1901, 4, p. 553)
+namely,</p>
+
+<p class="center">E = C&lambda;<span class="sp">&minus;5</span> (<i>e</i><span class="sp">c/&lambda;&theta;</span> &minus; 1)<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>,</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:172px; height:219px" src="images/img157.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Variation of
+energy of radiation corresponding
+to wave-length
+30&mu;, with temperature
+of source.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which agrees with Wien&rsquo;s formula when &theta; is small, where Wien&rsquo;s
+formula is known to be satisfactory, but approaches the limiting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span>
+form E = C&lambda;<span class="sp">&minus;4</span>&theta;/<i>c</i>, when &theta; is large, thus satisfying the condition
+proposed by Lord Rayleigh. The theoretical interpretation of
+this formula remains to some extent a matter of future investigation,
+but it appears to satisfy experiment within the limits of
+observational error. In order to compare Planck&rsquo;s formula
+graphically with Wien&rsquo;s, the distribution curves corresponding
+to both formulae are plotted in fig. 8 for a temperature of 2000°
+abs., taking the value of the constant
+<i>c</i> = 14,600 with a scale of wave-length
+in microns &mu;. The curves in fig. 9
+illustrate the difference between the
+two formulae for the variation of the
+intensity of radiation corresponding to
+a fixed wave-length 30&mu;. Assuming
+Wien&rsquo;s displacement law, the curves
+may be applied to find the energy for
+any other wave-length or temperature,
+by simply altering the wave-length
+scale in inverse ratio to the temperature,
+or vice versa. Thus to find the
+distribution curve for 1000° abs., it is
+only necessary to multiply all the
+numbers in the wave-length scale of
+fig. 8 by 2; or to find the variation
+curve for wave-length 60&mu;, the numbers on the temperature scale
+of fig. 9 should be divided by 2. The ordinate scales must be
+increased in proportion to the fifth power of the temperature, or
+inversely as the fifth power of the wave-length respectively
+in figs. 8 and 9 if comparative results are required for different
+temperatures or wave-lengths. The results hitherto obtained
+for cases other than full radiation are not sufficiently simple and
+definite to admit of profitable discussion in the present article.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;It would not be possible, within the limits of an
+article like the present, to give tables of the specific thermal properties
+of different substances so far as they have been ascertained by experiment.
+To be of any use, such tables require to be extremely
+detailed, with very full references and explanations with regard to
+the value of the experimental evidence, and the limits within which
+the results may be relied on. The quantity of material available
+is so enormous and its value so varied, that the most elaborate tables
+still require reference to the original authorities. Much information
+will be found collected in Landolt and Bornstein&rsquo;s <i>Physical and
+Chemical Tables</i> (Berlin, 1905). Shorter tables, such as Everett&rsquo;s
+<i>Units and Physical Constants</i>, are useful as illustrations of a system,
+but are not sufficiently complete for use in scientific investigations.
+Some of the larger works of reference, such as A. A. Winkelmann&rsquo;s
+<i>Handbuch der Physik</i>, contain fairly complete tables of specific
+properties, but these tables occupy so much space, and are so misleading
+if incomplete, that they are generally omitted in theoretical
+textbooks.</p>
+
+<p>Among older textbooks on heat, Tyndall&rsquo;s <i>Heat</i> may be recommended
+for its vivid popular interest, and Balfour Stewart&rsquo;s <i>Heat</i>
+for early theories of radiation. Maxwell&rsquo;s <i>Theory of Heat</i> and Tait&rsquo;s
+<i>Heat</i> give a broad and philosophical survey of the subject. Among
+modern textbooks, Preston&rsquo;s <i>Theory of Heat</i> and Poynting and
+Thomson&rsquo;s <i>Heat</i> are the best known, and have been brought well
+up to date. Sections on heat are included in all the general textbooks
+of Physics, such as those of Deschanel (translated by Everett),
+Ganot (translated by Atkinson), Daniell, Watson, &amp;c. Of the original
+investigations on the subject, the most important have already been
+cited. Others will be found in the collected papers of Joule, Kelvin
+and Maxwell. Treatises on special branches of the subject, such as
+Fourier&rsquo;s <i>Conduction of Heat</i>, are referred to in the separate articles
+in this encyclopaedia dealing with recent progress, of which the
+following is a list: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Condensation of Gases</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conduction
+of Heat</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diffusion</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Energetics</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fusion</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquid Gases</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Radiation</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Radiometer</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solution</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermodynamics</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermoelectricity</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vaporization</a></span>. For the practical
+aspects of heating see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heating</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. L. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Units of Work, Energy and Power.</i>&mdash;In English-speaking countries
+work is generally measured in <i>foot-pounds</i>. Elsewhere it is generally
+measured in <i>kilogrammetres</i>, or in terms of the work done in raising
+1 kilogramme weight through the height of 1 metre. In the middle
+of the 19th century the terms &ldquo;force&rdquo; and &ldquo;motive power&rdquo; were
+commonly employed in the sense of &ldquo;power of doing work.&rdquo; The
+term &ldquo;energy&rdquo; is now employed in this sense. A quantity of
+energy is measured by the work it is capable of performing. A
+body may possess energy in virtue of its state (gas or steam under
+pressure), or in virtue of its position (a raised weight), or in various
+other ways, when at rest. In these cases it is said to possess <i>potential
+energy</i>. It may also possess energy in virtue of its motion or rotation
+(as a fly-wheel or a cannon-ball). In this case it is said to possess
+<i>kinetic energy</i>, or energy of motion. In many cases the energy (as
+in the case of a vibrating body, like a pendulum) is partly kinetic
+and partly potential, and changes continually from one to the other
+throughout the motion. For instance, the energy of a pendulum
+is wholly potential when it is momentarily at rest at the top of its
+swing, but is wholly kinetic when the pendulum is moving with its
+maximum velocity at the lowest point of its swing. The whole
+energy at any moment is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy,
+and this sum remains constant so long as the amplitude of the
+vibration remains the same. The potential energy of a weight W &#8468;
+raised to a height h ft. above the earth, is Wh foot-pounds. If
+allowed to fall freely, without doing work, its kinetic energy on
+reaching the earth would be Wh foot-pounds, and its velocity of
+motion would be such that if projected upwards with the same
+velocity it would rise to the height h from which it fell. We have
+here a simple and familiar case of the conversion of one kind of energy
+into a different kind. But the two kinds of energy are mechanically
+equivalent, and they can both be measured in terms of the same
+units. The units already considered, namely foot-pounds or kilogrammetres,
+are gravitational units, depending on the force of gravity.
+This is the most obvious and natural method of measuring the
+potential energy of a raised weight, but it has the disadvantage of
+varying with the force of gravity at different places. The natural
+measure of the kinetic energy of a moving body is the product of
+its mass by half the square of its velocity, which gives a measure
+in kinetic or absolute units independent of the force of gravity.
+Kinetic and gravitational units are merely different ways of measuring
+the same thing. Just as foot-pounds may be reduced to kilogrammetres
+by dividing by the number of foot-pounds in one kilogrammetre,
+so kinetic may be reduced to gravitational units by
+dividing by the kinetic measure of the intensity of gravity, namely,
+the work in kinetic units done by the weight of unit mass acting
+through unit distance. For scientific purposes, it is necessary to
+take account of the variation of gravity. The scientific unit of
+energy is called the <i>erg</i>. The erg is the kinetic energy of a mass
+of 2 gm. moving with a velocity of 1 cm. per sec. The work in
+ergs done by a force acting through a distance of 1 cm. is the absolute
+measure of the force. A force equal to the weight of 1 gm. (in
+England) acting through a distance of 1 cm. does 981 ergs of work.
+A force equal to the weight of 1000 gm. (1 kilogramme) acting
+through a distance of 1 metre (100 cm.) does 98.1 million ergs of
+work. As the erg is a very small unit, for many purposes, a unit
+equal to 10 million ergs, called a <i>joule</i>, is employed. In England,
+where the weight of 1 gm. is 981 ergs per cm., a foot-pound is equal
+to 1.356 joules, and a kilogrammetre is equal to 9.81 joules.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>power</i> is now generally restricted to mean &ldquo;rate of working.&rdquo;
+Watt estimated that an average horse was capable of raising
+550 &#8468; 1 ft. in each second, or doing work at the rate of 550 foot-pounds
+per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. This conventional
+horse-power is the unit commonly employed for estimating
+the power of engines. The <i>horse-power-hour</i>, or the work done by one
+horse-power in one hour, is nearly 2 million foot-pounds. For electrical
+and scientific purposes the unit of power employed is called the <i>watt</i>.
+The watt is the work per second done by an electromotive force of
+1 volt in driving a current of 1 ampere, and is equal to 10 million
+ergs or 1 joule per second. One horse-power is 746 watts or nearly
+¾ of a kilowatt. The <i>kilowatt-hour</i>, which is the unit by which
+electrical energy is sold, is 3.6 million joules or 2.65 million foot-pounds,
+or 366,000 kilogrammetres, and is capable of raising nearly
+19 &#8468; of water from the freezing to the boiling point.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In an essay on &ldquo;Heat, Light, and Combinations of Light,&rdquo;
+republished in Sir H. Davy&rsquo;s <i>Collected Works</i>, ii. (London, 1836).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For instance a mass of compressed air, if allowed to expand in a
+cylinder at the ordinary temperature, will do work, and will at the
+same time absorb a quantity of heat which, as we now know, is the
+thermal equivalent of the work done. But this work cannot be said
+to have been produced solely from the heat absorbed in the process,
+because the air at the end of the process is in a changed condition,
+and could not be restored to its original state at the same temperature
+without having work done upon it precisely equal to that obtained
+by its expansion. The process could not be repeated indefinitely
+without a continual supply of compressed air. The source of the
+work in this case is work previously done in compressing the air,
+and no part of the work is really generated at the expense of heat
+alone, unless the compression is effected at a lower temperature than
+the expansion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Clausius (<i>Pogg. Ann.</i> 79, p. 369) and others have misinterpreted
+this assumption, and have taken it to mean that the quantity of heat
+required to produce any given change of state is independent of the
+manner in which the change is effected, which Carnot does not here
+assume.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Carnot&rsquo;s description of his cycle and statement of his principle
+have been given as nearly as possible in his own words, because some
+injustice has been done him by erroneous descriptions and statements.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> It was for this reason that Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
+stated (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1852, 4) that &ldquo;Carnot&rsquo;s original demonstration
+utterly fails,&rdquo; and that he introduced the &ldquo;corrections&rdquo; attributed
+to James Thomson and Clerk Maxwell respectively. In reality
+Carnot&rsquo;s original demonstration requires no correction.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> In reference to this objection, Tyndall remarks (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>,
+1862, p. 422; <i>Heat</i>, p. 385); &ldquo;In the first place the plate of salt
+nearest the source of heat is never moistened, unless the experiments
+are of the roughest character. Its proximity to the source enables
+the heat to chase away every trace of humidity from its surface.&rdquo;
+He therefore took precautions to dry only the circumferential portions
+of the plate nearest the pile, assuming that the flux of heat
+through the central portions would suffice to keep them dry. This
+reasoning is not at all satisfactory, because rocksalt is very hygroscopic
+and becomes wet, even in unsaturated air, if the vapour
+pressure is greater than that of a saturated solution of salt at the
+temperature of the plate. Assuming that the vapour pressure of
+the saturated salt solution is only half that of pure water, it would
+require an elevation of temperature of 10° C. to dry the rocksalt
+plates in saturated air at 15° C. It is only fair to say that the laws
+of the vapour pressures of solutions were unknown in Tyndall&rsquo;s
+time, and that it was usual to assume that the plates would not
+become wetted until the dew-point was reached. The writer has
+repeated Tyndall&rsquo;s experiments with a facsimile of one of Tyndall&rsquo;s
+tubes in the possession of the Royal College of Science, fitted with
+plates of rocksalt cut from the same block as Tyndall&rsquo;s, and therefore
+of the same hygroscopic quality. Employing a reflecting galvanometer
+in conjunction with a differential bolometer, which is quicker
+in its action than Tyndall&rsquo;s pile, there appears to be hardly any
+difference between dry and moist air, provided that the latter is not
+more than half saturated. Using saturated air with a Leslie cube
+as source of heat, both rocksalt plates invariably become wet in a
+minute or two and the absorption rises to 10 or 20% according to
+the thickness of the film of deposited moisture. Employing the open
+tube method as described by Tyndall, without the rocksalt plates,
+the absorption is certainly less than 1% in 3 ft. of air saturated at
+20° C., unless condensation is induced on the walls of the tube. It
+is possible that the walls of Tyndall&rsquo;s tube may have become covered
+with a very hygroscopic film from the powder of the calcium chloride
+which he was in the habit of introducing near one end. Such a film
+would be exceedingly difficult to remove, and would account for the
+excessive precautions which he found necessary in drying the air
+in order to obtain the same transmitting power as a vacuum. It is
+probable that Tyndall&rsquo;s experiments on aqueous vapour were effected
+by experimental errors of this character.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEATH, BENJAMIN<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1704-1766), English classical scholar
+and bibliophile, was born at Exeter on the 20th of April 1704.
+He was the son of a wealthy merchant, and was thus able to
+devote himself mainly to travel and book-collecting. He became
+town clerk of his native city in 1752, and held the office till his
+death on the 13th of September 1766. In 1763 he had published
+a pamphlet advocating the repeal of the cider tax in Devonshire,
+and his endeavours led to success three years later. As a classical
+scholar he made his reputation by his critical and metrical notes
+on the Greek tragedians, which procured him an honorary
+D.C.L. from Oxford (31st of March 1752). He also left MS.
+notes on Burmann&rsquo;s and Martyn&rsquo;s editions of Virgil, on Euripides,
+Catullus, Tibullus, and the greater part of Hesiod. In some of
+these he adopts the whimsical name Dexiades Ericius. His
+<i>Revisal of Shakespear&rsquo;s Text</i> (1765) was an answer to the &ldquo;insolent
+dogmatism&rdquo; of Bishop Warburton. <i>The Essay towards a
+Demonstrative Proof of the Divine Existence, Unity and Attributes</i>
+(1740) was intended to combat the opinions of Voltaire, Rousseau
+and Hume. Two of his sons (among a family of thirteen) were
+Benjamin, headmaster of Harrow (1771-1785), and George,
+headmaster of Eton (1796). His collection of rare classical works
+formed the nucleus of his son Benjamin&rsquo;s famous library (Bibliotheca
+Heathiana).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An account of the Heath family will be found in Sir W. R. Drake&rsquo;s
+<i>Heathiana</i> (1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEATH, NICHOLAS<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1501-1578), archbishop of York and
+lord chancellor, was born in London about 1501 and graduated
+B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He then migrated to Christ&rsquo;s College,
+Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1520, M.A. in 1522, and
+was elected fellow in 1524. After holding minor preferments
+he was appointed archdeacon of Stafford in 1534 and graduated
+D.D. in 1535. He then accompanied Edward Fox (<i>q.v.</i>), bishop
+of Hereford, on his mission to promote a theological and political
+understanding with the Lutheran princes of Germany. His
+selection for this duty implies a readiness on Heath&rsquo;s part to
+proceed some distance along the path of reform; but his dealings
+with the Lutherans did not confirm this tendency, and Heath&rsquo;s
+subsequent career was closely associated with the cause of reaction.
+In 1539, the year of the Six Articles, he was made bishop
+of Rochester, and in 1543 he succeeded Latimer at Worcester.
+His Catholicism, however, was of a less rigid type than Gardiner&rsquo;s
+and Bonner&rsquo;s; he felt something of the force of the national
+antipathy to foreign influence, whether ecclesiastical or secular,
+and was always impressed by the necessity of national unity,
+so far as was possible, in matters of faith. Apparently he made
+no difficulty about carrying out the earlier reforms of Edward VI.,
+and he accepted the first book of common prayer after it had
+been modified by the House of Lords in a Catholic direction.</p>
+
+<p>His definite breach with the Reformation occurred on the
+grounds, on which four centuries later Leo XIII. denied the
+Catholicity of the reformed English Church, namely, on the
+question of the Ordinal drawn up in February 1550. Heath
+refused to accept it, was imprisoned, and in 1551 deprived of his
+bishopric. On Mary&rsquo;s accession he was released and restored,
+and made president of the council of the Marches and Wales.
+In 1555 he was promoted to the archbishopric of York, which he
+did much to enrich after the Protestant spoliation; he built
+York House in the Strand. After Gardiner&rsquo;s death he was
+appointed lord chancellor, probably on Pole&rsquo;s recommendation;
+for Heath, like Pole himself, disliked the Spanish party in
+England. Unlike Pole, however, he seems to have been averse
+from the excessive persecution of Mary&rsquo;s reign, and no Protestants
+were burnt in his diocese. He exercised, however, little influence
+on Mary&rsquo;s secular or ecclesiastical policy.</p>
+
+<p>On Mary&rsquo;s death Heath as chancellor at once proclaimed
+Elizabeth. Like Sir Thomas More he held that it was entirely
+within the competence of the national state, represented by
+parliament, to determine questions of the succession to the
+throne; and although Elizabeth did not renew his commission
+as lord chancellor, he continued to sit in the privy council for
+two months until the government had determined to complete
+the breach with the Roman Catholic Church; and as late as
+April 1559 he assisted the government by helping to arrange
+the Westminster Conference, and reproving his more truculent
+co-religionists. He refused to crown Elizabeth because she
+would not have the coronation service accompanied with the
+elevation of the Host; and ecclesiastical ceremonies and doctrine
+could not, in Heath&rsquo;s view, be altered or abrogated by any mere
+national authority. Hence he steadily resisted Elizabeth&rsquo;s acts
+of supremacy and uniformity, although he had acquiesced in the
+acts of 1534 and 1549. Like others of Henry&rsquo;s bishops, he had
+been convinced by the events of Edward VI.&rsquo;s reign that Sir
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span>
+Thomas More was right and Henry VIII. was wrong in their
+attitude towards the claims of the papacy and the Catholic
+Church. He was therefore necessarily deprived of his archbishopric
+in 1559, but he remained loyal to Elizabeth; and after
+a temporary confinement he was suffered to pass the remaining
+nineteen years of his life in peace and quiet, never attending
+public worship and sometimes hearing mass in private. The
+queen visited him more than once at his house at Chobham,
+Surrey; he died and was buried there at the end of 1578.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the
+Privy Council; Cal. State Papers, Domestic, Addenda, Spanish and
+Venetian; Kemp&rsquo;s Loseley MSS.; Froude&rsquo;s <i>History</i>; Burnet,
+Collier, Dixon and Frere&rsquo;s <i>Church Histories</i>; Strype&rsquo;s <i>Works</i> (General
+Index); Parker Soc. Publications (Gough&rsquo;s Index); Birt&rsquo;s <i>Elizabethan
+Settlement</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEATH, WILLIAM<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1737-1814), American soldier, was born
+in Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of March 1737 (old
+style). He was brought up as a farmer and had a passion for
+military exercises. In 1765 he entered the Ancient and Honourable
+Artillery Company of Boston, of which he became commander
+in 1770. In the same year he wrote to the <i>Boston Gazette</i> letters
+signed &ldquo;A Military Countryman,&rdquo; urging the necessity of
+military training. He was a member of the Massachusetts
+General Court from 1770 to 1774, of the provincial committee of
+safety, and in 1774-1775 of the provincial congress. He was
+commissioned a provincial brig.-general in December 1774,
+directed the pursuit of the British from Concord (April 19, 1775),
+was promoted to be provincial major-general on the 20th of June
+1775, and two days later was commissioned fourth brig.-general
+in the Continental Army. He became major-general on the 9th
+of August 1776, and was in active service around New York
+until early the next year. In January 1777 he attempted to
+take Fort Independence, near Spuyten Duyvil, then garrisoned
+by about 2000 Hessians, but at the first sally of the garrison his
+troops became panic-stricken and a few days later he withdrew.
+Washington reprimanded him and never again entrusted to him
+any important operation in the field. Throughout the war,
+however, Heath was very efficient in muster service and in the
+barracks. From March 1777 to October 1778 he was in command
+of the Eastern Department with headquarters at Boston, and
+had charge (Nov. 1777-Oct. 1778) of the prisoners of war from
+Burgoyne&rsquo;s army held at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In May 1779
+he was appointed a commissioner of the Board of War. He was
+placed in command of the troops on the E. side of the Hudson
+in June 1779, and of other troops and posts on the Hudson in
+November of the same year. In July 1780 he met the French
+allies under Rochambeau on their arrival in Rhode Island; in
+October of the same year he succeeded Arnold in command of
+West Point and its dependencies; and in August 1781, when
+Washington went south to meet Cornwallis, Heath was left in
+command of the Army of the Hudson to watch Clinton. After
+the war he retired to his farm at Roxbury, was a member of the
+state House of Representatives in 1788, of the Massachusetts
+convention which ratified the Federal Constitution in the same
+year, and of the governor&rsquo;s council in 1789-1790, was a state
+senator (1791-1793), and in 1806 was elected lieutenant-governor
+of Massachusetts but declined to serve. He died at Roxbury on
+the 24th of January 1814, the last of the major-generals of the
+War of American Independence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoirs of Major-General Heath, containing Anecdotes, Details
+of Skirmishes, Battles and other Military Events during the American
+War, written by Himself</i> (Boston, 1798; frequently reprinted, perhaps
+the best edition being that published in New York in 1901 by William
+Abbatt), particularly valuable for the descriptions of Lexington
+and Bunker Hill, of the fighting around New York, of the controversies
+with Burgoyne and his officers during their stay in Boston,
+and of relations with Rochambeau; and his correspondence, <i>The
+Heath Papers</i>, vols. iv.-v., seventh series, <i>Massachusetts Historical
+Society Collections</i> (Boston, 1904-1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEATH,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> the English form of a name given in most Teutonic
+dialects to the common ling or heather (<i>Calluna vulgaris</i>), but
+now applied to all species of <i>Erica</i>, an extensive genus of monopetalous
+plants, belonging to the order Ericaceae. The heaths
+are evergreen shrubs, with small narrow leaves, in whorls usually
+set rather thickly on the shoots; the persistent flowers have 4
+sepals, and a 4-cleft campanulate or tubular corolla, in many
+species more or less ventricose or inflated; the dry capsule is
+4-celled, and opens, in the true Ericae, in 4 segments, to the
+middle of which the partitions adhere, though in the ling the
+valves separate at the dissepiments. The plants are mostly of
+low growth, but several African kinds reach the size of large
+bushes, and a common South European species, <i>E. arborea</i>,
+occasionally attains almost the aspect and dimensions of a tree.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:146px; height:447px" src="images/img158.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><i>Calluna vulgaris.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>One of the best known and most interesting of the family is
+the common heath, heather or ling, <i>Calluna vulgaris</i> (fig. 1),
+placed by most botanists in a separate
+genus on account of the peculiar dehiscence
+of the fruit, and from the coloured calyx,
+which extends beyond the corolla, having
+a whorl of sepal-like bracts beneath. This
+shrub derives some economic importance
+from its forming the chief vegetation on
+many of those extensive wastes that occupy
+so large a portion of the more sterile lands
+of northern and western Europe, the usually
+desolate appearance of which is enlivened
+in the latter part of summer by its abundant
+pink blossoms. When growing erect to the
+height of 3 ft. or more, as it often does in
+sheltered places, its purple stems, close-leaved
+green shoots and feathery spikes
+of bell-shaped flowers render it one of the
+handsomest of the heaths; but on the
+bleaker elevations and more arid slopes it
+frequently rises only a few inches above the
+ground. In all moorland countries the ling
+is applied to many rural purposes; the
+larger stems are made into brooms, the
+shorter tied up into bundles that serve as
+brushes, while the long trailing shoots are
+woven into baskets. Pared up with the peat about its roots
+it forms a good fuel, often the only one obtainable on the
+drier moors. The shielings of the Scottish Highlanders were
+formerly constructed of heath stems, cemented together with
+peat-mud, worked into a kind of mortar with dry grass or
+straw; hovels and sheds for temporary purposes are still
+sometimes built in a similar way, and roofed in with ling.
+Laid on the ground, with the flowers above, it forms a soft
+springy bed, the luxurious couch of the ancient Gael, still gladly
+resorted to at times by the hill shepherd or hardy deer-stalker.
+The young shoots were in former days employed as a substitute
+for hops in brewing, while their astringency rendered them
+valuable as a tanning material in Ireland and the Western Isles.
+They are said also to have been used by the Highlanders for
+dyeing woollen yarn yellow, and other colours are asserted to
+have been obtained from them, but some writers appear to confuse
+the dyer&rsquo;s-weed, <i>Genista tinctoria</i>, with the heather. The
+young juicy shoots and the seeds, which remain long in the
+capsules, furnish the red grouse of Scotland with the larger portion
+of its sustenance; the ripe seeds are eaten by many birds. The
+tops of the ling afford a considerable part of the winter fodder of
+the hill flocks, and are popularly supposed to communicate the
+fine flavour to Welsh and Highland mutton, but sheep seldom crop
+heather while the mountain grasses and rushes are sweet and
+accessible. Ling has been suggested as a material for paper,
+but the stems are hardly sufficiently fibrous for that purpose.
+The purple or fine-leaved heath, <i>E. cinerea</i> (fig. 2), one of the most
+beautiful of the genus, abounds on the lower moors and commons
+of Great Britain and western Europe, in such situations being
+sometimes more prevalent than the ling. The flowers of both
+these species yield much honey, furnishing a plentiful supply
+to the bees in moorland districts; from this heath honey the
+Picts probably brewed the mead said by Boetius to have been
+made from the flowers themselves.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:165px; height:403px" src="images/img159.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><i>Erica cinerea.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The genus contains about 420 known species, by far the greater
+part being indigenous to the western districts of South Africa,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span>
+but it is also a characteristic genus of the Mediterranean region,
+while several species extend into northern Europe. No species is
+native in America, but ling occurs as an introduced plant on the
+Atlantic side from Newfoundland to New Jersey. Five species
+occur in Britain: <i>E. cinerea</i>, <i>E. tetralix</i> (cross-leaved heath),
+both abundant on heaths and commons,
+<i>E. vagans</i>, Cornish heath, found only in
+West Cornwall, <i>E. ciliaris</i> in the west of
+England and Ireland and <i>E. mediterranea</i>
+in Ireland. The three last are south-west
+European species which reach the northern
+limit of their distribution in the west of
+England and Ireland. <i>E. scoparia</i> is a
+common heath in the centre of France
+and elsewhere in the Mediterranean
+region, forming a spreading bush several
+feet high. It is known as <i>bruyère</i>, and
+its stout underground rootstocks yield
+the briar-wood used for pipes.</p>
+
+<p>The Cape heaths have long been
+favourite objects of horticulture. In the
+warmer parts of Britain several will bear
+exposure to the cold of ordinary winters
+in a sheltered border, but most need the
+protection of the conservatory. They are
+sometimes raised from seed, but are chiefly
+multiplied by cuttings &ldquo;struck&rdquo; in sand,
+and afterwards transferred to pots filled
+with a mixture of black peat and sand; the peat should be dry
+and free from sourness. Much attention is requisite in watering
+heaths, as they seldom recover if once allowed to droop, while
+they will not bear much water about their roots: the heath-house
+should be light and well ventilated, the plants requiring
+sun, and soon perishing in a close or permanently damp atmosphere;
+in England little or no heat is needed in ordinary seasons.
+The European heaths succeed well in English gardens, only
+requiring a peaty soil and sunny situation to thrive as well as in
+their native localities: <i>E. carnea</i>, <i>mediterranea</i>, <i>ciliaris</i>, <i>vagans</i>,
+and the pretty cross-leaved heath of boggy moors, <i>E. Tetralix</i>,
+are among those most worthy of cultivation. The beautiful large-flowered
+St Dabeoc&rsquo;s heath, belonging to the closely allied genus
+<i>Dabeocia</i>, is likewise often seen in gardens. It is found in boggy
+heaths in Connemara and Mayo, and is also native in West
+France, Spain and the Azores.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A beautiful work on heaths is that by H. C. Andrews, containing
+coloured engravings of nearly 300 species and varieties, with descriptions
+in English and Latin (4 vols., 1802-1805).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEATHCOAT, JOHN<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1783-1861), English inventor, was born
+at Duffield near Derby on the 7th of August 1783. During his
+apprenticeship to a framesmith near Loughborough, he made
+an improvement in the construction of the warp-loom, so as to
+produce mitts of a lace-like appearance by means of it. He
+began business on his own account at Nottingham, but finding
+himself subjected to the intrusion of competing inventors he
+removed to Hathern. There in 1808 he constructed a machine
+capable of producing an exact imitation of real pillow-lace.
+This was by far the most expensive and complex textile apparatus
+till then existing; and in describing the process of his invention
+Heathcoat said in 1836, &ldquo;The single difficulty of getting the
+diagonal threads to twist in the allotted space was so great that,
+if now to be done, I should probably not attempt its accomplishment.&rdquo;
+Some time before perfecting his invention, which he
+patented in 1809, he removed to Loughborough, where he
+entered into partnership with Charles Lacy, a Nottingham
+manufacturer; but in 1816 their factory was attacked by the
+Luddites and their 55 lace frames destroyed. The damages
+were assessed in the King&rsquo;s Bench at £10,000; but as Heathcoat
+declined to expend the money in the county of Leicester he never
+received any part of it. Undaunted by his loss, he began at
+once to construct new and greatly improved machines in an
+unoccupied factory at Tiverton, Devon, propelling them by
+water-power and afterwards by steam. His claim to the invention
+of the twisting and traversing lace machine was disputed,
+and a patent was taken out by a clever workman for a similar
+machine, which was decided at a trial in 1816 to be an infringement
+of Heathcoat&rsquo;s patent. He followed his great invention by
+others of much ability, as, for instance, contrivances for ornamenting
+net while in course of manufacture and for making
+ribbons and platted and twisted net upon his machines, improved
+yarn spinning-frames, and methods for winding raw silk from
+cocoons. He also patented an improved process for extracting
+and purifying salt. An offer of £10,000 was made to him in
+1833 for the use of his processes in dressing and finishing silk nets,
+but he allowed the highly profitable secret to remain undivulged.
+In 1832 he patented a steam plough. Heathcoat was elected
+member of parliament for Tiverton in 1832. Though he seldom
+spoke in the House he was constantly engaged on committees,
+where his thorough knowledge of business and sound judgment
+were highly valued. He retained his seat until 1859, and after
+two years of declining health he died on the 18th of January
+1861 at Bolham House, near Tiverton.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1651-1733), lord mayor of
+London, belonged to an old Derbyshire family and was educated
+at Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, afterwards becoming a merchant
+in London. His trading ventures were very successful; he
+was one of the promoters of the new East India company and
+he emerged victorious from a contest between himself and the
+old East India company in 1693; he was also one of the founders
+and first directors of the bank of England. In 1702 he became
+an alderman of the city of London and was knighted; he served
+as lord mayor in 1711, being the last lord mayor to ride on horseback
+in his procession. In 1700 Heathcote was sent to parliament
+as member for the city of London, but he was soon expelled
+for his share in the circulation of some exchequer bills; however,
+he was again elected for the city later in the same year, and
+he retained his seat until 1710. In 1714 he was member for
+Helston, in 1722 for New Lymington, and in 1727 for St
+Germans. He was a consistent Whig, and was made a baronet
+eight days before his death. Although extremely rich, Heathcote&rsquo;s
+meanness is referred to by Pope; and it was this trait
+that accounts largely for his unpopularity with the lower classes.
+He died in London on the 25th of January 1733 and was buried
+at Normanton, Rutland, a residence which he had purchased
+from the Mackworths.</p>
+
+<p>A descendant, Sir Gilbert John Heathcote, Bart. (1795-1867),
+was created Baron Aveland in 1856; and his son Gilbert Henry,
+who in 1888 inherited from his mother the barony of Willoughby
+de Eresby, became 1st earl of Ancaster in 1892.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEATHEN,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a term originally applied to all persons or races
+who did not hold the Jewish or Christian belief, thus including
+Mahommedans. It is now more usually given to polytheistic
+races, thus excluding Mahommedans. The derivation of the
+word has been much debated. It is common to all Germanic
+languages; cf. German <i>Heide</i>, Dutch <i>heiden</i>. It is usually ascribed
+to a Gothic <i>haiþi</i>, heath. In Ulfilas&rsquo; Gothic version of the
+Bible, the earliest extant literary monument of the Germanic
+languages, the Syrophoenician woman (Mark vii. 26) is called
+<i>haiþno</i>, where the Vulgate has <i>gentilis</i>. &ldquo;Heathen,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the
+people of the heath or open country, would thus be a translation
+of the Latin <i>paganus</i>, pagan, <i>i.e.</i> the people of the <i>pagus</i> or
+village, applied to the dwellers in the country where the worship
+of the old gods still lingered, when the people of the towns were
+Christians (but see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pagan</a></span> for a more tenable explanation of that
+term). On the other hand it has been suggested (Prof. S.
+Bugge, <i>Indo-German. Forschungen</i>, v. 178, quoted in the <i>New
+English Dictionary</i>) that Ulfilas may have adopted the word
+from the Armenian <i>hetanos</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Greek <span class="grk" title="ethnê">&#7956;&#952;&#957;&#951;</span>, tribes, races, the
+word used for the &ldquo;Gentiles&rdquo; in the New Testament. <i>Gentilis</i>
+in Latin, properly meaning &ldquo;tribesman,&rdquo; came to be used of
+foreigners and non-Roman peoples, and was adopted in ecclesiastical
+usage for the non-Christian nations and in the Old
+Testament for non-Jewish races.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEATHFIELD, GEORGE AUGUSTUS ELIOTT,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1717-1790),
+British general, a younger son of Sir Gilbert Eliott, Bart.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span>
+of Stobs, Roxburghshire, was born on the 25th of December
+1717, and educated abroad for the military profession. As a
+volunteer he fought with the Prussian army in 1735 and 1736,
+and then entered the Grenadier Guards. He went through the
+war of the Austrian Succession, and was wounded at Dettingen,
+rising to be lieutenant-colonel in 1754. In 1759 he became colonel
+of a new regiment of light horse (afterwards the 15th Hussars)
+and became well known for the efficiency which it displayed in
+the subsequent campaigns. He became lieutenant-general in
+1765. In 1775 he was selected to be governor of Gibraltar (<i>q.v.</i>),
+and it is in connexion with his magnificent defence in the great
+siege of 1779 that his name is famous. His portrait by Sir
+Joshua Reynolds is in the National Gallery. In 1787 he was
+created Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar, but died on the 6th of
+July 1790. He had married in 1748 the heiress of the Drake
+family, to which Sir Francis Drake belonged. His son, the
+2nd baron, died in 1813 and the peerage became extinct, but
+the estates went to the family of Eliott-Drake (baronetcy of
+1821) through his sister.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEATING.<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> In temperate latitudes the climate is generally
+such as to necessitate in dwellings during a great portion of the
+year a temperature warmer than that out of doors. The object
+of the art of heating is to secure this required warmth with the
+greatest economy and efficiency. For reasons of health it may
+be assumed that no system of heating is advisable which does
+not provide for a constant renewal of the air in the locality
+warmed, and on this account there is a difficulty in treating as
+separate matters the subjects of heating and ventilation, which
+in practical schemes should be considered conjointly. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ventilation</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The object of all heating apparatus is the transference of heat
+from the fire to the various parts of the building it is intended
+to warm, and this transfer may be effected by radiation, by conduction
+or by convection. An open fire acts by radiation; it
+warms the air in a room by first warming the walls, floor, ceiling
+and articles in the room, and these in turn warm the air. Therefore
+in a room with an open fire the air is, as a rule, less heated
+than the walls. In many forms of fireplaces fresh air is brought
+in and passed around the back and sides of the stove before being
+admitted into the room. A closed stove acts mainly by convection;
+though when heated to a high temperature it gives
+out radiant heat. Windows have a chilling effect on a room,
+and in calculations extra allowance should be made for window
+areas.</p>
+
+<p>There are a number of methods available for adoption in the
+heating of buildings, but it is a matter of considerable difficulty
+to suit the method of warming to the class of building to be
+warmed. Heating may be effected by one of the following
+systems, or installations may be so arranged as to combine the
+advantages of more than one method: open fires, closed stoves,
+hot-air apparatus, hot water circulating in pipes at low or at high
+pressure, or steam at high or low pressure.</p>
+
+<p>The open grate still holds favour in England, though in
+America and on the continent of Europe it has been superseded
+by the closed stove. The old form of open fire is
+certainly wasteful of fuel, and the loss of heat up the
+<span class="sidenote">Open fires.</span>
+chimney and by conduction into the brickwork
+backing of the stove is considerable. Great improvements,
+however, have been effected in the design of open fireplaces,
+and many ingenious contrivances of this nature are now in the
+market which combine efficiency of heating with economy of
+fuel. Unless suitable fresh air inlets are provided, this form
+of stove will cause the room to be draughty, the strong current
+of warm air up the flue drawing cold air in through the crevices
+in the doors and windows. The best form of open fireplace is
+the ventilating stove, in which fresh air is passed around the
+back and sides of the stove before being admitted through
+convenient openings into the room. This has immense advantages
+over the ordinary type of fireplace. The illustrations show
+two forms of ventilating fireplace, one (fig. 1) similar in appearance
+to the ordinary domestic grate, the other (fig. 2) with descending
+smoke flue suitable for hospitals and public rooms, where it
+might be fixed in the middle of the apartment. The fixing of
+stoves of this kind entails the laying of pipes or ducts from the
+open to convey fresh air to the back of the stove.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:528px; height:248px" src="images/img160.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td>
+<td class="caption">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp; <span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>With closed stoves much less heat is wasted, and consequently
+less fuel is burned, than with open grates, but they often cause
+an unpleasant sensation of dryness in the air, and the
+products of combustion also escape to some extent,
+<span class="sidenote">Closed stoves.</span>
+rendering this method of heating not only unpleasant
+but sometimes even dangerous. The method in Great Britain
+is almost entirely confined to places of public assembly, but in
+America and on the continent of Europe it is much used for
+domestic heating. If the flue pipe be carried up a considerable
+distance inside the apartment to be warmed before being turned
+into the external air, practically the whole of the heat generated
+will be utilized. Charcoal, coke or anthracite coal are the fuels
+generally used in slow combustion heating stoves.</p>
+
+<p>Gas fires, as a substitute for the open coal fire, have many
+points in their favour, for they are conducive to cleanliness, they
+need but little attention, and the heat is easily controlled.
+On the other hand, they may give off unhealthy
+<span class="sidenote">Gas fires.</span>
+fumes and produce unpleasant odours. They usually
+take the form of cast iron open stoves fitted with a number of
+Bunsen burners which heat perforated lumps of asbestos. The
+best form of stove is that with which perfect combustion is
+most nearly attained, and to which a pan of water is affixed to
+supply a desirable humidity to the air, the gas having the effect
+of drying the atmosphere. With another form of gas stove
+coke is used in place of the perforated asbestos; the fire is
+started with the gas, which, when the coke is well alight, may
+be dispensed with, and the fire kept up with coke in the usual
+way.</p>
+
+<p>Electrical heating appliances have only recently passed the
+experimental stage; there is, however, undoubtedly a great
+future for electric heating, and the perfecting of the
+<span class="sidenote">Electrical heating.</span>
+stove, together with the cheapening of the electric
+current, may be expected to result in many of the
+other stoves and convectors being superseded. Hitherto the
+large bill for electric energy has debarred the general use of
+electrical heating, in spite of its numerous advantages.</p>
+
+<p>Oils are powerful fuels, but the high price of refined petroleum,
+the oil generally preferred, precludes its widespread use for
+many purposes for which it is suitable. In small
+stoves for warming and for cooking, petroleum presents
+<span class="sidenote">Oil stoves.</span>
+some advantages over other fuels, in that there is no
+chimney to sweep, and if well managed no unpleasant fumes,
+and the stoves are easily portable. On the other hand, these
+stoves need a considerable amount of attention in filling, trimming
+and cleaning, and there is some risk of explosion and damage by
+accidental leaking and smoking. Crude or unrefined petroleum
+needs a special air-spray pressure burner for its use, and this
+suffers from the disadvantage of being noisy. Gas and oil
+radiators would be more properly termed &ldquo;convectors,&rdquo; since
+they warm mainly by converted currents. They are similar
+in appearance to a hot-water or steam radiator, and, indeed,
+some are designed to be filled with water and used as such.
+They should always be fitted with a pan of water to supply the
+necessary humidity to the warmed air, and a flue to carry off
+any disagreeable fumes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span></p>
+
+<p>Heating by warmed air, one of the oldest methods in use,
+has been much improved by attention to the construction of
+the apparatus, and if properly installed will give as
+good effects as it is possible to obtain. The system
+<span class="sidenote">Warm air.</span>
+is especially suitable for churches, assembly halls and
+large rooms. A stove of special design is placed in a chamber
+in the basement or cellar, and cold fresh air is passed through
+it, and led by means of flues to the various apartments for distribution
+by means of easily regulated inlet valves. To prevent
+the atmosphere from becoming unduly dry a pan of water is
+fitted to the stove; this serves to moisten the air before it
+passes into the distributing flues. If each distributing flue is
+connected by means of a mixing valve with a cold-air flue, the
+warmth of the incoming air can be regulated to a nicety (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ventilation</a></span>).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:287px; height:541px" src="images/img161a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>There are many different systems of heating by hot water
+circulating in pipes. The oldest and best known is the &ldquo;two
+pipe&rdquo; system, others being the &ldquo;one pipe&rdquo; or &ldquo;simple
+circuit,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;drop&rdquo; or &ldquo;overhead.&rdquo; The high
+<span class="sidenote">Low pressure hot water.</span>
+pressure system is of later invention, having been
+first put to practical use by A. M. Perkins in 1845.
+All these methods warm chiefly by means of convected heat,
+the amount of true radiation from the pipes being small. The
+manner in which the circulation of hot water takes place in the
+tubes is as follows. Fire heats the water in a boiler from the top
+of which a &ldquo;flow&rdquo; pipe communicates with the rooms to be
+warmed (fig. 3). As the water is heated it becomes lighter,
+rises to the top of the boiler,
+and passes along the flow
+pipe. It is followed by
+more and more hot water,
+and so travels along the flow
+pipe, which is rising all the
+time, to the farthest point
+of the circuit, by which
+time it has in all probability
+cooled considerably.
+From this point the &ldquo;return&rdquo;
+pipe drops, usually at
+the same rate as the flow
+pipe rises; and in due course
+the water reaches its starting
+point, the boiler, and is
+again heated and again circulated
+through the system.
+The connexion of the return
+pipe is made with the lower
+part of the boiler. Branches
+may be made from the main
+pipes by means of smaller
+pipes arranged in the same
+manner as the mains, the
+branch flow pipe being connected
+with the main flow
+pipe and returning into the
+main return. To obtain a
+larger heating surface than
+a pipe affords, radiators are connected with the pipes where
+desired, and the water passing through them warms the surrounding
+air.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;one pipe&rdquo; system (fig. 4) acts on precisely the
+same principle, but in place of two pipes being placed
+in adjacent positions one large main makes a complete
+circuit of the area to be warmed, starting from and returning
+to the boiler, and from this main flow and return branches
+are taken and connected with radiators and other heating
+appliances.</p>
+
+<p>In the &ldquo;drop&rdquo; or &ldquo;overhead&rdquo; system (fig. 5) a rising main
+is taken directly from the boiler to the topmost floor of the
+building, and from this branches are dropped to the lower floors,
+and connected by means of smaller branches to radiators or
+coils. The vertical branches descend to the basement and
+generally merge in a single return pipe which is connected to
+the lower part of the boiler.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:372px" src="images/img161b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:374px; height:648px" src="images/img161c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The rate of circulation in the ordinary low pressure hot-water
+system may be considerably accelerated by means of steam
+injections. The water after being heated passes into a circulating
+tank into which steam is introduced; this, mixing with the hot
+water, gives it additional motive power, resulting in a faster
+circulation. This steam condensing adds to the water in the
+pipe and naturally causes an overflow, which is led back to the
+boiler and re-used. In districts where the water is hard, this
+arrangement considerably lengthens the life of the boiler, as
+the same water is used over and over again, and no fresh deposit
+of fur occurs. Owing to the very rapid movement and the
+consequent increased rate of transmission of heat, the pipes and
+radiators may be reduced in size, in many circumstances a very
+desirable thing to achieve. With this system the temperature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span>
+can be quickly raised and easily controlled. If the weather is
+mild, a moderate heat may be obtained by using the apparatus
+as an ordinary hot water system, and shutting off the steam
+injectors.</p>
+
+<p>The cold-water supply and expansion tank (fig. 3) are often
+combined in one tank placed at a point above the level of circulation.
+The tank should be of a size to hold not less than a
+twentieth part of the total amount of water held in the system.
+The automatic inlet of cold water to the hot water system from
+the main house tank or other source is controlled by a ball valve,
+which is so fixed as to allow the water to rise no more than an
+inch above the bottom of the tank, thus leaving the remainder
+of the space clear for expansion. An overflow is provided,
+discharging into the open air to allow the water to escape should
+the ball valve become defective.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:273px; height:530px" src="images/img162.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:241px; height:116px" src="images/img162a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Perkins&rdquo; or &ldquo;small bore high pressure&rdquo; system
+(fig. 6) has many advantages, for it is safe, the boiler is small
+and is easily managed, the temperature is well under
+control and may be regulated to suit the changing
+<span class="sidenote">High pressure hot water.</span>
+weather, and the small pipes present a neat appearance
+in a room. The whole system is constructed of wrought
+iron pipe of small diameter, strong enough to resist a testing
+pressure of 2000 to 2500 &#8468; per sq. in. The boiler consists of
+similar pipe coiled up to form
+a fire-box, inside which the
+furnace is lighted. The coil
+is encased with firebricks
+and brickwork, and the
+smoke from the fire is carried
+off by a flue in the ordinary
+way. The flow pipe of similar
+section (usually having an
+internal diameter of about 1
+in., the metal being nearly ¼ in.
+thick) continues from the top
+of the coil, and after travelling
+round the various apartments
+returns to, and is
+connected with, the lowest
+part of the boiler coil. The
+joints take a special form to
+enable them to withstand the
+great strain to which they
+are subjected (fig. 7). One
+end of a pipe is finished flat,
+the end of the other pipe
+being brought to a conical
+edge. On one end also a
+right-handed, and on the
+other a left-handed, screw-thread
+is turned. A coupling
+collar, tapped in the same
+manner, is screwed on, and causes the conical edge to impress
+itself tightly on the flat end, giving a sound and lasting joint.
+The system is hermetically sealed after being pumped full of
+water, an expansion chamber in the shape of a pipe of larger
+dimensions being provided at the top of the system above
+the highest point of circulation. Upon the application of heat
+to the fire-box coil the water
+naturally expands and forces its
+way up into the expansion
+chamber; but there it encounters
+the pressure of the confined air,
+and ebullition is consequently
+prevented. Thus at no time
+can steam form in the system.
+This system is trustworthy and safe in working. The smallness
+of the pipes renders it liable to damage by frost, but this accident
+may be prevented by always keeping in frosty weather a small
+fire in the furnace. If this course is inconvenient, some liquid
+of low freezing-point, such as glycerine, may be mixed with the
+water.</p>
+
+<p>For large public buildings, factories, &amp;c., heating by steam
+is generally adopted on account of the rapidity with which heat
+is available, and the great distance from the boiler at
+which warming is effected. In the case of factories
+<span class="sidenote">Steam heating.</span>
+the exhaust steam from the engines used for driving
+the working machinery is made use of and forms the most
+economical method of heating possible. There are several
+different systems of heating by steam&mdash;low pressure, high
+pressure and minus pressure.</p>
+
+<p>In the low pressure two pipe system the flow pipe is carried
+to a sufficient height directly above the boiler to allow of its
+gradual fall to a little beyond the most distant point at which
+connexion is to be made with the return pipe, which thence
+slopes towards the boiler. Branches are taken off the flow pipe,
+and after circulating through coils or radiators are connected
+with the return pipe. In a well-proportioned system the pressure
+need not exceed 2 or 3 &#8468; per sq. in. for excellent
+results to be obtained. The one-pipe system is similar in principle,
+the pipe rising to its greatest height above the boiler
+and being then carried around as a single pipe falling all the
+while. It resembles in many points the one-pipe low pressure
+hot-water system. Radiators are fed directly from the main.
+Where, as in factories or workshops, there are already installed
+engines working at a high steam pressure, say 120 to 180 &#8468; per
+sq. in., a portion of the steam generated in the boilers may be
+utilized for heating by the aid of a reducing valve. The steam
+is passed through the valve and emerges at the pressure required
+generally from 3 &#8468; upwards. It is then used for one of the
+systems described above.</p>
+
+<p>High-pressure steam-heating, compared with the heating by
+low pressure, is little used. The principles are the same as those
+applied to low-pressure work, but all fittings and appliances
+must, of course, be made to stand the higher strain to which
+they are subjected.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;minus pressure&rdquo; steam system, sometimes termed
+&ldquo;atmospheric&rdquo; or &ldquo;vacuum,&rdquo; is of more recent introduction
+than those just described. It is certainly the most scientific
+method of steam-heating, and heat can be made to travel a
+greater distance by its aid than by any other means. The heat
+of the pipes is great, but can be easily regulated. The system
+is economical in fuel, but needs skilled attendance to keep the
+appliances and fittings in order. The steam is introduced into
+the pipes at about the pressure of the atmosphere, and is sucked
+through the system by means of a vacuum pump, which at the
+same operation frees the pipes from air and from condensation
+water. This pumping action results in an extremely rapid
+circulation of the heating agent, enabling long distances to be
+traversed without much loss of heat.</p>
+
+<p>Compared with heating by hot water, steam-heating requires
+less piping, which, further, may be of much smaller diameter
+to attain a similar result, because of the higher temperature
+of the heat yielding surface. A drawback to the use of steam
+is the fact that the high temperature of the pipes and radiators
+attracts and spreads a great deal of dust. There is also a risk
+that woodwork near the pipes may warp and split. The apparatus
+needs constant attention, since neglect in stoking would result
+in stopping the generation of steam, and the whole system
+would almost immediately cool. To regulate the heat it is
+necessary either to instal a number of small radiators or to
+divide the radiators into sections, each section controlled by
+distinct valves; steam may then be admitted to all the sections
+of the radiator or to any less number of sections as desired.
+In a hot-water system the heat is given off at a lower temperature
+and is consequently more agreeable than that yielded by a
+steam-heating apparatus. The joint most commonly used for
+hot-water pipes is termed the &ldquo;rust&rdquo; joint, which is cheap to
+make, but unfortunately is inefficient. The materials required
+are iron borings, sal-ammoniac and sulphur; these are mixed
+together, moistened with water, and rammed into the socket,
+which is previously half filled with yarn, well caulked. The
+materials mixed with the iron borings cause them to rust into a
+solid mass, and in doing so a slight expansion takes place. On
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span>
+this account it is necessary to exercise some skill in forming the
+joint, or the socket of the pipe will be split; numbers of pipes
+are undoubtedly spoilt in this way. Suitable proportions of
+materials to form a rust joint are 90 parts by weight of iron
+borings well mixed with 2 parts of flowers of sulphur, and 1
+part of powdered sal-ammoniac. Another joint, less rigid but
+sound and durable, is made with yarn and white and red lead.
+The white and red lead are mixed together to form a putty, and
+are filled into the socket alternately with layers of well-caulked
+yarn, starting with yarn and finishing off with the lead mixture.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:128px; height:143px" src="images/img163a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Iron expands when heated to the temperature of boiling
+water (212° F.) about 1 part in 900, that is to say, a pipe
+100 ft. long would expand or increase in length when
+heated to this temperature about 1½ in., an amount
+<span class="sidenote">Joints for pipes.</span>
+which seems small but which would be quite sufficient
+to destroy one or more of the joints if provision were not made
+to prevent damage. The amount of expansion increases as the
+temperature is raised; at 340° F. it is 2½ in.
+in 100 ft. With wrought iron pipes bends
+may be arranged, as shown in fig. 8, to take
+up this expansion. With cast iron pipe this
+cannot be done, and no length of piping over
+40 ft. should be without a proper expansion
+joint. The pipes are best supported on rollers
+which allow of movement without straining
+the joints.</p>
+
+<p>There are several joints in general use for the
+best class of work which are formed with the aid of india-rubber
+rings or collars, any expansion being divided amongst the whole
+number of joints. In the rubber ring joint an india-rubber ring is
+used; slightly less in diameter than the pipe. The rubber is circular
+in section, and about ½ in. thick, and is stretched on the extreme
+end of a pipe which is then forced into the next socket. This
+joint is durable, secure and easily made; it allows for expansion
+and by its use the risk of pipe sockets being cracked is avoided.
+It is much used for greenhouse heating works. Richardson&rsquo;s
+patent joint (fig. 9) is a good form of this class of joint. The
+pipes have specially shaped ends between which a rubber collar
+is placed, the joint being held together by clips. The result
+is very satisfactory and will stand heavy water pressure.
+Messenger&rsquo;s joint (fig. 10) is designed to allow more freedom of
+expansion and at the same time to withstand considerable
+pressure; one loose cast iron collar is used, and another is
+formed as a socket on the end of the pipe itself. One end of
+each pipe is plain, so that it may be cut to any desired length;
+pipes with shaped ends obviously
+must be obtained in the exact lengths
+required. Jones&rsquo;s expansion joint
+(fig. 11) is somewhat similar to
+Messenger&rsquo;s but it is not capable
+of withstanding so great a pressure.
+In this case both collars of cast
+iron are loose.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:441px; height:115px" src="images/img163b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:187px; height:114px" src="images/img163c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Radiators (really convectors) were in their primitive design
+coils of pipe, used to give a larger heating area than the single
+pipe would afford. They are now usually of special
+design, and may be divided into three classes&mdash;indirect
+<span class="sidenote">Radiators.</span>
+radiators, direct radiators and direct ventilating radiators.
+Indirect radiators are placed beneath the floor of the apartment
+to be heated and give off heat through a grating. This method
+is frequently adopted in combined schemes of heating and
+ventilating; the fresh air is warmed by being passed over their
+surfaces previously to being admitted through the gratings into
+the room. Direct radiators are a development of the early coil
+of pipe; they are made in various types and designs and are
+usually of cast iron. Ventilating radiators are similar, but have
+an inlet arrangement at the base to allow external air to pass
+over the heating surface before passing out through the perforations.
+Radiators should not be fixed directly on to the main
+heating pipe, but always on branches of smaller diameter leading
+from the flow pipe to one end of the radiator and back to the
+main return pipe from the other end; they may then be easily
+controlled by a valve placed on the branch from the flow pipe.
+To each radiator should be fitted an air tap, which when opened
+will permit the escape of any air that has accumulated in the
+coil; otherwise free circulation is impossible, and the full
+benefit of the heat is not obtained.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:285px; height:414px" src="images/img163d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A plentiful supply of hot water is a necessity in every house
+for domestic and hygienic purposes. In small houses all requirements
+may be satisfied with a boiler heated by the
+kitchen fire. For large buildings where large quantities
+<span class="sidenote">Hot-water supply.</span>
+of hot water are used an independent boiler of suitable
+size should be installed. Every installation is made
+up of a boiler or other water heater, a tank or cylinder to contain
+the water when heated, and a cistern of cold water, the supply
+from which to the system is regulated automatically by a ball
+valve. These containers, proportioned to the required supply
+of hot water, are connected with each other by means of pipes,
+a &ldquo;flow&rdquo; and a &ldquo;return&rdquo; connecting the boiler with the
+cylinder or tank (fig. 12). The flow pipe starts from the top
+of the boiler and is connected near the top of the cylinder, the
+return pipe joining the
+lower portions of the
+cylinder and boiler. The
+supply from the cold water
+cistern enters the bottom
+of the cylinder, and thence
+travels by way of the return
+pipe to the boiler,
+where it is heated, and
+back through the flow
+pipe to the cylinder, which
+is thus soon filled with hot
+water. A flow pipe which
+serves also for expansion
+is taken from the top of
+the cylinder to a point
+above the cold-water
+supply and turned down
+to prevent the ingress of
+dirt. From this pipe at
+various points are taken
+the supply pipes to baths,
+lavatories, sinks and other
+appliances. It will be observed that in fig. 12 the cylinder
+is placed in proximity to the boiler; this is the usual and
+most effective method, but it may be placed some distance
+away if desired. The tank system is of much earlier date than
+this cylinder system, and although the two resemble each other
+in many respects, the tank system is in practice the less effective.
+The tank is placed above the level of the topmost draw off, and
+often in a cupboard which it will warm sufficiently to permit
+of its being used as a linen airing closet. An expansion pipe is
+taken from the top of the tank to a point above the roof. All
+draw off services are taken off from the flow pipe which connects
+the boiler with the tank. This method differs from that adopted
+in the cylinder system, where all services are led from the top
+of the cylinder. A suitable proportion between the size of the
+tank or cylinder and that of the boiler is 8 or 10 to 1. Water
+may also be heated by placing a coil of steam or high-pressure
+hot-water pipes in a water tank (fig. 6), the water heated in this
+way circulating in the manner already described. An alternative
+plan is to pass the water through pipes placed in a steam chest.</p>
+
+<p>Cylinders, tanks and independent boilers should be encased
+in a non-conducting material such as silicate cotton, thick felt
+or asbestos composition. The two first mentioned are affixed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span>
+by means of bands or straps or stitched on; the asbestos is laid
+on in the form of a plaster from 2 to 6 in. thick.</p>
+
+<p>Taps to baths and lavatories should be connected to the main
+services by a flow and return pipe so that hot water is constantly
+flowing past the tap, thus enabling hot water to be obtained
+immediately. Frequently a single pipe is led to the tap, but the
+water in this branch cools and must therefore be drawn off before
+hot water can be obtained.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:127px; height:154px" src="images/img164a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:178px; height:208px" src="images/img164b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Two classes of boilers are chiefly used in hot-water heating
+installations, viz. those heated by the fire of the kitchen range,
+and those heated separately or independently. Of
+the first class there are two varieties in common use&mdash;a
+<span class="sidenote">Boilers.</span>
+form of &ldquo;saddle&rdquo; boiler (fig. 13) and the &ldquo;boot&rdquo; boiler
+(fig. 14). Independent boilers are made in every conceivable
+size and form of construction, and many of
+them are capable of doing excellent work. In
+the choice of a boiler of this description it
+should be remembered that rapid heating,
+economical combustion of fuel, and facilities
+for cleaning, are requisites, the absence of
+any of which considerably lowers the efficiency
+of the apparatus. Boilers set in brickwork
+are sometimes used in domestic work, although
+they are more favoured for horticultural
+heating. The shape mostly used is the &ldquo;saddle&rdquo; boiler, or
+some variation upon this very old pattern. The coiled pipe fire-box
+of the high-pressure hot-water system previously described
+may be also classed with boilers.</p>
+
+<p>A notable feature of modern boiler construction is the mode of
+building the apparatus of cast iron in either horizontal or vertical
+sections. Both the types intended to be set in brickwork and
+those working independently are formed on the sectional
+principle, which has many good points. The parts are easy of
+transport and can be handled without difficulty through narrow
+doorways and in confined situations. The size of the boiler may
+be increased or diminished by the addition or subtraction of one
+or more sections; these, being simple in design, are easily fitted
+together, and should a section become defective it is a simple
+matter to insert a new one in its place. Should a defect occur
+with a wrought iron boiler it is usually necessary for the purpose
+of repair to disconnect and remove the
+whole apparatus, the heating system of
+which it forms a part being in the
+meantime useless. In a type built with
+vertical sections each division is complete
+in itself, and is not directly connected
+with the next section, but communicates
+with flow and return drums. A defective
+section may thus be left in position and
+stopped off by means of plugs from the
+drums until it is convenient to fit a new
+one in its place. A boiler with horizontal
+sections is shown in fig. 15; it will be
+seen that each of the upper sections has a number of cross
+waterways which form a series of gratings over the fire-box
+and intercept most of the heat generated, effecting great
+economy of fuel.</p>
+
+<p>In the ordinary working of a hot-water apparatus the expansion
+pipe already referred to will prevent any overdue pressure
+occurring in the boiler; should, however, the pipes
+become blocked in any way while the apparatus is
+<span class="sidenote">Safety valves.</span>
+in use, or the water in them become frozen, the lighting
+of the fire would cause the water to expand, and having no outlet
+it would in all probability burst the boiler. To prevent this a
+safety valve should be fitted on the top of the boiler, or be connected
+thereto with a large pipe so as to be visible. The valve
+may be of the dead weight (fig. 16), lever weight, spring (fig. 17)
+or diaphragm variety. The three first named are largely used.
+In the diaphragm valve a thin piece of metal is fixed to an outlet
+from the boiler, and when a moderate pressure is exceeded this
+gives way, allowing the water and steam to escape.</p>
+
+<p>Fusible plugs are little used; they consist of pieces of softer
+metal inserted on the side of the boiler, which melt should the
+heat of the water rise above a certain temperature.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:490px; height:696px" src="images/img164c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A &ldquo;Geyser&rdquo; is a very convenient form of apparatus for heating
+a quantity of water in a short time. A water pipe of copper
+or wrought iron is passed through a cylinder in which
+gas or oil heating burners are placed. The piping
+<span class="sidenote">Geysers.</span>
+takes a winding or zigzag course, and by the time the outlet is
+reached, the water it contains has reached a high temperature.
+By this means a continuous stream of hot water is obtained,
+greater or smaller in proportion to the size and power of the
+apparatus. The improved types of gas geysers are provided
+with a single control to both gas and water supplies, with a
+small &ldquo;pilot&rdquo; burner to ignite the gas. A flue should in all cases
+be provided to carry off the fumes of the fuel.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:162px; height:177px" src="images/img164d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span> &emsp; <span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In districts where the water is of a &ldquo;hard nature,&rdquo; that is,
+contains bicarbonate of lime in solution, the interior of the
+boiler, cylinders, tanks and pipes of a hot water
+system will become incrusted with a deposit of lime
+<span class="sidenote">Incrustation.</span>
+which is gradually precipitated as the water is heated
+to boiling point. With &ldquo;very hard&rdquo; water this deposit
+may require removal every three months; in London it is
+usual to clean out the boiler every six months and the cylinders
+and tanks at longer intervals. For this
+purpose manlids must be provided (figs.
+13 and 14), and pipes should be fitted
+with removable caps at the bends to
+allow for periodical cleaning. The lime
+deposit or &ldquo;fur&rdquo; is a poor conductor of
+heat, and it is therefore most detrimental
+to the efficiency of the system to allow
+the interior of the boiler or any other
+portion to become furred up. Further, if
+not removed, the fur will in a short time
+bring about a fracture in the boiler. The use of soft water entails
+a disadvantage of another character&mdash;that of corroding iron and
+lead work, soft water exercising a very vigorous chemical action
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span>
+upon these metals. In districts supplied with soft water, copper
+should be employed to as large an extent as possible.</p>
+
+<p>The table given below will be useful in calculating the size of the
+radiating surface necessary to raise the temperature to the extent
+required when the external air is at freezing point (32° Fahr.):&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Description of Building<br />to be heated.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Temperature<br />required.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Cubic Feet of Air heated by<br />1 sq. ft. of Radiator or<br />Pipe Surface.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Low Pressure<br />Water.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Low Pressure<br />Steam.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dwelling rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">55°-60°</td> <td class="tcc rb">85-90</td> <td class="tcc rb">115-125</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Schools</td> <td class="tcc rb">60°</td> <td class="tcc rb">90-100</td> <td class="tcc rb">120-130</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Churches and chapels</td> <td class="tcc rb">55°-60°</td> <td class="tcc rb">100-120</td> <td class="tcc rb">135-160</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Offices and shops</td> <td class="tcc rb">55°-60°</td> <td class="tcc rb">120-125</td> <td class="tcc rb">160-170</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Public halls, workshops, waiting-rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">55°</td> <td class="tcc rb">130-150</td> <td class="tcc rb">175-200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Warehouses, stores</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">50°-55°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">140-160</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">190-220</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In closing this account of heating and the practical methods
+of application of heat, an example may be mentioned to show
+the great capabilities of a carefully planned system.
+At the city of Lockport in New York state, America,
+<span class="sidenote">Steam supply at Lockport.</span>
+an interesting example of the direct application of
+steam-heating on a large scale has been carried out
+under the direction of Mr Birdsill Holly of that city. Houses
+within a radius of 3 m. from the boiler house are supplied with
+superheated steam at a pressure of 35 &#8468; to the in. The mains,
+the largest of which are 4 in. in diameter, and the smallest
+2 in., are wrapped in asbestos, felt and other non-conducting
+materials, and are placed in wooden tubes laid under ground
+like water and gas pipes. The house branches pipes are 1½ in.
+in diameter, and ¾-in. pipes are used inside the houses. The
+steam is employed for warming apartments by means of pipe
+radiators, for heating water by steam injections, and for all
+cooking purposes. The steam mains to the houses are laid by
+the supply company; the internal pipes and fittings are paid
+for or rented by the occupier, costing for an installation from
+£30 for an ordinary eight-roomed house to £100 or more for
+larger buildings. With the success of this undertaking in view
+it is a matter of wonder that the example set in this instance
+has not been adopted to a much greater extent elsewhere.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The principal publications on heating are: Hood, <i>Practical Treatise
+on Warming Buildings by Hot Water</i>; Baldwin, <i>Hot Water Heating
+and Fittings</i>; Baldwin, <i>Steam Heating for Buildings</i>; Billings,
+<i>Ventilation and Heating</i>; Carpenter, <i>Heating and Ventilating
+Buildings</i>; Jones, <i>Heating by Hot Water</i>, <i>Ventilation and Hot Water
+Supply</i>; Dye, <i>Hot Water Supply</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Bt.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEAVEN<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hefen</i>, <i>heofon</i>, <i>heofone</i>; this word appears
+in O.S. <i>hevan</i>; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. <i>Himmel</i>,
+Dutch <i>hemel</i>; there does not seem to be any connexion between
+the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is
+unknown; the suggestion that it is connected with &ldquo;to heave,&rdquo;
+in the sense of something &ldquo;lifted up,&rdquo; is erroneous), properly
+the expanse, taking the appearance of a domed vault above the
+earth, in which the sun, moon, planets and stars seem to be placed,
+the firmament; hence also used, generally in the plural, of the
+space immediately above the earth, the atmospheric region
+of winds, rain, clouds, and of the birds of the air. The heaven
+and the earth together, therefore, to the ancient cosmographers,
+and still in poetical language, make up the universe. In the
+cosmogonies of many ancient peoples there was a plurality of
+heavens, probably among the earlier Hebrews, the idea being
+elaborated in rabbinical literature, among the Babylonians and
+in Zoroastrianism. The number of these heavens, the higher
+transcending the lower in glory, varied from three to seven.
+Heaven, as in the Hebrew <i>shamayim</i>, the Greek <span class="grk" title="ouranos">&#959;&#8016;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>, the
+Latin <i>caelum</i>, is the abode of God, and as such in Christian
+eschatology is the place of the blessed in the next world (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eschatology</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paradise</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1813-1863), German
+poet and dramatist, was born at Wesselburen in Ditmarschen,
+Holstein, on the 18th of March 1813. Though only the son of a
+poor bricklayer, he early showed a talent for poetry, which was
+first displayed to the world by the publication, in the Hamburg
+<i>Modezeitung</i>, of verses which he had sent to Amalie Schoppe
+(1791-1858), a then popular journalist and author of nursery
+tales. Through the kindness of this lady, who interested several
+of her friends on his behalf, he was enabled to go to Hamburg
+and there prepare himself for the university.
+A year later he went to Heidelberg to study
+law, but finding this uncongenial he passed
+on to the university of Munich, where he
+devoted himself to philosophy, history and
+literature. In 1839 Hebbel left Munich and
+wandered back to Hamburg on foot, where
+he resumed his relations with Elsie Lensing,
+whose self-sacrificing assistance had helped
+him over the darkest days in Munich. In
+the same year he wrote his first tragedy
+<i>Judith</i> (published 1841), which in the
+following year was performed in Hamburg
+and Berlin and made his name known throughout Germany.
+In 1840 he wrote the tragedy <i>Genoveva</i>, and the following year
+finished a comedy, <i>Der Diamant</i>, which he had begun at Munich.
+In 1842 he visited Copenhagen, where he obtained from the
+king of Denmark a small travelling studentship, which enabled
+him to spend some time in Paris and two years (1844-1846) in
+Italy. In Paris he wrote his fine &ldquo;tragedy of common life,&rdquo;
+<i>Maria Magdalene</i> (1844). On his return from Italy Hebbel
+met at Vienna two Polish noblemen, the brothers Zerboni di
+Sposetti, who in their enthusiasm for his genius urged him to
+remain, and supplied him with the means to mingle in the best
+intellectual society of the Austrian capital. The unwonted
+life of ease had its effect. The old precarious existence became
+a horror to him, he made a deliberate breach with it by marrying
+(in 1846) the beautiful and wealthy actress Christine Enghaus,
+ruthlessly sacrificing the girl who had given up all for him and
+who remained faithful till her death, on the ground that &ldquo;a
+man&rsquo;s first duty is to the most powerful force within him, that
+which alone can give him happiness and be of service to the
+world&rdquo;: in his case the poetical faculty, which would have
+perished &ldquo;in the miserable struggle for existence.&rdquo; This &ldquo;deadly
+sin,&rdquo; which, &ldquo;if peace of conscience be the test of action,&rdquo; was,
+he considered, the best act of his life, established his fortunes.
+Elise, however, still provided useful inspiration for his art. As
+late as 1855, shortly after her death, he wrote the little epic
+<i>Mutter und Kind</i>, intended to show that the relation of parent
+and child is the essential factor which makes the quality of
+happiness among all classes and under all conditions equal.
+Long before this Hebbel had become famous. German sovereigns
+bestowed decorations upon him; and in foreign capitals he
+was fêted as the greatest of living German dramatists. From
+the grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar he received a flattering invitation
+to take up his residence at Weimar, where several of his plays
+were first performed. He remained, however, at Vienna until
+his death on the 13th of December 1863.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the works already mentioned, Hebbel&rsquo;s principal
+tragedies are <i>Herodes und Mariamne</i> (1850); <i>Julia</i> (1851);
+<i>Michel Angelo</i> (1851); <i>Agnes Bernauer</i> (1855); <i>Gyges und sein
+Ring</i> (1856), and the magnificently conceived trilogy <i>Die
+Nibelungen</i> (1862), his last work (consisting of a prologue, <i>Der
+gehörnte Siegfried</i>, and the tragedies, <i>Siegfrieds Tod</i> and <i>Kriemhilds
+Rache</i>), which won for the author the Schiller prize. Of
+his comedies <i>Der Diamant</i> (1847), <i>Der Rubin</i> (1850), and the
+tragi-comedy <i>Ein Trauerspiel in Sizilien</i> (1845), are the more
+important, but they are heavy and hardly rise above mediocrity.
+All his dramatic productions, however, exhibit skill in characterization,
+great glow of passion, and a true feeling for dramatic
+situation; but their poetic effect is frequently marred by
+extravagances which border on the grotesque, and by the introduction
+of incidents the unpleasant character of which is not
+sufficiently relieved. In many of his lyric poems, and especially
+in <i>Mutter und Kind</i>, published in 1859, Hebbel showed that his
+poetic gifts were not restricted to the drama.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His collected works were first published by E. Kuh (12 vols.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span>
+Hamburg, 1866-1868); revised by H. Krumm (12 vols., Hamburg,
+1892). The best critical edition is that by R. M. Werner (12 vols.,
+1901-1903), to which have been added Hebbel&rsquo;s Diaries (4 vols.)
+and Correspondence (6 vols.). Hebbel&rsquo;s <i>Briefwechsel mit Freunden
+und berühmten Zeitgenossen</i> was issued by F. Bamberg (1890-1892).
+The chief biographies of Hebbel are those by E. Kuh (1877) and
+R. M. Werner (1905). See also L. A. Frankl, <i>Zur Biographie F.
+Hebbels</i> (1884); T. Poppe, <i>F. Hebbel und sein Drama</i> (1900); A.
+Scheunert, <i>Der Pantragismus als System der Weltanschauung und
+Ästhetik Hebbels</i> (1903); E. A. Georgy, <i>Die Tragödie F. Hebbels
+nach ihrem Ideengehalt</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBBURN,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary
+division of Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne,
+4½ m. below Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern
+railway. Pop. (1881), 11,802; (1901), 20,901. It has extensive
+shipbuilding and engineering works, rope and sail factories,
+chemical, colour and cement works, and collieries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBDEN BRIDGE,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> an urban district in the Sowerby parliamentary
+division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
+on the Calder and Hebden rivers, 7 m. W. by N. of Halifax
+by the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 7536.
+The town has cotton factories, dye-works, foundries and manufactories
+of shuttles. The upper Calder valley, between Halifax
+and Todmorden, is walled with bold hills, the summits of which
+consist of wild moorland. The vale itself is densely populated,
+but its beauty is not destroyed, and the contrast with its desolate
+surroundings is remarkable.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBE,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> in Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus and Hera, the
+goddess of youth. In the Homeric poems she is the female
+counterpart of Ganymede, and acts as cupbearer to the gods
+(<i>Iliad</i>, iv. 2). She was the special attendant of her mother,
+whose horses she harnessed (<i>Iliad</i>, v. 722). When Heracles
+was received amongst the gods, Hebe was bestowed upon him in
+marriage (<i>Odyssey</i>, xi. 603). When the custom of the heroic
+age, which permitted female cupbearers, fell into disuse, Hebe
+was replaced by Ganymede in the popular mythology. To
+account for her retirement from her office, it was said that she
+fell down in the presence of the gods while handing the wine,
+and was so ashamed that she refused to appear before them
+again. Hebe exhibits many striking points of resemblance with
+the pure Greek goddess Aphrodite. She is the daughter of Zeus
+and Hera, Aphrodite of Zeus and Dione; but Dione and Hera
+are often identified. Hebe is called Dia, a regular epithet of
+Aphrodite; at Phlius, a festival called <span class="grk" title="Kissotomoi">&#922;&#953;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#964;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#953;</span> (the days of
+ivy-cutting) was annually celebrated in her honour (Pausanias,
+ii. 13); and ivy was sacred also to Aphrodite. The apotheosis
+of Heracles and his marriage with Hebe became a favourite
+subject with poets and painters, and many instances occur on
+vases. In later art she is often represented, like Ganymede,
+caressing the eagle.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Kekulé, <i>Hebe</i> (1867), mainly dealing with the representations
+of Hebe in art; and P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The meaning of the word Hebe tended to transform the
+goddess into a mere personification of the eternal youth that
+belongs to the gods, and this conception is frequently met with.
+Then she becomes identical with the Roman Juventas, who is
+simply an abstraction of an attribute of Jupiter Juventus,
+the god of increase and blessing and youth. To Juventas, as
+personifying the eternal youth of the Roman state, a chapel
+was dedicated in very early times in the <i>cella</i> of Minerva in
+the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. With this temple is connected
+the legend of Juventas and Terminus, who alone of all the gods
+refused to give way when it was being built&mdash;an indication of the
+eternal solidity and youth of Rome. The cult of Juventas did
+not, however, become firmly established until the time of the
+second Punic war. In 218 the Sibylline books ordered a lectisternium
+in honour of Juventas and a supplicatio in honour of
+Hercules, and in 191 a temple was dedicated in her honour in
+the Circus Maximus. In later times Juventas became the
+personification, not of the Roman youth, but of the emperor,
+who assumed the attributes of a god (Livy v. 54, xxi. 62,
+xxxvi. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 69; G. Wissowa in Roscher&rsquo;s
+<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBEL, JOHANN PETER<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1760-1826), German poet and
+popular writer, was born at Basel on the 10th of May 1760.
+The father dying when the child was little over a year old, he
+was brought up amidst poverty-stricken conditions in the village
+of Hausen in the Wiesental, where he received his earliest
+education. Being of brilliant promise, he found friends who
+enabled him to complete his school education and to study
+theology (1778-1780) at Erlangen. At the end of his university
+course he was for a time a private tutor, then became teacher at
+the Gymnasium in Karlsruhe, and in 1808 was appointed director
+of the school. He was subsequently appointed member of the
+Consistory and &ldquo;evangelical prelate.&rdquo; He died at Schwetzingen,
+near Heidelberg, on the 22nd of September 1826. Hebel is one
+of the most widely read of all German popular poets and writers.
+His poetical narratives and lyric poems, written in the &ldquo;Alemanic&rdquo;
+dialect, are &ldquo;popular&rdquo; in the best sense. His <i>Allemannische
+Gedichte</i> (1803) &ldquo;bucolicize,&rdquo; in the words of Goethe, &ldquo;the
+whole world in the most attractive manner&rdquo; (<i>verbauert das ganze
+Universum auf die anmutigste Weise</i>). Indeed, few modern
+German poets surpass him in fidelity, <i>naïveté</i>, humour, and in the
+freshness and vigour of his descriptions. His poem, <i>Die Wiese</i>,
+has been described by Johannes Scherr as the &ldquo;pearl of German
+idyllic poetry&rdquo;; while his prose writings, especially the narratives
+and essays contained in the <i>Schatzkästlein des rheinischen
+Hausfreundes</i> (Tübingen, 1811; new edition, Stuttg. 1869,
+1888), belong to the best class of German stories, and according
+to August Friedrich Christian Vilmar (1800-1868) in his <i>Geschichte
+der deutschen Literatur</i> are &ldquo;worth more than a cartload of
+novels&rdquo; (<i>wiegen ein ganzes Fuder Romane auf</i>). Memorials
+have been erected to him at Karlsruhe, Basel and Schwetzingen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of Hebel&rsquo;s works&mdash;<i>Sämtliche Werke</i>&mdash;was
+first published at Stuttgart in 8 vols. (1832-1834); subsequent
+editions appeared in 1847 (3 vols.), 1868 (2 vols.), 1873 (edited by
+G. Wendt, 2 vols.), 1883-1885 (edited by O. Behaghel, 2 vols.) and
+1905 (edited by E. Keller, 5 vols.), as well as innumerable reprints.
+Hebel&rsquo;s correspondence has been edited by O. Behaghel (1883).
+See G. Längin, <i>J. P. Hebel, ein Lebensbild</i> (1894), and the introduction
+to Behaghel&rsquo;s edition.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBER, REGINALD<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1783-1826), English bishop and hymn-writer,
+was born at Malpas in Cheshire on the 21st of April
+1783. His father, who belonged to an old Yorkshire family,
+held a moiety of the living of Malpas. Reginald Heber early
+showed remarkable promise, and was entered in November 1800
+at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he proved a distinguished
+student, carrying off prizes for a Latin poem entitled <i>Carmen
+seculare</i>, an English poem on <i>Palestine</i>, and a prose essay on
+<i>The Sense of Honour</i>. In November 1804 he was elected a
+fellow of All Souls College; and, after finishing his distinguished
+university career, he made a long tour in Europe. He was
+admitted to holy orders in 1807, and was then presented to the
+family living of Hodnet in Shropshire. In 1809 Heber married
+Amelia, daughter of Dr Shipley, dean of St Asaph. He was
+made prebendary of St Asaph in 1812, appointed Bampton
+lecturer for 1815, preacher at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1822, and bishop
+of Calcutta in January 1823. Before sailing for India he received
+the degree of D.D. from the university of Oxford. In India
+Bishop Heber laboured indefatigably, not only for the good of
+his own diocese, but for the spread of Christianity throughout
+the East. He undertook numerous tours in India, consecrating
+churches, founding schools and discharging other Christian
+duties. His devotion to his work in a trying climate told severely
+on his health. At Trichinopoly he was seized with an apoplectic
+fit when in his bath, and died on the 3rd of April 1826. A
+statue of him, by Chantrey, was erected at Calcutta.</p>
+
+<p>Heber was a pious man of profound learning, literary taste
+and great practical energy. His fame rests mainly on his
+hymns, which rank among the best in the English language.
+The following may be instanced: &ldquo;Lord of mercy and of
+might&rdquo;; &ldquo;Brightest and best of the sons of the morning&rdquo;;
+&ldquo;By cool Siloam&rsquo;s shady rill&rdquo;; &ldquo;God, that madest earth
+and heaven&rdquo;; &ldquo;The Lord of might from Sinai&rsquo;s brow&rdquo;;
+&ldquo;Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty&rdquo;; &ldquo;From Greenland&rsquo;s
+icy mountains&rdquo;; &ldquo;The Lord will come, the earth shall quake&rdquo;;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span>
+&ldquo;The Son of God goes forth to war.&rdquo; Heber&rsquo;s hymns and other
+poems are distinguished by finish of style, pathos and soaring
+aspiration; but they lack originality, and are rather rhetorical
+than poetical in the strict sense.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among Heber&rsquo;s works are: <i>Palestine: a Poem, to which is added
+the Passage of the Red Sea</i> (1809); <i>Europe: Lines on the Present War</i>
+(1809); a volume of poems in 1812; <i>The Personality and Office of
+the Christian Comforter asserted and explained</i> (being the Bampton
+Lectures for 1815); <i>The Whole Works of Bishop Jeremy Taylor, with
+a Life of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings</i> (1822);
+<i>Hymns written and adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the Year,
+principally by Bishop Heber</i> (1827); <i>A Journey through India</i> (1828);
+<i>Sermons preached in England</i>, and <i>Sermons preached in India</i> (1829);
+<i>Sermons on the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle for every Sunday in
+the Year</i> (1837). <i>The Poetical Works of Reginald Heber</i> were collected
+in 1841.</p>
+
+<p>See the <i>Life of Reginald Heber, D.D. ...</i>, by his widow, Amelia
+Heber (1830), which also contains a number of Heber&rsquo;s miscellaneous
+writings; <i>The Last Days of Bishop Heber</i>, by Thomas Robinson,
+A.M., archdeacon of Madras (1830); T. S. Smyth, The Character
+and Religious Doctrine of Bishop Heber (1831), and <i>Memorials of a
+Quiet Life</i>, by Augustus J. C. Hare (1874).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBER, RICHARD<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1773-1833), English book-collector,
+the half-brother of Reginald Heber, was born in London on
+the 5th of January 1773. As an undergraduate at Brasenose
+College, Oxford, he began to collect a purely classical library,
+but his taste broadening, he became interested in early English
+drama and literature, and began his wonderful collection of rare
+books in these departments. He attended continental book-sales,
+purchasing sometimes single volumes, sometimes whole
+libraries. Sir Walter Scott, whose intimate friend he was, and
+who dedicated to him the sixth canto of <i>Marmion</i>, classed
+Heber&rsquo;s library as &ldquo;superior to all others in the world&rdquo;;
+Campbell described him as &ldquo;the fiercest and strongest of all the
+bibliomaniacs.&rdquo; He did not confine himself to the purchase
+of a single copy of a work which took his fancy. &ldquo;No gentleman,&rdquo;
+he remarked, &ldquo;can be without three copies of a book, one for
+show, one for use, and one for borrowers.&rdquo; To such a size did
+his library grow that it over-ran eight houses, some in England,
+some on the Continent. It is estimated to have cost over £100,000,
+and after his death the sale of that part of his collection stored
+in England realized more than £56,000. He is known to have
+owned 150,000 volumes, and probably many more. He possessed
+extensive landed property in Shropshire and Yorkshire, and was
+sheriff of the former county in 1821, was member of Parliament
+for Oxford University from 1821-1826, and in 1822 was made
+a D.C.L. of that University. He was one of the founders of the
+Athenaeum Club, London. He died in London on the 4th of
+October 1833.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBERDEN, WILLIAM<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1710-1801), English physician, was
+born in London in 1710. In the end of 1724 he was sent to St
+John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship
+about 1730, became master of arts in 1732, and took the degree
+of M.D. in 1739. He remained at Cambridge nearly ten years
+longer practising medicine, and gave an annual course of lectures
+on materia medica. In 1746 he became a fellow of the Royal
+College of Physicians in London; and two years later he settled
+in London, where he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
+in 1749, and enjoyed an extensive medical practice for more
+than thirty years. At the age of seventy-two he partially
+retired, spending his summers at a house which he had taken
+at Windsor, but he continued to practise in London during the
+winter for some years longer. In 1778 he was made an honorary
+member of the Paris Royal Society of Medicine. He died in
+London on the 17th of May 1801. Heberden, who was a good
+classical scholar, published several papers in the Phil. Trans.
+of the Royal Society, and among his noteworthy contributions
+to the <i>Medical Transactions</i> (issued, largely at his suggestion, by
+the College of Physicians) were papers on chicken-pox (1767)
+and angina pectoris (1768). His <i>Commentarii de morborum
+historia et curatione</i>, the result of careful notes made in his
+pocket-book at the bedside of his patients, were published in
+1802; in the following year an English translation appeared,
+believed to be from the pen of his son, William Heberden (1767-1845),
+also a distinguished scholar and physician, who attended
+King George III. in his last illness.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÉBERT, EDMOND<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1812-1890), French geologist, was
+born at Villefargau, Yonne, on the 12th of June 1812. He was
+educated at the Collège de Meaux, Auxerre, and at the École
+Normale in Paris. In 1836 he became professor at Meaux,
+in 1838 demonstrator in chemistry and physics at the École
+Normale, and in 1841 sub-director of studies at that school and
+lecturer on geology. In 1857 the degree of D. ès Sc. was conferred
+upon him, and he was appointed professor of geology at the
+Sorbonne. There he was eminently successful as a teacher,
+and worked with great zeal in the field, adding much to the
+knowledge of the Jurassic and older strata. He devoted, however,
+special attention to the subdivisions of the Cretaceous
+and Tertiary formations in France, and to their correlation with
+the strata in England and in southern Europe. To him we owe
+the first definite arrangement of the Chalk into palaeontological
+zones (see Table in <i>Geol. Mag.</i>, 1869, p. 200). During his later
+years he was regarded as the leading geologist in France. He
+was elected a member of the Institute in 1877, Commander
+of the Legion of Honour in 1885, and he was three times president
+of the Geological Society of France. He died in Paris on the
+4th of April 1890.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÉBERT, JACQUES RENÉ<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1757-1794), French Revolutionist,
+called &ldquo;Père Duchesne,&rdquo; from the newspaper he edited, was
+born at Alençon, on the 15th of November 1757, where his
+father, who kept a goldsmith&rsquo;s shop, had held some municipal
+office. His family was ruined, however, by a lawsuit while
+he was still young, and Hébert came to Paris, where in his
+struggle against poverty he endured great hardships; the
+accusations of theft directed against him later by Camille
+Desmoulins were, however, without foundation. In 1790 he
+attracted attention by some pamphlets, and became a prominent
+member of the club of the Cordeliers in 1791. On the 10th of
+August 1792 he was a member of the revolutionary Commune
+of Paris, and became second substitute of the <i>procureur</i> of the
+Commune on the 2nd of December 1792. His violent attacks
+on the Girondists led to his arrest on the 24th of May 1793, but
+he was released owing to the threatening attitude of the mob.
+Henceforth very popular, Hébert organized with P. G. Chaumette
+(<i>q.v.</i>) the &ldquo;worship of Reason,&rdquo; in opposition to the theistic
+cult inaugurated by Robespierre, against whom he tried to excite
+a popular movement. The failure of this brought about the
+arrest of the Hébertists, or <i>enragés</i>, as his partisans were called.
+Hébert was guillotined on the 24th of March 1794. His wife,
+who had been a nun, was executed twenty days later. Hébert&rsquo;s
+influence was mainly due to his articles in his journal <i>Le Père
+Duchesne</i>,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which appeared from 1790 to 1794. These articles,
+while not lacking in a certain cleverness, were violent and
+abusive, and purposely couched in foul language in order to
+appeal to the mob.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Louis Duval, &ldquo;Hébert chez lui,&rdquo; in <i>La Révolution Française,
+revue d&rsquo;histoire moderne et contemporaine</i>, t. xii. and t. xiii.; D. Mater,
+<i>J. R. Hébert, l&rsquo;auteur du Père Duchesne avant la journée du 10 août
+1792</i> (Bourges, Comm. Hist. du Cher, 1888); F. A. Aulard, <i>Le Culte
+de la raison et de l&rsquo;être suprême</i> (Paris, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There were several journals of this name, the best known of the
+others being that edited by Lemaire.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBREW LANGUAGE.<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> The name &ldquo;Hebrew&rdquo; is derived,
+through the Greek <span class="grk" title="Hebraios">&#7961;&#946;&#961;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#962;</span>, from <i>&lsquo;ibhray</i>, the Aramaic equivalent
+of the Old Testament word <i>&lsquo;ibhr&#299;</i>, denoting the people who
+commonly spoke of themselves as Israel or Children of Israel
+from the name of their common ancestor (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>). The
+later derivative <i>Yisra&rsquo;el&#299;</i>, Israelite, from Yisra&rsquo;el, is not found
+in the Old Testament.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Other names used for the language of
+Israel are <i>speech of Canaan</i> (Isa. xix. 18) and <i>Yeh&#363;dh&#299;th</i>, Jewish,
+(2 Kings xviii. 26). In later times it was called the <i>holy tongue</i>.
+The real meaning of the word <i>&lsquo;ibhr&#299;</i> must ultimately be sought
+in the root <i>&lsquo;abhar</i>, to pass across, to go beyond, from which is
+derived the noun <i>&lsquo;ebher</i>, meaning the &ldquo;farther bank&rdquo; of a river.
+The usual explanation of the term is that of Jewish tradition
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span>
+that <i>&rsquo;ibhr&#299;</i> means the man &ldquo;from the other side,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> either of
+the Euphrates or the Jordan. Hence the Septuagint in Gen.
+xiv. 13 render Abram <i>ha-&lsquo;ibhr&#299;</i> by <span class="grk" title="ho peratês">&#8001; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, the &ldquo;crosser,&rdquo;
+and Aquila, following the same tradition, has <span class="grk" title="ho peraitês">&#8001; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#7988;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, the
+man &ldquo;from beyond.&rdquo; This view of course implies that the term
+was originally applied to Abram or his descendants by a people
+living on the west of the Euphrates or of the Jordan. It has
+been suggested that the root <i>&lsquo;abhar</i> is to be taken in the sense
+of &ldquo;travelling,&rdquo; and that Abram the wandering Aramaean
+(Deut. xxvi. 5) was called <i>ha-&lsquo;ibhr&#299;</i> because he travelled about
+for trading purposes, his language, <i>&lsquo;ibhr&#299;</i>, being the <i>lingua
+franca</i> of Eastern trade. The use of the term <span class="grk" title="hebraisti">&#7953;&#946;&#961;&#945;&#970;&#963;&#964;&#943;</span> for
+biblical Hebrew is first found in the Greek prologue to Ecclesiasticus
+(<i>c.</i> 130 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In the New Testament it denotes the native
+language of Palestine (Aramaic and Hebrew being popularly
+confused) as opposed to Greek. In modern usage the name
+Hebrew is applied to that branch of the northern part of the
+Semitic family of languages which was used by the Israelites
+during most of the time of their national existence in Palestine,
+and in which nearly all their sacred writings are composed. As
+to its characteristics and relation to other languages of the same
+stock, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Semitic Languages</a></span>. It also includes the later forms
+of the same language as used by Jewish writers after the close
+of the Canon throughout the middle ages (Rabbinical Hebrew)
+and to the present day (New Hebrew).</p>
+
+<p>Before the rise of comparative philology it was a popular
+opinion that Hebrew was the original speech of mankind, from
+which all others were descended. This belief, derived from the
+Jews (cf. Pal. Targ. Gen. xi. 1), was supported by the etymologies
+and other data supplied by the early chapters of Genesis. But
+though Hebrew possesses a very old literature, it is not, as we
+know it, structurally as early as, <i>e.g.</i> Arabic, or, in other words,
+it does not come so near to that primitive Semitic speech which
+may be pre-supposed as the common parent of all the Semitic
+languages. Owing to the imperfection of the Hebrew alphabet,
+which, like that of most Semitic languages, has no means of
+expressing vowel-sounds, it is only partly possible to trace the
+development of the language. In its earliest form it was no
+doubt most closely allied to the Canaanite or Phoenician stock,
+to the language of Moab, as revealed by the stele of Mesha
+(<i>c.</i> 850 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and to Edomite. The vocalization of Canaanite,
+as far as it is known to us, <i>e.g.</i> from glosses in the Tell-el-Amarna
+tablets (15th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and much later from the Punic
+passages in the <i>Poenulus</i> of Plautus, differs in many respects
+from that of the Hebrew of the Old Testament, as also does the
+Septuagint transcription of proper names. The uniformity,
+however, of the Old Testament text is due to the labours of
+successive schools of grammarians who elaborated the Massorah
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Literature</a></span>), thereby obliterating local or dialectic
+differences, which undoubtedly existed, and establishing the
+pronunciation current in the synagogues about the 7th century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> The only mention of such differences in the Old Testament
+is in Judges xii. 6, where it is stated that the Ephraimites pronounced
+<span title="sh">&#1513;</span> (sh) as <span title="s">&#1513;</span> or <span title="s">&#1505;</span> (s). In Neh. xiii. 24, the &ldquo;speech
+of Ashdod&rdquo; is more probably a distinct (Philistine) language.
+Certain peculiarities in the language of the Pentateuch (<span title="hu">&#1492;&#1493;&#1488;</span> for
+<span title="hi">&#1492;&#1497;&#1488;</span>, <span title="naar">&#1504;&#1506;&#1512;</span> for <span title="naara">&#1504;&#1506;&#1512;&#1492;</span>), which used to be regarded as archaisms,
+are to be explained as purely orthographical.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In a series of
+writings, however, extending over so long a period as those of
+the Old Testament, some variation or development in language
+is to be expected apart from the natural differences between the
+poetic (or prophetic) and prose styles. The consonantal text
+sometimes betrays these in spite of the Massorah. In general,
+the later books of the Old Testament show, roughly speaking,
+a greater simplicity and uniformity of style, as well as a tendency
+to Aramaisms. For some centuries after the Exile, the people
+of Palestine must have been bilingual, speaking Aramaic for
+ordinary purposes, but still at least understanding Hebrew.
+Not that they forgot their own tongue in the Captivity and learnt
+Aramaic in Babylon, as used to be supposed. In the western
+provinces of the Persian empire Aramaic was the official language,
+spoken not only in Palestine but in all the surrounding
+countries, even in Egypt and among Arab tribes such as the
+Nabateans. It is natural, therefore, that it should influence and
+finally supplant Hebrew in popular use, so that translations even
+of the Old Testament eventually appear in it (<span class="sc">Targums</span>). Meanwhile
+Hebrew did not become a dead language&mdash;indeed it can
+hardly be said ever to have died, since it has continued in use
+till the present day for the purposes of ordinary life among
+educated Jews in all parts of the world. It gradually became a
+literary rather than a popular tongue, as appears from the style
+of the later books of the Old Testament (Chron., Dan., Eccles.),
+and from the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus (<i>c.</i> 170 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). During
+the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> we have no direct
+evidence of its characteristics. After that period there is a great
+development in the language of the Mishna. It was still living
+Hebrew, although mainly confined to the schools, with very
+clear differences from the biblical language. In the Old Testament
+the range of subjects was limited. In the Mishna it was
+very much extended. Matters relating to daily life had to be
+discussed, and words and phrases were adopted from what was
+no doubt the popular language of an earlier period. A great
+many foreign words were also introduced. The language being
+no longer familiar in the same sense as formerly, greater definiteness
+of expression became necessary in the written style. In
+order to avoid the uncertainty arising from the lack of vowels
+to distinguish forms consisting of the same consonants (for
+the vowel-points were not yet invented), the aramaising use of
+the reflexive conjugations (Hithpa&lsquo;el, Nithpa&lsquo;el) for the internal
+passives (Pu&lsquo;al, Hoph&lsquo;al) became common; particles were used
+to express the genitive and other relations, and in general there
+was an endeavour to avoid the obscurities of a purely consonantal
+writing. What is practically Mishnic Hebrew continued to be
+used in Midrash for some centuries. The language of both
+Talmuds, which, roughly speaking, were growing contemporaneously
+with Midrash, is a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic
+(Eastern Aram. in the Babylonian, Western in the Jerusalem
+Talmud), as was also that of the earlier commentators. As the
+popular use of Aramaic was gradually restricted by the spread
+of Arabic as the vernacular (from the 7th century onwards),
+while the dispersion of the Jews became wider, biblical Hebrew
+again came to be the natural standard both of East and West.
+The cultivation of it is shown and was no doubt promoted by
+the many philological works (grammars, lexicons and masorah)
+which are extant from the 10th century onward. In Spain,
+under Moorish dominion, most of the important works of that
+period were composed in Arabic, and the influence of Arabic
+writers both on language and method may be seen in contemporaneous
+Hebrew compositions. No other vernacular
+(except, of course, Aramaic) ever had the same influence upon
+Hebrew, largely because no other bears so close a relation to it.
+At the present day in the East, and among learned Jews elsewhere,
+Hebrew is still cultivated conversationally, and it is
+widely used for literary purposes. Numerous works on all kinds
+of subjects are produced in various countries, periodicals flourish,
+and Hebrew is the vehicle of correspondence between Jews in
+all parts of the world. Naturally its quality varies with the
+ability and education of the writer. In the modern <i>pronunciation</i>
+the principal differences are between the Ashkenazim (German
+and Polish Jews) and the Sephardim (Spanish and Portuguese
+Jews), and concern not only the vowels but also certain consonants,
+and in some cases probably go back to early times. As
+regards <i>writing</i>, it is most likely that the oldest Hebrew records
+were preserved in some form of cuneiform script. The alphabet
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writing</a></span>) subsequently adopted is seen in its earliest form
+on the stele of Mesha, and has been retained, with modifications,
+by the Samaritans. According to Jewish tradition Ezra introduced
+the Assyrian character (<span title="ktav ashuri">&#1499;&#1514;&#1489; &#1488;&#1513;&#1493;&#1512;&#1497;</span>), a much-debated
+statement which no doubt means that the Aramaic hand in use
+in Babylonia was adopted by the Jews about the 5th century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> Another form of the same hand, allowing for differences of
+material, is found in Egyptian Aramaic papyri of the 5th and 4th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span>
+centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> From this were developed (<i>a</i>) the <i>square</i> character
+used in MSS. of the Bible or important texts, and in most printed
+books, (<i>b</i>) the <i>Rabbinic</i> (or Rashi) character, used in commentaries
+and treatises of all kinds, both in MS. and in printed books,
+(<i>c</i>) the <i>Cursive</i> character, used in letters and for informal purposes,
+not as a rule printed. In the present state of Hebrew palaeography
+it is not possible to determine accurately the date of a
+MS., but it is easy to recognize the country in which it was written.
+The most clearly marked distinctions are between Spanish,
+French, German, Italian, Maghrebi, Greek, Syrian (including
+Egyptian), Yemenite, Persian and Qaraite hands. It is in the
+Rabbinic and Cursive characters that the differences are most
+noticeable. The Hebrew alphabet is also used, generally with
+the addition of some diacritical marks, by Jews to write other
+languages, chiefly Arabic, Spanish, Persian, Greek, Tatar (by
+Qaraites) and in later times German.</p>
+
+<p>The philological study of Hebrew among the Jews is described
+below, under Hebrew Literature, of which it formed an integral
+part. Among Christian scholars there was no independent
+school of Hebraists before the revival of learning. In the Greek
+and Latin Church the few fathers who, like Origen and Jerome,
+knew something of the language, were wholly dependent on their
+Jewish teachers, and their chief value for us is as depositaries
+of Jewish tradition. Similarly in the East, the Syriac version
+of the Old Testament is largely under the influence of the synagogue,
+and the homilies of Aphraates are a mine of Rabbinic
+lore. In the middle ages some knowledge of Hebrew was preserved
+in the Church by converted Jews and even by non-Jewish
+scholars, of whom the most notable were the Dominican controversialist
+Raymundus Martini (in his <i>Pugio fidei</i>) and the
+Franciscan Nicolaus of Lyra, on whom Luther drew largely in
+his interpretation of Scripture. But there was no tradition of
+Hebrew study apart from the Jews, and in the 15th century
+when an interest in the subject was awakened, only the most
+ardent zeal could conquer the obstacles that lay in the way.
+Orthodox Jews refused to teach those who were not of their
+faith, and on the other hand many churchmen conscientiously
+believed in the duty of entirely suppressing Jewish learning.
+Even books were to be had only with the greatest difficulty,
+at least north of the Alps. In Italy things were somewhat
+better. Jews expelled from Spain received favour from the popes.
+Study was facilitated by the use of the printing-press, and some
+of the earliest books printed were in Hebrew. The father of
+Hebrew study among Christians was the humanist Johann
+Reuchlin (1455-1522), the author of the <i>Rudimenta Hebraica</i>
+(Pforzheim, 1506), whose contest with the converted Jew
+Pfefferkorn and the Cologne obscurantists, established the claim
+of the new study to recognition by the Church. Interest in the
+subject spread rapidly. Among Reuchlin&rsquo;s own pupils were
+Melanchthon, Oecolampadius and Cellarius, while Sebastian
+Münster in Heidelberg (afterwards professor at Basel), and
+Büchlein (Fagius) at Isny, Strasburg and Cambridge, were
+pupils of the liberal Jewish scholar Elias Levita. France
+drew teachers from Italy. Santes Pagninus of Lucca was at
+Lyons; and the trilingual college of Francis I. at Paris, with
+Vatablus and le Mercier, attracted, among other foreigners,
+Giustiniani, bishop of Nebbio, the editor of the Genoa psalter
+of 1516. In Rome the converted Jew Felix Pratensis taught
+under the patronage of Leo X., and did useful work in connexion
+with the great Bomberg Bibles. In Spain Hebrew learning
+was promoted by Cardinal Ximenes, the patron of the Complutensian
+Polyglot. The printers, as J. Froben at Basel and
+Etienne at Paris, also produced Hebrew books. For a time
+Christian scholars still leaned mainly on the Rabbis. But a more
+independent spirit soon arose, of which le Mercier in the 16th,
+and Drusius early in the 17th century, may be taken as representatives.
+In the 17th century too the cognate languages were
+studied by J. Selden, E. Castell (Heptaglott lexicon) and E.
+Pococke (Arabic) in England, Ludovicus de Dieu in Holland,
+S. Bochart in France, J. Ludolf (Ethiopic) and J. H. Hottinger
+(Syriac) in Germany, with advantage to the Hebrew grammar
+and lexicon. Rabbinic learning moreover was cultivated at
+Basel by the elder Buxtorf who was the author of grammatical
+works and a lexicon. With the rise of criticism Hebrew philology
+soon became a necessary department of theology. Cappellus
+(d. 1658) followed Levita in maintaining, against Buxtorf, the
+late introduction of the vowel-points, a controversy in which
+the authority of the massoretic text was concerned. He was
+supported by J. Morin and R. Simon in France. In the 18th
+century in Holland A. Schultens and N. W. Schroeder used the
+comparative method, with great success, relying mainly on
+Arabic. In Germany there was the meritorious J. D. Michaelis
+and in France the brilliant S. de Sacy. In the 19th century
+the greatest name among Hebraists is that of Gesenius, at Halle,
+whose shorter grammar (of Biblical Hebrew) first published in
+1813, is still the standard work, thanks to the ability with which
+his pupil E. Rödiger and recently E. Kautzsch have revised
+and enlarged it. Important work was also done by G. H. A.
+Ewald, J. Olshausen and P. A. de Lagarde, not to mention
+later scholars who have utilized the valuable results of Assyriological
+research.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Among the numerous works dealing with the
+study of Hebrew, the following are some of the most practically
+useful.</p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">Grammars, Introductory.</span>&mdash;Davidson, <i>Introductory Hebrew Grammar</i>
+(9th ed., Edinburgh, 1888); and <i>Syntax</i> (Edinburgh, 1894). Advanced:
+Gesenius&rsquo;s <i>Hebräische Grammatik</i>, ed. Kautzsch (28th ed.,
+Leipzig, 1909; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1910); also Driver, <i>Treatise on
+the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew</i> (3rd ed., Oxford, 1892). For post-biblical
+Hebrew, Strack and Siegfried, <i>Lehrbuch d. neuhebräischen
+Sprache</i> (Leipzig, 1884).</p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">Comparative Grammar.</span>&mdash;Wright, <i>Lectures on the Comp. Grammar
+of the Sem. Lang.</i> (Cambridge, 1890); Brockelmann, <i>Grundriss der
+vergleichenden Grammatik</i> (Berlin, 1907, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">Lexicons.</span>&mdash;Gesenius&rsquo;s <i>Thesaurus philologicus</i> (Leipzig, 1829-1858),
+and his <i>Hebräisches Handwörterbuch</i> (15th ed. by Zimmern and Buhl,
+Leipzig, 1910); Brown, Briggs and Driver, <i>Hebrew and Eng. Lexicon</i>
+(Oxford, 1892-1906). For later Hebrew: Levy, <i>Neuhebräisches
+Wörterbuch</i> (Leipzig, 1876-1889); Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumi,
+&amp;c. (New York, 1886, &amp;c.); Dalman, <i>Aramaisches neuhebräisches
+Wörterbuch</i> (Frankfort a. M., 1897); Kohut, <i>Aruch completum</i>
+(Vienna, 1878-1890) (in Hebrew) is valuable for the language of the
+Talmud.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Cy.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In 2 Sam. xvii. 25 <i>Israelite</i> should be <i>Ishmaelite</i>, as in the
+parallel passage 1 Chron. ii. 17.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Zimmern, in <i>Ztsch. für Assyriol.</i> (1891), p. 154.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Gesenius-Kautzsch, <i>Hebr. Gram.</i> § 17 c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBREW LITERATURE.<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> Properly speaking, &ldquo;Hebrew
+Literature&rdquo; denotes all works written in the Hebrew language.
+In catalogues and bibliographies, however, the expression is now
+generally used, conveniently if incorrectly, as synonymous with
+Jewish literature, including all works written by Jews in Hebrew
+characters, whether the language be Aramaic, Arabic or even
+some vernacular not related to Hebrew.</p>
+
+<p>The literature begins with, as it is almost entirely based upon,
+the Old Testament. There were no doubt in the earliest times
+popular songs orally transmitted and perhaps books
+of annals and laws, but except in so far as remnants
+<span class="sidenote">Old Testament-Scriptures.</span>
+of them are embedded in the biblical books, they have
+entirely disappeared. Thus the Book of the Wars of
+the Lord is mentioned in Num. xxi. 14; the Book of Jashar
+in Josh. x. 13, 2. Sam. i. 18; the Song of the Well is quoted in
+Num. xxi. 17, 18, and the song of Sihon and Moab, ib. 27-30;
+of Lamech, Gen. iv. 23, 24; of Moses, Exod. xv. As in other
+literatures, these popular elements form the foundation on which
+greater works are gradually built, and it is one function of literary
+criticism to show the way in which the component parts were
+welded into a uniform whole. The traditional view that Moses
+was the author of the Pentateuch in its present form, would
+make this the earliest monument of Hebrew literature. Modern
+inquiry, however, has arrived at other conclusions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>,
+<i>Old Testament</i>), which may be briefly summarized as follows:
+the Pentateuch is compiled from various documents, the earliest
+of which is denoted by J (beginning at Gen. ii. 4) from the fact
+that its author regularly uses the divine name Jehovah (Yahweh).
+Its date is now usually given as about 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the next
+century the document E was composed, so called from its using
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span>
+Eloh&#299;m (God) instead of Yahweh. Both these documents are
+considered to have originated in the Northern kingdom, Israel,
+where also in the 8th century appeared the prophets Amos and
+Hosea. To the same period belong the book of Micah, the earlier
+parts of the books of Samuel, of Isaiah and of Proverbs, and
+perhaps some Psalms. In 722 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Samaria was taken and the
+Northern kingdom ceased to exist. Judah suffered also, and it is
+not until a century later that any important literary activity
+is again manifested. The main part of the book of Deuteronomy
+was &ldquo;found&rdquo; shortly before 621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and about the same time
+appeared the prophets Jeremiah and Zephaniah, and perhaps
+the book of Ruth. A few years later (about 600) the two Pentateuchal
+documents J and E were woven together, the books of
+Kings were compiled, the book of Habakkuk and parts of the
+Proverbs were written. Early in the next century Jerusalem
+was taken by Nebuchadrezzar, and the prophet Ezekiel was
+among the exiles with Jehoiachin. Somewhat later (<i>c.</i> 550) the
+combined document JE was edited by a writer under the influence
+of Deuteronomy, the later parts of the books of Samuel were
+written, parts of Isaiah, the books of Obadiah, Haggai, Zechariah
+and perhaps the later Proverbs. In the exile, but probably after
+500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, an important section of the Hexateuch, usually called
+the Priest&rsquo;s Code (P), was drawn up. At various times in the
+same century are to be placed the book of Job, the post-exilic
+parts of Isaiah, the books of Joel, Jonah, Malachi and the Song
+of Songs. The Pentateuch (or Hexateuch) was finally completed
+in its present form at some time before 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The latest parts
+of the Old Testament are the books of Chronicles, Ezra and
+Nehemiah (<i>c.</i> 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Ecclesiastes and Esther (3rd century)
+and Daniel, composed either in the 3rd century or according
+to some views as late as the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (<i>c.</i> 168
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>). With regard to the date of the Psalms, internal evidence,
+from the nature of the case, leads to few results which are convincing.
+The most reasonable view seems to be that the collection
+was formed gradually and that the process was going on during
+most of the period sketched above.</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be supposed that all the contents of the Old Testament
+were immediately accepted as sacred, or that they were
+ever all regarded as being on the same level. The
+Torah, the Law delivered to Moses, held among the
+<span class="sidenote">Apocryphal literature.</span>
+Jews of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as it holds now, a pre-eminent
+position. The inclusion of other books in the
+Canon was gradual, and was effected only after centuries of
+debate. The Jews have always been, however, an intensely
+literary people, and the books ultimately accepted as canonical
+were only a selection from the literature in existence at the
+beginning of the Christian era. The rejected books receiving
+little attention have mostly either been altogether lost or have
+survived only in translations, as in the case of the Apocrypha.
+Hence from the composition of the latest canonical books to the
+redaction of the Mishna (see below) in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, the
+remains of Hebrew literature are very scanty. Of books of this
+period which are known to have existed in Hebrew or Aramaic
+up to the time of Jerome (and even later) we now possess most
+of the original Hebrew text of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus) in a
+somewhat corrupt form, and fragments of an Aramaic text of a recension
+of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, both discovered
+within recent years. Besides definite works of this kind, there
+was also being formed during this period a large body of exegetical
+and legal material, for the most part orally transmitted,
+which only received its literary form much later. As Hebrew
+became less familiar to the people, a system of translating
+the text of the Law into the Aramaic vernacular verse by verse,
+was adopted in the synagogue. The beginnings of it are supposed
+to be indicated in Neh. viii. 8. The translation was no doubt
+originally extemporary, and varied with the individual translators,
+but its form gradually became fixed and was ultimately
+<span class="sidenote">Targum.</span>
+written down. It was called <i>Targum</i>, from the
+Aramaic <i>targem</i>, to translate. The earliest to be thus
+edited was the Targum of Onkelos (Onqel&#333;s), the proselyte, on
+the Law. It received its final form in Babylonia probably in the
+3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The Samaritan Targum, of about the same
+date, clearly rests on the same tradition. Parallel to Onkelos
+was another Targum on the Law, generally called pseudo-Jonathan,
+which was edited in the 7th century in Palestine, and
+is based on the same system of interpretation but is fuller and
+closer to the original tradition. There is also a fragmentary
+Targum (Palestinian) the relation of which to the others is
+obscure. It may be only a series of disconnected glosses on
+Onkelos. For the other books, the recognized Targum on the
+Prophets is that ascribed to Jonathan ben Uzziel (4th century?),
+which originated in Palestine, but was edited in Babylonia, so
+that it has the same history and linguistic character as Onkelos.
+Just as there is a Palestinian Targum on the Law parallel to the
+Babylonian Onkelos, so there is a Palestinian Targum (called
+<i>Yerushalmi</i>) on the Prophets parallel to that of Ben Uzziel, but
+of later date and incomplete. The Law and the Prophets being
+alone used in the services of the synagogue, there was no authorized
+version of the rest of the Canon. There are, however,
+Targumim on the Psalms and Job, composed in the 5th century,
+on Proverbs, resembling the Peshi&#7789;t&#257; version, on the five
+Meghill&#333;th, paraphrastic and agadic (see below) in character,
+and on Chronicles&mdash;all Palestinian. There is also a second
+Targum on Esther. There is none on Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah.</p>
+
+<p>We must now return to the 2nd century. During the period
+which followed the later canonical books, not only was translation,
+and therefore exegesis, cultivated, but even more the
+amplification of the Law. According to Jewish teaching
+<span class="sidenote">Halakhah.</span>
+(<i>e.g.</i> Abhoth i. 1) Moses received on Mount Sinai not
+only the written Law as set down in the Pentateuch, but also
+the Oral Law, which he communicated personally to the 70
+elders and through them by a &ldquo;chain of tradition&rdquo; to succeeding
+ages. The application of this oral law is called <i>Halakhah</i>, the
+rules by which a man&rsquo;s daily &ldquo;walk&rdquo; is regulated. The halakhah
+was by no means inferior in prestige to the written Law. Indeed
+some teachers even went so far as to ascribe a higher value to it,
+since it comes into closer relation with the details of everyday
+life. It was not independent of the written Law, still less could
+it be in opposition to it. Rather it was implicitly contained
+in the Torah, and the duty of the teacher was to show
+this. It was therefore of the first importance that the chain of
+tradition should be continuous and trustworthy. The line is
+traced through biblical teachers to Ezra, the first of the S&#333;pher&#299;m
+or scribes, who handed on the charge to the &ldquo;men of the Great
+Synagogue,&rdquo; a much-discussed term for a body or succession of
+teachers inaugurated by Ezra. The last member of it, Simon the
+Just (either Simon I., who died about 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, or Simon II., who
+died about 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), was the first of the next series, called Elders,
+represented in the tradition by <i>pairs</i> of teachers, ending with
+Hillel and Shammai about the beginning of the Christian era.
+Their pupils form the starting-point of the next series, the
+Tann&#257;&#299;m (from Aram. <i>ten&#257;</i> to teach), who occupy the first two
+centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p>By this time the collection of halakhic material had become
+very large and various, and after several attempts had been made
+to reduce it to uniformity, a code of oral tradition was
+finally drawn up in the 2nd century by Judah ha-Nas&#299;,
+<span class="sidenote">Mishnah.</span>
+called Rabbi <i>par excellence</i>. This was the Mishnah. Its name
+is derived from the Hebrew <i>shanah</i>, corresponding to the Aramaic
+<i>ten&#257;</i>, and therefore a suitable name for a tannaitic work, meaning
+the <i>repetition</i> or <i>teaching</i> of the oral law. It is written in the
+Hebrew of the schools (<i>lesh&#333;n hakham&#299;m</i>) which differs in
+many respects from that of the Old Testament (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew
+Language</a></span>). It is divided into six &ldquo;orders,&rdquo; according to
+subject, and each order is subdivided into chapters. In making
+his selection of halakh&#333;th, Rabbi used the earlier compilations,
+which are quoted as &ldquo;words of Rabbi &lsquo;Aq&#299;ba&rdquo; or of R. Me&lsquo;&#299;r,
+but rejected much which was afterwards collected under the
+title of Tosefta (<i>addition</i>) and Baraita (<i>outside</i> the Mishnah).</p>
+
+<p>Traditional teaching was, however, not confined to halakhah.
+As observed above, it was the duty of the teachers to show the
+connexion of practical rules with the written Law,
+the more so since the Sadducees rejected the authority
+<span class="sidenote">Midrash.</span>
+of the oral law as such. Hence arises Midrash, <i>exposition</i>, from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span>
+<i>darash</i> to &ldquo;investigate&rdquo; a scriptural passage. Of this halakhic
+Midrash we possess that on Exodus, called Mekhilta, that on
+Leviticus, called Sifra, and that on Numbers and Deuteronomy,
+called Sifr&#275;. All of these were drawn up in the period of the
+Amor&#257;&#299;m, the order of teachers who succeeded the Tann&#257;&#299;m,
+from the close of the Mishnah to about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500. The term
+Midrash, however, more commonly implies <i>agada</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the
+homiletical exposition of the text, with illustrations designed
+to make it more attractive to the readers or hearers. Picturesque
+teaching of this kind was always popular, and specimens of it
+are familiar in the Gospel discourses. It began, as a method,
+with the S&#333;pher&#299;m (though there are traces in the Old Testament
+itself), and was most developed among the Tann&#257;&#299;m and Amor&#257;&#299;m,
+rivalling even the study of halakhah. As the existing
+halakh&#333;th were collected and edited in the Mishnah, so the
+much larger agadic material was gathered together and arranged
+in the Midrash&#299;m. Apart from the agadic parts of the earlier
+Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifr&#275;, the most important of these collections
+(which are anonymous) form a sort of continuous commentary
+on various books of the Bible. They were called <i>Rabb&#333;th</i> (<i>great</i>
+Midrash&#299;m) to distinguish them from preceding smaller collections.
+<i>Beresh&#299;th Rabba</i>, on Genesis, and <i>&#274;khah Rabbat&#299;</i>, on Lamentations,
+were probably edited in the 7th century. Of the same
+character and of about the same date are the <i>Pes&#299;qta</i>, on the
+lessons for Sabbaths and feast-days, and <i>Wayyiqra R.</i> on Leviticus.
+A century perhaps later is the <i>Tan&#7717;&#363;ma</i>, on the sections of
+the Pentateuch, and later still the <i>Pes&#299;qta Rabbat&#299;</i>, <i>Shem&#333;th R.</i>
+(on Exodus), <i>Bemidhbar R.</i> (on Numbers), <i>Debhar&#299;m R.</i> (on
+Deuteronomy). There are also Midrash&#299;m on the Canticle,
+Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and the Psalms, belonging to this
+later period, the <i>Pirq&#275; R. Eliezer</i>, of the 8th or 9th century, a
+sort of history of creation and of the patriarchs, and the <i>Tanna
+deb&#275; Eliyah&#363;</i> (an ethical work of the 10th century but containing
+much that is old), besides a large number of minor compositions.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+In general, these performed very much the same function as
+the lives of saints in the early and medieval church. Very
+important for the study of Midrashic literature are the <i>Yalq&#363;&#7789;</i>
+(<i>gleaning</i>) <i>Shim&rsquo;&#333;n&#299;</i>, on the whole Bible, the <i>Yalq&#363;&#7789; Mekh&#299;r&#299;</i>,
+on the Prophets, Psalms, Proverbs and Job, and the <i>Midrash
+ha-gadh&#333;l</i>,<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> all of which are of uncertain but late date and
+preserve earlier material. The last, which is preserved in MSS.
+from Yemen, is especially valuable as representing an independent
+tradition.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, if agadic exegesis was popular in the centuries
+following the redaction of the Mishna, the study of halakhah
+was by no means neglected. As the discussion of the
+Law led up to the compilation of the Mishnah, so the
+<span class="sidenote">Talmud.</span>
+Mishnah itself became in turn the subject of further discussion.
+The material thus accumulated, both halakhic and agadic,
+forming a commentary on and amplification of the Mishnah,
+was eventually written down under the name of <i>Gemara</i> (from
+<i>gemar</i>, to learn completely), the two together forming the
+<i>Talmud</i> (properly &ldquo;<i>instruction</i>&rdquo;). The tradition, as in the case
+of the Targums, was again twofold; that which had grown up
+in the Palestinian Schools and that of Babylonia. The foundation,
+however, the Mishnah, was the same in both. Both works
+were due to the Amoraim and were completed by about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500,
+though the date at which they were actually committed to
+writing is very uncertain. It is probable that notes or selections
+were from time to time written down to help in teaching and
+learning the immense mass of material, in spite of the fact that
+even in Sherira&rsquo;s time (11th century) such aids to memory were
+not officially recognized. Both Talmuds are arranged according
+to the six orders of the Mishnah, but the discussion of the
+Mishnic text often wanders off into widely different topics.
+Neither is altogether complete. In the Palestinian Talmud
+(<i>Yerushalm&#299;</i>) the gemara of the 5th order (<i>Qodash&#299;m</i>) and of
+nearly all the 6th (<i>&#7788;oh&#333;r&#333;th</i>) is missing, besides smaller parts.
+In the Babylonian Talmud (<i>Babhl&#299;</i>) there is no gemara to the
+smaller tractates of Order 1, and to parts of ii., iv., v., vi. The
+language of both gemaras is in the main the Aramaic vernacular
+(western Aramaic in Yerushalm&#299;, eastern in Babhl&#299;), but early
+halakhic traditions (<i>e.g.</i> of Tannaitic origin) are given in their
+original form, and the discussion of them is usually also in
+Hebrew. Babhl&#299; is not only greater in bulk than Yerushalm&#299;,
+but has also received far greater attention, so that the name
+Talmud alone is often used for it. As being a constant object of
+study numerous commentaries have been written on the Talmud
+from the earliest times till the present. The most important of
+them for the understanding of the gemara (Babhl&#299;) is that of
+Rashi<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> (Solomon ben Isaac, d. 1104) with the T&#333;saf&#333;th (<i>additions</i>,
+not to be confused with the Tosefta) chiefly by the French school
+of rabbis following Rashi. These are always printed in the
+editions on the same page as the Mishnah and Gemara, the whole,
+with various other matter, filling generally about 12 folio volumes.
+Since the introduction of printing, the Talmud is always cited by
+the number of the leaf in the first edition (Venice, 1520, &amp;c.),
+to which all subsequent editions conform. In order to facilitate
+the practical study of the Talmud, it was natural that abridgements
+of it should be made. Two of these may be mentioned
+which are usually found in the larger editions: that by Isaac
+Alfas&#299; (<i>i.e.</i> of Fez) in the 11th century, often cited in the Jewish
+manner as <i>Rif</i>; and that by Asher ben Ye&#7717;&#299;el (d. 1328) of
+Toledo, usually cited as <i>Rabben&#363; Asher</i>. The object of both was
+to collect all halakh&#333;th having a practical importance, omitting
+all those which owing to circumstances no longer possess more
+than an academic interest, and excluding the discussions on them
+and all agada. Both add notes and explanations of their own,
+and both have in turn formed the text of commentaries.</p>
+
+<p>With the Talmud, the anonymous period of Hebrew literature
+may be considered to end. Henceforward important works
+are produced not by schools but by particular teachers,
+who, however, no doubt often represent the opinions
+<span class="sidenote">Masorah.</span>
+of a school. There are two branches of work which partake
+of both characters, the Masorah and the Liturgy. The name
+Masorah (Massorah) is usually derived from <i>masar</i>, to hand on,
+and explained as &ldquo;tradition.&rdquo; According to others<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> it is the word
+found in Ezek. xx. 37, meaning a &ldquo;fetter.&rdquo; Its object was to
+fix the biblical text unalterably. It is generally divided into the
+Great and the Small Masorah, forming together an <i>apparatus
+criticus</i> which grew up gradually in the course of centuries and
+now accompanies the text in most MSS. and printed editions to a
+greater or less extent. There are also separate masoretic treatises.
+Some system of the kind was necessary to guard against
+corruptions of copyists, while the care bestowed upon it no doubt
+reacted so as to enhance the sanctity ascribed to the text. Many
+apparent puerilities, such as the counting of letters and the
+marking of the middle point of books, had a practical use in
+enabling copyists of MSS. to determine the amount of work
+done. The registration of anomalies, such as the suspended
+letters, inverted <i>n&#363;ns</i> and larger letters, enabled any one to test
+the accuracy of a copy. But the work of the Masoretes was much
+greater than this. Their long lists of the occurrences of words
+and forms fixed with accuracy the present (Masoretic) text,
+which they had produced, and were invaluable to subsequent
+lexicographers, while their system of vowel-points and accents
+not only gives us the pronunciation and manner of reading
+traditional about the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but frequently serves
+also the purpose of an explanatory commentary. (See further
+under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>.) Most of the Masorah is anonymous, including
+the <i>Massekheth S&#333;fer&#299;m</i> (of various dates from perhaps the 6th
+to the 9th century) and the <i>Okhlah we-Okhlah</i>, but when the
+period of anonymous literature ceases, there appear (in the 10th
+century) Ben Asher of Tiberias, the greatest authority on the
+subject, and his opponent Ben Naphthali. Later on, Jacob
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span>
+ben &#7716;ayy&#299;m arranged the Masorah for the great Bomberg Bible
+of 1524. Elias Levita&rsquo;s <i>Massoreth ha-Massoreth</i> (1538) and
+Buxtorf&rsquo;s <i>Tiberias</i> (1620) are also important.</p>
+
+<p>We must now turn back to a most difficult subject&mdash;the
+growth of the Liturgy. We are not concerned here with indications
+of the ritual used in the Temple. Of the prayer-book
+as it is at present, the earliest parts are the
+<span class="sidenote">Liturgy.</span>
+Shema&lsquo; (Deut. vi. 4, &amp;c.) and the anonymous blessings commonly
+called Shemoneh &lsquo;Esreh (the Eighteen), together with certain
+Psalms. (Readings from the Law and the Prophets [Haph&#7789;arah]
+also formed part of the service.) To this framework were fitted,
+from time to time, various prayers, and, for festivals especially,
+numerous hymns. The earliest existing codification of the prayer-book
+is the <i>Sidd&#363;r</i> (<i>order</i>) drawn up by Amram Gaon of Sura
+about 850. Half a century later the famous Gaon Seadiah, also
+of Sura, issued his <i>Sidd&#363;r</i>, in which the rubrical matter is in
+Arabic. Besides the <i>Sidd&#363;r</i>, or order for Sabbaths and general
+use, there is the <i>Ma&#7717;z&#333;r</i> (<i>cycle</i>) for festivals and fasts. In both
+there are ritual differences according to the Sephardic (Spanish),
+Ashkenazic (German-Polish), Roman (Greek and South Italian)
+and some minor uses, in the later additions to the Liturgy. The
+Ma&#7717;zor of each rite is also distinguished by hymns (<i>piyy&#363;&#7789;&#299;m</i>)
+composed by authors (<i>payye&#7789;an&#299;m</i>) of the district. The most
+important writers are Yoseh ben Yoseh, probably in the 6th
+century, chiefly known for his compositions for the day of Atonement,
+Eleazar Qal&#299;r, the founder of the payyetanic style, perhaps
+in the 7th century, Seadiah, and the Spanish school consisting
+of Joseph ibn Abitur (died in 970), Ibn Gabirol, Isaac Gayyath,
+Moses ben Ezra, Abraham ben Ezra and Judah ha-levi, who will
+be mentioned below; later, Moses ben Na&#7717;man and Isaac Luria
+the Kabbalist.<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The order of the Amoraim, which ended with the close of the
+Talmud (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500), was succeeded by that of the Sab&#333;r&#257;&#299;m, who
+merely continued and explained the work of their
+predecessors, and these again were followed by the
+<span class="sidenote">The Ge&#333;n&#299;m.</span>
+Ge&#333;n&#299;m, the heads of the schools of Sura and Pumbeditha
+in Babylonia. The office of Ga&#333;n lasted for something
+over 400 years, beginning about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 600, and varied in importance
+according to the ability of the holders of it. Individual
+Ge&#333;n&#299;m produced valuable works (of which later), but what is
+perhaps most important from the point of view of the development
+of Judaism is the literature of their Responsa or answers
+to questions, chiefly on halakhic matters, addressed to them from
+various countries. Some of these were actual decisions of
+particular Ge&#333;n&#299;m; others were an official summary of the
+discussion of the subject by the members of the School. They
+begin with Mar Rab Sheshna (7th century) and continue to
+Hai Gaon, who died in 1038, and are full of historical and literary
+interest.<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The She&rsquo;ilt&#333;th (<i>questions</i>) of Rab A&#7717;ai (8th century)
+also belong probably to the school of Pumbeditha, though their
+author was not Gaon. Besides the Responsa, but closely related
+to them, we have the lesser Halakh&#333;th of Yeh&#363;dai Gaon of Sura
+(8th century) and the great Halakh&#333;th of Simeon Qayyara of
+Sura (not Gaon) in the 9th century. In a different department
+there is the first Talmud lexicon (<i>&lsquo;Ar&#363;kh</i>) now lost, by &#7826;ema&#7717; ben
+Pal&#7789;oi, Gaon of Pumbeditha in the 9th century. The <i>Sidd&#363;r</i>
+of Amram ben Sheshna has been already mentioned. All these
+writers, however, are entirely eclipsed by the commanding
+personality of the most famous of the Ge&#333;n&#299;m, <span class="sc">Seadiah</span> ben
+Joseph (<i>q.v.</i>) of Sura, often called al-Fayy&#363;m&#299; (of the Fayum in
+Egypt), one of the greatest representatives of Jewish learning
+of all times, who died in 942. The last three holders of the office
+were also distinguished. Sherira of Pumbeditha (d. 998) was
+the author of the famous &ldquo;Letter&rdquo; (in the form of a Responsum
+to a question addressed to him by residents in Kairawan), an
+historical document of the highest value and the foundation of
+our knowledge of the history of tradition. His son Hai, last
+Gaon of Pumbeditha (d. 1038), a man of wide learning, wrote
+(partly in Arabic) not only numerous Responsa, but also treatises
+on law, commentaries on the Mishnah and the Bible, a lexicon
+called in Arabic <i>al-&#7716;&#257;w&#299;</i>, and poems such as the <i>M&#363;sar Haskel</i>,
+but most of them are now lost or known only from translations
+or quotations. Though his teaching was largely directed against
+superstition, he seems to have been inclined to mysticism, and
+perhaps for this reason various kabbalistic works were ascribed
+to him in later times. His father-in-law Samuel ben &#7716;ophni,
+last Gaon of Sura (d. 1034), was a voluminous writer on law,
+translated the Pentateuch into Arabic, commented on much of
+the Bible, and composed an Arabic introduction to the Talmud,
+of which the existing Hebrew introduction (by Samuel the Nagid)
+is perhaps a translation. Most of his works are now lost.</p>
+
+<p>In the Geonic period there came into prominence the sect of
+the Karaites (<i>Ben&#275; miqr&#257;</i>), &ldquo;followers of the Scripture&rdquo;, the protestants
+of Judaism, who rejected rabbinical authority,
+basing their doctrine and practice exclusively on
+<span class="sidenote">The Karaites.</span>
+the Bible. The sect was founded by &lsquo;Anan in the 8th
+century, and, after many vicissitudes, still exists. Their literature,
+with which alone we are here concerned, is largely polemical
+and to a great extent deals with grammar and exegesis. Of
+their first important authors, Benjamin al-Nehawendi and Daniel
+al-Q&#363;mis&#299; (both in the 9th century), little is preserved. In the
+10th century Jacob al-Qirqisan&#299; wrote his <i>Kit&#257;b al-anw&#257;r</i>, on
+law, Solomon ben Yeru&#7717;am (against Seadiah) and Yefet ben
+&lsquo;Al&#299; wrote exegetical works; in the 11th century Ab&#363;&rsquo;l-faraj
+Furq&#257;n, exegesis, and Y&#363;suf al-Ba&#7779;&#299;r against Samuel ben &#7716;ophni.
+Most of these wrote in Arabic. In the 12th century and in
+S. Europe, Judah Hadassi composed his <i>Eshkol ha-K&#333;pher</i>, a
+great theological compendium in the form of a commentary on
+the Decalogue. Other writers are Aaron (the elder) ben Joseph,
+13th century, who wrote the commentary <i>Sepher ha-mibh&#7717;ar</i>;
+Aaron (the younger) of Nicomedia (14th century), author of
+<i>&lsquo;E&#7827; &#7716;ayy&#299;m</i>, on philosophy, <i>Gan &lsquo;Eden</i>, on law, and the commentary
+<i>Kether T&#333;rah</i>; in the 15th century Elijah Bashya&#7827;&#299;,
+on law (<i>Addereth Eliyah&#363;</i>), and Caleb Efendipoulo, poet and
+theologian; in the 16th century Moses Bashya&#7827;&#299;, theologian.
+From the 12th century onward the sect gradually declined,
+being ultimately restricted mainly to the Crimea and Lithuania,
+learning disappeared and their literature became merely popular
+and of little interest. Much of it in later times was written in
+a curious Tatar dialect. Mention need only be made further
+of Isaac of Troki, whose anti-Christian polemic <i>&#7716;izz&#363;q Em&#363;nah</i>
+(1593) was translated into English by Moses Mocatta under the
+title of <i>Faith Strengthened</i> (1851); Solomon of Troki, whose
+<i>Appiry&#333;n</i>, an account of Karaism, was written at the request of
+Pufendorf (about 1700); and Abraham Firkovich, who, in spite
+of his impostures, did much for the literature of his people about
+the middle of the 19th century. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Qaraites</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>To return to the period of the Ge&#333;n&#299;m. While the schools
+of Babylonia were flourishing as the religious head of Judaism,
+the West, and especially Spain under Moorish rule,
+was becoming the home of Jewish scholarship. On the
+<span class="sidenote">Medieval scholarship.</span>
+breaking up of the schools many of the fugitives fled
+to the West and helped to promote rabbinical learning
+there. The communities of Fez, Kairawan and N. Africa were in
+close relation with those of Spain, and as early as the beginning
+of the 9th century Judah ben Quraish of Tahort had composed
+his <i>Ris&#257;lah</i> (<i>letter</i>) to the Jews of Fez on grammatical subjects
+from a comparative point of view, and a dictionary now lost.
+His work was used in the 10th century by Menahem ben Sar&#363;q,
+of Cordova, in his <i>Mahbereth</i> (dictionary). Menahem&rsquo;s system
+of bi-literal and uni-literal roots was violently attacked by
+D&#363;nash ibn Labr&#257;&#7789;, and as violently defended by the author&rsquo;s
+pupils. Among these was Judah &#7716;ayy&#363;j of Cordova, the father
+of modern Hebrew grammar, who first established the principle
+of tri-literal roots. His treatises on the verbs, written in
+Arabic, were translated into Hebrew by Moses Giqatilla
+(11th century), himself a considerable grammarian and commentator,
+and by Ibn Ezra. His system was adopted by
+Ab&#363;&rsquo;l-wal&#299;d ibn Jann&#257;&#7717;, of Saragossa (died early in the 11th
+century), in his lexicon (<i>Kit&#257;b al-u&#7779;&#363;l</i>, in Arabic) and other works.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span>
+In Italy appeared the invaluable Talmud-lexicon (<i>&lsquo;Ar&#363;kh</i>) by
+Nathan b. Yehiel, of Rome (d. 1106), who was indirectly
+indebted to Babylonian teaching. He does not strictly follow
+the system of &#7716;ayy&#363;j. Other works of a different kind also
+originated in Italy about this time: the very popular history
+of the Jews, called <i>Josippon</i> (probably of the 10th or even 9th
+century), ascribed to Joseph ben G&#333;ri&#333;n (Gorionides)<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a>; the
+medical treatises of Shabbethai Donnolo (10th century) and his
+commentary on the <i>Sepher Ye&#7827;&#299;rah</i>, the anonymous and earliest
+Hebrew kabbalistic work ascribed to the patriarch Abraham.
+In North Africa, probably in the 9th century, appeared the
+book known under the name of <i>Eldad ha-Dan&#299;</i>, giving an account
+of the ten tribes, from which much medieval legend was derived;<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+and in Kairawan the medical and philosophical treatises of Isaac
+Israeli, who died in 932.</p>
+
+<p>The aim of the grammatical studies of the Spanish school was
+ultimately exegesis. This had already been cultivated in the
+East. In the 9th century &#7716;&#299;v&#299; of Balkh wrote a
+rationalistic treatise<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> on difficulties in the Bible,
+<span class="sidenote">Exegesis.</span>
+which was refuted by Seadiah. The commentaries of the Geonim
+have been mentioned above. The impulse to similar work in the
+West came also from Babylonia. In the 10th century &#7716;ush&#299;el,
+one of four prisoners, perhaps from Babylonia, though that is
+doubtful, was ransomed and settled at Kairawan, where he
+acquired great reputation as a Talmudist. His son Hananeel
+(d. 1050) wrote a commentary on (probably all) the Talmud, and
+one now lost on the Pentateuch. Hananeel&rsquo;s contemporary Niss&#299;m
+ben Jacob, of Kairawan, who corresponded with Hai Gaon of
+Pumbeditha as well as with Samuel the Nag&#299;d in Spain, likewise
+wrote on the Talmud, and is probably the author of a collection
+of <i>Ma&lsquo;asiyy&#333;th</i> or edifying stories, besides works now lost.
+The activity in North Africa reacted on Spain. There the most
+prominent figure was that of Samuel ibn Nagdela (or Nagrela),
+generally known as Samuel the Nag&#299;d or head of the Jewish
+settlement, who died in 1055. As vizier to the Moorish king at
+Granada, he was not only a patron of learning, but himself
+a man of wide knowledge and a considerable author. Some
+of his poems are extant, and an Introduction to the Talmud
+mentioned above. In grammar he followed &#7716;ayy&#363;j, whose
+pupil he was. Among others he was the patron of Solomon
+ibn Gabirol (<i>q.v.</i>), the poet and philosopher. To this period
+belong &#7716;af&#7827; al-Q&#363;&#7789;&#299; (the Goth?) who made a version of the
+Psalms in Arabic rhyme, and Ba&#7717;ya (more correctly Be&#7717;ai)
+ibn Paq&#363;da, dayyan at Saragossa, whose Arabic ethical treatise
+has always had great popularity among the Jews in its Hebrew
+translation, <i>&#7716;&#333;bh&#333;th ha-lebhabh&#333;th</i>. He also composed liturgical
+poems. At the end of the 11th century Judah ibn Bal&rsquo;am
+wrote grammatical works and commentaries (on the Pentateuch,
+Isaiah, &amp;c.) in Arabic; the liturgist Isaac Gayyath (d. in 1089
+at Cordova) wrote on ritual. Moses Giqatilla has been already
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The French school of the 11th century was hardly less important.
+Gershom ben Judah, the &ldquo;Light of the Exile&rdquo; (d.
+in 1040 at Mainz), a famous Talmudist and commentator,
+his pupil Jacob ben Yaqar, and Moses of
+<span class="sidenote">Rashi.</span>
+Narbonne, called ha-Darshan, the &ldquo;Exegete,&rdquo; were the forerunners
+of the greatest of all Jewish commentators, Solomon
+ben Isaac (Rashi), who died at Troyes in 1105. Rashi was a pupil
+of Jacob ben Yaqar, and studied at Worms and Mainz. Unlike
+his contemporaries in Spain, he seems to have confined himself
+wholly to Jewish learning, and to have known nothing of Arabic
+or other languages except his native French. Yet no commentator
+is more valuable or indeed more voluminous, and for the study
+of the Talmud he is even now indispensable. He commented
+on all the Bible and on nearly all the Talmud, has been himself
+the text of several super-commentaries, and has exercised great
+influence on Christian exegesis. The biblical commentary was
+translated into Latin by Breithaupt (Gotha, 1710-1714), that on
+the Pentateuch rather freely into German by L. Dukes (Prag,
+1838, in Hebrew-German characters, with the text), and parts
+by others. Closely connected with Rashi, or of his school, are
+Joseph Qara, of Troyes (d. about 1130), the commentator,
+and his teacher Menahem ben &#7716;elb&#333;, Jacob ben Me&rsquo;&#299;r, called
+Rabben&#363; Tam (d. 1171), the most important of the Tosaphists
+(<i>v. sup.</i>), and later in the 12th century the liberal and rationalizing
+Joseph Bekh&#333;r Sh&#333;r, and Samuel ben Me&rsquo;&#299;r (d. about 1174) of
+Ramerupt, commentator and Talmudist.</p>
+
+<p>In the 12th and 13th centuries literature maintained a high
+level in Spain. Abraham bar &#7716;iyya, known to Christian scholars
+as Abraham Judaeus (d. about 1136), was a mathematician,
+astronomer and philosopher much studied in the middle ages.
+Moses ben Ezra, of Granada (d. about 1140), wrote in Arabic
+a philosophical work based on Greek and Arabic as well as
+Jewish authorities, known by the name of the Hebrew translation
+as <i>&lsquo;Ar&#363;gath ha-bosem</i>, and the <i>Kit&#257;b al-Ma&#7717;a&#7693;arah</i>, of great
+value for literary history. He is even better known as a poet,
+for his <i>D&#299;w&#257;n</i> and the <i>&lsquo;Anaq</i>, and as a hymn-writer. His
+relative Abraham ben Ezra, generally called simply Ibn Ezra,<a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a>
+was still more distinguished. He was born at Toledo, spent
+most of his life in travel, wandering even to England and to the
+East, and died in 1167. Yet he contrived to write his great
+commentary on the Pentateuch and other books of the Bible,
+treatises on philosophy (as the <i>Yes&#333;dh m&#333;ra</i>), astronomy,
+mathematics, grammar (translation of &#7716;ayy&#363;j), besides a D&#299;w&#257;n.
+The man, however, who shares with Ibn Gabirol the first place
+in Jewish poetry is Judah Ha-levi, of Toledo, who died in
+Jerusalem about 1140. His poems, both secular and religious,
+contained in his D&#299;w&#257;n and scattered in the liturgy, are all in
+Hebrew, though he employed Arabic metres. In Arabic he
+wrote his philosophical work, called in the Hebrew translation
+<i>Sepher ha-K&#363;zar&#299;</i>, a defence of revelation as against non-Jewish
+philosophy and Qaraite doctrine. It shows considerable
+knowledge of Greek and Arabic thought (Avicenna). Joseph
+ibn M&#299;g&#257;sh (d. 1141 at Lucena), a friend of Judah Ha-levi
+and of Moses ben Ezra, wrote Responsa and &#7716;idd&#363;sh&#299;n (<i>annotations</i>)
+on parts of the Talmud. In another sphere mention must
+be made of the travellers Benjamin of Tudela (d. after 1173),
+whose Massa&rsquo;&#333;th are of great value for the history and geography
+of his time, and (though not belonging to Spain) Pethahiah, of
+Regensburg (d. about 1190), who wrote short notes of his
+journeys. Abraham ben David, of Toledo (d. about 1180),
+in philosophy an Aristotelian (through Avicenna) and the
+precursor of Maimonides, is chiefly known for his <i>Sepher ha-qabbalah</i>,
+written as a polemic against Karaism, but valuable
+for the history of tradition.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest of all medieval Jewish scholars was Moses ben
+Maim&#333;n (Rambam), called <i>Maimonides</i> by Christians. He was
+born at Cordova in 1135, fled with his parents from
+persecution in 1148, settled at Fez in 1160, passing
+<span class="sidenote">Maimonides.</span>
+there for a Moslem, fled again to Jerusalem in 1165,
+and finally went to Cairo where he died in 1204. He was distinguished
+in his profession as a physician, and wrote a number
+of medical works in Arabic (including a commentary on the
+aphorisms of Hippocrates), all of which were translated into
+Hebrew, and most of them into Latin, becoming the textbooks
+of Europe in the succeeding centuries. But his fame rests mainly
+on his theological works. Passing over the less important,
+these are the <i>M&#333;reh Nebh&#363;kh&#299;m</i> (so the Hebrew translation of
+the Arabic original), an endeavour to show philosophically the
+reasonableness of the faith, parts of which, translated into Latin,
+were studied by the Christian schoolmen, and the <i>Mishneh
+T&#333;rah</i>, also called <i>Yad ha&#7717;azaqah</i> (<span title="id">&#1497;&#1491;</span> = 14, the number of the
+parts), a classified compendium of the Law, written in Hebrew
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span>
+and early translated into Arabic. The latter of these, though
+generally accepted in the East, was much opposed in the West,
+especially at the time by the Talmudist Abraham ben David
+of Posquières (d. 1198). Maimonides also wrote an Arabic
+commentary on the Mishnah, soon afterwards translated into
+<span class="sidenote">Maimonists and anti-Maimonists.</span>
+Hebrew, commentaries on parts of the Talmud (now
+lost), and a treatise on Logic. His breadth of view
+and his Aristotelianism were a stumbling-block to the
+orthodox, and subsequent teachers may be mostly
+classified as Maimonists or anti-Maimonists. Even
+his friend Joseph ibn &lsquo;Aqn&#299;n (d. 1226), author of a philosophical
+treatise in Arabic and of a commentary on the Song of Solomon,
+found so much difficulty in the new views that the <i>M&#333;reh
+Nebh&#363;kh&#299;m</i> was written in order to convince him. Maimonides&rsquo;
+son Abraham (d. 1234), also a great Talmudist, wrote in Arabic
+<i>Ma&lsquo;aseh Yer&#363;shalm&#299;</i>, on oaths, and <i>Kit&#257;b al-Kif&#257;yah</i>, theology.
+His grandson David was also an author. A very different person
+was Moses ben Na&#7717;man (Ramban) or Nahmanides, who was born
+at Gerona in 1194 and died in Palestine about 1270. His whole
+tendency was as conservative as that of Maimonides was liberal,
+and like all conservatives he may be said to represent a lost
+though not necessarily a less desirable cause. Much of his life
+was spent in controversy, not only with Christians (in 1293
+before the king of Aragon), but also with his own people and on
+the views of the time. His greatest work is the commentary
+on the Pentateuch in opposition to Maimonides and Ibn Ezra.
+He had a strong inclination to mysticism, but whether certain
+kabbalistic works are rightly attributed to him is doubtful.
+It is, however, not a mere coincidence that the two great kabbalistic
+textbooks, the <i>Bahir</i> and the <i>Zohar</i> (both meaning &ldquo;brightness&rdquo;),
+appear first in the 13th century. If not due to his teaching
+they are at least in sympathy with it. The <i>Bahir</i>, a sort of outline
+of the <i>Zohar</i>, and traditionally ascribed to Ne&#7717;unya (1st century),
+is believed by some to be the work of Isaac the Blind ben Abraham
+of Posquières (d. early in the 13th century), the founder of the
+modern Kabbalah and the author of the names for the 10
+Seph&#299;r&#333;th. The <i>Zohar</i>, supposed to be by Simeon ben Yo&#7717;ai
+(2nd century), is now generally attributed to Moses of Leon
+(d. 1305), who, however, drew his material in part from earlier
+written or traditional sources, such as the Sepher Ye&#7827;&#299;rah.
+At any rate the work was immediately accepted by the kabbalists,
+and has formed the basis of all subsequent study of the subject.
+Though put into the form of a commentary on the Pentateuch,
+it is really an exposition of the kabbalistic view of the universe,
+and incidentally shows considerable acquaintance with the
+natural science of the time. A pupil, though not a follower of
+Nahmanides, was Solomon Adreth (not Addereth), of Barcelona
+(d. 1310), a prolific writer of Talmudic and polemical works
+(against the Kabbalists and Mahommedans) as well as of responsa.
+He was opposed by Abraham Abulafia (d. about 1291) and his
+pupil Joseph Giqatilla (d. about 1305), the author of numerous
+kabbalistic works. Solomon&rsquo;s pupil Ba&#7717;ya ben Asher, of
+Saragossa (d. 1340) was the author of a very popular commentary
+on the Pentateuch and of religious discourses entitled
+<i>Kad ha-qema&#7717;</i>, in both of which, unlike his teacher, he made
+large use of the Kabbalah. Other studies, however, were not
+neglected. In the first half of the 13th century, Abraham ibn
+&#7716;asdai, a vigorous supporter of Maimonides, translated (or
+adapted) a large number of philosophical works from Arabic,
+among them being the <i>Sepher ha-tapp&#363;a&#7717;</i>, based on Aristotle&rsquo;s
+<i>de Anima</i>, and the <i>M&#333;zen&#275; &#7826;edeq</i> of Ghazzali on moral philosophy,
+of both of which the originals are lost. Another Maimonist was
+Shem &#7788;&#333;bh ben Joseph Falaquera (d. after 1290), philosopher
+(following Averroes), poet and author of a commentary on the
+M&#333;reh. A curious mixture of mysticism and Aristotelianism
+is seen in Isaac Aboab (about 1300), whose <i>Menorath ha-Ma&rsquo;&#333;r</i>,
+a collection of agad&#333;th, attained great popularity and has been
+frequently printed and translated. Somewhat earlier in the 13th
+century lived Judah al-&#7716;ar&#299;z&#299;, who belongs in spirit to the time
+of Ibn Gabirol and Judah ha-levi. He wrote numerous translations,
+of Galen, Aristotle, &#7716;ar&#299;r&#299;, &#7716;unain ben Isaac and
+Maimonides, as well as several original works, a <i>Sepher &lsquo;Anaq</i>
+in imitation of Moses ben Ezra, and treatises on grammar and
+medicine (<i>Reph&#363;ath geviyyah</i>), but he is best known for his
+<i>Ta&#7717;kem&#333;n&#299;</i>, a diwan in the style of &#7716;ar&#299;r&#299;&rsquo;s <i>Maq&#257;m&#257;t</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the literary activity of the Jews in Spain had its
+effect on those of France. The fact that many of the most
+important works were written in Arabic, the vernacular of the
+Spanish Jews under the Moors, which was not understood in
+France, gave rise to a number of translations into Hebrew,
+chiefly by the family of Ibn Tibb&#333;n (or Tabb&#333;n). The first of
+them, Judah ibn Tibb&#333;n, translated works of Ba&#7717;ya ibn Paq&#363;dah,
+Judah ha-levi, Seadiah, Ab&#363;&rsquo;lwal&#299;d and Ibn Gabirol, besides
+writing works of his own. He was a native of Granada, but
+migrated to Lunel, where he probably died about 1190. His
+son Samuel, who died at Marseilles about 1230, was equally
+prolific. He translated the <i>M&#333;reh Nebh&#363;kh&#299;m</i> during the life
+of the author, and with some help from him, so that this may
+be regarded as the authorized version; Maimonides&rsquo; commentary
+on the Mishnah tractate <i>Pirq&#275; Abh&#333;th</i>, and some minor works;
+treatises of Averroes and other Arabic authors. His original
+works are mostly biblical commentaries and some additional
+matter on the M&#333;reh. His son Moses, who died about the end
+of the 13th century, translated the rest of Maimonides, much of
+Averroes, the lesser Canon of Avicenna, Euclid&rsquo;s <i>Elements</i>
+(from the Arabic version), Ibn al-Jazz&#257;r&rsquo;s <i>Viaticum</i>, medical
+works of &#7716;unain ben Isaac (Johannitius) and Razi (Rhazes),
+besides works of less-known Arabic authors. His original works
+are commentaries and perhaps a treatise on immortality. His
+nephew Jacob ben Makh&#299;r, of Montpellier (d. about 1304),
+translated Arabic scientific works, such as parts of Averroes and
+Ghazzali, Arabic versions from the Greek, as Euclid&rsquo;s <i>Data</i>,
+Autolycus, Menelaus (<span title="Milium">&#1502;&#1497;&#1500;&#1497;&#1493;&#1501;</span>) and Theodosius on the Sphere,
+and Ptolemy&rsquo;s <i>Almagest</i>. He also compiled astronomical tables
+and a treatise on the quadrant. The great importance of these
+translations is that many of them were afterwards rendered
+into Latin,<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> thus making Arabic and, through it, Greek learning
+accessible to medieval Europe. Another important family
+about this time is that of Qim&#7717;i (or Qam&#7717;i). It also originated
+in Spain, where Joseph ben Isaac Qim&#7717;i was born, who migrated
+to S. France, probably for the same reason which caused the
+flight of Maimonides, and died there about 1170. He wrote on
+grammar (<i>Sepher ha-galui</i> and <i>Sepher Zikkaron</i>), commentaries
+on Proverbs and the Song of Solomon, an apologetic work,
+<i>Sepher ha-ber&#299;th</i>, and a translation of Ba&#7717;ya&rsquo;s <i>&#7716;&#333;bh&#333;th
+ha-lebhabh&#333;th</i>. His son Moses (d. about 1190) also wrote on
+grammar and some commentaries, wrongly attributed to Ibn
+Ezra. A younger son, David (Radaq) of Narbonne (d. 1235)
+is the most famous of the name. His great work, the <i>Mikhl&#333;l</i>,
+consists of a grammar and lexicon; his commentaries on various
+parts of the Bible are admirably luminous, and, in spite of his
+anti-Christian remarks, have been widely used by Christian
+theologians and largely influenced the English authorized version
+of the Bible. A friend of Joseph Qim&#7717;i, Jacob ben Me&rsquo;&#299;r, known
+as Rabben&#363; Tam of Ramerupt (d. 1171), the grandson of
+Rashi, wrote the <i>Sepher ha-yashar</i> (&#7717;idd&#363;sh&#299;n and responsa) and
+was one of the chief Tosaphists. Of the same school were
+Menahem ben Simeon of Posquières, a commentator, who died
+about the end of the 12th century, and Moses ben Jacob of Coucy
+(13th century), author of the <i>Semag</i> (book of precepts, positive
+and negative) a very popular and valuable halakhic work. A
+younger contemporary of David Qim&#7717;i was Abraham ben Isaac
+Bedersi (<i>i.e.</i> of Béziers), the poet, and some time in the 13th
+century lived Joseph Ezobhi of Perpignan, whose ethical poem,
+<i>Qe&lsquo;arath Y&#333;seph</i>, was translated by Reuchlin and later by
+others. Berachiah,<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a> the compiler of the &ldquo;Fox Fables&rdquo; (which
+have much in common with the &ldquo;Ysopet&rdquo; of Marie de France),
+is generally thought to have lived in Provence in the 13th century,
+but according to others in England in the 12th century. In
+Germany, Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (d. 1238), besides being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span>
+a Talmudist, was an earnest promoter of kabbalistic studies.
+Isaac ben Moses (d. about 1270), who had studied in France,
+wrote the famous <i>Or Zar&#363;a&lsquo;</i> (from which he is often called),
+an halakhic work somewhat resembling Maimonides&rsquo; <i>Mishneh
+T&#333;rah</i>, but more diffuse. In the course of his wanderings he
+settled for a time at Würzburg, where he had as a pupil Me&rsquo;&#299;r
+of Rothenburg (d. 1293). The latter was a prolific writer of
+great influence, chiefly known for his Responsa, but also for his
+halakhic treatises, &#7717;idd&#363;sh&#299;n and t&#333;saph&#333;th. He also composed
+a number of piyy&#363;&#7789;&#299;m. Me&rsquo;&#299;r&rsquo;s pupil, Mordecai ben Hillel of
+Nürnberg (d. 1298), had an even greater influence through his
+halakhic work, usually known as the <i>Mordekhai</i>. This is a codification
+of halakh&#333;th, based on all the authorities then known,
+some of them now lost. Owing to the fact that the material
+collected by Mordecai was left to his pupils to arrange, the work
+was current in two recensions, an Eastern (in Austria) and a
+Western (in Germany, France, &amp;c.). In the East, Tan&#7717;&#363;m ben
+Joseph of Jerusalem was the author of commentaries (not to be
+confounded with the <i>Midrash Tan&#7717;&#363;m&#257;</i>) on many books of the
+Bible, and of an extensive lexicon (<i>Kit&#257;b al-Murshid</i>) to the
+Mishnah, all in Arabic.</p>
+
+<p>With the 13th century Hebrew literature may be said to have
+reached the limit of its development. Later writers to a large
+extent used over again the materials of their predecessors, while
+secular works tend to be influenced by the surrounding civilization,
+or even are composed in the vernacular languages. From
+the 14th century onward only the most notable names can be mentioned.
+In Italy Immanuel ben Solomon, of Rome (d. about
+1330), perhaps the friend and certainly the imitator of Dante,
+wrote his diwan, of which the last part, &ldquo;Topheth ve-&lsquo;Eden,&rdquo;
+is suggested by the <i>Divina Commedia</i>. In Spain Israel Israeli, of
+Toledo (d. 1326), was a translator and the author of an Arabic
+work on ritual and a commentary on <i>Pirq&#275; Abh&#333;th</i>. About the
+same time Isaac Israeli wrote his <i>Yes&#333;dh &lsquo;Olam</i> and other astronomical
+works which were much studied. Asher ben Jehiel,
+a pupil of Me&rsquo;&#299;r of Rothenburg, was the author of the popular
+Talmudic compendium, generally quoted as <i>Rabbenu Asher</i>, on
+the lines of Alfasi, besides other halakhic works. He migrated
+from Germany and settled at Toledo, where he died in 1328.
+His son Jacob, of Toledo (d. 1340), was the author of the <i>T&#363;r</i>
+(or the four &#7788;&#363;r&#299;m), a most important manual of Jewish law,
+serving as an abridgement of the <i>Mishneh T&#333;rah</i> brought up to
+date. His pupil David Abudrahim, of Seville (d. after 1340),
+wrote a commentary on the liturgy. Both the 14th and 15th
+centuries in Spain were largely taken up with controversy, as
+by Isaac ibn Pulgar (about 1350), and Shem &#7788;&#333;bh ibn Shapr&#363;&#7789;
+(about 1380), who translated St Matthew&rsquo;s gospel into Hebrew.
+In France Jedaiah Bedersi, <i>i.e.</i> of Béziers (d. about 1340), wrote
+poems (<i>Be&#7717;&#299;nath ha-&lsquo;&#333;lam</i>), commentaries on agada and a defence
+of Maimonides against Solomon Adreth. Levi ben Gershom
+(d. 1344), called Ralbag, the great commentator on the Bible and
+Talmud, in philosophy a follower of Aristotle and Averroes,
+known to Christians as Leo Hebraeus, wrote also many works
+on halakhah, mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Kasp&#299;,
+<i>i.e.</i> of Largentière (d. 1340), wrote a large number of treatises
+on grammar and philosophy (mystical), besides commentaries
+and piyy&#363;&#7789;im. In the first half of the 14th century lived the
+two translators Qalonymos ben David and Qalonymos ben
+Qalonymos, the latter of whom translated many works of Galen
+and Averroes, and various scientific treatises, besides writing
+original works, <i>e.g.</i> one against Kasp&#299;, and an ethical work
+entitled <i>Eben B&#333;&#7717;an</i>. At the end of the century Isaac ben
+Moses, called Profiat Duran (Efodi), is chiefly known as an anti-Christian
+controversialist (letter to Me&rsquo;&#299;r Alguadez), but also
+wrote on grammar (<i>Ma&lsquo;aseh Efod</i>) and a commentary on the
+M&#333;reh. In philosophy he was an Aristotelian. About the same
+time in Spain controversy was very active. &#7716;asdai Crescas
+(d. 1410) wrote against Christianity and in his <i>Or Ad&#333;nai</i>
+against the Aristotelianism of the Maimonists. His pupil Joseph
+Albo in his <i>&lsquo;Iqqar&#299;m</i> had the same two objects. On the side of
+the Maimonists was Simeon Duran (d. at Algiers 1444) in his
+<i>Magen Abh&#333;th</i> and in his numerous commentaries. Shem &#7788;&#333;bh
+ibn Shem &#7788;&#333;bh, the kabbalist, was a strong anti-Maimonist,
+as was his son Joseph of Castile (d. 1480), a commentator with
+kabbalistic tendencies but versed in Aristotle, Averroes and
+Christian doctrine. Joseph&rsquo;s son Shem &#7788;&#333;bh was, on the contrary,
+a follower of Maimonides and the Aristotelians. In other
+subjects, Saadyah ibn Dan&#257;n, of Granada (d. at Oran after 1473),
+is chiefly important for his grammar and lexicon, in Arabic;
+Judah ibn Verga, of Seville (d. after 1480), was a mathematician
+and astronomer; Solomon ibn Verga, somewhat later, wrote
+<i>Shebe&#7789; Yeh&#363;dah</i>, of doubtful value historically; Abraham
+Zakkuth or Zakkuto, of Salamanca (d. after 1510), astronomer,
+wrote the <i>Sepher Yu&#7717;as&#299;n</i>, an historical work of importance.
+In Italy, Obadiah Bertinoro (d. about 1500) compiled his very
+useful commentary on the Mishnah, based on those of Rashi
+and Maimonides. His account of his travels and his letters are
+also of great interest. Isaac Abravanel (d. 1508) wrote commentaries
+(not of the first rank) on the Pentateuch and Prophets
+and on the M&#333;reh, philosophical treatises and apologetics, such as
+the <i>Yesh&#363;&lsquo;oth Mesh&#299;&#7717;&#333;</i>, all of which had considerable influence.
+Elijah Delmedigo, of Crete (d. 1497), a strong opponent of
+Kabbalah, was the author of the philosophical treatise <i>Be&#7717;&#299;nath
+ha-dath</i>, but most of his work (on Averroes) was in Latin.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of printing (first dated Hebrew printed book,
+Rashi, Reggio, 1475) gave occasion for a number of scholarly
+compositors and proof-readers, some of whom were
+also authors, such as Jacob ben &#7716;ayy&#299;m of Tunis
+<span class="sidenote">Later writers.</span>
+(d. about 1530), proof-reader to Bomberg, chiefly
+known for his masoretic work in connexion with the Rabbinic
+Bible and his introduction to it; Elias Levita, of Venice (d. 1549),
+also proof-reader to Bomberg, author of the <i>Massoreth ha-Massoreth</i>
+and other works on grammar and lexicography; and
+Cornelius Adelkind, who however was not an author. In the
+East, Joseph Karo (Q&#257;r&#333;) wrote his <i>B&#275;th Y&#333;seph</i> (Venice, 1550),
+a commentary on the <i>&#7788;&#363;r</i>, and his <i>Shul&#7717;an &lsquo;Ar&#363;kh</i> (Venice,
+1564) an halakhic work like the <i>&#7788;&#363;r</i>, which is still a standard
+authority. The influence of non-Jewish methods is seen in the
+more modern tendency of Azariah dei Rossi, who was opposed
+by Joseph Karo. In his <i>Me&rsquo;&#333;r &lsquo;Enay&#299;m</i> (Mantua, 1573) Del
+Rossi endeavoured to investigate Jewish history in a scientific
+spirit, with the aid of non-Jewish authorities, and even criticizes
+Talmudic and traditional statements. Another historian living
+also in Italy was Joseph ben Joshua, whose <i>Dibhr&#275; ha-yam&#299;m</i>
+(Venice, 1534) is a sort of history of the world, and his <i>&lsquo;Emeq
+ha-bakhah</i> an account of Jewish troubles to the year 1575. In
+Germany David Gans wrote on astronomy, and also the historical
+work <i>&#7826;ema&#7717; David</i> (Prag, 1592). The study of Kabbalah was
+promoted and the practical Kabbalah founded by Isaac Luria
+in Palestine (d. 1572). Numerous works, representing the
+extreme of mysticism, were published by his pupils as the result
+of his teaching. Foremost among these was &#7716;ayy&#299;m Vital,
+author of the <i>&rsquo;Ez &#7717;ayy&#299;m</i>, and his son Samuel, who wrote an
+introduction to the Kabbalah, called <i>Shemoneh She&lsquo;ar&#299;m</i>. To
+the same school belonged Moses Zakkuto, of Mantua (d. 1697),
+poet and kabbalist. Contemporary with Luria and also living
+at Safed, was Moses Cordovero (d. 1570), the kabbalist, whose
+chief work was the <i>Pardes Rimm&#333;n&#299;m</i> (Cracow, 1591). In the
+17th century Leon of Modena (d. 1648) wrote his <i>B&#275;th Yeh&#363;dah</i>,
+and probably <i>Q&#333;l Sakhal</i>, against traditionalism, besides many
+controversial works and commentaries. Joseph Delmedigo, of
+Prag (d. 1655), wrote almost entirely on scientific subjects.
+Also connected with Prag was Y&#333;m &#7788;&#333;bh Lipmann Heller, a
+voluminous author, best known for the <i>T&#333;saph&#333;th Y&#333;m T&#333;bh</i>
+on the Mishna (Prag, 1614; Cracow, 1643). Another important
+Talmudist, Shabbethai ben Me&rsquo;&#299;r, of Wilna (d. 1662), commented
+on the <i>Shul&#7717;an &lsquo;Ar&#363;kh</i>. In the East, David Conforte (d. about
+1685) wrote the historical work <i>Q&#333;r&#275; ha-d&#333;r&#333;th</i> (Venice, 1746),
+using Jewish and other sources; Jacob ben &#7716;ayy&#299;m &#7826;ema&#7717;,
+kabbalist and student of Luria, wrote <i>Q&#333;l be-ramah</i>, a commentary
+on the <i>Zohar</i> and on the liturgy; Abraham Hayek&#299;n&#299;,
+kabbalist, chiefly remembered as a supporter of the would-be
+Messiah, Shabbethai Zebh&#299;, wrote <i>H&#333;d Malk&#363;th</i> (Constantinople,
+1655) and sermons. In the 18th century the study of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span>
+kabbalah was cultivated by Moses &#7716;ayy&#299;m Luzzatto (d. 1747)
+and by Elijah ben Solomon, called Gaon, of Wilna (d. 1797),
+who commented on the whole Bible and on many Talmudic
+and kabbalistic works. In spite of his own leaning towards
+mysticism he was a strong opponent of the &#7716;as&#299;d&#299;m, a mystical
+sect founded by Israel Ba&rsquo;al Shem &#7788;&#333;bh (Besh&#7789;) and promoted
+by Baer of Meseritz. Elijah&rsquo;s son Abraham (d. 1808), the commentator,
+is valuable for his work on Midrash. An historical
+work which makes an attempt to be scientific, is the <i>Seder
+ha-d&#333;r&#333;th</i> of Ye&#7717;iel Heilprin (d. 1746). These, however, belong in
+spirit to the previous century.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristic of the 18th and 19th centuries is the endeavour,
+connected with the name of Moses Mendelssohn, to
+bring Judaism more into relation with external
+learning, and in using the Hebrew language to purify
+<span class="sidenote">Modernizing tendencies.</span>
+and develop it in accordance with the biblical standard.
+The result, while linguistically more uniform and
+pleasing, often lacks the spontaneity of medieval literature. It
+was Moses Mendelssohn&rsquo;s German translation of the Pentateuch
+(1780-1793) which marked the new spirit, while the views of
+his opponents belong to a bygone age. In fact the controversy
+of which he was the centre may fitly be compared with the
+earlier battles between the Maimonists and anti-Maimonists.
+One of the most remarkable writers of the new Hebrew was
+Mendelssohn&rsquo;s friend N. H. Wessely, of Hamburg (d. 1805),
+author of <i>Sh&#299;r&#275; Tiphe&lsquo;reth</i>, a long poem on the Exodus, <i>Dibhr&#275;
+Shal&#333;m</i>, a plea for liberalism, <i>Sepher ha-midd&#333;th</i>, on ethics,
+besides philological works and commentaries. A curious combination
+of new and old was &#7716;ayy&#299;m Azulai (d. 1807), a kabbalist,
+but also the author of <i>Shem ha-gedh&#333;l&#299;m</i>, a valuable contribution
+to literary history.</p>
+
+<p>In the 19th century the modernizing tendency continued to
+grow, though always side by side with a strong conservative
+opposition, and the most prominent names on both sides are
+those of scholars rather than literary men. Among them may
+be mentioned, Akiba (&lsquo;Aq&#299;bh&#257;) Eger (d. 1837), Talmudist of
+the orthodox, conservative school; W. Heidenheim (d. 1832), a
+liberal, and editor of the Pentateuch and Ma&#7717;zor; N. Krochmal,
+of Galicia (d. 1840), author of <i>M&#333;reh Nebh&#363;kh&#275; ha-zeman</i>, on
+Jewish history and literature; his son Abraham (d. 1895),
+conservative commentator and philosopher. One consequence
+of the Mendelssohn movement was that many writers used their
+vernacular language besides or instead of Hebrew, or translated
+from one to the other. Thus Isaac Samuel Reggio (d. 1855),
+a strong liberal, wrote both in Hebrew and Italian; Joseph
+Almanzi, of Padua (d. 1860), a poet, translated Italian poems
+into Hebrew; S. D. Luzzatto, of Padua (d. 1865), a distinguished
+scholar and opponent of the philosophy of Maimonides, wrote
+much in Italian; M. H. Letteris, of Vienna (d. 1871), translated
+German poems into Hebrew; S. Bacher, of Hungary (d. 1891),
+was a poet and moderate liberal; L. Gordon (d. 1892), poet and
+prose-writer in Hebrew and Russian, of liberal views; A.
+Jellinek, of Vienna (d. 1893), preacher and scholar; Jacob
+Reifmann (d. 1895), scholar, wrote only in Hebrew. The
+endeavour to bring Judaism into relation with the modern
+world and to change the current impressions about Jews by
+making their teaching accessible to the rest of the world, is
+connected chiefly with the names of Z. Frankel (d. 1875), the
+first Jewish scholar to study the Septuagint; Abraham Geiger
+(d. 1874), critic of the first rank; L. Zunz (d. 1884) and L. Dukes
+(d. 1891), both scholarly investigators of Jewish literary history.
+Their most important works are in German. The question of
+the use of the vernacular or of Hebrew is bound up with the
+differences between the orthodox and the liberal or reform parties,
+complicated by the many problems involved. Patriotic efforts
+are made to encourage the use of Hebrew both for writing and
+speaking, but the continued existence of it as a literary language
+depends on the direction in which the future history of the Jews
+will develop.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Only the more comprehensive works are mentioned
+here, omitting those relating to particular authors, and those
+already cited.</p>
+
+<p>Introductory: Abrahams, <i>Short History of Jewish Literature</i>
+(London, 1906); Steinschneider, <i>Jewish Literature</i> (London, 1857);
+Winter and Wünsche, <i>Die jüdische Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1893-1895)
+(containing selections translated into German).</p>
+
+<p>For further study: Graetz, <i>Geschichte der Juden</i> (Leipzig, 1853,
+&amp;c.) (the volumes are in various editions), with special reference to
+the notes; English translation by B. Löwy (London, 1891-1892)
+(without the notes); Zunz, <i>Gottesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden</i>
+(new ed., Frankfort-on-Main, 1892); <i>Zur Geschichte und Literatur</i>
+(Berlin, 1845). The <i>Synagogale Poesie</i> has been mentioned above.
+Steinschneider, <i>Arabische Literatur der Juden</i> (Frankfort-on-Main,
+1902); <i>Hebräische Übersetzungen des Mittelalters</i> (Berlin, 1893).</p>
+
+<p>On particular authors and subjects there are many excellent
+monographs in the <i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i> (New York, 1901-6), to which
+the present article is much indebted.</p>
+
+<p>Bibliographies of printed books: Steinschneider, <i>Catalogus libr.
+Hebr. in Bibl. Bodleiana</i> (Berlin, 1852-1860) (more than a catalogue);
+Zedner, <i>Catalogue of the Hebr. Books in the British Museum</i> (London,
+1867; continued by van Straalen, London, 1894). Of manuscripts:
+Neubauer, <i>Catal. of the Hebrew MSS. in the Bodleian Library</i> (Oxford,
+1886), vol. ii. by Neubauer and Cowley (Oxford, 1906); G. Margoliouth,
+<i>Catal. of the Hebr. ... MSS. in the British Museum</i> (London,
+1899, &amp;c.). Of both: Benjacob, <i>Ozar ha-sepharim</i> (Wilna, 1880) (in
+Hebrew; arranged by titles).</p>
+
+<p>Periodicals: <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>; <i>Revue des études juives</i>;
+<i>Hebräische Bibliographie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Cy.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The dating of these documents is extremely difficult, since it is
+based entirely on internal evidence. Various scholars, while agreeing
+on the actual divisions of the text, differ on the question of priority.
+The dates here given are those which seem to be most generally
+accepted at the present time. They are not put forward as the result
+of an independent review of the evidence.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See especially A. Jellinek&rsquo;s <i>Bet-ha-Midrasch</i> (Leipzig, 1853), for
+these lesser midrash&#299;m.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> That on Genesis was edited for the first time by Schechter
+(Cambridge, 1902).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In Hebrew <span title="rashi">&#1512;&#1513;&#1497;</span>, from the initial letters of Rabbi Shelomoh
+Yi&#7827;&#7717;aq&#299;, a convenient method used by Jewish writers in referring
+to well-known authors. The name Jarchi, formerly used for Rashi,
+rests on a misunderstanding.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> So Bacher in <i>J.Q.R.</i> iii. 785 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> For the history of the very extensive literature of this class,
+Zunz, <i>Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie</i> (Berlin, 1865), is
+indispensable.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See the edition of them in Harkavy, <i>Studien</i>, iv. (Berlin, 1885).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Two different texts of it exist: (1) in the ed. pr. (Mantua, 1476);
+(2) ed. by Seb. Münster (Basel, 1541). There is also an early Arabic
+recension, but its relation to the Hebrew and to the Arabic
+2 Maccabees is still obscure. See <i>J. Q. R.</i>, xi. 355 sqq. The Hebrew
+text was edited with a Latin translation by Breithaupt (Gotha, 1707).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> On the various recensions of the text see D. H. Müller in the
+<i>Denkschriften</i> of the Vienna Academy (<i>Phil.-hist. Cl.</i>, xli. 1, p. 41) and
+Epstein&rsquo;s ed. (Pressburg, 1891).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> A fragment of such a work, probably emanating from the school
+of &#7716;&#299;v&#299; was found by Schechter and published in <i>J.Q.R.</i>, xiii. 345 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See M. Friedländer in <i>Publications of the Society of Hebrew Lit.</i>,
+1st ser. vol. i., and 2nd ser. vol. iv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The fullest account of them is to be found in Steinschneider&rsquo;s
+<i>Hebräische Übersetzungen des Mittelalters</i> (Berlin, 1893).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See H. Gollancz, <i>The Ethical Treatises of Berachya</i> (London,
+1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBREW RELIGION<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1) <i>Introductory.</i>&mdash;To trace the
+history of the religion of the Hebrews is a complex task, because
+the literary sources from which our knowledge of that history is
+derived are themselves complex and replete with problems as
+to age and authorship, some of which have been solved according
+to the consensus of nearly all the best scholars, but some of
+which still await solution or are matters of dispute. Even if
+the analysis of the literature into component documents were
+complete, we should still possess a most imperfect record, since
+the documents themselves have passed through many redactions,
+and these redactions have proceeded from varying
+standpoints of religious tradition, successively eliminating
+or modifying certain elements deemed inconsistent with the
+canons of religious usage or propriety which prevailed in the age
+when the redaction took place. Lastly it should be recollected
+that the entire body of the fragments of tradition and literature
+belonging to <i>northern</i> Israel has come down to us through the
+channel of <i>Judaean</i> recensions.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the Deuteronomic tradition in redaction is
+seen in such passages as Genesis xxxiii. 20 (cf. xxxi. 45 fol.);
+Josh. iv. 9-20, xxiv. 26 fol.; 1 Sam. vii. 12, where the <i>ma&#7779;&#7779;&#275;bhah</i>
+or stone symbol of deity (forbidden in Deut. xii. 3, xvi. 22)
+is in some way got rid of (in Gen. xxxiii. 20 the word &ldquo;altar&rdquo;
+in Hebrew is substituted). Similarly in Gen. xiii. 18, xiv. 13,
+xviii. 1, the Septuagint shows that the singular form &ldquo;terebinth&rdquo;
+stood in the original text. But the Massoretes altered
+this to the plural as this form was less suggestive of tree-worship
+(see Smend, <i>A. Tliche Religionsgesch</i>. i. p. 134, footnote 1;
+Nowack, <i>Heb. Archäol.</i> p. 12, footnote 1). Many other examples
+might be cited, as the &ldquo;suspended <i>nun</i>&rdquo; which transforms
+the pronunciation of the original Mosheh (Moses) into Menashsheh
+(Manasseh) owing to the irregular practices of his descendant,
+Jonathan ben Gershom (Jud. xviii. 30). It is not improbable
+that in 2 Kings iii. 27 the words &ldquo;from Kem&#333;sh&rdquo; stood after
+&ldquo;great wrath&rdquo; in the original document, as the phraseology
+seems bald without them, and the motives for their suppression
+are obvious.</p>
+
+<p>So far as concerns the critical problems which stand at the
+threshold of our task, it must suffice to say that the main conclusions
+reached by the school of Kuenen and Wellhausen as
+to the literary problems of the Old Testament are assumed
+throughout this sketch of the evolution of Hebrew religion.
+The documents underlying the Pentateuch and book of Joshua,
+represented by the ciphers J, E, D and P, are assumed to have
+been drawn up in the chronological order in which those ciphers
+are here set down, and the period of their composition extends
+from the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in which the earlier portions of J
+were written, to the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in which P finally took
+shape. The view of Professor Dillmann, who placed P before
+D in the regal period (though he admitted exilic and post-exilic
+additions in Exod., Levit. and Numb.), a view which he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span>
+maintained in his commentary on Genesis (edition of 1892), has
+now been abandoned by nearly all scholars of repute. In the
+following pages we shall not attempt to do more than to sketch
+in very succinct outline the general results of investigation into
+the origins and growth of Hebrew religion.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Pre-Mosaic Religion.</i>&mdash;Can any clear indications be found
+to guide us as to the religion of the Hebrew clans before the time
+of Moses? That Moses united the scattered tribes, probably
+consisting at first mainly of the Josephite, under the common
+worship of Yahweh, and that upon the religion of Yahweh a
+distinctly ethical character was impressed, is generally recognized.
+The tradition of the earliest document J ascribes the worship of
+Yahweh to much earlier times, in fact to the dawn of human life.
+A close survey of the facts, however, would lead us to regard it
+as probable that some at least of the Hebrew clans had patron-deities
+of their own.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Both Moab and Ammon as well as Edom had their separate
+tribal deities, viz. Chemosh (Moab) and Milk (Milc&#333;m), the god
+of Ammon, and in the case of Edom a deity known from the
+inscriptions as K&#333;s (in Assyrian Kau&#353;).<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> From the patriarchal
+narratives and genealogies in Genesis we infer that these races
+were closely allied to Israel. That in early pre-Mosaic times
+parallel cults existed among the various Hebrew tribes is by
+no means improbable. It would be reasonable to assume that
+Moab, Ammon, Edom and kindred tribes of Israel in the 15th
+and preceding centuries were included in the generic term
+&#7716;abir&#299; (or Hebrews) mentioned in the Tell el-Amarna inscriptions
+as forming predatory bands that disturbed the security of the
+Canaanite dwellers west of the Jordan. Lastly pre-Mosaic polytheism
+seems to be implied in the Mosaic prohibition Ex. xx.
+3, xxii. 20.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The tribal names Gad and Asher are suggestive of the
+worship of a deity of fortune (Gad) and of the male counterpart
+of the goddess, Ash&#275;rah. Under the name Shaddai (which
+Nöldeke suggests<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> was originally Sh&#275;d&#299; &ldquo;my demon&rdquo;) it is
+possible to discern the name of a deity who in later times came
+to be identified with Yahweh. On the other hand, the connexion
+of the name Samson with sun-worship throws light on the period
+of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan and not on pre-Mosaic
+times. Nor is it possible to agree with Baudissin (<i>Studien zur
+semit. Religionsgesch.</i> i. 55) that El&#333;h&#299;m as a plural form
+for the name of the Hebrew deity &ldquo;can hardly be understood
+otherwise than as a comprehensive expression for the multitude
+of gods embraced in the One God of Old Testament religion,&rdquo;
+in other words that it presupposes an original polytheism. For
+(1) El&#333;h&#299;m is also applied in Judges xi. 24 to the Moabite Chemosh
+(Kem&#333;sh); in 1 Sam. v. 7 to Dagon; in 1 Kings xi. 5 to Ashtoreth;
+in 2 Kings i. 2, iii. 6, 16 to Ba&lsquo;al Zeb&#363;l of Ekron. (2)
+It is merely a plural of dignity (<i>pluralis majestatis</i>) parallel to
+<i>ad&#333;n&#299;m</i> (applied to a king in 1 Kings xviii. 8, whereas in the
+previous verse the <i>singular</i> form <i>ad&#333;ni</i> is applied to the prophet
+Elijah). (3) The Tell el-Amarna inscriptions indicate that the
+term <i>El&#333;h&#299;m</i> might even be applied in abject homage to an
+Egyptian monarch as the use of the term <i>il&#257;ni</i> in this connexion
+obviously implies.<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The religion of the Arabian tribes in the days of Mahomet,
+of which a picture is presented to us by Wellhausen in his
+<i>Remains of Arabic Heathendom</i>, furnishes some suggestive indications
+of the religion that prevailed in nomadic Israel before as
+well as during the lifetime of Moses. It is true that Arabian
+polytheism in the time of Mahomet was in a state of decay.
+Nevertheless the life of the desert changes but slowly. We may
+therefore infer that ancient Israel during the period when they
+inhabited the <i>negebh</i> (S. of Canaan) stood in awe of the demons
+(Jinn) of the desert, just as the Arabs at the present day described
+in Doughty&rsquo;s <i>Arabia deserta</i>. We know that diseases were attributed
+by the Israelites to malignant demons which they, like the
+Arabs, identified with serpents. The counterspell took the form
+of a bronze image of the serpent-demon; see Frazer, <i>Golden
+Bough</i>, ii. 426; and I Sam. v. 6, vi. 4, 5 (LXX. and Heb.) as well
+as Buchanan Gray&rsquo;s instructive note in <i>Numbers</i>, p. 276. The
+slaughter of a lamb at the Passover or Easter season, whose blood
+was smeared on the door-post, as described in Ex. xii. 21-23,
+probably points back to an immemorial custom. In this case
+the counterspell assumed a different form. Westermarck has
+shown from his observations in Morocco that the blood of the
+victim was considered to visit a curse upon the object to whom
+the sacrifice is offered and thereby the latter is made amenable
+to the sacrificer.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a> It is hardly possible to doubt that in the
+original form of the rite described in Exodus the blood offering
+was made to the plague demon (&ldquo;the destroyer&rdquo;) and possessed
+over him a magic power of arrest.</p>
+
+<p>It is therefore certain that belief in demons and magic spells
+prevailed in pre-Mosaic times<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> among the Israelite clans. And it
+is also probable that certain persons combined in their own
+individuality the functions of magician and sacrificer as well as
+soothsayer. For we know that in Arabic the <i>K&#257;hin</i>, or soothsayer,
+is the same participial form that we meet with in the Hebrew
+<i>K&#333;h&#275;n</i>, or priest, and in the early period of Hebrew history (<i>e.g.</i>
+in the days of Saul and David) it was the priest with the ephod
+or image of Yahweh who gave answers to those who consulted
+him. How far <i>totemism</i>, or belief in deified animal ancestors,
+existed in prehistoric Israel, as evidenced by the tribal names
+Simeon (hyena, wolf), Caleb (dog), &#7716;amor (ass), Ra&#7717;el (ewe)
+and Leah (wild cow), &amp;c.,<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> as well as by the laws respecting
+clean and unclean animals, is too intricate and speculative
+a problem to be discussed here. That the food-taboo against
+eating the flesh of a particular animal would prevail in the
+clan of which that animal was the deified totem-ancestor is
+obvious, and it would be a plausible theory to hold that the
+laws in question arose when the Israelite tribes were to be consolidated
+into a national unity (<i>i.e.</i> in the time of David and
+Solomon), but the application of this theory to the list of unclean
+foods in Deut. xiv. (Lev. xi.) seems to present insuperable
+difficulties. In fact, while Robertson Smith (in <i>Kinship and
+Marriage in Early Arabia</i>, as well as his <i>Religion of the Semites</i>,
+followed by Stade and Benzinger) strongly advocated the view
+that clear traces of totemism can be found in early Israel, later
+writers, such as Marti, <i>Gesch. der israelit. Religion</i>, 4th ed., p. 24,
+Kautzsch in his <i>Religion of Israel</i> already cited, p. 613, and
+recently Addis in his <i>Hebrew Religion</i>, p. 33 foll., have abandoned
+the theory as applied to Israel.<a name="fa7f" id="fa7f" href="#ft7f"><span class="sp">7</span></a> On the other hand, the evidence
+for the existence of ancestor-worship in primitive Israel cannot
+be so easily disposed of as Kautzsch (<i>ibid.</i> p. 615) appears to
+think. We have examples (1 Sam. xxviii. 13) in which <i>El&#333;h&#299;m</i>
+is the term which is applied to departed spirits. Oracles were
+received from them (Isa. viii. 19, xxviii. 15, 18; Deut. xviii.
+10 foll.). At the graves of national heroes or ancestors worship
+was paid. In Gen. xxxv. 20 we read that a <i>ma&#7779;&#7779;&#275;bah</i> or sacred
+pillar was erected at Ra&#7717;el&rsquo;s tomb. That the Ter&#257;ph&#299;m, which
+we know to have resembled the human form (1 Sam. xix. 13, 16),
+were ancestral images is a reasonable theory. That they were
+employed in divination is consonant with the facts already
+noted. Lastly, the rite of circumcision (<i>q.v.</i>), which the Hebrews
+practised in common with their Semitic neighbours as well as the
+Egyptians, belonged to ages long anterior to the time of Moses.
+This is a fact which has long been recognized: cf. Gen. xvii. 10 foll.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span>
+Herod. ii. 104, and Barton, <i>Semitic Origins</i>, pp. 98-100. Probably
+the custom was of African origin, and came from eastern Africa
+along with the Semitic race. Respecting Arabia, see Doughty,
+<i>Arabia deserta</i>, i. 340 foll.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary here to advert to a subject much debated during
+recent years, viz. the effects of Babylonian culture in western
+Asia on Israel and Israel&rsquo;s religion in early times even preceding
+the advent of Moses. The great influence exercised by Babylonian
+culture over Palestine between 2000 and 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (<i>circa</i>), which
+has been clearly revealed to us since 1887 by the discovery of the
+Tell el Amarna tablets, is now universally acknowledged. The
+subsequent discovery of a document written in Babylonian
+cuneiform at Lachish (Tell el Hesy), and more recently still
+of another in the excavations at Ta&rsquo;annek, have established
+the fact beyond all dispute. The last discovery had tended to
+confirm the views of Fried. Delitzsch, Jeremias (<i>Monotheistische
+Strömungen</i>) and Baentsch, that monotheistic tendencies are
+to be found in the midst of Babylonian polytheism. Page
+Renouf, in his Hibbert lectures, <i>Origin and Growth of Religion
+as illustrated by that of Ancient Egypt</i> (1879), p. 89 foll., pointed
+out this monotheistic tendency in Egyptian religion, as did
+de Rougé before him. Baentsch draws attention to this feature
+in his monograph <i>Altorientalischer u. israelitischer Monotheismus</i>
+(1906). This tendency, however, he, unlike the earlier conservative
+writers, rightly considers to have emerged out of polytheism.
+He ventures into a more disputable region when he penetrates
+into the obscure realm of the Abrahamic migration and finds in
+the Abrahamic traditions of Genesis the higher Canaanite monotheistic
+tendencies evolved out of Babylonian astral religion,
+and reflected in the name El &lsquo;Elyon (Gen. xiv. 18, 22). Further
+discoveries like Sellin&rsquo;s find at Ta&rsquo;annek may elucidate the
+problem. See Baudissin in <i>Theolog. lit. Zeitung</i> (27th October
+1906).</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Era of Moses.</i>&mdash;We are now on safer ground though
+still obscure. Moses was the first historic individuality who can
+be said to have welded the Israelite clans into a whole. This
+could never have been accomplished without unity of worship.
+The object of this worship was Yahweh. As we have already
+indicated, the document J assumes that Yahweh was worshipped
+by the Hebrew race from the first. On the other hand, according
+to P (Ex. vi. 2), God spake to Moses and said to him: &ldquo;I am
+Yahweh. But I appeared to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as El
+Shaddai and by my name Yahweh I did not make myself known to
+them.&rdquo; According to this later tradition Yahweh was unknown
+till the days of Moses, and under the aegis of His power the
+Hebrew tribes were delivered from Egyptian thraldom. The
+truth probably lies somewhere between these two sharply contrasted
+traditions. So much is clear. Yahweh now becomes the
+supreme deity of the Hebrew people, and an ark analogous to the
+Egyptian and Babylonian arks portrayed on the monuments<a name="fa8f" id="fa8f" href="#ft8f"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
+was constructed as embodiment of the <i>numen</i> of Yahweh and was
+borne in front of the Hebrew army when it marched to war. It
+was the signal victory won by Moses at the exodus against the
+Egyptians and in the subsequent battle at Reph&#299;d&#299;m against
+&lsquo;Am&#257;l&#275;k (Ex. xvii.) that consolidated the prestige of Yahweh,
+Israel&rsquo;s war-god. Indications in the Old Testament itself clearly
+point to the celestial or atmospheric character of the Yahweh of
+the Hebrews. The supposition that the name originally contained
+the notion of permanent or eternal being, and was derived
+from the verbal root signifying &ldquo;to be,&rdquo; involves too abstract a
+conception to be probable, though it is based on Ex. iii. 15 (E)
+representing a tradition which may have prevailed in the 8th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Kautzsch, however, supports it (Hastings&rsquo;s <i>D.B.</i>,
+extra vol. &ldquo;Rel. of Isr.&rdquo; p. 625 foll.) against the other derivations
+proposed by recent scholars (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jehovah</a></span>). That the name also
+prevailed as that of a god among other Semitic races (or even
+non-Semitic) is rendered certain by the proper names Jau-bi&rsquo;-di
+(= Ilu-bi&lsquo;di) of Hamath in Sargon&rsquo;s inscriptions, A&#7717;i-jawi (mi)
+in Sellin&rsquo;s discovered tablet at Ta&lsquo;annek, to say nothing of those
+which have been found in the documents of Khammurabi&rsquo;s reign.
+It has generally been held that Stade&rsquo;s supposition has much to
+recommend it, that it was derived by Moses from the Kenites, and
+should be connected with the Sinai-Horeb region. The name
+Sinai suggests moon-worship and the moon-god Sin; and it also
+suggests Babylonian influence (cf. also Mount Nebo, which was a
+place-name both in Moab and in Judah, and naturally connects
+itself with the name of the Babylonian deity). Several indications
+favour the view of the connexion in the age of Moses between
+the Yahweh-cult at Sinai and the moon-worship of Babylonian
+origin to which the name Sinai points (Sin being the Babylonian
+moon-god). We note (<i>a</i>) that in the worship of Yahweh the
+sacred seasons of new moon and Sabbath are obviously <i>lunar</i>.
+Recent investigations have even been held to disclose the fact
+that the Sabbath coincided originally, <i>i.e.</i> in early pre-exilian
+days, with the full moon.<a name="fa9f" id="fa9f" href="#ft9f"><span class="sp">9</span></a> (<i>b</i>) It also accords with the name
+bestowed on Yahweh as &ldquo;Lord of Hosts&rdquo; (<i>&#7779;eb&#257;&#333;th</i>) or stars,
+which were regarded as personified beings (Job xxxviii. 7) and
+attendants on the celestial Yahweh, constituting His retinue
+(1 Kings xxii. 19) which fought on high while the earthly armies
+of Israel, His people, contended below (Judges v. 20).</p>
+
+<p>The atmospheric and celestial character which belonged from
+the first to the Hebrew conception of Yahweh explains to us the
+ease with which the idea of His universal sovereignty arose,
+which the Yahwistic creation account (belonging to the earlier
+stratum of J, Gen. ii. 4<i>b</i> foll.) presupposes. How this came to be
+overlaid by narrow local limitations of His power and province
+will be shown later. It is probable that Moses held the larger
+rather than the narrower conception of Yahweh&rsquo;s sphere of
+influence. While the ark carried with Israel&rsquo;s host symbolized
+His presence in their midst, He was also known to be present in
+the cloud which hovered before the host and in the lightning
+(&rsquo;<i>&#275;sh Yahweh</i> or &ldquo;fire of Yahweh&rdquo;) and the thunder (<i>k&#333;l Yahweh</i>
+or &ldquo;voice of Yahweh&rdquo;) which played around Mount Sinai.
+Moreover, it is hardly probable that a great leader like Moses
+remained unaffected by the higher conceptions tending towards
+monotheism which prevailed in the great empires on the Nile and
+on the Euphrates. In Egypt we know that Amenophis IV.
+came under this monotheistic movement, and attempted to
+suppress all other cults except that of the sun-deity, of which he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span>
+was a devoted worshipper. We also know that between 2000
+and 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Babylonian language as well as Babylonian
+civilization and ideas spread over Palestine (as the Tell el Amarna
+tables clearly testify). The ancient Babylonian psalms clearly
+reveal that the highest minds were moving out of polytheism to a
+monotheistic identification of various deities as diverse phases of
+one underlying essence. A remarkable Babylonian tablet discovered
+by Dr Pinches represents Marduk, the god of light, as
+identified in his person with all the chief deities of Babylonia,
+who are evidently regarded as his varying manifestations.<a name="fa10f" id="fa10f" href="#ft10f"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Through the influence of Mosaic teaching and law a definitely
+ethical character was ascribed to Yahweh. It was His &ldquo;finger&rdquo;
+that wrote the brief code which has come down to us in the
+decalogue. At first, as Erdmanns suggests, it may have consisted
+of only seven commands. So also Kautzsch, <i>ibid.</i> p. 634.
+The most strongly distinguishing feature of the code is the rigid
+exclusion of the worship of other gods than Yahweh. Moreover,
+the definitely ethical character of the religion of Yahweh established
+by Moses is exhibited in the strict exclusion of all sexual
+impurity in His worship. Unlike the Canaanite Baal, Yahweh
+has no female consort, and this remained throughout a distinguishing
+trait of the original and unadulterated Hebrew religion (see
+Bäthgen, <i>Beiträge</i>, p. 265). Indeed, Hebrew, unlike Assyrian
+or Phoenician, has no distinctive form for &ldquo;goddess.&rdquo; From
+first to last the true religion of Yahweh was pure of sexual taint.
+The ked&#275;sh&#299;m and ked&#275;sh&#333;th, the male and female priest attendants
+in the Baal and &lsquo;Ashtoreth shrines (cf. the <i>kadishtu</i> of the
+temples of the Babylonian Ishtar) were foreign Canaanite
+elements which became imported into Hebrew worship during
+the period of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, the earliest codes of Hebrew legislation (Ex. xxi.-xxiii.)
+bear the distinct impress of the high ethical character of
+Yahweh&rsquo;s requirements originally set forth by Moses. Of this
+tradition the Naboth incident in the time of Ahab furnishes a
+clear example which brings to light the contrast between the
+Tyrian Baal-cult, which was scarcely ethical, and of which
+Jezebel and Ahab were devotees, and the moral requirements of
+the religion of Yahweh of which Elijah was the prophet and impassioned
+exponent. It was this definite basis of ethical Mosaic
+religion to which the prophets of the 8th century appealed, and
+apart from which their denunciations become meaningless. To
+this early standard of life and practice Ephraim was faithless in
+the days of the prophet Hosea (see his oracles <i>passim</i>&mdash;especially
+chaps. i.-iv. and xiv.), and Judah in the time of Isaiah turned a
+deaf ear (Isa. i. 2-4, 21).</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Influence of Canaan.</i>&mdash;The entrance of Israel into Canaan
+marks the beginning of a new epoch in the development of
+Israel&rsquo;s religious life. For it involved a transition from the simple
+nomadic relations to those of the agricultural and more highly
+civilized Canaanite life. This subject has been recently treated
+with admirable clearness by Marti in his useful treatise <i>Die
+Religion des A.T.</i> (1906), pp. 25-41.</p>
+
+<p>It is in the festivals of the annual calendar that this agricultural
+impress is most fully manifested. To the original nomadic
+<i>Pesa&#7717;</i> (Passover)&mdash;sacrifice of a lamb&mdash;there was attached a
+distinct and agricultural festival of unleavened cakes (<i>ma&#7779;&#7779;&#333;th</i>)
+which marks the beginning of the corn harvest in the middle of
+the month <i>Ab&#299;b</i> (the name of which points to its Canaanite and
+agricultural origin). The close of the corn-harvest was marked
+by the festival <i>Shabh&#363;&#333;th</i> (weeks) or <i>&#7730;&#257;&#7779;&#299;r</i> (harvest) held seven
+weeks after ma&#7779;&#7779;&#333;th. The last and most characteristic
+festival of Canaanite life was that of <i>As&#299;ph</i> or &ldquo;ingathering&rdquo;
+which after the Deuteronomic reformation (621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) had made
+a single sanctuary and therefore a considerable journey with a
+longer stay necessary, came to be called <i>Succ&#333;th</i> or booths.
+This was the autumn festival held at the close of September or
+beginning of October. It marked the close of the year&rsquo;s agricultural
+operations when the olives and grapes had been gathered
+[Ex. xxiii. 14-17 (E), xxxiv. 18, 22, 23 (J)]; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feasts</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Passover</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pentecost</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tabernacles</a></span>. Another special
+characteristic of Israel&rsquo;s religion in Canaan was the considerable
+increase of sacrificial offerings. Animal sacrifices became much
+more frequent, and included not only the bloody sacrifice
+(Zeba&#7717;) but also burnt offerings (<i>k&#257;l&#299;l</i>, <i>&rsquo;&#333;lah</i>) whereby the whole
+animal was consumed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sacrifice</a></span>). But we have in addition
+to the animal sacrifices, vegetable offerings of meal, oil and cakes
+(<i>ma&#7779;&#7779;&#333;th</i>, <i>ash&#299;shah</i> and <i>kaww&#257;n</i>, which last is specially connected
+with the &lsquo;Ashtoreth cult: Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 19), as well as the
+&ldquo;bread of the Presence&rdquo; (<i>le&#7717;em happ&#257;n&#299;m</i>), 1 Sam. xxi. 6.
+Whether the primitive rite of <i>water-offerings</i> (1 Sam. vii. 6;
+2 Sam. xxiii. 16) belonged to early nomadic Israel (as seems
+probable) it is not possible to determine with any certainty.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the conception of Yahweh suffered modification.
+In the desert he was worshipped as an atmospheric deity, who
+manifested himself in thunder and lightning, whose abode was
+in the sky, whose sanctuary was on the mountain summit of
+Horeb-Sinai, and whose movable palladium was the ark of the
+covenant. But when the nomadic clans of Israel came to occupy
+the settled abodes of the agricultural Canaanites who had a
+stake in the soil which they cultivated, these conditions evidently
+reacted on their religion. Now the local Baal was the divine
+owner of the fertile spot where his sanctuary (<i>q&#333;desh</i>) was marked
+by the upright stone pillar, the symbol of his presence, on which
+the blood of the slaughtered victim was smeared. To this Baal
+the productiveness of the soil was due. Consequently it was
+needful to secure his favour, and in order to gain this, gifts were
+made to him by the local resident population who depended
+on the produce of the land (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baal</a></span>, especially <i>ad init.</i>). Now
+when the Hebrews succeeded to these agricultural conditions
+and acquired possession of the Canaanite abodes, they naturally
+fell into the same cycle of religious ideas and tradition. Yahweh
+ceased to be exclusively regarded as god of the atmosphere,
+worshipped in a distant mountain, Horeb-Sinai, situated in the
+south country (<i>negebh</i>), and moving in the clouds of heaven before
+the Israelites in the desert, but he came to be associated with
+Israel&rsquo;s life in Canaan. He manifested His presence either by a
+signal victory over Israel&rsquo;s foes (Josh. x. 10, 11; 1 Sam. vii. 10-12)
+or by a thunderstorm (1 Sam. xii. 18) or through a dream (Gen.
+xxviii. 16 foll.; cf. 1 Kings iii. 5 foll.) at a sacred spot like Bethel.
+Accordingly, whenever His presence and power were displayed in
+places where the Canaanite Baal had been worshipped, they came
+to be attached to these spots. He had &ldquo;put his name,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i>
+power and presence (<i>numen</i>) there, and the same festivals and
+sacrifices which had previously been devoted to the cult of
+the Canaanite Baal were now annexed to the service of Yahweh,
+the war-god of the conquering race. The process of transference
+was facilitated by two potent causes: (<i>a</i>) Both Canaanite and
+Hebrew spoke a common language; (<i>b</i>) the name Baal is not in
+reality an individual proper name like Kem&#333;sh (Chemosh),
+Ramm&#257;n or Hadad, but is, like &#274;l (Ilu) &ldquo;god,&rdquo; an appellative
+meaning &ldquo;lord,&rdquo; &ldquo;owner&rdquo; or &ldquo;husband.&rdquo; The name Baal
+might therefore be used for any deity such as Milk (Milcom)
+or Shemesh (&ldquo;sun&rdquo;) who was the divine owner of the spot.
+It was simply a covering epithet, and like the word &ldquo;god&rdquo;
+could be transferred from one deity to another. In this way
+Yahweh came to be called the Baal or &ldquo;lord&rdquo; of any sacred
+place where the armies of Israel by their victories attested
+&ldquo;his mighty hand and outstretched arm.&rdquo; (See Kautzsch in
+Hastings&rsquo;s <i>D.B.</i>, extra vol., p. 645 foll.)</p>
+
+<p>Such was the path of syncretism, and it was fraught with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span>
+peril to the older and purer faith. For when Yahweh gradually
+became Israel&rsquo;s local Baal he became worshipped like the old
+Canaanite deity, and all the sensuous accompaniments of
+Ked&#275;sh&#333;th,<a name="fa11f" id="fa11f" href="#ft11f"><span class="sp">11</span></a> as well as the presence of the <i>ash&#275;rah</i> or sacred
+pole, became attached to his cult. But the symbol carried
+with it the <i>numen</i> of the goddess symbolized, and there can be
+little doubt that Ash&#275;rah came to be regarded as Yahweh&rsquo;s
+consort. In the days of Manasseh syncretism went on unchecked
+even in the Jerusalem temple and its precincts, and it was not
+till the year of Jesiah&rsquo;s reformation (621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) that the Ked&#275;sh&#299;m
+and Ked&#275;sh&#333;th as well as the Ash&#275;rah were banished for ever
+from Yahweh&rsquo;s sanctuary (2 Kings xxi. 7, xxiii. 7), which their
+presence had profaned.</p>
+
+<p>Now local worship means the differentiation of the personality
+worshipped in the varied local shrines, in other words Ba&rsquo;&#257;l&#299;m
+or Baals. Just as we have in Assyria an Ishtar of Arbela and
+an Ishtar of Nineveh (treated in Assur-bani-pal&rsquo;s (Rassam)
+cylinder<a name="fa12f" id="fa12f" href="#ft12f"><span class="sp">12</span></a> like two distinct deities), as we have local Madonnas
+in Roman Catholic countries, so must it have been with the cults
+of Yahweh in the regal period carried on in the numerous high
+places, Bethel, Shechem, Shiloh (till its destruction in the
+days of Eli) and Jerusalem. Each in turn claimed that Yahweh
+had placed his name (<i>i.e.</i> personal presence and power or numen)
+<i>there</i>. Each had a Yahweh of its own.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, old deities still lurked in old spots which
+had been for centuries their abode. It was no easy task to
+establish Yahweh in permanent possession of the new lands
+conquered by the Hebrew settlers. The old gods were not to
+be at once discrowned of might. Of this we have a vivid example
+in the episode 2 Kings xviii. 24-28. The inhabitants of Babylonia
+and other regions whom the Assyrian kings had settled in
+Ephraim after 721 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (cf. Ezra iv. 10) are described as suffering
+from the depredations of lions, and a priest from the deported
+Ephraimites is sent to them to teach them the worship of Yahweh,
+the god of the land. Similarly in the earlier pre-exilian period
+of Israel&rsquo;s occupation of Canaanite territory the Hebrews were
+always subject to this tendency to worship the <i>old</i> Baal or
+&rsquo;Ashtoreth (the goddess who made the cattle and flocks prolific).<a name="fa13f" id="fa13f" href="#ft13f"><span class="sp">13</span></a>
+A few years of drought or of bad seasons would make a Hebrew
+settler betake himself to the old Canaanite gods. Even in the
+days of Hosea the rivalry between Yahweh and the old Canaanite
+Baal still continued. The prophet reproaches his Ephraimite
+countrymen for going after their &ldquo;lovers,&rdquo; the old local Baals
+who were supposed to have bestowed on them the bread, water,
+wool, flax and oil, and for not knowing that &ldquo;it is I (Yahweh)
+who have bestowed on her (<i>i.e.</i> Israel) the corn, the new wine
+and the oil, and have bestowed on her silver and gold in abundance
+which they have wrought into a Baal image&rdquo; (Hos. ii. 10).</p>
+
+<p>External danger from a foreign foe, such as Midian or the
+Philistines, at once brought into prominence the claim and power
+of Yahweh, Israel&rsquo;s national war-god since the great days of
+the exodus. The religion of Yahweh (as Wellhausen said)
+meant patriotism, and in war-time tended to weld the participating
+tribes into a national unity. The book of Judges with its
+&ldquo;monotonous tempo&mdash;religious declension, oppression, repentance,
+peace,&rdquo; to which Wellhausen<a name="fa14f" id="fa14f" href="#ft14f"><span class="sp">14</span></a> refers as its ever-recurring
+cycle, makes us familiar with these alternating phases of action
+and reaction. Times of peace meant national disintegration
+and the lapse of Israel into the Canaanite local cults, which is
+interpreted by the redactor as the prophets of the 8th century
+would have interpreted it, viz. as defection from Yahweh. On
+the other hand, times of war against a foreign foe meant on
+the religious side the unification, partial or complete, of the
+Israelite tribes by the rallying cry &ldquo;the sword of Yahweh&rdquo;
+(Judges vii. 20). In this way &rsquo;Ophrah became the centre of
+the coalition under Gideon in the tribe of Manasseh. Its importance
+is attested by Judges viii. 22-28, and we may disregard
+the &ldquo;snare&rdquo; which the Deuteronomic writer condemns in
+accordance with the later canons of orthodoxy. What &rsquo;Ophrah
+became on a small scale in the days of Gideon, Jerusalem became
+on a larger scale in the days of David and his successors. It was
+the religious expression of the unity of Israel which the life and
+death struggle with the Philistines had gradually wrought out.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the capture of the ark after the disastrous battle
+of Shiloh, Yahweh had in the end shown himself through a
+destructive plague superior in might to the Philistine Dagon.
+There are indeed abundant indications that prove that in the
+prevalent popular religion of the regal period monotheistic
+conceptions had no place. Yahweh was god only of Israel and
+of Israel&rsquo;s land. An invasion of foreign territory would bring
+Israel under the power of its patron-deity. The wrath with
+which the Israelite armies believed themselves to be visited
+(probably an outbreak of pestilence) when the king of Moab
+was reduced to his last extremity, was obviously the wrath of
+Chemosh the god of Moab, which the king&rsquo;s sacrifice of his only
+son had awakened against the invading army (2 Kings iii. 27).
+In other words, the ordinary Israelite worshipper of Yahweh
+was at this time far removed from monotheism, and still remained
+in the preliminary stage of henotheism, which regarded Yahweh
+as sole god of Israel and Israel&rsquo;s land, but at the same time
+recognized the existence and power of the deities of other lands
+and peoples. Of this we have recurring examples in pre-exilian
+Hebrew history. See 1 Sam. xxvi. 19; Judges xi. 23, 24;
+Ruth i. 16.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Characteristics and Constituent Elements.</i>&mdash;It is only possible
+here to refer in briefest enumeration to the material and external
+objects and forms of popular Hebrew religion. These
+were of the simplest character. The upright stone
+<span class="sidenote">Material objects.</span>
+(or <i>ma&#7779;&#7779;&#275;bah</i>) was the material symbol of deity
+on which the blood of sacrifice was smeared, and in which the
+<i>numen</i> of the god resided. It is probable that in some primitive
+sanctuaries no real distinction was made between this stone-pillar
+and the altar or place where the animal was slaughtered.
+In ordinary pre-exilian high places the custom described in the
+primitive compend of laws (Ex. xx. 24) would be observed.
+A mound of earth was raised which would serve as a platform
+on which the victim would be slaughtered in the presence of
+the concourse of spectators. In the more important shrines,
+as at Jerusalem or Samaria, there would be an altar of stone
+or of bronze. Another accompaniment of the sanctuary would
+be the sacred tree&mdash;most frequently a terebinth (cf. Judges ix.
+37 &ldquo;terebinth of soothsayers&rdquo;), or it might be a palm tree
+(cf. &ldquo;palm tree of Deborah&rdquo; in Judges iv. 5), or a tamarisk
+(<i>&lsquo;&#275;shel</i>), or pomegranate (<i>rimm&#333;n</i>), as at the high place in Gibeah
+where Saul abode. Moreover, we have frequent references to
+sacred springs, as that of <i>Be&#275;r-sheba</i>, <i>&lsquo;&#274;nhar&#333;d</i> (<i>&lsquo;&#275;yn-&#7717;arod</i>)
+(Judges vii. 1; cf. also Judges 19, <i>&lsquo;&#274;n-ha&#7731;&#7731;&#333;r&#275;</i> [<i>&lsquo;&#275;yn-haqq&#333;re&rsquo;</i>]).
+(On this subject of holy trees, holy waters and holy stones,
+consult article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tree-Worship</a></span>, and Robertson Smith&rsquo;s <i>Religion
+of the Semites</i>, 2nd ed., pp. 165-197.)</p>
+
+<p>The wide prevalence of magic and soothsaying may be
+illustrated from the historical books of the Old Testament
+as well as from the pre-exilian prophets. The latter indeed
+tolerated the <i>q&#333;s&#275;m</i> (soothsayer) as they did the seer (r&#333;&rsquo;&#275;h).
+The rhabdomancy denounced by Hosea (iv. 12) was associated
+with idolatry at the high places. But the arts of the necromancer
+were always and without exception treated as foreign to the
+religion of Yahweh. The necromancer of <i>ba&lsquo;al &lsquo;&#333;bh&rsquo;</i> was held
+to be possessed of the spirit who spoke through him with a
+hollow voice. Indeed both necromancer and the spirit that
+possessed him were sometimes identified, and the former was
+simply called <i>&#333;bh</i>. It is probable that necromancy, like the
+worship of Ash&#275;rah and &rsquo;Ashtoreth, as well as the cult of graven
+images, was a Canaanite importation into Israel&rsquo;s religious
+practices. (See Marti, <i>Religion des A.T.</i>, p. 32.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span></p>
+
+<p>The history of the rise of the priesthood in Israel is exceedingly
+obscure. In the nomadic period and during the earlier years of
+the settlement of Israel in Canaan the head of every
+family could offer sacrifices. In the primitive codes,
+<span class="sidenote">Priesthood.</span>
+Ex. xx. 22-xxiii. 19 (E), xxxiv. 10-28 (J), we have
+no allusion to any separate order of men who were qualified to
+offer sacrifices. In Ex. xxiv. 5 (E) we read that Moses simply
+commissioned young men to offer sacrifices. On the other hand
+the <i>addendum</i> to the book of Judges, chaps. xvii., xviii. (which
+Budde, Moore and other critics consider to belong to the two
+sources of the narratives in Judges, viz. J<a name="fa15f" id="fa15f" href="#ft15f"><span class="sp">15</span></a> as well as E), makes
+reference to a Levite of Bethlehem-Judah, expressly stated
+in xvii. 7 as belonging to a clan of Judah. This man Micah took
+into his household as priest. This narrative has all the marks
+of primitive simplicity. There can be no reasonable doubt that
+the Levite here was member of a priestly tribe or order, and this
+view is confirmed by the discovery of what is really the same
+word in south Arabian inscriptions.<a name="fa16f" id="fa16f" href="#ft16f"><span class="sp">16</span></a> The narrative is of some
+value as it shows that while it was possible to appoint any one
+as a priest, since Micah, like David, appointed one of his own
+sons (xvii. 5), yet a special priest-tribe or order also existed,
+and Micah considered that the acquisition of one of its members
+was for his household a very exceptional advantage: &ldquo;Now
+I know that Yahweh will befriend me because I have the <i>Levite</i>
+as priest.&rdquo;<a name="fa17f" id="fa17f" href="#ft17f"><span class="sp">17</span></a> In other words a priest who was a Levite possessed
+a superior professional qualification. He is paid ten shekels
+per annum, together with his food and clothing, and is dignified
+by the appellation &ldquo;father&rdquo; (cf. the like epithet of &ldquo;mother&rdquo;
+applied to the prophetess Deborah, Judges v. 7; see also
+2 Kings ii. 12, vi. 21, xiii. 14). This same narrative dwells upon
+the graven images, ephod and ter&#257;ph&#299;m, as forming the apparatus
+of religious ceremonial in Micah&rsquo;s household. Now the ephod
+and teraphim are constantly mentioned together (cf. Hos. iii. 4)
+and were used in divination. The former was the plated image
+of Yahweh (cf. Judges viii. 26, 27) and the latter were ancestral
+images (see Marti, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 27, 29; Harper, <i>Int. Comm.</i>
+&ldquo;Amos and Hosea,&rdquo; p. 222). In other words the function of
+the priest was not merely sacrificial (a duty which Kautzsch
+unnecessarily detaches from the services which he originally
+rendered), nor did he merely bear the ark of the covenant and
+take charge of God&rsquo;s house; but he was also and mainly (as the
+Arabic name <i>k&#257;hin</i> shows) the <i>soothsayer</i> who consulted the ephod
+and gave the answers required on the field of battle (see 1 Sam.
+and 2 Sam. <i>passim</i>) and on other occasions. This is clearly
+shown in the &ldquo;blessing of Moses&rdquo; (Deut. xxxiii. 8), where the
+Levite is specially associated with another apparatus of inquiry,
+viz. the sacred lots, <i>Ur&#299;m</i> and <i>Thumm&#299;m</i>. The true character
+of <i>Ur&#299;m</i> (as expressing &ldquo;aye&rdquo;) and <i>Thumm&#299;m</i> (as expressing
+&ldquo;nay&rdquo;) is shown by the reconstructed text of 1 Sam. xiv. 41
+on the basis of the Septuagint. See Driver <i>ad loc.</i></p>
+
+<p>The chief and most salient characteristic of the worship of
+the high places was geniality. The sacrifice was a feast of social
+communion between the deity and his worshippers,
+and knit both deity and clan-members together in
+<span class="sidenote">Geniality of Worship.</span>
+the bonds of a close fellowship. This genial aspect
+of Hebrew worship is nowhere depicted more graphically
+than in the old narrative (a J section = Budde&rsquo;s G) 1 Sam.
+ix. 19-24, where a day of sacrifice in the high place is described.
+Saul and his attendant are invited by the seer-priest Samuel
+into the banqueting chamber (<i>lishkah</i>) where thirty persons
+partake of the sacrificial meal. It was the <i>&rsquo;&#257;s&#299;ph</i> or festival
+of ingathering, when the agricultural operations were brought
+to a close, which exhibited these genial features of Canaanite-Hebrew
+life most vividly. References to them abound in pre-exilian
+literature: Judges xxi. 21 (cf. ix. 27); Amos viii. 1 foll.;
+Hos. ix. 1 foll., Jer. xxxi. 4; Isa. xvi. 10 (Jer. xlviii. 33).
+These festivals formed the veins and arteries of ancient Hebrew
+clan and tribal life.<a name="fa18f" id="fa18f" href="#ft18f"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Wellhausen&rsquo;s characterization of the
+Arabian <i>hajj</i><a name="fa19f" id="fa19f" href="#ft19f"><span class="sp">19</span></a> applies with equal force to the Hebrew <i>hagg</i>
+(festival): &ldquo;They formed the rendezvous of ancient life. Here
+came under the protection of the peace of God the tribes and
+clans which otherwise lived apart from one another and only
+knew peace and security within their own frontiers.&rdquo; 1 Sam.
+xx. 28 foll. indicates the strong claims on personal attendance
+exercised on each individual member by the local clan festival
+at Bethlehem-Judah.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to discern from varied allusions in the Old Testament
+that the Canaanite impress of sensuous life clung to the autumnal
+vintage festivals. They became orgiastic in character and
+scenes of drunkenness, cf. Judges ix. 27; 1 Sam. 14-16; Isa.
+xxviii. 7, 8. Against this tendency the <i>Nazirite</i> order and
+tradition was a protest. Cf. Amos ii. 11 foll.; Judges xiii. 7, 14.
+As certain sanctuaries, Shiloh, Shechem, Bethel, &amp;c., grew in
+importance, the priesthoods that officiated at them would acquire
+special prestige. Eli, the head priest at Shiloh in the early youth
+of Samuel, held an important position in what was then the
+chief religious and political centre of Ephraim; and the office
+passed by inheritance to the sons in ordinary cases. In the regal
+period the royal residence gave the priesthood of that place an
+exceptional position. Thus Zadok, who obtained the priestly
+office at Jerusalem in the reign of Solomon and was succeeded
+by his sons, was regarded in later days as the founder of the true
+and legitimate succession of the priesthood descended from Levi
+(Ezek. xl. 46, xliii. 19, xliv. 15; cf. 1 Kings ii. 27, 35). His
+descent, however, from Eleazar, the elder brother of Aaron,
+can only be regarded as the later artificial construction of the
+post-exilian chronicler (1 Chron. vi. 4-15, 50-53, xxiv. 1 foll.),
+who was controlled by the traditions which prevailed in the 4th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and after.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>The Prophets.</i>&mdash;The rise of the order of prophets, who
+gradually emerged out of and became distinct from the old
+Hebrew &ldquo;seer&rdquo; or augur (1 Sam. ix. 9),<a name="fa20f" id="fa20f" href="#ft20f"><span class="sp">20</span></a> marks a new epoch
+in the religious development of the Hebrews. Over the successive
+stages of this growth we pass lightly (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prophet</a></span>). The life-and-death
+struggle between Israel and the Philistines in the reign
+of Saul called forth under Samuel&rsquo;s leadership a new order of
+&ldquo;men of God,&rdquo; who were called &ldquo;prophets&rdquo; or divinely inspired
+speakers.<a name="fa21f" id="fa21f" href="#ft21f"><span class="sp">21</span></a> These men were distributed in various settlements,
+and their exercises were usually of an ecstatic character. The
+closest modern analogy would be the orders of dervishes in
+Isl&#257;m. Probably there was little externally to distinguish the
+prophet of Yahweh in the days of Samuel from the Canaanite-Phoenician
+prophets of Baal and Ash&#275;rah (1 Kings xviii. 19, 26,
+28), for the practices of both were ecstatic and orgiastic (cf.
+1 Sam. x. 5 foll., xviii. 10, xix. 23 foll.). The special quality which
+distinguished these prophetic gilds or companies was an intense
+patriotism combined with enthusiastic devotion to the cause
+of Yahweh. This necessarily involved in that primitive age an
+extreme jealousy of foreign importations or innovations in
+ritual. It is obvious from numerous passages that these prophetic
+gilds recognized the superior position and leadership of
+Samuel, or of any other distinguished prophet such as Elijah
+or Elisha. Thus 1 Sam. xix. 20, 23 et seq. show that Samuel
+was regarded as head of the prophetic settlement at Nai&#333;th.
+With reference to Elijah and Elisha, see 2 Kings ii. 3, 5, 15,
+iv. 1, 38 et seq., vi. 1 et seq. There cannot be any doubt that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span>
+such enthusiastic devotees of Yahweh, in days when religion
+meant patriotism, did much to keep alive the flame of Israel&rsquo;s
+hope and courage in the dark period of national disaster. It is
+significant that Saul in his last unavailing struggle against the
+overwhelming forces of the Philistines sought through the medium
+of a sorceress for an interview with the deceased prophet Samuel.
+It was the advice of Elisha that rescued the armies of Jehoram
+and Jehoshaphat in their war against Moab when they were
+involved in the waterless wastes that surrounded them (2 Kings
+iii. 14 foll.). We again find Elisha intervening with effect on
+behalf of Israel in the wars against Syria, so that his fame spread
+to Syria itself (2 Kings v.-viii. 7 foll.). Lastly it was the fiery
+counsels of the dying prophet, accompanied by the acted magic
+of the arrow shot through the open window, and also of the
+thrice smitten floor, that gave nerve and courage to Joash, king
+of Israel, when the armies of Syria pressed heavily on the northern
+kingdom (2 Kings xiii. 14-19).</p>
+
+<p>We see that the prophet had now definitely emerged from the
+old position of &ldquo;seer.&rdquo; Prophetic personality now moved in a
+larger sphere than that of divination, important though that
+function be in the social life of the ancient state<a name="fa22f" id="fa22f" href="#ft22f"><span class="sp">22</span></a> as instrumental
+in declaring the will of the deity when any enterprise was on
+foot. For the prophet&rsquo;s function became in an increasing degree
+a function of <i>mind</i>, and not merely of traditional routine or
+mechanical technique, like that of the diviner with his arrows
+or his lots which he cast in the presence of the ephod or plated
+Yahweh image. The new name <i>nabhi&rsquo;</i> became necessary to
+express this function of more exalted significance, in which human
+personality played its larger rôle. Even as early as the time of
+David it would seem that Nathan assumed this more developed
+function as interpreter of Yahweh&rsquo;s righteous will to David.
+But both in 2 Sam. xii. 1-15 as well as in 2 Sam. vii. we have
+sections which are evidently coloured by the conceptions of a
+later time. We stand on safer ground when we come to Elijah&rsquo;s
+bold intervention on behalf of righteousness when he declared
+in the name of Yahweh the divine judgment on Ahab and his
+house for the judicial murder of Naboth. We here observe a
+great advance in the vocation of the prophet. He becomes the
+interpreter and vindicator of divine justice, the vocal exponent
+of a nation&rsquo;s conscience. For Elijah was in this case obviously
+no originator or innovator. He represents the old ethical
+Mosaism, which had not disappeared from the national consciousness,
+but still remained as the moral pre-supposition on
+which the prophets of the following century based their appeals
+and denunciations. It is highly significant that Elijah, when
+driven from the northern kingdom by the threats of the Tyrian
+Jezebel, retreats to the old sanctuary at Horeb, whence Moses
+derived his inspiration and his T&#333;rah.</p>
+
+<p>We have hitherto dealt with isolated examples of prophetism
+and its rare and distinguished personalities. The ordinary
+Hebrew <i>nabhi&rsquo;</i> still remained not the reflective visionary, stirred
+at times by music into strange raptures (2 Kings iii. 15), but the
+ecstatic and orgiastic dervish who was <i>meshuggah</i> or &ldquo;frenzied,&rdquo;
+a term which was constantly applied to him from the days of
+Elisha to those of Jeremiah (2 Kings ix. 11; in Hos. ix. 7 and
+Jer. xxix. 26 it is regarded as a term of reproach). It is only in
+rare instances that some exalted personality is raised to a higher
+level. Of this we have an interesting example in the vivid
+episode that preceded the battle of Ramoth-Gilead described
+in 1 Kings xxii., when Micaiah appears as the true prophet of
+Yahweh, who in his rare independence stands in sharp contrast
+with the conventional court prophets, who prophesied then, as
+their descendants prophesied more than two centuries later,
+smooth things.</p>
+
+<p>It is not, however, till the 8th century that prophecy attained
+its highest level as the interpreter of God&rsquo;s ways to men. This
+is due to the fact that it for the first time unfolded the true
+character of Yahweh, implicit in the old Mosaic religion and
+submerged in the subsequent centuries of Israel&rsquo;s life in Canaan,
+but now at length made clear and explicit to the mind of the
+nation. It became now detached from the limitations of nationalism
+and local association with which it had been hitherto
+circumscribed.</p>
+
+<p>Even Elisha, the greatest prophet of the 9th century, had
+remained within these national limitations which characterized
+the popular conceptions of Yahweh. Yahweh was Israel&rsquo;s war-god.
+His power was asserted in and from Canaanite soil. If
+Naaman was to be healed, it could only be in a Palestinian river,
+and two mules&rsquo; load of earth would be the only permanent
+guarantee of Yahweh&rsquo;s effective blessing on the Syrian general
+in his Syrian home.</p>
+
+<p>That larger conceptions prevailed in some of the loftier minds
+of Israel, and may be held to have existed even as far back as
+the age of Moses, is a fact which the Yahwistic cosmogony in
+Gen. ii. 4<i>b</i>-9 (which may have been composed in the 9th century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) clearly suggests, and it is strongly sustained by the overwhelming
+evidence of the powerful influence of Babylonian
+culture in the Palestinian region during the centuries 2000-1400
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa23f" id="fa23f" href="#ft23f"><span class="sp">23</span></a> Probably in our modern construction of ancient
+Hebrew history sufficient consideration has not been given to the
+inevitable coexistence of different types and planes of thought,
+each evolved from earlier and more primordial forms. In other
+words we have to deal not with <i>one</i> evolution but with
+evolutions.</p>
+
+<p>The existence of the purer and larger conception of Yahweh&rsquo;s
+character and power before the advent of Amos indicates that
+the transition from the past was not so sudden as Wellhausen&rsquo;s
+graphic portrayal in the 9th edition of this <i>Encyclopaedia</i> (art.
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Israel</a></span>) would have led us to suppose. There were pre-existent
+ideas upon which that prophet&rsquo;s epoch-making message was
+based. Yet this consideration should in no way obscure the fact
+that the prophet lived and worked in the all-pervading atmosphere
+of the popular syncretic Yahweh religion, intensely national
+and local in its character. In Wellhausen&rsquo;s words, each petty
+state &ldquo;revolved on its own axis&rdquo; of social-religious life till the
+armies of Tiglath-Pileser III. broke up the security within the
+Canaanite borders. According to the dominating popular
+conception, the destruction of the national power by a foreign
+army meant the overthrow of the prestige of the national deity
+by the foreign nation&rsquo;s god. If Assyria finally overthrew Israel
+and carried off Yahweh&rsquo;s shrine, Assur (A&#353;ur), the tutelary
+deity of Assyria, was mightier than Yahweh. This was precisely
+what was happening among the northern states, and Amos
+foresaw that this might eventually be Israel&rsquo;s doom. Rabshakeh&rsquo;s
+appeal to the besieged inhabitants of Jerusalem was based on
+these same considerations. He argued from past history that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span>
+Yahweh would be powerless in the presence of Ashur (2 Kings
+xviii. 33-35).</p>
+
+<p>This problem of religion was solved by Amos and by the
+prophets who succeeded him through a more exalted conception
+of Yahweh and His sphere of working, which tended to detach
+Him from His limited realm as a national deity. Amos exhibited
+Him to his countrymen as lord of the universe, who made the
+seven stars and Orion and turns the deep midnight darkness into
+morning. He calls to the waters of the sea and pours them on
+the earth&rsquo;s surface (chap. v. 8). Such a universal God of the
+world would hardly make Israel His exclusive concern. Thus
+He not only brought the Israelites out of Egypt, but also the
+Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir (ix. 7). But
+Amos went beyond this. Yahweh was not only the lord of the
+universe and possessed of sovereign power. The prophet also
+emphasized with passionate earnestness that Yahweh was a God
+whose character was righteous, and God&rsquo;s demand upon His
+people Israel was not for sacrifices but for <i>righteous conduct</i>.
+Sacrifice, as this prophet, like his successor Jeremiah, insisted
+(Amos v. 25; cf. Jer. vii. 22) played no part in Mosaic religion.
+In words which evidently impressed his younger contemporary
+Isaiah (cf. esp. Is. chap. i. 11-17), Amos denounced the non-ethical
+ceremonial formalism of his countrymen which then
+prevailed (chap. v. 21 foll.):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;I hate, I contemn your festivals and in your feasts I delight not;
+for when you offer me your burnt-offerings and gifts, I do not regard
+them with favour and your fatted peace-offerings I will not look at.
+Take away from me the clamour of your songs; and the music of
+your viols I will not hear. But let judgment roll down like waters
+and justice like a perennial brook.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the younger contemporary prophet of Ephraim, Hosea,
+the stress is laid on the relation of love (<i>&#7717;es&#275;d</i>) between Yahweh,
+the divine husband, and Israel, the faithless spouse. Israel&rsquo;s
+faithlessness is shown in idolatry and the prevailing corruption
+of the high places in which the old Canaanite Baal was worshipped
+instead of Yahweh. It is shown, moreover, in foreign alliances.
+Compacts with a powerful foreign state, under whose aegis
+Israel was glad to shelter, involved covenants sealed by sacrificial
+rites in which the deity or deities of the foreign state were involved
+as well as Yahweh, the god of the weaker vassal-state. And so
+Yahweh&rsquo;s honour was compromised. While these aspects of
+Israel&rsquo;s relation to Yahweh are emphasized by the Ephraimite
+prophet, the larger conceptions of Yahweh&rsquo;s character as universal
+Lord and the God of righteousness, whose government of the
+world is ethical, emphasized by the prophet of Tekoah, are
+scarcely presented.</p>
+
+<p>In Isaiah both aspects&mdash;divine universal sovereignty and
+justice, taught by Amos, and divine loving-kindness to Israel
+and God&rsquo;s claims on His people&rsquo;s allegiance, taught by Hosea&mdash;are
+fully expressed. Yahweh&rsquo;s relation of love to Israel is
+exhibited under the purer symbol of fatherhood (Isa. i. 2-4), a
+conception which was as ancient and familiar as that of husband,
+though perhaps the latter recurs more frequently in prophecy
+(Isa. i. 21; Ezek. xvi. &amp;c.). Even more insistently does Isaiah
+present the great truth of God&rsquo;s universal sovereignty. As with
+his elder contemporary, the foreign peoples&mdash;(but in Isaiah&rsquo;s
+oracles Assyria and Egypt as well as the Palestinian races)&mdash;come
+within his survey. The &ldquo;fullness of the earth&rdquo; is Yahweh&rsquo;s
+glory (vi. 3) and the nations of the earth are the instruments of His
+irresistible and righteous will. Assyria is the &ldquo;bee&rdquo; and Egypt
+the &ldquo;fly&rdquo; for which Yahweh hisses. Assyria is the &ldquo;hired razor&rdquo;
+(Isa. vii. 18, 19), or the &ldquo;rod of His wrath,&rdquo; for the chastisement
+of Israel (x. 5). But the instrument unduly exalts itself,
+and Assyria itself shall suffer humiliation at the hands of the
+world&rsquo;s divine sovereign (x. 7-15).</p>
+
+<p>And so the old limitations of Israel&rsquo;s popular religion,&mdash;the
+same limitations that encumbered also the religions of all the
+neighbouring races that succumbed in turn to Assyria&rsquo;s invincible
+progress,&mdash;now began to disappear. Therefore, while
+every other religion which was purely national was extinguished
+in the nation&rsquo;s overthrow, the religion of Israel survived even
+amid exile and dispersion. For Amos and Isaiah were able to
+single out those loftier spiritual and ethical elements which lay
+implicit in Mosaism and to lift them into their due place of
+prominence. National <i>sacra</i> and the ceremonial requirements
+were made to assume a secondary rôle or were even ignored.<a name="fa24f" id="fa24f" href="#ft24f"><span class="sp">24</span></a>
+The centre of gravity in Hebrew religion was shifted from
+ceremonial observance and local sacra to righteous conduct.
+Religion and righteousness were henceforth welded into an
+indissoluble whole. The religion of Yahweh was no longer to
+rest upon the narrow perishable basis of locality and national
+sacra, but on the broad adamantine foundations of a universal
+divine sovereignty over all mankind and of righteousness as
+the essential element in the character of Yahweh and in his
+claims on man. This was the &ldquo;corner-stone of precious solid
+foundation&rdquo;: &ldquo;I will make judgment the measuring-line and
+righteousness the plummet&rdquo; (Isa. xxviii. 16, 17). The religion of
+the Hebrew race&mdash;properly the Jews&mdash;now enters on a new
+stage, for it should be observed that it was Amos, Isaiah and
+Micah&mdash;prophets of Judah&mdash;who laid the actual foundations.
+The latter half of the 8th century, which witnessed a rapid
+succession of reigns in the northern kingdom accompanied by
+dismemberment of its territory and final overthrow, witnessed
+also the humiliating vassalage and religious decline of the kingdom
+of Judah. Unlike Amos and Micah, Isaiah was not only the
+prophet of denunciation but also the prophet of hope. Though
+Yahweh&rsquo;s chastisements on Ephraim and Judah would continue
+to fall till scarcely a remnant was left (Isa. vi. 13, LXX.), yet all
+was not to be lost. A remnant of the people was to return, <i>i.e.</i>
+be converted to Yahweh. The name given to an infant child&mdash;Immanuel&mdash;was
+to become the mystic symbol of a growing hope.
+God&rsquo;s presence was to abide in Jerusalem, and, as the century
+drew near its close, &ldquo;Immanuel&rdquo; became the watchword and
+talisman of a strong faith that God would never permit Jerusalem
+to be captured by the Assyrians. In fact it is not improbable
+that the words of consolation uttered by the prophet (Isa. viii.
+9-10) in the dark days of Ahaz (735-734 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) were among the
+oracles which God commanded Isaiah &ldquo;to seal up among his
+disciples&rdquo; (verse 16), and that they were quoted once more with
+effect as the armies of Sennacherib closed around Jerusalem.
+The talismanic name Immanuel became the nucleus out of which
+the later <i>Messianic</i> prophecies of Isaiah grew. To this age alone
+can we probably assign Isa. ix. 1-7, xi. 1-9, xxxii. 1-3. The hopes
+expressed in the word Immanuel, &ldquo;God with us,&rdquo; were to become
+embodied in a personality of the royal seed of David, an ideal
+righteous ruler who was to bring peace to the war-distraught
+realm. Thus Isaiah became in that troubled age the true founder
+of <i>Messianic</i> prophecy. The strange contrast between the succession
+of dynasties and kings cut off by assassination in the northern
+kingdom, ending in the tragic overthrow of 721 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the
+persistent succession through three centuries of the seed of David
+on the throne of Jerusalem, as well as the marvellous escape
+of Jerusalem in 701 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> from the fate of Samaria, must have
+invested the seed of David in the eyes of all thoughtful observers
+with a mysterious and divine significance. The Messianic
+prophecies of Isaiah, the prophet of faith and deliverance, were
+destined to reverberate through all subsequent centuries. We
+hear the echoes in Jeremiah and Ezekiel and lastly in Haggai
+in ever feebler tones, and they were destined to reawaken in
+the Psalter (Pss. ii. and lxxii.), in the psalms of Solomon and in
+the days of Christ. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Messiah</a></span> (and also the article &ldquo;Messiah&rdquo;
+in Hastings&rsquo;s <i>Dict. of Christ and the Gospels</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The next notable contribution to the permanent growth of
+Hebrew prophetic religion was made about a century after the
+lifetime of Isaiah by Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The reaction into
+idolatry and Babylonian star worship in the long reign of
+Manasseh synchronized and was connected with vassalage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span>
+to Assyria, while the reformation in the reign of Josiah (621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+is conversely associated with the decay of Assyrian power after
+the death of Assur-bani-pal. That reformation failed to effect
+its purifying mission. The hurt of the daughter of God&rsquo;s people
+was but lightly healed (Jer. vi. 14, 15; cf. viii. 11, 12). No
+possibility of recovery now remained to the diseased Hebrew
+state. The outlook appeared indeed far darker to Jeremiah
+than it seemed more than a century before to Isaiah in the
+evil days of Jotham and Ahaz, &ldquo;when the whole head was sick
+and the whole heart faint&rdquo; (Isa. i. 5). Jeremiah foresaw
+that there was now no possibility of recovery. The Hebrew
+state was doomed and even its temple was to be destroyed. This
+involved an entire reconstruction of theological ideas which
+went beyond even the reconstructions of Amos and Isaiah. In
+the old religion the race or clan was the unit of religion as well
+as of social life. Properly speaking, the individual was related
+to God only through the externalities of the clan or tribal life,
+its common temple and its common <i>sacra</i>. But now that these
+external bases of the old religion were to be swept away, a
+reconstruction of religious ideas became necessary. For the
+external supports which had vanished Jeremiah substituted a
+basis which was <i>internal, personal and spiritual</i> (<i>i.e.</i> <i>ethical</i>).
+In place of the old covenant based on external observance,
+which had been violated, there was to be a <i>new covenant</i> which
+was to consist not in outward prescription, but in the law which
+God would place <i>in the heart</i> (Jer. xxxi. 30-33). This was to
+take place by an act of divine grace (Jer. xxiv. 5 foll.): &ldquo;I
+will give them an heart to know me that I am the Lord&rdquo; (verse
+7). Ezekiel, who borrowed both Jeremiah&rsquo;s language and
+ideas, expresses the same thought in the well-known words that
+Yahweh would give the people instead of a heart of stone a heart
+of flesh (Ezek. xi. 19, 20, xx. 40 foll., xxxvi. 25-27), and would
+shame them by his loving-kindness into repentance, and there
+&ldquo;shall ye remember your ways and all your doings wherein
+ye have been defiled and ye shall loathe yourselves in your
+own sight&rdquo; (xx. 43).</p>
+
+<p><i>Personal religion</i> now became an important element in Hebrew
+piety and upon this there logically followed the idea of <i>personal
+responsibility</i>. The solidarity of race or family was expressed
+in the old tradition reflected in Deut. v. 9, 10, that God would
+visit the sins of the fathers upon the children, and it lived on
+in later Judaism under exaggerated forms. The hopes of the
+individual Jew were based on the piety of holy ancestors. &ldquo;We
+have Abraham as our father.&rdquo; But <i>Ezekiel</i> expressed the strong
+reaction which had set in against this belief in its older forms.
+He denies that the individual ever dies for the sins of the father.
+&ldquo;The soul that sinneth, it (the pronoun emphasized in the
+original) shall die&rdquo; (Ezek. xviii. 4). Neither Noah, Daniel
+nor Job could have rescued by his righteousness any but his
+own soul (xiv. 14). And as a further consequence <i>individual
+freedom</i> is strongly asserted. It is possible for every sinner
+to turn to God and escape punishment, and conversely for a
+righteous man to backslide and fall. In the presence of these
+awful truths which Ezekiel preached of individual freedom and
+of impending judgment, the prophet is weighted with a heavy
+responsibility. It is his duty to warn every individual, for no
+sinner is to be punished without warning (Ezek. iii. 16 foll.
+xxxiii.).</p>
+
+<p>The closing years of the Judaean kingdom and the final
+destruction of the temple (586 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) shattered the Messianic
+ideals cherished in the evening of Isaiah&rsquo;s lifetime and again in
+the opening years of the reign of Josiah. The untimely death
+of that monarch upon the battlefield of Megiddo (608 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+followed by the inglorious reigns of the kings who succeeded
+him, who became puppets in turn of Egypt or of Babylonia,
+silenced for a while the Messianic hopes for a future king or line
+of kings of Davidic lineage who would rule a renovated kingdom
+in righteousness and peace. Even in the darkness of the exile
+period hopes did not die. Yet they no longer remained the same.
+In the Deutero-Isaiah (chaps. xl.-lv.) we have no longer a
+Jewish but a <i>foreign</i> messiah. The onward progress of the
+Persian Cyrus and his anticipated conquest of Babylonia marked
+him out as Yahweh&rsquo;s anointed instrument for effecting the
+deliverance of exiled Israel and their restoration to their old home
+and city (Isa. xli. 2, xliv. 24, xlv.). This was, however, but a
+subsidiary issue and possesses no permanent spiritual significance.
+Of far more vital importance is the conception of Israel as God&rsquo;s
+<i>suffering servant</i>. This is not the place to enter into the prolonged
+controversy as to the real significance of this term,
+whether it signifies the nation Israel or the righteous community
+only, or finally an idealized prophetic individual who, like the
+prophet Jeremiah, was destined to suffer for the well-being of
+his people. Duhm, in his epoch-making commentary, distinguishes
+on the grounds of metre and contents <i>the four servant-passages</i>,
+in the last of which (lii. 13-liii. 12) the ideal suffering
+servant of Yahweh is portrayed most definitely as an individual.
+In the &ldquo;servant-passages&rdquo; he is innocent, while in the rest of
+the Deutero-Isaiah he appears as by no means faultless, and
+the personal traits are not prominent. These views of Duhm,
+in which a severe distinction is thus drawn between the representation
+of Yahweh&rsquo;s servant in the servant-passages, and that
+which meets us in the rest of the Deutero-Isaiah, have been
+challenged by a succession of critics.<a name="fa25f" id="fa25f" href="#ft25f"><span class="sp">25</span></a> It is only necessary for
+us to take note of the ideal in its general features. It probably
+arose from the fact that the calamities from which Israel had
+suffered both before and during the exile had drawn the reflective
+minds of the race to the contemplation of the problem of suffering.
+The &ldquo;servant of Yahweh&rdquo; presents one aspect of the problem
+and its attempted solution, the book of Job another, while in
+the Psalms, <i>e.g.</i> Pss. xxii., xlii.-xliii., lxxiii., lxxvii., other
+phases of the problem are presented. In the Deutero-Isaiah
+the meaning of Israel&rsquo;s sufferings is exhibited as vicarious. Israel
+is suffering for a great end. He suffers, is despised, rejected,
+chastened and afflicted that others may be blessed and be at
+peace through his chastisement. This noble conception of
+Israel&rsquo;s great destiny is conveyed in Isa. xlix. 6, in words which
+may be regarded as perhaps the noblest utterance in Hebrew
+prophecy: &ldquo;To establish the tribes of Jacob and bring back
+the preserved of Israel is less important than being my servant.
+Yea, I will make you a light to the <i>Gentiles</i> that my salvation
+may be unto the end of the earth.&rdquo;<a name="fa26f" id="fa26f" href="#ft26f"><span class="sp">26</span></a> This passage, which
+belongs to the second of the brief &ldquo;servant-songs,&rdquo; sets the
+mission of Israel in its true relation to the world. It is the
+necessary corollary to the teaching of Amos, that God is the
+righteous lord of all the world. If Jerusalem has been chosen
+as His sanctuary and Israel as His own people, it is only that
+Israel may diffuse God&rsquo;s blessings in the world even at the cost
+of Israel&rsquo;s own humiliation, exile and dispersion.</p>
+
+<p>The Deutero-Isaiah closes a great prophetic succession, which
+begins with Amos, continues in Isaiah in even greater splendour
+with the added elements of hope and Messianic expectation, and
+receives further accession in Jeremiah with his special teaching
+on inward spiritual and personal religion which constituted the
+new covenant of divine grace. Finally the Deutero-Isaiah
+conveyed to captive Israel the message of Yahweh&rsquo;s unceasing
+love and care, and the certainty of their return to Judaea and
+the restoration of the national prosperity which Ezekiel had
+already announced in the earlier period of the exile. To this
+is united the noble ideal of the suffering servant, which serves
+both as a contribution to the great problem of suffering as
+purifying and vicarious and as the interpretation to the mind
+of the nation itself of that nation&rsquo;s true function in the future,
+a lesson which the actual future showed that Israel was slow
+to receive. Nowhere in the Old Testament does the doctrine
+taught by Amos of Yahweh&rsquo;s universal power and sovereignty
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span>
+receive ampler and more splendid exposition than in the great
+lyrical passages of chap. xl. It marks the highest point to which
+the Hebrew race attained in its progress from henotheism to
+monotheism. Here again we see the wholesome influences of the
+exile. The Jew had passed from the narrow confines of his
+homeland into a wider world, and this larger vision of human
+life reacted on the prophet&rsquo;s theology. This closes the evolution
+of Hebrew prophetism. What immediately follows is on a
+descending slope with some striking exceptions, <i>e.g.</i> the book
+of Job and the book of Jonah.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Deuteronomic Legalism.</i>&mdash;The book of Deuteronomy was
+the product of prophetic teaching operating on traditional
+custom, which was represented in its essential features by
+the two codes of legislation contained in Ex. xx. 24-xxiii. 19
+(E) and Ex. xxxiv. 10-26 (J), but had also become tainted
+and corrupted by centuries of Canaanite influence and practice
+which especially infected the cult of the <i>high places</i>. The
+existence of &ldquo;high places&rdquo; is pre-supposed in those two ancient
+codes and is also presumed in the narratives of the documents
+E and J which contain them. But the prevalence of the worship
+of &ldquo;other gods&rdquo; and of graven images in these &ldquo;high places,&rdquo;
+and the moral debasement of life which accompanied these cults,
+made it clear that the &ldquo;high places&rdquo; were sources of grave
+injury to Israel&rsquo;s social life. In all probability the reformation
+instituted in the reign of Hezekiah, to which 2 Kings xviii. 4
+(cf. verse 22) refers, was only partial. It is hardly possible that
+all the high places were suppressed. The idolatrous reaction
+in the reign of Manasseh appears to have restored all the evils
+of the past and added to them. Another and more drastic
+reform than that which had been previously initiated (probably
+at the instigation of Isaiah and Micah) now became necessary
+to save the state. It is universally held by critics that our present
+book of Deuteronomy (certainly chaps. xii.-xxvi.) is closely
+connected with the reformation in the reign of Josiah. It is
+quite clear that many provisions in the old codes of J and E
+expanded lie at the basis of the book of Deuteronomy. But
+new features were added. We note for the first time definite
+regulations respecting Passover and the close union of that
+celebration with <i>Mass&#333;th</i> or &ldquo;unleavened bread.&rdquo; We note
+the laws respecting the clean and unclean animals (certainly
+based on ancient custom). Moreover, the prohibitions are
+strengthened and multiplied. In addition to the bare interdict
+of the sorceress (Ex. xxii. 18), of stone pillars to the Canaanite
+Baal, of the Ash&#275;rah-pole, molten images and the worship of
+other gods than Yahweh (Ex. xxxiv. 13-17), we now have the
+strict prohibition of <i>any employment whatever</i> of the stone-symbol
+(<i>Ma&#7779;&#7779;&#275;bhah</i>), and of all forms of sorcery, soothsaying
+and necromancy (Deut. xviii. 10, 11. Respecting the stone-pillar
+see xvi. 22). But of much more far-reaching importance
+was the <i>law of the central sanctuary</i> which constantly meets us
+in Deuteronomy in the reference to &ldquo;the place (<i>i.e.</i> Jerusalem)
+which Yahweh your God shall choose out of all your tribes to
+put His name there&rdquo; (xii. 5, xvi. 5, 11, 16, xxvi. 2). There
+alone all offerings of any kind were to be presented (xii. 6, 7,
+xvi. 7). By this positive enactment all the high places outside
+the one sanctuary in Jerusalem became illegitimate. A further
+consequence directly followed from the limitation as to sanctuary,
+viz. limitation as to the officiating ministers of the sanctuary.
+In the &ldquo;book of the covenant&rdquo; (Ex. xx. 22-xxii. 19), as we
+have already seen, and in the general practice of the regal
+period, there was no limitation as to the priesthood, but a definite
+order of priesthood, viz. Levites, existed, to whom a higher
+professional prestige belonged. As it was impossible to find a
+place for the officiating priests of the high places, non-levitical
+as well as levitical, in the single sanctuary, it became necessary
+to restrict the functions of sacrifice to the Levites only as well
+as to the existing official priesthood of the Jerusalem temple
+(see PRIEST). Doubtless such a reform met with strong resistance
+from the disestablished and vested interests, but it was firmly
+supported by royal influence and by the Jerusalem priesthood
+as well as by the true prophets of Yahweh who had protested
+against the idolatrous usages and corruptions of the high places.</p>
+
+<p>The strong impress of Hebrew prophecy is to be found in
+the deeply marked ethical spirit of the Deuteronomic legislation.
+Love to God and love to man is stamped on a large number
+of its provisions. Love to God is emphasized in Deut. vi. 5,
+while love to man meets us in the constant reference to the
+fatherless and the widow (cf. especially Deut. xvi.). This note
+of philanthropy is frequently found as a mitigating element
+(<i>e.g.</i> in the laws respecting slavery and war)<a name="fa27f" id="fa27f" href="#ft27f"><span class="sp">27</span></a> that subdues or
+even removes the harshness of earlier laws or usages. It should
+be noted, however, that the spirit of brotherly love was confined
+within national barriers. It did not operate as a rule beyond
+the limits of race.</p>
+
+<p>The book of Deuteronomy, in conjunction with the reformation
+of Josiah&rsquo;s reign (which synchronizes with the rapid decline
+of Assyria and the reviving prestige of Yahweh), appeared to
+mark the triumph of the great prophetic movement. It became
+at once a codified standard of purer religious life and ultimately
+served as a beacon of light for the future. But there was shadow
+as well as light. We note (<i>a</i>) that though the book of Deuteronomy
+bears the prophetic impress, the priestly impress is perhaps more
+marked. The writer &ldquo;evinces a warm regard for the priestly
+tribe; he guards its privileges (xviii. 1-8), demands obedience
+for its decisions (xxiv. 8; cf. xvii. 10-12) and earnestly commends
+its members to the Israelites&rsquo; benevolence (xii. 18-19, xiv. 27-29,
+&amp;c.).&rdquo;<a name="fa28f" id="fa28f" href="#ft28f"><span class="sp">28</span></a> (<i>b</i>) In many passages Jewish particularism is painfully
+manifest. Yahweh&rsquo;s care for other peoples does not appear.
+The flesh of a dead (unslaughtered) beast is not to be eaten, but
+it may be given to the &ldquo;stranger within the gates&rdquo;! (Deut.
+xiv. 21).<a name="fa29f" id="fa29f" href="#ft29f"><span class="sp">29</span></a> (<i>c</i>) Prophetic religion was a religion of the spirit
+which came to the messenger (Isa. lxi. 1) and expressed itself
+as a word of instruction of Yahweh (<i>t&#333;rah</i>); see Isa. 1. 10. Now
+when the Hebrew religion was reduced to written form it began to
+be a book-religion, and since the book consisted of fixed rules and
+enactments, religion began to acquire a stereotyped character.
+It will be seen in the sequel that this was destined to be the growing
+tendency of Jewish religious life&mdash;to conform itself to
+prescribed rules, in other words, it became <i>legalism</i>. (<i>d</i>) Lastly,
+the old genial life of the high places, in which the &ldquo;new moon&rdquo;
+or Sabbath or the annual festival was a sacrificial feast of communion,
+in which the members of the local community or clan
+enjoyed fellowship with one another&mdash;all this picturesque
+life ceased to be. And though there was positive gain in the
+removal of idolatrous and corrupt modes of worship, there was
+also positive loss in the disappearance of this old genial phase
+of Hebrew social life and worship. It involved a vast difference
+to many a Judaean village when the festival pilgrimage was no
+longer made to the familiar local sanctuary with its hoary
+associations of ancient heroic or patriarchal story, but to a
+distant and comparatively unfamiliar city with its stately
+shrine and priesthood.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Ezekiel&rsquo;s System.</i>&mdash;Ezekiel was the successor of Jeremiah
+and inherited his conceptions. But though the younger prophet
+adopted the ideas respecting personal religion and individual
+responsibility from the elder, the characters of the two men
+were very different. Jeremiah, when he foretold the destruction
+of the external state and temple ritual, found no resource save
+in a reconstruction that was internal and spiritual. In this
+he was true to his prophetic impulse and genius. But Ezekiel
+was, as Wellhausen well describes him, &ldquo;a priest in prophet&rsquo;s
+mantle.&rdquo; While Jeremiah&rsquo;s tendency was spiritual and ideal,
+Ezekiel&rsquo;s was constructive and practical. He was the first to
+foretell with clearness the return of his people from captivity
+foreshadowed by Jeremiah, and he set himself the task even in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span>
+the midnight darkness of Israel&rsquo;s exile to prepare for the nation&rsquo;s
+renewed life. The external bases of Israel&rsquo;s religion had been
+swept away, and in exchange for these Jeremiah had led his
+countrymen to the more permanent internal grounds of a
+spiritual renewal. But a religion could not permanently subsist
+in this world of space and time without some external concrete
+embodiment. It was the task of Ezekiel to take up once more
+the broken threads of Israel&rsquo;s religious traditions, and weave
+them anew into statelier forms of ritual and national polity.
+The priest-prophet&rsquo;s keen eye for detail, manifested in the
+elaborate vision of the wheels and living creatures (Ezek. i.)
+and in his lamentation on Tyre (chap. xxvii.), is also exhibited
+in the visions contained in chaps. xl.-xlviii., which describe the
+ideal reconstructed temple and theocracy of the restored Israel.
+The foreground is filled by the temple and its precincts. The
+officiating priests are now the descendants of the line of Zadok
+belonging to the tribe of Levi. Thus the priesthood is still
+further restricted as compared with the restriction already
+noted in the Deuteronomic legislation. It is the sons of Zadok
+only that have any right to offer sacrifice at the altar of burnt
+offering (xliii. 19, xliv. 15 foll.). The Levites, who formerly
+ministered in the high places, now discharge the subordinate
+offices of gate-keepers and slaughterers of the sacrificial
+victims.</p>
+
+<p>Another element in this ideal scheme which comes into
+prominence is the sharp distinction between <i>holy</i> and <i>profane</i>.
+The word <i>holiness</i> (<i>qodesh</i>) in primitive Hebrew usage partook
+of the nature of taboo, and came to be applied to whatever,
+whether thing or person, stood in close relation to deity and
+belonged to him, and could not, therefore, be used or treated like
+other objects not so related, and so was separated or stood apart.
+The idea underlying the word, which to <i>us</i> is invested with deep
+ethical meaning, had only this non-ethical, ritual significance
+in Ezekiel. Unlike the old temple and city, the ideal temple
+of Ezekiel is entirely separate from the city of Jerusalem. In
+the immediate surroundings of the temple there is an open space.
+Then come two concentric forecourts of the temple. The temple
+stands in the midst of what is called the <i>gizrah</i> or space severed
+off. The outer court lies higher than the open space, the inner
+court higher still, and the temple-building in the centre highest
+of all. No heathen may tread the outer court, no layman the
+inner court, while the holiest of all may not be trodden even
+by the priest Ezekiel but only by the angel who accompanies
+him. &ldquo;The temple-house has a graduated series of compartments
+increasing in sanctity inwards&rdquo; (Davidson). In the innermost
+the presence of Yahweh abides.</p>
+
+<p>We are here moving in a realm of ideas prevailing in
+ancient Israel respecting <i>holiness</i>, <i>uncleanness</i> and <i>sin</i>, which are
+ceremonial and not ethical; see especially Robertson Smith&rsquo;s
+<i>Religion of the Semites</i>, 2nd ed., p. 446 foll. (additional note B.)
+on holiness, uncleanness and taboo. It is, of course, true that
+the ethical conception of sin as violation of righteousness and
+an act of rebellion against the divine righteous will had been
+developed since the days of Amos and Isaiah; but, as we have
+already observed, cultus and prophetic teaching were separated
+by an immense gulf, and in spite of the reformation of 621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+still remain separated. In the sacrificial system of sin-offerings
+(<i>&#7717;att&#257;th</i> and <i>&rsquo;&#257;sh&#257;m</i>) we have to do with sin as ceremonial violation
+and neglect (frequently involuntary), or violation of holiness in
+the old sense of the term or as personal uncleanness (touching a
+corpse, eating unclean food, sexual impurity, &amp;c.). In the
+historical evolution of Hebrew sacrifice it is remarkable how
+long this non-ethical and primitive survival of old custom still
+survived, even far into post-exilian times. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sacrifice</a></span>;
+also Moore&rsquo;s art. &ldquo;Sacrifice&rdquo; in <i>Ency. Bibl.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>One conspicuous feature of Ezekiel&rsquo;s system is the predominance
+of piacular sacrifice. It undoubtedly existed in pre-exilian
+Israel, especially in times of crisis or calamity, for the appeasement
+of an offended deity (2 Sam. xxiv. 18 foll.), and in Deut.
+xxi. 1-9, we have details of the purificatory rite which was
+necessary when human blood was shed; but now and in the
+future propitiatory sacrifice and ideas of propitiation began to
+overshadow all the other forms of sacrifice and their ideas.
+Ezekiel prescribes a half-yearly ritual of sin-offering whereby
+atonement was to be made (xlv. 18-20). We shall see subsequently
+to what great institution this led the way.</p>
+
+<p>Ezekiel&rsquo;s system constituted an <i>ecclesiastical</i> in place of a
+political organization, a <i>church-state</i> in place of a nation. We
+clearly discern how this reacted on his Messianic conceptions.
+In his earlier oracles (xxxiv. 23 foll.) we find one shepherd ruling
+over united Israel, viz. Yahweh&rsquo;s servant David, whereas in the
+ideal scheme detailed in chap. xl. et seq. the rôle of the prince
+as a ruler is a very shadowy one. The prince, it is true, has a
+central domain, but his functions are ecclesiastical and subordinate
+and his powers strictly limited (xlvi. 3-8, 12, 16-18).</p>
+
+<p>Thus the exile period marks the parting of the ways in the
+development of Hebrew religion. In the Deutero-Isaiah we
+reach the highest point in the evolution of prophetism. It is
+true that we have some noble resounding echoes in the lyrical
+passages lx.-lxii. In the Trito-Isaiah during the post-exilian
+period, and in such psalm literature as Pss. xxii., xxxvii., l.,
+lxii., cvii., cxlv. 9-12 and others; and also in Isa. xxxv., which
+is obviously a lyrical reproduction of earlier literature. But
+it cannot be said that we possess in later literature any fresh
+contribution to the conception of God or any presentation of a
+higher ideal of human life<a name="fa30f" id="fa30f" href="#ft30f"><span class="sp">30</span></a> or national destiny than that which
+meets us in chap. xl. or in the servant-passages of the Deutero-Isaiah.
+It may with truth be said that <i>after Jeremiah we
+discern the parting of the ways</i>. The <i>first</i> is represented by the
+Deutero-Isaiah, who constitutes the climax and close of Hebrew
+prophetism, which is henceforth (with the possible exception
+of the Trito-Isaiah, Malachi and Jonah, who reproduce some
+features of the earlier prophecy) a virtually arrested development.
+The <i>second path</i> is that which is traced out by the priest-prophet
+Ezekiel, and is that of <i>legalism</i>, which was destined to secure a
+permanent place in the life and literature of the Jewish people.
+It is essentially the path which may be summed up in the word
+<i>Judaism</i>, though, as will be shown in the sequel, Judaism came
+to include many other factors. The statement, however, remains
+virtually true, since Judaism is mainly constituted by the body
+of legal precepts called the T&#333;rah, and, moreover, by the
+post-exilian
+T&#333;rah.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Post-exilian Law&mdash;The Priestercodex.</i><a name="fa31f" id="fa31f" href="#ft31f"><span class="sp">31</span></a>&mdash;The oracles of
+Malachi clearly reveal the continued influence of the book of
+Deuteronomy in his day. But the new conditions created by
+the return of the exiles and the germinating influence of Ezekiel&rsquo;s
+ideas developed a process of new legislative construction. The
+code of holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.) is the most obvious product
+of that influence. The ideas of expiation and atonement so
+prevalent in Ezekiel&rsquo;s scheme, which there find expression in the
+half-yearly sacrificial celebrations, are expressed in Lev. xvi. in
+the single <i>annual great fast of atonement</i>. It is impossible to enter
+here into the numerous details of that impressive ceremonial.
+Two special features, however, which characterize the celebration
+should here be noted: (<i>a</i>) The person of the <i>high priest</i>, who is
+throughout the entire drama the chief and indeed the sole actor.
+This supreme official, who was destined ultimately to take the
+place of the king in the church-nation of post-exilian Judaism,
+is mentioned for the first time in Zech. iii. 1<a name="fa32f" id="fa32f" href="#ft32f"><span class="sp">32</span></a> (in the person of
+Joshua). In the Priestercodex he stands at the head of the priests,
+who are, in the post-exilian system, the <i>sons of Aaron</i> and
+possessed the sole right to offer the temple sacrifices. On the
+great day of atonement the high priest appears in a vicarious
+and representative capacity, and offers on behalf of the whole
+nation which he was considered to embody in his sacred person.
+(<i>b</i>) The rite of the <i>goat devoted to Azazel</i>. There can be little
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span>
+doubt that <i>Azazel</i> was an evil demon (like an Arabic Jinn) of
+the desert. The goat set apart for Azazel was in the concluding
+part of the ceremonial brought before the high priest, who laid
+both his hands upon it and confessed over it the sins of the
+people. It was then carried off by an appointed person to a
+lonely spot and there set free.</p>
+
+<p>In later post-exilian times this great day of atonement became
+to an increasing degree a day of humiliation for sin and penitent
+sorrow, accompanied by confession; and the sins confessed were
+not only of a purely ceremonial character, whether voluntary
+or inadvertent, but also sins against righteousness and the
+duties which we owe to God and man. This element of public
+confession for sin became more prominent in the days when
+synagogal worship developed, and prayer took the place of the
+sacrificial offerings which could only be offered in the Jerusalem
+temple. The development of the priestly code of legislation
+(Priestercodex) was a gradual process, and probably occupied
+a considerable part of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Hebrew race
+now definitely entered upon the new path of organized Jewish
+legalism which had been originally marked out for it by Ezekiel
+in the preceding century. It became a holy people on holy
+ground. Circumcision and Sabbath, separation from marriage
+with a foreigner, which rendered a Jew unclean, as well as strict
+conformity to the precepts of the T&#333;rah, constituted henceforth
+an adamantine bond which was to preserve the Jewish
+communities from disintegration.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>The later Post-exilian Developments in Jewish Religion.</i>&mdash;These
+may be briefly referred to under the following aspects:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Codified law</i> and the written record of the patriarchal
+history, as well as the life and work of the lawgiver Moses (to
+whom the entire body of law came to be ascribed), assumed an
+ever greater importance. The reverence felt for the canonized
+<i>T&#333;rah</i> or law (the Pentateuch or so-called five books of Moses)
+grew even into worship. Of this spirit we find clear expression
+in some of the later psalms, <i>e.g.</i> the elaborate alphabetic Ps. cxix.
+and the latter portion of Ps. xix. There were various causes
+which combined to enhance the importance of the written <i>T&#333;rah</i>
+(the &ldquo;instruction&rdquo; <i>par excellence</i> communicated by God through
+Moses). Chief among these were (1) <i>The conception of God as
+transcendent</i>. We have taken due note of Amos, who unfolded
+the character of Yahweh as universal righteous sovereign; and
+also the sublime portrayal of His exalted nature in Isa. xl.
+(verse 15; cf. 22-26, and Job xxxvi. 22-xlii. 6). The intellectual
+influence of Greece, manifested in Alexandrian philosophy,
+tended to remove God still further from the human world of
+phenomena into that of an inaccessible transcendental abstraction.
+Little, therefore, was possible for the Jew save strict performance
+of the requirements of the T&#333;rah, once for all given
+to Moses on Sinai, and, in his approach to the awful and unknown
+mystery, to rely on ceremonial and ascetic performances (see
+Wendt&rsquo;s <i>Teaching of Jesus</i>, i. 55 foll.). The same tendency
+led the pious worshippers to avoid His awful name and to substitute
+<i>Adonai</i> in their scriptures or to use in the Mishna the
+term &ldquo;name&rdquo; (<i>sh&#275;m</i>) or &ldquo;heaven.&rdquo; (2) The <i>Maccabean conflict</i>
+(165 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) tended to accentuate the national sentiment of antagonism
+to Hellenic influence. The &#7716;as&#299;dim or pious devotees,
+who arose at that time, were the originators of the Pharisaic
+movement which was conservative as well as national, and laid
+stress on the strict performance of the law.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Eschatology</i> in the Judaism of the Greek period began to
+assume a new form. The pre-exilian prophets (especially Isaiah)
+spoke of the forthcoming crisis in the world&rsquo;s history as a &ldquo;day
+of the Lord.&rdquo; These were usually regarded as visitations of
+chastisement for national sins and vindications of divine
+righteousness or judgments, <i>i.e.</i> assertions of God&rsquo;s power as
+judge (<i>sh&#333;phet</i>). By the older prophets this judgment of God
+or &ldquo;day of Yahweh&rdquo; was never held to be far removed from
+the horizon of the present or the world in which they lived. But
+now as we enter the Greek period (320 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and onwards) there
+is a gradual change from prophecy to <i>apocalyptic</i>. &ldquo;It may be
+asserted in general terms that whereas prophecy foretells a
+definite future which has its foundation in the present, apocalyptic
+directs its anticipations solely and simply to the future,
+to a new world-period which stands sharply contrasted with the
+present. The classical model for all apocalyptic is to be found in
+Dan. vii. It is only after a great war of destruction, a day of
+Yahweh&rsquo;s great judgment, that the dominion of God will begin&rdquo;
+(Bousset). Ezek. xxxviii. and xxxix. clearly bear the apocalyptic
+character; so also Isa. xxxiv. and notably Isa. xxiv.-xxvii.
+Apocalyptic, as Baldensperger has shown, formed a counterpoise
+to the normal current of conformity to law. It arose from a
+spiritual movement in answer to the yearning of the heart:
+&ldquo;O that Thou mightest rend the heavens and come down and
+the mountains quake at Thy presence!&rdquo; (Isa. lxiv. 1 [Heb.
+lxiii. 19]); and it was intended to meet the craving of souls sick
+with waiting and disappointment. The present outlook was
+hopeless, but in the enlarged horizon of time as well as space the
+thoughts of some of the most spiritual minds in Judaism were
+directed to the transcendent and ultimate. The present world
+was corrupt and subject to Satan and the powers of darkness.
+This they called &ldquo;the present <i>aeon</i>&rdquo; (age). Their hopes were
+therefore directed to &ldquo;the coming aeon.&rdquo; Between the two
+aeons there would take place the <i>advent of the Messiah</i>, who
+would lead the struggle with evil powers which was called &ldquo;the
+agonies of the Messiah.&rdquo; This terrible intermezzo was no longer
+terrestrial, but was a cosmic and universal crisis in which the
+Messiah would emerge victorious from the final conflict with the
+heathen and demonic powers. This victory inaugurates the
+entrance of the &ldquo;aeon to come,&rdquo; in which the faithful Jews
+would enter their inheritance. In this way we perceive the
+transformation of the old Messianic doctrine through apocalyptic.
+Of apocalyptic literature we have numerous examples extending
+from the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (See especially
+Charles&rsquo;s <i>Book of Enoch</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine of the <i>resurrection of the righteous</i> to life in the
+heavenly world became engrafted on to the old doctrine of She&#333;l,
+or the dark shadowy underworld (Hades), where life was joyless
+and feeble, and from which the soul might be for a brief space
+summoned forth by the arts of the necromancer. The most
+vivid portraiture of She&#333;l is to be found in the exilian passage
+Isa. xiv. 9-20 (cf. Job x. 21-22). With this also compare the
+Babylonian <i>Descent of Ishtar to Hades</i>. The added conception
+of the resurrection of the righteous does not appear in the world
+of Jewish thought till the early Greek period in Isa. xxvi. 19.
+R. H. Charles thinks that in this passage the idea of resurrection
+is of purely Jewish and not of Mazdaan (or Zoroastrian) origin,
+but it is otherwise with Dan. xii. 2; see his <i>Eschatology, Hebrew,
+Jewish and Christian</i>. Corresponding to heaven, the abode of
+the righteous, we have <i>G&#275;-henna</i> (originally <i>G&#275;-Hinnom</i>, the
+scene of the Moloch rites of human sacrifice), the place of punishment
+after death for apostate Jews.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Doctrine of Angels and of Hypostases.</i>&mdash;In the writings
+of the pre-exilian period we have frequent references to supernatural
+personalities good and bad. It is only necessary to
+refer to them by name. <i>Seb&#257;&#333;th</i>, or &ldquo;hosts,&rdquo; attached to the
+name of Yahweh, denoted the heavenly retinue of stars. The
+<i>seraph&#299;m</i> were burning serpentine forms who hovered above
+the enthroned Yahweh and chanted the Trisagion in Isaiah&rsquo;s
+consecration vision (Isa. vi.). We have also constant references
+to &ldquo;angels&rdquo; (<i>mal&#257;ch&#299;m</i>) of God, divine messengers who represent
+Him and may be regarded as the manifestation of His power
+and presence. This especially applies to the &ldquo;angel of Yahweh&rdquo;
+or angel of His Presence [Ex. xxiii. 20, 23 (E). Note in Ex.
+xxxiii. 14 (J) he is called &ldquo;my face&rdquo; or &ldquo;presence&rdquo;<a name="fa33f" id="fa33f" href="#ft33f"><span class="sp">33</span></a> (cf.
+Isa. lxiii. 9)]. We also know that from earliest times Israel
+believed in the evil as well as good spirits. Like the Arabs they
+held that demons became incorporate in serpents, as in Gen. iii.
+The <i>neph&#299;l&#299;m</i> were a monstrous brood begotten of the intercourse
+of the supernatural beings called &ldquo;sons of God&rdquo; with the
+women of earth. We also read of the &ldquo;evil spirit&rdquo; that came
+upon Saul. Contact with Babylonia tended to stimulate the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span>
+angelology and demonology of Israel. The Hebrew word <i>sh&#275;d</i> or
+&ldquo;demon&rdquo; is no more than a Babylonian loan word, and came
+to designate the deities of foreign peoples degraded into the
+position of demons.<a name="fa34f" id="fa34f" href="#ft34f"><span class="sp">34</span></a> <i>L&#299;l&#299;th</i>, the blood-sucking night-hag of
+the post-exilian Isa. xxxiv. 14, is the Babylonian <i>Lil&#257;tu</i>.
+Whether the <i>se&rsquo;&#299;r&#299;m</i> or shaggy satyrs (Isa. xiii. 31; Lev. xvii. 7)
+and <i>Az&#257;z&#275;l</i> were of Babylonian origin it is difficult to determine.
+The emergence of <i>Satan</i> as a definite supernatural personality,
+the head or prince of the world of evil spirits, is entirely a phenomenon
+of post-exilian Judaism. He is portrayed as the arch-adversary
+and accuser of man. It is impossible to deny Persian
+influence in the development of this conception, and that the
+Persian Ahriman (Angromainyu), the evil personality opposed to
+the good, Ahura Mazda, moulded the Jewish counterpart, Satan.
+But in Judaism monotheistic conceptions reigned supreme, and
+the Satan of Jewish belief as opposed to God stops short of the
+dualism of Persian religion. Of this we see evidence in the
+multiplication of Satans in the Book of Enoch. In the Book of
+Jubilees he is called <i>mast&#275;m&#257;</i>. In later Judaism <i>Sammael</i> is
+the equivalent of Satan. Persian influence is also responsible
+for the <i>vast multiplication of good spirits or angels</i>, Gabriel,
+Raphael, Michael, &amp;c., who play their part in apocalyptic works,
+such as the Book of Daniel and the Book of Enoch.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the transcendent nature of the deity in the Judaism
+of this later period made the interposition of mediating spirits an
+intellectual necessity (cf. Ps. civ. 4). It also stimulated the
+creation of <i>divine hypostases</i>. First among these may be mentioned
+<i>Wisdom</i>. The roots of this conception belong to pre-exilian
+times, in which the &ldquo;word&rdquo; of divine denunciation was regarded
+as a quasi-material thing. (It is hurled against offending
+Israel, Isa. ix. 8.). In the post-exilian cosmogony it is the divine
+word or fiat that creates the world (Gen. i.; cf. Ps. xxxiii. 6, 9).
+Out of these earlier conceptions the idea of the divine wisdom
+(Heb. <i>&#7717;okhmah</i>) gradually arose during the Persian period.
+The expression &ldquo;wisdom,&rdquo; as it is employed in the <i>locus classicus</i>,
+Prov. viii., connotes the contents of the Divine reason&mdash;His
+conscious life, out of which created things emerge. This wisdom
+is personified. It dwelt with God (Prov. viii. 22 foll.) before the
+world was made. It is the companion of His throne, and by it
+He made the world (Prov. iii. 19, viii. 27; cf. Ps. civ. 24). It,
+moreover, enters into the life of the world and especially man
+(Prov. viii. 31). This conception of wisdom became still further
+hypostatized. It becomes redemptive of man. In the Wisdom
+of Solomon it is the sharer of God&rsquo;s throne (<span class="grk" title="paredros">&#960;&#940;&#961;&#949;&#948;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>), the
+effulgence of the eternal light and the outflow of His glory
+(Wisd. vii. 25, viii. 3 foll., ix. 4, 9); &ldquo;Them that love her the
+Lord doth love&rdquo; (Ecclesiasticus iv. 14). This group of ideas
+culminated in the Logos of Philo, expressing the world of divine
+ideas which God first of all creates and which becomes the
+mediating and formative power between the absolute and transcendent
+deity and passive formless matter, transmuted thereby
+into a rational, ordered universe.</p>
+
+<p>In later Jewish literature we meet with further examples of
+similar hypostases in the form of <i>M&#275;mr&#257;</i>, <i>Metatron</i>, <i>Shechinah</i>,
+<i>Holy Spirit</i> and <i>Bath k&#333;l</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) The doctrine of <i>pre-existence</i> is another product of the
+speculative tendency of the Jewish mind. The Messiah&rsquo;s pre-existent
+state before the creation of the world is asserted in the
+Book of Enoch (xlviii. 6, 7). Pre-existence is also asserted of
+Moses and of sacred institutions such as the New Jerusalem, the
+Temple, Paradise, the T&#333;rah, &amp;c. (Apocal. of Baruch iv. 3-lix. 4;
+Assumptio Mosis i. 14, 17); Edersheim&rsquo;s <i>Life and Times of the
+Messiah</i>, i. 175 and footnote 1.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Christ resumes the Broken Tradition of Prophetism.</i>&mdash;The
+Psalms of Solomon and the synoptic Gospels (70 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100)
+clearly reveal the powerful revival of Messianic hopes of a
+national deliverer of the seed of David. This Messianic expectation
+had been a fermenting leaven since the great days of Judas
+Maccabaeus. The conceptions of Jesus of Nazareth, however,
+were not the Messianic conceptions of his fellow-countrymen, but
+of the spiritual &ldquo;son of man&rdquo; destined to found a kingdom of
+God which was righteousness and peace. The T&#333;rah of Jesus was
+essentially prophetic and in no sense priestly or legal. The
+arrested prophetic movement of Jeremiah and Deutero-Isaiah
+reappears in John the Baptist and Jesus after an interval of more
+than five centuries. The new covenant of redeeming grace&mdash;the
+righteousness which is in the heart and not in externalities of
+legal observance or ceremonial&mdash;are once more proclaimed, and
+the exalted ideals of the suffering servant of Isa. xlix. 6 and
+Isa. liii. (nearly suppressed in the Targum of Jonathan) are
+reasserted and vindicated by the words and life of Jesus. Like
+Jeremiah He foretold the destruction of the temple and suffered
+the extreme penalties of anti-patriotism. And thus Israel&rsquo;s old
+prophetic T&#333;rah was at length to achieve its victory, for after Jesus
+came St Paul. &ldquo;Many shall come from the east and the west
+and sit down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of
+heaven&rdquo; (Matt. viii. 11, 12). The fetters of nationalism were to
+be broken, and the Hebrew religion in its essential spiritual
+elements was to become the heritage of all humanity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;1. On Semitic religion generally: Wellhausen&rsquo;s
+<i>Reste des arabischen Heidentums</i> (2nd ed.) and Robertson Smith&rsquo;s
+<i>Religion of the Semites</i> (2nd ed.) are chiefly to be recommended.
+Barton&rsquo;s <i>Semitic Origins</i> is extremely able, but his doctrine of the
+derivation of male from original female deities is pushed to an
+extreme. Bäthgen&rsquo;s <i>Beiträge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte</i>
+(1888) is most useful, and contains valuable epigraphic material.
+Baudissin&rsquo;s <i>Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte</i> (1876) is still
+valuable. See also Kuenen&rsquo;s <i>National Religions and Universal
+Religions</i> (Hibbert lectures) and Lagrange&rsquo;s <i>Études sur les religions
+sémitiques</i> (2nd ed.).</p>
+
+<p>2. On Hebrew religion in particular: specially full and helpful is
+Kautzsch&rsquo;s article &ldquo;Religion of Israel&rdquo; in Hastings&rsquo;s D.B., extra
+vol.; Marti&rsquo;s recent <i>Religion des A.T.</i> (1906) and his <i>Geschichte der
+israelitischen Religion</i>, are clear, compact and most serviceable,
+and the former work presents the subject in fresh and suggestive
+aspects. Wellhausen&rsquo;s <i>Prolegomena</i> and <i>Jüdische Geschichte</i> should
+be read both for criticism and Hebrew history generally. Duhm&rsquo;s
+<i>Theologie der Propheten</i> and Robertson Smith&rsquo;s <i>Prophets of Israel</i>
+should also be consulted. Strongly to be recommended are Smend,
+<i>Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte</i>; Bennett, <i>Theology
+of the Old Testament</i> and <i>Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets</i>;
+A. B. Davidson, <i>The Theology of the Old Testament</i>, as well as the
+sections devoted to &ldquo;Sacralaltertümer&rdquo; in the <i>Hebräische Archäologie</i>
+both of Benzinger and also of Nowack. Budde&rsquo;s <i>Die Religion
+des Volkes Israel bis zur Verbannung</i>, as well as Addis&rsquo;s recent
+<i>Hebrew Religion</i> (1906), is a most careful and scholarly compendium.
+Harper&rsquo;s Introd. to his <i>Commentary on Amos and Hosea</i> (I. and T.
+Clark) contains a useful survey of the history of Hebrew religion
+before the 8th century. Buchanan Gray&rsquo;s <i>Divine Discipline of
+Israel</i>, and A. S. Peake&rsquo;s <i>Problem of Suffering in the O.T.</i>, are suggestive.
+See also S. A. Cook, <i>Religion of Ancient Palestine</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. On the history of Judaism till the time of Christ, Schürer&rsquo;s
+<i>Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Christi</i> (3rd ed.), vol. ii. and
+in part vol. iii., are indispensable. Bousset&rsquo;s <i>Religion des Judentums</i>
+(2nd ed.), and Volz, <i>Die jüdische Eschatologie von Daniel bis Akiba</i>,
+are highly to be commended. Weber&rsquo;s <i>Jüdische Theologie</i> is a useful
+compendium of the theology of later Judaism.</p>
+
+<p>4. On the special department of eschatology the standard works
+are R. H. Charles, <i>Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and Christian</i>, and
+Schwally, <i>Das Leben nach dem Tode</i>, as well as Gressmann&rsquo;s suggestive
+work <i>Der Ursprung der israelitisch-jüdischen Eschatologie</i>, which
+contains, however, much that is speculative. On apocalyptic
+generally the introductions to Charles&rsquo;s Book of Enoch, Apocalypse
+of Baruch, Ascension of Isaiah and Book of Jubilees, should be
+carefully noted. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eschatology</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>5. On the religion of Babylonia, Jastrow&rsquo;s work is the standard
+one. Zimmern&rsquo;s Heft ii. in <i>K.A.T.</i> (3rd ed.) is specially important
+to the Old Testament student. See also W. Schrank, <i>Babylonische
+Sühnriten</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(O. C. W.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Bäthgen, <i>Beiträge zur semit. Religionsgesch.</i> p. 11 (Edom);
+and cf. Schrader, C.O.T. i. 137; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), p. 472 foll. See
+also <i>Beiträge</i>, pp. 13-15; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), pp. 469-472.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Z.D.M.G.</i> (1886). It is impossible to discuss the other theories
+of the origin of this name. See Driver, <i>Commentary on Genesis</i>,
+excursus i. pp. 404-406.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Tell el-Amarna despatches are crowded with evidences of
+Canaanite forms and idioms impressed on the Babylonian language
+of these cuneiform documents. <i>Il&#257;ni</i> here simply corresponds to the
+Canaanite <i>El&#333;h&#299;m</i>. See opening of the letters of Abimelech of Tyre,
+Bezold&rsquo;s <i>Oriental Diplomacy</i>, Nos. 28, 29, 30.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> &ldquo;Magic and Social Relations&rdquo; in <i>Sociological Papers</i>, ii.
+160.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See Kautzsch, &ldquo;Religion of Israel,&rdquo; in Hastings&rsquo;s <i>Dict. of the
+Bible</i>, extra vol., p. 614.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See Benzinger, <i>Hebräische Archäologie</i>, pp. 152, 297 foll. (1st ed.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7f" id="ft7f" href="#fa7f"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The theory was opposed by Nöldeke, 1886 (<i>Z.D.M.G.</i> p. 157 foll.),
+as well as Wellhausen, and since then by Jacobs and Zapletal. (<i>Der
+Totemismus u. die Religion Israels</i>). See Stanley A. Cook, &ldquo;Israel
+and Totemism,&rdquo; in <i>J.Q.R.</i> (April, 1902).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8f" id="ft8f" href="#fa8f"><span class="fn">8</span></a> These sacred arks were carried in procession accompanied by
+symbolic figures. We note in this connexion the form of a sacred
+bark represented in Meyer&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of Egypt</i> (Oncken series), p. 257,
+viz. the procession carrying the sacred ark and the bark of the god
+Am&#333;n belonging to the reign of Rameses II. (Lepsius, <i>Denkmäler</i>, iii.
+189b). See also Birch, <i>Egypt</i> (S.P.C.K.), p. 151 (ark of Khonsu); cf.
+Jeremias, <i>Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients</i> (2nd ed.), pp. 436-441.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9f" id="ft9f" href="#fa9f"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Cf. Zimmern in <i>Z.D.M.G.</i> (1904), pp. 199 foll., 458 foll. This
+view is based on Dr Pinches&rsquo;s discovered list in which <i>Sapatti</i> is called
+the 15th day (<i>Proc. of the Soc. of Biblical Arch.</i>, p. 51 foll.). See
+A. Jeremias, <i>Das A. T. im Lichte des alten Orients</i> (2nd ed.), pp. 182-187.
+Marti, in his stimulating work <i>Religion des A.T.</i>, pp. 5, 72,
+advocates the exclusive reference of the word Sabbath to the full
+moon until the time of Ezekiel on the basis of Meinhold&rsquo;s arguments
+in <i>Sabbat u. Woche im A.T.</i> The latter regards Ezekiel as the
+organizer of the Jewish community and the originator of the sanctity
+of the Sabbath as a seventh day (Ezek. xlvi. 1; cf. Ezek. xx. 12, 13,
+16, 20, 24, xxii. 8, 26, xxiii. 38, in which the reproaches for the
+profanation or neglect of the Sabbath in no way sustain Meinhold&rsquo;s
+view). In opposition to Meinhold, see Lotz in <i>P.R.E.</i> (3rd ed., art.
+&ldquo;Sabbath,&rdquo; vol. xvii. pp. 286-289). To this Meinhold replies in
+<i>Z.A.T.W.</i> (1909), p. 81 f. Cf. also Hehn, <i>Siebenzahl und Sabbat</i>.
+While admitting that a special significance may have been attached
+in pre-exilian times to the full-moon Sabbath, and that the latter
+may have been specially intended in the combination &ldquo;new moon
+and Sabbath&rdquo; in the 8th-century prophets (Hos. ii. 13; Amos
+viii. 5; Isa. i. 13), we are not prepared to deny that the institution of
+a seventh-day Sabbath was an ancient pre-exilian tradition. The
+sacredness of the number seven is based on the seven planetary
+deities to whom each day of the week was respectively dedicated,
+<i>i.e.</i> was astral in origin. Cf. <i>C.O.T.</i> i. 18 foll., and Winckler,
+<i>Religionsgeschichtlicher u. geschichtlicher Orient</i>, p. 39. See also <i>K.A.T.</i>
+(3rd ed.), pp. 620-626. In the Old Testament the sanctity of the
+number seven is clearly fundamental (<i>e.g.</i> in the Nif&rsquo;al form <i>ni&#353;ba&rsquo;</i>,
+&ldquo;to swear,&rdquo; in the derivative subst. for &ldquo;oath,&rdquo; in Be&#275;r-sheba&rsquo;, &amp;c.).
+The seventh day of rest was parallel to the seventh year of release
+and of the fallow field. It is, therefore, impossible to detach Ex.
+xxiii. 12 from Ex. xxi. 2. xxiii. 10 foll.; cf. Ex. xxxiv. 21. We
+therefore hold that the law of the seventh-day Sabbath goes back
+to the Mosaic age. The general coincidence of the Sabbath or
+seventh day with the easily recognized first quarter and full moon
+established its sacred character as <i>lunar</i> as well as planetary.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10f" id="ft10f" href="#fa10f"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The tablet is neo-Babylonian and published by Dr Pinches in the
+<i>Transactions of the Victoria Institute</i>, and is cited by Professor Fried.
+Delitzsch in the notes appended to his first lecture <i>Babel u. Bibel</i>
+(5th German ed., p. 81 ad fin. and p. 82). On this subject of Babylonian
+influence over Israel see Jeremias, <i>Monotheistische Strömungen
+innerhalb der babylonischen Religion</i>, and E. Baentsch, <i>Altorientalischer
+u. israelitischer Monotheismus</i>. The text and rendering of
+the passage are doubtful in the cuneiform letter discovered by
+Sellin in Ta&rsquo;annek (biblical Ta&rsquo;anach, near Megiddo) addressed by
+A&#7717;i-jawi (? A&#7717;ijah) to Ishtar-wasur, in which the following remarkable
+phrases are read: &ldquo;May the Lord of the gods protect thy life....
+Above thy head is one who is above the towns. See now
+whether he will show thee good. When he reveals his face, then
+will they be put to shame and the victory will be complete.&rdquo; The
+letter appears to belong to about 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> See A. Jeremias, <i>Das
+A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients</i> (2nd ed.), pp. 315, 316, 323. Sellin,
+<i>Ertrag der Ausgrabungen im Orient</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11f" id="ft11f" href="#fa11f"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The allusion in Amos ii. 7; Hos. iv. 13, 14 is sufficiently explicit;
+cf. Jer. ii. 20-23, iii. 6-11, v. 7, 8. The practice is prohibited in
+Deut. xxiii. 17.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12f" id="ft12f" href="#fa12f"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Column i. 15, 16, 42, 43, ii. 128, iii. 30, 31, iv. 47, 48, &amp;c.
+Probably we should regard them as differentiated <i>hypostases</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13f" id="ft13f" href="#fa13f"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Hence the &rsquo;Asht&#257;r&#333;th or offspring of flocks in Deut. vii. 13,
+xxviii. 18. A like function belonged to the Babylonian Ishtar.
+See &ldquo;Descent of Ishtar to Hades,&rdquo; Rev. lines 6-10, where universal
+non-intercourse of sexes follows Ishtar&rsquo;s departure from earth to
+Hades.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14f" id="ft14f" href="#fa14f"><span class="fn">14</span></a> <i>Proleg. Gesch. Israels</i> (2nd ed.), p. 240 foll., cf. p. 258.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15f" id="ft15f" href="#fa15f"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Internat. Crit. Commentary, Judges</i>, Introd. p. xxx., also p. 367
+foll.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16f" id="ft16f" href="#fa16f"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <span title="leva">&#1500;&#1493;&#1488;</span> &ldquo;priest,&rdquo; <span title="levat">&#1500;&#1493;&#1488;&#1514;</span> &ldquo;priestess&rdquo;; see Hommel, <i>Süd-arabische
+Chrestomathie</i>, p. 127; <i>Ancient Hebrew Tradition</i>, p. 278 foll.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17f" id="ft17f" href="#fa17f"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Moore regards this verse as belonging to the J or older document,
+<i>op. cit.</i> p. 367.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18f" id="ft18f" href="#fa18f"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Similarly in ancient Greece. See the instructive passage in
+Aristotle, <i>Nic. Eth.</i> viii. 9 (4, 5), on the relation of Greek sacrifices
+and festivals to <span class="grk" title="koinôniai">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#969;&#957;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span> and politics: <span class="grk" title="ai gar archaiai thusiai kai
+sunodoi phainontai gignesthai met a tas tôn karpôn sugkomidàs oion aparchai">&#945;&#7985; &#947;&#8048;&#961; &#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#8150;&#945;&#953; &#952;&#965;&#963;&#943;&#945;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#8054;
+&#963;&#973;&#957;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#953; &#966;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#953; &#947;&#943;&#947;&#957;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953; &#956;&#949;&#964;&#8048; &#964;&#8048;&#962; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#961;&#960;&#8182;&#957; &#963;&#965;&#947;&#954;&#959;&#956;&#953;&#948;&#8048;&#962; &#959;&#7991;&#959;&#957; &#7936;&#960;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#943;</span>;
+cf. Grote on Pan-Hellenic festivals, <i>History of Greece</i>, vol. iii., ch.
+28.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19f" id="ft19f" href="#fa19f"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Wellhausen, <i>Reste arabischen Heidentums</i> (2nd ed.), p. 89.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20f" id="ft20f" href="#fa20f"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Though this be an interpolated gloss (Thenius, Budde), it states
+a significant truth as Kautzsch clearly shows, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 672. In
+Micah iii. 7 the <i>&#7717;&#333;zeh</i> is mentioned in a sense analogous to the <i>r&#333;&rsquo;&#275;h</i>
+or &ldquo;seer,&rdquo; and coupled with the <i>q&#333;s&#275;m</i> or &ldquo;soothsayer,&rdquo; viz. as
+spurious; cf. Deut. xviii. 10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21f" id="ft21f" href="#fa21f"><span class="fn">21</span></a> No better derivation is forthcoming of the word <i>nabhi&rsquo;</i>,
+&ldquo;prophet,&rdquo; than that it is a K&#257;&#7789;&#299;l form of the root <i>n&#257;b&#257;</i> = Assyr.
+<i>nab&#363;</i>, &ldquo;speak.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22f" id="ft22f" href="#fa22f"><span class="fn">22</span></a> In Isa. iii. 2 the soothsayer is placed on a level with the judge,
+prophet and elder.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23f" id="ft23f" href="#fa23f"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Kautzsch, in his profoundly learned article on the &ldquo;Religion
+of Israel,&rdquo; to which frequent reference has been made, exhibits (pp.
+669-671) an excess of scepticism, in our opinion, towards the views
+propounded by Gunkel in 1895 (<i>Schöpfung und Chaos</i>) respecting
+the intimate connexion between the early Hebrew cosmogonic ideas
+and those of Babylonia. Stade indeed (<i>Z.A.T.W.</i>, 1903, pp. 176-178)
+maintained that the conception of Yahweh as creator of the
+world could not have arisen till after the middle of the 8th century
+as the result of prophetic teaching, and that it was not till the time
+of Ezekiel that Babylonian conceptions entered the world of Hebrew
+thought in any fulness. Such a theory appears to ignore the remarkable
+results of archaeology since 1887. At that time Stade&rsquo;s position
+might have appeared reasonable. It was the conclusion to which
+Wellhausen&rsquo;s brilliant literary analysis, when not supplemented
+by the discoveries at Tell el-Amarna and Tell el-Hesi, appeared to
+many scholars (by no means all) inevitably to conduct us. But the
+years 1887 to 1891 opened many eyes to the fact that the Hebrews
+lived their life on the great highways of intercourse between Egypt
+on the one hand, and Babylonia, Assyria and the N. Palestinian
+states on the other, and that they could scarcely have escaped the
+all-pervading Babylonian influences of 2000-1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is now
+becoming clearer every day, especially since the discovery of the
+laws of Khammurabi, that, if we are to think sanely about Hebrew
+history <i>before</i> as well as after the exile, we can only think of Israel
+as part of the great complex of Semitic and especially Canaanite
+humanity that lived its life in western Asia between 2000 and 600
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and that while the Hebrew race maintained by the aid of
+prophetism its own individual and exalted place, it was not less
+susceptible <i>then</i>, than it has been since, to the moulding influences of
+great adjacent civilizations and ideas. Cf. C. H. W. Johns in <i>Interpreter</i>,
+pp. 300-304 (in April 1906), on prophetism in Babylonia.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24f" id="ft24f" href="#fa24f"><span class="fn">24</span></a>  There is some danger in too strictly construing the language
+of the prophets and also the psalmists. It is not to be supposed
+that either Amos or Isaiah would have countenanced the total
+suppression of all sacrificial observance. It was the existing ceremonial
+observance <i>divorced from the ethical piety</i> that they denounced.
+The speech of prophecy is poetical and rhetorical, not strictly defined
+and logical like that of a modern essayist. See Moore in <i>Encyc.
+Bibl.</i>, &ldquo;Sacrifice,&rdquo; col. 4222.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25f" id="ft25f" href="#fa25f"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Viz. Budde in <i>Die so-genannten Ebed-Jahweh Lieder u. die
+Bedeutung des Knechtes Jahwehs in Jes. xl.-lv.</i> (Giessen, 1900); Karl
+Marti in his well-known commentary on Isaiah, and F. Giesebrecht,
+<i>Der Knecht Jahwes des Deuterojesaja</i>. The special servant-songs
+which Duhm asserts can be readily detached from the texture of the
+Deutero-Isaiah without disturbance to its integrity are Isa. xlii. 1-4,
+xlix. 1-6, l. 4-9, lii. 13-liii. 12.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26f" id="ft26f" href="#fa26f"><span class="fn">26</span></a> We have here followed Dillmann&rsquo;s construction of a difficult
+passage which Duhm attempts to simplify by omission of the complicating
+clause without altering the general sense.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27f" id="ft27f" href="#fa27f"><span class="fn">27</span></a>: Thus in comparison with the &ldquo;book of the covenant,&rdquo; Deuteronomy
+adds the stipulation in reference to the release of the slave;
+that his master was to provide him liberally from his flocks, his corn
+and his wine (Deut. xv. 13, 14). See Hastings&rsquo;s <i>D.B.</i>, arts. &ldquo;Servant,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Slave,&rdquo; p. 464, where other examples may be found. In
+war fruit-trees are to be spared (Deut. xx. 19 foll.), whereas the
+old universal practice is the barbarous custom Elisha commended
+(2 Kings iii. 19) of ruthlessly destroying them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28f" id="ft28f" href="#fa28f"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Driver, <i>Internat. Commentary on Deuteronomy</i>, Introd. p. xxx.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29f" id="ft29f" href="#fa29f"><span class="fn">29</span></a> It should be noted that in P (Code of Holiness) Lev. xvii. 15 foll.
+the resident alien (<i>g&#275;r</i>) is placed on an equality with the Jew.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30f" id="ft30f" href="#fa30f"><span class="fn">30</span></a> We shall have to note the emergence of the doctrine of the
+<i>resurrection of the righteous</i> in later Judaism, which is obviously a
+fresh contribution of permanent value to Hebrew doctrine. On
+the other hand, the doctrine of <i>pre-existence</i> is speculative rather than
+religious, and applies to institutions rather than persons.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31f" id="ft31f" href="#fa31f"><span class="fn">31</span></a> The legislative portions are mainly comprised in Ex. xxxv.-end,
+Leviticus entire and Num. i.-x.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft32f" id="ft32f" href="#fa32f"><span class="fn">32</span></a> But this term (literally the <i>chief</i> priest) was already in use
+during the regal period to designate the head priest of an important
+sanctuary such as Jerusalem (2 Kings xii. 11).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft33f" id="ft33f" href="#fa33f"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Cf. the Phoenician parallel of &ldquo;Face of Baal,&rdquo; worshipped as
+Tanit, &ldquo;queen of Heaven&rdquo; (Bäthgen, <i>Beiträge zur Semit. Religionsgeschichte</i>,
+p. 55 foll.); also the place Penuel (face of God).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft34f" id="ft34f" href="#fa34f"><span class="fn">34</span></a> Deut. xxxii. 17; Ps. cvi. 37. Baal Zeb&#363;b of the Philistine
+Ekron became the Beelzebub who was equivalent to Satan.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> one of the books of the New
+Testament. In the oldest MSS. it bears no other title than &ldquo;To
+Hebrews.&rdquo; This brief heading embraces all that on which
+Christian tradition from the end of the 2nd century was unanimous;
+and it says no more than that the readers addressed
+were Christians of Jewish extraction. This would be no sufficient
+address for an epistolary writing (xiii. 22) directed to a definite
+circle of readers, to whose history repeated reference is made,
+and with whom the author had personal relations (xiii. 19, 23).
+Probably, then, the original and limited address, or rather salutation,
+was never copied when this treatise in letter form, like the
+epistle to the Romans, passed into the wider circulation which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span>
+its contents merited. In any case the Roman Church, where the
+first traces of the epistle occur, about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 96 (1 Clement), had
+nothing to contribute to the question of authorship except the
+negative opinion that it was not by Paul (Euseb. <i>Eccl. Hist.</i>
+iii. 3): yet this central church was in constant connexion with
+provincial churches.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest positive traditions belong to Alexandria and N.
+Africa. The Alexandrine tradition can be traced back as far as a
+teacher of Clement, presumably Pantaenus (Euseb. <i>Eccl. Hist.</i>
+vi. 14), who sought to explain why Paul did not name himself as
+usual at the head of the epistle. Clement himself, taking it for
+granted that an epistle to Hebrews must have <span class="correction" title="amended from  beeen">been</span> written in
+Hebrew, supposes that Luke translated it for the Greeks. Origen
+implies that &ldquo;the men of old&rdquo; regarded it as Paul&rsquo;s, and that
+some churches at least in his own day shared this opinion. But
+he feels that the language is un-Pauline, though the &ldquo;admirable&rdquo;
+thoughts are not second to those of Paul&rsquo;s unquestioned writings.
+Thus he is led to the view that the ideas were orally set forth by
+Paul, but that the language and composition were due to some one
+giving from memory a sort of free interpretation of his teacher&rsquo;s
+mind. According to some this disciple was Clement of Rome;
+others name Luke; but the truth, says Origen, is known to
+God alone (Euseb. vi. 25, cf. iii. 38). Still from the time of
+Origen the opinion that Paul wrote the epistle became prevalent
+in the East. The earliest African tradition, on the other hand,
+preserved by Tertullian<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (<i>De pudicitia</i>, c. 20), but certainly not
+invented by him, ascribed the epistle to Barnabas. Yet it was
+perhaps, like those named by Origen, only an inference from the
+epistle itself, as if a &ldquo;word of exhortation&rdquo; (xiii. 22) by the Son
+of Exhortation (Acts iv. 36; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barnabas</a></span>). On the whole, then,
+the earliest traditions in East and West alike agree in effect, viz.
+that our epistle was not by Paul, but by one of his associates.</p>
+
+<p>This is also the twofold result reached by modern scholarship
+with growing clearness. The vacillation of tradition and the
+dissimilarity of the epistle from those of Paul were brought out
+with great force by Erasmus. Luther (who suggests Apollos)
+and Calvin (who thinks of Luke or Clement) followed with the
+decisive argument that Paul, who lays such stress on the fact that
+his gospel was not taught him by man (Gal. i.), could not have
+written Heb. ii. 3. Yet the wave of reaction which soon overwhelmed
+the freer tendencies of the first reformers, brought
+back the old view until the revival of biblical criticism more than
+a century ago. Since then the current of opinion has set irrevocably
+against any form of Pauline authorship. Its type of thought
+is quite unique. The Jewish Law is viewed not as a code of
+ethics or &ldquo;works of righteousness,&rdquo; as by Paul, but as a system
+of religious rites (vii. 11) shadowing forth the way of access to
+God in worship, of which the Gospel reveals the archetypal
+realities (ix. 1, 11, 15, 23 f., x. 1 ff., 19 ff.). The Old and the
+New Covenants are related to one another as imperfect (earthly)
+and perfect (heavenly) forms of the same method of salvation,
+each with its own type of sacrifice and priesthood. Thus the
+conception of Christ as High Priest emerges, for the first time,
+as a central point in the author&rsquo;s conception of Christianity.
+The Old Testament is cited after the Alexandrian version more
+exclusively than by Paul, even where the Hebrew is divergent.
+Nor is this accidental. There is every appearance that the
+author was a Hellenist who lacked knowledge of the Hebrew
+text, and derived his metaphysic and his allegorical method
+from the Alexandrian rather than the Palestinian schools.
+Yet the epistle has manifest Pauline affinities, and can hardly
+have originated beyond the Pauline circle, to which it is referred
+not only by the author&rsquo;s friendship with Timothy (xiii. 23),
+but by many echoes of the Pauline theology and even, it seems,
+of passages in Paul&rsquo;s epistles (see Holtzmann, <i>Einleitung in das
+N. T.</i>, 1892, p. 298). These features early suggested Paul as the
+author of a book which stood in MSS. immediately after the
+epistles of that apostle, and contained nothing in its title to
+distinguish it from the preceding books with like headings,
+&ldquo;To the Romans,&rdquo; &ldquo;To the Corinthians,&rdquo; and the like. A
+similar history attaches to the so-called Second Epistle of Clement
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clementine Literature</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Everything turns, then, on internal criticism of the epistle,
+working on the distinctive features already noticed, together
+with such personal allusions as it affords. As to its first readers,
+with whom the author stood in close relations (xiii. 19, 23, cf. vi.
+10, x. 32-34), it used generally to be agreed that they were
+&ldquo;Hebrews&rdquo; or Christians of Jewish birth. But, for a generation
+or so, it has been denied that this can be inferred simply from
+the fact that the epistle approaches all Christian truth through
+Old Testament forms. This, it is said, was the common method
+of proof, since the Jewish scriptures were the Word of God to
+all Christians alike. Still it remains true that the exclusive
+use of the argument from Mosaism, as itself implying the Gospel
+of Jesus the Christ as final cause (<span class="grk" title="telos">&#964;&#941;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>), does favour the view
+that the readers were of Jewish origin. Further there is no
+allusion to the incorporation of &ldquo;strangers and foreigners&rdquo; (Eph.
+ii. 19) with the people of God. Yet the readers are not to be
+sought in Jerusalem (see <i>e.g.</i> ii. 3), nor anywhere in Judaea
+proper. The whole Hellenistic culture of the epistle (let alone
+its language), and the personal references in it, notably that to
+Timothy in xiii. 23, are against any such view: while the doubly
+emphatic &ldquo;all&rdquo; in xiii. 24 suggests that those addressed were
+but part of a community composed of both Jews and Gentiles.
+Caesarea, indeed, as a city of mixed population and lying just
+outside Judaea proper&mdash;a place, moreover, where Timothy might
+have become known during Paul&rsquo;s two years&rsquo; detention there&mdash;would
+satisfy many conditions of the problem. Yet these very
+conditions are no more than might exist among intensely Jewish
+members of the Dispersion, like &ldquo;the Jews of Asia&rdquo; (cf. Sir W. M.
+Ramsay, <i>The Letters to the Seven Churches</i>, 155 f.), whose zeal for
+the Temple and the Mosaic ritual customs led to Paul&rsquo;s arrest in
+Jerusalem (Acts xix. 27 f., cf. 20 f.), in keeping both with his
+former experiences at their hands and with his forebodings resulting
+therefrom (xx. 19, 22-24). Our &ldquo;Hebrews&rdquo; had obviously
+high regard for the ordinances of Temple worship. But this was
+the case with the dispersed Jews generally, who kept in touch
+with the Temple, and its intercessory worship for all Israel, in
+every possible way; in token of this they sent with great care
+their annual contribution to its services, the Temple tribute.
+This bond was doubtless preserved by Christian Hellenists,
+and must have tended to continue their reliance on the Temple
+services for the forgiveness of their recurring &ldquo;sins of ignorance&rdquo;&mdash;subsequent
+to the great initial Messianic forgiveness coming
+with faith in Jesus. Accordingly many of them, while placing
+their hope for the future upon Messiah and His eagerly expected
+return in power, might seek assurance of present forgiveness
+of daily offences and cleansing of conscience in the old mediatorial
+system. In particular the annual Day of Atonement would be
+relied on, and that in proportion as the expected Parousia
+tarried, and the first enthusiasm of a faith that was largely
+eschatological died away, while ever-present temptation pressed
+the harder as disappointment and perplexity increased.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the general situation of the readers of this epistle,
+men who rested partly on the Gospel and partly on Judaism.
+For lack of a true theory as to the relation between the two,
+they were now drifting away (ii. 1) from effective faith in the
+Gospel, as being mainly future in its application, while Judaism
+was a very present, concrete, and impressive system of religious
+aids&mdash;to which also their sacred scriptures gave constant witness.
+The points at which it chiefly touched them may be inferred
+from the author&rsquo;s counter-argument, with its emphasis in the
+spiritual ineffectiveness of the whole Temple-system, its high-priesthood
+and its supreme sacrifice on the Day of Atonement.
+With passionate earnestness he sets over against these his
+constructive theory as to the efficacy, the heavenly yet unseen
+reality, of the definitive &ldquo;purification of sins&rdquo; (i. 3) and perfected
+access to God&rsquo;s inmost presence, secured for Christians as
+such by Jesus the Son of God (x. 9-22), and traces their moral
+feebleness and slackened zeal to want of progressive insight
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span>
+into the essential nature of the Gospel as a &ldquo;new covenant,&rdquo;
+moving on a totally different plane of religious reality from the
+now antiquated covenant given by Moses (viii. 13).</p>
+
+<p>The following plan of the epistle may help to make apparent
+the writer&rsquo;s theory of Christianity as distinct from Judaism,
+which is related to it as &ldquo;shadow&rdquo; to reality:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>Thesis</i>: The finality of the form of religion mediated in God&rsquo;s
+Son, i. 1-4.</p>
+
+<p>i. The supreme excellence of the Son&rsquo;s Person (i. 5-iii. 6), as
+compared with (<i>a</i>) angels, (<i>b</i>) Moses.</p>
+
+<p> &emsp; Practical exhortation, iii. 7-iv. 13, leading up to:</p>
+
+<p>ii. The corresponding efficacy of the Son&rsquo;s High-priesthood
+(iv. 14-ix.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>(1) The Son has the qualifications of all priesthood, especially
+sympathy.</p>
+
+<p> &emsp; Exhortation, raising the reader&rsquo;s thought to the height
+of the topic reached (v. 11-vi. 20).</p>
+
+<p>(2) The Son as absolute high priest, in an order transcending
+the Aaronic (vii.) and relative to a Tabernacle of ministry
+and a Covenant higher than the Mosaic in point of reality
+and finality (viii., ix.).</p>
+
+<p>(3) His Sacrifice, then, is definitive in its effects (<span class="grk" title="teteleiôke">&#964;&#949;&#964;&#949;&#955;&#949;&#943;&#969;&#954;&#949;</span>),
+and supersedes all others (x. 1-18).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>iii. Appropriation of the benefits of the Son&rsquo;s high-priesthood, by
+steadfast faith, the paramount duty (x. 19-xii.). More
+personal epilogue (xiii.).</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>As lack of insight lay at the root of their troubles, it was not
+enough simply to enjoin the moral fidelity to conviction which
+is three parts of faith to the writer, who has but little sense
+of the mystical side of faith, so marked in Paul. There was
+need of a positive theory based on real insight, in order to inspire
+faith for more strenuous conflict with the influences tending to
+produce the apostasy from Christ, and so from &ldquo;the living
+God,&rdquo; which already threatened some of them (iii. 12). Such
+&ldquo;apostasy&rdquo; was not a formal abjuring of Jesus as Messiah,
+but the subtler lapse involved in ceasing to rely on relation to
+Him for daily moral and religious needs, summed up in purity
+of conscience and peace before God (x. 19-23, xiii. 20 f.). This
+&ldquo;falling aside&rdquo; (vi. 5, cf. xii. 12 f.), rather than conscious
+&ldquo;turning back,&rdquo; is what is implied in the repeated exhortations
+which show the intensely practical spirit of the whole argument.
+These exhortations are directed chiefly against the dullness of
+spirit which hinders progressive moral insight into the genius
+of the New Covenant (v. 11-vi. 8), and which, in its blindness
+to the full work of Jesus, amounts to counting His blood as devoid
+of divine efficacy to consecrate the life (x. 26, 29), and so to a
+personal &ldquo;crucifying anew&rdquo; of the Son of God (vi. 6). The
+antidote to such &ldquo;profane&rdquo; negligence (ii. 1, 3, xii. 12 f., 15-17)
+is an earnestness animated by a fully-assured hope, and sustained
+by a &ldquo;faith&rdquo; marked by patient waiting (<span class="grk" title="makrothymia">&#956;&#945;&#954;&#961;&#959;&#952;&#965;&#956;&#943;&#945;</span>) for
+the inheritance guaranteed by divine promise (x. ii f.). The
+outward expression of such a spirit is &ldquo;bold confession,&rdquo; a
+glorying in that Hope, and mutual encouragement therein
+(iii. 6, 12 f.); while the sign of its decay is neglect to assemble
+together for mutual stimulus, as if it were not worth the odium
+and opposition from fellow Jews called forth by a marked
+Christian confession (x. 23-25, xii. 3)&mdash;a very different estimate
+of the new bond from that shown by readiness in days gone by to
+suffer for it (x. 32 ff.). Their special danger, then, the sin which
+deceived (iii. 13) the more easily that it represented the line of least
+resistance (perhaps the best paraphrase of <span class="grk" title="euperistatos hamartia">&#949;&#8016;&#960;&#949;&#961;&#943;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#962; &#7937;&#956;&#945;&#961;&#964;&#943;&#945;</span>
+in xii. i), was the exact opposite of &ldquo;faith&rdquo; as the author uses
+it, especially in the chapter devoted to its illustration by Old
+Testament examples. His readers needed most the moral
+heroism of fidelity to the Unseen, which made men &ldquo;despise
+shame&rdquo; due to aught that sinners in their unbelief might do to
+them (xii. 2-11, xiii. 5 f.)&mdash;and of which Jesus Himself
+was at once the example and the inspiration. To quicken this
+by awakening deeper insight into the real objects of &ldquo;faith,&rdquo;
+as these bore on their actual life, he develops his high argument
+on the lines already indicated.</p>
+
+<p>Their situation was so dangerous just because it combined
+inward debility and outward pressure, both tending to the same
+result, viz. practical disuse of the distinctively Christian means
+of grace, as compared with those recognized by Judaism, and
+such conformity to the latter as would make the reproach of
+the Cross to cease (xiii. 13, cf. xi. 26). This might, indeed,
+relieve the external strain of the contest (<span class="grk" title="agôn">&#7936;&#947;&#974;&#957;</span> xii. 1), which
+had become well-nigh intolerable to them. But the practical
+surrender of what was distinctive in their new faith meant a
+theoretic surrender of the value once placed on that element, when
+it was matter of a living religious experience far in advance of
+what Judaism had given them (vi. 4 [ff]., x. 26-29). This twofold
+infidelity, in thought and deed, God, the &ldquo;living&rdquo; God of progress
+from the &ldquo;shadow&rdquo; to the substance, would require at
+their hands (x. 30 f., xii. 22-29). For it meant turning away
+from an appeal that had been known as &ldquo;heavenly,&rdquo; for something
+inferior and earthly (xii. 25); from a call sanctioned by
+the incomparable authority of Him in whom it had reached
+men, a greater than Moses and all media of the Old Covenant,
+even the Son of God. Thus the key of the whole exhortation
+is struck in the opening words, which contrast the piecemeal
+revelation &ldquo;to the fathers&rdquo; in the past, with the complete and
+final revelation to themselves in the last stage of the existing
+order of the world&rsquo;s history, in a Son of transcendent dignity
+(i. 1 ff., cf. ii. 1 ff., x. 28 f., xii. 18 ff.). This goes to the root
+of their difficulty, ambiguity as to the relation of the old and
+the new elements in Judaeo-Christian piety, so that there was
+constant danger of the old overshadowing the new, since national
+Judaism remained hostile. At a stroke the author separates
+the new from the old, as belonging to a new &ldquo;covenant&rdquo; or
+order of God&rsquo;s revealed will. It is a confusion, resulting in loss,
+not in gain, as regards spiritual power, to try to combine the
+two types of piety, as his readers were more and more apt to do.
+There is <i>no use</i>, religiously, in falling back upon the old forms,
+in order to avoid the social penalties of a sectarian position
+within Judaism, when the secret of religious &ldquo;perfection&rdquo; or
+maturity (vi. 1, cf. the frequent use of the kindred verb) lies
+elsewhere. Hence the moral of his whole argument as to the
+two covenants, though it is formulated only incidentally amid
+final detailed counsels (xiii. 13 f.) is to leave Judaism, and adopt
+a frankly Christian standing, on the same footing with their
+non-Jewish brethren in the local church. For this the time
+was now ripe; and in it lay the true path of safety&mdash;eternal
+safety as before God, whatever man might say or do (xiii. 5 f.).</p>
+
+<p>The obscure section, xiii. 9 f., is to be taken as &ldquo;only a symptom
+of the general retrogression of religious energy&rdquo; (Jülicher),
+and not as bearing directly on the main danger of these
+&ldquo;Hebrews.&rdquo; The &ldquo;foods&rdquo; in question probably refer neither
+to temple sacrifices nor to the Levitical laws of clean and unclean
+foods, nor yet to ascetic scruples (as in Rom. xiv., Col. ii. 20 ff.),
+but rather to some form of the idea, found also among the
+Essenes, that food might so be partaken of as to have the value
+of a sacrifice (see verse 15 foll.) and thus ensure divine favour.
+Over against this view, which might well grow up among the
+Jews of the Dispersion as a sort of substitute for the possibility
+of offering sacrifices in the Temple&mdash;but which would be a lame
+addition to the Christianity of their own former leaders (xiii.
+7 f.)&mdash;the author first points his readers to its refutation from
+experience, and then to the fact that the Christian&rsquo;s &ldquo;altar&rdquo;
+or sacrifice (<i>i.e.</i> the supreme sin-offering) is of the kind which
+the Law itself forbids to be associated with &ldquo;eating.&rdquo; If
+Christians wish to offer any special sacrifice to God, let it be that
+of grateful praise or deeds of beneficence (15 f.).</p>
+
+<p>In trying further to define the readers addressed in the epistle,
+one must note the stress laid on suffering as part of the divinely
+appointed discipline of sonship (ii. 10, v. 8, xii. 7 f.), and the way
+in which the analogy in this respect between Jesus, as Messianic
+Son, and those united to Him by faith, is set in relief. He is
+not only the inspiring example for heroic faith in the face of
+opposition due to unbelievers (xii. 3 ff.), but also the mediator
+qualified by his very experience of suffering to sympathize with
+His tried followers, and so to afford them moral aid (ii. 17 f.,
+v. 8 f., cf. iv. 15). This means that suffering for Christianity,
+at least in respect of possessions (xiii. 5 f., cf. x. 34) and social
+standing, was imminent for those addressed: and it seems
+as if they were mostly men of wealth and position (xiii. 1-6,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span>
+vi. 10 f., x. 34), who would feel this sort of trial acutely (cf.
+Jas. i. 10). Such men would also possess a superior mental
+culture (cf. v. 11 f.), capable of appreciating the form of an
+epistle &ldquo;far too learned for the average Christian&rdquo; (Jülicher),
+yet for which its author apologizes to them as inadequate
+(xiii. 22). It was now long since they themselves had suffered
+seriously for their faith (x. 32 f.); but others had recently been
+harassed even to the point of imprisonment (xiii. 3); and the
+writer&rsquo;s very impatience to hurry to their side implies that the
+crisis was both sudden and urgent. The finished form of the
+epistle&rsquo;s argument is sometimes urged to prove that it was
+not originally an epistle at all, written more or less on the spur
+of the moment, but a literary composition, half treatise and half
+homily, to which its author&mdash;as an afterthought&mdash;gave the
+suggestion of being a Pauline epistle by adding the personal
+matter in ch. xiii. (so W. Wrede, <i>Das literarische Rätsel des
+Hebräerbriefs</i>, 1906, pp. 70-73). The latter part of this theory
+fails to explain why the Pauline origin was not made more
+obvious, <i>e.g.</i> in an opening address. But even the first part
+of it overlooks the probability that our author was here only
+fusing into a fresh form materials often used before in his oral
+ministry of Christian instruction.</p>
+
+<p>Many attempts have been made to identify the home of the
+Hellenistic Christians addressed in this epistle. For Alexandria
+little can be urged save a certain strain of &ldquo;Alexandrine&rdquo;
+idealism and allegorism, mingling with the more Palestinian
+realism which marks the references to Christ&rsquo;s sufferings, as well
+as the eschatology, and recalling many a passage in Philo.
+But Alexandrinism was a mode of thought diffused throughout
+the Eastern Mediterranean, and the divergences from Philo&rsquo;s
+spirit are as notable as the affinities (cf. Milligan, <i>ut infra</i>, 203 ff.).
+For Rome there is more to be said, in view of the references to
+Timothy and to &ldquo;them of Italy&rdquo; (xiii. 23 f.); and the theory
+has found many supporters. It usually contemplates a special
+Jewish-Christian house-church (so Zahn), like those which Paul
+salutes at the end of Romans, <i>e.g.</i> that meeting in the house of
+Prisca and Aquila (xvi. 5); and Harnack has gone so far as to
+suggest that they, and especially Prisca, actually wrote our
+epistle. There is, however, really little that points to Rome in
+particular, and a good deal that points away from it. The
+words in xii. 4, &ldquo;Not yet unto blood have ye resisted,&rdquo; would
+ill suit Rome after the Neronian &ldquo;bath of blood&rdquo; in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 64
+(as is usually held), save at a date too late to suit the reference
+to Timothy. Nor does early currency in Rome prove that the
+epistle was written to Rome, any more than do the words &ldquo;they
+of Italy salute you.&rdquo; This clause must in fact be read in the
+light of the reference to Timothy, which suggests that he had
+been in prison in Rome and was about to return, possibly in the
+writer&rsquo;s company, to the region which was apparently the
+headquarters of both. Now this in Timothy&rsquo;s case, as far as
+we can trace his steps, was Ephesus; and it is natural to ask
+whether it will not suit all the conditions of the problem. It
+suits those of the readers,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> as analysed above; and it has the
+merit of suggesting to us as author the very person of all those
+described in the New Testament who seems most capable of the
+task, Apollos, the learned Alexandrian (Acts xviii. 24 ff.),
+connected with Ephesus and with Paul and his circle (cf. 1 Cor.
+xvi. 12), yet having his own distinctive manner of presenting
+the Gospel (1 Cor. iv. 6). That Apollos visited Italy at any rate
+once during Paul&rsquo;s imprisonment in Rome is a reasonable
+inference from Titus iii. 13 (see Paul); and if so, it is quite
+natural that he should be there again about the time of Paul&rsquo;s
+martyrdom. With that event it is again natural to connect
+Timothy&rsquo;s imprisonment, his release from which our author
+records in closing; while the news of Jewish success in Paul&rsquo;s
+case would enhance any tendency among Asian Jewish Christians
+to shirk &ldquo;boldness&rdquo; of confession (x. 23, 35, 38 f.), in fear of
+further aggression from their compatriots. On the chronology
+adopted in the article Paul, this would yield as probable date
+for the epistle <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 61-62. The place of writing would be some
+spot in Italy (&ldquo;they of Italy salute you&rdquo;) outside Rome, probably
+a port of embarkation for Asia, such as Brundisium.</p>
+
+<p>Be this as it may, the epistle is of great historical importance,
+as reflecting a crisis inevitable in the development of the Jewish-Christian
+consciousness, when a definite choice between the old and
+the new form of Israel&rsquo;s religion had to be made, both for internal
+and external reasons. It seems to follow directly on the situation
+implied by the appeal of James to Israel in dispersion, in view
+of Messiah&rsquo;s winnowing-fan in their midst (i. 1-4, ii. 1-7, v. 1-6,
+and especially v. 7-11). It may well be the immediate antecedent
+of that revealed in 1 Peter, an epistle which perhaps shows
+traces of its influence (<i>e.g.</i> in i. 2, &ldquo;sprinkling of the blood of
+Jesus Christ,&rdquo; cf. Heb. ix. 13 f., x. 22, xii. 24). It is also of
+high interest theologically, as exhibiting, along with affinities
+to several types of New Testament teaching (see Stephen), a
+type all its own, and one which has had much influence on
+later Christian thought (cf. Milligan, <i>ut infra</i>, ch. ix.). Indeed,
+it shares with Romans the right to be styled &ldquo;the first treatise
+of Christian theology.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Literature.</i>&mdash;The older literature may be seen in the great work of
+F. Bleek, <i>Der Brief an die Hebräer</i> (1828-1840), still a valuable
+storehouse of material, while Bleek&rsquo;s later views are to be found in
+a posthumous work (Elberfeld, 1868); also in Franz Delitzsch&rsquo;s
+<i>Commentary</i> (Edinburgh, 1868). The more recent literature is given
+in G. Milligan, <i>The Theology of the Epistle of the Hebrews</i> (1899), a
+useful summary of all bearing on the epistle, and in the large New
+Testament Introductions and Biblical Theologies. See also Hastings&rsquo;s
+<i>Dict. of the Bible</i>, the <i>Encycl. Biblica</i> and T. Zahn&rsquo;s article in
+Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. V. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Also in Codex Claromontanus, the <i>Tractatus de libris</i> (x.),
+Philastrius of Brescia (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 380), and a prologue to the Catholic
+Epistles (<i>Revue bénédictine</i>, xxiii. 82 ff.). It is defended in a monograph
+by H. H. B. Ayles (Cambridge, 1899).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> a house-church of upper-class Jewish Christians, not fully
+in touch with the attitude even of their own past and present
+&ldquo;leaders&rdquo; (xiii. 7, 17), as distinct from the local church generally
+(xiii. 24). The Gospel had reached them, as also the writer himself
+(cf. Acts xviii. 25), through certain hearers of the Lord (ii. 3), not
+necessarily apostles.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBRIDES, THE,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Western Isles</span>, a group of islands off
+the west coast of Scotland. They are situated between 55° 35&prime;
+and 58° 30&prime; N. and 5° 26&prime; and 8° 40&prime; W. Formerly the term
+was held to embrace not only all the islands off the Scottish
+western coast, including the islands in the Firth of Clyde, but
+also the peninsula of Kintyre, the Isle of Man and the Isle of
+Rathlin, off the coast of Antrim. They have been broadly
+classified into the Outer Hebrides and the Inner Hebrides, the
+Minch and Little Minch dividing the one group from the other.
+Geologically, they have also been differentiated as the Gneiss
+Islands and the Trap Islands. The Outer Hebrides being almost
+entirely composed of gneiss the epithet suitably serves them,
+but, strictly speaking, only the more northerly of the Inner
+Hebrides may be distinguished as Trap Islands. The chief
+islands of the Outer Hebrides are Lewis-with-Harris (or Long
+Island), North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist, Barra, the Shiants,
+St Kilda and the Flannan Isles, or Seven Hunters, an uninhabited
+group, about 20 m. N.W. of Gallon Head in Lewis.
+Of these the Lewis portion of Long Island, the Shiants and
+the Flannan belong to the county of Ross and Cromarty, and
+the remainder to Inverness-shire. The total length of this
+group, from Barra Head to the Butt of Lewis, is 130 m., the
+breadth varying from less than 1 m. to 30 m. The Inner Hebrides
+are much more scattered and principally include Skye, Small
+Isles (Canna, Sanday, Rum, Eigg and Muck), Coll, Tyree,
+Lismore, Mull, Ulva, Staffa, Iona, Kerrera, the Slate Islands
+(Seil, Easdale, Luing, Shuna, Torsay), Colonsay, Oronsay,
+Scarba, Jura, Islay and Gigha. Of these Skye and Small Isles
+belong to Inverness-shire, and the rest to Argyllshire. The
+Hebridean islands exceed 500 in number, of which one-fifth are
+inhabited. Of the inhabited islands 11 belong to Ross and
+Cromarty, 47 to Inverness-shire, and 44 to Argyllshire, but of
+this total of 102 islands, one-third have a population of only
+10 souls, or fewer, each. The population of the Hebrides in
+1901 numbered 78,947 (or 28 to the sq. m.), of whom 41,031
+were females, who thus exceeded the males by 10%, and 22,733
+spoke Gaelic only and 47,666 Gaelic and English. The most
+populous island is Lewis-with-Harris (32,160), and next to it
+are Skye (13,883), Islay (6857) and Mull (4334).</p>
+
+<p>Of the total area of 1,800,000 acres, or 2812 sq. m., only
+one-ninth is cultivated, most of the surface being moorland
+and mountain. The annual rainfall, particularly in the Inner
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span>
+Hebrides, is heavy (42.6 in. at Stornoway) but the temperature
+is high, averaging for the year 47° F. Potatoes and turnips
+are the only root crops that succeed, and barley and oats are
+grown in some of the islands. Sheep-farming and cattle-raising
+are carried on very generally, and, with the fisheries, provide
+the main occupation of the inhabitants, though they profit not
+a little from the tourists who flock to many of the islands throughout
+the summer. The principal industries include distilling,
+slate-quarrying and the manufacture of tweeds, tartans and
+other woollens. There are extensive deer forests in Lewis-with-Harris,
+Skye, Mull and Jura. On many of the islands there are
+prehistoric remains and antiquities within the Christian period.
+The more populous islands are in regular communication with
+certain points of the mainland by means of steamers from Glasgow,
+Oban and Mallaig. The United Free Church has a strong hold
+on the <span class="correction" title="amended feom poeple">people</span>, but in a few of the islands the Roman Catholics
+have a great following. In the larger inhabited islands board
+schools have been established. The islands unite with the
+counties to which they belong in returning members to parliament
+(one for each shire).</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The Hebrides are mentioned by Ptolemy under the
+name of <span class="grk" title="Eboudai">&#7964;&#946;&#959;&#965;&#948;&#945;&#953;</span> and by Pliny under that of <i>Hebudes</i>, the modern
+spelling having, it is said, originated in a misprint. By the
+Norwegians they were called <i>Sudreyjar</i> or Southern Islands.
+The Latinized form was <i>Sodorenses</i>, preserved to modern times
+in the title of the bishop of Sodor and Man. The original
+inhabitants seem to have been of the same Celtic race as those
+settled on the mainland. In the 6th century Scandinavian
+hordes poured in with their northern idolatry and lust of plunder,
+but in time they adopted the language and faith of the islanders.
+Mention is made of incursions of the vikings as early as 793,
+but the principal immigration took place towards the end of
+the 9th century in the early part of the reign of Harald Fairhair,
+king of Norway, and consisted of persons driven to the Hebrides,
+as well as to Orkney and Shetland, to escape from his tyrannous
+rule. Soon afterwards they began to make incursions against
+their mother-country, and on this account Harald fitted out an
+expedition against them, and placed Orkney, Shetland, the
+Hebrides and the Isle of Man under Norwegian government.
+The chief seat of the Norwegian sovereignty was Colonsay.
+About the year 1095 Godred Crovan, king of Dublin, Man and
+the Hebrides, died in Islay. His third son, Olaf, succeeded to
+the government about 1103, and the daughter of Olaf was
+married to Somerled, who became the founder of the dynasty
+known as Lords of the Isles. Many efforts were made by the
+Scottish monarchs to displace the Norwegians. Alexander II.
+led a fleet and army to the shores of Argyllshire in 1249, but he
+died on the island of Kerrera. On the other hand, Haakon IV.,
+king of Norway, at once to restrain the independence of his
+jarls and to keep in check the ambition of the Scottish kings,
+set sail in 1263 on a great expedition, which, however, ended
+disastrously at Largs. Magnus, son of Haakon, concluded in
+1266 a peace with the Scots, renouncing all claim to the Hebrides
+and other islands except Orkney and Shetland, and Alexander
+III. agreed to give him a sum of 4000 merks in four yearly
+payments. It was also stipulated that Margaret, daughter of
+Alexander, should be betrothed to Eric, the son of Magnus,
+whom she married in 1281. She died two years later, leaving
+an only daughter afterwards known as the Maid of Norway.</p>
+
+<p>The race of Somerled continued to rule the islands, and from
+a younger son of the same potentate sprang the lords of Lorne,
+who took the patronymic of Macdougall. John Macdonald of
+Islay, who died about 1386, was the first to adopt the title of
+Lord of the Isles. He was one of the most potent of the island
+princes, and was married to a daughter of the earl of Strathearn,
+afterwards Robert II. His son, Donald of the Isles, was memorable
+for his rebellion in support of his claim to the earldom of
+Ross, in which, however, he was unsuccessful. Alexander, son
+of Donald, resumed the hereditary warfare against the Scottish
+crown; and in 1462 a treaty was concluded between Alexander&rsquo;s
+son and successor John and Edward IV. of England, by which
+John, his son John, and his cousin Donald Balloch, became
+bound to assist King Edward and James, earl of Douglas, in
+subduing the kingdom of Scotland. The alliance seems to have
+led to no active operations. In the reign of James V. another
+John of Islay resumed the title of Lord of the Isles, but was
+compelled to surrender the dignity. The glory of the lordship
+of the isles&mdash;the insular sovereignty&mdash;had departed. From
+the time of Bruce the Campbells had been gaining the ascendancy
+in Argyll. The Macleans, Macnaughtons, Maclachlans, Lamonts,
+and other ancient races had sunk before this favoured family.
+The lordship of Lorne was wrested from the Macdougalls by
+Robert Bruce, and their extensive possessions, with Dunstaffnage
+Castle, bestowed on the king&rsquo;s relative, Stewart, and his descendants,
+afterwards lords of Lorne. The Macdonalds of Sleat,
+the direct representatives of Somerled, though driven from
+Islay and deprived of supreme power by James V., still kept a
+sort of insular state in Skye. There were also the Macdonalds
+of Clanranald and Glengarry (descendants of Somerled), with
+the powerful houses of Macleod of Dunvegan and Macleod of
+Harris, M&lsquo;Neill of Barra and Maclean of Mull. Sanguinary
+feuds continued throughout the 16th and 17th centuries among
+these rival clans and their dependent tribes, and the turbulent
+spirit was not subdued till a comparatively recent period. James
+VI. made an abortive endeavour to colonize Lewis. William III.
+and Queen Anne attempted to subsidize the chiefs in order to
+preserve tranquillity, but the wars of Montrose and Dundee, and
+the Jacobite insurrections of 1715 and 1745, showed how futile
+were all such efforts. It was not till 1748, when a decisive
+blow was struck at the power of the chiefs by the abolition of
+heritable jurisdictions, and the appointment of sheriffs in the
+different districts, that the arts of peace and social improvement
+made way in these remote regions. The change was great, and
+at first not unmixed with evil. A new system of management
+and high rents <span class="correction" title="amended from were">was</span> imposed, in consequence of which numbers
+of the tacksmen, or large tenants, emigrated to North America.
+The exodus continued for many years. Sheep-farming on a large
+scale was next introduced, and the crofters were thrust into
+villages or barren corners of the land. The result was that,
+despite the numbers who entered the army or emigrated to
+Canada, the standard of civilization sank lower, and the population
+multiplied in the islands. The people came to subsist
+almost entirely on potatoes and herrings; and in 1846, when
+the potato blight began its ravages, nearly universal destitution
+ensued&mdash;embracing, over the islands generally, 70% of the
+inhabitants. Temporary relief was administered in the shape
+of employment on roads and other works; and an emigration
+fund being raised, from 4000 to 5000 of the people in the most
+crowded districts were removed to Australia. Matters, however,
+were not really mended, and in 1884 a royal commission reported
+upon the condition of the crofters of the islands and mainland.
+As a result of their inquiry the Crofters&rsquo; Holdings Act was passed
+in 1886, and in the course of a few years some improvement was
+evident and has since been sustained.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Martin Martin&rsquo;s <i>Description of the Western Islands
+of Scotland</i> (1703); T. Pennant&rsquo;s <i>Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the
+Hebrides</i> (1774); James Boswell&rsquo;s <i>Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel
+Johnson, LL.D.</i> (1898); John Macculloch&rsquo;s <i>Geological Account of the
+Hebrides</i> (1819); Hugh Miller&rsquo;s <i>Cruise of the &ldquo;Betsy&rdquo;</i> (1858); W. A.
+Smith&rsquo;s <i>Lewisiana, or Life in the Outer Hebrides</i> (1874); Alexander
+Smith, <i>A Summer in Skye</i> (1865); Robert Buchanan, <i>The Hebrid
+Isles</i> (1883); C. F. Gordon-Cumming, <i>In the Hebrides</i> (1883); <i>Report
+of the Crofters&rsquo; Commission</i> (1884); A. Goodrich-Freer, <i>Outer Isles</i>
+(1902); and W. C. Mackenzie, <i>History of the Outer Hebrides</i> (1903).
+Their history under Norwegian rule is given in the <i>Chronica regum
+Manniae et insularum</i>, edited, with learned notes, from the MS. in
+the British Museum by Professor P. A. Münch of Christiania (1860).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEBRON<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (mod. <i>Khul&#299;l er-Rahm&#257;n</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;the friend of the
+Merciful One&rdquo;&mdash;an allusion to Abraham), a city of Palestine
+some 20 m. S. by S.W. of Jerusalem. The city, which lies 3040 ft.
+above the sea, is of extreme antiquity (see Num. xiii. 22, and
+Josephus, <i>War</i>, iv. 9, 7) and until taken by the Calebites (Josh. xv.
+13) bore the name Kirjath-Arba. Biblical traditions connect it
+closely with the patriarch Abraham and make it a &ldquo;city of
+refuge.&rdquo; The town figures prominently under David as the
+headquarters of his early rule, the scene of Abner&rsquo;s murder
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span>
+and the centre of Absalom&rsquo;s rebellion. In later days the Edomites
+held it for a time, but Judas Maccabaeus recovered it.
+It was destroyed in the great war under Vespasian. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1167
+Hebron became the see of a Latin bishop, and it was taken in
+1187 by Saladin. In 1834 it joined the rebellion against Ibrahim
+Pasha, who took the town and pillaged it. Modern Hebron rises
+on the east slope of a shallow valley&mdash;a long narrow town of
+stone houses, the flat roofs having small stone domes. The
+main quarter is about 700 yds. long, and two smaller groups of
+houses exist north and south of this. The hill behind is terraced,
+and luxuriant vineyards and fruit plantations surround the place,
+which is well watered on the north by three principal springs,
+including the Well Sirah, now &lsquo;Ain S&#257;ra (2 Sam. iii. 26). Three
+conspicuous minarets rise, two from the <i>Haram</i>, the other in
+the north quarter. The population (10,000) includes Moslems
+and about 500 Jews. The Bedouins bring wool and camel&rsquo;s
+hair to the market; and glass bracelets, lamps and leather water-skins
+are manufactured in the town. The most conspicuous
+building is the <i>Haram</i> built over the supposed site of the cave of
+Machpelah. It is an enclosure measuring 112 ft. east and west
+by 198 north and south, surrounded with high rampart walls of
+masonry <span class="correction" title="amended from similiar">similar</span> in size and dressing to that of the Jerusalem
+Haram walls. These ramparts are ascribed by architectural
+authorities to the Herodian period. The interior area is partly
+occupied by a 12th-century Gothic church, and contains six
+modern cenotaphs of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebecca
+and Leah. The cave beneath the platform has probably not
+been entered for at least 600 years. The numerous traditional
+sites now shown round Hebron are traceable generally to medieval
+legendary topography; they include the Oak of Mamre (Gen. xiii.
+18 R.V.) which has at various times been shown in different
+positions from ¾ to 2 m. from the town.</p>
+
+<p>There are a British medical mission, a German Protestant
+mission with church and schools, and, near Abraham&rsquo;s Oak, a
+Russian mission. Since 1880 several notices of the Haram,
+within which are the tombs of the Patriarchs, have appeared.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. R. Conder, Pal. Exp. Fund, <i>Memoirs</i>, iii. 333, &amp;c.; Riant,
+<i>Archives de l&rsquo;orient latin</i>, ii. 411, &amp;c.; Dalton and Chaplin, <i>P.E.F.
+Quarterly Statement</i> (1897); Goldziher, &ldquo;Das Patriarchengrab in
+Hebron,&rdquo; in <i>Zeitschrift d. Dn. Pal. Vereins</i>, xvii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HECATAEUS OF ABDERA<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (or of Teos), Greek historian and
+Sceptic philosopher, flourished in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He
+accompanied Ptolemy I. Soter in an expedition to Syria, and
+sailed up the Nile with him as far as Thebes (Diogenes Laërtius
+ix. 61). The result of his travels was set down by him in two
+works&mdash;<span class="grk" title="Aiguptiaka">&#913;&#7984;&#947;&#965;&#960;&#964;&#953;&#945;&#954;&#940;</span> and <span class="grk" title="Peri Uperboreôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#8025;&#960;&#949;&#961;&#946;&#959;&#961;&#941;&#969;&#957;</span>, which were used
+by Diodorus Siculus. According to Suidas, he also wrote a
+treatise on the poetry of Hesiod and Homer. Regarding his
+authorship of a work on the Jews (utilized by Josephus in <i>Contra
+Apionem</i>), it is conjectured that portions of the <span class="grk" title="Aiguptiaka">&#913;&#7984;&#947;&#965;&#960;&#964;&#953;&#945;&#954;&#940;</span>
+were revised by a Hellenistic Jew from his point of view and
+published as a special work.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in C. W. Müller&rsquo;s <i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HECATAEUS OF MILETUS<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (6th-5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek
+historian, son of Hegesander, flourished during the time of the
+Persian invasion. After having travelled extensively, he settled
+in his native city, where he occupied a high position, and devoted
+his time to the composition of geographical and historical works.
+When Aristagoras held a council of the leading Ionians at
+Miletus, to organize a revolt against the Persian rule, Hecataeus
+in vain tried to dissuade his countrymen from the undertaking
+(Herodotus v. 36, 125). In 494, when the defeated Ionians were
+obliged to sue for terms, he was one of the ambassadors to the
+Persian satrap Artaphernes, whom he persuaded to restore the
+constitution of the Ionic cities (Diod. Sic. x. 25). He is by some
+credited with a work entitled <span class="grk" title="Gês periodos">&#915;&#8134;&#962; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#943;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;Travels round the
+Earth&rdquo;), in two books, one on Europe, the other on Asia, in
+which were described the countries and inhabitants of the
+known world, the account of Egypt being especially comprehensive;
+the descriptive matter was accompanied by a
+map, based upon Anaximander&rsquo;s map of the earth, which he
+corrected and enlarged. The authenticity of the work is, however,
+strongly attacked by J. Wells in the <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>,
+xxix. pt. i. 1909. The only certainly genuine work of Hecataeus
+was the <span class="grk" title="Geneêlogiai">&#915;&#949;&#957;&#949;&#951;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span> or <span class="grk" title="Historiai">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span>, a systematic account of the
+traditions and mythology of the Greeks. He was probably the
+first to attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical
+method to distinguish myth from historical fact, though he
+accepts Homer and the other poets as trustworthy authority.
+Herodotus, though he once at least controverts his statements, is
+indebted to Hecataeus not only for facts, but also in regard of
+method and general scheme, but the extent of the debt depends
+on the genuineness of the <span class="grk" title="Gês periodos">&#915;&#8134;&#962; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#943;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See fragments in C. W. Müller, <i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum</i>, i.;
+H. Berger, <i>Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen</i>
+(1903); E. H. Bunbury, <i>History of Ancient Geography</i>, i.; W. Mure,
+<i>History of Greek Literature</i>, iv.; especially J. V. Pra&#353;ek, <i>Hekataios
+als Herodots Quelle zur Geschichte Vorderasiens. Beiträge zur alten
+Geschichte</i> (<i>Klio</i>), iv. 193 seq. (1904), and J. Wells in <i>Journ. Hell.
+Stud.</i>, as above.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HECATE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Hekatê">&#7961;&#954;&#945;&#964;&#942;</span>, &ldquo;she who works from afar&rdquo;<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), a goddess
+in Greek mythology. According to the generally accepted view,
+she is of Hellenic origin, but Farnell regards her as a foreign
+importation from Thrace, the home of Bendis, with whom Hecate
+has many points in common. She is not mentioned in the <i>Iliad</i>
+or the <i>Odyssey</i>, but in Hesiod (<i>Theogony</i>, 409) she is the daughter
+of the Titan Perses and Asterie, in a passage which may be a
+later interpolation by the Orphists (for other genealogies see
+Steuding in Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon</i>). She is there represented as a
+mighty goddess, having power over heaven, earth and sea;
+hence she is the bestower of wealth and all the blessings of daily
+life. The range of her influence is most varied, extending to war,
+athletic games, the tending of cattle, hunting, the assembly of
+the people and the law-courts. Hecate is frequently identified
+with Artemis, an identification usually justified by the assumption
+that both were moon-goddesses. Farnell, who regards
+Artemis as originally an earth-goddess, while recognizing a
+&ldquo;genuine lunar element&rdquo; in Hecate from the 5th century,
+considers her a chthonian rather than a lunar divinity (see also
+Warr in <i>Classical Review</i>, ix. 390). He is of opinion that neither
+borrowed much from, nor exercised much influence on, the cult
+and character of the other.</p>
+
+<p>Hecate is the chief goddess who presides over magic arts and
+spells, and in this connexion she is the mother of the sorceresses
+Circe and Medea. She is constantly invoked, in the well-known
+idyll (ii.) of Theocritus, in the incantation to bring back a woman&rsquo;s
+faithless lover. As a chthonian power, she is worshipped at the
+Samothracian mysteries, and is closely connected with Demeter.
+Alone of the gods besides Helios, she witnessed the abduction of
+Persephone, and, torch in hand (a natural symbol for the moon&rsquo;s
+light, but see Farnell), assisted Demeter in her search for her
+daughter. On moonlight nights she is seen at the cross-roads
+(hence her name <span class="grk" title="trioditis">&#964;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#948;&#8150;&#964;&#953;&#962;</span>, Lat. <i>Trivia</i>) accompanied by the
+dogs of the Styx and crowds of the dead. Here, on the last day
+of the month, eggs and fish were offered to her. Black puppies
+and she-lambs (black victims being offered to chthonian deities)
+were also sacrificed (Schol. on Theocritus ii. 12). Pillars
+like the Hermae, called Hecataea, stood, especially in Athens,
+at cross-roads and doorways, perhaps to keep away the spirits
+of evil. Like Artemis, Hecate is also a goddess of fertility,
+presiding especially over the birth and the youth of wild animals,
+and over human birth and marriage. She also attends when the
+soul leaves the body at death, and is found near graves, and on
+the hearth, where the master of the house was formerly buried.
+It is to be noted that Hecate plays little or no part in mythological
+legend. Her worship seems to have flourished especially in the
+wilder parts of Greece, such as Samothrace and Thessaly, in
+Caria and on the coasts of Asia Minor. In Greece proper it
+prevailed on the east coast and especially in Aegina, where
+her aid was invoked against madness.</p>
+
+<p>In older times Hecate is represented as single-formed, clad in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span>
+a long robe, holding burning torches; later she becomes <i>triformis</i>,
+&ldquo;triple-formed,&rdquo; with three bodies standing back to back&mdash;corresponding,
+according to those who regard her as a moon-goddess,
+to the new, the full and the waning moon. In her six
+hands are torches, sometimes a snake, a key (as wardress of the
+lower world), a whip or a dagger; her favourite animal was
+the dog, which was sacrificed to her&mdash;an indication of her non-Hellenic
+origin, since this animal very rarely fills this part in
+genuine Greek ritual.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Steuding in Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon</i>, where the functions of
+Hecate are systematically derived from the conception of her as a
+moon-goddess; L. R. Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, ii., where this
+view is examined; P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire
+des antiquités</i>; O. Gruppe, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>, ii. (1906) p. 1288.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> J. B. Bury, in <i>Classical Review</i>, iii. p. 416, suggests that the name
+means &ldquo;dog,&rdquo; against which see J. H. Vince, ib. iv. p. 47. G. C.
+Warr, ib. ix. 390, takes the Hesiodic Hecate to be a moon-goddess,
+daughter of the sun-god Perseus.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HECATOMB<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hekatombê">&#7953;&#954;&#945;&#964;&#972;&#956;&#946;&#951;</span> from <span class="grk" title="hekaton">&#7953;&#954;&#945;&#964;&#972;&#957;</span>, a hundred, and
+<span class="grk" title="bous">&#946;&#959;&#8166;&#962;</span>, an ox), originally the sacrifice of a hundred oxen in the
+religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans; later a large
+number of any kind of animals devoted for sacrifice. Figuratively,
+&ldquo;hecatomb&rdquo; is used to describe the sacrifice or destruction
+by fire, tempest, disease or the sword of any large number
+of persons or animals; and also of the wholesale destruction of
+inanimate objects, and even of mental and moral attributes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HECATO OF RHODES,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> Greek Stoic philosopher and disciple
+of Panaetius (Cicero, <i>De officiis</i>, iii. 15). Nothing else is known
+of his life, but it is clear that he was eminent amongst the Stoics
+of the period. He was a voluminous writer, but nothing remains.
+A list is preserved by Diogenes, who mentions works on <i>Duty</i>,
+<i>Good</i>, <i>Virtues</i>, <i>Ends</i>. The first, dedicated to Tubero, is eulogized
+by Cicero in the <i>De officiis</i>, and Seneca refers to him frequently
+in the <i>De beneficiis</i>. According to Diogenes Laërtius, he divided
+the virtues into two kinds, those founded on scientific intellectual
+principles (<i>i.e.</i> wisdom and justice), and those which have no
+such basis (<i>e.g.</i> temperance and the resultant health and vigour).
+Cicero shows that he was much interested in casuistical questions,
+as, for example, whether a good man who had received a coin
+which he knew to be bad was justified in passing it on to another.
+On the whole, his moral attitude is cynical, and he is inclined
+to regard self-interest as the best criterion. This he modifies
+by explaining that self-interest is based on the relationships of
+life; a man needs money for the sake of his children, his friends
+and the state whose general prosperity depends on the wealth
+of its citizens. Like the earlier Stoics, Cleanthes and Chrysippus,
+he held that virtue may be taught. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stoics</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Panaetius</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1811-1881), German
+revolutionist, was born at Eichtersheim in the Palatinate on
+the 28th of September 1811, his father being a revenue official.
+He studied law with the intention of becoming an advocate,
+but soon became absorbed in politics. On entering the Second
+Chamber of Baden in 1842, he at once began to take part in the
+opposition against the government, which assumed a more and
+more openly Radical character, and in the course of which his
+talents as an agitator and his personal charm won him wide
+popularity and influence. A speech, denouncing the projected
+incorporation of Schleswig and Holstein with Denmark, delivered
+in the Chamber of Baden on the 6th of February 1845, spread his
+fame beyond the limits of his own state, and his popularity was
+increased by his expulsion from Prussia on the occasion of a
+journey to Stettin. After the death of his more moderate-minded
+friend Adolf Sander (March 9th, 1845), Hecker&rsquo;s tone
+towards the government became more and more bitter. In
+spite of the shallowness and his culture and his extremely weak
+character, he enjoyed an ever-increasing popularity. Even before
+the outbreak of the revolution he included Socialistic claims
+in his programme. In 1847 he was temporarily occupied with
+ideas of emigration, and with this object made a journey to
+Algiers, but returned to Baden and resumed his former position
+as the Radical champion of popular rights, later becoming
+president of the <i>Volksverein</i>, where he was destined to fall still
+further under the influence of the agitator Gustav von Struve.
+In conjunction with Struve he drew up the Radical programme
+carried at the great Liberal meeting held at Offenburg on the
+12th of September 1847 (entitled &ldquo;Thirteen Claims put forward
+by the People of Baden&rdquo;). In addition to the Offenburg programme,
+the <i>Sturmpetition</i> of the 1st of March 1848 attempted
+to extort from the government the most far-reaching concessions.
+But it was in vain that on becoming a deputy Hecker endeavoured
+to carry out its impracticable provisions. He had
+to yield to the more moderate majority, but on this account was
+driven still further towards the Left. The proof lies in the new
+Offenburg demands of the 19th of March, and in the resolution
+moved by Hecker in the preliminary parliament of Frankfort that
+Germany should be declared a republic. But neither in Baden
+nor Frankfort did he at any time gain his point.</p>
+
+<p>This double failure, combined with various energetic measures
+of the government, which were indirectly aimed at him (<i>e.g.</i> the
+arrest of the editor of the <i>Constanzer Seeblatt</i>, a friend of Hecker&rsquo;s,
+in Karlsruhe station on the 8th of April), inspired Hecker with
+the idea of an armed rising under pretext of the foundation of
+the German republic. The 9th to the 11th of April was secretly
+spent in preliminaries. On the 12th of April Hecker and Struve
+sent a proclamation to the inhabitants of the <i>Seekreis</i> and of the
+Black Forest &ldquo;to summon the people who can bear arms to
+Donaueschingen at mid-day on the 14th, with arms, ammunition
+and provisions for six days.&rdquo; They expected 70,000 men, but
+only a few thousand appeared. The grand-ducal government
+of the <i>Seekreis</i> was dissolved, and Hecker gradually gained
+reinforcements. But friendly advisers also joined him, pointing
+out the risks of his undertaking. Hecker, however, was not at
+all ready to listen to them; on the contrary, he added to violence
+an absurd defiance, and offered an amnesty to the German princes
+on condition of their retiring within fourteen days into private
+life. The troops of Baden and Hesse marched against him,
+under the command of General Friedrich von Gagern, and on
+the 20th of April they met near Kandern, where Gagern was
+killed, it is true, but Hecker was completely defeated.</p>
+
+<p>Like many of the revolutionaries of that period, Hecker retired
+to Switzerland. He was, it is true, again elected to the Chamber
+of Baden by the circle of Thiengen, but the government, no
+longer willing to respect his immunity as a deputy, refused its
+ratification. On this account Hecker resolved in September
+1848 to emigrate to North America, and obtained possession of
+a farm near Belleville in the state of Illinois.</p>
+
+<p>During the second rising in Baden in the spring of 1849 he
+again made efforts to obtain a footing in his own state, but without
+success. He only came as far as Strassburg, but had to
+retreat before the victories of the Prussian troops over the Baden
+insurgents.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to America he won some distinction during the
+Civil War as colonel of a regiment which he had himself got
+together on the Federal side in 1861 and 1864. It was with
+great joy that he heard of the union of Germany brought about
+by the victory over France in 1870-71. It was then that
+he made his famous festival speech at St Louis, in which he
+gave an animated expression to the enthusiasm of the German
+Americans for their newly-united fatherland. He received a
+less favourable impression during a journey he made in Germany
+in 1873. He died at St Louis on the 24th of March 1881.</p>
+
+<p>Hecker was always very much beloved of all the German
+democrats. The song and the hat named after him (the latter
+a broad slouch hat with a feather) became famous as the symbols
+of the middle-classes in revolt. In America, too, he had won
+great esteem, not only on political grounds but also for his
+personal qualities.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Hecker, <i>Die Erhebung des Volkes in Baden für die deutsche
+Republik</i> (Baden, 1848); F. Hecker, <i>Reden und Vorlesungen</i> (Neerstadt
+a. d. H., 1872); F. v. Weech, <i>Badische Biographien</i>, iv. (1891);
+L. Mathy, <i>Aus dem Nachlasse von K. Matty, Briefe aus den Jahren
+1846-1848</i> (Leipzig, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Hn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1819-1888), American Roman
+Catholic priest, the founder of the &ldquo;Paulist Fathers,&rdquo; was
+born in New York City, of German immigrant parents, on the
+18th of December 1819. When barely twelve years of age,
+he had to go to work, and pushed a baker&rsquo;s cart for his elder
+brothers, who had a bakery in Rutgers Street. But he studied
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span>
+at every possible opportunity, becoming immersed in Kant&rsquo;s
+<i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, and while still a lad took part in certain
+politico-social movements which aimed at the elevation of the
+working man. It was at this juncture that he met Orestes
+Brownson, who exercised a marked influence over him. Isaac
+was deeply religious, a characteristic for which he gave much
+credit to his prayerful mother, and remained so amid all the
+reading and agitating in which he engaged. Having grown
+into young manhood, he joined the Brook Farm movement,
+and in that colony he tarried some six months. Shortly after
+leaving it (in 1844) he was baptized into the Roman Catholic
+Church by Bishop McCloskey of New York. One year later
+he was entered in the novitiate of the Redemptorists in Belgium,
+and there he cultivated to a high degree the spirit of lofty
+mystical piety which marked him through life.</p>
+
+<p>Ordained a priest in London by Wiseman in 1849, he returned
+to America, and worked until 1857 as a Redemptorist missionary.
+With all his mysticism, Isaac Hecker had the wide-awake mind
+of the typical American, and he perceived that the missionary
+activity of the Catholic Church in the United States must
+remain to a large extent ineffective unless it adopted methods
+suited to the country and the age. In this he had the sympathy
+of four fellow Redemptorists, who like himself were of American
+birth and converts from Protestantism. Acting as their agent,
+and with the consent of his local superiors, Hecker went to Rome
+to beg of the Rector Major of his Order that a Redemptorist
+novitiate might be opened in the United States, in order thus to
+attract American youths to the missionary life. In furtherance
+of this request, he took with him the strong approval of some
+members of the American hierarchy. The Rector Major, instead
+of listening to Father Hecker, expelled him from the Order for
+having made the journey to Rome without sufficient authorization.
+The outcome of the trouble was that Hecker and the other
+four American Redemptorists were permitted by Pius IX. in 1858
+to form the separate religious community of the Paulists. Hecker
+trained and governed this community in spiritual exercises and
+mission-preaching until his death in New York City, after
+seventeen years of suffering, on the 22nd of December 1888.
+He founded and was the director of the Catholic Publication
+Society, was the founder, and from 1865 until his death the
+editor, of the <i>Catholic World</i>, and wrote <i>Questions of the Soul</i>
+(1855), <i>Aspirations of Nature</i> (1857), <i>Catholicity in the United
+States</i> (1879) and <i>The Church and the Age</i> (1888).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The name of Hecker is closely associated with that of &ldquo;Americanism.&rdquo;
+To understand this movement it is necessary to comprehend
+the tendency of events in Catholic Europe rather than in America
+itself. The steady decline in the power and influence of French
+Catholicism since shortly after 1870 is the most remarkable feature
+of the history of the Third Republic. Not only did the French State
+pass laws bearing more and more stringently on the Church, under
+each succeeding ministry, but the bulk of the people acquiesced in the
+policy of its legislators. The clergy, if not Catholicism, was rapidly
+losing its hold over the once Catholic nation. Observing this fact,
+and encouraged by the action of Leo XIII., who, in 1892 called on
+French Catholics loyally to accept the Republic, a body of vigorous
+young French priests set themselves to check the disaster. They
+studied the causes which produced it. These causes, they considered
+to be, first, the clergy&rsquo;s predominant sympathy with the monarchists,
+and in its undisguised hostility to the Republic; secondly, the
+Church&rsquo;s aloofness from modern men, methods and thought. The
+progressive party believed that there was too little cultivation of
+individual, independent character, while too much stress was laid
+upon what might be called the mechanical or routine side of religion.
+The party perceived, too, that Catholicism was making scarcely
+any use of modern aggressive modes of propaganda; that, for
+example, the Church took but an insignificant part in social movements,
+in the organization of clubs for social study, in the establishing
+of settlements and similar philanthropic endeavour. Lack of
+adaptability to modern needs expresses in short the deficiencies in
+Catholicism which these men endeavoured to correct. They began
+a domestic apostolate which had for one of its rallying cries, &ldquo;<i>Allons
+au peuple</i>,&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;Let us go to the people.&rdquo; They agitated for the
+inauguration of social works, for a more intimate mingling of priests
+with the people, and for general cultivation of personal initiative,
+both in clergy and in laity.</p>
+
+<p>Not unnaturally, they looked for inspiration to America. There
+they saw a vigorous Church among a free people, with priests
+publicly respected, and with a note of aggressive zeal in every
+project of Catholic enterprise. From the American priesthood,
+Father Hecker stood out conspicuous for sturdy courage, deep
+interior piety, an assertive self-initiative and immense love of modern
+times and modern liberty. So they took Father Hecker for a kind
+of patron saint. His biography (New York, 1891), written in English
+by the Paulist Father Elliott, was translated into French (1897),
+and speedily became the book of the hour. Under the inspiration
+of Father Hecker&rsquo;s life and character, the more spirited section of
+the French clergy undertook the task of persuading their fellow-priests
+loyally to accept the actual political establishment, and then,
+breaking out of their isolation, to put themselves in touch with the
+intellectual life of the country, and take an active part in the work of
+social amelioration.</p>
+
+<p>In 1897 the movement received an impetus&mdash;and a warning&mdash;when
+Mgr O&rsquo;Connell, former Rector of the American College in
+Rome, spoke on behalf of Father Hecker&rsquo;s ideas at the Catholic
+Congress in Friburg. The conservatives took alarm at what they
+considered to be symptoms of pernicious modernism or &ldquo;Liberalism.&rdquo;
+Did not the watchword &ldquo;<i>Allons au peuple</i>&rdquo; savour of heresy?
+Did it not tend toward breaking down the divinely established
+distinction between the priest and the layman, and conceding
+something to the laity in the management of the Church? The
+insistence upon individual initiative was judged to be incompatible
+with the fundamental principle of Catholicism, obedience to authority.
+Moreover, the conservatives were, almost to a man, anti-republicans
+who distrusted and disliked the democratic abbés. Complaints
+were sent to Rome. A violent polemic against the new movement
+was launched in Abbé Maignan&rsquo;s <i>Le père Hecker, est-il un saint?</i>
+(1898). Repugnance to American tendencies and influences had a
+strong representation in the Curia and in powerful circles in Rome.
+Leo XIII. was extremely reluctant to pronounce any strictures
+upon American Catholics, of whose loyalty to the Roman See, and
+to their faith, he had often spoken in terms of high approbation.
+But he yielded, in a measure, to the pressure brought to bear upon
+him, and, early in February 1899, addressed to Cardinal Gibbons the
+Brief <i>Testem Benevolentiae</i>. This document contained a condemnation
+of the following doctrines or tendencies: (<i>a</i>) undue insistence
+on interior initiative in the spiritual life, as leading to disobedience;
+(<i>b</i>) attacks on religious vows, and disparagement of the value in the
+present age, of religious orders; (<i>c</i>) minimizing Catholic doctrine;
+(<i>d</i>) minimizing the importance of spiritual direction. The brief did
+not assert that any unsound doctrine on the above points had been
+held by Hecker or existed among Americans. Its tenour was, that
+if such opinions did exist, the Pope called upon the hierarchy to
+eradicate the evil. Cardinal Gibbons and many other prelates
+replied to Rome. With all but unanimity, they declared that the
+incriminated opinions had no existence among American Catholics.
+It was well known that Hecker never had countenanced the slightest
+departure from Catholic principles in their fullest and most strict
+application. The disturbance caused by the condemnation was
+slight; almost the entire laity, and a considerable part of the clergy,
+never understood what the noise was about. The affair was soon
+forgotten, but the result was to strengthen the hands of the conservatives
+in France.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. J. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HECKMONDWIKE,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> an urban district in the Spen Valley
+parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
+8 m. S.S.E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire, Great
+Northern, and London &amp; North-Western railways. Pop. (1901),
+9459. Like the town of Dewsbury, on the south-east, it is an
+important centre of the blanket and carpet manufactures, and
+there are also machine works, dye works and iron foundries.
+Coal is extensively wrought in the vicinity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HECTOR,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> in Greek mythology, son of Priam and Hecuba, the
+husband of Andromache. Like Paris and other Trojans, he had
+an Oriental name, Darius. In Homer he is represented as an
+ideal warrior, the champion of the Trojans and the mainstay of
+the city. His character, is drawn in most favourable colours as
+a good son, a loving husband and father, and a trusty friend.
+His leave-taking of Andromache in the sixth book of the <i>Iliad</i>,
+and his departure to meet Achilles for the last time, are most
+touchingly described. He is an especial favourite of Apollo;
+and later poets even describe him as son of that god. His chief
+exploits during the war were his defence of the wounded Sarpedon,
+his fight with Ajax, son of Telamon (his particular enemy), and
+the storming of the Greek ramparts. When Achilles, enraged
+with Agamemnon, deserted the Greeks, Hector drove them back
+to their ships, which he almost succeeded in burning. Patroclus,
+the friend of Achilles, who came to the help of the Greeks, was
+slain by Hector with the help of Apollo. Then Achilles, to
+revenge his friend&rsquo;s death, returned to the war, slew Hector,
+dragged his body behind his chariot to the camp, and afterwards
+round the tomb of Patroclus. Aphrodite and Apollo preserved
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span>
+it from corruption and mutilation. Priam, guarded by Hermes,
+went to Achilles and prevailed on him to give back the body,
+which was buried with great honour. Hector was afterwards
+worshipped in the Troad by the Boeotian tribe Gephyraei, who
+offered sacrifices at his grave.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HECUBA<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Hekabê">&#7961;&#954;&#940;&#946;&#951;</span>), wife of Priam, daughter of the Phrygian
+king Dymas (or of Cisseus, or of the river-god Sangarius).
+According to Homer she was the mother of nineteen of Priam&rsquo;s
+fifty sons. When Troy was captured and Priam slain, she was
+made prisoner by the Greeks. Her fate is told in various ways,
+most of which connect her with the promontory Cynossema,
+on the Thracian shore of the Hellespont. According to Euripides
+(in the <i>Hecuba</i>), her youngest son Polydorus had been placed
+during the siege of Troy under the care of Polymestor, king of
+Thrace. When the Greeks reached the Thracian Chersonese
+on their way home Hecuba discovered that her son had been
+murdered, and in revenge put out the eyes of Polymestor and
+murdered his two sons. She was acquitted by Agamemnon;
+but, as Polymestor foretold, she was turned into a dog, and her
+grave became a mark for ships (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xiii. 399-575;
+Juvenal x. 271 and Mayor&rsquo;s note). According to another story,
+she fell to the lot of Odysseus, as a slave, and in despair threw
+herself into the Hellespont; or, she used such insulting language
+towards her captors that they put her to death (Dictys Cretensis
+v. 13. 16). It is obvious from the tales of Hecuba&rsquo;s transformation
+and death that she is a form of some goddess
+to whom dogs were sacred; and the analogy with Scylla is
+striking.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1504-<i>c.</i> 1670), Dutch painter,
+born at Haarlem, was one of the earliest Dutchmen who devoted
+himself exclusively to the painting of still life. He was the
+contemporary and comrade of Dirk Hals, with whom he had
+in common pictorial touch and technical execution. But Heda
+was more careful and finished than Hals, and showed considerable
+skill and not a little taste in arranging and colouring
+chased cups and beakers and tankards of precious and inferior
+metals. Nothing is so appetizing as his &ldquo;luncheon,&rdquo; with rare
+comestibles set out upon rich plate, oysters&mdash;seldom without
+the cut lemon&mdash;bread, champagne, olives and pastry. Even
+the commoner &ldquo;refection&rdquo; is also not without charm, as it
+comprises a cut ham, bread, walnuts and beer. One of Heda&rsquo;s
+early masterpieces, dated 1623, in the Munich Pinakothek is
+as homely as a later one of 1651 in the Liechtenstein Gallery at
+Vienna. A more luxurious repast is a &ldquo;Luncheon in the Augsburg
+Gallery,&rdquo; dated 1644. Most of Heda&rsquo;s pictures are on the
+European continent, notably in the galleries of Paris, Parma,
+Ghent, Darmstadt, Gotha, Munich and Vienna. He was a
+man of repute in his native city, and filled all the offices of dignity
+and trust in the gild of Haarlem. He seems to have had considerable
+influence in forming the younger Frans Hals.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1828-1897), Scottish
+mineralogist, was born at Hoy in Orkney on the 28th of April
+1828. After receiving his early education at the Edinburgh
+academy, he entered as a medical student at the university in
+that city, and subsequently studied chemistry and mineralogy
+at Klausthal and Freiburg. In 1851 he took his degree of M.D.
+at Edinburgh, and for about five years practised there. Medical
+work, however, possessed for him little attraction; he became
+assistant to Prof. Connell, who held the chair of chemistry at
+St Andrews, and in 1862 succeeded him as professor. This post
+he held until in 1880 he was invited to report on some gold mines
+in South Africa. On his return he devoted himself with great
+assiduity to mineralogy, and formed one of the finest collections
+by means of personal exploration in almost every part of Scotland.
+His specimens are now in the Royal Scottish Museum at
+Edinburgh. It had been his intention to publish a comprehensive
+work on the mineralogy of Scotland. This he did not live to
+complete, but the MSS. fell into able hands, and <i>The Mineralogy
+of Scotland</i>, in 2 vols., edited by J. G. Goodchild, was issued
+in 1901. Heddle was one of the founders of the Mineralogical
+Society, and he contributed many articles on Scottish minerals,
+and on the geology of the northern parts of Scotland, to the
+<i>Mineralogical Magazine</i>, as well as to the <i>Transactions of the
+Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>. He died on the 19th of November
+1897.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Dr Heddle and his Geological Work</i> (with portrait), by J. G.
+Goodchild, <i>Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc.</i> (1898) vii. 317.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEDGEHOG,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Urchin</span>, a member of the mammalian order
+Insectivora, remarkable for its dentition, its armature of spines
+and its short tail. The upper jaw is longer than the lower, the
+snout is long and flexible, with the nostrils narrow, and the
+claws are long but weak. The animal is about 10 in. long,
+its eyes are small, and the lower surface covered with hairs of
+the ordinary character. The brain is remarkable for its low
+development, the cerebral hemispheres being small, and marked
+with but one groove, and that a shallow one, on each side. The
+hedgehog has the power of rolling itself up into a ball, from
+which the spines stand out in every direction. The spines are
+sharp, hard and elastic, and form so efficient a defence that
+there are few animals able to effect a successful attack on this
+creature. The moment it is touched, or even hears the report of
+a gun, it rolls itself up by the action of the muscles beneath
+the skin, while this contraction effects the erection of the spines.
+The most important muscle is the <i>orbicularis panniculi</i>, which
+extends over the anterior region of the skull, as far down the body
+as the ventral hairy region, and on to the tail, but three other
+muscles aid in the contraction.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:305px" src="images/img196.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">The Hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus europaeus</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Though insectivorous, the hedgehog is reported to have a
+liking for mice, while frogs and toads, as well as plants and fruits,
+all seem to be acceptable. It will also eat snakes, and its fondness
+for eggs has caused it to meet with the enmity of game-preservers;
+and there is no doubt it occasionally attacks leverets
+and game-chicks. In a state of nature it does not emerge from
+its retreat during daylight, unless urged by hunger or by the
+necessities of its young. During winter it passes into a state
+of hibernation, when its temperature falls considerably; having
+provided itself with a nest of dry leaves, it is well protected
+from the influences of the rain, and rolling itself up, remains
+undisturbed till warmer weather returns. In July or August
+the female brings forth four to eight young, or, according to
+others, two to four at a somewhat earlier period; at birth the
+spines, which in the adult are black in the middle, are white
+and soft, but soon harden, though they do not attain their
+full size until the succeeding spring.</p>
+
+<p>The hedgehog, which is known scientifically as <i>Erinaceus
+europaeus</i>, and is the type of the family <i>Erinaceidae</i>, is found
+in woods and gardens, and extends over nearly the whole of
+Europe; and has been found at 6000 to 8000 ft. above the level
+of the sea. The adult is provided with thirty-six teeth; in the
+upper jaw are 6 incisors, 2 canines and 12 cheek-teeth, and in
+the lower jaw 4 incisors, 2 canines and 10 cheek-teeth. The
+genus is represented by about a score of species, ranging over
+Europe, Asia, except the Malay countries, and Africa.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEDGES AND FENCES.<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> The object of the hedge<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or fence
+(abbreviation of &ldquo;defence&rdquo;) is to mark a boundary or to enclose
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span>
+an area of land on which stock is kept. The hedge, <i>i.e.</i> a row
+of bushes or small trees, forms a characteristic feature of the
+scenery of England, especially in the midlands and south; it is
+more rarely found in other countries. Its disadvantages as a
+fence are that it is not portable, that it requires cutting and
+training while young, that it harbours weeds and vermin and
+that it occupies together with the ditch which usually borders
+it a considerable space of ground, the margins of which cannot
+be cultivated. For these reasons it is to some extent superseded
+by the fence proper, especially where shelter for cattle is not
+required. In Great Britain the hawthorn (<i>q.v.</i>) is by far the most
+important of hedge plants. Holly resembles the hawthorn
+in its amenability to pruning and in its prickly nature and
+closeness of growth, which make it an effective barrier to, and
+shelter for, stock, but it is less hardy and more slow-growing
+than the hawthorn. Hornbeam, beech, myrobalan or cherry
+plum and blackthorn also have their advantages, hornbeam
+being proof against great exposure, blackthorn thriving on poor
+land and possessing great impenetrability and so on. Box, yew,
+privet and many other plants are used for ornamental hedging;
+in the United States the osage orange and honey locust are
+favourite hedge plants. As fences, wooden posts and rails and
+stone walls may be conveniently used in districts where the
+requisite materials are plentiful. But the most modern form
+of fence is formed of wire strands either smooth or barbed (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barbed Wire</a></span>), strained between iron standards or wooden or
+concrete posts. The wire may be interwoven with vertical strands
+or, if necessary, may be kept apart by iron droppers between the
+standards. Fences of a lighter description are machine-made
+with pickets of split chestnut or other wood closely set, woven
+with a few strands of wire; they are braced by posts at intervals.</p>
+
+<p>From the fact that tramps and vagabonds frequently sleep
+under hedges the word has come to be used as a term of contempt,
+as in &ldquo;hedge-priest,&rdquo; an inferior and illiterate kind of parson
+at one time existing in England and Ireland, and in &ldquo;hedge-school,&rdquo;
+a low class school held in the open air, formerly very
+common in Ireland. From the sense of &ldquo;hedge&rdquo; as an enclosure
+or barrier the verb &ldquo;to hedge&rdquo; means to enclose, to form a
+barrier or defence, to bound or limit. As a sporting term
+the word is used in betting to mean protection from loss, by
+betting on both sides, by &ldquo;laying off&rdquo; on one side, after laying
+odds on another or vice versa. The word was early used
+figuratively in the sense of to avoid committing oneself.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See articles in the <i>Cyclopaedia of American Agriculture</i>, vol. i.,
+ed. by L. H. Bailey (New York, 1907); in the <i>Standard Cyclopaedia
+of Modern Agriculture</i>, ed. by R. P. Wright (London, 1908-1909);
+and in the <i>Encyclopaedia of Agriculture</i>, vol. ii., ed. by C. E. Green
+and D. Young (Edinburgh, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hedge is a Teutonic word, cf. Dutch <i>heg</i>, Ger. <i>Hecke</i>; the root
+appears in other English words, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;haw,&rdquo; as in &ldquo;hawthorn.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEDON,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a municipal borough in the Holderness parliamentary
+division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. E. of
+Hull by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901),
+1010. It stands in a low-lying, flat district bordering the
+Humber. It is 2 m. from the river, but was formerly reached
+by a navigable inlet, now dry, and was a considerable port.
+There is a small harbour, but the prosperity of the port has passed
+to Hull. The church of St Augustine is a splendid cruciform
+building with central tower. It is Early English, Decorated
+and Perpendicular, the tower being of the last period. The west
+front is particularly fine, and the church, with its noble proportions
+and lofty clerestories, resembles a cathedral in miniature.
+There are a manufacture of bricks and an agricultural trade.
+The corporation consists of a mayor, 3 aldermen and 9
+councillors; and possesses a remarkable ancient mace, of 15th-century
+workmanship. Area, 321 acres.</p>
+
+<p>According to tradition the men of Hedon received a charter
+of liberties from King Æthelstan, but there is no evidence to
+prove this or indeed to prove any settlement in the town until
+after the Conquest. The manor is not mentioned in the
+Domesday Survey, but formed part of the lordship of Holderness
+which William the Conqueror granted to Odo, count of Albemarle.
+A charter of Henry II., which is undated, contains the first certain
+evidence of settlement. By it the king granted to William,
+count of Albemarle, free borough rights in Hedon so that his
+burgesses there might hold of him as freely and quietly as the
+burgesses of York or Lincoln held of the king. An earlier charter
+granted to the inhabitants of York shows that these rights
+included a trade gild and freedom from many dues not only in
+England but also in France. King John in 1200 granted a
+confirmation of these liberties to Baldwin, count of Albemarle,
+and Hawisia his wife and for this second charter the burgesses
+themselves paid 70 marks. In 1272 Henry III. granted to
+Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and Avelina his wife, then lord and
+lady of the manor, the right of holding a fair at Hedon on the
+eve, day, and morrow of the feast of St Augustine and for five
+following days. After the countess&rsquo;s death the manor came to
+the hands of Edward I. In 1280 it was found by an inquisition
+that the men of Hedon &ldquo;were few and poor&rdquo; and that if the town
+were demised at a fee-farm rent the town might improve. The
+grant, however, does not appear to have been made until 1346.
+Besides this charter Edward III. also granted the burgesses the
+privilege of electing a mayor and bailiffs every year. At that time
+Hedon was one of the chief ports in the Humber, but its place was
+gradually taken by Hull after that town came into the hands of
+the king. Hedon was incorporated by Charles II. in 1661, and
+James II. in 1680 gave the burgesses another charter granting
+among other privileges that of holding two extra fairs, but of
+this they never appear to have taken advantage. The burgesses
+returned two members to parliament in 1295, and from 1547 to
+1832 when the borough was disfranchised.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Yorkshire</i>; J. R. Boyle, <i>The Early
+History of the Town and Port of Hedon</i> (Hull and York, 1895); G. H.
+Park, <i>History of the Ancient Borough of Hedon</i> (Hull, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEDONISM<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêdonê">&#7969;&#948;&#959;&#957;&#942;</span>, pleasure, from <span class="grk" title="hêdys">&#7969;&#948;&#973;&#962;</span>, sweet, pleasant),
+in ethics, a general term for all theories of conduct in which the
+criterion is pleasure of one kind or another. Hedonistic theories
+of conduct have been held from the earliest times, though they
+have been by no means of the same character. Moreover,
+hedonism has, especially by its critics, been very much misrepresented
+owing mainly to two simple misconceptions. In the
+first place hedonism may confine itself to the view that, as a
+matter of observed fact, all men do in practice make pleasure the
+criterion of action, or it may go further and assert that men ought
+to seek pleasure as the sole human good. The former statement
+takes no view as to whether or not there is any absolute good:
+if merely denies that men aim at anything more than pleasure.
+The latter statement admits an ideal, <i>summum bonum</i>&mdash;namely,
+pleasure. The second confusion is the tacit assumption that the
+pleasure of the hedonist is necessarily or characteristically of a
+purely physical kind; this assumption is in the case of some
+hedonistic theories a pure perversion of the facts. Practically all
+hedonists have argued that what are known as the &ldquo;lower&rdquo;
+pleasures are not only ephemeral in themselves but also productive
+of so great an amount of consequent pain that the wise
+man cannot regard them as truly pleasurable; the sane hedonist
+will, therefore, seek those so-called &ldquo;higher&rdquo; pleasures which
+are at once more lasting and less likely to be discounted by
+consequent pain. It should be observed, however, that this
+choice of pleasures by a hedonist is conditioned not by &ldquo;moral&rdquo;
+(absolute) but by prudential (relative) considerations.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest and the most extreme type of hedonism is that
+of the Cyrenaic School as stated by Aristippus, who argued that
+the only good for man is the sentient pleasure of the moment.
+Since (following Protagoras) knowledge is solely of momentary
+sensations, it is useless to try, as Socrates recommended, to make
+calculations as to future pleasures, and to balance present enjoyment
+with disagreeable consequences. The true art of life is to
+crowd as much enjoyment as possible into every moment. This
+extreme or &ldquo;pure&rdquo; hedonism regarded as a definite philosophic
+theory practically died with the Cyrenaics, though the same
+spirit has frequently found expression in ancient and modern,
+especially poetical, literature.</p>
+
+<p>The confusion already alluded to between &ldquo;pure&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;rational&rdquo; hedonism is nowhere more clearly exemplified than
+in the misconceptions which have arisen as to the doctrine of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span>
+the Epicureans. To identify Epicureanism with Cyrenaicism
+is a complete misunderstanding. It is true that pleasure is the
+<i>summum bonum</i> of Epicurus, but his conception of that pleasure
+is profoundly modified by the Socratic doctrine of prudence
+and the eudaemonism of Aristotle. The true hedonist will aim
+at a life of enduring rational happiness; pleasure is the end of
+life, but true pleasure can be obtained only under the guidance
+of reason. Self-control in the choice of pleasures with a view
+to reducing pain to a minimum is indispensable. &ldquo;Of all this,
+the beginning, and the greatest good, is prudence.&rdquo; The negative
+side of Epicurean hedonism was developed to such an extent by
+some members of the school (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hegesias</a></span>) that the ideal life
+is held to be rather indifference to pain than positive enjoyment.
+This pessimistic attitude is far removed from the positive
+hedonism of Aristippus.</p>
+
+<p>Between the hedonism of the ancients and that of modern
+philosophers there lies a great gulf. Practically speaking
+ancient hedonism advocated the happiness of the individual:
+the modern hedonism of Hume, Bentham and Mill is based on a
+wider conception of life. The only real happiness is the happiness
+of the community, or at least of the majority: the criterion is
+society, not the individual. Thus we pass from Egoistic to
+Universalistic hedonism, Utilitarianism, Social Ethics, more
+especially in relation to the still broader theories of evolution.
+These theories are confronted by the problem of reconciling and
+adjusting the claims of the individual with those of society.
+One of the most important contributions to the discussion is that
+of Sir Leslie Stephen (<i>Science of Ethics</i>), who elaborated a theory
+of the &ldquo;social organism&rdquo; in relation to the individual. The end
+of the evolution process is the production of a &ldquo;social tissue&rdquo;
+which will be &ldquo;vitally efficient.&rdquo; Instead, therefore, of the
+criterion of &ldquo;the greatest happiness of the greatest number,&rdquo;
+Stephen has that of the &ldquo;health of the organism.&rdquo; Life is not
+&ldquo;a series of detached acts, in each of which a man can calculate
+the sum of happiness or misery attainable by different courses.&rdquo;
+Each action must be regarded as directly bearing upon the
+structure of society.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A criticism of the various hedonistic theories will be found in the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span> (<i>ad fin.</i>). See also, beside works quoted under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrenaics</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Epicurus</a></span>, &amp;c., and the general histories of philosophy,
+J. S. Mackenzie, <i>Manual of Ethics</i> (3rd ed., 1897); J. H. Muirhead,
+<i>Elements of Ethics</i> (1892); J. Watson, <i>Hedonistic Theories</i> (1895);
+J. Martineau, <i>Types of Ethical Theory</i> (2nd ed., 1886); F. H. Bradley,
+<i>Ethical Studies</i> (1876); H. Sidgwick, <i>Methods of Ethics</i> (6th ed.,
+1901); Jas. Seth, <i>Ethical Principles</i> (3rd ed., 1898); other works
+quoted under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEEL.<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1) (O. Eng. <i>héla</i>, cf. Dutch <i>hiel</i>; a derivative of O. Eng.
+hóh, hough, hock), that part of the foot in man which is situated
+below and behind the ankle; by analogy, the calcaneal part
+of the tarsus in other vertebrates. The heel proper in digitigrades
+and ungulates is raised off the ground and is commonly known as
+the &ldquo;knee&rdquo; or &ldquo;hock,&rdquo; while the term &ldquo;heel&rdquo; is applied to the
+hind hoofs. (2) (A variant of the earlier <i>hield</i>; cf. Dutch <i>hellen</i>,
+for <i>helden</i>), to turn over to one side, especially of a ship. It is
+this word probably, in the sense of &ldquo;tip-up,&rdquo; used particularly
+of the tilting or tipping of a cask or barrel of liquor, that explains
+the origin of the expression &ldquo;no heel-taps,&rdquo; a direction to the
+drinkers of a toast to drain their glasses and leave no dregs
+remaining. &ldquo;Tap&rdquo; is a common word for liquor, and a cask
+is said to be &ldquo;heeled&rdquo; when it is tipped and only dregs or
+muddy liquor are left. This suits the actual sense of the phrase
+better than the explanations which connect it with tapping the
+&ldquo;heel&rdquo; or bottom of the glass (see <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 4th series,
+vols. xi.-xii., and 5th series, vol. i.).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Johannes de</span>), (<i>c.</i>1600-<i>c.</i>1683),
+Dutch painter. He was, if not the first, certainly the greatest
+painter of still life in Holland; no artist of his class combined
+more successfully perfect reality of form and colour with brilliancy
+and harmony of tints. No object of stone or silver, no flower
+humble or gorgeous, no fruit of Europe or the tropics, no twig
+or leaf, with which he was not familiar. Sometimes he merely
+represented a festoon or a nosegay. More frequently he worked
+with a purpose to point a moral or illustrate a motto. Here
+the snake lies coiled under the grass, there a skull rests on
+blooming plants. Gold and silver tankards or cups suggest
+the vanity of earthly possessions; salvation is allegorized in a
+chalice amidst blossoms, death as a crucifix inside a wreath.
+Sometimes de Heem painted alone, sometimes in company with
+men of his school, Madonnas or portraits surrounded by festoons
+of fruit or flowers. At one time he signed with initials, at others
+with Johannes, at others again with the name of his father
+joined to his own. At rare intervals he condescended to a date,
+and when he did the work was certainly of the best. De Heem
+entered the gild of Antwerp in 1635-1636, and became a burgher
+of that city in 1637. He steadily maintained his residence till
+1667, when he moved to Utrecht, where traces of his presence
+are preserved in records of 1668, 1669 and 1670. It is not known
+when he finally returned to Antwerp, but his death is recorded
+in the gild books of that place. A very early picture, dated
+1628, in the gallery of Gotha, bearing the signature of Johannes
+in full, shows that de Heem at that time was familiar with the
+technical habits of execution peculiar to the youth of Albert
+Cuyp. In later years he completely shook off dependence,
+and appears in all the vigour of his own originality.</p>
+
+<p>Out of 100 pictures or more to be met with in European
+galleries scarcely eighteen are dated. The earliest after that of
+Gotha is a chased tankard, with a bottle, a silver cup, and a
+lemon on a marble table, dated 1640, in the museum of
+Amsterdam. A similar work of 1645, with the addition of
+fruit and flowers and a distant landscape, is in Lord Radnor&rsquo;s
+collection at Longford. A chalice in a wreath, with the radiant
+host amidst wheatsheaves, grapes and flowers, is a masterpiece
+of 1648 in the Belvedere of Vienna. A wreath round a Madonna
+of life size, dated 1650, in the museum of Berlin, shows that de
+Heem could paint brightly and harmoniously on a large scale.
+In the Pinakothek at Munich is the celebrated composition of
+1653, in which creepers, beautifully commingled with gourds
+and blackberries, twigs of orange, myrtle and peach, are
+enlivened by butterflies, moths and beetles. A landscape with
+a blooming rose tree, a jug of strawberries, a selection of fruit,
+and a marble bust of Pan, dated 1655, is in the Hermitage at
+St Petersburg; an allegory of abundance in a medallion wreathed
+with fruit and flowers, in the gallery of Brussels, is inscribed
+with de Heem&rsquo;s monogram, the date of 1668, and the name of
+an obscure artist called Lambrechts. All these pieces exhibit
+the master in full possession of his artistic faculties.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Cornelius de Heem</span>, the son of Johannes, was in practice
+as a flower painter at Utrecht in 1658, and was still active in
+his profession in 1671 at the Hague. His pictures are not equal
+to those of his father, but they are all well authenticated, and
+most of them in the galleries of the Hague, Dresden, Cassel,
+Vienna and Berlin. In the Staedel at Frankfort is a fruit
+piece, with pot-herbs and a porcelain jug, dated 1658; another,
+dated 1671, is in the museum of Brussels. <span class="sc">David de Heem</span>,
+another member of the family, entered the gild of Utrecht in
+1668 and that of Antwerp in 1693. The best piece assigned
+to him is a table with a lobster, fruit and glasses, in the gallery
+of Amsterdam; others bear his signature in the museums of
+Florence, St Petersburg and Brunswick. It is well to guard
+against the fallacy that David de Heem above mentioned is
+the father of Jan de Heem. We should also be careful not to
+make two persons of the first artist, who sometimes signs
+Johannes, sometimes Jan Davidsz or J. D. Heem.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1597-1656), Dutch poet, was
+born at Amsterdam in 1597. He was educated as a child at
+Bayonne, and entered the university of Leiden in 1617. In
+1621 he went abroad on the grand tour, leaving behind him his
+first volume of poems, <i>Minnekunst</i> (The Art of Love), which
+appeared in 1622. He was absent from Holland four years. He
+was made master of arts at Bourges in 1623, and in 1624 visited
+Hugo Grotius in Paris. On his return in 1625 he published
+<i>Minnepligt</i> (The Duty of Love), and began to practise as an
+advocate in the Hague. In 1628 he was sent to England in his
+legal capacity by the Dutch East India Company, to settle the
+dispute respecting Amboyna. In the same year he published
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span>
+the poem entitled <i>Minnekunde</i>, or the Science of Love. He
+proceeded to Amsterdam in 1640, where he married Alida,
+sister of the statesman Van Beuningen. In 1641 he published
+a Dutch version of Corneille&rsquo;s <i>The Cid</i>, a tragi-comedy, and in
+1647 his most famous work, the pastoral romance of <i>Batavische
+Arcadia</i>, which he had written ten years before. During the
+last twelve years of his life Heemskerk sat in the upper chamber
+of the states-general. He died at Amsterdam on the 27th of
+February 1656.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The poetry of Heemskerk, which fell into oblivion during the
+18th century, is once more read and valued. His famous pastoral,
+the <i>Batavische Arcadia</i>, which was founded on the <i>Astrée</i> of Honoré
+d&rsquo;Urfé, enjoyed a great popularity for more than a century, and
+passed through twelve editions. It provoked a host of more or less
+able imitations, of which the most distinguished were the <i>Dordrechtsche
+Arcadia</i> (1663) of Lambert van den Bos (1610-1698), the
+<i>Saanlandsche Arcadia</i> (1658) of Hendrik Sooteboom (1616-1678)
+and the <i>Rotterdamsche Arcadia</i> (1703) of Willem den Elger (d. 1703).
+But the original work of Heemskerk, in which a party of nymphs
+and shepherds go out from the Hague to Katwijk, and there indulge
+in polite and pastoral discourse, surpasses all these in brightness and
+versatility.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1498-1574), Dutch
+painter, sometimes called Van Veen, was born at Heemskerk in
+Holland in 1498, and apprenticed by his father, a small farmer,
+to Cornelisz Willemsz, a painter at Haarlem. Recalled after a
+time to the paternal homestead and put to the plough or the
+milking of cows, young Heemskerk took the first opportunity
+that offered to run away, and demonstrated his wish to leave
+home for ever by walking in a single day the 50 miles which
+separate his native hamlet from the town of Delft. There he
+studied under a local master whom he soon deserted for John
+Schoreel of Haarlem. At Haarlem he formed what is known as
+his first manner, which is but a quaint and <i>gauche</i> imitation of the
+florid style brought from Italy by Mabuse and others. He then
+started on a wandering tour, during which he visited the whole of
+northern and central Italy, stopping at Rome, where he had
+letters for a cardinal. It is evidence of the facility with which he
+acquired the rapid execution of a scene-painter that he was
+selected to co-operate with Antonio da San Gallo, Battista
+Franco and Francesco Salviati to decorate the triumphal arches
+erected at Rome in April 1536 in honour of Charles V. Vasari,
+who saw the battle-pieces which Heemskerk then produced, says
+they were well composed and boldly executed. On his return to
+the Netherlands he settled at Haarlem, where he soon (1540)
+became president of his gild, married twice, and secured a large
+and lucrative practice. In 1572 he left Haarlem for Amsterdam,
+to avoid the siege which the Spaniards laid to the place, and
+there he made a will which has been preserved, and shows that he
+had lived long enough and prosperously enough to make a fortune.
+At his death, which took place on the 1st of October 1574, he left
+money and land in trust to the orphanage of Haarlem, with
+interest to be paid yearly to any couple who should be willing to
+perform the marriage ceremony on the slab of his tomb in the
+cathedral of Haarlem. It was a superstition which still exists in
+Catholic Holland that a marriage so celebrated would secure the
+peace of the dead within the tomb.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Heemskerk are still very numerous. &ldquo;Adam and
+Eve,&rdquo; and &ldquo;St Luke painting the Likeness of the Virgin and
+Child&rdquo; in presence of a poet crowned with ivy leaves, and a parrot
+in a cage&mdash;an altar-piece in the gallery of Haarlem, and the
+&ldquo;Ecce Homo&rdquo; in the museum of Ghent, are characteristic works
+of the period preceding Heemskerk&rsquo;s visit to Italy. An altar-piece
+executed for St Laurence of Alkmaar in 1538-1541, and composed
+of at least a dozen large panels, would, if preserved, have given
+us a clue to his style after his return from the south. In its
+absence we have a &ldquo;Crucifixion&rdquo; executed for the Riches Claires
+at Ghent (now in the Ghent Museum) in 1543, and the altar-piece
+of the Drapers Company at Haarlem, now in the gallery of the
+Hague, and finished in 1546. In these we observe that Heemskerk
+studied and repeated the forms which he had seen at Rome
+in the works of Michelangelo and Raphael, and in Lombardy in
+the frescoes of Mantegna and Giulio Romano. But he never forgot
+the while his Dutch origin or the models first presented to him by
+Schoreel and Mabuse. As late as 1551 his memory still served
+him to produce a copy from Raphael&rsquo;s &ldquo;Madonna di Loretto&rdquo;
+(gallery of Haarlem). A &ldquo;Judgment of Momus,&rdquo; dated 1561, in
+the Berlin Museum, proves him to have been well acquainted
+with anatomy, but incapable of selection and insensible of grace,
+bold of hand and prone to daring though tawdry contrasts of
+colour, and fond of florid architecture. Two altar-pieces which
+he finished for churches at Delft in 1551 and 1559, one complete,
+the other a fragment, in the museum of Haarlem, a third of 1551 in
+the Brussels Museum, representing &ldquo;Golgotha,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Crucifixion,&rdquo;
+the &ldquo;Flight into Egypt,&rdquo; &ldquo;Christ on the Mount,&rdquo; and scenes from
+the lives of St Bernard and St Benedict, are all fairly representative
+of his style. Besides these we have the &ldquo;Crucifixion&rdquo; in the
+Hermitage of St Petersburg, and two &ldquo;Triumphs of Silenus&rdquo; in the
+gallery of Vienna, in which the same relation to Giulio Romano
+may be noted as we mark in the canvases of Rinaldo of Mantua.
+Other pieces of varying importance are in the galleries of
+Rotterdam, Munich, Cassel, Brunswick, Karlsruhe, Mainz and
+Copenhagen. In England the master is best known by his
+drawings. A comparatively feeble picture by him is the
+&ldquo;Last Judgment&rdquo; in the palace of Hampton Court.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEER, OSWALD<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1809-1883), Swiss geologist and naturalist,
+was born at Nieder-Utzwyl in Canton St Gallen on the 31st of
+August 1809. He was educated as a clergyman and took holy
+orders, and he also graduated as doctor of philosophy and
+medicine. Early in life his interest was aroused in entomology,
+on which subject he acquired special knowledge, and later he took
+up the study of plants and became one of the pioneers in palaeo-botany,
+distinguished for his researches on the Miocene flora. In
+1851 he became professor of botany in the university of Zürich,
+and he directed his attention to the Tertiary plants and insects of
+Switzerland. For some time he was director of the botanic
+garden at Zürich. In 1863 (with W. Pengelly, <i>Phil. Trans.</i>,
+1862) he investigated the plant-remains from the lignite-deposits
+of Bovey Tracey in Devonshire, regarding them as of Miocene
+age; but they are now classed as Eocene. Heer also reported
+on the Miocene flora of Arctic regions, on the plants of the
+Pleistocene lignites of Dürnten on lake Zürich, and on the cereals
+of some of the lake-dwellings (<i>Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten</i>,
+1866). During a great part of his career he was hampered by
+slender means and ill-health, but his services to science were
+acknowledged in 1873 when the Geological Society of London
+awarded to him the Wollaston medal. Dr Heer died at Lausanne
+on the 27th of September 1883. He published <i>Flora Tertiaria
+Helvetiae</i> (3 vols., 1855-1859); <i>Die Urwelt der Schweiz</i> (1865), and
+<i>Flora fossilis Arctica</i> (1868-1883).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1760-1842),
+German historian, was born on the 25th of October 1760 at
+Arbergen, near Bremen. He studied philosophy, theology and
+history at Göttingen, and thereafter travelled in France, Italy
+and the Netherlands. In 1787 he was appointed one of the
+professors of philosophy, and then of history at Göttingen, and
+he afterwards was chosen aulic councillor, privy councillor, &amp;c.,
+the usual rewards of successful German scholars. He died at
+Göttingen on the 6th of March 1842. Heeren&rsquo;s great merit as an
+historian was that he regarded the states of antiquity from an
+altogether fresh point of view. Instead of limiting himself to a
+narration of their political events, he examined their economic
+relations, their constitutions, their financial systems, and thus
+was enabled to throw a new light on the development of the old
+world. He possessed vast and varied learning, perfect calmness
+and impartiality, and great power of historical insight, and is
+now looked back to as the pioneer in the movement for the
+economic interpretation of history.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Heeren&rsquo;s chief works are: <i>Ideen über Politik, den Verkehr, und den
+Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt</i> (2 vols., Göttingen,
+1793-1796; 4th ed., 6 vols., 1824-1826; Eng. trans., Oxford,
+1833); <i>Geschichte des Studiums der klassischen Litteratur seit dem
+Wiederaufleben der Wissenschaften</i> (2 vols., Göttingen, 1797-1802;
+new ed., 1822); <i>Geschichte der Staaten des Altertums</i> (Göttingen,
+1799; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1840); <i>Geschichte des europäischen
+Staatensystems</i> (Göttingen, 1800; 5th ed., 1830; Eng. trans.,
+1834); <i>Versuch einer Entwicklung der Folgen der Kreuzzüge</i> (Göttingen,
+1808; French trans., Paris, 1808), a prize essay of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span>
+Institute of France. Besides these, Heeren wrote brief biographical
+sketches of Johann von Müller (Leipzig, 1809); Ludwig Spittler
+(Berlin, 1812); and Christian Heyne (Göttingen, 1813). With
+Friedrich August Ukert (1780-1851) he founded the famous historical
+collection, <i>Geschichte der europäischen Staaten</i> (Gotha, 1819 seq.),
+and contributed many papers to learned periodicals.</p>
+
+<p>A collection of his historical works, with autobiographical notice,
+was published in 15 volumes (Göttingen, 1821-1830).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1809-1893), German theologian,
+was born at Unterkochen in Württemberg on the 15th of March
+1809, and was educated at Tübingen, where in 1839 he became
+professor-ordinary of Church history and patristics in the Roman
+Catholic faculty of theology. From 1842 to 1845 he sat in the
+National Assembly of Württemberg. In December 1869 he was
+enthroned bishop of Rottenburg. His literary activity, which
+had been considerable, was in no way diminished by his elevation
+to the episcopate. Among his numerous theological works may
+be mentioned his well-known edition of the <i>Apostolic Fathers</i>,
+issued in 1839; his <i>Life of Cardinal Ximenes</i>, published in 1844
+(Eng. trans., 1860); and his still more celebrated <i>History of the
+Councils of the Church</i>, in seven volumes, which appeared between
+1855 and 1874 (Eng. trans., 1871, 1882). Hefele&rsquo;s theological
+opinions inclined towards the more liberal school in the Roman
+Catholic Church, but he nevertheless received considerable signs
+of favour from its authorities, and was a member of the commission
+that made preparations for the Vatican Council of 1870.
+On the eve of that council he published at Naples his <i>Causa
+Honorii Papae</i>, which aimed at demonstrating the moral and
+historical impossibility of papal infallibility. About the same
+time he brought out a work in German on the same subject. He
+took rather a prominent part in the discussions at the council,
+associating himself with Félix Dupanloup and with Georges
+Darboy, archbishop of Paris, in his opposition to the doctrine
+of Infallibility, and supporting their arguments from his vast
+knowledge of ecclesiastical history. In the preliminary discussions
+he voted against the promulgation of the dogma. He was absent
+from the important sitting of the 18th of June 1870, and did not
+send in his submission to the decrees until 1871, when he explained
+in a pastoral letter that the dogma &ldquo;referred only to doctrine
+given forth <i>ex cathedra</i>, and therein to the definitions proper only,
+but not to its proofs or explanations.&rdquo; In 1872 he took part in
+the congress summoned by the Ultramontanes at Fulda, and by
+his judicious use of minimizing tactics he kept his diocese free
+from any participation in the Old Catholic schism. The last four
+volumes of the second edition of his <i>History of the Councils</i> have
+been described as skilfully adapted to the new situation created
+by the Vatican decrees. During the later years of his life he
+undertook no further literary efforts on behalf of his church, but
+retired into comparative privacy. He died on the 6th of June
+1893.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vii. 525.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1770-1831),
+German philosopher, was born at Stuttgart on the 27th of August
+1770. His father, an official in the fiscal service of Württemberg,
+is not otherwise known to fame; and of his mother we hear
+only that she had scholarship enough to teach him the elements
+of Latin. He had one sister, Christiana, who died unmarried,
+and a brother Ludwig, who served in the campaigns of Napoleon.
+At the grammar school of Stuttgart, where Hegel was educated
+between the ages of seven and eighteen, he was not remarkable.
+His main productions were a diary kept at intervals during
+eighteen months (1785-1787), and translations of the <i>Antigone</i>,
+the <i>Manual</i> of Epictetus, &amp;c. But the characteristic feature
+of his studies was the copious extracts which from this time
+onward he unremittingly made and preserved. This collection,
+alphabetically arranged, comprised annotations on classical
+authors, passages from newspapers, treatises on morals and
+mathematics from the standard works of the period. In this way
+he absorbed in their integrity the raw materials for elaboration.
+Yet as evidence that he was not merely receptive we have essays
+already breathing that admiration of the classical world which he
+never lost. His chief amusement was cards, and he began the
+habit of taking snuff.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1788 he entered at Tübingen as a student
+of theology; but he showed no interest in theology: his sermons
+were a failure, and he found more congenial reading in the classics,
+on the advantages of studying which his first essay was written.
+After two years he took the degree of Ph.D., and in the autumn
+of 1793 received his theological certificate, stating him to be of
+good abilities, but of middling industry and knowledge, and
+especially deficient in philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>As a student, his elderly appearance gained him the title
+&ldquo;Old man,&rdquo; but he took part in the walks, beer-drinking and
+love-making of his fellows. He gained most from intellectual
+intercourse with his contemporaries, the two best known of
+whom were J. C. F. Hölderlin and Schelling. With Hölderlin
+Hegel learned to feel for the old Greeks a love which grew stronger
+as the semi-Kantianized theology of his teachers more and more
+failed to interest him. With Schelling like sympathies bound him.
+They both protested against the political and ecclesiastical
+inertia of their native state, and adopted the doctrines of freedom
+and reason. The story which tells how the two went out one
+morning to dance round a tree of liberty in a meadow is an
+anachronism, though in keeping with their opinions.</p>
+
+<p>On leaving college, he became a private tutor at Bern and
+lived in intellectual isolation. He was, however, far from
+inactive. He compiled a systematic account of the fiscal system
+of the canton Bern, but the main factor in his mental growth
+came from his study of Christianity. Under the impulse given
+by Lessing and Kant he turned to the original records of Christianity,
+and attempted to construe for himself the real significance
+of Christ. He wrote a life of Jesus, in which Jesus was simply
+the son of Joseph and Mary. He did not stop to criticize as a
+philologist, and ignored the miraculous. He asked for the secret
+contained in the conduct and sayings of this man which made him
+the hope of the human race. Jesus appeared as revealing the
+unity with God in which the Greeks in their best days unwittingly
+rejoiced, and as lifting the eyes of the Jews from a lawgiver who
+metes out punishment on the transgressor, to the destiny which
+in the Greek conception falls on the just no less than on the unjust.</p>
+
+<p>The interest of these ideas is twofold. In Jesus Hegel finds the
+expression for something higher than mere morality: he finds
+a noble spirit which rises above the contrasts of virtue and vice
+into the concrete life, seeing the infinite always embracing our
+finitude, and proclaiming the divine which is in man and cannot
+be overcome by error and evil, unless the man close his eyes and
+ears to the godlike presence within him. In religious life, in
+short, he finds the principle which reconciles the opposition
+of the temporal mind. But, secondly, the general source of the
+doctrine that life is higher than all its incidents is of interest.
+He does not free himself from the current theology either by
+rational moralizing like Kant, or by bold speculative synthesis
+like Fichte and Schelling. He finds his panacea in the concrete
+life of humanity. But although he goes to the Scriptures, and
+tastes the mystical spirit of the medieval saints, the Christ of his
+conception has traits that seem borrowed from Socrates and
+from the heroes of Attic tragedy, who suffer much and yet
+smile gently on a destiny to which they were reconciled. Instead
+of the Hebraic doctrine of a Jesus punished for our sins, we
+have the Hellenic idea of a man who is calmly tranquil in the
+consciousness of his unity with God.</p>
+
+<p>During these years Hegel kept up a slack correspondence
+with Schelling and Hölderlin. Schelling, already on the way
+to fame, kept Hegel abreast with German speculation. Both
+of them were intent on forcing the theologians into the daylight,
+and grudged them any aid they might expect from Kant&rsquo;s
+postulation of God and immortality to crown the edifice of ethics.
+Meanwhile, Hölderlin in Jena had been following Fichte&rsquo;s career
+with an enthusiasm with which he infected Hegel.</p>
+
+<p>It is pleasing to turn from these vehement struggles of thought
+to a tour which Hegel in company with three other tutors made
+through the Bernese Oberland in July and August 1796. Of this
+tour he left a minute diary. He was delighted with the varied
+play of the waterfalls, but no glamour blinded him to the squalor
+of Swiss peasant life. The glaciers and the rocks called forth no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span>
+raptures. &ldquo;The spectacle of these eternally dead masses gave
+me nothing but the monotonous and at last tedious idea, &lsquo;Es
+ist so.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of his engagement at Bern, Hegel had
+received hopes from Schelling of a post at Jena. Fortunately
+his friend Hölderlin, now tutor in Frankfort, secured a similar
+situation there for Hegel in the family of Herr Gogol, a merchant
+(January 1797). The new post gave him more leisure and the
+society he needed.</p>
+
+<p>About this time he turned to questions of economics and
+government. He had studied Gibbon, Hume and Montesquieu
+in Switzerland. We now find him making extracts from the
+English newspapers on the Poor-Law Bill of 1796; criticising
+the Prussian land laws, promulgated about the same time;
+and writing a commentary on Sir James Steuart&rsquo;s <i>Inquiry into
+the Principles of Political Economy</i>. Here, as in contemporaneous
+criticisms of Kant&rsquo;s ethical writings, Hegel aims at correcting
+the abstract discussion of a topic by treating it in its systematic
+interconnexions. Church and state, law and morality, commerce
+and art are reduced to factors in the totality of human
+life, from which the specialists had isolated them.</p>
+
+<p>But the best evidence of Hegel&rsquo;s attention to contemporary
+politics is two unpublished essays&mdash;one of them written in 1798,
+&ldquo;On the Internal Condition of Württemberg in Recent Times,
+particularly on the Defects in the Magistracy,&rdquo; the other a
+criticism on the constitution of Germany, written, probably,
+not long after the peace of Lunéville (1801). Both essays are
+critical rather than constructive. In the first Hegel showed how
+the supineness of the committee of estates in Württemberg had
+favoured the usurpations of the superior officials in whom the
+court had found compliant servants. And though he perceived
+the advantages of change in the constitution of the estates,
+he still doubted if an improved system could work in the actual
+conditions of his native province. The main feature in the
+pamphlet is the recognition that a spirit of reform is abroad.
+If Württemberg suffered from a bureaucracy tempered by
+despotism, the Fatherland in general suffered no less. &ldquo;Germany,&rdquo;
+so begins the second of these unpublished papers, &ldquo;is
+no longer a state.&rdquo; Referring the collapse of the empire to
+the retention of feudal forms and to the action of religious
+animosities, Hegel looked forward to reorganization by a central
+power (Austria) wielding the imperial army, and by a representative
+body elected by the geographical districts of the empire.
+But such an issue, he saw well, could only be the outcome of
+violence&mdash;of &ldquo;blood and iron.&rdquo; The philosopher did not pose
+as a practical statesman. He described the German empire in
+its nullity as a conception without existence in fact. In such a
+state of things it was the business of the philosopher to set forth
+the outlines of the coming epoch, as they were already moulding
+themselves into shape, amidst what the ordinary eye saw only
+as the disintegration of the old forms of social life.</p>
+
+<p>His old interest in the religious question reappears, but in a
+more philosophical form. Starting with the contrast between
+a natural and a positive religion, he regards a positive religion
+as one imposed upon the mind from without, not a natural
+growth crowning the round of human life. A natural religion,
+on the other hand, was not, he thought, the one universal
+religion of every clime and age, but rather the spontaneous
+development of the national conscience varying in varying
+circumstances. A people&rsquo;s religion completes and consecrates
+their whole activity: in it the people rises above its finite life
+in limited spheres to an infinite life where it feels itself all at one.
+Even philosophy with Hegel at this epoch was subordinate to
+religion; for philosophy must never abandon the finite in the
+search for the infinite. Soon, however, Hegel adopted a view
+according to which philosophy is a higher mode of apprehending
+the infinite than even religion.</p>
+
+<p>At Frankfort, meanwhile, the philosophic ideas of Hegel
+first assumed the proper philosophic form. In a MS. of 102
+quarto sheets, of which the first three and the seventh are
+wanting, there is preserved the original sketch of the Hegelian
+system, so far as the logic and metaphysics and part of the
+philosophy of nature are concerned. The third part of the
+system&mdash;the ethical theory&mdash;seems to have been composed
+afterwards; it is contained in its first draft in another MS.
+of 30 sheets. Even these had been preceded by earlier Pythagorean
+constructions envisaging the divine life in divine triangles.</p>
+
+<p>Circumstances soon put Hegel in the way to complete these
+outlines. His father died in January 1799; and the slender
+sum which Hegel received as his inheritance, 3154 gulden (about
+£260), enabled him to think once more of a studious life. At
+the close of 1800 we find him asking Schelling for letters of
+introduction to Bamberg, where with cheap living and good beer
+he hoped to prepare himself for the intellectual excitement
+of Jena. The upshot was that Hegel arrived at Jena in January
+1801. An end had already come to the brilliant epoch at Jena,
+when the romantic poets, Tieck, Novalis and the Schlegels
+made it the headquarters of their fantastic mysticism, and Fichte
+turned the results of Kant into the banner of revolutionary
+ideas. Schelling was the main philosophical lion of the time;
+and in some quarters Hegel was spoken of as a new champion
+summoned to help him in his struggle with the more prosaic
+continuators of Kant. Hegel&rsquo;s first performance seemed to
+justify the rumour. It was an essay on the difference between
+the philosophic systems of Fichte and Schelling, tending in the
+main to support the latter. Still more striking was the agreement
+shown in the <i>Critical Journal of Philosophy</i>, which Schelling
+and Hegel wrote conjointly during the years 1802-1803. So
+latent was the difference between them at this epoch that in
+one or two cases it is not possible to determine by whom the
+essay was written. Even at a later period foreign critics like
+Cousin saw much that was alike in the two doctrines, and did not
+hesitate to regard Hegel as a disciple of Schelling. The dissertation
+by which Hegel qualified for the position of <i>Privatdozent</i>
+(<i>De orbitis planetarum</i>) was probably chosen under the influence
+of Schelling&rsquo;s philosophy of nature. It was an unfortunate
+subject. For while Hegel, depending on a numerical proportion
+suggested by Plato, hinted in a single sentence that it might be
+a mistake to look for a planet between Mars and Jupiter, Giuseppe
+Piazzi (<i>q.v.</i>) had already discovered the first of the asteroids
+(Ceres) on the 1st of January 1801. Apparently in August, when
+Hegel qualified, the news of the discovery had not yet reached
+him, but critics have made this luckless suggestion the ground
+of attack on a priori philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>Hegel&rsquo;s lectures, in the winter of 1801-1802, on logic and
+metaphysics were attended by about eleven students. Later,
+in 1804, we find him with a class of about thirty, lecturing on
+his whole system; but his average attendance was rather less.
+Besides philosophy, he once at least lectured on mathematics.
+As he taught, he was led to modify his original system, and notice
+after notice of his lectures promised a text-book of philosophy&mdash;which,
+however, failed to appear. Meanwhile, after the departure
+of Schelling from Jena in the middle of 1803, Hegel was left
+to work out his own views. Besides philosophical studies,
+where he now added Aristotle to Plato, he read Homer and the
+Greek tragedians, made extracts from books, attended lectures
+on physiology, and dabbled in other sciences. On his own
+representation at Weimar, he was in February 1805 made a
+professor extraordinarius, and in July 1806 drew his first and
+only stipend&mdash;100 thalers. At Jena, though some of his hearers
+became attached to him, Hegel was not a popular lecturer any
+more than K. C. F. Krause (<i>q.v.</i>). The ordinary student found
+J. F. Fries (<i>q.v.</i>) more intelligible.</p>
+
+<p>Of the lectures of that period there still remain considerable
+notes. The language often had a theological tinge (never
+entirely absent), as when the &ldquo;idea&rdquo; was spoken of, or &ldquo;the
+night of the divine mystery,&rdquo; or the dialectic of the absolute
+called the &ldquo;course of the divine life.&rdquo; Still his view was growing
+clearer, and his difference from Schelling more palpable. Both
+Schelling and Hegel stand in a relation to art, but while the
+aesthetic model of Schelling was found in the contemporary
+world, where art was a special sphere and the artist a separate
+profession in no intimate connexion with the age and nation,
+the model of Hegel was found rather in those works of national
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span>
+art in which art is not a part but an aspect of the common life,
+and the artist is not a mere individual but a concentration of the
+passion and power of beauty in the whole community. &ldquo;Such
+art,&rdquo; says Hegel, &ldquo;is the common good and the work of all.
+Each generation hands it on beautified to the next; each has
+done something to give utterance to the universal thought.
+Those who are said to have genius have acquired some special
+aptitude by which they render the general shapes of the nation
+their own work, one in one point, another in another. What
+they produce is not their invention, but the invention of the whole
+nation; or rather, what they find is that the whole nation has
+found its true nature. Each, as it were, piles up his stone.
+So too does the artist. Somehow he has the good fortune to
+come last, and when he places his stone the arch stands self-supported.&rdquo;
+Hegel, as we have already seen, was fully aware
+of the change that was coming over the world. &ldquo;A new epoch,&rdquo;
+he says, &ldquo;has arisen. It seems as if the world-spirit had now
+succeeded in freeing itself from all foreign objective existence,
+and finally apprehending itself as absolute mind.&rdquo; These words
+come from lectures on the history of philosophy, which laid
+the foundation for his <i>Phänomenologie des Geistes</i> (Bamberg,
+1807).</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th of October 1806 Napoleon was at Jena. Hegel,
+like Goethe, felt no patriotic shudder at the national disaster,
+and in Prussia he saw only a corrupt and conceited bureaucracy.
+Writing to his friend F. J. Niethammer (1766-1848) on the day
+before the battle, he speaks with admiration of the &ldquo;world-soul,&rdquo;
+the emperor, and with satisfaction of the probable overthrow
+of the Prussians. The scholar&rsquo;s wish was to see the clouds of
+war pass away, and leave thinkers to their peaceful work. His
+manuscripts were his main care; and doubtful of the safety
+of his last despatch to Bamberg, and disturbed by the French
+soldiers in his lodgings, he hurried off, with the last pages of the
+<i>Phänomenologie</i>, to take refuge in the pro-rector&rsquo;s house. Hegel&rsquo;s
+fortunes were now at the lowest ebb. Without means, and
+obliged to borrow from Niethammer, he had no further hopes
+from the impoverished university. He had already tried to get
+away from Jena. In 1805, when several lecturers left in consequence
+of diminished classes, he had written to Johann Heinrich
+Voss (<i>q.v.</i>), suggesting that his philosophy might find more
+congenial soil in Heidelberg; but the application bore no fruit.
+He was, therefore, glad to become editor of the <i>Bamberger
+Zeitung</i> (1807-1808). Of his editorial work there is little to tell;
+no leading articles appeared in his columns. It was not a
+suitable vocation, and he gladly accepted the rectorship of the
+Aegidien-gymnasium in Nuremberg, a post which he held from
+December 1808 to August 1816. Bavaria at this time was
+modernizing her institutions. The school system was reorganized
+by new regulations, in accordance with which Hegel wrote a
+series of lessons in the outlines of philosophy&mdash;ethical, logical
+and psychological. They were published in 1840 by Rosenkranz
+from Hegel&rsquo;s papers.</p>
+
+<p>As a teacher and master Hegel inspired confidence in his
+pupils, and maintained discipline without pedantic interference
+in their associations and sports. On prize-days his addresses
+summing up the history of the school year discussed some topic
+of general interest. Five of these addresses are preserved.
+The first is an exposition of the advantages of a classical training,
+when it is not confined to mere grammar. &ldquo;The perfection
+and grandeur of the master-works of Greek and Roman literature
+must be the intellectual bath, the secular baptism, which gives
+the first and unfading tone and tincture of taste and science.&rdquo;
+In another address, speaking of the introduction of military
+exercises at school, he says: &ldquo;These exercises, while not intended
+to withdraw the students from their more immediate
+duty, so far as they have any calling to it, still remind them of
+the possibility that every one, whatever rank in society he may
+belong to, may one day have to defend his country and his king,
+or help to that end. This duty, which is natural to all, was
+formerly recognized by every citizen, though whole ranks in
+the state have become strangers to the very idea of it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On the 16th of September 1811 Hegel married Marie von
+Tucher (twenty-two years his junior) of Nuremberg. She
+brought her husband no fortune, but the marriage was entirely
+happy. The husband kept a careful record of income and
+expenditure. His income amounted at Nuremberg to 1500
+gulden (£130) and a house; at Heidelberg, as professor, he
+received about the same sum; at Berlin about 3000 thalers
+(£300). Two sons were born to them; the elder, Karl, became
+eminent as a historian. The younger, Immanuel, was born on
+the 24th of September 1816. Hegel&rsquo;s letters to his wife, written
+during his solitary holiday tours to Vienna, the Netherlands
+and Paris, breathe of kindly and happy affection. Hegel the
+tourist&mdash;recalling happy days spent together; confessing that,
+were it not because of his sense of duty as a traveller, he would
+rather be at home, dividing his time between his books and his
+wife; commenting on the shop windows at Vienna; describing
+the straw hats of the Parisian ladies&mdash;is a contrast to the professor
+of a profound philosophical system. But it shows that the
+enthusiasm which in his days of courtship moved him to verse
+had blossomed into a later age of domestic bliss.</p>
+
+<p>In 1812 appeared the first two volumes of his <i>Wissenschaft
+der Logik</i>, and the work was completed by a third in 1816. This
+work, in which his system was for the first time presented in
+what, with a few minor alterations, was its ultimate shape,
+found some audience in the world. Towards the close of his
+eighth session three professorships were almost simultaneously
+put within his reach&mdash;at Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg.
+The Prussian offer expressed a doubt that his long absence from
+university teaching might have made him rusty, so he accepted
+the post at Heidelberg, whence Fries had just gone to Jena
+(October 1816). Only four hearers turned up for one of his
+courses. Others, however, on the encyclopaedia of philosophy
+and the history of philosophy drew classes of twenty to thirty.
+While he was there Cousin first made his acquaintance, but a
+more intimate relation dates from Berlin. Among his pupils
+was Hermann F. W. Hinrichs (<i>q.v.</i>), to whose <i>Religion in its
+Inward Relation to Science</i> (1822) Hegel contributed an important
+preface. The strangest of his hearers was an Esthonian baron,
+Boris d&rsquo;Yrkull, who after serving in the Russian army came to
+Heidelberg to hear the wisdom of Hegel. But his books and
+his lectures were alike obscure to the baron, who betook himself
+by Hegel&rsquo;s advice to simpler studies before he returned to the
+Hegelian system.</p>
+
+<p>At Heidelberg Hegel was active in a literary way also. In
+1817 he brought out the <i>Enzyklopädie d. philos. Wissenschaften
+im Grundrisse</i> (4th ed., Berlin, 1817; new ed., 1870) for use at
+his lectures. It is the only exposition of the Hegelian system
+as a whole which we have direct from Hegel&rsquo;s own hand.
+Besides this work he wrote two reviews for the Heidelberg
+<i>Jahrbücher</i>&mdash;the first on F. H. Jacobi, the other a political
+pamphlet which called forth violent criticism. It was entitled
+a <i>Criticism on the Transactions of the Estates of Württemberg in
+1815-1816</i>. On the 15th of March 1815 King Frederick of
+Württemberg, at a meeting of the estates of his kingdom, laid
+before them the draft of a new constitution, in accordance with
+the resolutions of the congress of Vienna. Though an improvement
+on the old constitution, it was unacceptable to the estates,
+jealous of their old privileges and suspicious of the king&rsquo;s
+intentions. A decided majority demanded the restitution of
+their old laws, though the kingdom now included a large population
+to which the old rights were strange. Hegel in his essay,
+which was republished at Stuttgart, supported the royal proposals,
+and animadverted on the backwardness of the bureaucracy
+and the landed interests. In the main he was right; but he
+forgot too much the provocation they had received, the usurpations
+and selfishness of the governing family, and the unpatriotic
+character of the king.</p>
+
+<p>In 1818 Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of
+philosophy at Berlin, vacant since the death of Fichte. The
+hopes which this offer raised of a position less precarious than
+that of a university teacher of philosophy were in one sense
+disappointed; for more than a professor Hegel never became.
+But his influence upon his pupils, and his solidarity with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span>
+Prussian government, gave him a position such as few professors
+have held.</p>
+
+<p>In 1821 Hegel published the <i>Grundlinien der Philosophie des
+Rechts</i> (2nd ed., 1840; ed. G. J. B. Bolland, 1901; Eng. trans.,
+<i>Philosophy of Right</i>, by S. W. Dyde, 1896). It is a combined
+system of moral and political philosophy, or a sociology dominated
+by the idea of the state. It turns away contemptuously and
+fiercely from the sentimental aspirations of reformers possessed
+by the democratic doctrine of the rights of the omnipotent
+nation. Fries is stigmatized as one of the &ldquo;ringleaders of
+shallowness&rdquo; who were bent on substituting a fancied tie of
+enthusiasm and friendship for the established order of the state.
+The disciplined philosopher, who had devoted himself to the
+task of comprehending the organism of the state, had no patience
+with feebler or more mercurial minds who recklessly laid hands
+on established ordinances, and set them aside where they contravened
+humanitarian sentiments. With the principle that
+whatever is real is rational, and whatever is rational is real,
+Hegel fancied that he had stopped the mouths of political
+critics and constitution-mongers. His theory was not a mere
+formulation of the Prussian state. Much that he construed as
+necessary to a state was wanting in Prussia; and some of the
+reforms already introduced did not find their place in his system.
+Yet, on the whole, he had taken his side with the government.
+Altenstein even expressed his satisfaction with the book. In
+his disgust at the crude conceptions of the enthusiasts, who had
+hoped that the war of liberation might end in a realm of internal
+liberty, Hegel had forgotten his own youthful vows recorded in
+verse to Hölderlin, &ldquo;never, never to live in peace with the
+ordinance which regulates feeling and opinion.&rdquo; And yet if
+we look deeper we see that this is no worship of existing powers.
+It is rather due to an overpowering sense of the value of organization&mdash;a
+sense that liberty can never be dissevered from order,
+that a vital interconnexion between all the parts of the body
+politic is the source of all good, so that while he can find nothing
+but brute weight in an organized public, he can compare the
+royal person in his ideal form of constitutional monarchy to the
+dot upon the letter <i>i</i>. A keen sense of how much is at stake
+in any alteration breeds suspicion of every reform.</p>
+
+<p>During his thirteen years at Berlin Hegel&rsquo;s whole soul seems
+to have been in his lectures. Between 1823 and 1827 his activity
+reached its maximum. His notes were subjected to perpetual
+revisions and additions. We can form an idea of them from the
+shape in which they appear in his published writings. Those on
+<i>Aesthetics</i>, on the <i>Philosophy of Religion</i>, on the <i>Philosophy of
+History</i> and on the <i>History of Philosophy</i>, have been published
+by his editors, mainly from the notes of his students, under
+their separate heads; while those on logic, psychology and the
+philosophy of nature are appended in the form of illustrative
+and explanatory notes to the sections of his <i>Encyklopädie</i>.
+During these years hundreds of hearers from all parts of Germany,
+and beyond, came under his influence. His fame was carried
+abroad by eager or intelligent disciples. At Berlin Henning
+served to prepare the intending disciple for fuller initiation by
+the master himself. Edward Gans (<i>q.v.</i>) and Heinrich Gustav
+Hotho (<i>q.v.</i>) carried the method into special spheres of inquiry.
+At Halle Hinrichs maintained the standard of Hegelianism amid
+the opposition or indifference of his colleagues.</p>
+
+<p>Three courses of lectures are especially the product of his
+Berlin period: those on aesthetics, the philosophy of religion
+and the philosophy of history. In the years preceding the
+revolution of 1830, public interest, excluded from political life,
+turned to theatres, concert-rooms and picture-galleries. At
+these Hegel became a frequent and appreciative visitor and
+made extracts from the art-notes in the newspapers. In his
+holiday excursions, the interest in the fine arts more than once
+took him out of his way to see some old painting. At Vienna
+in 1824 he spent every moment at the Italian opera, the ballet
+and the picture-galleries. In Paris, in 1827, he saw Charles
+Kemble and an English company play Shakespeare. This
+familiarity with the facts of art, though neither deep nor historical,
+gave a freshness to his lectures on aesthetics, which, as
+put together from the notes of 1820, 1823, 1826, are in many
+ways the most successful of his efforts.</p>
+
+<p>The lectures on the philosophy of religion are another application
+of his method. Shortly before his death he had prepared
+for the press a course of lectures on the proofs for the existence
+of God. In his lectures on religion he dealt with Christianity,
+as in his philosophy of morals he had regarded the state. On
+the one hand he turned his weapons against the rationalistic
+school, who reduced religion to the modicum compatible with
+an ordinary worldly mind. On the other hand he criticized the
+school of Schleiermacher, who elevated feeling to a place in
+religion above systematic theology. His middle way attempts
+to show that the dogmatic creed is the rational development
+of what was implicit in religious feeling. To do so, of course,
+philosophy becomes the interpreter and the superior. To the
+new school of E. W. Hengstenberg, which regarded Revelation
+itself as supreme, such interpretation was an abomination.</p>
+
+<p>A Hegelian school began to gather. The flock included
+intelligent pupils, empty-headed imitators, and romantic natures
+who turned philosophy into lyric measures. Opposition and
+criticism only served to define more precisely the adherents of
+the new doctrine. Hegel himself grew more and more into a
+belief in his own doctrine as the one truth for the world. He was
+in harmony with the government, and his followers were on the
+winning side. Though he had soon resigned all direct official
+connexion with the schools of Brandenburg, his real influence in
+Prussia was considerable, and as usual was largely exaggerated
+in popular estimate. In the narrower circle of his friends his
+birthdays were the signal for congratulatory verses. In 1826 a
+formal festival was got up by some of his admirers, one of whom,
+Herder, spoke of his categories as new gods; and he was presented
+with much poetry and a silver mug. In 1830 the students
+struck a medal in his honour, and in 1831 he was decorated by
+an order from Frederick William III. In 1830 he was rector
+of the university; and in his speech at the tricentenary of the
+Augsburg Confession in that year he charged the Catholic
+Church with regarding the virtues of the pagan world as brilliant
+vices, and giving the crown of perfection to poverty, continence
+and obedience.</p>
+
+<p>One of the last literary undertakings in which he took part
+was the establishment of the Berlin <i>Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche
+Kritik</i>, in which he assisted Edward Gans and Varnhagen
+von Ense. The aim of this review was to give a critical account,
+certified by the names of the contributors, of the literary and
+philosophical productions of the time, in relation to the general
+progress of knowledge. The journal was not solely in the
+Hegelian interest; and more than once, when Hegel attempted
+to domineer over the other editors, he was met by vehement
+and vigorous opposition.</p>
+
+<p>The revolution of 1830 was a great blow to him, and the
+prospect of democratic advances almost made him ill. His last
+literary work, the first part of which appeared in the <i>Preussische
+Staatszeitung</i>, was an essay on the English Reform Bill of 1831.
+It contains primarily a consideration of its probable effects on
+the character of the new members of parliament, and the measures
+which they may introduce. In the latter connexion he enlarged
+on several points in which England had done less than many
+continental states for the abolition of monopolies and abuses.
+Surveying the questions connected with landed property, with
+the game laws, the poor, the Established Church, especially in
+Ireland, he expressed grave doubt on the legislative capacity
+of the English parliament as compared with the power of renovation
+manifested in other states of western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1831 cholera first entered Europe. Hegel and his family
+retired for the summer to the suburbs, and there he finished the
+revision of the first part of his <i>Science of Logic</i>. On the beginning
+of the winter session, however, he returned to his house in the
+Kupfergraben. On this occasion an altercation occurred between
+him and his friend Gans, who in his notice of lectures on jurisprudence
+had recommended Hegel&rsquo;s <i>Philosophy of Right</i>. Hegel,
+indignant at what he deemed patronage, demanded that the note
+should be withdrawn. On the 14th of November, after one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span>
+day&rsquo;s illness, he died of cholera and was buried, as he had wished,
+between Fichte and Solger.</p>
+
+<p>Hegel in his class-room was neither imposing nor fascinating.
+You saw a plain, old-fashioned face, without life or lustre&mdash;a
+figure which had never looked young, and was now prematurely
+aged; the furrowed face bore witness to concentrated thought.
+Sitting with his snuff-box before him, and his head bent down,
+he looked ill at ease, and kept turning the folios of his notes.
+His utterance was interrupted by frequent coughing; every
+sentence came out with a struggle. The style was no less irregular.
+Sometimes in plain narrative the lecturer would be
+specially awkward, while in abstruse passages he seemed specially
+at home, rose into a natural eloquence, and carried away the
+hearer by the grandeur of his diction.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Philosophy.</i>&mdash;Hegelianism is confessedly one of the most difficult of
+all philosophies. Every one has heard the legend which makes Hegel
+say, &ldquo;One man has understood me, and even he has not.&rdquo; He
+abruptly hurls us into a world where old habits of thought fail us.
+In three places, indeed, he has attempted to exhibit the transition to
+his own system from other levels of thought; but in none with
+much success. In the introductory lectures on the philosophy of
+religion he gives a rationale of the difference between the modes of
+consciousness in religion and philosophy (between <i>Vorstellung</i> and
+<i>Begriff</i>). In the beginning of the <i>Encyklopädie</i> he discusses the
+defects of dogmatism, empiricism, the philosophies of Kant and
+Jacobi. In the first case he treats the formal or psychological
+aspect of the difference; in the latter he presents his doctrine less
+in its essential character than in special relations to the prominent
+systems of his time. The <i>Phenomenology of Spirit</i>, regarded as an
+introduction, suffers from a different fault. It is not an introduction&mdash;for
+the philosophy which it was to introduce was not then fully
+elaborated. Even to the last Hegel had not so externalized his
+system as to treat it as something to be led up to by gradual steps.
+His philosophy was not one aspect of his intellectual life, to be contemplated
+from others; it was the ripe fruit of concentrated reflection,
+and had become the one all-embracing form and principle of
+his thinking. More than most thinkers he had quietly laid himself
+open to the influences of his time and the lessons of history.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Phenomenology</i> is the picture of the Hegelian philosophy in
+the making&mdash;at the stage before the scaffolding has been removed
+from the building. For this reason the book is at once the
+most brilliant and the most difficult of Hegel&rsquo;s works&mdash;the
+<span class="sidenote">The Phenomenology.</span>
+most brilliant because it is to some degree an autobiography
+of Hegel&rsquo;s mind&mdash;not the abstract record of a logical
+evolution, but the real history of an intellectual growth; the most
+difficult because, instead of treating the rise of intelligence (from its
+first appearance in contrast with the real world to its final recognition
+of its presence in, and rule over, all things) as a purely subjective
+process, it exhibits this rise as wrought out in historical epochs,
+national characteristics, forms of culture and faith, and philosophical
+systems. The theme is identical with the introduction to the
+<i>Encyklopädie</i>; but it is treated in a very different style. From all
+periods of the world&mdash;from medieval piety and stoical pride, Kant
+and Sophocles, science and art, religion and philosophy&mdash;with disdain
+of mere chronology, Hegel gathers in the vineyards of the human spirit
+the grapes from which he crushes the wine of thought. The mind
+coming through a thousand phases of mistake and disappointment to
+a sense and realization of its true position in the universe&mdash;such is the
+drama which is consciously Hegel&rsquo;s own history, but is represented
+objectively as the process of spiritual history which the philosopher
+reproduces in himself. The <i>Phenomenology</i> stands to the <i>Encyklopädie</i>
+somewhat as the dialogues of Plato stand to the Aristotelian
+treatises. It contains almost all his philosophy&mdash;but irregularly and
+without due proportion. The personal element gives an undue
+prominence to recent phenomena of the philosophic atmosphere.
+It is the account given by an inventor of his own discovery, not
+the explanation of an outsider. It therefore to some extent assumes
+from the first the position which it proposes ultimately to reach,
+and gives not a proof of that position, but an account of the experience
+(<i>Erfahrung</i>) by which consciousness is forced from one
+position to another till it finds rest in <i>Absolutes Wissen</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Phenomenology</i> is neither mere psychology, nor logic, nor
+moral philosophy, nor history, but is all of these and a great deal
+more. It needs not distillation, but expansion and illustration
+from contemporary and antecedent thought and literature. It
+treats of the attitudes of consciousness towards reality under the
+six heads of consciousness, self-consciousness, reason (<i>Vernunft</i>),
+spirit (<i>Geist</i>), religion and absolute knowledge. The native attitude
+of consciousness towards existence is reliance on the evidence of
+the senses; but a little reflection is sufficient to show that the
+reality attributed to the external world is as much due to intellectual
+conceptions as to the senses, and that these conceptions elude us
+when we try to fix them. If consciousness cannot detect a permanent
+object outside it, so self-consciousness cannot find a permanent
+subject in itself. It may, like the Stoic, assert freedom by holding
+aloof from the entanglements of real life, or like the sceptic regard
+the world as a delusion, or finally, as the &ldquo;unhappy consciousness&rdquo;
+(<i>Unglückliches Bewusstseyn</i>), may be a recurrent falling short of a
+perfection which it has placed above it in the heavens. But in this
+isolation from the world, self-consciousness has closed its gates
+against the stream of life. The perception of this is reason. Reason
+convinced that the world and the soul are alike rational observes the
+external world, mental phenomena, and specially the nervous
+organism, as the meeting ground of body and mind. But reason
+finds much in the world recognizing no kindred with her, and so
+turning to practical activity seeks in the world the realization of
+her own aims. Either in a crude way she pursues her own pleasure,
+and finds that necessity counteracts her cravings; or she endeavours
+to find the world in harmony with the heart, and yet is unwilling
+to see fine aspirations crystallized by the act of realizing them.
+Finally, unable to impose upon the world either selfish or humanitarian
+ends, she folds her arms in pharisaic virtue, with the hope
+that some hidden power will give the victory to righteousness.
+But the world goes on in its life, heedless of the demands of virtue.
+The principle of nature is to live and let live. Reason abandons
+her efforts to mould the world, and is content to let the aims of
+individuals work out their results independently, only stepping in
+to lay down precepts for the cases where individual actions conflict,
+and to test these precepts by the rules of formal logic.</p>
+
+<p>So far we have seen consciousness on one hand and the real world
+on the other. The stage of <i>Geist</i> reveals the consciousness no
+longer as critical and antagonistic but as the indwelling spirit of a
+community, as no longer isolated from its surroundings but the
+union of the single and real consciousness with the vital feeling that
+animates the community. This is the lowest stage of concrete
+consciousness&mdash;life, and not knowledge; the spirit inspires, but does
+not reflect. It is the age of unconscious morality, when the individual&rsquo;s
+life is lost in the society of which he is an organic member.
+But increasing culture presents new ideals, and the mind, absorbing
+the ethical spirit of its environment, gradually emancipates itself
+from conventions and superstitions. This <i>Aufklärung</i> prepares
+the way for the rule of conscience, for the moral view of the world
+as subject of a moral law. From the moral world the next step
+is religion; the moral law gives place to God; but the idea of Godhead,
+too, as it first appears, is imperfect, and has to pass through
+the forms of nature-worship and of art before it reaches a full
+utterance in Christianity. Religion in this shape is the nearest step
+to the stage of absolute knowledge; and this absolute knowledge&mdash;&ldquo;the
+spirit knowing itself as spirit&rdquo;&mdash;is not something which
+leaves these other forms behind but the full comprehension of them
+as the organic constituents of its empire; &ldquo;they are the memory and
+the sepulchre of its history, and at the same time the actuality, truth
+and certainty of its throne.&rdquo; Here, according to Hegel, is the field
+of philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>The preface to the <i>Phenomenology</i> signalled the separation from
+Schelling&mdash;the adieu to romantic. It declared that a genuine
+philosophy has no kindred with the mere aspirations of artistic
+minds, but must earn its bread by the sweat of its brow. It sets
+its face against the idealism which either thundered against the
+world for its deficiencies, or sought something finer than reality.
+Philosophy is to be the science of the actual world&mdash;it is the spirit
+comprehending itself in its own externalizations and manifestations.
+The philosophy of Hegel is idealism, but it is an idealism in which
+every idealistic unification has its other face in the multiplicity of
+existence. It is realism as well as idealism, and never quits its hold
+on facts. Compared with Fichte and Schelling, Hegel has a sober,
+hard, realistic character. At a later date, with the call of Schelling
+to Berlin in 1841, it became fashionable to speak of Hegelianism as a
+negative philosophy requiring to be complemented by a &ldquo;positive&rdquo;
+philosophy which would give reality and not mere ideas. The cry
+was the same as that of Krug (<i>q.v.</i>), asking the philosophers who
+expounded the absolute to construe his pen. It was the cry of the
+Evangelical school for a personal Christ and not a dialectical Logos.
+The claims of the individual, the real, material and historical fact,
+it was said, had been sacrificed by Hegel to the universal, the ideal,
+the spiritual and the logical.</p>
+
+<p>There was a truth in these criticisms. It was the very aim of
+Hegelianism to render fluid the fixed phases of reality&mdash;to show
+existence not to be an immovable rock limiting the efforts of thought,
+but to have thought implicit in it, waiting for release from its
+petrifaction. Nature was no longer, as with Fichte, to be a mere
+spring-board to evoke the latent powers of the spirit. Nor was it,
+as in Schelling&rsquo;s earlier system, to be a collateral progeny with
+mind from the same womb of indifference and identity. Nature and
+mind in the Hegelian system&mdash;the external and the spiritual world&mdash;have
+the same origin, but are not co-equal branches. The natural
+world proceeds from the &ldquo;idea,&rdquo; the spiritual from the idea and
+nature. It is impossible, beginning with the natural world, to
+explain the mind by any process of distillation or development,
+unless consciousness or its potentiality has been there from the
+first. Reality, independent of the individual consciousness, there
+must be; reality, independent of all mind, is an impossibility. At
+the basis of all reality, whether material or mental, there is thought.
+But the thought thus regarded as the basis of all existence is not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span>
+consciousness with its distinction of ego and non-ego. It is rather
+the stuff of which both mind and nature are made, neither extended
+as in the natural world, nor self-centred as in mind. Thought in its
+primary form is, as it were, thoroughly transparent and absolutely
+fluid, free and mutually interpenetrable in every part&mdash;the spirit in
+its seraphic scientific life, before creation had produced a natural
+world, and thought had risen to independent existence in the social
+organism. Thought in this primary form, when in all its parts
+completed, is what Hegel calls the &ldquo;idea.&rdquo; But the idea, though
+fundamental, is in another sense final, in the process of the world.
+It only appears in consciousness as the crowning development of
+the mind. Only with philosophy does thought become fully conscious
+of itself in its origin and development. Accordingly the
+history of philosophy is the pre-supposition of logic, or the three
+branches of philosophy form a circle.</p>
+
+<p>The exposition or constitution of the &ldquo;idea&rdquo; is the work of the
+Logic. As the total system falls into three parts, so every part of
+the system follows the triadic law. Every truth, every
+reality, has three aspects or stages; it is the unification of
+<span class="sidenote">Logic.</span>
+two contradictory elements, of two partial aspects of truth which are
+not merely contrary, like black and white, but contradictory, like
+same and different. The first step is a preliminary affirmation and
+unification, the second a negation and differentiation, the third a final
+synthesis. For example, the seed of the plant is an initial unity of
+life, which when placed in its proper soil suffers disintegration into its
+constitutents, and yet in virtue of its vital unity keeps these divergent
+elements together, and reappears as the plant with its members in
+organic union. Or again, the process of scientific induction is a
+threefold chain; the original hypothesis (the first unification of the
+fact) seems to melt away when confronted with opposite facts, and
+yet no scientific progress is possible unless the stimulus of the
+original unification is strong enough to clasp the discordant facts
+and establish a reunification. Thesis, antithesis and synthesis, a
+Fichtean formula, is generalized by Hegel into the perpetual law of
+thought.</p>
+
+<p>In what we may call their psychological aspect these three stages
+are known as the abstract stage, or that of understanding (<i>Verstand</i>),
+the dialectical stage, or that of negative reason, and the speculative
+stage, or that of positive reason (<i>Vernunft</i>). The first of these
+attitudes taken alone is dogmatism; the second, when similarly
+isolated, is scepticism; the third, when unexplained by its elements,
+is mysticism. Thus Hegelianism reduces dogmatism, scepticism
+and mysticism to factors in philosophy. The abstract or dogmatic
+thinker believes his object to be one, simple and stationary, and
+intelligible apart from its surrounding. He speaks, <i>e.g.</i>, as if species
+and genera were fixed and unchangeable; and fixing his eye on
+the ideal forms in their purity and self-sameness, he scorns the
+phenomenal world, whence this identity and persistence are absent.
+The dialectic of negative reason rudely dispels these theories.
+Appealing to reality it shows that the identity and permanence of
+forms are contradicted by history; instead of unity it exhibits
+multiplicity, instead of identity difference, instead of a whole, only
+parts. Dialectic is, therefore, a dislocating power; it shakes the
+solid structures of material thought, and exhibits the instability
+latent in such conceptions of the world. It is the spirit of progress
+and change, the enemy of convention and conservatism; it is
+absolute and universal unrest. In the realm of abstract thought
+these transitions take place lightly. In the worlds of nature and
+mind they are more palpable and violent. So far as this Hegel
+seems on the side of revolution. But reason is not negative only;
+while it disintegrates the mass or unconscious unity, it builds up a
+new unity with higher organization. But this third stage is the place
+of effort, requiring neither the surrender of the original unity nor the
+ignoring of the diversity afterwards suggested. The stimulus of
+contradiction is no doubt a strong one; but the easiest way of escaping
+it is to shut our eyes to one side of the antithesis. What is
+required, therefore, is to readjust our original thesis in such a way as
+to include and give expression to both the elements in the process.</p>
+
+<p>The universe, then, is a process or development, to the eye of
+philosophy. It is the process of the absolute&mdash;in religious language,
+the manifestation of God. In the background of all the absolute
+is eternally present; the rhythmic movement of thought is the
+self-unfolding of the absolute. God reveals Himself in the logical
+idea, in nature and in mind; but mind is not alike conscious of its
+absoluteness in every stage of development. Philosophy alone sees
+God revealing Himself in the ideal organism of thought as it were a
+possible deity prior to the world and to any relation between God
+and actuality; in the natural world, as a series of materialized
+forces and forms of life; and in the spiritual world as the human soul,
+the legal and moral order of society, and the creations of art, religion
+and philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>This introduction of the absolute became a stumbling-block to
+Feuerbach and other members of the &ldquo;Left.&rdquo; They rejected as an
+illegitimate interpolation the eternal subject of development, and,
+instead of one continuing God as the subject of all the predicates
+by which in the logic the absolute is defined, assumed only a series
+of ideas, products of philosophic activity. They denied the theological
+value of the logical forms&mdash;the development of these forms
+being in their opinion due to the human thinker, not to a self-revealing
+absolute. Thus they made man the creator of the absolute.
+But with this modification on the system another necessarily
+followed; a mere logical series could not create nature. And thus
+the material universe became the real starting-point. Thought
+became only the result of organic conditions&mdash;subjective and human;
+and the system of Hegel was no longer an idealization of religion,
+but a naturalistic theory with a prominent and peculiar logic.</p>
+
+<p>The logic of Hegel is the only rival to the logic of Aristotle. What
+Aristotle did for the theory of demonstrative reasoning, Hegel
+attempted to do for the whole of human knowledge. His logic is
+an enumeration of the forms or categories by which our experience
+exists. It carried out Kant&rsquo;s doctrine of the categories as a priori
+synthetic principles, but removed the limitation by which Kant
+denied them any constitutive value except in alliance with experience.
+According to Hegel the terms in which thought exhibits
+itself are a system of their own, with laws and relations which
+reappear in a less obvious shape in the theories of nature and mind.
+Nor are they restricted to the small number which Kant obtained
+by manipulating the current subdivision of judgments. But all
+forms by which thought holds sensations in unity (the formative or
+synthetic elements of language) had their place assigned in a system
+where one leads up to and passes over into another.</p>
+
+<p>The fact which ordinary thought ignores, and of which ordinary
+logic therefore provides no account, is the presence of gradation and
+continuity in the world. The general terms of language simplify
+the universe by reducing its variety of individuals to a few forms,
+none of which exists simply and perfectly. The method of the
+understanding is to divide and then to give a separate reality to
+what it has thus distinguished. It is part of Hegel&rsquo;s plan to remedy
+this one-sided character of thought, by laying bare the gradations
+of ideas. He lays special stress on the point that abstract ideas
+when held in their abstraction are almost interchangeable with
+their opposites&mdash;that extremes meet, and that in every true and
+concrete idea there is a coincidence of opposites.</p>
+
+<p>The beginning of the logic is an illustration of this. The logical
+idea is treated under the three heads of being (<i>Seyn</i>), essence (<i>Wesen</i>)
+and notion (<i>Begriff</i>). The simplest term of thought is being; we
+cannot think less about anything than when we merely say that it is.
+Being&mdash;the abstract &ldquo;is&rdquo;&mdash;is <i>nothing</i> definite, and nothing at least is.
+Being and not being are thus declared identical&mdash;a proposition which
+in this unqualified shape was to most people a stumbling-block at
+the very door of the system. Instead of the mere &ldquo;is&rdquo; which is as
+yet nothing, we should rather say &ldquo;becomes,&rdquo; and as &ldquo;becomes&rdquo;
+always implies &ldquo;something,&rdquo; we have determinate being&mdash;&ldquo;a
+being&rdquo; which in the next stage of definiteness becomes &ldquo;one.&rdquo; And
+in this way we pass on to the quantitative aspects of being.</p>
+
+<p>The terms treated under the first head, in addition to those already
+mentioned, are the abstract principles of quantity and number, and
+their application in measure to determine the limits of being. Under
+the title of essence are discussed those pairs of correlative terms which
+are habitually employed in the explanation of the world&mdash;such as
+law and phenomenon, cause and effect, reason and consequence,
+substance and attribute. Under the head of notion are considered,
+firstly, the subjective forms of conception, judgment and syllogism;
+secondly, their realization in objects as mechanically, chemically
+or teleologically constituted; and thirdly, the idea first of life, and
+next of science, as the complete interpenetration of thought and
+objectivity. The third part of logic evidently is what contains the
+topics usually treated in logic-books, though even here the province
+of logic in the ordinary sense is exceeded. The first two divisions&mdash;the
+&ldquo;objective logic&rdquo;&mdash;are what is usually called metaphysics.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristic of the system is the gradual way in which idea is
+linked to idea so as to make the division into chapters only an arrangement
+of convenience. The judgment is completed in the syllogism;
+the syllogistic form as the perfection of subjective thought passes into
+objectivity, where it first appears embodied in a mechanical system;
+and the teleological object, in which the members are as means and
+end, leads up to the idea of life, where the end is means and means
+end indissolubly till death. In some cases these transitions may
+be unsatisfactory and forced; it is apparent that the linear development
+from &ldquo;being&rdquo; to the &ldquo;idea&rdquo; is got by transforming into a
+logical order the sequence that has roughly prevailed in philosophy
+from the Eleatics; cases might be quoted where the reasoning seems
+a play upon words; and it may often be doubted whether certain
+ideas do not involve extra-logical considerations. The order of the
+categories is in the main outlines fixed; but in the minor details
+much depends upon the philosopher, who has to fill in the gaps
+between ideas, with little guidance from the data of experience, and
+to assign to the stages of development names which occasionally
+deal hardly with language. The merit of Hegel is to have indicated
+and to a large extent displayed the filiation and mutual limitation
+of our forms of thought; to have arranged them in the order of
+their comparative capacity to give a satisfactory expression to truth
+in the totality of its relations; and to have broken down the partition
+which in Kant separated the formal logic from the transcendental
+analytic, as well as the general disruption between logic and metaphysic.
+It must at the same time be admitted that much of the
+work of weaving the terms of thought, the categories, into a system
+has a hypothetical and tentative character, and that Hegel has
+rather pointed out the path which logic must follow, viz. a criticism
+of the terms of scientific and ordinary thought in their filiation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span>
+and interdependence, than himself in every case kept to the right
+way. The day for a fuller investigation of this problem will partly
+depend upon the progress of the study of language in the direction
+marked out by W. von Humboldt.</p>
+
+<p>The Philosophy of Nature starts with the result of the logical
+development, with the full scientific &ldquo;idea.&rdquo; But the relations of
+pure thought, losing their inwardness, appear as relations
+of space and time; the abstract development of thought
+<span class="sidenote">Philosophy of nature.</span>
+appears as matter and movement. Instead of thought, we
+have perception; instead of dialectic, gravitation; instead
+of causation, sequence in time. The whole falls under the three
+heads of mechanics, physics and &ldquo;organic&rdquo;&mdash;the content under each
+varying somewhat in the three editions of the <i>Encyklopädie</i>. The
+first treats of space, time, matter, movement; and in the solar system
+we have the representation of the idea in its general and abstract
+material form. Under the head of physics we have the theory of
+the elements, of sound, heat and cohesion, and finally of chemical
+affinity&mdash;presenting the phenomena of material change and interchange
+in a series of special forces which generate the variety of the
+life of nature. Lastly, under the head of &ldquo;organic,&rdquo; come geology,
+botany and animal physiology&mdash;presenting the concrete results of
+these processes in the three kingdoms of nature.</p>
+
+<p>The charges of superficial analogies, so freely urged against the
+&ldquo;Natur-philosophie&rdquo; by critics who forget the impulse it gave to
+physical research by the identification of forces then believed to be
+radically distinct, do not particularly affect Hegel. But in general
+it may be said that he looked down upon the mere natural world.
+The meanest of the fancies of the mind and the most casual of its
+whims he regarded as a better warrant for the being of God than
+any single object of nature. Those who supposed astronomy to
+inspire religious awe were horrified to hear the stars compared to
+eruptive spots on the face of the sky. Even in the animal world,
+the highest stage of nature, he saw a failure to reach an independent
+and rational system of organization; and its feelings under the
+continuous violence and menaces of the environment he described
+as insecure, anxious and unhappy.</p>
+
+<p>His point of view was essentially opposed to the current views of
+science. To metamorphosis he only allowed a logical value, as
+explaining the natural classification; the only real, existent metamorphosis
+he saw in the development of the individual from its
+embryonic stage. Still more distinctly did he contravene the general
+tendency of scientific explanation. &ldquo;It is held the triumph of
+science to recognize in the general process of the earth the same
+categories as are exhibited in the processes of isolated bodies. This
+is, however, an application of categories from a field where the
+conditions are finite to a sphere in which the circumstances are
+infinite.&rdquo; In astronomy he depreciates the merits of Newton and
+elevates Kepler, accusing Newton particularly, à propos of the
+distinction of centrifugal and centripetal forces, of leading to a
+confusion between what is mathematically to be distinguished and
+what is physically separate. The principles which explain the fall of
+an apple will not do for the planets. As to colour, he follows Goethe,
+and uses strong language against Newton&rsquo;s theory, for the barbarism
+of the conception that light is a compound, the incorrectness of his
+observations, &amp;c. In chemistry, again, he objects to the way in
+which all the chemical elements are treated as on the same level.</p>
+
+<p>The third part of the system is the Philosophy of Mind. Its
+three divisions are the &ldquo;subjective mind&rdquo; (psychology), the &ldquo;objective
+mind&rdquo; (philosophic jurisprudence, moral and
+political philosophy) and the &ldquo;absolute mind&rdquo; (the
+<span class="sidenote">Philosophy of mind. 1. Psychology.</span>
+philosophy of art, religion and philosophy). The subjects
+of the second and third divisions have been treated by
+Hegel with great detail. The &ldquo;objective mind&rdquo; is the
+topic of the <i>Rechts-Philosophie</i>, and of the lectures on the
+Philosophy of History; while on the &ldquo;absolute mind&rdquo; we have
+the lectures on Aesthetic, on the Philosophy of Religion and on the
+History of Philosophy&mdash;in short, more than one-third of his works.</p>
+
+<p>The purely psychological branch of the subject takes up half of
+the space allotted to <i>Geist</i> in the <i>Encyklopädie</i>. It falls under
+the three heads of anthropology, phenomenology and psychology
+proper. Anthropology treats of the mind in union with the body&mdash;of
+the natural soul&mdash;and discusses the relations of the soul with
+the planets, the races of mankind, the differences of age, dreams,
+animal magnetism, insanity and phrenology. In this obscure region
+it is rich in suggestions and rapprochements; but the ingenuity of
+these speculations attracts curiosity more than it satisfies scientific
+inquiry. In the Phenomenology consciousness, self-consciousness
+and reason are dealt with. The title of the section and the contents
+recall, though with some important variations, the earlier half of his
+first work; only that here the historical background on which the
+stages in the development of the ego were represented has disappeared.
+Psychology, in the stricter sense, deals with the various
+forms of theoretical and practical intellect, such as attention, memory,
+desire and will. In this account of the development of an independent,
+active and intelligent being from the stage where man like
+the Dryad is a portion of the natural life around him, Hegel has
+combined what may be termed a physiology and pathology of the
+mind&mdash;a subject far wider than that of ordinary psychologies, and
+one of vast intrinsic importance. It is, of course, easy to set aside
+these questions as unanswerable, and to find artificiality in the
+arrangement. Still it remains a great point to have even attempted
+some system in the dark anomalies which lie under the normal
+consciousness, and to have traced the genesis of the intellectual
+faculties from animal sensitivity.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of the mind as objectified in the institutions of law,
+the family and the state is discussed in the &ldquo;Philosophy of Right.&rdquo;
+Beginning with the antithesis of a legal system and
+morality, Hegel, carrying out the work of Kant, presents
+<span class="sidenote">2. Law and history.</span>
+the synthesis of these elements in the ethical life (<i>Sittlichkeit</i>)
+of the family and the state. Treating the family as
+an instinctive realization of the moral life, and not as the result of
+contract, he shows how by the means of wider associations due to
+private interests the state issues as the full home of the moral spirit,
+where intimacy of interdependence is combined with freedom of
+independent growth. The state is the consummation of man as
+finite; it is the necessary starting-point whence the spirit rises to an
+absolute existence in the spheres of art, religion and philosophy. In
+the finite world or temporal state, religion, as the finite organization
+of a church, is, like other societies, subordinate to the state. But
+on another side, as absolute spirit, religion, like art and philosophy,
+is not subject to the state, but belongs to a higher region.</p>
+
+<p>The political state is always an individual, and the relations of
+these states with each other and the &ldquo;world-spirit&rdquo; of which they
+are the manifestations constitute the material of history. The
+<i>Lectures on the Philosophy of History</i>, edited by Gans and subsequently
+by Karl Hegel, is the most popular of Hegel&rsquo;s works. The
+history of the world is a scene of judgment where one people and
+one alone holds for awhile the sceptre, as the unconscious instrument
+of the universal spirit, till another rises in its place, with a fuller
+measure of liberty&mdash;a larger superiority to the bonds of natural
+and artificial circumstance. Three main periods&mdash;the Oriental,
+the Classical and the Germanic&mdash;in which respectively the single
+despot, the dominant order, and the man as man possess freedom&mdash;constitute
+the history of the world. Inaccuracy in detail and
+artifice in the arrangement of isolated peoples are inevitable in
+such a scheme. A graver mistake, according to some critics, is
+that Hegel, far from giving a law of progress, seems to suggest that
+the history of the world is nearing an end, and has merely reduced
+the past to a logical formula. The answer to this charge is partly
+that such a law seems unattainable, and partly that the idealistic
+content of the present which philosophy extracts is always an
+advance upon actual fact, and so does throw a light into the future.
+And at any rate the method is greater than Hegel&rsquo;s employment of it.</p>
+
+<p>But as with Aristotle so with Hegel&mdash;beyond the ethical and
+political sphere rises the world of absolute spirit in art, religion and
+philosophy. The psychological distinction between the
+three forms is that sensuous perception (<i>Anschauung</i>)
+<span class="sidenote">3. Art, religion and philosophy.</span>
+is the organon of the first, presentative conception
+(<i>Vorstellung</i>) of the second and free thought of the third.
+The work of art, the first embodiment of absolute mind,
+shows a sensuous conformity between the idea and the
+reality in which it is expressed. The so-called beauty of nature is
+for Hegel an adventitious beauty. The beauty of art is a beauty born
+in the spirit of the artist and born again in the spectator; it is not
+like the beauty of natural things, an incident of their existence, but
+is &ldquo;essentially a question, an address to a responding breast, a call
+to the heart and spirit.&rdquo; The perfection of art depends on the degree
+of intimacy in which idea and form appear worked into each other.
+From the different proportion between the idea and the shape in
+which it is realized arise three different forms of art. When the idea,
+itself indefinite, gets no further than a struggle and endeavour for
+its appropriate expression, we have the symbolic, which is the
+Oriental, form of art, which seeks to compensate its imperfect expression
+by colossal and enigmatic structures. In the second or
+classical form of art the idea of humanity finds an adequate sensuous
+representation. But this form disappears with the decease of Greek
+national life, and on its collapse follows the romantic, the third form
+of art; where the harmony of form and content again grows defective,
+because the object of Christian art&mdash;the infinite spirit&mdash;is a
+theme too high for art. Corresponding to this division is the classification
+of the single arts. First comes architecture&mdash;in the main,
+symbolic art; then sculpture, the classical art <i>par excellence</i>; they
+are found, however, in all three forms. Painting and music are the
+specially romantic arts. Lastly, as a union of painting and music
+comes poetry, where the sensuous element is more than ever subordinate
+to the spirit.</p>
+
+<p>The lectures on the Philosophy of Art stray largely into the next
+sphere and dwell with zest on the close connexion of art and religion;
+and the discussion of the decadence and rise of religions, of the
+aesthetic qualities of Christian legend, of the age of chivalry, &amp;c.,
+make the <i>Ästhetik</i> a book of varied interest.</p>
+
+<p>The lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, though unequal in
+their composition and belonging to different dates, serve to exhibit
+the vital connexion of the system with Christianity. Religion, like
+art, is inferior to philosophy as an exponent of the harmony between
+man and the absolute. In it the absolute exists as the poetry and
+music of the heart, in the inwardness of feeling. Hegel after expounding
+the nature of religion passes on to discuss its historical
+phases, but in the immature state of religious science falls into
+several mistakes. At the bottom of the scale of nature-worships he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span>
+places the religion of sorcery. The gradations which follow are
+apportioned with some uncertainty amongst the religions of the
+East. With the Persian religion of light and the Egyptian of
+enigmas we pass to those faiths where Godhead takes the form of
+a spiritual individuality, <i>i.e.</i> to the Hebrew religion (of sublimity),
+the Greek (of beauty) and the Roman (of adaptation). Last comes
+absolute religion, in which the mystery of the reconciliation between
+God and man is an open doctrine. This is Christianity, in which
+God is a Trinity, because He is a spirit. The revelation of this
+truth is the subject of the Christian Scriptures. For the Son of
+God, in the immediate aspect, is the finite world of nature and
+man, which far from being at one with its Father is originally in
+an attitude of estrangement. The history of Christ is the visible
+reconciliation between man and the eternal. With the death of
+Christ this union, ceasing to be a mere fact, becomes a vital idea&mdash;the
+Spirit of God which dwells in the Christian community.</p>
+
+<p>The lectures on the History of Philosophy deal disproportionately
+with the various epochs, and in some parts date from the beginning
+of Hegel&rsquo;s career. In trying to subject history to the order of logic
+they sometimes misconceive the filiation of ideas. But they created
+the history of philosophy as a scientific study. They showed that
+a philosophical theory is not an accident or whim, but an exponent
+of its age determined by its antecedents and environments, and
+handing on its results to the future.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. W.; X.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Hegelianism in England.</i>&mdash;On the continent of Europe the direct
+influence of Hegelianism was comparatively short-lived. This was
+due among other causes to the direction of attention to the rising
+science of psychology, partly to the reaction against the speculative
+method. In England and Scotland it had another fate. Both in
+theory and practice it here seemed to supply precisely the counter-active
+to prevailing tendencies towards empiricism and individualism
+that was required. In this respect it stood to philosophy in somewhat
+the same relation that the influence of Goethe stood to literature.
+This explains the hold which it had obtained upon both
+English and Scottish thought soon after the middle of the 19th century.
+The first impulse came from J. F. Ferrier and J. H. Stirling
+in Edinburgh, and B. Jowett in Oxford. Already in the seventies
+there was a powerful school of English thinkers under the lead of
+Edward Caird and T. H. Green devoted to the study and exposition
+of the Hegelian system. With the general acceptance of its main
+principle that the real is the rational, there came in the eighties a
+more critical examination of the precise meaning to be attached to
+it and its bearing on the problems of religion. The earlier Hegelians
+had interpreted it in the sense that the world in its ultimate essence
+was not only spiritual but self-conscious intelligence whose nature
+was reflected inadequately but truly in the finite mind. They thus
+seemed to come forward in the character of exponents rather than
+critics of the Western belief in God, freedom and immortality. As
+time went on it became obvious that without departure from the
+spirit of idealism Hegel&rsquo;s principle was susceptible of a different
+interpretation. Granted that rationality taken in the sense of inner
+coherence and self-consistency is the ultimate standard of truth
+and reality, does self-consciousness itself answer to the demands of
+this criterion? If not, are we not forced to deny ultimate reality
+to personality whether human or divine? The question was
+definitely raised in F. H. Bradley&rsquo;s <i>Appearance and Reality</i> (1893;
+2nd ed., 1897) and answered in the negative. The completeness and
+self-consistency which our ideal requires can be realized only in a
+form of being in which subject and object, will and desire, no longer
+stand as exclusive opposites, from which it seemed at once to follow
+that the finite self could not be a reality nor the infinite reality a self.
+On this basis Bradley developed a theory of the Absolute which, while
+not denying that it must be conceived of spiritually, insisted that its
+spirituality is of a kind that finds no analogy in our self-conscious
+experience. More recently J. M. E. McTaggart&rsquo;s <i>Studies in Hegelian
+Dialectic</i> (1896), <i>Studies in Hegelian Cosmology</i> (1901) and <i>Some
+Dogmas of Religion</i> (1906) have opened a new chapter in the interpretation
+of Hegelianism. Truly perceiving that the ultimate
+metaphysical problem is, here as ever, the relation of the One and the
+Many, McTaggart starts with a definition of the ideal in which our
+thought upon it can come to rest. He finds it where (<i>a</i>) the unity is
+for each individual, (<i>b</i>) the whole nature of the individual is to be
+<i>for</i> the unity. It follows from such a conception of the relation that
+the whole cannot itself be an individual apart from the individuals
+in whom it is realized, in other words, the Absolute cannot be a
+Person. But for the same reason&mdash;viz. that in it first and in it alone
+this condition is realized&mdash;the individual soul must be held to be an
+ultimate reality reflecting in its inmost nature, like the monad of
+Leibniz, the complete fulness and harmony of the whole. In reply
+to Bradley&rsquo;s argument for the unreality of the self, Hegel is interpreted
+as meaning that the opposition between self and not-self on
+which it is founded is one that is self-made and in being made is
+transcended. The fuller our knowledge of reality the more does
+the object stand out as an invulnerable system of ordered parts,
+but the process by which it is thus set in opposition to the subject
+is also the process by which we understand and transform it into the
+substance of our own thought. From this position further consequences
+followed. Seeing that the individual soul must thus be
+taken to stand in respect to its inmost essence in complete harmony
+with the whole, it must eternally be at one with itself: all
+change must be appearance. Seeing, moreover, that it is, and is
+maintained in being, by a fixed relation to the Absolute, it cannot
+fail of immortality. No pantheistic theory of an eternal substance
+continuously expressing itself in different individuals who fall back
+into its being like drops into the ocean will here be sufficient. The
+ocean is the drops. &ldquo;The Absolute requires each self not to make
+up a sum or to maintain an average but in respect of the self&rsquo;s special
+and unique nature.&rdquo; Finally as it cannot cease, neither can the
+individual soul have had a beginning. Pre-existence is as necessary
+and certain as a future life. If memory is lacking as a link between
+the different lives, this only shows that memory is not of the substance
+of the soul.</p>
+
+<p>In view of these differences (amounting almost to an antinomy of
+paradoxes) in interpretation, it is not surprising to find that recent
+years have witnessed a violent reaction in some quarters against
+Hegelian influence. This has taken the direction on the one hand of
+a revival of realism (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metaphysics</a></span>), on the other of a new form
+of subjective idealism (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pragmatism</a></span>). As yet neither of these
+movements has shown sufficient coherence or stability to establish
+itself as a rival to the main current of philosophy in England. But
+they have both been urged with sufficient ability to arrest its progress
+and to call for a reconsideration and restatement of the fundamental
+principle of idealist philosophy and its relation to the fundamental
+problems of religion. This will probably be the main work of the
+next generation of thinkers in England (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Idealism</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Among Italian Hegelians are A. Vera, Raffaele Mariano and
+B. Spaventa (1817-1883); see V. de Lucia, <i>L&rsquo;Hegel in Italia</i> (1891).
+In Sweden, J. J. Borelius of Lund; in Norway, G. V. Lyng (d. 1884),
+M. J. Monrad (1816-1897) and G. Kent (d. 1892) have adopted
+Hegelianism; in France, P. Leroux and P. Prévost.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Shortly after Hegel&rsquo;s death his collected works
+were published by a number of his friends, who combined for the
+purpose. They appeared in eighteen volumes in 1832, and a second
+edition came out about twelve years later. Volumes i.-viii. contain
+the works published by himself; the remainder is made up of his
+lectures on the Philosophy of History, Aesthetic, the Philosophy of
+Religion and the History of Philosophy, besides some essays and
+reviews, with a few of his letters, and the Philosophical Propaedeutic.</p>
+
+<p>For his life see K. Rosenkranz, <i>Leben Hegels</i> (Berlin, 1844);
+R. R. Haym, <i>Hegel und seine Zeit</i> (Berlin, 1857); K. Köstlin, <i>Hegel
+in philosophischer, politischer und nationaler Beziehung</i> (Tübingen,
+1870); Rosenkranz, <i>Hegel als deutscher National-Philosoph</i> (Berlin,
+1870), and his <i>Neue Studien</i>, vol. iv. (Berlin, 1878); Kuno Fischer,
+<i>Hegels Leben und Werke</i>.</p>
+
+<p>For the philosophy see A. Ruge&rsquo;s <i>Aus früherer Zeit</i>, vol. iv.
+(Berlin, 1867); Haym (as above); F. A. Trendelenburg (in <i>Logische
+Untersuchungen</i>); A. L. Kym (<i>Metaphysische Untersuchungen</i>) and
+C. Hermann (<i>Hegel und die logische Frage</i> and other works) are
+noticeable as modern critics. Georges Noël, <i>La Logique de Hegel</i>
+(Paris, 1897); Aloys Schmid, <i>Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der
+Hegelschen Logik</i> (Regensburg, 1858). Vera has translated the
+<i>Encyklopädie</i> into French, with notes; C. Bénard, the <i>Ästhetik</i>.
+In English J. Hutcheson Stirling&rsquo;s <i>Secret of Hegel</i> (2 vols., London,
+1865) contains a translation of the beginning of the <i>Wissenschaft der
+Logik</i>; the &ldquo;Logic&rdquo; from the <i>Encyklopädie</i> has been translated,
+with Prolegomena, by W. Wallace (Oxford, 1874). W. Wallace also
+translated the third part of the <i>Encyklopädie in Hegel&rsquo;s Philosophy
+of Mind</i> (1894); R. B. Haldane the <i>History of Philosophy</i> (1896);
+E. B. Speirs, lectures on the <i>Philosophy of Religion</i> (1895); J. Sibree,
+lectures on <i>The Philosophy of History</i> (1852); B. Bosanquet, <i>Philosophy
+of Fine Art</i>, Introduction (1886); W. Hastie, <i>The Philosophy
+of Art</i> (1886); S. W. Dyde, <i>The Philosophy of Right</i> (1896). Other
+recent expositions and criticisms in addition to those mentioned
+above are W. T. Harris, <i>Hegel&rsquo;s Logic</i> (1890); J. B. Baillie, <i>Origin
+and Significance of Hegel&rsquo;s Logic</i> (1901), and <i>Outline of the Idealistic
+Construction of Experience</i> (1906); P. Barth, <i>Die Geschichtsphilosophie
+Hegels</i> (1890); J. A. Marrast, <i>La Philosophie du droit de Hegel</i>
+(1869); L. Miraglia, <i>I Principii fondamentali e la dottrina eticogiuridica
+di Hegel</i> (1873); <i>Hegel&rsquo;s Philosophy of the State and History</i>
+(Germ. Phil. Classics, 1887); G. Bolland, <i>Philosophie des Rechts</i>
+(1902), and <i>Hegels Philosophie der Religion</i> (1901); E. Ott, <i>Die
+Religionsphilosophie Hegels</i> (1904); J. M. Sterrett, <i>Studies in Hegel&rsquo;s
+Philosophy of Religion</i> (1891); M. Ehrenhauss, <i>Hegels Gottesbegriff</i>
+(1880); E. Caird, Hegel (1880); A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, <i>Hegelianism
+and Personality</i> (1893); Millicent Mackenzie, <i>Hegel&rsquo;s Educational
+Theory and Practice</i> (1909), with biographical sketch; J. M. E.
+McTaggart, <i>Commentary on Hegel&rsquo;s Logic</i> (1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. Mu.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEGEMON OF THASOS,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> Greek writer of the old comedy,
+nicknamed <span class="grk" title="Phakê">&#934;&#945;&#954;&#8134;</span> from his fondness for lentils. Hardly anything
+is known of him, except that he flourished during the Peloponnesian
+War. According to Aristotle (<i>Poetics</i>, ii. 5) he was the
+inventor of a kind of parody; by slightly altering the wording
+in well-known poems he transformed the sublime into the
+ridiculous. When the news of the disaster in Sicily reached
+Athens, his parody of the <i>Gigantomachia</i> was being performed;
+it is said that the audience were so amused by it that, instead of
+leaving to show their grief, they remained in their seats. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span>
+was also the author of a comedy called <i>Philinne</i> (<i>Philine</i>),
+written in the manner of Eupolis and Cratinus, in which he
+attacked a well-known courtesan. Athenaeus (p. 698), who
+preserves some parodic hexameters of his, relates other anecdotes
+concerning him (pp. 5, 108, 407).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in T. Kock, <i>Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta</i>, i. (1880);
+B. J. Peltzer, <i>De parodica Graecorum poesi</i> (1855).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEGEMONY<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêgemonia">&#7969;&#947;&#949;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#945;</span>, leadership, from <span class="grk" title="hêgeisthai">&#7969;&#947;&#949;&#8150;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>, to
+lead), the leadership especially of one particular state in a group
+of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied
+in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual
+city-states, <i>e.g.</i> by Athens and Sparta, at different times to a
+position of predominance (<i>primus inter pares</i>) among other equal
+states, coupled with individual autonomy. The reversion of this
+position was claimed by Macedon (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>,
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delian League</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (in Lydia), Greek rhetorician and
+historian, flourished about 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Strabo (xiv. 648), speaks
+of him as the founder of the florid style of composition known as
+&ldquo;Asiatic&rdquo; (cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timaeus</a></span>). Agatharchides, Dionysius of Halicarnassus
+and Cicero all speak of him in disparaging terms,
+although Varro seems to have approved of his work. He professed
+to imitate the simple style of Lysias, avoiding long periods,
+and expressing himself in short, jerky sentences, without modulation
+or finish. His vulgar affectation and bombast made his
+writings a mere caricature of the old Attic. Dionysius describes
+his composition as tinselled, ignoble and effeminate. It is
+generally supposed, from the fragment quoted as a specimen by
+Dionysius, that Hegesias is to be classed among the writers of
+lives of Alexander the Great. This fragment describes the
+treatment of Gaza and its inhabitants by Alexander after its
+conquest, but it is possible that it is only part of an epideictic
+or show-speech, not of an historical work. This view is supported
+by a remark of Agatharchides in Photius (<i>cod.</i> 250) that the
+only aim of Hegesias was to exhibit his skill in describing
+sensational events.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Cicero, <i>Brutus</i> 83, <i>Orator</i> 67, 69, with J. E. Sandys&rsquo;s note, <i>ad
+Att.</i> xii. 6; Dion. Halic. <i>De verborum comp.</i> iv.; Aulus Gellius ix.
+4; Plutarch, <i>Alexander</i>, 3; C. W. Müller, <i>Scriptores rerum Alexandri
+Magni</i>, p. 138 (appendix to Didot ed. of Arrian, 1846); Norden,
+<i>Die antike Kunstprosa</i> (1898); J. B. Bury, <i>Ancient Greek Historians</i>
+(1909), pp. 169-172, on origin and development of &ldquo;Asiatic&rdquo; style,
+with example from Hegesias.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEGESIPPUS,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> Athenian orator and statesman, nicknamed
+<span class="grk" title="Krôbylos">&#922;&#961;&#974;&#946;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;knot&rdquo;), probably from the way in which he wore
+his hair. He lived in the time of Demosthenes, of whose anti-Macedonian
+policy he was an enthusiastic supporter. In 343
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was one of the ambassadors sent to Macedonia to discuss,
+amongst other matters, the restoration of the island of
+Halonnesus, which had been seized by Philip. The mission was
+unsuccessful, but soon afterwards Philip wrote to Athens, offering
+to resign possession of the island or to submit to arbitration the
+question of ownership. In reply to this letter the oration De
+<i>Halonneso</i> was delivered, which, although included among the
+speeches of Demosthenes, is generally considered to be by
+Hegesippus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, however,
+favour the authorship of Demosthenes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Demosthenes, <i>De falsa legatione</i> 364, 447, <i>De corona</i> 250,
+<i>Philippica</i> iii. 129; Plutarch, <i>Demosthenes</i> 17, <i>Apophthegmata</i>,
+187D; Dionysius Halic. <i>ad Ammaeum</i>, i.; Grote, <i>History of Greece</i>,
+ch. 90.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEGESIPPUS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (fl. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 150-180), early Christian writer, was of
+Palestinian origin, and lived under the Emperors Antoninus Pius,
+Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Like Aristo of Pella he belonged
+to that group of Judaistic Christians which, while keeping the law
+themselves, did not attempt to impose on others the requirements
+of circumcision and Sabbath observance. He was the author of
+a treatise (<span class="grk" title="hypomnêmata">&#8017;&#960;&#959;&#956;&#957;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span>) in five books dealing with such subjects
+as Christian literature, the unity of church doctrine, paganism,
+heresy and Jewish Christianity, fragments of which are found in
+Eusebius, who obtained much of his information concerning early
+Palestinian church history and chronology from this source.
+Hegesippus was also a great traveller, and like many other leaders
+of his time came to Rome (having visited Corinth on the way)
+about the middle of the 2nd century. His journeyings impressed
+him with the idea that the continuity of the church in the cities
+he visited was a guarantee of its fidelity to apostolic orthodoxy:
+&ldquo;in each succession and in every city, the doctrine is in accordance
+with that which the Law and the Prophets and the Lord [<i>i.e.</i> the
+Old Testament and the evangelical tradition] proclaim.&rdquo; To
+illustrate this opinion he drew up a list of the Roman bishops.
+Hegesippus is thus a significant figure both for the type of
+Christianity taught in the circle to which he belonged, and as
+accentuating the point of view which the church began to assume
+in the presence of a developing gnosticism.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEGESIPPUS,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the supposed author of a free Latin adaptation
+of the <i>Jewish War</i> of Josephus under the title <i>De bello Judaico et
+excidio urbis Hierosolymitanae</i>. The seven books of Josephus
+are compressed into five, but much has been added from the
+Antiquities and from the works of Roman historians, while several
+entirely new speeches are introduced to suit the occasion. Internal
+evidence shows that the work could not have been written before
+the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The author, who is undoubtedly a Christian,
+describes it in his preface as a kind of revised edition of Josephus.
+Some authorities attribute it to Ambrose, bishop of Milan (340-397),
+but there is nothing to settle the authorship definitely. The
+name Hegesippus itself appears to be a corruption of Josephus,
+through the stages <span class="grk" title="Iôsêpos">&#7992;&#974;&#963;&#951;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, Iosippus, Egesippus, Hegesippus,
+unless it was purposely adopted as reminiscent of Hegesippus, the
+father of ecclesiastical history (2nd century).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Best edition by C. F. Weber and J. Caesar (1864); authorities
+in E. Schürer, <i>History of the Jewish People</i> (Eng. trans.), i. 99 seq.;
+F. Vogel, <i>De Hegesippo, qui dicitur, Josephi interprete</i> (Erlangen,
+1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1433-1498), German
+humanist, so called from his birthplace Heek in Westphalia. In
+his youth he was a pupil of Thomas à Kempis, at that time canon
+of the convent of St Agnes at Zwolle. In 1474 he settled down at
+Deventer in Holland, where he either founded or succeeded to the
+headship of a school, which became famous for the number of its
+distinguished alumni. First and foremost of these was Erasmus;
+others were Hermann von dem Busche, the missionary of
+humanism, Conrad Goclenius (Gockelen), Conrad Mutianus
+(Muth von Mudt) and pope Adrian VI. Hegius died at Deventer
+on the 7th of December 1498. His writings, consisting of short
+poems, philosophical essays, grammatical notes and letters,
+were published after his death by his pupil Jacob Faber. They
+display considerable knowledge of Latin, but less of Greek, on the
+value of which he strongly insisted. Hegius&rsquo;s chief claim to be
+remembered rests not upon his published works, but upon his
+services in the cause of humanism. He succeeded in abolishing
+the old-fashioned medieval textbooks and methods of instruction,
+and led his pupils to the study of the classical authors themselves.
+His generosity in assisting poor students exhausted a considerable
+fortune, and at his death he left nothing but his books and
+clothes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See D. Reichling, &ldquo;Beiträge zur Charakteristik des Alex. Hegius,&rdquo;
+in the <i>Monatsschrift für Westdeutschland</i> (1877); H. Hamelmann,
+<i>Opera genealogico-historica</i> (1711); H. A. Erhard, <i>Geschichte des
+Wiederaufblühens wissenschaftlicher Bildung</i> (1826); C. Krafft and
+W. Crecelius, &ldquo;Alexander Hegius und seine Schüler,&rdquo; from the
+works of Johannes Butzbach, one of Hegius&rsquo;s pupils, in <i>Zeitschrift
+des bergischen Geschichtsvereins</i>, vii. (Bonn, 1871).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1791-1860), Danish poet and
+critic, son of the political writer Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841),
+and of the famous novelist, afterwards the Baroness
+Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd, was born at Copenhagen on the 14th
+of December 1791. In 1800 his father was exiled and settled in
+Paris, where he was employed in the French foreign office, retiring
+in 1817 with a pension. His political and satirical writings
+continued to exercise great influence over his fellow-countrymen.
+Johan Ludvig Heiberg was taken by K. L. Rahbek and his wife
+into their house at Bakkehuset. He was educated at the university
+of Copenhagen, and his first publication, entitled <i>The
+Theatre for Marionettes</i> (1814), included two romantic dramas.
+This was followed by <i>Christmas Jokes and New Year&rsquo;s Tricks</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span>
+(1816), <i>The Initiation of Psyche</i> (1817), and <i>The Prophecy of
+Tycho Brahé</i>, a satire on the eccentricities of the Romantic
+writers, especially on the sentimentality of Ingemann. These
+works attracted attention at a time when Baggesen, Öhlenschläger
+and Ingemann possessed the popular ear, and were
+understood at once to be the opening of a great career. In 1817
+Heiberg took his degree, and in 1819 went abroad with a grant
+from government. He proceeded to Paris, and spent the next
+three years there with his father. In 1822 he published his drama
+of <i>Nina</i>, and was made professor of the Danish language at the
+university of Kiel, where he delivered a course of lectures, comparing
+the Scandinavian mythology as found in the <i>Edda</i> with
+the poems of Öhlenschläger. These lectures were published in
+German in 1827.</p>
+
+<p>In 1825 Heiberg came back to Copenhagen for the purpose of
+introducing the vaudeville on the Danish stage. He composed a
+great number of these vaudevilles, of which the best known are
+<i>King Solomon and George the Hatmaker</i> (1825); <i>April Fools</i>
+(1826); <i>A Story in Rosenborg Garden</i> (1827); <i>Kjöge Huskors</i>
+(1831); <i>The Danes in Paris</i> (1833); <i>No</i> (1836); and <i>Yes</i>
+(1839). He took his models from the French theatre, but showed
+extraordinary skill in blending the words and the music; but the
+subjects and the humour were essentially Danish and even topical.
+Meanwhile he was producing dramatic work of a more serious
+kind; in 1828 he brought out the national drama of <i>Elverhöi</i>;
+in 1830 <i>The Inseparables</i>; in 1835 the fairy comedy of <i>The Elves</i>,
+a dramatic version of Tieck&rsquo;s <i>Elfin</i>; and in 1838 <i>Fata Morgana</i>.
+In 1841 Heiberg published a volume of <i>New Poems</i> containing
+&ldquo;A Soul after Death,&rdquo; a comedy which is perhaps his masterpiece,
+&ldquo;The Newly Wedded Pair,&rdquo; and other pieces. He edited
+from 1827 to 1830 the famous weekly, the <i>Flyvende Post</i> (The
+Flying Post), and subsequently the <i>Interimsblade</i> (1834-1837)
+and the <i>Intelligensblade</i> (1842-1843). In his journalism he
+carried on his warfare against the excessive pretensions of the
+Romanticists, and produced much valuable and penetrating
+criticism of art and literature. In 1831 he married the actress
+Johanne Louise Paetges (1812-1890), herself the author of some
+popular vaudevilles. Heiberg&rsquo;s scathing satires, however, made
+him very unpopular; and this antagonism reached its height
+when, in 1845, he published his malicious little drama of <i>The
+Nut Crackers</i>. Nevertheless he became in 1847 director of the
+national theatre. He filled the post for seven years, working
+with great zeal and conscientiousness, but was forced by intrigues
+from without to resign it in 1854. Heiberg died at Bonderup,
+near Ringsted, on the 25th of August 1860. His influence upon
+taste and critical opinion was greater than that of any writer of
+his time, and can only be compared with that of Holberg in the
+18th century. Most of the poets of the Romantic movement in
+Denmark were very grave and serious; Heiberg added the
+element of humour, elegance and irony. He had the genius of
+good taste, and his witty and delicate productions stand almost
+unique in the literature of his country.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The poetical works of Heiberg were collected, in 11 vols., in 1861-1862,
+and his prose writings (11 vols.) in the same year. The last
+volume of his prose works contains some fragments of autobiography.
+See also G. Brandes, <i>Essays</i> (1889). For the elder Heiberg
+see monographs by Thaarup (1883) and by Schwanenflügel (1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIDE,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, on a small plateau which stands between
+the marshes and moors bordering the North Sea, 35 m. N.N.W.
+of Glückstadt, at the junction of the railways Elmshorn-Hvidding
+and Neumünster-Tönning. Pop. (1905), 8758. It has an
+Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a high-grade school,
+and tobacco and cigar manufactories and breweries. Heide in
+1447 became the capital of the Ditmarsh peasant republic, but
+on the 13th of June 1559 it was the scene of the complete defeat
+of the peasant forces by the Danes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1633-1698), Swiss
+theologian, was born at Bärentschweil, in the canton of Zürich,
+Switzerland, on the 1st of July 1633. He studied at Marburg
+and at Heidelberg, where he became the friend of J. L. Fabricius
+(1632-1696), and was appointed <i>professor extraordinarius</i> of
+Hebrew and later of philosophy. In 1659 he was called to
+Steinfurt to fill the chair of dogmatics and ecclesiastical history,
+and in the same year he became doctor of theology of Heidelberg.
+In 1660 he revisited Switzerland; and, after marrying, he
+travelled in the following year to Holland, where he made the
+acquaintance of Johannes Cocceius. He returned in 1665 to
+Zürich, where he was elected professor of moral philosophy.
+Two years later he succeeded J. H. Hottinger (1620-1667) in
+the chair of theology, which he occupied till his death on the
+18th of January 1698, having declined an invitation in 1669
+to succeed J. Cocceius at Leiden, as well as a call to Groningen.
+Heidegger was the principal author of the <i>Formula Consensus
+Helvetica</i> in 1675, which was designed to unite the Swiss Reformed
+churches, but had an opposite effect. W. Gass describes him
+as the most notable of the Swiss theologians of the time.</p>
+
+<p>His writings are largely controversial, though without being
+bitter, and are in great part levelled against the Roman Catholic
+Church. The chief are <i>De historia sacra patriarcharum exercitationes
+selectae</i> (1667-1671); <i>Dissertatio de Peregrinationibus
+religiosis</i> (1670); <i>De ratione studiorum, opuscula aurea</i>, &amp;c.
+(1670); <i>Historia papatus</i> (1684; under the name Nicander von
+Hohenegg); <i>Manuductio in viam concordiae Protestantium
+ecclesiasticae</i> (1686); <i>Tumulus concilii Tridentini</i> (1690);
+<i>Exercitationes biblicae</i> (1700), with a life of the author prefixed;
+<i>Corpus theologiae Christianae</i> (1700, edited by J. H. Schweizer);
+<i>Ethicae Christianae elementa</i> (1711); and lives of J. H. Hottinger
+(1667) and J. L. Fabricius (1698). His autobiography appeared
+in 1698, under the title <i>Historia vitae J. H. Heideggeri</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the articles in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> and the
+<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>; and cf. W. Gass, <i>Geschichte der
+protestantischen Dogmatik</i>, ii. 353 ff.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIDELBERG,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a town of Germany, on the south bank of the
+Neckar, 12 m. above its confluence with the Rhine, 13 m. S.E.
+from Mannheim and 54 m. from Frankfort-on-Main by rail. The
+situation of the town, lying between lofty hills covered with
+vineyards and forests, at the spot where the rapid Neckar leaves
+the gorge and enters the plain of the Rhine, is one of great natural
+beauty. The town itself consists practically of one long, narrow
+street&mdash;the Hauptstrasse&mdash;running parallel to the river, from
+the railway station on the west to the Karlstor on the east
+(where there is also a local station) for a distance of 2 m. To
+the south of this is the Anlage, a pleasant promenade flanked by
+handsome villas and gardens, leading directly to the centre of
+the place. A number of smaller streets intersect the Hauptstrasse
+at right angles and run down to the river, which is crossed
+by two fine bridges. Of these, the old bridge on the east, built
+in 1788, has a fine gateway and is adorned with statues of
+Minerva and the elector Charles Theodore of the Palatinate;
+the other, the lower bridge, on the west, built in 1877, connects
+Heidelberg with the important suburbs of Neuenheim and
+Handschuchsheim. Of recent years the town has grown largely
+towards the west on both sides of the river; but the additions
+have been almost entirely of the better class of residences.
+Heidelberg is an important railway centre, and is connected by
+trunk lines with Frankfort, Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Spires and
+Würzburg. Electric trams provide for local traffic, and there
+are also several light railways joining it with the neighbouring
+villages. Of the churches the chief are the Protestant Peterskirche
+dating from the 15th century and restored in 1873, to
+the door of which Jerome of Prague in 1460 nailed his theses;
+the Heilige Geist Kirche (Church of the Holy Ghost), an imposing
+Gothic edifice of the 15th century; the Jesuitenkirche (Roman
+Catholic), with a sumptuously decorated interior, and the new
+Evangelical Christuskirche. The town hall and the university
+buildings, dating from 1712 and restored in 1886, are commonplace
+erections; but to the south of the Ludwigsplatz, upon
+which most of the academical buildings lie, stands the new
+university library, a handsome structure of pink sandstone in
+German Renaissance style. In addition to the Ludwigsplatz
+with its equestrian statue of the emperor William I. there are
+other squares in the town, among them being the Bismarckplatz
+with a statue of Bismarck, and the Jubiläumsplatz.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span></p>
+
+<p>The chief attraction of Heidelberg is the castle, which overhangs
+the east part of the town. It stands on the Jettenbühl,
+a spur of the Königsstuhl (1800 ft.), at a height of 330 ft. above
+the Neckar. Though now a ruin, yet its extent, its magnificence,
+its beautiful situation and its interesting history render it by
+far the most noteworthy, as it certainly is the grandest and
+largest, of the old castles of Germany. The building was begun
+early in the 13th century. The elector palatine and German
+king Rupert III. (d. 1410) greatly improved it, and built the
+wing, Ruprechtsbau or Rupert&rsquo;s building, that bears his name.
+Succeeding electors further extended and embellished it (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate VII., figs. 78-80); notably Otto Henry
+&ldquo;the Magnanimous&rdquo; (d. 1559), who built the beautiful early
+Renaissance wing known as the Otto-Heinrichsbau (1556-1559);
+Frederick IV., for whom the fine late Renaissance wing called
+the Friedrichsbau was built (1601-1607); and Frederick V., the
+unfortunate &ldquo;winter king&rdquo; of Bohemia, who on the west side
+added the Elisabethenbau or Englischebau (1618), named after
+his wife, the daughter of James I. of Great Britain and ancestress
+of the present English reigning family. In 1648, at the peace of
+Westphalia, Heidelberg was given back to Frederick V.&rsquo;s son,
+Charles Louis, who restored the castle to its former splendour.
+In 1688, during Louis XIV.&rsquo;s invasion of the Palatinate, the
+castle was taken, after a long siege, by the French, who blew
+part of it up when they found they could not hope to hold it
+(March 2, 1689). In 1693 it was again captured by them and still
+further wrecked. Finally, in 1764, it was struck by lightning
+and reduced to its present ruinous condition.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:509px; height:519px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img210.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">Apart from the outworks, the castle forms an irregular square
+with round towers at the angles, the principal buildings being
+grouped round a central courtyard, the entrance to which is
+from the south through a series of gateways. In this courtyard,
+besides the buildings already mentioned, are the oldest parts
+of the castle, the so-called Alte Bau (old building) and the
+Bandhaus. The Friedrichsbau, which is decorated with statues
+of the rulers of the Palatinate, was elaborately restored and
+rendered habitable between 1897 and 1903. Other noteworthy
+objects in the castle are the fountain in the courtyard, decorated
+with four granite columns from Charlemagne&rsquo;s palace at Ingelheim;
+the Elisabethentor, a beautiful gateway named after the
+English princess; the beautiful octagonal bell-tower at the N.E.
+angle; the ruins of the Krautturm, now known as the Gesprengte
+Turm, or blown-up tower, and the castle chapel and the museum
+of antiquities in the Friedrichsbau. In a cellar entered from
+the courtyard is the famous Great Tun of Heidelberg. This
+vast vat was built in 1751, but has only been used on one or
+two occasions. Its capacity is 49,000 gallons, and it is 20 ft.
+high and 31 ft. long. Behind the Friedrichsbau is the Altan
+(1610), or castle balcony, from which is obtained a view of great
+beauty, extending from the town beneath to the heights across
+the Neckar and over the broad luxuriant plain of the Rhine
+to Mannheim and the dim contours of the Hardt Mountains
+behind. On the terrace of the beautiful grounds is a statue of
+Victor von Scheffel, the poet of Heidelberg.</p>
+
+<p>The university of Heidelberg was founded by the elector
+Rupert I., in 1385, the bull of foundation being issued by Pope
+Urban VI. in that year. It was constructed after the type of
+Paris, had four faculties, and possessed numerous privileges.
+Marselius von Inghen was its first rector. The electors Frederick
+I., the Victorious, Philip the Upright and Louis V. respectively
+cherished it. Otto Henry gave it a new organization, further
+endowed it and founded the library. At the Reformation it
+became a stronghold of Protestant learning, the Heidelberg
+catechism being drawn up by its theologians. Then the tide
+turned. Damaged by the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, it led a struggling
+existence for a century and a half. A large portion of its remaining
+endowments was cut off by the peace of Lunéville (1801).
+In 1803, however, Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden,
+raised it anew and reconstituted it under the name of &ldquo;Ruperto-Carola.&rdquo;
+The number of professors and teachers is at present
+about 150 and of students 1700. The library was first kept in
+the choir of the Heilige Geist Kirche, and then consisted of
+3500 MSS. In 1623 it was sent to Rome by Maximilian I.,
+duke of Bavaria, and stored as the Bibliotheca Palatina in the
+Vatican. It was afterwards taken to Paris, and in 1815 was
+restored to Heidelberg. It has more than 500,000 volumes,
+besides 4000 MSS. Among the other university institutions
+are the academic hospital, the maternity hospital, the physiological
+institution, the chemical laboratory, the zoological
+museum, the botanical garden and the observatory on the
+Königsstuhl.</p>
+
+<p>The other educational foundations are a gymnasium, a modern
+and a technical school. There is a small theatre, an art and
+several other scientific societies. The manufactures of Heidelberg
+include cigars, leather, cement, surgical instruments and beer,
+but the inhabitants chiefly support themselves by supplying
+the wants of a large and increasing body of foreign permanent
+residents, of the considerable number of tourists who during
+the summer pass through the town, and of the university
+students. A funicular railway runs from the Korn-Markt up
+to the level of the castle and thence to the Molkenkur (700 ft.
+above the town). The town is well lighted and is supplied with
+excellent water from the Wolfsbrunnen. Pop. (1885), 29,304;
+(1905), 49,527.</p>
+
+<p>At an early period Heidelberg was a fief of the bishop of
+Worms, who entrusted it about 1225 to the count palatine of
+the Rhine, Louis I. It soon became a town and the chief
+residence of the counts palatine. Heidelberg was one of the
+great centres of the reformed teaching and was the headquarters
+of the Calvinists. On this account it suffered much during the
+Thirty Years&rsquo; War, being captured and plundered by Count
+Tilly in 1622, by the Swedes in 1633 and again by the imperialists
+in 1635. By the peace of Westphalia it was restored to the
+elector Charles Louis. In 1688 and again in 1693 Heidelberg
+was sacked by the French. On the latter occasion the work of
+destruction was carried out so thoroughly that only one house
+escaped; this being a quaintly decorated erection in the Marktplatz,
+which is now the Hôtel zum Ritter. In 1720 the elector
+Charles II. removed his court to Mannheim, and in 1803 the
+town became part of the grand-duchy of Baden. On the 5th of
+March 1848 the Heidelberg assembly was held here, and at this
+meeting the steps were taken which led to the revolution in
+Germany in that year.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Oncken, <i>Stadt, Schloss und Hochschule Heidelberg; Bilder
+aus ihrer Vergangenheit</i> (Heidelberg, 1885); Öchelhäuser, <i>Das
+Heidelberger Schloss, bau- und kunstgeschichtlicher Führer</i> (Heidelberg,
+1902); Pfaff, <i>Heidelberg und Umgebung</i> (Heidelberg, 1902);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span>
+Lorentzen, <i>Heidelberg und Umgebung</i> (Stuttgart, 1902); Durm,
+<i>Das Heidelberger Schloss, eine Studie</i> (Berlin, 1884); Koch and Seitz,
+<i>Das Heidelberger Schloss</i> (Darmstadt, 1887-1891); J. F. Hautz,
+<i>Geschickte der Universität Heidelberg</i> (1863-1864); A. Thorbecke,
+<i>Geschichte der Universität Heidelberg</i> (Stuttgart, 1886); the <i>Urkundenbuch
+der Universität Heidelberg</i>, edited by Winkelmann (Heidelberg,
+1886); Bähr, <i>Die Entführung der Heidelberger Bibliothek nach Rom</i>
+(Leipzig, 1845); and G. Weber, <i>Heidelberger Erinnerungen</i> (Stuttgart,
+1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIDELBERG,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a town and district of the Transvaal. The
+district is bounded S. by the Vaal river and includes the south-eastern
+part of the Witwatersrand gold-fields. The town of
+Heidelberg is 42 m. S.E. of Johannesburg and 441 m. N.W. of
+Durban by rail. Pop. (1904), 3220, of whom 1837 were white.
+It was founded in 1865, is built on the slopes of the Rand at an
+elevation of 5029 ft., and is reputed the best sanatorium
+in the colony. It is the centre of the eastern Rand goldmines.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> the most attractive of
+all the catechisms of the Reformation, was drawn up at the
+bidding of Frederick III., elector of the Palatinate, and published
+on Tuesday the 19th of January 1563. The new religion in
+the Palatinate had been largely under the guidance of Philip
+Melanchthon, who had revived the old university of Heidelberg
+and staffed it with sympathetic teachers. One of these, Tillemann,
+Heshusius, who became general superintendent in 1558, held
+extreme Lutheran views on the Real Presence, and in his desire
+to force the community into his own position excommunicated
+his colleague Klebitz, who held Zwinglian views. When the
+breach was widening Frederick, &ldquo;der fromme Kurfürst,&rdquo; came
+to the succession, dismissed the two chief combatants and
+referred the trouble to Melanchthon, whose guarded verdict
+was distinctly Swiss rather than Lutheran. In a decree of August
+1560 the elector declared for Calvin and Zwingli, and soon after
+he resolved to issue a new and unambiguous catechism of the
+evangelical faith. He entrusted the task to two young men
+who have won deserved remembrance by their learning and their
+character alike. Zacharias Ursinus was born at Breslau in July
+1534 and attained high honour in the university of Wittenberg.
+In 1558 he was made rector of the gymnasium in his native
+town, but the incessant strife with the extreme Lutherans drove
+him to Zürich, whence Frederick, on the advice of Peter Martyr,
+summoned him to be professor of theology at Heidelberg and
+superintendent of the <i>Sapientiae Collegium</i>. He was a man of
+modest and gentle spirit, not endowed with great preaching
+gifts, but unwearied in study and consummately able to impart
+his learning to others. Deposed from his chair by the elector
+Louis in 1576, he lived with John Casimir at Neustadt and
+found a congenial sphere in the new seminary there, dying in
+his 49th year, in March 1583.</p>
+
+<p>Caspar Olevianus was born at Treves in 1536. He gave up
+law for theology, studied under Calvin in Geneva, Peter Martyr
+in Zürich, and Beza in Lausanne. Urged by William Farel he
+preached the new faith in his native city, and when banished
+therefrom found a home with Frederick of Heidelberg, where
+he gained high renown as preacher and administrator. His
+ardour and enthusiasm made him the happy complement of
+Ursinus. When the reaction came under Louis he was befriended
+by Ludwig von Sain, prince of Wittgenstein, and John, count of
+Nassau, in whose city of Herborn he did notable work at the
+high school until his death on the 15th of March 1587. The
+elector could have chosen no better men, young as they were,
+for the task in hand. As a first step each drew up a catechism
+of his own composition, that of Ursinus being naturally of a more
+grave and academic turn than the freer production of Olevianus,
+while each made full use of the earlier catechisms already in use.
+But when the union was effected it was found that the spirits
+of the two authors were most happily and harmoniously wedded,
+the exactness and erudition of the one being blended with the
+fervency and grace of the other. Thus the Heidelberg Catechism,
+which was completed within a year of its inception, has an
+individuality that marks it out from all its predecessors and
+successors. The Heidelberg synod unanimously approved of it,
+it was published in January 1563, and in the same year officially
+turned into Latin by Jos. Lagus and Lambert Pithopoeus.</p>
+
+<p>The ultra-Lutherans attacked the catechism with great
+bitterness, the assault being led by Heshusius and Flacius
+Illyricus. Maximilian II. remonstrated against it as an infringement
+of the peace of Augsburg. A conference was held at
+Maulbronn in April 1564, and a personal attack was made on the
+elector at the diet of Augsburg in 1566, but the defence was
+well sustained, and the Heidelberg book rapidly passed beyond
+the bounds of the Palatinate (where indeed it suffered eclipse
+from 1576 to 1583, during the electorate of Louis), and gained
+an abundant success not only in Germany (Hesse, Anhalt,
+Brandenburg and Bremen) but also in the Netherlands (1588),
+and in the Reformed churches of Hungary, Transylvania and
+Poland. It was officially recognized by the synod of Dort in
+1619, passed into France, Britain and America, and probably
+shares with the <i>De imitatione Christi</i> and <i>The Pilgrim&rsquo;s Progress</i>
+the honour of coming next to the Bible in the number of tongues
+into which it has been translated.</p>
+
+<p>This wide acceptance and high esteem are due largely to an
+avoidance of polemical and controversial subjects, and even
+more to an absence of the controversial spirit. There is no
+mistake about its Protestantism, even when we omit the unhappy
+addition made to answer 80 by Frederick himself (in indignant
+reply to the ban pronounced by the Council of Trent), in which
+the Mass is described as &ldquo;nothing else than a denial of the one
+sacrifice and passion of Jesus Christ, and an accursed idolatry&rdquo;&mdash;an
+addition which is the one blot on the <span class="grk" title="èpieíkeia">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#949;&#943;&#954;&#949;&#953;&#945;</span> of the
+catechism. The work is the product of the best qualities of
+head and heart, and its prose is frequently marked by all the
+beauty of a lyric. It follows the plan of the epistle to the Romans
+(excepting chapters ix.-xi.) and falls into three parts: Sin,
+Redemption and the New Life. This arrangement alone would
+mark it out from the normal reformation catechism, which runs
+along the stereotyped lines of Decalogue, Creed, Lord&rsquo;s Prayer,
+Church and Sacraments. These themes are included, but are
+shown as organically related. The Commandments, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;belong
+to the first part so far as they are a mirror of our sin and misery,
+but also to the third part, as being the rule of our new obedience
+and Christian life.&rdquo; The Creed&mdash;a panorama of the sublime
+facts of redemption&mdash;and the sacraments find their place in
+the second part; the Lord&rsquo;s Prayer (with the Decalogue) in the
+third.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Heidelberg Catechism</i>, the <i>German Text, with a Revised
+Translation and Introduction</i>, edited by A. Smellie (London, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1788-1865), German
+architect, the son of Victor Peter Heideloff, a painter, was born
+at Stuttgart. He studied at the art academy of his native
+town, and after following the profession of an architect for some
+time at Coburg was in 1818 appointed city architect at Nuremberg.
+In 1822 he became professor at the polytechnic school,
+holding his post until 1854, and some years later he was chosen
+conservator of the monuments of art. Heideloff devoted his
+chief attention to the Gothic style of architecture, and the
+buildings restored and erected by him at Nuremberg and in its
+neighbourhood attest both his original skill and his purity of
+taste. He also achieved some success as a painter in watercolour.
+He died at Hassfurt on the 28th of September 1865.
+Among his architectural works should be mentioned the castle
+of Reinhardsbrunn, the Hall of the Knights in the fortress at
+Coburg, the castle of Landsberg, the mortuary chapel in Meiningen,
+the little castle of Rosenburg near Bonn, the chapel of the
+castle of Rheinstein near Bingen, and the Catholic church in
+Leipzig. His powers in restoration are shown in the castle of
+Lichtenstein, the cathedral of Bamberg, and the Knights&rsquo;
+Chapel (<i>Ritter Kapelle</i>) at Hassfurt.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his writings on architecture are <i>Die Lehre von den Säulenordnungen</i>
+(1827); <i>Der Kleine Vignola</i> (1832); <i>Nürnbergs Baudenkmäler
+der Vorzeit</i> (1838-1843, complete edition 1854); and <i>Die
+Ornamentik des Mittelalters</i> (1838-1842).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIDENHEIM,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Württemberg, 31 m. by rail north by east of Ulm. Pop. (1905),
+12,173. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span>
+and several schools. Its industrial establishments include
+cotton, woollen, tobacco, machinery and chemical factories,
+bleach-works, dye-works and breweries, and corn and cattle
+markets. The town, which received municipal privileges in
+1356, is overlooked by the ruins of the castle of Hellenstein,
+standing on a hill 1985 ft. high. Heidenheim is also the name
+of a small place in Bavaria famous on account of the Benedictine
+abbey which formerly stood therein. Founded in 748 by
+Wilibald, bishop of Eichstätt, this was plundered by the peasantry
+in 1525 and was closed in 1537.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIFER,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a young cow that has not calved. The O. Eng. <i>heahfore</i>
+or <i>heafru</i>, from which the word is derived, is of obscure origin.
+It is found in Bede&rsquo;s <i>History</i> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 900) as <i>heahfore</i>, and has
+passed through many forms. It is possibly derived from <i>heah</i>,
+high, and <i>faren</i> (fare), to go, meaning &ldquo;high-stepper.&rdquo; It has
+also been suggested that the derivation is from <i>hea</i>, a stall, and
+<i>fore</i>, a cow.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1835-1905), German novelist,
+was born, the son of a <i>régisseur</i> or stage-manager of the court
+theatre, on the 25th of March 1835 at Munich. In this city he
+received his early schooling and studied (1854-1858) philosophy
+at the university. He was then appointed librarian to Prince
+Heinrich zu Carolath-Beuthen in Lower Silesia, and accompanied
+the nephew of the prince on travels. In 1863 he settled in Berlin,
+where from 1865 to 1875 he was engaged in journalism. He
+next resided at Munich, employed in literary work for the king,
+Ludwig II., who in 1881 conferred upon him a title of nobility.
+On the death of the king in 1886 he removed to Riva on the
+Lago di Garda, where he died on the 6th of September 1905.
+Karl von Heigel attained some popularity with his novels:
+<i>Wohin?</i> (1873), <i>Die Dame ohne Herz</i> (1873), <i>Das Geheimnis
+des Königs</i> (1891), <i>Der Roman einer Stadt</i> (1898), <i>Der Maharadschah</i>
+(1900), <i>Die nervöse Frau</i> (1900), <i>Die neuen Heiligen</i>
+(1901), and <i>Brömels Glück und Ende</i> (1902). He also wrote
+some plays, notably <i>Josephine Bonaparte</i> (1892) and <i>Die Zarin</i>
+(1883); and several collections of short stories, <i>Neue Erzählungen</i>
+(1876), <i>Neueste Novellen</i> (1878), and <i>Heitere Erzählungen</i>
+(1893).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIJERMANS, HERMANN<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1864-&emsp;&emsp;) , Dutch writer, of
+Jewish origin, was born on the 3rd of December 1864 at Rotterdam.
+In the Amsterdam <i>Handelsblad</i> he published a series of
+sketches of Jewish family life under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Samuel
+Falkland,&rdquo; which were collected in volume form. His novels
+and tales include <i>Trinette</i> (1892), <i>Fles</i> (1893), <i>Kamertjeszonde</i>
+(2 vols., 1896), <i>Intérieurs</i> (1897), <i>Diamantstadt</i> (2 vols., 1903).
+He created great interest by his play <i>Op Hoop van Zegen</i> (1900),
+represented at the Théâtre Antoine in Paris, and in English by
+the Stage Society as <i>The Good Hope</i>. His other plays are:
+<i>Dora Kremer</i> (1893), <i>Ghetto</i> (1898), <i>Het zevende Gebot</i> (1899),
+<i>Het Pantser</i> (1901), <i>Ora et labora</i> (1901), and numerous one-act
+pieces. <i>A Case of Arson</i>, an English version of the one-act play
+<i>Brand in de Jonge Jan</i>, was notable for the impersonation (1904
+and 1905) by Henri de Vries of all the seven witnesses who appear
+as characters.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEILBRONN,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg,
+situated in a pleasant and fruitful valley on the Neckar,
+33 m. by rail N. of Stuttgart, and at the junction of lines to
+Jagdsfeld, Crailsheim and Eppingen. Pop. (1905), 40,026. In
+the older part of the town the streets are narrow, and contain
+a number of high turreted houses with quaintly adorned gables.
+The old fortifications have now been demolished, and their site
+is occupied by promenades, outside of which are the more modern
+parts of the town with wide streets and many handsome buildings.
+The principal public buildings are the church of St Kilian
+(restored 1886-1895) in the Gothic and Renaissance styles, begun
+about 1019 and completed in 1529, with an elegant tower 210 ft.
+high, a beautiful choir, and a finely carved altar; the town hall
+(Rathaus), founded in 1540, and possessing a curious clock made
+in 1580, and a collection of interesting letters and other documents;
+the house of the Teutonic knights (Deutsches Haus),
+now used as a court of law; the Roman Catholic church of St
+Joseph, formerly the church of the Teutonic Order; the tower
+(Diebsturm or Götzens Turm) on the Neckar, in which Götz
+von Berlichingen was confined in 1519; a fine synagogue; an
+historical museum and several monuments, among them those
+to the emperors William I. and Frederick I., to Bismarck, to
+Schiller and to Robert von Mayer (1814-1878), a native of the
+town, famous for his discoveries concerning heat. The educational
+establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial school
+and an agricultural academy. The town in a commercial point
+of view is the most important in Württemberg, and possesses
+an immense variety of manufactures, of which the principal are
+gold, silver, steel and iron wares, machines, sugar of lead, white
+lead, vinegar, beer, sugar, tobacco, soap, oil, cement, chemicals,
+artificial manure, glue, soda, tapestry, paper and cloth. Grapes,
+fruit, vegetables and flowering shrubs are largely grown in the
+neighbourhood, and there are large quarries for sandstone and
+gypsum and extensive salt-works. By means of the Neckar
+a considerable trade is carried on in wood, bark, leather,
+agricultural produce, fruit and cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Heilbronn occupies the site of an old Roman settlement; it
+is first mentioned in 741, and the Carolingian princes had a palace
+here. It owes its name&mdash;originally Heiligbronn, or holy spring&mdash;to
+a spring of water which until 1857 was to be seen issuing from
+under the high altar of the church of St Kilian. Heilbronn
+obtained privileges from Henry IV. and from Rudolph I. and
+became a free imperial city in 1360. It was frequently besieged
+during the middle ages, and it suffered greatly during the
+Peasants&rsquo; War, the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and the various wars
+with France. In April 1633 a convention was entered into here
+between Oxenstierna, the Swabian and Frankish estates and the
+French, English and Dutch ambassadors, as a result of which the
+Heilbronn treaty, for the prosecution of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War,
+was concluded. In 1802 Heilbronn was annexed by Württemberg.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Jäger, <i>Geschichte von Heilbronn</i> (Heilbronn, 1828); Kuttler,
+<i>Heilbronn, seine Umgebungen und seine Geschichte</i> (Heilbronn, 1859);
+Dürr, <i>Heilbronner Chronik</i> (Halle, 1896); Schliz, <i>Die Entstehung
+der Stadtgemeinde Heilbronn</i> (Leipzig, 1903); and A. Küsel, <i>Der
+Heilbrunner Konvent</i> (Halle, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEILIGENSTADT,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony,
+on the Leine, 32 m. E.N.E. of Cassel, on the railway to Halle.
+Pop. (1905), 7955. It possesses an old castle, formerly belonging
+to the electors of Mainz, one Evangelical and two Roman
+Catholic churches, several educational establishments, and an
+infirmary. The principal manufactures are cotton goods,
+cigars, paper, cement and needles. Heiligenstadt is said to have
+been built by the Frankish king Dagobert and was formerly
+the capital of the principality of Eichsfeld. In 1022 it was
+acquired by the archbishop of Mainz, and in 1103 it came into
+the possession of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony, but when his
+son Henry the Lion was placed under the ban of the Empire, it
+again came to Mainz. It was destroyed by fire in 1333, and was
+captured in 1525 by Duke Henry of Brunswick. In 1803 it
+came into possession of Prussia. The Jesuits had a celebrated
+college here from 1581 to 1773.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEILSBERG,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the province of East
+Prussia, at the junction of the Simser and Alle, 38 m. S. of
+Königsberg. Pop. (1905), 6042. It has an Evangelical and a
+Roman Catholic church, and an old castle formerly the seat of
+the prince-bishops of Ermeland, but now used as an infirmary.
+The principal industries are tanning, dyeing and brewing, and
+there is considerable trade in grain. The castle founded at
+Heilsberg by the Teutonic order in 1240 became in 1306 the seat
+of the bishops of Ermeland, an honour which it retained for
+500 years. On the 10th of June 1807 a battle took place at
+Heilsberg between the French under Soult and Murat, and the
+Russians and Prussians under Bennigsen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEILSBRONN<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Kloster-Heilsbronn</span>), a village of
+Germany, in the Bavarian province of Middle Franconia, with
+a station on the railway between Nuremberg and Ansbach, has
+1200 inhabitants. In the middle ages it was the seat of one of
+the great monasteries of Germany. This foundation, which
+belonged to the Cistercian order, owed its origin to Bishop Otto
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span>
+of Bamberg in 1132, and continued to exist till 1555. Its
+sepulchral monuments, many of which are figured by Hocker,
+<i>Heilsbronnischer Antiquitätenschatz</i> (Ansbach, 1731-1740), are of
+exceptionally high artistic interest. It was the hereditary
+burial-place of the Hohenzollern family and ten burgraves of
+Nuremberg, five margraves and three electors of Brandenburg,
+and many other persons of note are buried within its walls.
+The buildings of the monastery have mostly disappeared, with
+the exception of the fine church, a Romanesque basilica, restored
+between 1851 and 1866, and possessing paintings by Albert
+Dürer. The &ldquo;Monk of Heilsbronn&rdquo; is the ordinary appellation
+of a didactic poet of the 14th century, whose <i>Sieben Graden</i>,
+<i>Tochter Syon</i> and <i>Leben des heiligen Alexius</i> were published by
+J. F. L. T. Merzdorf at Berlin in 1870.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Rehm, <i>Ein Gang durch und um die Münster-Kirche zu Kloster-Heilsbronn</i>
+(Ansbach, 1875); Stillfried, <i>Kloster-Heilsbronn, ein
+Beitrag zu den Hohenzollernschen Forschungen</i> (Berlin, 1877); Muck,
+<i>Geschichte von Kloster-Heilsbronn</i> (Nördlingen, 1879-1880); J. Meyer,
+<i>Die Hohenzollerndenkmale in Heilsbronn</i> (Ansbach, 1891); and A.
+Wagner, <i>Über den Mönch von Heilsbronn</i> (Strassburg, 1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1849-&emsp;&emsp;) , Swiss
+geologist, was born at Zürich on the 12th of April 1849. He was
+educated at Zürich and Berlin universities. Very early in life
+he became interested in the physical features of the Alps, and
+at the age of sixteen he made a model of the Tödi group. This
+came under the notice of Arnold Escher von der Linth, to whom
+Heim was indebted for much encouragement and geological
+instruction in the field. In 1873 he became professor of geology
+in the polytechnic school at Zürich, and in 1875 professor of
+geology in the university. In 1882 he was appointed director of
+the Geological Survey of Switzerland, and in 1884 the hon. degree
+of Ph.D. was conferred upon him at Berne. He is especially
+distinguished for his researches on the structure of the Alps
+and for the light thereby thrown on the structure of mountain
+masses in general. He traced the plications from minor to major
+stages, and illustrated the remarkable foldings and overthrust
+faultings in numerous sections and with the aid of pictorial
+drawings. His magnificent work, <i>Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung</i>
+(1878), is now regarded as a classic, and it served to inspire
+Professor C. Lapworth in his brilliant researches on the Scottish
+Highlands (see <i>Geol. Mag.</i> 1883). Heim also devoted considerable
+attention to the glacial phenomena of the Alpine regions.
+The Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1904 by the
+Geological Society of London.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIM, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1787-1865), French painter,
+was born at Belfort on the 16th of December 1787. He early
+distinguished himself at the École Centrale of Strassburg, and
+in 1803 entered the studio of Vincent at Paris. In 1807 he
+obtained the first prize, and in 1812 his picture of &ldquo;The
+Return of Jacob&rdquo; (Musée de Bordeaux) won for him a gold
+medal of the first class, which he again obtained in 1817, when
+he exhibited, together with other works, a St John&mdash;bought by
+Vivant Denon. In 1819 the &ldquo;Resurrection of Lazarus&rdquo;
+(Cathédral Autun), the &ldquo;Martyrdom of St Cyr&rdquo; (St Gervais),
+and two scenes from the life of Vespasian (ordered by the king)
+attracted attention. In 1823 the &ldquo;Re-erection of the Royal
+Tombs at St Denis,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Martyrdom of St Laurence&rdquo; (Notre
+Dame) and several full-length portraits increased the painter&rsquo;s
+popularity; and in 1824, when he exhibited his great canvas,
+the &ldquo;Massacre of the Jews&rdquo; (Louvre), Heim was rewarded with
+the legion of honour. In 1827 appeared the &ldquo;King giving away
+Prizes at the Salon of 1824&rdquo; (Louvre&mdash;engraved by Jazet)&mdash;the
+picture by which Heim is best known&mdash;and &ldquo;Saint
+Hyacinthe.&rdquo; Heim was now commissioned to decorate the
+Gallery Charles X. (Louvre). Though ridiculed by the romantists,
+Heim succeeded Regnault at the Institute in 1834, shortly
+after which he commenced a series of drawings of the celebrities
+of his day, which are of much interest. His decorations of the
+Conference room of the Chamber of Deputies were completed
+in 1844; and in 1847 his works at the Salon&mdash;&ldquo;Champ de Mai&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Reading a Play at the Théâtre Français&rdquo;&mdash;were the signal
+for violent criticisms. Yet something like a turn of opinion in
+his favour took place at the exhibition of 1851; his powers as a
+draughtsman and the occasional merits of his composition were
+recognized, and toleration extended even to his colour. Heim
+was awarded the great gold medal, and in 1855&mdash;having sent to
+the Salon no less than sixteen portraits, amongst which may be
+cited those of &ldquo;Cuvier,&rdquo; &ldquo;Geoffroy de St Hilaire,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Madame
+Hersent&rdquo;&mdash;he was made officer of the legion of honour. In 1859
+he again exhibited a curious collection of portraits, sixty-four
+members of the Institute arranged in groups of four. He died
+on the 29th of September 1865. Besides the paintings already
+mentioned, there is to be seen in Notre Dame de Lorette (Paris)
+a work executed on the spot; and the museum of Strassburg
+contains an excellent example of his easel pictures, the subject
+of which is a &ldquo;Shepherd Drinking from a Spring.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIMDAL,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> or <i>Heimdall</i>, in Scandinavian mythology, the
+keeper of the gates of Heaven and the guardian of the rainbow
+bridge Bifrost. He is the son of Odin by nine virgins, all sisters.
+He is called &ldquo;the god with the golden teeth.&rdquo; He lives in the
+stronghold of Himinsbiorg at the end of Bifrost. His chief
+attribute is a vigilance which nothing can escape. He sleeps less
+than a bird; sees at night and even in his sleep; can hear the
+grass, and even the wool on a lamb&rsquo;s back grow. He is armed
+with Gjallar, the magic horn, with which he will summon the gods
+on the day of judgment.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEINE, HEINRICH,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1797-1856), German poet and journalist,
+was born at Düsseldorf, of Jewish parents, on the 13th of
+December 1797. His father, after various vicissitudes in business,
+had finally settled in Düsseldorf, and his mother, who possessed
+much energy of character, was the daughter of a physician of
+the same place. Heinrich (or, more exactly, Harry) was the
+eldest of four children, and received his education, first in private
+schools, then in the Lyceum of his native town; although not an
+especially apt or diligent pupil, he acquired a knowledge of French
+and English, as well as some tincture of the classics and Hebrew.
+His early years coincided with the most brilliant period of
+Napoleon&rsquo;s career, and the boundless veneration which he is never
+tired of expressing for the emperor throughout his writings
+shows that his true schoolmasters were rather the drummers
+and troopers of a victorious army than the masters of the Lyceum.
+By freeing the Jews from many of the political disabilities under
+which they had hitherto suffered, Napoleon became, it may be
+noted, the object of particular enthusiasm in the circles amidst
+which Heine grew up. When he left school in 1815, an attempt
+was made to engage him in business in Frankfort, but without
+success. In the following year his uncle, Solomon Heine, a
+wealthy banker in Hamburg, took him into his office. A passion
+for his cousin Amalie Heine seems to have made the young
+man more contented with his lot in Hamburg, and his success
+was such that his uncle decided to set him up in business for
+himself. This, however, proved too bold a step; in a very few
+months the firm of &ldquo;Harry Heine &amp; Co.&rdquo; was insolvent. His
+uncle now generously provided him with money to enable him to
+study at a university, with the view to entering the legal profession,
+and in the spring of 1819 Heine became a student of the university
+of Bonn. During his stay there he devoted himself rather to the
+study of literature and history than to that of law; amongst
+his teachers A. W. von Schlegel, who took a kindly interest in
+Heine&rsquo;s poetic essays, exerted the most lasting influence on him.
+In the autumn of 1820 Heine left Bonn for Göttingen, where he
+proposed to devote himself more assiduously to professional
+studies, but in February of the following year he challenged to
+a pistol duel a fellow-student who had insulted him, and was,
+in consequence, rusticated for six months. The pedantic
+atmosphere of the university of Göttingen was, however, little
+to his taste; the news of his cousin&rsquo;s marriage unsettled him
+still more; and he was glad of the opportunity to seek distraction
+in Berlin.</p>
+
+<p>In the Prussian capital a new world opened up to him; a
+very different life from that of Göttingen was stirring in the new
+university there, and Heine, like all his contemporaries, sat at
+the feet of Hegel and imbibed from him, doubtless, those views
+which in later years made the poet the apostle of an outlook
+upon life more modern than that of his romantic predecessors.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span>
+Heine was also fortunate in having access to the chief
+literary circles of the capital; he was on terms of intimacy
+with Varnhagen von Ense and his wife, the celebrated Rahel,
+at whose house he frequently met such men as the Humboldts,
+Hegel himself and Schleiermacher; he made the acquaintance
+of leading men of letters like Fouqué and Chamisso, and was
+on a still more familiar footing with the most distinguished
+of his co-religionists in Berlin. Under such favourable circumstances
+his own gifts were soon displayed. He contributed
+poems to the <i>Berliner Gesellschafter</i>, many of which were subsequently
+incorporated in the <i>Buch der Lieder</i>, and in December
+1821 a little volume came from the press entitled <i>Gedichte</i>, his
+first avowed act of authorship. He was also employed at this
+time as correspondent of a Rhenish newspaper, as well as in
+completing his tragedies <i>Almansor</i> and <i>William Ratcliff</i>, which
+were published in 1823 with small success. In that same year
+Heine, not in the most hopeful spirits, returned to his family,
+who had meanwhile moved to Lüneburg. He had plans of
+settling in Paris, but as he was still dependent on his uncle,
+the latter&rsquo;s consent had to be obtained. As was to be expected,
+Solomon Heine did not favour the new plan, but promised to
+continue his support on the condition that Harry completed
+his course of legal study. He sent the young student for a six
+weeks&rsquo; holiday at Cuxhaven, which opened the poet&rsquo;s eyes to
+the wonders of the sea; and three weeks spent subsequently
+at his uncle&rsquo;s county seat near Hamburg were sufficient to
+awaken a new passion in Heine&rsquo;s breast&mdash;this time for Amalie&rsquo;s
+sister, Therese. In January 1824 Heine returned to Göttingen,
+where, with the exception of a visit to Berlin and the excursion to
+the Hartz mountains in the autumn of 1824, which is immortalized
+in the first volume of the <i>Reisebilder</i>, he remained until his
+graduation in the summer of the following year. It was on the
+latter of these journeys that he had the interview with Goethe
+which was so amusingly described by him in later years. A few
+weeks before obtaining his degree, he took a step which he had
+long meditated; he formally embraced Christianity. This
+&ldquo;act of apostasy,&rdquo; which has been dwelt upon at unnecessary
+length both by Heine&rsquo;s enemies and admirers, was actuated
+wholly by practical considerations, and did not arise from any
+wish on the poet&rsquo;s part to deny his race. The summer months
+which followed his examination Heine spent by his beloved
+sea in the island of Norderney, his uncle having again generously
+supplied the means for this purpose. The question of his future
+now became pressing, and for a time he seriously considered the
+plan of settling as a solicitor in Hamburg, a plan which was
+associated in his mind with the hope of marrying his cousin
+Therese. Meanwhile he had made arrangements for the publication
+of the <i>Reisebilder</i>, the first volume of which, <i>Die Harzreise</i>,
+appeared in May 1826. The success of the book was instantaneous.
+Its lyric outbursts and flashes of wit; its rapid
+changes from grave to gay; its flexibility of thought and style,
+came as a revelation to a generation which had grown weary of
+the lumbering literary methods of the later Romanticists.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of the following year Heine paid a long planned
+visit to England, where he was deeply impressed by the free
+and vigorous public life, by the size and bustle of London; above
+all, he was filled with admiration for Canning, whose policy
+had realized many a dream of the young German idealists of
+that age. But the picture had also its reverse; the sordidly
+commercial spirit of English life, and brutal egotism of the
+ordinary Englishman, grated on Heine&rsquo;s sensitive nature;
+he missed the finer literary and artistic tastes of the continent
+and was repelled by the austerity of English religious sentiment
+and observance. Unfortunately the latter aspects of English
+life left a deeper mark on his memory than the bright side.
+In October Baron Cotta, the well-known publisher, offered
+Heine&mdash;the second volume of whose <i>Reisebilder</i> and the <i>Buch
+der Lieder</i> had meanwhile appeared and won him fresh laurels&mdash;the
+joint-editorship of the <i>Neue allgemeine politische Annalen</i>.
+He gladly accepted the offer and betook himself to Munich.
+Heine did his best to adapt himself and his political opinions to
+the new surroundings, in the hope of coming in for a share of
+the good things which Ludwig I. of Bavaria was so generously
+distributing among artists and men of letters. But the stings
+of the <i>Reisebilder</i> were not so easily forgotten; the clerical
+party in particular did not leave him long in peace. In July
+1828, the professorship on which he had set his hopes being
+still not forthcoming, he left Munich for Italy, where he remained
+until the following November, a holiday which provided material
+for the third and part of the fourth volumes of the <i>Reisebilder</i>.
+A blow more serious than the Bavarian king&rsquo;s refusal to establish
+him in Munich awaited him on his return to Germany&mdash;the
+death of his father. In the beginning of 1829 Heine took up
+his abode in Berlin, where he resumed old acquaintanceships;
+in summer he was again at the sea, and in autumn he returned
+to the city he now loathed above all others, Hamburg, where he
+virtually remained until May 1831. These years were not a
+happy period of the poet&rsquo;s life; his efforts to obtain a position,
+apart from that which he owed to his literary work, met with
+rebuffs on every side; his relations with his uncle were unsatisfactory
+and disturbed by constant friction, and for a time
+he was even seriously ill. His only consolation in these months
+of discontent was the completion and publication of the <i>Reisebilder</i>.
+When in 1830 the news of the July Revolution in the
+streets of Paris reached him, Heine hailed it as the beginning
+of a new era of freedom, and his thoughts reverted once more
+to his early plan of settling in Paris. All through the following
+winter the plan ripened, and in May 1831 he finally said farewell
+to his native land.</p>
+
+<p>Heine&rsquo;s first impressions of the &ldquo;New Jerusalem of Liberalism&rdquo;
+were jubilantly favourable; Paris, he proclaimed, was the
+capital of the civilized world, to be a citizen of Paris the highest
+of honours. He was soon on friendly terms with many of the
+notabilities of the capital, and there was every prospect of a
+congenial and lucrative journalistic activity as correspondent
+for German newspapers. Two series of his articles were subsequently
+collected and published under the titles <i>Französische
+Zustände</i> (1832) and <i>Lutezia</i> (written 1840-1843, published in
+the <i>Vermischte Schriften</i>, 1854). In December 1835, however,
+the German Bund, incited by W. Menzel&rsquo;s attacks on &ldquo;Young
+Germany,&rdquo; issued its notorious decree, forbidding the publication
+of any writings by the members of that coterie; the name of
+Heine, who had been stigmatized as the leader of the movement
+headed the list. This was the beginning of a series of literary
+feuds in which Heine was, from now on, involved; but a more
+serious and immediate effect of the decree was to curtail considerably
+his sources of income. His uncle, it is true, had allowed
+him 4000 francs a year when he settled in Paris, but at this
+moment he was not on the best of terms with his Hamburg
+relatives. Under these circumstances he was induced to take
+a step which his fellow-countrymen have found it hard to forgive;
+he applied to the French government for support from a secret
+fund formed for the benefit of &ldquo;political refugees&rdquo; who were
+willing to place themselves at the service of France. From 1836
+or 1837 until the Revolution of 1848 Heine was in receipt of
+4800 francs annually from this source.</p>
+
+<p>In October 1834 Heine made the acquaintance of a young
+Frenchwoman, Eugénie Mirat, a saleswoman in a boot-shop
+in Paris, and before long had fallen passionately in love with
+her. Although ill-educated, vain and extravagant, she inspired
+the poet with a deep and lasting affection, and in 1841, on the
+eve of a duel in which he had become involved, he made her
+his wife. &ldquo;Mathilde,&rdquo; as Heine called her, was not the comrade
+to help the poet in days of adversity, or to raise him to better
+things, but, in spite of passing storms, he seems to have been
+happy with her, and she nursed him faithfully in his last illness.
+Her death occurred in 1883. His relations with Mathilde
+undoubtedly helped to weaken his ties with Germany; and
+notwithstanding the affection he professed to cherish for his
+native land, he only revisited it twice, in the autumn of 1843 and
+the summer of 1847. In 1845 appeared the first unmistakable
+signs of the terrible spinal disease, which, for eight years, from
+the spring of 1848 till his death, condemned him to a &ldquo;mattress
+grave.&rdquo; These years of suffering&mdash;suffering which left his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span>
+intellect as clear and vivacious as ever&mdash;seem to have effected
+what might be called a spiritual purification in Heine&rsquo;s nature,
+and to have brought out all the good sides of his character,
+whereas adversity in earlier years only intensified his cynicism.
+The lyrics of the <i>Romanzero</i> (1851) and the collection of <i>Neueste
+Gedichte</i> (1853-1854) surpass in imaginative depth and sincerity
+of purpose the poetry of the <i>Buch der Lieder</i>. Most wonderful
+of all are the poems inspired by Heine&rsquo;s strange mystic passion
+for the lady he called <i>Die Mouche</i>, a countrywoman of his own&mdash;her
+real name was Elise von Krienitz, but she had written in
+French under the <i>nom de plume</i> of Camille Selden&mdash;who helped
+to brighten the last months of the poet&rsquo;s life. He died on the
+17th of February 1856, and lies buried in the cemetery of
+Montmartre.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the purely journalistic work of Heine&rsquo;s Paris years,
+to which reference has already been made, he published a collection
+of more serious prose writings under the title <i>Der Salon</i>
+(1833-1839). In this collection will be found, besides papers on
+French art and the French stage, the essays &ldquo;Zur Geschichte der
+Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland,&rdquo; which he had written
+for the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>. Here, too, are the more characteristic
+productions of Heine&rsquo;s genius, <i>Aus den Memoiren des
+Herrn von Schnabelewopski</i>, <i>Der Rabbi von Bacherach</i> and
+<i>Florentinische Nächte</i>. <i>Die romantische Schule</i> (1836), with
+its unpardonable personal attack on the elder Schlegel, is a
+less creditable essay in literary criticism. In 1839 appeared
+<i>Shakespeares Mädchen und Frauen</i>, which, however, was merely
+the text to a series of illustrations; and in 1840, the witty and
+trenchant satire on a writer, who, in spite of many personal
+disagreements, had been Heine&rsquo;s fellow-fighter in the liberal
+cause, Ludwig Börne. Of Heine&rsquo;s poetical work in these years,
+his most important publications were, besides the <i>Romanzero</i>,
+the two admirable satires, <i>Deutschland, ein Wintermärchen</i>
+(1844), the result of his visit to Germany, and <i>Atta Troll, ein
+Sommernachtstraum</i> (1876), an attack on the political <i>Tendenzliteratur</i>
+of the &rsquo;forties.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of no other of the greater German poets is it so
+hard to arrive at a final judgment as in that of Heinrich Heine.
+In his <i>Buch der Lieder</i> he unquestionably struck a new lyric
+note, not merely for Germany but for Europe. No singer
+before him had been so daring in the use of nature-symbolism
+as he, none had given such concrete and plastic expression to
+the spiritual forces of heart and soul; in this respect Heine
+was clearly the descendant of the Hebrew poets of the Old
+Testament. At times, it is true, his imagery is exaggerated
+to the degree of absurdity, but it exercised, none the less, a
+fascination over his generation. Heine combined with a spiritual
+delicacy, a fineness of perception, that firm hold on reality
+which is so essential to the satirist. His lyric appealed with
+particular force to foreign peoples, who had little understanding
+for the intangible, undefinable spirituality which the German
+people regard as an indispensable element in their national
+lyric poetry. Thus his fame has always stood higher in England
+and France than in Germany itself, where his lyric method,
+his self-consciousness, his cynicism in season and out of season,
+were little in harmony with the literary traditions. As far,
+indeed, as the development of the German lyric is concerned,
+Heine&rsquo;s influence has been of questionable value. But he
+introduced at least one new and refreshing element into German
+poetry with his lyrics of the North Sea; no other German
+poet has felt and expressed so well as Heine the charm of sea
+and coast.</p>
+
+<p>As a prose writer, Heine&rsquo;s merits were very great. His work
+was, in the main, journalism, but it was journalism of a high
+order, and, after all, the best literature of the &ldquo;Young German&rdquo;
+school to which he belonged was of this character. Heine&rsquo;s
+light fancy, his agile intellect, his straightforward, clear style
+stood him here in excellent stead. The prose writings of his
+French period mark, together with Börne&rsquo;s <i>Briefe aus Paris</i>,
+the beginning of a new era in German journalism and a healthy
+revolt against the <span class="correction" title="amended from unwieldly">unwieldy</span> prose of the Romantic period.
+Above all things, Heine was great as a wit and a satirist. His
+lyric may not be able to assert itself beside that of the very
+greatest German singers, but as a satirist he had powers of the
+highest order. He combined the holy zeal and passionate
+earnestness of the &ldquo;soldier of humanity&rdquo; with the withering
+scorn and ineradicable sense of justice common to the leaders
+of the Jewish race. It was Heine&rsquo;s real mission to be a reformer,
+to restore with instruments of war rather than of peace &ldquo;the
+interrupted order of the world.&rdquo; The more&rsquo;s the pity that his
+magnificent Aristophanic genius should have had so little
+room for its exercise, and have been frittered away in the petty
+squabbles of an exiled journalist.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first collected edition of Heine&rsquo;s works was edited by A.
+Strodtmann in 21 vols. (1861-1866), the best critical edition is the
+<i>Sämtliche Werke</i>, edited by E. Elster (7 vols., 1887-1890). Heine
+has been more translated into other tongues than any other German
+writer of his time. Mention may here be made of the French
+translation of his <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> (14 vols., 1852-1868), and the
+English translation (by C. G. Leland and others) recently completed,
+<i>The Works of Heinrich Heine</i> (13 vols., 1892-1905). For biography
+and criticism see the following works: A. Strodtmann, <i>Heines Leben
+und Werke</i> (3rd ed., 1884); H. Hueffer, <i>Aus dem Leben H. Heines</i>
+(1878); and by the same author, <i>H. Heine: Gesammelte Aufsätze</i>
+(1906); G. Karpeles, <i>H. Heine und seine Zeitgenossen</i> (1888), and
+by the same author, <i>H. Heine: aus seinem Leben und aus seiner
+Zeit</i> (1900); W. Bölsche, <i>H. Heine: Versuch einer ästhetischkritischen
+Analyse seiner Werke und seiner Weltanschauung</i> (1888);
+G. Brandes, <i>Det unge Tyskland</i> (1890; Eng. trans., 1905). An
+English biography by W. Stigand, <i>Life, Works and Opinions of
+Heinrich Heine</i>, appeared in 1875, but it has little value; there is
+also a short life by W. Sharp (1888). The essays on Heine by
+George Eliot and Matthew Arnold are well known. The best French
+contributions to Heine criticism are J. Legras, <i>H. Heine, poète</i>
+(1897), and H. Lichtenberger, <i>H. Heine, penseur</i> (1905). See also
+L.P. Betz, <i>Heine in Frankreich</i> (1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. W. F.; J. G. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1681-1741), German
+jurist, was born on the 11th of September 1681 at Eisenberg,
+Altenburg. He studied theology at Leipzig, and law at Halle;
+and at the latter university he was appointed in 1713 professor
+of philosophy, and in 1718 professor of jurisprudence. He
+subsequently filled legal chairs at Franeker in Holland and at
+Frankfort, but finally returned to Halle in 1733 as professor
+of philosophy and jurisprudence. He died there on the 31st of
+August 1741. Heineccius belonged to the school of philosophical
+jurists. He endeavoured to treat law as a rational science, and
+not merely as an empirical art whose rules had no deeper
+source than expediency. Thus he continually refers to first
+principles, and he develops his legal doctrines as a system of
+philosophy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His chief works were <i>Antiquitatum Romanarum jurisprudentiam
+illustrantium syntagma</i> (1718), <i>Historia juris civilis Romani ac
+Germanici</i> (1733), <i>Elementa juris Germanici</i> (1735), <i>Elementa juris
+naturae et gentium</i> (1737; Eng. trans. by Turnbull, 2 vols., London,
+1763). Besides these works he wrote on purely philosophical subjects,
+and edited the works of several of the classical jurists. His
+<i>Opera omnia</i> (9 vols., Geneva, 1771, &amp;c.) were edited by his son
+Johann Christian Gottlieb Heineccius (1718-1791).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Heineccius&rsquo;s brother, <span class="sc">Johann Michael Heineccius</span> (1674-1722),
+was a well-known preacher and theologian, but is remembered
+more from the fact that he was the first to make a
+systematic study of seals, concerning which he left a book, <i>De
+veteribus Germanorum aliarumque nationum sigillis</i> (Leipzig,
+1710; 2nd ed., 1719).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1721-1725), a child
+remarkable for precocity of intellect, was born on the 6th of
+February 1721 at Lübeck, where his father was a painter.
+Able to speak at the age of ten months, by the time he was one
+year old he knew by heart the principal incidents in the
+Pentateuch. At two years of age he had mastered sacred
+history; at three he was intimately acquainted with history
+and geography, ancient and modern, sacred and profane, besides
+being able to speak French and Latin; and in his fourth year
+he devoted himself to the study of religion and church history.
+This wonderful precocity was no mere feat of memory, for the
+youthful savant could reason on and discuss the knowledge
+he had acquired. Crowds of people flocked to Lübeck to see
+the wonderful child; and in 1724 he was taken to Copenhagen
+at the desire of the king of Denmark. On his return to Lübeck
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span>
+he began to learn writing, but his sickly constitution gave way,
+and he died on the 22nd of June 1725.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Life, Deeds, Travels and Death of the Child of Lübeck</i>
+were published in the following year by his tutor Schöneich. See
+also <i>Teutsche Bibliothek</i>, xvii., and <i>Mémoires de Trévoux</i> (Jan.
+1731).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEINICKE, SAMUEL<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1727-1790), the originator in Germany
+of systematic education for the deaf and dumb, was born on the
+10th of April 1727, at Nautschütz, Germany. Entering the
+electoral bodyguard at Dresden, he subsequently supported
+himself by teaching. About 1754 his first deaf and dumb pupil
+was brought him. His success in teaching this pupil was so
+great that he determined to devote himself entirely to this work.
+The outbreak of the Seven Years&rsquo; War upset his plans for a time.
+Taken prisoner at Pirna, he was brought to Dresden, but soon
+made his escape. In 1768, when living in Hamburg, he successfully
+taught a deaf and dumb boy to talk, following the methods
+prescribed by Amman in his book <i>Surdus loquens</i>, but improving
+on them. Recalled to his own country by the elector of Saxony,
+he opened in Leipzig, in 1778, the first deaf and dumb institution
+in Germany. This school he directed till his death, which took
+place on the 30th of April 1790. He was the author of a variety
+of books on the instruction of the deaf and dumb.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1749-1803), German
+author, was born at Langewiesen near Ilmenau in Thuringia on
+the 16th of February 1749. After attending the gymnasium at
+Schleusingen he studied law at Jena and Erfurt. In Erfurt he
+became acquainted with Wieland and through him with &ldquo;Father&rdquo;
+Gleim who in 1772 procured him the post of tutor in a family at
+Quedlinburg. In 1774 he went to Düsseldorf, where he assisted
+the poet J. G. Jacobi to edit the periodical <i>Iris</i>. Here the
+famous picture gallery inspired him with a passion for art, to the
+study of which he devoted himself with so much zeal and insight
+that Jacobi furnished him with funds for a stay in Italy, where
+he remained for three years (1780-1783), He returned to Düsseldorf
+in 1784, and in 1786 was appointed reader to the elector
+Frederick Charles Joseph, archbishop of Mainz, who subsequently
+made him his librarian at Aschaffenburg, where he died
+on the 22nd of June 1803.</p>
+
+<p>The work upon which Heinse&rsquo;s fame mainly rests is <i>Ardinghello
+und die glückseligen Inseln</i> (1787), a novel which forms the framework
+for the exposition of his views on art and life, the plot being
+laid in the Italy of the 16th century. This and his other novels
+<i>Laidion, oder die eleusinischen Geheimnisse</i> (1774) and <i>Hildegard
+von Hohenthal</i> (1796) combine the frank voluptuousness of
+Wieland with the enthusiasm of the &ldquo;Sturm und Drang.&rdquo; Both
+as novelist and art critic, Heinse had considerable influence on
+the romantic school.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Heinse&rsquo;s complete works (<i>Sämtliche Schriften</i>) were published by
+H. Laube in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1838). A new edition by C. Schüddekopf
+is in course of publication (Leipzig, 1901 sqq.). See H. Pröhle,
+<i>Lessing, Wieland, Heinse</i> (Berlin, 1877), and J. Schober, <i>Johann
+Jacob Wilhelm Heinse, sein Leben und seine Werke</i> (Leipzig, 1882);
+also K. D. Jessen, <i>Heinses Stellung zur bildenden Kunst</i> (Berlin,
+1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEINSIUS<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Heins</span>) <b>DANIEL</b> (1580-1655), one of the most
+famous scholars of the Dutch Renaissance, was born at Ghent
+on the 9th of June 1580. The troubles of the Spanish war drove
+his parents to settle first at Veere in Zeeland, then in England,
+next at Ryswick and lastly at Flushing. In 1594, being already
+remarkable for his attainments, he was sent to the university of
+Franeker to perfect himself in Greek under Henricus Schotanus.
+He stayed at Franeker half a year, and then settled at Leiden
+for the remaining sixty years of his life. There he studied under
+Joseph Scaliger, and there he found Marnix de St Aldegonde,
+Janus Douza, Paulus Merula and others, and was soon taken
+into the society of these celebrated men as their equal. His
+proficiency in the classic languages won the praise of all the best
+scholars of Europe, and offers were made to him, but in vain, to
+accept honourable positions outside Holland. He soon rose in
+dignity at the university of Leiden. In 1602 he was made
+professor of Latin, in 1605 professor of Greek, and at the death of
+Merula in 1607 he succeeded that illustrious scholar as librarian
+to the university. The remainder of his life is recorded in a list of
+his productions. He died at the Hague on the 25th of February
+1655. The Dutch poetry of Heinsius is of the school of Roemer
+Visscher, but attains no very high excellence. It was, however,
+greatly admired by Martin Opitz, who was the pupil of Heinsius,
+and who, in translating the poetry of the latter, introduced the
+German public to the use of the rhyming alexandrine.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He published his original Latin poems in three volumes&mdash;<i>Iambi</i>
+(1602), <i>Elegiae</i> (1603) and <i>Poëmata</i> (1605); his <i>Emblemata amatoria</i>,
+poems in Dutch and Latin, were first printed in 1604. In the same
+year he edited Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, having edited Hesiod
+in 1603. In 1609 he printed his Latin <i>Orations</i>. In 1610 he edited
+Horace, and in 1611 Aristotle and Seneca. In 1613 appeared in
+Dutch his tragedy of <i>The Massacre of the Innocents</i>; and in 1614 his
+treatise <i>De politico sapientia</i>. In 1616 he collected his original Dutch
+poems into a volume. He edited Terence in 1618, Livy in 1620,
+published his oration <i>De contemptu mortis</i> in 1621, and brought out
+the <i>Epistles</i> of Joseph Scaliger in 1627.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1620-1681), Dutch scholar, son of
+Daniel Heinsius, was born at Leiden on the 20th of July 1620.
+His boyish Latin poem of <i>Breda expugnata</i> was printed in
+1637, and attracted much attention. In 1642 he began his
+wanderings with a visit to England in search of MSS. of the
+classics; but he met with little courtesy from the English
+scholars. In 1644 he was sent to Spa to drink the waters; his
+health restored, he set out once more in search of codices, passing
+through Louvain, Brussels, Mechlin, Antwerp and so back to
+Leiden, everywhere collating MSS. and taking philological and
+textual notes. Almost immediately he set out again, and arriving
+in Paris was welcomed with open arms by the French savants.
+After investigating all the classical texts he could lay hands on,
+he proceeded southwards, and visited on the same quest Lyons,
+Marseilles, Pisa, Florence (where he paused to issue a new edition
+of Ovid) and Rome. Next year, 1647, found him in Naples,
+from which he fled during the reign of Masaniello; he pursued
+his labours in Leghorn, Bologna, Venice and Padua, at which
+latter city he published in 1648 his volume of original Latin verse
+entitled <i>Italica</i>. He proceeded to Milan, and worked for a considerable
+time in the Ambrosian library; he was preparing to
+explore Switzerland in the same patient manner, when the news
+of his father&rsquo;s illness recalled him hurriedly to Leiden. He was
+soon called away to Stockholm at the invitation of Queen
+Christina, at whose court he waged war with Salmasius, who
+accused him of having supplied Milton with facts from the life
+of that great but irritable scholar. Heinsius paid a flying visit
+to Leiden in 1650, but immediately returned to Stockholm. In
+1651 he once more visited Italy; the remainder of his life was
+divided between Upsala and Holland. He collected his Latin
+poems into a volume in 1653. His latest labours were the
+editing of Velleius Paterculus in 1678, and of Valerius Flaccus in
+1680. He died at the Hague on the 7th of October 1681. Nikolaes
+Heinsius was one of the purest and most elegant of Latinists, and
+if his scholarship was not quite so perfect as that of his father, he
+displayed higher gifts as an original writer.</p>
+
+<p>His illegitimate son, <span class="sc">Nikolaes Heinsius</span> (b. 1655), was the
+author of <i>The Delightful Adventures and Wonderful Life of
+Mirandor</i> (1675), the single Dutch romance of the 17th century.
+He had to flee the country in 1677 for committing a murder in the
+streets of the Hague, and died in obscurity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIR<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (Lat. <i>heres</i>, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in <i>herus</i>
+or <i>erus</i>, master of a house, Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheir">&#967;&#949;&#943;&#961;</span>, hand, Sans, <i>harana</i>,
+hand), in law, technically one who succeeds, by descent, to an
+estate of inheritance, in contradistinction to one who succeeds
+to personal property, <i>i.e.</i> next of kin. The word is now used
+generally to denote the person who is entitled by law to inherit
+property, titles, &amp;c., of another. The rules regulating the descent
+of property to an heir will be found in the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inheritance</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Succession</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>heir apparent</i> (Lat. <i>apparens</i>, manifest) is he whose right of
+inheritance is indefeasible, provided he outlives the ancestor,
+<i>e.g.</i> an eldest or only son.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heir by custom</i>, or customary heir, he who inherits by a
+particular and local custom, as in borough-English, whereby
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span>
+the youngest son inherits, or in gavelkind, whereby all the sons
+inherit as parceners, and made but one heir.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heir general</i>, or heir at law, he who after the death of his
+ancestor has, by law, the right to the inheritance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heir presumptive</i>, one who is next in succession, but whose
+right is defeasible by the birth of a nearer heir, <i>e.g.</i> a brother or
+nephew, whose presumptive right may be destroyed by the birth
+of a child, or a daughter, whose right may be defeated by the
+birth of a son.</p>
+
+<p><i>Special heir</i>, one not heir at law (<i>i.e.</i> at common law), but by
+special custom.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ultimate heir</i>, he to whom lands come by escheat on failure of
+proper heirs. In Scots law the technical use of the word &ldquo;heir&rdquo;
+is not confined to the succession to real property, but includes
+succession to personal property as well.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEIRLOOM,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> strictly so called in English law, a chattel
+(&ldquo;loom&rdquo; meaning originally a tool) which by immemorial
+usage is regarded as annexed by inheritance to a family estate.
+Any owner of such heirloom may dispose of it during his lifetime,
+but he cannot bequeath it by will away from the estate.
+If he dies intestate it goes to his heir-at-law, and if he devises
+the estate it goes to the devisee. At the present time such
+heirlooms are almost unknown, and the word has acquired a
+secondary and popular meaning and is applied to furniture,
+pictures, &amp;c., vested in trustees to hold on trust for the person
+for the time being entitled to the possession of a settled house.
+Such things are more properly called settled chattels. An
+heirloom in the strict sense is made by family custom, not by
+settlement. A settled chattel may, under the Settled Land Act
+1882, be sold under the direction of the court, and the money
+arising under such sale is capital money. The court will only
+sanction such a sale if it be shown that it is to the benefit of all
+parties concerned; and if the article proposed to be sold is of
+unique or historical character, it will have regard to the intention
+of the settlor and the wishes of the remainder men (Re <i>Hope</i>,
+<i>De Cetto</i> v. <i>Hope</i>, 1899, 2 ch. 679).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEJAZ<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hijaz</span>), a Turkish vilayet and a province of Western
+Arabia, extending along the Red Sea coast from the head of
+the Gulf of Akaba in 29° 30&prime; N. to the south of Taif in 20° N. It
+is bounded N. by Syria, E. by the Nafud desert and by Nejd and
+S. by Asir. Its length is about 750 m. and its greatest breadth
+from the Harra east of Khaibar to the coast is 200 m. The
+name Hejaz, which signifies &ldquo;separating,&rdquo; is sometimes limited
+to the region extending from Medina in the north to Taif in the
+south, which separates the island province Nejd from the
+Tehama (Tihama) or coastal district, but most authorities,
+both Arab and European, define it in the wider sense. Though
+physically the most desolate and uninviting province in Arabia,
+it has a special interest and importance as containing the two
+sacred cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina (<i>q.v.</i>), respectively
+the birthplace and burial-place of Mahomet, which are visited
+yearly by large numbers of Moslem pilgrims from all parts of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>Hejaz is divided longitudinally by the Tehama range of
+mountains into two zones, a narrow littoral and a broader
+upland. This range attains its greatest height in Jebel Shar,
+the Mount Seir of scripture, overlooking the Midian coast,
+which probably reaches 7000 ft., and Jebel Radhwa a little N.E.
+of Yambu rising to 6000 ft. It is broken through by several
+valleys which carry off the drainage of the inland zone; the
+principal of these is the Wadi Hamd, the main source of which
+is on the Harra east of Khaibar. Its northern tributary the Wadi
+Jizil drains the Harrat el Awerid and a southern branch comes
+from the neighbourhood of Medina. Farther south the Wadi
+es Safra cuts through the mountains and affords the principal
+access to the valley of Medina from Yambu or Jidda. None
+of the Hejaz Wadis has a perennial stream, but they are liable
+to heavy floods after the winter rains, and thick groves of date-palms
+and occasional settlements are met with along their
+courses wherever permanent springs are found. The northern
+part of Hejaz contains but few inhabited sites. Muwela, Damgha
+and El Wijh are small ports used by coasting craft. The last
+named was formerly an important station on the Egyptian
+pilgrim route, and in ancient days was a Roman settlement,
+and the port of the Nabataean towns of el Hajr 150 m. to the east.
+Inland the sandstone desert of El Hisma reaches from the Syrian
+border at Ma&rsquo;an to Jebel Awerid, where the volcanic tracts
+known as <i>harra</i> begin, and extend southwards along the western
+borders of the Nejd plateau as far as the latitude of Mecca. East
+of Jebel Awerid lies the oasis of Tema, identified with the
+Biblical Teman, which belongs to the Shammar tribe; its fertility
+depends on the famous well, known as Bir el Hudaj. Farther
+south and on the main pilgrim route is El &lsquo;Ala, the principal
+settlement of El Hajr, the Egra of Ptolemy, to whom it was
+known as an oasis town on the gold and frankincense road.
+Higher up the same valley are the rock-cut tombs of Medina
+Salih, similar to those at Petra and shown by the Nabataean
+coins and inscriptions discovered there by Doughty and Huber
+to date from the beginning of the Christian era. To the south-east
+again is the oasis of Khaibar, with some 2500 inhabitants,
+chiefly negroes, the remnants of an earlier slave population.
+The citadel, known as the Kasr el Yahudi, preserves the tradition
+of its former Jewish ownership. With these exceptions there
+are no settled villages between Ma&rsquo;an and Medina, the stations
+on the pilgrim road being merely small fortified posts with
+reservoirs, at intervals of 30 or 40 m., which are kept up by the
+Turkish government for the protection of the yearly caravan.</p>
+
+<p>The southern part of the province is more favoured by nature.
+Medina is a city of 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, situated in a
+broad plain between the coast range and the low hills across
+which lies the road to Nejd. Its altitude above the sea is about
+2500 ft. It is well supplied with water and is surrounded by
+gardens and plantations; barley and wheat are grown, but the
+staple produce, as in all the cultivated districts of Hejaz, is dates,
+of which 100 different sorts are said to grow. Yambu&rsquo; has a
+certain importance as the port for Medina. The route follows
+for part of the way along the Wadi es Safra, which contains
+several small settlements with abundant date groves; from
+Badr Hunen, the last of these, the route usually taken from
+Medina to Mecca runs near the coast, passing villages with
+some cultivation at each stage. The eastern route though more
+direct is less used; it passes through a barren country described
+by Burton as a succession of low plains and basins surrounded
+by rolling hills and intersected by torrent beds; the predominant
+formation is basalt. Suwerikiya and Es Safina are the only
+villages of importance on this route.</p>
+
+<p>Mecca and the holy places in its vicinity are described in a
+separate article; it is about 48 m. from the port of Jidda, the
+most important trade centre of the Hejaz province. The great
+majority of pilgrims for Mecca arrive by sea at Jidda. Their
+transport and the supply of their wants is therefore the chief
+business of the place; in 1904 the number was 66,500, and the
+imports amounted in value to £1,400,000.</p>
+
+<p>From the hot lowland in which Mecca is situated the country
+rises steeply up to the Taif plateau, some 6000 ft. above sea-level,
+a district resembling in climate and physical character
+the highlands of Asir and Yemen. Jebel el Kura at the northern
+edge of the plateau is a fertile well-watered district, producing
+wheat and barley and fruit. Taif, a day&rsquo;s journey farther south,
+lies in a sandy plain, surrounded by low mountains. The houses,
+though small, are well built of stone; the gardens for which
+it is celebrated lie at a distance of a mile or more to the S.W. at
+the foot of the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Hejaz, together with the other provinces of Arabia which on
+the overthrow of the Bagdad Caliphate in 1258 had fallen under
+Egyptian domination, became by the conquest of Egypt in 1517
+a dependency of the Ottoman empire. Beyond assuming the
+title of Caliph, neither Salim I. nor his successors interfered
+much in the government, which remained in the hands of the
+sharifs of Mecca until the religious upheaval which culminated
+at the beginning of the 19th century in the pillage of the holy
+cities by the Wahhabi fanatics. Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt,
+was entrusted by the sultan with the task of establishing order,
+and after several arduous campaigns the Wahhabis were routed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span>
+and their capital Deraiya in Nejd taken by Ibrahim Pasha in
+1817. Hejaz remained in Egyptian occupation until 1845,
+when its administration was taken over directly by Constantinople,
+and it was constituted a vilayet under a vali or governor-general.
+The population is estimated at 300,000, about half of
+which are inhabitants of the towns and the remainder Bedouin,
+leading a nomad or pastoral life. The principal tribes are the
+Sherarat, Beni Atiya and Huwetat in the north; the Juhena
+between Yambu&rsquo; and Medina, and the various sections of the
+Harb throughout the centre and south; the Ateba also touch
+the Mecca border on the south-east. All these tribes receive
+surra or money payments of large amount from the Turkish
+government to ensure the safe conduct of the annual pilgrimage,
+otherwise they are practically independent of the Turkish
+administration, which is limited to the large towns and garrisons.
+The troops occupying these latter belong to the 16th (Hejaz)
+division of the Turkish army.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulties of communication with his Arabian provinces,
+and of relieving or reinforcing the garrisons there, induced the
+sultan Abdul Hamid in 1900 to undertake the construction
+of a railway directly connecting the Hejaz
+<span class="sidenote">The Hejaz railway.</span>
+cities with Damascus without the necessity of leaving
+Turkish territory at any point, as hitherto required
+by the Suez Canal. Actual construction was begun in May 1901
+and on the 1st of September 1904 the section Damascus-Ma&rsquo;an
+(285 m.) was officially opened. The line has a narrow gauge
+of 1.05 metre = 41 in., the same gauge as that of the Damascus-Beirut
+line; it has a ruling gradient of 1 in 50 and follows generally
+the pilgrim track, through a desert country presenting no
+serious engineering difficulties. The graver difficulties due to
+the scarcity of water, and the lack of fuel, supplies and labour
+were successfully overcome; in 1906 the line was completed
+to El Akhdar, 470 m. from Damascus and 350 from Medina,
+In time to be used by the pilgrim caravan of that year; and the
+section to Medina was opened in 1908. Its military value was
+shown in the previous year, when it conveyed 28 battalions from
+Damascus to Ma&rsquo;an, from which station the troops marched to
+Akaba for embarkation <i>en route</i> to Hodeda. The length of the line
+from Damascus to Medina is approximately 820 m., and from
+Medina to Mecca 280 m.; the highest level attained is about
+4000 ft. at Dar el Hamra in the section Ma&lsquo;an-Medina.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;J. L. Burckhardt, <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (London,
+1829); &lsquo;Ali Bey, <i>Travels</i> (London, 1816); R. F. Burton, <i>Pilgrimage
+to Medinah and Mecca</i> (1893); <i>Land of Midian</i> (London, 1879);
+J. S. Hurgronje, <i>Mekka</i> (Hague, 1888); C. M. Doughty, <i>Arabia
+Deserta</i> (Cambridge, 1888); Auler Pasha, <i>Die Hedschasbahn</i> (Gotha,
+1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. A. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEJIRA,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span><a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or <span class="sc">Hegira</span> (Arab. <i>hijra</i>, flight, departure from
+one&rsquo;s country, from <i>hajara</i>, to go away), the name of the Mahommedan
+era. It dates from 622, the year in which Mahomet
+&ldquo;fled&rdquo; from Mecca to Medina to escape the persecution of his
+kinsmen of the Koreish tribe. The years of this era are distinguished
+by the initials &ldquo;<span class="scs">A.H.</span>&rdquo; (<i>anno hegirae</i>). The Mahommedan
+year is a lunar one, about 11 days shorter than the
+Christian; allowance must be made for this in translating
+<i>Hegira</i> dates into Christian dates; thus <span class="scs">A.H.</span> 1321 corresponds
+roughly to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1903. The actual date of the &ldquo;flight&rdquo; is fixed
+as 8 Rabia I., <i>i.e.</i> 20th of September 622, by the tradition that
+Mahomet arrived at Kufa on the Hebrew Day of Atonement.
+Although Mahomet himself appears to have dated events by
+his flight, it was not till seventeen years later that the actual
+era was systematized by Omar, the second caliph (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>),
+as beginning from the 1st day of Muharram (the first lunar
+month of the year) which in that year (639) corresponded to
+July 16. The term <i>hejira</i> is also applied in its more general
+sense to other &ldquo;emigrations&rdquo; of the faithful, <i>e.g.</i> to that to
+Abyssinia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahomet</a></span>), and to that of Mahomet&rsquo;s followers
+to Medina before the capture of Mecca. These latter are known
+as <i>Muhajirun</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the problems of Moslem chronology and comparative tables
+of dates see (beside the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chronology</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahomet</a></span>), Wüstenfeld, <i>Vergleichungstabellen der muhammedanischen
+und christlichen Zeitrechnung</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1903); Mas Latrie,
+<i>Trésor de chronologie</i> (Paris, 1889); Durbaneh, <i>Universal Calendar</i>
+(Cairo, 1896); Winckler, <i>Altorientalische Forschungen</i>, ii. 326-350;
+D. Nielson, <i>Die altarabische Mondreligion</i> (Strassburg, 1904); Hughes,
+<i>Dictionary of Islam</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Hijrah.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The <i>i</i> in the second syllable is short.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEL,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> or <i>Hela</i>, in Scandinavian mythology, the goddess of
+the dead. She was a child of Loki and the giantess Angurboda,
+and dwelt beneath the roots of the sacred ash, Yggdrasil. She
+was given dominion over the nine worlds of Helheim. In early
+myth all the dead went to her: in later legend only those who
+died of old age or sickness, and she then became synonymous
+with suffering and horror. Her dwelling was <i>Elvidnir</i> (dark
+clouds), her dish <i>Hungr</i> (hunger), her knife <i>Sullt</i> (starvation),
+her servants <i>Ganglate</i> (tardy feet), her bed <i>Kör</i> (sickness), and
+her bed-curtains <i>Blikiandabol</i> (splendid misery).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELDENBUCH, DAS,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> the title under which a large body of
+German epic poetry of the 13th century has come down to us.
+The subjects of the individual poems are taken from national
+German sagas which originated in the epoch of the Migrations
+(<i>Völkerwanderung</i>), although doubtless here, as in all purely
+popular sagas, motives borrowed from the forces and phenomena
+of nature were, in course of time, woven into events originally
+historical. While the saga of the Nibelungs crystallized in the
+13th century into the <i>Nibelungenlied</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), and the Low German
+Hilde-saga into the epic of <i>Gudrun</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) the poems of the
+<i>Heldenbuch</i>, in the more restricted use of that term, belong
+almost exclusively to two cycles, (1) the Ostrogothic saga of
+Ermanrich, Dietrich von Bern (<i>i.e.</i> Dietrich of Verona, Theodorich
+the Great) and Etzel (Attila), and (2) the cycle of Hugdietrich,
+Wolfdietrich and Ortnit, which like the <i>Nibelungen</i> saga, was
+probably of Franconian origin. The romances of the <i>Heldenbuch</i>
+are of varying poetic value; only occasionally do they rise to
+the height of the two chief epics, the <i>Nibelungenlied</i> and <i>Gudrun</i>.
+Dietrich von Bern, the central figure of the first and more important
+group, was the ideal type of German medieval hero, and,
+under more favourable literary conditions, he might have become
+the centre of an epic more nationally German than even the
+<i>Nibelungenlied</i> itself. Of the romances of this group, the chief
+are <i>Biterolf und Dietlieb</i>, evidently the work of an Austrian poet,
+who introduced many elements from the court epic of chivalry
+into a milieu and amongst characters familiar to us from the
+<i>Nibelungenlied</i>. <i>Der Rosengarten</i> tells of the conflicts which
+took place round Kriemhild&rsquo;s &ldquo;rose garden&rdquo; in Worms&mdash;conflicts
+from which Dietrich always emerges victor, even when
+he is confronted by Siegfried himself. In <i>Laurin und der kleine
+Rosengarten</i>, the Heldensage is mingled with elements of popular
+fairy-lore; it deals with the adventures of Dietrich and his
+henchman Witege with the wily dwarf Laurin, who watches over
+another rose garden, that of the Tyrol. Similar in character
+are the adventures of Dietrich with the giants Ecke (<i>Eckenlied</i>)
+and Sigenot, with the dwarf Goldemar, and the deeds of chivalry
+he performs for queen Virginal (<i>Dietrichs erste Ausfahrt</i>)&mdash;all
+of these romances being written in the fresh and popular tone
+characteristic of the wandering singers or <i>Spielleute</i>. Other
+elements of the Dietrich saga are represented by the poems
+<i>Alpharts Tod</i>, <i>Dietrichs Flucht</i> and <i>Die Rabenschlacht</i> (&ldquo;Battle
+of Ravenna&rdquo;). Of these, the first is much the finest poem of
+the entire cycle and worthy of a place beside the best popular
+poetry of the Middle High German epoch. Alphart, a young
+hero in Dietrich&rsquo;s army, goes out to fight single-handed with
+Witege and Heime, who had deserted to Ermanrich, and he falls,
+not in fair battle, but by the treachery of Witege whose life he
+had spared. The other two Dietrich epics belong to a later
+period, the end of the 13th century&mdash;the author being an Austrian,
+Heinrich der Vogler&mdash;and show only too plainly the decay that
+had by this time set in in Middle High German poetry.</p>
+
+<p>The second cycle of sagas is represented by several long
+romances, all of them unmistakably &ldquo;popular&rdquo; in tone&mdash;conflicts
+with dragons, supernatural adventures, the wonderland of the
+East providing the chief features of interest. The epics of this
+group are <i>Ortnit</i>, <i>Hugdietrich</i>, <i>Wolfdietrich</i>, the latter with its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span>
+pathetic episode of the unswerving loyalty of Wolfdietrich&rsquo;s
+vassal Duke Berchtung and his ten sons. Although many of the
+incidents and motives of this cycle are drawn from the best
+traditions of the <i>Heldensage</i>, its literary value is not very high.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>This collection of popular romances was one of the first German
+books to be printed. The date of the first edition is unknown, but
+the second edition appeared in the year 1491 and was followed by
+later reprints in 1509, 1545, 1560 and 1590. The last of these forms
+the basis of the text edited by A. von Keller for the Stuttgart
+<i>Literarische Verein</i> in 1867. In 1472 the <i>Heldenbuch</i> was adapted
+to the popular tastes of the time by being remodelled in rough
+<i>Knittelvers</i> or doggerel; the author, or at least copyist, of the MS.
+was a certain Kaspar von dor Roen, of Münnerstadt in Franconia.
+This version was printed by F. von der Hagen and S. Primisser in
+their <i>Heldenbuch</i> (1820-1825). <i>Das Heldenbuch</i>, which F. von der
+Hagen published in 2 vols, in 1855, was the first attempt to reproduce
+the original text by collating the MSS. A critical edition, based not
+merely on the oldest printed text&mdash;the only one which has any value
+for this purpose, as the others are all copies of it&mdash;but also on the
+MSS., was published in 5 vols. by O. Jänicke, E. Martin, A. Amelung
+and J. Zupitza at Berlin (1866-1873). A selection, edited by E.
+Henrici, will be found in Kürschner&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>,
+vol. 7 (1887). Recent editions have appeared of <i>Der Rosengarten</i>
+and <i>Laurin</i>, by G. Holz (1893 and 1897). All the poems have been
+translated into modern German by K. Simrock and others. See
+F. E. Sandbach, <i>The Heroic Saga-Cycle of Dietrich of Bern</i> (1906).
+The literature of the <i>Heldensage</i> is very extensive. See especially
+W. Grimm, <i>Die deutsche Heldensage</i> (3rd ed., 1889); L. Uhland,
+&ldquo;Geschichte der deutschen Poesie im Mittelalter,&rdquo; <i>Schriften</i>, vol. i.
+(1866); O. L. Jiriczek, <i>Deutsche Heldensage</i>, vol. i. (1898); and
+especially B. Symons, &ldquo;Germanische Heldensage,&rdquo; in Paul&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss
+der germanischen Philologie</i> (2nd ed., 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELDER,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a seaport town at the northern extremity of the
+province of North Holland, in the kingdom of Holland, 51 m.
+by rail N.N.W. of Amsterdam. Pop. (1900) 25,842. It is
+situated on the Marsdiep, the channel separating the island of
+Texel from the mainland, and the main entrance to the Zuider
+Zee, and besides being the terminus of the North Holland canal
+from Amsterdam, it is an important naval and military station.
+On the east side of the town, called the Nieuwe Diep, is situated
+the fine harbour, which formerly served, as Ymuiden now does,
+as the outer port of Amsterdam. In this neighbourhood are the
+naval wharves and magazines, wet and dry docks, and the naval
+cadet school of Holland, the name Willemsoord being given
+to the whole naval establishment. From Nieuwe Diep to Fort
+Erfprins on the west side of the town, a distance of about 5 m.,
+stretches the great sea-dike which here takes the place of the
+dunes. This dike descends at an angle of 40° for a distance of
+200 ft. into the sea, and is composed of Norwegian granite and
+Belgian limestone, strengthened at intervals by projecting
+jetties of piles and fascines. A circle of forts and batteries
+defends the town and coast, and there is a permanent garrison
+of 7000 to 9000 men, while 30,000 men can be accommodated
+within the lines, and the province flooded from this point.
+Besides several churches and a synagogue, there are a town
+hall (1836), a hospital, an orphan asylum, the &ldquo;palace&rdquo; of
+the board of marine, a meteorological observatory, a zoological
+station and a lighthouse. The industries of the town are
+sustained by the garrison and marine establishments.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELEN,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Helena</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Elenê">&#7961;&#955;&#941;&#957;&#951;</span>),in Greek mythology, daughter
+of Zeus by Leda (wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta), sister of
+Castor, Pollux and Clytaemnestra, and wife of Menelaus.
+Other accounts make her the daughter of Zeus and Nemesis,
+or of Oceanus and Tethys. She was the most beautiful woman in
+Greece, and indirectly the cause of the Trojan war. When
+a child she was carried off from Sparta by Theseus to Attica,
+but was recovered and taken back by her brothers. When she
+grew up, the most famous of the princes of Greece sought her
+hand in marriage, and her father&rsquo;s choice fell upon Menelaus.
+During her husband&rsquo;s absence she was induced by Paris, son of
+Priam, with the connivance of Aphrodite, to flee with him to
+Troy. After the death of Paris she married his brother Deïphobus,
+whom she is said to have betrayed into the hands of Menelaus
+at the capture of the city (<i>Aeneid</i>, vi. 517 ff.). Menelaus thereupon
+took her back, and they returned together to Sparta, where
+they lived happily till their death, and were buried at Therapnae
+in Laconia. According to another story, Helen survived her
+husband, and was driven out by her stepsons. She fled to Rhodes,
+where she was hanged on a tree by her former friend Polyxo,
+to avenge the loss of her husband Tlepolemus in the Trojan
+War (Pausanias iii. 19). After death, Helen was said to have
+married Achilles in his home in the island of Leuk&#275;. In another
+version, Paris, on his voyage to Troy with Helen, was driven
+ashore on the coast of Egypt, where King Proteus, upon learning
+the facts of the case, detained the real Helen in Egypt, while a
+phantom Helen was carried off to Troy. Menelaus on his way
+home was also driven by stress of winds to Egypt, where he
+found his wife and took her home (Herodotus ii. 112-120;
+Euripides, <i>Helena</i>). Helen was worshipped as the goddess of
+beauty at Therapnae in Laconia, where a festival was held in
+her honour. At Rhodes she was worshipped under the name
+of Dendritis (the tree goddess), where the inhabitants built a
+temple in her honour to expiate the crime of Polyxo. The
+Rhodian story probably contains a reference to the worship
+connected with her name (cf. Theocritus xviii. 48 <span class="grk" title="sebou m',
+Helenas phyton eimi">&#963;&#941;&#946;&#959;&#965; &#956;&#8125;, &#7961;&#955;&#941;&#957;&#945;&#962; &#966;&#965;&#964;&#8056;&#957; &#949;&#7984;&#956;&#943;</span>). She was the subject of a tragedy by
+Euripides and an epic by Colluthus. Originally, Helen was
+perhaps a goddess of light, a moon-goddess, who was gradually
+transformed into the beautiful heroine round whom the action
+of the <i>Iliad</i> revolves. Like her brothers, the Dioscuri, she
+was a patron deity of sailors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Oswald, <i>The Legend of Fair Helen</i> (1905); J. A. Symonds,
+<i>Studies of the Greek Poets</i>, i. (1893); F. Decker, <i>Die griechische
+Helena in Mythos und Epos</i> (1894); Andrew Lang, <i>Helen of Troy</i>
+(1883); P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>;
+the exhaustive article by R. Engelmann in Roscher&rsquo;s
+<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; and O. Gruppe, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>,
+i. 163, according to whom Helen originally represented, in the
+Helenephoria (a mystic festival of Artemis, Iphigeneia or Tauropolos),
+the sacred basket (<span class="grk" title="helenê">&#7953;&#955;&#941;&#957;&#951;</span>) in which the holy objects were
+carried; and hence, as the personification of the initiation ceremony,
+she was connected with or identified with the moon, the first appearance
+of which probably marked the beginning of the festivity.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELENA, ST<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 247-<i>c.</i> 327) the wife of the emperor Constantius
+I. Chlorus, and mother of Constantine the Great. She was a
+woman of humble origin, born probably at Drepanum, a town on
+the Gulf of Nicomedia, which Constantine named Helenopolis
+in her honour. Very little is known of her history. It is certain
+that, at an advanced age, she undertook a pilgrimage to Palestine,
+visited the holy places, and founded several churches. She
+was still living at the time of the murder of Crispus (326). Constantine
+had coins struck with the effigy of his mother. The
+name of Helena is intimately connected with the commonly
+received story of the discovery of the Cross. But the accounts
+which connect her with the discovery are much later than the
+date of the event. The Pilgrim of Bordeaux (333), Eusebius
+and Cyril of Jerusalem were unaware of this important episode
+in the life of the empress. It was only at the end of the 4th
+century and in the West that the legend appeared. The principal
+centre of the cult of St Helena in the West seems to be the abbey
+of Hautvilliers, near Reims, where since the 9th century they
+have claimed to be in possession of her body. In England
+legends arose representing her as the daughter of a prince of
+Britain. Following these Geoffrey of Monmouth makes her
+the daughter of Coel, the king who is supposed to have given
+his name to the town of Colchester. These legends have doubtless
+not been without influence on the cult of the saint in England,
+where a great number of churches are dedicated either to St
+Helena alone, or to St Cross and St Helena. Her festival is
+celebrated in the Latin Church on the 18th of August. The
+Greeks make no distinction between her festival and that of
+Constantine, the 21st of May.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Acta sanctorum</i>, Augusti iii. 548-580; Tixeront, <i>Les Origines
+de l&rsquo;église d&rsquo;Édesse</i> (Paris, 1888); F. Arnold-Forster, <i>Studies in
+Church Dedications or England&rsquo;s Patron Saints</i>, i. 181-189, iii. 16,
+365-366 (1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. De.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELENA,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Phillips county,
+Arkansas, U.S.A., situated on and at the foot of Crowly&rsquo;s
+Ridge, about 150 ft. above sea-level, in the alluvial bottoms of
+the Mississippi river, about 65 m. by rail S.W. of Memphis,
+Tennessee. Pop. (1890) 5189, (1900) 5550, of whom 3400
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span>
+were negroes; (1910) 8772. It is served by the Yazoo &amp; Mississippi
+Valley (Illinois Central), the St Louis, Iron Mountain &amp; Southern
+(Missouri Pacific), the Arkansas Midland, and the Missouri &amp;
+North Arkansas railways. Built in part upon &ldquo;made land,&rdquo;
+well protected by levees, and lying within the richest cotton-producing
+region of the south, the rich timber country of the
+St Francis river, and the Mississippi &ldquo;bottom lands,&rdquo; Helena
+concentrates its economic interests in cotton-compressing and
+shipping, the manufacture of cotton-seed products, lumbering
+and wood-working. The city was founded about 1821, but so
+late as 1860 the population was only 800. During the Civil War
+the place was of considerable strategic importance. It was
+occupied in July 1862 by the Union forces, who strongly fortified
+it to guard their communications with the lower Mississippi;
+on the 4th of July 1863, when occupied by General Benjamin
+M. Prentiss (1819-1901) with 4500 men, it was attacked by a
+force of 9000 Confederates under General Theophilus H. Holmes
+(1804-1880), who hoped to raise the siege of Vicksburg or close
+the river to the Union forces. The attack was repulsed, with
+a loss to the Confederates of one-fifth their numbers, the Union
+loss being slight.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELENA,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Lewis and Clark
+county, Montana, U.S.A., and the capital of the state, at the
+E. base of the main range of the Rocky Mountains, 80 m. N.E.
+of Butte, at an altitude of about 4000 ft. Pop. (1880) 3624;
+(1890) 13,834; (1900) 10,770, of whom 2793 were foreign-born;
+(1910 census) 12,515. It is served by the Great Northern
+and the Northern Pacific railways. Helena is delightfully
+situated with Mt Helena as a background in the hollow of the
+Prickly Pear valley, a rich agricultural region surrounded by
+rolling hills and lofty mountains, and contains many fine buildings,
+including the state capitol, county court house, the Montana
+club house, high school, the cathedral of St Helena, a federal
+building, and the United States assay office. It is the seat of
+the Montana Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal),
+founded in 1890; St Aloysius College and St Vincent&rsquo;s Academy
+(Roman Catholic); and has a public library with about 35,000
+volumes, the Montana state library with about 40,000 volumes,
+and the state law library with about 24,000 volumes. The
+city is the commercial and financial centre of the state (Butte
+being the mining centre), and is one of the richest cities in the
+United States in proportion to its population. It has large
+railway car-shops, extensive smelters and quartz crushers (at
+East Helena), and various manufacturing establishments;
+the value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,309,746, an
+increase of 68.7% over that of 1900. The surrounding
+country abounds in gold- and silver-bearing quartz deposits,
+and it is estimated that from the famous Last Chance Gulch
+alone, which runs across the city, more than $40,000,000 in
+gold has been taken. The street railway and the lighting system
+of the city are run by power generated at a plant and 40 ft.
+dam at Canyon Ferry, on the Missouri river, 18 m. E. of Helena.
+There is another great power plant at Hauser Plant, 20 m.
+N. of Helena. Three miles W. of the city is the Broadwater
+Natatorium with swimming pool, 300 ft. long and 100 ft. wide,
+the water for which is furnished by hot springs with a temperature
+at the source of 160°. Fort Harrison, a United States army post,
+is situated 3 m. W. of the city. Helena was established as a
+placer mining camp in 1864 upon the discovery of gold in Last
+Chance Gulch. The town was laid out in the same year, and
+after the organization of Montana Territory it was designated
+as the capital. Helena was burned down in 1869 and in 1874.
+It was chartered as a city in 1881.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELENSBURGH,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh and watering-place
+of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the N. shore of the Firth
+of Clyde, opposite Greenock, 24 m. N.W. of Glasgow by the
+North British railway. Pop. (1901) 8554. There is a station
+at Upper Helensburgh on the West Highland railway, and from
+the railway pier at Craigendoran there is steamer communication
+with Garelochhead, Dunoon and other pleasure resorts on the
+western coast. In 1776 the site began to be built upon, and in
+1802 the town, named after Lady Helen, wife of Sir James
+Colquhoun of Luss, the ground landlord, was erected into a
+burgh of barony, under a provost and council. The public
+buildings include the burgh hall, municipal buildings, Hermitage
+schools and two hospitals. On the esplanade stands an obelisk
+to Henry Bell, the pioneer of steam navigation, who died at
+Helensburgh in 1830.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELENUS,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Priam and Hecuba, and
+twin-brother of Cassandra. He is said to have been originally
+called Scamandrius, and to have received the name of Helenus
+from a Thracian soothsayer who instructed him in the prophetic
+art. In the <i>Iliad</i> he is described as the prince of augurs and a
+brave warrior; in the <i>Odyssey</i> he is not mentioned at all.
+Various details concerning him are added by later writers.
+It is related that he and his sister fell asleep in the temple of
+Apollo Thymbraeus and that snakes came and cleansed their
+ears, whereby they obtained the gift of prophecy and were
+able to understand the language of birds. After the death of
+Paris, Helenus and his brother Deïphobus became rivals for
+the hand of Helen. Deïphobus was preferred, and Helenus
+withdrew in indignation to Mount Ida, where he was captured
+by the Greeks, whom he advised to build the wooden horse and
+carry off the Palladium. According to other accounts, having
+been made prisoner by a stratagem of Odysseus, he declared
+that Philoctetes must be fetched from Lemnos before Troy could
+be taken; or he surrendered to Diomedes and Odysseus in the
+temple of Apollo, whither he had fled in disgust at the sacrilegious
+murder of Achilles by Paris in the sanctuary. After the capture
+of Troy, he and his sister-in-law Andromache accompanied
+Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus) as captives to Epirus, where Helenus
+persuaded him to settle. After the death of Neoptolemus,
+Helenus married Andromache and became ruler of the country.
+He was the reputed founder of Buthrotum and Chaonia, named
+after a brother or companion whom he had accidentally slain
+while hunting. He was said to have been buried at Argos,
+where his tomb was shown. When Aeneas, in the course of his
+wanderings, reached Epirus, he was hospitably received by
+Helenus, who predicted his future destiny.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Homer, <i>Iliad</i>, vi. 76, vii. 44, xii. 94, xiii. 576; Sophocles, <i>Philoctetes</i>,
+604, who probably follows the <i>Little Iliad</i> of Lesches; Pausanias
+i. 11, ii. 23; Conon, <i>Narrationes</i>, 34; Dictys Cretensis iv. 18;
+Virgil, <i>Aeneid</i>, iii. 294-490; Servius on <i>Aeneid</i>, ii. 166, iii. 334.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELGAUD,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Helgaldus</span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1048), French chronicler,
+was a monk of the Benedictine abbey of Fleury. Little else
+is known about him save that he was chaplain to the French
+king, Robert II. the Pious, whose life he wrote. This <i>Epitoma
+vitae Roberti regis</i>, which is probably part of a history of the
+abbey of Fleury, deals rather with the private than with the
+public life of the king, and its value is not great either from the
+literary or from the historical point of view. The only existing
+manuscript is in the Vatican, and the <i>Epitoma</i> has been printed
+by J. P. Migne in the <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, tome cxli. (Paris,
+1844); and by M. Bouquet in the <i>Recueil des historiens des
+Gaules</i>, tome x. (Paris, 1760).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869);
+and A. Molinier, <i>Les Sources de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i>, tome ii. (Paris,
+1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELGESEN, POVL,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span><a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Danish humanist, was born at Varberg
+in Halland about 1480, of a Danish father and a Swedish mother.
+Helgesen was educated first at the Carmelite monastery of
+his native place and afterwards at another monastery at Elsinore,
+where he devoted himself to humanistic studies and adopted
+Erasmus as his model. None had a keener eye for the abuses
+of the Church; long before the appearance of Luther, he
+denounced the ignorance and immorality of the clergy, and, as
+lector at the university of Copenhagen, gathered round him a
+band of young enthusiasts, the future leaders of the Danish
+Reformation. But Helgesen desired an orderly, methodical,
+rational reformation, and denounced Luther, whose ablest
+opponent in Denmark he subsequently became, as a hot-headed
+revolutionist. Christian II. was also an object of Helgesen&rsquo;s
+detestation, and so boldly did he oppose that monarch&rsquo;s measures
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span>
+that, to save his life, he had to flee to Jutland. Under Frederick I.
+(1523-1533) he returned to Copenhagen and resumed his chair
+at the university, becoming soon afterwards provincial of the
+Carmelite Order for Scandinavia. But like all moderate men
+in a time of crisis, Helgesen could gain the confidence of neither
+party, and was frequently attacked as bitterly by the Catholics
+as by the Protestants. From 1530 to 1533 he and the Protestant
+champion Hans Tausen exhausted the whole vocabulary of
+vituperation in their fruitless polemics. In October 1534,
+however, Helgesen issued an eirenicon in which he attempted to
+reconcile the two contending confessions. After that every
+trace of him is lost. For a long time he was unjustly regarded
+as a turn-coat, but he was too superior to the prejudices of his
+age to be understood by his contemporaries. His ideal was a
+moral internal reformation of the Church on a rational basis,
+conducted not by ill-informed fanatics, but by an enlightened and
+well-educated clergy; and from this standpoint he never
+diverged. Helgesen was indisputably the greatest master of
+style of his age in Denmark, and as a historian he also occupies
+a prominent position. He always endeavours to probe down to
+the very soul of things, though his passionate nature made it
+very difficult for him to be impartial. His chief works are
+<i>Danmark&rsquo;s Kongers Historie</i> and <i>Skibby Kröniken</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ludwig Schmitt, <i>Der Karmeliter Paulus Heliä</i> (Freiburg,
+1893); <i>Danmarks Riges Historie</i> (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. iii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> He wrote his name Heliae or Eliae.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIACAL,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> relating to the sun (<span class="grk" title="hêlios">&#7973;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>), a term applied in
+the ancient astronomy to the first rising of a star which could
+be seen after it emerged from the rays of the sun, or the last
+setting that could be seen before it was lost from sight by
+proximity to the sun.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIAND.<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> The 9th-century poem on the Gospel history,
+to which its first editor, J. A. Schmeller, gave the appropriate
+name of <i>Heliand</i> (the word used in the text for &ldquo;Saviour,&rdquo;
+answering to the O. Eng. <i>hælend</i> and the Ger. <i>Heiland</i>), is, with
+the fragments of a version of the story of Genesis believed to be
+by the same author, all that remains of the poetical literature
+of the old Saxons, <i>i.e.</i> the Saxons who continued in their original
+home. It contained when entire about 6000 lines, and portions
+of it are preserved in four MSS. The Cotton MS. in the British
+Museum, written probably late in the 10th century, is nearly
+complete, ending in the middle of the story of the journey to
+Emmaus. The Munich MS., formerly at Bamberg, begins at
+line 85, and has many lacunae, but continues the history down
+to the last verse of St Luke&rsquo;s Gospel, ending, however, in the
+middle of a sentence. A MS. discovered at Prague in 1881
+contains lines 958-1106, and another, in the Vatican library,
+discovered by K. Zangemeister in 1894, contains lines 1279-1358.
+The poem is based, not directly on the New Testament, but on
+the pseudo-Tatian&rsquo;s harmony of the Gospels, and it shows
+acquaintance with the commentaries of Alcuin, Bæda and
+Hrabanus Maurus.</p>
+
+<p>The questions relating to the <i>Heliand</i> cannot be adequately
+discussed without considering also the poem on the history of
+Genesis, which, on the grounds of similarity in style and vocabulary,
+and for other reasons afterwards to be mentioned, may
+with some confidence be referred to the same author. A part
+of this poem, as is mentioned in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cædmon</a></span>, is extant
+only in an Old English translation. The portions that have
+been preserved in the original language are contained in the
+same Vatican MS. that includes the fragment of the <i>Heliand</i>
+referred to above. In the one language or the other, there
+are in existence the following three fragments: (1) The passage
+which appears as lines 235-851 in the so-called &ldquo;Cædmon&rsquo;s
+<i>Genesis</i>,&rdquo; on the revolt of the angels and the temptation and fall
+of Adam and Eve. Of this the part corresponding to lines 790-820
+exists also in the original Old Saxon. (2) The story of Cain
+and Abel, in 124 lines. (3) The account of the destruction of
+Sodom, in 187 lines. The main source of the <i>Genesis</i> is the Bible,
+but Professor E. Sievers has shown that considerable use was
+made of the two Latin poems by Alcimus Avitus, <i>De initio mundi</i>
+and <i>De peccato originali</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The two poems give evidence of genius and trained skill,
+though the poet was no doubt hampered by the necessity of not
+deviating too widely from the sacred originals. Within the limits
+imposed by the nature of his task, his treatment of his sources
+is remarkably free, the details unsuited for poetic handling
+being passed over, or, in some instances, boldly altered. In
+many passages his work gives the impression of being not so
+much an imitation of the ancient Germanic epic, as a genuine
+example of it, though concerned with the deeds of other heroes
+than those of Germanic tradition. In the <i>Heliand</i> the Saviour
+and His Apostles are conceived as a king and his faithful warriors,
+and the use of the traditional epic phrases appears to be not,
+as with Cynewulf or the author of <i>Andreas</i>, a mere following
+of accepted models, but the spontaneous mode of expression of
+one accustomed to sing of heroic themes. The <i>Genesis</i> fragments
+have less of the heroic tone, except in the splendid passage
+describing the rebellion of Satan and his host. It is noteworthy
+that the poet, like Milton, sees in Satan no mere personification
+of evil, but the fallen archangel, whose awful guilt could not
+obliterate all traces of his native majesty. Somewhat curiously,
+but very naturally, Enoch the son of Cain is confused with the
+Enoch who was translated to heaven&mdash;an error which the
+author of the Old English <i>Genesis</i> avoids, though (according
+to the existing text) he confounds the names of Enoch and Enos.</p>
+
+<p>Such external evidence as exists bearing on the origin of the
+<i>Heliand</i> and the companion poem is contained in a Latin document
+printed by Flacius Illyricus in 1562. This is in two parts;
+the one in prose, entitled (perhaps only by Flacius himself)
+&ldquo;<i>Praefatio ad librum antiquum in lingua Saxonica conscriptum</i>&rdquo;;
+the other in verse, headed &ldquo;<i>Versus de poëta et Interpreta hujus
+codicis</i>.&rdquo; The Praefatio begins by stating that the emperor
+Ludwig the Pious, desirous that his subjects should possess the
+word of God in their own tongue, commanded a certain Saxon,
+who was esteemed among his countrymen as an eminent poet,
+to translate poetically into the German language the Old and
+New Testaments. The poet willingly obeyed, all the more
+because he had previously received a divine command to undertake
+the task. He rendered into verse all the most important
+parts of the Bible with admirable skill, dividing his work into
+<i>vitteas</i>, a term which, the writer says, may be rendered by
+&ldquo;<i>lectiones</i>&rdquo; or &ldquo;<i>sententias</i>.&rdquo; The Praefatio goes on to say that
+it was reported that the poet, till then knowing nothing of the
+art of poetry, had been admonished in a dream to turn into
+verse the precepts of the divine law, which he did with so much
+skill that his work surpasses in beauty all other German poetry
+(<i>ut cuncta Theudisca poëmata suo vincat decore</i>). The <i>Versus</i>
+practically reproduce in outline Bæda&rsquo;s account of Cædmon&rsquo;s
+dream, without mentioning the dream, but describing the poet
+as a herdsman, and adding that his poems, beginning with the
+creation, relate the history of the five ages of the world down
+to the coming of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>The suspicion of some earlier scholars that the <i>Praefatio</i> and
+the <i>Versus</i> might be a modern forgery is refuted by the occurrence
+of the word <i>vitteas</i>, which is the Old Saxon <i>fittea</i>, corresponding
+to the Old English <i>fitt</i>, which means a &ldquo;canto&rdquo; of a
+poem. It is impossible that a scholar of the 16th century could
+have been acquainted with this word, and internal evidence
+shows clearly that both the prose and the verse are of early
+origin. The <i>Versus</i>, considered in themselves, might very well
+be supposed to relate to Cædmon; but the mention of the five
+ages of the world in the concluding lines is obviously due to
+recollection of the opening of the <i>Heliand</i> (lines 46-47). It is
+therefore certain that the <i>Versus</i>, as well as the <i>Praefatio</i>, attribute
+to the author of the <i>Heliand</i> a poetic rendering of the Old
+Testament. Their testimony, if accepted, confirms the ascription
+to him of the Genesis fragments, which is further supported by
+the fact that they occur in the same MS. with a portion of the
+<i>Heliand</i>. As the <i>Praefatio</i> speaks of the emperor Ludwig in the
+present tense, the former part of it at least was probably written
+in his reign, <i>i.e.</i> not later than <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 840. The general opinion of
+scholars is that the latter part, which represents the poet as
+having received his vocation in a dream, is by a later hand, and
+that the sentences in the earlier part which refer to the dream are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span>
+interpolations by this second author. The date of these additions,
+and of the <i>Versus</i>, is of no importance, as their statements are
+incredible. That the author of the <i>Heliand</i> was, so to speak,
+another Cædmon&mdash;an unlearned man who turned into poetry
+what was read to him from the sacred writings&mdash;is impossible,
+because in many passages the text of the sources is so
+closely followed that it is clear that the poet wrote with the
+Latin books before him. On the other hand, there is no reason
+for rejecting the almost contemporary testimony of the first part
+of the <i>Praefatio</i> that the author of the <i>Heliand</i> had won renown
+as a poet before he undertook his great task at the emperor&rsquo;s
+command. It is certainly not impossible that a Christian Saxon,
+sufficiently educated to read Latin easily, may have chosen to
+follow the calling of a <i>scop</i> or minstrel<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> instead of entering the
+priesthood or the cloister; and if such a person existed, it would
+be natural that he should be selected by the emperor to execute
+his design. As has been said above, the tone of many portions of
+the <i>Heliand</i> is that of a man who was no mere imitator of the
+ancient epic, but who had himself been accustomed to sing of
+heroic themes.</p>
+
+<p>The commentary on the gospel of Matthew by Hrabanus
+Maurus was finished about 821, which is therefore the superior
+limit of date for the composition of the <i>Heliand</i>. It is usually
+maintained that this work was written before the Old Testament
+poems. The arguments for this view are that the <i>Heliand</i> contains
+no allusion to any foregoing poetical treatment of the antecedent
+history, and that the Genesis fragments exhibit a higher
+degree of poetic skill. This reasoning does not appear conclusive,
+and if it be set aside, the limit of date for the beginning of
+the work is carried back to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 814, the year of the accession of
+Ludwig.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The first complete edition of the <i>Heliand</i> was
+published by J. A. Schmeller in 1830; the second volume, containing
+the glossary and grammar, appeared in 1840. The standard edition
+is that of E. Sievers (1877), in which the texts of the Cotton and
+Munich MSS. are printed side by side. It is not provided with a
+glossary, but contains an elaborate and most valuable analysis of
+the diction, synonymy and syntactical features of the poem. Other
+useful editions are those of M. Heyne (3rd ed., 1903), O. Behaghel
+(1882) and P. Piper (1897, containing also the Genesis fragments).
+The fragments of the <i>Heliand</i> and the <i>Genesis</i> contained in the
+Vatican MS. were edited in 1894 by K. Zangemeister and W. Braune
+under the title <i>Bruchstücke der altsächsischen Bibeldichtung</i>. Among
+the works treating of the authorship, sources and place of origin of
+the poems, the most important are the following: E. Windisch,
+<i>Der Heliand und seine Quellen</i> (1868); E. Sievers, <i>Der Heliand und
+die angelsächsische Genesis</i> (1875); R. Kögel, <i>Deutsche Literaturgeschichte</i>,
+Bd. i. (1894) and <i>Die altsächsische Genesis</i> (1895); R.
+Kögel and W. Bruckner, &ldquo;Althoch- und altniederdeutsche Literatur,&rdquo;
+in Paul&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss der germanischen Philologie</i>, Bd. ii.
+(2nd ed., 1901), which contains references to many other works;
+Hermann Collitz, <i>Zum Dialekte des Heliand</i> (1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Br.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The term <i>Volkssänger</i>, commonly used in German discussions
+of this question, is misleading; the audience for heroic poetry was
+not &ldquo;the people&rdquo; in the modern sense, but the nobles.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELICON,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a mountain range, of Boeotia in ancient Greece,
+celebrated in classical literature as the favourite haunt of the
+Muses, is situated between Lake Copaïs and the Gulf of Corinth.
+On the fertile eastern slopes stood a temple and grove sacred to
+the Muses, and adorned with beautiful statues, which, taken by
+Constantine the Great to beautify his new city, were consumed
+there by a fire in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 404. Hard by were the famous fountains,
+Aganippe and Hippocrene, the latter fabled to have gushed from
+the earth at the tread of the winged horse Pegasus, whose
+favourite browsing place was there. At the neighbouring Ascra
+dwelt the poet Hesiod, a fact which probably enhanced the
+poetic fame of the region. Pausanias, who describes Helicon in
+his ninth book, asserts that it was the most fertile mountain in
+Greece, and that neither poisonous plant nor serpent was to be
+found on it, while many of its herbs possessed a miraculous
+healing virtue. The highest summit, the present Palaeovouni
+(old hill), rises to the height of about 5000 ft. Modern travellers,
+aided by ancient remains and inscriptions, and guided by the
+local descriptions of Pausanias, have succeeded in identifying
+many of the ancient classical spots, and the French excavators
+have discovered the temple of the Muses and a theatre.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Clarke, <i>Travels in Various Countries</i> (vol. vii., 1818);
+Dodwell, <i>Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece</i> (1818);
+W. M. Leake, <i>Travels in Northern Greece</i> (vol. ii., 1835); J. G.
+Frazer&rsquo;s edition of <i>Pausanias</i>, v. 150.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELICON<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (Fr. <i>hélicon, bombardon circulaire</i>; Ger. <i>Helikon</i>),
+the circular form of the B&#9837; contrabass tuba used in military
+bands, worn round the body, with the enormous bell resting on
+the left shoulder and towering above the head of the performer.
+The pitch of the helicon is an octave below that of the euphonium.
+The idea of winding the long tube of the contrabass tuba and of
+wearing it round the shoulders was suggested by the ancient
+Roman buccina and cornu, represented in mosaics and on the
+sculptured reliefs surrounding Trajan&rsquo;s Column. The buccina and
+cornu<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> differed in the diameter of their respective bores, the
+former having the narrow, almost cylindrical bore and harmonic
+series of the trumpet and trombone, whereas the cornu, having
+a bore in the form of a wide cone, was the prototype of the bugle
+and tubas.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For illustrations of the cornu see the altar of Julius Victor ex
+Collegio, reproduced in Bartoli, Pict. Ant. p. 76; Bellori, <i>Pict.
+antiq. crypt. rom.</i> p. 76, pl. viii.; in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dict.
+des antiq. grecques et romaines</i>, under &ldquo;Cornu,&rdquo; the buccina and cornu
+have not been distinguished.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIGOLAND<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Helgoland</i>), an island of Germany, in the
+North Sea, lying off the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, 28 m.
+from the nearest point in the mainland. Pop. (1900) 2307.
+From 1807 to 1890 a British possession, it was ceded in 1890 to
+Germany, and since 1892 has formed part of the Prussian
+province of Schleswig-Holstein. It consists of two islets, the
+smaller, the Dünen-Insel, a quarter of a mile E. of the main, or
+Rock Island, connected until 1720, when it was severed by a
+violent irruption of the sea, with the other by a neck of land, and
+the main, or Rock Island. The latter is nearly triangular in
+shape and is surrounded by steep red cliffs, the only beach being
+the sandy spit near the south-east point, where the landing-stage
+is situated. The rocks composing the cliffs are worn into caves,
+and around the island are many fantastic arches and columns.
+The impression made by the red cliffs, fringed by a white beach
+and supporting the green Oberland, is commonly believed to have
+suggested the national colours, red, white and green, or, as the
+old Frisian rhyme goes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Grön is dat Land,</p>
+<p class="i05">Rood is de Kant,</p>
+<p class="i05">Witt is de Sand,</p>
+<p class="i05">Dat is de Flagg vun&rsquo;t hillige Land.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The lower town of Unterland, on the spit, and the upper town,
+or Oberland, situated on the cliff above, are connected by a
+wooden stair and a lift. There is a powerful lighthouse, and since
+its cession by Great Britain to Germany, the main island has been
+strongly fortified, the old English batteries being replaced by
+armoured turrets mounting guns of heavy calibre. Inside the
+Dünen-Insel the largest ships can ride safely at anchor, and take
+in coal and other supplies. The greatest length of the main
+island, which slopes somewhat from west to east, is just a mile,
+and the greatest breadth less than a third of a mile, its average
+height 198 ft., and the highest point, crowned by the church, with
+a conspicuous spire, 216 ft. The Dünen-Insel is a sand-bank
+protected by groines. It is only about 200 ft. above the sea at its
+highest point, but the drifting sands make the height rather
+variable. The sea-bathing establishment is situated here; a
+shelving beach of white sand presenting excellent facilities for
+bathing. Most of the houses are built of brick, but some are of
+wood. There are a theatre, a Kurhaus, and a number of hotels
+and restaurants. In 1892 a biological institute, with a marine
+museum and aquarium (1900) attached, was opened.</p>
+
+<p>During the summer some 20,000 people visit the island for
+sea-bathing. German is the official language, though among
+themselves the natives speak a dialect of Frisian, barely intelligible
+to the other islands of the group. There is regular
+communication with Bremen and Hamburg.</p>
+
+<p>The winters are stormy. May and the early part of June are
+wet and foggy, so that few visitors arrive before the middle of
+the latter month.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span></p>
+
+<p>The generally accepted derivation of Heligoland (or Helgoland)
+from <i>Heiligeland</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Holy Land,&rdquo; seems doubtful. According
+to northern mythology, Forseti, a son of Balder and Nanna,
+the god of justice, had a temple on the island, which was subsequently
+destroyed by St Ludger. This legend may have given
+rise to the derivation &ldquo;Holy Land.&rdquo; The more probable
+etymology, however, is that of Hallaglun, or Halligland, <i>i.e.</i>
+&ldquo;land of banks, which cover and uncover.&rdquo; Here Hertha,
+according to tradition, had her great temple, and hither came
+from the mainland the Angles to worship at her shrine. Here
+also lived King Radbod, a pagan, and on this isle St Willibrord
+in the 7th century first preached Christianity; and for its ownership,
+before and after that date, many sea-rovers have fought.
+Finally it became a fief of the dukes of Schleswig-Holstein,
+though often hypothecated for loans advanced to these princes
+by the free city of Hamburg. The island was a Danish possession
+in 1807, when the English seized and held it until it was formally
+ceded to them in 1814. In the picturesque old church there are
+still traces of a painted Dannebrog.</p>
+
+<p>In 1890 the island was ceded to Germany, and in 1892 it was
+incorporated with Prussia, when it was provided that natives
+born before the year 1880 should be allowed to elect either for
+British or German nationality, and until 1901 no additional
+import duties were imposed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Von der Decken, <i>Philosophisch-historisch-geographische
+Untersuchungen über die Insel Helgoland, oder Heiligeland,
+und ihre Bewohner</i> (Hanover, 1826); Wiebel, <i>Die Insel Helgoland,
+Untersuchungen über deren Grösse in Vorzeit und Gegenwart
+vom Standpunkte der Geschichte und Geologie</i> (Hamburg, 1848);
+J. M. Lappenberg, <i>Über den ehemaligen Umfang und die alte Geschichte
+Helgolands</i> (Hamburg, 1831); F. Otker, <i>Helgoland. Schilderungen
+und Erörterungen</i> (Berlin, 1855); E. Hallier, <i>Helgoland, Nordseestudien</i>
+(Hamburg, 1893); A. W. F. Möller, <i>Rechtsgeschichte der Insel
+Helgoland</i> (Weimar, 1904); W. G. Black, <i>Heligoland and the Islands
+of the North Sea</i> (Glasgow, 1888); E. Lindermann, <i>Die Nordseeinsel
+Helgoland in topographischer, geschichtlicher, sanitärer Beziehung</i>
+(Berlin, 1889); and Tittel, <i>Die natürlichen Veränderungen Helgolands</i>
+(Leipzig, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIOCENTRIC,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> <i>i.e.</i> referred to the centre of the sun (<span class="grk" title="hêlios">&#7973;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>)
+as an origin, a term designating especially co-ordinates or heavenly
+bodies referred to that origin.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIODORUS,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> of Emesa in Syria, Greek writer of romance.
+According to his own statement his father&rsquo;s name was Theodosius,
+and he belonged to a family of priests of the sun. He was the
+author of the <i>Aethiopica</i>, the oldest and best of the Greek
+romances that have come down to us. It was first brought to
+light in modern times in a MS. from the library of Matthias
+Corvinus, found at the sack of Buda (Ofen) in 1526, and printed
+at Basel in 1534. Other codices have since been discovered.
+The title is taken from the fact that the action of the beginning
+and end of the story takes place in Aethiopia. The daughter of
+Persine, wife of Hydaspes, king of Aethiopia, was born white
+through the effect of the sight of a marble statue upon the queen
+during pregnancy. Fearing an accusation of adultery, the mother
+gives the babe to the care of Sisimithras, a gymnosophist, who
+carries her to Egypt and places her in charge of Charicles, a
+Pythian priest. The child is taken to Delphi, and made a priestess
+of Apollo under the name of Chariclea. Theagenes, a noble
+Thessalian, comes to Delphi and the two fall in love with each
+other. He carries off the priestess with the help of Calasiris, an
+Egyptian, employed by Persine to seek for her daughter. Then
+follow many perils from sea-rovers and others, but the chief
+personages ultimately meet at Meroë at the very moment when
+Chariclea is about to be sacrificed to the gods by her own father.
+Her birth is made known, and the lovers are happily married.
+The rapid succession of events, the variety of the characters,
+the graphic descriptions of manners and of natural scenery, the
+simplicity and elegance of the style, give the <i>Aethiopica</i> great
+charm. As a whole it offends less against good taste and morality
+than others of the same class. Homer and Euripides were the
+favourite authors of Heliodorus, who in his turn was imitated
+by French, Italian and Spanish writers. The early life of Clorinda
+in Tasso&rsquo;s <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i> (canto xii. 21 sqq.) is almost identical
+with that of Chariclea; Racine meditated a drama on the same
+subject; and it formed the model of the <i>Persiles y Sigismunda</i> of
+Cervantes. According to the ecclesiastical historian Socrates
+(<i>Hist. eccles.</i> v. 22), the author of the <i>Aethiopica</i> was a
+certain Heliodorus, bishop of Tricca in Thessaly. It is supposed
+that the work was written in his early years before he became
+a Christian, and that, when confronted with the alternative of
+disowning it or resigning his bishopric, he preferred resignation.
+But it is now generally agreed that the real author was a sophist
+of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best editions are: A. Coraës (1804), G. A. Hirschig (1856);
+see also M. Oeftering, <i>H. und seine Bedeutung für die Literatur</i>,
+with full bibliographies (1901); J. C. Dunlop, <i>History of Prose
+Fiction</i> (1888); and especially E. Rohde, <i>Der griechische Roman</i>
+(1900). There are translations in almost all European languages:
+in English, in Bohn&rsquo;s <i>Classical Library</i> and the &ldquo;Tudor&rdquo; series (v.,
+1895, containing the old translation by T. Underdowne, 1587, with
+introduction by C. Whibley); in French by Amyot and Zevort.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS),<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> Roman emperor (<span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+218-222), was born at Emesa about 205. His real name was
+Varius Avitus. On the murder of Caracalla (217), Julia Maesa,
+Varius&rsquo;s grandmother and Caracalla&rsquo;s aunt, left Rome and
+retired to Emesa, accompanied by her grandsons (Varius and
+Alexander Severus). Varius, though still only a boy, was appointed
+high priest of the Syrian sun-god Elagabalus, one of
+the chief seats of whose worship was Emesa (Homs). His beauty,
+and the splendid ceremonials at which he presided, made him
+a great favourite with the troops stationed in that part of Syria,
+and Maesa increased his popularity by spreading reports that he
+was in reality the illegitimate son of Caracalla. Macrinus,
+the successor and instigator of the murder of Caracalla, was
+very unpopular with the army; an insurrection was easily set
+on foot, and on the 16th of May 218 Varius was proclaimed
+emperor as Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. The troops sent to
+quell the revolt went over to him, and Macrinus was defeated
+near Antioch on the 8th of June. Heliogabalus was at once
+recognized by the senate as emperor. After spending the winter
+in Nicomedia, he proceeded in 219 to Rome, where he made it
+his business to exalt the deity whose priest he was and whose
+name he assumed. The Syrian god was proclaimed the chief deity
+in Rome, and all other gods his servants; splendid ceremonies
+in his honour were celebrated, at which Heliogabalus danced in
+public, and it was believed that secret rites accompanied by
+human sacrifice were performed in his honour. In addition to
+these affronts upon the state religion, he insulted the intelligence
+of the community by horseplay of the wildest description
+and by childish practical joking. The shameless profligacy
+of the emperor&rsquo;s life was such as to shock even a Roman
+public. His popularity with the army declined, and Maesa,
+perceiving that the soldiers were in favour of Alexander Severus,
+persuaded Heliogabalus to raise his cousin to the dignity of
+Caesar (221), a step of which he soon repented. An attempt
+to murder Alexander was frustrated by the watchful Maesa.
+Another attempt in 222 produced a mutiny among the praetorians,
+in which Heliogabalus and his mother Soemias (Soaemias) were
+slain (probably in the first half of March).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Life by Aelius Lampridius in <i>Scriptores historiae
+Augustae</i>; Herodian v. 3-8; Dio Cassius lxxviii. 30 sqq., lxxix. 1-21;
+monograph by G. Duviquet, <i>Héliogabale</i> (1903), containing a translation
+of the various accounts of Heliogabalus in Greek and Latin
+authors, notes, bibliography and illustrations; O. F. Butler, <i>Studies
+in the Life of Heliogabalus</i> (New York, 1908); Gibbon, <i>Decline and
+Fall</i>, ch. 6; H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, i.
+pt. ii. (1883), p. 759 ff. On the Syrian god see F. Cumont in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s
+<i>Realencyclopädie</i>, v. pt. ii. (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIOGRAPH<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="êlios">&#7973;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, sun, and <span class="grk" title="gráphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span> to write),
+an instrument for reflecting the rays of the sun (or the light
+obtained from any other source) over a considerable distance.
+Its main application is in military signalling (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Signal</a></span>). A
+similar instrument is the heliotrope, used principally for defining
+distant points in geodetic surveys, such as in the triangulation
+of India, and in the verification of the African arc of the meridian.
+It is necessary to distinguish the method of signalling termed
+heliography from the photographic process of the same name
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Photography</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIOMETER<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêlios">&#7973;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, sun, and <span class="grk" title="metron">&#956;&#941;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, a measure),
+an instrument originally designed for measuring the variation
+of the sun&rsquo;s diameter at different seasons of the year, but applied
+now to the modern form of the instrument which is capable of
+much wider use. The present article also deals with other
+forms of double-image micrometer.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:332px; height:191px" src="images/img224a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The discovery of the method of making measures by double
+images is stated to have been first suggested by O. Roemer about
+1768. But no such suggestion occurs in the <i>Basis Astronomiae</i> of
+Peter Horrebow (Copenhagen, 1735), which contains the only works
+of Roemer that remain
+to us. It would
+appear that to Servington
+Savary is due
+the first invention of
+a micrometer for
+measurement by
+double image. His
+heliometer (described
+in a paper communicated
+to the Royal
+Society in 1743, and
+printed, along with
+a letter from James
+Short, in <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1753, p. 156) was constructed by cutting
+from a complete lens <i>abcd</i> the equal portions <i>aghc</i> and <i>acfe</i>
+(fig. 1). The segments <i>gbh</i> and <i>efd</i> so formed were then attached
+to the end of a tube having an internal diameter represented by the
+dotted circle (fig. 2). The width of each of the portions <i>aghc</i> and <i>acfe</i>
+cut away from the lens was made slightly greater than the focal
+length of lens × tangent of sun&rsquo;s greatest diameter. Thus at the
+focus two images of the sun were formed nearly in
+contact as in fig. 3. The small interval between
+the adjacent limbs was then measured with a
+wire micrometer.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:122px; height:61px" src="images/img224b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:71px; height:176px" src="images/img224c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Savary also describes another form of heliometer,
+on the same principle, in which the segments
+<i>aghc</i> and <i>acfe</i> are utilized by cementing
+their edges <i>gh</i> and <i>ef</i> together (fig. 4), and covering all except
+the portion indicated by the unshaded circle. Savary expresses
+preference for this second plan, and makes the pertinent remark
+that in both these models &ldquo;the rays of red light in the two solar
+images will be next to each other, which will render the sun&rsquo;s disk
+more easy to be observed than the violet ones.&rdquo; This he mentions
+&ldquo;because the glasses in these two sorts are somewhat prismatical,
+but mostly those of the first model, which could therefore
+bear no great charge (magnifying power).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A third model proposed by Savary consists of two
+complete lenses of equal focal length, mounted in
+cylinders side by side, and attached to a strong brass
+plate (fig. 5). Here, in order to fulfil the purposes of
+the previous models, the distance of the centres of the
+lenses from each other should only slightly exceed the
+tangent of sun&rsquo;s diameter × focal length of lenses.
+Savary dwells on the difficulty both of procuring lenses
+sufficiently equal in focus and of accurately adjusting
+and centring them.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:138px; height:139px" src="images/img224d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:159px; height:82px" src="images/img224e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the <i>Mém. Acad. de Paris</i> (1748), Pierre Bouguer
+describes an instrument which he calls a heliometer.
+Lalande in his <i>Astronomie</i> (vol. ii. p. 639) mentions such a heliometer
+which had been in his possession from the year 1753, and of
+which he gives a representation on Plate XXVIII., fig. 186, of the
+same volume. Bouguer&rsquo;s heliometer was in fact similar to that of
+Savary&rsquo;s third model, with the important difference that, instead of
+both object-glasses being fixed, one of them is movable by a screw
+provided with a divided head. No auxiliary filar micrometer was
+required, as in Savary&rsquo;s heliometer, to measure
+the interval between the limbs of two adjacent
+images of the sun, it being only necessary to
+turn the screw with the divided head to change
+the distance between the object-glasses till the
+two images of the sun are in contact as in
+fig. 6. The differences of the readings of the
+screw, when converted into arc, afford the
+means of measuring the variations of the sun&rsquo;s
+apparent diameter.</p>
+
+<p>On the 4th of April 1754 John Dollond communicated
+a paper to the Royal Society of
+London (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, vol. xlviii. p. 551) in
+which he shows that a micrometer can be
+much more easily constructed by dividing a
+single object-glass through its axis than by
+the employment of two object-glasses. He
+points out&mdash;(1) that a telescope with an object-glass
+so divided still produces a single image
+of any object to which it may be directed, provided that the optical
+centres of the segments are in coincidence (<i>i.e.</i> provided the segments
+retain the same relative positions to each other as before the glass
+was cut); (2) that if the segments are separated in any direction
+two images of the object viewed will be produced; (3) that the most
+convenient direction of separation for micrometric purposes is to
+slide these straight edges one along the other as the figure on the
+margin (fig. 7) represents them: &ldquo;for thus they
+may be moved without suffering any false light to
+come in between them; and by this way of
+removing them the distance between their centres
+may be very conveniently measured, viz. by having
+a vernier&rsquo;s division fixed to the brass work that holds
+one segment, so as to slide along a scale on the plate
+to which the other part of the glass is fitted.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:104px; height:134px" src="images/img224f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Dollond then points out three different types
+in which a glass so divided and mounted may
+be used as a micrometer:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;1. It may be fixed at the end of a tube, of a suitable length to its
+focal distance, as an object-glass,&mdash;the other end of the tube having
+an eye-glass fitted as usual in astronomical telescopes.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;2. It may be applied to the end of a tube much shorter than its
+focal distance, by having another convex glass within the tube, to
+shorten the focal distance of that which is cut in two.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;3. It may be applied to the open end of a reflecting telescope,
+either of the Newtonian or the Cassegrain construction.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Dollond adds his opinion that the third type is &ldquo;much the best and
+most convenient of the three&rdquo;; yet it is the first type that has
+survived the test of time and experience, and which is in fact the
+modern heliometer. It must be remembered, however, that when
+Dollond expressed preference for this third type he had not then invented
+the achromatic object-glass.</p>
+
+<p>Some excellent instruments of the second type were subsequently
+made by Dollond&rsquo;s eldest son Peter, in which for the &ldquo;convex glass
+within the tube&rdquo; was substituted an achromatic object-glass, and
+outside that a divided negative achromatic combination of long focus.
+In the fine example of this instrument at the Cape Observatory the
+movable negative lenses consist of segments of the shape <i>gach</i> and
+<i>acfe</i> (fig. 1) cut from a complete negative achromatic combination of
+8¼ in. aperture and about 41 ft. focal length, composed of a double
+concave flint lens and a double convex crown. This was applied to
+an excellent achromatic telescope of 3¼ in. aperture and 42 in. focal
+length. In this instrument a considerable linear relative movement
+of the divided lens corresponds with a comparatively small separation
+of the double image, so that simple verniers reading to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1000</span> in. are
+sufficient for measurement.</p>
+
+<p>With one of these instruments of somewhat smaller dimensions
+(telescope 2½ in. aperture and 3½ ft. focus), Franz von Paula Triesnecker
+made a series of measurements at the observatory of Vienna
+which has been reduced by Dr Wilhelm Schur of Strasburg (<i>Nova
+Acta der Ksl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Natursforscher</i>,
+1882, xlv. No. 3). The angle between the stars &zeta; and g Ursae maj.
+(708&Prime;.55) was measured on four nights; the probable error of a
+measure on one night was ±0&Prime;.44. Jupiter was measured on eleven
+nights in the months of June and July 1794; from these measures
+Schur derives the values 35&Prime;.39 and 37&Prime;.94 for the polar and equatorial
+diameter respectively, at mean distance, corresponding with a
+compression 1/14.44. These agree satisfactorily with the corresponding
+values 35&Prime;.21, 37&Prime;.60, 1/15.59 afterwards obtained by F. W.
+Bessel (<i>Königsberger Beobachtungen</i>, xix. 102). From a series of
+measures of the angle between Jupiter&rsquo;s satellites and the planet,
+made in June and July 1794 and in August and September 1795,
+Schur finds the mass of Jupiter = 1/1048.55 ± 1.45, a result which
+accords well within the limits of its probable error with the received
+value of the mass derived from modern researches. The probable
+errors for the measures of one night are ±0&Prime;.577, ±0&Prime;.889, ±0&Prime;.542,
+±1&Prime;.096, for Satellites I., II., III. and IV. respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Considering the accuracy of these measures (an accuracy far surpassing
+that of any other contemporary observations), it is somewhat
+surprising that this form of micrometer was never systematically
+used in any sustained or important astronomical researches, although
+a number of instruments of the kind were made by Dollond. Probably
+the last example of its employment is an observation of the
+transit of Mercury (November 4, 1868) by Mann, at the Royal
+Observatory, Cape of Good Hope (<i>Monthly Notices R.A.S.</i> vol.
+xxix. p. 197-209). The most important part, however, which this
+type of instrument seems to have played in the history of astronomy
+arises from the fact that one of them was in the possession of Bessel
+at Königsberg during the time when his new observatory there
+was being built. In 1812 Bessel measured with it the angle between
+the components of the double star 61 Cygni and observed the great
+comet of 1811. He also observed the eclipse of the sun on May 4,
+1818. In the discussion of these observations (<i>Königsberger Beobacht</i>,
+Abt. 5, p. iv.) he found that the index error of the scale
+changed systematically in different position angles by quantities
+which were independent of the direction of gravity relative to the
+position angle under measurement, but which depended solely on
+the direction of the measured position angle relative to a fixed radius
+of the object-glass. Bessel attributed this to non-homogeneity
+in the object-glass, and determined with great care the necessary
+corrections. But he was so delighted with the general performance
+of the instrument, with the sharpness of the images and the possibilities
+which a kindred construction offered for the measurement of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span>
+considerable angles with micrometric accuracy, that he resolved,
+when he should have the choice of a new telescope for the observatory,
+to secure some form of heliometer.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is it difficult to imagine the probable course of reasoning
+which led Bessel to select the model of his new heliometer. Why,
+he might ask, should he not select the simple form of Dollond&rsquo;s
+first type? Given the achromatic object-glass, why should not it be
+divided? This construction would give all the advantage of the
+younger Dollond&rsquo;s object-glass micrometer, and more than its sharpness
+of definition, without liability to the systematic errors which
+may be due to want of homogeneity of the object-glass; for the lenses
+will not be turned with respect to each other, but, in measurement,
+will always have the same relation in position angle to the line
+joining the objects under observation. It is true that the scale will
+require to be capable of being read with much greater accuracy than
+<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1000</span>th of an inch&mdash;for that, even in a telescope of 10 ft. focus, would
+correspond with 2&Prime; of arc. But, after all, this is no practical difficulty,
+for screws can be used to separate the lenses, and, by these
+screws, as in a Gascoigne micrometer, the separation of the lenses
+can be measured; or we can have scales for this purpose, read by
+microscopes, like the Troughton<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> circles of Piazzi or Pond, or those
+of the Carey circle, with almost any required accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>Whether Bessel communicated such a course of reasoning to
+Fraunhofer, or whether that great artist arrived independently at
+like conclusions, we have been unable to ascertain with certainty.
+The fact remains that before 1820<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Fraunhofer had completed
+one or more of the five heliometers (3 in. aperture and 39 in. focus)
+which have since become historical instruments. In 1824 the great
+Königsberg heliometer was commenced, and it was completed in 1829.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up briefly the history of the development of the heliometer.
+The first application of the divided object-glass and the employment
+of double images in astronomical measures is due to Savary in 1743.
+To Bouguer in 1748 is due the true conception of measurement by
+double image without the auxiliary aid of a filar micrometer, viz.
+by changing the distance between two object-glasses of equal focus.
+To Dollond in 1754 we owe the combination of Savary&rsquo;s idea of
+the divided object-glass with Bouguer&rsquo;s method of measurement,
+and the construction of the first really practical heliometers. To
+Fraunhofer, some time not long previous to 1820, is due, so far as
+we can ascertain, the construction of the first heliometer with an
+achromatic divided object-glass, <i>i.e.</i> the first heliometer of the
+modern type.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>The Modern Heliometer.</i></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:309px; height:119px" src="images/img225a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Königsberg heliometer is represented in fig. 8. No part of
+the equatorial mounting is shown in the figure, as it resembles in
+every respect the usual Fraunhofer mounting. An adapter <i>h</i> is fixed
+on a telescope-tube, made of wood, in Fraunhofer&rsquo;s usual fashion.
+To this adapter is attached
+a flat circular flange <i>h</i>.
+The slides carrying the
+segments of the divided
+object-glass are mounted
+on a plate, which is fitted
+and ground to rotate
+smoothly on the flange <i>h</i>.
+Rotation is communicated
+by a pinion, turned
+by the handle <i>c</i> (concealed in the figure), which works in teeth cut
+on the edge of the flange <i>h</i>. The counterpoise <i>w</i> balances the head
+about its axis of rotation. The slides are moved by the screws <i>a</i> and
+<i>b</i>, the divided heads of which serve to measure the separation of the
+segments. These screws are turned from the eye-end by bevelled
+wheels and pinions, the latter connected with the handles <i>a</i>&prime;, <i>b</i>&prime;.
+The reading micrometers <i>e</i>, <i>f</i> also serve to measure, independently,
+the separation of the segments, by scales attached to the slides;
+such measurements can be employed as a check on those made by
+the screws. The measurement of position angles is provided for
+by a graduated circle attached to the head. There is also a position
+circle, attached at m to the eye-end, provided with a slide to move
+the eye-piece radially from the axis of the telescope, and with a
+micrometer to measure the distance of an object from that axis.
+The ring <i>c</i>, which carries the supports of the handles <i>a</i>&prime;, <i>b</i>&prime;, is capable
+of a certain amount of rotation on the tube. The weight of the
+handles and their supports is balanced by the counterpoise <i>z</i>. This
+ring is necessary in order to allow the rods to follow the micrometer
+heads when the position angle is changed. Complete rotation of the
+head is obviously impossible because of the interference of the
+declination axis with the rods, and therefore, in some angles, objects
+cannot be measured in two positions of the circle. The object-glass
+has an aperture of 6½ in. and 102 in. focal length.</p>
+
+<p>There are three methods in which this heliometer can be used.</p>
+
+<p><i>First Method.</i>&mdash;One of the segments is fixed in the axis of the
+telescope, and the eye-piece is also placed in the axis. Measures
+are made with the moving segment displaced alternately on opposite
+sides of the fixed segment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second Method.</i>&mdash;One segment is fixed, and the measures are
+made as in the first method, excepting that the eye-piece is placed
+symmetrically with respect to the images under measurement.
+For this purpose the position angle of the eye-piece micrometer is
+set to that of the head, and the eye-piece is displaced from the
+axis of the tube (in the direction of the movable segment) by an
+amount equal to half the angle under measurement.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third Method.</i>&mdash;The eye-piece is fixed in the axis, and the segments
+are symmetrically displaced from the axis each by an amount equal
+to half the angle measured.</p>
+
+<p>Of these methods Bessel generally employed the first because of
+its simplicity, notwithstanding that it involved a resetting of the
+right ascension and declination of the axis of the tube with each
+reversal of the segments. The chief objections to the method are
+that, as one star is in the axis of the telescope and the other displaced
+from it, the images are not both in focus of the eye-piece,<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+and the rays from the two stars do not make the same angle with
+the optical axis of each segment. Thus the two images under
+measurement are not defined with equal sharpness and symmetry.
+The second method is free from the objection of non-coincidence in
+focus of the images, but is more troublesome in practice from the
+necessity for frequent readjustment of the position of the eye-piece.
+The third method is the most symmetrical of all, both in observation
+and reduction; but it was not employed by Bessel, on the
+ground that it involved the determination of the errors of two
+screws instead of one. On the other hand it is not necessary to
+reset the telescope after each reversal of the segments.<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>When Bessel ordered the Königsberg heliometer, he was anxious
+to have the segments made to move in cylindrical slides, of which
+the radius should be equal to the focal length of the object-glass.
+Fraunhofer, however, did not execute this wish, on the ground
+that the mechanical difficulties were too great.</p>
+
+<p>M. L. G. Wichmann states (<i>Königsb. Beobach.</i> xxx. 4) that Bessel
+had indicated, by notes in his handbooks, the following points which
+should be kept in mind in the construction of future heliometers:
+(1) The segments should move in cylindrical slides;<a name="fa5n" id="fa5n" href="#ft5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (2) the screw
+should be protected from dust;<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> (3) the zero of the position circle
+should not be so liable to change;<a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> (4) the distance of the optical
+centres of the segments should not change in different position
+angles or otherwise;<a name="fa8n" id="fa8n" href="#ft8n"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (5) the points of the micrometer screws should
+rest on ivory plates;<a name="fa9n" id="fa9n" href="#ft9n"><span class="sp">9</span></a> (6) there should be an apparatus for changing
+the screen.<a name="fa10n" id="fa10n" href="#ft10n"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Wilhelm Struve, in describing the Pulkowa heliometer,<a name="fa11n" id="fa11n" href="#ft11n"><span class="sp">11</span></a> made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span>
+by Merz in 1839 on the model of Bessel&rsquo;s heliometer, submits the
+following suggestions for its improvement:<a name="fa12n" id="fa12n" href="#ft12n"><span class="sp">12</span></a> (1) to give automatically
+to the two segments simultaneous equal and opposite movement;<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a>
+and (2) to make the tube of metal instead of wood; to attach
+the heliometer head firmly to this tube; to place the eye-piece
+permanently in the axis of the telescope; and to fix a strong cradle
+on the end of the declination axis, in which the tube, with the
+attached head and eye-piece, could rotate on its axis.</p>
+
+<p>Both suggestions are important. The first is originally the idea
+of Dollond; its advantages were overlooked by his son, and it seems
+to have been quite forgotten till resuggested by Struve. But the
+method is not available if the separation is to be measured by screws;
+it is found, in that case, that the direction of the final motion of turning
+of the screw must always be such as to produce motion of the
+segment against gravity, otherwise the &ldquo;loss of time&rdquo; is apt to be
+variable. Thus the simple connexion of the two screws by cog-wheels
+to give them automatic opposite motion is not an available
+method unless the separation of the segments is independently
+measured by scales.</p>
+
+<p>Struve&rsquo;s second suggestion has been adopted in nearly all succeeding
+heliometers. It permits complete rotation of the tube and
+measurement of all angles in reversed positions of the circle; the
+handles that move the slides can be brought down to the eye-end,
+inside the tube, and consequently made to rotate with it; and the
+position circle may be placed at the end of the cradle next the eye-end
+where it is convenient of access. Struve also points out that
+by attaching a fine scale to the focusing slide of the eye-piece, and
+knowing the coefficient of expansion of the metal tube, the means
+would be provided for determining the absolute change of the focal
+length of the object-glass at any time by the simple process of
+focusing on a double star. This, with a knowledge of the temperature
+of the screw or scale and its coefficient of expansion, would
+enable the change of screw-value to be determined at any instant.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the Bonn heliometer was in course of construction
+before these suggestions of Struve were published or
+discussed, since its construction resembles that of the Königsberg
+and Pulkowa instruments. Its dimensions are similar to those of
+the former instrument. Bessel, having been consulted by the
+celebrated statesman, Sir Robert Peel, on behalf of the Radcliffe
+trustees, as to what instrument, added to the Radcliffe Observatory,
+would probably most promote the advancement of astronomy,
+strongly advised the selection of a heliometer. The order for the
+instrument was given to the Repsolds in 1840, but &ldquo;various circumstances,
+for which the makers are not responsible, contributed to
+delay the completion of the instrument, which was not delivered
+before the winter of 1848.&rdquo;<a name="fa14n" id="fa14n" href="#ft14n"><span class="sp">14</span></a> The building to receive it was commenced
+in March 1849 and completed in the end of
+the same year. This instrument has a superb object-glass
+of 7½ in. aperture and 126 in. focal length. The
+makers availed themselves of Bessel&rsquo;s suggestion to
+make the segments move in cylindrical slides, and of
+Struve&rsquo;s to have the head attached to a brass tube;
+the eye-piece is set permanently in the axis, and the
+whole rotates in a cradle attached to the declination
+axis. They provided a splendid, rigidly mounted,
+equatorial stand, fitted with every luxury in the way
+of slow motion, and scales for measuring the displacement
+of the segments were read by powerful micrometers
+from the eye-end.<a name="fa15n" id="fa15n" href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> It is somewhat curious
+that, though Struve&rsquo;s second suggestion was adopted,
+his first was overlooked by the makers. But it is
+still more curious that it was not afterwards carried
+out, for the communication of automatic symmetrical
+motion to both segments only involves a simple
+alteration previously described. But, as it came
+from the hands of the makers in 1849, the Oxford
+heliometer was incomparably the most powerful and
+perfect instrument in the world for the highest order
+of micrometric research. It so remained, unrivalled
+in every respect, till 1873.</p>
+
+<p>As the transit of Venus of 1874 approached, preparations
+were set on foot by the German Government in good time; a
+commission of the most celebrated astronomers was appointed, and it
+was resolved that the heliometer should be the instrument chiefly
+relied on. The four long-neglected small heliometers made by Fraunhofer
+were brought into requisition. Fundamental alterations were
+made upon them: their wooden tubes were replaced by tubes of metal;
+means of measuring the focal point were provided; symmetrical
+motion was given to the slides; scales on each slide were provided
+instead of screws for measuring the separation of the segments, and
+both scales were read by the same micrometer microscope; a
+metallic thermometer was added to determine the temperature of
+the scales. These small instruments have since done admirable
+work in the hands of Schur, Hartwig, Küstner, Elkin, Auwers and
+others.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:481px; height:190px" src="images/img226a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Russian Government ordered three new heliometers (each of
+4 in. aperture and 5 ft. focal length) from the Repsolds, and the
+design for their construction was superintended by Struve, Auwers
+and Winnecke, the last-named making the necessary experiments at
+Carlsruhe. Fig. 9 represents the resulting type of instrument which
+was finally designed and constructed by Repsolds. The brass tube,
+strengthened at the bearing points by strong truly turned collars,
+rotates in the cast iron cradle <i>q</i> attached to the declination axis,
+<i>a</i> is the eye-piece fixed in the optical axis, <i>b</i> the micrometer for reading
+both scales, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> are telescopes for reading the position circle <i>p</i>,
+<i>e</i> the handle for quick motion in position angle, <i>f</i> the slow motion in
+position angle, <i>g</i> the handle for changing the separation of the
+segments by acting on the bevel-wheel <i>g</i>&prime; (fig. 10). h is a milled
+head connected by a rod with <i>h</i>&prime; (fig. 10), for the purpose of interposing
+at pleasure the prism &pi; in the axis of the reading micrometer;
+this enables the observer to view the graduations on the face of the
+metallic thermometer &tau;&tau; (composed of a rod of brass and a rod of
+zinc), <i>i</i> is a milled head connected with the wheel <i>i</i>&prime;<i>i</i>&prime; (fig. 10), and
+affords the means of placing the screen <i>s</i> (fig. 9), counterpoised by <i>w</i>
+over either half of the object-glass. <i>k</i> clamps the telescope in
+declination, <i>n</i> clamps it in right ascension, and the handles <i>m</i>
+and <i>l</i> provide slow motion in declination and right ascension
+respectively.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:654px; height:356px" src="images/img226b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The details of the interior mechanism of the &ldquo;head&rdquo; will be almost
+evident from fig. 10 without description. The screw, turned by
+the wheels at <i>g</i>&prime;, acts in a toothed arc, whence, as shown in the
+figure, equal and opposite motion is communicated to the slides by
+the jointed rods <i>v</i>, <i>v</i>. The slides are kept firmly down to their bearings
+by the rollers <i>r</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>r</i>, attached to axes which are, in the middle,
+very strong springs. Side-shake is prevented by the screws and
+pieces <i>k</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>k</i>. The scales are at <i>n</i>, <i>n</i>; they are fastened only at
+the middle, and are kept down by the brass pieces <i>t</i>, <i>t</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A similar heliometer was made by the Repsolds to the order of
+Lord Lindsay for his Mauritius expedition in 1874. It differed only
+from the three Russian instruments in having a mounting by the
+Cookes in which the declination circle reads from the eye-end.<a name="fa16n" id="fa16n" href="#ft16n"><span class="sp">16</span></a>
+This instrument was afterwards most generously lent by Lord
+Lindsay to Gill for his expedition to Ascension in 1877.<a name="fa17n" id="fa17n" href="#ft17n"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p>
+
+<p>These four Repsold heliometers proved to be excellent instruments,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span>
+easy and convenient in use, and yielding results of very high accuracy
+in measuring distances. Their slow motion in position angle, however,
+was not all that could be desired. When small movements
+were communicated to the handle <i>e</i> (fig. 9) by the tangent screw <i>f</i>,
+acting on a small toothed wheel clamped to the rod connected with
+the driving pinion, there was apt to be a torsion of the rod rather
+than an immediate action. Thus the slow motion would take place
+by jerks instead of with the necessary smoothness and certainty.
+When the heliometer-part of Lord Lindsay&rsquo;s heliometer was acquired
+by Gill in 1879, he changed the manner of imparting the motion in
+question. A square toothed racked wheel was applied to the tube
+at <i>r</i> (fig. 9). This wheel is acted on by a tangent screw whose bearings
+are attached to the cradle; the screw is turned by means of a
+handle supported by bearings attached to the cradle, and coming
+within convenient reach of the observer&rsquo;s hand. The tube turns
+smoothly in the racked wheel, or can be clamped to it at the will of
+the observer. This alteration and the new equatorial mounting
+have been admirably made by Grubb; the result is completely
+successful. The instrument so altered was in use at the Cape
+Observatory from March 1881 till 1887 in determining
+the parallax of some of the more interesting
+southern stars. The instrument then passed, by
+purchase from Gill, to Lord McLaren, by whom
+it was presented to the Royal Observatory,
+Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:659px; height:675px" src="images/img227a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:455px; height:373px" src="images/img227b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:343px; height:410px" src="images/img227c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 140px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:68px; height:324px" src="images/img228a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Still more recently the Repsolds have completed
+a new heliometer for Yale College, New Haven,
+United States. The object-glass is of 6 in. aperture
+and 98 in. focal length. The mounting, the
+tube, objective-cell, slides, &amp;c., are all of steel.<a name="fa18n" id="fa18n" href="#ft18n"><span class="sp">18</span></a>
+The instrument is shown in fig. 11. The circles
+for position angle and declination are read by
+micrometer-microscopes illuminated by the lamp
+L; the scales are illuminated by the lamp <i>l</i>. T is
+part of the tube proper, and turns with the head.
+The tube V, on the contrary, is attached to the
+cradle, and merely forms a support for the finder
+Q, the handles at <i>f</i> and <i>p</i>, and the moving ring P.
+The latter gives quick motion in position angle;
+the handles at <i>p</i> clamp and give slow motion in
+position angle, those at <i>f</i> clamp and give slow
+motion in right ascension and declination. <i>a</i> is
+the eye-piece, <i>b</i> the handle for moving the segments,
+<i>c</i> the micrometer microscope for reading
+the scales and scale micrometer, <i>d</i> the micrometer
+readers of the position and declination circles,
+<i>e</i> the handle for rotating the large wheel E
+which carries the screens. The hour circle is
+also read by microscopes, and the instrument
+can be used in both positions (tube preceding
+and following) for elimination of the effect of
+flexure on the position angles. Elkin found that
+the chief drawbacks to speed and convenience
+in working this heliometer were: (1) The loss
+of time involved in entering the corresponding
+readings of the micrometer pointings on two
+scales. (2) That an additional motion intermediate
+between the quick and slow motion in
+position angle was necessary, because, whilst the
+slow motion provided by Repsolds was admirably
+adapted for adjusting the pointings in position
+angle, it was too slow for causing the images to
+&ldquo;cross through&rdquo; each other in the process of measuring
+distances. To remedy drawback (1) Repsolds
+devised the form of printing micrometer which is shown in figs. 12 and
+13. This micrometer is provided with two pairs of parallel webs. One
+fixed pair of webs is attached to the micrometer-box, the other pair
+is moved by the screw S. The whole micrometer-box is moved by
+the screw attached to the heads. Accordingly, in reading the scales
+A and B (attached to the slides which carry the two halves of the
+object-glass), it is only necessary to turn the screws until the fixed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span>
+double web is pointed symmetrically on one of the divisions of scale
+A, then to move the other double web by the screw S until it is
+symmetrically pointed on the adjoining division of scale B. By
+turning the quick acting screw P (fig. 13) to the right, the cushion C
+(which is faced with india-rubber) presses the paper
+ribbon (shown in fig. 13) against the index-edge and
+type-wheels, and thus the beautifully cut divisions of
+the micrometer-head, the numbers marking the <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">100</span>
+parts of the head, the index and the total number of
+revolutions are all sharply embossed together upon the
+paper ribbon. Fig. 14 shows the record of several
+successive paintings on the same scale as that given by
+the micrometer. The reverse motion of P automatically
+moves the paper ribbon forward, ready to
+receive the next impression. It must be mentioned
+that the pressure of the cushion C on the type-wheels
+has no influence whatever upon the micrometer-screw,
+because the type-wheels are mounted on a hollow
+cylindrical axis, concentric with the axis of the screw,
+but entirely disconnected from the screw itself. The
+only connexion between the type-wheel and the screw-head
+S is by the pin <i>p</i> (which is screwed into S), the
+cylindrical end of which acts in a slot cut in the type-wheel.
+To remedy drawback (2) Repsolds provided
+for the Yale heliometer an additional handle for
+motion in position angle, intermediate in velocity
+between the original quick and slow motions.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:696px; height:632px" src="images/img228b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Engineering</i>, vol. xlix.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the 7-in. heliometer, completed in 1887 for the Royal Observatory
+at the Cape of Good Hope, Repsolds, on Gill&rsquo;s suggestion,
+introduced the following improvements: (<i>a</i>) Four different speeds
+of motion in position angle were provided. The quickest movement
+is given by the hand-ring, 73 (fig. 15). This ring runs between
+friction wheels and is provided with teeth on its inner periphery,
+and these teeth transmit motion to a pinion on a spindle having at
+its other end another pinion which, through an intermediate wheel,
+rotates the heliometer tube. The transmission spindle, just mentioned,
+carries at its end a head, 74, which, if turned directly, gives
+the second speed. The slowest speed is given by means of a tangent
+screw which is carried by a ball-bearing on the flange of the telescope-sleeve,
+whilst its nut is double-jointed to a ring that encircles the
+flange of the heliometer-tube. This ring is provided with a clamping
+screw, which, through the intervention of bevel-gear and rods, is
+operated by means of the hand-wheel 78. With similar bevel-gear
+and rods the tangent screw is connected to the hand-wheel, 79,
+by which the observer communicates the fourth or slowest motion
+in position angle. Finally the hand-wheel 80 is connected by
+gearing to the rod carrying the hand-wheel 79, and it can thus be
+used to give the latter a more rapid motion than if used direct;
+this constitutes the third speed of movement.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) In lieu of oil-lamps, small, conveniently placed incandescent
+electric 6-volt lamps are employed; and these are fitted with
+suitable switches and variable resistances. Thus the scales, the
+position- and declination-circles, the field of view, the heads of all the
+micrometer-microscopes, the focusing scale, &amp;c., are read without the
+aid of a hand-lamp and with an amount of illumination that can be
+regulated at the observer&rsquo;s pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) A button in the centre of the position-angle handle (74) connects
+with a chronograph which enables the observer to record the
+instant of observation. Little card-holders (81) (also illuminated)
+enable the astronomer to enter beforehand the R.A. and Dec. of the
+object to be observed, the scale divisions to be pointed upon, and
+thus, in measures of distance, with the aid of the chronograph and
+printing micrometer, enable the observer to adjust the instrument
+for observation and obtain a record of his observations without
+the aid of a hand-lamp or the necessity to make any records in his
+notebook. In observations of position angle one of the two tablets
+81 can be used to record the readings.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) The scales are made of iridio-platinum instead of silver, and the
+magnifying power of the reading microscope is increased fourfold
+(viz. to 100 diameters). A special microscope is introduced for
+determining the division errors of the scales. It enables the observer
+to compare any division-interval on one half of either scale with any
+corresponding interval on the other scale. With this apparatus
+Gill was enabled (<i>Annals Cape Obs.</i> vii. 29-42, and <i>Monthly
+Notices, R.A.S.</i>, xlix. 105-115) to determine the division error of
+every line on both scales with a probable error corresponding to
+± 0&Prime;.0092 arc.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) A position-micrometer is attached to the finder to enable the
+observer to select comparison stars for observation with some
+unexpected object. Thus a comet may be encountered in the morning
+dawn or evening twilight, and without such an adjunct the
+astronomer may lose the whole available opportunity for observation
+in the vain endeavour to find a suitable comparison-star. But
+with such a position-micrometer of large field he has no difficulty.
+Directing the finder to the comet, he has at once in the field of view
+all available comparison stars. Having selected the most suitable
+one he directs the axis of the finder to the estimated middle point
+between the comet and the star, turns the finder-micrometer in
+position angle until the images of comet and
+star lie symmetrically between the parallel
+position wires, and then turns the micrometer
+screw (which moves the distance-wires symmetrically
+from the centre in opposite directions)
+till one wire bisects the comet and the
+other the star. The reading of the position-circle
+of the finder is then the reading to which
+the position-circle of the heliometer should be
+set, and from the readings of the micrometer-screw
+he finds, by a convenient table, the proper
+settings of the heliometer scales in distance.
+When the scales and position-circle of the
+heliometer have been set to these readings, the
+comet and the selected comparison-star appear
+together in the field of view.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 15 shows the very convenient arrangement
+of the eye-end of the instrument. The
+disk, 30 with its small projecting handle
+enables the 2 segments of the divided object
+to be moved rapidly or with any required
+delicacy relative to each other. The disk 32
+operates the wire gauze screens for equalizing
+the brightness of the two stars under observation.
+The dial between 30 and 32 indicates
+the screen in use. 18 clamps and 19 gives
+slow motion in declination; 20 clamps and
+21 gives slow motion in right ascension.
+The two handles 82 serve for manipulating
+the instrument. The microscopes adjoining 82
+read the position and declination circles; for,
+by an ingenious arrangement of prisms and
+screens, the images of both circles can be read
+by each single microscope as shown in fig. 16,
+thus avoiding the necessity for the employment
+of two additional micrometers.</p>
+
+<p>Experience has shown that there is little
+that can be advantageously changed to improve
+this instrument either in convenience or
+precision of working. A series of observations
+can be easily and more accurately accomplished
+with the Cape heliometer in half an hour; with
+the Oxford heliometer it would occupy 2 hours, and with the 4 in.
+Repsold heliometer (fig. 9) 1 hour. Heliometers of 6 to 8 in.
+aperture have subsequently been constructed by Repsolds on
+these plans for Göttingen, Bamberg, Leipzig and the Kuffner Observatory
+(near Vienna), and all of them have made important
+contributions to astronomy of precision.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:378px; height:351px" src="images/img229a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From <i>Engineering</i>, vol. xlix.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Heliometer observations of distance in their most refined sense
+cannot be considered absolute measures of angles. Essentially the
+scale-value of the instrument depends on the relation of the focal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span>
+length of the object-glass to the length of the unit of the scale. But
+<i>the eye is tolerant of small changes in the focal adjustment which sensibly
+affect the scale-value</i>. These changes may and do arise from the
+following causes: (i.) The focal length of the object-glass and the
+length of the tube are affected by temperature. (ii.) The focal length
+is sensibly different for objects of different colour. (iii.) The length
+of the scale is affected by temperature. (iv.) The state of adaptation
+of the observer&rsquo;s
+eye is dependent
+on his state of
+health, on a condition
+of greater
+or less fatigue, or
+on the inclination
+of the head
+in consequence of
+the altitude of
+the object observed.
+(v.) The
+temperature of
+the object-glass,
+of the scale and
+of the tube, cannot
+be assumed
+to be identical.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, for refined
+purposes, it
+cannot be assumed
+with any
+certainty that
+the instantaneous
+scale-value
+of the heliometer
+is known, or that it is a function of the temperature. Of course,
+for many purposes, mean conditions may be adopted and mean
+scale-values be found which are applicable with considerable precision
+to small angles or to comparatively crude observations of
+large distances; but the highest refinement is lost unless means
+are provided for determining the scale-value for each observer at
+each epoch of observation.</p>
+
+<p>In determinations of stellar or solar parallax, comparison stars,
+symmetrically situated with respect to the object whose parallax
+is sought, should be employed, in which case the instantaneous
+scale-value may be regarded as an unknown quantity which can be
+derived in the process of the computation of the results. Examples
+of this mode of procedure will be found, in the case of stellar parallax
+in the <i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol. xlviii. pp. 1-194, and in the <i>Annals of the
+Cape Observatory</i>, vol. viii. parts 1 and 2; and in the case of planetary
+parallax in the <i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol. xlvi. pp. 1-171, and in the <i>Annals
+of the Cape Observatory</i>, vol. vi. In other operations, such as the
+triangulation of large groups of stars, it is necessary to select a pair
+of standard stars, if possible near the middle of the group, and to
+determine the scale-value by measures of this standard distance at
+frequent intervals during the night (see <i>Annals of the Cape Observatory</i>,
+vol. vi. pp. 3-224). In other cases, such as the measurement
+of the mutual distances and position angles of the satellites
+of Jupiter, for derivation of the elements of the orbits of the satellites
+and the mass of Jupiter, reference must also be made to measures
+of standard stars whose relative distance and position angle is
+accurately determined by independent methods (see <i>Annals of the
+Cape Observatory</i>, vol. xii. part 2).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:85px; height:105px" src="images/img229b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Gill introduced a powerful auxiliary to the accuracy of heliometer
+measures in the shape of a reversing prism placed in front
+of the eye-piece, between the latter and the observer&rsquo;s eye. If
+measures are made by placing the image of a star in the centre
+of the disk of a planet, the observer may have a tendency to do so
+systematically in error from some acquired habit or
+from natural astigmatism of the eye. But by rotating
+the prism 90° the image is presented entirely reversed
+to the eye, so that in the mean of measures made in
+two such positions personal error is eliminated. Similarly
+the prism may be used for the study and elimination
+of personal errors depending on the angle made
+by a double star with the vertical. The best plan of
+mounting such a prism has been found to be the
+following. <i>l</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>l</i><span class="sp">2</span> (fig. 17) are the eye lens and field
+lens respectively of a Merz positive eye-piece. In this construction
+the lenses are much closer together and the diaphragm for the eye
+is much farther from the lenses than in Ramsden&rsquo;s eye-piece. The
+prism <i>p</i> is fitted accurately into brass slides (care has to be taken in
+the construction to place the prism so that an object in the centre
+of the field will so remain when the eye-piece is rotated in its adapter).
+There is a collar, clamped by the screw at S, which is so adjusted
+that the eye-piece is in focus when pushed home, in its adapter, to
+this collar. The prism and eye-piece are then rotated together in
+the adapter.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Double Image Micrometer.</i>&mdash;Thomas Clausen in 1841 (<i>Ast.
+Nach.</i> No. 414) proposed a form of micrometer consisting of a
+divided plate of parallel glass placed within the cone of rays from
+the object-glass at right angles to the telescope axis. One-half of
+this plane remains fixed, the other half is movable. When the inclination
+of the movable half with respect to the axis of the telescope
+is changed by rotation about an axis at right angles to the plane of
+division, two images are produced. The amount of separation is
+very small, and depends on the thickness of the glass, the index of
+refraction and the focal length of the telescope. Angelo Secchi
+(<i>Comptes rendus</i>, xli., 1855, p. 906) gives an account of some experiments
+with a similar micrometer; and Ignarjio Porro (<i>Comptes
+rendus</i>, xli. p. 1058) claims the original invention and construction
+of such a micrometer in 1842. Clausen, however, has undoubted
+priority. Helmholtz in his &ldquo;Ophthalmometer&rdquo; has employed
+Clausen&rsquo;s principle, but arranges the plates so that both move symmetrically
+in opposite directions with respect to the telescope axis.
+Should Clausen&rsquo;s micrometer be employed as an astronomical
+instrument, it would be well to adopt the improvement of Helmholtz.</p>
+
+<p><i>Double-Image Micrometers with Divided Lenses.</i>&mdash;Various micrometers
+have been invented besides the heliometer for measuring by
+double image. Ramsden&rsquo;s dioptric micrometer consists of a divided
+lens placed in the conjugate focus of the innermost lens of the erecting
+eye-tube of a terrestrial telescope. The inventor claimed that it
+would supersede the heliometer, but it has never done anything for
+astronomy. Dollond claims the independent invention and first
+construction of a similar instrument (Pearson&rsquo;s <i>Practical Astronomy</i>,
+ii. 182). Of these and kindred instruments only two types have
+proved of practical value. G. B. Amici of Modena (<i>Mem. Soc.
+Ital.</i> xvii., 1815, pp. 344-359) describes a micrometer in which a
+negative lens is introduced between the eye-piece and the object-glass.
+This lens is divided and mounted like a heliometer object-glass;
+the separation of the lenses produces the required double
+image, and is measured by a screw. W. R. Dawes very successfully
+used this micrometer in conjunction with a filar micrometer, and
+found that the precision of the measures was in this way greatly
+increased (<i>Monthly Notices</i>, vol. xviii. p. 58, and <i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol.
+xxxv. p. 147).</p>
+
+<p>In the improved form<a name="fa19n" id="fa19n" href="#ft19n"><span class="sp">19</span></a> of Airy&rsquo;s divided eye-glass micrometer
+(<i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol. xv. pp. 199-209) the rays from the object-glass
+pass successively through lenses as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Lens.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Distance from<br />next Lens.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Focal Length.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>a</i>. An equiconvex lens</td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>p</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">arbitrary = <i>p</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>b</i>. &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>c</i>. Plano-convex, convex towards <i>b</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">1¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"><i>d</i>. Plano-convex, convex towards <i>c</i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The lens <i>b</i> is divided, and one of the segments is moved by a micrometer
+screw. The magnifying power is varied by changing the lens a
+for another in which <i>p</i> has a different value. The magnifying power
+of the eye-piece is that of a single lens of focus = <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span><i>p</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1850 J. B. Valz pointed out that the other optical conditions
+could be equally satisfied if the divided lens were made concave
+instead of convex, with the advantage of giving a larger field of view
+(<i>Monthly Notices</i>, vol. x. p. 160).</p>
+
+<p>The last improvement on this instrument is mentioned in the
+<i>Report</i> of the R.A.S. council, February 1865. It consists in the
+introduction by Simms of a fifth lens, but no satisfactory description
+has ever appeared. There is only one practical published
+investigation of Airy&rsquo;s micrometer that is worthy of mention,
+viz. that of F. Kaiser (<i>Annalen der Sternwarte in Leiden</i>, iii.
+111-274). The reader is referred to that paper for an exhaustive
+history and discussion of the <span class="correction" title="amended from intrument">instrument</span>.<a name="fa20n" id="fa20n" href="#ft20n"><span class="sp">20</span></a> It is somewhat surprising
+that, after Kaiser&rsquo;s investigations, observers should continue, as
+many have done, to discuss their observations with this instrument
+as if the screw-value were constant for all angles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span></p>
+
+<p>Steinheil (<i>Journal savant de Munich</i>, Feb. 28, 1843) describes
+a &ldquo;heliomètre-oculaire&rdquo; which he made for the great Pulkowa
+refractor, the result of consultations between himself and the elder
+Struve. It is essentially the same in principle as Amici&rsquo;s micrometer,
+except that the divided lens is an achromatic positive instead
+of a negative lens. Struve (<i>Description de l&rsquo;Observatoire Central de
+Pulkowa</i>, pp. 196, 197) adds a few remarks to Steinheil&rsquo;s description,
+in which he states that the images have not all desirable precision&mdash;a
+fault perhaps inevitable in all micrometers with divided lenses,
+and which is probably in this case aggravated by the fact that the
+rays falling upon the divided lens have considerable convergence.
+He, however, successfully employed the instrument in measuring
+double stars, so close as 1&Prime; or 2&Prime;, and using a power of 300 diameters,
+with results that agreed satisfactorily amongst themselves and with
+those obtained with the filar micrometer. If Struve had employed
+a properly proportioned double circular diaphragm, fixed symmetrically
+with the axis of the telescope in front of the divided lens and
+turning with the micrometer, it is probable that his report on the
+instrument would have been still more favourable. This particular
+instrument has historical interest, having led Struve to some of those
+criticisms of the Pulkowa heliometer which ultimately bore such
+valuable fruit (see <i>ante</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Ramsden (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. xix. p. 419) suggested the division
+of the small speculum of a Cassegrain telescope and the production
+of double image by micrometric rotation of the semispecula in the
+plane passing through their axis. Brewster (<i>Ency. Brit.</i> 8th ed.
+vol. xiv. p. 749) proposed a plan on a like principle, by dividing the
+plane mirror of a Newtonian telescope. Again, in an ocular heliometer
+by Steinheil double image is similarly produced by a divided
+prism of total reflection placed in parallel rays. But practically
+these last three methods are failures. In the last the field is full of
+false light, and it is not possible to give sufficiently minute and steady
+separation to the images; and there are of necessity a collimator,
+two prisms of total reflection, and a small telescope through which
+the rays must pass; consequently there is great loss of light.</p>
+
+<p><i>Micrometers Depending on Double Refraction.</i>&mdash;To the Abbé
+Rochon (<i>Jour. de phys.</i> liii., 1801, pp. 169-198) is due the happy
+idea of applying the two images formed by double refraction to the
+construction of a micrometer. He fell upon a most ingenious plan of
+doubling the amount of double refraction of a prism by using two
+prisms of rock-crystal, so cut out of the solid as to give each the
+same quantity of double refraction, and yet to double the quantity
+in the effect produced. The combination so formed is known as
+Rochon&rsquo;s prism. Such a prism he placed between the object-glass
+and eye-piece of a telescope. The separation of the images increases
+as the prism is approached to the object-glass, and diminishes as it
+is approached towards the eye-piece.</p>
+
+<p>D. F. J. Arago (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, xxiv., 1847, pp. 400-402) found
+that in Rochon&rsquo;s micrometer, when the prism was approached close to
+the eye-piece for the measurement of very small angles, the smallest
+imperfections in the crystal or its surfaces were inconveniently
+magnified. He therefore selected for any particular measurement
+such a Rochon prism as when fixed between the eye and the eye-piece
+(<i>i.e.</i> where a sunshade is usually placed) would, combined with
+the normal eye-piece employed, bring the images about to be
+measured nearly in contact. He then altered the magnifying power
+by sliding the field lens of the eye-piece (which was fitted with a
+slipping tube for the purpose) along the eye-tube, till the images
+were brought into contact. By a scale attached to the sliding tube
+the magnifying power of the eye-piece was deduced, and this combined
+with the angle of the prism employed gave the angle measured.
+If <i>p</i>&Prime; is the refracting angle of the prism, and n the magnifying power
+of the eye-piece, then <i>p</i>&Prime;/<i>n</i> will be the distance observed. Arago
+made many measures of the diameters of the planets with such a
+micrometer.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:469px; height:212px" src="images/img230.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Dollond (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1821, pp. 101-103) describes a double-image
+micrometer of his own invention, in which a sphere of rock-crystal
+is substituted for the eye-lens of an ordinary eye-piece. In
+this instrument (figs. 18, 19) <i>a</i> is the sphere, placed in half-holes on
+the axis <i>bb</i>, so that when its principal axis is parallel to the axis of
+the telescope it gives only one image of the object. In a direction
+perpendicular to that axis it must be so placed that when it is
+moved by rotation of the axis <i>bb</i> the separation of the images shall
+be parallel to that motion. The angle of rotation is measured on
+the graduated circle C. The angle between the objects measured
+is = <i>r</i> sin 2&theta;, where <i>r</i> is a constant to be determined for each magnifying
+power employed,<a name="fa21n" id="fa21n" href="#ft21n"><span class="sp">21</span></a> and &theta; the angle through which the sphere
+has been turned from zero (<i>i.e.</i> from coincidence of its principal
+axis with that of the telescope). The maximum separation is consequently
+at 45° from zero. The measures can be made on both sides
+of zero for eliminating index error. There are considerable difficulties
+of construction, but these have been successfully overcome by
+Dollond; and in the hands of Dawes (<i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> xxxv. p. 144 seq.)
+such instruments have done valuable service. They are liable to
+the objection that their employment is limited to the measurement
+of very small angles, viz. 13&Prime; or 14&Prime; when the magnifying power is
+100, and varying inversely as the power. Yet the beautiful images
+which these micrometers give permit the measurement of very
+difficult objects as a check on measures with the parallel-wire
+micrometer.</p>
+
+<p>On the theory of the heliometer and its use consult Bessel, <i>Astronomische
+Untersuchungen</i>, vol. i.; Hansen, <i>Ausführliche Methode mit
+dem Fraunhoferschen Heliometer anzustellen</i> (Gotha, 1827); Chauvenet,
+<i>Spherical and Practical Astronomy</i>, vol. ii. (Philadelphia and
+London, 1876); Seeliger, <i>Theorie des Heliometers</i> (Leipzig, 1877);
+Lindsay and Gill, <i>Dunecht Publications</i>, vol. ii. (Dunecht, for private
+circulation, 1877); Gill, <i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol. xlvi. pp. 1-172, and
+references mentioned in the text.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. Gi.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The circles by Reichenbach, then almost exclusively used in
+Germany, were read by verniers only.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The diameter of Venus was measured with one of these heliometers
+at the observatory of Breslau by Brandes in 1820 (<i>Berlin
+Jahrbuch</i>, 1824, p. 164).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The distances of the optical centres of the segments from the
+eye-piece are in this method as 1; secant of the angle under measurement.
+In Bessel&rsquo;s heliometer this would amount to a difference of
+<span class="spp">15</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1000</span>th of an inch when an angle of 1° is measured. For 2° the
+difference would amount to nearly <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span>th of an inch. Bessel confined
+his measures to distances considerably less than 1°.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In criticizing Bessel&rsquo;s choice of methods, and considering the
+loss of time involved in each, it must be remembered that Fraunhofer
+provided no means of reading the screws or even the heads from the
+eye-end. Bessel&rsquo;s practice was to unclamp in declination, lower and
+read off the head, and then restore the telescope to its former declination
+reading, the clockwork meanwhile following the stars in right
+ascension. The setting of both lenses symmetrically would, under
+such circumstances, be very tedious.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This most important improvement would permit any two stars
+under measurement each to be viewed in the optical axis of each
+segment. The optical centres of the segments would also remain
+at the same distance from the eye-piece at all angles of separation.
+Thus, in measuring the largest as well as the smallest angles, the
+images of both stars would be equally symmetrical and equally well
+in focus. Modern heliometers made with cylindrical slides measure
+angles over 2°, the images remaining as sharp and perfect as when
+the smallest angles are measured.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Bessel found, in course of time, that the original corrections
+for the errors of his screw were no longer applicable. He considered
+that the changes were due to wear, which would be much lessened
+if the screws were protected from dust.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The tube, being of wood, was probably liable to warp and twist
+in a very uncertain way.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8n" id="ft8n" href="#fa8n"><span class="fn">8</span></a> We have been unable to find any published drawing showing
+how the segments are fitted in their cells.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9n" id="ft9n" href="#fa9n"><span class="fn">9</span></a> We have been unable to ascertain the reasons which led Bessel
+to choose <i>ivory</i> planes for the end-bearings of his screws. He actually
+introduced them in the Königsberg heliometer in 1840, and they were
+renewed in 1848 and 1850.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> A screen of wire gauze, placed in front of the segment through
+which the fainter star is viewed, was employed by Bessel to equalize
+the brilliancy of the images under observation. An arrangement,
+afterwards described, has been fitted in modern heliometers for placing
+the screen in front of either segment by a handle at the eye-end.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> This heliometer resembles Bessel&rsquo;s, except that its foot is a solid
+block of granite instead of the ill-conceived wooden structure that
+supported his instrument. The object-glass is of 7.4 in. aperture
+and 123 in. focus.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Description de l&rsquo;observatoire central de Pulkowa</i>, p. 208.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Steinheil applied such motion to a double-image micrometer
+made for Struve. This instrument suggested to Struve the above-mentioned
+idea of employing a similar motion for the heliometer.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Manuel Johnson, M.A., Radcliffe observer, <i>Astronomical Observations
+made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the Year 1850</i>,
+Introduction, p. iii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The illumination of these scales is interesting as being the first
+application of electricity to the illumination of astronomical instruments.
+Thin platinum wire was rendered incandescent by a voltaic
+current; a small incandescent electric lamp would now be found
+more satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> For a detailed description of this instrument see <i>Dunecht Publications</i>,
+vol. ii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17n" id="ft17n" href="#fa17n"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>Mem. Royal Astronomical Society</i>, xlvi., 1-172.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18n" id="ft18n" href="#fa18n"><span class="fn">18</span></a> The primary object was to have the object-glass mounted in
+steel cells, which more nearly correspond in expansion with glass.
+It became then desirable to make the head of steel for sake of
+uniformity of material, and the advantages of steel in lightness and
+rigidity for the tube then became evident.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19n" id="ft19n" href="#fa19n"><span class="fn">19</span></a> For description of the earliest form see <i>Cambridge Phil. Trans.</i>
+vol. ii., and <i>Greenwich Observations</i> (1840).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20n" id="ft20n" href="#fa20n"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Dawes (<i>Monthly Notices</i>, January 1858, and <i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol.
+xxxv. p. 150) suggested and used a valuable improvement for producing
+round images, instead of the elongated images which are
+otherwise inevitable when the rays pass through a divided lens of
+which the optical centres are not in coincidence, viz. &ldquo;the introduction
+of a diaphragm having two circular apertures touching each
+other in a point coinciding with the line of collimation of the telescope,
+and the diameter of each aperture <i>exactly equal</i> to the semidiameter
+of the cone of rays at the distance of the diaphragm from the local
+point of the object-glass.&rdquo; Practically the difficulty of making
+these diaphragms for the different powers of the <i>exact</i> required
+equality is insuperable; but, if the observer is content to lose a
+certain amount of light, we see no reason why they may not readily
+be made slightly less. Dawes found the best method for the purpose
+in question was to limit the aperture of the object-glass by a diaphragm
+having a double circular aperture, placing the line joining
+the centres of the circles approximately in the position angle under
+measurement. Dawes successfully employed the double circular
+aperture also with Amici&rsquo;s micrometer. The present writer has
+successfully used a similar plan in measuring position angles of a
+Centauri with the heliometer, viz. by placing circular diaphragms
+on the two segments of the object-glass.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21n" id="ft21n" href="#fa21n"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Dollond provides for changing the power by sliding the lens d
+nearer to or farther from <i>a</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIOPOLIS,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> one of the most ancient cities of Egypt, met
+with in the Bible under its native name On. It stood 5 m. E.
+of the Nile at the apex of the Delta. It was the principal seat
+of sun-worship, and in historic times its importance was entirely
+religious. There appear to have been two forms of the sun-god
+at Heliopolis in the New Kingdom&mdash;namely, Ra-Harakht, or
+R&#275;&rsquo;-Harmakhis, falcon-headed, and Et&#333;m, human-headed;
+the former was the sun in his mid-day strength, the latter the
+evening sun. A sacred bull was worshipped here under the name
+Mnevis (Eg. <i>Mreu</i>), and was especially connected with Et&#333;m.
+The sun-god R&#275;&rsquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Religion</i>) was especially the royal
+god, the ancestor of all the Pharaohs, who therefore held the
+temple of Heliopolis in great honour. Each dynasty might
+give the first place to the god of its residence&mdash;Ptah of Memphis,
+Ammon of Thebes, Neith of Sais, Bubastis of Bubastis, but all
+alike honoured R&#275;&rsquo;. His temple became in a special degree a
+depository for royal records, and Herodotus states that the
+priests of Heliopolis were the best informed in matters of history
+of all the Egyptians. The schools of philosophy and astronomy
+are said to have been frequented by Plato and other Greek
+philosophers; Strabo, however, found them deserted, and the
+town itself almost uninhabited, although priests were still there,
+and cicerones for the curious traveller. The Ptolemies probably
+took little interest in their &ldquo;father&rdquo; R&#275;&rsquo;, and Alexandria had
+eclipsed the learning of Heliopolis; thus with the withdrawal
+of royal favour Heliopolis quickly dwindled, and the students
+of native lore deserted it for other temples supported by a
+wealthy population of pious citizens. In Roman times obelisks
+were taken from its temples to adorn the northern cities of the
+Delta, and even across the Mediterranean to Rome. Finally
+the growth of Fostat and Cairo, only 6 m. to the S.W., caused
+the ruins to be ransacked for building materials. The site was
+known to the Arabs as <i>&lsquo;Ayin esh shems</i>, &ldquo;the fountain of the
+sun,&rdquo; more recently as Tel Hisn. It has now been brought for
+the most part under cultivation, but the ancient city walls of
+crude brick are to be seen in the fields on all sides, and the position
+of the great temple is marked by an obelisk still standing (the
+earliest known, being one of a pair set up by Senwosri I., the
+second king of the Twelfth Dynasty) and a few granite blocks
+bearing the name of Rameses II.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Strabo xvii. cap. 1. 27-28; Baedeker&rsquo;s <i>Egypt</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIOSTAT<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêlios">&#7973;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, the sun, <span class="grk" title="statos">&#963;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>, fixed, set up),
+an instrument which will reflect the rays of the sun in a fixed
+direction notwithstanding the motion of the sun. The optical
+apparatus generally consists of a mirror mounted on an axis
+parallel to the axis of the earth, and rotated with the same
+angular velocity as the sun. This construction assumes that the
+sun describes daily a small circle about the pole of the celestial
+sphere, and ignores any diurnal variation in the declination.
+This variation is, however, so small that it can be neglected for
+most purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:213px; height:254px" src="images/img231a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:173px; height:251px" src="images/img231b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:545px" src="images/img231c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Jamin and Bouty, <i>Cours de physique</i>, Gauthier-Villars.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Silbermann&rsquo;s Heliostat.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Many forms of heliostats have been devised, the earliest having
+been described by Wilhelm Jacob s&rsquo; Gravesande in the 3rd edition
+of his <i>Physices elementa</i> (1742). One of the simplest consists of a
+plane mirror rigidly connected with a
+revolving axis so that the angle between
+the normal to the mirror and
+the axis of the instrument equals half
+the sun&rsquo;s polar distance, the mirror
+being adjusted so that the normal has
+the same right ascension as the sun.
+It is easily seen that if the mirror be
+rotated at the same angular velocity as
+the sun the right ascensions will remain
+equal throughout the day, and
+therefore this device reflects the rays
+in the direction of the earth&rsquo;s axis; a
+second fixed mirror reflects them in
+any other fixed direction. Foucault&rsquo;s
+heliostat reflects the rays horizontally
+in any required direction. The principle
+of the apparatus may be explained
+by reference to fig. 1. The axis of rotation AB bears a rigidly
+attached rod DBC inclined to it at an angle equal to the sun&rsquo;s polar
+distance. By adjusting the right ascension of the plane ABC and
+rotating the axis with the angular velocity of the sun, it follows that
+BC will be the direction of the solar rays
+throughout the day. X is the mirror
+rotating about the point E, and placed so
+that (if EB is the horizontal direction in
+which the rays are to be reflected) (1) the
+normal CE to the mirror is jointed to BC
+at C and is equal in length to BE, (2) the
+rod DBC passes through a slot in a rod ED
+fixed to, and in the plane of, the mirror.
+Since CE equals BE these directions are
+equally inclined to, and coplanar with, the
+normal to the mirror. Hence light incident
+along the direction BC will be reflected
+along CE. Silbermann&rsquo;s heliostat reflects
+the rays in any direction. The principle
+may be explained by means of fig. 2. AB
+is the axis of rotation, BC an adjustable
+rod as in Foucault&rsquo;s construction, and
+BD is another rod which can be set to the direction in which
+the rays are to be reflected. The rods BC and DB carry two
+small rods EF, GF jointed at F; at this joint there is a pin which
+slides in a slot on the rod BH, which is normal to the mirror X. The
+rods EF, GF are such that BEFG is a rhombus. It is easy to show
+that rays falling on the mirror in the direction BC will be reflected
+along BD. One construction of the instrument, described in Jamin&rsquo;s
+<i>Cours de physique</i>, is shown in fig. 3. The mirror <i>mm</i> is attached
+to the framework <i>pafe</i>, the members of which are parallel to the
+incident and reflected rays SO, OR, and the diagonal <i>pf</i> is perpendicular
+to the mirror. The framework is attached to two independent
+circular arcs C<i>s</i> and <i>rr</i>&prime; having their centres at O and provided
+with clamps D and A on the axis F of the instrument. The arc C<i>s</i>
+is graduated, and is set so that the angle COD equals the complement
+of the sun&rsquo;s declination. This can be effected (after setting the axis)
+by rotating C<i>s</i> until a needle indicates true time on the hour dial B.
+The arc <i>rr</i>&prime; is set so as to reflect the rays in the required direction.
+The axis F of the instrument is set at an angle equal to the latitude
+of the place of observation and in the meridian by means of the screw
+K, and rotated by clockwork contained in the barrel H. The setting
+in the meridian is effected by turning the instrument after setting
+for latitude until a pin-hole aperture s and a small screen P, placed
+so that Ps is parallel to CO, are in a line with the sun.</p>
+
+<p>Many other forms of heliostats have been designed, the chief
+difference consisting in the mechanical devices for maintaining the
+constant direction of the reflecting ray. One of the most important
+applications of the heliostat is as an adjunct to the newer forms of
+horizontal telescopes (<i>q.v.</i>) and in conjunction with spectroscopic
+telescopes in observations of eclipses.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:205px; height:413px" src="images/img231d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><i>Heliotropium suaveolens.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HELIOTROPE,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Turnsole</span>, <i>Heliotropium</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêliotropion">&#7969;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#964;&#961;&#972;&#960;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>,
+<i>i.e.</i> a plant which follows the sun with its flowers or leaves, or,
+according to Theophrastus (<i>Hist, plant</i>, vii. 15), which flowers
+at the summer solstice), a genus of usually more or less hairy
+herbs or undershrubs of the tribe <i>Heliotropieae</i> of the natural
+order Boraginaceae, having alternate, rarely almost opposite
+leaves; small white, lilac or blue flowers, in terminal or lateral
+one-sided simple or once or twice
+forked spikes, with a calyx of five
+deeply divided segments, a salver-shaped,
+hypogynous, 5-lobed corolla,
+and entire 4-celled ovary; fruit 2- to
+4-sulcate or lobed, at length
+separable into four 1-seeded nutlets
+or into two hard 2-celled carpels.
+The genus contains 220 species
+indigenous in the temperate and
+warmer parts of both hemispheres.
+A few species are natives of Europe,
+as <i>H. europaeum</i>, which is also a
+naturalized species in the southern
+parts of North America.</p>
+
+<p>The common heliotrope of English
+hothouses, <i>H. peruvianum</i>, popularly
+known as &ldquo;cherry-pie,&rdquo; is on
+account of the delicious odour of
+its flowers a great favourite with
+florists. It was introduced into
+Europe by the younger Jussieu,
+who sent seed of it from Peru
+to the royal garden at Paris. About the year 1757 it
+was grown in England by Philip Miller from seed obtained
+from St Germains. <i>H. corymbosum</i> (also a native of Peru),
+which was grown in Hammersmith nurseries as early as 1812,
+has larger but less fragant flowers than <i>H. peruvianum</i>. The
+species commonly grown in Russian gardens is <i>H. suaveolens</i>,
+which has white, highly fragrant flowers.</p>
+
+<p>Heliotropes may be propagated either from seed, or, as
+commonly, by means of cuttings of young growths taken an
+inch or two in length. Cuttings when sufficiently ripened, are
+struck in spring or during the summer months; when rooted
+they should be potted singly into small pots, using as a compost
+fibry loam, sandy peat and well-decomposed stable manure
+from an old hotbed. The plants soon require to be shifted into
+a pot a size larger. To secure early-flowering plants, cuttings
+should be struck in August, potted off before winter sets in, and
+kept in a warm greenhouse. In the spring larger pots should
+be given, and the plants shortened back to make them bushy.
+They require frequent shiftings during the summer, to induce
+them to bloom freely.</p>
+
+<p>The heliotrope makes an elegant standard. The plants must
+in this case be allowed to send up a central shoot, and all the
+side growths must be pinched off until the necessary height is
+reached, when the shoot must be stopped and lateral growths
+will be produced to form the head. During winter they should
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span>
+be kept somewhat dry, and in spring the ball of soil should be
+reduced and the plants repotted, the shoots being slightly
+pruned, so as to maintain a symmetrical head. When they
+are planted out against the walls and pillars of the greenhouse
+or conservatory an abundance of highly perfumed blossoms
+will be supplied all the year round. From the end of May till
+October heliotropes are excellent for massing in beds in the
+open air by themselves or with other plants. Many florists&rsquo;
+varieties of the common heliotrope are known in cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>Pliny (<i>Nat. hist.</i> xxii. 29) distinguishes two kinds of &ldquo;heliotropium,&rdquo;
+the <i>tricoccum</i>, and a somewhat taller plant, the
+<i>helioscopium</i>; the former, it has been supposed, is <i>Croton
+tinctorium</i>, and the latter the <span class="grk" title="hêliotropion mikron">&#7969;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#964;&#961;&#972;&#960;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#956;&#953;&#954;&#961;&#972;&#957;</span> of Dioscorides
+or <i>Heliotropium europaeum</i>. The helioscopium, according to
+Pliny, was variously employed in medicine; thus the juice of
+the leaves with salt served for the removal of warts, whence
+the term <i>herba verrucaria</i> applied to the plant. What, from the
+perfume of its flowers, is sometimes called winter heliotrope,
+is the fragrant butterbur, or sweet-scented coltsfoot, <i>Petasites</i>
+(<i>Tussilago</i>) <i>fragrans</i>, a perennial Composite plant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Heliotrope</span>, in mineralogy, is the mineral commonly called
+&ldquo;bloodstone&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), and sometimes termed girasol&mdash;a name
+applied also to fire-opal. The name, like those of many ancient
+names of minerals, seems to have had a fanciful origin. According
+to Pliny the stone was so called because when thrown into the
+water it turned the sun&rsquo;s light falling upon it into a reflection
+like that of blood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIOZOA,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> in zoology, a group of the Sarcodina (<i>q.v.</i>) so
+named by E. Haeckel, 1866. They are characterized by the
+radiate pseudopods, finely tapering at the apex, springing
+abruptly from the superficial protoplasm, containing a denser,
+rather permanent axial rod (figs. 1 (1), 2 (2)); protoplasm without
+a clear ectoplasm or pellicle, often frothy with large vacuoles,
+like the alveoli of Radiolaria; nucleus 1 or numerous; skeleton
+absent, gelatinous or of separate siliceous fibres, plates or
+spicules, rarely complete and latticed; reproduction by simple
+fission or by brood-formation, often syngamous; form usually
+nearly spherical, rarely changing slowly. This group was
+formerly included with the Rhizopoda; but was separated
+from it by Haeckel on account of the character of its pseudopods,
+and its general adaptation to a semipelagic existence correlated
+with the frothy cytoplasm (fig. 1 (1)). <i>Actinophrys sol</i> and
+<i>Actinosphaerium eichhornii</i> (fig. 2), known as sun animalcules
+to the older microscopists, float freely in stagnant or slow-flowing
+waters, and <i>Myriophrys</i> is able by an investment of
+long flagelliform cilia to swim freely. The majority, however,
+lurk among confervae or the light débris of the bottom ooze;
+and come under the head of &ldquo;sapropelic&rdquo; rather than pelagic
+organisms. The body is usually of constant spherical form in
+relation to the floating habit. <i>Nuclearia</i>, however, shows amoeboid
+changes of general outline. The pseudopods are retractile,
+the axial filament being absorbed as the filament grows shorter
+and thicker and disappearing when the pseudopod merges into the
+ectoplasm, to be reformed at the same time with the pseudopod.
+There is often a distinction, clear, but never sharp, between the
+richly vacuolate, almost frothy ectoplasm and the denser
+endoplasm. One or more contractile vacuoles may protrude
+from the ectoplasm. The endoplasm contains the nucleus or
+nuclei. The nucleus when single may be central or excentric:
+in the latter case, the endoplasm contains a clear central sphere
+(&ldquo;centrosome&rdquo;) on which abut the axial filaments of the pseudopods.
+The ectoplasm contains, in some species, constantly
+(<i>Raphidiophrys viridis</i>) or occasionally (<i>Actinosphaerium</i>), green
+cells belonging to the genera <i>Zoochlorella</i> and <i>Sphaerocystis</i>, both
+probably&mdash;the latter certainly&mdash;vegetative stages of a Chlamydomonad
+(<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flagellata</a></span>, <i>q.v.</i>) and of symbiotic significance.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:1032px" src="images/img232a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Heliozoa. 1. <i>Actinophrys sol</i>, Ehrb. <i>a</i>, food-particle
+lying in a large food-vacuole; <i>b</i>, deep-lying finely granular protoplasm;
+<i>c</i>, axial filament of a pseudopodium extended inwards
+to the nucleus; <i>d</i>, the central nucleus; <i>e</i>, contractile vacuole; f,
+superficial much vacuolated protoplasm. 2. <i>Clathrulina elegans</i>,
+Cienk. 3. <i>Heterophrys marina</i>, H. and L. <i>a</i>, nucleus; <i>b</i>, clearer
+protoplasm surrounding the nucleus; <i>c</i>, the peculiar felted envelope.
+4. <i>Raphidiophrys pallida</i>, F. E. Schultze. <i>a</i>, food-particle; <i>b</i>, contractile
+vacuole; <i>c</i>, the nucleus; <i>d</i>, central granule in which all the
+axis-filaments of the pseudopodia meet. The tangentially disposed
+spicules are seen arranged in masses on the surface. 5. <i>Acanthocystis
+turfacea</i>, Carter. <i>a</i>, probably the central nucleus; <i>b</i>, clear
+protoplasm around the nucleus; <i>c</i>, more superficial protoplasm with
+vacuoles and chlorophyll corpuscles; <i>d</i>, coarser siliceous spicules;
+<i>e</i>, finer forked siliceous spicules; <i>f</i>, finely granular layer of protoplasm.
+The long pseudopodia reaching beyond the spicules are
+not lettered. 6. Bi-flagellate &ldquo;flagellula&rdquo; of <i>Acanthocystis aculeata</i>.
+a, nucleus. 7. Id. of <i>Clathrulina elegans</i>. <i>a</i>, nucleus; <i>b</i>, granules.
+8. <i>Astrodisculus ruber</i>, Greeff. <i>a</i>, red-coloured central sphere (? nucleus);
+<i>b</i>, peripheral homogeneous envelope.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The Heliozoa can move by rolling over on their extended pseudopods;
+<i>Acanthocystis ludibunda</i> traversing a path of as much
+as twenty times its diameter in a minute, according to Penard.
+Several species (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Raphidiophrys elegans</i>) remain associated
+by the union of their pseudopods, whether into social aggregates
+(due to approximation) or &ldquo;colonies&rdquo; due to lack of separation
+after fission, is not accurately known. The multinuclear species
+<i>Actinosphaerium eichhornii</i> (fig. 2), normally apocytial (<i>i.e.</i> the
+nuclei divide repeatedly without division of the cytoplasm),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span>
+may increase in size by the fusion (&ldquo;plastogamic&rdquo;) of small
+individuals. If a large specimen be cut up or fragment itself
+under irritation, the small ones so produced soon approach one
+another and fuse completely.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:1037px" src="images/img233.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Heliozoa. 1. <i>Actinosphaerium eichhornii</i>, Ehr.; <i>a</i>,
+nuclei; <i>b</i>, deeper protoplasm with smaller vacuoles and numerous
+nuclei; <i>c</i>, contractile vacuoles; <i>d</i>, peripheral protoplasm with
+larger vacuoles. 2. A portion of the same specimen more highly
+magnified and seen in optical section. <i>a</i>, Nuclei; <i>b</i>, deeper protoplasm
+(so-called endosarc); <i>d</i>, peripheral protoplasm (so-called
+ectosarc); <i>e</i>, pseudopodia showing the granular protoplasm streaming
+over the stiff axial filament: <i>f</i>, food-particle in a good-vacuole.
+3, 4. Nuclei of <i>Actinosphaerium</i> in the resting condition. 5-13.
+Successive stages in the division of a nucleus of <i>Actinosphaerium</i>,
+showing fibrillation, and in 7 and 8 formation of an equatorial
+plate of chromatin substance (after Hertwig). 14. Cyst-phase of
+<i>Actinosphaerium eichhornii</i>, showing the protoplasm divided into
+twelve chlamydospores, each of which has a siliceous coat; <i>a</i>,
+nucleus of the spore; <i>g</i>, gelatinous wall of the cyst; <i>h</i>, siliceous
+coat of the spore.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2"><i>Reproduction.</i>&mdash;Binary fission has been repeatedly observed; in
+some cases one or both of the daughter cells may swim for a time
+as a biflagellate zoospore (fig. 1 (6, 7)). The process may take place
+when the cell is naked or after preliminary encystment. Budding
+has been well studied in <i>Acanthocystis</i>; the cell nucleus divides
+repeatedly and most of the daughter nuclei pass to the periphery,
+aggregate part of the cytoplasm, and with it are constricted off as
+independent cells; one nucleus remains central and the process may
+be repeated. The detached bud may assume the typical character
+after a short amoeboid (lobose) stage, sometimes preceded by rest,
+or it may develop 2 flagella and swim off (fig. 1 (6)).</p>
+
+<p>Brood formation is only known here in relation to a syngamic
+process; this is a sharp contrast to Proteomyxa (<i>q.v.</i>) where brood formation
+is the commonest mode of reproduction, and plasmodium-formation,
+rare indeed, is the nearest approach to syngamy observed.
+Indeed, if we knew the life-history of all the species this difference
+in the life cycle would be a convenient critical character.</p>
+
+<p>Equal conjugation was demonstrated fully by F. Schaudinn in
+<i>Actinophrys</i>; two individuals approach and enter into close contact,
+and are surrounded by a common cyst wall. The nucleus of either
+male divides; and one nucleus passes to the surface at either side,
+and is budded off with a small portion of the cytoplasm as an abortive
+cell; the two remaining nuclei which are &ldquo;first cousins&rdquo; in cellular
+relationship now fuse, as is the case with the cytoplasts. The resulting
+coupled cell or zygote divides into two, which again encyst.</p>
+
+<p><i>Actinosphaerium</i> (fig. 2) shows a still more remarkable process,
+fully studied by R. Hertwig. The large multinucleate animal
+withdraws its pseudopods, its vacuoles disappear, it encysts and its
+nuclei diminish in number to about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">20</span>th partly by fusion, 2 and
+2, probably by digestion of the majority. Within the primary cyst
+the body is now resolved into nuclear cells, which again surround
+themselves with secondary cysts. The cell in each secondary cyst
+divides (by karyokinesis), and these sister cells, or rather their
+offspring, pair in much the same way as the individual cells of
+<i>Actinophrys</i>&mdash;the chief difference is that after the first division and
+budding off of a rudimentary cell, a second division of the same
+character takes place, with the formation of a second rudimentary
+cell, which is the niece of the first, absolutely in the same way as the
+1st and 2nd polar bodies are formed in the maturation of the ovum
+in Metazoa. The actual pairing cells are thus second cousins, great-granddaughters
+of the original cell of the secondary cysts. Complete
+fusion now takes place to form the coupled cell, which is now contracted
+and forms a gelatinous wall within the siliceous secondary
+cyst wall (fig. 2 (14)), During a resting stage nuclear divisions occur
+and finally a brood of young 1-nuclear <i>Actinosphaerium</i> leave the
+cyst.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Classification.</i></p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Aphrothoraca. Body naked. Actinophrys Ehrb. (fig. 1 (1))
+(nucleate), Actinosphaerium Stein plurinucleate (fig. 2 (1)),
+Camptonema (plurinucleate) Schaud., Dimorpha Gruber (sometimes
+2 flagellate).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>I. Chlamydophora. Investment gelatinous. Astrodiscus.</p>
+
+<p>II. Chalarothoraca. Body protected by an investment of
+spicules or fibre scattered or approximated, never fused
+into a continuous skeleton.</p>
+
+<p>&emsp;&emsp; § 1. Spicules netted or free in the protoplasm. Heterophrys
+Arch. (fig. 1 (3)), Raphidiophrys Arch. (fig. 1 (4)),
+Pinacodocystis, Hertw. and Less.</p>
+
+<p>&emsp;&emsp; § 2. Spicules approximated radially. Pinaciophora Greeff,
+Pompholyxophrys Arch., Lithocolla F. E. Schultze,
+Elaeorhanis Greeff (in the two foregoing genera the spicules
+represented by sand granules), Acanthocystis Carter (fig. 1
+(5)), Pinacocystis (?) Hertw. and Less, Myriophrys Penard.
+(Astrodisculus).</p>
+
+<p>III. Desmothoraca. § 1 attached by a stalk. Clathrulina Cienk.
+(fig. 1 (2, 7)), Hedriocystis, Hertw. and Less.</p>
+
+<p>&emsp;&emsp; § 2. Free Elaster, Grimin, Choanocystis.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Literature.</i>&mdash;The most important English original papers on this
+group are those by W. Archer, &ldquo;On some Freshwater Rhizopoda,
+new, or little known,&rdquo; <i>Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science</i>,
+N.S. ix.-xi. (1869-1871), and &ldquo;Résumé of Recent Contributions to
+the Knowledge of Freshwater Rhizopods,&rdquo; <i>ibid.</i> xvi., xvii. (1876-1877).
+See also R. Hertwig and Lesser, &ldquo;Über Rhizopoda und
+denselben nahestehenden Organismen,&rdquo; in <i>Archiv für mikroscopische
+Anatomie</i>, x. (1874), p. 35; R. Schaudinn, &ldquo;Heliozoa&rdquo; in <i>Tierreich</i>
+(1896); E. Penard, <i>Les Héliozoaires d&rsquo;eau douce</i> (1904); the two
+last named contain full bibliographies.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. Ha.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIUM<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêlios">&#7973;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, the sun), a gaseous chemical
+element, the modern discovery of which followed closely on that
+of argon (<i>q.v.</i>). The Investigations of Lord Rayleigh and Sir
+William Ramsay had shown that indifference to chemical
+reagents did not sufficiently characterize an unknown gas as
+nitrogen, and it became necessary to reinvestigate other cases of
+the occurrence of &ldquo;nitrogen&rdquo; in nature. H. Miers drew Ramsay&rsquo;s
+attention to the work of W. F. Hillebrand, who had noticed, in
+examining the mineral uraninite, that an inert gas was evolved
+when the mineral was decomposed with acid. Ramsay, repeating
+these experiments, found that the inert gas emitted refused
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span>
+to oxidize when sparked with oxygen, and on examining it
+spectroscopically he saw that the spectrum was not that of
+argon, but was characterized by a bright yellow line near to,
+but not identical with, the D line of sodium. This was afterwards
+identified with the D<span class="su">3</span> line of the solar chromosphere,
+observed in 1868 by Sir J. Norman Lockyer, and ascribed by
+him to a hypothetical element <i>helium</i>. This name was adopted
+for the new gas.</p>
+
+<p>Helium is relatively abundant in many minerals, all of which
+are radioactive, and contain uranium or thorium as important
+constituents. (For the significance of this fact see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Radioactivity</a></span>.)
+The richest known source is thorianite, which
+consists mainly of thorium oxide, and contains 9.5 cc. of helium
+per gram. Monazite, a phosphate of thorium and other rare
+earths, contains on the average about 1 cc. per gram. Cleveite,
+samarskite and fergusonite contain a little more than monazite.
+The gas also occurs in minute quantities in the common minerals
+of the earth&rsquo;s crust. In this case too it is associated with radioactive
+matter, which is almost ubiquitous. In two cases, however,
+it has been found in the absence of appreciable quantities
+of uranium and thorium compounds, namely in beryl, and in
+sylvine (potassium chloride). Helium is contained almost
+universally in the gases which bubble up with the water of thermal
+springs. The proportion varies greatly. In the hot springs of
+Bath it amounts to about one-thousandth part of the gas evolved.
+Much larger percentages have been recorded in some French
+springs (<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1906, 143, p. 795, and 146, p. 435), and
+considerable quantities occur in some natural gas (<i>Journ. Amer.
+Chem. Soc.</i> 29, p. 1524). R. J. Strutt has suggested that helium
+in hot springs may be derived from the disintegration of common
+rocks at great depths.</p>
+
+<p>Helium is present in the atmosphere, of which it constitutes
+four parts in a million. It is conspicuous by its absorption
+spectrum in many of the white stars. Certain stars and nebulae
+show a bright line helium spectrum.</p>
+
+<p>Much the best practical source of helium is thorianite, a
+mineral imported from Ceylon for the manufacture of thoria.
+It dissolves readily in strong nitric acid, and the helium contained
+is thus liberated. The gas contains a certain amount of hydrogen
+and oxides of carbon, also traces of nitrogen. In order to get
+rid of hydrogen, some oxygen is added to the helium, and the
+mixture exploded by an electric spark. All remaining impurities,
+including the excess of oxygen, can then be taken out of the
+gas by Sir James Dewar&rsquo;s ingenious method of absorption
+with charcoal cooled in liquid air. Helium alone refuses to be
+absorbed, and it can be pumped off from the charcoal in a state
+of absolute purity. In the absence of liquid air the helium must
+be purified by the methods employed for argon (<i>q.v.</i>). If
+thorianite cannot be obtained, monazite, which is more abundant,
+may be utilized. A part of the helium contained in minerals
+can be extracted by heat or by grinding (J. A. Gray, <i>Proc. Roy.
+Soc.</i>, 1909, 82A, p. 301).</p>
+
+<p><i>Properties.</i>&mdash;All attempts to make helium enter into stable
+chemical union have hitherto proved unsuccessful. The gas is
+in all probability only mechanically retained in the minerals in
+which it is found. Jacquerod and Perrot have found that
+quartz-glass is freely permeable to helium below a red-heat
+(<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1904, 139, p. 789). The effect is even perceptible
+at a temperature as low as 220° C. Hydrogen, and, in a much
+less degree, oxygen and nitrogen, will also permeate silica, but
+only at higher temperatures. They have made this observation
+the basis of a practical method of separating helium from the
+other inert gases. M. Travers has suggested that it may explain
+the liberation of helium from minerals by heat, the gas being
+enabled to permeate the siliceous materials in which it is enclosed.
+Thorianite, however, contains no silica, and until it is shown that
+metallic oxides behave in the same way this explanation must
+be accepted with reserve.</p>
+
+<p>The density of helium has been determined by Ramsay and
+Travers as 1.98. Its ratio of specific heats has very nearly the
+ideal value 1.666, appropriate to a monatomic molecule. The
+accepted atomic weight is accordingly double the density, <i>i.e.</i>
+approximately four times that of hydrogen. The refractivity
+of helium is 0.1238 (air = 1). The solubility in water is the
+lowest known, being, at 18.2°, only .0073 vols. per unit volume
+of water. The viscosity is .96 (air = 1).</p>
+
+<p>The spectrum of helium as observed in a discharge tube is
+distinguished by a moderate number of brilliant lines, distributed
+over the whole visual spectrum. The following are
+the approximate wave-lengths of the most brilliant lines:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Red</td> <td class="tcc">7066</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Red</td> <td class="tcc">6678</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Yellow</td> <td class="tcc">5876</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Green</td> <td class="tcc">4922</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Blue</td> <td class="tcc">4472</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Violet</td> <td class="tcc">4026</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">When the discharge passes through helium at a pressure of
+several millimetres, the yellow line 5876 is prominent. At lower
+pressures the green line 4922 becomes more conspicuous. At
+atmospheric pressure the discharge is able to pass through a
+far greater distance in helium than in the common gases.</p>
+
+<p>M. Travers, G. Senter and A. Jacquerod (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> A. 1903,
+200, p. 105) carefully examined the <span class="correction" title="amended from behavour">behaviour</span> of a constant
+volume gas thermometer filled with helium. For the pressure
+coefficient per degree, between 0° and 100° C., they give the
+value .00366255, when the initial pressure is 700 mm. This
+value is indistinguishable from that which they find for hydrogen.
+Thus at high temperatures a helium thermometer is of no special
+advantage. At low temperatures, on the other hand, they find,
+using an initial pressure of 1000 mm., that the temperatures on
+the helium scale are measurably higher than on the hydrogen
+scale, owing to the more perfectly gaseous condition of helium.
+This difference amounts to about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span>° at the temperature of liquid
+oxygen, and about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span>° at that of liquid hydrogen.</p>
+
+<p>The liquefaction of helium was achieved by H. Kamerlingh
+Onnes at Leiden in 1908. According to him its boiling point
+is 4.3° abs. (&minus;268.7° C.), the density of the liquid 0.154, the
+critical temperature 5° abs., and the critical pressure 2.3 atmospheres
+(<i>Communications from the Physical Laboratory at Leiden</i>,
+No. 108; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquid Gases</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">References.</span>&mdash;A bibliography and summary of the earlier work
+on helium will be found in a paper by Ramsay, <i>Ann. chim. phys.</i>
+(1898) [7], 13, p. 433. See also M. Travers, <i>The Study of Gases</i>
+(1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELIX<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="helix">&#7957;&#955;&#953;&#958;</span>, a spiral or twist), an architectural term
+for the spiral tendril which is carried up to support the angles
+of the abacus of the Corinthian capital; from the same stalk
+springs a second helix rising to the centre of the capital, its
+junction with one on the opposite side being sometimes marked
+by a flower. Sometimes the term &ldquo;volute&rdquo; is given to the angle
+helix, which is incorrect, as it is of a different design and rises
+from the same stalk as the central helices. Its origin is probably
+metallic, that is to say, it was copied from the conventional
+treatment in Corinthian bronze of the tendrils of a plant.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELL<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hel</i>, a Teutonic word from a root meaning &ldquo;to
+cover,&rdquo; cf. Ger. <i>Hölle</i>, Dutch <i>hel</i>), the word used in English
+both of the place of departed spirits and of the place of torment
+of the wicked after death. It is used in the Old Testament
+to translate the Hebrew <i>Sheol</i>, and in the New Testament
+the Greek <span class="grk" title="hadês">&#8067;&#948;&#951;&#962;</span>, Hades, and <span class="grk" title="geenna">&#947;&#949;&#941;&#957;&#957;&#945;</span>, Hebrew <i>Gehenna</i> (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eschatology</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELLANICUS<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> of Lesbos, Greek logographer, flourished
+during the latter half of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> According to
+Suidas, he lived for some time at the court of one of the kings
+of Macedon, and died at Perperene, a town on the gulf of Adramyttium
+opposite Lesbos. Some thirty works are attributed
+to him&mdash;chronological, historical and episodical. Mention may
+be made of: <i>The Priestesses of Hera at Argos</i>, a chronological
+compilation, arranged according to the order of succession of
+these functionaries; the <i>Carneonikae</i>, a list of the victors in the
+Carnean games (the chief Spartan musical festival), including
+notices of literary events; an <i>Atthis</i>, giving the history of Attica
+from 683 to the end of the Peloponnesian War (404), which is
+referred to by Thucydides (i. 97), who says that he treated the
+events of the years 480-431 briefly and superficially, and with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span>
+little regard to chronological sequence: <i>Phoronis</i>, chiefly
+genealogical, with short notices of events from the times of
+Phoroneus the Argive &ldquo;first man&rdquo; to the return of the
+Heraclidae; <i>Troica</i> and <i>Persica</i>, histories of Troy and
+Persia.</p>
+
+<p>Hellanicus marks a real step in the development of historiography.
+He transcended the narrow local limits of the older
+logographers, and was not content to repeat the traditions that
+had gained general acceptation through the poets. He tried to
+give the traditions as they were locally current, and availed
+himself of the few national or priestly registers that presented
+something like contemporary registration. He endeavoured
+to lay the foundations of a scientific chronology, based primarily
+on the list of the Argive priestesses of Hera, and secondarily
+on genealogies, lists of magistrates (<i>e.g.</i> the archons at Athens),
+and Oriental dates, in place of the old reckoning by generations.
+But his materials were insufficient and he often had recourse
+to the older methods. On account of his deviations from common
+tradition, Hellanicus is often called an untrustworthy writer
+by the ancients themselves, and it is a curious fact that he
+appears to have made no systematic use of the many inscriptions
+which were ready to hand. Dionysius of Halicarnassus censures
+him for arranging his history, not according to the natural
+connexion of events, but according to the locality or the nation
+he was describing; and undoubtedly he never, like his contemporary
+Herodotus, rose to the conception of a single current of
+events wider than the local distinction of race. His style, like
+that of the older logographers, was dry and bald.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in Müller, <i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum</i>, i. and iv.;
+see among older works L. Preller, <i>De Hellanico Lesbio historico</i>
+(1840); Mure, <i>History of Greek Literature</i>, iv.; late criticism in
+H. Kullmer, &ldquo;Hellanikos&rdquo; in <i>Jahrbücher für klass. Philologie</i>
+(Supplementband, xxvii. 455 sqq.) (1902), which contains new
+edition and arrangement of fragments; C. F. Lehmann-Haupt,
+&ldquo;Hellanikos, Herodot, Thukydides,&rdquo; in <i>Klio</i> vi. 127 sqq. (1906);
+J. B. Bury, <i>Ancient Greek Historians</i> (1909), pp. 27 sqq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELLEBORE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="helleboros">&#7953;&#955;&#955;&#941;&#946;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>: mod. Gr. also <span class="grk" title="skaphê">&#963;&#954;&#940;&#966;&#951;</span>:
+Ger. <i>Nieswurz</i>, <i>Christwurz</i>; Fr. <i>hellébore</i>, and in the district of
+Avranche, <i>herbe enragée</i>), a genus (<i>Helleborus</i>) of plants of the
+natural order Ranunculaceae, natives of Europe and western
+Asia. They are coarse perennial herbs with palmately or pedately
+lobed leaves. The flowers have five persistent petaloid sepals,
+within the circle of which are placed the minute honey-containing
+tubular petals of the form of a horn with an irregular opening.
+The stamens are very numerous, and are spirally arranged; and
+the carpels are variable in number, sessile or stipitate and slightly
+united at the base and dehisce by ventral suture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helleborus niger</i>, black hellebore, or, as from blooming in mid-winter
+it is termed the Christmas rose (Ger. <i>Schwarze Nieswurz</i>;
+Fr., <i>rose de Noël</i> or <i>rose d&rsquo;hiver</i>), is found in southern and
+central Europe, and with other species was cultivated in the time
+of Gerard (see <i>Herball</i>, p. 977, ed. Johnson, 1633) in English
+gardens. Its knotty root-stock is blackish-brown externally,
+and, as with other species, gives origin to numerous straight roots.
+The leaves spring from the top of the root-stock, and are smooth,
+distinctly pedate, dark-green above, and lighter below, with 7 to
+9 segments and long petioles. The scapes, which end the
+branches of the rhizome, have a loose entire bract at the base, and
+terminate in a single flower, with two bracts, from the axis of
+one of which a second flower may be developed. The flowers
+have 5 white or pale-rose, eventually greenish sepals, 15 to 18
+lines in breadth; 8 to 13 tubular green petals containing honey;
+and 5 to 10 free carpels. There are several forms, the best being
+<i>maximus</i>. The Christmas rose is extensively grown in many
+market gardens to provide white flowers forced in gentle heat
+about Christmas time for decorations, emblems, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. orientalis</i>, the Lenten rose, has given rise to several fine
+hybrids with <i>H. niger</i>, some of the best forms being clear in
+colour and distinctly spotted. <i>H. foetidus</i>, stinking hellebore,
+is a native of England, where like <i>H. viridis</i>, it is confined chiefly
+to limestone districts; it is common in France and the south
+of Europe. Its leaves have 7- to 11-toothed divisions, and the
+flowers are in panicles, numerous, cup-shaped and drooping,
+with many bracts, and green sepals tinged with purple, alternating
+with the five petals.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. viridis</i>, or green hellebore proper, is probably indigenous
+in some of the southern and eastern counties of England, and
+occurs also in central and southern Europe. It has bright
+yellowish-green flowers, 2 to 4 on a stem, with large leaf-like
+bracts. O. Brunfels and H. Bock (16th century) regarded the
+plant as the black hellebore of the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p><i>H. lividus</i>, holly-leaved hellebore, found in the Balearic
+Islands, and in Corsica and Sardinia, is remarkable for the handsomeness
+of its foliage. White hellebore is <i>Veratrum album</i>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Veratrum</a></span>), a liliaceous plant.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:416px" src="images/img235.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><i>Helleborus niger</i>. 1, Vertical section of flower; 2, Nectary, side
+and front view.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Hellebores may be grown in any ordinary light garden mould,
+but thrive best in a soil of about equal parts of turfy loam and
+well-rotted manure, with half a part each of fibrous peat and
+coarse sand, and in moist but thoroughly-drained situations,
+more especially where, as at the margins of shrubberies, the
+plants can receive partial shade in summer. For propagation
+cuttings of the rhizome may be taken in August, and placed in
+pans of light soil, with a bottom heat of 60° to 70° Fahr.; hellebores
+can also be grown from seed, which must be sown as soon
+as ripe, since it quickly loses its vitality. The seedlings usually
+blossom in their third year. The exclusion of frost favours
+the production of flowers; but the plants, if forced, must be
+gradually inured to a warm atmosphere, and a free supply of
+air must be afforded, without which they are apt to become
+much affected by greenfly. For potting, <i>H. niger</i> and its varieties,
+and <i>H. orientalis</i>, <i>atrorubens</i> and <i>olympicus</i> have been found
+well suited. After lifting, preferably in September, the plants
+should receive plenty of light, with abundance of water, and once
+a week liquid manure, not over-strong. The flowers are improved
+in delicacy of hue, and are brought well up among the leaves,
+by preventing access of light except to the upper part of the
+plants. Of the numerous species of hellebore now grown, the
+deep-purple-flowered <i>H. colchicus</i> is one of the handsomest;
+by crossing with <i>H. guttatus</i> and other species several valuable
+garden forms have been produced, having variously coloured
+spreading or bell-shaped flowers, spotted with crimson, red or
+purple.</p>
+
+<p>The rhizome of <i>H. niger</i> occurs in commerce in irregular and
+nodular pieces, from about 1 to 3 in. in length, white and of a
+horny texture within. Cut transversely it presents internally
+a circle of 8 to 12 cuneiform ligneous bundles, surrounded by
+a thick bark. It emits a faint odour when cut or broken, and
+has a bitter and slightly acrid taste. The drug is sometimes
+adulterated with the rhizome of baneberry, <i>Actaea spicata</i>,
+which, however, may be recognized by the distinctly cruciate
+appearance of the central portion of the attached roots when
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span>
+cut across, and by its decoction giving the chemical reactions
+for tannin.<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The rhizome is darker in colour in proportion
+to its degree of dryness, age and richness in oil. A specimen
+dried by Schroff lost in eleven days 65% of water.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>H. niger</i>, <i>orientalis</i>, <i>viridis</i>, <i>foetidus</i>, and several other species of
+hellebore contain the glucosides <i>helleborin</i>, C<span class="su">36</span>H<span class="su">42</span>O<span class="su">6</span>, and <i>helleboreïn</i>,
+C<span class="su">23</span>H<span class="su">20</span>O<span class="su">15</span>, the former yielding glucose and <i>helleboresin</i>, C<span class="su">30</span>H<span class="su">38</span>O<span class="su">4</span>,
+and the latter glucose and a violet-coloured substance <i>helleboretin</i>,
+C<span class="su">14</span>H<span class="su">20</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. Helleborin is most abundant in <i>H. viridis</i>. A third and
+volatile principle is probably present in <i>H. foetidus</i>. Both helleborin
+and helleboreïn act poisonously on animals, but their decomposition-products
+helleboresin and helleboretin seem to be devoid of any
+injurious qualities. Helleborin produces excitement and restlessness,
+followed by paralysis of the lower extremities or whole body, quickened
+respiration, swelling and injection of the mucous membranes,
+dilatation of the pupil, and, as with helleboreïn, salivation, vomiting
+and diarrhoea. Helleboreïn exercises on the heart an action similar
+to that of digitalis, but more powerful, accompanied by at first
+quickened and then slow and laboured respiration; it irritates the
+conjunctiva, and acts as a sternutatory, but less violently than
+veratrine. Pliny states that horses, oxen and swine are killed by
+eating &ldquo;black hellebore&rdquo;; and Christison (<i>On Poisons</i>, p. 876,
+11th ed., 1845) writes: &ldquo;I have known severe griping produced
+by merely tasting the fresh root in January.&rdquo; Poisonous doses of
+hellebore occasion in man singing in the ears, vertigo, stupor, thirst,
+with a feeling of suffocation, swelling of the tongue and fauces,
+emesis and catharsis, slowing of the pulse, and finally collapse and
+death from cardiac paralysis. Inspection after death reveals much
+inflammation of the stomach and intestines, more especially the
+rectum. The drug has been observed to exercise a cumulative
+action. Its extract was an ingredient in Bacher&rsquo;s pills, an empirical
+remedy once in great repute in France. In British medicine the
+rhizome was formerly official. <i>H. foetidus</i> was in past times much
+extolled as an anthelmintic, and is recommended by Bisset (<i>Med.
+Ess.</i>, pp. 169 and 195, 1766) as the best vermifuge for children;
+J. Cook, however, remarks of it (<i>Oxford Mag.</i>, March 1769, p. 99):
+&ldquo;Where it killed not the patient, it would certainly kill the worms;
+but the worst of it is, it will sometimes kill both.&rdquo; This plant, of
+old termed by farriers ox-heel, setter-wort and setter-grass, as well
+as <i>H. viridis</i> (Fr. <i>Herbe à séton</i>), is employed in veterinary surgery,
+to which also the use of <i>H. niger</i> is now chiefly confined in Britain.</p>
+
+<p>In the early days of medicine two kinds of hellebore were recognized,
+the white or <i>Veratrum album</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Veratrum</a></span>), and the black,
+including the various species of <i>Helleborus</i>. The former, according
+to Codronchius (<i>Comm.... de elleb.</i>, 1610), Castellus (<i>De helleb.
+epist.</i>, 1622), and others, is the drug usually signified in the writings
+of Hippocrates. Among the hellebores indigenous to Greece and
+Asia Minor, <i>H. orientalis</i>, the rhizome of which differs from that
+of <i>H. niger</i> and of <i>H. viridis</i> in the bark being readily separable from
+the woody axis, is the species found by Schroff to answer best to the
+descriptions given by the ancients of black hellebore, the <span class="grk" title="helleboros
+melas">&#7953;&#955;&#955;&#941;&#946;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#962; &#956;&#941;&#955;&#945;&#962;</span> of Dioscorides. The rhizome of this plant, if identical, as
+would appear, with that obtained by Tournefort at Prusa in Asia
+Minor (<i>Rel. d&rsquo;un voy. du Levant</i>, ii. 189, 1718), must be a remedy
+of no small toxic properties. According to an early tradition, black
+hellebore administered by the soothsayer and physician Melampus
+(whence its name <i>Melampodium</i>), was the means of curing the madness
+of the daughters of Proetus, king of Argos. The drug was used
+by the ancients in paralysis, gout and other diseases, more particularly
+in insanity, a fact frequently alluded to by classical writers,
+<i>e.g.</i> Horace (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 3. 80-83, <i>Ep. ad Pis.</i> 300). Various superstitions
+were in olden times connected with the cutting of black hellebore.
+The best is said by Pliny (<i>Nat. hist.</i> xxv. 21) to grow on Mt Helicon.
+Of the three Anticyras that in Phocis was the most famed for its
+hellebore, which, being there used combined with &ldquo;sesamoides,&rdquo;
+was, according to Pliny, taken with more safety than elsewhere.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The British Pharmaceutical Conference has recommended
+the preparation which it terms <i>the tinctura veratri viridis</i>, as the
+best form in which to administer this drug. It may be given in
+doses of 5-15 minims. The tincture is prepared from the dried
+rhizome and rootlets of green hellebore, containing the alkaloids
+jervine, veratrine and veratroidine. It is recommended as a
+cardiac and nervous sedative in cerebral haemorrhage and
+puerperal eclampsia. Black hellebore is a purgative and uterine
+stimulant.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the microscopical characters and for figures of transverse
+sections of the rhizome, see Lanessan, <i>Hist. des drogues</i>, i. 6 (1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELLENISM<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hellênizein">&#7953;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#943;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to imitate the Greeks, who
+were known as <span class="grk" title="Hellênes">&#7965;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span>, after <span class="grk" title="Hellên">&#7965;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;</span>, the son of Deucalion).
+The term &ldquo;Hellenism&rdquo; is ambiguous. It may be used to denote
+ancient Greek culture in all its phases, and even those elements
+in modern civilization which are Greek in origin or in spirit;
+but, while Matthew Arnold made the term popular in the latter
+connexion as the antithesis of &ldquo;Hebraism,&rdquo; the German historian
+J. G. Droysen introduced the fashion (1836) of using it to
+describe particularly the latter phases of Greek culture from the
+conquests of Alexander to the end of the ancient world, when
+those over whom this culture extended were largely not Greek
+in blood, <i>i.e.</i> <i>Hellenes</i>, but peoples who had adopted the Greek
+speech and way of life, <i>Hellenistai</i>. Greek culture had, however,
+both in &ldquo;Hellenic&rdquo; and &ldquo;Hellenistic&rdquo; times, a common essence,
+just as light is light whether in the original luminous body or in
+a reflection, and to describe this by the term Hellenism seems most
+natural. But whilst using the term in the larger sense, this
+article, in deference to the associations which have come to be
+specially connected with it, will devote its principal attention
+to Hellenism as it appeared in the world after the Macedonian
+conquests. But it will be first necessary to indicate briefly
+what Hellenism in itself implied.</p>
+
+<p>No verbal formula can really enclose the life of a people or an
+age, but we can best understand the significance of the old
+Greek cities and the life they developed, when, looking at the
+history of mankind as a whole, we see the part played by reason,
+active and critical, in breaking down the barriers by which custom
+hinders movement, in guiding movement to definite ends, in
+dissipating groundless beliefs and leading onwards to fresh
+scientific conquests&mdash;when we see this and then take note that
+among the ancient Greeks such an activity of reason began in an
+entirely novel degree and that its activity in Europe ever since
+is due to their impulsion. When Hellenism came to stand in the
+world for something concrete and organic, it was, of course, no
+mere abstract principle, but embodied in a language, a literature,
+an artistic tradition. In the earliest existing monument of the
+Hellenic genius, the Homeric poems, one may already observe
+that regulative sense of form and proportion, which shaped the
+later achievements of the race in the intellectual and artistic
+spheres. It was not till the great colonizing epoch of the 8th and
+7th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the name &ldquo;Hellene&rdquo; came into use as
+the antithesis of &ldquo;barbarian,&rdquo; that the Greek race came to be
+conscious of itself as a peculiar people; it was yet some three
+centuries more before Hellenism stood fully declared in art and
+literature, in politics and in thought. There was now a new thing
+in the world, and to see how the world was affected by it is our
+immediate concern.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">I. The Expansion of Hellenism before Alexander.</span>&mdash;In
+the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Greek cities dotted the coasts of the Mediterranean
+and the Black Sea from Spain to Egypt and the Caucasus,
+and already Greek culture was beginning to pass beyond the
+limits of the Greek race. Already in the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when
+Hellenism was still in a rudimentary stage, the citizens of the
+Greek city-states had been known to the courts of Babylon
+and Egypt as admirable soldiers, combining hardihood with
+discipline, and Greek mercenaries came to be in request throughout
+the Nearer East. But as Hellenism developed, its social
+and intellectual life began to exercise a power of attraction.
+The proud old civilizations of the Euphrates and the Nile
+might ignore it, but the ruder barbarian peoples in East and West,
+on whose coasts the Greek colonies had been planted, came in
+various degrees under its spell. In some cases an outlying colony
+would coalesce with a native population, and a fusion of Hellenism
+with barbarian customs take place, as at Emporium in Spain
+(Strabo iii. p. 160) and at Locri in S. Italy (Polyb. xii. 5. 10).
+Perinthus included a Thracian phyle. The stories of Anacharsis
+and Scylas (Herod, iv. 76-80) show how the leading men of the
+tribes in contact with the Greek colonies in the Black Sea might
+be fascinated by the appeal which the exotic culture made to
+mind and to eye.</p>
+
+<p>The great developments of the century and a half before
+Alexander set the Greek people in a very different light before the
+world. In the sphere of material power the repulse of Xerxes
+and the extension of Athenian or Spartan supremacy in the
+eastern Mediterranean were large facts patent to the most obtuse.
+The kings of the East leant more than ever upon Greek mercenaries,
+whose superiority to barbarian levies was sensibly brought
+home to them by the expedition of Cyrus. But the developments
+within the Hellenic sphere itself were also of great consequence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span>
+for its expansion outwards. The political disunion of the Greeks
+was to some extent neutralized by the rise of Athens to a leading
+position in art, in literature and in philosophy. In Athens
+the Hellenic genius was focussed, its tendencies drawn together
+and combined; nor was it a circumstance of small moment
+that the Attic dialect attained, for prose, a classical authority;
+for if Hellenism was to be propagated in the world at large,
+it was obviously convenient that it should have some one definite
+form of speech to be its medium.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Persians.</i>&mdash;The ruling race of the East, the Persian,
+was but little open to the influences of the new culture. The
+military qualities of the Greeks were appreciated, and so, too,
+was Greek science, where it touched the immediately useful;
+a Greek captain was entrusted by Darius with the exploration
+of the Indus; a Greek architect bridged the Bosporus for him;
+Greek physicians (<i>e.g.</i> Democedes, Ctesias) were retained for
+enormous fees at the Persian court. The brisk diplomatic
+intercourse between the Great King and the Greek states in the
+4th century may have produced effects that were not merely
+political. We certainly find among those members of the Persian
+aristocracy, who came by residence in Asia Minor into closer
+contact with the Greeks, some traces of interest in the more
+ideal side of Hellenism. A man like the younger Cyrus invited
+Greek captains to his friendship for something more than their
+utility in war, and procured Greek hetaerae for something
+more than sensual pleasure. There is the Mithradates who
+presented the Academy with a statue of Plato by Silanion, not
+improbably identical (though the supposition implies a correction
+in the text of Diogenes Laërtius) with that Mithradates who,
+together with his father Ariobarzanes, received the citizenship of
+Athens (Dem. xxiii. 141, 202). Exactly how far Greek influence
+can be traced in the remains of Persian art, such as the royal
+palaces of Persepolis and Susa may be doubtful (see Gayet,
+<i>L&rsquo;Art persan</i>; R. Phené Spiers, <i>Architecture East and West</i>,
+p. 245 f.), but it is certain that the engraved gems for which
+there was a demand in the Persian empire were largely the
+work of Greek artists (Furtwängler, <i>Antike Gemmen</i>, iii. p. 116 f.).</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Phoenicians.</i>&mdash;As early as the first half of the 4th century
+we find communities of Phoenician traders established in the
+Peiraeus (<i>C.I.A.</i> ii. 86). In Cyprus, on the frontier between
+the Greek and Semitic worlds, a struggle for ascendancy went on.
+The Phoenician element seems to have been dominant in the
+island when Evagoras made himself king of Salamis in 412,
+and restored Hellenism with a strong hand. The words of
+Isocrates (even allowing for their rhetorical colour) give us a
+vivid insight into what such a process meant. &ldquo;Before Evagoras
+established his rule, they were so hostile and exclusive, that
+those of their rulers were actually held to be the best who were
+the fiercest adversaries of the Greeks; but now such a change
+has taken place, that it is a matter of emulation who shall show
+himself the most ardent phil-hellen, that for the mothers of
+their children most of them choose wives from amongst us,
+and that they take pride in having Greek things about rather
+than native, in following the Greek fashion of life, whilst our
+masters of the fine arts and other branches of culture now resort
+to them in greater numbers than were once to be found in those
+quarters they specially frequented&rdquo; (Isoc. 199 = <i>Evag.</i> §§ 49, 50).
+Even into the original seats of the Phoenicians Hellenism began to
+intrude. Evagoras at one time (about 386) made himself master
+of Tyre (Isoc. <i>Evag.</i> § 62; Diod. xv. 2, 4). His grandson Evagoras
+II. is found as governor of Sidon for the Persian king 349-346.
+(Babelon, <i>Perses Achéménides</i>, p. cxxii.; cf. Diod. xvi. 46, 3).</p>
+
+<p>Abdashtart, king of Sidon (374-362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), called Straton
+by the Greeks, had already entered into close relations with
+the Greek states, and imitated the Hellenic princes of Cyprus
+(<i>Athen.</i> xii. 531; <i>C.I.A.</i> ii. 86; <i>Corp. inscr. Semit.</i> i. 114).
+The Phoenician colonists in Sardinia purchased or imitated the
+work of Greek artists (Furtwängler, <i>Antike Gemmen</i>, iii. 109).</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Carians and Lycians.</i>&mdash;The seats of the Greeks in
+the East touched peoples more or less nearly related to the
+Hellenic stock, with native traditions not so far remote from
+those of the Greeks in a more primitive age, the Carians and the
+Lycians. It came about in the last century preceding Alexander
+that the first of these peoples was organized as a strong state
+under native princes, the line founded by Hecatomnus of Mylasa.
+Hecatomnus made himself master of Caria in the first decade of
+the 4th century, but it was under his son Mausolus, who succeeded
+him in 377-376 that the house rose to its zenith. These Carian
+princes ruled as satraps for the Great King, but they modelled
+themselves upon the pattern of the Greek tyrant. The capital
+of Mausolus was a Greek city, Halicarnassus, and all that we
+can still trace of his great works of construction and adornment
+shows conformity to the pure Hellenic type. His famous
+sepulchre, the Mausoleum (the remains of it are now in the
+British Museum), was a monument upon which the most eminent
+Greek sculptors of the time worked in rivalry (Plin. <i>N.H.</i> xxxvi.
+5, § 30; Vitruv. vii. 13). His court gave a welcome to the vagrant
+Greek philosopher (Diog. Laërt. viii. 8, § 87). Even the Carian
+town of Mylasa now shows the forms of a Greek city and records
+its public decrees in Greek (<i>C.I.G.</i> 2691 <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i> = Michel 471).
+In Lycia, which in spite of &ldquo;the son of Harpagus&rdquo; and King
+Pericles, had never been brought under one man&rsquo;s rule, the Greek
+influence is more limited. Here, for the most part in the inscriptions,
+the native language maintains itself against Greek.
+The proper names are (if not native) mainly Persian. But the
+Greek language makes an occasional appearance; Greek names
+are borne by others beside Pericles. The coins are Greek in type.
+And above all the monumental remains of Lycia show strong
+Greek influence, especially the well-known &ldquo;Nereid Monument&rdquo;
+in the British Museum, whose date is held to go back to the
+5th century (Gardner, <i>Handbook of Gk. Sculp.</i> p. 344).</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>South Russia.</i>&mdash;Hellenic influences continued to penetrate
+the Scythian peoples from the Greek colonies of the Black Sea,
+at any rate in the matter of artistic fabrication. Our evidence
+is the actual objects recovered from the soil. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scythia</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Egypt.</i>&mdash;From the time of Psammetichus (d. 610 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+Greek mercenaries had been used to prop Pharaoh&rsquo;s throne.
+At the same time Greek merchants had begun to find their way
+up the Nile and even to the Oases. A Greek city Naucratis (<i>q.v.</i>)
+was allowed to arise at the Bolbitinic mouth of the Nile. But
+the racial repugnance to the Greek, which forbade an Egyptian
+even to eat an animal which had been carved with a Greek&rsquo;s knife
+(Hdt. ii. 41), probably kept the soul of the people more shut against
+Hellenic influences than was that of the other races of the East.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Macedonia.</i>&mdash;In Macedonia the native chiefs had been
+attracted by the rich Hellenic life at any rate from the beginning
+of the 5th century, when Alexander I., surnamed &ldquo;Phil-hellen,&rdquo;
+persuaded the judges at Olympia that the Temenid house was
+of good Argive descent (Hdt. v. 22). And, although their
+enemies might stigmatize them as barbarians, the Macedonian
+kings maintained that they were not Macedonians, but Greeks
+(cf. <span class="grk" title="anêr Hellên Makedonôn hyparchos">&#7936;&#957;&#8052;&#961; &#7965;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957; &#924;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#948;&#972;&#957;&#969;&#957; &#8021;&#960;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, Hdt. v. 20). It was not
+probably till the reorganization of the kingdom by Archelaus
+(413-399) that Greek culture found any abundant entrance
+into Macedonia. Now all that was most brilliant in Greek
+literature and Greek art was concentrated in the court of Aegae;
+the palace was decorated by Zeuxis; Euripides spent there
+the end of his days. From that time, no doubt, a certain degree
+of literary culture was general among the Macedonian nobility;
+their names in the days of Philip are largely Greek; the
+Macedonian service was full of men from the Greek cities within
+Philip&rsquo;s dominions. The values recognized at the court would
+naturally be recognized in noble families generally, and Philip
+chose Aristotle to be the educator of his son. How far the country
+generally may be regarded as Hellenized is a problem which
+involves the vexed question what right the Macedonian people
+itself has to be classed among the Hellenes, and Macedonian
+to be considered a dialect of Greek.<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> As the literary and official
+language, Greek alone would seem to have had any status.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span></p>
+
+<p>7. <i>In the West: the Native Races of Sicily.</i>&mdash;Italy and the
+south of Gaul had not remained unaffected by the neighbourhood
+of the Greek colonies. Under the rule of the elder and younger
+Dionysius in the 4th century, the hellenization of the Sicels in
+the interior of Sicily seems to have become complete (Freeman,
+<i>History of Sicily</i>, ii. 387, 388, 422-424; Beloch, <i>Griech. Gesch.</i>
+iii. [i.] 261).</p>
+
+<p>The alphabets used by the various Italian races from the 5th
+century were directly or indirectly learnt from the Greeks.
+The peoples of the south (Lucanians, Bruttians, Mamertines)
+show a Greek principle of nomenclature (Mommsen, <i>Unterital.
+Dialekt</i>, p. 240 f.). The Pythagorean philosophy, whose seat
+was in southern Italy, won adherents among the native chiefs
+(Cic. <i>De senec.</i> 12, cf. Dio Chrys. <i>Orat. Cor.</i> 37, § 24). From the
+Greeks of southern Gaul Hellenic influences penetrated the Celtic
+races so far that imitations of Greek coins were struck even on
+the coasts of the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">II. After Alexander the Great.</span>&mdash;When we review
+generally the extent to which Hellenism had penetrated the
+outer world in the middle of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it must be
+admitted that it had not seriously affected any but the more
+primitive races which dwelt upon the borders of the Hellenic
+lands, and here it would seem, with the doubtful exception of
+the Macedonians, to have been an affair rather of the courts
+than of the life of the people. On the other hand it must be
+taken into account that Hellenism had as yet only been a very
+short while in the world. What would have happened had it
+continued to depend upon its spiritual force only for propagation
+we cannot say. Everything was changed when by the conquests
+of Alexander (334-323) it suddenly rose to material supremacy
+in all the East as far as India, and when cities of Greek speech
+and constitution were planted by the might of kings at all the
+cardinal points of intercourse within those lands. The values
+honoured by the rulers of the world must naturally impress
+themselves upon the subject multitudes. The Macedonian
+chiefs found their pride in being champions of Hellenism. Of
+Alexander there is no need to speak. The courts of his successors
+in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt were Greek in language and
+atmosphere. All kings liked to win the good word of the Greeks
+by munificence bestowed upon Greek cities and Greek institutions.
+All of them in some degree patronized Greek art and letters,
+and some sought fame for themselves as authors. Even the
+barbarian courts, their neighbours or vassals, were swayed
+by the dominant fashion to imitation. But by the courts alone
+Hellenism could never have been propagated far. Greek culture
+had been the product of the city-state, and Hellenism could not
+be dissevered from the city. It was upon the system of Greek
+and Macedonian cities, planted by Alexander and his successors,
+that their work rested, and though their dynasties crumbled,
+their work remained. Rome, when it stepped into their place,
+did no more than safeguard its continuance; in the East
+Rome acted as a Hellenistic power, and if, when the legions had
+thundered past, the brooding East &ldquo;plunged in thought again,&rdquo;
+that thought was largely directed by the Greek schoolmaster who
+followed in the legions&rsquo; train. From our present point of view
+we may therefore regard this work of Hellenism as one continuous
+process, initiated by the Macedonians and carried on under
+Roman protection, and ask in the first place what the institution
+of a Greek city implied.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Character of the New Greek Cities.</i>&mdash;The citizen bodies
+at the outset were really of Greek or Macedonian blood&mdash;soldiers
+who had served in the royal armies, or men attracted from the
+older Greek cities to the new lands thrown open to commerce.
+To fix their European soldiery upon the new soil was an obvious
+necessity for the Macedonian chiefs who had set up kingdoms
+among the barbarians, and the lots of the veterans (except in
+Egypt) were naturally attached to various urban centres. The
+cities, of course, drew in numbers beside of the people of the
+land; Alexander is specially said to have incorporated large
+bodies of natives in some of the new cities of the Eastern provinces
+(Arr. iv. 4, 1; Diod. xvii. 83, 2; Curtius ix. 10, 7). It may
+generally be taken for granted that the lower strata of the city-populations
+was mainly native; to be included in the city
+population was not, however, to be included in the citizen body,
+and it remains a question how far the latter admitted members
+of other than European origin (Beloch iii. [i.] 414). The
+statements, for instance, of Josephus that the Jews were given
+full citizen rights in the new foundations are probably false
+(Willrich, <i>Juden und Griechen vor der makkabäischen Erhebung</i>,
+1895, p. 19 f.). The social organization of the citizen-body
+conformed to the regular Hellenic type with a division into
+<i>phylae</i> and, in Egypt, at any rate, into <i>demi</i> (Liban. Or. xix.
+62; Satyrus, frag. 21 = <i>F.H.G.</i> iii. 164; Sir W. M. Ramsay,
+<i>Cities and Bishoprics</i>, i. 60; Kenyon, <i>Archiv f. Papyr.</i> ii. 74;
+Jonguet, <i>Bull. corr. hell.</i> xxi., 1897, 184 f.; Liebenam, <i>Städteverwaltung</i>,
+220 f.). The cities appear equally Hellenic in
+their political organs and functions with <i>boul&#275;</i> and <i>demos</i> and
+popularly elected magistrates. Life was filled with the universal
+Hellenic interests, which centred in the gymnasium and the
+religious festivals, these last including, of course, not only athletic
+contests but performances of the classical dramas or later
+imitations of them. The wandering sophist and rhetorician
+would find a hearing no less than the musical artist. The
+language of the upper classes was Greek; and the material
+background of building and decoration, of dress and furniture,
+was of Greek design. A greater regularity in the street-plans
+seems to have distinguished the new cities from the older slowly
+grown cities of the Greek lands, just as it distinguishes the cities
+of the New World to-day from those of Europe. Alexandria
+and Antioch were both traversed from end to end by one long
+straight street, crossed by shorter ones at right angles; Nicaea
+was a square from the centre of which all the four gates could
+be seen at the ends of the intersecting thoroughfares (Strabo
+xii. 565); similar characteristics are noted in the rebuilt Smyrna
+(<i>ib.</i> xiv. 646).</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the Greek city was not an absolutely new foundation,
+but an old Oriental city, re-colonized and transformed.
+And in such cases the old name was often replaced by a Greek
+one. Thus Celaenae in Phrygia became Apamea; Haleb
+(Aleppo) in Syria became Beroea; Nisibis in Mesopotamia,
+Antioch; Rhagae (Rai) in Media, Europus. In some cases
+the old name was left unchallenged, <i>e.g.</i> Thyatira, Damascus
+and Samaria. Even where there was no new foundation the
+older cities of Phoenicia and Syria became transformed from
+the overwhelming prestige of Hellenic culture. In Tyre and
+Sidon, no less than in Antioch or Alexandria, Greek literature
+and philosophy were seriously cultivated, as we may see by the
+great names which they contributed. The process by which
+Hellenism thus leavened an older city we may trace with peculiar
+vividness in the case of Jerusalem; we see there the younger
+generation captivated by its ideals, the appearance of gymnasium
+and theatre, the eager adoption of Greek political forms (1
+Macc. i. 13 f.; 2 Macc. 4., 10 f.).</p>
+
+<p>A. <i>Characteristics of Hellenism after Alexander.</i>&mdash;To the number
+of Greek city-states existing before Alexander were now therefore
+added those which extended Hellas as far as India. With the
+enormous extension of Greek territory a great shifting took place
+in the old centres of gravity. What changes in the character
+of Greek culture did the new conditions of the world bring
+about?</p>
+
+<p>Hellenism had been the product of the free life of the Greek
+city-state, and after Chaeronea the great days of the city-state
+were past. Not that all liberty was everywhere
+extinguished. Under Alexander himself the Greek
+<span class="sidenote">Government.</span>
+states were restive, and Aetolia unsubdued; and,
+with the break-up of the empire at Alexander&rsquo;s death, there
+was once more scope for the action of the individual cities among
+the rival great powers. In the history of the next two or three
+centuries the cities are by no means ciphers. Rhodes takes
+a great part in <i>Weltpolitik</i>, as a sovereign ally of one or other
+of the royal courts. In Greece itself the overlordship to which
+the Macedonian king aspires is imperfect in extent and only
+maintained to that extent by continual wars. The Greek
+states on their side show that they are capable even of progressive
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span>
+political development, the needs of the time being met by the
+federal system, by larger unions of equal members than the
+leading cities of the past would have tolerated, with their
+extreme unwillingness to forego the least shred of sovereign
+independence. The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues are independent
+powers, which the Macedonian can indeed check by
+garrisons in Corinth, Chalcis and elsewhere, but which keep a
+field clear for Hellenic freedom within their borders. Sparta
+also is a power which can cross swords with the Macedonian
+king, and Cleomenes III. aspires to unite the Peloponnesus
+under his headship. As to the cities outside Greece, within
+or around the royal realms, Seleucid, Ptolemaic or Attalid, their
+degree of freedom probably differed widely according to circumstances.
+At one end of the scale, cities of old renown, <i>e.g.</i>
+Lampsacus or Smyrna, could still make good their independence
+against Antiochus III. at the beginning of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+At the other end of the scale the cities which were royal capitals,
+<i>e.g.</i> Alexandria, Antioch and Pergamum, were normally controlled
+altogether by royal nominees. At Pergamum indeed and (at
+any rate after Antiochus IV.) at Antioch, forms of self-government
+subsisted upon which, of course, the court had its hand,
+whilst at Alexandria even such forms were wanting. Between
+the two extremes there was variation not only between city
+and city, but, no doubt, in one and the same city at different
+times. In Syria the independent action of the cities greatly
+increased during the last weakness of the Seleucid monarchy.
+With the extension of the single strong rule of Rome over this
+Hellenistic world, the conditions were changed. Just as the
+Macedonian conquest, whilst increasing the domain of Greek
+culture, had straitened Greek liberty, so Rome, whilst bringing
+Hellenism finally into secure possession of the nearer East,
+extinguished Greek freedom altogether. Even now the old
+forms were long religiously respected. Formally, the most
+illustrious Greek states, Athens, for instance, or Marseilles, or
+Rhodes, were not subjects of Rome, but free allies. Even in
+the case of <i>civitates stipendiariae</i> (tribute-paying states), municipal
+autonomy, subject indeed to interference on the part of the
+Roman governor, was allowed to go on. <i>Boul&#275;</i> and <i>demos</i> long
+continued to function. The old catchword, &ldquo;autonomy of the
+Hellens,&rdquo; was still heard and indeed was solemnly proclaimed
+by Nero at the Isthmian games of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 67. But during the first
+centuries of the Christian era, this municipal autonomy, by a
+process which can only be imperfectly traced in detail, decayed.
+The <i>demos</i> first sank into political annihilation and the council,
+no longer popularly elected but an aristocratic order, concentrated
+the whole administration in its hands. By the end of
+the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, claims made by the imperial government
+upon the municipal senate are more and more changing membership
+of the order from an honour into an intolerable burden,
+and financial disorganization is calling on imperial officials in
+one place after another to undertake the business of government.
+After Diocletian and under the Eastern Empire the Greek world
+is organized on the principles of a vast bureaucracy.</p>
+
+<p>With this long process of political decline from Alexander to
+Diocletian correspond the inner changes in the temper of the
+Hellenic and Hellenistic peoples. There were, of course,
+marked differences between one region and another.
+<span class="sidenote">Social changes.</span>
+But certain general characteristics distinguished at
+once Greek society after the Macedonian conquests from the
+society of the earlier age. When the vast field of the East was
+opened to Hellenic enterprise and the bullion of its treasuries
+flung abroad, fortunes were made on a scale before unparalleled.
+A new standard of sumptuousness and splendour was set up in
+the richest stratum of society. This material elaboration of
+life was furthered by the existence of Hellenistic courts, where
+the great ministers amassed fabulous riches (<i>e.g.</i> Dionysius,
+the state secretary of Antiochus IV., Polyb. xxxi. 3, 16; Hermias,
+the chief minister of Seleucus III., and Antiochus III., Polyb.
+v. 50. 2; cf. Plutarch, <i>Agis</i> 9), and of huge cities like Alexandria,
+Antioch and the enlarged Ephesus. It is significant that whereas
+the earlier Greeks had used precious stones only as a medium
+for the engraver&rsquo;s art, unengraven gems, valuable for their
+mere material, now came to be used in profusion for adornment.
+Already before Alexander pan-hellenic feeling had in various
+ways overridden the internal divisions of the Greek race, but
+now, with the vast mingling of Greeks of all sorts in the newly-conquered
+lands, a generalized Greek culture in which the old
+local characteristics were merged, came to overspread the world.
+The gradual supersession of the old dialects by the Koin&#275; the
+common speech of the Greeks, a modification of the Attic idiom
+coloured by Ionic, was one obvious sign of the new order of things
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Language</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In its artistic, its literary, its spiritual products the age after
+Alexander gave evidence of the change. In no department did
+activity immediately stop; but the old freshness and
+creative exuberance was gone. Artistic pleasure,
+<span class="sidenote">Art and literature.</span>
+grown less delicate, required the stimulus of a more
+sensational effect or a more striking realism, as we
+may see by the Pergamene and Rhodian schools of sculpture,
+by the bas-reliefs with the <i>genre</i> subjects drawn from the life
+of the countryside, or, in literature by the sort of historical
+writing which became popular with Cleitarchus and Duris, by
+the studied emotional or rhetorical point of Callimachus, and
+by the portrayal of country life in Theocritus. At the same time,
+artists and men of letters were now addressing themselves in
+most cases, not to their fellow-citizens in a free city, but to kings
+and courtiers, or the educated class generally of the Greek world.
+In those departments of intellectual activity which demand
+no high ideal faculty, in the study of the world of fact, the
+centuries immediately following Alexander witnessed notable
+advance. Scientific research might prosper, just as poetry
+withered, under the patronage of kings, and such research had
+now a vast amount of new material at its disposal and could
+profit by the old Babylonian and Egyptian traditions. The
+medical schools, especially that of Alexandria, really enlarged
+knowledge of the animal frame. Knowledge of the earth gained
+immensely by the Macedonian conquests. The literary schools
+of Alexandria and Pergamum built up grammatical science,
+and brought literary and artistic criticism to a fine point. If
+indeed the earlier ages had been those of creative and spontaneous
+life, the Hellenistic age was that of conscious criticism and
+book-learning. The classical products were registered, studied,
+assorted and commented upon. Men travelled and read more.
+Books were in demand and were multiplied. Libraries became a
+feature of the age, the kings leading the way as collectors, of
+books, especially the rival dynasties of Egypt and Pergamum.
+The library attached to the Museum at Alexandria is said to
+have contained at the time of its destruction in 47 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as many
+as 700,000 rolls (Aul. Gell. vi. 17. 3). Even smaller cities, like
+Aphrodisias in Caria, had public libraries for the instruction of
+their youth (Le Bas, III. No. 1618).</p>
+
+<p>With the general decay of ancient civilization under the
+Roman empire, even scientific research ceased, and though there
+were literary revivals, like that connected with the new Atticism
+under the Antonine emperors, these were mainly imitative and
+artificial, and even learning became at last under the Byzantine
+emperors a jejune and formal tradition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Literature</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The diffusion of the Greek race far from the former centres of
+its life, the mingling of citizens of many cities, the close contact
+between Greek and barbarian in the conquered lands&mdash;all
+this had made the old sanctions of civic religion
+<span class="sidenote">Religion and philosophy.</span>
+and civic morality of less account than ever. New
+guides of life were needed. The Stoic philosophy, with
+its cosmopolitan note, its fixed dogmas and plain ethical precepts,
+came into the world at the time of the Macedonian conquests to
+meet the needs of the new age. Its ideas became popular among
+ordinary men as the older philosophies had never been. The
+Stoic or Cynic preacher, attacking the ways of society, in pungent,
+often coarse, phrase, became a familiar figure of the Greek
+market-place (P. Wendland, <i>Beiträge zur Gesch. d. griech. Philosophie</i>,
+1895).</p>
+
+<p>Although the cults of the old Greek deities in the new cities,
+with their splendid apparatus of festivals and sacrifice might still
+hold the multitude, men turned ever in large numbers to alien
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span>
+religions, felt as more potent because strange, and the various gods
+of Egypt and the East began to find larger entrance in the Greek
+world. Even in the old Greek religion before Alexander there had
+been large elements of foreign origin, and that the Greeks should
+now do honour to the gods of the lands into which they came, as
+we find the Cilician and Syrian Greeks doing to Baal-tars and Baal-marcod
+and the Egyptian Greeks to the gods of Egypt, was only
+in accordance with the primitive way of thinking. But it was a
+sign of the times when Serapis and Isis, Osiris and Anubis began
+to take place among the popular deities in the old Greek lands.
+The origin of the cult of Serapis, which Ptolemy I. found, or
+established, in Egypt is disputed; the familiar type of the god is
+the invention of a Greek artist, but the name and religion came
+from somewhere in the East (see discussion under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Serapis</a></span>).
+Before the end of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> there were temples of
+Serapis in Athens, Rhodes, Delos and Orchomenos in Boeotia.
+Under the Roman empire the cult of Isis, now furnished with an
+official priesthood and elaborate ritual, became really popular in
+the Hellenistic world. King Asoka in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> sent
+Buddhist missionaries from India to the Mediterranean lands;
+their preaching has, it is true, left little or no trace in our Western
+records. But other religions of Oriental origin penetrated far,
+the worship of the Phrygian Great Mother, and in the 2nd
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> the religion of the Mithras (Lafaye, <i>Culte des
+divinités alexandrines</i>, 1884; Roscher, articles &ldquo;Anubis,&rdquo; &ldquo;Isis,&rdquo;
+&amp;c.; F. Cumont, <i>Mystères de Mithra</i>, Eng. trans., 1903; <i>Les
+Religions orientales dans le paganisme romain</i>, 1906).</p>
+
+<p>The Jews, too, by the time of Christ were finding in many
+quarters an open door. Besides those who were ready to go the
+whole length and accept circumcision, numbers adopted particular
+Jewish practices, observing the Sabbath, for instance, or turned
+from polytheism to the doctrine of the One God. The synagogues
+in the Gentile cities had generally attached to them, in more or
+less close connexion a multitude of those &ldquo;who feared God&rdquo; and
+frequented the services (Schürer, <i>Gesch. d. jüd. Volks</i>, iii. 102-135).</p>
+
+<p>Among the religions which penetrated the Hellenistic world
+from an Eastern source, one ultimately overpowered all the rest
+and made that world its own. The inter-action of
+Christianity and Hellenism opens large fields of inquiry.
+<span class="sidenote">Christianity.</span>
+The teaching of Christ Himself contained, as it is given
+to us, no Hellenic element; so far as He built with older material,
+that material was exclusively the sacred tradition of Israel. So
+soon, however, as the Gospel was carried in Greek to Greeks,
+Hellenic elements began to enter into it, in the writings, for
+instance, of St Paul, the appeal to what &ldquo;nature&rdquo; teaches would
+be generally admitted to be the adoption of a Greek mode of
+thought. It was, of course, impossible that speaking in Greek
+and living among Greeks, Christians should not to some extent
+use current conceptions for the expression of their faith. There
+was, at the same time, in the early Church a powerful current of
+feeling hostile to Greek culture, to the wisdom of the world.
+What the attitude of the New People should be to it, whether it
+was all bad, or whether there were good things in it which
+Christians should appropriate, was a vital question that always
+confronted them. The great Christian School of Alexandria represented
+by Clement and Origen effected a durable alliance
+between Greek education and Christian doctrine. In proportion
+as the Christian Church had to go deeper into metaphysics in the
+formulation of its belief as to God, as to Christ, as to the soul, the
+Greek philosophical terminology, which was the only vehicle then
+available for precise thought, had to become more and more an
+essential part of Christianity. At the same time Christian ethics
+incorporated much of the current popular philosophy, especially
+large Stoical elements. In this way the Church itself, as we shall
+see, became a propagator of Hellenism (see Hatch, <i>Hibbert
+Lectures</i>, 1888; Wendland, &ldquo;Christentum u. Hellenismus&rdquo;
+in <i>Neue Jahrb. f. kl. Alt.</i> ix. 1902, p. 1 f.; and <i>Die hellenistisch-römische
+Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum u. Christentum</i>,
+1907).</p>
+
+<p>B. <i>Effect upon non-Hellenic Peoples.</i>&mdash;Hellenism secured by the
+Macedonian conquest <i>points d&rsquo;appui</i> from the Mediterranean to
+India, and brought the system of commerce and intercourse into
+Greek hands. What effect did it produce in these various
+countries? What effect again in the lands of the West which fell
+under the sway of Rome?</p>
+
+<p>(i.) <i>India</i>.&mdash;In India (including the valleys of the Kabul and
+its northern tributaries, then inhabited by an Indian, not, as
+now, by an Iranian, population) Alexander planted
+a number of Greek towns. Alexandria &ldquo;under the
+<span class="sidenote">Greek cities.</span>
+Caucasus&rdquo; commanded the road from Bactria over
+the Hindu-Kush; it lay somewhere among the hills to the north
+of Kabul, perhaps at Opian near Charikar (MacCrindle, <i>Ancient
+India</i>, p. 87, note 4); that it is the city meant by &ldquo;Alasadda
+the capital of the Yona (Greek) country&rdquo; in the Buddhist
+Mahavanso, as is generally affirmed, seems doubtful (Tarn,
+loc. cit. below, p. 269, note 7). We hear of a Nicaea in the Kabul
+valley itself (near Jalalabad?), another Nicaea on the Hydaspes
+(Jhelum) where Alexander crossed it, with Bucephala (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bucephalus</a></span>) opposite, a city (unnamed) on the Acesines
+(Chenab) (Arr. vi. 29, 3), and a series of foundations strung along
+the Indus to the sea. Soon after 321, Macedonian supremacy
+beyond the Indus collapsed before the advance of the native
+Maurya dynasty, and about 303 even large districts west of the
+Indus were ceded by Seleucus. But the chapter of Greek rule
+in India was not yet closed. The Maurya dynasty broke up about
+180 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and at the same time the Greek rulers of Bactria began
+to lead expeditions across the Hindu-Kush. Menander in the
+middle of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> extended his rule from the Hindu-Kush
+to the Ganges. Then &ldquo;Scythian&rdquo; peoples from central
+Asia, Sakas and Yue-chi, having conquered Bactria, gradually
+squeezed within ever-narrowing limits the Greek power in India.
+The last Greek prince, Hermaeus, seems to have succumbed
+about 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was just at this time that the Graeco-Roman
+world of the West was consolidated as the Roman Empire, and,
+though Greek rule in India had disappeared, active commercial
+intercourse went on between India and the Hellenistic lands.
+How far, through these changes, did the Greek population settled
+by Alexander or his successors in India maintain their distinctive
+character? What influence did Hellenism during the centuries
+in which it was in contact with India exert upon the native
+mind? Only extremely qualified answers can be given to these
+questions. Capital data are possibly waiting there under
+ground&mdash;the Kabul valley for instance is almost virgin soil for
+the archaeologist&mdash;and any conclusion we can arrive at is merely
+provisional. If certain statements of classical authors were
+true, Hellenism in India flourished exceedingly. But the phil-hellenic
+Brahmins in Philostratus&rsquo; life of Apollonius had no existence
+outside the world of romance, and the statement of Dio
+Chrysostom that the Indians were familiar with Homer in their
+own tongue (<i>Or.</i> liii. 6) is a traveller&rsquo;s tale. India, the sceptical
+observe, has yielded no Greek inscription, except, of course, on
+the coins of the Greek kings and their Scythian rivals and successors.
+To what extent can it be inferred from legends on coins
+that Greek was a living speech in India? Perhaps to no large
+extent outside the Greek courts. The fact, however, that the
+Greek character was still used on coins for two centuries after the
+last Greek dynasty had come to an end shows that the language
+had a prestige in India which any theory, to be plausible, must
+account for. If we argue by probability from what we know
+of the conditions, we have to consider that the Greek rule in
+India was all through fighting for existence, and can have had
+&ldquo;little time or energy left for such things as art, science and
+literature&rdquo; (Tarn, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 292), and it is pointed out that a
+casual reference to the Greeks in an Indian work contemporary
+with Menander characterizes them as &ldquo;viciously valiant Yonas.&rdquo;
+How long is it probable that Greek colonies planted in the midst
+of alien races would have remained distinct? Mr Tarn builds
+much upon the fact that the descendants of the Greek Branchidae
+settled by Xerxes in central Asia had become bilingual in six
+generations (Curt. vii. 5, 29). But the Greek race before
+Alexander had not its later prestige, and we must consider such
+a sentiment as leads the Eurasian to-day to cling to his Western
+parentage, so that the instance of the Branchidae cannot be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span>
+used straight away for the time after Alexander. Certainly,
+had the Greek colonies in India been active political bodies, we
+could hardly have failed to find some trace of them, in civic
+architecture or in inscriptions, by this time. Perhaps we should
+rather think of them as resembling the Greeks found to-day
+dispersed over the nearer East with interests mainly commercial,
+easily assimilating themselves to their environment. A notice
+derived from Agatharchides (about 140 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) possibly refers to
+the activity of these Indian Greeks in the sea-borne trade of the
+Indian Ocean (Müller, <i>Geog. Graeci min.</i> i. p. 191; cf. Diod.
+iii. 47. 9). As to what India derived from Greece there has been
+a good deal of erudite debate. That the Indian drama took
+its origin from the Greek is still maintained by some scholars,
+though hardly proved. There is no doubt that Indian astronomy
+shows marked Hellenic features, including actual Greek words
+borrowed. But by far the most signal borrowing is in the sphere
+<span class="sidenote">Greek art.</span>
+of art. The stream of Buddhist art which went out
+eastwards across Asia had its rise in North-West India,
+and the remains of architecture and sculpture unearthed
+in this region enable us to trace its development back to
+pure Greek types. It remains, of course, a question whether
+the tradition was transmitted by the Greek dynasties from
+Bactria or by intercourse with the Roman empire; the latter
+seems now almost certain; but the fact of the influence is equally
+striking on either theory. How far to the east the distinctive
+influence of Greece went is shown by the seal-impressions with
+Athena and Eros types found by Dr Stein in the buried cities of
+Khotan (<i>Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan</i>, p. 396), and according to
+Mr E. B. Havell, there exist &ldquo;paintings treasured as the most
+precious relics and rarely shown to Europeans, which closely
+resemble the Graeco-Buddhist art of India&rdquo; in some of the oldest
+temples of Japan (<i>Studio</i>, vol. xxvii. 1903, p. 26).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. A. Macdonell, <i>History of Sanskrit Literature</i> (1900) p. 411 f.,
+and the references on p. 452; V. A. Smith, <i>Early History of India</i>
+(1904); Grünwedel, <i>Buddhist Art in India</i> (Eng. trans., edited by
+Dr Burgess, 1901); W. W. Tarn, &ldquo;Notes on Hellenism in Bactria
+and India&rdquo; in <i>Journ. of Hell. Studies</i>, xxii. (1902); Foucher,
+<i>L&rsquo;Art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(ii.) <i>Iran and Babylonia.</i>&mdash;The colonizing activity of Alexander
+and his successors found a large field in Iran where, up till his
+time, hardly any walled towns seem to have existed.
+Cities now arose in all its provinces, superseding in
+<span class="sidenote">Greek cities.</span>
+many cases native market places and villages, and
+holding the vantage-points of commerce. Media, Polybius says,
+was defended by a chain of Greek cities from barbarian incursion
+(x. 27. 3); in the neighbourhood of Teheran seem to have stood
+Heraclea and Europus. In Eastern Iran the cities which are
+its chief places to-day then bore Greek names, and looked upon
+Alexander or some other Hellenic prince as their founder.
+Khojend, Herat, Kandahar were Alexandrias, Merv was an
+Alexandria till it changed that name for Antioch. When the
+farther provinces broke away under independent Greek kings,
+a Eucratid&#275;a and a Demetrias attested their glory. Even in a
+town definitely barbarian like Syrinca in 209 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> there was a
+resident mercantile community of Greeks (Polyb. x. 31). The
+bulk of Greek historical literature having perished, and in the
+absence of both archaeological data from Iran, we can only
+speculate on the inner life of these Greek cities under a strange
+sky. One precious document is the decree of Antioch in Persis
+(about 206 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) cited in a recently discovered inscription (Kern,
+<i>Inschr. v. Magnesia</i>, No. 61; Dittenberger, <i>Orient. gr. Inscr.</i> i.
+No. 233). This shows us the normal organs of a Greek city,
+<i>boul&#275;</i>, <i>ecclesia</i>, <i>prytaneis</i>, &amp;c., in full working, with the annual
+election of magistrates, and ordinary forms of public action.
+But more than this, it throws a remarkable light upon the
+solidarity of the Hellenic Dispersion. The citizen body had been
+increased some generations before by colonists from Magnesia-on-Meander
+sent at the invitation of Antiochus I. The Magnesians
+are instigated by pan-hellenic enthusiasm. And we see a brisk
+diplomatic intercourse between the scattered Greek cities going
+on. It is especially the local religious festivals which bind them
+together. Antioch in Persis, of course, sends athletes to the great
+games of Greece, but in this decree it determines to take part in
+the new festival being started in honour of Artemis at Magnesia.
+The loyalty, too, expressed towards the Seleucid king implies
+a predominant interest in pan-hellenic unity, natural in colonies
+isolated among barbarians. A list is given (fragmentary) of
+other Greek cities in Babylonia and beyond from which similar
+decrees had come.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Bactria and Sogdiana
+broke away from the Seleucid empire; independent Greek kings
+reigned there till the country was conquered by
+nomads from Central Asia (Sacae and Yue-chi) a
+<span class="sidenote">Greek kingdoms.</span>
+century later. Alexander had settled large masses of
+Greeks in these regions (Greeks, it would seem, not Macedonians),
+whose attempts to return home in 325 and 323 had
+been frustrated, and it may well be that a racial antagonism
+quickened the revolt against Macedonian rule in 250. The
+history of these Greek dynasties is for us almost a blank, and
+for estimating the amount and quality of Hellenism in Bactria
+during the 180 years or so of Macedonian and Greek rule, we
+are reduced to building hypotheses upon the scantiest data.
+Probably nothing important bearing on the subject has been left
+out of view in W. W. Tarn&rsquo;s learned discussion (<i>Journ. of Hell.
+Stud.</i> xxii., 1902, p. 268 f.), and his result is mainly negative,
+that palpable evidences of an active Hellenism have not been
+found; he inclines to think that the Greek kingdoms mainly
+took on the native Iranian colour. The coins, of course, are
+adduced on the other side, being not only Greek in type and
+legend, but (in many cases) of a peculiarly fine and vigorous
+execution; and excellence in one branch of art is thought to
+imply that other branches flourished in the same <i>milieu</i>. Tarn
+suggests that they may be a &ldquo;sport,&rdquo; a spasmodic outbreak
+of genius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bactria</a></span> and works there quoted). In these outlying
+provinces the national Iranian sentiment seems to have
+been most intense, and it is interesting to see that under Alexander
+Hellenism appeared as &ldquo;belligerent civilization,&rdquo; in the attempt
+to suppress practices like the exposure of the dying to the dogs
+(an exaggeration of Zoroastrianism) and, possibly also, abhorrent
+forms of marriage (Strabo xi. 517; Porphyr. <i>De abstin.</i> 4. 21;
+Plut. <i>De fort. Al.</i> 5).</p>
+
+<p>The west of Iran slipped from the Seleucids in the course of
+the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to be joined to the Parthian kingdom, or
+fall under petty native dynasties. Soon after 130 Babylonia
+too was conquered by the Parthian, and Mesopotamia before 88.
+Then the reconquest of the nearer East by Oriental dynasties
+was checked by the advance of Rome. Asia Minor and Syria
+remained substantial parts of the Roman Empire till the Mahommedan
+conquests of the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> began a new process
+of recoil on the part of the Hellenistic power. In Babylonia, also,
+in Susiana and Mesopotamia, Hellenism had been established
+in a system of cities for 200 years before the coming of the
+Parthian. The greatest of all of them stood here&mdash;almost on
+the site of Bagdad&mdash;Seleucia on the Tigris. It superseded
+Babylon as the industrial focus of Babylonia and counted some
+600,000 inhabitants (<i>plebs urbana</i>) according to Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> vi.
+§ 122 (cf. Joseph. <i>Arch.</i> xviii. § 372, 374; for coins, probably of
+Seleucia, with the type of Tych&#275; issued in the years <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 43-44
+see Wroth, <i>Coins of Parthia</i>, p. xlvi.). The list of other Greek
+cities known to us in these regions is too long to give here (see
+Droysen, <i>loc. cit.</i>, and E. Schwartz in Kern&rsquo;s <i>Inschr. v. Magnesia</i>,
+p. 171 f.). In Mesopotamia, Pliny especially notes how the
+character of the country was changed when the old village life
+was broken in upon by new centres of population in the cities of
+Macedonian foundation (Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> vi. § 117; cf. K. Regling,
+&ldquo;Histor. geog. d. mesopot. Parallelograms,&rdquo; in Lehmann&rsquo;s
+<i>Beiträge</i>, i. p. 442 f.).</p>
+
+<p>We do not look in vain for notable names in Hellenistic
+literature and philosophy produced on an Asiatic soil. Diogenes,
+the Stoic philosopher (head of the school in 156 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+was a &ldquo;Babylonian,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> a citizen of Seleucia on the
+<span class="sidenote">Hellenic-Iranian culture.</span>
+Tigris; so too was Seleucus, the mathematician and
+astronomer, being possibly a native Babylonian;
+Berossus, who wrote a Babylonian history in Greek (before
+261 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was a Hellenized native. Apollodorus, Strabo&rsquo;s authority
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span>
+for Parthian history (<i>c.</i> 80 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>?), was from the Greek city of
+Artemita in Assyria. When the Parthians rent away provinces
+from the Seleucid empire, the Greek cities did not cease to exist
+by passing under barbarian rule. Gradually no doubt the
+Greek colonies were absorbed, but the process was a long one.
+In 140 and 130 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> those of Iran were ready to rise in support
+of the Seleucid invader (Joseph. <i>Arch.</i> xiii. § 184; Justin xxxviii.
+10.6-8). Just so, Crassus in 53 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> found a welcome in the Greek
+cities of Mesopotamia. Seleucia on the Tigris is spoken of by
+Tacitus as being in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 36 &ldquo;proof against barbarian influences
+and mindful of its founder Seleucus&rdquo; (<i>Ann.</i> vi. 42). How important
+an element the Greek population of their realm seemed
+to the Parthian kings we can see by the fact that they claimed
+to be themselves champions of Hellenism. From the reign of
+Artabanus I. (128/7-123 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) they bear the epithet of &ldquo;Phil-hellen&rdquo;
+as a regular part of their title upon the coins. Under
+the later reigns the Tych&#275; figure (the personification of a Greek
+city) becomes common as a coin type (Wroth, <i>Coins of Parthia</i>,
+pp. liii., lxxiv.). The coinage may, of course, give a somewhat
+one-sided representation of the Parthian kingdom, being specially
+designed for the commercial class, in which the population of
+the Greek cities was, we may guess, predominant. The state of
+things which prevails in modern Afghanistan, where trade is in
+the hands of a class distinct in race and speech (Persian in this
+case) from the ruling race of fighters is very probably analogous
+to that which we should have found in Iran under the Parthians.<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+That the Parthian court itself was to some extent Hellenized
+is shown by the story, often adduced, that a Greek company of
+actors was performing the <i>Bacchae</i> before the king when the
+head of Crassus was brought in. This single instance need not,
+it is true, show a Hellenism of any profundity; still it does show
+that certain parts of Hellenism had become so essential to the
+lustre of a court that even an Arsacid could not be without them.
+Artavasdes, king of Armenia (54?-34 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) composed Greek
+tragedies and histories (Plut. <i>Crass.</i> 33). Then the prestige
+of the Roman Empire, with its prevailingly Hellenistic culture,
+must have told powerfully. The Parthian princes were in many
+cases the children of Greek mothers who had been taken into the
+royal harems (Plut. <i>Crass.</i> 32). Musa, the queen-mother, whose
+head appears on the coins of Phraataces (3/2 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 4) had
+been an Italian slave-girl. Many of the Parthian princes resided
+temporarily, as hostages or refugees, in the Roman Empire;
+but one notes that the nation at large looked with anything but
+favour upon too liberal an introduction of foreign manners at
+the court (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> ii. 2).</p>
+
+<p>Such slight notices in Western literature do not give us any
+penetrating view into the operation of Hellenism among the
+Iranians. As an expression of the Iranian mind we have the
+Avesta and the Pehlevi theological literature. Unfortunately
+in a question of this kind the dating of our documents is the first
+matter of importance, and it seems that we can only assign
+dates to the different parts of the Avesta by processes of fine-drawn
+conjecture. And even if we could date the Avesta
+securely, we could only prove borrowing by more or less close
+coincidences of idea, a tempting but uncertain method of inquiry.
+Taking an opinion based on such data for what it is worth, we
+may note that Darmesteter believed in the influence of the later
+Greek philosophy (Philonian and Neo-platonic) as one of those
+which shaped the Avesta as we have it (<i>Sacred Books of the East</i>,
+iv. 54 f.), but we must also note that such an influence is
+emphatically denied by Dr L. Mills (<i>Zarathushtra and the Greeks</i>,
+Leipzig, 1906). Outside literature, we have to look to the
+artistic remains offered by the region to determine Hellenic
+influence. But here, too, the preliminary classification of the
+documents is beset with doubt. In the case of small objects like
+gems the place of manufacture may be far from the place of
+discovery. The architectural remains are solidly <i>in situ</i>, but
+we may have such vast disagreement as to date as that between
+Dieulafoy and M. de Morgan with respect to domed buildings of
+Susa, a disagreement of at least five centuries. It is enough
+then here to observe that Iran and Babylonia do, as a matter of
+fact, continually yield the explorer objects of workmanship
+either Greek or influenced by Greek models, belonging to the age
+after Alexander, and that we may hence infer at any rate such
+an influence of Hellenism upon the tastes of the richer classes
+as would create a demand for these things.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For gems see &ldquo;Gobineau&rdquo; in the <i>Rev. archéol.</i>, vols. xxvii., xxviii.
+(1874); Ménant, <i>Recherches sur la glyptique orientale</i>, ii. 189 f.;
+E. Babelon, <i>Catalogue des camées de la Bibl. Nat.</i> (1897), p. 56;
+A. Furtwängler, <i>Die antiken Gemmen</i>, pp. 165, 369 ff.; Figurines:
+Heuzey, <i>Fig. ant. du Louvre</i> (1883) p. 3; J. P. Peters, <i>Nippur</i>,
+ii. 128; Military standard: Heuzey, <i>Comptes rendus de l&rsquo;Acad.
+d. Inscr.</i> (1895) p. 16; <i>Rev. d&rsquo;Assyr.</i> v. (1903), p. 103 f. Alabaster
+vase: Sykes, <i>Ten Thousand Miles in Persia</i>, p. 445. In the case
+of the architectural remains, the Greek tradition is obvious at Hatra
+(Jacquerel, <i>Rev. archéol.</i>, 1897 [ii.], 343 f.), and in the relics of the
+temple at Kingavar (Dieulafoy, <i>L&rsquo;Art antique de la Perse</i>, v. p. 10 f.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If any vestige of Hellenism still survived under the Sassanian
+kings, our records do not show it. The spirit of the Sassanian
+monarchy was more jealously national than that of the
+Arsacid, and alien grafts could hardly have flourished
+<span class="sidenote">Sassanian empire.</span>
+under it. Of course, if Darmesteter was right in seeing
+a Greek element in Zoroastrianism, Greek influence must still
+have operated under the new dynasty, which recognized the
+national religion. But, as we saw, the Greek influence has been
+authoritatively denied. At the court a limited recognition
+might be given, as fashion veered, to the values prevalent in the
+Hellenistic world. The story of Hormisdas in Zosimus is suggestive
+in this connexion (Zosim. <i>Hist. nov.</i> ii. 27). Chosroes I.
+interested himself in Greek philosophy and received its professors
+from the West with open arms (Agath. ii. 28 f.); according to
+one account, he had his palace at Ctesiphon built by Greeks
+(Theophylact. Simocat. v. 6).</p>
+
+<p>But the account of Chosroes&rsquo; mode of action makes it plain
+that the Hellenism once planted in Iran had withered away;
+representatives of Greek learning and skill have all to be imported
+from across the frontier.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For Hellenism in Babylonia and Iran, see the useful article of
+M. Victor Chapot in the <i>Bull. et mémoires de la Soc. Nat. des Antiquaires
+de France</i> for 1902 (published 1904), p. 206 f., which gives
+a conspectus of the relevant literature.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(iii.) <i>Asia Minor.</i>&mdash;Very different were the fortunes of Hellenism
+in those lands which became annexed to the Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>In Asia Minor, we have seen how, even before Alexander,
+Hellenism had begun to affect the native races and Persian
+nobility. During Alexander&rsquo;s own reign, we cannot
+trace any progress in the Hellenization of the interior,
+<span class="sidenote">Greek cities of the Diadochi.</span>
+nor can we prove here his activity as a builder of
+cities. But under the dynasties of his successors a
+great work of city-building and colonization went on. Antigonus
+fixed his capital at the old Phrygian town of Celaenae, and the
+famous cities of Nicaea and Alexandria Troas owed to him
+their first foundation, each as an Antigonia; they were refounded
+and renamed by Lysimachus (301-281 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Then we have
+the great system of Seleucid foundations. Sardis, the Seleucid
+capital in Asia Minor, had become a Greek city before the end
+of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The main high road between the Aegean
+coast and the East was held by a series of new cities. Going
+west from the Cilician Gates we have Laodicea Catacecaumene,
+Apamea, the Phrygian capital which absorbed Celaenae, Laodicea
+on the Lycus, Antioch-on-Meander, Antioch-Nysa, Antioch-Tralles.
+To the south of this high road we have among the
+Seleucid foundations Antioch in Pisidia (colonized with Magnesians
+from the Meander) and Stratonicea in Caria; in the
+region to the north of it the most famous Seleucid colony was
+Thyatira. Along the southern coast, where the houses of Seleucus
+and Ptolemy strove for predominance, we find the names of
+Berenice, Arsinoë and Ptolemais confronting those of Antioch
+and Seleucia. With the rise of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum,
+a system of Pergamene foundation begins to oppose the Seleucid
+in the interior, bearing such names as Attalia, Philetaeria,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span>
+Eumenia, Apollonis. Of these, one may note for their later
+celebrity Philadelphia in Lydia and Attalia on the Pamphylian
+coast. The native Bithynian dynasty became Hellenized in the
+course of the 3rd century, and in the matter of city building
+Prusias (the old Cius), Apamea (the old Myrlea), probably Prusa,
+and above all Nicomedia attested its activity. While new
+Greek cities were rising in the interior, the older Hellenism of
+the western coast grew in material splendour under the munificence
+of Hellenistic kings. Its centres of gravity to some
+extent shifted. There was a tendency towards concentration
+in large cities of the new type, which caused many of the lesser
+towns, like Lebedus, Myus or Colophon, to sink to insignificance,
+while Ephesus grew in greatness and wealth, and Smyrna rose
+again after an extinction of four centuries. The great importance
+of Rhodes belongs to the days after Alexander, when it received
+the riches of the East from the trade-routes which debouched
+into the Mediterranean at Alexandria and Antioch. In Aeolis,
+of course, the centre of gravity moved to the Attalid capital,
+Pergamum. It was the irruption of the Celts, beginning in
+278-277 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, which checked the Hellenization of the interior.
+Not only did the Galatian tribes take large tracts towards the
+north of the plateau in possession, but they were an element of
+perpetual unrest, which hampered and distracted the Hellenistic
+monarchies. The wars, therefore, in which the Pergamene
+kings in the latter part of the 3rd century stemmed their aggressions,
+had the glory of a Hellenic crusade.</p>
+
+<p>The minor dynasties of non-Greek origin, the native Bithynian
+and the two Persian dynasties in Pontus and Cappadocia, were
+Hellenized before the Romans drove the Seleucid out
+of the country. In Bithynia the upper classes seem to
+<span class="sidenote">Native dynasties.</span>
+have followed the fashion of the court (Beloch iii. [i.],
+278); the dynasty of Pontus was phil-hellenic by ancestral
+tradition; the dynasty of Cappadocia, the most conservative,
+dated its conversion to Hellenism from the time when a Seleucid
+princess came to reign there early in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as the
+wife of Ariarathes V. (Diod. xxxi. 19. 8). But Hellenism in
+Cappadocia was for centuries to come still confined to the castles
+of the king and the barons, and the few towns.</p>
+
+<p>When Rome began to interfere in Asia Minor, its first action
+was to break the power of the Gauls (189 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In 133 Rome
+entered formally upon the heritage of the Attalid
+kingdom and became the dominant power in the
+<span class="sidenote">Hellenism under Roman sway.</span>
+Anatolian peninsula for 1200 years. Under Rome the
+process of Hellenization, which the divisions and
+weakness of the Macedonian kingdoms had checked, went forward.
+The coast regions of the west and south the Romans found
+already Hellenized. In Lydia &ldquo;not a trace&rdquo; of the old language
+was left in Strabo&rsquo;s time (Strabo xiv. 631); in Lycia, the old
+language became obsolete in the early days of Macedonian rule
+(see Kalinka, <i>Tituli Asiae minoris</i>, i. 8). But inland, in
+Phrygia, Hellenism had as yet made little headway outside
+the Greek cities. Even the Attalids had not effected much here
+(Körte, <i>Athen. Mitth.</i> xxiii., 1898, p. 152), and under the Romans,
+the penetration of the interior by Hellenism was slow. It was
+not till the reign of Hadrian that city life on the Phrygian plateau
+became rich and vigorous, with its material circumstances of
+temples, theatres and baths. Among the villages of the north
+and east of Phrygia, Hellenism &ldquo;was only beginning to make
+itself felt in the middle of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>&rdquo; (Ramsay in
+Kuhn&rsquo;s <i>Zeitsch. f. vergleich. Sprachforschung</i>, xxviii., 1885,
+p. 382). Gravestones in this region as late as the 4th century
+curse violators in the old Phrygian speech. The lower classes
+at Lystra in St Paul&rsquo;s time spoke Lycaonian (Acts xiv. 11).
+In that part of Phrygia, which by the settlement of the Celtic
+invaders became Galatia, the larger towns seem to have become
+Hellenized by the time of the Christian era, whilst the Celtic
+speech maintained itself in the country villages till the 4th
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (Jerome, Preface to Comment, in <i>Epist. ad Gal.</i>
+book ii.; see J. G. C. Anderson, <i>Journ. of Hell. Stud.</i> xix., 1899,
+p. 312 f.). Cappadocia at the beginning of the Christian era
+was still comparatively townless (Strabo xii. 537), a country
+of large estates with a servile peasantry. Even in the 4th century
+its Hellenization was still far from complete; but Christianity
+had assimilated so much of the older Hellenic culture that the
+Church was now a main propagator of Hellenism in the backward
+regions. The native languages of Asia Minor all ultimately
+gave way to Greek (unless Phrygian lingered on in parts till the
+Turkish invasions; see Mordtmann, <i>Sitzungsb. d. bayer. Ak.</i>
+1862, i. p. 30; K. Holl in <i>Hermes</i>, xliii., 1908, p. 240 f.).
+The effective Hellenization of Armenia did not take place till
+the 5th century, when the school of Mesrop and Sahak gave
+Armenia a literature translated from, or imitating, Greek
+books (Gelzer in I. v. Müller&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch</i>, vol. ix. Abt. i.
+p. 916.)</p>
+
+<p>(iv.) <i>Syria.</i>&mdash;In Syria, which with Cilicia and Mesopotamia,
+formed the central part of the Seleucid empire, the new colonies
+were especially numerous. Alexander himself had
+perhaps made a beginning with Alexandria-by-Issus
+<span class="sidenote">Seleucid empire.</span>
+(mod. Alexandretta), Samaria, Pella (the later
+Apamea), Carrhae, &amp;c. Antigonus founded Antigonia, which
+was absorbed a few years later by Antioch, and after the fall
+of Antigonus in 301, the work of planting Syria with Greek
+cities was pursued effectively north of the Lebanon by the house
+of Seleucus, and, less energetically, south of the Lebanon by the
+house of Ptolemy. In the north of Syria four cities stood
+pre-eminent above the rest, (1) Antioch on the Orontes, the
+Seleucid capital; (2) Seleucia-in-Pieria near the mouth of the
+Orontes, which guarded the approach to Antioch from the sea;
+(3) Apamea (mod. Famia), on the middle Orontes, the military
+headquarters of the kingdom; and (4) Laodicea &ldquo;on sea&rdquo; (<i>ad
+mare</i>), which had a commercial importance in connexion with
+the export of Syrian wine. Of the Ptolemaic foundations in
+Coele-Syria only one attained an importance comparable with
+that of the larger Seleucid foundations, Ptolemais on the coast,
+which was the old Semitic Acco transformed (mod. Acre). The
+group of Greek cities east of the Jordan also fell within the
+Ptolemaic realm during the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, though their
+greatness belonged to a somewhat later day. The whole of
+Syria was brought under the Seleucid sceptre, together with
+Cilicia, by Antiochus III. the Great (223-187 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Under his
+son, Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164), a fresh impulse was
+given to Syrian Hellenism. In 1 Maccabees he is represented
+as writing an order to all his subjects to forsake the ways of their
+fathers and conform to a single prescribed pattern, and though
+in this form the account can hardly be exact, it does no doubt
+represent the spirit of his action. Other facts there are which
+point the same way. We now find a sudden issue of bronze
+money by a large number of the cities of the kingdom in their
+own name&mdash;an indication of liberties extended or confirmed.
+Many of them exchange their existing name for that of Antioch
+(Adana, Tarsus, Gadara, Ptolemais), Seleucia (Mopsuestia,
+Gadara) or Epiphanea (Oeniandus, Hamath). At Antioch
+itself great public works were carried out, such as were involved
+in the addition of a new quarter to the city, including, we may
+suppose, the civic council chamber which is afterwards spoken
+of as being here. With the ever-growing weakness of the Seleucid
+dynasty, the independence and activity of the cities increased,
+although, if, on the one hand, they were less suppressed by a
+strong central government, they were less protected against
+military adventurers and barbarian chieftains. Accordingly,
+when Pompey annexed Syria in 64 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as a Roman province,
+<span class="sidenote">Roman period.</span>
+he found it a chaos of city-states and petty principalities.
+The Nabataeans and the Jews above all had
+encroached upon the Hellenistic domain; in the
+south the Jewish raids had spread desolation and left many
+cities practically in ruins. Under Roman protection, the cities
+were soon rebuilt and Hellenism secured from the barbarian peril.
+Greek city life, with its political forms, its complement of
+festivities, amusements and intellectual exercise, went on more
+largely than before. The great majority of the Hellenistic remains
+in Syria belong to the Roman period. Such local dynasties as
+were suffered by the Romans to exist had, of course, a Hellenistic
+complexion. Especially was this the case with that of the Herods.
+Not only were such marks of Hellenism as a theatre introduced
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span>
+by Herod the Great (37-34 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) at Jerusalem, but in the work
+of city-building this dynasty showed itself active. Sebaste
+(the old Samaria), Caesarea, Antipatris were built by Herod
+the Great, Tiberias by Herod Antipas (4 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 39). The
+reclaiming of the wild district of Hauran for civilization and
+Hellenistic life was due in the first instance to the house of
+Herod (Schürer, <i>Gesch. d. jüd. Volk.</i> 3rd ed., ii. p. 12 f.). In
+Syria, too, Hellenism under the Romans advanced upon new
+ground. Palmyra, of which we hear nothing before Roman times,
+is a notable instance.</p>
+
+<p>As to the effect of this network of Greek cities upon the
+aboriginal population of Syria, we do not find here the same
+disappearance of native languages and racial characteristics
+as in Asia Minor. Still less was this the case
+<span class="sidenote">Greek culture in Syria.</span>
+in Mesopotamia, where a strong native element in such
+a city as Edessa is indicated by its epithet <span class="grk" title="mixobarbaros">&#956;&#953;&#958;&#959;&#946;&#940;&#961;&#946;&#945;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>.
+The old cults naturally went on, and at Carrhae (Harran) even
+survived the establishment of Christianity. The lower classes
+at Antioch, and no doubt in the cities generally, were in speech
+Aramaic or bilingual; we find Aramaic popular nicknames
+of the later Seleucids (K. O. Müller, <i>Antiq. Ant.</i> p. 29). The
+villages, of course, spoke Aramaic. The richer natives, on the
+other hand, those who made their way into the educated classes
+of the towns, and attained official position, would become
+Hellenized in language and manners, and the &ldquo;Syrian Code&rdquo;
+shows how far the social structure was modified by the Hellenic
+tradition (Mitteis, <i>Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in den öst. Provinzen
+des röm. Kaiserreichs</i>, 1891; Arnold Meyer, <i>Jesu Muttersprache</i>,
+1896). Of the Syrians who made their mark in
+Greek literature, some were of native blood, <i>e.g.</i> Lucian of
+Samosata.</p>
+
+<p>One may notice the great part taken by natives of the
+Phoenician cities in the history of later Greek philosophy, and
+in the poetic movement of the last century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, which led to
+fresh cultivation of the epigram. Greek, in fact, held the
+field as the language of literature and polite society. Possibly
+at places like Edessa, which for some 350 years (till <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 216)
+was under a dynasty of native princes, Aramaic was cultivated
+as a literary language. There was a Syriac-speaking church here
+as early as the 2nd century, and with the spread of Christianity
+Syriac asserted itself against Greek. The Syriac literature
+which we possess is all Christian.</p>
+
+<p><i>But where Greek gave place to Syriac, Hellenism was not thereby
+effaced. It was to some extent the passing over of the Hellenic
+tradition into a new medium.</i> We must remember the marked
+Hellenic elements in Christian theology. The earliest Syriac
+work which we possess, the book &ldquo;On Fate,&rdquo; produced in the
+circle of the heretic Bardaisan or Bardesanes (end of the 2nd
+century), largely follows Greek models. There was an extensive
+translation of Greek works into Syriac during the next centuries,
+handbooks of philosophy and science for the most part. The
+version of Homer into Syriac verses made in the 8th century
+has perished, all but a few lines (R. Duval, <i>La Litt. syriaque</i>,
+1900, p. 325).</p>
+
+<p>(v.) <i>The relation of the Jews to Hellenism</i> in the first century
+and a half of Macedonian rule is very obscure, since the statements
+made by later writers like Josephus, as to the
+visit of Alexander to Jerusalem or the privileges conferred
+<span class="sidenote">The Jews.</span>
+upon the Jews in the new Macedonian realms are justly
+suspected of being fiction. It has been maintained that Greek
+influence is to be traced in parts of the Old Testament assigned
+to this period, as, for instance, the Book of Proverbs; but even
+in the case of Ecclesiastes, the canonical writing whose affinity
+with Greek thought is closest, the coincidence of idea need not
+necessarily prove a Greek source. The one solid fact in this connexion
+is the translation of the Jewish Law into Greek in the 3rd
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, implying a Jewish Diaspora at Alexandria, so far
+Hellenized as to have forgotten the speech of Palestine. Early
+in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> we see that the priestly aristocracy of
+Jerusalem had, like the well-to-do classes everywhere in Syria,
+been carried away by the Hellenistic current, its strength
+being evidenced no less by the intensity of the conservative
+opposition embodied in the party of the &ldquo;Pious&rdquo; (Assideans,
+<i>&#7716;as&#299;d&#299;m</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Under Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-165) the Hellenistic
+aristocracy contrived to get Jerusalem converted into a Greek
+city; the gymnasium appeared, and Greek dress became fashionable
+with the young men. But when Antiochus, owing to
+political developments, interfered violently at Jerusalem, the
+conservative opposition carried the nation with them. The
+revolt under the Hasmonaean family (Judas Maccabaeus and
+his brethren) followed, ending in 143-142 in the establishment
+of an independent Jewish state under a Hasmonaean prince.
+But whilst the old Hellenistic party had been crushed the
+Hasmonaean state was of the nature of a compromise. The
+Mosaic Law was respected, but Hellenism still found an entrance
+in various forms. The first Hasmonaean &ldquo;king,&rdquo; Aristobulus I.
+(104-103), was known to the Greeks as Phil-hellen. He and all
+later kings of the dynasty bear Greek names as well as Hebrew
+ones, and after Jannaeus Alexander (103-76) the Greek legends
+are common on the coins beside the Hebrew. Herod, who supplanted
+the Hasmonaean dynasty (37-34 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) made, outside
+Judaea, a display of Phil-hellenism, building new Greek cities
+and temples, or bestowing gifts upon the older ones of fame.
+His court, at the same time, welcomed Greek men of letters
+like Nicolaus of Damascus. Even in the neighbourhood of
+Jerusalem, he erected a theatre and an amphitheatre. We have
+already noticed the work done by the Herodian dynasty in
+furthering Hellenism in Syria (see Schürer, <i>Gesch. des jüdisch.
+Volkes</i>, vols. i. and ii.). Meanwhile a great part of the Jewish
+people was living dispersed among the cities of the Greek world,
+speaking Greek as their mother-tongue, and absorbing Greek
+influences in much larger measure than their brethren of Palestine.
+These are the Jews whom we find contrasted as &ldquo;Hellenists&rdquo;
+with the &ldquo;Hebrews&rdquo; in Acts. They still kept in touch with
+the mother-city, and indeed we hear of special synagogues in
+Jerusalem in which the Hellenists temporarily resident there
+gathered (Acts vi. 9). A large Jewish literature in Greek had
+grown up since the translation of the Law in the 3rd century.
+Beside the other canonical books of the Old Testament, translated
+in many cases with modifications or additions, it included translations
+of other Hebrew books (Ecclesiasticus, Judith, &amp;c.), works
+composed originally in Greek but imitating to some extent the
+Hebraic style (like Wisdom), works modelled more closely on
+the Greek literary tradition, either historical, like 2 Maccabees,
+or philosophical, like the productions of the Alexandrian school,
+represented for us by Aristobulus and Philo, in which style
+and thought are almost wholly Greek and the reference to the
+Old Testament a mere pretext; or Greek poems on Jewish
+subjects, like the epic of the elder Philo and Ezechiel&rsquo;s tragedy,
+<i>Exagog&#275;</i>. It included also a number of forgeries, circulated
+under the names of famous Greek authors, verses fathered upon
+Aeschylus or Sophocles, or books like the false Hecataeus, or
+above all the pretended prophecies of ancient Sibyls in epic
+verse. These frauds were all contrived for the heathen public,
+as a means of propaganda, calculated to inspire them with respect
+for Jewish antiquity or turn them from idols to God.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For Jewish Hellenism see Schürer, <i>op. cit.</i> iii.; Susemihl, <i>Gesch.
+der griech. Lit. in der Alexandrinerzeit</i>, ii. 601 f.; Willrich, <i>Juden
+und Griechen</i> (1895), <i>Judaica</i> (1900); Hastings&rsquo; <i>Dict. of the Bible</i>,
+art. &ldquo;Greece&rdquo;; <i>Encyclop. Biblica</i>, art. &ldquo;Hellenism&rdquo;; Pauly-Wissowa,
+art. &ldquo;Aristobulus (15)&rdquo;; also the work of P. Wendland
+cited above.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Through the Hellenistic Jews, Greek influences reached
+Jerusalem itself, though their effect upon the Aramaic-speaking
+Rabbinical schools was naturally not so pronounced. The large
+number of Greek words, however, in the language of the Mishnah
+and the Talmud is a significant phenomenon. The attitude of
+the Rabbinic doctors to a Greek education does not seem to
+have been hostile till the time of Hadrian. The sect of the
+Essenes probably shows an intermingling of the Greek with
+other lines of tradition among the Jews of Palestine.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Schürer ii. 42-67, 583; S. Krauss, <i>Griech. u. latein.
+Lehnwörter im Talmud</i> (1898); <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, art. &ldquo;Greek
+Language.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span></p>
+
+<p>(vi.) <i>In Egypt</i> the Ptolemies were hindered by special considerations
+from building Greek cities after the manner of the other
+Macedonian houses. One Greek city they found
+existing, Naucratis; Alexander had called Alexandria
+<span class="sidenote">Ptolemaic kingdom.</span>
+into being; the first Ptolemy added Ptolemais as
+a Greek centre for Upper Egypt. They seem to have suffered
+no other community in the Nile Valley with the independent
+life of a Greek city, for the Greek and Macedonian
+soldier-colonies settled in the Fayum or elsewhere had no
+political self-existence. And even at Alexandria Hellenism
+was not allowed full development. Ptolemais, indeed, enjoyed
+all the ordinary forms of self-government, but Alexandria was
+governed despotically by royal officials. In its population, too,
+Alexandria was only semi-Hellenic; for besides the proportion
+of Egyptian natives in its lower strata, its commercial greatness
+drew in elements from every quarter; the Jews, for instance,
+formed a majority of the population in two out of the five
+divisions of the city. At the same time the prevalent tone of
+the populace was, no doubt, Hellenistic, as is shown by the
+fact that the Jews who settled there acquired Greek in place
+of Aramaic as their mother-tongue, and in its upper circles
+Alexandrian society under the Ptolemies was not only
+Hellenistic, but notable among the Hellenes for its literary and
+artistic brilliance. The state university, the &ldquo;Museum,&rdquo; was
+in close connexion with the court, and gave to Alexandria
+the same pre-eminence in natural science and literary scholarship
+which Athens had in moral philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>Probably in no other country, except Judaea, did Hellenism
+encounter as stubborn a national antagonism as in Egypt.
+The common description of &ldquo;the Oriental&rdquo; as indurated in
+his antagonism to the alien conqueror here perhaps has some
+truth in it. The assault made upon the Macedonian devotee
+in the temple of Serapis at Memphis &ldquo;because he was a Greek&rdquo;
+is significant (<i>Papyr. Brit. Mus.</i> i. No. 44; cf. Grenfell, <i>Amherst
+Papyr.</i> p. 48). And yet even here one must observe qualifications
+The papyri show us habitual marriage of Greeks and native
+women and a frequent adoption by natives of Greek names.
+It has even been thought that some developments of the <span class="correction" title="amended from Egyptain">Egyptian</span>
+religion are due to Hellenistic influence, such as the deification
+of Imhotp (Bissing, <i>Deutsche Literaturzeitung</i>, 1902, col. 2330)
+or the practice of forming voluntary religious associations (Otto,
+<i>Priester und Tempel</i>, i. 125). The worship of Serapis was
+patronized by the court with the very object of affording a
+mixed cultus in which Greek and native might unite. In Egypt,
+too, the triumph of Christianity brought into being a native
+Christian literature, and if this was in one way the assertion of
+the native against Hellenistic predominance, one must remember
+that Coptic literature, like Syriac, necessarily incorporated
+those Greek elements which had become an essential part of
+Christian theology.</p>
+
+<p>From the Ptolemaic kingdom Hellenism early travelled up
+the Nile into Ethiopia. Ergamenes, the king of the Ethiopians
+in the time of the second Ptolemy, &ldquo;who had received
+a Greek education and cultivated philosophy,&rdquo; broke
+<span class="sidenote">Ethiopia.</span>
+with the native priesthood (Diod. iii. 6), and from that time
+traces of Greek influence continue to be found in the monuments
+of the Upper Nile. When Ethiopia became a Christian country
+in the 4th century, its connexion with the Hellenistic world
+became closer.</p>
+
+<p>(vii.) <i>Hellenism in the West.</i>&mdash;Whilst in the East Hellenism
+had been sustained by the political supremacy of the Greeks, in
+Italy <i>Graecia capta</i> had only the inherent power and
+charm of her culture wherewith to win her way. At
+<span class="sidenote">Greek culture in the Roman world.</span>
+Carthage in the 3rd century the educated classes
+seem generally to have been familiar with Greek
+culture (Bernhardy, <i>Grundriss d. griech. Lit.</i> § 77).
+The philosopher Clitomachus, who presided over the Academy
+at Athens in the 2nd century, was a Carthaginian. Even before
+Alexander, as we saw, Hellenism had affected the peoples of
+Italy, but it was not till the Greeks of south Italy and Sicily
+were brought under the supremacy of Rome in the 3rd century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> that the stream of Greek influence entered Rome in any
+volume. It was now that the Greek freedman, L. Livius
+Andronicus, laid the foundation of a new Latin literature by
+his translation of the <i>Odyssey</i>, and that the Greek dramas were
+recast in a Latin mould. The first Romans who set about
+writing history wrote in Greek. At the end of the 3rd century
+there was a circle of enthusiastic phil-hellenes among the Roman
+aristocracy, led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, who in Rome&rsquo;s
+name proclaimed the autonomy of the Greeks at the Isthmian
+games of 196. In the middle of the 2nd century Roman Hellenism
+centred in the circle of Scipio Aemilianus, which included
+men like Polybius and the philosopher Panaetius. The visit
+of the three great philosophers, Diogenes the &ldquo;Babylonian,&rdquo;
+Critolaus and Carneades in 155, was an epoch-making event in
+the history of Hellenism at Rome. Opposition there could not
+fail to be, and in 161 a <i>senatus consultum</i> ordered all Greek
+philosophers and rhetoricians to leave the city. The effect of
+such measures was, of course, transient. Even though the
+opposition found so doughty a champion as the elder Cato
+(censor in 184), it was ultimately of no avail. The Italians did
+not indeed surrender themselves passively to the Greek tradition.
+In different departments of culture the degree of their independence
+was different. The system of government framed by
+Rome was an original creation. Even in the spheres of art and
+literature, the Italians, while so largely guided by Greek canons,
+had something of their own to contribute. The mere fact that
+they produced a literature in Latin argues a power of creation
+as well as receptivity. The great Latin poets were imitators
+indeed, but <i>mere</i> imitators they were no more than Petrarch or
+Milton. On the other hand, even where the creative originality
+of Rome was most pronounced, as in the sphere of Law, there
+were elements of Hellenic origin. It has been often pointed out
+how the Stoic philosophy especially helped to shape Roman
+jurisprudence (Schmekel, <i>Philos. d. mittl. Stoa</i>, p. 454 f.).</p>
+
+<p>Whilst the upper classes in Italy absorbed Greek influences
+by their education, by the literary and artistic tradition, the
+lower strata of the population of Rome became largely hellenized
+by the actual influx on a vast scale of Greeks and hellenized
+Asiatics, brought in for the most part as slaves, and coalescing
+as freedmen with the citizen body. Of the Jewish inscriptions
+found at Rome some two-thirds are in Greek. So too the early
+Christian church in Rome, to which St Paul addressed his
+epistle, was Greek-speaking, and continued to be till far into the
+3rd century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">III. Later History.</span>&mdash;It remains only to glance at the
+ultimate destinies of Hellenism in West and East. In the Latin
+West knowledge of Greek, first-hand acquaintance
+with the Greek classics, became rarer and rarer as
+<span class="sidenote">The middle ages.</span>
+general culture declined, till in the dark ages (after
+the 5th century) it existed practically nowhere but in
+Ireland (Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i>, i. 438). In
+Latin literature, however, a great mass of Hellenistic tradition
+in a derived form was maintained in currency, wherever, that is,
+culture of any kind continued to exist. It was a small number
+of monkish communities whose care of those narrow channels
+prevented their ever drying up altogether. Then the stream
+began to rise again, first with the influx of the learning of the
+Spanish Moors, then with the new knowledge of Greek brought
+from Constantinople in the 14th century. With the Renaissance
+and the new learning, Hellenism came in again in flood, to form
+a chief part of that great river on which the modern world is
+being carried forward into a future, of which one can only say
+that it must be utterly unlike anything that has gone before.
+In the East it is popularly thought that Hellenism, as an exotic,
+withered altogether away. This view is superficial. During
+the dark ages, in the Byzantine East, as well as in the West,
+Hellenism had become little more than a dried and shrivelled
+tradition, although the closer study of Byzantine culture in
+latter years has seemed to discover more vitality than was once
+supposed. Ultimately the Greek East was absorbed by Islam;
+<span class="sidenote">Islam.</span>
+the popular mistake lies in supposing that the Hellenistic
+tradition thereby came to an end. The
+Mahommedan conquerors found a considerable part of it taken
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span>
+over, as we saw, by the Syrian Christians, and Greek philosophical
+and scientific classics were now translated from Syriac into
+Arabic. These were the starting-points for the Mahommedan
+schools in these subjects. Accordingly we find that Arabian
+philosophy (<i>q.v.</i>), mathematics, geography, medicine and
+philology are all based professedly upon Greek works (Brockelmann,
+<i>Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur</i>, 1898, vol. i.; R. A.
+Nicholson, <i>A Literary History of the Arabs</i>, 1907, pp. 358-361).
+Aristotle in the East no less than in the West was the &ldquo;master
+of them that know&rdquo;; and Moslem physicians to this day invoke
+the names of Hippocrates and Galen. The Hellenistic strain
+in Mahommedan civilization has, it is true, flagged and failed,
+but only as that civilization as a whole has declined. It was
+not that the Hellenistic element failed, whilst the native elements
+in the civilization prospered; the culture of Islam has, as a
+whole (from whatever causes), sunk ever lower during the
+centuries that have witnessed the marvellous expansion of
+Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;For the inner history of Hellenism after Alexander,
+the general historical literature dealing with later Greece and Rome
+supplies material in various degrees. See works quoted in articles
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>, <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>, <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ptolemies</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seleucid Dynasty</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bactria</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Different elements (literature, philosophy, art, &amp;c.) are dealt
+with in works dealing specially with these subjects, among which
+those of Susemihl, Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Erwin Rohde and
+E. Schwartz are of especial importance for the literature; those of
+Schreiber and Strzygowski for the later Greek art.</p>
+
+<p>Sketches of Hellenistic civilization generally are found in J. P.
+Mahaffy&rsquo;s <i>Greek Life and Thought</i> (1887), <i>The Greek World under
+Roman Sway</i> (1890); <i>The Silver Age of the Greek World</i> (1906);
+Julius Kaerst, <i>Gesch. d. hellenist. Zeitalters</i> (Band ii., publ. 1909);
+and in Beloch&rsquo;s <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, vol. iii. (for the century
+immediately succeeding Alexander). R. von Scala&rsquo;s &ldquo;The Greeks
+after Alexander,&rdquo; in Helmolt&rsquo;s <i>History of the World</i> (vol. v.), covers
+the whole period from Alexander to the end of the Byzantine Empire.
+P. Wendland&rsquo;s <i>Hellenistisch-römische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen
+zu Judentum u. Christentum</i> (1907) is an illuminating monograph,
+giving a conspectus of the material. For Hellenistic Egypt, Bouché-Leclercq,
+<i>Histoire des Lagides</i>, vol. iii. (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. R. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See, among recent writers, on one side Kaerst, <i>Gesch. des hellenist.
+Zeitalters</i>, pp. 97 f., and on the other Beloch, <i>Griech. Gesch.</i>, iii.
+[i.] 1-9; Kretschmer, <i>Einleitung in die Gesch. d. griech. Sprache</i>,
+p. 283 f.; O. Hoffmann, <i>Die Makedonen, ihre Sprache u. ihr Volkstum</i>
+(1906).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> &ldquo;Ce sont les Tadjik de l&rsquo;Afghanistan qui constituent les trente-deux
+corps de métier, qui tiennent boutique, expédient les marchandises,
+représentent, en un mot, la vie industrielle et commerciale de
+la nation. Ce sont aussi les Tadjik des villes qui forment la classe
+lettrée, et qui ont empêché les Afghans de retomber dans la barbarie.&rdquo;
+(Reclus, <i>Nouvelle Géograph. univ.</i> ix. p. 71.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELLER, STEPHEN<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1815-1888), Austrian pianist and
+composer, was born at Pest on the 15th of May 1815. (Fétis&rsquo;s
+dictionary says 1814, but this is almost certainly wrong.) He
+was at first intended for a lawyer, but at nine years of age
+performed so successfully at a concert that he was sent to Vienna
+to study under Czerny. Halm was his principal master, and
+from the age of twelve he gave concerts in Vienna, and made a
+tour through Hungary, Poland and Germany. At Augsburg
+he had the good fortune to be befriended when ill by a wealthy
+family, who practically adopted him and gave him the opportunity
+to complete his musical education. In 1838 he went to
+Paris, and soon became intimate with Liszt, Chopin, Berlioz
+and their set, among whom was Hallé, throughout his life an
+indefatigable performer of Heller&rsquo;s music. In 1849 he came to
+England and played a few times, and in 1862 he appeared with
+Hallé at the Crystal Palace. He outlived the great reputation
+he had enjoyed among cultivated amateurs for so many years,
+and was almost forgotten when he died at Paris on the 14th of
+January 1888. His pianoforte pieces, almost all of them published
+in sets and provided with fancy names, do not show very
+startling originality, but their grace and refinement could not
+but make them popular with players and listeners of all classes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELLESPONT<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Sea of Helle&rdquo;; variously named in
+classical literature <span class="grk" title="Hellêspontos">&#7961;&#955;&#955;&#942;&#963;&#960;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="ho Hellês pontos">&#8001; &#7965;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#962; &#960;&#972;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, <i>Hellespontum
+Pelagus</i>, and <i>Fretum Hellesponticum</i>), the ancient name
+of the Dardanelles (<i>q.v.</i>). It was so-called from Helle, the
+daughter of Athamas (<i>q.v.</i>), who was drowned here. See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argonauts</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELLEVOETSLUIS,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Helvoetsluis</span>, a fortified seaport in
+the province of South Holland, the kingdom of Holland, on the
+south side of the island of Voorne-and-Putten, on the sea-arm
+known as the Haringvliet, 5½ m. S. of Brielle. It has daily steamboat
+connexion with Rotterdam by the Voornsche canal. Pop.
+(1900), 4152. Hellevoetsluis is an important naval station, and
+possesses a naval arsenal, dry and wet docks, wharves and a
+naval college for engineers. Among the public buildings are the
+communal chambers, a Reformed church (1661), a Roman
+Catholic church and a synagogue.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELLÍN,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of
+Albacete, on the Albacete-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 12,558.
+Hellín is built on the outskirts of the low hills which line the left
+bank of the river Mundo. It possesses the remains of an old
+Roman castle and a beautiful parish church, the masonry and
+marble pavement at the entrance of which are worthy of special
+notice. The surrounding country yields wine, oil and saffron in
+abundance; within the town there are manufactures of coarse
+cloth, leather and pottery. Sulphur is obtained from the celebrated
+mining district of Minas del Mundo, 12 m. S., at the junction
+between the Mundo and the Segura; and there are warm
+sulphurous springs in the neighbouring village of Azaraque.
+Hellín was known to the Romans who first exploited its sulphur
+as Illunum.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELLO, ERNEST<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1828-1885), French critic, was born at
+Tréguier. He was the son of a lawyer who held posts of great
+importance at Rennes and in Paris, and was well educated at
+both places, but took to no profession and resided much, for a
+time, in his father&rsquo;s country-house in Brittany. A very strong
+Roman Catholic, he appears to have been specially excited by his
+countryman Renan&rsquo;s attitude to religious matters, and coming
+under the influence of J. A. Barbey d&rsquo;Aurevilly and Louis Veuillot,
+the two most brilliant crusaders of the Church in the press, he
+started a newspaper of his own, <i>Le Croisé</i>, in 1859; but it only
+lasted two years. He wrote, however, much in other papers.
+He had very bad health, suffering apparently from spinal or bone
+disease. But he was fortunate enough to meet with a wife, Zoe
+Berthier, who, ten years older than himself, and a friend for some
+years before their marriage, became his devoted nurse, and even
+brought upon herself abuse from gutter journalists of the time for
+the care with which she guarded him. He died in 1885. Hello&rsquo;s
+work is somewhat varied in form but uniform in spirit. His best-known
+book, <i>Physionomie de saints</i> (1875), which has been translated
+into English (1903) as <i>Studies in Saintship</i>, does not display
+his qualities best. <i>Contes extraordinaires</i>, published not long
+before his death, is better and more original. But the real Hello
+is to be found in a series of philosophical and critical essays,
+from <i>Renan, l&rsquo;Allemagne et l&rsquo;athéisme</i> (1861), through <i>L&rsquo;Homme</i>
+(1871) and <i>Les Plateaux de la balance</i> (1880), perhaps his chief
+book, to the posthumously published <i>Le Siècle</i>. The peculiarity
+of his standpoint and the originality and vigour of his handling
+make his studies, of Shakespeare, Hugo and others, of abiding
+importance as literary &ldquo;triangulations,&rdquo; results of object, subject
+and point of view.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1767-1813), Dutch poet, was
+born at Amsterdam on the 7th of March 1767. His early poems,
+<i>Night</i> (1788) and <i>Socrates</i> (1790), were tame and sentimental, but
+after 1805 he determined, in company with his brother-in-law,
+Cornelis Loots (1765-1834), to rouse national feeling by a burst
+of patriotic poetry. His <i>Poems</i> (2 vols., 1809-1810), but especially
+his great work <i>The Dutch Nation</i>, a poem in six cantos (1812),
+created great enthusiasm and enjoyed immense success. Helmers
+died at Amsterdam on the 26th of February 1813. He owed his
+success mainly to the integrity of his patriotism and the opportune
+moment at which he sounded his counterblast to the French
+oppression. His posthumous poems were collected in 1815.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1803-1885), Russian geologist,
+was born at Laugut-Duckershof, near Dorpat, on the 29th of
+September (O.S.) 1803. He received an engineering training and
+became major-general in the corps of Mining Engineers. In 1837
+he was appointed professor of geology in the mining institute at St
+Petersburg. He was author of numerous memoirs on the geology
+of Russia, especially on the coal and other mineral deposits of the
+country; and he wrote also some explanations to accompany
+separate sheets of the geological map of Russia. His geological
+work was continued to an advanced age, one of the later publications
+being <i>Studien über die Wanderblöcke und die Diluvialgebilde
+Russlands</i> (1869 and 1882). Most of his memoirs were published
+by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg. He died
+at St Petersburg on the 3rd of February (O.S.) 1885.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:114px; height:124px" src="images/img247a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Casque with
+Neck-guard.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:225px" src="images/img247b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Casque
+with Nasal and
+Mail Hood.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:163px; height:154px" src="images/img247c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Heaume, early
+13th century.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HELMET<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (from an obsolete diminutive of O. Fr. <i>helme</i>, mod.
+<i>heaume</i>; the English word is &ldquo;helm,&rdquo; as in O. Eng., Dutch and
+Ger.; all are from the Teutonic base <i>hal</i>-, pre-Teut. <i>kal</i>-, to cover;
+cf. Lat. <i>celare</i>, to hide, Eng. &ldquo;hell,&rdquo; &amp;c.), a defensive covering for
+the head. The present article deals with the helmet during the
+middle ages down to the close of the period when body armour
+was worn. For the helmet worn by the Greeks and Romans see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arms and Armour.</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The head-dress of the warriors of the dark ages and of the
+earlier feudal period was far from being the elaborate helmet
+which is associated in the imagination with
+the knight in armour and the tourney. It
+was a mere casque, a cap with or without
+additional safeguards for the ears, the nape
+of the neck and the nose (fig. 1). By those
+warriors who possessed the means to equip
+themselves fully, the casque was worn over
+a hood of mail, as shown in fig. 2. In
+manuscripts, &amp;c., armoured men are sometimes
+portrayed fighting in their hoods, without casques, basinets
+or other form of helmet. The casque was, of course, normally of
+plate, but in some instances it was a strong leather cap covered
+with mail or imbricated plates. The most
+advanced form of this early helmet is the
+conical steel or iron cap with nasal (fig. 2),
+worn in conjunction with the hood of mail.
+This is the typical helmet of the 11th-century
+warrior, and is made familiar by the Bayeux
+Tapestry. From this point however (<i>c.</i> 1100)
+the evolution of war head-gear follows two
+different paths for many years. On the one
+hand the simple casque easily transformed
+itself into the <i>basinet</i>, originally a pointed iron
+skull-cap without nasal, ear-guards, &amp;c. On
+the other hand the knight in armour, especially
+after the fashion of the tournament set in,
+found the mere cap with nasal insufficient,
+and the <i>heaume</i> (or &ldquo;helmet&rdquo;) gradually
+came into vogue. This was in principle a large heavy iron pot
+covering the head and neck. Often a light basinet was worn
+underneath it&mdash;or rather the knight usually wore his basinet and
+only put the heaume on over it at the
+last moment before engaging. The
+earlier (12th century) war heaumes are
+intended to be worn with the mail
+hood and have nasals (fig. 3). Towards
+the end of the 13th century, however,
+the basinet grew in size and strength,
+just as the casque had grown, and
+began to challenge comparison with the
+heavy and clumsy heaume. Thereupon
+the heaume became, by degrees,
+the special head-dress of the tournament, and grew heavier,
+larger and more elaborate, while the basinet, reinforced with
+camail and vizor, was worn in battle. Types of the later,
+purely tilting, heaume are shown in figs. 4 and 5.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:466px; height:231px" src="images/img247d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Heaume, 15th century.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Heaume, 15th century.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:504px; height:295px" src="images/img247e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Basinets.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:115px; height:143px" src="images/img247f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:237px; height:310px" src="images/img247g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Salades or Sallets.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The basinet, then, is the battle head-dress of nobles, knights
+and sergeants in the 14th century. Its development from the
+10th-century cap to the towering helmet of 1350, with its long
+snouted vizor and ample drooping &ldquo;camail,&rdquo; is shown in fig. 6,
+<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, the two latter showing the same helmet with vizor
+down and up. But the tendency set in during the earlier years
+of the 15th century to make all parts of the armour thicker.
+Chain &ldquo;mail&rdquo; gradually gave way to plate on the body and the
+limbs, remaining only in those parts, such as neck and elbows,
+where flexibility was essential, and even there it was in the end
+replaced by jointed steel bands or small plates. The final step
+was the discarding of the &ldquo;camail&rdquo; and the introduction of the
+&ldquo;armet.&rdquo; The latter will be described later. Soon after the
+beginning of the 15th century the high-crowned basinet gave place
+to the <i>salade</i> or <i>sallet</i>, a helmet with a low rounded crown and a
+long brim or neck-guard at the back. This was the typical headpiece
+of the last half of the Hundred Years&rsquo; War as the vizored
+basinet had been of the first. Like the basinet it was worn in a
+simple form by archers and pikemen and in a more elaborate
+form by the knights and men-at-arms. The larger and heavier
+salades were also often used instead of the heaume in tournaments.
+Here again, however, there is a great difference between those
+worn by light armed men, foot-soldiers and archers and those of
+the heavy cavalry. The former, while possessing as a rule the
+bowl shape and the lip or brim of the type, and always destitute
+of the conical point which is the distinguishing mark of the
+basinet, are cut away in front of
+the face (fig. 7 <i>a</i>). In some cases
+this was remedied in part by the
+addition of a small pivoted vizor,
+which, however, could not protect
+the throat. In the larger salades
+of the heavy cavalry the wide
+brim served to protect the whole
+head, a slit being
+made in that part
+of the brim which
+came in front of
+the eyes (in some
+examples the whole
+of the front part
+of the brim was
+made movable).
+But the chin and
+neck, directly opposed to the enemy&rsquo;s blows, were scarcely
+protected at all, and with these helmets a large volant-piece
+or beaver (<i>mentonnière</i>)&mdash;usually a continuation of the body
+armour up to the chin or even beyond&mdash;was worn for this purpose,
+as shown in fig. 7 <i>b</i>. This arrangement combined, in a rough way,
+the advantages of freedom of movement for the head with
+adequate protection for the neck and lower part of the face.
+The <i>armet</i>, which came into use about 1475-1500 and completely
+superseded the salade, realized these requirements far
+better, and later at the zenith of the armourer&rsquo;s art (about 1520)
+and throughout the period of the decline of armour it remained
+the standard pattern of helmet, whether for war or for tournament.
+It figures indeed in nearly all portraits of kings, nobles and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span>
+soldiers up to the time of Frederick the Great, either with the
+suit of armour or half-armour worn by the subject of the portrait
+or in allegorical trophies, &amp;c. The armet was a fairly close-fitting
+rounded shell of iron or steel, with a movable vizor in
+front and complete plating over chin, ears and neck, the latter
+replacing the mentonnière or beaver. The armet was connected
+to the rest of the suit by the gorget, which was usually of thin
+laminated steel plates. With a good armet and gorget there was
+no weak point for the enemy&rsquo;s sword to attack, a roped lower
+edge of the armet generally fitting into a sort of flange round the
+top of the gorget. Thus, and in other and slightly different ways,
+was solved the problem which in the early days of plate armour
+had been attempted by the clumsy heaume and the flexible, if
+tough, camail of the vizored basinet, and still more clumsily in
+the succeeding period by the salade and its grotesque mentonnière.
+As far as existing examples show, the wide-brimmed salade itself
+first gave way to the more rounded armet, the mentonnière
+being carried up to the level of the eyes. Then the use (growing
+throughout the 15th century) of laminated armour for the joints
+of the harness probably suggested the gorget, and once this was
+applied to the lower edge of the armet by a satisfactory joint, it
+was an easy step to the elaborate pivoted vizor which completed
+the new head-dress. Types of armets are shown in fig. 8.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:194px" src="images/img248a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Armets.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:364px" src="images/img248b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Burgonets.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:159px; height:146px" src="images/img248c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Morion.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:159px; height:170px" src="images/img248d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Cabasset.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>burgonet</i>, often confused with the armet, is the typical
+helmet of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In its simple
+form it was worn by the foot and light cavalry&mdash;though the
+latter must not be held to include the pistol-armed <i>chevaux-légers</i>
+of the wars of religion, these being clad in half-armour and
+vizored burgonet&mdash;and consisted of a (generally rounded) cap
+with a projecting brim shielding the eyes, a neck-guard and earpieces.
+It had almost invariably a crest or comb, as shown in the
+illustrations (fig. 9). Other forms of infantry head-gear much
+in vogue during the 16th century are shown in figs. 10 and 11,
+which represent the <i>morion</i> and <i>cabasset</i> respectively. Both
+these were lighter and smaller than the burgonet; indeed much
+of their popularity was due to the ease with which they were
+worn or put on and off, for in the matter of protection they could
+not compare with the burgonet, which in one form or another
+was used by cavalry (and often by pikemen) up to the final
+disappearance of armour from the field of battle about 1670.
+Fig. 9 <i>b</i> gives the general outline of richly decorated 16th-century
+Italian burgonet which is preserved in Vienna. The archetype
+of the burgonet is perhaps the casque worn by the Swiss infantry
+(fig. 9 <i>a</i>) at the epoch of Marignan (1515).
+This was probably copied by them from
+their former Burgundian antagonists, whose
+connexion with this helmet is sufficiently
+indicated by its name. The lower part of
+the more elaborate burgonets worn by
+nobles and cavalrymen is often formed into
+a complete covering for the ears, cheek
+and chin, and connected closely with the
+gorget. They therefore resemble the armets
+and have often been confused with them,
+but the distinguishing feature of the burgonet
+is invariably the front peak. Various
+forms of vizor were fitted to such helmets;
+these as a rule were either fixed bars
+(fig. 9 <i>c</i>) or mere upward continuations of
+the chin piece. Often a nasal was the only
+face protection (fig. 9 <i>d</i>, a Hungarian type).
+The latest form of the burgonet used in
+active service is the familiar Cromwellian
+cavalry helmet with its straight brim, from which depends the
+slight vizor of three bars or stout wires joined together at the
+bottom.</p>
+
+<p>The above are of course only the main types. Some writers
+class all remaining examples either as casques or as &ldquo;war-hats,&rdquo;
+the latter term conveniently covering all those helmets which
+resemble in any way the head-gear of civil life. For illustrations
+of many curiosities of this sort, including the famous iron hat
+of King Charles I. of England, and also for examples of Russian,
+Mongolian, Indian and Chinese helmets, the reader is referred to
+pp. 262-269 and 285-286 of Demmin&rsquo;s <i>Arms and Armour</i> (English
+edition 1894). The helmets in brass, steel or cloth, worn by
+troops since the general introduction of uniforms and the disuse
+of armour, depend for their shape and material solely on considerations
+of comfort and good appearance. From time to
+time, however, the readoption of serviceable helmets is advocated
+by cavalrymen, and there is much to be said in favour of this.
+The burgonet, which was the final type of war helmet evolved by
+the old armourers, would certainly appear to be by far the best
+head-gear to adopt should these views prevail, and indeed it is
+still worn, in a modified yet perfectly recognizable form, by the
+German and other cuirassiers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span>
+(1821-1894), German philosopher and man of science, was born
+on the 31st of August 1821 at Potsdam, near Berlin. His father,
+Ferdinand, was a teacher of philology and philosophy in the
+gymnasium, while his mother was a Hanoverian lady, a lineal
+descendant of the great Quaker William Penn. Delicate in
+early life, Helmholtz became by habit a student, and his father
+at the same time directed his thoughts to natural phenomena.
+He soon showed mathematical powers, but these were not
+fostered by the careful training mathematicians usually receive,
+and it may be said that in after years his attention was directed
+to the higher mathematics mainly by force of circumstances.
+As his parents were poor, and could not afford to allow him to
+follow a purely scientific career, he became a surgeon of the
+Prussian army. In 1842 he wrote a thesis in which he announced
+the discovery of nerve-cells in ganglia. This was his first work,
+and from 1842 to 1894, the year of his death, scarcely a year
+passed without several important, and in some cases epoch-making,
+papers on scientific subjects coming from his pen. He
+lived in Berlin from 1842 to 1849, when he became professor of
+physiology in Königsberg. There he remained from 1849 to
+1855, when he removed to the chair of physiology in Bonn. In
+1858 he became professor of physiology in Heidelberg, and in
+1871 he was called to occupy the chair of physics in Berlin. To
+this professorship was added in 1887 the post of director of
+the physico-technical institute at Charlottenburg, near Berlin,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span>
+and he held the two positions together until his death on the
+8th of September 1894.</p>
+
+<p>His investigations occupied almost the whole field of science,
+including physiology, physiological optics, physiological acoustics,
+chemistry, mathematics, electricity and magnetism, meteorology
+and theoretical mechanics. At an early age he contributed to
+our knowledge of the causes of putrefaction and fermentation.
+In physiological science he investigated quantitatively the
+phenomena of animal heat, and he was one of the earliest in the
+field of animal electricity. He studied the nature of muscular
+contraction, causing a muscle to record its movements on a
+smoked glass plate, and he worked out the problem of the velocity
+of the nervous impulse both in the motor nerves of the frog and
+in the sensory nerves of man. In 1847 Helmholtz read to the
+Physical Society of Berlin a famous paper, <i>Über die Erhaltung
+der Kraft</i> (on the conservation of force), which became one of the
+epoch-making papers of the century; indeed, along with J. R.
+Mayer, J. P. Joule and W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin), he may
+be regarded as one of the founders of the now universally received
+law of the conservation of energy. The year 1851, while he was
+lecturing on physiology at Königsberg, saw the brilliant invention
+of the ophthalmoscope, an instrument which has been of inestimable
+value to medicine. It arose from an attempt to
+demonstrate to his class the nature of the glow of reflected light
+sometimes seen in the eyes of animals such as the cat. When
+the great ophthalmologist, A. von Gräfe, first saw the fundus
+of the living human eye, with its optic disc and blood-vessels,
+his face flushed with excitement, and he cried, &ldquo;Helmholtz
+has unfolded to us a new world!&rdquo; Helmholtz&rsquo;s contributions
+to physiological optics are of great importance. He investigated
+the optical constants of the eye, measured by his invention,
+the ophthalmometer, the radii of curvature of the crystalline
+lens for near and far vision, explained the mechanism of accommodation
+by which the eye can focus within certain limits,
+discussed the phenomena of colour vision, and gave a luminous
+account of the movements of the eyeballs so as to secure single
+vision with two eyes. In particular he revived and gave new
+force to the theory of colour-vision associated with the name of
+Thomas Young, showing the three primary colours to be red,
+green and violet, and he applied the theory to the explanation
+of colour-blindness. His great work on <i>Physiological Optics</i>
+(1856-1866) is by far the most important book that has appeared
+on the physiology and physics of vision. Equally distinguished
+were his labours in physiological acoustics. He explained
+accurately the mechanism of the bones of the ear, and he discussed
+the physiological action of the cochlea on the principles of sympathetic
+vibration. Perhaps his greatest contribution, however,
+was his attempt to account for our perception of quality of
+tone. He showed, both by analysis and by synthesis, that
+quality depends on the order, number and intensity of the overtones
+or harmonics that may, and usually do, enter into the
+structure of a musical tone. He also developed the theory
+of differential and of summational tones. His work on <i>Sensations
+of Tone</i> (1862) may well be termed the <i>principia</i> of physiological
+acoustics. He may also be said to be the founder of the
+fixed-pitch theory of vowel tones, according to which it is
+asserted that the pitch of a vowel depends on the resonance of
+the mouth, according to the form of the cavity while singing it,
+and this independently of the pitch of the note on which the
+vowel is sung. For the later years of his life his labours may
+be summed up under the following heads: (1) On the conservation
+of energy; (2) on hydro-dynamics; (3) on electro-dynamics
+and theories of electricity; (4) on meteorological physics;
+(5) on optics; and (6) on the abstract principles of dynamics.
+In all these fields of labour he made important contributions to
+science, and showed himself to be equally great as a mathematician
+and a physicist. He studied the phenomena of electrical
+oscillations from 1869 to 1871, and in the latter year he announced
+that the velocity of the propagation of electromagnetic induction
+was about 314,000 metres per second. Faraday had shown that
+the passage of electrical action involved time, and he also
+asserted that electrical phenomena are brought about by changes
+in intervening non-conductors or dielectric substances. This
+led Clerk Maxwell to frame his theory of electro-dynamics, in
+which electrical impulses were assumed to be transmitted
+through the ether by waves. G. F. Fitzgerald was the first to
+attempt to measure the length of electric waves; Helmholtz
+put the problem into the hands of his favourite pupil, Heinrich
+Hertz, and the latter finally gave an experimental demonstration
+of electromagnetic waves, the &ldquo;Hertzian waves,&rdquo; on which
+wireless telegraphy depends, and the velocity of which is the
+same as that of light. The last investigations of Helmholtz
+related to problems in theoretical mechanics, more especially
+as to the relations of matter to the ether, and as to the distribution
+of energy in mechanical systems. In particular he explained
+the principle of least action, first advanced by P. L. M. de
+Maupertuis, and developed by Sir W. R. Hamilton, of quaternion
+fame. Helmholtz also wrote on philosophical and aesthetic
+problems. His position was that of an empiricist, denying the
+doctrine of innate ideas and holding that all knowledge is founded
+on experience, hereditarily transmitted or acquired.</p>
+
+<p>The life of Helmholtz was uneventful in the usual sense.
+He was twice married, first, in 1849, to Olga von Velten (by whom
+he had two children, a son and daughter), and secondly, in 1861,
+to Anna von Mohl, of a Würtemberg family of high social position.
+Two children were born of this marriage, a son, Robert, who died
+in 1889, after showing in experimental physics indications of
+his father&rsquo;s genius, and a daughter, who married a son of Werner
+von Siemens. Helmholtz was a man of simple but refined
+tastes, of noble carriage and somewhat austere manner. His
+life from first to last was one of devotion to science, and he must
+be accounted, on intellectual grounds, one of the foremost men
+of the 19th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Königsberger, <i>Hermann von Helmholtz</i> (1902; English
+translation by F. A. Welby, Oxford, 1906); J. G. M<span class="sp">c</span>Kendrick,
+<i>H. L. F. von Helmholtz</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELMOLD,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> an historian of the 12th century, was a priest
+at Bosau near Plön. He was a friend of the two bishops of
+Oldenburg, Vicelin (d. 1154) and Gerold (d. 1163), who did
+much to Christianize the Slavs. At Bishop Gerold&rsquo;s instigation
+Helmold wrote his <i>Chronica Slavorum</i>, a history of the conquest
+and conversion of the Slavonic countries from the time of
+Charlemagne. For the life and times of Henry the Lion, duke of
+Saxony, Helmold&rsquo;s chronicle, as that of a contemporary who had
+exceptional means for gaining information, is of first-rate
+importance. The history was continued down to 1209 by Abbot
+Arnold of Lübeck.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Chronica</i> were first edited by Siegmund Schorkel (Frankfort
+a. M., 1556). The best edition is by J. M. Lappenberg in <i>Mon.
+Germ. hist. scriptores</i>, xxi. (1869). For critical works on the
+<i>Chronica</i> see A. Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi</i>, s. &ldquo;Helmoldus.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELMOND,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a town in the province of North Brabant, Holland,
+on the small river Aa, and on the canal (Zuid-Willems Vaart)
+between &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch and Maastricht, 24½ m. by rail W.N.W.
+of Venlo. It is connected by steam tramway with &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch
+(21 m. N.W.), a branch line northwards to Osch being
+given off at Veghel. Pop. (1900) 11,465. The castle of Helmond,
+built in 1402, is a beautiful specimen of architecture, and among
+the other buildings of note in the town are the spacious church
+of St Lambert, the Reformed church and the town hall. Helmond
+is one of the industrial centres of the province, and possesses
+over a score of factories for cotton and silk weaving, cotton
+printing, dyeing, iron founding, brewing, soap boiling and
+tobacco dressing, as well as engine works and a margarine
+factory. There is an art school in the town.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 2, by Various
+
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+</body>
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+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 2
+       "Hearing" to "Helmond"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 23, 2012 [EBook #39521]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SL 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HEAT: "This line of reasoning does not appear quite
+      satisfactory, because it is tacitly assumed, in the reasoning by
+      which Carnot's principle was established, ..." 'tacitly' amended
+      from 'tactitly'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE: "Clement himself, taking it for
+      granted that an epistle to Hebrews must have been written in
+      Hebrew, supposes that Luke translated it for the Greeks." 'been'
+      amended from 'beeen'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEBRIDES, THE: "The United Free Church has a strong hold on
+      the people, but in a few of the islands the Roman Catholics have a
+      great following." 'people' amended feom 'poeple'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEBRIDES, THE: "A new system of management and high rents
+      was imposed, in consequence of which numbers of the tacksmen, or
+      large tenants, emigrated to North America." 'was' amended from
+      'were'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEBRON: "It is an enclosure measuring 112 ft. east and west
+      by 198 north and south, surrounded with high rampart walls of
+      masonry similar in size and dressing to that of the Jerusalem Haram
+      walls." 'similar' amended from 'similiar'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEINE, HEINRICH: "... the beginning of a new era in German
+      journalism and a healthy revolt against the unwieldy prose of the
+      Romantic period." 'unwieldy' amended from 'unwieldly'.
+
+    ARTICLE HELIOMETER: "The reader is referred to that paper for an
+      exhaustive history and discussion of the instrument." 'instrument'
+      amended from 'intrument'.
+
+    ARTICLE HELIUM: "M. Travers, G. Senter and A. Jacquerod (Phil.
+      Trans. A. 1903, 200, p. 105) carefully examined the behaviour of a
+      constant volume gas thermometer filled with helium." 'behaviour'
+      amended from 'behavour'.
+
+    ARTICLE HELLENISM: "It has even been thought that some developments
+      of the Egyptian religion are due to Hellenistic influence, ..."
+      'Egyptian' amended from 'Egyptain'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XIII, SLICE II
+
+             HEARING to HELMOND
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HEARING                            HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH
+  HEARN, LAFCADIO                    HEIDELBERG (town of Germany)
+  HEARNE, SAMUEL                     HEIDELBERG (town of Transvaal)
+  HEARNE, THOMAS                     HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE
+  HEARSE                             HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON
+  HEART                              HEIDENHEIM
+  HEART-BURIAL                       HEIFER
+  HEARTH                             HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON
+  HEARTS                             HEIJERMANS, HERMANN
+  HEAT                               HEILBRONN
+  HEATH, BENJAMIN                    HEILIGENSTADT
+  HEATH, NICHOLAS                    HEILSBERG
+  HEATH, WILLIAM                     HEILSBRONN
+  HEATH                              HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN
+  HEATHCOAT, JOHN                    HEIM, FRANCOIS JOSEPH
+  HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT             HEIMDAL
+  HEATHEN                            HEINE, HEINRICH
+  HEATHFIELD, GEORGE ELIOTT          HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB
+  HEATING                            HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH
+  HEAVEN                             HEINICKE, SAMUEL
+  HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH        HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM
+  HEBBURN                            HEINSIUS, DANIEL
+  HEBDEN BRIDGE                      HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES
+  HEBE                               HEIR
+  HEBEL, JOHANN PETER                HEIRLOOM
+  HEBER, REGINALD                    HEJAZ
+  HEBER, RICHARD                     HEJIRA
+  HEBERDEN, WILLIAM                  HEL
+  HEBERT, EDMOND                     HELDENBUCH, DAS
+  HEBERT, JACQUES RENE               HELDER
+  HEBREW LANGUAGE                    HELEN
+  HEBREW LITERATURE                  HELENA, ST
+  HEBREW RELIGION                    HELENA (Arkansas, U.S.A.)
+  HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE            HELENA (Montana, U.S.A.)
+  HEBRIDES, THE                      HELENSBURGH
+  HEBRON                             HELENUS
+  HECATAEUS OF ABDERA                HELGAUD
+  HECATAEUS OF MILETUS               HELGESEN, POVL
+  HECATE                             HELIACAL
+  HECATOMB                           HELIAND
+  HECATO OF RHODES                   HELICON (mountain range)
+  HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL       HELICON (contrabass tuba)
+  HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS               HELIGOLAND
+  HECKMONDWIKE                       HELIOCENTRIC
+  HECTOR                             HELIODORUS
+  HECUBA                             HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS)
+  HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ                HELIOGRAPH
+  HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER            HELIOMETER
+  HEDGEHOG                           HELIOPOLIS
+  HEDGES AND FENCES                  HELIOSTAT
+  HEDON                              HELIOTROPE
+  HEDONISM                           HELIOZOA
+  HEEL                               HELIUM
+  HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN              HELIX
+  HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN               HELL
+  HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ          HELLANICUS
+  HEER, OSWALD                       HELLEBORE
+  HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG      HELLENISM
+  HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON             HELLER, STEPHEN
+  HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH     HELLESPONT
+  HEGEMON OF THASOS                  HELLEVOETSLUIS
+  HEGEMONY                           HELLIN
+  HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA               HELLO, ERNEST
+  HEGESIPPUS (Athenian orator)       HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK
+  HEGESIPPUS (early Christian writer) HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON
+  HEGESIPPUS (author of Jewish War)  HELMET
+  HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER       HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG VON
+  HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG              HELMOLD (historian)
+  HEIDE                              HELMOND (town in Holland)
+
+
+
+
+HEARING (formed from the verb "to hear," O. Eng. _hyran_, _heran_, &c.,
+a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. _horen_, Dutch _hooren_, &c.; the O.
+Teut. form is seen in Goth. _hausjan_; the initial _h_ makes any
+connexion with "ear," Lat. _audire_, or Gr. [Greek: akouein] very
+doubtful), in physiology, the function of the ear (q.v.), and the
+general term for the sense or special sensation, the cause of which is
+an excitation of the auditory nerves by the vibrations of sonorous
+bodies. The anatomy of the ear is described in the separate article on
+that organ. A description of sonorous vibrations is given in the article
+SOUND; here we shall consider the transmission of such vibrations from
+the external ear to the auditory nerve, and the physiological characters
+of auditory sensation.
+
+1. _Transmission in External Ear._--The external ear consists of the
+_pinna_, or auricle, and the _external auditory meatus_, or canal, at
+the bottom of which we find the _membrana tympani_, or drum head. In
+many animals the auricle is trumpet-shaped, and, being freely movable by
+muscles, serves to collect sonorous waves coming from various
+directions. The auricle of the human ear presents many irregularities of
+surface. If these irregularities are abolished by filling them up with a
+soft material such as wax or oil, leaving the entrance to the canal
+free, experiment shows that the intensity of sounds is weakened, and
+that there is more difficulty in judging of their direction. When waves
+of sound strike the auricle, they are partly reflected outwards, while
+the remainder, impinging at various angles, undergo a number of
+reflections so as to be directed into the auditory canal. Vibrations are
+transmitted along the auditory canal, partly by the air it contains and
+partly by its walls, to the membrana tympani. The absence of the
+auricle, as the result of accident or injury, does not cause diminution
+of hearing. In the auditory canal waves of sound are reflected from side
+to side until they reach the membrana tympani. From the obliquity in
+position and peculiar curvature of this membrane, most of the waves
+strike it nearly perpendicularly, and in the most advantageous
+direction.
+
+2. _Transmission in Middle Ear._--The middle ear is a small cavity, the
+walls of which are rigid with the exception of the portions consisting
+of the membrana tympani, and the membrane of the round window and of the
+apparatus filling the oval window. This cavity communicates with the
+pharynx by the _Eustachian tube_, which forms an air-tube between the
+pharynx and the tympanum for the purpose of regulating pressure on the
+membrana tympani. During rest the tube is open, but it is closed during
+the act of deglutition. As this action is frequently taking place, not
+only when food or drink is introduced, but when saliva is swallowed, it
+is evident that the pressure of the air in the tympanum will be kept in
+a state of equilibrium with that of the external air on the outer
+surface of the membrana tympani, and that thus the membrana tympani will
+be rendered independent of variations of atmospheric pressure such as
+occur when we descend in a diving bell or ascend in a balloon. By a
+forcible expiration, the oral and nasal cavities being closed, air may
+be driven into the tympanum, while a forcible inspiration (Valsalva's
+experiment) will draw air from that cavity. In the first case, the
+membrana tympani will bulge outwards, in the second case inwards, and in
+both, from excessive stretching of the membrane, there will be partial
+deafness, especially for sounds of high pitch. Permanent occlusion of
+the tube is one of the most common causes of deafness.
+
+The membrana tympani is capable of being set into vibration by a sound
+of any pitch included in the range of perceptible sounds. It responds
+exactly as to number of vibrations (pitch), intensity of vibrations
+(intensity), and complexity of vibration (quality or timbre).
+Consequently we can hear a sound of any given pitch, of a certain
+intensity, and in its own specific timbre or quality. Generally
+speaking, very high tones are heard more easily than low tones of the
+same intensity. As the membrana tympani is not only fixed by its margin
+to a ring or tube of bone, but is also adherent to the handle of the
+malleus, which follows its movements, its vibrations meet with
+considerable resistance. This diminishes the intensity of its
+vibrations, and prevents also the continued vibration of the membrane
+after an external pressure has ceased, so that a sound is not heard much
+longer than its physical cause lasts. The tension of the membrane may be
+affected (1) by differences of pressure on the two surfaces of the
+membrana tympani, as may occur during forcible expiration or
+inspiration, and (2) by muscular action, due to contraction of the
+_tensor tympani_ muscle. This small muscle arises from the apex of the
+petrous temporal and the cartilage of the Eustachian tube, enters the
+tympanum at its anterior wall, and is inserted into the malleus near its
+root. The handle of the malleus is inserted between the layers of the
+membrana tympani, and, as the malleus and incus move round an axis
+passing through the neck of the malleus from before backwards, the
+action of the muscle is to pull the membrana tympani inwards towards the
+tympanic cavity in the form of a cone, the meridians of which are not
+straight but curved, with convexity outwards. When the muscle contracts,
+the handle of the malleus is drawn still farther inwards, and thus a
+greater tension of the tympanic membrane is produced. On relaxation of
+the muscle, the membrane returns to its position of equilibrium by its
+elasticity and by the elasticity of the chain of bones. This power of
+varying the tension of the membrane is an accommodating mechanism for
+receiving and transmitting sounds of different pitch. With different
+degrees of tension it will respond more readily to sounds of different
+pitch. Thus, when the membrane is tense, it will readily respond to high
+sounds, while relaxation will be the condition most adapted for low
+tones. In addition, increased tension of the membrane, by increasing the
+resistance, will diminish the intensity of vibrations. This is
+especially the case for sounds of low pitch.
+
+The vibrations of the membrana tympani are transmitted to the internal
+ear partly by the air which the middle ear or tympanum contains, and
+partly by the chain of bones, consisting of the malleus, incus and
+stapes. Of these, transmission by the chain of bones is by far the most
+important. In birds and in the amphibia, this chain is represented by a
+single rod-like ossicle, the _columella_, but in man the two
+membranes--the membrana tympani and the membrane filling the fenestra
+ovalis--are connected by a compound lever consisting of three bones,
+namely, the _malleus_, or hammer, inserted into the membrana tympani,
+the _incus_, or anvil, and the _stapes_, or stirrup, the base of which
+is attached to a membrane covering the oval window. It must also be
+noted that in the transmission of vibrations of the membrana tympani to
+the fluid in the labyrinth or internal ear, through the oval window, the
+chain of ossicles vibrates as a whole and acts efficiently, although its
+length may be only a fraction of the wave-length of the sound
+transmitted. The chain is a lever in which the handle of the malleus
+forms the long arm, the fulcrum is where the short process of the incus
+abuts against the wall of the tympanum, while the long process of the
+incus, carrying the stapes, forms the short arm. The mechanism is a
+lever of the second order. Measurements show that the ratio of the
+lengths of the two arms is as 1.5 : 1; the ratio of the resulting force
+at the stapes is therefore as 1 : 1.5; while the amplitudes of the
+movements at the tip of the handle of the malleus and the stapes is as
+1.5 : 1. Hence, while there is a diminution in amplitude there is a gain
+in power, and thus the pressures are conveyed with great efficiency from
+the membrana tympani to the labyrinth, while the amplitude of the
+oscillation is diminished so as to be adapted to the small capacity of
+the labyrinth. As the drum-head is nearly twenty times greater in area
+than the membrane covering the oval window, with which the base of the
+stapes is connected, the energy of the movements of the membrana tympani
+is concentrated on an area twenty times smaller; hence the pressure is
+increased thirtyfold (1.5 X 20) when it acts at the base of the stapes.
+Experiments on the human ear have shown that the movement of greatest
+amplitude was at the tip of the handle of the malleus, 0.76 mm.; the
+movement of the tip of the long arm process of the incus was 0.21 mm.;
+while the greatest amplitude at the base of the stapes was only .0714
+mm. Other observations have shown the movements at the stapes to have a
+still smaller amplitude, varying from 0.001 to 0.032 mm. With tones of
+feeble intensity the movements must be almost infinitesimal. There may
+also be very minute transverse movements at the base of the stapes.
+
+3. _Transmission in the Internal Ear._--The internal ear is composed of
+the labyrinth, formed of the vestibule or central part, the semicircular
+canals, and the cochlea, each of which consists of an osseous and a
+membranous portion. The osseous labyrinth may be regarded as an osseous
+mould in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, lined by tesselated
+endothelium, and containing a small quantity of fluid called the
+_perilymph_. In this mould, partially surrounded by, and to some extent
+floating in, this fluid, there is the membranous labyrinth, in certain
+parts of which we find the terminal apparatus in connexion with the
+auditory nerve, immersed in another fluid called the _endolymph_. The
+membranous labyrinth consists of a vestibular portion formed by two
+small sac-like dilatations, called the _saccule_ and the _utricle_, the
+latter of which communicates with the semicircular canals by five
+openings. Each canal consists of a tube, bulging out at each extremity
+so as to form the so-called _ampulla_, in which, on a projecting ridge,
+called the _crista acustica_, there are cells bearing long _auditory
+hairs_, which are the peripheral end-organs of the vestibular branches
+of the auditory nerve. The cochlear division of the membranous labyrinth
+consists of the _ductus cochlearis_, a tube of triangular form fitting
+in between the two cavities in the cochlea, called the _scala
+vestibuli_, because it commences in the vestibule, and the _scala
+tympani_, because it ends in the tympanum, at the round window. These
+two scalae communicate at the apex of the cochlea. The roof of the
+ductus cochlearis is formed by a thin membrane called the _membrane of
+Reissner_, while its floor consists of the _basilar membrane_, on which
+we find the remarkable _organ of Corti_, which constitutes the terminal
+organ of the cochlear division of the auditory nerve. It is sufficient
+to state here that this organ consists essentially of an arrangement of
+epithelial cells bearing hairs which are in communication with the
+terminal filaments of this portion of the auditory nerve, and that
+groups of these hairs pass through holes in a closely investing
+membrane, _membrana reticularis_, which may act as a damping apparatus,
+so as quickly to stop their movements. The ductus cochlearis and the two
+scalae are filled with fluid. Sonorous vibrations may reach the fluid in
+the labyrinth by three different ways--(1) by the osseous walls of the
+labyrinth, (2) by the air in the tympanum and the round window, and (3)
+by the base of the stapes inserted into the oval window.
+
+When the head is plunged into water, or brought into direct contact with
+any vibrating body, vibrations must be transmitted directly. Vibrations
+of the air in the mouth and in the nasal passages are also communicated
+directly to the walls of the cranium, and thus pass to the labyrinth. In
+like manner, we may experience auditive sensations, such as blowing,
+rubbing and hissing sounds, due to muscular contraction or to the
+passage of blood in vessels close to the auditory organ. It is doubtful
+whether any vibrations are communicated to the fluid in the labyrinth by
+the round window. Vibrations which cause hearing are communicated by the
+chain of bones. When the base of the stirrup is pushed into the oval
+window, the pressure in the labyrinth increases, and, as the only mobile
+part of the wall of the labyrinth is the membrane covering the round
+window, this membrane is forced outwards; when the base of the stirrup
+moves outwards a reverse action takes place. Thus the fluid of the
+labyrinth receives a series of pulses isochronous with the movements of
+the base of the stirrup, and these pulses affect the terminal apparatus
+in connexion with the auditory nerve.
+
+The sacs of the internal ear, known as the utricle and saccule, receive
+the impulses of the base of the stapes. They are organs connected with
+the perception of sounds as sounds, without reference to pitch or
+quality. For the _analysis_ of tone a cochlea is necessary. Even in
+mammals all the parts of the ear may be destroyed or affected by
+disease, except these sacs, without causing complete deafness.
+
+It has been suggested by Lee (_Amer. Jour. of Physiol._ vol. i. No. 1,
+p. 128) that in fishes the sac has nothing to do with hearing, but
+serves for the perception of movements, such as those of rotation and
+translation through space, movements much coarser than those that form
+the physical basis of sound. He considers, also, that as fishes, with
+few exceptions, are dumb, they are also deaf. In the fish there are
+peculiar organs along the lateral line which are known to be connected
+with the perception of movements of the body as a whole, and Beard
+(_Zool. Anz. Leipzig_, 1884, Bd. vii. S. 140) has attempted to trace a
+phylogenetic connexion between the sacs of the internal ear and the
+organs in the lateral line. According to this view, when animals became
+air-breathers, a part of the ear (the _papilla acustica basilaris_) was
+gradually evolved for the perception of delicate vibrations of sound.
+(See EQUILIBRIUM.)
+
+It is by means of the cochlea that we discriminate pitch, hear beats,
+and are affected by quality of tone.
+
+Since the size of the membranous labyrinth is so small, measuring, in
+man, not more than 1/2 in. in length by 1/8 in. in diameter at its
+widest part, and since it is a chamber consisting partly of conduits of
+very irregular form, it is impossible to state accurately the course of
+vibrations transmitted to it by impulses communicated from the base of
+the stirrup. In the cochlea vibrations must pass from the saccule along
+the scala vestibuli to the apex, thus affecting the membrane of
+Reissner, which forms its roof; then, passing through the opening at the
+apex (the _helicotrema_), they must descend by the scala tympani to the
+round window, and affect in their passage the membrana basilaris, on
+which the organ of Corti is situated. From the round window impulses
+must be reflected backwards, but how they affect the advancing impulses
+is not known. But the problem is even more complex when we take into
+account the fact that impulses are transmitted simultaneously to the
+utricle and to the semicircular canals communicating with it by five
+openings. The mode of action of these vibrations or impulses upon the
+nervous terminations is still unknown; but to appreciate critically the
+hypothesis which has been advanced to explain it, it is necessary, in
+the first place, to refer to some of the general characters of auditory
+sensation.
+
+4. _General Characters of Auditory Sensations._--Certain conditions are
+necessary for excitation of the auditory nerve sufficient to produce a
+sensation. In the first place, the vibrations must have a certain
+_amplitude_ and _energy_; if too feeble, no impression will be produced.
+
+Various physicists have attempted to measure the sensitiveness of the
+ear by estimating the amplitude of the molecular movements necessary to
+call forth the feeblest audible sound. Thus A. Topler and L. Boltzmann,
+on data founded on experiments with organ pipes, state that the ear is
+affected by vibrations of molecules of the air not more in amplitude
+than .0004 mm. at the ear, or 0.1 of the wave-length of green light, and
+that the energy of such a vibration on the drum-head is not more than
+1/543 billionth kilog., or 1/17th of that produced upon an equal surface
+of the retina by a single candle at the same distance (_Ann. d. Phys. u.
+Chem._, Leipzig. 1870, Bd. cxli. S. 321). Lord Rayleigh, by two other
+methods, arrived at the conclusion "that the streams of energy required
+to influence the eye and ear are of the same order of magnitude." He
+estimated the amplitude of the movement of the aerial particles, with a
+sound just audible, as less than the ten-millionth of a centimetre, and
+the energy emitted when the sound was first becoming audible, at 42.1
+ergs per second. He also states that in considering the amplitude or
+condensation in progressive aerial waves, at a distance of 27.4 metres
+from a tuning-fork, the maximum condensation was = 6.0 X 10^-9 cm., a
+result showing "that the ear is able to recognize the addition or
+subtraction of densities far less than those to be found in our highest
+vacua" (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1877, vol. xxvi. p. 248; _Lond. Edin. and
+Dub. Phil. Mag._, 1894, vol. xxxviii. p. 366).
+
+In the next place, vibrations must have a certain _duration_ to be
+perceived; and lastly, to excite a sensation of a continuous musical
+sound, a certain _number_ of impulses must occur in a given interval of
+time. The lower limit is about 30, and the upper about 30,000 vibrations
+per second. Below 30, the individual impulses may be observed, and above
+30,000 few ears can detect any sound at all. The extreme upper limit is
+not more than 35,000 vibrations per second. Auditory sensations are of
+two kinds--noises and musical sounds. _Noises_ are caused by impulses
+which are not regular in intensity or duration, or are not periodic, or
+they may be caused by a series of musical sounds occurring
+instantaneously so as to produce discords, as when we place our hand at
+random on the keyboard of a piano. _Musical tones_ are produced by
+periodic and regular vibrations. In musical sounds three characters are
+prominent--intensity, pitch and quality. _Intensity_ depends on the
+amplitude of the vibration, and a greater or lesser amplitude of the
+vibration will cause a corresponding movement of the transmitting
+apparatus, and a corresponding intensity of excitation of the terminal
+apparatus. _Pitch_, as a sensation, depends on the length of time in
+which a single vibration is executed, or, in other words, the number of
+vibrations in a given interval of time. The ear is capable of
+appreciating the relative pitch or height of a sound as compared with
+another, although it may not ascertain precisely the absolute pitch of a
+sound. What we call an acute or high tone is produced by a large number
+of vibrations, while a grave or low tone is caused by few. The musical
+tones which can be used with advantage range between 40 and 4000
+vibrations per second, extending thus from 6 to 7 octaves. According to
+E. H. Weber, practised musicians can perceive a difference of pitch
+amounting to only the 1/64th of a semitone, but this is far beyond
+average attainment. In a few individuals, and especially in early life,
+there may be an appreciation of absolute pitch. _Quality_ or _timbre_
+(or _Klang_) is that peculiar characteristic of a musical sound by which
+we may identify it as proceeding from a particular instrument or from a
+particular human voice. It depends on the fact that many waves of sound
+that reach the ear are compound wave systems, built up of constituent
+waves, each of which is capable of exciting a sensation of a simple tone
+if it be singled out and reinforced by a resonator (see SOUND), and
+which may sometimes be heard without a resonator, after special practice
+and tuition. Thus it appears that the ear must have some arrangement by
+which it resolves every wave system, however complex, into simple
+pendular vibrations. When we listen to a sound of any quality we
+recognize that it is of a certain pitch. This depends on the number of
+vibrations of one tone, predominant in intensity over the others, called
+the fundamental or ground tone, or first partial tone. The quality, or
+timbre, depends on the number and intensity of other tones added to it.
+These are termed _harmonic_ or _partial tones_, and they are related to
+the first partial or fundamental tone in a very simple manner, being
+multiples of the fundamental tone: thus--
+
+                Fundamental               Upper Partials or Harmonics.
+                   Tone
+  Notes            do^1      do^2 sol^2 do^3 mi^3 sol^3 si[flat]^3 do^4 re^4 mi^4
+  Partial tones     1         2     3    4    5     6       7       8    9    10
+  Number of
+    vibrations      33        66    99  132  165   198     231     264  297   330
+
+When a simple tone, or one free from partials, is heard, it gives rise
+to a simple, soft, somewhat insipid sensation, as may be obtained by
+blowing across the mouth of an open bottle or by a tuning-fork. The
+lower partials added to the fundamental tone give softness combined with
+richness; while the higher, especially if they be very high, produce a
+brilliant and thrilling effect, as is caused by the brass instruments of
+an orchestra. Such being the facts, how may they be explained
+physiologically?
+
+Little is yet known regarding the mode of action of the vibrations of
+the fluid in the labyrinth upon the terminal apparatus connected with
+the auditory nerve. There can be no doubt that it is a mechanical
+action, a communication of impulses to delicate hair-like processes, by
+the movements of which the nervous filaments are irritated. In the human
+ear it has been estimated that there are about 3000 small arches formed
+by the _rods of Corti._ Each arch rests on the basilar membrane, and
+supports rows of cells having minute hair-like processes. It would
+appear also that the filaments of the auditory nerve terminate in the
+basilar membrane, and possibly they may be connected with the
+hair-cells. At one time it was supposed by Helmholtz that these fibres
+of Corti were elastic and that they were tuned for particular sounds, so
+as to form a regular series corresponding to all the tones audible to
+the human ear. Thus 2800 fibres distributed over the tones of seven
+octaves would give 400 fibres for each octave, or nearly 33 for a
+semitone. Helmholtz put forward the hypothesis that, when a pendular
+vibration reaches the ear, it excites by sympathetic vibration the fibre
+of Corti which is tuned for its proper number of vibrations. If, then,
+different fibres are tuned to tones of different pitch, it is evident
+that we have here a mechanism which, by exciting different nerve fibres,
+will give rise to sensations of pitch. When the vibration is not simple
+but compound, in consequence of the blending of vibrations corresponding
+to various harmonics or partial tones, the ear has the power of
+resolving this compound vibration into its elements. It can only do so
+by different fibres responding to the constituent vibrations of the
+sound--one for the fundamental tone being stronger, and giving the
+sensation of a particular pitch to the sound, and the others,
+corresponding to the upper partial tones, being weaker, and causing
+undefined sensations, which are so blended together in consciousness as
+to terminate in a complex sensation of a tone of a certain quality or
+timbre. It would appear at first sight that 33 fibres of Corti for a
+semitone are not sufficient to enable us to detect all the gradations of
+pitch in that interval, since, as has been stated above, trained
+musicians may distinguish a difference of 1/64th of a semitone. To meet
+this difficulty, Helmholtz stated that if a sound is produced, the pitch
+of which may be supposed to come between two adjacent fibres of Corti,
+both of these will be set into sympathetic vibration, but the one which
+comes nearest to the pitch of the sound will vibrate with greater
+intensity than the other, and that consequently the pitch of that sound
+would be thus appreciated. These theoretical views of Helmholtz have
+derived much support from experiments of V. Hensen, who observed that
+certain hairs on the antennae of _Mysis_, a Crustacean, when seen with a
+low microscopic power, vibrated with certain tones produced by a keyed
+horn. It was seen that certain tones of the horn set some hairs into
+strong vibration, and other tones other hairs. Each hair responded also
+to several tones of the horn. Thus one hair responded strongly to
+d[sharp] and d'[sharp], more weakly to g, and very weakly to G. It was
+probably tuned to some pitch between d" and d"[sharp]. (_Studien uber
+das Gehororgan der Decapoden_, Leipzig, 1863.)
+
+Histological researches have led to a modification of this hypothesis.
+It has been found that the rods or arches of Corti are stiff structures,
+not adapted for vibrating, but apparently constituting a support for the
+hair-cells. It is also known that there are no rods of Corti in the
+cochlea of birds, which are capable nevertheless of appreciating pitch.
+Hensen and Helmholtz suggested the view that not only may the segments
+of the membrana basilaris be stretched more in the radial than in the
+longitudinal direction, but different segments may be stretched radially
+with different degrees of tension so as to resemble a series of tense
+strings of gradually increasing length. Each string would then respond
+to a vibration of a particular pitch communicated to it by the
+hair-cells. The exact mechanism of the hair-cells and of the membrana
+reticularis, which looks like a damping apparatus, is unknown.
+
+5. _Physiological Characters of Auditory Sensation._--Under ordinary
+circumstances auditory sensations are referred to the outer world. When
+we hear a sound, we associate it with some external cause, and it
+appears to originate in a particular place or to come in a particular
+direction. This feeling of _exteriority_ of sound seems to require
+transmission through the membrana tympani. Sounds which are sent through
+the walls of the cranium, as when the head is immersed in, and the
+external auditory canals are filled with, water, appear to originate in
+the body itself.
+
+An auditory sensation lasts a short time after the cessation of the
+exciting cause, so that a number of separate vibrations, each capable of
+exciting a distinct sensation if heard alone, may succeed each other so
+rapidly that they are fused into a single sensation. If we listen to the
+puffs of a syren, or to vibrating tongues of low pitch, the single
+sensation is usually produced by about 30 or 35 vibrations per second;
+but when we listen to beats of considerable intensity, produced by two
+adjacent tones of sufficiently high pitch, the ear may follow as many as
+132 intermissions per second.
+
+The sensibility of the ear for sounds of different pitch is not the
+same. It is more sensitive for acute than for grave sounds, and it is
+probable that the maximum degree of acuteness is for sounds produced by
+about 3000 vibrations per second, that is near fa^5[sharp]. Sensibility
+as to pitch varies much with the individual. Thus some musicians may
+detect a difference of 1/1000th of the total number of vibrations, while
+other persons may have difficulty in appreciating a semitone.
+
+  6. _Analytical Power of the Ear._--When we listen to a compound tone,
+  we have the power of picking out these partials from the general mass
+  of sound. It is known that the frequencies of the partials as compared
+  with that of the fundamental tone are simple multiples of the
+  frequency of the fundamental, and also that physically the waves of
+  the partials so blend with each other as to produce waves of very
+  complicated forms. Yet the ear, or the ear and the brain together, can
+  resolve this complicated wave-form into its constituents, and this is
+  done more easily if we listen to the sound with resonators, the pitch
+  of which corresponds, or nearly corresponds, to the frequencies of the
+  partials. Much discussion has taken place as to how the ear
+  accomplishes this analysis. All are agreed that there is a complicated
+  apparatus in the cochlea which may serve this purpose; but while some
+  are of opinion that this structure is sufficient, others hold that the
+  analysis takes place in the brain. When a complicated wave falls on
+  the drum-head, it must move out and in in a way corresponding to the
+  variations of pressure, and these variations will, in a single
+  vibration, depend on the greater or less degree of complexity of the
+  wave. Thus a single tone will cause a movement like that of a
+  pendulum, a simple pendular vibration, while a complex tone, although
+  occurring in the same duration of time, will cause the drum-head to
+  move out and in in a much more complicated manner. The complex
+  movement will be conveyed to the base of the stapes, thence to the
+  vestibule, and thence to the cochlea, in which we find the ductus
+  cochlearis containing the organ of Corti. It is to be noted also that
+  the parts in the cochlea are so small as to constitute only a fraction
+  of the wave-length of most tones audible to the human ear. Now it is
+  evident that the cochlea must act either as a whole, all the nerve
+  fibres being affected by any variations of pressure, or the nerve
+  fibres may have a selective action, each fibre being excited by a wave
+  of a definite period, or there may exist small vibratile bodies
+  between the nerve filaments and the pressures sent into the organ. The
+  last hypothesis gives the most rational explanation of the phenomena,
+  and on it is founded a theory generally accepted and associated with
+  the names of Thomas Young and Hermann Helmholtz. It may be shortly
+  stated as follows:--
+
+  "(1) In the cochlea there are vibrators, tuned to frequencies within
+  the limits of hearing, say from 30 to 40,000 or 50,000 vibs. per
+  second. (2) Each vibrator is capable of exciting its appropriate nerve
+  filament or filaments, so that a nervous impulse, corresponding to the
+  frequency of the vibrator, is transmitted to the brain--not
+  corresponding necessarily, as regards the number of nervous impulses,
+  but in such a way that when the impulses along a particular nerve
+  filament reach the brain, a state of consciousness is aroused which
+  does correspond with the number of the physical stimuli and with the
+  period of the auditory vibrator. (3) The mass of each vibrator is such
+  that it will be easily set in motion, and after the stimulus has
+  ceased it will readily come to rest. (4) Damping arrangements exist in
+  the ear, so as quickly to extinguish movements of the vibrators. (5)
+  If a simple tone falls on the ear, there is a pendular movement of the
+  base of the stapes, which will affect all the parts, causing them to
+  move; but any part whose natural period is nearly the same as that of
+  the sound will respond on the principle of sympathetic resonance, a
+  particular nerve filament or nerve filaments will be affected, and a
+  sensation of a tone of definite pitch will be experienced, thus
+  accounting for discrimination in pitch. (6) Intensity or loudness will
+  depend on the amplitude of movement of the vibrating body, and
+  consequently on the intensity of nerve stimulation. (7) If a compound
+  wave of pressure be communicated by the base of the stapes, it will be
+  resolved into its constituents by the vibrators corresponding to tones
+  existing in it, each picking out its appropriate portion of the wave,
+  and thus irritating corresponding nerve filaments, so that nervous
+  impulses are transmitted to the brain, where they are fused in such a
+  way as to give rise to a sensation of a particular quality or
+  character, but still so imperfectly fused that each constituent, by a
+  strong effort of attention, may be specially recognized" (article
+  "Ear," by M'Kendrick, Schafer's _Text-Book_, _loc. cit._).
+
+  The structure of the ductus cochlearis meets the demands of this
+  theory, it is highly differentiated, and it can be shown that in it
+  there are a sufficient number of elements to account for the delicate
+  appreciation of pitch possessed by the human ear, and on the basis
+  that the highly trained ear of a violinist can detect a difference of
+  1/64th of a semitone (M'Kendrick, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed._, 1896, vol.
+  xxxviii. p. 780; also Schafer's _Text-Book_, loc. cit.). Measurements
+  of the cochlea have also shown such differentiation as to make it
+  difficult to imagine that it can act as a whole. A much less complex
+  organ might have served this purpose (M'Kendrick, _op. cit._). The
+  following table, given by Retzius (_Das Gehororgan der Wirbelthiere_,
+  Bd. ii. S. 356), shows differentiations in the cochlea of man, the cat
+  and the rabbit, all of which no doubt hear tones, although in all
+  probability they have very different powers of discrimination:--
+
+                                       Man.      Cat.    Rabbit.
+
+    Ear-teeth                         2,490     2,430     1,550
+    Holes in habenula for nerves      3,985     2,780     1,650
+    Inner rods of Corti's organ       5,590     4,700     2,800
+    Outer rods of Corti's organ       3,848     3,300     1,900
+    Inner hair-cells (one row)        3,487     2,600     1,600
+    Outer hair-cells (several rows)  11,750     9,900     6,100
+    Fibres in basilar membrane       23,750    15,700    10,500
+
+  7. _Dissonance._--The theory can also be used to explain dissonance.
+  When two tones sufficiently near in pitch are simultaneously sounded,
+  beats are produced. If the beats are few in number they can be
+  counted, because they give rise to separate and distinct sensations;
+  but if they are numerous they blend so as to give roughness or
+  dissonance to the interval. The roughness or dissonance is most
+  disagreeable with about 33 beats falling on the ear per second. When
+  two compound tones are sounded, say a minor third on a harmonium in
+  the lower part of the keyboard, then we have beats not only between
+  the primaries, but also between the upper partials of each of the
+  primaries. The beating distance may, for tones of medium pitch, be
+  fixed at about a minor third, but this interval will expand for
+  intervals on low tones and contract for intervals on high ones. This
+  explains why the same interval in the lower part of the scale may give
+  slow beats that are not disagreeable, while in the higher part it may
+  cause harsh and unpleasant dissonance. The partials up to the seventh
+  are beyond beating distance, but above this they come close together.
+  Consequently instruments (such as tongues, or reeds) that abound in
+  upper partials cause an intolerable dissonance if one of the primaries
+  is slightly out of tune. Some intervals are pleasant and satisfying
+  when produced on instruments having few partials in their tones. These
+  are concords. Others are less so, and they may give rise to an
+  uncomfortable sensation. These are discords. In this way unison, 1/1,
+  minor third 6/5, major third 5/4, fourth 4/3, fifth 3/2, minor sixth
+  8/5, major sixth 5/3 and octave 2/1, are all concords; while a second
+  9/8, minor seventh 16/9 and major seventh 15/8, are discords.
+  Helmholtz compares the sensation of dissonance to that of a flickering
+  light on the eye. "Something similar I have found to be produced by
+  simultaneously stimulating the skin, or margin of the lips, by
+  bristles attached to tuning-forks giving forth beats. If the frequency
+  of the forks is great, the sensation is that of a most disagreeable
+  tickling. It may be that the instinctive effort at analysis of tones
+  close in pitch causes the disagreeable sensation" (Schafer's
+  _Text-Book_, _op. cit._ p. 1187).
+
+  8. _Other Theories._--In 1865 Rennie objected to the analysis theory,
+  and urged that the cochlea acted as a whole (_Ztschr. f. rat. Med._,
+  Dritte Reihe, Bd. xxiv. Heft 1, S. 12-64). This view was revived by
+  Voltolini (Virchow's _Archiv_, Bd. c. S. 27) some years later, and in
+  1886 it was urged by E. Rutherford (_Rep. Brit. Assoc. Ad. Sc._,
+  1886), who compared the action of the cochlea to that of a telephone
+  plate. According to this theory, all the hairs of the auditory cells
+  vibrate to every note, and the hair-cells transform sound vibrations
+  into nerve vibrations or impulses, similar in frequency, amplitude and
+  character to the sound vibrations. There is no analysis in the
+  peripheral organ. A. D. Waller, in 1891 (_Proc. Physiol. Soc._, Jan.
+  20, 1891) suggested that the basilar membrane as a whole vibrates to
+  every note, thus repeating the vibrations of the membrana tympani; and
+  since the hair-cells move with the basilar membrane, they produce what
+  may be called pressure patterns against the tectorial membranes, and
+  filaments of the auditory nerve are stimulated by these pressures.
+  Waller admits a certain degree of peripheral analysis, but he
+  relegates ultimate analysis to the brain. These theories, dispensing
+  with peripheral analysis, leave out of account the highly complex
+  structure of the cochlea, or, in other words, they assign to that
+  structure a comparatively simple function which could be performed by
+  a simple membrane capable of vibrating. We find that the cochlea
+  becomes more elaborate as we ascend the scale of animals, until in
+  man, who possesses greater powers of analysis than any other being,
+  the number of hair-cells, fibres of the basilar membrane and arches of
+  Corti are all much increased in number (see Retzius's table, _supra_).
+  The principle of sympathetic resonance appears, therefore, to offer
+  the most likely solution of the problem. Hurst's view is that with
+  each movement of the stapes a wave is generated which travels up the
+  scala vestibuli, through the helicotrema into the scala tympani and
+  down the latter to the fenestra rotunda. The wave, however, is not
+  merely a movement of the basilar membrane, but an actual movement of
+  fluid or a transmission of pressure. As the one wave ascends while the
+  other descends, a pressure of the basilar membrane occurs at the point
+  where they meet; this causes the basilar membrane to move towards the
+  tectorial membrane, forcing this membrane suddenly against the apices
+  of the hair-cells, thus irritating the nerves. The point at which the
+  waves meet will depend on the time interval between the waves (Hurst,
+  "A New Theory of Hearing," _Trans. Biol. Soc. Liverpool_, 1895, vol.
+  ix. p. 321). More recently Max Mayer has advanced a theory somewhat
+  similar. He supposes that with each movement of the stapes
+  corresponding to a vibration, a wave travels up the scala vestibuli,
+  pressing the basilar membrane downwards. As it meets with resistance
+  in passing upwards, its amplitude therefore diminishes, and in this
+  way the distance up the scala through which the wave progresses will
+  be determined by its amplitude. The wave in its progress irritates a
+  certain number of nerve terminations, consequently feeble tones will
+  irritate only those nerve fibres that are near the fenestra ovalis,
+  while stronger tones will pass farther up and irritate a larger number
+  of nerve fibres the same number of times per unit of time. Pitch,
+  according to this view, depends on the number of stimuli per second,
+  while loudness depends on the number of nerve fibres irritated. Mayer
+  also applies the theory to the explanation of the powers of the
+  cochlea as an analyser, by supposing that with a compound tone these
+  are at maxima and minima of stimulation. As the compound wave travels
+  up the scala, portions of the wave corresponding to maxima and minima
+  die away in consecutive series, until only a maximum and minimum are
+  left; and, finally, as the wave travels farther, these also disappear.
+  With each maximum and minimum different parts of the basilar membrane
+  are affected, and affected a different number of times per second,
+  according to the frequencies of the partials existing in the compound
+  tone. Thus with a fifth, 2 : 3, there are three maxima and three
+  minima; but the compound tone is resolved into three tones having
+  vibration frequencies in the ratio of 3 : 2 : 1. According to Mayer,
+  we actually hear when a fifth is sounded tones of the relationship of
+  3 : 2 : 1, the last (1) being the differential tone. He holds, also,
+  that combinational tones are entirely subjective (Max Mayer, _Ztschr.
+  f. Psych. und Phys. d. Sinnesorgane_, Leipzig, Bd. xvi. and xvii.;
+  also _Verhandl. d. physiolog. Gesellsch. zu Berlin_, Feb. 18, 1898, S.
+  49). Two fatal objections can be urged to these theories, namely,
+  first, it is impossible to conceive of minute waves following each
+  other in rapid succession in the minute tubes forming the scalae--the
+  length of the scala being only a very small part of the wave-length of
+  the sound; and, secondly, neither theory takes into account the
+  differentiation of structure found in the epithelium of the organ of
+  Corti. Each push in and out of the base of the stapes must cause a
+  movement of the fluid, or a pressure, in the scalae as a whole.
+
+  There are difficulties in the way of applying the resonance theory to
+  the perception of noises. Noises have pitch, and also each noise has a
+  special character; if so, if the noise is analysed into its
+  constituents, why is it that it seems impossible to analyse a noise,
+  or to perceive any musical element in it? Helmholtz assumed that a
+  sound is noisy when the wave is irregular in rhythm, and he suggested
+  that the crista and macula acustica, structures that exist not in the
+  cochlea but in the vestibule, have to do with the perception of noise.
+  These structures, however, are concerned rather in the sense of the
+  perception of equilibrium than of sound (see EQUILIBRIUM).
+
+  9. Hitherto we have considered only the audition of a single sound,
+  but it is possible also to have simultaneous auditive sensations, as
+  in musical harmony. It is difficult to ascertain what is the limit
+  beyond which distinct auditory sensations may be perceived. We have in
+  listening to an orchestra a multiplicity of sensations which produces
+  a total effect, while, at the same time, we can with ease single out
+  and notice attentively the tones of one or two special instruments.
+  Thus the pleasure of music may arise partly from listening to
+  simultaneous, and partly from the effect of contrast or suggestion in
+  passing through successive, auditory sensations.
+
+  The principles of harmony belong to the subject of music (see
+  HARMONY), but it is necessary here briefly to refer to these from the
+  physiological point of view. If two musical sounds reach the ear at
+  the same moment, an agreeable or disagreeable sensation is
+  experienced, which may be termed a _concord_ or a _discord_, and it
+  can be shown by experiment with the syren that this depends upon the
+  vibrational numbers of the two tones. The octave (1 : 2), the twelfth
+  (1 : 3) and double octave (1 : 4) are absolutely consonant sounds; the
+  fifth (2 : 3) is said to be perfectly consonant; then follow, in the
+  direction of dissonance, the fourth (3 : 4), major sixth (3 : 5),
+  major third (4 : 5), minor sixth (5 : 8) and the minor third (5 : 6).
+  Helmholtz has attempted to account for this by the application of his
+  theory of _beats_.
+
+  Beats are observed when two sounds of nearly the same pitch are
+  produced together, and the number of beats per second is equal to the
+  difference of the number of vibrations of the two sounds. Beats give
+  rise to a peculiarly disagreeable intermittent sensation. The maximum
+  roughness of beats is attained by 33 per second; beyond 132 per
+  second, the individual impulses are blended into one uniform auditory
+  sensation. When two notes are sounded, say on a piano, not only may
+  the first, fundamental or prime tones beat, but partial tones of each
+  of the primaries may beat also, and as the difference of pitch of two
+  simultaneous sounds augments, the number of beats, both of prime tones
+  and of harmonics, augments also. The physiological effect of beats,
+  though these may not be individually distinguishable, is to give
+  roughness to the ear. If harmonics or partial tones of prime tones
+  coincide, there are no beats; if they do not coincide, the beats
+  produced will give a character of roughness to the interval. Thus in
+  the octave and twelfth, all the partial tones of the acute sound
+  coincide with the partial tones of the grave sound; in the fourth,
+  major sixth and major third, only two pairs of the partial tones
+  coincide, while in the minor sixth, minor third and minor seventh only
+  one pair of the harmonics coincide.
+
+  It is possible by means of beats to measure the sensitiveness of the
+  ear by determining the smallest difference in pitch that may give rise
+  to a beat. In no part of the scale can a difference smaller than 0.2
+  vibration per second be distinguished. The sensitiveness varies with
+  pitch. Thus at 120 vibs. per second 0.4 vib. per second, at 500 about
+  0.3 vib. per second, and at 1000, 0.5 vib. per second can be
+  distinguished. This is a remarkable illustration of the sensitiveness
+  of the ear. When tones of low pitch are produced that do not rapidly
+  die away, as by sounding heavy tuning-forks, not only may the beats be
+  perceived corresponding to the difference between the frequencies of
+  the forks, but also other sets of beats. Thus, if the two tones have
+  frequencies of 40 and 74, a two-order beat may be heard, one having a
+  frequency of 34 and the other of 6, as 74 / 40 = 1 + a positive
+  remainder of 34, and 74 / 40 = 2 - 6, or 80 - 74, a negative remainder
+  of 6. The lower beat is heard most distinctly when the number is less
+  than half the frequency of the lower primary, and the upper when the
+  number is greater. The beats we have been considering are produced
+  when two notes are sounded slightly differing in frequency, or at all
+  events their frequencies are not so great as those of two notes
+  separated by a musical interval, such as an octave or a fifth. But
+  Lord Kelvin has shown that beats may also be produced on slightly
+  inharmonious musical intervals (_Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed._ 1878, vol. ix.
+  p. 602). Thus, take two tuning-forks, ut2 = 256 and ut3 = 512;
+  slightly flatten ut3 so as to make its frequency 510, and we hear, not
+  a roughness corresponding to 254 beats, but a slow beat of 2 per
+  second. The sensation also passes through a cycle, the beats now
+  sounding loudly and fading away in intensity, again sounding loudly,
+  and so on. One might suppose that the beat occurred between 510 (the
+  frequency of ut3 flattened) and 512, the first partial of ut2, namely
+  ut3, but this is not so, as the beat is most audible when ut2 is
+  sounded feebly. In a similar way, beats may be produced on the
+  approximate harmonies 2 : 3, 3 : 4, 4 : 5, 5 : 6, 6 : 7, 7 : 8, 1 : 3,
+  3 : 5, and beats may even be produced on the major chord 4 : 5 : 6 by
+  sounding ut3, mi3, sol3, with sol3 or mi3 slightly flattened, "when a
+  peculiar beat will be heard as if a wheel were being turned against a
+  surface, one small part of which was rougher than the rest." These
+  beats on imperfect harmonies appear to indicate that the ear does
+  distinguish between an increase of pressure on the drum-head and a
+  diminution, or between a push and a pull, or, in other words, that it
+  is affected by phase. This was denied by Helmholtz.
+
+  10. _Beat Tones._--Considerable difference of opinion exists as to
+  whether beats can blend so as to give a sensation of tone; but R.
+  Konig, by using pure tones of high pitch, has settled the question.
+  These tones were produced by large tuning-forks. Thus ut6 = 2048 and
+  re6 = 2304. Then the beat tone is ut3 = 256 (2304-2048). If we strike
+  the two forks, ut3 sounds as a grave or lower beat tone. Again, ut6 =
+  2048 and si6 = 3840. Then (2048)2 - 3840 = 256, a negative remainder,
+  ut3, as before, and when both forks are sounded ut3 will be heard.
+  Again, ut6 = 2048 and sol6 = 3072, and 3072 - 2048 = 1024, or ut6,
+  which will be distinctly heard when ut6 and sol6 are sounded (Konig,
+  _Quelques experiences d'acoustique_, Paris, 1882, p. 87).
+
+  11. _Combination Tones._--Frequently, when two tones are sounded, not
+  only do we hear the compound sound, from which we can pick out the
+  constituent tones, but we may hear other tones, one of which is lower
+  in pitch than the lowest primary, and the other is higher in pitch
+  than the higher primary. These, known as combination tones, are of two
+  classes: _differential_ tones, in which the frequency is the
+  difference of the frequencies of the generating tones, and
+  _summational_ tones, having a frequency which is the sum of the
+  frequencies of the tones producing them. Differential tones, first
+  noticed by Sorge about 1740, are easily heard. Thus an interval of a
+  fifth, 2 : 3, gives a differential tone 1, that is, an octave below 2;
+  a fourth, 3 : 4, gives 1, a twelfth below 3; a major third, 4 : 5,
+  gives 1, two octaves below 4; a minor third, 5 : 6, gives 1, two
+  octaves and a major third below 5; a major sixth, 3 : 5, gives 2, that
+  is, a fifth below 3; and a minor sixth, 5 : 8, gives 3, that is, a
+  major sixth below 5. Summational tones, first noticed by Helmholtz,
+  are so difficult to hear that much controversy has taken place as to
+  their very existence. Some have contended that they are produced by
+  beats. It appears to be proved physically that they may exist in the
+  air outside of the ear. Further differential tones may be generated in
+  the middle ear. Helmholtz also demonstrated their independent
+  existence, and he states that "whenever the vibrations of the air or
+  of other elastic bodies, which are set in motion at the same time by
+  two generating simple tones, are so powerful that they can no longer
+  be considered infinitely small, mathematical theory shows that
+  vibrations of the air must arise which have the same vibrational
+  numbers as the combination tones" (Helmholtz, _Sensations of Tone_, p.
+  235). The importance of these combinational tones in the theory of
+  hearing is obvious. If the ear can only analyse compound waves into
+  simple pendular vibrations of a certain order (simple multiples of the
+  prime tone), how can it detect combinational tones, which do not
+  belong to that order? Again, if such tones are purely subjective and
+  only exist in the mind of the listener, the fact would be fatal to the
+  resonance theory. There can be no doubt, however, that the ear, in
+  dealing with them, vibrates in some part of its mechanism with each
+  generator, while it also is affected by the combinational tone itself,
+  according to its frequency.
+
+  12. Hearing with two ears does not appear materially to influence
+  auditive sensation, but probably the two organs are enabled, not only
+  to correct each other's errors, but also to aid us in determining the
+  locality in which a sound originates. It is asserted by G. T. Fechner
+  that one ear may perceive the same tone at a slightly higher pitch
+  than the other, but this may probably be due to some slight
+  pathological condition in one ear. If two tones, produced by two
+  tuning-forks, of equal pitch, are produced one near each ear, there is
+  a uniform single sensation; if one of the tuning-forks be made to
+  revolve round its axis in such a way that its tone increases and
+  diminishes in intensity, neither fork is heard continuously, but both
+  sound alternately, the fixed one being only audible when the revolving
+  one is not. It is difficult to decide whether excitations of
+  corresponding elements in the two ears can be distinguished from each
+  other. It is probable that the resulting sensations may be
+  distinguished, provided one of the generating tones differs from the
+  other in intensity or quality, although it may be the same in pitch.
+  Our judgment as to the direction of sounds is formed mainly from the
+  different degrees of intensity with which they are heard by two ears.
+  Lord Rayleigh states that diffraction of the sound-waves will occur as
+  they pass round the head to the ear farthest from the source of sound;
+  thus partial tones will reach the two ears with different intensities,
+  and thus quality of tone may be affected (_Trans. Music. Soc._,
+  London, 1876). Silvanus P. Thompson advocates a similar view, and he
+  shows that the direction of a complex tone can be more accurately
+  determined than the direction of a simple tone, especially if it be of
+  low pitch (_Phil. Mag._, 1882).     (J. G. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HEARN, LAFCADIO (1850-1904), author of books about Japan, was born on
+the 27th of June 1850 in Leucadia (pronounced Lefcadia, whence his name,
+which was one adopted by himself), one of the Greek Ionian Islands. He
+was the son of Surgeon-major Charles Hearn, of King's County, Ireland,
+who, during the English occupation of the Ionian Islands, was stationed
+there, and who married a Greek wife. Artistic and rather bohemian tastes
+were in Lafcadio Hearn's blood. His father's brother Richard was at one
+time a well-known member of the Barbizon set of artists, though he made
+no mark as a painter through his lack of energy. Young Hearn had rather
+a casual education, but was for a time (1865) at Ushaw Roman Catholic
+College, Durham. The religious faith in which he was brought up was,
+however, soon lost; and at nineteen, being thrown on his own resources,
+he went to America and at first picked up a living in the lower grades
+of newspaper work. The details are obscure, but he continued to occupy
+himself with journalism and with out-of-the-way observation and reading,
+and meanwhile his erratic, romantic and rather morbid idiosyncrasies
+developed. He was for some time in New Orleans, writing for the _Times
+Democrat_, and was sent by that paper for two years as correspondent to
+the West Indies, where he gathered material for his _Two Years in the
+French West Indies_ (1890). At last, in 1891, he went to Japan with a
+commission as a newspaper correspondent, which was quickly broken off.
+But here he found his true sphere. The list of his books on Japanese
+subjects tells its own tale: _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (1894); _Out
+of the East_ (1895); _Kokoro_ (1896); _Gleanings in Buddha Fields_
+(1897); _Exotics and Retrospections_ (1898); _In Ghostly Japan_ (1899);
+_Shadowings_ (1900); _A Japanese Miscellany_ (1901); _Kotto_ (1902);
+_Japanese Fairy Tales_ and _Kwaidan_ (1903), and (published just after
+his death) _Japan, an Attempt at Interpretation_ (1904), a study full of
+knowledge and insight. He became a teacher of English at the University
+of Tokyo, and soon fell completely under the spell of Japanese ideas. He
+married a Japanese wife, became a naturalized Japanese under the name of
+Yakumo Koizumi, and adopted the Buddhist religion. For the last two
+years of his life (he died on the 26th of September 1904) his health was
+failing, and he was deprived of his lecturersbip at the University. But
+he had gradually become known to the world at large by the originality,
+power and literary charm of his writings. This wayward bohemian genius,
+who had seen life in so many climes, and turned from Roman Catholic to
+atheist and then to Buddhist, was curiously qualified, among all those
+who were "interpreting" the new and the old Japan to the Western world,
+to see it with unfettered understanding, and to express its life and
+thought with most intimate and most artistic sincerity. Lafcadio Hearn's
+books were indeed unique for their day in the literature about Japan, in
+their combination of real knowledge with a literary art which is often
+exquisite.
+
+  See Elizabeth Bisland, _The Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn_ (2
+  vols., 1906); G. M. Gould, _Concerning Lafcadio Hearn_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745-1792), English explorer, was born in London. In
+1756 he entered the navy, and was some time with Lord Hood; at the end
+of the Seven Years' War (1763) he took service with the Hudson's Bay
+Company. In 1768 he examined portions of the Hudson's Bay coasts with a
+view to improving the cod fishery, and in 1769-1772 he was employed in
+north-western discovery, searching especially for certain copper mines
+described by Indians. His first attempt (from the 6th of November 1769)
+failed through the desertion of his Indians; his second (from the 23rd
+of February 1770) through the breaking of his quadrant; but in his third
+(December 1770 to June 1772) he was successful, not only discovering the
+copper of the Coppermine river basin, but tracing this river to the
+Arctic Ocean. He reappeared at Fort Prince of Wales on the 30th of June
+1772. Becoming governor of this fort in 1775, he was taken prisoner by
+the French under La Perouse in 1782. He returned to England in 1787 and
+died there in 1792.
+
+  See his posthumous _Journey from Prince of Wales Fort in Hudson's Bay
+  to the Northern Ocean_ (London, 1795).
+
+
+
+
+HEARNE, THOMAS (1678-1735), English antiquary, was born in July 1678 at
+Littlefield Green in the parish of White Waltham, Berkshire. Having
+received his early education from his father, George Hearne, the parish
+clerk, he showed such taste for study that a wealthy neighbour, Francis
+Cherry of Shottesbrooke (c. 1665-1713), a celebrated nonjuror,
+interested himself in the boy, and sent him to the school at Bray "on
+purpose to learn the Latin tongue." Soon Cherry took him into his own
+house, and his education was continued at Bray until Easter 1696, when
+he matriculated at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. At the university he
+attracted the attention of Dr John Mill (1645-1707), the principal of St
+Edmund Hall, who employed him to compare manuscripts and in other ways.
+Having taken the degree of B.A. in 1699 he was made assistant keeper of
+the Bodleian Library, where he worked on the catalogue of books, and in
+1712 he was appointed second keeper. In 1715 Hearne was elected
+architypographus and esquire bedell in civil law in the university, but
+objection having been made to his holding this office together with that
+of second librarian, he resigned it in the same year. As a nonjuror he
+refused to take the oaths of allegiance to King George I., and early in
+1716 he was deprived of his librarianship. However he continued to
+reside in Oxford, and occupied himself in editing the English
+chroniclers. Having refused several important academical positions,
+including the librarianship of the Bodleian and the Camden professorship
+of ancient history, rather than take the oaths, he died on the 10th of
+June 1735.
+
+  Hearne's most important work was done as editor of many of the English
+  chroniclers, and until the appearance of the "Rolls" series his
+  editions were in many cases the only ones extant. Very carefully
+  prepared, they were, and indeed are still, of the greatest value to
+  historical students. Perhaps the most important of a long list are:
+  Benedict of Peterborough's (Benedictus Abbas) _De vita et gestis
+  Henrici II. et Ricardi I._ (1735); John of Fordun's _Scotichronicon_
+  (1722); the monk of Evesham's _Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II._
+  (1729); Robert Mannyng's translation of Peter Langtoft's _Chronicle_
+  (1725); the work of Thomas Otterbourne and John Whethamstede as _Duo
+  rerum Anglicarum scriptores veteres_ (1732); Robert of Gloucester's
+  _Chronicle_ (1724); J. Sprott's _Chronica_ (1719); the _Vita et gesta
+  Henrici V._, wrongly attributed to Thomas Elmham (1727); Titus Livy's
+  _Vita Henrici V._ (1716); Walter of Hemingburgh's _Chronicon_ (1731);
+  and William of Newburgh's _Historia rerum Anglicarum_ (1719). He also
+  edited John Leland's _Itinerary_ (1710-1712) and the same author's
+  _Collectanea_ (1715); W. Camden's _Annales rerum Anglicarum et
+  Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha_ (1717); Sir John Spelman's _Life of
+  Alfred_ (1709); and W. Roper's _Life of Sir Thomas More_ (1716). He
+  brought out an edition of Livy (1708); one of Pliny's _Epistolae et
+  panegyricus_ (1703); and one of the Acts of the Apostles (1715). Among
+  his other compilations may be mentioned: _Ductor historicus, a Short
+  System of Universal History_ (1704, 1705, 1714, 1724); _A Collection
+  of Curious Discourses by Eminent Antiquaries_ (1720); and _Reliquiae
+  Bodleianae_ (1703).
+
+  Hearne left his manuscripts to William Bedford, who sold them to Dr
+  Richard Rawlinson, who in his turn bequeathed them to the Bodleian.
+  Two volumes of extracts from his voluminous diary were published by
+  Philip Bliss (Oxford, 1857), and afterwards an enlarged edition in
+  three volumes appeared (London, 1869). A large part of his diary
+  entitled _Remarks and Collections, 1705-1714_, edited by C. E. Doble
+  and D. W. Rannie, has been published by the Oxford Historical Society
+  (1885-1898). _Bibliotheca Hearniana_, excerpts from the catalogue of
+  Hearne's library, has been edited by B. Botfield (1848).
+
+  See _Impartial Memorials of the Life and Writings of Thomas Hearne by
+  several hands_ (1736); and W. D. Macray, _Annals of the Bodleian
+  Library_ (1890). Hearne's autobiography is published in W.
+  Huddesford's _Lives of Leland, Hearne and Wood_ (Oxford, 1772). T.
+  Ouvry's _Letters addressed to Thomas Hearne_ has been privately
+  printed (London, 1874).
+
+
+
+
+HEARSE (an adaptation of Fr. _herse_, a harrow, from Lat. _hirpex_,
+_hirpicem_, rake or harrow, Greek [Greek: arpae], a vehicle for the
+conveyance of a dead body at a funeral. The most usual shape is a
+four-wheeled car, with a roofed and enclosed body, sometimes with glass
+panels, which contains the coffin. This is the only current use of the
+word. In its earlier forms it is usually found as "herse," and meant, as
+the French word did, a harrow (q.v.). It was then applied to other
+objects resembling a harrow, following the French. It was then used of a
+portcullis, and thus becomes a heraldic term, the "herse" being
+frequently borne as a "charge," as in the arms of the City of
+Westminster. The chief application of the word is, however, to various
+objects used in funeral ceremonies. A "herse" or "hearse" seems first to
+have been a barrow-shaped framework of wood, to hold lighted tapers and
+decorations placed on a bier or coffin; this later developed into an
+elaborate pagoda-shaped erection of woodwork or metal for the funerals
+of royal or other distinguished persons. This held banners, candles,
+armorial bearings and other heraldic devices. Complimentary verses or
+epitaphs were often attached to the "hearse." An elaborate "hearse" was
+designed by Inigo Jones for the funeral of James I. The "hearse" is also
+found as a permanent erection over tombs. It is generally made of iron
+or other metal, and was used, not only to carry lighted candles, but
+also for the support of a pall during the funeral ceremony. There is a
+brass "hearse" in the Beauchamp Chapel at Warwick Castle, and one over
+the tomb of Robert Marmion and his wife at Tanfield Church near Ripon.
+
+
+
+
+HEART, in anatomy.--The heart[1] is a four-chambered muscular bag, which
+lies in the cavity of the thorax between the two lungs. It is surrounded
+by another bag, the pericardium, for protective and lubricating purposes
+(see COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES). Externally the heart is somewhat
+conical, its base being directed upward, backward and to the right, its
+apex downward, forward and to the left. In transverse section the cone
+is flattened, so that there is an anterior and a posterior surface and a
+superior and inferior border. The superior border, running obliquely
+downward and to the left, is very thick, and so gains the name of _margo
+obtusus_, while the inferior border is horizontal and sharp and is
+called _margo acutus_ (see fig. 1). The divisions between the four
+chambers of the heart (namely, the two auricles and two ventricles) are
+indicated on the surface by grooves, and when these are followed it will
+be seen that the right auricle and ventricle lie on the front and right
+side, while the left auricle and ventricle are behind and on the left.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. The Thoracic Viscera.--In this diagram the lungs
+are turned to the side, and the pericardium removed to display the
+heart, a, upper, a', lower lobe of left lung; b, upper, b', middle, b",
+lower lobe of right lung; c, trachea; d, arch of aorta; e, superior vena
+cava; f, pulmonary artery; g, left, and h, right auricle; k, right, and
+l, left ventricle; m, inferior vena cava; n, descending aorta; 1,
+innominate artery; 2, right, and 4, left common carotid artery; 3,
+right, and 5, left subclavian artery; 6, 6, right and left innominate
+vein; 7 and 9, left and right internal jugular veins; 8 and 10, left and
+right subclavian veins; 11, 12, 13, left pulmonary artery, bronchus and
+vein; 14, 15, 16, right pulmonary bronchus, artery and vein; 17 and 18,
+left and right coronary arteries.]
+
+The _right auricle_ is situated at the base of the heart, and its
+outline is seen on looking at the organ from in front. Into the
+posterior part of it open the two venae cavae (see fig. 2), the superior
+(a) above and the inferior (b) below. In front and to the left of the
+superior vena cava is the right auricular appendage (e) which overlaps
+the front of the root of the aorta, while running obliquely from the
+front of one vena cava to the other is a shallow groove called the
+_sulcus terminalis_, which indicates the original separation between the
+true auricle in front and the sinus venosus behind. When the auricle is
+opened by turning the front wall to the right as a flap the following
+structures are exposed:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Cavities of the Right Side of the Heart.--a,
+superior, and b, inferior vena cava; c, arch of aorta; d, pulmonary
+artery; e, right, and f, left auricular appendage; g, fossa ovalis; h,
+Eustachian valve; k, mouth of coronary vein; l, m, n, cusps of the
+tricuspid valve; o, o, papillary muscles; p, semilunar valve; q, corpus
+Arantii; r, lunula.]
+
+1. A muscular ridge, called the _crista terminalis_, corresponding to
+the sulcus terminalis on the exterior.
+
+2. A series of ridges on the anterior wall and in the appendage, running
+downward from the last and at right angles to it, like the teeth of a
+comb; these are known as _Musculi pectinati_.
+
+3. The orifice of the superior vena cava (fig. 2, a) at the upper and
+back part of the chamber.
+
+4. The orifice of the inferior vena cava (fig. 2, b) at the lower and
+back part.
+
+5. Attached to the right and lower margins of this opening are the
+remains of the _Eustachian valve_ (fig. 2, h), which in the foetus
+directs the blood from the inferior vena cava, through the _foramen
+ovale_, into the left auricle.
+
+6. Below and to the left of this is the opening of the _coronary sinus_
+(fig. 2, k), which collects most of the veins returning blood from the
+substance of the heart.
+
+7. Guarding this opening is the _coronary valve_ or _valve of
+Thebesius_.
+
+8. On the posterior or septal wall, between the two auricles, is an oval
+depression, called the _fossa ovalis_ (fig. 2, g), the remains of the
+original communication between the two auricles. In about a quarter of
+all normal hearts there is a small valvular communication between the
+two auricles in the left margin of this depression (see "7th Report of
+the Committee of Collective Investigation," _J. Anat. and Phys._ vol.
+xxxii. p. 164).
+
+9. The _annulus ovalis_ is the raised margin surrounding this
+depression.
+
+10. On the left side, opening into the right ventricle, is the _right
+auriculo-ventricular opening_.
+
+11. On the right wall, between the two caval openings, may occasionally
+be seen a slight eminence, the _tubercle of Lower_, which is supposed to
+separate the two streams of blood in the embryo.
+
+12. Scattered all over the auricular wall are minute depressions, the
+_foramina Thebesii_, some of which receive small veins from the
+substance of the heart.
+
+The _right ventricle_ is a triangular cavity (see fig. 2) the base of
+which is largely formed by the auriculo-ventricular orifice. To the left
+of this it is continued up into the root of the pulmonary artery, and
+this part is known as the _infundibulum_. Its anterior wall forms part
+of the anterior surface of the heart, while its posterior wall is
+chiefly formed by the septum ventriculorum, between it and the left
+ventricle. Its lower border is the margo acutus already mentioned. In
+transverse section it is crescentic, since the septal wall bulges into
+its cavity. In its interior the following structures are seen:
+
+1. The _tricuspid valve_ (fig. 2, l, m, n) guarding against reflux of
+blood into the right auricle. This consists of a short cylindrical
+curtain of fibrous tissue, which projects into the ventricle from the
+margin of the auriculo-ventricular aperture, while from its free edge
+three triangular flaps hang down, the bases of which touch one another.
+These cusps are spoken of as septal, marginal and infundibular, from
+their position.
+
+2. The _chordae tendineae_ are fine fibrous cords which fasten the cusps
+to the musculi papillares and ventricular wall, and prevent the valve
+being turned inside out when the ventricle contracts.
+
+3. The _columnae carneae_ are fleshy columns, and are of three kinds.
+The first are attached to the wall of the ventricle in their whole
+length and are merely sculptured in relief, as it were; the second are
+attached by both ends and are free in the middle; while the third are
+known as the _musculi papillares_ and are attached by one end to the
+ventricular wall, the other end giving attachment to the chordae
+tendineae. These musculi papillares are grouped into three bundles (fig.
+2, o).
+
+4. The _moderator band_ is really one of the second kind of columnae
+carneae which stretches from the septal to the anterior wall of the
+ventricle.
+
+5. The _pulmonary valve_ (fig. 2, p) at the opening of the pulmonary
+artery has three crescentic, pocket-like cusps, which, when the
+ventricle is filling, completely close the aperture, but during the
+contraction of the ventricle fit into three small niches known as the
+_sinuses of Valsalva_, and so are quite out of the way of the escaping
+blood. In the middle of the free margin of each is a small knob called
+the _corpus Arantii_ (fig. 2, q), and on each side of this a thin
+crescent-shaped flap, the _lunula_ (fig. 2, r), which is only made of
+two layers of endocardium, whereas in the rest of the cusp there is a
+fibrous backing between these two layers.
+
+The _left auricle_ is situated at the back of the base of the heart,
+behind and to the left of the right auricle. Running down behind it are
+the oesophagus and the thoracic aorta. When it is opened it is seen to
+have a much lighter colour than the other cavities, owing to the greater
+thickness of its endocardium obscuring the red muscle beneath. There are
+no musculi pectinati except in the auricular appendage. The openings of
+the four pulmonary veins are placed two on each side of the posterior
+wall, but sometimes there may be three on the right side, and only one
+on the left. On the septal wall is a small depression like the mark of a
+finger-nail, which corresponds to the anterior part of the fossa ovalis
+and often forms a valvular communication with the right auricle. The
+auriculo-ventricular orifice is large and oval, and is directed downward
+and to the left. Foramina Thebesii and venae minimae cordis are found in
+this auricle, as in the right, although the chamber is one for arterial
+or oxidized blood.
+
+At the lower part of the posterior surface of the unopened auricle,
+lying in the left auriculo-ventricular furrow, is the coronary sinus,
+which receives most of the veins returning the blood from the heart
+substance; these are the right and left coronary veins at each extremity
+and the posterior and left cardiac veins from below. One small vein,
+called the oblique vein of Marshall, runs down into it across the
+posterior surface of the auricle, from below the left lower pulmonary
+vein, and is of morphological interest.
+
+The _left ventricle_ is conical, the base being above, behind and to the
+right, while the apex corresponds to the apex of the heart and lies
+opposite the fifth intercostal space, 3(1/2) in. from the mid line. The
+following structures are seen inside it:--
+
+1. The _mitral valve_ guarding the auriculo-ventricular opening has the
+same arrangement as the tricuspid, already described, save that there
+are only two cusps, named marginal and aortic, the latter of which is
+the larger.
+
+2. The chordae tendineae and columnae carneae resemble those of the
+right ventricle, though there are only two bundles of musculi papillares
+instead of three. These are very large. A moderator band has been found
+as an abnormality (see _J. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxx. p. 568).
+
+3. The _aortic valve_ has the same structure as the pulmonary, though
+the cusps are more massive. From the anterior and left posterior sinuses
+of Valsalva the coronary arteries arise. That part of the ventricle just
+below the aortic valve, corresponding to the infundibulum on the right,
+is known as the aortic vestibule.
+
+The walls of the left ventricle are three times as thick as those of the
+right, except at the apex, where they are thinner. The septum
+ventriculorum is concave towards the left ventricle, so that a
+transverse section of that cavity is nearly circular. The greater part
+of it has nearly the same thickness as the rest of the left ventricular
+wall and is muscular, but a small portion of the upper part is
+membranous and thin, and is called the _pars membranacea septi_; it lies
+between the aortic and pulmonary orifices.
+
+_Structure of the Heart._--The arrangement of the muscular fibres of the
+heart is very complicated and only imperfectly known. For details one of
+the larger manuals, such as Cunningham's _Anatomy_ (London, 1910), or
+Gray's _Anatomy_ (London, 1909), should be consulted. The general scheme
+is that there are superficial fibres common to the two auricles and two
+ventricles and deeper fibres for each cavity. Until recently no fibres
+had been traced from the auricles to the ventricles, though Gaskell
+predicted that these would be found, and the credit for first
+demonstrating them is due to Stanley Kent, their details having
+subsequently been worked out by W. His, Junr., and S. Tawara. The fibres
+of this _auriculo-ventricular bundle_ begin, in the right auricle, below
+the opening of the coronary sinus, and run forward on the right side of
+the auricular septum, below the fossa ovalis, and close to the
+auriculo-ventricular septum. Above the septal flap of the tricuspid
+valve they thicken and divide into two main branches, one on either side
+of the ventricular septum, which run down to the bases of the anterior
+and posterior papillary muscles, and so reach the walls of the
+ventricle, where their secondary branches form the _fibres of Purkinje_.
+The bundle is best seen in the hearts of young Ruminants, and it is
+presumably through it that the wave of contraction passes from the
+auricles to the ventricles (see article by A. Keith and M. Flack,
+_Lancet_, 11th of August 1906, p. 359).
+
+The _central fibrous body_ is a triangular mass of fibro-cartilage,
+situated between the two auriculo-ventricular and the aortic orifices.
+The upper part of the septum ventriculorum blends with it. The
+_endocardium_ is a delicate layer of endothelial cells backed by a very
+thin layer of fibro-elastic tissue; it is continuous with the
+endothelium of the great vessels and lines the whole of the cavities of
+the heart.
+
+The heart is roughly about the size of the closed fist and weighs from 8
+to 12 oz.; it continues to increase in size up to about fifty years of
+age, but the increase is more marked in the male than in the female.
+Each ventricle holds about 4 f. oz. of blood, and each auricle rather
+less. The nerves of the heart are derived from the vagus, spinal
+accessory and sympathetic, through the superficial and deep cardiac
+plexuses.
+
+
+_Embryology._
+
+In the article on the arteries (q.v.) the formation and coalescence of
+the two _primitive ventral aortae_ to form the heart are noticed, so
+that we may here start with a straight median tube lying ventral to the
+pharynx and being prolonged cephalad into the ventral aortae and caudad
+into the vitelline veins. This soon shows four dilatations, which, from
+the tail towards the head end, are called the sinus venosus, the
+auricle, the ventricle and the truncus[2] arteriosus. As the tubular
+heart grows more rapidly than the pericardium which contains it, it
+becomes bent into the form of an S laid on its side ([rotated S]), the
+ventral convexity being the ventricle and the dorsal the auricle. The
+passage from the auricle to the ventricle is known as the _auricular
+canal_, and in the dorsal and ventral parts of this appear two
+thickenings known as _endocardial cushions_, which approach one another
+and leave a transverse slit between them (fig. 3, E.C.). Eventually
+these two cushions fuse in the middle line, obliterating the central
+part of the slit, while the lateral parts remain as the two
+auriculo-ventricular orifices; this fusion is known as the _septum
+intermedium_. From the bottom (ventral convexity) of the ventricle an
+antero-posterior median septum grows up, which is the _septum inferius_
+or _septum ventriculorum_ (fig. 3, V). Posteriorly (caudally) this
+septum fuses with the septum intermedium, but anteriorly it is free at
+the lower part of the truncus arteriosus. On referring to the
+development of the arteries (see ARTERIES) it will be seen that another
+septum starts between the last two pairs of aortic arches and grows
+downward (caudad) until it reaches and joins with the septum inferius
+just mentioned. This _septum aorticum_ (formed by two ingrowths from the
+wall of the vessel which fuse later) becomes twisted in such a way that
+the right ventricle is continuous with the last pair of aortic arches
+(pulmonary artery), while the left ventricle communicates with the other
+arches (the permanent ventral aorta and its branches); it joins the
+septum ventriculorum in the upper part of the ventricular cavity and so
+forms the _pars membranacea septi_ (fig. 3, T. Ar).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Formation of Septa. Diagram of the formation of
+some of the septa of the heart (viewed from the right side).
+
+  S.V.   Sinus venosus.
+  Au.    Auricle.
+  E.C.   Endocardial cushions forming septum intermedium.
+  V.     Septum ventriculorum.
+  T. Ar. Septum aorticum intruncus arteriosus.
+  V.A.   Ventral aorta.]
+
+The fate of the sinus venosus and auricle must now be followed. Into the
+former, at first, only the two vitelline veins open, but later, as they
+develop, the _ducts of Cuvier_ and the _umbilical veins_ join in (see
+VEINS). As the ducts of Cuvier come from each side the sinus spreads out
+to meet them and becomes transversely elongated. The slight
+constriction, which at first is the only separation between the sinus
+and the auricle, becomes more marked, and later the opening is into the
+right part of the auricle, and is guarded by two valvular folds of
+endocardium (the _venous valves_) which project into that cavity, and
+are continuous above with a temporary downgrowth from the roof, known as
+the _septum spurium_. Later the right side of the sinus enlarges, and so
+does the right part of the aperture, until the back part of the right
+side of the auricle and the right part of the sinus venosus are thrown
+into one, and the only remnants of the partition are the crista
+terminalis and the Eustachian and Thebesian Valves. The left part of the
+sinus venosus, which does not enlarge at the same rate as the right
+part, remains as the coronary sinus. It will now be seen why, in the
+adult heart, all the veins which open into the right auricle open into
+its posterior part, behind the crista terminalis. The septum spurium has
+been referred to as a temporary structure; the real division between the
+two auricles occurs at a later date than that between the ventricles and
+to the left of the septum spurium. It is formed by two partitions, the
+first of which, called the _septum primum_, grows down from the
+auricular roof. At first it does not quite reach the endocardial
+cushions in the auricular canal, already mentioned, but leaves a gap,
+called the _ostium primum_, between. This has nothing to do with the
+_foramen ovale_, which occurs as an independent perforation higher up,
+and at first is known as the _ostium secundum_. When it is established
+the septum primum grows down and meets the endocardial cushions, and so
+the ostium primum is obliterated. The _septum secundum_ grows down on
+the right of the septum primum and is never complete; it grows round and
+largely overlaps the foramen ovale and its edges form the annulus
+ovalis, so that, in the later months of foetal life, the foramen ovale
+is a valvular opening, the floor of which is formed by the septum primum
+and the margins by the septum secundum. The closure of the foramen is
+brought about by adhesion of the two septa.
+
+The pulmonary veins of the two sides at first join one another, dorsal
+to the left auricle, and open into that cavity by a single median trunk,
+but, as the auricle grows, this trunk and part of the right and left
+veins are absorbed into its cavity.
+
+The mitral and tricuspid valves are formed by the shortening of the
+auricular canal which becomes telescoped into the ventricle, and the
+cusps are the remnants of this telescoping process.
+
+The columnae carneae and chordae tendineae are the remains of a spongy
+network which originally filled the cavity of the primary ventricle.
+
+The aortic and pulmonary valves are laid down in the ventral aorta,
+before it is divided into aorta and pulmonary artery, as four
+endocardial cushions; anterior, posterior and two lateral. The septum
+aorticum cuts the latter two into two, so that each artery has the
+rudiments of three cusps.
+
+Abnormalities of the heart are very numerous, and can usually be
+explained by a knowledge of its development. They often cause grave
+clinical symptoms. A clear and well-illustrated review of the most
+important of them will be found in the chapter on congenital disease of
+the heart in _Clinical Applied Anatomy_, by C. R. Box and W. McAdam
+Eccles, London, 1906.
+
+  For further details of the embryology of the heart see Oscar Hertwig's
+  _Entwicklungslehre der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1902); G. Born,
+  "Entwicklung des Saugetierherzens," _Archiv f. mik. Anat._ Bd. 33
+  (1889); W. His, _Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen_ (Leipzig,
+  1881-1885); Quain's _Anatomy_, vol. i. (1908); C. S. Minot, _Human
+  Embryology_ (New York, 1892); and A. Keith, _Human Embryology and
+  Morphology_ (London, 1905).
+
+
+_Comparative Anatomy._
+
+In the Acrania (e.g. lancelet) there is no heart, though the vessels are
+specially contractile in the ventral part of the pharynx.
+
+In the Cyclostomata (lamprey and hag), and Fishes, the heart has the same
+arrangement which has been noticed in the human embryo. There is a smooth,
+thin-walled sinus venosus, a thin reticulate-walled auricle, produced
+laterally into two appendages, a thick-walled ventricle, and a _conus
+arteriosus_ containing valves. In addition to these the beginning of the
+ventral aorta is often thickened and expanded to form a _bulbus
+arteriosus_, which is non-contractile, and, strictly speaking, should
+rather be described with the arteries than with the heart. In relation to
+human embryology the smooth sinus venosus and reticulated auricle are
+interesting. Between the auricle and ventricle is the auriculo-ventricular
+valve, which primarily consists of two cusps, comparable to the two
+endocardial cushions of the human embryo, though in some forms they may be
+subdivided. In the interior of the ventricle is a network of muscular
+trabeculae. The conus arteriosus in the Elasmobranchs (sharks and rays)
+and Ganoids (sturgeon) is large and provided with several rows of
+semilunar valves, but in the Cyclostomes (lamprey) and Teleosts (bony
+fishes) the conus is reduced and only the anterior (cephalic) row of
+valves retained. With the reduction of the conus the bulbus arteriosus is
+enlarged. So far the heart is a single tubular organ expanded into various
+cavities and having the characteristic [rotated S]-shaped form seen in the
+human embryo; it contains only venous blood which is forced through the
+gills to be oxidized on its way to the tissues. In the Dipnoi (mud fish),
+in which rudimentary lungs, as well as gills, are developed, the auricle
+is divided into two, and the sinus venosus opens into the right auricle.
+The conus arteriosus too begins to be divided into two chambers, and in
+Protopterus this division is complete. This division of the heart is one
+instance in which mammalian ontogeny does not repeat the processes of
+phylogeny, because, in the human embryo, it has been shown that the
+ventricular septum appears before the auricular. This want of harmony is
+sometimes spoken of as the "falsification of the embryological record."
+
+In the Amphibia there are also two auricles and one ventricle, though in
+the Urodela (tailed amphibians) the auricular septum is often
+fenestrated. The sinus venosus is still a separate chamber, and the
+conus arteriosus, which may contain many or few valves, is usually
+divided into two by a spiral fold. Structurally the amphibian heart
+closely resembles the dipnoan, though the increased size of the left
+auricle is an advance. In the Anura (frogs and toads) the whole
+ventricle is filled with a spongy network which prevents the arterial
+and venous blood from the two auricles mixing to any great extent. (For
+the anatomy and physiology of the frog's heart, see _The Frog_, by
+Milnes Marshall.)
+
+In the Reptiles the ventricular septum begins to appear; this in the
+lizards is quite incomplete, but in the crocodiles, which are usually
+regarded as the highest order of living reptiles, the partition has
+nearly reached the top of the ventricle, and the condition resembles
+that of the human embryo before the pars membranacea septi is formed.
+The conus arteriosus becomes included in the ventricular cavity, but the
+sinus venosus still remains distinct, and its opening into the right
+ventricle is guarded by two valves which closely resemble the two venous
+valves in the auricle of the human embryo already referred to.
+
+In the Birds the auricular and ventricular septa are complete; the right
+ventricle is thin-walled and crescentic in section, as in Man, and the
+musculi papillares are developed. The left auriculo-ventricular valve
+has three membranous cusps with chordae tendineae attached to them, but
+the right auriculo-ventricular valve has a large fleshy cusp without
+chordae tendineae. The sinus venosus is largely included in the right
+auricle, but remains of the two venous valves are seen on each side of
+the orifice of the inferior vena cava.
+
+In the Mammals the structure of the heart corresponds closely with the
+description of that of Man already given. In the Ornithorynchus, among
+the Monotremes, the right auriculo-ventricular valve has two fleshy and
+two membranous cusps, thus showing a resemblance to that of the bird. In
+the Echidna, the other member of the order, however, both
+auriculo-ventricular valves are membranous. In the Edentates the remains
+of the venous valves at the opening of the inferior vena cava are better
+marked than in other orders. In the Ungulates the moderator band in the
+right ventricle is especially well developed, and the central fibrous
+body at the base of the heart is often ossified, forming the os cordis
+so well known in the heart of the ox.
+
+The position of the heart in the lower mammals is not so oblique as it
+is in Man.
+
+  For further details, see C. Rose, _Beitr. z. vergl. Anal. des Herzens
+  der Wirbelthiere Morph. Jahrb._, Bd. xvi. (1890); R. Wiedersheim,
+  _Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbelthiere_ (Jena, 1902) (for
+  literature); also Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_ (London, 1897).
+       (F. G. P.)
+
+
+HEART DISEASE.--In the early ages of medicine, the absence of correct
+anatomical, physiological and pathological knowledge prevented diseases
+of the heart from being recognized with any certainty during life, and
+almost entirely precluded them from becoming the object of medical
+treatment. But no sooner did Harvey (1628) publish his discovery of the
+circulation of the blood, and its dependence on the heart as its central
+organ, than derangements of the circulation began to be recognized as
+signs of disease of that central organ. (See also under VASCULAR
+SYSTEM.)
+
+Among the earliest to profit by this discovery and to make important
+contributions to the literature of diseases of the heart and circulation
+were, R. Lower (1631-1691), R. Vieussens (1641-1716). H. Boerhave
+(1668-1738) and the great pathologists at the beginning of the 18th
+century, G. M. Lancisi (1654-1720), G. B. Morgagni (1682-1771) and J. B.
+Senac (1693-1770). The works of these writers form very interesting
+reading, and it is remarkable how careful were the observations made,
+and how sound the conclusions drawn, by these pioneers of scientific
+medicine. J. N. Corvisart (1755-1821) was one of the earliest to make
+practical use of R. T. Auenbrugger's (1722-1809) invention of percussion
+to determine the size of the heart. R. T. H. Laennec (1781-1826) was the
+first to make a scientific application of mediate auscultation to the
+diagnosis of disease of the chest, by the invention of the stethoscope.
+J. Bouillaud (1796-1881) extended its use to the diagnosis of disease of
+the heart. To James Hope (1801-1841) we owe much of the precision we
+have now attained in diagnosis of valvular disease from abnormalities in
+the sounds produced during cardiac movements. This short list by no
+means exhausts the earlier literature on the subject, but each of these
+names marks an era in the progress of the diagnosis of cardiac disease.
+In later years the literature on this subject has become very copious.
+
+The heart and great vessels occupy a position immediately to the left of
+the centre of the thoracic cavity. The anterior surface of the heart is
+projected against the chest wall and is surrounded on either side by the
+lungs, which are resonant organs, so that any increase in the size of
+the heart, "dilatation," can be detected by percussion. By placing the
+hand on the chest, palpation, the impulse of the left ventricle, or apex
+beat, can normally be felt just below and internal to the nipple.
+Deviations from the normal in the position or force of the apex beat
+will afford important information as to the nature of the pathological
+changes in the heart. Thus, displacement downwards and outwards of the
+apex beat, with a forcible thrusting impulse, will indicate hypertrophy,
+or increase of the muscular wall and increased driving power of the left
+ventricle, whereas a similar displacement with a feeble diffuse impulse
+will indicate dilatation, or over-distension of its cavity from
+stretching of the walls.
+
+By auscultation, or listening with a suitable instrument named a
+stethoscope over appropriate areas, we can detect any abnormality in the
+sounds of the heart, and the presence of murmurs indicative of disease
+of one or other of the valves of the heart.
+
+The pericardium is a fibro-serous sac which loosely envelops the heart
+and the origin of the great vessels. Inflammation of this sac, or
+_pericarditis_, is apt to occur as a result of rheumatism, more
+especially in children. It may also occur as a complication of
+pneumonia. It is a serious affection associated with pain over the
+heart, fever, shortness of breath, rapid pulse and dilatation of the
+heart. As a result of the inflammation, fluid may accumulate in the
+pericardial sac, or the walls of the sac may become adherent to the
+heart and tend to embarrass its action. In favourable cases, however,
+recovery may take place without any untoward sequelae.
+
+Diseases of the heart may be classified in two main groups, (1) Disease
+of the valves, and (2) Disease of the walls of the heart.
+
+1. _Valvular Disease._--Inflammation of the valves of the heart, or
+_endocarditis_, is one of the most common complications of rheumatism in
+children and young adults. More severe types, which are apt to prove
+fatal from a form of blood poisoning, may result when the valves of the
+heart are attacked by certain micro-organisms, such as the pneumococcus,
+which is responsible for pneumonia, the streptococcus and the
+staphylococcus pyogenes, the gonococcus and the influenza bacillus.
+
+As a result of endocarditis, one or more of the valves may be seriously
+damaged, so that it leaks or becomes incompetent. The valves of the left
+side of the heart, the aortic and mitral valves, are affected far more
+commonly than those of the right side. It is indeed comparatively rarely
+that the latter are attacked. In the process of healing of a damaged
+valve, scar tissue is formed which has a tendency to contract, so that
+in some cases the orifice of the valve becomes narrowed, and the
+resulting stenosis or narrowing gives rise to obstruction of the blood
+stream. We may thus have incompetence or stenosis of a valve or both
+combined.
+
+Valvular lesions are detected on auscultation over appropriate areas by
+the blowing sounds or murmurs to which they give rise, which modify or
+replace the normal heart sounds. Thus, lesions of the mitral valve give
+rise to murmurs which are heard at the apex beat of the heart, and
+lesions of the aortic valves to murmurs which are heard over the aortic
+area, in the second right intercostal space. Accurate timing of the
+murmurs in relation to the heart sounds enables us to judge whether the
+murmur is due to stenosis or incompetence of the valve affected.
+
+If the valvular lesion is severe, it is essential for the proper
+maintenance of the circulation that certain changes should take place in
+the heart to compensate for or neutralize the effects of the
+regurgitation or obstruction, as the case may be. In affections of the
+aortic valve, the extra work falls on the left ventricle, which enlarges
+proportionately and undergoes hypertrophy. In affections of the mitral
+valve the effect is felt primarily by the left auricle, which is a thin
+walled structure incapable of undergoing the requisite increase in power
+to resist the backward flow through the mitral orifice in case of
+leakage, or to overcome the effects of obstruction in case of stenosis.
+The back pressure is therefore transmitted to the pulmonary circulation,
+and as the right ventricle is responsible for maintaining the flow of
+blood through the lungs, the strain and extra work fall on the right
+ventricle, which in turn enlarges and undergoes hypertrophy. The degree
+of hypertrophy of the left or right ventricle is thus, up to a certain
+point, a measure of the extent of the lesion of the aortic or mitral
+valve respectively. When the effects of the valvular lesion are so
+neutralized by these structural changes in the heart that the
+circulation is equably maintained, "compensation" is said to be
+efficient.
+
+When the heart gives way under the strain, compensation is said to break
+down, and dropsy, shortness of breath, cough and cyanosis, are among the
+distressing symptoms which may set in. The mere existence of a valvular
+lesion does not call for any special treatment so long as compensation
+is efficient, and a large number of people with slight valvular lesions
+are living lives indistinguishable from those of their neighbours. It
+will, however, be readily understood that in the case of the more
+serious lesions certain precautions should be observed in regard to
+over-exertion, excitement, over-indulgence in tobacco or alcohol, &c.,
+as the balance is more readily upset and any undue strain on the heart
+may cause a breakdown of compensation. When this occurs treatment is
+required. A period of rest in bed is often sufficient to enable the
+heart to recover, and this may be supplemented as required by the
+administration of mercurial and saline purgatives to relieve the
+embarrassed circulation, and of suitable cardiac tonics, such as
+digitalis and strychnin, to reinforce and strengthen the heart's action.
+
+2. _Affections of the Muscular Wall of the Heart._--Dilatation of the
+heart, or stretching of the walls of the heart, is an incident, as has
+already been stated, in pericarditis and in the earlier stages of
+valvular disease antecedent to hypertrophy. Temporary over-distension or
+dilatation of the cavities of the heart occurs in violent and protracted
+exertion, but rapidly subsides and is in no wise harmful to the sound
+and vigorous heart of the young. It is otherwise if the heart is weak
+and flabby from a too sedentary life or degenerative changes in its
+walls or during convalescence from a severe illness, when the same
+circumstances which will not injure a healthy heart, may give rise to
+serious dilatation from which recovery may be very protracted.
+
+Influenza is a common cause of cardiac dilatation, and is liable to be a
+source of trouble after the acute illness has subsided, if the patient
+goes about and resumes his ordinary avocations too soon.
+
+Fatty or fibroid degeneration of the heart wall may occur in later life
+from impaired nutrition of the muscle, due to partial obstruction of the
+blood-vessels supplying it, when they are the seat of the degenerative
+changes known as arteriosclerosis or atheroma. The affection known as
+_angina pectoris_ (q.v.) may be a further consequence of this defective
+blood-supply.
+
+The treatment will vary according to the nature of the case. In serious
+cases of dilatation, rest in bed, purgatives and cardiac tonics may be
+required.
+
+In commencing degenerative change the Oertel treatment, consisting of
+graduated exercise up a gentle slope, limitation of fluids and a special
+diet, may be indicated.
+
+In cases of slight dilatation after influenza or recent illness, the
+Schott treatment by baths and exercises as carried out at Nauheim may be
+sometimes beneficial. The change of air and scene, the enforced rest,
+the placid life, together with freedom from excitement and worry, are
+among the most important factors which contribute to success in this
+class of case.
+
+_Disorders of Rhythm of the Heart's Action._--Under this heading may be
+grouped a number of conditions to which the name "functional affections
+of the heart" has sometimes been applied, inasmuch as the disturbances
+in question cannot usually be attributed to definite organic disease of
+the heart. We must, of course, exclude from this category the
+irregularity in the force and frequency of the pulse, which is commonly
+associated with incompetence of the mitral valve.
+
+The heart is a muscular organ possessing certain properties,
+rhythmicity, excitability, contractility, conductivity and tonicity, as
+pointed out by Gaskell, in virtue of which it is able to maintain a
+regular automatic beat independently of nerve stimulation. It is,
+however, intimately connected with the brain, blood-vessels and the
+abdominal and thoracic viscera, by innumerable nerves, through which
+impulses or messages are being constantly sent to and received from
+these various portions of the body. Such messages may give rise to
+disturbances of rhythm with which we are all familiar. For instance,
+sudden fright or emotion may cause a momentary arrest of the heart's
+action, and excitement or apprehension may set up a rapid action of the
+heart or _palpitation_. Palpitation, again, is often the result of
+digestive disorders, the message in this case being received from the
+stomach, instead of the brain as in emotional disturbances. It may also
+result from over-indulgence in tobacco and alcohol.
+
+_Tachycardia_ is the name applied to a more or less permanent increase
+in the rate of the heart-beat. It is usually a prominent feature in the
+affection known as Graves' disease or exophthalmic goitre. It may also
+result from chronic alcoholism. In the condition known as paroxysmal
+tachycardia there appears to be no adequate explanation for its onset.
+
+_Bradycardia_ or abnormal slowness of the heart-beat, is the converse of
+tachycardia. An abnormally slow pulse is met with in melancholia,
+cerebral tumour, jaundice and certain toxic conditions, or may follow an
+attack of influenza. There is, however, a peculiar affection
+characterized by abnormal slowness of pulse (often ranging as low as
+30), and the onset, from time to time, of epileptiform or syncopal
+attacks. To this the name "Stokes-Adams disease" has been applied, as it
+was first called attention to by Adams in 1827, and subsequently fully
+described by Stokes in 1836. It is usually associated with senile
+degenerative change of the heart and vascular system, and is held to be
+due to impairment of conductivity in the muscular fibres (bundle of His)
+which transmit the wave of contraction from the auricle to the
+ventricle. It is of serious significance in view of the symptoms
+associated with it.
+
+_Intermittency of the Pulse._--By this is understood a pulse in which a
+beat is dropped from time to time. The dropping of a beat may occur at
+regular intervals every two, four or six beats, &c., or occasionally at
+irregular intervals after a series of normal beats. On examining the
+heart, it is found, as a rule, that the cause of the intermission at the
+wrist is not actual omission of a heart-beat, but the occurrence of a
+hurried imperfect cardiac contraction which does not transmit a
+pulse-wave to the wrist. It is not characteristic of any special form of
+heart affection, and is rarely of serious import. It may be due to
+reflex digestive disturbances, or be associated with conditions of
+nervous breakdown and irritability, or with an atonic and relaxed
+condition of the heart muscle. The treatment of these disorders of
+rhythm of the heart will vary greatly according to the cause and is
+often a matter of considerable difficulty.     (J. F. H. B.)
+
+_Surgery of Heart and Pericardium._--As the result of acute or chronic
+inflammation of the lining membrane of the fibrous sac which surrounds
+the heart and the neighbouring parts of the large blood-vessels, a
+dropsical or a purulent collection may form in it, or the sac may be
+quietly distended by a thin watery fluid. In either case, but especially
+in the latter, the heart may be so embarrassed in its work that death
+seems imminent. The condition is generally due to the cultivation in the
+pericardium of the germs of rheumatism, influenza or gonorrhoea, or of
+those of ordinary suppuration. Respiration as well as circulation is
+embarrassed, and there is a marked fulness and dulness of the front wall
+of the chest to the left of the breast-bone. In that region also pain
+and tenderness are complained of. By using the slender, hollow needle of
+an aspirator great relief may be afforded, but the tapping may have to
+be repeated from time to time. If the fluid drawn off is found to be
+purulent, it may be necessary to make a trap-door opening into the chest
+by cutting across the 4th and 5th ribs, incising and evacuating the
+pericardium and providing for drainage. In short, an abscess in the
+pericardium must be treated like an abscess in the pleura.
+
+Wounds of the heart are apt to be quickly fatal. If the probability is
+that the enfeebled action of the heart is due to pressure from blood
+which is leaking into, and is locked up in the pericardium, the proper
+treatment will be to open the pericardium, as described above, and, if
+possible, to close the opening in the auricle, ventricle or large
+vessel, by sutures.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In O. Eng. _heorte_; this is a common Teut. word, cf. Dut.
+    _hart_, Ger. _Herz_, Goth. _hairto_; related by root are Lat. _cor_
+    and Gr. [Greek: kardia]: the ultimate root is _kard_-, to quiver,
+    shake.
+
+  [2] This is often called bulbus arteriosus, but it will be seen that
+    the term is used rather differently in comparative anatomy.
+
+
+
+
+HEART-BURIAL, the burial of the heart apart from the body. This is a
+very ancient practice, the special reverence shown towards the heart
+being doubtless due to its early association with the soul of man, his
+affections, courage and conscience. In medieval Europe heart-burial was
+fairly common. Some of the more notable cases are those of Richard I.,
+whose heart, preserved in a casket, was placed in Rouen cathedral; Henry
+III., buried in Normandy; Eleanor, queen of Edward I., at Lincoln;
+Edward I., at Jerusalem; Louis IX., Philip III., Louis XIII. and Louis
+XIV., in Paris. Since the 17th century the hearts of deceased members of
+the house of Habsburg have been buried apart from the body in the
+Loretto chapel in the Augustiner Kirche, Vienna. The most romantic story
+of heart-burial is that of Robert Bruce. He wished his heart to rest at
+Jerusalem in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and on his deathbed
+entrusted the fulfilment of his wish to Douglas. The latter broke his
+journey to join the Spaniards in their war with the Moorish king of
+Granada, and was killed in battle, the heart of Bruce enclosed in a
+silver casket hanging round his neck. Subsequently the heart was buried
+at Melrose Abbey. The heart of James, marquess of Montrose, executed by
+the Scottish Covenanters in 1650, was recovered from his body, which had
+been buried by the roadside outside Edinburgh, and, enclosed in a steel
+box, was sent to the duke of Montrose, then in exile. It was lost on its
+journey, and years afterwards was discovered in a curiosity shop in
+Flanders. Taken by a member of the Montrose family to India, it was
+stolen as an amulet by a native chief, was once more regained, and
+finally lost in France during the Revolution. Of notable 17th-century
+cases there is that of James II., whose heart was buried in the church
+of the convent of the Visitation at Chaillot near Paris, and that of Sir
+William Temple, at Moor Park, Farnham. The last ceremonial burial of a
+heart in England was that of Paul Whitehead, secretary to the Monks of
+Medmenham club, in 1775, the interment taking place in the Le Despenser
+mausoleum at High Wycombe, Bucks. Of later cases the most notable are
+those of Daniel O'Connell, whose heart is at Rome, Shelley at
+Bournemouth, Louis XVII. at Venice, Kosciusko at the Polish museum at
+Rapperschwyll, Lake Zurich, and the marquess of Bute, taken by his widow
+to Jerusalem for burial in 1900. Sometimes other parts of the body,
+removed in the process of embalming, are given separate and solemn
+burial. Thus the viscera of the popes from Sixtus V. (1590) onward have
+been preserved in the parish church of the Quirinal. The custom of
+heart-burial was forbidden by Pope Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), but
+Benedict XI. withdrew the prohibition.
+
+  See Pettigrew, _Chronicles of the Tombs_ (1857).
+
+
+
+
+HEARTH (a word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic
+languages, cf. Dutch _haard_, German _Herd_, in the sense of "floor"),
+the part of a room where a fire is made, usually constructed of stone,
+bricks, tiles or earth, beaten hard and having a chimney above; the fire
+being lighted either on the hearth itself, or in a receptacle placed
+there for the purpose. Like the Latin _focus_, especially in the phrase
+for "hearth and home" answering to _pro aris et focis_, the word is used
+as equivalent to the home or household. The word is also applied to the
+fire and cooking apparatus on board ship; the floor of a smith's forge;
+the floor of a reverberatory furnace on which the ore is exposed to the
+flame; the lower part of a blast furnace through which the metal goes
+down into the crucible; in soldering, a portable brazier or chafing
+dish, and an iron box sunk in the middle of a flat iron plate or table.
+An "open-hearth furnace" is a regenerative furnace of the reverberatory
+type used in making steel, hence "open-hearth steel" (see IRON AND
+STEEL).
+
+Hearth-money, hearth tax or chimney-money, was a tax imposed in England
+on all houses except cottages at a rate of two shillings for every
+hearth. It was first levied in 1662, but owing to its unpopularity,
+chiefly caused by the domiciliary visits of the collectors, it was
+repealed in 1689, although it was producing L170,000 a year. The
+principle of the tax was not new in the history of taxation, for in
+Anglo-Saxon times the king derived a part of his revenue from a _fumage_
+or tax of smoke farthings levied on all hearths except those of the
+poor. It appears also in the hearth-penny or tax of a penny on every
+hearth, which as early as the 10th century was paid annually to the pope
+(see PETER'S PENCE).
+
+
+
+
+HEARTS, a game of cards of recent origin, though founded upon the same
+principle as many old games, such as _Slobberhannes_, _Four Jacks_ and
+_Enfle_, namely, that of losing instead of winning as many tricks as
+possible. Hearts is played with a full pack, ace counting highest and
+deuce lowest. In the four-handed game, which is usually played, the
+entire pack is dealt out as at whist (but without turning up the last
+card, since there are no trumps), and the player at the dealer's left
+begins by leading any card he chooses, the trick being taken by the
+highest card of the suit led. Each player must follow suit if he can; if
+he has no cards of the suit led he is privileged to throw away any card
+he likes, thus having an opportunity of getting rid of his hearts, which
+is the object of the game. When all thirteen tricks have been played
+each player counts the hearts he has taken in and pays into the pool a
+certain number of counters for them, according to an arrangement made
+before beginning play. In the four-handed, or sweepstake, game the
+method of settling called "Howell's," from the name of the inventor, has
+been generally adopted, according to which each player begins with an
+equal number of chips, say 100, and, after the hand has been played,
+pays into the pool as many chips for each heart he had taken as there
+are players besides himself. Then each player takes out of the pool one
+chip for every heart he did not win. The pool is thus exhausted with
+every deal. Hearts may be played by two, three, four or even more
+players, each playing for himself.
+
+  _Spot Hearts._--In this variation the hearts count according to the
+  number of spots on the cards, excepting that the ace counts 14, the
+  king 13, queen 12 and knave 11, the combined score of the thirteen
+  hearts being thus 104.
+
+  _Auction Hearts._--In this the eldest hand examines his hand and bids
+  a certain number of counters for the privilege of naming the suit to
+  be got rid of, but without naming the suit. The other players in
+  succession have the privilege of outbidding him, and whoever bids most
+  declares the suit and pays the amount of his bid into the pool, the
+  winner taking it.
+
+  _Joker Hearts._--Here the deuce of hearts is discarded, and an extra
+  card, called the joker, takes its place, ranking in value between ten
+  and knave. It cannot be thrown away, excepting when hearts are led and
+  an ace or court card is played, though if an opponent discards the ace
+  or a court card of hearts, then the holder of the joker may discard
+  it. The joker is usually considered worth five chips, which are either
+  paid into the pool or to the player who succeeds in discarding the
+  joker.
+
+  _Heartsette._--In this variation the deuce of spades is deleted and
+  the three cards left after dealing twelve cards to each player are
+  called the _widow_ (or _kitty_), and are left face downward on the
+  table. The winner of the first trick must take the widow without
+  showing it to his opponents.
+
+  _Slobberhannes._--The object of this older form of Hearts is to avoid
+  taking either the first or last trick or a trick containing the queen
+  of clubs. A euchre pack (thirty two-cards, lacking all below the 7) is
+  used, and each player is given 10 counters, one being forfeited to the
+  pool if a player takes the first or last trick, or that containing the
+  club queen. If he takes all three he forfeits four points.
+
+  _Four Jacks (Polignac or Quatre-Valets)_ is usually played with a
+  piquet pack, the cards ranking in France as at ecarte, but in Great
+  Britain and America as at piquet. There is no trump suit. Counters are
+  used, and the object of the game is to avoid taking any trick
+  containing a knave, especially the knave of spades, called _Polignac_.
+  The player taking such a trick forfeits one counter to the pool.
+
+  _Enfle_ (or _Schwellen_) is usually played by four persons with a
+  piquet pack and for a pool. The cards rank as at Hearts, and there is
+  no trump suit. A player must follow suit if he can, but if he cannot
+  he may not discard, but must take up all tricks already won and add
+  them to his hand. Play is continued until one player gets rid of all
+  his cards and thus wins.
+
+
+
+
+HEAT (O. E. _haetu_, which like "hot," Old Eng. _hat_, is from the
+Teutonic type _haita, hit_, to be hot; cf. Ger. _hitze, heiss_; Dutch,
+_hitte, heet_, &c.), a general term applied to that branch of physical
+science which deals with the effects produced by heat on material
+bodies, with the laws of transference of heat, and with the
+transformations of heat into other kinds of energy. The object of the
+present article is to give a brief sketch of the historical development
+of the science of heat, and to indicate the relation of the different
+branches of the subject, which are discussed in greater detail with
+reference to the latest progress in separate articles.
+
+1. _Meanings of the Term Heat._--The term heat is employed in ordinary
+language in a number of different senses. This makes it a convenient
+term to employ for the general title of the science, but the different
+meanings must be carefully distinguished in scientific reasoning. For
+the present purpose, omitting metaphorical significations, we may
+distinguish four principal uses of the term: (a) Sensation of heat; (b)
+Temperature, or degree of hotness; (c) Quantity of thermal energy; (d)
+Radiant heat, or energy of radiation.
+
+  (a) From the sense of heat, aided in the case of very hot bodies by
+  the sense of sight, we obtain our first rough notions of heat as a
+  physical entity, which alters the state of a body and its condition in
+  respect of warmth, and is capable of passing from one body to another.
+  By touching a body we can tell whether it is warmer or colder than the
+  hand, and, by touching two similar bodies in succession, we can form a
+  rough estimate, by the acuteness of the sensation experienced, of
+  their difference in hotness or coldness over a limited range. If a hot
+  iron is placed on a cold iron plate, we may observe that the plate is
+  heated and the iron cooled until both attain appreciably the same
+  degree of warmth; and we infer from similar cases that something which
+  we call "heat" tends to pass from hot to cold bodies, and to attain
+  finally a state of equable diffusion when all the bodies concerned are
+  equally warm or cold. Ideas such as these derived entirely from the
+  sense of heat, are, so to speak, embedded in the language of every
+  nation from the earliest times.
+
+  (b) From the sense of heat, again, we naturally derive the idea of a
+  continuous scale or order, expressed by such terms as summer heat,
+  blood heat, fever heat, red heat, white heat, in which all bodies may
+  be placed with regard to their degrees of hotness, and we speak of the
+  _temperature_ of a body as denoting its place in the scale, in
+  contradistinction to the quantity of heat it may contain.
+
+  (c) The quantity of heat contained in a body obviously depends on the
+  size of the body considered. Thus a large kettleful of boiling water
+  will evidently contain more heat than a teacupful, though both may be
+  at the same temperature. The temperature does not depend on the size
+  of the body, but on the degree of concentration of the heat in it,
+  i.e. on the quantity of heat per unit mass, other things being equal.
+  We may regard it as axiomatic that a given body (say a pound of water)
+  in a given state (say boiling under a given pressure) must always
+  contain the same quantity of heat, and conversely that, if it contains
+  a given quantity of heat, and if it is under conditions in other
+  respects, it must be at a definite temperature, which will always be
+  the same for the same given conditions.
+
+  (d) It is a matter of common observation that rays of the sun or of a
+  fire falling on a body warm it, and it was in the first instance
+  natural to suppose that heat itself somehow travelled across the
+  intervening space from the sun or fire to the body warmed, in much the
+  same way as heat may be carried by a current of hot air or water. But
+  we now know that energy of radiation is not the same thing as heat,
+  though it is converted into heat when the rays strike an absorbing
+  substance. The term "radiant heat," however, is generally retained,
+  because radiation is commonly measured in terms of the heat it
+  produces, and because the transference of energy by radiation and
+  absorption is the most important agency in the diffusion of heat.
+
+2. _Evolution of the Thermometer._--The first step in the development of
+the science of heat was necessarily the invention of a thermometer, an
+instrument for indicating temperature and measuring its changes. The
+first requisite in the case of such an instrument is that it should
+always give, at least approximately the same indication at the same
+temperature. The air-thermoscope of Galileo, illustrated in fig. 1,
+which consisted of a glass bulb containing air, connected to a glass
+tube of small bore dipping into a coloured liquid, though very sensitive
+to variations of temperature, was not satisfactory as a measuring
+instrument, because it was also affected by variations of atmospheric
+pressure. The invention of the type of thermometer familiar at the
+present day, containing a liquid hermetically sealed in a glass bulb
+with a fine tube attached, is also generally attributed to Galileo at a
+slightly later date, about 1612. Alcohol was the liquid first employed,
+and the degrees, intended to represent thousandths of the volume of the
+bulb, were marked with small beads of enamel fused on the stem, as shown
+in fig. 2. In order to render the readings of such instruments
+comparable with each other, it was necessary to select a fixed point or
+standard temperature as the zero or starting-point of the graduations.
+Instead of making each degree a given fraction of the volume of the
+bulb, which would be difficult in practice, and would give different
+values for the degree with different liquids, it was soon found to be
+preferable to take _two fixed points_, and to divide the interval
+between them into the same number of degrees. It was natural in the
+first instance to take the temperature of the human body as one of the
+fixed points. In 1701 Sir Isaac Newton proposed a scale in which the
+freezing-point of water was taken as zero, and the temperature of the
+human body as 12 deg. About the same date (1714) Gabriel Daniel
+Fahrenheit proposed to take as zero the lowest temperature obtainable
+with a freezing mixture of ice and salt, and to divide the interval
+between this temperature and that of the human body into 12 deg. To
+obtain finer graduations the number was subsequently increased to 96
+deg. The freezing-point of water was at that time supposed to be
+somewhat variable, because as a matter of fact it is possible to cool
+water several degrees below its freezing-point in the absence of ice.
+Fahrenheit showed, however, that as soon as ice began to form the
+temperature always rose to the same point, and that a mixture of ice or
+snow with pure water always gave the same temperature. At a later period
+he also showed that the temperature of boiling water varied with the
+barometric pressure, but that it was always the same at the same
+pressure, and might therefore be used as the second fixed point (as
+Edmund Halley and others had suggested) provided that a definite
+pressure, such as the average atmospheric pressure, were specified. The
+freezing and boiling-points on one of his thermometers, graduated as
+already explained, with the temperature of the body as 96 deg., came out
+in the neighbourhood of 32 deg. and 212 deg. respectively, giving an
+interval of 180 deg. between these points. Shortly after Fahrenheit's
+death (1736) the freezing and boiling-points of water were generally
+recognized as the most convenient fixed points to adopt, but different
+systems of subdivision were employed. Fahrenheit's scale, with its small
+degrees and its zero below the freezing-point, possesses undoubted
+advantages for meteorological work, and is still retained in most
+English-speaking countries. But for general scientific purposes, the
+centigrade system, in which the freezing-point is marked 0 deg. and the
+boiling-point 100 deg., is now almost universally employed, on account
+of its greater simplicity from an arithmetical point of view. For work
+of precision the fixed points have been more exactly defined (see
+THERMOMETRY), but no change has been made in the fundamental principle
+of graduation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2.]
+
+3. _Comparison of Scales based on Expansion._--Thermometers constructed
+in the manner already described will give strictly comparable readings,
+provided that the tubes be of uniform bore, and that the same liquid and
+glass be employed in their construction. But they possess one obvious
+defect from a theoretical point of view, namely, that the subdivision of
+the temperature scale depends on the expansion of the particular liquid
+selected as the standard. A liquid such as water, which, when
+continuously heated at a uniform rate from its freezing-point, first
+contracts and then expands, at a rapidly increasing rate, would
+obviously be unsuitable. But there is no a priori reason why other
+liquids should not behave to some extent in a similar way. As a matter
+of fact, it was soon observed that thermometers carefully constructed
+with different liquids, such as alcohol, oil and mercury, did not agree
+precisely in their indications at points of the scale intermediate
+between the fixed points, and diverged even more widely outside these
+limits. Another possible method, proposed in 1694 by Carlo Renaldeni
+(1615-1698), professor of mathematics and philosophy at Pisa, would be
+to determine the intermediate points of the scale by observing the
+temperatures of mixtures of ice-cold and boiling water in varying
+proportions. On this method, the temperature of 50 deg. C. would be
+defined as that obtained by mixing equal weights of water at 0 deg. C.
+and 100 deg. C.; 20 deg. C., that obtained by mixing 80 parts of water
+at 0 deg. C. with 20 parts of water at 100 deg. C. and so on. Each
+degree rise of temperature in a mass of water would then represent the
+addition of the same quantity of heat. The scale thus obtained would, as
+a matter of fact, agree very closely with that of a mercury thermometer,
+but the method would be very difficult to put in practice, and would
+still have the disadvantage of depending on the properties of a
+particular liquid, namely, water, which is known to behave in an
+anomalous manner in other respects. At a later date, the researches of
+Gay-Lussac (1802) and Regnault (1847) showed that the laws of the
+expansion of gases are much simpler than those of liquids. Whereas the
+expansion of alcohol between 0 deg. C. and 100 deg. C. is nearly seven
+times as great as that of mercury, all gases (excluding easily
+condensible vapours) expand equally, or so nearly equally that the
+differences between them cannot be detected without the most refined
+observations. This equality of expansion affords a strong a priori
+argument for selecting the scale given by the expansion of a gas as the
+standard scale of temperature, but there are still stronger theoretical
+grounds for this choice, which will be indicated in discussing the
+absolute scale (S 21). Among liquids mercury is found to agree most
+nearly with the gas scale, and is generally employed in thermometers for
+scientific purposes on account of its high boiling-point and for other
+reasons. The differences of the mercurial scale from the gas scale
+having been carefully determined, the mercury thermometer can be used as
+a secondary standard to replace the gas thermometer within certain
+limits, as the gas thermometer would be very troublesome to employ
+directly in ordinary investigations. For certain purposes, and
+especially at temperatures beyond the range of mercury thermometers,
+electrical thermometers, also standardized by reference to the gas
+thermometer, have been very generally employed in recent years, while
+for still higher temperatures beyond the range of the gas thermometer,
+thermometers based on the recently established laws of radiation are the
+only instruments available. For a further discussion of the theory and
+practice of the measurement of temperature, the reader is referred to
+the article THERMOMETRY.
+
+_4. Change of State._--Among the most important effects of heat is that
+of changing the state of a substance from solid to liquid, or from
+liquid to vapour. With very few exceptions, all substances, whether
+simple or compound, are known to be capable of existing in each of the
+three states under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure. The
+transition of any substance, from the state of liquid to that of solid
+or vapour under the ordinary atmospheric pressure, takes place at fixed
+temperatures, the freezing and boiling-points, which are very sharply
+defined for pure crystalline substances, and serve in fact as fixed
+points of the thermometric scale. A change of state cannot, however, be
+effected in any case without the addition or subtraction of a certain
+definite quantity of heat. If a piece of ice below the freezing-point is
+gradually heated at a uniform rate, its temperature may be observed to
+rise regularly till the freezing-point is reached. At this point it
+begins to melt, and its temperature ceases to rise. The melting takes a
+considerable time, during the whole of which heat is being continuously
+supplied without producing any rise of temperature, although if the same
+quantity of heat were supplied to an equal mass of water, the
+temperature of the water would be raised nearly 80 deg. C. Heat thus
+absorbed in producing a change of state without rise of temperature is
+called "Latent Heat," a term introduced by Joseph Black, who was one of
+the first to study the subject of change of state from the point of view
+of heat absorbed, and who in many cases actually adopted the
+comparatively rough method described above of estimating quantities of
+heat by observing the time required to produce a given change when the
+substance was receiving heat at a steady rate from its surroundings. For
+every change of state a definite quantity of heat is required, without
+which the change cannot take place. Heat must be added to melt a solid,
+or to vaporize a solid or a liquid, and conversely, heat must be
+subtracted to reverse the change, i.e. to condense a vapour or freeze a
+liquid. The quantity required for any given change depends on the nature
+of the substance and the change considered, and varies to some extent
+with the conditions (as to pressure, &c.) under which the change is
+made, but is always the same for the same change under the same
+conditions. A rough measurement of the latent heat of steam was made as
+early as 1764 by James Watt, who found that steam at 212 deg. F., when
+passed from a kettle into a jar of cold water, was capable of raising
+nearly six times its weight of water to the boiling point. He gives the
+volume of the steam as about 1800 times that of an equal weight of
+water.
+
+  The phenomena which accompany change of state, and the physical laws
+  by which such changes are governed, are discussed in a series of
+  special articles dealing with particular cases. The articles on FUSION
+  and ALLOYS deal with the change from the solid to the liquid state,
+  and the analogous case of solution is discussed in the article on
+  SOLUTION. The articles on CONDENSATION OF GASES, LIQUID GASES and
+  VAPORIZATION deal with the theory of the change of state from liquid
+  to vapour, and with the important applications of liquid gases to
+  other researches. The methods of measuring the latent heat of fusion
+  or vaporization are described in the article CALORIMETRY, and need not
+  be further discussed here except as an introduction to the history of
+  the evolution of knowledge with regard to the nature of heat.
+
+5. _Calorimetry by Latent Heat._--In principle, the simplest and most
+direct method of measuring quantities of heat consists in observing the
+effects produced in melting a solid or vaporizing a liquid. It was, in
+fact, by the fusion of ice that quantities of heat were first measured.
+If a hot body is placed in a cavity in a block of ice at 0 deg. C., and
+is covered by a closely fitting slab of ice, the quantity of ice melted
+will be directly proportional to the quantity of heat lost by the body
+in cooling to 0 deg. C. None of the heat can possibly escape through the
+ice, and conversely no heat can possibly get in from outside. The body
+must cool exactly to 0 deg. C., and every fraction of the heat it loses
+must melt an equivalent quantity of ice. Apart from heat lost in
+transferring the heated body to the ice block, the method is
+theoretically perfect. The only difficulty consists in the practical
+measurement of the quantity of ice melted. Black estimated this quantity
+by mopping out the cavity with a sponge before and after the operation.
+But there is a variable film of water adhering to the walls of the
+cavity, which gives trouble in accurate work. In 1780 Laplace and
+Lavoisier used a double-walled metallic vessel containing broken ice,
+which was in many respects more convenient than the block, but
+aggravated the difficulty of the film of water adhering to the ice. In
+spite of this practical difficulty, the quantity of heat required to
+melt unit weight of ice was for a long time taken as the unit of heat.
+This unit possesses the great advantage that it is independent of the
+scale of temperature adopted. At a much later date R. Bunsen (_Phil.
+Mag._, 1871), adopting a suggestion of Sir John Herschel's, devised an
+ice-calorimeter suitable for measuring small quantities of heat, in
+which the difficulty of the water film was overcome by measuring the
+change in volume due to the melting of the ice. The volume of unit mass
+of ice is approximately 1.0920 times that of unit mass of water, so that
+the diminution of volume is 0.092 a cubic centimetre for each gramme of
+ice melted. The method requires careful attention to details of
+manipulation, which are more fully discussed in the article on
+CALORIMETRY.
+
+For measuring large quantities of heat, such as those produced by the
+combustion of fuel in a boiler, the most convenient method is the
+evaporation of water, which is commonly employed by engineers for the
+purpose. The natural unit in this case is the quantity of heat required
+to evaporate unit mass of water at the boiling point under atmospheric
+pressure. In boilers working at a higher pressure, or supplied with
+water at a lower temperature, appropriate corrections are applied to
+deduce the quantity evaporated in terms of this unit.
+
+For laboratory work on a small scale the converse method of condensation
+has been successfully applied by John Joly, in whose steam-calorimeter
+the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body from
+the atmospheric temperature to that of steam condensing at atmospheric
+pressure is observed by weighing the mass of steam condensed on it. (See
+CALORIMETRY.)
+
+6. _Thermometric Calorimetry._--For the majority of purposes the most
+convenient and the most readily applicable method of measuring
+quantities of heat, is to observe the rise of temperature produced in a
+known mass of water contained in a suitable vessel or calorimeter. This
+method was employed from a very early date by Count Rumford and other
+investigators, and was brought to a high pitch of perfection by Regnault
+in his extensive calorimetric researches (_Memoires de l'Institut de
+Paris_, 1847); but it is only within comparatively recent years that it
+has really been placed on a satisfactory basis by the accurate
+definition of the units involved. The theoretical objections to the
+method, as compared with latent heat calorimetry, are that some heat is
+necessarily lost by the calorimeter when its temperature is raised above
+that of the surroundings, and that some heat is used in heating the
+vessel containing the water. These are small corrections, which can be
+estimated with considerable accuracy in practice. A more serious
+difficulty, which has impaired the value of much careful work by this
+method, is that the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature
+of a given mass of water 1 deg. C. depends on the temperature at which
+the water is taken, and also on the scale of the thermometer employed.
+It is for this reason, in many cases, impossible to say, at the present
+time, what was the precise value, within 1/2 or even 1% of the heat
+unit, in terms of which many of the older results, such as those of
+Regnault, were expressed. For many purposes this would not be a serious
+matter, but for work of scientific precision such a limitation of
+accuracy would constitute a very serious bar to progress. The unit
+generally adopted for scientific purposes is the quantity of heat
+required to raise 1 gram (or kilogram) of water 1 deg. C., and is called
+the calorie (or kilo-calorie). English engineers usually state results
+in terms of the British Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.), which is the quantity of
+heat required to raise 1 lb. of water 1 deg. F.
+
+7. _Watt's Indicator Diagram; Work of Expansion._--The rapid development
+of the steam-engine (q.v.) in England during the latter part of the 18th
+century had a marked effect on the progress of the science of heat. In
+the first steam-engines the working cylinder served both as boiler and
+condenser, a very wasteful method, as most of the heat was transferred
+directly from the fire to the condensing water without useful effect.
+The first improvement (about 1700) was to use a separate boiler, but the
+greater part of the steam supplied was still wasted in reheating the
+cylinder, which had been cooled by the injection of cold water to
+condense the steam after the previous stroke. In 1769 James Watt showed
+how to avoid this waste by using a separate condenser and keeping the
+cylinder as hot as possible. In his earlier engines the steam at full
+boiler pressure was allowed to raise the piston through nearly the whole
+of its stroke. Connexion with the boiler was then cut off, and the steam
+at full pressure was discharged into the condenser. Here again there was
+unnecessary waste, as the steam was still capable of doing useful work.
+He subsequently introduced "expansive working," which effected still
+further economy. The connexion with the boiler was cut off when a
+fraction only, say 1/4, of the stroke had been completed, the remainder
+of the stroke being effected by the expansion of the steam already in
+the cylinder with continually diminishing pressure. By the end of the
+stroke, when connexion was made to the condenser, the pressure was so
+reduced that there was comparatively little waste from this cause. Watt
+also devised an instrument called an _indicator_ (see STEAM ENGINE), in
+which a pencil, moved up and down vertically by the steam pressure,
+recorded the pressure in the cylinder at every point of the stroke on a
+sheet of paper moving horizontally in time with the stroke of the
+piston. The diagram thus obtained made it possible to study what was
+happening inside the cylinder, and to deduce the work done by the steam
+in each stroke. The method of the indicator diagram has since proved of
+great utility in physics in studying the properties of gases and
+vapours. The work done, or the useful effect obtained from an engine or
+any kind of machine, is measured by the product of the resistance
+overcome and the distance through which it is overcome. The result is
+generally expressed in terms of the equivalent weight raised through a
+certain height against the force of gravity.[1] If, for instance, the
+pressure on a piston is 50 lb. per sq. in., and the area of the piston
+is 100 sq. in., the force on the piston is 5000 lb. weight. If the
+stroke of the piston is 1 ft., the work done per stroke is capable of
+raising a weight of 5000 lb. through a height of 1 ft., or 50 lb.
+through a height of 100 ft. and so on.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Watt's Indicator Diagram. Patent of 1782.]
+
+  Fig. 3 represents an imaginary indicator diagram for a steam-engine,
+  taken from one of Watt's patents. Steam is admitted to the cylinder
+  when the piston is at the beginning of its stroke, at S. ST represents
+  the length of the stroke or the limit of horizontal movement of the
+  paper on which the diagram is drawn. The indicating pencil rises to
+  the point A, representing the absolute pressure of 60 lb. per sq. in.
+  As the piston moves outwards the pencil traces the horizontal line AB,
+  the pressure remaining constant till the point B is reached, at which
+  connexion to the boiler is cut off. The work done so far is
+  represented by the area of the rectangle ABSF, namely AS X SF,
+  multiplied by the area of the piston in sq. in. The result is in
+  foot-pounds if the fraction of the stroke SF is taken in feet. After
+  cut-off at B the steam expands under diminishing pressure, and the
+  pencil falls gradually from B to C, following the steam pressure until
+  the exhaust valve opens at the end of the stroke. The pressure then
+  falls rapidly to that of the condenser, which for an ideal case may be
+  taken as zero, following Watt. The work done during expansion is found
+  by dividing the remainder of the stroke FT into a number of equal
+  parts (say 8, Watt takes 20) and measuring the pressure at the points
+  1, 2, 3, 4, &c., corresponding to the middle of each. We thus obtain a
+  number of small rectangles, the sum of which is evidently very nearly
+  equal to the whole area BCTF under the expansion curve, or to the
+  remainder of the stroke FT multiplied by the average or mean value of
+  the pressure. The whole work done in the forward stroke is represented
+  by the area ABCTSA, or by the average value of the pressure P over the
+  whole stroke multiplied by the stroke L. This area must be multiplied
+  by the area of the piston A in sq. in. as before, to get the work done
+  per stroke in foot-pounds, which is PLA. If the engine repeats this
+  cycle N times per minute, the work done per minute is PLAN
+  foot-pounds, which is reduced to horse-power by dividing by 33,000. If
+  the steam is ejected by the piston at atmospheric pressure (15 lb. per
+  sq. in.) instead of being condensed at zero pressure, the area CDST
+  under the atmospheric line CD, representing work done against
+  back-pressure on the return stroke must be subtracted. If the engine
+  repeats the same cycle or series of operations continuously, the
+  indicator diagram will be a closed curve, and the nett work done per
+  cycle will be represented by the included area, whatever the form of
+  the curve.
+
+8. _Thermal Efficiency._--The thermal efficiency of an engine is the
+ratio of the work done by the engine to the heat supplied to it.
+According to Watt's observations, confirmed later by Clement and
+Desormes, the total heat required to produce 1 lb. of saturated steam at
+any temperature from water at 0 deg. C. was approximately 650 times the
+quantity of heat required to raise 1 lb. of water 1 deg. C. Since 1 lb.
+of steam represented on this assumption a certain quantity of heat, the
+efficiency could be measured naturally in foot-pounds of work obtainable
+per lb. of steam, or conversely in pounds of steam consumed per
+horse-power-hour.
+
+In his patent of 1782 Watt gives the following example of the
+improvement in thermal efficiency obtained by expansive working. Taking
+the diagram already given, if the quantity of steam represented by AB,
+or 300 cub. in. at 60 lb. pressure, were employed without expansion, the
+work realized, represented by the area ABSF, would be 6000/4 = 1500
+foot-pounds. With expansion to 4 times its original volume, as shown in
+the diagram by the whole area ABCTSA, the mean pressure (as calculated
+by Watt, assuming Boyle's law) would be 0.58 of the original pressure,
+and the work done would be 6000 X 0.58 = 3480 foot-pounds for the same
+quantity of steam, or the thermal efficiency would be 2.32 times
+greater. The advantage actually obtained would not be so great as this,
+on account of losses by condensation, back-pressure, &c., which are
+neglected in Watt's calculation, but the margin would still be very
+considerable. Three hundred cub. in. of steam at 60 lb. pressure would
+represent about .0245 of 1 lb. of steam, or 28.7 B.Th.U., so that,
+neglecting all losses, the possible thermal efficiency attainable with
+steam at this pressure and four expansions (1/4 cut-off) would be
+3480/28.7, or 121 foot-pounds per B.Th.U. At a later date, about 1820,
+it was usual to include the efficiency of the boiler with that of the
+engine, and to reckon the efficiency or "duty" in foot-pounds per bushel
+or cwt. of coal. The best Cornish pumping-engines of that date achieved
+about 70 million foot-pounds per cwt., or consumed about 3.2 lb. per
+horse-power-hour, which is roughly equivalent to 43 foot-pounds per
+B.Th.U. The efficiency gradually increased as higher pressures were
+used, with more complete expansion, but the conditions upon which the
+efficiency depended were not fully worked out till a much later date.
+Much additional knowledge with regard to the nature of heat, and the
+properties of gases and vapours, was required before the problem could
+be attacked theoretically.
+
+9. _Of the Nature of Heat._--In the early days of the science it was
+natural to ascribe the manifestations of heat to the action of a subtle
+imponderable fluid called "caloric," with the power of penetrating,
+expanding and dissolving bodies, or dissipating them in vapour. The
+fluid was imponderable, because the most careful experiments failed to
+show that heat produced any increase in weight. The opposite property of
+levitation was often ascribed to heat, but it was shown by more cautious
+investigators that the apparent loss of weight due to heating was to be
+attributed to evaporation or to upward air currents. The fundamental
+idea of an imaginary fluid to represent heat was useful as helping the
+mind to a conception of something remaining invariable in quantity
+through many transformations, but in some respects the analogy was
+misleading, and tended greatly to retard the progress of science. The
+caloric theory was very simple in its application to the majority of
+calorimetric experiments, and gave a fair account of the elementary
+phenomena of change of state, but it encountered serious difficulties in
+explaining the production of heat by friction, or the changes of
+temperature accompanying the compression or expansion of a gas. The
+explanation which the calorists offered of the production of heat by
+friction or compression was that some of the latent caloric was squeezed
+or ground out of the bodies concerned and became "sensible." In the case
+of heat developed by friction, they supposed that the abraded portions
+of the material were capable of holding a smaller quantity of heat, or
+had less "capacity for heat," than the original material. From a logical
+point of view, this was a perfectly tenable hypothesis, and one
+difficult to refute. It was easy to account in this way for the heat
+produced in boring cannon and similar operations, where the amount of
+abraded material was large. To refute this explanation, Rumford (_Phil.
+Trans._, 1798) made his celebrated experiments with a blunt borer, in
+one of which he succeeded in boiling by friction 26.5 lb. of cold water
+in 2(1/2) hours, with the production of only 4145 grains of metallic
+powder. He then showed by experiment that the metallic powder required
+the same amount of heat to raise its temperature 1 deg., as an equal
+weight of the original metal, or that its "capacity for heat" (in this
+sense) was unaltered by reducing it to powder; and he argued that "in
+any case so small a quantity of powder could not possibly account for
+all the heat generated, that the supply of heat appeared to be
+inexhaustible, and that heat could not be a material substance, but must
+be something of the nature of motion." Unfortunately Rumford's argument
+was not quite conclusive. The supporters of the caloric theory appear,
+whether consciously or unconsciously, to have used the phrase "capacity
+for heat" in two entirely distinct senses without any clear definition
+of the difference. The phrase "capacity for heat" might very naturally
+denote the total quantity of heat contained in a body, which we have no
+means of measuring, but it was generally used to signify the quantity of
+heat required to raise the temperature of a body one degree, which is
+quite a different thing, and has no necessary relation to the total
+heat. In proving that the powder and the solid metal required the same
+quantity of heat to raise the temperature of equal masses of either one
+degree, Rumford did not prove that they contained equal quantities of
+heat, which was the real point at issue in this instance. The metal tin
+actually changes into powder below a certain temperature, and in so
+doing evolves a measurable quantity of heat. A mixture of the gases
+oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportions in which they combine to form
+water, evolves when burnt sufficient heat to raise more than thirty
+times its weight of water from the freezing to the boiling point; and
+the mixture of gases may, in this sense, be said to contain so much more
+heat than the water, although its capacity for heat in the ordinary
+sense is only about half that of the water produced. To complete the
+refutation of the calorists' explanation of the heat produced by
+friction, it would have been necessary for Rumford to show that the
+powder when reconverted into the same state as the solid metal did not
+absorb a quantity of heat equivalent to that evolved in the grinding; in
+other words that the heat produced by friction was not simply that due
+to the change of state of the metal from solid to powder.
+
+Shortly afterwards, in 1799, Davy[2] described an experiment in which he
+melted ice by rubbing two blocks together. This experiment afforded a
+very direct refutation of the calorists' view, because it was a
+well-known fact that ice required to have a quantity of heat added to it
+to convert it into water, so that the water produced by the friction
+contained more heat than the ice. In stating as the conclusion to be
+drawn from this experiment that "friction consequently does not diminish
+the capacity of bodies for heat," Davy apparently uses the phrase
+capacity for heat in the sense of total heat contained in a body,
+because in a later section of the same essay he definitely gives the
+phrase this meaning, and uses the term "capability of temperature" to
+denote what we now term capacity for heat.
+
+The delay in the overthrow of the caloric theory, and in the acceptance of
+the view that heat is a mode of motion, was no doubt partly due to some
+fundamental confusion of ideas in the use of the term "capacity for heat"
+and similar phrases. A still greater obstacle lay in the comparative
+vagueness of the motion or vibration theory. Davy speaks of heat as being
+"repulsive motion," and distinguishes it from light, which is "projective
+motion"; though heat is certainly not a substance--according to Davy in
+the essay under discussion--and may not even be treated as an imponderable
+fluid, light as certainly is a material substance, and is capable of
+forming chemical compounds with ordinary matter, such as oxygen gas, which
+is not a simple substance, but a compound, termed phosoxygen, of light and
+oxygen. Accepting the conclusions of Davy and Rumford that heat is not a
+material substance but a mode of motion, there still remains the question,
+what definite conception is to be attached to a quantity of heat? What do
+we mean by a quantity of vibratory motion, how is the quantity of motion
+to be estimated, and why should it remain invariable in many
+transformations? The idea that heat was a "mode of motion" was applicable
+as a qualitative explanation of many of the effects of heat, but it lacked
+the quantitative precision of a scientific statement, and could not be
+applied to the calculation and prediction of definite results. The state
+of science at the time of Rumford's and Davy's experiments did not admit
+of a more exact generalization. The way was paved in the first instance by
+a more complete study of the laws of gases, to which Laplace, Dalton,
+Gay-Lussac, Dulong and many others contributed both on the experimental
+and theoretical side. Although the development proceeded simultaneously
+along many parallel lines, it is interesting and instructive to take the
+investigation of the properties of gases, and to endeavour to trace the
+steps by which the true theory was finally attained.
+
+10. _Thermal Properties of Gases._--The most characteristic property of
+a gaseous or elastic fluid, namely, the elasticity, or resistance to
+compression, was first investigated scientifically by Robert Boyle
+(1662), who showed that the pressure p of a given mass of gas varied
+inversely as the volume v, provided that the temperature remained
+constant. This is generally expressed by the formula pv = C, where C is
+a constant for any given temperature, and v is taken to represent the
+specific volume, or the volume of unit mass, of the gas at the given
+pressure and temperature. Boyle was well aware of the effect of heat in
+expanding a gas, but he was unable to investigate this properly as no
+thermometric scale had been defined at that date. According to Boyle's
+law, when a mass of gas is compressed by a small amount at constant
+temperature, the percentage increase of pressure is equal to the
+percentage diminution of volume (if the compression is v/100, the
+increase of pressure is very nearly p/100). Adopting this law, Newton
+showed, by a most ingenious piece of reasoning (_Principia_, ii., sect.
+8), that the velocity of sound in air should be equal to the velocity
+acquired by a body falling under gravity through a distance equal to
+half the height of the atmosphere, considered as being of uniform
+density equal to that at the surface of the earth. This gave the result
+918 ft. per sec. (280 metres per sec.) for the velocity at the freezing
+point. Newton was aware that the actual velocity of sound was somewhat
+greater than this, but supposed that the difference might be due in some
+way to the size of the air particles, of which no account could be taken
+in the calculation. The first accurate measurement of the velocity of
+sound by the French Academie des Sciences in 1738 gave the value 332
+metres per sec. as the velocity at 0 deg. C. The true explanation of the
+discrepancy was not discovered till nearly 100 years later.
+
+The law of expansion of gases with change of temperature was
+investigated by Dalton and Gay-Lussac (1802), who found that the volume
+of a gas under constant pressure increased by 1/267th part of its volume
+at 0 deg. C. for each 1 deg. C. rise in temperature. This value was
+generally assumed in all calculations for nearly 50 years. More exact
+researches, especially those of Regnault, at a later date, showed that
+the law was very nearly correct for all permanent gases, but that the
+value of the coefficient should be 1/273rd. According to this law the
+volume of a gas at any temperature t deg. C. should be proportional to
+273 + t, i.e. to the temperature reckoned from a zero 273 deg. below
+that of the Centigrade scale, which was called the absolute zero of the
+gas thermometer. If T = 273 + t, denotes the temperature measured from
+this zero, the law of expansion of a gas may be combined with Boyle's
+law in the simple formula
+
+  pv = RT   (1)
+
+which is generally taken as the expression of the gaseous laws. If equal
+volumes of different gases are taken at the same temperature and
+pressure, it follows that the constant R is the same for all gases. If
+equal masses are taken, the value of the constant R for different gases
+varies inversely as the molecular weight or as the density relative to
+hydrogen.
+
+Dalton also investigated the laws of vapours, and of mixtures of gases
+and vapours. He found that condensible vapours approximately followed
+Boyle's law when compressed, until the condensation pressure was
+reached, at which the vapour liquefied without further increase of
+pressure. He found that when a liquid was introduced into a closed
+space, and allowed to evaporate until the space was saturated with the
+vapour and evaporation ceased, the increase of pressure in the space was
+equal to the condensation pressure of the vapour, and did not depend on
+the volume of the space or the presence of any other gas or vapour
+provided that there was no solution or chemical action. He showed that
+the condensation or saturation-pressure of a vapour depended only on the
+temperature, and increased by nearly the same fraction of itself per
+degree rise of temperature, and that the pressures of different vapours
+were nearly the same at equal distances from their boiling points. The
+increase of pressure per degree C. at the boiling point was about 1/28th
+of 760 mm. or 27.2 mm., but increased in geometrical progression with
+rise of temperature. These results of Dalton's were confirmed, and in
+part corrected, as regards increase of vapour-pressure, by Gay-Lussac,
+Dulong, Regnault and other investigators, but were found to be as close
+an approximation to the truth as could be obtained with such simple
+expressions. More accurate empirical expressions for the increase of
+vapour-pressure of a liquid with temperature were soon obtained by
+Thomas Young, J. P. L. A. Roche and others, but the explanation of the
+relation was not arrived at until a much later date (see VAPORIZATION).
+
+11. _Specific Heats of Gases._--In order to estimate the quantities of
+heat concerned in experiments with gases, it was necessary in the first
+instance to measure their specific heats, which presented formidable
+difficulties. The earlier attempts by Lavoisier and others, employing
+the ordinary methods of calorimetry, gave very uncertain and discordant
+results, which were not regarded with any confidence even by the
+experimentalists themselves. Gay-Lussac (_Memoires d'Arcueil_, 1807)
+devised an ingenious experiment, which, though misinterpreted at the
+time, is very interesting and instructive. With the object of comparing
+the specific heats of different gases, he took two equal globes A and B
+connected by a tube with a stop-cock. The globe B was exhausted, the
+other A being filled with gas. On opening the tap between the vessels,
+the gas flowed from A to B and the pressure was rapidly equalized. He
+observed that the fall of temperature in A was nearly equal to the rise
+of temperature in B, and that for the same initial pressure the change
+of temperature was very nearly the same for all the gases he tried,
+except hydrogen, which showed greater changes of temperature than other
+gases. He concluded from this experiment that equal volumes of gases had
+the same capacity for heat, except hydrogen, which he supposed to have a
+larger capacity, because it showed a greater effect. The method does not
+in reality afford any direct information with regard to the specific
+heats, and the conclusion with regard to hydrogen is evidently wrong. At
+a later date (_Ann. de Chim._, 1812, 81, p. 98) Gay-Lussac adopted A.
+Crawford's method of mixture, allowing two equal streams of different
+gases, one heated and the other cooled about 20 deg. C., to mix in a tube
+containing a thermometer. The resulting temperature was in all cases
+nearly the mean of the two, from which he concluded that equal volumes
+of all the gases tried, namely, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, air, oxygen
+and nitrogen, had the same thermal capacity. This was correct, except as
+regards carbon dioxide, but did not give any information as to the
+actual specific heats referred to water or any known substance. About
+the same time, F. Delaroche and J. E. Berard (_Ann. de chim._, 1813, 85,
+p. 72) made direct determinations of the specific heats of air, oxygen,
+hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and ethylene,
+by passing a stream of gas heated to nearly 100 deg. C. through a spiral
+tube in a calorimeter containing water. Their work was a great advance
+on previous attempts, and gave the first trustworthy results. With the
+exception of hydrogen, which presents peculiar difficulties, they found
+that equal volumes of the permanent gases, air, oxygen and carbon
+monoxide, had nearly the same thermal capacity, but that the compound
+condensible gases, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and ethylene, had
+larger thermal capacities in the order given. They were unable to state
+whether the specific heats of the gases increased or diminished with
+temperature, but from experiments on air at pressures of 740 mm. and
+1000 mm., they found the specific heats to be .269 and .245
+respectively, and concluded that the specific heat diminished with
+increase of pressure. The difference they observed was really due to
+errors of experiment, but they regarded it as proving beyond doubt the
+truth of the calorists' contention that the heat disengaged on the
+compression of a gas was due to the diminution of its thermal capacity.
+
+Dalton and others had endeavoured to measure directly the rise of
+temperature produced by the compression of a gas. Dalton had observed a
+rise of 50 deg. F. in a gas when suddenly compressed to half its volume,
+but no thermometers at that time were sufficiently sensitive to indicate
+more than a fraction of the change of temperature. Laplace was the first
+to see in this phenomenon the probable explanation of the discrepancy
+between Newton's calculation of the velocity of sound and the observed
+value. The increase of pressure due to a sudden compression, in which no
+heat was allowed to escape, or as we now call it an "adiabatic"
+compression, would necessarily be greater than the increase of pressure
+in a slow isothermal compression, on account of the rise of temperature.
+As the rapid compressions and rarefactions occurring in the propagation
+of a sound wave were perfectly adiabatic, it was necessary to take
+account of the rise of temperature due to compression in calculating the
+velocity. To reconcile the observed and calculated values of the
+velocity, the increase of pressure in adiabatic compression must be
+1.410 times greater than in isothermal compression. This is the ratio of
+the adiabatic elasticity of air to the isothermal elasticity. It was a
+long time, however, before Laplace saw his way to any direct
+experimental verification of the value of this ratio. At a later date
+(_Ann. de chim._, 1816, 3, p. 238) he stated that he had succeeded in
+proving that the ratio in question must be the same as the ratio of the
+specific heat of air at constant pressure to the specific heat at
+constant volume.
+
+  In the method of measuring the specific heat adopted by Delaroche and
+  Berard, the gas under experiment, while passing through a tube at
+  practically constant pressure, contracts in cooling, as it gives up
+  its heat to the calorimeter. Part of the heat surrendered to the
+  calorimeter is due to the contraction of volume. If a gramme of gas at
+  pressure p, volume v and temperature T abs. is heated 1 deg. C. at
+  constant pressure p, it absorbs a quantity of heat S = .238 calorie
+  (according to Regnault) the specific heat at constant pressure. At the
+  same time the gas expands by a fraction 1/T of v, which is the same as
+  1/273 of its volume at 0 deg. C. If now the air is suddenly compressed
+  by an amount v/T, it will be restored to its original volume, and its
+  temperature will be raised by the liberation of a quantity of heat R',
+  the latent heat of expansion for an increase of volume v/T. If no heat
+  has been allowed to escape, the air will now be in the same state as
+  if a quantity of heat S had been communicated to it at its original
+  volume v without expansion. The rise of temperature above the original
+  temperature T will be S/s degrees, where s is the specific heat at
+  constant volume, which is obviously equal to S - R'. Since p/T is the
+  increase of pressure for 1 deg. C. rise of temperature at constant
+  volume, the increase of pressure for a rise of S/s degrees will be
+  [gamma]p/T, where [gamma] is the ratio S/s. But this is the rise of
+  pressure produced by a sudden compression v/T, and is seen to be
+  [gamma] times the rise of pressure p/T produced by the same
+  compression at constant temperature. The ratio of the adiabatic to the
+  isothermal elasticity, required for calculating the velocity of sound,
+  is therefore the same as the ratio of the specific heat at constant
+  pressure to that at constant volume.
+
+  12. _Experimental Verification of the Ratio of Specific Heats._--This
+  was a most interesting and important theoretical relation to discover,
+  but unfortunately it did not help much in the determination of the
+  ratio required, because it was not practically possible at that time
+  to measure the specific heat of air at constant volume in a closed
+  vessel. Attempts had been made to do this, but they had signally
+  failed, on account of the small heat capacity of the gas as compared
+  with the containing vessel. Laplace endeavoured to extract some
+  confirmation of his views from the values given by Delaroche and
+  Berard for the specific heat of air at 1000 and 740 mm. pressure. On
+  the assumption that the quantities of heat contained in a given mass
+  of air increased in direct proportion to its volume when heated at
+  constant pressure, he deduced, by some rather obscure reasoning, that
+  the ratio of the specific heats S and s should be about 1.5 to 1,
+  which he regarded as a fairly satisfactory agreement with the value
+  [gamma] = 1.41 deduced from the velocity of sound.
+
+  The ratio of the specific heats could not be directly measured, but a
+  few years later, Clement and Desormes (_Journ. de Phys._, Nov. 1819)
+  succeeded in making a direct measurement of the ratio of the
+  elasticities in a very simple manner. They took a large globe
+  containing air at atmospheric pressure and temperature, and removed a
+  small quantity of air. They then observed the defect of pressure p0
+  when the air had regained its original temperature. By suddenly
+  opening the globe, and immediately closing it, the pressure was
+  restored almost instantaneously to the atmospheric, the rise of
+  pressure p0 corresponding to the sudden compression produced. The air,
+  having been heated by the compression, was allowed to regain its
+  original temperature, the tap remaining closed, and the final defect
+  of pressure p^1 was noted. The change of pressure for the same
+  compression performed isothermally is then p0 - p^1. The ratio p0/(p0
+  - p^1) is the ratio of the adiabatic and isothermal elasticities,
+  provided that p0 is small compared with the whole atmospheric
+  pressure. In this way they found the ratio 1.354, which is not much
+  smaller than the value 1.410 required to reconcile the observed and
+  calculated values of the velocity of sound. Gay-Lussac and J. J.
+  Welter (_Ann. de chim._, 1822) repeated the experiment with slight
+  improvements, using expansion instead of compression, and found the
+  ratio 1.375. The experiment has often been repeated since that time,
+  and there is no doubt that the value of the ratio deduced from the
+  velocity of sound is correct, the defect of the value obtained by
+  direct experiment being due to the fact that the compression or
+  expansion is not perfectly adiabatic. Gay-Lussac and Welter found the
+  ratio practically constant for a range of pressure 144 to 1460 mm.,
+  and for a range of temperature from -20 deg. to +40 deg. C. The
+  velocity of sound at Quito, at a pressure of 544 mm. was found to be
+  the same as at Paris at 760 mm. at the same temperature. Assuming on
+  this evidence the constancy of the ratio of the specific heats of air,
+  Laplace (_Mecanique celeste_, v. 143) showed that, if the specific
+  heat at constant pressure was independent of the temperature, the
+  specific heat per unit volume at a pressure p must vary as
+  p^(1/[gamma]), according to the caloric theory. The specific heat per
+  unit mass must then vary as p^(1/[gamma]-1) which he found agreed
+  precisely with the experiment of Delaroche and Berard already cited.
+  This was undoubtedly a strong confirmation of the caloric theory.
+  Poisson by the same assumptions (_Ann. de chim._, 1823, 23, p. 337)
+  obtained the same results, and also showed that the relation between
+  the pressure and the volume of a gas in adiabatic compression or
+  expansion must be of the form pv^[gamma] = constant.
+
+  P. L. Dulong (_Ann. de chim._, 1829, 41, p. 156), adopting a method
+  due to E. F. F. Chladni, compared the velocities of sound in different
+  gases by observing the pitch of the note given by the same tube when
+  filled with the gases in question. He thus obtained the values of the
+  ratios of the elasticities or of the specific heats for the gases
+  employed. For oxygen, hydrogen and carbonic oxide, these ratios were
+  the same as for air. But for carbonic acid, nitrous oxide and olefiant
+  gas, the values were much smaller, showing that these gases
+  experienced a smaller change of temperature in compression. On
+  comparing his results with the values of the specific heats for the
+  same gases found by Delaroche and Berard, Dulong observed that the
+  changes of temperature for the same compression were in the inverse
+  ratio of the specific heats at constant volume, and deduced the
+  important conclusion that "_Equal volumes of all gases under the same
+  conditions evolve on compression the same quantity of heat_." This is
+  equivalent to the statement that the difference of the specific heats,
+  or the latent heat of expansion R' per 1 deg., is the same for all
+  gases if equal volumes are taken. Assuming the ratio [gamma] = 1.410,
+  and taking Delaroche and Berard's value for the specific heat of air
+  at constant pressure S = .267, we have s = S/1.41 = .189, and the
+  difference of the specific heats per unit mass of air S - s = R' =
+  .078. Adopting Regnault's value of the specific heat of air, namely, S
+  = .238, we should have S - s = .069. This quantity represents the heat
+  absorbed by unit mass of air in expanding at constant temperature T by
+  a fraction 1/T of its volume v, or by 1/273rd of its volume 0 deg. C.
+
+  If, instead of taking unit mass, we take a volume v0 = 22.30 litres at
+  0 deg. C. and 760 mm. being the volume of the molecular weight of the
+  gas in grammes, the quantity of heat evolved by a compression equal to
+  v/T will be approximately 2 calories, and is the same for all gases.
+  The work done in this compression is pv/T = R, and is also the same
+  for all gases, namely, 8.3 joules. Dulong's experimental result,
+  therefore, shows that the heat evolved in the compression of a gas is
+  proportional to the work done. This result had previously been deduced
+  theoretically by Carnot (1824). At a later date it was assumed by
+  Mayer, Clausius and others, on the evidence of these experiments, that
+  the heat evolved was not merely proportional to the work done, but was
+  equivalent to it. The further experimental evidence required to
+  justify this assumption was first supplied by Joule.
+
+  Latent heat of expansion R' = .069 calorie per gramme of air, per 1
+                                  deg. C.
+                              = 2.0 calories per gramme-molecule of any
+                                  gas.
+     Work done in expansion R = .287 joule per gramme of air per 1 deg. C.
+                              = 8.3 joules per gramme-molecule of any
+                                  gas.
+
+13. _Carnot: On the Motive Power of Heat._--A practical and theoretical
+question of the greatest importance was first answered by Sadi Carnot
+about this time in his _Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat_ (1824).
+How much motive power (defined by Carnot as weight lifted through a
+certain height) can be obtained from heat alone by means of an engine
+repeating a regular succession or "cycle" of operations continuously? Is
+the efficiency limited, and, if so, how is it limited? Are other agents
+preferable to steam for developing motive power from heat? In discussing
+this problem, we cannot do better than follow Carnot's reasoning which,
+in its main features could hardly be improved at the present day.
+
+Carnot points out that in order to obtain an answer to this question, it
+is necessary to consider the essential conditions of the process, apart
+from the mechanism of the engine and the working substance or agent
+employed. Work cannot be said to be produced _from heat alone_ unless
+nothing but heat is supplied, and the working substance and all parts of
+the engine are at the end of the process in precisely the same state as
+at the beginning.[3]
+
+_Carnot's Axiom._--Carnot here, and throughout his reasoning, makes a
+fundamental assumption, which he states as follows: "When a body has
+undergone any changes and after a certain number of transformations is
+brought back identically to its original state, considered relatively to
+density, temperature and mode of aggregation, it must contain the same
+quantity of heat as it contained originally."[4]
+
+Heat, according to Carnot, in the type of engine we are considering, can
+evidently be a cause of motive power only by virtue of changes of volume
+or form produced by alternate heating and cooling. This involves the
+existence of cold and hot bodies to act as boiler and condenser, or
+source and sink of heat, respectively. Wherever there exists a
+difference of temperature, it is possible to have the production of
+motive power from heat; and conversely, production of motive power, from
+heat alone, is impossible without difference of temperature. In other
+words the production of motive power from heat is not merely a question
+of the consumption of heat, but always requires transference of heat
+from hot to cold. What then are the conditions which enable the
+difference of temperature to be most advantageously employed in the
+production of motive power, and how much motive power can be obtained
+with a given difference of temperature from a given quantity of heat?
+
+_Carnot's Rule for Maximum Effect._--In order to realize the maximum
+effect, it is necessary that, in the process employed, there should not
+be any direct interchange of heat between bodies at different
+temperatures. Direct transference of heat by conduction or radiation
+between bodies at different temperatures is equivalent to wasting a
+difference of temperature which might have been utilized to produce
+motive power. The working substance must throughout every stage of the
+process be in equilibrium with itself (i.e. at uniform temperature and
+pressure) and also with external bodies, such as the boiler and
+condenser, at such times as it is put in communication with them. In the
+actual engine there is always some interchange of heat between the steam
+and the cylinder, and some loss of heat to external bodies. There may
+also be some difference of temperature between the boiler steam and the
+cylinder on admission, or between the waste steam and the condenser at
+release. These differences represent losses of efficiency which may be
+reduced indefinitely, at least in imagination, by suitable means, and
+designers had even at that date been very successful in reducing them.
+All such losses are supposed to be absent in deducing the ideal limit of
+efficiency, beyond which it would be impossible to go.
+
+14. _Carnot's Description of his Ideal Cycle._--Carnot first gives a
+rough illustration of an incomplete cycle, using steam much in the same
+way as it is employed in an ordinary steam-engine. After expansion down
+to condenser pressure the steam is completely condensed to water, and is
+then returned as cold water to the hot boiler. He points out that the
+last step does not conform exactly to the condition he laid down,
+because although the water is restored to its initial state, there is
+direct passage of heat from a hot body to a cold body in the last
+process. He points out that this difficulty might be overcome by
+supposing the difference of temperature small, and by employing a series
+of engines, each working through a small range, to cover a finite
+interval of temperature. Having established the general notions of a
+perfect cycle, he proceeds to give a more exact illustration, employing
+a gas as the working substance. He takes as the basis of his
+demonstration the well-established experimental fact that a gas is
+heated by rapid compression and cooled by rapid expansion, and that if
+compressed or expanded slowly in contact with conducting bodies, the gas
+will give out heat in compression or absorb heat in expansion while its
+temperature remains constant. He then goes on to say:--
+
+  "This preliminary notion being settled, let us imagine an elastic
+  fluid, atmospheric air for example, enclosed in a cylinder _abcd_,
+  fig. 4, fitted with a movable diaphragm or piston cd. Let there also
+  be two bodies A, B, each maintained at a constant temperature, that of
+  A being more elevated than that of B. Let us now suppose the following
+  series of operations to be performed:
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 4. Carnot's Cylinder.]
+
+  "1. Contact of the body A with the air contained in the space _abcd_,
+  or with the bottom of the cylinder, which we will suppose to transmit
+  heat easily. The air is now at the temperature of the body A, and _cd_
+  is the actual position of the piston.
+
+  "2. The piston is gradually raised, and takes the position _ef_. The
+  air remains in contact with the body A, and is thereby maintained at a
+  constant temperature during the expansion. The body A furnishes the
+  heat necessary to maintain the constancy of temperature.
+
+  "3. The body A is removed, and the air no longer being in contact with
+  any body capable of giving it heat, the piston continues nevertheless
+  to rise, and passes from the position _ef_ to _gh_. The air expands
+  without receiving heat and its temperature falls. Let us imagine that
+  it falls until it is just equal to that of the body B. At this moment
+  the piston is stopped and occupies the position _gh_.
+
+  "4. The air is placed in contact with the body B; it is compressed by
+  the return of the piston, which is brought from the position _gh_ to
+  the position _cd_. The air remains meanwhile at a constant
+  temperature, because of its contact with the body B to which it gives
+  up its heat.
+
+  "5. The body B is removed, and the compression of the air is
+  continued. The air being now isolated, rises in temperature. The
+  compression is continued until the air has acquired the temperature of
+  the body A. The piston passes meanwhile from the position _cd_ to the
+  position _ik_.
+
+  "6. The air is replaced in contact with the body A, and the piston
+  returns from the position _ik_ to the position _ef_, the temperature
+  remaining invariable.
+
+  "7. The period described under (3) is repeated, then successively the
+  periods (4), (5), (6); (3), (4), (5), (6); (3), (4), (5), (6); and so
+  on.
+
+  "During these operations the air enclosed in the cylinder exerts an
+  effort more or less great on the piston. The pressure of the air
+  varies both on account of changes of volume and on account of changes
+  of temperature; but it should be observed that for equal volumes, that
+  is to say, for like positions of the piston, the temperature is higher
+  during the dilatation than during the compression. Since the pressure
+  is greater during the expansion, the quantity of motive power produced
+  by the dilatation is greater than that consumed by the compression. We
+  shall thus obtain a balance of motive power, which may be employed for
+  any purpose. The air has served as working substance in a heat-engine;
+  it has also been employed in the most advantageous manner possible,
+  since no useless re-establishment of the equilibrium of heat has been
+  allowed to occur.
+
+  "All the operations above described may be executed in the reverse
+  order and direction. Let us imagine that after the sixth period, that
+  is to say, when the piston has reached the position _ef_, we make it
+  return to the position _ik_, and that at the same time we keep the air
+  in contact with the hot body A; the heat furnished by this body during
+  the sixth period will return to its source, that is, to the body A,
+  and everything will be as it was at the end of the fifth period. If
+  now we remove the body A, and if we make the piston move from _ik_ to
+  _cd_, the temperature of the air will decrease by just as many degrees
+  as it increased during the fifth period, and will become that of the
+  body B. We can evidently continue in this way a series of operations
+  the exact reverse of those which were previously described; it
+  suffices to place oneself in the same circumstances and to execute for
+  each period a movement of expansion in place of a movement of
+  compression, and vice versa.
+
+  "The result of the first series of operations was the production of a
+  certain quantity of motive power, and the transport of heat from the
+  body A to the body B; the result of the reverse operations is the
+  consumption of the motive power produced in the first case, and the
+  return of heat from the body B to the body A, in such sort that these
+  two series of operations annul and neutralize each other.
+
+  "The impossibility of producing by the agency of heat alone a quantity
+  of motive power greater than that which we have obtained in our first
+  series of operations is now easy to prove. It is demonstrated by
+  reasoning exactly similar to that which we have already given. The
+  reasoning will have in this case a greater degree of exactitude; the
+  air of which we made use to develop the motive power is brought back
+  at the end of each cycle of operations precisely to its initial state,
+  whereas this was not quite exactly the case for the vapour of water,
+  as we have already remarked."
+
+15. _Proof of Carnot's Principle._--Carnot considered the proof too
+obvious to be worth repeating, but, unfortunately, his previous
+demonstration, referring to an incomplete cycle, is not so exactly
+worded that exception cannot be taken to it. We will therefore repeat
+his proof in a slightly more definite and exact form. Suppose that a
+reversible engine R, working in the cycle above described, takes a
+quantity of heat H from the source in each cycle, and performs a
+quantity of useful work W_r. If it were possible for any other engine S,
+working with the same two bodies A and B as source and refrigerator, to
+perform a greater amount of useful work W_s per cycle for the same
+quantity of heat H taken from the source, it would suffice to take a
+portion W_r of this motive power (since W_s is by hypothesis greater
+than W_r) to drive the engine R backwards, and return a quantity of heat
+H to the source in each cycle. The process might be repeated
+indefinitely, and we should obtain at each repetition a balance of
+useful work W_s - W_r, _without taking any heat from the source_, which
+is contrary to experience. Whether the quantity of heat taken from the
+condenser by R is equal to that given to the condenser by S is
+immaterial. The hot body A might be a comparatively small boiler, since
+no heat is taken from it. The cold body B might be the ocean, or the
+whole earth. We might thus obtain without any consumption of fuel a
+practically unlimited supply of motive power. Which is absurd.
+
+_Carnot's Statement of his Principle._[5]--If the above reasoning be
+admitted, we must conclude with Carnot that _the motive power obtainable
+from heat is independent of the agents employed to realize it_. _The
+efficiency is fixed solely by the temperatures of the bodies between
+which, in the last resort, the transfer of heat is effected._ "We must
+understand here that each of the methods of developing motive power
+attains the perfection of which it is susceptible. This condition is
+fulfilled if, according to our rule, there is produced in the body no
+change of temperature that is not due to change of volume, or in other
+words, if there is no direct interchange of heat between bodies of
+sensibly different temperatures."
+
+It is characteristic of a state of frictionless mechanical equilibrium
+that an indefinitely small difference of pressure suffices to upset the
+equilibrium and reverse the motion. Similarly in thermal equilibrium
+between bodies at the same temperature, an indefinitely small difference
+of temperature suffices to reverse the transfer of heat. Carnot's rule
+is therefore the criterion of the reversibility of a cycle of operations
+as regards transfer of heat. It is assumed that the ideal engine is
+mechanically reversible, that there is not, for instance, any
+communication between reservoirs of gas or vapour at sensibly different
+pressures, and that there is no waste of power in friction. If there is
+equilibrium both mechanical and thermal at every stage of the cycle, the
+ideal engine will be perfectly reversible. That is to say, all its
+operations will be exactly reversed as regards transfer of heat and
+work, when the operations are performed in the reverse order and
+direction. On this understanding Carnot's principle may be put in a
+different way, which is often adopted, but is really only the same thing
+put in different words: _The efficiency of a perfectly reversible engine
+is the maximum possible, and is a function solely of the limits of
+temperature between which it works_. This result depends essentially on
+the existence of a state of thermal equilibrium defined by equality of
+temperature, and independent, in the majority of cases, of the state of
+a body in other respects. In order to apply the principle to the
+calculation and prediction of results, it is sufficient to determine the
+manner in which the efficiency depends on the temperature for one
+particular case, since the efficiency must be the same for all
+reversible engines.
+
+  16. _Experimental Verification of Carnot's Principle._--Carnot
+  endeavoured to test his result by the following simple calculations.
+  Suppose that we have a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston,
+  containing 1 gram of water at 100 deg. C., and that the pressure of
+  the steam, namely 760 mm., is in equilibrium with the external
+  pressure on the piston at this temperature. Place the cylinder in
+  connexion with a boiler or hot body at 101 deg. C. The water will then
+  acquire the temperature of 101 deg. C., and will absorb 1 gram-calorie
+  of heat. Some waste of motive power occurs here because heat is
+  allowed to pass from one body to another at a different temperature,
+  but the waste in this case is so small as to be immaterial. Keep the
+  cylinder in contact with the hot body at 101 deg. C. and allow the
+  piston to rise. It may be made to perform useful work as the pressure
+  is now 27.7 mm. (or 37.7 grams per sq. cm.) in excess of the external
+  pressure. Continue the process till all the water is converted into
+  steam. The heat absorbed from the hot body will be nearly 540
+  gram-calories, the latent heat of steam at this temperature. The
+  increase of volume will be approximately 1620 c.c., the volume of 1
+  gram of steam at this pressure and temperature. The work done by the
+  excess pressure will be 37.7 X 1620 = 61,000 gram-centimetres or 0.61
+  of a kilogrammetre. Remove the hot body, and allow the steam to expand
+  further till its pressure is 760 mm. and its temperature has fallen to
+  100 deg. C. The work which might be done in this expansion is less
+  than 1/1000th part of a kilogrammetre, and may be neglected for the
+  present purpose. Place the cylinder in contact with the cold body at
+  100 deg. C., and allow the steam to condense at this temperature. No
+  work is done on the piston, because there is equilibrium of pressure,
+  but a quantity of heat equal to the latent heat of steam at 100 deg.
+  C. is given to the cold body. The water is now in its initial
+  condition, and the result of the process has been to gain 0.61 of a
+  kilogrammetre of work by allowing 540 gram-calories of heat to pass
+  from a body at 101 deg. C. to a body at 100 deg. C. by means of an
+  ideally simple steam-engine. The work obtainable in this way from 1000
+  gram-calories of heat, or 1 kilo-calorie, would evidently be 1.13
+  kilogrammetre (= 0.61 X 1000/540).
+
+  Taking the same range of temperature, namely 101 deg. to 100 deg. C.,
+  we may perform a similar series of operations with air in the
+  cylinder, instead of water and steam. Suppose the cylinder to contain
+  1 gramme of air at 100 deg. C. and 760 mm. pressure instead of water.
+  Compress it without loss of heat (adiabatically), so as to raise its
+  temperature to 101 deg. C. Place it in contact with the hot body at
+  101 deg. C., and allow it to expand at this temperature, absorbing
+  heat from the hot body, until its volume is increased by 1/374th part
+  (the expansion per degree at constant pressure). The quantity of heat
+  absorbed in this expansion, as explained in S 14, will be the
+  difference of the specific heats or the latent heat of expansion R' =
+  .069 calorie. Remove the hot body, and allow the gas to expand further
+  without gain of heat till its temperature falls to 100 deg. C.
+  Compress it at 100 deg. C. to its original volume, abstracting the
+  heat of compression by contact with the cold body at 100 deg. C. The
+  air is now in its original state, and the process has been carried out
+  in strict accordance with Carnot's rule. The quantity of external work
+  done in the cycle is easily obtained by the aid of the indicator
+  diagram ABCD (fig. 5), which is approximately a parallelogram in this
+  instance. The area of the diagram is equal to that of the rectangle
+  BEHG, being the product of the vertical height BE, namely, the
+  increase of pressure per 1 deg. at constant volume, by the increase of
+  volume BG, which is 1/273rd of the volume at 0 deg. C. and 760 mm., or
+  2.83 c.c. The increase of pressure BE is 760/373, or 2.03 mm., which
+  is equivalent to 2.76 gm. per sq. cm. The work done in the cycle is
+  2.76 X 2.83 = 7.82 gm. cm., or .0782 gram-metre. The heat absorbed at
+  101 deg. C. was .069 gram-calorie, so that the work obtained is
+  .0782/.069 or 1.13 gram-metre per gram-calorie, or 1.13 kilogrammetre
+  per kilogram-calorie. This result is precisely the same as that
+  obtained by using steam with the same range of temperature, but a very
+  different kind of cycle. Carnot in making the same calculation did not
+  obtain quite so good an agreement, because the experimental data at
+  that time available were not so accurate. He used the value 1/267 for
+  the coefficient of expansion, and .267 for the specific heat of air.
+  Moreover, he did not feel justified in assuming, as above, that the
+  difference of the specific heats was the same at 100 deg. C. as at the
+  ordinary temperature of 15 deg. to 20 deg. C., at which it had been
+  experimentally determined. He made similar calculations for the vapour
+  of alcohol, which differed slightly from the vapour of water. But the
+  agreement he found was close enough to satisfy him that his
+  theoretical deductions were correct, and that the resulting ratio of
+  work to heat should be the same for all substances at the same
+  temperature.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Elementary Carnot Cycle for Gas.]
+
+  17. _Carnot's Function. Variation of Efficiency with Temperature._--By
+  means of calculations, similar to those given above, Carnot
+  endeavoured to find the amount of motive power obtainable from one
+  unit of heat per degree fall at various temperatures with various
+  substances. The value found above, namely 1.13 kilogrammetre per
+  kilo-calorie per 1 deg. fall, is the value of the efficiency per 1
+  deg. fall at 100 deg. C. He was able to show that the efficiency per
+  degree fall probably diminished with rise of temperature, but the
+  experimental data at that time were too inconsistent to suggest the
+  true relation. He took as the analytical expression of his principle
+  that the efficiency W/H of a perfect engine taking in heat H at a
+  temperature t deg. C., and rejecting heat at the temperature 0 deg.
+  C., must be some function Ft of the temperature t, which would be the
+  same for all substances. The efficiency per degree fall at a
+  temperature t he represented by F't, the derived function of Ft. The
+  function F't would be the same for all substances at the same
+  temperature, but would have different values at different
+  temperatures. In terms of this function, which is generally known as
+  Carnot's function, the results obtained in the previous section might
+  be expressed as follows:--
+
+  "The increase of volume of a mixture of liquid and vapour per
+  unit-mass vaporized at any temperature, multiplied by the increase of
+  vapour-pressure per degree, is equal to the product of the function
+  F't by the latent heat of vaporization.
+
+  "The difference of the specific heats, or the latent heat of expansion
+  for any substance multiplied by the function F't, is equal to the
+  product of the expansion per degree at constant pressure by the
+  increase of pressure per degree at constant volume."
+
+  Since the last two coefficients are the same for all gases if equal
+  volumes are taken, Carnot concluded that: "The difference of the
+  specific heats at constant pressure and volume is the same for equal
+  volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure."
+
+  Taking the expression W = RT log _e r for the whole work done by a gas
+  obeying the gaseous laws pv = RT in expanding at a temperature T from
+  a volume 1 (unity) to a volume r, or for a ratio of expansion r, and
+  putting W' = R log _e r for the work done in a cycle of range 1 deg.,
+  Carnot obtained the expression for the heat absorbed by a gas in
+  isothermal expansion
+
+    H = R log_e r/F't.   (2)
+
+  He gives several important deductions which follow from this formula,
+  which is the analytical expression of the experimental result already
+  quoted as having been discovered subsequently by Dulong. Employing the
+  above expression for the latent heat of expansion, Carnot deduced a
+  general expression for the specific heat of a gas at constant volume
+  on the basis of the caloric theory. He showed that if the specific
+  heat was independent of the temperature (the hypothesis already
+  adopted by Laplace and Poisson) the function F't must be of the form
+
+    F't = R/C(t + t0)   (3)
+
+  where C and t0 are unknown constants. A similar result follows from
+  his expression for the difference of the specific heats. If this is
+  assumed to be constant and equal to C, the expression for F't becomes
+  R/CT, which is the same as the above if t0 = 273. Assuming the
+  specific heat to be also independent of the volume, he shows that the
+  function F't should be constant. But this assumption is inconsistent
+  with the caloric theory of latent heat of expansion, which requires
+  the specific heat to be a function of the volume. It appears in fact
+  impossible to reconcile Carnot's principle with the caloric theory on
+  any simple assumptions. As Carnot remarks: "The main principles on
+  which the theory of heat rests require most careful examination. Many
+  experimental facts appear almost inexplicable in the present state of
+  this theory."
+
+Carnot's work was subsequently put in a more complete analytical form by
+B. P. E. Clapeyron (_Journ. de l'Ec. polytechn._, Paris, 1832, 14, p.
+153), who also made use of Watt's indicator diagram for the first time
+in discussing physical problems. Clapeyron gave the general expressions
+for the latent heat of a vapour, and for the latent heat of isothermal
+expansion of any substance, in terms of Carnot's function, employing the
+notation of the calculus. The expressions he gave are the same in form
+as those in use at the present day. He also gave the general expression
+for Carnot's function, and endeavoured to find its variation with
+temperature; but having no better data, he succeeded no better than
+Carnot. Unfortunately, in describing Carnot's cycle, he assumed the
+caloric theory of heat, and made some unnecessary mistakes, which Carnot
+(who, we now know, was a believer in the mechanical theory) had been
+very careful to avoid. Clapeyron directs one to compress the gas at the
+lower temperature in contact with the body B _until the heat disengaged
+is equal to that which has been absorbed at the higher temperature_.[6]
+He assumes that the gas at this point contains the same quantity of heat
+as it contained in its original state at the higher temperature, and
+that, when the body B is removed, the gas will be restored to its
+original temperature, when compressed to its initial volume. This
+mistake is still attributed to Carnot, and regarded as a fatal objection
+to his reasoning by nearly all writers at the present day.
+
+18. _Mechanical Theory of Heat._--According to the caloric theory, the
+heat absorbed in the expansion of a gas became latent, like the latent
+heat of vaporization of a liquid, but remained in the gas and was again
+evolved on compressing the gas. This theory gave no explanation of the
+source of the motive power produced by expansion. The mechanical theory
+had explained the production of heat by friction as being due to
+transformation of visible motion into a brisk agitation of the ultimate
+molecules, but it had not so far given any definite explanation of the
+converse production of motive power at the expense of heat. The theory
+could not be regarded as complete until it had been shown that in the
+production of work from heat, a certain quantity of heat disappeared,
+and ceased to exist as heat; and that this quantity was the same as that
+which could be generated by the expenditure of the work produced. The
+earliest complete statement of the mechanical theory from this point of
+view is contained in some notes written by Carnot, about 1830, but
+published by his brother (_Life of Sadi Carnot_, Paris, 1878). Taking
+the difference of the specific heats to be .078, he estimated the
+mechanical equivalent at 370 kilogrammetres. But he fully recognized
+that there were no experimental data at that time available for a
+quantitative test of the theory, although it appeared to afford a good
+qualitative explanation of the phenomena. He therefore planned a number
+of crucial experiments such as the "porous plug" experiment, to test the
+equivalence of heat and motive power. His early death in 1836 put a stop
+to these experiments, but many of them have since been independently
+carried out by other observers.
+
+The most obvious case of the production of work from heat is in the
+expansion of a gas or vapour, which served in the first instance as a
+means of calculating the ratio of equivalence, on the assumption that
+all the heat which disappeared had been transformed into work and had
+not merely become latent. Marc Seguin, in his _De l'influence des
+chemins de fer_ (Paris, 1839), made a rough estimate in this manner of
+the mechanical equivalent of heat, assuming that the loss of heat
+represented by the fall of temperature of steam on expanding was
+equivalent to the mechanical effect produced by the expansion. He also
+remarks (_loc. cit._ p. 382) that it was absurd to suppose that "a
+finite quantity of heat could produce an indefinite quantity of
+mechanical action, and that it was more natural to assume that a certain
+quantity of heat disappeared in the very act of producing motive power."
+J. R. Mayer (_Liebig's Annalen_, 1842, 42, p. 233) stated the
+equivalence of heat and work more definitely, deducing it from the old
+principle, _causa aequat effectum_. Assuming that the sinking of a
+mercury column by which a gas was compressed was equivalent to the heat
+set free by the compression, he deduced that the warming of a kilogramme
+of water 1 deg. C. would correspond to the fall of a weight of one
+kilogramme from a height of about 365 metres. But Mayer did not adduce
+any fresh experimental evidence, and made no attempt to apply his theory
+to the fundamental equations of thermodynamics. It has since been urged
+that the experiment of Gay-Lussac (1807), on the expansion of gas from
+one globe to another (see above, S 11), was sufficient justification for
+the assumption tacitly involved in Mayer's calculation. But Joule was
+the first to supply the correct interpretation of this experiment, and
+to repeat it on an adequate scale with suitable precautions. Joule was
+also the first to measure directly the amount of heat liberated by the
+compression of a gas, and to prove that heat was not merely rendered
+latent, but disappeared altogether as heat, when a gas did work in
+expansion.
+
+19. _Joule's Determinations of the Mechanical Equivalent._--The honour
+of placing the mechanical theory of heat on a sound _experimental_ basis
+belongs almost exclusively to J. P. Joule, who showed by direct
+experiment that in all the most important cases in which heat was
+generated by the expenditure of mechanical work, or mechanical work was
+produced at the expense of heat, there was a constant ratio of
+equivalence between the heat generated and the work expended and vice
+versa. His first experiments were on the relation of the chemical and
+electric energy expended to the heat produced in metallic conductors and
+voltaic and electrolytic cells; these experiments were described in a
+series of papers published in the _Phil. Mag._, 1840-1843. He first
+proved the relation, known as Joule's law, that the heat produced in a
+conductor of resistance R by a current C is proportional to C^2R per
+second. He went on to show that the total heat produced in any voltaic
+circuit was proportional to the electromotive force E of the battery and
+to the number of equivalents electrolysed in it. Faraday had shown that
+electromotive force depends on chemical affinity. Joule measured the
+corresponding heats of combustion, and showed that the electromotive
+force corresponding to a chemical reaction is proportional to the heat
+of combustion of the electrochemical equivalent. He also measured the
+E.M.F. required to decompose water, and showed that when part of the
+electric energy EC is thus expended in a voltameter, the heat generated
+is less than the heat of combustion corresponding to EC by a quantity
+representing the heat of combustion of the decomposed gases. His papers
+so far had been concerned with the relations between electrical energy,
+chemical energy and heat which he showed to be mutually equivalent. The
+first paper in which he discussed the relation of heat to mechanical
+power was entitled "On the Calorific Effects of Magneto-Electricity, and
+on the Mechanical Value of Heat" (_Brit. Assoc._, 1843; _Phil. Mag._,
+23, p. 263). In this paper he showed that the heat produced by currents
+generated by magneto-electric induction followed the same law as voltaic
+currents. By a simple and ingenious arrangement he succeeded in
+measuring the mechanical power expended in producing the currents, and
+deduced the mechanical equivalent of heat and of electrical energy. The
+amount of mechanical work required to raise 1 lb. of water 1 deg. F. (1
+B.Th.U.), as found by this method, was 838 foot-pounds. In a note added
+to the paper he states that he found the value 770 foot-pounds by the
+more direct method of forcing water through fine tubes. In a paper "On
+the Changes of Temperature produced by the Rarefaction and Condensation
+of Air" (_Phil. Mag._, May 1845), he made the first direct measurements
+of the quantity of heat disengaged by compressing air, and also of the
+heat absorbed when the air was allowed to expand against atmospheric
+pressure; as the result he deduced the value 798 foot-pounds for the
+mechanical equivalent of 1 B.Th.U. He also showed that there was no
+appreciable absorption of heat when air was allowed to expand in such a
+manner as not to develop mechanical power, and he pointed out that the
+mechanical equivalent of heat could not be satisfactorily deduced from
+the relations of the specific heats, because the knowledge of the
+specific heats of gases at that time was of so uncertain a character. He
+attributed most weight to his later determinations of the mechanical
+equivalent made by the direct method of friction of liquids. He showed
+that the results obtained with different liquids, water, mercury and
+sperm oil, were the same, namely, 782 foot-pounds; and finally repeating
+the method with water, using all the precautions and improvements which
+his experience had suggested, he obtained the value 772 foot-pounds,
+which was accepted universally for many years, and has only recently
+required alteration on account of the more exact definition of the heat
+unit, and the standard scale of temperature (see CALORIMETRY). The great
+value of Joule's work for the general establishment of the principle of
+the conservation of energy lay in the variety and completeness of the
+experimental evidence he adduced. It was not sufficient to find the
+relation between heat and mechanical work or other forms of energy in
+one particular case. It was necessary to show that the same relation
+held in all cases which could be examined experimentally, and that the
+ratio of equivalence of the different forms of energy, measured in
+different ways, was independent of the manner in which the conversion
+was effected and of the material or working substance employed.
+
+As the result of Joule's experiments, we are justified in concluding
+that heat is a form of energy, and that all its transformations are
+subject to the general principle of the conservation of energy. As
+applied to heat, the principle is called the first law of
+thermodynamics, and may be stated as follows: _When heat is transformed
+into any other kind of energy, or vice versa, the total quantity of
+energy remains invariable; that is to say, the quantity of heat which
+disappears is equivalent to the quantity of the other kind of energy
+produced and vice versa._
+
+The number of units of mechanical work equivalent to one unit of heat is
+generally called the mechanical equivalent of heat, or Joule's
+equivalent, and is denoted by the letter J. Its numerical value depends
+on the units employed for heat and mechanical energy respectively. The
+values of the equivalent in terms of the units most commonly employed at
+the present time are as follows:--
+
+   777 foot-pounds (Lat. 45 deg.) are equivalent to 1 B.Th.U. (lb. deg. Fahr.)
+  1399 foot-pounds        "         "        "      1 lb. deg. C.
+  426.3 kilogrammetres              "        "      1 kilogram-deg. C. or
+                                                        kilo-calorie.
+  426.3 grammetres                  "        "      1 gram-deg. C. or calorie.
+  4.180 joules                      "        "      1 gram-deg. C. or calorie.
+
+The water for the heat units is supposed to be taken at 20 deg. C. or 68
+deg. F., and the degree of temperature is supposed to be measured by the
+hydrogen thermometer. The acceleration of gravity in latitude 45 deg. is
+taken as 980.7 C.G.S. For details of more recent and accurate methods of
+determination, the reader should refer to the article CALORIMETRY, where
+tables of the variation of the specific heat of water with temperature
+are also given.
+
+The second law of thermodynamics is a title often used to denote
+Carnot's principle or some equivalent mathematical expression. In some
+cases this title is not conferred on Carnot's principle itself, but on
+some axiom from which the principle may be indirectly deduced. These
+axioms, however, cannot as a rule be directly applied, so that it would
+appear preferable to take Carnot's principle itself as the second law.
+It may be observed that, as a matter of history, Carnot's principle was
+established and generally admitted before the principle of the
+conservation of energy as applied to heat, and that from this point of
+view the titles, first and second laws, are not particularly
+appropriate.
+
+20. _Combination of Carnot's Principle with the Mechanical Theory._--A
+very instructive paper, as showing the state of the science of heat
+about this time, is that of C. H. A. Holtzmann, "On the Heat and
+Elasticity of Gases and Vapours" (Mannheim, 1845; Taylor's _Scientific
+Memoirs_, iv. 189). He points out that the theory of Laplace and Poisson
+does not agree with facts when applied to vapours, and that Clapeyron's
+formulae, though probably correct, contain an undetermined function
+(Carnot's F't, Clapeyron's 1/C) of the temperature. He determines the
+value of this function to be J/T by assuming, with Seguin and Mayer,
+that the work done in the isothermal expansion of a gas is a measure of
+the heat absorbed. From the then accepted value .078 of the difference
+of the specific heats of air, he finds the numerical value of J to be
+374 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie. _Assuming the heat equivalent of
+the work to remain in the gas_, he obtains expressions similar to
+Clapeyron's for the total heat and the specific heats. In consequence of
+this assumption, the formulae he obtained for adiabatic expansion were
+necessarily wrong, but no data existed at that time for testing them. In
+applying his formulae to vapours, he obtained an expression for the
+saturation-pressure of steam, which agreed with the empirical formula of
+Roche, and satisfied other experimental data on the supposition that the
+coefficient of expansion of steam was .00423, and its specific heat
+1.69--values which are now known to be impossible, but which appeared at
+the time to give a very satisfactory explanation of the phenomena.
+
+The essay of Hermann Helmholtz, _On the Conservation of Force_ (Berlin,
+1847), discusses all the known cases of the transformation of energy,
+and is justly regarded as one of the chief landmarks in the
+establishment of the energy-principle. Helmholtz gives an admirable
+statement of the fundamental principle as applied to heat, but makes no
+attempt to formulate the correct equations of thermodynamics on the
+mechanical theory. He points out the fallacy of Holtzmann's (and
+Mayer's) calculation of the equivalent, but admits that it is supported
+by Joule's experiments, though he does not seem to appreciate the true
+value of Joule's work. He considers that Holtzmann's formulae are well
+supported by experiment, and are much preferable to Clapeyron's, because
+the value of the undetermined function F't is found. But he fails to
+notice that Holtzmann's equations are fundamentally inconsistent with
+the conservation of energy, because the heat equivalent of the external
+work done is supposed to remain in the gas.
+
+That a quantity of heat equivalent to the work performed actually
+disappears when a gas does work in expansion, was first shown by Joule
+in the paper on condensation and rarefaction of air (1845) already
+referred to. At the conclusion of this paper he felt justified by direct
+experimental evidence in reasserting definitely the hypothesis of Seguin
+(_loc. cit._ p. 383) that "the steam while expanding in the cylinder
+loses heat in quantity exactly proportional to the mechanical force
+developed, and that on the condensation of the steam the heat thus
+converted into power is not given back." He did not see his way to
+reconcile this conclusion with Clapeyron's description of Carnot's
+cycle. At a later date, in a letter to Professor W. Thomson (Lord
+Kelvin) (1848), he pointed out that, since, according to his own
+experiments, the work done in the expansion of a gas at constant
+temperature is equivalent to the heat absorbed, by equating Carnot's
+expressions (given in S 17) for the work done and the heat absorbed, the
+value of Carnot's function F't must be equal to J/T, in order to
+reconcile his principle with the mechanical theory.
+
+Professor W. Thomson gave an account of Carnot's theory (_Trans. Roy.
+Soc. Edin._, Jan. 1849), in which he recognized the discrepancy between
+Clapeyron's statement and Joule's experiments, but did not see his way
+out of the difficulty. He therefore adopted Carnot's principle
+provisionally, and proceeded to calculate a table of values of Carnot's
+function F't, from the values of the total-heat and vapour-pressure of
+steam-then recently determined by Regnault (_Memoires de l'Institut de
+Paris_, 1847). In making the calculation, he assumed that the specific
+volume v of saturated steam at any temperature T and pressure p is that
+given by the gaseous laws, pv = RT. The results are otherwise correct so
+far as Regnault's data are accurate, because the values of the
+efficiency per degree F't are not affected by any assumption with regard
+to the nature of heat. He obtained the values of the efficiency F't over
+a finite range from t to 0 deg. C., by adding up the values of F't for
+the separate degrees. This latter proceeding is inconsistent with the
+mechanical theory, but is the correct method on the assumption that the
+heat given up to the condenser is equal to that taken from the source.
+The values he obtained for F't agreed very well with those previously
+given by Carnot and Clapeyron, and showed that this function diminishes
+with rise of temperature roughly in the inverse ratio of T, as suggested
+by Joule.
+
+R. J. E. Clausius (_Pogg. Ann._, 1850, 79, p. 369) and W. J. M. Rankine
+(_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._, 1850) were the first to develop the correct
+equations of thermodynamics on the mechanical theory. When heat was
+supplied to a body to change its temperature or state, part remained in
+the body as intrinsic heat energy E, but part was converted into
+external work of expansion W and ceased to exist as heat. The part
+remaining in the body was always the same for the same change of state,
+however performed, as required by Carnot's fundamental axiom, but the
+part corresponding to the external work was necessarily different for
+different values of the work done. Thus in any cycle in which the body
+was exactly restored to its initial state, the heat remaining in the
+body would always be the same, or as Carnot puts it, the quantities of
+heat absorbed and given out in its diverse transformations are exactly
+"compensated," so far as the body is concerned. But the quantities of
+heat absorbed and given out are not necessarily equal. On the contrary,
+they differ by the equivalent of the external work done in the cycle.
+Applying this principle to the case of steam, Clausius deduced a fact
+previously unknown, that the specific heat of steam maintained in a
+state of saturation is negative, which was also deduced by Rankine (loc.
+cit.) about the same time. In applying the principle to gases Clausius
+assumes (with Mayer and Holtzmann) that the heat absorbed by a gas in
+isothermal expansion is equivalent to the work done, but he does not
+appear to be acquainted with Joule's experiment, and the reasons he
+adduces in support of this assumption are not conclusive. This being
+admitted, he deduces from the energy principle alone the propositions
+already given by Carnot with reference to gases, and shows in addition
+that the specific heat of a perfect gas must be independent of the
+density. In the second part of his paper he introduces Carnot's
+principle, which he quotes as follows: "The performance of work is
+equivalent to a transference of heat from a hot to a cold body without
+the quantity of heat being thereby diminished." This is not Carnot's way
+of stating his principle (see S 15), but has the effect of exaggerating
+the importance of Clapeyron's unnecessary assumption. By equating the
+expressions given by Carnot for the work done and the heat absorbed in
+the expansion of a gas, he deduces (following Holtzmann) the value J/T
+for Carnot's function F't (which Clapeyron denotes by 1/C). He shows
+that this assumption gives values of Carnot's function which agree
+fairly well with those calculated by Clapeyron and Thomson, and that it
+leads to values of the mechanical equivalent not differing greatly from
+those of Joule. Substituting the value J/T for C in the analytical
+expressions given by Clapeyron for the latent heat of expansion and
+vaporization, these relations are immediately reduced to their modern
+form (see THERMODYNAMICS, S 4). Being unacquainted with Carnot's
+original work, but recognizing the invalidity of Clapeyron's description
+of Carnot's cycle, Clausius substituted a proof consistent with the
+mechanical theory, which he based on the axiom that "heat cannot of
+itself pass from cold to hot." The proof on this basis involves the
+application of the energy principle, which does not appear to be
+necessary, and the axiom to which final appeal is made does not appear
+more convincing than Carnot's. Strange to say, Clausius did not in this
+paper give the expression for the efficiency in a Carnot cycle of finite
+range (Carnot's Ft) which follows immediately from the value J/T assumed
+for the efficiency F't of a cycle of infinitesimal range at the
+temperature t C or T Abs.
+
+Rankine did not make the same assumption as Clausius explicitly, but
+applied the mechanical theory of heat to the development of his
+hypothesis of molecular vortices, and deduced from it a number of
+results similar to those obtained by Clausius. Unfortunately the paper
+(loc. cit.) was not published till some time later, but in a summary
+given in the _Phil. Mag._ (July 1851) the principal results were
+detailed. Assuming the value of Joule's equivalent, Rankine deduced the
+value 0.2404 for the specific heat of air at constant pressure, in place
+of 0.267 as found by Delaroche and Berard. The subsequent verification
+of this value by Regnault (_Comptes rendus_, 1853) afforded strong
+confirmation of the accuracy of Joule's work. In a note appended to the
+abstract in the _Phil. Mag._ Rankine states that he has succeeded in
+proving that the maximum efficiency of an engine working in a Carnot
+cycle of finite range t1 to t0 is of the form (t1 - t0)/(t1 - k), where
+k is a constant, the same for all substances. This is correct if t
+represents temperature Centigrade, and k = -273.
+
+Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in a paper "On the Dynamical Theory
+of Heat" (_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._, 1851, first published in the _Phil.
+Mag._, 1852) gave a very clear statement of the position of the theory
+at that time. He showed that the value F't = J/T, assumed for Carnot's
+function by Clausius without any experimental justification, rested
+solely on the evidence of Joule's experiment, and might possibly not be
+true at all temperatures. Assuming the value J/T with this reservation,
+he gave as the expression for the efficiency over a finite range t1 to
+t0 C., or T1 to T0 Abs., the result,
+
+  W/H = (t1 - t0)/(t1 + 273) = (T1 - T0)/T1   (4)
+
+which, he observed, agrees in form with that found by Rankine.
+
+21. _The Absolute Scale of Temperature._--Since Carnot's function is the
+same for all substances at the same temperature, and is a function of
+the temperature only, it supplies a means of measuring temperature
+independently of the properties of any particular substance. This
+proposal was first made by Lord Kelvin (_Phil. Mag._, 1848), who
+suggested that the degree of temperature should be chosen so that the
+efficiency of a perfect engine at any point of the scale should be the
+same, or that Carnot's function F't should be constant. This would give
+the simplest expression for the efficiency on the caloric theory, but
+the scale so obtained, when the values of Carnot's function were
+calculated from Regnault's observations on steam, was found to differ
+considerably from the scale of the mercury or air-thermometer. At a
+later date, when it became clear that the value of Carnot's function was
+very nearly proportional to the reciprocal of the temperature T measured
+from the absolute zero of the gas thermometer, he proposed a simpler
+method (_Phil. Trans._, 1854), namely, to define absolute temperature
+[theta] as proportional to the reciprocal of Carnot's function. On this
+definition of absolute temperature, the expression ([theta]1 -
+[theta]0)/[theta]1 for the efficiency of a Carnot cycle with limits
+[theta]1 and [theta]0 would be exact, and it became a most important
+problem to determine how far the temperature T by gas thermometer
+differed from the absolute temperature [theta]. With this object he
+devised a very delicate method, known as the "porous plug experiment"
+(see THERMODYNAMICS) of testing the deviation of the gas thermometer
+from the absolute scale. The experiments were carried out in conjunction
+with Joule, and finally resulted in showing (_Phil. Trans._, 1862, "On
+the Thermal Effects of Fluids in Motion") that the deviations of the air
+thermometer from the absolute scale as above defined are almost
+negligible, and that in the case of the gas hydrogen the deviations are
+so small that a thermometer containing this gas may be taken for all
+practical purposes as agreeing exactly with the absolute scale at all
+ordinary temperatures. For this reason the hydrogen thermometer has
+since been generally adopted as the standard.
+
+22. _Availability of Heat of Combustion._--Taking the value 1.13
+kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie for 1 deg. C. fall of temperature at 100
+deg. C., Carnot attempted to estimate the possible performance of a
+steam-engine receiving heat at 160 deg. C. and rejecting it at 40 deg.
+C. Assuming the performance to be simply proportional to the temperature
+fall, the work done for 120 deg. fall would be 134 kilogrammetres per
+kilo-calorie. To make an accurate calculation required a knowledge of
+the variation of the function F't with temperature. Taking the accurate
+formula of S 20, the work obtainable is 118 kilogrammetres per
+kilo-calorie, which is 28% of 426, the mechanical equivalent of the
+kilo-calorie in kilogrammetres. Carnot pointed out that the fall of 120
+deg. C. utilized in the steam-engine was only a small fraction of the
+whole temperature fall obtainable by combustion, and made an estimate of
+the total power available if the whole fall could be utilized, allowing
+for the probable diminution of the function F't with rise of
+temperature. His estimate was 3.9 million kilogrammetres per kilogramme
+of coal. This was certainly an over-estimate, but was surprisingly
+close, considering the scanty data at his disposal.
+
+In reality the fraction of the heat of combustion available, even in an
+ideal engine and apart from practical limitations, is much less than
+might be inferred from the efficiency formula of the Carnot cycle. In
+applying this formula to estimate the availability of the heat it is
+usual to take the temperature obtainable by the combustion of the fuel
+as the upper limit of temperature in the formula. For carbon burnt _in
+air_ at constant pressure without any loss of heat, the products of
+combustion might be raised 2300 deg. C. in temperature, assuming that
+the specific heats of the products were constant and that there was no
+dissociation. If all the heat could be supplied to the working fluid at
+this temperature, that of the condenser being 40 deg. C., the possible
+efficiency by the formula of S 20 would be 89%. But the combustion
+obviously cannot maintain so high a temperature if heat is being
+continuously abstracted by a boiler. Suppose that [theta]' is the
+maximum temperature of combustion as above estimated, [theta]" the
+temperature of the boiler, and [theta]^0 that of the condenser. Of the
+whole heat supplied by combustion represented by the rise of temperature
+[theta]' - [theta]^0, the fraction ([theta]' - [theta]")/([theta]'
+-[theta]^0) is the maximum that could be supplied to the boiler, the
+fraction ([theta]" - [theta]^0)/([theta]' - [theta]^0) being carried
+away with the waste gases. Of the heat supplied to the boiler, the
+fraction ([theta]' - [theta]^0)/[theta]" might theoretically be
+converted into work. The problem in the case of an engine using a
+separate working fluid, like a steam-engine, is to find what must be the
+temperature [theta]" of the boiler in order to obtain the largest
+possible fraction of the heat of combustion in the form of work. It is
+easy to show that [theta]" must be the geometric mean of [theta]' and
+[theta]^0, or [theta]" = [root]([theta]'[theta]^0). Taking [theta]'
+-[theta]^0 = 2300 deg. C., and [theta]^0 = 313 deg. Abs. as before, we
+find [theta]" = 903 deg. Abs. or 630 deg. C. The heat supplied to the
+boiler is then 74.4% of the heat of combustion, and of this 65.3% is
+converted into work, giving a maximum possible efficiency of 49% in
+place of 89%. With the boiler at 160 deg. C., the possible efficiency,
+calculated in a similar manner, would be 26.3%, which shows that the
+possible increase of efficiency by increasing the temperature range is
+not so great as is usually supposed. If the temperature of the boiler
+were raised to 300 deg. C., corresponding to a pressure of 1260 lb. per
+sq. in., which is occasionally surpassed in modern flash-boilers, the
+possible efficiency would be 40%. The waste heat from the boiler,
+supposed perfectly efficient, would be in this case 11%, of which less
+than a quarter could be utilized in the form of work. Carnot foresaw
+that in order to utilize a larger percentage of the heat of combustion
+it would be necessary to employ a series of working fluids, the waste
+heat from one boiler and condenser serving to supply the next in the
+series. This has actually been effected in a few cases, e.g. steam and
+SO2, when special circumstances exist to compensate for the extra
+complication. Improvements in the steam-engine since Carnot's time have
+been mainly in the direction of reducing waste due to condensation and
+leakage by multiple expansion, superheating, &c. The gain by increased
+temperature range has been comparatively small owing to limitations of
+pressure, and the best modern steam-engines do not utilize more than 20%
+of the heat of combustion. This is in reality a very respectable
+fraction of the ideal limit of 40% above calculated on the assumption of
+1260 lb. initial pressure, with a perfectly efficient boiler and
+complete expansion, and with an ideal engine which does not waste
+available motive power by complete condensation of the steam before it
+is returned to the boiler.
+
+23. _Advantages of Internal Combustion._--As Carnot pointed out, the
+chief advantage of using atmospheric air as a working fluid in a
+heat-engine lies in the possibility of imparting heat to it directly by
+internal combustion. This avoids the limitation imposed by the use of a
+separate boiler, which as we have seen reduces the possible efficiency
+at least 50%. Even with internal combustion, however, the full range of
+temperature is not available, because the heat cannot conveniently in
+practice be communicated to the working fluid at constant temperature,
+owing to the large range of expansion at constant temperature required
+for the absorption of a sufficient quantity of heat. Air-engines of this
+type, such as Stirling's or Ericsson's, taking in heat at constant
+temperature, though theoretically the most perfect, are bulky and
+mechanically inefficient. In practical engines the heat is generated by
+the combustion of an explosive mixture at constant volume or at constant
+pressure. The heat is not all communicated at the highest temperature,
+but over a range of temperature from that of the mixture at the
+beginning of combustion to the maximum temperature. The earliest
+instance of this type of engine is the lycopodium engine of M. M.
+Niepce, discussed by Carnot, in which a combustible mixture of air and
+lycopodium powder at atmospheric pressure was ignited in a cylinder, and
+did work on a piston. The early gas-engines of E. Lenoir (1860) and N.
+Otto and E. Langen (1866), operated in a similar manner with
+illuminating gas in place of lycopodium. Combustion in this case is
+effected practically at constant volume, and the maximum efficiency
+theoretically obtainable is 1 - log_e r/(r - 1), where r is the ratio of
+the maximum temperature [theta]' to the initial temperature [theta]^0.
+In order to obtain this efficiency it would be necessary to follow
+Carnot's rule, and expand the gas after ignition without loss or gain of
+heat from [theta]' down to [theta]^0, and then to compress it at
+[theta]^0 to its initial volume. If the rise of temperature in
+combustion were 2300 deg. C., and the initial temperature were 0 deg. C.
+or 273 deg. Abs., the theoretical efficiency would be 73.3%, which is
+much greater than that obtainable with a boiler. But in order to reach
+this value, it would be necessary to expand the mixture to about 270
+times its initial volume, which is obviously impracticable. Owing to
+incomplete expansion and rapid cooling of the heated gases by the large
+surface exposed, the actual efficiency of the Lenoir engine was less
+than 5%, and of the Otto and Langen, with more rapid expansion, about
+10%. Carnot foresaw that in order to render an engine of this type
+practically efficient, it would be necessary to compress the mixture
+before ignition. Compression is beneficial in three ways: (1) it permits
+a greater range of expansion after ignition; (2) it raises the mean
+effective pressure, and thus improves the mechanical efficiency and the
+power in proportion to size and weight; (3) it reduces the loss of heat
+during ignition by reducing the surface exposed to the hot gases. In the
+modern gas or petrol motor, compression is employed as in Carnot's
+cycle, but the efficiency attainable is limited not so much by
+considerations of temperature as by limitations of volume. It is
+impracticable before combustion at constant volume to compress a rich
+mixture to much less than 1/5th of its initial volume, and, for
+mechanical simplicity, the range of expansion is made equal to that of
+compression. The cycle employed was patented in 1862 by Beau de Rochas
+(d. 1892), but was first successfully carried out by Otto (1876). It
+differs from the Carnot cycle in employing reception and rejection of
+heat at constant volume instead of at constant temperature. This cycle
+is not so efficient as the Carnot cycle for given limits of temperature,
+but, _for the given limits of volume imposed_, it gives a much higher
+efficiency than the Carnot cycle. The efficiency depends only on the
+range of temperature in expansion and compression, and is given by the
+formula ([theta]' - [theta]")/[theta]', where [theta]' is the maximum
+temperature, and [theta]" the temperature at the end of expansion. The
+formula is the same as that for the Carnot cycle with the same range of
+temperature in expansion. The ratio [theta]'/[theta]" is r^([gamma] -
+1), where r is the given ratio of expansion or compression, and [gamma]
+is the ratio of the specific heats of the working fluid. Assuming the
+working fluid to be a perfect gas with the same properties as air, we
+should have [gamma] = 1.41. Taking r = 5, the formula gives 48% for the
+maximum possible efficiency. The actual products of combustion vary with
+the nature of the fuel employed, and have different properties from air,
+but the efficiency is found to vary with compression in the same manner
+as for air. For this reason a committee of the Institution of Civil
+Engineers in 1905 recommended the adoption of the air-standard for
+estimating the effects of varying the compression ratio, and defined the
+relative efficiency of an internal combustion engine as the ratio of its
+observed efficiency to that of a perfect air-engine with the same
+compression.
+
+24. _Effect of Dissociation, and Increase of Specific Heat._--One of the
+most important effects of heat is the decomposition or dissociation of
+compound molecules. Just as the molecules of a vapour combine with
+evolution of heat to form the more complicated molecules of the liquid,
+and as the liquid molecules require the addition of heat to effect their
+separation into molecules of vapour; so in the case of molecules of
+different kinds which combine with evolution of heat, the reversal of
+the process can be effected either by the agency of heat, or indirectly
+by supplying the requisite amount of energy by electrical or other
+methods. Just as the latent heat of vaporization diminishes with rise of
+temperature, and the pressure of the dissociated vapour molecules
+increases, so in the case of compound molecules in general the heat of
+combination diminishes with rise of temperature, and the pressure of the
+products of dissociation increases. There is evidence that the compound
+carbon dioxide, CO2, is partly dissociated into carbon monoxide and
+oxygen at high temperatures, and that the proportion dissociated
+increases with rise of temperature. There is a very close analogy
+between these phenomena and the vaporization of a liquid. The laws which
+govern dissociation are the same fundamental laws of thermodynamics, but
+the relations involved are necessarily more complex on account of the
+presence of different kinds of molecules, and present special
+difficulties for accurate investigation in the case where dissociation
+does not begin to be appreciable until a high temperature is reached. It
+is easy, however, to see that the general effect of dissociation must be
+to diminish the available temperature of combustion, and all experiments
+go to show that in ordinary combustible mixtures the rise of temperature
+actually attained is much less than that calculated as in S 22, on the
+assumption that the whole heat of combustion is developed and
+communicated to products of constant specific heat. The defect of
+temperature observed can be represented by supposing that the specific
+heat of the products of combustion increases with rise of temperature.
+This is the case for CO2 even at ordinary temperatures, according to
+Regnault, and probably also for air and steam at higher temperatures.
+Increase of specific heat is a necessary accompaniment of dissociation,
+and from some points of view may be regarded as merely another way of
+stating the facts. It is the most convenient method to adopt in the case
+of products of combustion consisting of a mixture of CO2 and steam with
+a large excess of inert gases, because the relations of equilibrium of
+dissociated molecules of so many different kinds would be too complex to
+permit of any other method of expression. It appears from the researches
+of Dugald Clerk, H. le Chatelier and others that the apparent specific
+heat of the products of combustion in a gas-engine may be taken as
+approximately .34 to .33 in place of .24 at working temperatures between
+1000 deg. C. and 1700 deg. C., and that the ratio of the specific heats
+is about 1.29 in place of 1.41. This limits the availability of the heat
+of combustion by reducing the rise of temperature actually obtainable in
+combustion at constant volume by 30 or 40%, and also by reducing the
+range of temperature [theta]'/[theta]" for a given ratio of expansions r
+from r^(.41) to r^(.29). The formula given in S 21 is no longer quite
+exact, because the ratio of the specific heats of the mixture during
+compression is not the same as that of the products of combustion during
+expansion. But since the work done depends principally on the expansion
+curve, the ratio of the range of temperature in expansion ([theta]'
+-[theta]") to the maximum temperature [theta]' will still give a very
+good approximation to the possible efficiency. Taking r = 5, as before,
+for the compression ratio, the possible efficiency is reduced from 48%
+to 38%, if [gamma] = 1.29 instead of 1.41. A large gas-engine of the
+present day with r = 5 may actually realize as much as 34% indicated
+efficiency, which is 90% of the maximum possible, showing how perfectly
+all avoidable heat losses have been minimized.
+
+It is often urged that the gas-engine is relatively less efficient than
+the steam-engine, because, although it has a much higher absolute
+efficiency, it does not utilize so large a fraction of its temperature
+range, reckoning that of the steam-engine from the temperature of the
+boiler to that of the condenser, and that of the gas-engine from the
+maximum temperature of combustion to that of the air. This is not quite
+fair, and has given rise to the mistaken notion that "there is an
+immense margin for improvement in the gas-engine," which is not the case
+if the practical limitations of volume are rightly considered. If
+expansion could be carried out in accordance with Carnot's principle of
+maximum efficiency, down to the lower limit of temperature [theta]0,
+with rejection of heat at [theta]0 during compression to the original
+volume V0, it would no doubt be possible to obtain an ideal efficiency
+of nearly 80%. But this would be quite impracticable, as it would
+require expansion to about 100 times v0, or 500 times the compression
+volume. Some advantage no doubt might be obtained by carrying the
+expansion beyond the original volume. This has been done, but is not
+found to be worth the extra complication. A more practical method, which
+has been applied by Diesel for liquid fuel, is to introduce the fuel at
+the end of compression, and adjust the supply in such a manner as to
+give combustion at nearly constant pressure. This makes it possible to
+employ higher compression, with a corresponding increase in the ratio of
+expansion and the theoretical efficiency. With a compression ratio of
+14, an indicated efficiency of 40% has been obtained In this way, but
+owing to additional complications the brake efficiency was only 31%,
+which is hardly any improvement on the brake efficiency of 30% obtained
+with the ordinary type of gas-engine. Although Carnot's principle makes
+it possible to calculate in every case what the limiting possible
+efficiency would be for any kind of cycle if all heat losses were
+abolished, it is very necessary, in applying the principle to practical
+cases, to take account of the possibility of avoiding the heat losses
+which are supposed to be absent, and of other practical limitations in
+the working of the actual engine. An immense amount of time and
+ingenuity has been wasted in striving to realize impossible margins of
+ideal efficiency, which a close study of the practical conditions would
+have shown to be illusory. As Carnot remarks at the conclusion of his
+essay: "Economy of fuel is only one of the conditions a heat-engine must
+satisfy; in many cases it is only secondary, and must often give way to
+considerations of safety, strength and wearing qualities of the machine,
+of smallness of space occupied, or of expense in erecting. To know how
+to appreciate justly in each case the considerations of convenience and
+economy, to be able to distinguish the essential from the accessory, to
+balance all fairly, and finally to arrive at the best result by the
+simplest means, such must be the principal talent of the man called on
+to direct and co-ordinate the work of his fellows for the attainment of
+a useful object of any kind."
+
+
+TRANSFERENCE OF HEAT
+
+25. _Modes of Transference._--There are three principal modes of
+transference of heat, namely (1) convection, (2) conduction, and (3)
+radiation.
+
+(1) In convection, heat is carried or conveyed by the motion of heated
+masses of matter. The most familiar illustrations of this method of
+transference are the heating of buildings by the circulation of steam or
+hot water, or the equalization of temperature of a mass of unequally
+heated liquid or gas by convection currents, produced by natural changes
+of density or by artificial stirring. (2) In conduction, heat is
+transferred by contact between contiguous particles of matter and is
+passed on from one particle to the next without visible relative motion
+of the parts of the body. A familiar illustration of conduction is the
+passage of heat through the metal plates of a boiler from the fire to
+the water inside, or the transference of heat from a soldering bolt to
+the solder and the metal with which it is placed in contact. (3) In
+radiation, the heated body gives rise to a motion of vibration in the
+aether, which is propagated equally in all directions, and is
+reconverted into heat when it encounters any obstacle capable of
+absorbing it. Thus radiation differs from conduction and convection in
+taking place most perfectly in the absence of matter, whereas conduction
+and convection require material communication between the bodies
+concerned.
+
+In the majority of cases of transference of heat all three modes of
+transference are simultaneously operative in a greater or less degree,
+and the combined effect is generally of great complexity. The different
+modes of transference are subject to widely different laws, and the
+difficulty of disentangling their effects and subjecting them to
+calculation is often one of the most serious obstacles in the
+experimental investigation of heat. In space void of matter, we should
+have pure radiation, but it is difficult to obtain so perfect a vacuum
+that the effects of the residual gas in transferring heat by conduction
+or convection are inappreciable. In the interior of an opaque solid we
+should have pure conduction, but if the solid is sensibly transparent in
+thin layers there must also be an internal radiation, while in a liquid
+or a gas it is very difficult to eliminate the effects of convection.
+These difficulties are well illustrated in the historical development of
+the subject by the experimental investigations which have been made to
+determine the laws of heat-transference, such as the laws of cooling, of
+radiation and of conduction.
+
+26. _Newton's Law of Cooling._--There is one essential condition common
+to all three modes of heat-transference, namely, that they depend on
+difference of temperature, that the direction of the transfer of heat is
+always from hot to cold, and that the rate of transference is, for small
+differences, directly proportional to the difference of temperature.
+Without difference of temperature there is no transfer of heat. When two
+bodies have been brought to the same temperature by conduction, they are
+also in equilibrium as regards radiation, and vice versa. If this were
+not the case, there could be no equilibrium of heat defined by equality
+of temperature. A hot body placed in an enclosure of lower temperature,
+e.g. a calorimeter in its containing vessel, generally loses heat by all
+three modes simultaneously in different degrees. The loss by each mode
+will depend in different ways on the form, extent and nature of its
+surface and on that of the enclosure, on the manner in which it is
+supported, on its relative position and distance from the enclosure, and
+on the nature of the intervening medium. But provided that the
+difference of temperature is small, the rate of loss of heat by all
+modes will be approximately proportional to the difference of
+temperature, the other conditions remaining constant. The rate of
+cooling or the rate of fall of temperature will also be nearly
+proportional to the rate of loss of heat, if the specific heat of the
+cooling body is constant, or the rate of cooling at any moment will be
+proportional to the difference of temperature. This simple relation is
+commonly known as Newton's law of cooling, but is limited in its
+application to comparatively simple cases such as the foregoing. Newton
+himself applied it to estimate the temperature of a red-hot iron ball,
+by observing the time which it took to cool from a red heat to a known
+temperature, and comparing this with the time taken to cool through a
+known range at ordinary temperatures. According to this law if the
+excess of temperature of the body above its surroundings is observed at
+equal intervals of time, the observed values will form a geometrical
+progression with a common ratio. Supposing, for instance, that the
+surrounding temperature were 0 deg. C., that the red-hot ball took 25
+minutes to cool from its original temperature to 20 deg. C., and 5
+minutes to cool from 20 deg. C. to 10 deg. C., the original temperature
+is easily calculated on the assumption that the excess of temperature
+above 0 deg. C. falls to half its value in each interval of 5 minutes.
+Doubling the value 20 deg. at 25 minutes five times, we arrive at 640
+deg. C. as the original temperature. No other method of estimation of
+such temperatures was available in the time of Newton, but, as we now
+know, the simple law of proportionality to the temperature difference is
+inapplicable over such large ranges of temperature. The rate of loss of
+heat by radiation, and also by convection and conduction to the
+surrounding air, increases much more rapidly than in simple proportion
+to the temperature difference, and the rate of increase of each follows
+a different law. At a later date Sir John Herschel measured the
+intensity of the solar radiation at the surface of the earth, and
+endeavoured to form an estimate of the temperature of the sun by
+comparison with terrestrial sources on the assumption that the intensity
+of radiation was simply proportional to the temperature difference. He
+thus arrived at an estimate of several million degrees, which we now
+know would be about a thousand times too great. The application of
+Newton's law necessarily leads to absurd results when the difference of
+temperature is very large, but the error will not in general exceed 2 to
+3% if the temperature difference does not exceed 10 deg. C., and the
+percentage error is proportionately much smaller for smaller
+differences.
+
+27. _Dulong and Petit's Empirical Laws of Cooling._--One of the most
+elaborate experimental investigations of the law of cooling was that of
+Dulong and Petit (_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1817, 7, pp. 225 and 337), who
+observed the rate of cooling of a mercury thermometer from 300 deg. C.
+in a water-jacketed enclosure at various temperatures from 0 deg. C. to
+80 deg. C. In order to obtain the rate of cooling by radiation alone,
+they exhausted the enclosure as perfectly as possible after the
+introduction of the thermometer, but with the imperfect appliances
+available at that time they were not able to obtain a vacuum better than
+about 3 or 4 mm. of mercury. They found that the velocity of cooling V
+in a vacuum could be represented by a formula of the type
+
+  V = A(a^t - a^t0)   (5)
+
+in which t is the temperature of the thermometer, and t0 that of the
+enclosure, a is a constant having the value 1.0075, and the coefficient
+A depends on the form of the bulb and the nature of its surface. For the
+ranges of temperature they employed, this formula gives much better
+results than Newton's, but it must be remembered that the temperatures
+were expressed on the arbitrary scale of the mercury thermometer, and
+were not corrected for the large and uncertain errors of stem-exposure
+(see THERMOMETRY). Moreover, although the effects of cooling by
+convection currents are practically eliminated by exhausting to 3 or 4
+mm. (since the density of the gas is reduced to 1/200th while its
+viscosity is not appreciably affected), the rate of cooling by
+conduction is not materially diminished, since the conductivity, like
+the viscosity, is nearly independent of pressure. It has since been
+shown by Sir William Crookes (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1881, 21, p. 239) that
+the rate of cooling of a mercury thermometer in a vacuum suffers a very
+great diminution when the pressure is reduced from 1 mm. to .001 mm., at
+which pressure the effect of conduction by the residual gas has
+practically disappeared.
+
+Dulong and Petit also observed the rate of cooling under the same
+conditions with the enclosure filled with various gases. They found that
+the cooling effect of the gas could be represented by adding to the term
+already given as representing radiation, an expression of the form
+
+  V' = Bp^c (t - t0)^(1.233).   (6)
+
+They found that the cooling effect of convection, unlike that of
+radiation, was independent of the nature of the surface of the
+thermometer, whether silvered or blackened, that it varied as some power
+c of the pressure p, and that it was independent of the absolute
+temperature of the enclosure, but varied as the excess temperature (t -
+t0) raised to the power 1.233. This highly artificial result undoubtedly
+contains some elements of truth, but could only be applied to
+experiments similar to those from which it was derived. F. Herve de la
+Provostaye and P. Q. Desains (_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1846, 16, p. 337), in
+repeating these experiments under various conditions, found that the
+coefficients A and B were to some extent dependent on the temperature,
+and that the manner in which the cooling effect varied with the pressure
+depended on the form and size of the enclosure. It is evident that this
+should be the case, since the cooling effect of the gas depends partly
+on convective currents. which are necessarily greatly modified by the
+form of the enclosure in a manner which it would appear hopeless to
+attempt to represent by any general formula.
+
+28. _Surface Emissivity._--The same remark applies to many attempts
+which have since been made to determine the general value of the
+constant termed by Fourier and early writers the "exterior
+conductibility," but now called the surface emissivity. This coefficient
+represents the rate of loss of heat from a body per unit area of surface
+per degree excess of temperature, and includes the effects of radiation,
+convection and conduction. As already pointed out, the combined effect
+will be nearly proportional to the excess of temperature in any given
+case provided that the excess is small, but it is not necessarily
+proportional to the extent of surface exposed except in the case of pure
+radiation. The rate of loss by convection and conduction varies greatly
+with the form of the surface, and, unless the enclosure is very large
+compared with the cooling body, the effect depends also on the size and
+form of the enclosure. Heat is necessarily communicated from the cooling
+body to the layer of gas in contact with it by conduction. If the linear
+dimensions of the body are small, as in the case of a fine wire, or if
+it is separated from the enclosure by a thin layer of gas, the rate of
+loss depends chiefly on conduction. For very fine metallic wires heated
+by an electric current, W. E. Ayrton and H. Kilgour (_Phil. Trans._,
+1892) showed that the rate of loss is nearly independent of the surface,
+instead of being directly proportional to it. This should be the case,
+as Porter has shown (_Phil. Mag._, March 1895), since the effect depends
+mainly on conduction. The effects of conduction and radiation may be
+approximately estimated if the conductivity of the gas and the nature
+and forms of the surfaces of the body and enclosure are known, but the
+effect of convection in any case can be determined only by experiment.
+It has been found that the rate of cooling by a current of air is
+approximately proportional to the velocity of the current, other things
+being equal. It is obvious that this should be the case, but the result
+cannot generally be applied to convection currents. Values which are
+commonly given for the surface emissivity must therefore be accepted
+with great reserve. They can be regarded only as approximate, and as
+applicable only to cases precisely similar to those for which they were
+experimentally obtained. There cannot be said to be any general law of
+convection. The loss of heat is not necessarily proportional to the area
+of the surface, and no general value of the coefficient can be given to
+suit all cases. The laws of conduction and radiation admit of being more
+precisely formulated, and their effects predicted, except in so far as
+they are complicated by convection.
+
+29. _Conduction of Heat._--The laws of transference of heat in the
+interior of a solid body formed one of the earliest subjects of
+mathematical and experimental treatment in the theory of heat. The law
+assumed by Fourier was of the simplest possible type, but the
+mathematical application, except in the simplest cases, was so difficult
+as to require the development of a new mathematical method. Fourier
+succeeded in showing how, by his method of analysis, the solution of any
+given problem with regard to the flow of heat by conduction in any
+material could be obtained in terms of a physical constant, the thermal
+conductivity of the material, and that the results obtained by
+experiment agreed in a qualitative manner with those predicted by his
+theory. But the experimental determination of the actual values of these
+constants presented formidable difficulties which were not surmounted
+till a later date. The experimental methods and difficulties are
+discussed in a special article on CONDUCTION OF HEAT. It will suffice
+here to give a brief historical sketch, including a few of the more
+important results by way of illustration.
+
+30. _Comparison of Conducting Powers._--That the power of transmitting
+heat by conduction varied widely in different materials was probably
+known in a general way from prehistoric times. Empirical knowledge of
+this kind is shown in the construction of many articles for heating,
+cooking, &c., such as the copper soldering bolt, or the Norwegian
+cooking-stove. One of the earliest experiments for making an actual
+comparison of conducting powers was that suggested by Franklin, but
+carried out by Jan Ingenhousz (_Journ. de phys._, 1789, 34, pp. 68 and
+380). Exactly similar bars of different materials, glass, wood, metal,
+&c., thinly coated with wax, were fixed in the side of a trough of
+boiling water so as to project for equal distances through the side of
+the trough into the external air. The wax coating was observed to melt
+as the heat travelled along the bars, the distance from the trough to
+which the wax was melted along each affording an approximate indication
+of the distribution of temperature. When the temperature of each bar had
+become stationary the heat which it gained by conduction from the trough
+must be equal to the heat lost to the surrounding air, and must
+therefore be approximately proportional to the distance to which the wax
+had melted along the bar. But the temperature fall per unit length, or
+the temperature-gradient, in each bar at the point where it emerged from
+the trough would be inversely proportional to the same distance. For
+equal temperature-gradients the quantities of heat conducted (or the
+relative conducting powers of the bars) would therefore be proportional
+to the squares of the distances to which the wax finally melted on each
+bar. This was shown by Fourier and Despretz (_Ann. chim. phys._, 1822,
+19, p. 97).
+
+31. _Diffusion of Temperature._--It was shown in connexion with this
+experiment by Sir H. Davy, and the experiment was later popularized by
+John Tyndall, that the rate at which wax melted along the bar, or the
+rate of propagation of a given temperature, during the first moments of
+heating, as distinguished from the melting-distance finally attained,
+depended on the specific heat as well as the conductivity. Short prisms
+of iron and bismuth coated with wax were placed on a hot metal plate.
+The wax was observed to melt first on the bismuth, although its
+conductivity is less than that of iron. The reason is that its specific
+heat is less than that of iron in the proportion of 3 to 11. The
+densities of iron and bismuth being 7.8 and 9.8, the thermal capacities
+of equal prisms will be in the ratio .86 for iron to .29 for bismuth. If
+the prisms receive heat at equal rates, the bismuth will reach the
+temperature of melting wax nearly three times as quickly as the iron. It
+is often stated on the strength of this experiment that the rate of
+propagation of a temperature wave, which depends on the ratio of the
+conductivity to the specific heat per unit volume, is greater in bismuth
+than in iron (e.g. Preston, _Heat_, p. 628). This is quite incorrect,
+because the conductivity of iron is about six times that of bismuth, and
+the rate of propagation of a temperature wave is therefore twice as
+great in iron as in bismuth. The experiment in reality is misleading
+because the rates of reception of heat by the prisms are limited by the
+very imperfect contact with the hot metal plate, and are not
+proportional to the respective conductivities. If the iron and bismuth
+bars are properly faced and soldered to the top of a copper box (in
+order to ensure good metallic contact, and exclude a non-conducting film
+of air), and the box is then heated by steam, the rates of reception of
+heat will be nearly proportional to the conductivities, and the wax will
+melt nearly twice as fast along the iron as along the bismuth. A bar of
+lead similarly treated will show a faster rate of propagation than iron,
+because, although its conductivity is only half that of iron, its
+specific heat per unit volume is 2.5 times smaller.
+
+32. _Bad Conductors. Liquids and Gases._--Count Rumford (1792) compared
+the conducting powers of substances used in clothing, such as wool and
+cotton, fur and down, by observing the time which a thermometer took to
+cool when embedded in a globe filled successively with the different
+materials. The times of cooling observed for a given range varied from
+1300 to 900 seconds for different materials. The low conducting power of
+such materials is principally due to the presence of air in the
+interstices, which is prevented from forming convection currents by the
+presence of the fibrous material. Finely powdered silica is a very bad
+conductor, but in the compact form of rock crystal it is as good a
+conductor as some of the metals. According to the kinetic theory of
+gases, the conductivity of a gas depends on molecular diffusion. Maxwell
+estimated the conductivity of air at ordinary temperatures at about
+20,000 times less than that of copper. This has been verified
+experimentally by Kundt and Warburg, Stefan and Winkelmann, by taking
+special precautions to eliminate the effects of convection currents and
+radiation. It was for some time doubted whether a gas possessed any true
+conductivity for heat. The experiment of T. Andrews, repeated by Grove,
+and Magnus, showing that a wire heated by an electric current was raised
+to a higher temperature in air than in hydrogen, was explained by
+Tyndall as being due to the greater mobility of hydrogen which gave rise
+to stronger convection currents. In reality the effect is due chiefly to
+the greater velocity of motion of the ultimate molecules of hydrogen,
+and is most marked if molar (as opposed to molecular) convection is
+eliminated. Molecular convection or diffusion, which cannot be
+distinguished experimentally from conduction, as it follows the same
+law, is also the main cause of conduction of heat in liquids. Both in
+liquids and gases the effects of convection currents are so much greater
+than those of diffusion or conduction that the latter are very difficult
+to measure, and, except in special cases, comparatively unimportant as
+affecting the transference of heat. Owing to the difficulty of
+eliminating the effects of radiation and convection, the results
+obtained for the conductivities of liquids are somewhat discordant, and
+there is in most cases great uncertainty whether the conductivity
+increases or diminishes with rise of temperature. It would appear,
+however, that liquids, such as water and glycerin, differ remarkably
+little in conductivity in spite of enormous differences of viscosity.
+The viscosity of a liquid diminishes very rapidly with rise of
+temperature, without any marked change in the conductivity, whereas the
+viscosity of a gas increases with rise of temperature, and is always
+nearly proportional to the conductivity.
+
+33. _Difficulty of Quantitative Estimation of Heat Transmitted._--The
+conducting powers of different metals were compared by C. M. Despretz,
+and later by G. H. Wiedemann and R. Franz, employing an extension of the
+method of Jan Ingenhousz, in which the temperatures at different points
+along a bar heated at one end were measured by thermometers or
+thermocouples let into small holes in the bars, instead of being
+measured at one point only by means of melting wax. These experiments
+undoubtedly gave fairly accurate relative values, but did not permit the
+calculation of the absolute amounts of heat transmitted. This was first
+obtained by J. D. Forbes (_Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1852; _Trans. Roy. Soc.
+Ed._, 1862, 23, p. 133) by deducing the amount of heat lost to the
+surrounding air from a separate experiment in which the rate of cooling
+of the bar was observed (see CONDUCTION OF HEAT). Clement (_Ann. chim.
+phys._, 1841) had previously attempted to determine the conductivities
+of metals by observing the amount of heat transmitted by a plate with
+one side exposed to steam at 100 deg. C., and the other side cooled by
+water at 28 deg. C. Employing a copper plate 3 mm. thick, and assuming
+that the two surfaces of the plate were at the same temperatures as the
+water and the steam to which they were exposed, or that the
+temperature-gradient in the metal was 72 deg. in 3 mm., he had thus
+obtained a value which we now know to be nearly 200 times too small. The
+actual temperature difference in the metal itself was really about 0.36
+deg. C. The remainder of the 72 deg. drop was in the badly conducting
+films of water and steam close to the metal surface. Similarly in a
+boiler plate in contact with flame at 1500 deg. C. on one side and water
+at, say, 150 deg. C. on the other, the actual difference of temperature
+in the metal, even if it is an inch thick, is only a few degrees. The
+metal, unless badly furred with incrustation, is but little hotter than
+the water. It is immaterial so far as the transmission of heat is
+concerned, whether the plates are iron or copper. The greater part of
+the resistance to the passage of heat resides in a comparatively
+quiescent film of gas close to the surface, through which film the heat
+has to pass mainly by conduction. If a Bunsen flame, preferably coloured
+with sodium, is observed impinging on a cold metal plate, it will be
+seen to be separated from the plate by a dark space of a millimetre or
+less, throughout which the temperature of the gas is lowered by its own
+conductivity below the temperature of incandescence. There is no abrupt
+change of temperature in passing from the gas to the metal, but a
+continuous temperature-gradient from the temperature of the metal to
+that of the flame. It is true that this gradient may be upwards of 1000
+deg. C. per mm., but there is no discontinuity.
+
+34. _Resistance of a Gas Film to the Passage of Heat._--It is possible
+to make a rough estimate of the resistance of such a film to the passage
+of heat through it. Taking the average conductivity of the gas in the
+film as 10,000 times less than that of copper (about double the
+conductivity of air at ordinary temperatures) a millimetre film would be
+equivalent to a thickness of 10 metres of copper, or about 1.2 metres of
+iron. Taking the temperature-gradient as 1000 deg. C. per mm. such a
+film would transmit 1 gramme-calorie per sq. cm. per sec., or 36,000
+kilo-calories per sq. metre per hour. With an area of 100 sq. cms. the
+heat transmitted at this rate would raise a litre of water from 20 deg.
+C. to 100 deg. C. in 800 secs. By experiment with a strong Bunsen flame
+it takes from 8 to 10 minutes to do this, which would indicate that on
+the above assumptions the equivalent thickness of quiescent film should
+be rather less than 1 mm. in this case. The thickness of the film
+diminishes with the velocity of the burning gases impinging on the
+surface. This accounts for the rapidity of heating by a blowpipe flame,
+which is not due to any great increase in temperature of the flame as
+compared with a Bunsen. Similarly the efficiency of a boiler is but
+slightly reduced if half the tubes are stopped up, because the increase
+of draught through the remainder compensates partly for the diminished
+heating surface. Some resistance to the passage of heat into a boiler is
+also due to the water film on the inside. But this is of less account,
+because the conductivity of water is much greater than that of air, and
+because the film is continually broken up by the formation of steam,
+which abstracts heat very rapidly.
+
+35. _Heating by Condensation of Steam._--It is often stated that the
+rate at which steam will condense on a metal surface at a temperature
+below that corresponding to the saturation pressure of the steam is
+practically infinite (e.g. Osborne Reynolds, _Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed._,
+1873, p. 275), and conversely that the rate at which water will abstract
+heat from a metal surface by the formation of steam (if the metal is
+above the temperature of saturation of the steam) is limited only by the
+rate at which the metal can supply heat by conduction to its surface
+layer. The rate at which heat can be supplied by condensation of steam
+appears to be much greater than that at which heat can be supplied by a
+flame under ordinary conditions, but there is no reason to suppose that
+it is infinite, or that any discontinuity exists. Experiments by H. L.
+Callendar and J. T. Nicolson by three independent methods (_Proc. Inst.
+Civ. Eng._, 1898, 131, p. 147; _Brit. Assoc. Rep._ p. 418) appear to
+show that the rate of abstraction of heat by evaporation, or that of
+communication of heat by condensation, depends chiefly on the difference
+of temperature between the metal surface and the saturated steam, and is
+nearly proportional to the temperature difference (not to the pressure
+difference, as suggested by Reynolds) for such ranges of pressure as are
+common in practice. The rate of heat transmission they observed was
+equivalent to about 8 calories per sq. cm. per sec., for a difference of
+20 deg. C. between the temperature of the metal surface and the
+saturation temperature of the steam. This would correspond to a
+condensation of 530 kilogrammes of steam at 100 deg. C. per sq. metre
+per hour, or 109 lb. per sq. ft. per hour for the same difference of
+temperature, values which are many times greater than those actually
+obtained in ordinary surface condensers. The reason for this is that
+there is generally some air mixed with the steam in a surface condenser,
+which greatly retards the condensation. It is also difficult to keep the
+temperature of the metal as much as 20 deg. C. below the temperature of
+the steam unless a very free and copious circulation of cold water is
+available. For the same difference of temperature, steam can supply heat
+by condensation about a thousand times faster than hot air. This rate is
+not often approached in practice, but the facility of generation and
+transmission of steam, combined with its high latent heat and the
+accuracy of control and regulation of temperature afforded, render it
+one of the most convenient agents for the distribution of large
+quantities of heat in all kinds of manufacturing processes.
+
+36. _Spheroidal State._--An interesting contrast to the extreme rapidity
+with which heat is abstracted by the evaporation of a liquid in contact
+with a metal plate, is the so-called spheroidal state. A small drop of
+liquid thrown on a red-hot metal plate assumes a spheroidal form, and
+continues swimming about for some time, while it slowly evaporates at a
+temperature somewhat below its boiling-point. The explanation is simply
+that the liquid itself cannot come in actual contact with the metal
+plate (especially if the latter is above the critical temperature), but
+is separated from it by a badly conducting film of vapour, through
+which, as we have seen, the heat is comparatively slowly transmitted
+even if the difference of temperature is several hundred degrees. If the
+metal plate is allowed to cool gradually, the drop remains suspended on
+its cushion of vapour, until, in the case of water, a temperature of
+about 200 deg. C. is reached, at which the liquid comes in contact with
+the plate and boils explosively, reducing the temperature of the plate,
+if thin, almost instantaneously to 100 deg. C. The temperature of the
+metal is readily observed by a thermo-electric method, employing a
+platinum dish with a platinum-rhodium wire soldered with gold to its
+under side. The absence of contact between the liquid and the dish in
+the spheroidal state may also be shown by connecting one terminal of a
+galvanometer to the drop and the other through a battery to the dish,
+and observing that no current passes until the drop boils.
+
+37. _Early Theories of Radiation._--It was at one time supposed that
+there were three distinct kinds of radiation--thermal, luminous and
+actinic, combined in the radiation from a luminous source such as the
+sun or a flame. The first gave rise to heat, the second to light and the
+third to chemical action. The three kinds were partially separated by a
+prism, the actinic rays being generally more refracted, and the thermal
+rays less refracted than the luminous. This conception arose very
+naturally from the observation that the feebly luminous blue and violet
+rays produced the greatest photographic effects, which also showed the
+existence of dark rays beyond the violet, whereas the brilliant yellow
+and red were practically without action on the photographic plate. A
+thermometer placed in the blue or violet showed no appreciable rise of
+temperature, and even in the yellow the effect was hardly discernible.
+The effect increased rapidly as the light faded towards the extreme red,
+and reached a maximum beyond the extreme limits of the spectrum
+(Herschel), showing that the greater part of the thermal radiation was
+altogether non-luminous. It is now a commonplace that chemical action,
+colour sensation and heat are merely different effects of one and the
+same kind of radiation, the particular effect produced in each case
+depending on the frequency and intensity of the vibration, and on the
+nature of the substance on which it falls. When radiation is completely
+absorbed by a black substance, it is converted into heat, the quantity
+of heat produced being equivalent to the total energy of the radiation
+absorbed, irrespective of the colour or frequency of the different rays.
+The actinic or chemical effects, on the other hand, depend essentially
+on some relation between the period of the vibration and the properties
+of the substance acted on. The rays producing such effects are generally
+those which are most strongly absorbed. The spectrum of chlorophyll, the
+green colouring matter of plants, shows two very strong absorption bands
+in the red. The red rays of corresponding period are found to be the
+most active in promoting the growth of the plant. The chemically active
+rays are not necessarily the shortest. Even photographic plates may be
+made to respond to the red rays by staining them with pinachrome or some
+other suitable dye.
+
+The action of light rays on the retina is closely analogous to the
+action on a photographic plate. The retina, like the plate, is sensitive
+only to rays within certain restricted limits of frequency. The limits
+of sensitiveness of each colour sensation are not exactly defined, but
+vary slightly from one individual to another, especially in cases of
+partial colour-blindness, and are modified by conditions of fatigue. We
+are not here concerned with these important physiological and chemical
+effects of radiation, but rather with the question of the conversion of
+energy of radiation into heat, and with the laws of emission and
+absorption of radiation in relation to temperature. We may here also
+assume the identity of visible and invisible radiations from a heated
+body in all their physical properties. It has been abundantly proved
+that the invisible rays, like the visible, (1) are propagated in
+straight lines in homogeneous media; (2) are reflected and diffused from
+the surface of bodies according to the same law; (3) travel with the
+same velocity in free space, but with slightly different velocities in
+denser media, being subject to the same law of refraction; (4) exhibit
+all the phenomena of diffraction and interference which are
+characteristic of wave-motion in general; (5) are capable of
+polarization and double refraction; (6) exhibit similar effects of
+selective absorption. These properties are more easily demonstrated in
+the case of visible rays on account of the great sensitiveness of the
+eye. But with the aid of the thermopile or other sensitive radiometer,
+they may be shown to belong equally to all the radiations from a heated
+body, even such as are thirty to fifty times slower in frequency than
+the longest visible rays. The same physical properties have also been
+shown to belong to electromagnetic waves excited by an electric
+discharge, whatever the frequency, thus including all kinds of aetherial
+radiation in the same category as light.
+
+38. _Theory of Exchanges._--The apparent concentration of cold by a
+concave mirror, observed by G. B. Porta and rediscovered by M. A.
+Pictet, led to the enunciation of the theory of exchanges by Pierre
+Prevost in 1791. Prevost's leading idea was that all bodies, whether
+cold or hot, are constantly radiating heat. Heat equilibrium, he says,
+consists in an equality of exchange. When equilibrium is interfered
+with, it is re-established by inequalities of exchange. If into a
+locality at uniform temperature a refracting or reflecting body is
+introduced, it has no effect in the way of changing the temperature at
+any point of that locality. A reflecting body, heated or cooled in the
+interior of such an enclosure, will acquire the surrounding temperature
+more slowly than would a non-reflector, and will less affect another
+body placed at a little distance, but will not affect the final equality
+of temperature. Apparent radiation of cold, as from a block of ice to a
+thermometer placed near it, is due to the fact that the thermometer
+being at a higher temperature sends more heat to the ice than it
+received back from it. Although Prevost does not make the statement in
+so many words, it is clear that he regards the radiation from a body as
+depending only on its own nature and temperature, and as independent of
+the nature and presence of any adjacent body. Heat equilibrium in an
+enclosure of constant temperature such as is here postulated by Prevost,
+has often been regarded as a consequence of Carnot's principle. Since
+difference of temperature is required for transforming heat into work,
+no work could be obtained from heat in such a system, and no spontaneous
+changes of temperature can take place, as any such changes might be
+utilized for the production of work. This line of reasoning does not
+appear quite satisfactory, because it is tacitly assumed, in the
+reasoning by which Carnot's principle was established, as a result of
+universal experience, that a number of bodies within the same impervious
+enclosure, which contains no source of heat, will ultimately acquire the
+same temperature, and that difference of temperature is required to
+produce flow of heat. Thus although we may regard the equilibrium in
+such an enclosure as being due to equal exchanges of heat in all
+directions, the equal and opposite streams of radiation annul and
+neutralize each other in such a way that no actual transfer of energy in
+any direction takes place. The state of the medium is everywhere the
+same in such an enclosure, but its energy of agitation per unit volume
+is a function of the temperature, and is such that it would not be in
+equilibrium with any body at a different temperature.
+
+39. _"Full" and Selective Radiation. Correspondence of Emission and
+Absorption._--The most obvious difficulties in the way of this theory
+arise from the fact that nearly all radiation is more or less selective
+in character, as regards the quality and frequency of the rays emitted
+and absorbed. It was shown by J. Leslie, M. Melloni and other
+experimentalists that many substances such as glass and water, which are
+very transparent to visible rays, are extremely opaque to much of the
+invisible radiation of lower frequency; and that polished metals, which
+are perfect reflectors, are very feeble radiators as compared with dull
+or black bodies at the same temperature. If two bodies emit rays of
+different periods in different proportions, it is not at first sight
+easy to see how their radiations can balance each other at the same
+temperature. The key to all such difficulties lies in the fundamental
+conception, so strongly insisted on by Balfour Stewart, of the absolute
+uniformity (qualitative as well as quantitative) of the full or complete
+radiation stream inside an impervious enclosure of uniform temperature.
+It follows from this conception that the proportion of the full
+radiation stream absorbed by any body in such an enclosure must be
+exactly compensated in quality as well as quantity by the proportion
+emitted, or that the emissive and absorptive powers of any body at a
+given temperature must be precisely equal. A good reflector, like a
+polished metal, must also be a feeble radiator and absorber. Of the
+incident radiation it absorbs a small fraction and reflects the
+remainder, which together with the radiation emitted (being precisely
+equal to that absorbed) makes up the full radiation stream. A partly
+transparent material, like glass, absorbs part of the full radiation and
+transmits part. But it emits rays precisely equal in quality and
+intensity to those which it absorbs, which together with the transmitted
+portion make up the full stream. The ideal black body or perfect
+radiator is a body which absorbs all the radiation incident on it. The
+rays emitted from such a body at any temperature must be equal to the
+full radiation stream in an isothermal enclosure at the same
+temperature. Lampblack, which may absorb between 98 to 99% of the
+incident radiation, is generally taken as the type of a black body. But
+a closer approximation to full radiation may be obtained by employing a
+hollow vessel the internal walls of which are blackened and maintained
+at a uniform temperature by a steam jacket or other suitable means. If a
+relatively small hole is made in the side of such a vessel, the
+radiation proceeding through the aperture will be the full radiation
+corresponding to the temperature. Such a vessel is also a perfect
+absorber. Of radiation entering through the aperture an infinitesimal
+fraction only could possibly emerge by successive reflection even if the
+sides were of polished metal internally. A thin platinum tube heated by
+an electric current appears feebly luminous as compared with a blackened
+tube at the same temperature. But if a small hole is made in the side of
+the polished tube, the light proceeding through the hole appears
+brighter than the blackened tube, as though the inside of the tube were
+much hotter than the outside, which is not the case to any appreciable
+extent if the tube is thin. The radiation proceeding through the hole is
+nearly that of a perfectly black body if the hole is small. If there
+were no hole the internal stream of radiation would be exactly that of a
+black body at the same temperature however perfect the reflecting power,
+or however low the emissive power of the walls, because the defect in
+emissive power would be exactly compensated by the internal reflection.
+
+Balfour Stewart gave a number of striking illustrations of the
+qualitative identity of emission and absorption of a substance. Pieces
+of coloured glass placed in a fire appear to lose their colour when at
+the same temperature as the coals behind them, because they compensate
+exactly for their selective absorption by radiating chiefly those
+colours which they absorb. Rocksalt is remarkably transparent to thermal
+radiation of nearly all kinds, but it is extremely opaque to radiation
+from a heated plate of rocksalt, because it emits when heated precisely
+those rays which it absorbs. A plate of tourmaline cut parallel to the
+axis absorbs almost completely light polarized in a plane parallel to
+the axis, but transmits freely light polarized in a perpendicular plane.
+When heated its radiation is polarized in the same plane as the
+radiation which it absorbs. In the case of incandescent vapours, the
+exact correspondence of emission and absorption as regards wave-length
+of frequency of the light emitted and absorbed forms the foundation of
+the science of spectrum analysis. Fraunhofer had noticed the coincidence
+of a pair of bright yellow lines seen in the spectrum of a candle flame
+with the dark D lines in the solar spectrum, a coincidence which was
+afterwards more exactly verified by W. A. Miller. Foucault found that
+the flame of the electric arc showed the same lines bright in its
+spectrum, and proved that they appeared as dark lines in the otherwise
+continuous spectrum when the light from the carbon poles was transmitted
+through the arc. Stokes gave a dynamical explanation of the phenomenon
+and illustrated it by the analogous case of resonance in sound.
+Kirchhoff completed the explanation (_Phil. Mag._, 1860) of the dark
+lines in the solar spectrum by showing that the reversal of the spectral
+lines depended on the fact that the body of the sun giving the
+continuous spectrum was at a higher temperature than the absorbing layer
+of gases surrounding it. Whatever be the nature of the selective
+radiation from a body, the radiation of light of any particular
+wave-length cannot be greater than a certain fraction E of the radiation
+R of the same wave-length from a black body at the same temperature. The
+fraction E measures the emissive power of the body for that particular
+wave-length, and cannot be greater than unity. The same fraction, by the
+principle of equality of emissive and absorptive powers, will measure
+the proportion absorbed of incident radiation R'. If the black body
+emitting the radiation R' is at the same temperature as the absorbing
+layer, R = R', the emission balances the absorption, and the line will
+appear neither bright nor dark. If the source and the absorbing layer
+are at different temperatures, the radiation absorbed will be ER', and
+that transmitted will be R' - ER'. To this must be added the radiation
+emitted by the absorbing layer, namely ER, giving R' - E(R' - R). The
+lines will appear darker than the background R' if R' is greater than R,
+but bright if the reverse is the case. The D lines are dark in the sun
+because the photosphere is much hotter than the reversing layer. They
+appear bright in the candle-flame because the outside mantle of the
+flame, in which the sodium burns and combustion is complete, is hotter
+than the inner reducing flame containing the incandescent particles of
+carbon which give rise to the continuous spectrum. This qualitative
+identity of emission and absorption as regards wave-length can be most
+exactly and easily verified for luminous rays, and we are justified in
+assuming that the relation holds with the same exactitude for
+non-luminous rays, although in many cases the experimental proof is less
+complete and exact.
+
+40. _Diathermancy._--A great array of data with regard to the
+transmissive power or diathermancy of transparent substances for the
+heat radiated from various sources at different temperatures were
+collected by Melloni, Tyndall, Magnus and other experimentalists. The
+measurements were chiefly of a qualitative character, and were made by
+interposing between the source and a thermopile a layer or plate of the
+substance to be examined. This method lacked quantitative precision, but
+led to a number of striking and interesting results, which are admirably
+set forth in Tyndall's _Heat_. It also gave rise to many curious
+discrepancies, some of which were recognized as being due to selective
+absorption, while others are probably to be explained by imperfections
+in the methods of experiment adopted. The general result of such
+researches was to show that substances, like water, alum and glass,
+which are practically opaque to radiation from a source at low
+temperature, such as a vessel filled with boiling water, transmit an
+increasing percentage of the radiation when the temperature of the
+source is increased. This is what would be expected, as these substances
+are very transparent to visible rays. That the proportion transmitted is
+not merely a question of the temperature of the source, but also of the
+quality of the radiation, was shown by a number of experiments. For
+instance, K. H. Knoblauch (_Pogg. Ann._, 1847) found that a plate of
+glass interposed between a spirit lamp and a thermopile intercepts a
+larger proportion of the radiation from the flame itself than of the
+radiation from a platinum spiral heated in the flame, although the
+spiral is undoubtedly at a lower temperature than the flame. The
+explanation is that the spiral is a fairly good radiator of the visible
+rays to which the glass is transparent, but a bad radiator of the
+invisible rays absorbed by the glass which constitute the greater
+portion of the heat-radiation from the feebly luminous flame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Tyndall's Apparatus for observing absorption of
+heat by gas and vapours.]
+
+Assuming that the radiation from the source under investigation is
+qualitatively determinate, like that of a black body at a given
+temperature, the proportion transmitted by plates of various substances
+may easily be measured and tabulated for given plates and sources. But
+owing to the highly selective character of the radiation and absorption,
+it is impossible to give any general relation between the thickness of
+the absorbing plate or layer and the proportion of the total energy
+absorbed. For these reasons the relative diathermancies of different
+materials do not admit of any simple numerical statement as physical
+constants, though many of the qualitative results obtained are very
+striking. Among the most interesting experiments were those of Tyndall,
+on the absorptive powers of gases and vapours, which led to a good deal
+of controversy at the time, owing to the difficulty of the experiments,
+and the contradictory results obtained by other observers. The
+arrangement employed by Tyndall for these measurements is shown in Fig.
+6. A brass tube AB, polished inside, and closed with plates of highly
+diathermanous rocksalt at either end, was fitted with stopcocks C and D
+for exhausting and admitting air or other gases or vapours. The source
+of heat S was usually a plate of copper heated by a Bunsen burner, or a
+Leslie cube containing boiling water as shown at E. To obtain greater
+sensitiveness for differential measurements, the radiation through the
+tube AB incident on one face of the pile P was balanced against the
+radiation from a Leslie cube on the other face of the pile by means of
+an adjustable screen H. The radiation on the two faces of the pile being
+thus balanced with the tube exhausted, Tyndall found that the admission
+of dry air into the tube produced practically no absorption of the
+radiation, whereas compound gases such as carbonic acid, ethylene or
+ammonia absorbed 20 to 90%, and a trace of aqueous vapour in the air
+increased its absorption 50 to 100 times. H. G. Magnus, on the other
+hand, employing a thermopile and a source of heat, both of which were
+enclosed in the same exhausted receiver, in order to avoid interposing
+any rocksalt or other plates between the source and the pile, found an
+absorption of 11% on admitting dry air, but could not detect any
+difference whether the air were dry or moist. Tyndall suggested that the
+apparent absorption observed by Magnus may have been due to the cooling
+of his radiating surface by convection, which is a very probable source
+of error in this method of experiment. Magnus considered that the
+remarkable effect of aqueous vapour observed by Tyndall might have been
+caused by condensation on the polished internal walls of his
+experimental tube, or on the rocksalt plates at either end.[7] The
+question of the relative diathermancy of air and aqueous vapour for
+radiation from the sun to the earth and from the earth into space is one
+of great interest and importance in meteorology. Assuming with Magnus
+that at least 10% of the heat from a source at 100 deg. C. is absorbed in
+passing through a single foot of air, a very moderate thickness of
+atmosphere should suffice to absorb practically all the heat radiated
+from the earth into space. This could not be reconciled with well-known
+facts in regard to terrestrial radiation, and it was generally
+recognized that the result found by Magnus must be erroneous. Tyndall's
+experiment on the great diathermancy of dry air agreed much better with
+meteorological phenomena, but he appears to have exaggerated the effect
+of aqueous vapour. He concluded from his experiments that the water
+vapour present in the air absorbs at least 10% of the heat radiated from
+the earth within 10 ft. of its surface, and that the absorptive power of
+the vapour is about 17,000 times that of air at the same pressure. If
+the absorption of aqueous vapour were really of this order of magnitude,
+it would exert a far greater effect in modifying climate than is
+actually observed to be the case. Radiation is observed to take place
+freely through the atmosphere at times when the proportion of aqueous
+vapour is such as would practically stop all radiation if Tyndall's
+results were correct. The very careful experiments of E. Lecher and J.
+Pernter (_Phil. Mag._, Jan. 1881) confirmed Tyndall's observations on
+the absorptive powers of gases and vapours satisfactorily in nearly all
+cases with the single exception of aqueous vapour. They found that there
+was no appreciable absorption of heat from a source at 100 deg. C. in
+passing through 1 ft. of air (whether dry or moist), but that CO and CO2
+at atmospheric pressure absorbed about 8%, and ethylene (olefiant gas)
+about 50% in the same distance; the vapours of alcohol and ether showed
+absorptive powers of the same order as that of ethylene. They confirmed
+Tyndall's important result that the absorption does not diminish in
+proportion to the pressure, being much greater in proportion for smaller
+pressures in consequence of the selective character of the effect. They
+also supported his conclusion that absorptive power increases with the
+complexity of the molecule. But they could not detect any absorption by
+water vapour at a pressure of 7 mm., though alcohol at the same pressure
+absorbed 3% and acetic acid 10%. Later researches, especially those of
+S. P. Langley with the spectro-bolometer on the infra-red spectrum of
+sunlight, demonstrated the existence of marked absorption bands, some of
+which are due to water vapour. From the character of these bands and the
+manner in which they vary with the state of the air and the thickness
+traversed, it may be inferred that absorption by water vapour plays an
+important part in meteorology, but that it is too small to be readily
+detected by laboratory experiments in a 4 ft. tube, without the aid of
+spectrum analysis.
+
+41. _Relation between Radiation and Temperature._--Assuming, in
+accordance with the reasoning of Balfour Stewart and Kirchhoff, that the
+radiation stream inside an impervious enclosure at a uniform temperature
+is independent of the nature of the walls of the enclosure, and is the
+same for all substances at the same temperature, it follows that the
+full stream of radiation in such an enclosure, or the radiation emitted
+by an ideal black body or full radiator, is a function of the
+temperature only. The form of this function may be determined
+experimentally by observing the radiation between two black bodies at
+different temperatures, which will be proportional to the difference of
+the full radiation streams corresponding to their several temperatures.
+The law now generally accepted was first proposed by Stefan as an
+empirical relation. Tyndall had found that the radiation from a white
+hot platinum wire at 1200 deg. C. was 11.7 times its radiation when dull
+red at 525 deg. C. Stefan (_Wien. Akad. Ber._, 1879, 79, p. 421) noticed
+that the ratio 11.7 is nearly that of the fourth power of the absolute
+temperatures as estimated by Tyndall. On making the somewhat different
+assumption that the radiation between two bodies varied as the
+difference of the fourth powers of their absolute temperatures, he found
+that it satisfied approximately the experiments of Dulong and Petit and
+other observers. According to this law the radiation between a black
+body at a temperature [theta] and a black enclosure or a black
+radiometer at a temperature [theta]0 should be proportional to
+([theta]^4 - [theta]0^4). The law was very simple and convenient in
+form, but it rested so far on very insecure foundations. The
+temperatures given by Tyndall were merely estimated from the colour of
+the light emitted, and might have been some hundred degrees in error. We
+now know that the radiation from polished platinum is of a highly
+selective character, and varies more nearly as the fifth power of the
+absolute temperature. The agreement of the fourth power law with
+Tyndall's experiment appears therefore to be due to a purely accidental
+error in estimating the temperatures of the wire. Stefan also found a
+very fair agreement with Draper's observations of the intensity of
+radiation from a platinum wire, in which the temperature of the wire was
+deduced from the expansion. Here again the apparent agreement was
+largely due to errors in estimating the temperature, arising from the
+fact that the coefficient of expansion of platinum increases
+considerably with rise of temperature. So far as the experimental
+results available at that time were concerned, Stefan's law could be
+regarded only as an empirical expression of doubtful significance. But
+it received a much greater importance from theoretical investigations
+which were even then in progress. James Clerk Maxwell (_Electricity and
+Magnetism_, 1873) had shown that a directed beam of electromagnetic
+radiation or light incident normally on an absorbing surface should
+produce a mechanical pressure equal to the energy of the radiation per
+unit volume. A. G. Bartoli (1875) took up this idea and made it the
+basis of a thermodynamic treatment of radiation. P. N. Lebedew in 1900,
+and E. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull in 1901, proved the existence of this
+pressure by direct experiments. L. Boltzmann (1884) employing radiation
+as the working substance in a Carnot cycle, showed that the energy of
+full radiation at any temperature per unit volume should be proportional
+to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. This law was first
+verified in a satisfactory manner by Heinrich Schneebeli (_Wied. Ann._,
+1884, 22, p. 30). He observed the radiation from the bulb of an air
+thermometer heated to known temperatures through a small aperture in the
+walls of the furnace. With this arrangement the radiation was very
+nearly that of a black body. Measurements by J. T. Bottomley, August
+Schleiermacher, L. C. H. F. Paschen and others of the radiation from
+electrically heated platinum, failed to give concordant results on
+account of differences in the quality of the radiation, the importance
+of which was not fully realized at first. Later researches by Paschen
+with improved methods verified the law, and greatly extended our
+knowledge of radiation in other directions. One of the most complete
+series of experiments on the relation between full radiation and
+temperature is that of O. R. Lummer and Ernst Pringsheim (_Ann. Phys._,
+1897, 63, p. 395). They employed an aperture in the side of an enclosure
+at uniform temperature as the source of radiation, and compared the
+intensities at different temperatures by means of a bolometer. The
+fourth power law was well satisfied throughout the whole range of their
+experiments from -190 deg. C. to 2300 deg. C. According to this law, the
+rate of loss of heat by radiation R from a body of emissive power E and
+surface S at a temperature [theta] in an enclosure at [theta]0 is given
+by the formula
+
+  R = [sigma]ES([theta]^4 - [theta]0^4),
+
+where [sigma] is the radiation constant. The absolute value of [sigma]
+was determined by F. Kurlbaum using an electric compensation method
+(_Wied. Ann._, 1898, 65, p. 746), in which the radiation received by a
+bolometer from a black body at a known temperature was measured by
+finding the electric current required to produce the same rise of
+temperature in the bolometer. K. Angstrom employed a similar method for
+solar radiation. Kurlbaum gives the value [sigma] = 5.32 X 10^(-5) ergs
+per sq. cm. per sec. C. Christiansen (_Wied. Ann._, 1883, 19, p. 267)
+had previously found a value about 5% smaller, by observing the rate of
+cooling of a copper plate of known thermal capacity, which is probably a
+less accurate method.
+
+  42. _Theoretical Proof of the Fourth Power Law._--The proof given by
+  Boltzmann may be somewhat simplified if we observe that full radiation
+  in an enclosure at constant temperature behaves exactly like a
+  saturated vapour, and must therefore obey Carnot's or Clapeyron's
+  equation given in section 17. The energy of radiation per unit volume,
+  and the radiation-pressure at any temperature, are functions of the
+  temperature only, like the pressure of a saturated vapour. If the
+  volume of the enclosure is increased by any finite amount, the
+  temperature remaining the same, radiation is given off from the walls
+  so as to fill the space to the same pressure as before. The heat
+  absorbed when the volume is increased corresponds with the latent heat
+  of vaporization. In the case of radiation, as in the case of a vapour,
+  the latent heat consists partly of internal energy of formation and
+  partly of external work of expansion at constant pressure. Since in
+  the case of full or undirected radiation the pressure is one-third of
+  the energy per unit volume, the external work for any expansion is
+  one-third of the internal energy added. The latent heat absorbed is,
+  therefore, four times the external work of expansion. Since the
+  external work is the product of the pressure P and the increase of
+  volume V, the latent heat per unit increase of volume is four times
+  the pressure. But by Carnot's equation the latent heat of a saturated
+  vapour per unit increase of volume is equal to the rate of increase of
+  saturation-pressure per degree divided by Carnot's function or
+  multiplied by the absolute temperature. Expressed in symbols we have,
+
+    [theta](dP/d[theta]) = L/V = 4P,
+
+  where (dP/d[theta]) represents the rate of increase of pressure. This
+  equation shows that the percentage rate of increase of pressure is
+  four times the percentage rate of increase of temperature, or that if
+  the temperature is increased by 1%, the pressure is increased by 4%.
+  This is equivalent to the statement that the pressure varies as the
+  fourth power of the temperature, a result which is mathematically
+  deduced by integrating the equation.
+
+43. _Wien's Displacement Law._--Assuming that the fourth power law gives
+the quantity of full radiation at any temperature, it remains to
+determine how the quality of the radiation varies with the temperature,
+since as we have seen both quantity and quality are determinate. This
+question may be regarded as consisting of two parts. (1) How is the
+wave-length or frequency of any given kind of radiation changed when its
+temperature is altered? (2) What is the form of the curve expressing the
+distribution of energy between the various wave-lengths in the spectrum
+of full radiation, or what is the distribution of heat in the spectrum?
+The researches of Tyndall, Draper, Langley and other investigators had
+shown that while the energy of radiation of each frequency increased
+with rise of temperature, the maximum of intensity was shifted or
+displaced along the spectrum in the direction of shorter wave-lengths or
+higher frequencies. W. Wien (_Ann. Phys._, 1898, 58, p. 662), applying
+Doppler's principle to the adiabatic compression of radiation in a
+perfectly reflecting enclosure, deduced that the wave-length of each
+constituent of the radiation should be shortened in proportion to the
+rise of temperature produced by the compression, in such a manner that
+the product [lambda][theta] of wave-length and the absolute temperature
+should remain constant. According to this relation, which is known as
+Wien's Displacement Law, the frequency corresponding to the maximum
+ordinate of the energy curve of the normal spectrum of full radiation
+should vary directly (or the wave-length inversely) as the absolute
+temperature, a result previously obtained by H. F. Weber (1888).
+Paschen, and Lummer and Pringsheim verified this relation by observing
+with a bolometer the intensity at different points in the spectrum
+produced by a fluorite prism. The intensities were corrected and reduced
+to a wave-length scale with the aid of Paschen's results on the
+dispersion formula of fluorite (_Wied. Ann._, 1894, 53, p. 301). The
+curves in fig. 7 illustrate results obtained by Lummer and Pringsheim
+(_Ber. deut. phys. Ges._, 1899, 1, p. 34) at three different
+temperatures, namely 1377 deg., 1087 deg. and 836 deg. absolute, plotted
+on a wave-length base with a scale of microns ([mu]) or millionths of a
+metre. The wave-lengths Oa, Ob, Oc, corresponding to the maximum
+ordinates of each curve, vary inversely as the absolute temperatures
+given. The constant value of the product [lambda][theta] at the maximum
+point is found to be 2920. Thus for a temperature of 1000 deg. Abs. the
+maximum is at wave-length 2.92 [mu]; at 2000 deg. the maximum is at 1.46
+[mu].
+
+44. _Form of the Curve representing the Distribution of Energy in the
+Spectrum._--Assuming Wien's displacement law, it follows that the form
+of the curve representing the distribution of energy in the spectrum of
+full radiation should be the same for different temperatures with the
+maximum displaced in proportion to the absolute temperature, and with
+the total area increased in proportion to the fourth power of the
+absolute temperature. Observations taken with a bolometer along the
+length of a normal or wave-length spectrum, would give the form of the
+curve plotted on a wave-length base. The height of the ordinate at each
+point would represent the energy included between given limits of
+wave-length, depending on the width of the bolometer strip and the slit.
+Supposing that the bolometer strip had a width corresponding to .01
+[mu], and were placed at 1.0 [mu] in the spectrum of radiation at 2000
+deg. Abs., it would receive the energy corresponding to wave-lengths
+between 1.00 and 1.01 [mu]. At a temperature of 1000 deg. Abs. the
+corresponding part of the energy, by Wien's displacement law, would lie
+between the limits 2.00 and 2.02 [mu], and the total energy between
+these limits would be 16 times smaller. But the bolometer strip placed
+at 2.0 [mu] would now receive only half of the energy, or the energy in
+a band .01 [mu] wide, and the deflection would be 32 times less.
+Corresponding ordinates of the curves at different temperatures will
+therefore vary as the fifth power of the temperature, when the curves
+are plotted on a wave-length base. The maximum ordinates in the curves
+already given are found to vary as the fifth powers of the corresponding
+temperatures. The equation representing the distribution of energy on a
+wave-length base must be of the form
+
+  E = C[lambda]^(-5) F([lambda][theta]) =
+      C[theta]^5 ([lambda][theta])^(-5) F([lambda][theta])
+
+where F([lambda][theta]) represents some function of the product of the
+wave-length and temperature, which remains constant for corresponding
+wave-lengths when [theta] is changed. If the curves were plotted on a
+frequency base, owing to the change of scale, the maximum ordinates
+would vary as the cube of the temperature instead of the fifth power,
+but the form of the function F would remain unaltered. Reasoning on the
+analogy of the distribution of velocities among the particles of a gas
+on the kinetic theory, which is a very similar problem, Wien was led to
+assume that the function F should be of the form e^(-c/[lambda][theta]),
+where e is the base of Napierian logarithms, and c is a constant having
+the value 14,600 if the wave-length is measured in microns [mu]. This
+expression was found by Paschen to give a very good approximation to the
+form of the curve obtained experimentally for those portions of the
+visible and infra-red spectrum where observations could be most
+accurately made. The formula was tested in two ways: (1) by plotting the
+curves of distribution of energy in the spectrum for constant
+temperatures as illustrated in fig. 7; (2) by plotting the energy
+corresponding to a given wave-length as a function of the temperature.
+Both methods gave very good agreement with Wien's formula for values of
+the product [lambda][theta] not much exceeding 3000. A method of
+isolating rays of great wave-length by successive reflection was devised
+by H. Rubens and E. F. Nichols (_Wied. Ann._, 1897, 60, p. 418). They
+found that quartz and fluorite possessed the property of selective
+reflection for rays of wave-length 8.8 [mu] and 24 [mu] to 32 [mu]
+respectively, so that after four to six reflections these rays could be
+isolated from a source at any temperature in a state of considerable
+purity. The residual impurity at any stage could be estimated by
+interposing a thin plate of quartz or fluorite which completely
+reflected or absorbed the residual rays, but allowed the impurity to
+pass. H. Beckmann, under the direction of Rubens, investigated the
+variation with temperature of the residual rays reflected from fluorite
+employing sources from -80 deg. to 600 deg. C., and found the results
+could not be represented by Wien's formula unless the constant c were
+taken as 26,000 in place of 14,600. In their first series of
+observations extending to 6 [mu] O. R. Lummer and E. Pringsheim (_Deut.
+phys. Ges._, 1899, 1, p. 34) found systematic deviations indicating an
+increase in the value of the constant c for long waves and high
+temperatures. In a theoretical discussion of the subject, Lord Rayleigh
+(_Phil. Mag._, 1900, 49, p. 539) pointed out that Wien's law would lead
+to a limiting value C[lambda]^(-5), of the radiation corresponding to
+any particular wave-length when the temperature increased to infinity,
+whereas according to his view the radiation of great wave-length should
+ultimately increase in direct proportion to the temperature. Lummer and
+Pringsheim (_Deut. phys. Ges._, 1900, 2, p. 163) extended the range of
+their observations to 18 [mu] by employing a prism of sylvine in place
+of fluorite. They found deviations from Wien's formula increasing to
+nearly 50% at 18 [mu], where, however, the observations were very
+difficult on account of the smallness of the energy to be measured.
+Rubens and F. Kurlbaum (_Ann. Phys._, 1901, 4, p. 649) extended the
+residual reflection method to a temperature range from -190 deg. to 1500
+deg. C., and employed the rays reflected from quartz 8.8 [mu], and
+rocksalt 51 [mu], in addition to those from fluorite. It appeared from
+these researches that the rays of great wave-length from a source at a
+high temperature tended to vary in the limit directly as the absolute
+temperature of the source, as suggested by Lord Rayleigh, and could not
+be represented by Wien's formula with any value of the constant c. The
+simplest type of formula satisfying the required conditions is that
+proposed by Max Planck (_Ann. Phys._, 1901, 4, p. 553) namely,
+
+  E = C[lambda]^(-5) (e^c/[lambda][theta] - 1)^(-1),
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Distribution of energy in the spectrum of a
+black body.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Distribution of energy in the spectrum of full
+radiation at 2000 deg. Abs. according to formulae of Planck & Wien.]
+
+which agrees with Wien's formula when [theta] is small, where Wien's
+formula is known to be satisfactory, but approaches the limiting form E
+= C[lambda]^(-4)[theta]/c, when [theta] is large, thus satisfying the
+condition proposed by Lord Rayleigh. The theoretical interpretation of
+this formula remains to some extent a matter of future investigation,
+but it appears to satisfy experiment within the limits of observational
+error. In order to compare Planck's formula graphically with Wien's, the
+distribution curves corresponding to both formulae are plotted in fig. 8
+for a temperature of 2000 deg. abs., taking the value of the constant c
+= 14,600 with a scale of wave-length in microns [mu]. The curves in fig.
+9 illustrate the difference between the two formulae for the variation
+of the intensity of radiation corresponding to a fixed wave-length 30
+[mu]. Assuming Wien's displacement law, the curves may be applied to
+find the energy for any other wave-length or temperature, by simply
+altering the wave-length scale in inverse ratio to the temperature, or
+vice versa. Thus to find the distribution curve for 1000 deg. abs., it
+is only necessary to multiply all the numbers in the wave-length scale
+of fig. 8 by 2; or to find the variation curve for wave-length 60 [mu],
+the numbers on the temperature scale of fig. 9 should be divided by 2.
+The ordinate scales must be increased in proportion to the fifth power
+of the temperature, or inversely as the fifth power of the wave-length
+respectively in figs. 8 and 9 if comparative results are required for
+different temperatures or wave-lengths. The results hitherto obtained
+for cases other than full radiation are not sufficiently simple and
+definite to admit of profitable discussion in the present article.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Variation of energy of radiation corresponding
+to wave-length 30 [mu], with temperature of source.]
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--It would not be possible, within the limits of an
+  article like the present, to give tables of the specific thermal
+  properties of different substances so far as they have been
+  ascertained by experiment. To be of any use, such tables require to be
+  extremely detailed, with very full references and explanations with
+  regard to the value of the experimental evidence, and the limits
+  within which the results may be relied on. The quantity of material
+  available is so enormous and its value so varied, that the most
+  elaborate tables still require reference to the original authorities.
+  Much information will be found collected in Landolt and Bornstein's
+  _Physical and Chemical Tables_ (Berlin, 1905). Shorter tables, such as
+  Everett's _Units and Physical Constants_, are useful as illustrations
+  of a system, but are not sufficiently complete for use in scientific
+  investigations. Some of the larger works of reference, such as A. A.
+  Winkelmann's _Handbuch der Physik_, contain fairly complete tables of
+  specific properties, but these tables occupy so much space, and are so
+  misleading if incomplete, that they are generally omitted in
+  theoretical textbooks.
+
+  Among older textbooks on heat, Tyndall's _Heat_ may be recommended for
+  its vivid popular interest, and Balfour Stewart's _Heat_ for early
+  theories of radiation. Maxwell's _Theory of Heat_ and Tait's _Heat_
+  give a broad and philosophical survey of the subject. Among modern
+  textbooks, Preston's _Theory of Heat_ and Poynting and Thomson's
+  _Heat_ are the best known, and have been brought well up to date.
+  Sections on heat are included in all the general textbooks of Physics,
+  such as those of Deschanel (translated by Everett), Ganot (translated
+  by Atkinson), Daniell, Watson, &c. Of the original investigations on
+  the subject, the most important have already been cited. Others will
+  be found in the collected papers of Joule, Kelvin and Maxwell.
+  Treatises on special branches of the subject, such as Fourier's
+  _Conduction of Heat_, are referred to in the separate articles in this
+  encyclopaedia dealing with recent progress, of which the following is
+  a list: CALORIMETRY, CONDENSATION OF GASES, CONDUCTION OF HEAT,
+  DIFFUSION, ENERGETICS, FUSION, LIQUID GASES, RADIATION, RADIOMETER,
+  SOLUTION, THERMODYNAMICS, THERMOELECTRICITY, THERMOMETRY,
+  VAPORIZATION. For the practical aspects of heating see HEATING.
+       (H. L. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Units of Work, Energy and Power._--In English-speaking countries
+    work is generally measured in _foot-pounds_. Elsewhere it is
+    generally measured in _kilogrammetres_, or in terms of the work done
+    in raising 1 kilogramme weight through the height of 1 metre. In the
+    middle of the 19th century the terms "force" and "motive power" were
+    commonly employed in the sense of "power of doing work." The term
+    "energy" is now employed in this sense. A quantity of energy is
+    measured by the work it is capable of performing. A body may possess
+    energy in virtue of its state (gas or steam under pressure), or in
+    virtue of its position (a raised weight), or in various other ways,
+    when at rest. In these cases it is said to possess _potential
+    energy_. It may also possess energy in virtue of its motion or
+    rotation (as a fly-wheel or a cannon-ball). In this case it is said
+    to possess _kinetic energy_, or energy of motion. In many cases the
+    energy (as in the case of a vibrating body, like a pendulum) is
+    partly kinetic and partly potential, and changes continually from one
+    to the other throughout the motion. For instance, the energy of a
+    pendulum is wholly potential when it is momentarily at rest at the
+    top of its swing, but is wholly kinetic when the pendulum is moving
+    with its maximum velocity at the lowest point of its swing. The whole
+    energy at any moment is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy,
+    and this sum remains constant so long as the amplitude of the
+    vibration remains the same. The potential energy of a weight W lb.
+    raised to a height h ft. above the earth, is Wh foot-pounds. If
+    allowed to fall freely, without doing work, its kinetic energy on
+    reaching the earth would be Wh foot-pounds, and its velocity of
+    motion would be such that if projected upwards with the same velocity
+    it would rise to the height h from which it fell. We have here a
+    simple and familiar case of the conversion of one kind of energy into
+    a different kind. But the two kinds of energy are mechanically
+    equivalent, and they can both be measured in terms of the same units.
+    The units already considered, namely foot-pounds or kilogrammetres,
+    are gravitational units, depending on the force of gravity. This is
+    the most obvious and natural method of measuring the potential energy
+    of a raised weight, but it has the disadvantage of varying with the
+    force of gravity at different places. The natural measure of the
+    kinetic energy of a moving body is the product of its mass by half
+    the square of its velocity, which gives a measure in kinetic or
+    absolute units independent of the force of gravity. Kinetic and
+    gravitational units are merely different ways of measuring the same
+    thing. Just as foot-pounds may be reduced to kilogrammetres by
+    dividing by the number of foot-pounds in one kilogrammetre, so
+    kinetic may be reduced to gravitational units by dividing by the
+    kinetic measure of the intensity of gravity, namely, the work in
+    kinetic units done by the weight of unit mass acting through unit
+    distance. For scientific purposes, it is necessary to take account of
+    the variation of gravity. The scientific unit of energy is called the
+    _erg_. The erg is the kinetic energy of a mass of 2 gm. moving with a
+    velocity of 1 cm. per sec. The work in ergs done by a force acting
+    through a distance of 1 cm. is the absolute measure of the force. A
+    force equal to the weight of 1 gm. (in England) acting through a
+    distance of 1 cm. does 981 ergs of work. A force equal to the weight
+    of 1000 gm. (1 kilogramme) acting through a distance of 1 metre (100
+    cm.) does 98.1 million ergs of work. As the erg is a very small unit,
+    for many purposes, a unit equal to 10 million ergs, called a _joule_,
+    is employed. In England, where the weight of 1 gm. is 981 ergs per
+    cm., a foot-pound is equal to 1.356 joules, and a kilogrammetre is
+    equal to 9.81 joules.
+
+    The term _power_ is now generally restricted to mean "rate of
+    working." Watt estimated that an average horse was capable of raising
+    550 lb. 1 ft. in each second, or doing work at the rate of 550
+    foot-pounds per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. This
+    conventional horse-power is the unit commonly employed for estimating
+    the power of engines. The _horse-power-hour_, or the work done by one
+    horse-power in one hour, is nearly 2 million foot-pounds. For
+    electrical and scientific purposes the unit of power employed is
+    called the _watt_. The watt is the work per second done by an
+    electromotive force of 1 volt in driving a current of 1 ampere, and
+    is equal to 10 million ergs or 1 joule per second. One horse-power is
+    746 watts or nearly 3/4 of a kilowatt. The _kilowatt-hour_, which is
+    the unit by which electrical energy is sold, is 3.6 million joules or
+    2.65 million foot-pounds, or 366,000 kilogrammetres, and is capable
+    of raising nearly 19 lb. of water from the freezing to the boiling
+    point.
+
+  [2] In an essay on "Heat, Light, and Combinations of Light,"
+    republished in Sir H. Davy's _Collected Works_, ii. (London, 1836).
+
+  [3] For instance a mass of compressed air, if allowed to expand in a
+    cylinder at the ordinary temperature, will do work, and will at the
+    same time absorb a quantity of heat which, as we now know, is the
+    thermal equivalent of the work done. But this work cannot be said to
+    have been produced solely from the heat absorbed in the process,
+    because the air at the end of the process is in a changed condition,
+    and could not be restored to its original state at the same
+    temperature without having work done upon it precisely equal to that
+    obtained by its expansion. The process could not be repeated
+    indefinitely without a continual supply of compressed air. The source
+    of the work in this case is work previously done in compressing the
+    air, and no part of the work is really generated at the expense of
+    heat alone, unless the compression is effected at a lower temperature
+    than the expansion.
+
+  [4] Clausius (_Pogg. Ann._ 79, p. 369) and others have misinterpreted
+    this assumption, and have taken it to mean that the quantity of heat
+    required to produce any given change of state is independent of the
+    manner in which the change is effected, which Carnot does not here
+    assume.
+
+  [5] Carnot's description of his cycle and statement of his principle
+    have been given as nearly as possible in his own words, because some
+    injustice has been done him by erroneous descriptions and statements.
+
+  [6] It was for this reason that Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
+    stated (_Phil. Mag._, 1852, 4) that "Carnot's original demonstration
+    utterly fails," and that he introduced the "corrections" attributed
+    to James Thomson and Clerk Maxwell respectively. In reality Carnot's
+    original demonstration requires no correction.
+
+  [7] In reference to this objection, Tyndall remarks (_Phil. Mag._,
+    1862, p. 422; _Heat_, p. 385); "In the first place the plate of salt
+    nearest the source of heat is never moistened, unless the experiments
+    are of the roughest character. Its proximity to the source enables
+    the heat to chase away every trace of humidity from its surface." He
+    therefore took precautions to dry only the circumferential portions
+    of the plate nearest the pile, assuming that the flux of heat through
+    the central portions would suffice to keep them dry. This reasoning
+    is not at all satisfactory, because rocksalt is very hygroscopic and
+    becomes wet, even in unsaturated air, if the vapour pressure is
+    greater than that of a saturated solution of salt at the temperature
+    of the plate. Assuming that the vapour pressure of the saturated salt
+    solution is only half that of pure water, it would require an
+    elevation of temperature of 10 deg. C. to dry the rocksalt plates in
+    saturated air at 15 deg. C. It is only fair to say that the laws of
+    the vapour pressures of solutions were unknown in Tyndall's time, and
+    that it was usual to assume that the plates would not become wetted
+    until the dew-point was reached. The writer has repeated Tyndall's
+    experiments with a facsimile of one of Tyndall's tubes in the
+    possession of the Royal College of Science, fitted with plates of
+    rocksalt cut from the same block as Tyndall's, and therefore of the
+    same hygroscopic quality. Employing a reflecting galvanometer in
+    conjunction with a differential bolometer, which is quicker in its
+    action than Tyndall's pile, there appears to be hardly any difference
+    between dry and moist air, provided that the latter is not more than
+    half saturated. Using saturated air with a Leslie cube as source of
+    heat, both rocksalt plates invariably become wet in a minute or two
+    and the absorption rises to 10 or 20% according to the thickness of
+    the film of deposited moisture. Employing the open tube method as
+    described by Tyndall, without the rocksalt plates, the absorption is
+    certainly less than 1% in 3 ft. of air saturated at 20 deg. C., unless
+    condensation is induced on the walls of the tube. It is possible that
+    the walls of Tyndall's tube may have become covered with a very
+    hygroscopic film from the powder of the calcium chloride which he was
+    in the habit of introducing near one end. Such a film would be
+    exceedingly difficult to remove, and would account for the excessive
+    precautions which he found necessary in drying the air in order to
+    obtain the same transmitting power as a vacuum. It is probable that
+    Tyndall's experiments on aqueous vapour were effected by experimental
+    errors of this character.
+
+
+
+
+HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766), English classical scholar and bibliophile,
+was born at Exeter on the 20th of April 1704. He was the son of a
+wealthy merchant, and was thus able to devote himself mainly to travel
+and book-collecting. He became town clerk of his native city in 1752,
+and held the office till his death on the 13th of September 1766. In
+1763 he had published a pamphlet advocating the repeal of the cider tax
+in Devonshire, and his endeavours led to success three years later. As a
+classical scholar he made his reputation by his critical and metrical
+notes on the Greek tragedians, which procured him an honorary D.C.L.
+from Oxford (31st of March 1752). He also left MS. notes on Burmann's
+and Martyn's editions of Virgil, on Euripides, Catullus, Tibullus, and
+the greater part of Hesiod. In some of these he adopts the whimsical
+name Dexiades Ericius. His _Revisal of Shakespear's Text_ (1765) was an
+answer to the "insolent dogmatism" of Bishop Warburton. _The Essay
+towards a Demonstrative Proof of the Divine Existence, Unity and
+Attributes_ (1740) was intended to combat the opinions of Voltaire,
+Rousseau and Hume. Two of his sons (among a family of thirteen) were
+Benjamin, headmaster of Harrow (1771-1785), and George, headmaster of
+Eton (1796). His collection of rare classical works formed the nucleus
+of his son Benjamin's famous library (Bibliotheca Heathiana).
+
+  An account of the Heath family will be found in Sir W. R. Drake's
+  _Heathiana_ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+HEATH, NICHOLAS (c. 1501-1578), archbishop of York and lord chancellor,
+was born in London about 1501 and graduated B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He
+then migrated to Christ's College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in
+1520, M.A. in 1522, and was elected fellow in 1524. After holding minor
+preferments he was appointed archdeacon of Stafford in 1534 and
+graduated D.D. in 1535. He then accompanied Edward Fox (q.v.), bishop of
+Hereford, on his mission to promote a theological and political
+understanding with the Lutheran princes of Germany. His selection for
+this duty implies a readiness on Heath's part to proceed some distance
+along the path of reform; but his dealings with the Lutherans did not
+confirm this tendency, and Heath's subsequent career was closely
+associated with the cause of reaction. In 1539, the year of the Six
+Articles, he was made bishop of Rochester, and in 1543 he succeeded
+Latimer at Worcester. His Catholicism, however, was of a less rigid type
+than Gardiner's and Bonner's; he felt something of the force of the
+national antipathy to foreign influence, whether ecclesiastical or
+secular, and was always impressed by the necessity of national unity, so
+far as was possible, in matters of faith. Apparently he made no
+difficulty about carrying out the earlier reforms of Edward VI., and he
+accepted the first book of common prayer after it had been modified by
+the House of Lords in a Catholic direction.
+
+His definite breach with the Reformation occurred on the grounds, on
+which four centuries later Leo XIII. denied the Catholicity of the
+reformed English Church, namely, on the question of the Ordinal drawn up
+in February 1550. Heath refused to accept it, was imprisoned, and in
+1551 deprived of his bishopric. On Mary's accession he was released and
+restored, and made president of the council of the Marches and Wales. In
+1555 he was promoted to the archbishopric of York, which he did much to
+enrich after the Protestant spoliation; he built York House in the
+Strand. After Gardiner's death he was appointed lord chancellor,
+probably on Pole's recommendation; for Heath, like Pole himself,
+disliked the Spanish party in England. Unlike Pole, however, he seems to
+have been averse from the excessive persecution of Mary's reign, and no
+Protestants were burnt in his diocese. He exercised, however, little
+influence on Mary's secular or ecclesiastical policy.
+
+On Mary's death Heath as chancellor at once proclaimed Elizabeth. Like
+Sir Thomas More he held that it was entirely within the competence of
+the national state, represented by parliament, to determine questions of
+the succession to the throne; and although Elizabeth did not renew his
+commission as lord chancellor, he continued to sit in the privy council
+for two months until the government had determined to complete the
+breach with the Roman Catholic Church; and as late as April 1559 he
+assisted the government by helping to arrange the Westminster
+Conference, and reproving his more truculent co-religionists. He refused
+to crown Elizabeth because she would not have the coronation service
+accompanied with the elevation of the Host; and ecclesiastical
+ceremonies and doctrine could not, in Heath's view, be altered or
+abrogated by any mere national authority. Hence he steadily resisted
+Elizabeth's acts of supremacy and uniformity, although he had acquiesced
+in the acts of 1534 and 1549. Like others of Henry's bishops, he had
+been convinced by the events of Edward VI.'s reign that Sir Thomas More
+was right and Henry VIII. was wrong in their attitude towards the claims
+of the papacy and the Catholic Church. He was therefore necessarily
+deprived of his archbishopric in 1559, but he remained loyal to
+Elizabeth; and after a temporary confinement he was suffered to pass the
+remaining nineteen years of his life in peace and quiet, never attending
+public worship and sometimes hearing mass in private. The queen visited
+him more than once at his house at Chobham, Surrey; he died and was
+buried there at the end of 1578.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the Privy
+  Council; Cal. State Papers, Domestic, Addenda, Spanish and Venetian;
+  Kemp's Loseley MSS.; Froude's _History_; Burnet, Collier, Dixon and
+  Frere's _Church Histories_; Strype's _Works_ (General Index); Parker
+  Soc. Publications (Gough's Index); Birt's _Elizabethan Settlement_.
+       (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HEATH, WILLIAM (1737-1814), American soldier, was born in Roxbury,
+Massachusetts, on the 2nd of March 1737 (old style). He was brought up
+as a farmer and had a passion for military exercises. In 1765 he entered
+the Ancient and Honourable Artillery Company of Boston, of which he
+became commander in 1770. In the same year he wrote to the _Boston
+Gazette_ letters signed "A Military Countryman," urging the necessity of
+military training. He was a member of the Massachusetts General Court
+from 1770 to 1774, of the provincial committee of safety, and in
+1774-1775 of the provincial congress. He was commissioned a provincial
+brig.-general in December 1774, directed the pursuit of the British from
+Concord (April 19, 1775), was promoted to be provincial major-general on
+the 20th of June 1775, and two days later was commissioned fourth
+brig.-general in the Continental Army. He became major-general on the
+9th of August 1776, and was in active service around New York until
+early the next year. In January 1777 he attempted to take Fort
+Independence, near Spuyten Duyvil, then garrisoned by about 2000
+Hessians, but at the first sally of the garrison his troops became
+panic-stricken and a few days later he withdrew. Washington reprimanded
+him and never again entrusted to him any important operation in the
+field. Throughout the war, however, Heath was very efficient in muster
+service and in the barracks. From March 1777 to October 1778 he was in
+command of the Eastern Department with headquarters at Boston, and had
+charge (Nov. 1777-Oct. 1778) of the prisoners of war from Burgoyne's
+army held at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In May 1779 he was appointed a
+commissioner of the Board of War. He was placed in command of the troops
+on the E. side of the Hudson in June 1779, and of other troops and posts
+on the Hudson in November of the same year. In July 1780 he met the
+French allies under Rochambeau on their arrival in Rhode Island; in
+October of the same year he succeeded Arnold in command of West Point
+and its dependencies; and in August 1781, when Washington went south to
+meet Cornwallis, Heath was left in command of the Army of the Hudson to
+watch Clinton. After the war he retired to his farm at Roxbury, was a
+member of the state House of Representatives in 1788, of the
+Massachusetts convention which ratified the Federal Constitution in the
+same year, and of the governor's council in 1789-1790, was a state
+senator (1791-1793), and in 1806 was elected lieutenant-governor of
+Massachusetts but declined to serve. He died at Roxbury on the 24th of
+January 1814, the last of the major-generals of the War of American
+Independence.
+
+  See _Memoirs of Major-General Heath, containing Anecdotes, Details of
+  Skirmishes, Battles and other Military Events during the American War,
+  written by Himself_ (Boston, 1798; frequently reprinted, perhaps the
+  best edition being that published in New York in 1901 by William
+  Abbatt), particularly valuable for the descriptions of Lexington and
+  Bunker Hill, of the fighting around New York, of the controversies
+  with Burgoyne and his officers during their stay in Boston, and of
+  relations with Rochambeau; and his correspondence, _The Heath Papers_,
+  vols. iv.-v., seventh series, _Massachusetts Historical Society
+  Collections_ (Boston, 1904-1905).
+
+
+
+
+HEATH, the English form of a name given in most Teutonic dialects to the
+common ling or heather (_Calluna vulgaris_), but now applied to all
+species of _Erica_, an extensive genus of monopetalous plants, belonging
+to the order Ericaceae. The heaths are evergreen shrubs, with small
+narrow leaves, in whorls usually set rather thickly on the shoots; the
+persistent flowers have 4 sepals, and a 4-cleft campanulate or tubular
+corolla, in many species more or less ventricose or inflated; the dry
+capsule is 4-celled, and opens, in the true Ericae, in 4 segments, to
+the middle of which the partitions adhere, though in the ling the valves
+separate at the dissepiments. The plants are mostly of low growth, but
+several African kinds reach the size of large bushes, and a common South
+European species, _E. arborea_, occasionally attains almost the aspect
+and dimensions of a tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. _Calluna vulgaris._]
+
+One of the best known and most interesting of the family is the common
+heath, heather or ling, _Calluna vulgaris_ (fig. 1), placed by most
+botanists in a separate genus on account of the peculiar dehiscence of
+the fruit, and from the coloured calyx, which extends beyond the
+corolla, having a whorl of sepal-like bracts beneath. This shrub derives
+some economic importance from its forming the chief vegetation on many
+of those extensive wastes that occupy so large a portion of the more
+sterile lands of northern and western Europe, the usually desolate
+appearance of which is enlivened in the latter part of summer by its
+abundant pink blossoms. When growing erect to the height of 3 ft. or
+more, as it often does in sheltered places, its purple stems,
+close-leaved green shoots and feathery spikes of bell-shaped flowers
+render it one of the handsomest of the heaths; but on the bleaker
+elevations and more arid slopes it frequently rises only a few inches
+above the ground. In all moorland countries the ling is applied to many
+rural purposes; the larger stems are made into brooms, the shorter tied
+up into bundles that serve as brushes, while the long trailing shoots
+are woven into baskets. Pared up with the peat about its roots it forms
+a good fuel, often the only one obtainable on the drier moors. The
+shielings of the Scottish Highlanders were formerly constructed of heath
+stems, cemented together with peat-mud, worked into a kind of mortar
+with dry grass or straw; hovels and sheds for temporary purposes are
+still sometimes built in a similar way, and roofed in with ling. Laid on
+the ground, with the flowers above, it forms a soft springy bed, the
+luxurious couch of the ancient Gael, still gladly resorted to at times
+by the hill shepherd or hardy deer-stalker. The young shoots were in
+former days employed as a substitute for hops in brewing, while their
+astringency rendered them valuable as a tanning material in Ireland and
+the Western Isles. They are said also to have been used by the
+Highlanders for dyeing woollen yarn yellow, and other colours are
+asserted to have been obtained from them, but some writers appear to
+confuse the dyer's-weed, _Genista tinctoria_, with the heather. The
+young juicy shoots and the seeds, which remain long in the capsules,
+furnish the red grouse of Scotland with the larger portion of its
+sustenance; the ripe seeds are eaten by many birds. The tops of the ling
+afford a considerable part of the winter fodder of the hill flocks, and
+are popularly supposed to communicate the fine flavour to Welsh and
+Highland mutton, but sheep seldom crop heather while the mountain
+grasses and rushes are sweet and accessible. Ling has been suggested as
+a material for paper, but the stems are hardly sufficiently fibrous for
+that purpose. The purple or fine-leaved heath, _E. cinerea_ (fig. 2),
+one of the most beautiful of the genus, abounds on the lower moors and
+commons of Great Britain and western Europe, in such situations being
+sometimes more prevalent than the ling. The flowers of both these
+species yield much honey, furnishing a plentiful supply to the bees in
+moorland districts; from this heath honey the Picts probably brewed the
+mead said by Boetius to have been made from the flowers themselves.
+
+The genus contains about 420 known species, by far the greater part
+being indigenous to the western districts of South Africa, but it is
+also a characteristic genus of the Mediterranean region, while several
+species extend into northern Europe. No species is native in America,
+but ling occurs as an introduced plant on the Atlantic side from
+Newfoundland to New Jersey. Five species occur in Britain: _E. cinerea_,
+_E. tetralix_ (cross-leaved heath), both abundant on heaths and commons,
+_E. vagans_, Cornish heath, found only in West Cornwall, _E. ciliaris_
+in the west of England and Ireland and _E. mediterranea_ in Ireland. The
+three last are south-west European species which reach the northern
+limit of their distribution in the west of England and Ireland. _E.
+scoparia_ is a common heath in the centre of France and elsewhere in the
+Mediterranean region, forming a spreading bush several feet high. It is
+known as _bruyere_, and its stout underground rootstocks yield the
+briar-wood used for pipes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. _Erica cinerea._]
+
+The Cape heaths have long been favourite objects of horticulture. In the
+warmer parts of Britain several will bear exposure to the cold of
+ordinary winters in a sheltered border, but most need the protection of
+the conservatory. They are sometimes raised from seed, but are chiefly
+multiplied by cuttings "struck" in sand, and afterwards transferred to
+pots filled with a mixture of black peat and sand; the peat should be
+dry and free from sourness. Much attention is requisite in watering
+heaths, as they seldom recover if once allowed to droop, while they will
+not bear much water about their roots: the heath-house should be light
+and well ventilated, the plants requiring sun, and soon perishing in a
+close or permanently damp atmosphere; in England little or no heat is
+needed in ordinary seasons. The European heaths succeed well in English
+gardens, only requiring a peaty soil and sunny situation to thrive as
+well as in their native localities: _E. carnea_, _mediterranea_,
+_ciliaris_, _vagans_, and the pretty cross-leaved heath of boggy moors,
+_E. Tetralix_, are among those most worthy of cultivation. The beautiful
+large-flowered St Dabeoc's heath, belonging to the closely allied genus
+_Dabeocia_, is likewise often seen in gardens. It is found in boggy
+heaths in Connemara and Mayo, and is also native in West France, Spain
+and the Azores.
+
+  A beautiful work on heaths is that by H. C. Andrews, containing
+  coloured engravings of nearly 300 species and varieties, with
+  descriptions in English and Latin (4 vols., 1802-1805).
+
+
+
+
+HEATHCOAT, JOHN (1783-1861), English inventor, was born at Duffield near
+Derby on the 7th of August 1783. During his apprenticeship to a
+framesmith near Loughborough, he made an improvement in the construction
+of the warp-loom, so as to produce mitts of a lace-like appearance by
+means of it. He began business on his own account at Nottingham, but
+finding himself subjected to the intrusion of competing inventors he
+removed to Hathern. There in 1808 he constructed a machine capable of
+producing an exact imitation of real pillow-lace. This was by far the
+most expensive and complex textile apparatus till then existing; and in
+describing the process of his invention Heathcoat said in 1836, "The
+single difficulty of getting the diagonal threads to twist in the
+allotted space was so great that, if now to be done, I should probably
+not attempt its accomplishment." Some time before perfecting his
+invention, which he patented in 1809, he removed to Loughborough, where
+he entered into partnership with Charles Lacy, a Nottingham
+manufacturer; but in 1816 their factory was attacked by the Luddites and
+their 55 lace frames destroyed. The damages were assessed in the King's
+Bench at L10,000; but as Heathcoat declined to expend the money in the
+county of Leicester he never received any part of it. Undaunted by his
+loss, he began at once to construct new and greatly improved machines in
+an unoccupied factory at Tiverton, Devon, propelling them by water-power
+and afterwards by steam. His claim to the invention of the twisting and
+traversing lace machine was disputed, and a patent was taken out by a
+clever workman for a similar machine, which was decided at a trial in
+1816 to be an infringement of Heathcoat's patent. He followed his great
+invention by others of much ability, as, for instance, contrivances for
+ornamenting net while in course of manufacture and for making ribbons
+and platted and twisted net upon his machines, improved yarn
+spinning-frames, and methods for winding raw silk from cocoons. He also
+patented an improved process for extracting and purifying salt. An offer
+of L10,000 was made to him in 1833 for the use of his processes in
+dressing and finishing silk nets, but he allowed the highly profitable
+secret to remain undivulged. In 1832 he patented a steam plough.
+Heathcoat was elected member of parliament for Tiverton in 1832. Though
+he seldom spoke in the House he was constantly engaged on committees,
+where his thorough knowledge of business and sound judgment were highly
+valued. He retained his seat until 1859, and after two years of
+declining health he died on the 18th of January 1861 at Bolham House,
+near Tiverton.
+
+
+
+
+HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT (c. 1651-1733), lord mayor of London, belonged to
+an old Derbyshire family and was educated at Christ's College,
+Cambridge, afterwards becoming a merchant in London. His trading
+ventures were very successful; he was one of the promoters of the new
+East India company and he emerged victorious from a contest between
+himself and the old East India company in 1693; he was also one of the
+founders and first directors of the bank of England. In 1702 he became
+an alderman of the city of London and was knighted; he served as lord
+mayor in 1711, being the last lord mayor to ride on horseback in his
+procession. In 1700 Heathcote was sent to parliament as member for the
+city of London, but he was soon expelled for his share in the
+circulation of some exchequer bills; however, he was again elected for
+the city later in the same year, and he retained his seat until 1710. In
+1714 he was member for Helston, in 1722 for New Lymington, and in 1727
+for St Germans. He was a consistent Whig, and was made a baronet eight
+days before his death. Although extremely rich, Heathcote's meanness is
+referred to by Pope; and it was this trait that accounts largely for his
+unpopularity with the lower classes. He died in London on the 25th of
+January 1733 and was buried at Normanton, Rutland, a residence which he
+had purchased from the Mackworths.
+
+A descendant, Sir Gilbert John Heathcote, Bart. (1795-1867), was created
+Baron Aveland in 1856; and his son Gilbert Henry, who in 1888 inherited
+from his mother the barony of Willoughby de Eresby, became 1st earl of
+Ancaster in 1892.
+
+
+
+
+HEATHEN, a term originally applied to all persons or races who did not
+hold the Jewish or Christian belief, thus including Mahommedans. It is
+now more usually given to polytheistic races, thus excluding
+Mahommedans. The derivation of the word has been much debated. It is
+common to all Germanic languages; cf. German _Heide_, Dutch _heiden_. It
+is usually ascribed to a Gothic _haithi_, heath. In Ulfilas' Gothic
+version of the Bible, the earliest extant literary monument of the
+Germanic languages, the Syrophoenician woman (Mark vii. 26) is called
+_haithno_, where the Vulgate has _gentilis_. "Heathen," i.e. the people
+of the heath or open country, would thus be a translation of the Latin
+_paganus_, pagan, i.e. the people of the _pagus_ or village, applied to
+the dwellers in the country where the worship of the old gods still
+lingered, when the people of the towns were Christians (but see PAGAN
+for a more tenable explanation of that term). On the other hand it has
+been suggested (Prof. S. Bugge, _Indo-German. Forschungen_, v. 178,
+quoted in the _New English Dictionary_) that Ulfilas may have adopted
+the word from the Armenian _hetanos_, i.e. Greek [Greek: ethne], tribes,
+races, the word used for the "Gentiles" in the New Testament. _Gentilis_
+in Latin, properly meaning "tribesman," came to be used of foreigners
+and non-Roman peoples, and was adopted in ecclesiastical usage for the
+non-Christian nations and in the Old Testament for non-Jewish races.
+
+
+
+
+HEATHFIELD, GEORGE AUGUSTUS ELIOTT, BARON (1717-1790), British general,
+a younger son of Sir Gilbert Eliott, Bart., of Stobs, Roxburghshire, was
+born on the 25th of December 1717, and educated abroad for the military
+profession. As a volunteer he fought with the Prussian army in 1735 and
+1736, and then entered the Grenadier Guards. He went through the war of
+the Austrian Succession, and was wounded at Dettingen, rising to be
+lieutenant-colonel in 1754. In 1759 he became colonel of a new regiment
+of light horse (afterwards the 15th Hussars) and became well known for
+the efficiency which it displayed in the subsequent campaigns. He became
+lieutenant-general in 1765. In 1775 he was selected to be governor of
+Gibraltar (q.v.), and it is in connexion with his magnificent defence in
+the great siege of 1779 that his name is famous. His portrait by Sir
+Joshua Reynolds is in the National Gallery. In 1787 he was created Baron
+Heathfield of Gibraltar, but died on the 6th of July 1790. He had
+married in 1748 the heiress of the Drake family, to which Sir Francis
+Drake belonged. His son, the 2nd baron, died in 1813 and the peerage
+became extinct, but the estates went to the family of Eliott-Drake
+(baronetcy of 1821) through his sister.
+
+
+
+
+HEATING. In temperate latitudes the climate is generally such as to
+necessitate in dwellings during a great portion of the year a
+temperature warmer than that out of doors. The object of the art of
+heating is to secure this required warmth with the greatest economy and
+efficiency. For reasons of health it may be assumed that no system of
+heating is advisable which does not provide for a constant renewal of
+the air in the locality warmed, and on this account there is a
+difficulty in treating as separate matters the subjects of heating and
+ventilation, which in practical schemes should be considered conjointly.
+(See VENTILATION).
+
+The object of all heating apparatus is the transference of heat from the
+fire to the various parts of the building it is intended to warm, and
+this transfer may be effected by radiation, by conduction or by
+convection. An open fire acts by radiation; it warms the air in a room
+by first warming the walls, floor, ceiling and articles in the room, and
+these in turn warm the air. Therefore in a room with an open fire the
+air is, as a rule, less heated than the walls. In many forms of
+fireplaces fresh air is brought in and passed around the back and sides
+of the stove before being admitted into the room. A closed stove acts
+mainly by convection; though when heated to a high temperature it gives
+out radiant heat. Windows have a chilling effect on a room, and in
+calculations extra allowance should be made for window areas.
+
+There are a number of methods available for adoption in the heating of
+buildings, but it is a matter of considerable difficulty to suit the
+method of warming to the class of building to be warmed. Heating may be
+effected by one of the following systems, or installations may be so
+arranged as to combine the advantages of more than one method: open
+fires, closed stoves, hot-air apparatus, hot water circulating in pipes
+at low or at high pressure, or steam at high or low pressure.
+
+
+  Open fires.
+
+The open grate still holds favour in England, though in America and on
+the continent of Europe it has been superseded by the closed stove. The
+old form of open fire is certainly wasteful of fuel, and the loss of
+heat up the chimney and by conduction into the brickwork backing of the
+stove is considerable. Great improvements, however, have been effected
+in the design of open fireplaces, and many ingenious contrivances of
+this nature are now in the market which combine efficiency of heating
+with economy of fuel. Unless suitable fresh air inlets are provided,
+this form of stove will cause the room to be draughty, the strong
+current of warm air up the flue drawing cold air in through the crevices
+in the doors and windows. The best form of open fireplace is the
+ventilating stove, in which fresh air is passed around the back and
+sides of the stove before being admitted through convenient openings
+into the room. This has immense advantages over the ordinary type of
+fireplace. The illustrations show two forms of ventilating fireplace,
+one (fig. 1) similar in appearance to the ordinary domestic grate, the
+other (fig. 2) with descending smoke flue suitable for hospitals and
+public rooms, where it might be fixed in the middle of the apartment.
+The fixing of stoves of this kind entails the laying of pipes or ducts
+from the open to convey fresh air to the back of the stove.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+
+  Closed stoves.
+
+With closed stoves much less heat is wasted, and consequently less fuel
+is burned, than with open grates, but they often cause an unpleasant
+sensation of dryness in the air, and the products of combustion also
+escape to some extent, rendering this method of heating not only
+unpleasant but sometimes even dangerous. The method in Great Britain is
+almost entirely confined to places of public assembly, but in America
+and on the continent of Europe it is much used for domestic heating. If
+the flue pipe be carried up a considerable distance inside the apartment
+to be warmed before being turned into the external air, practically the
+whole of the heat generated will be utilized. Charcoal, coke or
+anthracite coal are the fuels generally used in slow combustion heating
+stoves.
+
+
+  Gas fires.
+
+Gas fires, as a substitute for the open coal fire, have many points in
+their favour, for they are conducive to cleanliness, they need but
+little attention, and the heat is easily controlled. On the other hand,
+they may give off unhealthy fumes and produce unpleasant odours. They
+usually take the form of cast iron open stoves fitted with a number of
+Bunsen burners which heat perforated lumps of asbestos. The best form of
+stove is that with which perfect combustion is most nearly attained, and
+to which a pan of water is affixed to supply a desirable humidity to the
+air, the gas having the effect of drying the atmosphere. With another
+form of gas stove coke is used in place of the perforated asbestos; the
+fire is started with the gas, which, when the coke is well alight, may
+be dispensed with, and the fire kept up with coke in the usual way.
+
+
+  Electrical heating.
+
+Electrical heating appliances have only recently passed the experimental
+stage; there is, however, undoubtedly a great future for electric
+heating, and the perfecting of the stove, together with the cheapening
+of the electric current, may be expected to result in many of the other
+stoves and convectors being superseded. Hitherto the large bill for
+electric energy has debarred the general use of electrical heating, in
+spite of its numerous advantages.
+
+
+  Oil stoves.
+
+Oils are powerful fuels, but the high price of refined petroleum, the
+oil generally preferred, precludes its widespread use for many purposes
+for which it is suitable. In small stoves for warming and for cooking,
+petroleum presents some advantages over other fuels, in that there is no
+chimney to sweep, and if well managed no unpleasant fumes, and the
+stoves are easily portable. On the other hand, these stoves need a
+considerable amount of attention in filling, trimming and cleaning, and
+there is some risk of explosion and damage by accidental leaking and
+smoking. Crude or unrefined petroleum needs a special air-spray pressure
+burner for its use, and this suffers from the disadvantage of being
+noisy. Gas and oil radiators would be more properly termed "convectors,"
+since they warm mainly by converted currents. They are similar in
+appearance to a hot-water or steam radiator, and, indeed, some are
+designed to be filled with water and used as such. They should always be
+fitted with a pan of water to supply the necessary humidity to the
+warmed air, and a flue to carry off any disagreeable fumes.
+
+
+  Warm air.
+
+Heating by warmed air, one of the oldest methods in use, has been much
+improved by attention to the construction of the apparatus, and if
+properly installed will give as good effects as it is possible to
+obtain. The system is especially suitable for churches, assembly halls
+and large rooms. A stove of special design is placed in a chamber in the
+basement or cellar, and cold fresh air is passed through it, and led by
+means of flues to the various apartments for distribution by means of
+easily regulated inlet valves. To prevent the atmosphere from becoming
+unduly dry a pan of water is fitted to the stove; this serves to moisten
+the air before it passes into the distributing flues. If each
+distributing flue is connected by means of a mixing valve with a
+cold-air flue, the warmth of the incoming air can be regulated to a
+nicety (see VENTILATION).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+
+  Low pressure hot water.
+
+There are many different systems of heating by hot water circulating in
+pipes. The oldest and best known is the "two pipe" system, others being
+the "one pipe" or "simple circuit," and the "drop" or "overhead." The
+high pressure system is of later invention, having been first put to
+practical use by A. M. Perkins in 1845. All these methods warm chiefly
+by means of convected heat, the amount of true radiation from the pipes
+being small. The manner in which the circulation of hot water takes
+place in the tubes is as follows. Fire heats the water in a boiler from
+the top of which a "flow" pipe communicates with the rooms to be warmed
+(fig. 3). As the water is heated it becomes lighter, rises to the top of
+the boiler, and passes along the flow pipe. It is followed by more and
+more hot water, and so travels along the flow pipe, which is rising all
+the time, to the farthest point of the circuit, by which time it has in
+all probability cooled considerably. From this point the "return" pipe
+drops, usually at the same rate as the flow pipe rises; and in due
+course the water reaches its starting point, the boiler, and is again
+heated and again circulated through the system. The connexion of the
+return pipe is made with the lower part of the boiler. Branches may be
+made from the main pipes by means of smaller pipes arranged in the same
+manner as the mains, the branch flow pipe being connected with the main
+flow pipe and returning into the main return. To obtain a larger heating
+surface than a pipe affords, radiators are connected with the pipes
+where desired, and the water passing through them warms the surrounding
+air.
+
+The "one pipe" system (fig. 4) acts on precisely the same principle, but
+in place of two pipes being placed in adjacent positions one large main
+makes a complete circuit of the area to be warmed, starting from and
+returning to the boiler, and from this main flow and return branches are
+taken and connected with radiators and other heating appliances.
+
+In the "drop" or "overhead" system (fig. 5) a rising main is taken
+directly from the boiler to the topmost floor of the building, and from
+this branches are dropped to the lower floors, and connected by means of
+smaller branches to radiators or coils. The vertical branches descend to
+the basement and generally merge in a single return pipe which is
+connected to the lower part of the boiler.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+The rate of circulation in the ordinary low pressure hot-water system
+may be considerably accelerated by means of steam injections. The water
+after being heated passes into a circulating tank into which steam is
+introduced; this, mixing with the hot water, gives it additional motive
+power, resulting in a faster circulation. This steam condensing adds to
+the water in the pipe and naturally causes an overflow, which is led
+back to the boiler and re-used. In districts where the water is hard,
+this arrangement considerably lengthens the life of the boiler, as the
+same water is used over and over again, and no fresh deposit of fur
+occurs. Owing to the very rapid movement and the consequent increased
+rate of transmission of heat, the pipes and radiators may be reduced in
+size, in many circumstances a very desirable thing to achieve. With this
+system the temperature can be quickly raised and easily controlled. If
+the weather is mild, a moderate heat may be obtained by using the
+apparatus as an ordinary hot water system, and shutting off the steam
+injectors.
+
+The cold-water supply and expansion tank (fig. 3) are often combined in
+one tank placed at a point above the level of circulation. The tank
+should be of a size to hold not less than a twentieth part of the total
+amount of water held in the system. The automatic inlet of cold water to
+the hot water system from the main house tank or other source is
+controlled by a ball valve, which is so fixed as to allow the water to
+rise no more than an inch above the bottom of the tank, thus leaving the
+remainder of the space clear for expansion. An overflow is provided,
+discharging into the open air to allow the water to escape should the
+ball valve become defective.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+
+  High pressure hot water.
+
+The "Perkins" or "small bore high pressure" system (fig. 6) has many
+advantages, for it is safe, the boiler is small and is easily managed,
+the temperature is well under control and may be regulated to suit the
+changing weather, and the small pipes present a neat appearance in a
+room. The whole system is constructed of wrought iron pipe of small
+diameter, strong enough to resist a testing pressure of 2000 to 2500 lb.
+per sq. in. The boiler consists of similar pipe coiled up to form a
+fire-box, inside which the furnace is lighted. The coil is encased with
+firebricks and brickwork, and the smoke from the fire is carried off by
+a flue in the ordinary way. The flow pipe of similar section (usually
+having an internal diameter of about 1 in., the metal being nearly 1/4
+in. thick) continues from the top of the coil, and after travelling
+round the various apartments returns to, and is connected with, the
+lowest part of the boiler coil. The joints take a special form to enable
+them to withstand the great strain to which they are subjected (fig. 7).
+One end of a pipe is finished flat, the end of the other pipe being
+brought to a conical edge. On one end also a right-handed, and on the
+other a left-handed, screw-thread is turned. A coupling collar, tapped
+in the same manner, is screwed on, and causes the conical edge to
+impress itself tightly on the flat end, giving a sound and lasting
+joint. The system is hermetically sealed after being pumped full of
+water, an expansion chamber in the shape of a pipe of larger dimensions
+being provided at the top of the system above the highest point of
+circulation. Upon the application of heat to the fire-box coil the water
+naturally expands and forces its way up into the expansion chamber; but
+there it encounters the pressure of the confined air, and ebullition is
+consequently prevented. Thus at no time can steam form in the system.
+This system is trustworthy and safe in working. The smallness of the
+pipes renders it liable to damage by frost, but this accident may be
+prevented by always keeping in frosty weather a small fire in the
+furnace. If this course is inconvenient, some liquid of low
+freezing-point, such as glycerine, may be mixed with the water.
+
+
+  Steam heating.
+
+For large public buildings, factories, &c., heating by steam is
+generally adopted on account of the rapidity with which heat is
+available, and the great distance from the boiler at which warming is
+effected. In the case of factories the exhaust steam from the engines
+used for driving the working machinery is made use of and forms the most
+economical method of heating possible. There are several different
+systems of heating by steam--low pressure, high pressure and minus
+pressure.
+
+In the low pressure two pipe system the flow pipe is carried to a
+sufficient height directly above the boiler to allow of its gradual fall
+to a little beyond the most distant point at which connexion is to be
+made with the return pipe, which thence slopes towards the boiler.
+Branches are taken off the flow pipe, and after circulating through
+coils or radiators are connected with the return pipe. In a
+well-proportioned system the pressure need not exceed 2 or 3 lb. per sq.
+in. for excellent results to be obtained. The one-pipe system is similar
+in principle, the pipe rising to its greatest height above the boiler
+and being then carried around as a single pipe falling all the while. It
+resembles in many points the one-pipe low pressure hot-water system.
+Radiators are fed directly from the main. Where, as in factories or
+workshops, there are already installed engines working at a high steam
+pressure, say 120 to 180 lb. per sq. in., a portion of the steam
+generated in the boilers may be utilized for heating by the aid of a
+reducing valve. The steam is passed through the valve and emerges at the
+pressure required generally from 3 lb. upwards. It is then used for one
+of the systems described above.
+
+High-pressure steam-heating, compared with the heating by low pressure,
+is little used. The principles are the same as those applied to
+low-pressure work, but all fittings and appliances must, of course, be
+made to stand the higher strain to which they are subjected.
+
+The "minus pressure" steam system, sometimes termed "atmospheric" or
+"vacuum," is of more recent introduction than those just described. It
+is certainly the most scientific method of steam-heating, and heat can
+be made to travel a greater distance by its aid than by any other means.
+The heat of the pipes is great, but can be easily regulated. The system
+is economical in fuel, but needs skilled attendance to keep the
+appliances and fittings in order. The steam is introduced into the pipes
+at about the pressure of the atmosphere, and is sucked through the
+system by means of a vacuum pump, which at the same operation frees the
+pipes from air and from condensation water. This pumping action results
+in an extremely rapid circulation of the heating agent, enabling long
+distances to be traversed without much loss of heat.
+
+Compared with heating by hot water, steam-heating requires less piping,
+which, further, may be of much smaller diameter to attain a similar
+result, because of the higher temperature of the heat yielding surface.
+A drawback to the use of steam is the fact that the high temperature of
+the pipes and radiators attracts and spreads a great deal of dust. There
+is also a risk that woodwork near the pipes may warp and split. The
+apparatus needs constant attention, since neglect in stoking would
+result in stopping the generation of steam, and the whole system would
+almost immediately cool. To regulate the heat it is necessary either to
+instal a number of small radiators or to divide the radiators into
+sections, each section controlled by distinct valves; steam may then be
+admitted to all the sections of the radiator or to any less number of
+sections as desired. In a hot-water system the heat is given off at a
+lower temperature and is consequently more agreeable than that yielded
+by a steam-heating apparatus. The joint most commonly used for hot-water
+pipes is termed the "rust" joint, which is cheap to make, but
+unfortunately is inefficient. The materials required are iron borings,
+sal-ammoniac and sulphur; these are mixed together, moistened with
+water, and rammed into the socket, which is previously half filled with
+yarn, well caulked. The materials mixed with the iron borings cause them
+to rust into a solid mass, and in doing so a slight expansion takes
+place. On this account it is necessary to exercise some skill in forming
+the joint, or the socket of the pipe will be split; numbers of pipes are
+undoubtedly spoilt in this way. Suitable proportions of materials to
+form a rust joint are 90 parts by weight of iron borings well mixed with
+2 parts of flowers of sulphur, and 1 part of powdered sal-ammoniac.
+Another joint, less rigid but sound and durable, is made with yarn and
+white and red lead. The white and red lead are mixed together to form a
+putty, and are filled into the socket alternately with layers of
+well-caulked yarn, starting with yarn and finishing off with the lead
+mixture.
+
+
+  Joints for pipes.
+
+Iron expands when heated to the temperature of boiling water (212 deg.
+F.) about 1 part in 900, that is to say, a pipe 100 ft. long would
+expand or increase in length when heated to this temperature about
+1(1/2) in., an amount which seems small but which would be quite
+sufficient to destroy one or more of the joints if provision were not
+made to prevent damage. The amount of expansion increases as the
+temperature is raised; at 340 deg. F. it is 2(1/2) in. in 100 ft. With
+wrought iron pipes bends may be arranged, as shown in fig. 8, to take up
+this expansion. With cast iron pipe this cannot be done, and no length
+of piping over 40 ft. should be without a proper expansion joint. The
+pipes are best supported on rollers which allow of movement without
+straining the joints.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+There are several joints in general use for the best class of work which
+are formed with the aid of india-rubber rings or collars, any expansion
+being divided amongst the whole number of joints. In the rubber ring
+joint an india-rubber ring is used; slightly less in diameter than the
+pipe. The rubber is circular in section, and about 1/2 in. thick, and is
+stretched on the extreme end of a pipe which is then forced into the
+next socket. This joint is durable, secure and easily made; it allows
+for expansion and by its use the risk of pipe sockets being cracked is
+avoided. It is much used for greenhouse heating works. Richardson's
+patent joint (fig. 9) is a good form of this class of joint. The pipes
+have specially shaped ends between which a rubber collar is placed, the
+joint being held together by clips. The result is very satisfactory and
+will stand heavy water pressure. Messenger's joint (fig. 10) is designed
+to allow more freedom of expansion and at the same time to withstand
+considerable pressure; one loose cast iron collar is used, and another
+is formed as a socket on the end of the pipe itself. One end of each
+pipe is plain, so that it may be cut to any desired length; pipes with
+shaped ends obviously must be obtained in the exact lengths required.
+Jones's expansion joint (fig. 11) is somewhat similar to Messenger's but
+it is not capable of withstanding so great a pressure. In this case both
+collars of cast iron are loose.
+
+
+  Radiators.
+
+Radiators (really convectors) were in their primitive design coils of
+pipe, used to give a larger heating area than the single pipe would
+afford. They are now usually of special design, and may be divided into
+three classes--indirect radiators, direct radiators and direct
+ventilating radiators. Indirect radiators are placed beneath the floor
+of the apartment to be heated and give off heat through a grating. This
+method is frequently adopted in combined schemes of heating and
+ventilating; the fresh air is warmed by being passed over their surfaces
+previously to being admitted through the gratings into the room. Direct
+radiators are a development of the early coil of pipe; they are made in
+various types and designs and are usually of cast iron. Ventilating
+radiators are similar, but have an inlet arrangement at the base to
+allow external air to pass over the heating surface before passing out
+through the perforations. Radiators should not be fixed directly on to
+the main heating pipe, but always on branches of smaller diameter
+leading from the flow pipe to one end of the radiator and back to the
+main return pipe from the other end; they may then be easily controlled
+by a valve placed on the branch from the flow pipe. To each radiator
+should be fitted an air tap, which when opened will permit the escape of
+any air that has accumulated in the coil; otherwise free circulation is
+impossible, and the full benefit of the heat is not obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+  Hot-water supply.
+
+A plentiful supply of hot water is a necessity in every house for
+domestic and hygienic purposes. In small houses all requirements may be
+satisfied with a boiler heated by the kitchen fire. For large buildings
+where large quantities of hot water are used an independent boiler of
+suitable size should be installed. Every installation is made up of a
+boiler or other water heater, a tank or cylinder to contain the water
+when heated, and a cistern of cold water, the supply from which to the
+system is regulated automatically by a ball valve. These containers,
+proportioned to the required supply of hot water, are connected with
+each other by means of pipes, a "flow" and a "return" connecting the
+boiler with the cylinder or tank (fig. 12). The flow pipe starts from
+the top of the boiler and is connected near the top of the cylinder, the
+return pipe joining the lower portions of the cylinder and boiler. The
+supply from the cold water cistern enters the bottom of the cylinder,
+and thence travels by way of the return pipe to the boiler, where it is
+heated, and back through the flow pipe to the cylinder, which is thus
+soon filled with hot water. A flow pipe which serves also for expansion
+is taken from the top of the cylinder to a point above the cold-water
+supply and turned down to prevent the ingress of dirt. From this pipe at
+various points are taken the supply pipes to baths, lavatories, sinks
+and other appliances. It will be observed that in fig. 12 the cylinder
+is placed in proximity to the boiler; this is the usual and most
+effective method, but it may be placed some distance away if desired.
+The tank system is of much earlier date than this cylinder system, and
+although the two resemble each other in many respects, the tank system
+is in practice the less effective. The tank is placed above the level of
+the topmost draw off, and often in a cupboard which it will warm
+sufficiently to permit of its being used as a linen airing closet. An
+expansion pipe is taken from the top of the tank to a point above the
+roof. All draw off services are taken off from the flow pipe which
+connects the boiler with the tank. This method differs from that adopted
+in the cylinder system, where all services are led from the top of the
+cylinder. A suitable proportion between the size of the tank or cylinder
+and that of the boiler is 8 or 10 to 1. Water may also be heated by
+placing a coil of steam or high-pressure hot-water pipes in a water tank
+(fig. 6), the water heated in this way circulating in the manner already
+described. An alternative plan is to pass the water through pipes placed
+in a steam chest.
+
+Cylinders, tanks and independent boilers should be encased in a
+non-conducting material such as silicate cotton, thick felt or asbestos
+composition. The two first mentioned are affixed by means of bands or
+straps or stitched on; the asbestos is laid on in the form of a plaster
+from 2 to 6 in. thick.
+
+Taps to baths and lavatories should be connected to the main services by
+a flow and return pipe so that hot water is constantly flowing past the
+tap, thus enabling hot water to be obtained immediately. Frequently a
+single pipe is led to the tap, but the water in this branch cools and
+must therefore be drawn off before hot water can be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+
+  Boilers.
+
+Two classes of boilers are chiefly used in hot-water heating
+installations, viz. those heated by the fire of the kitchen range, and
+those heated separately or independently. Of the first class there are
+two varieties in common use--a form of "saddle" boiler (fig. 13) and the
+"boot" boiler (fig. 14). Independent boilers are made in every
+conceivable size and form of construction, and many of them are capable
+of doing excellent work. In the choice of a boiler of this description
+it should be remembered that rapid heating, economical combustion of
+fuel, and facilities for cleaning, are requisites, the absence of any of
+which considerably lowers the efficiency of the apparatus. Boilers set
+in brickwork are sometimes used in domestic work, although they are more
+favoured for horticultural heating. The shape mostly used is the
+"saddle" boiler, or some variation upon this very old pattern. The
+coiled pipe fire-box of the high-pressure hot-water system previously
+described may be also classed with boilers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+A notable feature of modern boiler construction is the mode of building
+the apparatus of cast iron in either horizontal or vertical sections.
+Both the types intended to be set in brickwork and those working
+independently are formed on the sectional principle, which has many good
+points. The parts are easy of transport and can be handled without
+difficulty through narrow doorways and in confined situations. The size
+of the boiler may be increased or diminished by the addition or
+subtraction of one or more sections; these, being simple in design, are
+easily fitted together, and should a section become defective it is a
+simple matter to insert a new one in its place. Should a defect occur
+with a wrought iron boiler it is usually necessary for the purpose of
+repair to disconnect and remove the whole apparatus, the heating system
+of which it forms a part being in the meantime useless. In a type built
+with vertical sections each division is complete in itself, and is not
+directly connected with the next section, but communicates with flow and
+return drums. A defective section may thus be left in position and
+stopped off by means of plugs from the drums until it is convenient to
+fit a new one in its place. A boiler with horizontal sections is shown
+in fig. 15; it will be seen that each of the upper sections has a number
+of cross waterways which form a series of gratings over the fire-box and
+intercept most of the heat generated, effecting great economy of fuel.
+
+
+  Safety valves.
+
+In the ordinary working of a hot-water apparatus the expansion pipe
+already referred to will prevent any overdue pressure occurring in the
+boiler; should, however, the pipes become blocked in any way while the
+apparatus is in use, or the water in them become frozen, the lighting of
+the fire would cause the water to expand, and having no outlet it would
+in all probability burst the boiler. To prevent this a safety valve
+should be fitted on the top of the boiler, or be connected thereto with
+a large pipe so as to be visible. The valve may be of the dead weight
+(fig. 16), lever weight, spring (fig. 17) or diaphragm variety. The
+three first named are largely used. In the diaphragm valve a thin piece
+of metal is fixed to an outlet from the boiler, and when a moderate
+pressure is exceeded this gives way, allowing the water and steam to
+escape.
+
+Fusible plugs are little used; they consist of pieces of softer metal
+inserted on the side of the boiler, which melt should the heat of the
+water rise above a certain temperature.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+
+  Geysers.
+
+A "Geyser" is a very convenient form of apparatus for heating a quantity
+of water in a short time. A water pipe of copper or wrought iron is
+passed through a cylinder in which gas or oil heating burners are
+placed. The piping takes a winding or zigzag course, and by the time the
+outlet is reached, the water it contains has reached a high temperature.
+By this means a continuous stream of hot water is obtained, greater or
+smaller in proportion to the size and power of the apparatus. The
+improved types of gas geysers are provided with a single control to both
+gas and water supplies, with a small "pilot" burner to ignite the gas. A
+flue should in all cases be provided to carry off the fumes of the fuel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+
+  Incrustation.
+
+In districts where the water is of a "hard nature," that is, contains
+bicarbonate of lime in solution, the interior of the boiler, cylinders,
+tanks and pipes of a hot water system will become incrusted with a
+deposit of lime which is gradually precipitated as the water is heated
+to boiling point. With "very hard" water this deposit may require
+removal every three months; in London it is usual to clean out the
+boiler every six months and the cylinders and tanks at longer intervals.
+For this purpose manlids must be provided (figs. 13 and 14), and pipes
+should be fitted with removable caps at the bends to allow for
+periodical cleaning. The lime deposit or "fur" is a poor conductor of
+heat, and it is therefore most detrimental to the efficiency of the
+system to allow the interior of the boiler or any other portion to
+become furred up. Further, if not removed, the fur will in a short time
+bring about a fracture in the boiler. The use of soft water entails a
+disadvantage of another character--that of corroding iron and lead work,
+soft water exercising a very vigorous chemical action upon these metals.
+In districts supplied with soft water, copper should be employed to as
+large an extent as possible.
+
+The table given below will be useful in calculating the size of the
+radiating surface necessary to raise the temperature to the extent
+required when the external air is at freezing point (32 deg. Fahr.):--
+
+  +-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+
+  |                         |                 | Cubic Feet of Air heated by |
+  |                         |                 |   1 sq. ft. of Radiator or  |
+  | Description of Building |   Temperature   |        Pipe Surface.        |
+  |      to be heated.      |    required.    +-----------------------------+
+  |                         |                 | Low Pressure | Low Pressure |
+  |                         |                 |  Water.      |    Steam.    |
+  +-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+
+  | Dwelling rooms          | 55 deg.-60 deg. |     85-90    |    115-125   |
+  | Schools                 |     60 deg.     |     90-100   |    120-130   |
+  | Churches and chapels    | 55 deg.-60 deg. |    100-120   |    135-160   |
+  | Offices and shops       | 55 deg.-60 deg. |    120-125   |    160-170   |
+  | Public halls, workshops,|                 |              |              |
+  |   waiting-rooms         |     55 deg.     |    130-150   |    175-200   |
+  | Warehouses, stores      | 50 deg.-55 deg. |    140-160   |    190-220   |
+  +-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+
+
+
+  Steam supply at Lockport.
+
+In closing this account of heating and the practical methods of
+application of heat, an example may be mentioned to show the great
+capabilities of a carefully planned system. At the city of Lockport in
+New York state, America, an interesting example of the direct
+application of steam-heating on a large scale has been carried out under
+the direction of Mr Birdsill Holly of that city. Houses within a radius
+of 3 m. from the boiler house are supplied with superheated steam at a
+pressure of 35 lb. to the in. The mains, the largest of which are 4 in.
+in diameter, and the smallest 2 in., are wrapped in asbestos, felt and
+other non-conducting materials, and are placed in wooden tubes laid
+under ground like water and gas pipes. The house branches pipes are
+1(1/2) in. in diameter, and 3/4-in. pipes are used inside the houses.
+The steam is employed for warming apartments by means of pipe radiators,
+for heating water by steam injections, and for all cooking purposes. The
+steam mains to the houses are laid by the supply company; the internal
+pipes and fittings are paid for or rented by the occupier, costing for
+an installation from L30 for an ordinary eight-roomed house to L100 or
+more for larger buildings. With the success of this undertaking in view
+it is a matter of wonder that the example set in this instance has not
+been adopted to a much greater extent elsewhere.
+
+  The principal publications on heating are: Hood, _Practical Treatise
+  on Warming Buildings by Hot Water_; Baldwin, _Hot Water Heating and
+  Fittings_; Baldwin, _Steam Heating for Buildings_; Billings,
+  _Ventilation and Heating_; Carpenter, _Heating and Ventilating
+  Buildings_; Jones, _Heating by Hot Water_, _Ventilation and Hot Water
+  Supply_; Dye, _Hot Water Supply_.     (J. Bt.)
+
+
+
+
+HEAVEN (O. Eng. _hefen_, _heofon_, _heofone_; this word appears in O.S.
+_hevan_; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. _Himmel_, Dutch _hemel_;
+there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the
+ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the suggestion that it is
+connected with "to heave," in the sense of something "lifted up," is
+erroneous), properly the expanse, taking the appearance of a domed vault
+above the earth, in which the sun, moon, planets and stars seem to be
+placed, the firmament; hence also used, generally in the plural, of the
+space immediately above the earth, the atmospheric region of winds,
+rain, clouds, and of the birds of the air. The heaven and the earth
+together, therefore, to the ancient cosmographers, and still in poetical
+language, make up the universe. In the cosmogonies of many ancient
+peoples there was a plurality of heavens, probably among the earlier
+Hebrews, the idea being elaborated in rabbinical literature, among the
+Babylonians and in Zoroastrianism. The number of these heavens, the
+higher transcending the lower in glory, varied from three to seven.
+Heaven, as in the Hebrew _shamayim_, the Greek [Greek: ouranos], the
+Latin _caelum_, is the abode of God, and as such in Christian
+eschatology is the place of the blessed in the next world (see
+ESCHATOLOGY and PARADISE).
+
+
+
+
+HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1813-1863), German poet and dramatist, was
+born at Wesselburen in Ditmarschen, Holstein, on the 18th of March 1813.
+Though only the son of a poor bricklayer, he early showed a talent for
+poetry, which was first displayed to the world by the publication, in
+the Hamburg _Modezeitung_, of verses which he had sent to Amalie Schoppe
+(1791-1858), a then popular journalist and author of nursery tales.
+Through the kindness of this lady, who interested several of her friends
+on his behalf, he was enabled to go to Hamburg and there prepare himself
+for the university. A year later he went to Heidelberg to study law, but
+finding this uncongenial he passed on to the university of Munich, where
+he devoted himself to philosophy, history and literature. In 1839 Hebbel
+left Munich and wandered back to Hamburg on foot, where he resumed his
+relations with Elsie Lensing, whose self-sacrificing assistance had
+helped him over the darkest days in Munich. In the same year he wrote
+his first tragedy _Judith_ (published 1841), which in the following year
+was performed in Hamburg and Berlin and made his name known throughout
+Germany. In 1840 he wrote the tragedy _Genoveva_, and the following year
+finished a comedy, _Der Diamant_, which he had begun at Munich. In 1842
+he visited Copenhagen, where he obtained from the king of Denmark a
+small travelling studentship, which enabled him to spend some time in
+Paris and two years (1844-1846) in Italy. In Paris he wrote his fine
+"tragedy of common life," _Maria Magdalene_ (1844). On his return from
+Italy Hebbel met at Vienna two Polish noblemen, the brothers Zerboni di
+Sposetti, who in their enthusiasm for his genius urged him to remain,
+and supplied him with the means to mingle in the best intellectual
+society of the Austrian capital. The unwonted life of ease had its
+effect. The old precarious existence became a horror to him, he made a
+deliberate breach with it by marrying (in 1846) the beautiful and
+wealthy actress Christine Enghaus, ruthlessly sacrificing the girl who
+had given up all for him and who remained faithful till her death, on
+the ground that "a man's first duty is to the most powerful force within
+him, that which alone can give him happiness and be of service to the
+world": in his case the poetical faculty, which would have perished "in
+the miserable struggle for existence." This "deadly sin," which, "if
+peace of conscience be the test of action," was, he considered, the best
+act of his life, established his fortunes. Elise, however, still
+provided useful inspiration for his art. As late as 1855, shortly after
+her death, he wrote the little epic _Mutter und Kind_, intended to show
+that the relation of parent and child is the essential factor which
+makes the quality of happiness among all classes and under all
+conditions equal. Long before this Hebbel had become famous. German
+sovereigns bestowed decorations upon him; and in foreign capitals he was
+feted as the greatest of living German dramatists. From the grand-duke
+of Saxe-Weimar he received a flattering invitation to take up his
+residence at Weimar, where several of his plays were first performed. He
+remained, however, at Vienna until his death on the 13th of December
+1863.
+
+Besides the works already mentioned, Hebbel's principal tragedies are
+_Herodes und Mariamne_ (1850); _Julia_ (1851); _Michel Angelo_ (1851);
+_Agnes Bernauer_ (1855); _Gyges und sein Ring_ (1856), and the
+magnificently conceived trilogy _Die Nibelungen_ (1862), his last work
+(consisting of a prologue, _Der gehornte Siegfried_, and the tragedies,
+_Siegfrieds Tod_ and _Kriemhilds Rache_), which won for the author the
+Schiller prize. Of his comedies _Der Diamant_ (1847), _Der Rubin_
+(1850), and the tragi-comedy _Ein Trauerspiel in Sizilien_ (1845), are
+the more important, but they are heavy and hardly rise above mediocrity.
+All his dramatic productions, however, exhibit skill in
+characterization, great glow of passion, and a true feeling for dramatic
+situation; but their poetic effect is frequently marred by extravagances
+which border on the grotesque, and by the introduction of incidents the
+unpleasant character of which is not sufficiently relieved. In many of
+his lyric poems, and especially in _Mutter und Kind_, published in 1859,
+Hebbel showed that his poetic gifts were not restricted to the drama.
+
+  His collected works were first published by E. Kuh (12 vols., Hamburg,
+  1866-1868); revised by H. Krumm (12 vols., Hamburg, 1892). The best
+  critical edition is that by R. M. Werner (12 vols., 1901-1903), to
+  which have been added Hebbel's Diaries (4 vols.) and Correspondence (6
+  vols.). Hebbel's _Briefwechsel mit Freunden und beruhmten
+  Zeitgenossen_ was issued by F. Bamberg (1890-1892). The chief
+  biographies of Hebbel are those by E. Kuh (1877) and R. M. Werner
+  (1905). See also L. A. Frankl, _Zur Biographie F. Hebbels_ (1884); T.
+  Poppe, _F. Hebbel und sein Drama_ (1900); A. Scheunert, _Der
+  Pantragismus als System der Weltanschauung und Asthetik Hebbels_
+  (1903); E. A. Georgy, _Die Tragodie F. Hebbels nach ihrem Ideengehalt_
+  (1904).
+
+
+
+
+HEBBURN, an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary division of
+Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne, 4(1/2) m. below
+Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1881),
+11,802; (1901), 20,901. It has extensive shipbuilding and engineering
+works, rope and sail factories, chemical, colour and cement works, and
+collieries.
+
+
+
+
+HEBDEN BRIDGE, an urban district in the Sowerby parliamentary division
+of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the Calder and Hebden
+rivers, 7 m. W. by N. of Halifax by the Lancashire and Yorkshire
+railway. Pop. (1901), 7536. The town has cotton factories, dye-works,
+foundries and manufactories of shuttles. The upper Calder valley,
+between Halifax and Todmorden, is walled with bold hills, the summits of
+which consist of wild moorland. The vale itself is densely populated,
+but its beauty is not destroyed, and the contrast with its desolate
+surroundings is remarkable.
+
+
+
+
+HEBE, in Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus and Hera, the goddess of
+youth. In the Homeric poems she is the female counterpart of Ganymede,
+and acts as cupbearer to the gods (_Iliad_, iv. 2). She was the special
+attendant of her mother, whose horses she harnessed (_Iliad_, v. 722).
+When Heracles was received amongst the gods, Hebe was bestowed upon him
+in marriage (_Odyssey_, xi. 603). When the custom of the heroic age,
+which permitted female cupbearers, fell into disuse, Hebe was replaced
+by Ganymede in the popular mythology. To account for her retirement from
+her office, it was said that she fell down in the presence of the gods
+while handing the wine, and was so ashamed that she refused to appear
+before them again. Hebe exhibits many striking points of resemblance
+with the pure Greek goddess Aphrodite. She is the daughter of Zeus and
+Hera, Aphrodite of Zeus and Dione; but Dione and Hera are often
+identified. Hebe is called Dia, a regular epithet of Aphrodite; at
+Phlius, a festival called [Greek: Kissotomoi] (the days of ivy-cutting)
+was annually celebrated in her honour (Pausanias, ii. 13); and ivy was
+sacred also to Aphrodite. The apotheosis of Heracles and his marriage
+with Hebe became a favourite subject with poets and painters, and many
+instances occur on vases. In later art she is often represented, like
+Ganymede, caressing the eagle.
+
+  See R. Kekule, _Hebe_ (1867), mainly dealing with the representations
+  of Hebe in art; and P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio's
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquites_.
+
+The meaning of the word Hebe tended to transform the goddess into a mere
+personification of the eternal youth that belongs to the gods, and this
+conception is frequently met with. Then she becomes identical with the
+Roman Juventas, who is simply an abstraction of an attribute of Jupiter
+Juventus, the god of increase and blessing and youth. To Juventas, as
+personifying the eternal youth of the Roman state, a chapel was
+dedicated in very early times in the _cella_ of Minerva in the temple of
+Jupiter Capitolinus. With this temple is connected the legend of
+Juventas and Terminus, who alone of all the gods refused to give way
+when it was being built--an indication of the eternal solidity and youth
+of Rome. The cult of Juventas did not, however, become firmly
+established until the time of the second Punic war. In 218 the Sibylline
+books ordered a lectisternium in honour of Juventas and a supplicatio in
+honour of Hercules, and in 191 a temple was dedicated in her honour in
+the Circus Maximus. In later times Juventas became the personification,
+not of the Roman youth, but of the emperor, who assumed the attributes
+of a god (Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 69; G.
+Wissowa in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_).
+
+
+
+
+HEBEL, JOHANN PETER (1760-1826), German poet and popular writer, was
+born at Basel on the 10th of May 1760. The father dying when the child
+was little over a year old, he was brought up amidst poverty-stricken
+conditions in the village of Hausen in the Wiesental, where he received
+his earliest education. Being of brilliant promise, he found friends who
+enabled him to complete his school education and to study theology
+(1778-1780) at Erlangen. At the end of his university course he was for
+a time a private tutor, then became teacher at the Gymnasium in
+Karlsruhe, and in 1808 was appointed director of the school. He was
+subsequently appointed member of the Consistory and "evangelical
+prelate." He died at Schwetzingen, near Heidelberg, on the 22nd of
+September 1826. Hebel is one of the most widely read of all German
+popular poets and writers. His poetical narratives and lyric poems,
+written in the "Alemanic" dialect, are "popular" in the best sense. His
+_Allemannische Gedichte_ (1803) "bucolicize," in the words of Goethe,
+"the whole world in the most attractive manner" (_verbauert das ganze
+Universum auf die anmutigste Weise_). Indeed, few modern German poets
+surpass him in fidelity, _naivete_, humour, and in the freshness and
+vigour of his descriptions. His poem, _Die Wiese_, has been described by
+Johannes Scherr as the "pearl of German idyllic poetry"; while his prose
+writings, especially the narratives and essays contained in the
+_Schatzkastlein des rheinischen Hausfreundes_ (Tubingen, 1811; new
+edition, Stuttg. 1869, 1888), belong to the best class of German
+stories, and according to August Friedrich Christian Vilmar (1800-1868)
+in his _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_ are "worth more than a
+cartload of novels" (_wiegen ein ganzes Fuder Romane auf_). Memorials
+have been erected to him at Karlsruhe, Basel and Schwetzingen.
+
+  A complete edition of Hebel's works--_Samtliche Werke_--was first
+  published at Stuttgart in 8 vols. (1832-1834); subsequent editions
+  appeared in 1847 (3 vols.), 1868 (2 vols.), 1873 (edited by G. Wendt,
+  2 vols.), 1883-1885 (edited by O. Behaghel, 2 vols.) and 1905 (edited
+  by E. Keller, 5 vols.), as well as innumerable reprints. Hebel's
+  correspondence has been edited by O. Behaghel (1883). See G. Langin,
+  _J. P. Hebel, ein Lebensbild_ (1894), and the introduction to
+  Behaghel's edition.
+
+
+
+
+HEBER, REGINALD (1783-1826), English bishop and hymn-writer, was born at
+Malpas in Cheshire on the 21st of April 1783. His father, who belonged
+to an old Yorkshire family, held a moiety of the living of Malpas.
+Reginald Heber early showed remarkable promise, and was entered in
+November 1800 at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he proved a
+distinguished student, carrying off prizes for a Latin poem entitled
+_Carmen seculare_, an English poem on _Palestine_, and a prose essay on
+_The Sense of Honour_. In November 1804 he was elected a fellow of All
+Souls College; and, after finishing his distinguished university career,
+he made a long tour in Europe. He was admitted to holy orders in 1807,
+and was then presented to the family living of Hodnet in Shropshire. In
+1809 Heber married Amelia, daughter of Dr Shipley, dean of St Asaph. He
+was made prebendary of St Asaph in 1812, appointed Bampton lecturer for
+1815, preacher at Lincoln's Inn in 1822, and bishop of Calcutta in
+January 1823. Before sailing for India he received the degree of D.D.
+from the university of Oxford. In India Bishop Heber laboured
+indefatigably, not only for the good of his own diocese, but for the
+spread of Christianity throughout the East. He undertook numerous tours
+in India, consecrating churches, founding schools and discharging other
+Christian duties. His devotion to his work in a trying climate told
+severely on his health. At Trichinopoly he was seized with an apoplectic
+fit when in his bath, and died on the 3rd of April 1826. A statue of
+him, by Chantrey, was erected at Calcutta.
+
+Heber was a pious man of profound learning, literary taste and great
+practical energy. His fame rests mainly on his hymns, which rank among
+the best in the English language. The following may be instanced: "Lord
+of mercy and of might"; "Brightest and best of the sons of the morning";
+"By cool Siloam's shady rill"; "God, that madest earth and heaven"; "The
+Lord of might from Sinai's brow"; "Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty";
+"From Greenland's icy mountains"; "The Lord will come, the earth shall
+quake"; "The Son of God goes forth to war." Heber's hymns and other
+poems are distinguished by finish of style, pathos and soaring
+aspiration; but they lack originality, and are rather rhetorical than
+poetical in the strict sense.
+
+  Among Heber's works are: _Palestine: a Poem, to which is added the
+  Passage of the Red Sea_ (1809); _Europe: Lines on the Present War_
+  (1809); a volume of poems in 1812; _The Personality and Office of the
+  Christian Comforter asserted and explained_ (being the Bampton
+  Lectures for 1815); _The Whole Works of Bishop Jeremy Taylor, with a
+  Life of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings_
+  (1822); _Hymns written and adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the
+  Year, principally by Bishop Heber_ (1827); _A Journey through India_
+  (1828); _Sermons preached in England_, and _Sermons preached in India_
+  (1829); _Sermons on the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle for every
+  Sunday in the Year_ (1837). _The Poetical Works of Reginald Heber_
+  were collected in 1841.
+
+  See the _Life of Reginald Heber, D.D. ..._, by his widow, Amelia Heber
+  (1830), which also contains a number of Heber's miscellaneous
+  writings; _The Last Days of Bishop Heber_, by Thomas Robinson, A.M.,
+  archdeacon of Madras (1830); T. S. Smyth, The Character and Religious
+  Doctrine of Bishop Heber (1831), and _Memorials of a Quiet Life_, by
+  Augustus J. C. Hare (1874).
+
+
+
+
+HEBER, RICHARD (1773-1833), English book-collector, the half-brother of
+Reginald Heber, was born in London on the 5th of January 1773. As an
+undergraduate at Brasenose College, Oxford, he began to collect a purely
+classical library, but his taste broadening, he became interested in
+early English drama and literature, and began his wonderful collection
+of rare books in these departments. He attended continental book-sales,
+purchasing sometimes single volumes, sometimes whole libraries. Sir
+Walter Scott, whose intimate friend he was, and who dedicated to him the
+sixth canto of _Marmion_, classed Heber's library as "superior to all
+others in the world"; Campbell described him as "the fiercest and
+strongest of all the bibliomaniacs." He did not confine himself to the
+purchase of a single copy of a work which took his fancy. "No
+gentleman," he remarked, "can be without three copies of a book, one for
+show, one for use, and one for borrowers." To such a size did his
+library grow that it over-ran eight houses, some in England, some on the
+Continent. It is estimated to have cost over L100,000, and after his
+death the sale of that part of his collection stored in England realized
+more than L56,000. He is known to have owned 150,000 volumes, and
+probably many more. He possessed extensive landed property in Shropshire
+and Yorkshire, and was sheriff of the former county in 1821, was member
+of Parliament for Oxford University from 1821-1826, and in 1822 was made
+a D.C.L. of that University. He was one of the founders of the Athenaeum
+Club, London. He died in London on the 4th of October 1833.
+
+
+
+
+HEBERDEN, WILLIAM (1710-1801), English physician, was born in London in
+1710. In the end of 1724 he was sent to St John's College, Cambridge,
+where he obtained a fellowship about 1730, became master of arts in
+1732, and took the degree of M.D. in 1739. He remained at Cambridge
+nearly ten years longer practising medicine, and gave an annual course
+of lectures on materia medica. In 1746 he became a fellow of the Royal
+College of Physicians in London; and two years later he settled in
+London, where he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1749, and
+enjoyed an extensive medical practice for more than thirty years. At the
+age of seventy-two he partially retired, spending his summers at a house
+which he had taken at Windsor, but he continued to practise in London
+during the winter for some years longer. In 1778 he was made an honorary
+member of the Paris Royal Society of Medicine. He died in London on the
+17th of May 1801. Heberden, who was a good classical scholar, published
+several papers in the Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society, and among his
+noteworthy contributions to the _Medical Transactions_ (issued, largely
+at his suggestion, by the College of Physicians) were papers on
+chicken-pox (1767) and angina pectoris (1768). His _Commentarii de
+morborum historia et curatione_, the result of careful notes made in his
+pocket-book at the bedside of his patients, were published in 1802; in
+the following year an English translation appeared, believed to be from
+the pen of his son, William Heberden (1767-1845), also a distinguished
+scholar and physician, who attended King George III. in his last
+illness.
+
+
+
+
+HEBERT, EDMOND (1812-1890), French geologist, was born at Villefargau,
+Yonne, on the 12th of June 1812. He was educated at the College de
+Meaux, Auxerre, and at the Ecole Normale in Paris. In 1836 he became
+professor at Meaux, in 1838 demonstrator in chemistry and physics at the
+Ecole Normale, and in 1841 sub-director of studies at that school and
+lecturer on geology. In 1857 the degree of D. es Sc. was conferred upon
+him, and he was appointed professor of geology at the Sorbonne. There he
+was eminently successful as a teacher, and worked with great zeal in the
+field, adding much to the knowledge of the Jurassic and older strata. He
+devoted, however, special attention to the subdivisions of the
+Cretaceous and Tertiary formations in France, and to their correlation
+with the strata in England and in southern Europe. To him we owe the
+first definite arrangement of the Chalk into palaeontological zones (see
+Table in _Geol. Mag._, 1869, p. 200). During his later years he was
+regarded as the leading geologist in France. He was elected a member of
+the Institute in 1877, Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1885, and he
+was three times president of the Geological Society of France. He died
+in Paris on the 4th of April 1890.
+
+
+
+
+HEBERT, JACQUES RENE (1757-1794), French Revolutionist, called "Pere
+Duchesne," from the newspaper he edited, was born at Alencon, on the
+15th of November 1757, where his father, who kept a goldsmith's shop,
+had held some municipal office. His family was ruined, however, by a
+lawsuit while he was still young, and Hebert came to Paris, where in his
+struggle against poverty he endured great hardships; the accusations of
+theft directed against him later by Camille Desmoulins were, however,
+without foundation. In 1790 he attracted attention by some pamphlets,
+and became a prominent member of the club of the Cordeliers in 1791. On
+the 10th of August 1792 he was a member of the revolutionary Commune of
+Paris, and became second substitute of the _procureur_ of the Commune on
+the 2nd of December 1792. His violent attacks on the Girondists led to
+his arrest on the 24th of May 1793, but he was released owing to the
+threatening attitude of the mob. Henceforth very popular, Hebert
+organized with P. G. Chaumette (q.v.) the "worship of Reason," in
+opposition to the theistic cult inaugurated by Robespierre, against whom
+he tried to excite a popular movement. The failure of this brought about
+the arrest of the Hebertists, or _enrages_, as his partisans were
+called. Hebert was guillotined on the 24th of March 1794. His wife, who
+had been a nun, was executed twenty days later. Hebert's influence was
+mainly due to his articles in his journal _Le Pere Duchesne_,[1] which
+appeared from 1790 to 1794. These articles, while not lacking in a
+certain cleverness, were violent and abusive, and purposely couched in
+foul language in order to appeal to the mob.
+
+  See Louis Duval, "Hebert chez lui," in _La Revolution Francaise, revue
+  d'histoire moderne et contemporaine_, t. xii. and t. xiii.; D. Mater,
+  _J. R. Hebert, l'auteur du Pere Duchesne avant la journee du 10 aout
+  1792_ (Bourges, Comm. Hist. du Cher, 1888); F. A. Aulard, _Le Culte de
+  la raison et de l'etre supreme_ (Paris, 1892).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There were several journals of this name, the best known of the
+    others being that edited by Lemaire.
+
+
+
+
+HEBREW LANGUAGE. The name "Hebrew" is derived, through the Greek [Greek:
+Hebraios], from _'ibhray_, the Aramaic equivalent of the Old Testament
+word _'ibhri_, denoting the people who commonly spoke of themselves as
+Israel or Children of Israel from the name of their common ancestor (see
+JEWS). The later derivative _Yisra'eli_, Israelite, from Yisra'el, is
+not found in the Old Testament.[1] Other names used for the language of
+Israel are _speech of Canaan_ (Isa. xix. 18) and _Yehudhith_, Jewish, (2
+Kings xviii. 26). In later times it was called the _holy tongue_. The
+real meaning of the word _'ibhri_ must ultimately be sought in the root
+_'abhar_, to pass across, to go beyond, from which is derived the noun
+_'ebher_, meaning the "farther bank" of a river. The usual explanation
+of the term is that of Jewish tradition that _'ibhri_ means the man
+"from the other side," i.e. either of the Euphrates or the Jordan. Hence
+the Septuagint in Gen. xiv. 13 render Abram _ha-'ibhri_ by [Greek: ho
+perates], the "crosser," and Aquila, following the same tradition, has
+[Greek: ho peraites], the man "from beyond." This view of course implies
+that the term was originally applied to Abram or his descendants by a
+people living on the west of the Euphrates or of the Jordan. It has been
+suggested that the root _'abhar_ is to be taken in the sense of
+"travelling," and that Abram the wandering Aramaean (Deut. xxvi. 5) was
+called _ha-'ibhri_ because he travelled about for trading purposes, his
+language, _'ibhri_, being the _lingua franca_ of Eastern trade. The use
+of the term [Greek: hebraisti] for biblical Hebrew is first found in the
+Greek prologue to Ecclesiasticus (c. 130 B.C.). In the New Testament it
+denotes the native language of Palestine (Aramaic and Hebrew being
+popularly confused) as opposed to Greek. In modern usage the name Hebrew
+is applied to that branch of the northern part of the Semitic family of
+languages which was used by the Israelites during most of the time of
+their national existence in Palestine, and in which nearly all their
+sacred writings are composed. As to its characteristics and relation to
+other languages of the same stock, see SEMITIC LANGUAGES. It also
+includes the later forms of the same language as used by Jewish writers
+after the close of the Canon throughout the middle ages (Rabbinical
+Hebrew) and to the present day (New Hebrew).
+
+Before the rise of comparative philology it was a popular opinion that
+Hebrew was the original speech of mankind, from which all others were
+descended. This belief, derived from the Jews (cf. Pal. Targ. Gen. xi.
+1), was supported by the etymologies and other data supplied by the
+early chapters of Genesis. But though Hebrew possesses a very old
+literature, it is not, as we know it, structurally as early as, e.g.
+Arabic, or, in other words, it does not come so near to that primitive
+Semitic speech which may be pre-supposed as the common parent of all the
+Semitic languages. Owing to the imperfection of the Hebrew alphabet,
+which, like that of most Semitic languages, has no means of expressing
+vowel-sounds, it is only partly possible to trace the development of the
+language. In its earliest form it was no doubt most closely allied to
+the Canaanite or Phoenician stock, to the language of Moab, as revealed
+by the stele of Mesha (c. 850 B.C.), and to Edomite. The vocalization of
+Canaanite, as far as it is known to us, e.g. from glosses in the
+Tell-el-Amarna tablets (15th century B.C.)[2] and much later from the
+Punic passages in the _Poenulus_ of Plautus, differs in many respects
+from that of the Hebrew of the Old Testament, as also does the
+Septuagint transcription of proper names. The uniformity, however, of
+the Old Testament text is due to the labours of successive schools of
+grammarians who elaborated the Massorah (see HEBREW LITERATURE), thereby
+obliterating local or dialectic differences, which undoubtedly existed,
+and establishing the pronunciation current in the synagogues about the
+7th century A.D. The only mention of such differences in the Old
+Testament is in Judges xii. 6, where it is stated that the Ephraimites
+pronounced [Hebrew: sh] (sh) as [Hebrew: s] or [Hebrew: s] (s). In Neh.
+xiii. 24, the "speech of Ashdod" is more probably a distinct
+(Philistine) language. Certain peculiarities in the language of the
+Pentateuch ([Hebrew: hu] for [Hebrew: hi], [Hebrew: naar] for [Hebrew:
+naara]), which used to be regarded as archaisms, are to be explained as
+purely orthographical.[3] In a series of writings, however, extending
+over so long a period as those of the Old Testament, some variation or
+development in language is to be expected apart from the natural
+differences between the poetic (or prophetic) and prose styles. The
+consonantal text sometimes betrays these in spite of the Massorah. In
+general, the later books of the Old Testament show, roughly speaking, a
+greater simplicity and uniformity of style, as well as a tendency to
+Aramaisms. For some centuries after the Exile, the people of Palestine
+must have been bilingual, speaking Aramaic for ordinary purposes, but
+still at least understanding Hebrew. Not that they forgot their own
+tongue in the Captivity and learnt Aramaic in Babylon, as used to be
+supposed. In the western provinces of the Persian empire Aramaic was the
+official language, spoken not only in Palestine but in all the
+surrounding countries, even in Egypt and among Arab tribes such as the
+Nabateans. It is natural, therefore, that it should influence and
+finally supplant Hebrew in popular use, so that translations even of the
+Old Testament eventually appear in it (TARGUMS). Meanwhile Hebrew did
+not become a dead language--indeed it can hardly be said ever to have
+died, since it has continued in use till the present day for the
+purposes of ordinary life among educated Jews in all parts of the world.
+It gradually became a literary rather than a popular tongue, as appears
+from the style of the later books of the Old Testament (Chron., Dan.,
+Eccles.), and from the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus (c. 170 B.C.).
+During the 1st century B.C. and the 1st century A.D. we have no direct
+evidence of its characteristics. After that period there is a great
+development in the language of the Mishna. It was still living Hebrew,
+although mainly confined to the schools, with very clear differences
+from the biblical language. In the Old Testament the range of subjects
+was limited. In the Mishna it was very much extended. Matters relating
+to daily life had to be discussed, and words and phrases were adopted
+from what was no doubt the popular language of an earlier period. A
+great many foreign words were also introduced. The language being no
+longer familiar in the same sense as formerly, greater definiteness of
+expression became necessary in the written style. In order to avoid the
+uncertainty arising from the lack of vowels to distinguish forms
+consisting of the same consonants (for the vowel-points were not yet
+invented), the aramaising use of the reflexive conjugations (Hithpa'el,
+Nithpa'el) for the internal passives (Pu'al, Hoph'al) became common;
+particles were used to express the genitive and other relations, and in
+general there was an endeavour to avoid the obscurities of a purely
+consonantal writing. What is practically Mishnic Hebrew continued to be
+used in Midrash for some centuries. The language of both Talmuds, which,
+roughly speaking, were growing contemporaneously with Midrash, is a
+mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic (Eastern Aram. in the Babylonian, Western
+in the Jerusalem Talmud), as was also that of the earlier commentators.
+As the popular use of Aramaic was gradually restricted by the spread of
+Arabic as the vernacular (from the 7th century onwards), while the
+dispersion of the Jews became wider, biblical Hebrew again came to be
+the natural standard both of East and West. The cultivation of it is
+shown and was no doubt promoted by the many philological works
+(grammars, lexicons and masorah) which are extant from the 10th century
+onward. In Spain, under Moorish dominion, most of the important works of
+that period were composed in Arabic, and the influence of Arabic writers
+both on language and method may be seen in contemporaneous Hebrew
+compositions. No other vernacular (except, of course, Aramaic) ever had
+the same influence upon Hebrew, largely because no other bears so close
+a relation to it. At the present day in the East, and among learned Jews
+elsewhere, Hebrew is still cultivated conversationally, and it is widely
+used for literary purposes. Numerous works on all kinds of subjects are
+produced in various countries, periodicals flourish, and Hebrew is the
+vehicle of correspondence between Jews in all parts of the world.
+Naturally its quality varies with the ability and education of the
+writer. In the modern _pronunciation_ the principal differences are
+between the Ashkenazim (German and Polish Jews) and the Sephardim
+(Spanish and Portuguese Jews), and concern not only the vowels but also
+certain consonants, and in some cases probably go back to early times.
+As regards _writing_, it is most likely that the oldest Hebrew records
+were preserved in some form of cuneiform script. The alphabet (see
+WRITING) subsequently adopted is seen in its earliest form on the stele
+of Mesha, and has been retained, with modifications, by the Samaritans.
+According to Jewish tradition Ezra introduced the Assyrian character
+([Hebrew: ktav ashuri]), a much-debated statement which no doubt means
+that the Aramaic hand in use in Babylonia was adopted by the Jews about
+the 5th century B.C. Another form of the same hand, allowing for
+differences of material, is found in Egyptian Aramaic papyri of the 5th
+and 4th centuries B.C. From this were developed (a) the _square_
+character used in MSS. of the Bible or important texts, and in most
+printed books, (b) the _Rabbinic_ (or Rashi) character, used in
+commentaries and treatises of all kinds, both in MS. and in printed
+books, (c) the _Cursive_ character, used in letters and for informal
+purposes, not as a rule printed. In the present state of Hebrew
+palaeography it is not possible to determine accurately the date of a
+MS., but it is easy to recognize the country in which it was written.
+The most clearly marked distinctions are between Spanish, French,
+German, Italian, Maghrebi, Greek, Syrian (including Egyptian), Yemenite,
+Persian and Qaraite hands. It is in the Rabbinic and Cursive characters
+that the differences are most noticeable. The Hebrew alphabet is also
+used, generally with the addition of some diacritical marks, by Jews to
+write other languages, chiefly Arabic, Spanish, Persian, Greek, Tatar
+(by Qaraites) and in later times German.
+
+The philological study of Hebrew among the Jews is described below,
+under Hebrew Literature, of which it formed an integral part. Among
+Christian scholars there was no independent school of Hebraists before
+the revival of learning. In the Greek and Latin Church the few fathers
+who, like Origen and Jerome, knew something of the language, were wholly
+dependent on their Jewish teachers, and their chief value for us is as
+depositaries of Jewish tradition. Similarly in the East, the Syriac
+version of the Old Testament is largely under the influence of the
+synagogue, and the homilies of Aphraates are a mine of Rabbinic lore. In
+the middle ages some knowledge of Hebrew was preserved in the Church by
+converted Jews and even by non-Jewish scholars, of whom the most notable
+were the Dominican controversialist Raymundus Martini (in his _Pugio
+fidei_) and the Franciscan Nicolaus of Lyra, on whom Luther drew largely
+in his interpretation of Scripture. But there was no tradition of Hebrew
+study apart from the Jews, and in the 15th century when an interest in
+the subject was awakened, only the most ardent zeal could conquer the
+obstacles that lay in the way. Orthodox Jews refused to teach those who
+were not of their faith, and on the other hand many churchmen
+conscientiously believed in the duty of entirely suppressing Jewish
+learning. Even books were to be had only with the greatest difficulty,
+at least north of the Alps. In Italy things were somewhat better. Jews
+expelled from Spain received favour from the popes. Study was
+facilitated by the use of the printing-press, and some of the earliest
+books printed were in Hebrew. The father of Hebrew study among
+Christians was the humanist Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), the author of
+the _Rudimenta Hebraica_ (Pforzheim, 1506), whose contest with the
+converted Jew Pfefferkorn and the Cologne obscurantists, established the
+claim of the new study to recognition by the Church. Interest in the
+subject spread rapidly. Among Reuchlin's own pupils were Melanchthon,
+Oecolampadius and Cellarius, while Sebastian Munster in Heidelberg
+(afterwards professor at Basel), and Buchlein (Fagius) at Isny,
+Strasburg and Cambridge, were pupils of the liberal Jewish scholar Elias
+Levita. France drew teachers from Italy. Santes Pagninus of Lucca was at
+Lyons; and the trilingual college of Francis I. at Paris, with Vatablus
+and le Mercier, attracted, among other foreigners, Giustiniani, bishop
+of Nebbio, the editor of the Genoa psalter of 1516. In Rome the
+converted Jew Felix Pratensis taught under the patronage of Leo X., and
+did useful work in connexion with the great Bomberg Bibles. In Spain
+Hebrew learning was promoted by Cardinal Ximenes, the patron of the
+Complutensian Polyglot. The printers, as J. Froben at Basel and Etienne
+at Paris, also produced Hebrew books. For a time Christian scholars
+still leaned mainly on the Rabbis. But a more independent spirit soon
+arose, of which le Mercier in the 16th, and Drusius early in the 17th
+century, may be taken as representatives. In the 17th century too the
+cognate languages were studied by J. Selden, E. Castell (Heptaglott
+lexicon) and E. Pococke (Arabic) in England, Ludovicus de Dieu in
+Holland, S. Bochart in France, J. Ludolf (Ethiopic) and J. H. Hottinger
+(Syriac) in Germany, with advantage to the Hebrew grammar and lexicon.
+Rabbinic learning moreover was cultivated at Basel by the elder Buxtorf
+who was the author of grammatical works and a lexicon. With the rise of
+criticism Hebrew philology soon became a necessary department of
+theology. Cappellus (d. 1658) followed Levita in maintaining, against
+Buxtorf, the late introduction of the vowel-points, a controversy in
+which the authority of the massoretic text was concerned. He was
+supported by J. Morin and R. Simon in France. In the 18th century in
+Holland A. Schultens and N. W. Schroeder used the comparative method,
+with great success, relying mainly on Arabic. In Germany there was the
+meritorious J. D. Michaelis and in France the brilliant S. de Sacy. In
+the 19th century the greatest name among Hebraists is that of Gesenius,
+at Halle, whose shorter grammar (of Biblical Hebrew) first published in
+1813, is still the standard work, thanks to the ability with which his
+pupil E. Rodiger and recently E. Kautzsch have revised and enlarged it.
+Important work was also done by G. H. A. Ewald, J. Olshausen and P. A.
+de Lagarde, not to mention later scholars who have utilized the valuable
+results of Assyriological research.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the numerous works dealing with the study of
+  Hebrew, the following are some of the most practically useful.
+
+  Grammars, Introductory.--Davidson, _Introductory Hebrew Grammar_ (9th
+  ed., Edinburgh, 1888); and _Syntax_ (Edinburgh, 1894). Advanced:
+  Gesenius's _Hebraische Grammatik_, ed. Kautzsch (28th ed., Leipzig,
+  1909; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1910); also Driver, _Treatise on the Use of
+  the Tenses in Hebrew_ (3rd ed., Oxford, 1892). For post-biblical
+  Hebrew, Strack and Siegfried, _Lehrbuch d. neuhebraischen Sprache_
+  (Leipzig, 1884).
+
+  Comparative Grammar.--Wright, _Lectures on the Comp. Grammar of the
+  Sem. Lang._ (Cambridge, 1890); Brockelmann, _Grundriss der
+  vergleichenden Grammatik_ (Berlin, 1907, &c.).
+
+  Lexicons.--Gesenius's _Thesaurus philologicus_ (Leipzig, 1829-1858),
+  and his _Hebraisches Handworterbuch_ (15th ed. by Zimmern and Buhl,
+  Leipzig, 1910); Brown, Briggs and Driver, _Hebrew and Eng. Lexicon_
+  (Oxford, 1892-1906). For later Hebrew: Levy, _Neuhebraisches
+  Worterbuch_ (Leipzig, 1876-1889); Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumi,
+  &c. (New York, 1886, &c.); Dalman, _Aramaisches neuhebraisches
+  Worterbuch_ (Frankfort a. M., 1897); Kohut, _Aruch completum_ (Vienna,
+  1878-1890) (in Hebrew) is valuable for the language of the Talmud.
+       (A. Cy.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In 2 Sam. xvii. 25 _Israelite_ should be _Ishmaelite_, as in the
+    parallel passage 1 Chron. ii. 17.
+
+  [2] See Zimmern, in _Ztsch. fur Assyriol._ (1891), p. 154.
+
+  [3] See Gesenius-Kautzsch, _Hebr. Gram._ S 17 c.
+
+
+
+
+HEBREW LITERATURE. Properly speaking, "Hebrew Literature" denotes all
+works written in the Hebrew language. In catalogues and bibliographies,
+however, the expression is now generally used, conveniently if
+incorrectly, as synonymous with Jewish literature, including all works
+written by Jews in Hebrew characters, whether the language be Aramaic,
+Arabic or even some vernacular not related to Hebrew.
+
+
+  Old Testament-Scriptures.
+
+The literature begins with, as it is almost entirely based upon, the Old
+Testament. There were no doubt in the earliest times popular songs
+orally transmitted and perhaps books of annals and laws, but except in
+so far as remnants of them are embedded in the biblical books, they have
+entirely disappeared. Thus the Book of the Wars of the Lord is mentioned
+in Num. xxi. 14; the Book of Jashar in Josh. x. 13, 2. Sam. i. 18; the
+Song of the Well is quoted in Num. xxi. 17, 18, and the song of Sihon
+and Moab, ib. 27-30; of Lamech, Gen. iv. 23, 24; of Moses, Exod. xv. As
+in other literatures, these popular elements form the foundation on
+which greater works are gradually built, and it is one function of
+literary criticism to show the way in which the component parts were
+welded into a uniform whole. The traditional view that Moses was the
+author of the Pentateuch in its present form, would make this the
+earliest monument of Hebrew literature. Modern inquiry, however, has
+arrived at other conclusions (see BIBLE, _Old Testament_), which may be
+briefly summarized as follows: the Pentateuch is compiled from various
+documents, the earliest of which is denoted by J (beginning at Gen. ii.
+4) from the fact that its author regularly uses the divine name Jehovah
+(Yahweh). Its date is now usually given as about 800 B.C.[1] In the next
+century the document E was composed, so called from its using Elohim
+(God) instead of Yahweh. Both these documents are considered to have
+originated in the Northern kingdom, Israel, where also in the 8th
+century appeared the prophets Amos and Hosea. To the same period belong
+the book of Micah, the earlier parts of the books of Samuel, of Isaiah
+and of Proverbs, and perhaps some Psalms. In 722 B.C. Samaria was taken
+and the Northern kingdom ceased to exist. Judah suffered also, and it is
+not until a century later that any important literary activity is again
+manifested. The main part of the book of Deuteronomy was "found" shortly
+before 621 B.C. and about the same time appeared the prophets Jeremiah
+and Zephaniah, and perhaps the book of Ruth. A few years later (about
+600) the two Pentateuchal documents J and E were woven together, the
+books of Kings were compiled, the book of Habakkuk and parts of the
+Proverbs were written. Early in the next century Jerusalem was taken by
+Nebuchadrezzar, and the prophet Ezekiel was among the exiles with
+Jehoiachin. Somewhat later (c. 550) the combined document JE was edited
+by a writer under the influence of Deuteronomy, the later parts of the
+books of Samuel were written, parts of Isaiah, the books of Obadiah,
+Haggai, Zechariah and perhaps the later Proverbs. In the exile, but
+probably after 500 B.C., an important section of the Hexateuch, usually
+called the Priest's Code (P), was drawn up. At various times in the same
+century are to be placed the book of Job, the post-exilic parts of
+Isaiah, the books of Joel, Jonah, Malachi and the Song of Songs. The
+Pentateuch (or Hexateuch) was finally completed in its present form at
+some time before 400 B.C. The latest parts of the Old Testament are the
+books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah (c. 330 B.C.), Ecclesiastes and
+Esther (3rd century) and Daniel, composed either in the 3rd century or
+according to some views as late as the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (c.
+168 B.C.). With regard to the date of the Psalms, internal evidence,
+from the nature of the case, leads to few results which are convincing.
+The most reasonable view seems to be that the collection was formed
+gradually and that the process was going on during most of the period
+sketched above.
+
+
+  Apocryphal literature.
+
+  Targum.
+
+It is not to be supposed that all the contents of the Old Testament were
+immediately accepted as sacred, or that they were ever all regarded as
+being on the same level. The Torah, the Law delivered to Moses, held
+among the Jews of the 4th century B.C. as it holds now, a pre-eminent
+position. The inclusion of other books in the Canon was gradual, and was
+effected only after centuries of debate. The Jews have always been,
+however, an intensely literary people, and the books ultimately accepted
+as canonical were only a selection from the literature in existence at
+the beginning of the Christian era. The rejected books receiving little
+attention have mostly either been altogether lost or have survived only
+in translations, as in the case of the Apocrypha. Hence from the
+composition of the latest canonical books to the redaction of the Mishna
+(see below) in the 2nd century A.D., the remains of Hebrew literature
+are very scanty. Of books of this period which are known to have existed
+in Hebrew or Aramaic up to the time of Jerome (and even later) we now
+possess most of the original Hebrew text of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus) in
+a somewhat corrupt form, and fragments of an Aramaic text of a recension
+of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, both discovered within
+recent years. Besides definite works of this kind, there was also being
+formed during this period a large body of exegetical and legal material,
+for the most part orally transmitted, which only received its literary
+form much later. As Hebrew became less familiar to the people, a system
+of translating the text of the Law into the Aramaic vernacular verse by
+verse, was adopted in the synagogue. The beginnings of it are supposed
+to be indicated in Neh. viii. 8. The translation was no doubt originally
+extemporary, and varied with the individual translators, but its form
+gradually became fixed and was ultimately written down. It was called
+_Targum_, from the Aramaic _targem_, to translate. The earliest to be
+thus edited was the Targum of Onkelos (Onqelos), the proselyte, on the
+Law. It received its final form in Babylonia probably in the 3rd century
+A.D. The Samaritan Targum, of about the same date, clearly rests on the
+same tradition. Parallel to Onkelos was another Targum on the Law,
+generally called pseudo-Jonathan, which was edited in the 7th century in
+Palestine, and is based on the same system of interpretation but is
+fuller and closer to the original tradition. There is also a fragmentary
+Targum (Palestinian) the relation of which to the others is obscure. It
+may be only a series of disconnected glosses on Onkelos. For the other
+books, the recognized Targum on the Prophets is that ascribed to
+Jonathan ben Uzziel (4th century?), which originated in Palestine, but
+was edited in Babylonia, so that it has the same history and linguistic
+character as Onkelos. Just as there is a Palestinian Targum on the Law
+parallel to the Babylonian Onkelos, so there is a Palestinian Targum
+(called _Yerushalmi_) on the Prophets parallel to that of Ben Uzziel,
+but of later date and incomplete. The Law and the Prophets being alone
+used in the services of the synagogue, there was no authorized version
+of the rest of the Canon. There are, however, Targumim on the Psalms and
+Job, composed in the 5th century, on Proverbs, resembling the Peshitta
+version, on the five Meghilloth, paraphrastic and agadic (see below) in
+character, and on Chronicles--all Palestinian. There is also a second
+Targum on Esther. There is none on Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah.
+
+
+  Halakhah.
+
+We must now return to the 2nd century. During the period which followed
+the later canonical books, not only was translation, and therefore
+exegesis, cultivated, but even more the amplification of the Law.
+According to Jewish teaching (e.g. Abhoth i. 1) Moses received on Mount
+Sinai not only the written Law as set down in the Pentateuch, but also
+the Oral Law, which he communicated personally to the 70 elders and
+through them by a "chain of tradition" to succeeding ages. The
+application of this oral law is called _Halakhah_, the rules by which a
+man's daily "walk" is regulated. The halakhah was by no means inferior
+in prestige to the written Law. Indeed some teachers even went so far as
+to ascribe a higher value to it, since it comes into closer relation
+with the details of everyday life. It was not independent of the written
+Law, still less could it be in opposition to it. Rather it was
+implicitly contained in the Torah, and the duty of the teacher was to
+show this. It was therefore of the first importance that the chain of
+tradition should be continuous and trustworthy. The line is traced
+through biblical teachers to Ezra, the first of the Sopherim or scribes,
+who handed on the charge to the "men of the Great Synagogue," a
+much-discussed term for a body or succession of teachers inaugurated by
+Ezra. The last member of it, Simon the Just (either Simon I., who died
+about 300 B.C., or Simon II., who died about 200 B.C.), was the first of
+the next series, called Elders, represented in the tradition by _pairs_
+of teachers, ending with Hillel and Shammai about the beginning of the
+Christian era. Their pupils form the starting-point of the next series,
+the Tannaim (from Aram. _tena_ to teach), who occupy the first two
+centuries A.D.
+
+
+  Mishnah.
+
+By this time the collection of halakhic material had become very large
+and various, and after several attempts had been made to reduce it to
+uniformity, a code of oral tradition was finally drawn up in the 2nd
+century by Judah ha-Nasi, called Rabbi _par excellence_. This was the
+Mishnah. Its name is derived from the Hebrew _shanah_, corresponding to
+the Aramaic _tena_, and therefore a suitable name for a tannaitic work,
+meaning the _repetition_ or _teaching_ of the oral law. It is written in
+the Hebrew of the schools (_leshon hakhamim_) which differs in many
+respects from that of the Old Testament (see HEBREW LANGUAGE). It is
+divided into six "orders," according to subject, and each order is
+subdivided into chapters. In making his selection of halakhoth, Rabbi
+used the earlier compilations, which are quoted as "words of Rabbi
+'Aqiba" or of R. Me'ir, but rejected much which was afterwards collected
+under the title of Tosefta (_addition_) and Baraita (_outside_ the
+Mishnah).
+
+
+  Midrash.
+
+Traditional teaching was, however, not confined to halakhah. As observed
+above, it was the duty of the teachers to show the connexion of
+practical rules with the written Law, the more so since the Sadducees
+rejected the authority of the oral law as such. Hence arises Midrash,
+_exposition_, from _darash_ to "investigate" a scriptural passage. Of
+this halakhic Midrash we possess that on Exodus, called Mekhilta, that
+on Leviticus, called Sifra, and that on Numbers and Deuteronomy, called
+Sifre. All of these were drawn up in the period of the Amoraim, the
+order of teachers who succeeded the Tannaim, from the close of the
+Mishnah to about A.D. 500. The term Midrash, however, more commonly
+implies _agada_, i.e. the homiletical exposition of the text, with
+illustrations designed to make it more attractive to the readers or
+hearers. Picturesque teaching of this kind was always popular, and
+specimens of it are familiar in the Gospel discourses. It began, as a
+method, with the Sopherim (though there are traces in the Old Testament
+itself), and was most developed among the Tannaim and Amoraim, rivalling
+even the study of halakhah. As the existing halakhoth were collected and
+edited in the Mishnah, so the much larger agadic material was gathered
+together and arranged in the Midrashim. Apart from the agadic parts of
+the earlier Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre, the most important of these
+collections (which are anonymous) form a sort of continuous commentary
+on various books of the Bible. They were called _Rabboth_ (_great_
+Midrashim) to distinguish them from preceding smaller collections.
+_Bereshith Rabba_, on Genesis, and _Ekhah Rabbati_, on Lamentations,
+were probably edited in the 7th century. Of the same character and of
+about the same date are the _Pesiqta_, on the lessons for Sabbaths and
+feast-days, and _Wayyiqra R._ on Leviticus. A century perhaps later is
+the _Tanhuma_, on the sections of the Pentateuch, and later still the
+_Pesiqta Rabbati_, _Shemoth R._ (on Exodus), _Bemidhbar R._ (on
+Numbers), _Debharim R._ (on Deuteronomy). There are also Midrashim on
+the Canticle, Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and the Psalms, belonging to
+this later period, the _Pirqe R. Eliezer_, of the 8th or 9th century, a
+sort of history of creation and of the patriarchs, and the _Tanna debe
+Eliyahu_ (an ethical work of the 10th century but containing much that
+is old), besides a large number of minor compositions.[2] In general,
+these performed very much the same function as the lives of saints in
+the early and medieval church. Very important for the study of Midrashic
+literature are the _Yalqut (gleaning) Shim'oni_, on the whole Bible, the
+_Yalqut Mekhiri_, on the Prophets, Psalms, Proverbs and Job, and the
+_Midrash ha-gadhol_,[3] all of which are of uncertain but late date and
+preserve earlier material. The last, which is preserved in MSS. from
+Yemen, is especially valuable as representing an independent tradition.
+
+
+  Talmud.
+
+Meanwhile, if agadic exegesis was popular in the centuries following the
+redaction of the Mishna, the study of halakhah was by no means
+neglected. As the discussion of the Law led up to the compilation of the
+Mishnah, so the Mishnah itself became in turn the subject of further
+discussion. The material thus accumulated, both halakhic and agadic,
+forming a commentary on and amplification of the Mishnah, was eventually
+written down under the name of _Gemara_ (from _gemar_, to learn
+completely), the two together forming the _Talmud_ (properly
+"_instruction_"). The tradition, as in the case of the Targums, was
+again twofold; that which had grown up in the Palestinian Schools and
+that of Babylonia. The foundation, however, the Mishnah, was the same in
+both. Both works were due to the Amoraim and were completed by about
+A.D. 500, though the date at which they were actually committed to
+writing is very uncertain. It is probable that notes or selections were
+from time to time written down to help in teaching and learning the
+immense mass of material, in spite of the fact that even in Sherira's
+time (11th century) such aids to memory were not officially recognized.
+Both Talmuds are arranged according to the six orders of the Mishnah,
+but the discussion of the Mishnic text often wanders off into widely
+different topics. Neither is altogether complete. In the Palestinian
+Talmud (_Yerushalmi_) the gemara of the 5th order (_Qodashim_) and of
+nearly all the 6th (_Tohoroth_) is missing, besides smaller parts. In
+the Babylonian Talmud (_Babhli_) there is no gemara to the smaller
+tractates of Order 1, and to parts of ii., iv., v., vi. The language of
+both gemaras is in the main the Aramaic vernacular (western Aramaic in
+Yerushalmi, eastern in Babhli), but early halakhic traditions (e.g. of
+Tannaitic origin) are given in their original form, and the discussion
+of them is usually also in Hebrew. Babhli is not only greater in bulk
+than Yerushalmi, but has also received far greater attention, so that
+the name Talmud alone is often used for it. As being a constant object
+of study numerous commentaries have been written on the Talmud from the
+earliest times till the present. The most important of them for the
+understanding of the gemara (Babhli) is that of Rashi[4] (Solomon ben
+Isaac, d. 1104) with the Tosafoth (_additions_, not to be confused with
+the Tosefta) chiefly by the French school of rabbis following Rashi.
+These are always printed in the editions on the same page as the Mishnah
+and Gemara, the whole, with various other matter, filling generally
+about 12 folio volumes. Since the introduction of printing, the Talmud
+is always cited by the number of the leaf in the first edition (Venice,
+1520, &c.), to which all subsequent editions conform. In order to
+facilitate the practical study of the Talmud, it was natural that
+abridgements of it should be made. Two of these may be mentioned which
+are usually found in the larger editions: that by Isaac Alfasi (i.e. of
+Fez) in the 11th century, often cited in the Jewish manner as _Rif_; and
+that by Asher ben Yehiel (d. 1328) of Toledo, usually cited as _Rabbenu
+Asher_. The object of both was to collect all halakhoth having a
+practical importance, omitting all those which owing to circumstances no
+longer possess more than an academic interest, and excluding the
+discussions on them and all agada. Both add notes and explanations of
+their own, and both have in turn formed the text of commentaries.
+
+
+  Masorah.
+
+With the Talmud, the anonymous period of Hebrew literature may be
+considered to end. Henceforward important works are produced not by
+schools but by particular teachers, who, however, no doubt often
+represent the opinions of a school. There are two branches of work which
+partake of both characters, the Masorah and the Liturgy. The name
+Masorah (Massorah) is usually derived from _masar_, to hand on, and
+explained as "tradition." According to others[5] it is the word found in
+Ezek. xx. 37, meaning a "fetter." Its object was to fix the biblical
+text unalterably. It is generally divided into the Great and the Small
+Masorah, forming together an _apparatus criticus_ which grew up
+gradually in the course of centuries and now accompanies the text in
+most MSS. and printed editions to a greater or less extent. There are
+also separate masoretic treatises. Some system of the kind was necessary
+to guard against corruptions of copyists, while the care bestowed upon
+it no doubt reacted so as to enhance the sanctity ascribed to the text.
+Many apparent puerilities, such as the counting of letters and the
+marking of the middle point of books, had a practical use in enabling
+copyists of MSS. to determine the amount of work done. The registration
+of anomalies, such as the suspended letters, inverted _nuns_ and larger
+letters, enabled any one to test the accuracy of a copy. But the work of
+the Masoretes was much greater than this. Their long lists of the
+occurrences of words and forms fixed with accuracy the present
+(Masoretic) text, which they had produced, and were invaluable to
+subsequent lexicographers, while their system of vowel-points and
+accents not only gives us the pronunciation and manner of reading
+traditional about the 7th century A.D., but frequently serves also the
+purpose of an explanatory commentary. (See further under BIBLE.) Most of
+the Masorah is anonymous, including the _Massekheth Soferim_ (of various
+dates from perhaps the 6th to the 9th century) and the _Okhlah
+we-Okhlah_, but when the period of anonymous literature ceases, there
+appear (in the 10th century) Ben Asher of Tiberias, the greatest
+authority on the subject, and his opponent Ben Naphthali. Later on,
+Jacob ben Hayyim arranged the Masorah for the great Bomberg Bible of
+1524. Elias Levita's _Massoreth ha-Massoreth_ (1538) and Buxtorf's
+_Tiberias_ (1620) are also important.
+
+
+  Liturgy.
+
+We must now turn back to a most difficult subject--the growth of the
+Liturgy. We are not concerned here with indications of the ritual used
+in the Temple. Of the prayer-book as it is at present, the earliest
+parts are the Shema' (Deut. vi. 4, &c.) and the anonymous blessings
+commonly called Shemoneh 'Esreh (the Eighteen), together with certain
+Psalms. (Readings from the Law and the Prophets [Haphtarah] also formed
+part of the service.) To this framework were fitted, from time to time,
+various prayers, and, for festivals especially, numerous hymns. The
+earliest existing codification of the prayer-book is the _Siddur_
+(_order_) drawn up by Amram Gaon of Sura about 850. Half a century later
+the famous Gaon Seadiah, also of Sura, issued his _Siddur_, in which the
+rubrical matter is in Arabic. Besides the _Siddur_, or order for
+Sabbaths and general use, there is the _Mahzor_ (_cycle_) for festivals
+and fasts. In both there are ritual differences according to the
+Sephardic (Spanish), Ashkenazic (German-Polish), Roman (Greek and South
+Italian) and some minor uses, in the later additions to the Liturgy. The
+Mahzor of each rite is also distinguished by hymns (_piyyutim_) composed
+by authors (_payyetanim_) of the district. The most important writers
+are Yoseh ben Yoseh, probably in the 6th century, chiefly known for his
+compositions for the day of Atonement, Eleazar Qalir, the founder of the
+payyetanic style, perhaps in the 7th century, Seadiah, and the Spanish
+school consisting of Joseph ibn Abitur (died in 970), Ibn Gabirol, Isaac
+Gayyath, Moses ben Ezra, Abraham ben Ezra and Judah ha-levi, who will be
+mentioned below; later, Moses ben Nahman and Isaac Luria the
+Kabbalist.[6]
+
+
+  The Geonim.
+
+The order of the Amoraim, which ended with the close of the Talmud (A.D.
+500), was succeeded by that of the Saboraim, who merely continued and
+explained the work of their predecessors, and these again were followed
+by the Geonim, the heads of the schools of Sura and Pumbeditha in
+Babylonia. The office of Gaon lasted for something over 400 years,
+beginning about A.D. 600, and varied in importance according to the
+ability of the holders of it. Individual Geonim produced valuable works
+(of which later), but what is perhaps most important from the point of
+view of the development of Judaism is the literature of their Responsa
+or answers to questions, chiefly on halakhic matters, addressed to them
+from various countries. Some of these were actual decisions of
+particular Geonim; others were an official summary of the discussion of
+the subject by the members of the School. They begin with Mar Rab
+Sheshna (7th century) and continue to Hai Gaon, who died in 1038, and
+are full of historical and literary interest.[7] The She'iltoth
+(_questions_) of Rab Ahai (8th century) also belong probably to the
+school of Pumbeditha, though their author was not Gaon. Besides the
+Responsa, but closely related to them, we have the lesser Halakhoth of
+Yehudai Gaon of Sura (8th century) and the great Halakhoth of Simeon
+Qayyara of Sura (not Gaon) in the 9th century. In a different department
+there is the first Talmud lexicon (_'Arukh_) now lost, by Zemah ben
+Paltoi, Gaon of Pumbeditha in the 9th century. The _Siddur_ of Amram ben
+Sheshna has been already mentioned. All these writers, however, are
+entirely eclipsed by the commanding personality of the most famous of
+the Geonim, SEADIAH ben Joseph (q.v.) of Sura, often called al-Fayyumi
+(of the Fayum in Egypt), one of the greatest representatives of Jewish
+learning of all times, who died in 942. The last three holders of the
+office were also distinguished. Sherira of Pumbeditha (d. 998) was the
+author of the famous "Letter" (in the form of a Responsum to a question
+addressed to him by residents in Kairawan), an historical document of
+the highest value and the foundation of our knowledge of the history of
+tradition. His son Hai, last Gaon of Pumbeditha (d. 1038), a man of wide
+learning, wrote (partly in Arabic) not only numerous Responsa, but also
+treatises on law, commentaries on the Mishnah and the Bible, a lexicon
+called in Arabic _al-Hawi_, and poems such as the _Musar Haskel_, but
+most of them are now lost or known only from translations or quotations.
+Though his teaching was largely directed against superstition, he seems
+to have been inclined to mysticism, and perhaps for this reason various
+kabbalistic works were ascribed to him in later times. His father-in-law
+Samuel ben Hophni, last Gaon of Sura (d. 1034), was a voluminous writer
+on law, translated the Pentateuch into Arabic, commented on much of the
+Bible, and composed an Arabic introduction to the Talmud, of which the
+existing Hebrew introduction (by Samuel the Nagid) is perhaps a
+translation. Most of his works are now lost.
+
+
+  The Karaites.
+
+In the Geonic period there came into prominence the sect of the Karaites
+(_Bene miqra_), "followers of the Scripture", the protestants of
+Judaism, who rejected rabbinical authority, basing their doctrine and
+practice exclusively on the Bible. The sect was founded by 'Anan in the
+8th century, and, after many vicissitudes, still exists. Their
+literature, with which alone we are here concerned, is largely polemical
+and to a great extent deals with grammar and exegesis. Of their first
+important authors, Benjamin al-Nehawendi and Daniel al-Qumisi (both in
+the 9th century), little is preserved. In the 10th century Jacob
+al-Qirqisani wrote his _Kitab al-anwar_, on law, Solomon ben Yeruham
+(against Seadiah) and Yefet ben 'Ali wrote exegetical works; in the 11th
+century Abu'l-faraj Furqan, exegesis, and Yusuf al-Basir against Samuel
+ben Hophni. Most of these wrote in Arabic. In the 12th century and in S.
+Europe, Judah Hadassi composed his _Eshkol ha-Kopher_, a great
+theological compendium in the form of a commentary on the Decalogue.
+Other writers are Aaron (the elder) ben Joseph, 13th century, who wrote
+the commentary _Sepher ha-mibhhar_; Aaron (the younger) of Nicomedia
+(14th century), author of _'Ez Hayyim_, on philosophy, _Gan 'Eden_, on
+law, and the commentary _Kether Torah_; in the 15th century Elijah
+Bashyazi, on law (_Addereth Eliyahu_), and Caleb Efendipoulo, poet and
+theologian; in the 16th century Moses Bashyazi, theologian. From the
+12th century onward the sect gradually declined, being ultimately
+restricted mainly to the Crimea and Lithuania, learning disappeared and
+their literature became merely popular and of little interest. Much of
+it in later times was written in a curious Tatar dialect. Mention need
+only be made further of Isaac of Troki, whose anti-Christian polemic
+_Hizzuq Emunah_ (1593) was translated into English by Moses Mocatta
+under the title of _Faith Strengthened_ (1851); Solomon of Troki, whose
+_Appiryon_, an account of Karaism, was written at the request of
+Pufendorf (about 1700); and Abraham Firkovich, who, in spite of his
+impostures, did much for the literature of his people about the middle
+of the 19th century. (See also QARAITES.)
+
+
+  Medieval scholarship.
+
+To return to the period of the Geonim. While the schools of Babylonia
+were flourishing as the religious head of Judaism, the West, and
+especially Spain under Moorish rule, was becoming the home of Jewish
+scholarship. On the breaking up of the schools many of the fugitives
+fled to the West and helped to promote rabbinical learning there. The
+communities of Fez, Kairawan and N. Africa were in close relation with
+those of Spain, and as early as the beginning of the 9th century Judah
+ben Quraish of Tahort had composed his _Risalah_ (_letter_) to the Jews
+of Fez on grammatical subjects from a comparative point of view, and a
+dictionary now lost. His work was used in the 10th century by Menahem
+ben Saruq, of Cordova, in his _Mahbereth_ (dictionary). Menahem's system
+of bi-literal and uni-literal roots was violently attacked by Dunash ibn
+Labrat, and as violently defended by the author's pupils. Among these
+was Judah Hayyuj of Cordova, the father of modern Hebrew grammar, who
+first established the principle of tri-literal roots. His treatises on
+the verbs, written in Arabic, were translated into Hebrew by Moses
+Giqatilla (11th century), himself a considerable grammarian and
+commentator, and by Ibn Ezra. His system was adopted by Abu'l-walid ibn
+Jannah, of Saragossa (died early in the 11th century), in his lexicon
+(_Kitab al-usul_, in Arabic) and other works. In Italy appeared the
+invaluable Talmud-lexicon (_'Arukh_) by Nathan b. Yehiel, of Rome (d.
+1106), who was indirectly indebted to Babylonian teaching. He does not
+strictly follow the system of Hayyuj. Other works of a different kind
+also originated in Italy about this time: the very popular history of
+the Jews, called _Josippon_ (probably of the 10th or even 9th century),
+ascribed to Joseph ben Gorion (Gorionides)[8]; the medical treatises of
+Shabbethai Donnolo (10th century) and his commentary on the _Sepher
+Yezirah_, the anonymous and earliest Hebrew kabbalistic work ascribed to
+the patriarch Abraham. In North Africa, probably in the 9th century,
+appeared the book known under the name of _Eldad ha-Dani_, giving an
+account of the ten tribes, from which much medieval legend was
+derived;[9] and in Kairawan the medical and philosophical treatises of
+Isaac Israeli, who died in 932.
+
+
+  Exegesis.
+
+The aim of the grammatical studies of the Spanish school was ultimately
+exegesis. This had already been cultivated in the East. In the 9th
+century Hivi of Balkh wrote a rationalistic treatise[10] on difficulties
+in the Bible, which was refuted by Seadiah. The commentaries of the
+Geonim have been mentioned above. The impulse to similar work in the
+West came also from Babylonia. In the 10th century Hushiel, one of four
+prisoners, perhaps from Babylonia, though that is doubtful, was ransomed
+and settled at Kairawan, where he acquired great reputation as a
+Talmudist. His son Hananeel (d. 1050) wrote a commentary on (probably
+all) the Talmud, and one now lost on the Pentateuch. Hananeel's
+contemporary Nissim ben Jacob, of Kairawan, who corresponded with Hai
+Gaon of Pumbeditha as well as with Samuel the Nagid in Spain, likewise
+wrote on the Talmud, and is probably the author of a collection of
+_Ma'asiyyoth_ or edifying stories, besides works now lost. The activity
+in North Africa reacted on Spain. There the most prominent figure was
+that of Samuel ibn Nagdela (or Nagrela), generally known as Samuel the
+Nagid or head of the Jewish settlement, who died in 1055. As vizier to
+the Moorish king at Granada, he was not only a patron of learning, but
+himself a man of wide knowledge and a considerable author. Some of his
+poems are extant, and an Introduction to the Talmud mentioned above. In
+grammar he followed Hayyuj, whose pupil he was. Among others he was the
+patron of Solomon ibn Gabirol (q.v.), the poet and philosopher. To this
+period belong Hafz al-Quti (the Goth?) who made a version of the Psalms
+in Arabic rhyme, and Bahya (more correctly Behai) ibn Paquda, dayyan at
+Saragossa, whose Arabic ethical treatise has always had great popularity
+among the Jews in its Hebrew translation, _Hobhoth ha-lebhabhoth_. He
+also composed liturgical poems. At the end of the 11th century Judah ibn
+Bal'am wrote grammatical works and commentaries (on the Pentateuch,
+Isaiah, &c.) in Arabic; the liturgist Isaac Gayyath (d. in 1089 at
+Cordova) wrote on ritual. Moses Giqatilla has been already mentioned.
+
+
+  Rashi.
+
+The French school of the 11th century was hardly less important. Gershom
+ben Judah, the "Light of the Exile" (d. in 1040 at Mainz), a famous
+Talmudist and commentator, his pupil Jacob ben Yaqar, and Moses of
+Narbonne, called ha-Darshan, the "Exegete," were the forerunners of the
+greatest of all Jewish commentators, Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi), who died
+at Troyes in 1105. Rashi was a pupil of Jacob ben Yaqar, and studied at
+Worms and Mainz. Unlike his contemporaries in Spain, he seems to have
+confined himself wholly to Jewish learning, and to have known nothing of
+Arabic or other languages except his native French. Yet no commentator
+is more valuable or indeed more voluminous, and for the study of the
+Talmud he is even now indispensable. He commented on all the Bible and
+on nearly all the Talmud, has been himself the text of several
+super-commentaries, and has exercised great influence on Christian
+exegesis. The biblical commentary was translated into Latin by
+Breithaupt (Gotha, 1710-1714), that on the Pentateuch rather freely into
+German by L. Dukes (Prag, 1838, in Hebrew-German characters, with the
+text), and parts by others. Closely connected with Rashi, or of his
+school, are Joseph Qara, of Troyes (d. about 1130), the commentator, and
+his teacher Menahem ben Helbo, Jacob ben Me'ir, called Rabbenu Tam (d.
+1171), the most important of the Tosaphists (_v. sup._), and later in
+the 12th century the liberal and rationalizing Joseph Bekhor Shor, and
+Samuel ben Me'ir (d. about 1174) of Ramerupt, commentator and Talmudist.
+
+In the 12th and 13th centuries literature maintained a high level in
+Spain. Abraham bar Hiyya, known to Christian scholars as Abraham Judaeus
+(d. about 1136), was a mathematician, astronomer and philosopher much
+studied in the middle ages. Moses ben Ezra, of Granada (d. about 1140),
+wrote in Arabic a philosophical work based on Greek and Arabic as well
+as Jewish authorities, known by the name of the Hebrew translation as
+_'Arugath ha-bosem_, and the _Kitab al-Mahadarah_, of great value for
+literary history. He is even better known as a poet, for his _Diwan_ and
+the _'Anaq_, and as a hymn-writer. His relative Abraham ben Ezra,
+generally called simply Ibn Ezra,[11] was still more distinguished. He
+was born at Toledo, spent most of his life in travel, wandering even to
+England and to the East, and died in 1167. Yet he contrived to write his
+great commentary on the Pentateuch and other books of the Bible,
+treatises on philosophy (as the _Yesodh mora_), astronomy, mathematics,
+grammar (translation of Hayyuj), besides a Diwan. The man, however, who
+shares with Ibn Gabirol the first place in Jewish poetry is Judah
+Ha-levi, of Toledo, who died in Jerusalem about 1140. His poems, both
+secular and religious, contained in his Diwan and scattered in the
+liturgy, are all in Hebrew, though he employed Arabic metres. In Arabic
+he wrote his philosophical work, called in the Hebrew translation
+_Sepher ha-Kuzari_, a defence of revelation as against non-Jewish
+philosophy and Qaraite doctrine. It shows considerable knowledge of
+Greek and Arabic thought (Avicenna). Joseph ibn Migash (d. 1141 at
+Lucena), a friend of Judah Ha-levi and of Moses ben Ezra, wrote Responsa
+and Hiddushin (_annotations_) on parts of the Talmud. In another sphere
+mention must be made of the travellers Benjamin of Tudela (d. after
+1173), whose Massa'oth are of great value for the history and geography
+of his time, and (though not belonging to Spain) Pethahiah, of
+Regensburg (d. about 1190), who wrote short notes of his journeys.
+Abraham ben David, of Toledo (d. about 1180), in philosophy an
+Aristotelian (through Avicenna) and the precursor of Maimonides, is
+chiefly known for his _Sepher ha-qabbalah_, written as a polemic against
+Karaism, but valuable for the history of tradition.
+
+
+  Maimonides.
+
+  Maimonists and anti-Maimonists.
+
+The greatest of all medieval Jewish scholars was Moses ben Maimon
+(Rambam), called _Maimonides_ by Christians. He was born at Cordova in
+1135, fled with his parents from persecution in 1148, settled at Fez in
+1160, passing there for a Moslem, fled again to Jerusalem in 1165, and
+finally went to Cairo where he died in 1204. He was distinguished in his
+profession as a physician, and wrote a number of medical works in Arabic
+(including a commentary on the aphorisms of Hippocrates), all of which
+were translated into Hebrew, and most of them into Latin, becoming the
+textbooks of Europe in the succeeding centuries. But his fame rests
+mainly on his theological works. Passing over the less important, these
+are the _Moreh Nebhukhim_ (so the Hebrew translation of the Arabic
+original), an endeavour to show philosophically the reasonableness of
+the faith, parts of which, translated into Latin, were studied by the
+Christian schoolmen, and the _Mishneh Torah_, also called _Yad
+hahazaqah_ ([Hebrew: id] = 14, the number of the parts), a classified
+compendium of the Law, written in Hebrew and early translated into
+Arabic. The latter of these, though generally accepted in the East, was
+much opposed in the West, especially at the time by the Talmudist
+Abraham ben David of Posquieres (d. 1198). Maimonides also wrote an
+Arabic commentary on the Mishnah, soon afterwards translated into
+Hebrew, commentaries on parts of the Talmud (now lost), and a treatise
+on Logic. His breadth of view and his Aristotelianism were a
+stumbling-block to the orthodox, and subsequent teachers may be mostly
+classified as Maimonists or anti-Maimonists. Even his friend Joseph ibn
+'Aqnin (d. 1226), author of a philosophical treatise in Arabic and of a
+commentary on the Song of Solomon, found so much difficulty in the new
+views that the _Moreh Nebhukhim_ was written in order to convince him.
+Maimonides' son Abraham (d. 1234), also a great Talmudist, wrote in
+Arabic _Ma'aseh Yerushalmi_, on oaths, and _Kitab al-Kifayah_, theology.
+His grandson David was also an author. A very different person was Moses
+ben Nahman (Ramban) or Nahmanides, who was born at Gerona in 1194 and
+died in Palestine about 1270. His whole tendency was as conservative as
+that of Maimonides was liberal, and like all conservatives he may be
+said to represent a lost though not necessarily a less desirable cause.
+Much of his life was spent in controversy, not only with Christians (in
+1293 before the king of Aragon), but also with his own people and on the
+views of the time. His greatest work is the commentary on the Pentateuch
+in opposition to Maimonides and Ibn Ezra. He had a strong inclination to
+mysticism, but whether certain kabbalistic works are rightly attributed
+to him is doubtful. It is, however, not a mere coincidence that the two
+great kabbalistic textbooks, the _Bahir_ and the _Zohar_ (both meaning
+"brightness"), appear first in the 13th century. If not due to his
+teaching they are at least in sympathy with it. The _Bahir_, a sort of
+outline of the _Zohar_, and traditionally ascribed to Nehunya (1st
+century), is believed by some to be the work of Isaac the Blind ben
+Abraham of Posquieres (d. early in the 13th century), the founder of the
+modern Kabbalah and the author of the names for the 10 Sephiroth. The
+_Zohar_, supposed to be by Simeon ben Yohai (2nd century), is now
+generally attributed to Moses of Leon (d. 1305), who, however, drew his
+material in part from earlier written or traditional sources, such as
+the Sepher Yezirah. At any rate the work was immediately accepted by the
+kabbalists, and has formed the basis of all subsequent study of the
+subject. Though put into the form of a commentary on the Pentateuch, it
+is really an exposition of the kabbalistic view of the universe, and
+incidentally shows considerable acquaintance with the natural science of
+the time. A pupil, though not a follower of Nahmanides, was Solomon
+Adreth (not Addereth), of Barcelona (d. 1310), a prolific writer of
+Talmudic and polemical works (against the Kabbalists and Mahommedans) as
+well as of responsa. He was opposed by Abraham Abulafia (d. about 1291)
+and his pupil Joseph Giqatilla (d. about 1305), the author of numerous
+kabbalistic works. Solomon's pupil Bahya ben Asher, of Saragossa (d.
+1340) was the author of a very popular commentary on the Pentateuch and
+of religious discourses entitled _Kad ha-qemah_, in both of which,
+unlike his teacher, he made large use of the Kabbalah. Other studies,
+however, were not neglected. In the first half of the 13th century,
+Abraham ibn Hasdai, a vigorous supporter of Maimonides, translated (or
+adapted) a large number of philosophical works from Arabic, among them
+being the _Sepher ha-tappuah_, based on Aristotle's _de Anima_, and the
+_Mozene Zedeq_ of Ghazzali on moral philosophy, of both of which the
+originals are lost. Another Maimonist was Shem Tobh ben Joseph Falaquera
+(d. after 1290), philosopher (following Averroes), poet and author of a
+commentary on the Moreh. A curious mixture of mysticism and
+Aristotelianism is seen in Isaac Aboab (about 1300), whose _Menorath
+ha-Ma'or_, a collection of agadoth, attained great popularity and has
+been frequently printed and translated. Somewhat earlier in the 13th
+century lived Judah al-Harizi, who belongs in spirit to the time of Ibn
+Gabirol and Judah ha-levi. He wrote numerous translations, of Galen,
+Aristotle, Hariri, Hunain ben Isaac and Maimonides, as well as several
+original works, a _Sepher 'Anaq_ in imitation of Moses ben Ezra, and
+treatises on grammar and medicine (_Rephuath geviyyah_), but he is best
+known for his _Tahkemoni_, a diwan in the style of Hariri's _Maqamat_.
+
+Meanwhile the literary activity of the Jews in Spain had its effect on
+those of France. The fact that many of the most important works were
+written in Arabic, the vernacular of the Spanish Jews under the Moors,
+which was not understood in France, gave rise to a number of
+translations into Hebrew, chiefly by the family of Ibn Tibbon (or
+Tabbon). The first of them, Judah ibn Tibbon, translated works of Bahya
+ibn Paqudah, Judah ha-levi, Seadiah, Abu'lwalid and Ibn Gabirol, besides
+writing works of his own. He was a native of Granada, but migrated to
+Lunel, where he probably died about 1190. His son Samuel, who died at
+Marseilles about 1230, was equally prolific. He translated the _Moreh
+Nebhukhim_ during the life of the author, and with some help from him,
+so that this may be regarded as the authorized version; Maimonides'
+commentary on the Mishnah tractate _Pirqe Abhoth_, and some minor works;
+treatises of Averroes and other Arabic authors. His original works are
+mostly biblical commentaries and some additional matter on the Moreh.
+His son Moses, who died about the end of the 13th century, translated
+the rest of Maimonides, much of Averroes, the lesser Canon of Avicenna,
+Euclid's _Elements_ (from the Arabic version), Ibn al-Jazzar's
+_Viaticum_, medical works of Hunain ben Isaac (Johannitius) and Razi
+(Rhazes), besides works of less-known Arabic authors. His original works
+are commentaries and perhaps a treatise on immortality. His nephew Jacob
+ben Makhir, of Montpellier (d. about 1304), translated Arabic scientific
+works, such as parts of Averroes and Ghazzali, Arabic versions from the
+Greek, as Euclid's _Data_, Autolycus, Menelaus (Hebrew: Milium) and
+Theodosius on the Sphere, and Ptolemy's _Almagest_. He also compiled
+astronomical tables and a treatise on the quadrant. The great importance
+of these translations is that many of them were afterwards rendered into
+Latin,[12] thus making Arabic and, through it, Greek learning accessible
+to medieval Europe. Another important family about this time is that of
+Qimhi (or Qamhi). It also originated in Spain, where Joseph ben Isaac
+Qimhi was born, who migrated to S. France, probably for the same reason
+which caused the flight of Maimonides, and died there about 1170. He
+wrote on grammar (_Sepher ha-galui_ and _Sepher Zikkaron_), commentaries
+on Proverbs and the Song of Solomon, an apologetic work, _Sepher
+ha-berith_, and a translation of Bahya's _Hobhoth ha-lebhabhoth_. His
+son Moses (d. about 1190) also wrote on grammar and some commentaries,
+wrongly attributed to Ibn Ezra. A younger son, David (Radaq) of Narbonne
+(d. 1235) is the most famous of the name. His great work, the _Mikhlol_,
+consists of a grammar and lexicon; his commentaries on various parts of
+the Bible are admirably luminous, and, in spite of his anti-Christian
+remarks, have been widely used by Christian theologians and largely
+influenced the English authorized version of the Bible. A friend of
+Joseph Qimhi, Jacob ben Me'ir, known as Rabbenu Tam of Ramerupt (d.
+1171), the grandson of Rashi, wrote the _Sepher ha-yashar_ (hiddushin
+and responsa) and was one of the chief Tosaphists. Of the same school
+were Menahem ben Simeon of Posquieres, a commentator, who died about the
+end of the 12th century, and Moses ben Jacob of Coucy (13th century),
+author of the _Semag_ (book of precepts, positive and negative) a very
+popular and valuable halakhic work. A younger contemporary of David
+Qimhi was Abraham ben Isaac Bedersi (i.e. of Beziers), the poet, and
+some time in the 13th century lived Joseph Ezobhi of Perpignan, whose
+ethical poem, _Qe'arath Yoseph_, was translated by Reuchlin and later by
+others. Berachiah,[13] the compiler of the "Fox Fables" (which have much
+in common with the "Ysopet" of Marie de France), is generally thought to
+have lived in Provence in the 13th century, but according to others in
+England in the 12th century. In Germany, Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (d.
+1238), besides being a Talmudist, was an earnest promoter of kabbalistic
+studies. Isaac ben Moses (d. about 1270), who had studied in France,
+wrote the famous _Or Zarua'_ (from which he is often called), an
+halakhic work somewhat resembling Maimonides' _Mishneh Torah_, but more
+diffuse. In the course of his wanderings he settled for a time at
+Wurzburg, where he had as a pupil Me'ir of Rothenburg (d. 1293). The
+latter was a prolific writer of great influence, chiefly known for his
+Responsa, but also for his halakhic treatises, hiddushin and tosaphoth.
+He also composed a number of piyyutim. Me'ir's pupil, Mordecai ben
+Hillel of Nurnberg (d. 1298), had an even greater influence through his
+halakhic work, usually known as the _Mordekhai_. This is a codification
+of halakhoth, based on all the authorities then known, some of them now
+lost. Owing to the fact that the material collected by Mordecai was left
+to his pupils to arrange, the work was current in two recensions, an
+Eastern (in Austria) and a Western (in Germany, France, &c.). In the
+East, Tanhum ben Joseph of Jerusalem was the author of commentaries (not
+to be confounded with the _Midrash Tanhuma_) on many books of the Bible,
+and of an extensive lexicon (_Kitab al-Murshid_) to the Mishnah, all in
+Arabic.
+
+With the 13th century Hebrew literature may be said to have reached the
+limit of its development. Later writers to a large extent used over
+again the materials of their predecessors, while secular works tend to
+be influenced by the surrounding civilization, or even are composed in
+the vernacular languages. From the 14th century onward only the most
+notable names can be mentioned. In Italy Immanuel ben Solomon, of Rome
+(d. about 1330), perhaps the friend and certainly the imitator of Dante,
+wrote his diwan, of which the last part, "Topheth ve-'Eden," is
+suggested by the _Divina Commedia_. In Spain Israel Israeli, of Toledo
+(d. 1326), was a translator and the author of an Arabic work on ritual
+and a commentary on _Pirqe Abhoth_. About the same time Isaac Israeli
+wrote his _Yesodh 'Olam_ and other astronomical works which were much
+studied. Asher ben Jehiel, a pupil of Me'ir of Rothenburg, was the
+author of the popular Talmudic compendium, generally quoted as _Rabbenu
+Asher_, on the lines of Alfasi, besides other halakhic works. He
+migrated from Germany and settled at Toledo, where he died in 1328. His
+son Jacob, of Toledo (d. 1340), was the author of the _Tur_ (or the four
+Turim), a most important manual of Jewish law, serving as an abridgement
+of the _Mishneh Torah_ brought up to date. His pupil David Abudrahim, of
+Seville (d. after 1340), wrote a commentary on the liturgy. Both the
+14th and 15th centuries in Spain were largely taken up with controversy,
+as by Isaac ibn Pulgar (about 1350), and Shem Tobh ibn Shaprut (about
+1380), who translated St Matthew's gospel into Hebrew. In France Jedaiah
+Bedersi, i.e. of Beziers (d. about 1340), wrote poems (_Behinath
+ha-'olam_), commentaries on agada and a defence of Maimonides against
+Solomon Adreth. Levi ben Gershom (d. 1344), called Ralbag, the great
+commentator on the Bible and Talmud, in philosophy a follower of
+Aristotle and Averroes, known to Christians as Leo Hebraeus, wrote also
+many works on halakhah, mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Kaspi, i.e. of
+Largentiere (d. 1340), wrote a large number of treatises on grammar and
+philosophy (mystical), besides commentaries and piyyutim. In the first
+half of the 14th century lived the two translators Qalonymos ben David
+and Qalonymos ben Qalonymos, the latter of whom translated many works of
+Galen and Averroes, and various scientific treatises, besides writing
+original works, e.g. one against Kaspi, and an ethical work entitled
+_Eben Bohan_. At the end of the century Isaac ben Moses, called Profiat
+Duran (Efodi), is chiefly known as an anti-Christian controversialist
+(letter to Me'ir Alguadez), but also wrote on grammar (_Ma'aseh Efod_)
+and a commentary on the Moreh. In philosophy he was an Aristotelian.
+About the same time in Spain controversy was very active. Hasdai Crescas
+(d. 1410) wrote against Christianity and in his _Or Adonai_ against the
+Aristotelianism of the Maimonists. His pupil Joseph Albo in his
+_'Iqqarim_ had the same two objects. On the side of the Maimonists was
+Simeon Duran (d. at Algiers 1444) in his _Magen Abhoth_ and in his
+numerous commentaries. Shem Tobh ibn Shem Tobh, the kabbalist, was a
+strong anti-Maimonist, as was his son Joseph of Castile (d. 1480), a
+commentator with kabbalistic tendencies but versed in Aristotle,
+Averroes and Christian doctrine. Joseph's son Shem Tobh was, on the
+contrary, a follower of Maimonides and the Aristotelians. In other
+subjects, Saadyah ibn Danan, of Granada (d. at Oran after 1473), is
+chiefly important for his grammar and lexicon, in Arabic; Judah ibn
+Verga, of Seville (d. after 1480), was a mathematician and astronomer;
+Solomon ibn Verga, somewhat later, wrote _Shebet Yehudah_, of doubtful
+value historically; Abraham Zakkuth or Zakkuto, of Salamanca (d. after
+1510), astronomer, wrote the _Sepher Yuhasin_, an historical work of
+importance. In Italy, Obadiah Bertinoro (d. about 1500) compiled his
+very useful commentary on the Mishnah, based on those of Rashi and
+Maimonides. His account of his travels and his letters are also of great
+interest. Isaac Abravanel (d. 1508) wrote commentaries (not of the first
+rank) on the Pentateuch and Prophets and on the Moreh, philosophical
+treatises and apologetics, such as the _Yeshu'oth Meshiho_, all of which
+had considerable influence. Elijah Delmedigo, of Crete (d. 1497), a
+strong opponent of Kabbalah, was the author of the philosophical
+treatise _Behinath ha-dath_, but most of his work (on Averroes) was in
+Latin.
+
+
+  Later writers.
+
+The introduction of printing (first dated Hebrew printed book, Rashi,
+Reggio, 1475) gave occasion for a number of scholarly compositors and
+proof-readers, some of whom were also authors, such as Jacob ben Hayyim
+of Tunis (d. about 1530), proof-reader to Bomberg, chiefly known for his
+masoretic work in connexion with the Rabbinic Bible and his introduction
+to it; Elias Levita, of Venice (d. 1549), also proof-reader to Bomberg,
+author of the _Massoreth ha-Massoreth_ and other works on grammar and
+lexicography; and Cornelius Adelkind, who however was not an author. In
+the East, Joseph Karo (Qaro) wrote his _Beth Yoseph_ (Venice, 1550), a
+commentary on the _Tur_, and his _Shulhan 'Arukh_ (Venice, 1564) an
+halakhic work like the _Tur_, which is still a standard authority. The
+influence of non-Jewish methods is seen in the more modern tendency of
+Azariah dei Rossi, who was opposed by Joseph Karo. In his _Me'or
+'Enayim_ (Mantua, 1573) Del Rossi endeavoured to investigate Jewish
+history in a scientific spirit, with the aid of non-Jewish authorities,
+and even criticizes Talmudic and traditional statements. Another
+historian living also in Italy was Joseph ben Joshua, whose _Dibhre
+ha-yamim_ (Venice, 1534) is a sort of history of the world, and his
+_'Emeq ha-bakhah_ an account of Jewish troubles to the year 1575. In
+Germany David Gans wrote on astronomy, and also the historical work
+_Zemah David_ (Prag, 1592). The study of Kabbalah was promoted and the
+practical Kabbalah founded by Isaac Luria in Palestine (d. 1572).
+Numerous works, representing the extreme of mysticism, were published by
+his pupils as the result of his teaching. Foremost among these was
+Hayyim Vital, author of the _'Ez hayyim_, and his son Samuel, who wrote
+an introduction to the Kabbalah, called _Shemoneh She'arim_. To the same
+school belonged Moses Zakkuto, of Mantua (d. 1697), poet and kabbalist.
+Contemporary with Luria and also living at Safed, was Moses Cordovero
+(d. 1570), the kabbalist, whose chief work was the _Pardes Rimmonim_
+(Cracow, 1591). In the 17th century Leon of Modena (d. 1648) wrote his
+_Beth Yehudah_, and probably _Qol Sakhal_, against traditionalism,
+besides many controversial works and commentaries. Joseph Delmedigo, of
+Prag (d. 1655), wrote almost entirely on scientific subjects. Also
+connected with Prag was Yom Tobh Lipmann Heller, a voluminous author,
+best known for the _Tosaphoth Yom Tobh_ on the Mishna (Prag, 1614;
+Cracow, 1643). Another important Talmudist, Shabbethai ben Me'ir, of
+Wilna (d. 1662), commented on the _Shulhan 'Arukh_. In the East, David
+Conforte (d. about 1685) wrote the historical work _Qore ha-doroth_
+(Venice, 1746), using Jewish and other sources; Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah,
+kabbalist and student of Luria, wrote _Qol be-ramah_, a commentary on
+the _Zohar_ and on the liturgy; Abraham Hayekini, kabbalist, chiefly
+remembered as a supporter of the would-be Messiah, Shabbethai Zebhi,
+wrote _Hod Malkuth_ (Constantinople, 1655) and sermons. In the 18th
+century the study of the kabbalah was cultivated by Moses Hayyim
+Luzzatto (d. 1747) and by Elijah ben Solomon, called Gaon, of Wilna (d.
+1797), who commented on the whole Bible and on many Talmudic and
+kabbalistic works. In spite of his own leaning towards mysticism he was
+a strong opponent of the Hasidim, a mystical sect founded by Israel
+Ba'al Shem Tobh (Besht) and promoted by Baer of Meseritz. Elijah's son
+Abraham (d. 1808), the commentator, is valuable for his work on Midrash.
+An historical work which makes an attempt to be scientific, is the
+_Seder ha-doroth_ of Yehiel Heilprin (d. 1746). These, however, belong
+in spirit to the previous century.
+
+
+  Modernizing tendencies.
+
+The characteristic of the 18th and 19th centuries is the endeavour,
+connected with the name of Moses Mendelssohn, to bring Judaism more into
+relation with external learning, and in using the Hebrew language to
+purify and develop it in accordance with the biblical standard. The
+result, while linguistically more uniform and pleasing, often lacks the
+spontaneity of medieval literature. It was Moses Mendelssohn's German
+translation of the Pentateuch (1780-1793) which marked the new spirit,
+while the views of his opponents belong to a bygone age. In fact the
+controversy of which he was the centre may fitly be compared with the
+earlier battles between the Maimonists and anti-Maimonists. One of the
+most remarkable writers of the new Hebrew was Mendelssohn's friend N. H.
+Wessely, of Hamburg (d. 1805), author of _Shire Tiphe'reth_, a long poem
+on the Exodus, _Dibhre Shalom_, a plea for liberalism, _Sepher
+ha-middoth_, on ethics, besides philological works and commentaries. A
+curious combination of new and old was Hayyim Azulai (d. 1807), a
+kabbalist, but also the author of _Shem ha-gedholim_, a valuable
+contribution to literary history.
+
+In the 19th century the modernizing tendency continued to grow, though
+always side by side with a strong conservative opposition, and the most
+prominent names on both sides are those of scholars rather than literary
+men. Among them may be mentioned, Akiba ('Aqibha) Eger (d. 1837),
+Talmudist of the orthodox, conservative school; W. Heidenheim (d. 1832),
+a liberal, and editor of the Pentateuch and Mahzor; N. Krochmal, of
+Galicia (d. 1840), author of _Moreh Nebhukhe ha-zeman_, on Jewish
+history and literature; his son Abraham (d. 1895), conservative
+commentator and philosopher. One consequence of the Mendelssohn movement
+was that many writers used their vernacular language besides or instead
+of Hebrew, or translated from one to the other. Thus Isaac Samuel Reggio
+(d. 1855), a strong liberal, wrote both in Hebrew and Italian; Joseph
+Almanzi, of Padua (d. 1860), a poet, translated Italian poems into
+Hebrew; S. D. Luzzatto, of Padua (d. 1865), a distinguished scholar and
+opponent of the philosophy of Maimonides, wrote much in Italian; M. H.
+Letteris, of Vienna (d. 1871), translated German poems into Hebrew; S.
+Bacher, of Hungary (d. 1891), was a poet and moderate liberal; L. Gordon
+(d. 1892), poet and prose-writer in Hebrew and Russian, of liberal
+views; A. Jellinek, of Vienna (d. 1893), preacher and scholar; Jacob
+Reifmann (d. 1895), scholar, wrote only in Hebrew. The endeavour to
+bring Judaism into relation with the modern world and to change the
+current impressions about Jews by making their teaching accessible to
+the rest of the world, is connected chiefly with the names of Z. Frankel
+(d. 1875), the first Jewish scholar to study the Septuagint; Abraham
+Geiger (d. 1874), critic of the first rank; L. Zunz (d. 1884) and L.
+Dukes (d. 1891), both scholarly investigators of Jewish literary
+history. Their most important works are in German. The question of the
+use of the vernacular or of Hebrew is bound up with the differences
+between the orthodox and the liberal or reform parties, complicated by
+the many problems involved. Patriotic efforts are made to encourage the
+use of Hebrew both for writing and speaking, but the continued existence
+of it as a literary language depends on the direction in which the
+future history of the Jews will develop.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Only the more comprehensive works are mentioned here,
+  omitting those relating to particular authors, and those already
+  cited.
+
+  Introductory: Abrahams, _Short History of Jewish Literature_ (London,
+  1906); Steinschneider, _Jewish Literature_ (London, 1857); Winter and
+  Wunsche, _Die judische Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1893-1895) (containing
+  selections translated into German).
+
+  For further study: Graetz, _Geschichte der Juden_ (Leipzig, 1853, &c.)
+  (the volumes are in various editions), with special reference to the
+  notes; English translation by B. Lowy (London, 1891-1892) (without the
+  notes); Zunz, _Gottesdienstliche Vortrage der Juden_ (new ed.,
+  Frankfort-on-Main, 1892); _Zur Geschichte und Literatur_ (Berlin,
+  1845). The _Synagogale Poesie_ has been mentioned above.
+  Steinschneider, _Arabische Literatur der Juden_ (Frankfort-on-Main,
+  1902); _Hebraische Ubersetzungen des Mittelalters_ (Berlin, 1893).
+
+  On particular authors and subjects there are many excellent monographs
+  in the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_ (New York, 1901-6), to which the present
+  article is much indebted.
+
+  Bibliographies of printed books: Steinschneider, _Catalogus libr.
+  Hebr. in Bibl. Bodleiana_ (Berlin, 1852-1860) (more than a catalogue);
+  Zedner, _Catalogue of the Hebr. Books in the British Museum_ (London,
+  1867; continued by van Straalen, London, 1894). Of manuscripts:
+  Neubauer, _Catal. of the Hebrew MSS. in the Bodleian Library_ (Oxford,
+  1886), vol. ii. by Neubauer and Cowley (Oxford, 1906); G. Margoliouth,
+  _Catal. of the Hebr. ... MSS. in the British Museum_ (London, 1899,
+  &c.). Of both: Benjacob, _Ozar ha-sepharim_ (Wilna, 1880) (in Hebrew;
+  arranged by titles).
+
+  Periodicals: _Jewish Quarterly Review_; _Revue des etudes juives_;
+  _Hebraische Bibliographie_.     (A. Cy.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The dating of these documents is extremely difficult, since it is
+    based entirely on internal evidence. Various scholars, while agreeing
+    on the actual divisions of the text, differ on the question of
+    priority. The dates here given are those which seem to be most
+    generally accepted at the present time. They are not put forward as
+    the result of an independent review of the evidence.
+
+  [2] See especially A. Jellinek's _Bet-ha-Midrasch_ (Leipzig, 1853),
+    for these lesser midrashim.
+
+  [3] That on Genesis was edited for the first time by Schechter
+    (Cambridge, 1902).
+
+  [4] In Hebrew [Hebrew: rashi], from the initial letters of Rabbi
+    Shelomoh Yiz[h.]aqi, a convenient method used by Jewish writers in
+    referring to well-known authors. The name Jarchi, formerly used for
+    Rashi, rests on a misunderstanding.
+
+  [5] So Bacher in _J.Q.R._ iii. 785 sqq.
+
+  [6] For the history of the very extensive literature of this class,
+    Zunz, _Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie_ (Berlin, 1865), is
+    indispensable.
+
+  [7] See the edition of them in Harkavy, _Studien_, iv. (Berlin,
+    1885).
+
+  [8] Two different texts of it exist: (1) in the ed. pr. (Mantua,
+    1476); (2) ed. by Seb. Munster (Basel, 1541). There is also an early
+    Arabic recension, but its relation to the Hebrew and to the Arabic 2
+    Maccabees is still obscure. See _J. Q. R._, xi. 355 sqq. The Hebrew
+    text was edited with a Latin translation by Breithaupt (Gotha, 1707).
+
+  [9] On the various recensions of the text see D. H. Muller in the
+    _Denkschriften_ of the Vienna Academy (_Phil.-hist. Cl._, xli. 1, p.
+    41) and Epstein's ed. (Pressburg, 1891).
+
+  [10] A fragment of such a work, probably emanating from the school of
+    Hivi was found by Schechter and published in _J.Q.R._, xiii. 345 sqq.
+
+  [11] See M. Friedlander in _Publications of the Society of Hebrew
+    Lit._, 1st ser. vol. i., and 2nd ser. vol. iv.
+
+  [12] The fullest account of them is to be found in Steinschneider's
+    _Hebraische Ubersetzungen des Mittelalters_ (Berlin, 1893).
+
+  [13] See H. Gollancz, _The Ethical Treatises of Berachya_ (London,
+    1902).
+
+
+
+
+HEBREW RELIGION (1) _Introductory._--To trace the history of the
+religion of the Hebrews is a complex task, because the literary sources
+from which our knowledge of that history is derived are themselves
+complex and replete with problems as to age and authorship, some of
+which have been solved according to the consensus of nearly all the best
+scholars, but some of which still await solution or are matters of
+dispute. Even if the analysis of the literature into component documents
+were complete, we should still possess a most imperfect record, since
+the documents themselves have passed through many redactions, and these
+redactions have proceeded from varying standpoints of religious
+tradition, successively eliminating or modifying certain elements deemed
+inconsistent with the canons of religious usage or propriety which
+prevailed in the age when the redaction took place. Lastly it should be
+recollected that the entire body of the fragments of tradition and
+literature belonging to _northern_ Israel has come down to us through
+the channel of _Judaean_ recensions.
+
+The influence of the Deuteronomic tradition in redaction is seen in such
+passages as Genesis xxxiii. 20 (cf. xxxi. 45 fol.); Josh. iv. 9-20,
+xxiv. 26 fol.; 1 Sam. vii. 12, where the _massebhah_ or stone symbol of
+deity (forbidden in Deut. xii. 3, xvi. 22) is in some way got rid of (in
+Gen. xxxiii. 20 the word "altar" in Hebrew is substituted). Similarly in
+Gen. xiii. 18, xiv. 13, xviii. 1, the Septuagint shows that the singular
+form "terebinth" stood in the original text. But the Massoretes altered
+this to the plural as this form was less suggestive of tree-worship (see
+Smend, _A. Tliche Religionsgesch_. i. p. 134, footnote 1; Nowack, _Heb.
+Archaol._ p. 12, footnote 1). Many other examples might be cited, as the
+"suspended _nun_" which transforms the pronunciation of the original
+Mosheh (Moses) into Menashsheh (Manasseh) owing to the irregular
+practices of his descendant, Jonathan ben Gershom (Jud. xviii. 30). It
+is not improbable that in 2 Kings iii. 27 the words "from Kemosh" stood
+after "great wrath" in the original document, as the phraseology seems
+bald without them, and the motives for their suppression are obvious.
+
+So far as concerns the critical problems which stand at the threshold of
+our task, it must suffice to say that the main conclusions reached by
+the school of Kuenen and Wellhausen as to the literary problems of the
+Old Testament are assumed throughout this sketch of the evolution of
+Hebrew religion. The documents underlying the Pentateuch and book of
+Joshua, represented by the ciphers J, E, D and P, are assumed to have
+been drawn up in the chronological order in which those ciphers are here
+set down, and the period of their composition extends from the 9th
+century B.C., in which the earlier portions of J were written, to the
+5th century B.C., in which P finally took shape. The view of Professor
+Dillmann, who placed P before D in the regal period (though he admitted
+exilic and post-exilic additions in Exod., Levit. and Numb.), a view
+which he maintained in his commentary on Genesis (edition of 1892), has
+now been abandoned by nearly all scholars of repute. In the following
+pages we shall not attempt to do more than to sketch in very succinct
+outline the general results of investigation into the origins and growth
+of Hebrew religion.
+
+2. _Pre-Mosaic Religion._--Can any clear indications be found to guide
+us as to the religion of the Hebrew clans before the time of Moses? That
+Moses united the scattered tribes, probably consisting at first mainly
+of the Josephite, under the common worship of Yahweh, and that upon the
+religion of Yahweh a distinctly ethical character was impressed, is
+generally recognized. The tradition of the earliest document J ascribes
+the worship of Yahweh to much earlier times, in fact to the dawn of
+human life. A close survey of the facts, however, would lead us to
+regard it as probable that some at least of the Hebrew clans had
+patron-deities of their own.
+
+(a) Both Moab and Ammon as well as Edom had their separate tribal
+deities, viz. Chemosh (Moab) and Milk (Milcom), the god of Ammon, and in
+the case of Edom a deity known from the inscriptions as Kos (in Assyrian
+Kaus).[1] From the patriarchal narratives and genealogies in Genesis we
+infer that these races were closely allied to Israel. That in early
+pre-Mosaic times parallel cults existed among the various Hebrew tribes
+is by no means improbable. It would be reasonable to assume that Moab,
+Ammon, Edom and kindred tribes of Israel in the 15th and preceding
+centuries were included in the generic term Habiri (or Hebrews)
+mentioned in the Tell el-Amarna inscriptions as forming predatory bands
+that disturbed the security of the Canaanite dwellers west of the
+Jordan. Lastly pre-Mosaic polytheism seems to be implied in the Mosaic
+prohibition Ex. xx. 3, xxii. 20.
+
+(b) The tribal names Gad and Asher are suggestive of the worship of a
+deity of fortune (Gad) and of the male counterpart of the goddess,
+Asherah. Under the name Shaddai (which Noldeke suggests[2] was
+originally Shedi "my demon") it is possible to discern the name of a
+deity who in later times came to be identified with Yahweh. On the other
+hand, the connexion of the name Samson with sun-worship throws light on
+the period of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan and not on pre-Mosaic
+times. Nor is it possible to agree with Baudissin (_Studien zur semit.
+Religionsgesch._ i. 55) that Elohim as a plural form for the name of the
+Hebrew deity "can hardly be understood otherwise than as a comprehensive
+expression for the multitude of gods embraced in the One God of Old
+Testament religion," in other words that it presupposes an original
+polytheism. For (1) Elohim is also applied in Judges xi. 24 to the
+Moabite Chemosh (Kemosh); in 1 Sam. v. 7 to Dagon; in 1 Kings xi. 5 to
+Ashtoreth; in 2 Kings i. 2, iii. 6, 16 to Ba'al Zebul of Ekron. (2) It
+is merely a plural of dignity (_pluralis majestatis_) parallel to
+_adonim_ (applied to a king in 1 Kings xviii. 8, whereas in the previous
+verse the _singular_ form _adoni_ is applied to the prophet Elijah). (3)
+The Tell el-Amarna inscriptions indicate that the term _Elohim_ might
+even be applied in abject homage to an Egyptian monarch as the use of
+the term _ilani_ in this connexion obviously implies.[3]
+
+The religion of the Arabian tribes in the days of Mahomet, of which a
+picture is presented to us by Wellhausen in his _Remains of Arabic
+Heathendom_, furnishes some suggestive indications of the religion that
+prevailed in nomadic Israel before as well as during the lifetime of
+Moses. It is true that Arabian polytheism in the time of Mahomet was in
+a state of decay. Nevertheless the life of the desert changes but
+slowly. We may therefore infer that ancient Israel during the period
+when they inhabited the _negebh_ (S. of Canaan) stood in awe of the
+demons (Jinn) of the desert, just as the Arabs at the present day
+described in Doughty's _Arabia deserta_. We know that diseases were
+attributed by the Israelites to malignant demons which they, like the
+Arabs, identified with serpents. The counterspell took the form of a
+bronze image of the serpent-demon; see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, ii. 426;
+and I Sam. v. 6, vi. 4, 5 (LXX. and Heb.) as well as Buchanan Gray's
+instructive note in _Numbers_, p. 276. The slaughter of a lamb at the
+Passover or Easter season, whose blood was smeared on the door-post, as
+described in Ex. xii. 21-23, probably points back to an immemorial
+custom. In this case the counterspell assumed a different form.
+Westermarck has shown from his observations in Morocco that the blood of
+the victim was considered to visit a curse upon the object to whom the
+sacrifice is offered and thereby the latter is made amenable to the
+sacrificer.[4] It is hardly possible to doubt that in the original form
+of the rite described in Exodus the blood offering was made to the
+plague demon ("the destroyer") and possessed over him a magic power of
+arrest.
+
+It is therefore certain that belief in demons and magic spells prevailed
+in pre-Mosaic times[5] among the Israelite clans. And it is also
+probable that certain persons combined in their own individuality the
+functions of magician and sacrificer as well as soothsayer. For we know
+that in Arabic the _Kahin_, or soothsayer, is the same participial form
+that we meet with in the Hebrew _Kohen_, or priest, and in the early
+period of Hebrew history (e.g. in the days of Saul and David) it was the
+priest with the ephod or image of Yahweh who gave answers to those who
+consulted him. How far _totemism_, or belief in deified animal
+ancestors, existed in prehistoric Israel, as evidenced by the tribal
+names Simeon (hyena, wolf), Caleb (dog), Hamor (ass), Rahel (ewe) and
+Leah (wild cow), &c.,[6] as well as by the laws respecting clean and
+unclean animals, is too intricate and speculative a problem to be
+discussed here. That the food-taboo against eating the flesh of a
+particular animal would prevail in the clan of which that animal was the
+deified totem-ancestor is obvious, and it would be a plausible theory to
+hold that the laws in question arose when the Israelite tribes were to
+be consolidated into a national unity (i.e. in the time of David and
+Solomon), but the application of this theory to the list of unclean
+foods in Deut. xiv. (Lev. xi.) seems to present insuperable
+difficulties. In fact, while Robertson Smith (in _Kinship and Marriage
+in Early Arabia_, as well as his _Religion of the Semites_, followed by
+Stade and Benzinger) strongly advocated the view that clear traces of
+totemism can be found in early Israel, later writers, such as Marti,
+_Gesch. der israelit. Religion_, 4th ed., p. 24, Kautzsch in his
+_Religion of Israel_ already cited, p. 613, and recently Addis in his
+_Hebrew Religion_, p. 33 foll., have abandoned the theory as applied to
+Israel.[7] On the other hand, the evidence for the existence of
+ancestor-worship in primitive Israel cannot be so easily disposed of as
+Kautzsch (_ibid._ p. 615) appears to think. We have examples (1 Sam.
+xxviii. 13) in which _Elohim_ is the term which is applied to departed
+spirits. Oracles were received from them (Isa. viii. 19, xxviii. 15, 18;
+Deut. xviii. 10 foll.). At the graves of national heroes or ancestors
+worship was paid. In Gen. xxxv. 20 we read that a _massebah_ or sacred
+pillar was erected at Rahel's tomb. That the Teraphim, which we know to
+have resembled the human form (1 Sam. xix. 13, 16), were ancestral
+images is a reasonable theory. That they were employed in divination is
+consonant with the facts already noted. Lastly, the rite of circumcision
+(q.v.), which the Hebrews practised in common with their Semitic
+neighbours as well as the Egyptians, belonged to ages long anterior to
+the time of Moses. This is a fact which has long been recognized: cf.
+Gen. xvii. 10 foll., Herod. ii. 104, and Barton, _Semitic Origins_, pp.
+98-100. Probably the custom was of African origin, and came from eastern
+Africa along with the Semitic race. Respecting Arabia, see Doughty,
+_Arabia deserta_, i. 340 foll.
+
+It is necessary here to advert to a subject much debated during recent
+years, viz. the effects of Babylonian culture in western Asia on Israel
+and Israel's religion in early times even preceding the advent of Moses.
+The great influence exercised by Babylonian culture over Palestine
+between 2000 and 1400 B.C. (_circa_), which has been clearly revealed to
+us since 1887 by the discovery of the Tell el Amarna tablets, is now
+universally acknowledged. The subsequent discovery of a document written
+in Babylonian cuneiform at Lachish (Tell el Hesy), and more recently
+still of another in the excavations at Ta'annek, have established the
+fact beyond all dispute. The last discovery had tended to confirm the
+views of Fried. Delitzsch, Jeremias (_Monotheistische Stromungen_) and
+Baentsch, that monotheistic tendencies are to be found in the midst of
+Babylonian polytheism. Page Renouf, in his Hibbert lectures, _Origin and
+Growth of Religion as illustrated by that of Ancient Egypt_ (1879), p.
+89 foll., pointed out this monotheistic tendency in Egyptian religion,
+as did de Rouge before him. Baentsch draws attention to this feature in
+his monograph _Altorientalischer u. israelitischer Monotheismus_ (1906).
+This tendency, however, he, unlike the earlier conservative writers,
+rightly considers to have emerged out of polytheism. He ventures into a
+more disputable region when he penetrates into the obscure realm of the
+Abrahamic migration and finds in the Abrahamic traditions of Genesis the
+higher Canaanite monotheistic tendencies evolved out of Babylonian
+astral religion, and reflected in the name El 'Elyon (Gen. xiv. 18, 22).
+Further discoveries like Sellin's find at Ta'annek may elucidate the
+problem. See Baudissin in _Theolog. lit. Zeitung_ (27th October 1906).
+
+3. _The Era of Moses._--We are now on safer ground though still obscure.
+Moses was the first historic individuality who can be said to have
+welded the Israelite clans into a whole. This could never have been
+accomplished without unity of worship. The object of this worship was
+Yahweh. As we have already indicated, the document J assumes that Yahweh
+was worshipped by the Hebrew race from the first. On the other hand,
+according to P (Ex. vi. 2), God spake to Moses and said to him: "I am
+Yahweh. But I appeared to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as El Shaddai and by
+my name Yahweh I did not make myself known to them." According to this
+later tradition Yahweh was unknown till the days of Moses, and under the
+aegis of His power the Hebrew tribes were delivered from Egyptian
+thraldom. The truth probably lies somewhere between these two sharply
+contrasted traditions. So much is clear. Yahweh now becomes the supreme
+deity of the Hebrew people, and an ark analogous to the Egyptian and
+Babylonian arks portrayed on the monuments[8] was constructed as
+embodiment of the _numen_ of Yahweh and was borne in front of the Hebrew
+army when it marched to war. It was the signal victory won by Moses at
+the exodus against the Egyptians and in the subsequent battle at
+Rephidim against 'Amalek (Ex. xvii.) that consolidated the prestige of
+Yahweh, Israel's war-god. Indications in the Old Testament itself
+clearly point to the celestial or atmospheric character of the Yahweh of
+the Hebrews. The supposition that the name originally contained the
+notion of permanent or eternal being, and was derived from the verbal
+root signifying "to be," involves too abstract a conception to be
+probable, though it is based on Ex. iii. 15 (E) representing a tradition
+which may have prevailed in the 8th century B.C. Kautzsch, however,
+supports it (Hastings's _D.B._, extra vol. "Rel. of Isr." p. 625 foll.)
+against the other derivations proposed by recent scholars (see JEHOVAH).
+That the name also prevailed as that of a god among other Semitic races
+(or even non-Semitic) is rendered certain by the proper names
+Jau-bi'-di (= Ilu-bi'di) of Hamath in Sargon's inscriptions, Ahi-jawi
+(mi) in Sellin's discovered tablet at Ta'annek, to say nothing of those
+which have been found in the documents of Khammurabi's reign. It has
+generally been held that Stade's supposition has much to recommend it,
+that it was derived by Moses from the Kenites, and should be connected
+with the Sinai-Horeb region. The name Sinai suggests moon-worship and
+the moon-god Sin; and it also suggests Babylonian influence (cf. also
+Mount Nebo, which was a place-name both in Moab and in Judah, and
+naturally connects itself with the name of the Babylonian deity).
+Several indications favour the view of the connexion in the age of Moses
+between the Yahweh-cult at Sinai and the moon-worship of Babylonian
+origin to which the name Sinai points (Sin being the Babylonian
+moon-god). We note (a) that in the worship of Yahweh the sacred seasons
+of new moon and Sabbath are obviously _lunar_. Recent investigations
+have even been held to disclose the fact that the Sabbath coincided
+originally, i.e. in early pre-exilian days, with the full moon.[9] (b)
+It also accords with the name bestowed on Yahweh as "Lord of Hosts"
+(_sebaoth_) or stars, which were regarded as personified beings (Job
+xxxviii. 7) and attendants on the celestial Yahweh, constituting His
+retinue (1 Kings xxii. 19) which fought on high while the earthly armies
+of Israel, His people, contended below (Judges v. 20).
+
+The atmospheric and celestial character which belonged from the first to
+the Hebrew conception of Yahweh explains to us the ease with which the
+idea of His universal sovereignty arose, which the Yahwistic creation
+account (belonging to the earlier stratum of J, Gen. ii. 4b foll.)
+presupposes. How this came to be overlaid by narrow local limitations of
+His power and province will be shown later. It is probable that Moses
+held the larger rather than the narrower conception of Yahweh's sphere
+of influence. While the ark carried with Israel's host symbolized His
+presence in their midst, He was also known to be present in the cloud
+which hovered before the host and in the lightning ('_esh Yahweh_ or
+"fire of Yahweh") and the thunder (_kol Yahweh_ or "voice of Yahweh")
+which played around Mount Sinai. Moreover, it is hardly probable that a
+great leader like Moses remained unaffected by the higher conceptions
+tending towards monotheism which prevailed in the great empires on the
+Nile and on the Euphrates. In Egypt we know that Amenophis IV. came
+under this monotheistic movement, and attempted to suppress all other
+cults except that of the sun-deity, of which he was a devoted
+worshipper. We also know that between 2000 and 1400 B.C. the Babylonian
+language as well as Babylonian civilization and ideas spread over
+Palestine (as the Tell el Amarna tables clearly testify). The ancient
+Babylonian psalms clearly reveal that the highest minds were moving out
+of polytheism to a monotheistic identification of various deities as
+diverse phases of one underlying essence. A remarkable Babylonian tablet
+discovered by Dr Pinches represents Marduk, the god of light, as
+identified in his person with all the chief deities of Babylonia, who
+are evidently regarded as his varying manifestations.[10]
+
+Through the influence of Mosaic teaching and law a definitely ethical
+character was ascribed to Yahweh. It was His "finger" that wrote the
+brief code which has come down to us in the decalogue. At first, as
+Erdmanns suggests, it may have consisted of only seven commands. So also
+Kautzsch, _ibid._ p. 634. The most strongly distinguishing feature of
+the code is the rigid exclusion of the worship of other gods than
+Yahweh. Moreover, the definitely ethical character of the religion of
+Yahweh established by Moses is exhibited in the strict exclusion of all
+sexual impurity in His worship. Unlike the Canaanite Baal, Yahweh has no
+female consort, and this remained throughout a distinguishing trait of
+the original and unadulterated Hebrew religion (see Bathgen, _Beitrage_,
+p. 265). Indeed, Hebrew, unlike Assyrian or Phoenician, has no
+distinctive form for "goddess." From first to last the true religion of
+Yahweh was pure of sexual taint. The kedeshim and kedeshoth, the male
+and female priest attendants in the Baal and 'Ashtoreth shrines (cf. the
+_kadishtu_ of the temples of the Babylonian Ishtar) were foreign
+Canaanite elements which became imported into Hebrew worship during the
+period of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan.
+
+Lastly, the earliest codes of Hebrew legislation (Ex. xxi.-xxiii.) bear
+the distinct impress of the high ethical character of Yahweh's
+requirements originally set forth by Moses. Of this tradition the Naboth
+incident in the time of Ahab furnishes a clear example which brings to
+light the contrast between the Tyrian Baal-cult, which was scarcely
+ethical, and of which Jezebel and Ahab were devotees, and the moral
+requirements of the religion of Yahweh of which Elijah was the prophet
+and impassioned exponent. It was this definite basis of ethical Mosaic
+religion to which the prophets of the 8th century appealed, and apart
+from which their denunciations become meaningless. To this early
+standard of life and practice Ephraim was faithless in the days of the
+prophet Hosea (see his oracles _passim_--especially chaps. i.-iv. and
+xiv.), and Judah in the time of Isaiah turned a deaf ear (Isa. i. 2-4,
+21).
+
+4. _Influence of Canaan._--The entrance of Israel into Canaan marks the
+beginning of a new epoch in the development of Israel's religious life.
+For it involved a transition from the simple nomadic relations to those
+of the agricultural and more highly civilized Canaanite life. This
+subject has been recently treated with admirable clearness by Marti in
+his useful treatise _Die Religion des A.T._ (1906), pp. 25-41.
+
+It is in the festivals of the annual calendar that this agricultural
+impress is most fully manifested. To the original nomadic _Pesah_
+(Passover)--sacrifice of a lamb--there was attached a distinct and
+agricultural festival of unleavened cakes (_massoth_) which marks the
+beginning of the corn harvest in the middle of the month _Abib_ (the
+name of which points to its Canaanite and agricultural origin). The
+close of the corn-harvest was marked by the festival _Shabhuoth_ (weeks)
+or _Kasir_ (harvest) held seven weeks after massoth. The last and most
+characteristic festival of Canaanite life was that of _Asiph_ or
+"ingathering" which after the Deuteronomic reformation (621 B.C.) had
+made a single sanctuary and therefore a considerable journey with a
+longer stay necessary, came to be called _Succoth_ or booths. This was
+the autumn festival held at the close of September or beginning of
+October. It marked the close of the year's agricultural operations when
+the olives and grapes had been gathered [Ex. xxiii. 14-17 (E), xxxiv.
+18, 22, 23 (J)]; see FEASTS, PASSOVER, PENTECOST and TABERNACLES.
+Another special characteristic of Israel's religion in Canaan was the
+considerable increase of sacrificial offerings. Animal sacrifices became
+much more frequent, and included not only the bloody sacrifice (Zebah)
+but also burnt offerings (_kalil_, _'olah_) whereby the whole animal was
+consumed (see SACRIFICE). But we have in addition to the animal
+sacrifices, vegetable offerings of meal, oil and cakes (_massoth_,
+_ashishah_ and _kawwan_, which last is specially connected with the
+'Ashtoreth cult: Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 19), as well as the "bread of the
+Presence" (_lehem happanim_), 1 Sam. xxi. 6. Whether the primitive rite
+of _water-offerings_ (1 Sam. vii. 6; 2 Sam. xxiii. 16) belonged to early
+nomadic Israel (as seems probable) it is not possible to determine with
+any certainty.
+
+Again, the conception of Yahweh suffered modification. In the desert he
+was worshipped as an atmospheric deity, who manifested himself in
+thunder and lightning, whose abode was in the sky, whose sanctuary was
+on the mountain summit of Horeb-Sinai, and whose movable palladium was
+the ark of the covenant. But when the nomadic clans of Israel came to
+occupy the settled abodes of the agricultural Canaanites who had a stake
+in the soil which they cultivated, these conditions evidently reacted on
+their religion. Now the local Baal was the divine owner of the fertile
+spot where his sanctuary (_qodesh_) was marked by the upright stone
+pillar, the symbol of his presence, on which the blood of the
+slaughtered victim was smeared. To this Baal the productiveness of the
+soil was due. Consequently it was needful to secure his favour, and in
+order to gain this, gifts were made to him by the local resident
+population who depended on the produce of the land (see BAAL, especially
+_ad init._). Now when the Hebrews succeeded to these agricultural
+conditions and acquired possession of the Canaanite abodes, they
+naturally fell into the same cycle of religious ideas and tradition.
+Yahweh ceased to be exclusively regarded as god of the atmosphere,
+worshipped in a distant mountain, Horeb-Sinai, situated in the south
+country (_negebh_), and moving in the clouds of heaven before the
+Israelites in the desert, but he came to be associated with Israel's
+life in Canaan. He manifested His presence either by a signal victory
+over Israel's foes (Josh. x. 10, 11; 1 Sam. vii. 10-12) or by a
+thunderstorm (1 Sam. xii. 18) or through a dream (Gen. xxviii. 16 foll.;
+cf. 1 Kings iii. 5 foll.) at a sacred spot like Bethel. Accordingly,
+whenever His presence and power were displayed in places where the
+Canaanite Baal had been worshipped, they came to be attached to these
+spots. He had "put his name," i.e. power and presence (_numen_) there,
+and the same festivals and sacrifices which had previously been devoted
+to the cult of the Canaanite Baal were now annexed to the service of
+Yahweh, the war-god of the conquering race. The process of transference
+was facilitated by two potent causes: (a) Both Canaanite and Hebrew
+spoke a common language; (b) the name Baal is not in reality an
+individual proper name like Kemosh (Chemosh), Ramman or Hadad, but is,
+like El (Ilu) "god," an appellative meaning "lord," "owner" or
+"husband." The name Baal might therefore be used for any deity such as
+Milk (Milcom) or Shemesh ("sun") who was the divine owner of the spot.
+It was simply a covering epithet, and like the word "god" could be
+transferred from one deity to another. In this way Yahweh came to be
+called the Baal or "lord" of any sacred place where the armies of Israel
+by their victories attested "his mighty hand and outstretched arm." (See
+Kautzsch in Hastings's _D.B._, extra vol., p. 645 foll.)
+
+Such was the path of syncretism, and it was fraught with peril to the
+older and purer faith. For when Yahweh gradually became Israel's local
+Baal he became worshipped like the old Canaanite deity, and all the
+sensuous accompaniments of Kedeshoth,[11] as well as the presence of the
+_asherah_ or sacred pole, became attached to his cult. But the symbol
+carried with it the _numen_ of the goddess symbolized, and there can be
+little doubt that Asherah came to be regarded as Yahweh's consort. In
+the days of Manasseh syncretism went on unchecked even in the Jerusalem
+temple and its precincts, and it was not till the year of Jesiah's
+reformation (621 B.C.) that the Kedeshim and Kedeshoth as well as the
+Asherah were banished for ever from Yahweh's sanctuary (2 Kings xxi. 7,
+xxiii. 7), which their presence had profaned.
+
+Now local worship means the differentiation of the personality
+worshipped in the varied local shrines, in other words Ba'alim or Baals.
+Just as we have in Assyria an Ishtar of Arbela and an Ishtar of Nineveh
+(treated in Assur-bani-pal's (Rassam) cylinder[12] like two distinct
+deities), as we have local Madonnas in Roman Catholic countries, so must
+it have been with the cults of Yahweh in the regal period carried on in
+the numerous high places, Bethel, Shechem, Shiloh (till its destruction
+in the days of Eli) and Jerusalem. Each in turn claimed that Yahweh had
+placed his name (i.e. personal presence and power or numen) _there_.
+Each had a Yahweh of its own.
+
+On the other hand, old deities still lurked in old spots which had been
+for centuries their abode. It was no easy task to establish Yahweh in
+permanent possession of the new lands conquered by the Hebrew settlers.
+The old gods were not to be at once discrowned of might. Of this we have
+a vivid example in the episode 2 Kings xviii. 24-28. The inhabitants of
+Babylonia and other regions whom the Assyrian kings had settled in
+Ephraim after 721 B.C. (cf. Ezra iv. 10) are described as suffering from
+the depredations of lions, and a priest from the deported Ephraimites is
+sent to them to teach them the worship of Yahweh, the god of the land.
+Similarly in the earlier pre-exilian period of Israel's occupation of
+Canaanite territory the Hebrews were always subject to this tendency to
+worship the _old_ Baal or 'Ashtoreth (the goddess who made the cattle
+and flocks prolific).[13] A few years of drought or of bad seasons would
+make a Hebrew settler betake himself to the old Canaanite gods. Even in
+the days of Hosea the rivalry between Yahweh and the old Canaanite Baal
+still continued. The prophet reproaches his Ephraimite countrymen for
+going after their "lovers," the old local Baals who were supposed to
+have bestowed on them the bread, water, wool, flax and oil, and for not
+knowing that "it is I (Yahweh) who have bestowed on her (i.e. Israel)
+the corn, the new wine and the oil, and have bestowed on her silver and
+gold in abundance which they have wrought into a Baal image" (Hos. ii.
+10).
+
+External danger from a foreign foe, such as Midian or the Philistines,
+at once brought into prominence the claim and power of Yahweh, Israel's
+national war-god since the great days of the exodus. The religion of
+Yahweh (as Wellhausen said) meant patriotism, and in war-time tended to
+weld the participating tribes into a national unity. The book of Judges
+with its "monotonous tempo--religious declension, oppression,
+repentance, peace," to which Wellhausen[14] refers as its ever-recurring
+cycle, makes us familiar with these alternating phases of action and
+reaction. Times of peace meant national disintegration and the lapse of
+Israel into the Canaanite local cults, which is interpreted by the
+redactor as the prophets of the 8th century would have interpreted it,
+viz. as defection from Yahweh. On the other hand, times of war against a
+foreign foe meant on the religious side the unification, partial or
+complete, of the Israelite tribes by the rallying cry "the sword of
+Yahweh" (Judges vii. 20). In this way 'Ophrah became the centre of the
+coalition under Gideon in the tribe of Manasseh. Its importance is
+attested by Judges viii. 22-28, and we may disregard the "snare" which
+the Deuteronomic writer condemns in accordance with the later canons of
+orthodoxy. What 'Ophrah became on a small scale in the days of Gideon,
+Jerusalem became on a larger scale in the days of David and his
+successors. It was the religious expression of the unity of Israel which
+the life and death struggle with the Philistines had gradually wrought
+out.
+
+Despite the capture of the ark after the disastrous battle of Shiloh,
+Yahweh had in the end shown himself through a destructive plague
+superior in might to the Philistine Dagon. There are indeed abundant
+indications that prove that in the prevalent popular religion of the
+regal period monotheistic conceptions had no place. Yahweh was god only
+of Israel and of Israel's land. An invasion of foreign territory would
+bring Israel under the power of its patron-deity. The wrath with which
+the Israelite armies believed themselves to be visited (probably an
+outbreak of pestilence) when the king of Moab was reduced to his last
+extremity, was obviously the wrath of Chemosh the god of Moab, which the
+king's sacrifice of his only son had awakened against the invading army
+(2 Kings iii. 27). In other words, the ordinary Israelite worshipper of
+Yahweh was at this time far removed from monotheism, and still remained
+in the preliminary stage of henotheism, which regarded Yahweh as sole
+god of Israel and Israel's land, but at the same time recognized the
+existence and power of the deities of other lands and peoples. Of this
+we have recurring examples in pre-exilian Hebrew history. See 1 Sam.
+xxvi. 19; Judges xi. 23, 24; Ruth i. 16.
+
+
+  Material objects.
+
+5. _Characteristics and Constituent Elements._--It is only possible here
+to refer in briefest enumeration to the material and external objects
+and forms of popular Hebrew religion. These were of the simplest
+character. The upright stone (or _massebah_) was the material symbol of
+deity on which the blood of sacrifice was smeared, and in which the
+_numen_ of the god resided. It is probable that in some primitive
+sanctuaries no real distinction was made between this stone-pillar and
+the altar or place where the animal was slaughtered. In ordinary
+pre-exilian high places the custom described in the primitive compend of
+laws (Ex. xx. 24) would be observed. A mound of earth was raised which
+would serve as a platform on which the victim would be slaughtered in
+the presence of the concourse of spectators. In the more important
+shrines, as at Jerusalem or Samaria, there would be an altar of stone or
+of bronze. Another accompaniment of the sanctuary would be the sacred
+tree--most frequently a terebinth (cf. Judges ix. 37 "terebinth of
+soothsayers"), or it might be a palm tree (cf. "palm tree of Deborah" in
+Judges iv. 5), or a tamarisk (_'eshel_), or pomegranate (_rimmon_), as
+at the high place in Gibeah where Saul abode. Moreover, we have frequent
+references to sacred springs, as that of _Beer-sheba_, _'Enharod_
+(_'eyn-harod_) (Judges vii. 1; cf. also Judges 19, _'En-hakkore_
+[_'eyn-haqqore'_]). (On this subject of holy trees, holy waters and holy
+stones, consult article TREE-WORSHIP, and Robertson Smith's _Religion of
+the Semites_, 2nd ed., pp. 165-197.)
+
+The wide prevalence of magic and soothsaying may be illustrated from the
+historical books of the Old Testament as well as from the pre-exilian
+prophets. The latter indeed tolerated the _qosem_ (soothsayer) as they
+did the seer (ro'eh). The rhabdomancy denounced by Hosea (iv. 12) was
+associated with idolatry at the high places. But the arts of the
+necromancer were always and without exception treated as foreign to the
+religion of Yahweh. The necromancer of _ba'al 'obh'_ was held to be
+possessed of the spirit who spoke through him with a hollow voice.
+Indeed both necromancer and the spirit that possessed him were sometimes
+identified, and the former was simply called _obh_. It is probable that
+necromancy, like the worship of Asherah and 'Ashtoreth, as well as the
+cult of graven images, was a Canaanite importation into Israel's
+religious practices. (See Marti, _Religion des A.T._, p. 32.)
+
+
+  Priesthood.
+
+The history of the rise of the priesthood in Israel is exceedingly
+obscure. In the nomadic period and during the earlier years of the
+settlement of Israel in Canaan the head of every family could offer
+sacrifices. In the primitive codes, Ex. xx. 22-xxiii. 19 (E), xxxiv.
+10-28 (J), we have no allusion to any separate order of men who were
+qualified to offer sacrifices. In Ex. xxiv. 5 (E) we read that Moses
+simply commissioned young men to offer sacrifices. On the other hand the
+_addendum_ to the book of Judges, chaps. xvii., xviii. (which Budde,
+Moore and other critics consider to belong to the two sources of the
+narratives in Judges, viz. J[15] as well as E), makes reference to a
+Levite of Bethlehem-Judah, expressly stated in xvii. 7 as belonging to a
+clan of Judah. This man Micah took into his household as priest. This
+narrative has all the marks of primitive simplicity. There can be no
+reasonable doubt that the Levite here was member of a priestly tribe or
+order, and this view is confirmed by the discovery of what is really the
+same word in south Arabian inscriptions.[16] The narrative is of some
+value as it shows that while it was possible to appoint any one as a
+priest, since Micah, like David, appointed one of his own sons (xvii.
+5), yet a special priest-tribe or order also existed, and Micah
+considered that the acquisition of one of its members was for his
+household a very exceptional advantage: "Now I know that Yahweh will
+befriend me because I have the _Levite_ as priest."[17] In other words a
+priest who was a Levite possessed a superior professional qualification.
+He is paid ten shekels per annum, together with his food and clothing,
+and is dignified by the appellation "father" (cf. the like epithet of
+"mother" applied to the prophetess Deborah, Judges v. 7; see also 2
+Kings ii. 12, vi. 21, xiii. 14). This same narrative dwells upon the
+graven images, ephod and teraphim, as forming the apparatus of religious
+ceremonial in Micah's household. Now the ephod and teraphim are
+constantly mentioned together (cf. Hos. iii. 4) and were used in
+divination. The former was the plated image of Yahweh (cf. Judges viii.
+26, 27) and the latter were ancestral images (see Marti, _op. cit._ pp.
+27, 29; Harper, _Int. Comm._ "Amos and Hosea," p. 222). In other words
+the function of the priest was not merely sacrificial (a duty which
+Kautzsch unnecessarily detaches from the services which he originally
+rendered), nor did he merely bear the ark of the covenant and take
+charge of God's house; but he was also and mainly (as the Arabic name
+_kahin_ shows) the _soothsayer_ who consulted the ephod and gave the
+answers required on the field of battle (see 1 Sam. and 2 Sam. _passim_)
+and on other occasions. This is clearly shown in the "blessing of Moses"
+(Deut. xxxiii. 8), where the Levite is specially associated with another
+apparatus of inquiry, viz. the sacred lots, _Urim_ and _Thummim_. The
+true character of _Urim_ (as expressing "aye") and _Thummim_ (as
+expressing "nay") is shown by the reconstructed text of 1 Sam. xiv. 41
+on the basis of the Septuagint. See Driver _ad loc._
+
+
+  Geniality of Worship.
+
+The chief and most salient characteristic of the worship of the high
+places was geniality. The sacrifice was a feast of social communion
+between the deity and his worshippers, and knit both deity and
+clan-members together in the bonds of a close fellowship. This genial
+aspect of Hebrew worship is nowhere depicted more graphically than in
+the old narrative (a J section = Budde's G) 1 Sam. ix. 19-24, where a
+day of sacrifice in the high place is described. Saul and his attendant
+are invited by the seer-priest Samuel into the banqueting chamber
+(_lishkah_) where thirty persons partake of the sacrificial meal. It was
+the _'asiph_ or festival of ingathering, when the agricultural
+operations were brought to a close, which exhibited these genial
+features of Canaanite-Hebrew life most vividly. References to them
+abound in pre-exilian literature: Judges xxi. 21 (cf. ix. 27); Amos
+viii. 1 foll.; Hos. ix. 1 foll., Jer. xxxi. 4; Isa. xvi. 10 (Jer.
+xlviii. 33). These festivals formed the veins and arteries of ancient
+Hebrew clan and tribal life.[18] Wellhausen's characterization of the
+Arabian _hajj_[19] applies with equal force to the Hebrew _hagg_
+(festival): "They formed the rendezvous of ancient life. Here came under
+the protection of the peace of God the tribes and clans which otherwise
+lived apart from one another and only knew peace and security within
+their own frontiers." 1 Sam. xx. 28 foll. indicates the strong claims on
+personal attendance exercised on each individual member by the local
+clan festival at Bethlehem-Judah.
+
+It is easy to discern from varied allusions in the Old Testament that
+the Canaanite impress of sensuous life clung to the autumnal vintage
+festivals. They became orgiastic in character and scenes of drunkenness,
+cf. Judges ix. 27; 1 Sam. 14-16; Isa. xxviii. 7, 8. Against this
+tendency the _Nazirite_ order and tradition was a protest. Cf. Amos ii.
+11 foll.; Judges xiii. 7, 14. As certain sanctuaries, Shiloh, Shechem,
+Bethel, &c., grew in importance, the priesthoods that officiated at them
+would acquire special prestige. Eli, the head priest at Shiloh in the
+early youth of Samuel, held an important position in what was then the
+chief religious and political centre of Ephraim; and the office passed
+by inheritance to the sons in ordinary cases. In the regal period the
+royal residence gave the priesthood of that place an exceptional
+position. Thus Zadok, who obtained the priestly office at Jerusalem in
+the reign of Solomon and was succeeded by his sons, was regarded in
+later days as the founder of the true and legitimate succession of the
+priesthood descended from Levi (Ezek. xl. 46, xliii. 19, xliv. 15; cf. 1
+Kings ii. 27, 35). His descent, however, from Eleazar, the elder brother
+of Aaron, can only be regarded as the later artificial construction of
+the post-exilian chronicler (1 Chron. vi. 4-15, 50-53, xxiv. 1 foll.),
+who was controlled by the traditions which prevailed in the 4th century
+B.C. and after.
+
+6. _The Prophets._--The rise of the order of prophets, who gradually
+emerged out of and became distinct from the old Hebrew "seer" or augur
+(1 Sam. ix. 9),[20] marks a new epoch in the religious development of
+the Hebrews. Over the successive stages of this growth we pass lightly
+(see PROPHET). The life-and-death struggle between Israel and the
+Philistines in the reign of Saul called forth under Samuel's leadership
+a new order of "men of God," who were called "prophets" or divinely
+inspired speakers.[21] These men were distributed in various
+settlements, and their exercises were usually of an ecstatic character.
+The closest modern analogy would be the orders of dervishes in Islam.
+Probably there was little externally to distinguish the prophet of
+Yahweh in the days of Samuel from the Canaanite-Phoenician prophets of
+Baal and Asherah (1 Kings xviii. 19, 26, 28), for the practices of both
+were ecstatic and orgiastic (cf. 1 Sam. x. 5 foll., xviii. 10, xix. 23
+foll.). The special quality which distinguished these prophetic gilds or
+companies was an intense patriotism combined with enthusiastic devotion
+to the cause of Yahweh. This necessarily involved in that primitive age
+an extreme jealousy of foreign importations or innovations in ritual. It
+is obvious from numerous passages that these prophetic gilds recognized
+the superior position and leadership of Samuel, or of any other
+distinguished prophet such as Elijah or Elisha. Thus 1 Sam. xix. 20, 23
+et seq. show that Samuel was regarded as head of the prophetic
+settlement at Naioth. With reference to Elijah and Elisha, see 2 Kings
+ii. 3, 5, 15, iv. 1, 38 et seq., vi. 1 et seq. There cannot be any doubt
+that such enthusiastic devotees of Yahweh, in days when religion meant
+patriotism, did much to keep alive the flame of Israel's hope and
+courage in the dark period of national disaster. It is significant that
+Saul in his last unavailing struggle against the overwhelming forces of
+the Philistines sought through the medium of a sorceress for an
+interview with the deceased prophet Samuel. It was the advice of Elisha
+that rescued the armies of Jehoram and Jehoshaphat in their war against
+Moab when they were involved in the waterless wastes that surrounded
+them (2 Kings iii. 14 foll.). We again find Elisha intervening with
+effect on behalf of Israel in the wars against Syria, so that his fame
+spread to Syria itself (2 Kings v.-viii. 7 foll.). Lastly it was the
+fiery counsels of the dying prophet, accompanied by the acted magic of
+the arrow shot through the open window, and also of the thrice smitten
+floor, that gave nerve and courage to Joash, king of Israel, when the
+armies of Syria pressed heavily on the northern kingdom (2 Kings xiii.
+14-19).
+
+We see that the prophet had now definitely emerged from the old position
+of "seer." Prophetic personality now moved in a larger sphere than that
+of divination, important though that function be in the social life of
+the ancient state[22] as instrumental in declaring the will of the deity
+when any enterprise was on foot. For the prophet's function became in an
+increasing degree a function of _mind_, and not merely of traditional
+routine or mechanical technique, like that of the diviner with his
+arrows or his lots which he cast in the presence of the ephod or plated
+Yahweh image. The new name _nabhi'_ became necessary to express this
+function of more exalted significance, in which human personality played
+its larger role. Even as early as the time of David it would seem that
+Nathan assumed this more developed function as interpreter of Yahweh's
+righteous will to David. But both in 2 Sam. xii. 1-15 as well as in 2
+Sam. vii. we have sections which are evidently coloured by the
+conceptions of a later time. We stand on safer ground when we come to
+Elijah's bold intervention on behalf of righteousness when he declared
+in the name of Yahweh the divine judgment on Ahab and his house for the
+judicial murder of Naboth. We here observe a great advance in the
+vocation of the prophet. He becomes the interpreter and vindicator of
+divine justice, the vocal exponent of a nation's conscience. For Elijah
+was in this case obviously no originator or innovator. He represents the
+old ethical Mosaism, which had not disappeared from the national
+consciousness, but still remained as the moral pre-supposition on which
+the prophets of the following century based their appeals and
+denunciations. It is highly significant that Elijah, when driven from
+the northern kingdom by the threats of the Tyrian Jezebel, retreats to
+the old sanctuary at Horeb, whence Moses derived his inspiration and his
+Torah.
+
+We have hitherto dealt with isolated examples of prophetism and its rare
+and distinguished personalities. The ordinary Hebrew _nabhi'_ still
+remained not the reflective visionary, stirred at times by music into
+strange raptures (2 Kings iii. 15), but the ecstatic and orgiastic
+dervish who was _meshuggah_ or "frenzied," a term which was constantly
+applied to him from the days of Elisha to those of Jeremiah (2 Kings ix.
+11; in Hos. ix. 7 and Jer. xxix. 26 it is regarded as a term of
+reproach). It is only in rare instances that some exalted personality is
+raised to a higher level. Of this we have an interesting example in the
+vivid episode that preceded the battle of Ramoth-Gilead described in 1
+Kings xxii., when Micaiah appears as the true prophet of Yahweh, who in
+his rare independence stands in sharp contrast with the conventional
+court prophets, who prophesied then, as their descendants prophesied
+more than two centuries later, smooth things.
+
+It is not, however, till the 8th century that prophecy attained its
+highest level as the interpreter of God's ways to men. This is due to
+the fact that it for the first time unfolded the true character of
+Yahweh, implicit in the old Mosaic religion and submerged in the
+subsequent centuries of Israel's life in Canaan, but now at length made
+clear and explicit to the mind of the nation. It became now detached
+from the limitations of nationalism and local association with which it
+had been hitherto circumscribed.
+
+Even Elisha, the greatest prophet of the 9th century, had remained
+within these national limitations which characterized the popular
+conceptions of Yahweh. Yahweh was Israel's war-god. His power was
+asserted in and from Canaanite soil. If Naaman was to be healed, it
+could only be in a Palestinian river, and two mules' load of earth would
+be the only permanent guarantee of Yahweh's effective blessing on the
+Syrian general in his Syrian home.
+
+That larger conceptions prevailed in some of the loftier minds of
+Israel, and may be held to have existed even as far back as the age of
+Moses, is a fact which the Yahwistic cosmogony in Gen. ii. 4b-9 (which
+may have been composed in the 9th century B.C.) clearly suggests, and it
+is strongly sustained by the overwhelming evidence of the powerful
+influence of Babylonian culture in the Palestinian region during the
+centuries 2000-1400 B.C.[23] Probably in our modern construction of
+ancient Hebrew history sufficient consideration has not been given to
+the inevitable coexistence of different types and planes of thought,
+each evolved from earlier and more primordial forms. In other words we
+have to deal not with _one_ evolution but with evolutions.
+
+The existence of the purer and larger conception of Yahweh's character
+and power before the advent of Amos indicates that the transition from
+the past was not so sudden as Wellhausen's graphic portrayal in the 9th
+edition of this _Encyclopaedia_ (art. ISRAEL) would have led us to
+suppose. There were pre-existent ideas upon which that prophet's
+epoch-making message was based. Yet this consideration should in no way
+obscure the fact that the prophet lived and worked in the all-pervading
+atmosphere of the popular syncretic Yahweh religion, intensely national
+and local in its character. In Wellhausen's words, each petty state
+"revolved on its own axis" of social-religious life till the armies of
+Tiglath-Pileser III. broke up the security within the Canaanite borders.
+According to the dominating popular conception, the destruction of the
+national power by a foreign army meant the overthrow of the prestige of
+the national deity by the foreign nation's god. If Assyria finally
+overthrew Israel and carried off Yahweh's shrine, Assur (Asur), the
+tutelary deity of Assyria, was mightier than Yahweh. This was precisely
+what was happening among the northern states, and Amos foresaw that this
+might eventually be Israel's doom. Rabshakeh's appeal to the besieged
+inhabitants of Jerusalem was based on these same considerations. He
+argued from past history that Yahweh would be powerless in the presence
+of Ashur (2 Kings xviii. 33-35).
+
+This problem of religion was solved by Amos and by the prophets who
+succeeded him through a more exalted conception of Yahweh and His sphere
+of working, which tended to detach Him from His limited realm as a
+national deity. Amos exhibited Him to his countrymen as lord of the
+universe, who made the seven stars and Orion and turns the deep midnight
+darkness into morning. He calls to the waters of the sea and pours them
+on the earth's surface (chap. v. 8). Such a universal God of the world
+would hardly make Israel His exclusive concern. Thus He not only brought
+the Israelites out of Egypt, but also the Philistines from Caphtor and
+the Syrians from Kir (ix. 7). But Amos went beyond this. Yahweh was not
+only the lord of the universe and possessed of sovereign power. The
+prophet also emphasized with passionate earnestness that Yahweh was a
+God whose character was righteous, and God's demand upon His people
+Israel was not for sacrifices but for _righteous conduct_. Sacrifice, as
+this prophet, like his successor Jeremiah, insisted (Amos v. 25; cf.
+Jer. vii. 22) played no part in Mosaic religion. In words which
+evidently impressed his younger contemporary Isaiah (cf. esp. Is. chap.
+i. 11-17), Amos denounced the non-ethical ceremonial formalism of his
+countrymen which then prevailed (chap. v. 21 foll.):--
+
+  "I hate, I contemn your festivals and in your feasts I delight not;
+  for when you offer me your burnt-offerings and gifts, I do not regard
+  them with favour and your fatted peace-offerings I will not look at.
+  Take away from me the clamour of your songs; and the music of your
+  viols I will not hear. But let judgment roll down like waters and
+  justice like a perennial brook."
+
+In the younger contemporary prophet of Ephraim, Hosea, the stress is
+laid on the relation of love (_hesed_) between Yahweh, the divine
+husband, and Israel, the faithless spouse. Israel's faithlessness is
+shown in idolatry and the prevailing corruption of the high places in
+which the old Canaanite Baal was worshipped instead of Yahweh. It is
+shown, moreover, in foreign alliances. Compacts with a powerful foreign
+state, under whose aegis Israel was glad to shelter, involved covenants
+sealed by sacrificial rites in which the deity or deities of the foreign
+state were involved as well as Yahweh, the god of the weaker
+vassal-state. And so Yahweh's honour was compromised. While these
+aspects of Israel's relation to Yahweh are emphasized by the Ephraimite
+prophet, the larger conceptions of Yahweh's character as universal Lord
+and the God of righteousness, whose government of the world is ethical,
+emphasized by the prophet of Tekoah, are scarcely presented.
+
+In Isaiah both aspects--divine universal sovereignty and justice, taught
+by Amos, and divine loving-kindness to Israel and God's claims on His
+people's allegiance, taught by Hosea--are fully expressed. Yahweh's
+relation of love to Israel is exhibited under the purer symbol of
+fatherhood (Isa. i. 2-4), a conception which was as ancient and familiar
+as that of husband, though perhaps the latter recurs more frequently in
+prophecy (Isa. i. 21; Ezek. xvi. &c.). Even more insistently does Isaiah
+present the great truth of God's universal sovereignty. As with his
+elder contemporary, the foreign peoples--(but in Isaiah's oracles
+Assyria and Egypt as well as the Palestinian races)--come within his
+survey. The "fullness of the earth" is Yahweh's glory (vi. 3) and the
+nations of the earth are the instruments of His irresistible and
+righteous will. Assyria is the "bee" and Egypt the "fly" for which
+Yahweh hisses. Assyria is the "hired razor" (Isa. vii. 18, 19), or the
+"rod of His wrath," for the chastisement of Israel (x. 5). But the
+instrument unduly exalts itself, and Assyria itself shall suffer
+humiliation at the hands of the world's divine sovereign (x. 7-15).
+
+And so the old limitations of Israel's popular religion,--the same
+limitations that encumbered also the religions of all the neighbouring
+races that succumbed in turn to Assyria's invincible progress,--now
+began to disappear. Therefore, while every other religion which was
+purely national was extinguished in the nation's overthrow, the religion
+of Israel survived even amid exile and dispersion. For Amos and Isaiah
+were able to single out those loftier spiritual and ethical elements
+which lay implicit in Mosaism and to lift them into their due place of
+prominence. National _sacra_ and the ceremonial requirements were made
+to assume a secondary role or were even ignored.[24] The centre of
+gravity in Hebrew religion was shifted from ceremonial observance and
+local sacra to righteous conduct. Religion and righteousness were
+henceforth welded into an indissoluble whole. The religion of Yahweh was
+no longer to rest upon the narrow perishable basis of locality and
+national sacra, but on the broad adamantine foundations of a universal
+divine sovereignty over all mankind and of righteousness as the
+essential element in the character of Yahweh and in his claims on man.
+This was the "corner-stone of precious solid foundation": "I will make
+judgment the measuring-line and righteousness the plummet" (Isa. xxviii.
+16, 17). The religion of the Hebrew race--properly the Jews--now enters
+on a new stage, for it should be observed that it was Amos, Isaiah and
+Micah--prophets of Judah--who laid the actual foundations. The latter
+half of the 8th century, which witnessed a rapid succession of reigns in
+the northern kingdom accompanied by dismemberment of its territory and
+final overthrow, witnessed also the humiliating vassalage and religious
+decline of the kingdom of Judah. Unlike Amos and Micah, Isaiah was not
+only the prophet of denunciation but also the prophet of hope. Though
+Yahweh's chastisements on Ephraim and Judah would continue to fall till
+scarcely a remnant was left (Isa. vi. 13, LXX.), yet all was not to be
+lost. A remnant of the people was to return, i.e. be converted to
+Yahweh. The name given to an infant child--Immanuel--was to become the
+mystic symbol of a growing hope. God's presence was to abide in
+Jerusalem, and, as the century drew near its close, "Immanuel" became
+the watchword and talisman of a strong faith that God would never permit
+Jerusalem to be captured by the Assyrians. In fact it is not improbable
+that the words of consolation uttered by the prophet (Isa. viii. 9-10)
+in the dark days of Ahaz (735-734 B.C.) were among the oracles which God
+commanded Isaiah "to seal up among his disciples" (verse 16), and that
+they were quoted once more with effect as the armies of Sennacherib
+closed around Jerusalem. The talismanic name Immanuel became the nucleus
+out of which the later _Messianic_ prophecies of Isaiah grew. To this
+age alone can we probably assign Isa. ix. 1-7, xi. 1-9, xxxii. 1-3. The
+hopes expressed in the word Immanuel, "God with us," were to become
+embodied in a personality of the royal seed of David, an ideal righteous
+ruler who was to bring peace to the war-distraught realm. Thus Isaiah
+became in that troubled age the true founder of _Messianic_ prophecy.
+The strange contrast between the succession of dynasties and kings cut
+off by assassination in the northern kingdom, ending in the tragic
+overthrow of 721 B.C., and the persistent succession through three
+centuries of the seed of David on the throne of Jerusalem, as well as
+the marvellous escape of Jerusalem in 701 B.C. from the fate of Samaria,
+must have invested the seed of David in the eyes of all thoughtful
+observers with a mysterious and divine significance. The Messianic
+prophecies of Isaiah, the prophet of faith and deliverance, were
+destined to reverberate through all subsequent centuries. We hear the
+echoes in Jeremiah and Ezekiel and lastly in Haggai in ever feebler
+tones, and they were destined to reawaken in the Psalter (Pss. ii. and
+lxxii.), in the psalms of Solomon and in the days of Christ. See MESSIAH
+(and also the article "Messiah" in Hastings's _Dict. of Christ and the
+Gospels_).
+
+The next notable contribution to the permanent growth of Hebrew
+prophetic religion was made about a century after the lifetime of Isaiah
+by Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The reaction into idolatry and Babylonian star
+worship in the long reign of Manasseh synchronized and was connected
+with vassalage to Assyria, while the reformation in the reign of Josiah
+(621 B.C.) is conversely associated with the decay of Assyrian power
+after the death of Assur-bani-pal. That reformation failed to effect its
+purifying mission. The hurt of the daughter of God's people was but
+lightly healed (Jer. vi. 14, 15; cf. viii. 11, 12). No possibility of
+recovery now remained to the diseased Hebrew state. The outlook appeared
+indeed far darker to Jeremiah than it seemed more than a century before
+to Isaiah in the evil days of Jotham and Ahaz, "when the whole head was
+sick and the whole heart faint" (Isa. i. 5). Jeremiah foresaw that there
+was now no possibility of recovery. The Hebrew state was doomed and even
+its temple was to be destroyed. This involved an entire reconstruction
+of theological ideas which went beyond even the reconstructions of Amos
+and Isaiah. In the old religion the race or clan was the unit of
+religion as well as of social life. Properly speaking, the individual
+was related to God only through the externalities of the clan or tribal
+life, its common temple and its common _sacra_. But now that these
+external bases of the old religion were to be swept away, a
+reconstruction of religious ideas became necessary. For the external
+supports which had vanished Jeremiah substituted a basis which was
+_internal, personal and spiritual_ (i.e. _ethical_). In place of the old
+covenant based on external observance, which had been violated, there
+was to be a _new covenant_ which was to consist not in outward
+prescription, but in the law which God would place _in the heart_ (Jer.
+xxxi. 30-33). This was to take place by an act of divine grace (Jer.
+xxiv. 5 foll.): "I will give them an heart to know me that I am the
+Lord" (verse 7). Ezekiel, who borrowed both Jeremiah's language and
+ideas, expresses the same thought in the well-known words that Yahweh
+would give the people instead of a heart of stone a heart of flesh
+(Ezek. xi. 19, 20, xx. 40 foll., xxxvi. 25-27), and would shame them by
+his loving-kindness into repentance, and there "shall ye remember your
+ways and all your doings wherein ye have been defiled and ye shall
+loathe yourselves in your own sight" (xx. 43).
+
+_Personal religion_ now became an important element in Hebrew piety and
+upon this there logically followed the idea of _personal
+responsibility_. The solidarity of race or family was expressed in the
+old tradition reflected in Deut. v. 9, 10, that God would visit the sins
+of the fathers upon the children, and it lived on in later Judaism under
+exaggerated forms. The hopes of the individual Jew were based on the
+piety of holy ancestors. "We have Abraham as our father." But _Ezekiel_
+expressed the strong reaction which had set in against this belief in
+its older forms. He denies that the individual ever dies for the sins of
+the father. "The soul that sinneth, it (the pronoun emphasized in the
+original) shall die" (Ezek. xviii. 4). Neither Noah, Daniel nor Job
+could have rescued by his righteousness any but his own soul (xiv. 14).
+And as a further consequence _individual freedom_ is strongly asserted.
+It is possible for every sinner to turn to God and escape punishment,
+and conversely for a righteous man to backslide and fall. In the
+presence of these awful truths which Ezekiel preached of individual
+freedom and of impending judgment, the prophet is weighted with a heavy
+responsibility. It is his duty to warn every individual, for no sinner
+is to be punished without warning (Ezek. iii. 16 foll. xxxiii.).
+
+The closing years of the Judaean kingdom and the final destruction of
+the temple (586 B.C.) shattered the Messianic ideals cherished in the
+evening of Isaiah's lifetime and again in the opening years of the reign
+of Josiah. The untimely death of that monarch upon the battlefield of
+Megiddo (608 B.C.), followed by the inglorious reigns of the kings who
+succeeded him, who became puppets in turn of Egypt or of Babylonia,
+silenced for a while the Messianic hopes for a future king or line of
+kings of Davidic lineage who would rule a renovated kingdom in
+righteousness and peace. Even in the darkness of the exile period hopes
+did not die. Yet they no longer remained the same. In the Deutero-Isaiah
+(chaps. xl.-lv.) we have no longer a Jewish but a _foreign_ messiah. The
+onward progress of the Persian Cyrus and his anticipated conquest of
+Babylonia marked him out as Yahweh's anointed instrument for effecting
+the deliverance of exiled Israel and their restoration to their old home
+and city (Isa. xli. 2, xliv. 24, xlv.). This was, however, but a
+subsidiary issue and possesses no permanent spiritual significance. Of
+far more vital importance is the conception of Israel as God's
+_suffering servant_. This is not the place to enter into the prolonged
+controversy as to the real significance of this term, whether it
+signifies the nation Israel or the righteous community only, or finally
+an idealized prophetic individual who, like the prophet Jeremiah, was
+destined to suffer for the well-being of his people. Duhm, in his
+epoch-making commentary, distinguishes on the grounds of metre and
+contents _the four servant-passages_, in the last of which (lii.
+13-liii. 12) the ideal suffering servant of Yahweh is portrayed most
+definitely as an individual. In the "servant-passages" he is innocent,
+while in the rest of the Deutero-Isaiah he appears as by no means
+faultless, and the personal traits are not prominent. These views of
+Duhm, in which a severe distinction is thus drawn between the
+representation of Yahweh's servant in the servant-passages, and that
+which meets us in the rest of the Deutero-Isaiah, have been challenged
+by a succession of critics.[25] It is only necessary for us to take note
+of the ideal in its general features. It probably arose from the fact
+that the calamities from which Israel had suffered both before and
+during the exile had drawn the reflective minds of the race to the
+contemplation of the problem of suffering. The "servant of Yahweh"
+presents one aspect of the problem and its attempted solution, the book
+of Job another, while in the Psalms, e.g. Pss. xxii., xlii.-xliii.,
+lxxiii., lxxvii., other phases of the problem are presented. In the
+Deutero-Isaiah the meaning of Israel's sufferings is exhibited as
+vicarious. Israel is suffering for a great end. He suffers, is despised,
+rejected, chastened and afflicted that others may be blessed and be at
+peace through his chastisement. This noble conception of Israel's great
+destiny is conveyed in Isa. xlix. 6, in words which may be regarded as
+perhaps the noblest utterance in Hebrew prophecy: "To establish the
+tribes of Jacob and bring back the preserved of Israel is less important
+than being my servant. Yea, I will make you a light to the _Gentiles_
+that my salvation may be unto the end of the earth."[26] This passage,
+which belongs to the second of the brief "servant-songs," sets the
+mission of Israel in its true relation to the world. It is the necessary
+corollary to the teaching of Amos, that God is the righteous lord of all
+the world. If Jerusalem has been chosen as His sanctuary and Israel as
+His own people, it is only that Israel may diffuse God's blessings in
+the world even at the cost of Israel's own humiliation, exile and
+dispersion.
+
+The Deutero-Isaiah closes a great prophetic succession, which begins
+with Amos, continues in Isaiah in even greater splendour with the added
+elements of hope and Messianic expectation, and receives further
+accession in Jeremiah with his special teaching on inward spiritual and
+personal religion which constituted the new covenant of divine grace.
+Finally the Deutero-Isaiah conveyed to captive Israel the message of
+Yahweh's unceasing love and care, and the certainty of their return to
+Judaea and the restoration of the national prosperity which Ezekiel had
+already announced in the earlier period of the exile. To this is united
+the noble ideal of the suffering servant, which serves both as a
+contribution to the great problem of suffering as purifying and
+vicarious and as the interpretation to the mind of the nation itself of
+that nation's true function in the future, a lesson which the actual
+future showed that Israel was slow to receive. Nowhere in the Old
+Testament does the doctrine taught by Amos of Yahweh's universal power
+and sovereignty receive ampler and more splendid exposition than in the
+great lyrical passages of chap. xl. It marks the highest point to which
+the Hebrew race attained in its progress from henotheism to monotheism.
+Here again we see the wholesome influences of the exile. The Jew had
+passed from the narrow confines of his homeland into a wider world, and
+this larger vision of human life reacted on the prophet's theology. This
+closes the evolution of Hebrew prophetism. What immediately follows is
+on a descending slope with some striking exceptions, e.g. the book of
+Job and the book of Jonah.
+
+7. _Deuteronomic Legalism._--The book of Deuteronomy was the product of
+prophetic teaching operating on traditional custom, which was
+represented in its essential features by the two codes of legislation
+contained in Ex. xx. 24-xxiii. 19 (E) and Ex. xxxiv. 10-26 (J), but had
+also become tainted and corrupted by centuries of Canaanite influence
+and practice which especially infected the cult of the _high places_.
+The existence of "high places" is pre-supposed in those two ancient
+codes and is also presumed in the narratives of the documents E and J
+which contain them. But the prevalence of the worship of "other gods"
+and of graven images in these "high places," and the moral debasement of
+life which accompanied these cults, made it clear that the "high places"
+were sources of grave injury to Israel's social life. In all probability
+the reformation instituted in the reign of Hezekiah, to which 2 Kings
+xviii. 4 (cf. verse 22) refers, was only partial. It is hardly possible
+that all the high places were suppressed. The idolatrous reaction in the
+reign of Manasseh appears to have restored all the evils of the past and
+added to them. Another and more drastic reform than that which had been
+previously initiated (probably at the instigation of Isaiah and Micah)
+now became necessary to save the state. It is universally held by
+critics that our present book of Deuteronomy (certainly chaps.
+xii.-xxvi.) is closely connected with the reformation in the reign of
+Josiah. It is quite clear that many provisions in the old codes of J and
+E expanded lie at the basis of the book of Deuteronomy. But new features
+were added. We note for the first time definite regulations respecting
+Passover and the close union of that celebration with _Massoth_ or
+"unleavened bread." We note the laws respecting the clean and unclean
+animals (certainly based on ancient custom). Moreover, the prohibitions
+are strengthened and multiplied. In addition to the bare interdict of
+the sorceress (Ex. xxii. 18), of stone pillars to the Canaanite Baal, of
+the Asherah-pole, molten images and the worship of other gods than
+Yahweh (Ex. xxxiv. 13-17), we now have the strict prohibition of _any
+employment whatever_ of the stone-symbol (_Massebhah_), and of all forms
+of sorcery, soothsaying and necromancy (Deut. xviii. 10, 11. Respecting
+the stone-pillar see xvi. 22). But of much more far-reaching importance
+was the _law of the central sanctuary_ which constantly meets us in
+Deuteronomy in the reference to "the place (i.e. Jerusalem) which Yahweh
+your God shall choose out of all your tribes to put His name there"
+(xii. 5, xvi. 5, 11, 16, xxvi. 2). There alone all offerings of any kind
+were to be presented (xii. 6, 7, xvi. 7). By this positive enactment all
+the high places outside the one sanctuary in Jerusalem became
+illegitimate. A further consequence directly followed from the
+limitation as to sanctuary, viz. limitation as to the officiating
+ministers of the sanctuary. In the "book of the covenant" (Ex. xx.
+22-xxii. 19), as we have already seen, and in the general practice of
+the regal period, there was no limitation as to the priesthood, but a
+definite order of priesthood, viz. Levites, existed, to whom a higher
+professional prestige belonged. As it was impossible to find a place for
+the officiating priests of the high places, non-levitical as well as
+levitical, in the single sanctuary, it became necessary to restrict the
+functions of sacrifice to the Levites only as well as to the existing
+official priesthood of the Jerusalem temple (see PRIEST). Doubtless such
+a reform met with strong resistance from the disestablished and vested
+interests, but it was firmly supported by royal influence and by the
+Jerusalem priesthood as well as by the true prophets of Yahweh who had
+protested against the idolatrous usages and corruptions of the high
+places.
+
+The strong impress of Hebrew prophecy is to be found in the deeply
+marked ethical spirit of the Deuteronomic legislation. Love to God and
+love to man is stamped on a large number of its provisions. Love to God
+is emphasized in Deut. vi. 5, while love to man meets us in the constant
+reference to the fatherless and the widow (cf. especially Deut. xvi.).
+This note of philanthropy is frequently found as a mitigating element
+(e.g. in the laws respecting slavery and war)[27] that subdues or even
+removes the harshness of earlier laws or usages. It should be noted,
+however, that the spirit of brotherly love was confined within national
+barriers. It did not operate as a rule beyond the limits of race.
+
+The book of Deuteronomy, in conjunction with the reformation of Josiah's
+reign (which synchronizes with the rapid decline of Assyria and the
+reviving prestige of Yahweh), appeared to mark the triumph of the great
+prophetic movement. It became at once a codified standard of purer
+religious life and ultimately served as a beacon of light for the
+future. But there was shadow as well as light. We note (a) that though
+the book of Deuteronomy bears the prophetic impress, the priestly
+impress is perhaps more marked. The writer "evinces a warm regard for
+the priestly tribe; he guards its privileges (xviii. 1-8), demands
+obedience for its decisions (xxiv. 8; cf. xvii. 10-12) and earnestly
+commends its members to the Israelites' benevolence (xii. 18-19, xiv.
+27-29, &c.)."[28] (b) In many passages Jewish particularism is painfully
+manifest. Yahweh's care for other peoples does not appear. The flesh of
+a dead (unslaughtered) beast is not to be eaten, but it may be given to
+the "stranger within the gates"! (Deut. xiv. 21).[29] (c) Prophetic
+religion was a religion of the spirit which came to the messenger (Isa.
+lxi. 1) and expressed itself as a word of instruction of Yahweh
+(_torah_); see Isa. 1. 10. Now when the Hebrew religion was reduced to
+written form it began to be a book-religion, and since the book
+consisted of fixed rules and enactments, religion began to acquire a
+stereotyped character. It will be seen in the sequel that this was
+destined to be the growing tendency of Jewish religious life--to conform
+itself to prescribed rules, in other words, it became _legalism_. (d)
+Lastly, the old genial life of the high places, in which the "new moon"
+or Sabbath or the annual festival was a sacrificial feast of communion,
+in which the members of the local community or clan enjoyed fellowship
+with one another--all this picturesque life ceased to be. And though
+there was positive gain in the removal of idolatrous and corrupt modes
+of worship, there was also positive loss in the disappearance of this
+old genial phase of Hebrew social life and worship. It involved a vast
+difference to many a Judaean village when the festival pilgrimage was no
+longer made to the familiar local sanctuary with its hoary associations
+of ancient heroic or patriarchal story, but to a distant and
+comparatively unfamiliar city with its stately shrine and priesthood.
+
+8. _Ezekiel's System._--Ezekiel was the successor of Jeremiah and
+inherited his conceptions. But though the younger prophet adopted the
+ideas respecting personal religion and individual responsibility from
+the elder, the characters of the two men were very different. Jeremiah,
+when he foretold the destruction of the external state and temple
+ritual, found no resource save in a reconstruction that was internal and
+spiritual. In this he was true to his prophetic impulse and genius. But
+Ezekiel was, as Wellhausen well describes him, "a priest in prophet's
+mantle." While Jeremiah's tendency was spiritual and ideal, Ezekiel's
+was constructive and practical. He was the first to foretell with
+clearness the return of his people from captivity foreshadowed by
+Jeremiah, and he set himself the task even in the midnight darkness of
+Israel's exile to prepare for the nation's renewed life. The external
+bases of Israel's religion had been swept away, and in exchange for
+these Jeremiah had led his countrymen to the more permanent internal
+grounds of a spiritual renewal. But a religion could not permanently
+subsist in this world of space and time without some external concrete
+embodiment. It was the task of Ezekiel to take up once more the broken
+threads of Israel's religious traditions, and weave them anew into
+statelier forms of ritual and national polity. The priest-prophet's keen
+eye for detail, manifested in the elaborate vision of the wheels and
+living creatures (Ezek. i.) and in his lamentation on Tyre (chap.
+xxvii.), is also exhibited in the visions contained in chaps.
+xl.-xlviii., which describe the ideal reconstructed temple and theocracy
+of the restored Israel. The foreground is filled by the temple and its
+precincts. The officiating priests are now the descendants of the line
+of Zadok belonging to the tribe of Levi. Thus the priesthood is still
+further restricted as compared with the restriction already noted in the
+Deuteronomic legislation. It is the sons of Zadok only that have any
+right to offer sacrifice at the altar of burnt offering (xliii. 19,
+xliv. 15 foll.). The Levites, who formerly ministered in the high
+places, now discharge the subordinate offices of gate-keepers and
+slaughterers of the sacrificial victims.
+
+Another element in this ideal scheme which comes into prominence is the
+sharp distinction between _holy_ and _profane_. The word _holiness_
+(_qodesh_) in primitive Hebrew usage partook of the nature of taboo, and
+came to be applied to whatever, whether thing or person, stood in close
+relation to deity and belonged to him, and could not, therefore, be used
+or treated like other objects not so related, and so was separated or
+stood apart. The idea underlying the word, which to _us_ is invested
+with deep ethical meaning, had only this non-ethical, ritual
+significance in Ezekiel. Unlike the old temple and city, the ideal
+temple of Ezekiel is entirely separate from the city of Jerusalem. In
+the immediate surroundings of the temple there is an open space. Then
+come two concentric forecourts of the temple. The temple stands in the
+midst of what is called the _gizrah_ or space severed off. The outer
+court lies higher than the open space, the inner court higher still, and
+the temple-building in the centre highest of all. No heathen may tread
+the outer court, no layman the inner court, while the holiest of all may
+not be trodden even by the priest Ezekiel but only by the angel who
+accompanies him. "The temple-house has a graduated series of
+compartments increasing in sanctity inwards" (Davidson). In the
+innermost the presence of Yahweh abides.
+
+We are here moving in a realm of ideas prevailing in ancient Israel
+respecting _holiness_, _uncleanness_ and _sin_, which are ceremonial and
+not ethical; see especially Robertson Smith's _Religion of the Semites_,
+2nd ed., p. 446 foll. (additional note B.) on holiness, uncleanness and
+taboo. It is, of course, true that the ethical conception of sin as
+violation of righteousness and an act of rebellion against the divine
+righteous will had been developed since the days of Amos and Isaiah;
+but, as we have already observed, cultus and prophetic teaching were
+separated by an immense gulf, and in spite of the reformation of 621
+B.C. still remain separated. In the sacrificial system of sin-offerings
+(_hattath_ and _'asham_) we have to do with sin as ceremonial violation
+and neglect (frequently involuntary), or violation of holiness in the
+old sense of the term or as personal uncleanness (touching a corpse,
+eating unclean food, sexual impurity, &c.). In the historical evolution
+of Hebrew sacrifice it is remarkable how long this non-ethical and
+primitive survival of old custom still survived, even far into
+post-exilian times. (See SACRIFICE; also Moore's art. "Sacrifice" in
+_Ency. Bibl._)
+
+One conspicuous feature of Ezekiel's system is the predominance of
+piacular sacrifice. It undoubtedly existed in pre-exilian Israel,
+especially in times of crisis or calamity, for the appeasement of an
+offended deity (2 Sam. xxiv. 18 foll.), and in Deut. xxi. 1-9, we have
+details of the purificatory rite which was necessary when human blood
+was shed; but now and in the future propitiatory sacrifice and ideas of
+propitiation began to overshadow all the other forms of sacrifice and
+their ideas. Ezekiel prescribes a half-yearly ritual of sin-offering
+whereby atonement was to be made (xlv. 18-20). We shall see subsequently
+to what great institution this led the way.
+
+Ezekiel's system constituted an _ecclesiastical_ in place of a political
+organization, a _church-state_ in place of a nation. We clearly discern
+how this reacted on his Messianic conceptions. In his earlier oracles
+(xxxiv. 23 foll.) we find one shepherd ruling over united Israel, viz.
+Yahweh's servant David, whereas in the ideal scheme detailed in chap.
+xl. et seq. the role of the prince as a ruler is a very shadowy one. The
+prince, it is true, has a central domain, but his functions are
+ecclesiastical and subordinate and his powers strictly limited (xlvi.
+3-8, 12, 16-18).
+
+Thus the exile period marks the parting of the ways in the development
+of Hebrew religion. In the Deutero-Isaiah we reach the highest point in
+the evolution of prophetism. It is true that we have some noble
+resounding echoes in the lyrical passages lx.-lxii. In the Trito-Isaiah
+during the post-exilian period, and in such psalm literature as Pss.
+xxii., xxxvii., l., lxii., cvii., cxlv. 9-12 and others; and also in
+Isa. xxxv., which is obviously a lyrical reproduction of earlier
+literature. But it cannot be said that we possess in later literature
+any fresh contribution to the conception of God or any presentation of a
+higher ideal of human life[30] or national destiny than that which meets
+us in chap. xl. or in the servant-passages of the Deutero-Isaiah. It may
+with truth be said that _after Jeremiah we discern the parting of the
+ways_. The _first_ is represented by the Deutero-Isaiah, who constitutes
+the climax and close of Hebrew prophetism, which is henceforth (with the
+possible exception of the Trito-Isaiah, Malachi and Jonah, who reproduce
+some features of the earlier prophecy) a virtually arrested development.
+The _second path_ is that which is traced out by the priest-prophet
+Ezekiel, and is that of _legalism_, which was destined to secure a
+permanent place in the life and literature of the Jewish people. It is
+essentially the path which may be summed up in the word _Judaism_,
+though, as will be shown in the sequel, Judaism came to include many
+other factors. The statement, however, remains virtually true, since
+Judaism is mainly constituted by the body of legal precepts called the
+Torah, and, moreover, by the post-exilian Torah.
+
+9. _Post-exilian Law--The Priestercodex._[31]--The oracles of Malachi
+clearly reveal the continued influence of the book of Deuteronomy in his
+day. But the new conditions created by the return of the exiles and the
+germinating influence of Ezekiel's ideas developed a process of new
+legislative construction. The code of holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.) is the
+most obvious product of that influence. The ideas of expiation and
+atonement so prevalent in Ezekiel's scheme, which there find expression
+in the half-yearly sacrificial celebrations, are expressed in Lev. xvi.
+in the single _annual great fast of atonement_. It is impossible to
+enter here into the numerous details of that impressive ceremonial. Two
+special features, however, which characterize the celebration should
+here be noted: (a) The person of the _high priest_, who is throughout
+the entire drama the chief and indeed the sole actor. This supreme
+official, who was destined ultimately to take the place of the king in
+the church-nation of post-exilian Judaism, is mentioned for the first
+time in Zech. iii. 1[32] (in the person of Joshua). In the Priestercodex
+he stands at the head of the priests, who are, in the post-exilian
+system, the _sons of Aaron_ and possessed the sole right to offer the
+temple sacrifices. On the great day of atonement the high priest appears
+in a vicarious and representative capacity, and offers on behalf of the
+whole nation which he was considered to embody in his sacred person. (b)
+The rite of the _goat devoted to Azazel_. There can be little doubt
+that _Azazel_ was an evil demon (like an Arabic Jinn) of the desert. The
+goat set apart for Azazel was in the concluding part of the ceremonial
+brought before the high priest, who laid both his hands upon it and
+confessed over it the sins of the people. It was then carried off by an
+appointed person to a lonely spot and there set free.
+
+In later post-exilian times this great day of atonement became to an
+increasing degree a day of humiliation for sin and penitent sorrow,
+accompanied by confession; and the sins confessed were not only of a
+purely ceremonial character, whether voluntary or inadvertent, but also
+sins against righteousness and the duties which we owe to God and man.
+This element of public confession for sin became more prominent in the
+days when synagogal worship developed, and prayer took the place of the
+sacrificial offerings which could only be offered in the Jerusalem
+temple. The development of the priestly code of legislation
+(Priestercodex) was a gradual process, and probably occupied a
+considerable part of the 5th century B.C. The Hebrew race now definitely
+entered upon the new path of organized Jewish legalism which had been
+originally marked out for it by Ezekiel in the preceding century. It
+became a holy people on holy ground. Circumcision and Sabbath,
+separation from marriage with a foreigner, which rendered a Jew unclean,
+as well as strict conformity to the precepts of the Torah, constituted
+henceforth an adamantine bond which was to preserve the Jewish
+communities from disintegration.
+
+10. _The later Post-exilian Developments in Jewish Religion._--These may
+be briefly referred to under the following aspects:
+
+(a) _Codified law_ and the written record of the patriarchal history, as
+well as the life and work of the lawgiver Moses (to whom the entire body
+of law came to be ascribed), assumed an ever greater importance. The
+reverence felt for the canonized _Torah_ or law (the Pentateuch or
+so-called five books of Moses) grew even into worship. Of this spirit we
+find clear expression in some of the later psalms, e.g. the elaborate
+alphabetic Ps. cxix. and the latter portion of Ps. xix. There were
+various causes which combined to enhance the importance of the written
+_Torah_ (the "instruction" _par excellence_ communicated by God through
+Moses). Chief among these were (1) _The conception of God as
+transcendent_. We have taken due note of Amos, who unfolded the
+character of Yahweh as universal righteous sovereign; and also the
+sublime portrayal of His exalted nature in Isa. xl. (verse 15; cf.
+22-26, and Job xxxvi. 22-xlii. 6). The intellectual influence of Greece,
+manifested in Alexandrian philosophy, tended to remove God still further
+from the human world of phenomena into that of an inaccessible
+transcendental abstraction. Little, therefore, was possible for the Jew
+save strict performance of the requirements of the Torah, once for all
+given to Moses on Sinai, and, in his approach to the awful and unknown
+mystery, to rely on ceremonial and ascetic performances (see Wendt's
+_Teaching of Jesus_, i. 55 foll.). The same tendency led the pious
+worshippers to avoid His awful name and to substitute _Adonai_ in their
+scriptures or to use in the Mishna the term "name" (_shem_) or "heaven."
+(2) The _Maccabean conflict_ (165 B.C.) tended to accentuate the
+national sentiment of antagonism to Hellenic influence. The Hasidim or
+pious devotees, who arose at that time, were the originators of the
+Pharisaic movement which was conservative as well as national, and laid
+stress on the strict performance of the law.
+
+(b) _Eschatology_ in the Judaism of the Greek period began to assume a
+new form. The pre-exilian prophets (especially Isaiah) spoke of the
+forthcoming crisis in the world's history as a "day of the Lord." These
+were usually regarded as visitations of chastisement for national sins
+and vindications of divine righteousness or judgments, i.e. assertions
+of God's power as judge (_shophet_). By the older prophets this judgment
+of God or "day of Yahweh" was never held to be far removed from the
+horizon of the present or the world in which they lived. But now as we
+enter the Greek period (320 B.C. and onwards) there is a gradual change
+from prophecy to _apocalyptic_. "It may be asserted in general terms
+that whereas prophecy foretells a definite future which has its
+foundation in the present, apocalyptic directs its anticipations solely
+and simply to the future, to a new world-period which stands sharply
+contrasted with the present. The classical model for all apocalyptic is
+to be found in Dan. vii. It is only after a great war of destruction, a
+day of Yahweh's great judgment, that the dominion of God will begin"
+(Bousset). Ezek. xxxviii. and xxxix. clearly bear the apocalyptic
+character; so also Isa. xxxiv. and notably Isa. xxiv.-xxvii.
+Apocalyptic, as Baldensperger has shown, formed a counterpoise to the
+normal current of conformity to law. It arose from a spiritual movement
+in answer to the yearning of the heart: "O that Thou mightest rend the
+heavens and come down and the mountains quake at Thy presence!" (Isa.
+lxiv. 1 [Heb. lxiii. 19]); and it was intended to meet the craving of
+souls sick with waiting and disappointment. The present outlook was
+hopeless, but in the enlarged horizon of time as well as space the
+thoughts of some of the most spiritual minds in Judaism were directed to
+the transcendent and ultimate. The present world was corrupt and subject
+to Satan and the powers of darkness. This they called "the present
+_aeon_" (age). Their hopes were therefore directed to "the coming aeon."
+Between the two aeons there would take place the _advent of the
+Messiah_, who would lead the struggle with evil powers which was called
+"the agonies of the Messiah." This terrible intermezzo was no longer
+terrestrial, but was a cosmic and universal crisis in which the Messiah
+would emerge victorious from the final conflict with the heathen and
+demonic powers. This victory inaugurates the entrance of the "aeon to
+come," in which the faithful Jews would enter their inheritance. In this
+way we perceive the transformation of the old Messianic doctrine through
+apocalyptic. Of apocalyptic literature we have numerous examples
+extending from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. (See
+especially Charles's _Book of Enoch_.)
+
+The doctrine of the _resurrection of the righteous_ to life in the
+heavenly world became engrafted on to the old doctrine of Sheol, or the
+dark shadowy underworld (Hades), where life was joyless and feeble, and
+from which the soul might be for a brief space summoned forth by the
+arts of the necromancer. The most vivid portraiture of Sheol is to be
+found in the exilian passage Isa. xiv. 9-20 (cf. Job x. 21-22). With
+this also compare the Babylonian _Descent of Ishtar to Hades_. The added
+conception of the resurrection of the righteous does not appear in the
+world of Jewish thought till the early Greek period in Isa. xxvi. 19. R.
+H. Charles thinks that in this passage the idea of resurrection is of
+purely Jewish and not of Mazdaan (or Zoroastrian) origin, but it is
+otherwise with Dan. xii. 2; see his _Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and
+Christian_. Corresponding to heaven, the abode of the righteous, we have
+_Ge-henna_ (originally _Ge-Hinnom_, the scene of the Moloch rites of
+human sacrifice), the place of punishment after death for apostate Jews.
+
+(c) _Doctrine of Angels and of Hypostases._--In the writings of the
+pre-exilian period we have frequent references to supernatural
+personalities good and bad. It is only necessary to refer to them by
+name. _Sebaoth_, or "hosts," attached to the name of Yahweh, denoted the
+heavenly retinue of stars. The _seraphim_ were burning serpentine forms
+who hovered above the enthroned Yahweh and chanted the Trisagion in
+Isaiah's consecration vision (Isa. vi.). We have also constant
+references to "angels" (_malachim_) of God, divine messengers who
+represent Him and may be regarded as the manifestation of His power and
+presence. This especially applies to the "angel of Yahweh" or angel of
+His Presence [Ex. xxiii. 20, 23 (E). Note in Ex. xxxiii. 14 (J) he is
+called "my face" or "presence"[33] (cf. Isa. lxiii. 9)]. We also know
+that from earliest times Israel believed in the evil as well as good
+spirits. Like the Arabs they held that demons became incorporate in
+serpents, as in Gen. iii. The _nephilim_ were a monstrous brood begotten
+of the intercourse of the supernatural beings called "sons of God" with
+the women of earth. We also read of the "evil spirit" that came upon
+Saul. Contact with Babylonia tended to stimulate the angelology and
+demonology of Israel. The Hebrew word _shed_ or "demon" is no more than
+a Babylonian loan word, and came to designate the deities of foreign
+peoples degraded into the position of demons.[34] _Lilith_, the
+blood-sucking night-hag of the post-exilian Isa. xxxiv. 14, is the
+Babylonian _Lilatu_. Whether the _se'irim_ or shaggy satyrs (Isa. xiii.
+31; Lev. xvii. 7) and _Azazel_ were of Babylonian origin it is difficult
+to determine. The emergence of _Satan_ as a definite supernatural
+personality, the head or prince of the world of evil spirits, is
+entirely a phenomenon of post-exilian Judaism. He is portrayed as the
+arch-adversary and accuser of man. It is impossible to deny Persian
+influence in the development of this conception, and that the Persian
+Ahriman (Angromainyu), the evil personality opposed to the good, Ahura
+Mazda, moulded the Jewish counterpart, Satan. But in Judaism
+monotheistic conceptions reigned supreme, and the Satan of Jewish belief
+as opposed to God stops short of the dualism of Persian religion. Of
+this we see evidence in the multiplication of Satans in the Book of
+Enoch. In the Book of Jubilees he is called _mastema_. In later Judaism
+_Sammael_ is the equivalent of Satan. Persian influence is also
+responsible for the _vast multiplication of good spirits or angels_,
+Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, &c., who play their part in apocalyptic
+works, such as the Book of Daniel and the Book of Enoch.
+
+Probably the transcendent nature of the deity in the Judaism of this
+later period made the interposition of mediating spirits an intellectual
+necessity (cf. Ps. civ. 4). It also stimulated the creation of _divine
+hypostases_. First among these may be mentioned _Wisdom_. The roots of
+this conception belong to pre-exilian times, in which the "word" of
+divine denunciation was regarded as a quasi-material thing. (It is
+hurled against offending Israel, Isa. ix. 8.). In the post-exilian
+cosmogony it is the divine word or fiat that creates the world (Gen. i.;
+cf. Ps. xxxiii. 6, 9). Out of these earlier conceptions the idea of the
+divine wisdom (Heb. _hokhmah_) gradually arose during the Persian
+period. The expression "wisdom," as it is employed in the _locus
+classicus_, Prov. viii., connotes the contents of the Divine reason--His
+conscious life, out of which created things emerge. This wisdom is
+personified. It dwelt with God (Prov. viii. 22 foll.) before the world
+was made. It is the companion of His throne, and by it He made the world
+(Prov. iii. 19, viii. 27; cf. Ps. civ. 24). It, moreover, enters into
+the life of the world and especially man (Prov. viii. 31). This
+conception of wisdom became still further hypostatized. It becomes
+redemptive of man. In the Wisdom of Solomon it is the sharer of God's
+throne ([Greek: paredros]), the effulgence of the eternal light and the
+outflow of His glory (Wisd. vii. 25, viii. 3 foll., ix. 4, 9); "Them
+that love her the Lord doth love" (Ecclesiasticus iv. 14). This group of
+ideas culminated in the Logos of Philo, expressing the world of divine
+ideas which God first of all creates and which becomes the mediating and
+formative power between the absolute and transcendent deity and passive
+formless matter, transmuted thereby into a rational, ordered universe.
+
+In later Jewish literature we meet with further examples of similar
+hypostases in the form of _Memra_, _Metatron_, _Shechinah_, _Holy
+Spirit_ and _Bath kol_.
+
+(d) The doctrine of _pre-existence_ is another product of the
+speculative tendency of the Jewish mind. The Messiah's pre-existent
+state before the creation of the world is asserted in the Book of Enoch
+(xlviii. 6, 7). Pre-existence is also asserted of Moses and of sacred
+institutions such as the New Jerusalem, the Temple, Paradise, the Torah,
+&c. (Apocal. of Baruch iv. 3-lix. 4; Assumptio Mosis i. 14, 17);
+Edersheim's _Life and Times of the Messiah_, i. 175 and footnote 1.
+
+11. _Christ resumes the Broken Tradition of Prophetism._--The Psalms of
+Solomon and the synoptic Gospels (70 B.C.-A.D. 100) clearly reveal the
+powerful revival of Messianic hopes of a national deliverer of the seed
+of David. This Messianic expectation had been a fermenting leaven since
+the great days of Judas Maccabaeus. The conceptions of Jesus of
+Nazareth, however, were not the Messianic conceptions of his
+fellow-countrymen, but of the spiritual "son of man" destined to found
+a kingdom of God which was righteousness and peace. The Torah of Jesus
+was essentially prophetic and in no sense priestly or legal. The
+arrested prophetic movement of Jeremiah and Deutero-Isaiah reappears in
+John the Baptist and Jesus after an interval of more than five
+centuries. The new covenant of redeeming grace--the righteousness which
+is in the heart and not in externalities of legal observance or
+ceremonial--are once more proclaimed, and the exalted ideals of the
+suffering servant of Isa. xlix. 6 and Isa. liii. (nearly suppressed in
+the Targum of Jonathan) are reasserted and vindicated by the words and
+life of Jesus. Like Jeremiah He foretold the destruction of the temple
+and suffered the extreme penalties of anti-patriotism. And thus Israel's
+old prophetic Torah was at length to achieve its victory, for after
+Jesus came St Paul. "Many shall come from the east and the west and sit
+down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven" (Matt.
+viii. 11, 12). The fetters of nationalism were to be broken, and the
+Hebrew religion in its essential spiritual elements was to become the
+heritage of all humanity.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--1. On Semitic religion generally: Wellhausen's _Reste
+  des arabischen Heidentums_ (2nd ed.) and Robertson Smith's _Religion
+  of the Semites_ (2nd ed.) are chiefly to be recommended. Barton's
+  _Semitic Origins_ is extremely able, but his doctrine of the
+  derivation of male from original female deities is pushed to an
+  extreme. Bathgen's _Beitrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_
+  (1888) is most useful, and contains valuable epigraphic material.
+  Baudissin's _Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_ (1876) is
+  still valuable. See also Kuenen's _National Religions and Universal
+  Religions_ (Hibbert lectures) and Lagrange's _Etudes sur les religions
+  semitiques_ (2nd ed.).
+
+  2. On Hebrew religion in particular: specially full and helpful is
+  Kautzsch's article "Religion of Israel" in Hastings's D.B., extra
+  vol.; Marti's recent _Religion des A.T._ (1906) and his _Geschichte
+  der israelitischen Religion_, are clear, compact and most serviceable,
+  and the former work presents the subject in fresh and suggestive
+  aspects. Wellhausen's _Prolegomena_ and _Judische Geschichte_ should
+  be read both for criticism and Hebrew history generally. Duhm's
+  _Theologie der Propheten_ and Robertson Smith's _Prophets of Israel_
+  should also be consulted. Strongly to be recommended are Smend,
+  _Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte_; Bennett,
+  _Theology of the Old Testament_ and _Religion of the Post-Exilic
+  Prophets_; A. B. Davidson, _The Theology of the Old Testament_, as
+  well as the sections devoted to "Sacralaltertumer" in the _Hebraische
+  Archaologie_ both of Benzinger and also of Nowack. Budde's _Die
+  Religion des Volkes Israel bis zur Verbannung_, as well as Addis's
+  recent _Hebrew Religion_ (1906), is a most careful and scholarly
+  compendium. Harper's Introd. to his _Commentary on Amos and Hosea_ (I.
+  and T. Clark) contains a useful survey of the history of Hebrew
+  religion before the 8th century. Buchanan Gray's _Divine Discipline of
+  Israel_, and A. S. Peake's _Problem of Suffering in the O.T._, are
+  suggestive. See also S. A. Cook, _Religion of Ancient Palestine_.
+
+  3. On the history of Judaism till the time of Christ, Schurer's
+  _Geschichte des judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Christi_ (3rd ed.), vol.
+  ii. and in part vol. iii., are indispensable. Bousset's _Religion des
+  Judentums_ (2nd ed.), and Volz, _Die judische Eschatologie von Daniel
+  bis Akiba_, are highly to be commended. Weber's _Judische Theologie_
+  is a useful compendium of the theology of later Judaism.
+
+  4. On the special department of eschatology the standard works are R.
+  H. Charles, _Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and Christian_, and Schwally,
+  _Das Leben nach dem Tode_, as well as Gressmann's suggestive work _Der
+  Ursprung der israelitisch-judischen Eschatologie_, which contains,
+  however, much that is speculative. On apocalyptic generally the
+  introductions to Charles's Book of Enoch, Apocalypse of Baruch,
+  Ascension of Isaiah and Book of Jubilees, should be carefully noted.
+  See also ESCHATOLOGY.
+
+  5. On the religion of Babylonia, Jastrow's work is the standard one.
+  Zimmern's Heft ii. in _K.A.T._ (3rd ed.) is specially important to the
+  Old Testament student. See also W. Schrank, _Babylonische Suhnriten_.
+       (O. C. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Bathgen, _Beitrage zur semit. Religionsgesch._ p. 11 (Edom);
+    and cf. Schrader, C.O.T. i. 137; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), p. 472 foll. See
+    also _Beitrage_, pp. 13-15; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), pp. 469-472.
+
+  [2] _Z.D.M.G._ (1886). It is impossible to discuss the other theories
+    of the origin of this name. See Driver, _Commentary on Genesis_,
+    excursus i. pp. 404-406.
+
+  [3] The Tell el-Amarna despatches are crowded with evidences of
+    Canaanite forms and idioms impressed on the Babylonian language of
+    these cuneiform documents. _Ilani_ here simply corresponds to the
+    Canaanite _Elohim_. See opening of the letters of Abimelech of Tyre,
+    Bezold's _Oriental Diplomacy_, Nos. 28, 29, 30.
+
+  [4] "Magic and Social Relations" in _Sociological Papers_, ii. 160.
+
+  [5] See Kautzsch, "Religion of Israel," in Hastings's _Dict. of the
+    Bible_, extra vol., p. 614.
+
+  [6] See Benzinger, _Hebraische Archaologie_, pp. 152, 297 foll. (1st
+    ed.).
+
+  [7] The theory was opposed by Noldeke, 1886 (_Z.D.M.G._ p. 157
+    foll.), as well as Wellhausen, and since then by Jacobs and Zapletal.
+    (_Der Totemismus u. die Religion Israels_). See Stanley A. Cook,
+    "Israel and Totemism," in _J.Q.R._ (April, 1902).
+
+  [8] These sacred arks were carried in procession accompanied by
+    symbolic figures. We note in this connexion the form of a sacred bark
+    represented in Meyer's _Hist. of Egypt_ (Oncken series), p. 257, viz.
+    the procession carrying the sacred ark and the bark of the god Amon
+    belonging to the reign of Rameses II. (Lepsius, _Denkmaler_, iii.
+    189b). See also Birch, _Egypt_ (S.P.C.K.), p. 151 (ark of Khonsu);
+    cf. Jeremias, _Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_ (2nd ed.), pp.
+    436-441.
+
+  [9] Cf. Zimmern in _Z.D.M.G._ (1904), pp. 199 foll., 458 foll. This
+    view is based on Dr Pinches's discovered list in which _Sapatti_ is
+    called the 15th day (_Proc. of the Soc. of Biblical Arch._, p. 51
+    foll.). See A. Jeremias, _Das A. T. im Lichte des alten Orients_ (2nd
+    ed.), pp. 182-187. Marti, in his stimulating work _Religion des
+    A.T._, pp. 5, 72, advocates the exclusive reference of the word
+    Sabbath to the full moon until the time of Ezekiel on the basis of
+    Meinhold's arguments in _Sabbat u. Woche im A.T._ The latter regards
+    Ezekiel as the organizer of the Jewish community and the originator
+    of the sanctity of the Sabbath as a seventh day (Ezek. xlvi. 1; cf.
+    Ezek. xx. 12, 13, 16, 20, 24, xxii. 8, 26, xxiii. 38, in which the
+    reproaches for the profanation or neglect of the Sabbath in no way
+    sustain Meinhold's view). In opposition to Meinhold, see Lotz in
+    _P.R.E._ (3rd ed., art. "Sabbath," vol. xvii. pp. 286-289). To this
+    Meinhold replies in _Z.A.T.W._ (1909), p. 81 f. Cf. also Hehn,
+    _Siebenzahl und Sabbat_. While admitting that a special significance
+    may have been attached in pre-exilian times to the full-moon Sabbath,
+    and that the latter may have been specially intended in the
+    combination "new moon and Sabbath" in the 8th-century prophets (Hos.
+    ii. 13; Amos viii. 5; Isa. i. 13), we are not prepared to deny that
+    the institution of a seventh-day Sabbath was an ancient pre-exilian
+    tradition. The sacredness of the number seven is based on the seven
+    planetary deities to whom each day of the week was respectively
+    dedicated, i.e. was astral in origin. Cf. _C.O.T._ i. 18 foll., and
+    Winckler, _Religionsgeschichtlicher u. geschichtlicher Orient_, p.
+    39. See also _K.A.T._ (3rd ed.), pp. 620-626. In the Old Testament
+    the sanctity of the number seven is clearly fundamental (e.g. in the
+    Nif'al form _nisba'_, "to swear," in the derivative subst. for
+    "oath," in Beer-sheba', &c.). The seventh day of rest was parallel to
+    the seventh year of release and of the fallow field. It is,
+    therefore, impossible to detach Ex. xxiii. 12 from Ex. xxi. 2. xxiii.
+    10 foll.; cf. Ex. xxxiv. 21. We therefore hold that the law of the
+    seventh-day Sabbath goes back to the Mosaic age. The general
+    coincidence of the Sabbath or seventh day with the easily recognized
+    first quarter and full moon established its sacred character as
+    _lunar_ as well as planetary.
+
+  [10] The tablet is neo-Babylonian and published by Dr Pinches in the
+    _Transactions of the Victoria Institute_, and is cited by Professor
+    Fried. Delitzsch in the notes appended to his first lecture _Babel u.
+    Bibel_ (5th German ed., p. 81 ad fin. and p. 82). On this subject of
+    Babylonian influence over Israel see Jeremias, _Monotheistische
+    Stromungen innerhalb der babylonischen Religion_, and E. Baentsch,
+    _Altorientalischer u. israelitischer Monotheismus_. The text and
+    rendering of the passage are doubtful in the cuneiform letter
+    discovered by Sellin in Ta'annek (biblical Ta'anach, near Megiddo)
+    addressed by Ahi-jawi (? Ahijah) to Ishtar-wasur, in which the
+    following remarkable phrases are read: "May the Lord of the gods
+    protect thy life.... Above thy head is one who is above the towns.
+    See now whether he will show thee good. When he reveals his face,
+    then will they be put to shame and the victory will be complete." The
+    letter appears to belong to about 1400 B.C. See A. Jeremias, _Das
+    A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_ (2nd ed.), pp. 315, 316, 323.
+    Sellin, _Ertrag der Ausgrabungen im Orient_.
+
+  [11] The allusion in Amos ii. 7; Hos. iv. 13, 14 is sufficiently
+    explicit; cf. Jer. ii. 20-23, iii. 6-11, v. 7, 8. The practice is
+    prohibited in Deut. xxiii. 17.
+
+  [12] Column i. 15, 16, 42, 43, ii. 128, iii. 30, 31, iv. 47, 48, &c.
+    Probably we should regard them as differentiated _hypostases_.
+
+  [13] Hence the 'Ashtaroth or offspring of flocks in Deut. vii. 13,
+    xxviii. 18. A like function belonged to the Babylonian Ishtar. See
+    "Descent of Ishtar to Hades," Rev. lines 6-10, where universal
+    non-intercourse of sexes follows Ishtar's departure from earth to
+    Hades.
+
+  [14] _Proleg. Gesch. Israels_ (2nd ed.), p. 240 foll., cf. p. 258.
+
+  [15] _Internat. Crit. Commentary, Judges_, Introd. p. xxx., also p.
+    367 foll.
+
+  [16] [Hebrew: leva] "priest," [Hebrew: levat] "priestess"; see
+    Hommel, _Sud-arabische Chrestomathie_, p. 127; _Ancient Hebrew
+    Tradition_, p. 278 foll.
+
+  [17] Moore regards this verse as belonging to the J or older
+    document, _op. cit._ p. 367.
+
+  [18] Similarly in ancient Greece. See the instructive passage in
+    Aristotle, _Nic. Eth._ viii. 9 (4, 5), on the relation of Greek
+    sacrifices and festivals to [Greek: koinoniai] and politics: [Greek:
+    ai gar archaiai thusiai kai sunodoi phainontai gignesthai met a tas
+    ton karpon sugkomidas oion aparchai]; cf. Grote on Pan-Hellenic
+    festivals, _History of Greece_, vol. iii., ch. 28.
+
+  [19] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentums_ (2nd ed.), p. 89.
+
+  [20] Though this be an interpolated gloss (Thenius, Budde), it states
+    a significant truth as Kautzsch clearly shows, _op. cit._ p. 672. In
+    Micah iii. 7 the _hozeh_ is mentioned in a sense analogous to the
+    _ro'eh_ or "seer," and coupled with the _qosem_ or "soothsayer," viz.
+    as spurious; cf. Deut. xviii. 10.
+
+  [21] No better derivation is forthcoming of the word _nabhi'_,
+    "prophet," than that it is a Katil form of the root _naba_ = Assyr.
+    _nabu_, "speak."
+
+  [22] In Isa. iii. 2 the soothsayer is placed on a level with the
+    judge, prophet and elder.
+
+  [23] Kautzsch, in his profoundly learned article on the "Religion of
+    Israel," to which frequent reference has been made, exhibits (pp.
+    669-671) an excess of scepticism, in our opinion, towards the views
+    propounded by Gunkel in 1895 (_Schopfung und Chaos_) respecting the
+    intimate connexion between the early Hebrew cosmogonic ideas and
+    those of Babylonia. Stade indeed (_Z.A.T.W._, 1903, pp. 176-178)
+    maintained that the conception of Yahweh as creator of the world
+    could not have arisen till after the middle of the 8th century as the
+    result of prophetic teaching, and that it was not till the time of
+    Ezekiel that Babylonian conceptions entered the world of Hebrew
+    thought in any fulness. Such a theory appears to ignore the
+    remarkable results of archaeology since 1887. At that time Stade's
+    position might have appeared reasonable. It was the conclusion to
+    which Wellhausen's brilliant literary analysis, when not supplemented
+    by the discoveries at Tell el-Amarna and Tell el-Hesi, appeared to
+    many scholars (by no means all) inevitably to conduct us. But the
+    years 1887 to 1891 opened many eyes to the fact that the Hebrews
+    lived their life on the great highways of intercourse between Egypt
+    on the one hand, and Babylonia, Assyria and the N. Palestinian states
+    on the other, and that they could scarcely have escaped the
+    all-pervading Babylonian influences of 2000-1400 B.C. It is now
+    becoming clearer every day, especially since the discovery of the
+    laws of Khammurabi, that, if we are to think sanely about Hebrew
+    history _before_ as well as after the exile, we can only think of
+    Israel as part of the great complex of Semitic and especially
+    Canaanite humanity that lived its life in western Asia between 2000
+    and 600 B.C.; and that while the Hebrew race maintained by the aid of
+    prophetism its own individual and exalted place, it was not less
+    susceptible _then_, than it has been since, to the moulding
+    influences of great adjacent civilizations and ideas. Cf. C. H. W.
+    Johns in _Interpreter_, pp. 300-304 (in April 1906), on prophetism in
+    Babylonia.
+
+  [24] There is some danger in too strictly construing the language of
+    the prophets and also the psalmists. It is not to be supposed that
+    either Amos or Isaiah would have countenanced the total suppression
+    of all sacrificial observance. It was the existing ceremonial
+    observance _divorced from the ethical piety_ that they denounced. The
+    speech of prophecy is poetical and rhetorical, not strictly defined
+    and logical like that of a modern essayist. See Moore in _Encyc.
+    Bibl._, "Sacrifice," col. 4222.
+
+  [25] Viz. Budde in _Die so-genannten Ebed-Jahweh Lieder u. die
+    Bedeutung des Knechtes Jahwehs in Jes. xl.-lv._ (Giessen, 1900); Karl
+    Marti in his well-known commentary on Isaiah, and F. Giesebrecht,
+    _Der Knecht Jahwes des Deuterojesaja_. The special servant-songs
+    which Duhm asserts can be readily detached from the texture of the
+    Deutero-Isaiah without disturbance to its integrity are Isa. xlii.
+    1-4, xlix. 1-6, l. 4-9, lii. 13-liii. 12.
+
+  [26] We have here followed Dillmann's construction of a difficult
+    passage which Duhm attempts to simplify by omission of the
+    complicating clause without altering the general sense.
+
+  [27] Thus in comparison with the "book of the covenant," Deuteronomy
+    adds the stipulation in reference to the release of the slave; that
+    his master was to provide him liberally from his flocks, his corn and
+    his wine (Deut. xv. 13, 14). See Hastings's _D.B._, arts. "Servant,"
+    "Slave," p. 464, where other examples may be found. In war
+    fruit-trees are to be spared (Deut. xx. 19 foll.), whereas the old
+    universal practice is the barbarous custom Elisha commended (2 Kings
+    iii. 19) of ruthlessly destroying them.
+
+  [28] Driver, _Internat. Commentary on Deuteronomy_, Introd. p. xxx.
+
+  [29] It should be noted that in P (Code of Holiness) Lev. xvii. 15
+    foll. the resident alien (_ger_) is placed on an equality with the
+    Jew.
+
+  [30] We shall have to note the emergence of the doctrine of the
+    _resurrection of the righteous_ in later Judaism, which is obviously
+    a fresh contribution of permanent value to Hebrew doctrine. On the
+    other hand, the doctrine of _pre-existence_ is speculative rather
+    than religious, and applies to institutions rather than persons.
+
+  [31] The legislative portions are mainly comprised in Ex. xxxv.-end,
+    Leviticus entire and Num. i.-x.
+
+  [32] But this term (literally the _chief_ priest) was already in use
+    during the regal period to designate the head priest of an important
+    sanctuary such as Jerusalem (2 Kings xii. 11).
+
+  [33] Cf. the Phoenician parallel of "Face of Baal," worshipped as
+    Tanit, "queen of Heaven" (Bathgen, _Beitrage zur Semit.
+    Religionsgeschichte_, p. 55 foll.); also the place Penuel (face of
+    God).
+
+  [34] Deut. xxxii. 17; Ps. cvi. 37. Baal Zebub of the Philistine Ekron
+    became the Beelzebub who was equivalent to Satan.
+
+
+
+
+HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the books of the New Testament. In the
+oldest MSS. it bears no other title than "To Hebrews." This brief
+heading embraces all that on which Christian tradition from the end of
+the 2nd century was unanimous; and it says no more than that the readers
+addressed were Christians of Jewish extraction. This would be no
+sufficient address for an epistolary writing (xiii. 22) directed to a
+definite circle of readers, to whose history repeated reference is made,
+and with whom the author had personal relations (xiii. 19, 23).
+Probably, then, the original and limited address, or rather salutation,
+was never copied when this treatise in letter form, like the epistle to
+the Romans, passed into the wider circulation which its contents
+merited. In any case the Roman Church, where the first traces of the
+epistle occur, about A.D. 96 (1 Clement), had nothing to contribute to
+the question of authorship except the negative opinion that it was not
+by Paul (Euseb. _Eccl. Hist._ iii. 3): yet this central church was in
+constant connexion with provincial churches.
+
+The earliest positive traditions belong to Alexandria and N. Africa. The
+Alexandrine tradition can be traced back as far as a teacher of Clement,
+presumably Pantaenus (Euseb. _Eccl. Hist._ vi. 14), who sought to
+explain why Paul did not name himself as usual at the head of the
+epistle. Clement himself, taking it for granted that an epistle to
+Hebrews must have been written in Hebrew, supposes that Luke translated
+it for the Greeks. Origen implies that "the men of old" regarded it as
+Paul's, and that some churches at least in his own day shared this
+opinion. But he feels that the language is un-Pauline, though the
+"admirable" thoughts are not second to those of Paul's unquestioned
+writings. Thus he is led to the view that the ideas were orally set
+forth by Paul, but that the language and composition were due to some
+one giving from memory a sort of free interpretation of his teacher's
+mind. According to some this disciple was Clement of Rome; others name
+Luke; but the truth, says Origen, is known to God alone (Euseb. vi. 25,
+cf. iii. 38). Still from the time of Origen the opinion that Paul wrote
+the epistle became prevalent in the East. The earliest African
+tradition, on the other hand, preserved by Tertullian[1] (_De
+pudicitia_, c. 20), but certainly not invented by him, ascribed the
+epistle to Barnabas. Yet it was perhaps, like those named by Origen,
+only an inference from the epistle itself, as if a "word of exhortation"
+(xiii. 22) by the Son of Exhortation (Acts iv. 36; see BARNABAS). On the
+whole, then, the earliest traditions in East and West alike agree in
+effect, viz. that our epistle was not by Paul, but by one of his
+associates.
+
+This is also the twofold result reached by modern scholarship with
+growing clearness. The vacillation of tradition and the dissimilarity of
+the epistle from those of Paul were brought out with great force by
+Erasmus. Luther (who suggests Apollos) and Calvin (who thinks of Luke or
+Clement) followed with the decisive argument that Paul, who lays such
+stress on the fact that his gospel was not taught him by man (Gal. i.),
+could not have written Heb. ii. 3. Yet the wave of reaction which soon
+overwhelmed the freer tendencies of the first reformers, brought back
+the old view until the revival of biblical criticism more than a century
+ago. Since then the current of opinion has set irrevocably against any
+form of Pauline authorship. Its type of thought is quite unique. The
+Jewish Law is viewed not as a code of ethics or "works of
+righteousness," as by Paul, but as a system of religious rites (vii. 11)
+shadowing forth the way of access to God in worship, of which the Gospel
+reveals the archetypal realities (ix. 1, 11, 15, 23 f., x. 1 ff., 19
+ff.). The Old and the New Covenants are related to one another as
+imperfect (earthly) and perfect (heavenly) forms of the same method of
+salvation, each with its own type of sacrifice and priesthood. Thus the
+conception of Christ as High Priest emerges, for the first time, as a
+central point in the author's conception of Christianity. The Old
+Testament is cited after the Alexandrian version more exclusively than
+by Paul, even where the Hebrew is divergent. Nor is this accidental.
+There is every appearance that the author was a Hellenist who lacked
+knowledge of the Hebrew text, and derived his metaphysic and his
+allegorical method from the Alexandrian rather than the Palestinian
+schools. Yet the epistle has manifest Pauline affinities, and can hardly
+have originated beyond the Pauline circle, to which it is referred not
+only by the author's friendship with Timothy (xiii. 23), but by many
+echoes of the Pauline theology and even, it seems, of passages in Paul's
+epistles (see Holtzmann, _Einleitung in das N. T._, 1892, p. 298). These
+features early suggested Paul as the author of a book which stood in
+MSS. immediately after the epistles of that apostle, and contained
+nothing in its title to distinguish it from the preceding books with
+like headings, "To the Romans," "To the Corinthians," and the like. A
+similar history attaches to the so-called Second Epistle of Clement (see
+CLEMENTINE LITERATURE).
+
+Everything turns, then, on internal criticism of the epistle, working on
+the distinctive features already noticed, together with such personal
+allusions as it affords. As to its first readers, with whom the author
+stood in close relations (xiii. 19, 23, cf. vi. 10, x. 32-34), it used
+generally to be agreed that they were "Hebrews" or Christians of Jewish
+birth. But, for a generation or so, it has been denied that this can be
+inferred simply from the fact that the epistle approaches all Christian
+truth through Old Testament forms. This, it is said, was the common
+method of proof, since the Jewish scriptures were the Word of God to all
+Christians alike. Still it remains true that the exclusive use of the
+argument from Mosaism, as itself implying the Gospel of Jesus the Christ
+as final cause ([Greek: telos]), does favour the view that the readers
+were of Jewish origin. Further there is no allusion to the incorporation
+of "strangers and foreigners" (Eph. ii. 19) with the people of God. Yet
+the readers are not to be sought in Jerusalem (see e.g. ii. 3), nor
+anywhere in Judaea proper. The whole Hellenistic culture of the epistle
+(let alone its language), and the personal references in it, notably
+that to Timothy in xiii. 23, are against any such view: while the doubly
+emphatic "all" in xiii. 24 suggests that those addressed were but part
+of a community composed of both Jews and Gentiles. Caesarea, indeed, as
+a city of mixed population and lying just outside Judaea proper--a
+place, moreover, where Timothy might have become known during Paul's two
+years' detention there--would satisfy many conditions of the problem.
+Yet these very conditions are no more than might exist among intensely
+Jewish members of the Dispersion, like "the Jews of Asia" (cf. Sir W. M.
+Ramsay, _The Letters to the Seven Churches_, 155 f.), whose zeal for the
+Temple and the Mosaic ritual customs led to Paul's arrest in Jerusalem
+(Acts xix. 27 f., cf. 20 f.), in keeping both with his former
+experiences at their hands and with his forebodings resulting therefrom
+(xx. 19, 22-24). Our "Hebrews" had obviously high regard for the
+ordinances of Temple worship. But this was the case with the dispersed
+Jews generally, who kept in touch with the Temple, and its intercessory
+worship for all Israel, in every possible way; in token of this they
+sent with great care their annual contribution to its services, the
+Temple tribute. This bond was doubtless preserved by Christian
+Hellenists, and must have tended to continue their reliance on the
+Temple services for the forgiveness of their recurring "sins of
+ignorance"--subsequent to the great initial Messianic forgiveness coming
+with faith in Jesus. Accordingly many of them, while placing their hope
+for the future upon Messiah and His eagerly expected return in power,
+might seek assurance of present forgiveness of daily offences and
+cleansing of conscience in the old mediatorial system. In particular the
+annual Day of Atonement would be relied on, and that in proportion as
+the expected Parousia tarried, and the first enthusiasm of a faith that
+was largely eschatological died away, while ever-present temptation
+pressed the harder as disappointment and perplexity increased.
+
+Such was the general situation of the readers of this epistle, men who
+rested partly on the Gospel and partly on Judaism. For lack of a true
+theory as to the relation between the two, they were now drifting away
+(ii. 1) from effective faith in the Gospel, as being mainly future in
+its application, while Judaism was a very present, concrete, and
+impressive system of religious aids--to which also their sacred
+scriptures gave constant witness. The points at which it chiefly touched
+them may be inferred from the author's counter-argument, with its
+emphasis in the spiritual ineffectiveness of the whole Temple-system,
+its high-priesthood and its supreme sacrifice on the Day of Atonement.
+With passionate earnestness he sets over against these his constructive
+theory as to the efficacy, the heavenly yet unseen reality, of the
+definitive "purification of sins" (i. 3) and perfected access to God's
+inmost presence, secured for Christians as such by Jesus the Son of God
+(x. 9-22), and traces their moral feebleness and slackened zeal to want
+of progressive insight into the essential nature of the Gospel as a
+"new covenant," moving on a totally different plane of religious reality
+from the now antiquated covenant given by Moses (viii. 13).
+
+The following plan of the epistle may help to make apparent the writer's
+theory of Christianity as distinct from Judaism, which is related to it
+as "shadow" to reality:
+
+  _Thesis_: The finality of the form of religion mediated in God's Son,
+  i. 1-4.
+
+  i. The supreme excellence of the Son's Person (i. 5-iii. 6), as
+  compared with (a) angels, (b) Moses.
+
+  Practical exhortation, iii. 7-iv. 13, leading up to:
+
+  ii. The corresponding efficacy of the Son's High-priesthood (iv.
+  14-ix.).
+
+  (1) The Son has the qualifications of all priesthood, especially
+  sympathy.
+
+  Exhortation, raising the reader's thought to the height of the topic
+  reached (v. 11-vi. 20).
+
+  (2) The Son as absolute high priest, in an order transcending the
+  Aaronic (vii.) and relative to a Tabernacle of ministry and a Covenant
+  higher than the Mosaic in point of reality and finality (viii., ix.).
+
+  (3) His Sacrifice, then, is definitive in its effects ([Greek:
+  teteleioke]), and supersedes all others (x. 1-18).
+
+  iii. Appropriation of the benefits of the Son's high-priesthood, by
+  steadfast faith, the paramount duty (x. 19-xii.). More personal
+  epilogue (xiii.).
+
+As lack of insight lay at the root of their troubles, it was not enough
+simply to enjoin the moral fidelity to conviction which is three parts
+of faith to the writer, who has but little sense of the mystical side of
+faith, so marked in Paul. There was need of a positive theory based on
+real insight, in order to inspire faith for more strenuous conflict with
+the influences tending to produce the apostasy from Christ, and so from
+"the living God," which already threatened some of them (iii. 12). Such
+"apostasy" was not a formal abjuring of Jesus as Messiah, but the
+subtler lapse involved in ceasing to rely on relation to Him for daily
+moral and religious needs, summed up in purity of conscience and peace
+before God (x. 19-23, xiii. 20 f.). This "falling aside" (vi. 5, cf.
+xii. 12 f.), rather than conscious "turning back," is what is implied in
+the repeated exhortations which show the intensely practical spirit of
+the whole argument. These exhortations are directed chiefly against the
+dullness of spirit which hinders progressive moral insight into the
+genius of the New Covenant (v. 11-vi. 8), and which, in its blindness to
+the full work of Jesus, amounts to counting His blood as devoid of
+divine efficacy to consecrate the life (x. 26, 29), and so to a personal
+"crucifying anew" of the Son of God (vi. 6). The antidote to such
+"profane" negligence (ii. 1, 3, xii. 12 f., 15-17) is an earnestness
+animated by a fully-assured hope, and sustained by a "faith" marked by
+patient waiting ([Greek: makrothymia]) for the inheritance guaranteed by
+divine promise (x. ii f.). The outward expression of such a spirit is
+"bold confession," a glorying in that Hope, and mutual encouragement
+therein (iii. 6, 12 f.); while the sign of its decay is neglect to
+assemble together for mutual stimulus, as if it were not worth the odium
+and opposition from fellow Jews called forth by a marked Christian
+confession (x. 23-25, xii. 3)--a very different estimate of the new bond
+from that shown by readiness in days gone by to suffer for it (x. 32
+ff.). Their special danger, then, the sin which deceived (iii. 13) the
+more easily that it represented the line of least resistance (perhaps
+the best paraphrase of [Greek: euperistatos hamartia] in xii. i), was
+the exact opposite of "faith" as the author uses it, especially in the
+chapter devoted to its illustration by Old Testament examples. His
+readers needed most the moral heroism of fidelity to the Unseen, which
+made men "despise shame" due to aught that sinners in their unbelief
+might do to them (xii. 2-11, xiii. 5 f.)--and of which Jesus Himself was
+at once the example and the inspiration. To quicken this by awakening
+deeper insight into the real objects of "faith," as these bore on their
+actual life, he develops his high argument on the lines already
+indicated.
+
+Their situation was so dangerous just because it combined inward
+debility and outward pressure, both tending to the same result, viz.
+practical disuse of the distinctively Christian means of grace, as
+compared with those recognized by Judaism, and such conformity to the
+latter as would make the reproach of the Cross to cease (xiii. 13, cf.
+xi. 26). This might, indeed, relieve the external strain of the contest
+([Greek: agon] xii. 1), which had become well-nigh intolerable to them.
+But the practical surrender of what was distinctive in their new faith
+meant a theoretic surrender of the value once placed on that element,
+when it was matter of a living religious experience far in advance of
+what Judaism had given them (vi. 4 [ff]., x. 26-29). This twofold
+infidelity, in thought and deed, God, the "living" God of progress from
+the "shadow" to the substance, would require at their hands (x. 30 f.,
+xii. 22-29). For it meant turning away from an appeal that had been
+known as "heavenly," for something inferior and earthly (xii. 25); from
+a call sanctioned by the incomparable authority of Him in whom it had
+reached men, a greater than Moses and all media of the Old Covenant,
+even the Son of God. Thus the key of the whole exhortation is struck in
+the opening words, which contrast the piecemeal revelation "to the
+fathers" in the past, with the complete and final revelation to
+themselves in the last stage of the existing order of the world's
+history, in a Son of transcendent dignity (i. 1 ff., cf. ii. 1 ff., x.
+28 f., xii. 18 ff.). This goes to the root of their difficulty,
+ambiguity as to the relation of the old and the new elements in
+Judaeo-Christian piety, so that there was constant danger of the old
+overshadowing the new, since national Judaism remained hostile. At a
+stroke the author separates the new from the old, as belonging to a new
+"covenant" or order of God's revealed will. It is a confusion, resulting
+in loss, not in gain, as regards spiritual power, to try to combine the
+two types of piety, as his readers were more and more apt to do. There
+is _no use_, religiously, in falling back upon the old forms, in order
+to avoid the social penalties of a sectarian position within Judaism,
+when the secret of religious "perfection" or maturity (vi. 1, cf. the
+frequent use of the kindred verb) lies elsewhere. Hence the moral of his
+whole argument as to the two covenants, though it is formulated only
+incidentally amid final detailed counsels (xiii. 13 f.) is to leave
+Judaism, and adopt a frankly Christian standing, on the same footing
+with their non-Jewish brethren in the local church. For this the time
+was now ripe; and in it lay the true path of safety--eternal safety as
+before God, whatever man might say or do (xiii. 5 f.).
+
+The obscure section, xiii. 9 f., is to be taken as "only a symptom of
+the general retrogression of religious energy" (Julicher), and not as
+bearing directly on the main danger of these "Hebrews." The "foods" in
+question probably refer neither to temple sacrifices nor to the
+Levitical laws of clean and unclean foods, nor yet to ascetic scruples
+(as in Rom. xiv., Col. ii. 20 ff.), but rather to some form of the idea,
+found also among the Essenes, that food might so be partaken of as to
+have the value of a sacrifice (see verse 15 foll.) and thus ensure
+divine favour. Over against this view, which might well grow up among
+the Jews of the Dispersion as a sort of substitute for the possibility
+of offering sacrifices in the Temple--but which would be a lame addition
+to the Christianity of their own former leaders (xiii. 7 f.)--the author
+first points his readers to its refutation from experience, and then to
+the fact that the Christian's "altar" or sacrifice (i.e. the supreme
+sin-offering) is of the kind which the Law itself forbids to be
+associated with "eating." If Christians wish to offer any special
+sacrifice to God, let it be that of grateful praise or deeds of
+beneficence (15 f.).
+
+In trying further to define the readers addressed in the epistle, one
+must note the stress laid on suffering as part of the divinely appointed
+discipline of sonship (ii. 10, v. 8, xii. 7 f.), and the way in which
+the analogy in this respect between Jesus, as Messianic Son, and those
+united to Him by faith, is set in relief. He is not only the inspiring
+example for heroic faith in the face of opposition due to unbelievers
+(xii. 3 ff.), but also the mediator qualified by his very experience of
+suffering to sympathize with His tried followers, and so to afford them
+moral aid (ii. 17 f., v. 8 f., cf. iv. 15). This means that suffering
+for Christianity, at least in respect of possessions (xiii. 5 f., cf. x.
+34) and social standing, was imminent for those addressed: and it seems
+as if they were mostly men of wealth and position (xiii. 1-6, vi. 10
+f., x. 34), who would feel this sort of trial acutely (cf. Jas. i. 10).
+Such men would also possess a superior mental culture (cf. v. 11 f.),
+capable of appreciating the form of an epistle "far too learned for the
+average Christian" (Julicher), yet for which its author apologizes to
+them as inadequate (xiii. 22). It was now long since they themselves had
+suffered seriously for their faith (x. 32 f.); but others had recently
+been harassed even to the point of imprisonment (xiii. 3); and the
+writer's very impatience to hurry to their side implies that the crisis
+was both sudden and urgent. The finished form of the epistle's argument
+is sometimes urged to prove that it was not originally an epistle at
+all, written more or less on the spur of the moment, but a literary
+composition, half treatise and half homily, to which its author--as an
+afterthought--gave the suggestion of being a Pauline epistle by adding
+the personal matter in ch. xiii. (so W. Wrede, _Das literarische Ratsel
+des Hebraerbriefs_, 1906, pp. 70-73). The latter part of this theory
+fails to explain why the Pauline origin was not made more obvious, e.g.
+in an opening address. But even the first part of it overlooks the
+probability that our author was here only fusing into a fresh form
+materials often used before in his oral ministry of Christian
+instruction.
+
+Many attempts have been made to identify the home of the Hellenistic
+Christians addressed in this epistle. For Alexandria little can be urged
+save a certain strain of "Alexandrine" idealism and allegorism, mingling
+with the more Palestinian realism which marks the references to Christ's
+sufferings, as well as the eschatology, and recalling many a passage in
+Philo. But Alexandrinism was a mode of thought diffused throughout the
+Eastern Mediterranean, and the divergences from Philo's spirit are as
+notable as the affinities (cf. Milligan, _ut infra_, 203 ff.). For Rome
+there is more to be said, in view of the references to Timothy and to
+"them of Italy" (xiii. 23 f.); and the theory has found many supporters.
+It usually contemplates a special Jewish-Christian house-church (so
+Zahn), like those which Paul salutes at the end of Romans, e.g. that
+meeting in the house of Prisca and Aquila (xvi. 5); and Harnack has gone
+so far as to suggest that they, and especially Prisca, actually wrote
+our epistle. There is, however, really little that points to Rome in
+particular, and a good deal that points away from it. The words in xii.
+4, "Not yet unto blood have ye resisted," would ill suit Rome after the
+Neronian "bath of blood" in A.D. 64 (as is usually held), save at a date
+too late to suit the reference to Timothy. Nor does early currency in
+Rome prove that the epistle was written to Rome, any more than do the
+words "they of Italy salute you." This clause must in fact be read in
+the light of the reference to Timothy, which suggests that he had been
+in prison in Rome and was about to return, possibly in the writer's
+company, to the region which was apparently the headquarters of both.
+Now this in Timothy's case, as far as we can trace his steps, was
+Ephesus; and it is natural to ask whether it will not suit all the
+conditions of the problem. It suits those of the readers,[2] as analysed
+above; and it has the merit of suggesting to us as author the very
+person of all those described in the New Testament who seems most
+capable of the task, Apollos, the learned Alexandrian (Acts xviii. 24
+ff.), connected with Ephesus and with Paul and his circle (cf. 1 Cor.
+xvi. 12), yet having his own distinctive manner of presenting the Gospel
+(1 Cor. iv. 6). That Apollos visited Italy at any rate once during
+Paul's imprisonment in Rome is a reasonable inference from Titus iii. 13
+(see Paul); and if so, it is quite natural that he should be there again
+about the time of Paul's martyrdom. With that event it is again natural
+to connect Timothy's imprisonment, his release from which our author
+records in closing; while the news of Jewish success in Paul's case
+would enhance any tendency among Asian Jewish Christians to shirk
+"boldness" of confession (x. 23, 35, 38 f.), in fear of further
+aggression from their compatriots. On the chronology adopted in the
+article Paul, this would yield as probable date for the epistle A.D.
+61-62. The place of writing would be some spot in Italy ("they of Italy
+salute you") outside Rome, probably a port of embarkation for Asia, such
+as Brundisium.
+
+Be this as it may, the epistle is of great historical importance, as
+reflecting a crisis inevitable in the development of the
+Jewish-Christian consciousness, when a definite choice between the old
+and the new form of Israel's religion had to be made, both for internal
+and external reasons. It seems to follow directly on the situation
+implied by the appeal of James to Israel in dispersion, in view of
+Messiah's winnowing-fan in their midst (i. 1-4, ii. 1-7, v. 1-6, and
+especially v. 7-11). It may well be the immediate antecedent of that
+revealed in 1 Peter, an epistle which perhaps shows traces of its
+influence (e.g. in i. 2, "sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ," cf.
+Heb. ix. 13 f., x. 22, xii. 24). It is also of high interest
+theologically, as exhibiting, along with affinities to several types of
+New Testament teaching (see Stephen), a type all its own, and one which
+has had much influence on later Christian thought (cf. Milligan, _ut
+infra_, ch. ix.). Indeed, it shares with Romans the right to be styled
+"the first treatise of Christian theology."
+
+  _Literature._--The older literature may be seen in the great work of
+  F. Bleek, _Der Brief an die Hebraer_ (1828-1840), still a valuable
+  storehouse of material, while Bleek's later views are to be found in a
+  posthumous work (Elberfeld, 1868); also in Franz Delitzsch's
+  _Commentary_ (Edinburgh, 1868). The more recent literature is given in
+  G. Milligan, _The Theology of the Epistle of the Hebrews_ (1899), a
+  useful summary of all bearing on the epistle, and in the large New
+  Testament Introductions and Biblical Theologies. See also Hastings's
+  _Dict. of the Bible_, the _Encycl. Biblica_ and T. Zahn's article in
+  Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_.     (J. V. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Also in Codex Claromontanus, the _Tractatus de libris_ (x.),
+    Philastrius of Brescia (c. A.D. 380), and a prologue to the Catholic
+    Epistles (_Revue benedictine_, xxiii. 82 ff.). It is defended in a
+    monograph by H. H. B. Ayles (Cambridge, 1899).
+
+  [2] i.e. a house-church of upper-class Jewish Christians, not fully
+    in touch with the attitude even of their own past and present
+    "leaders" (xiii. 7, 17), as distinct from the local church generally
+    (xiii. 24). The Gospel had reached them, as also the writer himself
+    (cf. Acts xviii. 25), through certain hearers of the Lord (ii. 3),
+    not necessarily apostles.
+
+
+
+
+HEBRIDES, THE, or WESTERN ISLES, a group of islands off the west coast
+of Scotland. They are situated between 55 deg. 35' and 58 deg. 30' N.
+and 5 deg. 26' and 8 deg. 40' W. Formerly the term was held to embrace
+not only all the islands off the Scottish western coast, including the
+islands in the Firth of Clyde, but also the peninsula of Kintyre, the
+Isle of Man and the Isle of Rathlin, off the coast of Antrim. They have
+been broadly classified into the Outer Hebrides and the Inner Hebrides,
+the Minch and Little Minch dividing the one group from the other.
+Geologically, they have also been differentiated as the Gneiss Islands
+and the Trap Islands. The Outer Hebrides being almost entirely composed
+of gneiss the epithet suitably serves them, but, strictly speaking, only
+the more northerly of the Inner Hebrides may be distinguished as Trap
+Islands. The chief islands of the Outer Hebrides are Lewis-with-Harris
+(or Long Island), North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist, Barra, the Shiants,
+St Kilda and the Flannan Isles, or Seven Hunters, an uninhabited group,
+about 20 m. N.W. of Gallon Head in Lewis. Of these the Lewis portion of
+Long Island, the Shiants and the Flannan belong to the county of Ross
+and Cromarty, and the remainder to Inverness-shire. The total length of
+this group, from Barra Head to the Butt of Lewis, is 130 m., the breadth
+varying from less than 1 m. to 30 m. The Inner Hebrides are much more
+scattered and principally include Skye, Small Isles (Canna, Sanday, Rum,
+Eigg and Muck), Coll, Tyree, Lismore, Mull, Ulva, Staffa, Iona, Kerrera,
+the Slate Islands (Seil, Easdale, Luing, Shuna, Torsay), Colonsay,
+Oronsay, Scarba, Jura, Islay and Gigha. Of these Skye and Small Isles
+belong to Inverness-shire, and the rest to Argyllshire. The Hebridean
+islands exceed 500 in number, of which one-fifth are inhabited. Of the
+inhabited islands 11 belong to Ross and Cromarty, 47 to Inverness-shire,
+and 44 to Argyllshire, but of this total of 102 islands, one-third have
+a population of only 10 souls, or fewer, each. The population of the
+Hebrides in 1901 numbered 78,947 (or 28 to the sq. m.), of whom 41,031
+were females, who thus exceeded the males by 10%, and 22,733 spoke
+Gaelic only and 47,666 Gaelic and English. The most populous island is
+Lewis-with-Harris (32,160), and next to it are Skye (13,883), Islay
+(6857) and Mull (4334).
+
+Of the total area of 1,800,000 acres, or 2812 sq. m., only one-ninth is
+cultivated, most of the surface being moorland and mountain. The annual
+rainfall, particularly in the Inner Hebrides, is heavy (42.6 in. at
+Stornoway) but the temperature is high, averaging for the year 47 deg. F.
+Potatoes and turnips are the only root crops that succeed, and barley
+and oats are grown in some of the islands. Sheep-farming and
+cattle-raising are carried on very generally, and, with the fisheries,
+provide the main occupation of the inhabitants, though they profit not a
+little from the tourists who flock to many of the islands throughout the
+summer. The principal industries include distilling, slate-quarrying and
+the manufacture of tweeds, tartans and other woollens. There are
+extensive deer forests in Lewis-with-Harris, Skye, Mull and Jura. On
+many of the islands there are prehistoric remains and antiquities within
+the Christian period. The more populous islands are in regular
+communication with certain points of the mainland by means of steamers
+from Glasgow, Oban and Mallaig. The United Free Church has a strong hold
+on the people, but in a few of the islands the Roman Catholics have a
+great following. In the larger inhabited islands board schools have been
+established. The islands unite with the counties to which they belong in
+returning members to parliament (one for each shire).
+
+_History._--The Hebrides are mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of
+[Greek: Eboudai] and by Pliny under that of _Hebudes_, the modern
+spelling having, it is said, originated in a misprint. By the Norwegians
+they were called _Sudreyjar_ or Southern Islands. The Latinized form was
+_Sodorenses_, preserved to modern times in the title of the bishop of
+Sodor and Man. The original inhabitants seem to have been of the same
+Celtic race as those settled on the mainland. In the 6th century
+Scandinavian hordes poured in with their northern idolatry and lust of
+plunder, but in time they adopted the language and faith of the
+islanders. Mention is made of incursions of the vikings as early as 793,
+but the principal immigration took place towards the end of the 9th
+century in the early part of the reign of Harald Fairhair, king of
+Norway, and consisted of persons driven to the Hebrides, as well as to
+Orkney and Shetland, to escape from his tyrannous rule. Soon afterwards
+they began to make incursions against their mother-country, and on this
+account Harald fitted out an expedition against them, and placed Orkney,
+Shetland, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man under Norwegian government.
+The chief seat of the Norwegian sovereignty was Colonsay. About the year
+1095 Godred Crovan, king of Dublin, Man and the Hebrides, died in Islay.
+His third son, Olaf, succeeded to the government about 1103, and the
+daughter of Olaf was married to Somerled, who became the founder of the
+dynasty known as Lords of the Isles. Many efforts were made by the
+Scottish monarchs to displace the Norwegians. Alexander II. led a fleet
+and army to the shores of Argyllshire in 1249, but he died on the island
+of Kerrera. On the other hand, Haakon IV., king of Norway, at once to
+restrain the independence of his jarls and to keep in check the ambition
+of the Scottish kings, set sail in 1263 on a great expedition, which,
+however, ended disastrously at Largs. Magnus, son of Haakon, concluded
+in 1266 a peace with the Scots, renouncing all claim to the Hebrides and
+other islands except Orkney and Shetland, and Alexander III. agreed to
+give him a sum of 4000 merks in four yearly payments. It was also
+stipulated that Margaret, daughter of Alexander, should be betrothed to
+Eric, the son of Magnus, whom she married in 1281. She died two years
+later, leaving an only daughter afterwards known as the Maid of Norway.
+
+The race of Somerled continued to rule the islands, and from a younger
+son of the same potentate sprang the lords of Lorne, who took the
+patronymic of Macdougall. John Macdonald of Islay, who died about 1386,
+was the first to adopt the title of Lord of the Isles. He was one of the
+most potent of the island princes, and was married to a daughter of the
+earl of Strathearn, afterwards Robert II. His son, Donald of the Isles,
+was memorable for his rebellion in support of his claim to the earldom
+of Ross, in which, however, he was unsuccessful. Alexander, son of
+Donald, resumed the hereditary warfare against the Scottish crown; and
+in 1462 a treaty was concluded between Alexander's son and successor
+John and Edward IV. of England, by which John, his son John, and his
+cousin Donald Balloch, became bound to assist King Edward and James,
+earl of Douglas, in subduing the kingdom of Scotland. The alliance seems
+to have led to no active operations. In the reign of James V. another
+John of Islay resumed the title of Lord of the Isles, but was compelled
+to surrender the dignity. The glory of the lordship of the isles--the
+insular sovereignty--had departed. From the time of Bruce the Campbells
+had been gaining the ascendancy in Argyll. The Macleans, Macnaughtons,
+Maclachlans, Lamonts, and other ancient races had sunk before this
+favoured family. The lordship of Lorne was wrested from the Macdougalls
+by Robert Bruce, and their extensive possessions, with Dunstaffnage
+Castle, bestowed on the king's relative, Stewart, and his descendants,
+afterwards lords of Lorne. The Macdonalds of Sleat, the direct
+representatives of Somerled, though driven from Islay and deprived of
+supreme power by James V., still kept a sort of insular state in Skye.
+There were also the Macdonalds of Clanranald and Glengarry (descendants
+of Somerled), with the powerful houses of Macleod of Dunvegan and
+Macleod of Harris, M'Neill of Barra and Maclean of Mull. Sanguinary
+feuds continued throughout the 16th and 17th centuries among these rival
+clans and their dependent tribes, and the turbulent spirit was not
+subdued till a comparatively recent period. James VI. made an abortive
+endeavour to colonize Lewis. William III. and Queen Anne attempted to
+subsidize the chiefs in order to preserve tranquillity, but the wars of
+Montrose and Dundee, and the Jacobite insurrections of 1715 and 1745,
+showed how futile were all such efforts. It was not till 1748, when a
+decisive blow was struck at the power of the chiefs by the abolition of
+heritable jurisdictions, and the appointment of sheriffs in the
+different districts, that the arts of peace and social improvement made
+way in these remote regions. The change was great, and at first not
+unmixed with evil. A new system of management and high rents was
+imposed, in consequence of which numbers of the tacksmen, or large
+tenants, emigrated to North America. The exodus continued for many
+years. Sheep-farming on a large scale was next introduced, and the
+crofters were thrust into villages or barren corners of the land. The
+result was that, despite the numbers who entered the army or emigrated
+to Canada, the standard of civilization sank lower, and the population
+multiplied in the islands. The people came to subsist almost entirely on
+potatoes and herrings; and in 1846, when the potato blight began its
+ravages, nearly universal destitution ensued--embracing, over the
+islands generally, 70% of the inhabitants. Temporary relief was
+administered in the shape of employment on roads and other works; and an
+emigration fund being raised, from 4000 to 5000 of the people in the
+most crowded districts were removed to Australia. Matters, however, were
+not really mended, and in 1884 a royal commission reported upon the
+condition of the crofters of the islands and mainland. As a result of
+their inquiry the Crofters' Holdings Act was passed in 1886, and in the
+course of a few years some improvement was evident and has since been
+sustained.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Martin Martin's _Description of the Western Islands of
+  Scotland_ (1703); T. Pennant's _Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the
+  Hebrides_ (1774); James Boswell's _Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel
+  Johnson, LL.D._ (1898); John Macculloch's _Geological Account of the
+  Hebrides_ (1819); Hugh Miller's _Cruise of the "Betsy"_ (1858); W. A.
+  Smith's _Lewisiana, or Life in the Outer Hebrides_ (1874); Alexander
+  Smith, _A Summer in Skye_ (1865); Robert Buchanan, _The Hebrid Isles_
+  (1883); C. F. Gordon-Cumming, _In the Hebrides_ (1883); _Report of the
+  Crofters' Commission_ (1884); A. Goodrich-Freer, _Outer Isles_ (1902);
+  and W. C. Mackenzie, _History of the Outer Hebrides_ (1903). Their
+  history under Norwegian rule is given in the _Chronica regum Manniae
+  et insularum_, edited, with learned notes, from the MS. in the British
+  Museum by Professor P. A. Munch of Christiania (1860).
+
+
+
+
+HEBRON (mod. _Khulil er-Rahman_, i.e. "the friend of the Merciful
+One"--an allusion to Abraham), a city of Palestine some 20 m. S. by S.W.
+of Jerusalem. The city, which lies 3040 ft. above the sea, is of extreme
+antiquity (see Num. xiii. 22, and Josephus, _War_, iv. 9, 7) and until
+taken by the Calebites (Josh. xv. 13) bore the name Kirjath-Arba.
+Biblical traditions connect it closely with the patriarch Abraham and
+make it a "city of refuge." The town figures prominently under David as
+the headquarters of his early rule, the scene of Abner's murder and the
+centre of Absalom's rebellion. In later days the Edomites held it for a
+time, but Judas Maccabaeus recovered it. It was destroyed in the great
+war under Vespasian. In A.D. 1167 Hebron became the see of a Latin
+bishop, and it was taken in 1187 by Saladin. In 1834 it joined the
+rebellion against Ibrahim Pasha, who took the town and pillaged it.
+Modern Hebron rises on the east slope of a shallow valley--a long narrow
+town of stone houses, the flat roofs having small stone domes. The main
+quarter is about 700 yds. long, and two smaller groups of houses exist
+north and south of this. The hill behind is terraced, and luxuriant
+vineyards and fruit plantations surround the place, which is well
+watered on the north by three principal springs, including the Well
+Sirah, now 'Ain Sara (2 Sam. iii. 26). Three conspicuous minarets rise,
+two from the _Haram_, the other in the north quarter. The population
+(10,000) includes Moslems and about 500 Jews. The Bedouins bring wool
+and camel's hair to the market; and glass bracelets, lamps and leather
+water-skins are manufactured in the town. The most conspicuous building
+is the _Haram_ built over the supposed site of the cave of Machpelah. It
+is an enclosure measuring 112 ft. east and west by 198 north and south,
+surrounded with high rampart walls of masonry similar in size and
+dressing to that of the Jerusalem Haram walls. These ramparts are
+ascribed by architectural authorities to the Herodian period. The
+interior area is partly occupied by a 12th-century Gothic church, and
+contains six modern cenotaphs of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebecca
+and Leah. The cave beneath the platform has probably not been entered
+for at least 600 years. The numerous traditional sites now shown round
+Hebron are traceable generally to medieval legendary topography; they
+include the Oak of Mamre (Gen. xiii. 18 R.V.) which has at various times
+been shown in different positions from 3/4 to 2 m. from the town.
+
+There are a British medical mission, a German Protestant mission with
+church and schools, and, near Abraham's Oak, a Russian mission. Since
+1880 several notices of the Haram, within which are the tombs of the
+Patriarchs, have appeared.
+
+  See C. R. Conder, Pal. Exp. Fund, _Memoirs_, iii. 333, &c.; Riant,
+  _Archives de l'orient latin_, ii. 411, &c.; Dalton and Chaplin,
+  _P.E.F. Quarterly Statement_ (1897); Goldziher, "Das Patriarchengrab
+  in Hebron," in _Zeitschrift d. Dn. Pal. Vereins_, xvii.
+       (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HECATAEUS OF ABDERA (or of Teos), Greek historian and Sceptic
+philosopher, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He accompanied Ptolemy
+I. Soter in an expedition to Syria, and sailed up the Nile with him as
+far as Thebes (Diogenes Laertius ix. 61). The result of his travels was
+set down by him in two works--[Greek: Aiguptiaka] and [Greek: Peri
+Uperboreon], which were used by Diodorus Siculus. According to Suidas,
+he also wrote a treatise on the poetry of Hesiod and Homer. Regarding
+his authorship of a work on the Jews (utilized by Josephus in _Contra
+Apionem_), it is conjectured that portions of the [Greek: Aiguptiaka]
+were revised by a Hellenistic Jew from his point of view and published
+as a special work.
+
+  Fragments in C. W. Muller's _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_.
+
+
+
+
+HECATAEUS OF MILETUS (6th-5th century B.C.), Greek historian, son of
+Hegesander, flourished during the time of the Persian invasion. After
+having travelled extensively, he settled in his native city, where he
+occupied a high position, and devoted his time to the composition of
+geographical and historical works. When Aristagoras held a council of
+the leading Ionians at Miletus, to organize a revolt against the Persian
+rule, Hecataeus in vain tried to dissuade his countrymen from the
+undertaking (Herodotus v. 36, 125). In 494, when the defeated Ionians
+were obliged to sue for terms, he was one of the ambassadors to the
+Persian satrap Artaphernes, whom he persuaded to restore the
+constitution of the Ionic cities (Diod. Sic. x. 25). He is by some
+credited with a work entitled [Greek: Ges periodos] ("Travels round the
+Earth"), in two books, one on Europe, the other on Asia, in which were
+described the countries and inhabitants of the known world, the account
+of Egypt being especially comprehensive; the descriptive matter was
+accompanied by a map, based upon Anaximander's map of the earth, which
+he corrected and enlarged. The authenticity of the work is, however,
+strongly attacked by J. Wells in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_,
+xxix. pt. i. 1909. The only certainly genuine work of Hecataeus was the
+[Greek: Geneelogiai] or [Greek: Historiai], a systematic account of the
+traditions and mythology of the Greeks. He was probably the first to
+attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical method to
+distinguish myth from historical fact, though he accepts Homer and the
+other poets as trustworthy authority. Herodotus, though he once at least
+controverts his statements, is indebted to Hecataeus not only for facts,
+but also in regard of method and general scheme, but the extent of the
+debt depends on the genuineness of the [Greek: Ges periodos].
+
+  See fragments in C. W. Muller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, i.;
+  H. Berger, _Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen_
+  (1903); E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_, i.; W. Mure,
+  _History of Greek Literature_, iv.; especially J. V. Prasek,
+  _Hekataios als Herodots Quelle zur Geschichte Vorderasiens. Beitrage
+  zur alten Geschichte (Klio)_, iv. 193 seq. (1904), and J. Wells in
+  _Journ. Hell. Stud._, as above.
+
+
+
+
+HECATE (Gr. [Greek: Hekate], "she who works from afar"[1]), a goddess in
+Greek mythology. According to the generally accepted view, she is of
+Hellenic origin, but Farnell regards her as a foreign importation from
+Thrace, the home of Bendis, with whom Hecate has many points in common.
+She is not mentioned in the _Iliad_ or the _Odyssey_, but in Hesiod
+(_Theogony_, 409) she is the daughter of the Titan Perses and Asterie,
+in a passage which may be a later interpolation by the Orphists (for
+other genealogies see Steuding in Roscher's _Lexikon_). She is there
+represented as a mighty goddess, having power over heaven, earth and
+sea; hence she is the bestower of wealth and all the blessings of daily
+life. The range of her influence is most varied, extending to war,
+athletic games, the tending of cattle, hunting, the assembly of the
+people and the law-courts. Hecate is frequently identified with Artemis,
+an identification usually justified by the assumption that both were
+moon-goddesses. Farnell, who regards Artemis as originally an
+earth-goddess, while recognizing a "genuine lunar element" in Hecate
+from the 5th century, considers her a chthonian rather than a lunar
+divinity (see also Warr in _Classical Review_, ix. 390). He is of
+opinion that neither borrowed much from, nor exercised much influence
+on, the cult and character of the other.
+
+Hecate is the chief goddess who presides over magic arts and spells, and
+in this connexion she is the mother of the sorceresses Circe and Medea.
+She is constantly invoked, in the well-known idyll (ii.) of Theocritus,
+in the incantation to bring back a woman's faithless lover. As a
+chthonian power, she is worshipped at the Samothracian mysteries, and is
+closely connected with Demeter. Alone of the gods besides Helios, she
+witnessed the abduction of Persephone, and, torch in hand (a natural
+symbol for the moon's light, but see Farnell), assisted Demeter in her
+search for her daughter. On moonlight nights she is seen at the
+cross-roads (hence her name [Greek: trioditis], Lat. _Trivia_)
+accompanied by the dogs of the Styx and crowds of the dead. Here, on the
+last day of the month, eggs and fish were offered to her. Black puppies
+and she-lambs (black victims being offered to chthonian deities) were
+also sacrificed (Schol. on Theocritus ii. 12). Pillars like the Hermae,
+called Hecataea, stood, especially in Athens, at cross-roads and
+doorways, perhaps to keep away the spirits of evil. Like Artemis, Hecate
+is also a goddess of fertility, presiding especially over the birth and
+the youth of wild animals, and over human birth and marriage. She also
+attends when the soul leaves the body at death, and is found near
+graves, and on the hearth, where the master of the house was formerly
+buried. It is to be noted that Hecate plays little or no part in
+mythological legend. Her worship seems to have flourished especially in
+the wilder parts of Greece, such as Samothrace and Thessaly, in Caria
+and on the coasts of Asia Minor. In Greece proper it prevailed on the
+east coast and especially in Aegina, where her aid was invoked against
+madness.
+
+In older times Hecate is represented as single-formed, clad in a long
+robe, holding burning torches; later she becomes _triformis_,
+"triple-formed," with three bodies standing back to back--corresponding,
+according to those who regard her as a moon-goddess, to the new, the
+full and the waning moon. In her six hands are torches, sometimes a
+snake, a key (as wardress of the lower world), a whip or a dagger; her
+favourite animal was the dog, which was sacrificed to her--an indication
+of her non-Hellenic origin, since this animal very rarely fills this
+part in genuine Greek ritual.
+
+  See H. Steuding in Roscher's _Lexikon_, where the functions of Hecate
+  are systematically derived from the conception of her as a
+  moon-goddess; L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, ii., where
+  this view is examined; P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio's
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_,
+  ii. (1906) p. 1288.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] J. B. Bury, in _Classical Review_, iii. p. 416, suggests that the
+    name means "dog," against which see J. H. Vince, ib. iv. p. 47. G. C.
+    Warr, ib. ix. 390, takes the Hesiodic Hecate to be a moon-goddess,
+    daughter of the sun-god Perseus.
+
+
+
+
+HECATOMB (Gr. [Greek: hekatombe] from [Greek: hekaton], a hundred, and
+[Greek: bous], an ox), originally the sacrifice of a hundred oxen in the
+religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans; later a large number of
+any kind of animals devoted for sacrifice. Figuratively, "hecatomb" is
+used to describe the sacrifice or destruction by fire, tempest, disease
+or the sword of any large number of persons or animals; and also of the
+wholesale destruction of inanimate objects, and even of mental and moral
+attributes.
+
+
+
+
+HECATO OF RHODES, Greek Stoic philosopher and disciple of Panaetius
+(Cicero, _De officiis_, iii. 15). Nothing else is known of his life, but
+it is clear that he was eminent amongst the Stoics of the period. He was
+a voluminous writer, but nothing remains. A list is preserved by
+Diogenes, who mentions works on _Duty_, _Good_, _Virtues_, _Ends_. The
+first, dedicated to Tubero, is eulogized by Cicero in the _De officiis_,
+and Seneca refers to him frequently in the _De beneficiis_. According to
+Diogenes Laertius, he divided the virtues into two kinds, those founded
+on scientific intellectual principles (i.e. wisdom and justice), and
+those which have no such basis (e.g. temperance and the resultant health
+and vigour). Cicero shows that he was much interested in casuistical
+questions, as, for example, whether a good man who had received a coin
+which he knew to be bad was justified in passing it on to another. On
+the whole, his moral attitude is cynical, and he is inclined to regard
+self-interest as the best criterion. This he modifies by explaining that
+self-interest is based on the relationships of life; a man needs money
+for the sake of his children, his friends and the state whose general
+prosperity depends on the wealth of its citizens. Like the earlier
+Stoics, Cleanthes and Chrysippus, he held that virtue may be taught.
+(See STOICS and PANAETIUS.)
+
+
+
+
+HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL (1811-1881), German revolutionist, was born
+at Eichtersheim in the Palatinate on the 28th of September 1811, his
+father being a revenue official. He studied law with the intention of
+becoming an advocate, but soon became absorbed in politics. On entering
+the Second Chamber of Baden in 1842, he at once began to take part in
+the opposition against the government, which assumed a more and more
+openly Radical character, and in the course of which his talents as an
+agitator and his personal charm won him wide popularity and influence. A
+speech, denouncing the projected incorporation of Schleswig and Holstein
+with Denmark, delivered in the Chamber of Baden on the 6th of February
+1845, spread his fame beyond the limits of his own state, and his
+popularity was increased by his expulsion from Prussia on the occasion
+of a journey to Stettin. After the death of his more moderate-minded
+friend Adolf Sander (March 9th, 1845), Hecker's tone towards the
+government became more and more bitter. In spite of the shallowness and
+his culture and his extremely weak character, he enjoyed an
+ever-increasing popularity. Even before the outbreak of the revolution
+he included Socialistic claims in his programme. In 1847 he was
+temporarily occupied with ideas of emigration, and with this object made
+a journey to Algiers, but returned to Baden and resumed his former
+position as the Radical champion of popular rights, later becoming
+president of the _Volksverein_, where he was destined to fall still
+further under the influence of the agitator Gustav von Struve. In
+conjunction with Struve he drew up the Radical programme carried at the
+great Liberal meeting held at Offenburg on the 12th of September 1847
+(entitled "Thirteen Claims put forward by the People of Baden"). In
+addition to the Offenburg programme, the _Sturmpetition_ of the 1st of
+March 1848 attempted to extort from the government the most far-reaching
+concessions. But it was in vain that on becoming a deputy Hecker
+endeavoured to carry out its impracticable provisions. He had to yield
+to the more moderate majority, but on this account was driven still
+further towards the Left. The proof lies in the new Offenburg demands of
+the 19th of March, and in the resolution moved by Hecker in the
+preliminary parliament of Frankfort that Germany should be declared a
+republic. But neither in Baden nor Frankfort did he at any time gain his
+point.
+
+This double failure, combined with various energetic measures of the
+government, which were indirectly aimed at him (e.g. the arrest of the
+editor of the _Constanzer Seeblatt_, a friend of Hecker's, in Karlsruhe
+station on the 8th of April), inspired Hecker with the idea of an armed
+rising under pretext of the foundation of the German republic. The 9th
+to the 11th of April was secretly spent in preliminaries. On the 12th of
+April Hecker and Struve sent a proclamation to the inhabitants of the
+_Seekreis_ and of the Black Forest "to summon the people who can bear
+arms to Donaueschingen at mid-day on the 14th, with arms, ammunition and
+provisions for six days." They expected 70,000 men, but only a few
+thousand appeared. The grand-ducal government of the _Seekreis_ was
+dissolved, and Hecker gradually gained reinforcements. But friendly
+advisers also joined him, pointing out the risks of his undertaking.
+Hecker, however, was not at all ready to listen to them; on the
+contrary, he added to violence an absurd defiance, and offered an
+amnesty to the German princes on condition of their retiring within
+fourteen days into private life. The troops of Baden and Hesse marched
+against him, under the command of General Friedrich von Gagern, and on
+the 20th of April they met near Kandern, where Gagern was killed, it is
+true, but Hecker was completely defeated.
+
+Like many of the revolutionaries of that period, Hecker retired to
+Switzerland. He was, it is true, again elected to the Chamber of Baden
+by the circle of Thiengen, but the government, no longer willing to
+respect his immunity as a deputy, refused its ratification. On this
+account Hecker resolved in September 1848 to emigrate to North America,
+and obtained possession of a farm near Belleville in the state of
+Illinois.
+
+During the second rising in Baden in the spring of 1849 he again made
+efforts to obtain a footing in his own state, but without success. He
+only came as far as Strassburg, but had to retreat before the victories
+of the Prussian troops over the Baden insurgents.
+
+On his return to America he won some distinction during the Civil War as
+colonel of a regiment which he had himself got together on the Federal
+side in 1861 and 1864. It was with great joy that he heard of the union
+of Germany brought about by the victory over France in 1870-71. It was
+then that he made his famous festival speech at St Louis, in which he
+gave an animated expression to the enthusiasm of the German Americans
+for their newly-united fatherland. He received a less favourable
+impression during a journey he made in Germany in 1873. He died at St
+Louis on the 24th of March 1881.
+
+Hecker was always very much beloved of all the German democrats. The
+song and the hat named after him (the latter a broad slouch hat with a
+feather) became famous as the symbols of the middle-classes in revolt.
+In America, too, he had won great esteem, not only on political grounds
+but also for his personal qualities.
+
+  See F. Hecker, _Die Erhebung des Volkes in Baden fur die deutsche
+  Republik_ (Baden, 1848); F. Hecker, _Reden und Vorlesungen_ (Neerstadt
+  a. d. H., 1872); F. v. Weech, _Badische Biographien_, iv. (1891); L.
+  Mathy, _Aus dem Nachlasse von K. Matty, Briefe aus den Jahren
+  1846-1848_ (Leipzig, 1898).     (J. Hn.)
+
+
+
+
+HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS (1819-1888), American Roman Catholic priest, the
+founder of the "Paulist Fathers," was born in New York City, of German
+immigrant parents, on the 18th of December 1819. When barely twelve
+years of age, he had to go to work, and pushed a baker's cart for his
+elder brothers, who had a bakery in Rutgers Street. But he studied at
+every possible opportunity, becoming immersed in Kant's _Critique of
+Pure Reason_, and while still a lad took part in certain politico-social
+movements which aimed at the elevation of the working man. It was at
+this juncture that he met Orestes Brownson, who exercised a marked
+influence over him. Isaac was deeply religious, a characteristic for
+which he gave much credit to his prayerful mother, and remained so amid
+all the reading and agitating in which he engaged. Having grown into
+young manhood, he joined the Brook Farm movement, and in that colony he
+tarried some six months. Shortly after leaving it (in 1844) he was
+baptized into the Roman Catholic Church by Bishop McCloskey of New York.
+One year later he was entered in the novitiate of the Redemptorists in
+Belgium, and there he cultivated to a high degree the spirit of lofty
+mystical piety which marked him through life.
+
+Ordained a priest in London by Wiseman in 1849, he returned to America,
+and worked until 1857 as a Redemptorist missionary. With all his
+mysticism, Isaac Hecker had the wide-awake mind of the typical American,
+and he perceived that the missionary activity of the Catholic Church in
+the United States must remain to a large extent ineffective unless it
+adopted methods suited to the country and the age. In this he had the
+sympathy of four fellow Redemptorists, who like himself were of American
+birth and converts from Protestantism. Acting as their agent, and with
+the consent of his local superiors, Hecker went to Rome to beg of the
+Rector Major of his Order that a Redemptorist novitiate might be opened
+in the United States, in order thus to attract American youths to the
+missionary life. In furtherance of this request, he took with him the
+strong approval of some members of the American hierarchy. The Rector
+Major, instead of listening to Father Hecker, expelled him from the
+Order for having made the journey to Rome without sufficient
+authorization. The outcome of the trouble was that Hecker and the other
+four American Redemptorists were permitted by Pius IX. in 1858 to form
+the separate religious community of the Paulists. Hecker trained and
+governed this community in spiritual exercises and mission-preaching
+until his death in New York City, after seventeen years of suffering, on
+the 22nd of December 1888. He founded and was the director of the
+Catholic Publication Society, was the founder, and from 1865 until his
+death the editor, of the _Catholic World_, and wrote _Questions of the
+Soul_ (1855), _Aspirations of Nature_ (1857), _Catholicity in the United
+States_ (1879) and _The Church and the Age_ (1888).
+
+  The name of Hecker is closely associated with that of "Americanism."
+  To understand this movement it is necessary to comprehend the tendency
+  of events in Catholic Europe rather than in America itself. The steady
+  decline in the power and influence of French Catholicism since shortly
+  after 1870 is the most remarkable feature of the history of the Third
+  Republic. Not only did the French State pass laws bearing more and
+  more stringently on the Church, under each succeeding ministry, but
+  the bulk of the people acquiesced in the policy of its legislators.
+  The clergy, if not Catholicism, was rapidly losing its hold over the
+  once Catholic nation. Observing this fact, and encouraged by the
+  action of Leo XIII., who, in 1892 called on French Catholics loyally
+  to accept the Republic, a body of vigorous young French priests set
+  themselves to check the disaster. They studied the causes which
+  produced it. These causes, they considered to be, first, the clergy's
+  predominant sympathy with the monarchists, and in its undisguised
+  hostility to the Republic; secondly, the Church's aloofness from
+  modern men, methods and thought. The progressive party believed that
+  there was too little cultivation of individual, independent character,
+  while too much stress was laid upon what might be called the
+  mechanical or routine side of religion. The party perceived, too, that
+  Catholicism was making scarcely any use of modern aggressive modes of
+  propaganda; that, for example, the Church took but an insignificant
+  part in social movements, in the organization of clubs for social
+  study, in the establishing of settlements and similar philanthropic
+  endeavour. Lack of adaptability to modern needs expresses in short the
+  deficiencies in Catholicism which these men endeavoured to correct.
+  They began a domestic apostolate which had for one of its rallying
+  cries, "_Allons au peuple_,"--"Let us go to the people." They agitated
+  for the inauguration of social works, for a more intimate mingling of
+  priests with the people, and for general cultivation of personal
+  initiative, both in clergy and in laity.
+
+  Not unnaturally, they looked for inspiration to America. There they
+  saw a vigorous Church among a free people, with priests publicly
+  respected, and with a note of aggressive zeal in every project of
+  Catholic enterprise. From the American priesthood, Father Hecker stood
+  out conspicuous for sturdy courage, deep interior piety, an assertive
+  self-initiative and immense love of modern times and modern liberty.
+  So they took Father Hecker for a kind of patron saint. His biography
+  (New York, 1891), written in English by the Paulist Father Elliott,
+  was translated into French (1897), and speedily became the book of the
+  hour. Under the inspiration of Father Hecker's life and character, the
+  more spirited section of the French clergy undertook the task of
+  persuading their fellow-priests loyally to accept the actual political
+  establishment, and then, breaking out of their isolation, to put
+  themselves in touch with the intellectual life of the country, and
+  take an active part in the work of social amelioration.
+
+  In 1897 the movement received an impetus--and a warning--when Mgr
+  O'Connell, former Rector of the American College in Rome, spoke on
+  behalf of Father Hecker's ideas at the Catholic Congress in Friburg.
+  The conservatives took alarm at what they considered to be symptoms of
+  pernicious modernism or "Liberalism." Did not the watchword "_Allons
+  au peuple_" savour of heresy? Did it not tend toward breaking down the
+  divinely established distinction between the priest and the layman,
+  and conceding something to the laity in the management of the Church?
+  The insistence upon individual initiative was judged to be
+  incompatible with the fundamental principle of Catholicism, obedience
+  to authority. Moreover, the conservatives were, almost to a man,
+  anti-republicans who distrusted and disliked the democratic abbes.
+  Complaints were sent to Rome. A violent polemic against the new
+  movement was launched in Abbe Maignan's _Le pere Hecker, est-il un
+  saint?_ (1898). Repugnance to American tendencies and influences had a
+  strong representation in the Curia and in powerful circles in Rome.
+  Leo XIII. was extremely reluctant to pronounce any strictures upon
+  American Catholics, of whose loyalty to the Roman See, and to their
+  faith, he had often spoken in terms of high approbation. But he
+  yielded, in a measure, to the pressure brought to bear upon him, and,
+  early in February 1899, addressed to Cardinal Gibbons the Brief
+  _Testem Benevolentiae_. This document contained a condemnation of the
+  following doctrines or tendencies: (a) undue insistence on interior
+  initiative in the spiritual life, as leading to disobedience; (b)
+  attacks on religious vows, and disparagement of the value in the
+  present age, of religious orders; (c) minimizing Catholic doctrine;
+  (d) minimizing the importance of spiritual direction. The brief did
+  not assert that any unsound doctrine on the above points had been held
+  by Hecker or existed among Americans. Its tenour was, that if such
+  opinions did exist, the Pope called upon the hierarchy to eradicate
+  the evil. Cardinal Gibbons and many other prelates replied to Rome.
+  With all but unanimity, they declared that the incriminated opinions
+  had no existence among American Catholics. It was well known that
+  Hecker never had countenanced the slightest departure from Catholic
+  principles in their fullest and most strict application. The
+  disturbance caused by the condemnation was slight; almost the entire
+  laity, and a considerable part of the clergy, never understood what
+  the noise was about. The affair was soon forgotten, but the result was
+  to strengthen the hands of the conservatives in France.     (J. J. F.)
+
+
+
+
+HECKMONDWIKE, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary
+division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. S.S.E. of
+Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Northern, and London &
+North-Western railways. Pop. (1901), 9459. Like the town of Dewsbury, on
+the south-east, it is an important centre of the blanket and carpet
+manufactures, and there are also machine works, dye works and iron
+foundries. Coal is extensively wrought in the vicinity.
+
+
+
+
+HECTOR, in Greek mythology, son of Priam and Hecuba, the husband of
+Andromache. Like Paris and other Trojans, he had an Oriental name,
+Darius. In Homer he is represented as an ideal warrior, the champion of
+the Trojans and the mainstay of the city. His character, is drawn in
+most favourable colours as a good son, a loving husband and father, and
+a trusty friend. His leave-taking of Andromache in the sixth book of the
+_Iliad_, and his departure to meet Achilles for the last time, are most
+touchingly described. He is an especial favourite of Apollo; and later
+poets even describe him as son of that god. His chief exploits during
+the war were his defence of the wounded Sarpedon, his fight with Ajax,
+son of Telamon (his particular enemy), and the storming of the Greek
+ramparts. When Achilles, enraged with Agamemnon, deserted the Greeks,
+Hector drove them back to their ships, which he almost succeeded in
+burning. Patroclus, the friend of Achilles, who came to the help of the
+Greeks, was slain by Hector with the help of Apollo. Then Achilles, to
+revenge his friend's death, returned to the war, slew Hector, dragged
+his body behind his chariot to the camp, and afterwards round the tomb
+of Patroclus. Aphrodite and Apollo preserved it from corruption and
+mutilation. Priam, guarded by Hermes, went to Achilles and prevailed on
+him to give back the body, which was buried with great honour. Hector
+was afterwards worshipped in the Troad by the Boeotian tribe Gephyraei,
+who offered sacrifices at his grave.
+
+
+
+
+HECUBA (Gr. [Greek: Hekabe]), wife of Priam, daughter of the Phrygian
+king Dymas (or of Cisseus, or of the river-god Sangarius). According to
+Homer she was the mother of nineteen of Priam's fifty sons. When Troy
+was captured and Priam slain, she was made prisoner by the Greeks. Her
+fate is told in various ways, most of which connect her with the
+promontory Cynossema, on the Thracian shore of the Hellespont. According
+to Euripides (in the _Hecuba_), her youngest son Polydorus had been
+placed during the siege of Troy under the care of Polymestor, king of
+Thrace. When the Greeks reached the Thracian Chersonese on their way
+home Hecuba discovered that her son had been murdered, and in revenge
+put out the eyes of Polymestor and murdered his two sons. She was
+acquitted by Agamemnon; but, as Polymestor foretold, she was turned into
+a dog, and her grave became a mark for ships (Ovid, _Metam._ xiii.
+399-575; Juvenal x. 271 and Mayor's note). According to another story,
+she fell to the lot of Odysseus, as a slave, and in despair threw
+herself into the Hellespont; or, she used such insulting language
+towards her captors that they put her to death (Dictys Cretensis v. 13.
+16). It is obvious from the tales of Hecuba's transformation and death
+that she is a form of some goddess to whom dogs were sacred; and the
+analogy with Scylla is striking.
+
+
+
+
+HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ (c. 1504-c. 1670), Dutch painter, born at Haarlem,
+was one of the earliest Dutchmen who devoted himself exclusively to the
+painting of still life. He was the contemporary and comrade of Dirk
+Hals, with whom he had in common pictorial touch and technical
+execution. But Heda was more careful and finished than Hals, and showed
+considerable skill and not a little taste in arranging and colouring
+chased cups and beakers and tankards of precious and inferior metals.
+Nothing is so appetizing as his "luncheon," with rare comestibles set
+out upon rich plate, oysters--seldom without the cut lemon--bread,
+champagne, olives and pastry. Even the commoner "refection" is also not
+without charm, as it comprises a cut ham, bread, walnuts and beer. One
+of Heda's early masterpieces, dated 1623, in the Munich Pinakothek is as
+homely as a later one of 1651 in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. A
+more luxurious repast is a "Luncheon in the Augsburg Gallery," dated
+1644. Most of Heda's pictures are on the European continent, notably in
+the galleries of Paris, Parma, Ghent, Darmstadt, Gotha, Munich and
+Vienna. He was a man of repute in his native city, and filled all the
+offices of dignity and trust in the gild of Haarlem. He seems to have
+had considerable influence in forming the younger Frans Hals.
+
+
+
+
+HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER (1828-1897), Scottish mineralogist, was born at
+Hoy in Orkney on the 28th of April 1828. After receiving his early
+education at the Edinburgh academy, he entered as a medical student at
+the university in that city, and subsequently studied chemistry and
+mineralogy at Klausthal and Freiburg. In 1851 he took his degree of M.D.
+at Edinburgh, and for about five years practised there. Medical work,
+however, possessed for him little attraction; he became assistant to
+Prof. Connell, who held the chair of chemistry at St Andrews, and in
+1862 succeeded him as professor. This post he held until in 1880 he was
+invited to report on some gold mines in South Africa. On his return he
+devoted himself with great assiduity to mineralogy, and formed one of
+the finest collections by means of personal exploration in almost every
+part of Scotland. His specimens are now in the Royal Scottish Museum at
+Edinburgh. It had been his intention to publish a comprehensive work on
+the mineralogy of Scotland. This he did not live to complete, but the
+MSS. fell into able hands, and _The Mineralogy of Scotland_, in 2 vols.,
+edited by J. G. Goodchild, was issued in 1901. Heddle was one of the
+founders of the Mineralogical Society, and he contributed many articles
+on Scottish minerals, and on the geology of the northern parts of
+Scotland, to the _Mineralogical Magazine_, as well as to the
+_Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_. He died on the 19th of
+November 1897.
+
+  See _Dr Heddle and his Geological Work_ (with portrait), by J. G.
+  Goodchild, _Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc._ (1898) vii. 317.
+
+
+
+
+HEDGEHOG, or URCHIN, a member of the mammalian order Insectivora,
+remarkable for its dentition, its armature of spines and its short tail.
+The upper jaw is longer than the lower, the snout is long and flexible,
+with the nostrils narrow, and the claws are long but weak. The animal is
+about 10 in. long, its eyes are small, and the lower surface covered
+with hairs of the ordinary character. The brain is remarkable for its
+low development, the cerebral hemispheres being small, and marked with
+but one groove, and that a shallow one, on each side. The hedgehog has
+the power of rolling itself up into a ball, from which the spines stand
+out in every direction. The spines are sharp, hard and elastic, and form
+so efficient a defence that there are few animals able to effect a
+successful attack on this creature. The moment it is touched, or even
+hears the report of a gun, it rolls itself up by the action of the
+muscles beneath the skin, while this contraction effects the erection of
+the spines. The most important muscle is the _orbicularis panniculi_,
+which extends over the anterior region of the skull, as far down the
+body as the ventral hairy region, and on to the tail, but three other
+muscles aid in the contraction.
+
+[Illustration: The Hedgehog (_Erinaceus europaeus_).]
+
+Though insectivorous, the hedgehog is reported to have a liking for
+mice, while frogs and toads, as well as plants and fruits, all seem to
+be acceptable. It will also eat snakes, and its fondness for eggs has
+caused it to meet with the enmity of game-preservers; and there is no
+doubt it occasionally attacks leverets and game-chicks. In a state of
+nature it does not emerge from its retreat during daylight, unless urged
+by hunger or by the necessities of its young. During winter it passes
+into a state of hibernation, when its temperature falls considerably;
+having provided itself with a nest of dry leaves, it is well protected
+from the influences of the rain, and rolling itself up, remains
+undisturbed till warmer weather returns. In July or August the female
+brings forth four to eight young, or, according to others, two to four
+at a somewhat earlier period; at birth the spines, which in the adult
+are black in the middle, are white and soft, but soon harden, though
+they do not attain their full size until the succeeding spring.
+
+The hedgehog, which is known scientifically as _Erinaceus europaeus_,
+and is the type of the family _Erinaceidae_, is found in woods and
+gardens, and extends over nearly the whole of Europe; and has been found
+at 6000 to 8000 ft. above the level of the sea. The adult is provided
+with thirty-six teeth; in the upper jaw are 6 incisors, 2 canines and 12
+cheek-teeth, and in the lower jaw 4 incisors, 2 canines and 10
+cheek-teeth. The genus is represented by about a score of species,
+ranging over Europe, Asia, except the Malay countries, and Africa.
+     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+HEDGES AND FENCES. The object of the hedge[1] or fence (abbreviation of
+"defence") is to mark a boundary or to enclose an area of land on which
+stock is kept. The hedge, i.e. a row of bushes or small trees, forms a
+characteristic feature of the scenery of England, especially in the
+midlands and south; it is more rarely found in other countries. Its
+disadvantages as a fence are that it is not portable, that it requires
+cutting and training while young, that it harbours weeds and vermin and
+that it occupies together with the ditch which usually borders it a
+considerable space of ground, the margins of which cannot be cultivated.
+For these reasons it is to some extent superseded by the fence proper,
+especially where shelter for cattle is not required. In Great Britain
+the hawthorn (q.v.) is by far the most important of hedge plants. Holly
+resembles the hawthorn in its amenability to pruning and in its prickly
+nature and closeness of growth, which make it an effective barrier to,
+and shelter for, stock, but it is less hardy and more slow-growing than
+the hawthorn. Hornbeam, beech, myrobalan or cherry plum and blackthorn
+also have their advantages, hornbeam being proof against great exposure,
+blackthorn thriving on poor land and possessing great impenetrability
+and so on. Box, yew, privet and many other plants are used for
+ornamental hedging; in the United States the osage orange and honey
+locust are favourite hedge plants. As fences, wooden posts and rails and
+stone walls may be conveniently used in districts where the requisite
+materials are plentiful. But the most modern form of fence is formed of
+wire strands either smooth or barbed (see BARBED WIRE), strained between
+iron standards or wooden or concrete posts. The wire may be interwoven
+with vertical strands or, if necessary, may be kept apart by iron
+droppers between the standards. Fences of a lighter description are
+machine-made with pickets of split chestnut or other wood closely set,
+woven with a few strands of wire; they are braced by posts at intervals.
+
+From the fact that tramps and vagabonds frequently sleep under hedges
+the word has come to be used as a term of contempt, as in
+"hedge-priest," an inferior and illiterate kind of parson at one time
+existing in England and Ireland, and in "hedge-school," a low class
+school held in the open air, formerly very common in Ireland. From the
+sense of "hedge" as an enclosure or barrier the verb "to hedge" means to
+enclose, to form a barrier or defence, to bound or limit. As a sporting
+term the word is used in betting to mean protection from loss, by
+betting on both sides, by "laying off" on one side, after laying odds on
+another or vice versa. The word was early used figuratively in the sense
+of to avoid committing oneself.
+
+  See articles in the _Cyclopaedia of American Agriculture_, vol. i.,
+  ed. by L. H. Bailey (New York, 1907); in the _Standard Cyclopaedia of
+  Modern Agriculture_, ed. by R. P. Wright (London, 1908-1909); and in
+  the _Encyclopaedia of Agriculture_, vol. ii., ed. by C. E. Green and
+  D. Young (Edinburgh, 1908).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Hedge is a Teutonic word, cf. Dutch _heg_, Ger. _Hecke_; the root
+    appears in other English words, e.g. "haw," as in "hawthorn."
+
+
+
+
+HEDON, a municipal borough in the Holderness parliamentary division of
+the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. E. of Hull by a branch of
+the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 1010. It stands in a low-lying,
+flat district bordering the Humber. It is 2 m. from the river, but was
+formerly reached by a navigable inlet, now dry, and was a considerable
+port. There is a small harbour, but the prosperity of the port has
+passed to Hull. The church of St Augustine is a splendid cruciform
+building with central tower. It is Early English, Decorated and
+Perpendicular, the tower being of the last period. The west front is
+particularly fine, and the church, with its noble proportions and lofty
+clerestories, resembles a cathedral in miniature. There are a
+manufacture of bricks and an agricultural trade. The corporation
+consists of a mayor, 3 aldermen and 9 councillors; and possesses a
+remarkable ancient mace, of 15th-century workmanship. Area, 321 acres.
+
+According to tradition the men of Hedon received a charter of liberties
+from King Aethelstan, but there is no evidence to prove this or indeed to
+prove any settlement in the town until after the Conquest. The manor is
+not mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but formed part of the lordship of
+Holderness which William the Conqueror granted to Odo, count of
+Albemarle. A charter of Henry II., which is undated, contains the first
+certain evidence of settlement. By it the king granted to William,
+count of Albemarle, free borough rights in Hedon so that his burgesses
+there might hold of him as freely and quietly as the burgesses of York
+or Lincoln held of the king. An earlier charter granted to the
+inhabitants of York shows that these rights included a trade gild and
+freedom from many dues not only in England but also in France. King John
+in 1200 granted a confirmation of these liberties to Baldwin, count of
+Albemarle, and Hawisia his wife and for this second charter the
+burgesses themselves paid 70 marks. In 1272 Henry III. granted to
+Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and Avelina his wife, then lord and lady of
+the manor, the right of holding a fair at Hedon on the eve, day, and
+morrow of the feast of St Augustine and for five following days. After
+the countess's death the manor came to the hands of Edward I. In 1280 it
+was found by an inquisition that the men of Hedon "were few and poor"
+and that if the town were demised at a fee-farm rent the town might
+improve. The grant, however, does not appear to have been made until
+1346. Besides this charter Edward III. also granted the burgesses the
+privilege of electing a mayor and bailiffs every year. At that time
+Hedon was one of the chief ports in the Humber, but its place was
+gradually taken by Hull after that town came into the hands of the king.
+Hedon was incorporated by Charles II. in 1661, and James II. in 1680
+gave the burgesses another charter granting among other privileges that
+of holding two extra fairs, but of this they never appear to have taken
+advantage. The burgesses returned two members to parliament in 1295, and
+from 1547 to 1832 when the borough was disfranchised.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Yorkshire_; J. R. Boyle, _The Early
+  History of the Town and Port of Hedon_ (Hull and York, 1895); G. H.
+  Park, _History of the Ancient Borough of Hedon_ (Hull, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+HEDONISM (Gr. [Greek: hedone], pleasure, from [Greek: hedys], sweet,
+pleasant), in ethics, a general term for all theories of conduct in
+which the criterion is pleasure of one kind or another. Hedonistic
+theories of conduct have been held from the earliest times, though they
+have been by no means of the same character. Moreover, hedonism has,
+especially by its critics, been very much misrepresented owing mainly to
+two simple misconceptions. In the first place hedonism may confine
+itself to the view that, as a matter of observed fact, all men do in
+practice make pleasure the criterion of action, or it may go further and
+assert that men ought to seek pleasure as the sole human good. The
+former statement takes no view as to whether or not there is any
+absolute good: if merely denies that men aim at anything more than
+pleasure. The latter statement admits an ideal, _summum bonum_--namely,
+pleasure. The second confusion is the tacit assumption that the pleasure
+of the hedonist is necessarily or characteristically of a purely
+physical kind; this assumption is in the case of some hedonistic
+theories a pure perversion of the facts. Practically all hedonists have
+argued that what are known as the "lower" pleasures are not only
+ephemeral in themselves but also productive of so great an amount of
+consequent pain that the wise man cannot regard them as truly
+pleasurable; the sane hedonist will, therefore, seek those so-called
+"higher" pleasures which are at once more lasting and less likely to be
+discounted by consequent pain. It should be observed, however, that this
+choice of pleasures by a hedonist is conditioned not by "moral"
+(absolute) but by prudential (relative) considerations.
+
+The earliest and the most extreme type of hedonism is that of the
+Cyrenaic School as stated by Aristippus, who argued that the only good
+for man is the sentient pleasure of the moment. Since (following
+Protagoras) knowledge is solely of momentary sensations, it is useless
+to try, as Socrates recommended, to make calculations as to future
+pleasures, and to balance present enjoyment with disagreeable
+consequences. The true art of life is to crowd as much enjoyment as
+possible into every moment. This extreme or "pure" hedonism regarded as
+a definite philosophic theory practically died with the Cyrenaics,
+though the same spirit has frequently found expression in ancient and
+modern, especially poetical, literature.
+
+The confusion already alluded to between "pure" and "rational" hedonism
+is nowhere more clearly exemplified than in the misconceptions which
+have arisen as to the doctrine of the Epicureans. To identify
+Epicureanism with Cyrenaicism is a complete misunderstanding. It is true
+that pleasure is the _summum bonum_ of Epicurus, but his conception of
+that pleasure is profoundly modified by the Socratic doctrine of
+prudence and the eudaemonism of Aristotle. The true hedonist will aim at
+a life of enduring rational happiness; pleasure is the end of life, but
+true pleasure can be obtained only under the guidance of reason.
+Self-control in the choice of pleasures with a view to reducing pain to
+a minimum is indispensable. "Of all this, the beginning, and the
+greatest good, is prudence." The negative side of Epicurean hedonism was
+developed to such an extent by some members of the school (see HEGESIAS)
+that the ideal life is held to be rather indifference to pain than
+positive enjoyment. This pessimistic attitude is far removed from the
+positive hedonism of Aristippus.
+
+Between the hedonism of the ancients and that of modern philosophers
+there lies a great gulf. Practically speaking ancient hedonism advocated
+the happiness of the individual: the modern hedonism of Hume, Bentham
+and Mill is based on a wider conception of life. The only real happiness
+is the happiness of the community, or at least of the majority: the
+criterion is society, not the individual. Thus we pass from Egoistic to
+Universalistic hedonism, Utilitarianism, Social Ethics, more especially
+in relation to the still broader theories of evolution. These theories
+are confronted by the problem of reconciling and adjusting the claims of
+the individual with those of society. One of the most important
+contributions to the discussion is that of Sir Leslie Stephen (_Science
+of Ethics_), who elaborated a theory of the "social organism" in
+relation to the individual. The end of the evolution process is the
+production of a "social tissue" which will be "vitally efficient."
+Instead, therefore, of the criterion of "the greatest happiness of the
+greatest number," Stephen has that of the "health of the organism." Life
+is not "a series of detached acts, in each of which a man can calculate
+the sum of happiness or misery attainable by different courses." Each
+action must be regarded as directly bearing upon the structure of
+society.
+
+  A criticism of the various hedonistic theories will be found in the
+  article ETHICS (_ad fin._). See also, beside works quoted under
+  CYRENAICS, EPICURUS, &c., and the general histories of philosophy, J.
+  S. Mackenzie, _Manual of Ethics_ (3rd ed., 1897); J. H. Muirhead,
+  _Elements of Ethics_ (1892); J. Watson, _Hedonistic Theories_ (1895);
+  J. Martineau, _Types of Ethical Theory_ (2nd ed., 1886); F. H.
+  Bradley, _Ethical Studies_ (1876); H. Sidgwick, _Methods of Ethics_
+  (6th ed., 1901); Jas. Seth, _Ethical Principles_ (3rd ed., 1898);
+  other works quoted under ETHICS.
+
+
+
+
+HEEL. (1) (O. Eng. _hela_, cf. Dutch _hiel_; a derivative of O. Eng.
+hoh, hough, hock), that part of the foot in man which is situated below
+and behind the ankle; by analogy, the calcaneal part of the tarsus in
+other vertebrates. The heel proper in digitigrades and ungulates is
+raised off the ground and is commonly known as the "knee" or "hock,"
+while the term "heel" is applied to the hind hoofs. (2) (A variant of
+the earlier _hield_; cf. Dutch _hellen_, for _helden_), to turn over to
+one side, especially of a ship. It is this word probably, in the sense
+of "tip-up," used particularly of the tilting or tipping of a cask or
+barrel of liquor, that explains the origin of the expression "no
+heel-taps," a direction to the drinkers of a toast to drain their
+glasses and leave no dregs remaining. "Tap" is a common word for liquor,
+and a cask is said to be "heeled" when it is tipped and only dregs or
+muddy liquor are left. This suits the actual sense of the phrase better
+than the explanations which connect it with tapping the "heel" or bottom
+of the glass (see _Notes and Queries_, 4th series, vols. xi.-xii., and
+5th series, vol. i.).
+
+
+
+
+HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN (or JOHANNES DE), (c.1600-c.1683), Dutch painter.
+He was, if not the first, certainly the greatest painter of still life
+in Holland; no artist of his class combined more successfully perfect
+reality of form and colour with brilliancy and harmony of tints. No
+object of stone or silver, no flower humble or gorgeous, no fruit of
+Europe or the tropics, no twig or leaf, with which he was not familiar.
+Sometimes he merely represented a festoon or a nosegay. More frequently
+he worked with a purpose to point a moral or illustrate a motto. Here
+the snake lies coiled under the grass, there a skull rests on blooming
+plants. Gold and silver tankards or cups suggest the vanity of earthly
+possessions; salvation is allegorized in a chalice amidst blossoms,
+death as a crucifix inside a wreath. Sometimes de Heem painted alone,
+sometimes in company with men of his school, Madonnas or portraits
+surrounded by festoons of fruit or flowers. At one time he signed with
+initials, at others with Johannes, at others again with the name of his
+father joined to his own. At rare intervals he condescended to a date,
+and when he did the work was certainly of the best. De Heem entered the
+gild of Antwerp in 1635-1636, and became a burgher of that city in 1637.
+He steadily maintained his residence till 1667, when he moved to
+Utrecht, where traces of his presence are preserved in records of 1668,
+1669 and 1670. It is not known when he finally returned to Antwerp, but
+his death is recorded in the gild books of that place. A very early
+picture, dated 1628, in the gallery of Gotha, bearing the signature of
+Johannes in full, shows that de Heem at that time was familiar with the
+technical habits of execution peculiar to the youth of Albert Cuyp. In
+later years he completely shook off dependence, and appears in all the
+vigour of his own originality.
+
+Out of 100 pictures or more to be met with in European galleries
+scarcely eighteen are dated. The earliest after that of Gotha is a
+chased tankard, with a bottle, a silver cup, and a lemon on a marble
+table, dated 1640, in the museum of Amsterdam. A similar work of 1645,
+with the addition of fruit and flowers and a distant landscape, is in
+Lord Radnor's collection at Longford. A chalice in a wreath, with the
+radiant host amidst wheatsheaves, grapes and flowers, is a masterpiece
+of 1648 in the Belvedere of Vienna. A wreath round a Madonna of life
+size, dated 1650, in the museum of Berlin, shows that de Heem could
+paint brightly and harmoniously on a large scale. In the Pinakothek at
+Munich is the celebrated composition of 1653, in which creepers,
+beautifully commingled with gourds and blackberries, twigs of orange,
+myrtle and peach, are enlivened by butterflies, moths and beetles. A
+landscape with a blooming rose tree, a jug of strawberries, a selection
+of fruit, and a marble bust of Pan, dated 1655, is in the Hermitage at
+St Petersburg; an allegory of abundance in a medallion wreathed with
+fruit and flowers, in the gallery of Brussels, is inscribed with de
+Heem's monogram, the date of 1668, and the name of an obscure artist
+called Lambrechts. All these pieces exhibit the master in full
+possession of his artistic faculties.
+
+CORNELIUS DE HEEM, the son of Johannes, was in practice as a flower
+painter at Utrecht in 1658, and was still active in his profession in
+1671 at the Hague. His pictures are not equal to those of his father,
+but they are all well authenticated, and most of them in the galleries
+of the Hague, Dresden, Cassel, Vienna and Berlin. In the Staedel at
+Frankfort is a fruit piece, with pot-herbs and a porcelain jug, dated
+1658; another, dated 1671, is in the museum of Brussels. DAVID DE HEEM,
+another member of the family, entered the gild of Utrecht in 1668 and
+that of Antwerp in 1693. The best piece assigned to him is a table with
+a lobster, fruit and glasses, in the gallery of Amsterdam; others bear
+his signature in the museums of Florence, St Petersburg and Brunswick.
+It is well to guard against the fallacy that David de Heem above
+mentioned is the father of Jan de Heem. We should also be careful not to
+make two persons of the first artist, who sometimes signs Johannes,
+sometimes Jan Davidsz or J. D. Heem.
+
+
+
+
+HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN (1597-1656), Dutch poet, was born at Amsterdam in
+1597. He was educated as a child at Bayonne, and entered the university
+of Leiden in 1617. In 1621 he went abroad on the grand tour, leaving
+behind him his first volume of poems, _Minnekunst_ (The Art of Love),
+which appeared in 1622. He was absent from Holland four years. He was
+made master of arts at Bourges in 1623, and in 1624 visited Hugo Grotius
+in Paris. On his return in 1625 he published _Minnepligt_ (The Duty of
+Love), and began to practise as an advocate in the Hague. In 1628 he was
+sent to England in his legal capacity by the Dutch East India Company,
+to settle the dispute respecting Amboyna. In the same year he published
+the poem entitled _Minnekunde_, or the Science of Love. He proceeded to
+Amsterdam in 1640, where he married Alida, sister of the statesman Van
+Beuningen. In 1641 he published a Dutch version of Corneille's _The
+Cid_, a tragi-comedy, and in 1647 his most famous work, the pastoral
+romance of _Batavische Arcadia_, which he had written ten years before.
+During the last twelve years of his life Heemskerk sat in the upper
+chamber of the states-general. He died at Amsterdam on the 27th of
+February 1656.
+
+  The poetry of Heemskerk, which fell into oblivion during the 18th
+  century, is once more read and valued. His famous pastoral, the
+  _Batavische Arcadia_, which was founded on the _Astree_ of Honore
+  d'Urfe, enjoyed a great popularity for more than a century, and passed
+  through twelve editions. It provoked a host of more or less able
+  imitations, of which the most distinguished were the _Dordrechtsche
+  Arcadia_ (1663) of Lambert van den Bos (1610-1698), the _Saanlandsche
+  Arcadia_ (1658) of Hendrik Sooteboom (1616-1678) and the
+  _Rotterdamsche Arcadia_ (1703) of Willem den Elger (d. 1703). But the
+  original work of Heemskerk, in which a party of nymphs and shepherds
+  go out from the Hague to Katwijk, and there indulge in polite and
+  pastoral discourse, surpasses all these in brightness and versatility.
+
+
+
+
+HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ (1498-1574), Dutch painter, sometimes called
+Van Veen, was born at Heemskerk in Holland in 1498, and apprenticed by
+his father, a small farmer, to Cornelisz Willemsz, a painter at Haarlem.
+Recalled after a time to the paternal homestead and put to the plough or
+the milking of cows, young Heemskerk took the first opportunity that
+offered to run away, and demonstrated his wish to leave home for ever by
+walking in a single day the 50 miles which separate his native hamlet
+from the town of Delft. There he studied under a local master whom he
+soon deserted for John Schoreel of Haarlem. At Haarlem he formed what is
+known as his first manner, which is but a quaint and _gauche_ imitation
+of the florid style brought from Italy by Mabuse and others. He then
+started on a wandering tour, during which he visited the whole of
+northern and central Italy, stopping at Rome, where he had letters for a
+cardinal. It is evidence of the facility with which he acquired the
+rapid execution of a scene-painter that he was selected to co-operate
+with Antonio da San Gallo, Battista Franco and Francesco Salviati to
+decorate the triumphal arches erected at Rome in April 1536 in honour of
+Charles V. Vasari, who saw the battle-pieces which Heemskerk then
+produced, says they were well composed and boldly executed. On his
+return to the Netherlands he settled at Haarlem, where he soon (1540)
+became president of his gild, married twice, and secured a large and
+lucrative practice. In 1572 he left Haarlem for Amsterdam, to avoid the
+siege which the Spaniards laid to the place, and there he made a will
+which has been preserved, and shows that he had lived long enough and
+prosperously enough to make a fortune. At his death, which took place on
+the 1st of October 1574, he left money and land in trust to the
+orphanage of Haarlem, with interest to be paid yearly to any couple who
+should be willing to perform the marriage ceremony on the slab of his
+tomb in the cathedral of Haarlem. It was a superstition which still
+exists in Catholic Holland that a marriage so celebrated would secure
+the peace of the dead within the tomb.
+
+The works of Heemskerk are still very numerous. "Adam and Eve," and "St
+Luke painting the Likeness of the Virgin and Child" in presence of a
+poet crowned with ivy leaves, and a parrot in a cage--an altar-piece in
+the gallery of Haarlem, and the "Ecce Homo" in the museum of Ghent, are
+characteristic works of the period preceding Heemskerk's visit to Italy.
+An altar-piece executed for St Laurence of Alkmaar in 1538-1541, and
+composed of at least a dozen large panels, would, if preserved, have
+given us a clue to his style after his return from the south. In its
+absence we have a "Crucifixion" executed for the Riches Claires at Ghent
+(now in the Ghent Museum) in 1543, and the altar-piece of the Drapers
+Company at Haarlem, now in the gallery of the Hague, and finished in
+1546. In these we observe that Heemskerk studied and repeated the forms
+which he had seen at Rome in the works of Michelangelo and Raphael, and
+in Lombardy in the frescoes of Mantegna and Giulio Romano. But he never
+forgot the while his Dutch origin or the models first presented to him
+by Schoreel and Mabuse. As late as 1551 his memory still served him to
+produce a copy from Raphael's "Madonna di Loretto" (gallery of Haarlem).
+A "Judgment of Momus," dated 1561, in the Berlin Museum, proves him to
+have been well acquainted with anatomy, but incapable of selection and
+insensible of grace, bold of hand and prone to daring though tawdry
+contrasts of colour, and fond of florid architecture. Two altar-pieces
+which he finished for churches at Delft in 1551 and 1559, one complete,
+the other a fragment, in the museum of Haarlem, a third of 1551 in the
+Brussels Museum, representing "Golgotha," the "Crucifixion," the "Flight
+into Egypt," "Christ on the Mount," and scenes from the lives of St
+Bernard and St Benedict, are all fairly representative of his style.
+Besides these we have the "Crucifixion" in the Hermitage of St
+Petersburg, and two "Triumphs of Silenus" in the gallery of Vienna, in
+which the same relation to Giulio Romano may be noted as we mark in the
+canvases of Rinaldo of Mantua. Other pieces of varying importance are in
+the galleries of Rotterdam, Munich, Cassel, Brunswick, Karlsruhe, Mainz
+and Copenhagen. In England the master is best known by his drawings. A
+comparatively feeble picture by him is the "Last Judgment" in the palace
+of Hampton Court.
+
+
+
+
+HEER, OSWALD (1809-1883), Swiss geologist and naturalist, was born at
+Nieder-Utzwyl in Canton St Gallen on the 31st of August 1809. He was
+educated as a clergyman and took holy orders, and he also graduated as
+doctor of philosophy and medicine. Early in life his interest was
+aroused in entomology, on which subject he acquired special knowledge,
+and later he took up the study of plants and became one of the pioneers
+in palaeo-botany, distinguished for his researches on the Miocene flora.
+In 1851 he became professor of botany in the university of Zurich, and
+he directed his attention to the Tertiary plants and insects of
+Switzerland. For some time he was director of the botanic garden at
+Zurich. In 1863 (with W. Pengelly, _Phil. Trans._, 1862) he investigated
+the plant-remains from the lignite-deposits of Bovey Tracey in
+Devonshire, regarding them as of Miocene age; but they are now classed
+as Eocene. Heer also reported on the Miocene flora of Arctic regions, on
+the plants of the Pleistocene lignites of Durnten on lake Zurich, and on
+the cereals of some of the lake-dwellings (_Die Pflanzen der
+Pfahlbauten_, 1866). During a great part of his career he was hampered
+by slender means and ill-health, but his services to science were
+acknowledged in 1873 when the Geological Society of London awarded to
+him the Wollaston medal. Dr Heer died at Lausanne on the 27th of
+September 1883. He published _Flora Tertiaria Helvetiae_ (3 vols.,
+1855-1859); _Die Urwelt der Schweiz_ (1865), and _Flora fossilis
+Arctica_ (1868-1883).
+
+
+
+
+HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG (1760-1842), German historian, was born on
+the 25th of October 1760 at Arbergen, near Bremen. He studied
+philosophy, theology and history at Gottingen, and thereafter travelled
+in France, Italy and the Netherlands. In 1787 he was appointed one of
+the professors of philosophy, and then of history at Gottingen, and he
+afterwards was chosen aulic councillor, privy councillor, &c., the usual
+rewards of successful German scholars. He died at Gottingen on the 6th
+of March 1842. Heeren's great merit as an historian was that he regarded
+the states of antiquity from an altogether fresh point of view. Instead
+of limiting himself to a narration of their political events, he
+examined their economic relations, their constitutions, their financial
+systems, and thus was enabled to throw a new light on the development of
+the old world. He possessed vast and varied learning, perfect calmness
+and impartiality, and great power of historical insight, and is now
+looked back to as the pioneer in the movement for the economic
+interpretation of history.
+
+  Heeren's chief works are: _Ideen uber Politik, den Verkehr, und den
+  Handel der vornehmsten Volker der alten Welt_ (2 vols., Gottingen,
+  1793-1796; 4th ed., 6 vols., 1824-1826; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1833);
+  _Geschichte des Studiums der klassischen Litteratur seit dem
+  Wiederaufleben der Wissenschaften_ (2 vols., Gottingen, 1797-1802; new
+  ed., 1822); _Geschichte der Staaten des Altertums_ (Gottingen, 1799;
+  Eng. trans., Oxford, 1840); _Geschichte des europaischen
+  Staatensystems_ (Gottingen, 1800; 5th ed., 1830; Eng. trans., 1834);
+  _Versuch einer Entwicklung der Folgen der Kreuzzuge_ (Gottingen, 1808;
+  French trans., Paris, 1808), a prize essay of the Institute of
+  France. Besides these, Heeren wrote brief biographical sketches of
+  Johann von Muller (Leipzig, 1809); Ludwig Spittler (Berlin, 1812); and
+  Christian Heyne (Gottingen, 1813). With Friedrich August Ukert
+  (1780-1851) he founded the famous historical collection, _Geschichte
+  der europaischen Staaten_ (Gotha, 1819 seq.), and contributed many
+  papers to learned periodicals.
+
+  A collection of his historical works, with autobiographical notice,
+  was published in 15 volumes (Gottingen, 1821-1830).
+
+
+
+
+HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON (1809-1893), German theologian, was born at
+Unterkochen in Wurttemberg on the 15th of March 1809, and was educated
+at Tubingen, where in 1839 he became professor-ordinary of Church
+history and patristics in the Roman Catholic faculty of theology. From
+1842 to 1845 he sat in the National Assembly of Wurttemberg. In December
+1869 he was enthroned bishop of Rottenburg. His literary activity, which
+had been considerable, was in no way diminished by his elevation to the
+episcopate. Among his numerous theological works may be mentioned his
+well-known edition of the _Apostolic Fathers_, issued in 1839; his _Life
+of Cardinal Ximenes_, published in 1844 (Eng. trans., 1860); and his
+still more celebrated _History of the Councils of the Church_, in seven
+volumes, which appeared between 1855 and 1874 (Eng. trans., 1871, 1882).
+Hefele's theological opinions inclined towards the more liberal school
+in the Roman Catholic Church, but he nevertheless received considerable
+signs of favour from its authorities, and was a member of the commission
+that made preparations for the Vatican Council of 1870. On the eve of
+that council he published at Naples his _Causa Honorii Papae_, which
+aimed at demonstrating the moral and historical impossibility of papal
+infallibility. About the same time he brought out a work in German on
+the same subject. He took rather a prominent part in the discussions at
+the council, associating himself with Felix Dupanloup and with Georges
+Darboy, archbishop of Paris, in his opposition to the doctrine of
+Infallibility, and supporting their arguments from his vast knowledge of
+ecclesiastical history. In the preliminary discussions he voted against
+the promulgation of the dogma. He was absent from the important sitting
+of the 18th of June 1870, and did not send in his submission to the
+decrees until 1871, when he explained in a pastoral letter that the
+dogma "referred only to doctrine given forth _ex cathedra_, and therein
+to the definitions proper only, but not to its proofs or explanations."
+In 1872 he took part in the congress summoned by the Ultramontanes at
+Fulda, and by his judicious use of minimizing tactics he kept his
+diocese free from any participation in the Old Catholic schism. The last
+four volumes of the second edition of his _History of the Councils_ have
+been described as skilfully adapted to the new situation created by the
+Vatican decrees. During the later years of his life he undertook no
+further literary efforts on behalf of his church, but retired into
+comparative privacy. He died on the 6th of June 1893.
+
+  See Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, vii. 525.
+
+
+
+
+HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831), German philosopher, was born
+at Stuttgart on the 27th of August 1770. His father, an official in the
+fiscal service of Wurttemberg, is not otherwise known to fame; and of
+his mother we hear only that she had scholarship enough to teach him the
+elements of Latin. He had one sister, Christiana, who died unmarried,
+and a brother Ludwig, who served in the campaigns of Napoleon. At the
+grammar school of Stuttgart, where Hegel was educated between the ages
+of seven and eighteen, he was not remarkable. His main productions were
+a diary kept at intervals during eighteen months (1785-1787), and
+translations of the _Antigone_, the _Manual_ of Epictetus, &c. But the
+characteristic feature of his studies was the copious extracts which
+from this time onward he unremittingly made and preserved. This
+collection, alphabetically arranged, comprised annotations on classical
+authors, passages from newspapers, treatises on morals and mathematics
+from the standard works of the period. In this way he absorbed in their
+integrity the raw materials for elaboration. Yet as evidence that he was
+not merely receptive we have essays already breathing that admiration of
+the classical world which he never lost. His chief amusement was cards,
+and he began the habit of taking snuff.
+
+In the autumn of 1788 he entered at Tubingen as a student of theology;
+but he showed no interest in theology: his sermons were a failure, and
+he found more congenial reading in the classics, on the advantages of
+studying which his first essay was written. After two years he took the
+degree of Ph.D., and in the autumn of 1793 received his theological
+certificate, stating him to be of good abilities, but of middling
+industry and knowledge, and especially deficient in philosophy.
+
+As a student, his elderly appearance gained him the title "Old man," but
+he took part in the walks, beer-drinking and love-making of his fellows.
+He gained most from intellectual intercourse with his contemporaries,
+the two best known of whom were J. C. F. Holderlin and Schelling. With
+Holderlin Hegel learned to feel for the old Greeks a love which grew
+stronger as the semi-Kantianized theology of his teachers more and more
+failed to interest him. With Schelling like sympathies bound him. They
+both protested against the political and ecclesiastical inertia of their
+native state, and adopted the doctrines of freedom and reason. The story
+which tells how the two went out one morning to dance round a tree of
+liberty in a meadow is an anachronism, though in keeping with their
+opinions.
+
+On leaving college, he became a private tutor at Bern and lived in
+intellectual isolation. He was, however, far from inactive. He compiled
+a systematic account of the fiscal system of the canton Bern, but the
+main factor in his mental growth came from his study of Christianity.
+Under the impulse given by Lessing and Kant he turned to the original
+records of Christianity, and attempted to construe for himself the real
+significance of Christ. He wrote a life of Jesus, in which Jesus was
+simply the son of Joseph and Mary. He did not stop to criticize as a
+philologist, and ignored the miraculous. He asked for the secret
+contained in the conduct and sayings of this man which made him the hope
+of the human race. Jesus appeared as revealing the unity with God in
+which the Greeks in their best days unwittingly rejoiced, and as lifting
+the eyes of the Jews from a lawgiver who metes out punishment on the
+transgressor, to the destiny which in the Greek conception falls on the
+just no less than on the unjust.
+
+The interest of these ideas is twofold. In Jesus Hegel finds the
+expression for something higher than mere morality: he finds a noble
+spirit which rises above the contrasts of virtue and vice into the
+concrete life, seeing the infinite always embracing our finitude, and
+proclaiming the divine which is in man and cannot be overcome by error
+and evil, unless the man close his eyes and ears to the godlike presence
+within him. In religious life, in short, he finds the principle which
+reconciles the opposition of the temporal mind. But, secondly, the
+general source of the doctrine that life is higher than all its
+incidents is of interest. He does not free himself from the current
+theology either by rational moralizing like Kant, or by bold speculative
+synthesis like Fichte and Schelling. He finds his panacea in the
+concrete life of humanity. But although he goes to the Scriptures, and
+tastes the mystical spirit of the medieval saints, the Christ of his
+conception has traits that seem borrowed from Socrates and from the
+heroes of Attic tragedy, who suffer much and yet smile gently on a
+destiny to which they were reconciled. Instead of the Hebraic doctrine
+of a Jesus punished for our sins, we have the Hellenic idea of a man who
+is calmly tranquil in the consciousness of his unity with God.
+
+During these years Hegel kept up a slack correspondence with Schelling
+and Holderlin. Schelling, already on the way to fame, kept Hegel abreast
+with German speculation. Both of them were intent on forcing the
+theologians into the daylight, and grudged them any aid they might
+expect from Kant's postulation of God and immortality to crown the
+edifice of ethics. Meanwhile, Holderlin in Jena had been following
+Fichte's career with an enthusiasm with which he infected Hegel.
+
+It is pleasing to turn from these vehement struggles of thought to a
+tour which Hegel in company with three other tutors made through the
+Bernese Oberland in July and August 1796. Of this tour he left a minute
+diary. He was delighted with the varied play of the waterfalls, but no
+glamour blinded him to the squalor of Swiss peasant life. The glaciers
+and the rocks called forth no raptures. "The spectacle of these
+eternally dead masses gave me nothing but the monotonous and at last
+tedious idea, 'Es ist so.'"
+
+Towards the close of his engagement at Bern, Hegel had received hopes
+from Schelling of a post at Jena. Fortunately his friend Holderlin, now
+tutor in Frankfort, secured a similar situation there for Hegel in the
+family of Herr Gogol, a merchant (January 1797). The new post gave him
+more leisure and the society he needed.
+
+About this time he turned to questions of economics and government. He
+had studied Gibbon, Hume and Montesquieu in Switzerland. We now find him
+making extracts from the English newspapers on the Poor-Law Bill of
+1796; criticising the Prussian land laws, promulgated about the same
+time; and writing a commentary on Sir James Steuart's _Inquiry into the
+Principles of Political Economy_. Here, as in contemporaneous criticisms
+of Kant's ethical writings, Hegel aims at correcting the abstract
+discussion of a topic by treating it in its systematic interconnexions.
+Church and state, law and morality, commerce and art are reduced to
+factors in the totality of human life, from which the specialists had
+isolated them.
+
+But the best evidence of Hegel's attention to contemporary politics is
+two unpublished essays--one of them written in 1798, "On the Internal
+Condition of Wurttemberg in Recent Times, particularly on the Defects in
+the Magistracy," the other a criticism on the constitution of Germany,
+written, probably, not long after the peace of Luneville (1801). Both
+essays are critical rather than constructive. In the first Hegel showed
+how the supineness of the committee of estates in Wurttemberg had
+favoured the usurpations of the superior officials in whom the court had
+found compliant servants. And though he perceived the advantages of
+change in the constitution of the estates, he still doubted if an
+improved system could work in the actual conditions of his native
+province. The main feature in the pamphlet is the recognition that a
+spirit of reform is abroad. If Wurttemberg suffered from a bureaucracy
+tempered by despotism, the Fatherland in general suffered no less.
+"Germany," so begins the second of these unpublished papers, "is no
+longer a state." Referring the collapse of the empire to the retention
+of feudal forms and to the action of religious animosities, Hegel looked
+forward to reorganization by a central power (Austria) wielding the
+imperial army, and by a representative body elected by the geographical
+districts of the empire. But such an issue, he saw well, could only be
+the outcome of violence--of "blood and iron." The philosopher did not
+pose as a practical statesman. He described the German empire in its
+nullity as a conception without existence in fact. In such a state of
+things it was the business of the philosopher to set forth the outlines
+of the coming epoch, as they were already moulding themselves into
+shape, amidst what the ordinary eye saw only as the disintegration of
+the old forms of social life.
+
+His old interest in the religious question reappears, but in a more
+philosophical form. Starting with the contrast between a natural and a
+positive religion, he regards a positive religion as one imposed upon
+the mind from without, not a natural growth crowning the round of human
+life. A natural religion, on the other hand, was not, he thought, the
+one universal religion of every clime and age, but rather the
+spontaneous development of the national conscience varying in varying
+circumstances. A people's religion completes and consecrates their whole
+activity: in it the people rises above its finite life in limited
+spheres to an infinite life where it feels itself all at one. Even
+philosophy with Hegel at this epoch was subordinate to religion; for
+philosophy must never abandon the finite in the search for the infinite.
+Soon, however, Hegel adopted a view according to which philosophy is a
+higher mode of apprehending the infinite than even religion.
+
+At Frankfort, meanwhile, the philosophic ideas of Hegel first assumed
+the proper philosophic form. In a MS. of 102 quarto sheets, of which the
+first three and the seventh are wanting, there is preserved the original
+sketch of the Hegelian system, so far as the logic and metaphysics and
+part of the philosophy of nature are concerned. The third part of the
+system--the ethical theory--seems to have been composed afterwards; it
+is contained in its first draft in another MS. of 30 sheets. Even these
+had been preceded by earlier Pythagorean constructions envisaging the
+divine life in divine triangles.
+
+Circumstances soon put Hegel in the way to complete these outlines. His
+father died in January 1799; and the slender sum which Hegel received as
+his inheritance, 3154 gulden (about L260), enabled him to think once
+more of a studious life. At the close of 1800 we find him asking
+Schelling for letters of introduction to Bamberg, where with cheap
+living and good beer he hoped to prepare himself for the intellectual
+excitement of Jena. The upshot was that Hegel arrived at Jena in January
+1801. An end had already come to the brilliant epoch at Jena, when the
+romantic poets, Tieck, Novalis and the Schlegels made it the
+headquarters of their fantastic mysticism, and Fichte turned the results
+of Kant into the banner of revolutionary ideas. Schelling was the main
+philosophical lion of the time; and in some quarters Hegel was spoken of
+as a new champion summoned to help him in his struggle with the more
+prosaic continuators of Kant. Hegel's first performance seemed to
+justify the rumour. It was an essay on the difference between the
+philosophic systems of Fichte and Schelling, tending in the main to
+support the latter. Still more striking was the agreement shown in the
+_Critical Journal of Philosophy_, which Schelling and Hegel wrote
+conjointly during the years 1802-1803. So latent was the difference
+between them at this epoch that in one or two cases it is not possible
+to determine by whom the essay was written. Even at a later period
+foreign critics like Cousin saw much that was alike in the two
+doctrines, and did not hesitate to regard Hegel as a disciple of
+Schelling. The dissertation by which Hegel qualified for the position of
+_Privatdozent_ (_De orbitis planetarum_) was probably chosen under the
+influence of Schelling's philosophy of nature. It was an unfortunate
+subject. For while Hegel, depending on a numerical proportion suggested
+by Plato, hinted in a single sentence that it might be a mistake to look
+for a planet between Mars and Jupiter, Giuseppe Piazzi (q.v.) had
+already discovered the first of the asteroids (Ceres) on the 1st of
+January 1801. Apparently in August, when Hegel qualified, the news of
+the discovery had not yet reached him, but critics have made this
+luckless suggestion the ground of attack on a priori philosophy.
+
+Hegel's lectures, in the winter of 1801-1802, on logic and metaphysics
+were attended by about eleven students. Later, in 1804, we find him with
+a class of about thirty, lecturing on his whole system; but his average
+attendance was rather less. Besides philosophy, he once at least
+lectured on mathematics. As he taught, he was led to modify his original
+system, and notice after notice of his lectures promised a text-book of
+philosophy--which, however, failed to appear. Meanwhile, after the
+departure of Schelling from Jena in the middle of 1803, Hegel was left
+to work out his own views. Besides philosophical studies, where he now
+added Aristotle to Plato, he read Homer and the Greek tragedians, made
+extracts from books, attended lectures on physiology, and dabbled in
+other sciences. On his own representation at Weimar, he was in February
+1805 made a professor extraordinarius, and in July 1806 drew his first
+and only stipend--100 thalers. At Jena, though some of his hearers
+became attached to him, Hegel was not a popular lecturer any more than
+K. C. F. Krause (q.v.). The ordinary student found J. F. Fries (q.v.)
+more intelligible.
+
+Of the lectures of that period there still remain considerable notes.
+The language often had a theological tinge (never entirely absent), as
+when the "idea" was spoken of, or "the night of the divine mystery," or
+the dialectic of the absolute called the "course of the divine life."
+Still his view was growing clearer, and his difference from Schelling
+more palpable. Both Schelling and Hegel stand in a relation to art, but
+while the aesthetic model of Schelling was found in the contemporary
+world, where art was a special sphere and the artist a separate
+profession in no intimate connexion with the age and nation, the model
+of Hegel was found rather in those works of national art in which art
+is not a part but an aspect of the common life, and the artist is not a
+mere individual but a concentration of the passion and power of beauty
+in the whole community. "Such art," says Hegel, "is the common good and
+the work of all. Each generation hands it on beautified to the next;
+each has done something to give utterance to the universal thought.
+Those who are said to have genius have acquired some special aptitude by
+which they render the general shapes of the nation their own work, one
+in one point, another in another. What they produce is not their
+invention, but the invention of the whole nation; or rather, what they
+find is that the whole nation has found its true nature. Each, as it
+were, piles up his stone. So too does the artist. Somehow he has the
+good fortune to come last, and when he places his stone the arch stands
+self-supported." Hegel, as we have already seen, was fully aware of the
+change that was coming over the world. "A new epoch," he says, "has
+arisen. It seems as if the world-spirit had now succeeded in freeing
+itself from all foreign objective existence, and finally apprehending
+itself as absolute mind." These words come from lectures on the history
+of philosophy, which laid the foundation for his _Phanomenologie des
+Geistes_ (Bamberg, 1807).
+
+On the 14th of October 1806 Napoleon was at Jena. Hegel, like Goethe,
+felt no patriotic shudder at the national disaster, and in Prussia he
+saw only a corrupt and conceited bureaucracy. Writing to his friend F.
+J. Niethammer (1766-1848) on the day before the battle, he speaks with
+admiration of the "world-soul," the emperor, and with satisfaction of
+the probable overthrow of the Prussians. The scholar's wish was to see
+the clouds of war pass away, and leave thinkers to their peaceful work.
+His manuscripts were his main care; and doubtful of the safety of his
+last despatch to Bamberg, and disturbed by the French soldiers in his
+lodgings, he hurried off, with the last pages of the _Phanomenologie_,
+to take refuge in the pro-rector's house. Hegel's fortunes were now at
+the lowest ebb. Without means, and obliged to borrow from Niethammer, he
+had no further hopes from the impoverished university. He had already
+tried to get away from Jena. In 1805, when several lecturers left in
+consequence of diminished classes, he had written to Johann Heinrich
+Voss (q.v.), suggesting that his philosophy might find more congenial
+soil in Heidelberg; but the application bore no fruit. He was,
+therefore, glad to become editor of the _Bamberger Zeitung_ (1807-1808).
+Of his editorial work there is little to tell; no leading articles
+appeared in his columns. It was not a suitable vocation, and he gladly
+accepted the rectorship of the Aegidien-gymnasium in Nuremberg, a post
+which he held from December 1808 to August 1816. Bavaria at this time
+was modernizing her institutions. The school system was reorganized by
+new regulations, in accordance with which Hegel wrote a series of
+lessons in the outlines of philosophy--ethical, logical and
+psychological. They were published in 1840 by Rosenkranz from Hegel's
+papers.
+
+As a teacher and master Hegel inspired confidence in his pupils, and
+maintained discipline without pedantic interference in their
+associations and sports. On prize-days his addresses summing up the
+history of the school year discussed some topic of general interest.
+Five of these addresses are preserved. The first is an exposition of the
+advantages of a classical training, when it is not confined to mere
+grammar. "The perfection and grandeur of the master-works of Greek and
+Roman literature must be the intellectual bath, the secular baptism,
+which gives the first and unfading tone and tincture of taste and
+science." In another address, speaking of the introduction of military
+exercises at school, he says: "These exercises, while not intended to
+withdraw the students from their more immediate duty, so far as they
+have any calling to it, still remind them of the possibility that every
+one, whatever rank in society he may belong to, may one day have to
+defend his country and his king, or help to that end. This duty, which
+is natural to all, was formerly recognized by every citizen, though
+whole ranks in the state have become strangers to the very idea of it."
+
+On the 16th of September 1811 Hegel married Marie von Tucher
+(twenty-two years his junior) of Nuremberg. She brought her husband no
+fortune, but the marriage was entirely happy. The husband kept a careful
+record of income and expenditure. His income amounted at Nuremberg to
+1500 gulden (L130) and a house; at Heidelberg, as professor, he received
+about the same sum; at Berlin about 3000 thalers (L300). Two sons were
+born to them; the elder, Karl, became eminent as a historian. The
+younger, Immanuel, was born on the 24th of September 1816. Hegel's
+letters to his wife, written during his solitary holiday tours to
+Vienna, the Netherlands and Paris, breathe of kindly and happy
+affection. Hegel the tourist--recalling happy days spent together;
+confessing that, were it not because of his sense of duty as a
+traveller, he would rather be at home, dividing his time between his
+books and his wife; commenting on the shop windows at Vienna; describing
+the straw hats of the Parisian ladies--is a contrast to the professor of
+a profound philosophical system. But it shows that the enthusiasm which
+in his days of courtship moved him to verse had blossomed into a later
+age of domestic bliss.
+
+In 1812 appeared the first two volumes of his _Wissenschaft der Logik_,
+and the work was completed by a third in 1816. This work, in which his
+system was for the first time presented in what, with a few minor
+alterations, was its ultimate shape, found some audience in the world.
+Towards the close of his eighth session three professorships were almost
+simultaneously put within his reach--at Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg.
+The Prussian offer expressed a doubt that his long absence from
+university teaching might have made him rusty, so he accepted the post
+at Heidelberg, whence Fries had just gone to Jena (October 1816). Only
+four hearers turned up for one of his courses. Others, however, on the
+encyclopaedia of philosophy and the history of philosophy drew classes
+of twenty to thirty. While he was there Cousin first made his
+acquaintance, but a more intimate relation dates from Berlin. Among his
+pupils was Hermann F. W. Hinrichs (q.v.), to whose _Religion in its
+Inward Relation to Science_ (1822) Hegel contributed an important
+preface. The strangest of his hearers was an Esthonian baron, Boris
+d'Yrkull, who after serving in the Russian army came to Heidelberg to
+hear the wisdom of Hegel. But his books and his lectures were alike
+obscure to the baron, who betook himself by Hegel's advice to simpler
+studies before he returned to the Hegelian system.
+
+At Heidelberg Hegel was active in a literary way also. In 1817 he
+brought out the _Enzyklopadie d. philos. Wissenschaften im Grundrisse_
+(4th ed., Berlin, 1817; new ed., 1870) for use at his lectures. It is
+the only exposition of the Hegelian system as a whole which we have
+direct from Hegel's own hand. Besides this work he wrote two reviews for
+the Heidelberg _Jahrbucher_--the first on F. H. Jacobi, the other a
+political pamphlet which called forth violent criticism. It was entitled
+a _Criticism on the Transactions of the Estates of Wurttemberg in
+1815-1816_. On the 15th of March 1815 King Frederick of Wurttemberg, at
+a meeting of the estates of his kingdom, laid before them the draft of a
+new constitution, in accordance with the resolutions of the congress of
+Vienna. Though an improvement on the old constitution, it was
+unacceptable to the estates, jealous of their old privileges and
+suspicious of the king's intentions. A decided majority demanded the
+restitution of their old laws, though the kingdom now included a large
+population to which the old rights were strange. Hegel in his essay,
+which was republished at Stuttgart, supported the royal proposals, and
+animadverted on the backwardness of the bureaucracy and the landed
+interests. In the main he was right; but he forgot too much the
+provocation they had received, the usurpations and selfishness of the
+governing family, and the unpatriotic character of the king.
+
+In 1818 Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of philosophy at
+Berlin, vacant since the death of Fichte. The hopes which this offer
+raised of a position less precarious than that of a university teacher
+of philosophy were in one sense disappointed; for more than a professor
+Hegel never became. But his influence upon his pupils, and his
+solidarity with the Prussian government, gave him a position such as
+few professors have held.
+
+In 1821 Hegel published the _Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts_
+(2nd ed., 1840; ed. G. J. B. Bolland, 1901; Eng. trans., _Philosophy of
+Right_, by S. W. Dyde, 1896). It is a combined system of moral and
+political philosophy, or a sociology dominated by the idea of the state.
+It turns away contemptuously and fiercely from the sentimental
+aspirations of reformers possessed by the democratic doctrine of the
+rights of the omnipotent nation. Fries is stigmatized as one of the
+"ringleaders of shallowness" who were bent on substituting a fancied tie
+of enthusiasm and friendship for the established order of the state. The
+disciplined philosopher, who had devoted himself to the task of
+comprehending the organism of the state, had no patience with feebler or
+more mercurial minds who recklessly laid hands on established
+ordinances, and set them aside where they contravened humanitarian
+sentiments. With the principle that whatever is real is rational, and
+whatever is rational is real, Hegel fancied that he had stopped the
+mouths of political critics and constitution-mongers. His theory was not
+a mere formulation of the Prussian state. Much that he construed as
+necessary to a state was wanting in Prussia; and some of the reforms
+already introduced did not find their place in his system. Yet, on the
+whole, he had taken his side with the government. Altenstein even
+expressed his satisfaction with the book. In his disgust at the crude
+conceptions of the enthusiasts, who had hoped that the war of liberation
+might end in a realm of internal liberty, Hegel had forgotten his own
+youthful vows recorded in verse to Holderlin, "never, never to live in
+peace with the ordinance which regulates feeling and opinion." And yet
+if we look deeper we see that this is no worship of existing powers. It
+is rather due to an overpowering sense of the value of organization--a
+sense that liberty can never be dissevered from order, that a vital
+interconnexion between all the parts of the body politic is the source
+of all good, so that while he can find nothing but brute weight in an
+organized public, he can compare the royal person in his ideal form of
+constitutional monarchy to the dot upon the letter i. A keen sense of
+how much is at stake in any alteration breeds suspicion of every reform.
+
+During his thirteen years at Berlin Hegel's whole soul seems to have
+been in his lectures. Between 1823 and 1827 his activity reached its
+maximum. His notes were subjected to perpetual revisions and additions.
+We can form an idea of them from the shape in which they appear in his
+published writings. Those on _Aesthetics_, on the _Philosophy of
+Religion_, on the _Philosophy of History_ and on the _History of
+Philosophy_, have been published by his editors, mainly from the notes
+of his students, under their separate heads; while those on logic,
+psychology and the philosophy of nature are appended in the form of
+illustrative and explanatory notes to the sections of his
+_Encyklopadie_. During these years hundreds of hearers from all parts of
+Germany, and beyond, came under his influence. His fame was carried
+abroad by eager or intelligent disciples. At Berlin Henning served to
+prepare the intending disciple for fuller initiation by the master
+himself. Edward Gans (q.v.) and Heinrich Gustav Hotho (q.v.) carried the
+method into special spheres of inquiry. At Halle Hinrichs maintained the
+standard of Hegelianism amid the opposition or indifference of his
+colleagues.
+
+Three courses of lectures are especially the product of his Berlin
+period: those on aesthetics, the philosophy of religion and the
+philosophy of history. In the years preceding the revolution of 1830,
+public interest, excluded from political life, turned to theatres,
+concert-rooms and picture-galleries. At these Hegel became a frequent
+and appreciative visitor and made extracts from the art-notes in the
+newspapers. In his holiday excursions, the interest in the fine arts
+more than once took him out of his way to see some old painting. At
+Vienna in 1824 he spent every moment at the Italian opera, the ballet
+and the picture-galleries. In Paris, in 1827, he saw Charles Kemble and
+an English company play Shakespeare. This familiarity with the facts of
+art, though neither deep nor historical, gave a freshness to his
+lectures on aesthetics, which, as put together from the notes of 1820,
+1823, 1826, are in many ways the most successful of his efforts.
+
+The lectures on the philosophy of religion are another application of
+his method. Shortly before his death he had prepared for the press a
+course of lectures on the proofs for the existence of God. In his
+lectures on religion he dealt with Christianity, as in his philosophy of
+morals he had regarded the state. On the one hand he turned his weapons
+against the rationalistic school, who reduced religion to the modicum
+compatible with an ordinary worldly mind. On the other hand he
+criticized the school of Schleiermacher, who elevated feeling to a place
+in religion above systematic theology. His middle way attempts to show
+that the dogmatic creed is the rational development of what was implicit
+in religious feeling. To do so, of course, philosophy becomes the
+interpreter and the superior. To the new school of E. W. Hengstenberg,
+which regarded Revelation itself as supreme, such interpretation was an
+abomination.
+
+A Hegelian school began to gather. The flock included intelligent
+pupils, empty-headed imitators, and romantic natures who turned
+philosophy into lyric measures. Opposition and criticism only served to
+define more precisely the adherents of the new doctrine. Hegel himself
+grew more and more into a belief in his own doctrine as the one truth
+for the world. He was in harmony with the government, and his followers
+were on the winning side. Though he had soon resigned all direct
+official connexion with the schools of Brandenburg, his real influence
+in Prussia was considerable, and as usual was largely exaggerated in
+popular estimate. In the narrower circle of his friends his birthdays
+were the signal for congratulatory verses. In 1826 a formal festival was
+got up by some of his admirers, one of whom, Herder, spoke of his
+categories as new gods; and he was presented with much poetry and a
+silver mug. In 1830 the students struck a medal in his honour, and in
+1831 he was decorated by an order from Frederick William III. In 1830 he
+was rector of the university; and in his speech at the tricentenary of
+the Augsburg Confession in that year he charged the Catholic Church with
+regarding the virtues of the pagan world as brilliant vices, and giving
+the crown of perfection to poverty, continence and obedience.
+
+One of the last literary undertakings in which he took part was the
+establishment of the Berlin _Jahrbucher fur wissenschaftliche Kritik_,
+in which he assisted Edward Gans and Varnhagen von Ense. The aim of this
+review was to give a critical account, certified by the names of the
+contributors, of the literary and philosophical productions of the time,
+in relation to the general progress of knowledge. The journal was not
+solely in the Hegelian interest; and more than once, when Hegel
+attempted to domineer over the other editors, he was met by vehement and
+vigorous opposition.
+
+The revolution of 1830 was a great blow to him, and the prospect of
+democratic advances almost made him ill. His last literary work, the
+first part of which appeared in the _Preussische Staatszeitung_, was an
+essay on the English Reform Bill of 1831. It contains primarily a
+consideration of its probable effects on the character of the new
+members of parliament, and the measures which they may introduce. In the
+latter connexion he enlarged on several points in which England had done
+less than many continental states for the abolition of monopolies and
+abuses. Surveying the questions connected with landed property, with the
+game laws, the poor, the Established Church, especially in Ireland, he
+expressed grave doubt on the legislative capacity of the English
+parliament as compared with the power of renovation manifested in other
+states of western Europe.
+
+In 1831 cholera first entered Europe. Hegel and his family retired for
+the summer to the suburbs, and there he finished the revision of the
+first part of his _Science of Logic_. On the beginning of the winter
+session, however, he returned to his house in the Kupfergraben. On this
+occasion an altercation occurred between him and his friend Gans, who in
+his notice of lectures on jurisprudence had recommended Hegel's
+_Philosophy of Right_. Hegel, indignant at what he deemed patronage,
+demanded that the note should be withdrawn. On the 14th of November,
+after one day's illness, he died of cholera and was buried, as he had
+wished, between Fichte and Solger.
+
+Hegel in his class-room was neither imposing nor fascinating. You saw a
+plain, old-fashioned face, without life or lustre--a figure which had
+never looked young, and was now prematurely aged; the furrowed face bore
+witness to concentrated thought. Sitting with his snuff-box before him,
+and his head bent down, he looked ill at ease, and kept turning the
+folios of his notes. His utterance was interrupted by frequent coughing;
+every sentence came out with a struggle. The style was no less
+irregular. Sometimes in plain narrative the lecturer would be specially
+awkward, while in abstruse passages he seemed specially at home, rose
+into a natural eloquence, and carried away the hearer by the grandeur of
+his diction.
+
+  _Philosophy._--Hegelianism is confessedly one of the most difficult of
+  all philosophies. Every one has heard the legend which makes Hegel
+  say, "One man has understood me, and even he has not." He abruptly
+  hurls us into a world where old habits of thought fail us. In three
+  places, indeed, he has attempted to exhibit the transition to his own
+  system from other levels of thought; but in none with much success. In
+  the introductory lectures on the philosophy of religion he gives a
+  rationale of the difference between the modes of consciousness in
+  religion and philosophy (between _Vorstellung_ and _Begriff_). In the
+  beginning of the _Encyklopadie_ he discusses the defects of dogmatism,
+  empiricism, the philosophies of Kant and Jacobi. In the first case he
+  treats the formal or psychological aspect of the difference; in the
+  latter he presents his doctrine less in its essential character than
+  in special relations to the prominent systems of his time. The
+  _Phenomenology of Spirit_, regarded as an introduction, suffers from a
+  different fault. It is not an introduction--for the philosophy which
+  it was to introduce was not then fully elaborated. Even to the last
+  Hegel had not so externalized his system as to treat it as something
+  to be led up to by gradual steps. His philosophy was not one aspect of
+  his intellectual life, to be contemplated from others; it was the ripe
+  fruit of concentrated reflection, and had become the one all-embracing
+  form and principle of his thinking. More than most thinkers he had
+  quietly laid himself open to the influences of his time and the
+  lessons of history.
+
+
+    The Phenomenology.
+
+  The _Phenomenology_ is the picture of the Hegelian philosophy in the
+  making--at the stage before the scaffolding has been removed from the
+  building. For this reason the book is at once the most brilliant and
+  the most difficult of Hegel's works--the most brilliant because it is
+  to some degree an autobiography of Hegel's mind--not the abstract
+  record of a logical evolution, but the real history of an intellectual
+  growth; the most difficult because, instead of treating the rise of
+  intelligence (from its first appearance in contrast with the real
+  world to its final recognition of its presence in, and rule over, all
+  things) as a purely subjective process, it exhibits this rise as
+  wrought out in historical epochs, national characteristics, forms of
+  culture and faith, and philosophical systems. The theme is identical
+  with the introduction to the _Encyklopadie_; but it is treated in a
+  very different style. From all periods of the world--from medieval
+  piety and stoical pride, Kant and Sophocles, science and art, religion
+  and philosophy--with disdain of mere chronology, Hegel gathers in the
+  vineyards of the human spirit the grapes from which he crushes the
+  wine of thought. The mind coming through a thousand phases of mistake
+  and disappointment to a sense and realization of its true position in
+  the universe--such is the drama which is consciously Hegel's own
+  history, but is represented objectively as the process of spiritual
+  history which the philosopher reproduces in himself. The
+  _Phenomenology_ stands to the _Encyklopadie_ somewhat as the dialogues
+  of Plato stand to the Aristotelian treatises. It contains almost all
+  his philosophy--but irregularly and without due proportion. The
+  personal element gives an undue prominence to recent phenomena of the
+  philosophic atmosphere. It is the account given by an inventor of his
+  own discovery, not the explanation of an outsider. It therefore to
+  some extent assumes from the first the position which it proposes
+  ultimately to reach, and gives not a proof of that position, but an
+  account of the experience (_Erfahrung_) by which consciousness is
+  forced from one position to another till it finds rest in _Absolutes
+  Wissen_.
+
+  The _Phenomenology_ is neither mere psychology, nor logic, nor moral
+  philosophy, nor history, but is all of these and a great deal more. It
+  needs not distillation, but expansion and illustration from
+  contemporary and antecedent thought and literature. It treats of the
+  attitudes of consciousness towards reality under the six heads of
+  consciousness, self-consciousness, reason (_Vernunft_), spirit
+  (_Geist_), religion and absolute knowledge. The native attitude of
+  consciousness towards existence is reliance on the evidence of the
+  senses; but a little reflection is sufficient to show that the reality
+  attributed to the external world is as much due to intellectual
+  conceptions as to the senses, and that these conceptions elude us when
+  we try to fix them. If consciousness cannot detect a permanent object
+  outside it, so self-consciousness cannot find a permanent subject in
+  itself. It may, like the Stoic, assert freedom by holding aloof from
+  the entanglements of real life, or like the sceptic regard the world
+  as a delusion, or finally, as the "unhappy consciousness"
+  (_Ungluckliches Bewusstseyn_), may be a recurrent falling short of a
+  perfection which it has placed above it in the heavens. But in this
+  isolation from the world, self-consciousness has closed its gates
+  against the stream of life. The perception of this is reason. Reason
+  convinced that the world and the soul are alike rational observes the
+  external world, mental phenomena, and specially the nervous organism,
+  as the meeting ground of body and mind. But reason finds much in the
+  world recognizing no kindred with her, and so turning to practical
+  activity seeks in the world the realization of her own aims. Either in
+  a crude way she pursues her own pleasure, and finds that necessity
+  counteracts her cravings; or she endeavours to find the world in
+  harmony with the heart, and yet is unwilling to see fine aspirations
+  crystallized by the act of realizing them. Finally, unable to impose
+  upon the world either selfish or humanitarian ends, she folds her arms
+  in pharisaic virtue, with the hope that some hidden power will give
+  the victory to righteousness. But the world goes on in its life,
+  heedless of the demands of virtue. The principle of nature is to live
+  and let live. Reason abandons her efforts to mould the world, and is
+  content to let the aims of individuals work out their results
+  independently, only stepping in to lay down precepts for the cases
+  where individual actions conflict, and to test these precepts by the
+  rules of formal logic.
+
+  So far we have seen consciousness on one hand and the real world on
+  the other. The stage of _Geist_ reveals the consciousness no longer as
+  critical and antagonistic but as the indwelling spirit of a community,
+  as no longer isolated from its surroundings but the union of the
+  single and real consciousness with the vital feeling that animates the
+  community. This is the lowest stage of concrete consciousness--life,
+  and not knowledge; the spirit inspires, but does not reflect. It is
+  the age of unconscious morality, when the individual's life is lost in
+  the society of which he is an organic member. But increasing culture
+  presents new ideals, and the mind, absorbing the ethical spirit of its
+  environment, gradually emancipates itself from conventions and
+  superstitions. This _Aufklarung_ prepares the way for the rule of
+  conscience, for the moral view of the world as subject of a moral law.
+  From the moral world the next step is religion; the moral law gives
+  place to God; but the idea of Godhead, too, as it first appears, is
+  imperfect, and has to pass through the forms of nature-worship and of
+  art before it reaches a full utterance in Christianity. Religion in
+  this shape is the nearest step to the stage of absolute knowledge; and
+  this absolute knowledge--"the spirit knowing itself as spirit"--is not
+  something which leaves these other forms behind but the full
+  comprehension of them as the organic constituents of its empire; "they
+  are the memory and the sepulchre of its history, and at the same time
+  the actuality, truth and certainty of its throne." Here, according to
+  Hegel, is the field of philosophy.
+
+  The preface to the _Phenomenology_ signalled the separation from
+  Schelling--the adieu to romantic. It declared that a genuine
+  philosophy has no kindred with the mere aspirations of artistic minds,
+  but must earn its bread by the sweat of its brow. It sets its face
+  against the idealism which either thundered against the world for its
+  deficiencies, or sought something finer than reality. Philosophy is to
+  be the science of the actual world--it is the spirit comprehending
+  itself in its own externalizations and manifestations. The philosophy
+  of Hegel is idealism, but it is an idealism in which every idealistic
+  unification has its other face in the multiplicity of existence. It is
+  realism as well as idealism, and never quits its hold on facts.
+  Compared with Fichte and Schelling, Hegel has a sober, hard, realistic
+  character. At a later date, with the call of Schelling to Berlin in
+  1841, it became fashionable to speak of Hegelianism as a negative
+  philosophy requiring to be complemented by a "positive" philosophy
+  which would give reality and not mere ideas. The cry was the same as
+  that of Krug (q.v.), asking the philosophers who expounded the
+  absolute to construe his pen. It was the cry of the Evangelical school
+  for a personal Christ and not a dialectical Logos. The claims of the
+  individual, the real, material and historical fact, it was said, had
+  been sacrificed by Hegel to the universal, the ideal, the spiritual
+  and the logical.
+
+  There was a truth in these criticisms. It was the very aim of
+  Hegelianism to render fluid the fixed phases of reality--to show
+  existence not to be an immovable rock limiting the efforts of thought,
+  but to have thought implicit in it, waiting for release from its
+  petrifaction. Nature was no longer, as with Fichte, to be a mere
+  spring-board to evoke the latent powers of the spirit. Nor was it, as
+  in Schelling's earlier system, to be a collateral progeny with mind
+  from the same womb of indifference and identity. Nature and mind in
+  the Hegelian system--the external and the spiritual world--have the
+  same origin, but are not co-equal branches. The natural world proceeds
+  from the "idea," the spiritual from the idea and nature. It is
+  impossible, beginning with the natural world, to explain the mind by
+  any process of distillation or development, unless consciousness or
+  its potentiality has been there from the first. Reality, independent
+  of the individual consciousness, there must be; reality, independent
+  of all mind, is an impossibility. At the basis of all reality, whether
+  material or mental, there is thought. But the thought thus regarded as
+  the basis of all existence is not consciousness with its distinction
+  of ego and non-ego. It is rather the stuff of which both mind and
+  nature are made, neither extended as in the natural world, nor
+  self-centred as in mind. Thought in its primary form is, as it were,
+  thoroughly transparent and absolutely fluid, free and mutually
+  interpenetrable in every part--the spirit in its seraphic scientific
+  life, before creation had produced a natural world, and thought had
+  risen to independent existence in the social organism. Thought in this
+  primary form, when in all its parts completed, is what Hegel calls the
+  "idea." But the idea, though fundamental, is in another sense final,
+  in the process of the world. It only appears in consciousness as the
+  crowning development of the mind. Only with philosophy does thought
+  become fully conscious of itself in its origin and development.
+  Accordingly the history of philosophy is the pre-supposition of logic,
+  or the three branches of philosophy form a circle.
+
+
+    Logic.
+
+  The exposition or constitution of the "idea" is the work of the Logic.
+  As the total system falls into three parts, so every part of the
+  system follows the triadic law. Every truth, every reality, has three
+  aspects or stages; it is the unification of two contradictory
+  elements, of two partial aspects of truth which are not merely
+  contrary, like black and white, but contradictory, like same and
+  different. The first step is a preliminary affirmation and
+  unification, the second a negation and differentiation, the third a
+  final synthesis. For example, the seed of the plant is an initial
+  unity of life, which when placed in its proper soil suffers
+  disintegration into its constitutents, and yet in virtue of its vital
+  unity keeps these divergent elements together, and reappears as the
+  plant with its members in organic union. Or again, the process of
+  scientific induction is a threefold chain; the original hypothesis
+  (the first unification of the fact) seems to melt away when confronted
+  with opposite facts, and yet no scientific progress is possible unless
+  the stimulus of the original unification is strong enough to clasp the
+  discordant facts and establish a reunification. Thesis, antithesis and
+  synthesis, a Fichtean formula, is generalized by Hegel into the
+  perpetual law of thought.
+
+  In what we may call their psychological aspect these three stages are
+  known as the abstract stage, or that of understanding (_Verstand_),
+  the dialectical stage, or that of negative reason, and the speculative
+  stage, or that of positive reason (_Vernunft_). The first of these
+  attitudes taken alone is dogmatism; the second, when similarly
+  isolated, is scepticism; the third, when unexplained by its elements,
+  is mysticism. Thus Hegelianism reduces dogmatism, scepticism and
+  mysticism to factors in philosophy. The abstract or dogmatic thinker
+  believes his object to be one, simple and stationary, and intelligible
+  apart from its surrounding. He speaks, e.g., as if species and genera
+  were fixed and unchangeable; and fixing his eye on the ideal forms in
+  their purity and self-sameness, he scorns the phenomenal world, whence
+  this identity and persistence are absent. The dialectic of negative
+  reason rudely dispels these theories. Appealing to reality it shows
+  that the identity and permanence of forms are contradicted by history;
+  instead of unity it exhibits multiplicity, instead of identity
+  difference, instead of a whole, only parts. Dialectic is, therefore, a
+  dislocating power; it shakes the solid structures of material thought,
+  and exhibits the instability latent in such conceptions of the world.
+  It is the spirit of progress and change, the enemy of convention and
+  conservatism; it is absolute and universal unrest. In the realm of
+  abstract thought these transitions take place lightly. In the worlds
+  of nature and mind they are more palpable and violent. So far as this
+  Hegel seems on the side of revolution. But reason is not negative
+  only; while it disintegrates the mass or unconscious unity, it builds
+  up a new unity with higher organization. But this third stage is the
+  place of effort, requiring neither the surrender of the original unity
+  nor the ignoring of the diversity afterwards suggested. The stimulus
+  of contradiction is no doubt a strong one; but the easiest way of
+  escaping it is to shut our eyes to one side of the antithesis. What is
+  required, therefore, is to readjust our original thesis in such a way
+  as to include and give expression to both the elements in the process.
+
+  The universe, then, is a process or development, to the eye of
+  philosophy. It is the process of the absolute--in religious language,
+  the manifestation of God. In the background of all the absolute is
+  eternally present; the rhythmic movement of thought is the
+  self-unfolding of the absolute. God reveals Himself in the logical
+  idea, in nature and in mind; but mind is not alike conscious of its
+  absoluteness in every stage of development. Philosophy alone sees God
+  revealing Himself in the ideal organism of thought as it were a
+  possible deity prior to the world and to any relation between God and
+  actuality; in the natural world, as a series of materialized forces
+  and forms of life; and in the spiritual world as the human soul, the
+  legal and moral order of society, and the creations of art, religion
+  and philosophy.
+
+  This introduction of the absolute became a stumbling-block to
+  Feuerbach and other members of the "Left." They rejected as an
+  illegitimate interpolation the eternal subject of development, and,
+  instead of one continuing God as the subject of all the predicates by
+  which in the logic the absolute is defined, assumed only a series of
+  ideas, products of philosophic activity. They denied the theological
+  value of the logical forms--the development of these forms being in
+  their opinion due to the human thinker, not to a self-revealing
+  absolute. Thus they made man the creator of the absolute. But with
+  this modification on the system another necessarily followed; a mere
+  logical series could not create nature. And thus the material universe
+  became the real starting-point. Thought became only the result of
+  organic conditions--subjective and human; and the system of Hegel was
+  no longer an idealization of religion, but a naturalistic theory with
+  a prominent and peculiar logic.
+
+  The logic of Hegel is the only rival to the logic of Aristotle. What
+  Aristotle did for the theory of demonstrative reasoning, Hegel
+  attempted to do for the whole of human knowledge. His logic is an
+  enumeration of the forms or categories by which our experience exists.
+  It carried out Kant's doctrine of the categories as a priori synthetic
+  principles, but removed the limitation by which Kant denied them any
+  constitutive value except in alliance with experience. According to
+  Hegel the terms in which thought exhibits itself are a system of their
+  own, with laws and relations which reappear in a less obvious shape in
+  the theories of nature and mind. Nor are they restricted to the small
+  number which Kant obtained by manipulating the current subdivision of
+  judgments. But all forms by which thought holds sensations in unity
+  (the formative or synthetic elements of language) had their place
+  assigned in a system where one leads up to and passes over into
+  another.
+
+  The fact which ordinary thought ignores, and of which ordinary logic
+  therefore provides no account, is the presence of gradation and
+  continuity in the world. The general terms of language simplify the
+  universe by reducing its variety of individuals to a few forms, none
+  of which exists simply and perfectly. The method of the understanding
+  is to divide and then to give a separate reality to what it has thus
+  distinguished. It is part of Hegel's plan to remedy this one-sided
+  character of thought, by laying bare the gradations of ideas. He lays
+  special stress on the point that abstract ideas when held in their
+  abstraction are almost interchangeable with their opposites--that
+  extremes meet, and that in every true and concrete idea there is a
+  coincidence of opposites.
+
+  The beginning of the logic is an illustration of this. The logical
+  idea is treated under the three heads of being (_Seyn_), essence
+  (_Wesen_) and notion (_Begriff_). The simplest term of thought is
+  being; we cannot think less about anything than when we merely say
+  that it is. Being--the abstract "is"--is _nothing_ definite, and
+  nothing at least is. Being and not being are thus declared
+  identical--a proposition which in this unqualified shape was to most
+  people a stumbling-block at the very door of the system. Instead of
+  the mere "is" which is as yet nothing, we should rather say "becomes,"
+  and as "becomes" always implies "something," we have determinate
+  being--"a being" which in the next stage of definiteness becomes
+  "one." And in this way we pass on to the quantitative aspects of
+  being.
+
+  The terms treated under the first head, in addition to those already
+  mentioned, are the abstract principles of quantity and number, and
+  their application in measure to determine the limits of being. Under
+  the title of essence are discussed those pairs of correlative terms
+  which are habitually employed in the explanation of the world--such as
+  law and phenomenon, cause and effect, reason and consequence,
+  substance and attribute. Under the head of notion are considered,
+  firstly, the subjective forms of conception, judgment and syllogism;
+  secondly, their realization in objects as mechanically, chemically or
+  teleologically constituted; and thirdly, the idea first of life, and
+  next of science, as the complete interpenetration of thought and
+  objectivity. The third part of logic evidently is what contains the
+  topics usually treated in logic-books, though even here the province
+  of logic in the ordinary sense is exceeded. The first two
+  divisions--the "objective logic"--are what is usually called
+  metaphysics.
+
+  The characteristic of the system is the gradual way in which idea is
+  linked to idea so as to make the division into chapters only an
+  arrangement of convenience. The judgment is completed in the
+  syllogism; the syllogistic form as the perfection of subjective
+  thought passes into objectivity, where it first appears embodied in a
+  mechanical system; and the teleological object, in which the members
+  are as means and end, leads up to the idea of life, where the end is
+  means and means end indissolubly till death. In some cases these
+  transitions may be unsatisfactory and forced; it is apparent that the
+  linear development from "being" to the "idea" is got by transforming
+  into a logical order the sequence that has roughly prevailed in
+  philosophy from the Eleatics; cases might be quoted where the
+  reasoning seems a play upon words; and it may often be doubted whether
+  certain ideas do not involve extra-logical considerations. The order
+  of the categories is in the main outlines fixed; but in the minor
+  details much depends upon the philosopher, who has to fill in the gaps
+  between ideas, with little guidance from the data of experience, and
+  to assign to the stages of development names which occasionally deal
+  hardly with language. The merit of Hegel is to have indicated and to a
+  large extent displayed the filiation and mutual limitation of our
+  forms of thought; to have arranged them in the order of their
+  comparative capacity to give a satisfactory expression to truth in the
+  totality of its relations; and to have broken down the partition which
+  in Kant separated the formal logic from the transcendental analytic,
+  as well as the general disruption between logic and metaphysic. It
+  must at the same time be admitted that much of the work of weaving the
+  terms of thought, the categories, into a system has a hypothetical and
+  tentative character, and that Hegel has rather pointed out the path
+  which logic must follow, viz. a criticism of the terms of scientific
+  and ordinary thought in their filiation and interdependence, than
+  himself in every case kept to the right way. The day for a fuller
+  investigation of this problem will partly depend upon the progress of
+  the study of language in the direction marked out by W. von Humboldt.
+
+
+    Philosophy of nature.
+
+  The Philosophy of Nature starts with the result of the logical
+  development, with the full scientific "idea." But the relations of
+  pure thought, losing their inwardness, appear as relations of space
+  and time; the abstract development of thought appears as matter and
+  movement. Instead of thought, we have perception; instead of
+  dialectic, gravitation; instead of causation, sequence in time. The
+  whole falls under the three heads of mechanics, physics and
+  "organic"--the content under each varying somewhat in the three
+  editions of the _Encyklopadie_. The first treats of space, time,
+  matter, movement; and in the solar system we have the representation
+  of the idea in its general and abstract material form. Under the head
+  of physics we have the theory of the elements, of sound, heat and
+  cohesion, and finally of chemical affinity--presenting the phenomena
+  of material change and interchange in a series of special forces which
+  generate the variety of the life of nature. Lastly, under the head of
+  "organic," come geology, botany and animal physiology--presenting the
+  concrete results of these processes in the three kingdoms of nature.
+
+  The charges of superficial analogies, so freely urged against the
+  "Natur-philosophie" by critics who forget the impulse it gave to
+  physical research by the identification of forces then believed to be
+  radically distinct, do not particularly affect Hegel. But in general
+  it may be said that he looked down upon the mere natural world. The
+  meanest of the fancies of the mind and the most casual of its whims he
+  regarded as a better warrant for the being of God than any single
+  object of nature. Those who supposed astronomy to inspire religious
+  awe were horrified to hear the stars compared to eruptive spots on the
+  face of the sky. Even in the animal world, the highest stage of
+  nature, he saw a failure to reach an independent and rational system
+  of organization; and its feelings under the continuous violence and
+  menaces of the environment he described as insecure, anxious and
+  unhappy.
+
+  His point of view was essentially opposed to the current views of
+  science. To metamorphosis he only allowed a logical value, as
+  explaining the natural classification; the only real, existent
+  metamorphosis he saw in the development of the individual from its
+  embryonic stage. Still more distinctly did he contravene the general
+  tendency of scientific explanation. "It is held the triumph of science
+  to recognize in the general process of the earth the same categories
+  as are exhibited in the processes of isolated bodies. This is,
+  however, an application of categories from a field where the
+  conditions are finite to a sphere in which the circumstances are
+  infinite." In astronomy he depreciates the merits of Newton and
+  elevates Kepler, accusing Newton particularly, a propos of the
+  distinction of centrifugal and centripetal forces, of leading to a
+  confusion between what is mathematically to be distinguished and what
+  is physically separate. The principles which explain the fall of an
+  apple will not do for the planets. As to colour, he follows Goethe,
+  and uses strong language against Newton's theory, for the barbarism of
+  the conception that light is a compound, the incorrectness of his
+  observations, &c. In chemistry, again, he objects to the way in which
+  all the chemical elements are treated as on the same level.
+
+
+    Philosophy of mind. 1. Psychology.
+
+  The third part of the system is the Philosophy of Mind. Its three
+  divisions are the "subjective mind" (psychology), the "objective mind"
+  (philosophic jurisprudence, moral and political philosophy) and the
+  "absolute mind" (the philosophy of art, religion and philosophy). The
+  subjects of the second and third divisions have been treated by Hegel
+  with great detail. The "objective mind" is the topic of the
+  _Rechts-Philosophie_, and of the lectures on the Philosophy of
+  History; while on the "absolute mind" we have the lectures on
+  Aesthetic, on the Philosophy of Religion and on the History of
+  Philosophy--in short, more than one-third of his works.
+
+  The purely psychological branch of the subject takes up half of the
+  space allotted to _Geist_ in the _Encyklopadie_. It falls under the
+  three heads of anthropology, phenomenology and psychology proper.
+  Anthropology treats of the mind in union with the body--of the natural
+  soul--and discusses the relations of the soul with the planets, the
+  races of mankind, the differences of age, dreams, animal magnetism,
+  insanity and phrenology. In this obscure region it is rich in
+  suggestions and rapprochements; but the ingenuity of these
+  speculations attracts curiosity more than it satisfies scientific
+  inquiry. In the Phenomenology consciousness, self-consciousness and
+  reason are dealt with. The title of the section and the contents
+  recall, though with some important variations, the earlier half of his
+  first work; only that here the historical background on which the
+  stages in the development of the ego were represented has disappeared.
+  Psychology, in the stricter sense, deals with the various forms of
+  theoretical and practical intellect, such as attention, memory, desire
+  and will. In this account of the development of an independent, active
+  and intelligent being from the stage where man like the Dryad is a
+  portion of the natural life around him, Hegel has combined what may be
+  termed a physiology and pathology of the mind--a subject far wider
+  than that of ordinary psychologies, and one of vast intrinsic
+  importance. It is, of course, easy to set aside these questions as
+  unanswerable, and to find artificiality in the arrangement. Still it
+  remains a great point to have even attempted some system in the dark
+  anomalies which lie under the normal consciousness, and to have traced
+  the genesis of the intellectual faculties from animal sensitivity.
+
+
+    2. Law and history.
+
+  The theory of the mind as objectified in the institutions of law, the
+  family and the state is discussed in the "Philosophy of Right."
+  Beginning with the antithesis of a legal system and morality, Hegel,
+  carrying out the work of Kant, presents the synthesis of these
+  elements in the ethical life (_Sittlichkeit_) of the family and the
+  state. Treating the family as an instinctive realization of the moral
+  life, and not as the result of contract, he shows how by the means of
+  wider associations due to private interests the state issues as the
+  full home of the moral spirit, where intimacy of interdependence is
+  combined with freedom of independent growth. The state is the
+  consummation of man as finite; it is the necessary starting-point
+  whence the spirit rises to an absolute existence in the spheres of
+  art, religion and philosophy. In the finite world or temporal state,
+  religion, as the finite organization of a church, is, like other
+  societies, subordinate to the state. But on another side, as absolute
+  spirit, religion, like art and philosophy, is not subject to the
+  state, but belongs to a higher region.
+
+  The political state is always an individual, and the relations of
+  these states with each other and the "world-spirit" of which they are
+  the manifestations constitute the material of history. The _Lectures
+  on the Philosophy of History_, edited by Gans and subsequently by Karl
+  Hegel, is the most popular of Hegel's works. The history of the world
+  is a scene of judgment where one people and one alone holds for awhile
+  the sceptre, as the unconscious instrument of the universal spirit,
+  till another rises in its place, with a fuller measure of liberty--a
+  larger superiority to the bonds of natural and artificial
+  circumstance. Three main periods--the Oriental, the Classical and the
+  Germanic--in which respectively the single despot, the dominant order,
+  and the man as man possess freedom--constitute the history of the
+  world. Inaccuracy in detail and artifice in the arrangement of
+  isolated peoples are inevitable in such a scheme. A graver mistake,
+  according to some critics, is that Hegel, far from giving a law of
+  progress, seems to suggest that the history of the world is nearing an
+  end, and has merely reduced the past to a logical formula. The answer
+  to this charge is partly that such a law seems unattainable, and
+  partly that the idealistic content of the present which philosophy
+  extracts is always an advance upon actual fact, and so does throw a
+  light into the future. And at any rate the method is greater than
+  Hegel's employment of it.
+
+
+    3. Art, religion and philosophy.
+
+  But as with Aristotle so with Hegel--beyond the ethical and political
+  sphere rises the world of absolute spirit in art, religion and
+  philosophy. The psychological distinction between the three forms is
+  that sensuous perception (_Anschauung_) is the organon of the first,
+  presentative conception (_Vorstellung_) of the second and free thought
+  of the third. The work of art, the first embodiment of absolute mind,
+  shows a sensuous conformity between the idea and the reality in which
+  it is expressed. The so-called beauty of nature is for Hegel an
+  adventitious beauty. The beauty of art is a beauty born in the spirit
+  of the artist and born again in the spectator; it is not like the
+  beauty of natural things, an incident of their existence, but is
+  "essentially a question, an address to a responding breast, a call to
+  the heart and spirit." The perfection of art depends on the degree of
+  intimacy in which idea and form appear worked into each other. From
+  the different proportion between the idea and the shape in which it is
+  realized arise three different forms of art. When the idea, itself
+  indefinite, gets no further than a struggle and endeavour for its
+  appropriate expression, we have the symbolic, which is the Oriental,
+  form of art, which seeks to compensate its imperfect expression by
+  colossal and enigmatic structures. In the second or classical form of
+  art the idea of humanity finds an adequate sensuous representation.
+  But this form disappears with the decease of Greek national life, and
+  on its collapse follows the romantic, the third form of art; where the
+  harmony of form and content again grows defective, because the object
+  of Christian art--the infinite spirit--is a theme too high for art.
+  Corresponding to this division is the classification of the single
+  arts. First comes architecture--in the main, symbolic art; then
+  sculpture, the classical art _par excellence_; they are found,
+  however, in all three forms. Painting and music are the specially
+  romantic arts. Lastly, as a union of painting and music comes poetry,
+  where the sensuous element is more than ever subordinate to the
+  spirit.
+
+  The lectures on the Philosophy of Art stray largely into the next
+  sphere and dwell with zest on the close connexion of art and religion;
+  and the discussion of the decadence and rise of religions, of the
+  aesthetic qualities of Christian legend, of the age of chivalry, &c.,
+  make the _Asthetik_ a book of varied interest.
+
+  The lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, though unequal in their
+  composition and belonging to different dates, serve to exhibit the
+  vital connexion of the system with Christianity. Religion, like art,
+  is inferior to philosophy as an exponent of the harmony between man
+  and the absolute. In it the absolute exists as the poetry and music of
+  the heart, in the inwardness of feeling. Hegel after expounding the
+  nature of religion passes on to discuss its historical phases, but in
+  the immature state of religious science falls into several mistakes.
+  At the bottom of the scale of nature-worships he places the religion
+  of sorcery. The gradations which follow are apportioned with some
+  uncertainty amongst the religions of the East. With the Persian
+  religion of light and the Egyptian of enigmas we pass to those faiths
+  where Godhead takes the form of a spiritual individuality, i.e. to the
+  Hebrew religion (of sublimity), the Greek (of beauty) and the Roman
+  (of adaptation). Last comes absolute religion, in which the mystery of
+  the reconciliation between God and man is an open doctrine. This is
+  Christianity, in which God is a Trinity, because He is a spirit. The
+  revelation of this truth is the subject of the Christian Scriptures.
+  For the Son of God, in the immediate aspect, is the finite world of
+  nature and man, which far from being at one with its Father is
+  originally in an attitude of estrangement. The history of Christ is
+  the visible reconciliation between man and the eternal. With the death
+  of Christ this union, ceasing to be a mere fact, becomes a vital
+  idea--the Spirit of God which dwells in the Christian community.
+
+  The lectures on the History of Philosophy deal disproportionately with
+  the various epochs, and in some parts date from the beginning of
+  Hegel's career. In trying to subject history to the order of logic
+  they sometimes misconceive the filiation of ideas. But they created
+  the history of philosophy as a scientific study. They showed that a
+  philosophical theory is not an accident or whim, but an exponent of
+  its age determined by its antecedents and environments, and handing on
+  its results to the future.     (W. W.; X.)
+
+  _Hegelianism in England._--On the continent of Europe the direct
+  influence of Hegelianism was comparatively short-lived. This was due
+  among other causes to the direction of attention to the rising science
+  of psychology, partly to the reaction against the speculative method.
+  In England and Scotland it had another fate. Both in theory and
+  practice it here seemed to supply precisely the counter-active to
+  prevailing tendencies towards empiricism and individualism that was
+  required. In this respect it stood to philosophy in somewhat the same
+  relation that the influence of Goethe stood to literature. This
+  explains the hold which it had obtained upon both English and Scottish
+  thought soon after the middle of the 19th century. The first impulse
+  came from J. F. Ferrier and J. H. Stirling in Edinburgh, and B. Jowett
+  in Oxford. Already in the seventies there was a powerful school of
+  English thinkers under the lead of Edward Caird and T. H. Green
+  devoted to the study and exposition of the Hegelian system. With the
+  general acceptance of its main principle that the real is the
+  rational, there came in the eighties a more critical examination of
+  the precise meaning to be attached to it and its bearing on the
+  problems of religion. The earlier Hegelians had interpreted it in the
+  sense that the world in its ultimate essence was not only spiritual
+  but self-conscious intelligence whose nature was reflected
+  inadequately but truly in the finite mind. They thus seemed to come
+  forward in the character of exponents rather than critics of the
+  Western belief in God, freedom and immortality. As time went on it
+  became obvious that without departure from the spirit of idealism
+  Hegel's principle was susceptible of a different interpretation.
+  Granted that rationality taken in the sense of inner coherence and
+  self-consistency is the ultimate standard of truth and reality, does
+  self-consciousness itself answer to the demands of this criterion? If
+  not, are we not forced to deny ultimate reality to personality whether
+  human or divine? The question was definitely raised in F. H. Bradley's
+  _Appearance and Reality_ (1893; 2nd ed., 1897) and answered in the
+  negative. The completeness and self-consistency which our ideal
+  requires can be realized only in a form of being in which subject and
+  object, will and desire, no longer stand as exclusive opposites, from
+  which it seemed at once to follow that the finite self could not be a
+  reality nor the infinite reality a self. On this basis Bradley
+  developed a theory of the Absolute which, while not denying that it
+  must be conceived of spiritually, insisted that its spirituality is of
+  a kind that finds no analogy in our self-conscious experience. More
+  recently J. M. E. McTaggart's _Studies in Hegelian Dialectic_ (1896),
+  _Studies in Hegelian Cosmology_ (1901) and _Some Dogmas of Religion_
+  (1906) have opened a new chapter in the interpretation of Hegelianism.
+  Truly perceiving that the ultimate metaphysical problem is, here as
+  ever, the relation of the One and the Many, McTaggart starts with a
+  definition of the ideal in which our thought upon it can come to rest.
+  He finds it where (a) the unity is for each individual, (b) the whole
+  nature of the individual is to be _for_ the unity. It follows from
+  such a conception of the relation that the whole cannot itself be an
+  individual apart from the individuals in whom it is realized, in other
+  words, the Absolute cannot be a Person. But for the same reason--viz.
+  that in it first and in it alone this condition is realized--the
+  individual soul must be held to be an ultimate reality reflecting in
+  its inmost nature, like the monad of Leibniz, the complete fulness and
+  harmony of the whole. In reply to Bradley's argument for the unreality
+  of the self, Hegel is interpreted as meaning that the opposition
+  between self and not-self on which it is founded is one that is
+  self-made and in being made is transcended. The fuller our knowledge
+  of reality the more does the object stand out as an invulnerable
+  system of ordered parts, but the process by which it is thus set in
+  opposition to the subject is also the process by which we understand
+  and transform it into the substance of our own thought. From this
+  position further consequences followed. Seeing that the individual
+  soul must thus be taken to stand in respect to its inmost essence in
+  complete harmony with the whole, it must eternally be at one with
+  itself: all change must be appearance. Seeing, moreover, that it is,
+  and is maintained in being, by a fixed relation to the Absolute, it
+  cannot fail of immortality. No pantheistic theory of an eternal
+  substance continuously expressing itself in different individuals who
+  fall back into its being like drops into the ocean will here be
+  sufficient. The ocean is the drops. "The Absolute requires each self
+  not to make up a sum or to maintain an average but in respect of the
+  self's special and unique nature." Finally as it cannot cease, neither
+  can the individual soul have had a beginning. Pre-existence is as
+  necessary and certain as a future life. If memory is lacking as a link
+  between the different lives, this only shows that memory is not of the
+  substance of the soul.
+
+  In view of these differences (amounting almost to an antinomy of
+  paradoxes) in interpretation, it is not surprising to find that recent
+  years have witnessed a violent reaction in some quarters against
+  Hegelian influence. This has taken the direction on the one hand of a
+  revival of realism (see METAPHYSICS), on the other of a new form of
+  subjective idealism (see PRAGMATISM). As yet neither of these
+  movements has shown sufficient coherence or stability to establish
+  itself as a rival to the main current of philosophy in England. But
+  they have both been urged with sufficient ability to arrest its
+  progress and to call for a reconsideration and restatement of the
+  fundamental principle of idealist philosophy and its relation to the
+  fundamental problems of religion. This will probably be the main work
+  of the next generation of thinkers in England (see IDEALISM).
+
+  Among Italian Hegelians are A. Vera, Raffaele Mariano and B. Spaventa
+  (1817-1883); see V. de Lucia, _L'Hegel in Italia_ (1891). In Sweden,
+  J. J. Borelius of Lund; in Norway, G. V. Lyng (d. 1884), M. J. Monrad
+  (1816-1897) and G. Kent (d. 1892) have adopted Hegelianism; in France,
+  P. Leroux and P. Prevost.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Shortly after Hegel's death his collected works were
+  published by a number of his friends, who combined for the purpose.
+  They appeared in eighteen volumes in 1832, and a second edition came
+  out about twelve years later. Volumes i.-viii. contain the works
+  published by himself; the remainder is made up of his lectures on the
+  Philosophy of History, Aesthetic, the Philosophy of Religion and the
+  History of Philosophy, besides some essays and reviews, with a few of
+  his letters, and the Philosophical Propaedeutic.
+
+  For his life see K. Rosenkranz, _Leben Hegels_ (Berlin, 1844); R. R.
+  Haym, _Hegel und seine Zeit_ (Berlin, 1857); K. Kostlin, _Hegel in
+  philosophischer, politischer und nationaler Beziehung_ (Tubingen,
+  1870); Rosenkranz, _Hegel als deutscher National-Philosoph_ (Berlin,
+  1870), and his _Neue Studien_, vol. iv. (Berlin, 1878); Kuno Fischer,
+  _Hegels Leben und Werke_.
+
+  For the philosophy see A. Ruge's _Aus fruherer Zeit_, vol. iv.
+  (Berlin, 1867); Haym (as above); F. A. Trendelenburg (in _Logische
+  Untersuchungen_); A. L. Kym (_Metaphysische Untersuchungen_) and C.
+  Hermann (_Hegel und die logische Frage_ and other works) are
+  noticeable as modern critics. Georges Noel, _La Logique de Hegel_
+  (Paris, 1897); Aloys Schmid, _Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der
+  Hegelschen Logik_ (Regensburg, 1858). Vera has translated the
+  _Encyklopadie_ into French, with notes; C. Benard, the _Asthetik_. In
+  English J. Hutcheson Stirling's _Secret of Hegel_ (2 vols., London,
+  1865) contains a translation of the beginning of the _Wissenschaft der
+  Logik_; the "Logic" from the _Encyklopadie_ has been translated, with
+  Prolegomena, by W. Wallace (Oxford, 1874). W. Wallace also translated
+  the third part of the _Encyklopadie in Hegel's Philosophy of Mind_
+  (1894); R. B. Haldane the _History of Philosophy_ (1896); E. B.
+  Speirs, lectures on the _Philosophy of Religion_ (1895); J. Sibree,
+  lectures on _The Philosophy of History_ (1852); B. Bosanquet,
+  _Philosophy of Fine Art_, Introduction (1886); W. Hastie, _The
+  Philosophy of Art_ (1886); S. W. Dyde, _The Philosophy of Right_
+  (1896). Other recent expositions and criticisms in addition to those
+  mentioned above are W. T. Harris, _Hegel's Logic_ (1890); J. B.
+  Baillie, _Origin and Significance of Hegel's Logic_ (1901), and
+  _Outline of the Idealistic Construction of Experience_ (1906); P.
+  Barth, _Die Geschichtsphilosophie Hegels_ (1890); J. A. Marrast, _La
+  Philosophie du droit de Hegel_ (1869); L. Miraglia, _I Principii
+  fondamentali e la dottrina eticogiuridica di Hegel_ (1873); _Hegel's
+  Philosophy of the State and History_ (Germ. Phil. Classics, 1887); G.
+  Bolland, _Philosophie des Rechts_ (1902), and _Hegels Philosophie der
+  Religion_ (1901); E. Ott, _Die Religionsphilosophie Hegels_ (1904); J.
+  M. Sterrett, _Studies in Hegel's Philosophy of Religion_ (1891); M.
+  Ehrenhauss, _Hegels Gottesbegriff_ (1880); E. Caird, Hegel (1880); A.
+  Seth Pringle-Pattison, _Hegelianism and Personality_ (1893); Millicent
+  Mackenzie, _Hegel's Educational Theory and Practice_ (1909), with
+  biographical sketch; J. M. E. McTaggart, _Commentary on Hegel's Logic_
+  (1910).     (J. H. Mu.)
+
+
+
+
+HEGEMON OF THASOS, Greek writer of the old comedy, nicknamed [Greek:
+Phake] from his fondness for lentils. Hardly anything is known of him,
+except that he flourished during the Peloponnesian War. According to
+Aristotle (_Poetics_, ii. 5) he was the inventor of a kind of parody; by
+slightly altering the wording in well-known poems he transformed the
+sublime into the ridiculous. When the news of the disaster in Sicily
+reached Athens, his parody of the _Gigantomachia_ was being performed;
+it is said that the audience were so amused by it that, instead of
+leaving to show their grief, they remained in their seats. He was also
+the author of a comedy called _Philinne_ (_Philine_), written in the
+manner of Eupolis and Cratinus, in which he attacked a well-known
+courtesan. Athenaeus (p. 698), who preserves some parodic hexameters of
+his, relates other anecdotes concerning him (pp. 5, 108, 407).
+
+  Fragments in T. Kock, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, i. (1880); B.
+  J. Peltzer, _De parodica Graecorum poesi_ (1855).
+
+
+
+
+HEGEMONY (Gr. [Greek: hegemonia], leadership, from [Greek: hegeisthai],
+to lead), the leadership especially of one particular state in a group
+of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in
+Greek history to the position claimed by different individual
+city-states, e.g. by Athens and Sparta, at different times to a position
+of predominance (_primus inter pares_) among other equal states, coupled
+with individual autonomy. The reversion of this position was claimed by
+Macedon (see GREECE: _Ancient History_, and DELIAN LEAGUE).
+
+
+
+
+HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA (in Lydia), Greek rhetorician and historian,
+flourished about 300 B.C. Strabo (xiv. 648), speaks of him as the
+founder of the florid style of composition known as "Asiatic" (cf.
+TIMAEUS). Agatharchides, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Cicero all speak
+of him in disparaging terms, although Varro seems to have approved of
+his work. He professed to imitate the simple style of Lysias, avoiding
+long periods, and expressing himself in short, jerky sentences, without
+modulation or finish. His vulgar affectation and bombast made his
+writings a mere caricature of the old Attic. Dionysius describes his
+composition as tinselled, ignoble and effeminate. It is generally
+supposed, from the fragment quoted as a specimen by Dionysius, that
+Hegesias is to be classed among the writers of lives of Alexander the
+Great. This fragment describes the treatment of Gaza and its inhabitants
+by Alexander after its conquest, but it is possible that it is only part
+of an epideictic or show-speech, not of an historical work. This view is
+supported by a remark of Agatharchides in Photius (_cod._ 250) that the
+only aim of Hegesias was to exhibit his skill in describing sensational
+events.
+
+  See Cicero, _Brutus_ 83, _Orator_ 67, 69, with J. E. Sandys's note,
+  _ad Att._ xii. 6; Dion. Halic. _De verborum comp._ iv.; Aulus Gellius
+  ix. 4; Plutarch, _Alexander_, 3; C. W. Muller, _Scriptores rerum
+  Alexandri Magni_, p. 138 (appendix to Didot ed. of Arrian, 1846);
+  Norden, _Die antike Kunstprosa_ (1898); J. B. Bury, _Ancient Greek
+  Historians_ (1909), pp. 169-172, on origin and development of
+  "Asiatic" style, with example from Hegesias.
+
+
+
+
+HEGESIPPUS, Athenian orator and statesman, nicknamed [Greek: Krobylos]
+("knot"), probably from the way in which he wore his hair. He lived in
+the time of Demosthenes, of whose anti-Macedonian policy he was an
+enthusiastic supporter. In 343 B.C. he was one of the ambassadors sent
+to Macedonia to discuss, amongst other matters, the restoration of the
+island of Halonnesus, which had been seized by Philip. The mission was
+unsuccessful, but soon afterwards Philip wrote to Athens, offering to
+resign possession of the island or to submit to arbitration the question
+of ownership. In reply to this letter the oration De _Halonneso_ was
+delivered, which, although included among the speeches of Demosthenes,
+is generally considered to be by Hegesippus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus
+and Plutarch, however, favour the authorship of Demosthenes.
+
+  See Demosthenes, _De falsa legatione_ 364, 447, _De corona_ 250,
+  _Philippica_ iii. 129; Plutarch, _Demosthenes_ 17, _Apophthegmata_,
+  187D; Dionysius Halic. _ad Ammaeum_, i.; Grote, _History of Greece_,
+  ch. 90.
+
+
+
+
+HEGESIPPUS (fl. A.D. 150-180), early Christian writer, was of
+Palestinian origin, and lived under the Emperors Antoninus Pius, Marcus
+Aurelius and Commodus. Like Aristo of Pella he belonged to that group of
+Judaistic Christians which, while keeping the law themselves, did not
+attempt to impose on others the requirements of circumcision and Sabbath
+observance. He was the author of a treatise ([Greek: hypomnemata]) in
+five books dealing with such subjects as Christian literature, the unity
+of church doctrine, paganism, heresy and Jewish Christianity, fragments
+of which are found in Eusebius, who obtained much of his information
+concerning early Palestinian church history and chronology from this
+source. Hegesippus was also a great traveller, and like many other
+leaders of his time came to Rome (having visited Corinth on the way)
+about the middle of the 2nd century. His journeyings impressed him with
+the idea that the continuity of the church in the cities he visited was
+a guarantee of its fidelity to apostolic orthodoxy: "in each succession
+and in every city, the doctrine is in accordance with that which the Law
+and the Prophets and the Lord [i.e. the Old Testament and the
+evangelical tradition] proclaim." To illustrate this opinion he drew up
+a list of the Roman bishops. Hegesippus is thus a significant figure
+both for the type of Christianity taught in the circle to which he
+belonged, and as accentuating the point of view which the church began
+to assume in the presence of a developing gnosticism.
+
+
+
+
+HEGESIPPUS, the supposed author of a free Latin adaptation of the
+_Jewish War_ of Josephus under the title _De bello Judaico et excidio
+urbis Hierosolymitanae_. The seven books of Josephus are compressed into
+five, but much has been added from the Antiquities and from the works of
+Roman historians, while several entirely new speeches are introduced to
+suit the occasion. Internal evidence shows that the work could not have
+been written before the 4th century A.D. The author, who is undoubtedly
+a Christian, describes it in his preface as a kind of revised edition of
+Josephus. Some authorities attribute it to Ambrose, bishop of Milan
+(340-397), but there is nothing to settle the authorship definitely. The
+name Hegesippus itself appears to be a corruption of Josephus, through
+the stages [Greek: Iosepos], Iosippus, Egesippus, Hegesippus, unless it
+was purposely adopted as reminiscent of Hegesippus, the father of
+ecclesiastical history (2nd century).
+
+  Best edition by C. F. Weber and J. Caesar (1864); authorities in E.
+  Schurer, _History of the Jewish People_ (Eng. trans.), i. 99 seq.; F.
+  Vogel, _De Hegesippo, qui dicitur, Josephi interprete_ (Erlangen,
+  1881).
+
+
+
+
+HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER (c. 1433-1498), German humanist, so called
+from his birthplace Heek in Westphalia. In his youth he was a pupil of
+Thomas a Kempis, at that time canon of the convent of St Agnes at
+Zwolle. In 1474 he settled down at Deventer in Holland, where he either
+founded or succeeded to the headship of a school, which became famous
+for the number of its distinguished alumni. First and foremost of these
+was Erasmus; others were Hermann von dem Busche, the missionary of
+humanism, Conrad Goclenius (Gockelen), Conrad Mutianus (Muth von Mudt)
+and pope Adrian VI. Hegius died at Deventer on the 7th of December 1498.
+His writings, consisting of short poems, philosophical essays,
+grammatical notes and letters, were published after his death by his
+pupil Jacob Faber. They display considerable knowledge of Latin, but
+less of Greek, on the value of which he strongly insisted. Hegius's
+chief claim to be remembered rests not upon his published works, but
+upon his services in the cause of humanism. He succeeded in abolishing
+the old-fashioned medieval textbooks and methods of instruction, and led
+his pupils to the study of the classical authors themselves. His
+generosity in assisting poor students exhausted a considerable fortune,
+and at his death he left nothing but his books and clothes.
+
+  See D. Reichling, "Beitrage zur Charakteristik des Alex. Hegius," in
+  the _Monatsschrift fur Westdeutschland_ (1877); H. Hamelmann, _Opera
+  genealogico-historica_ (1711); H. A. Erhard, _Geschichte des
+  Wiederaufbluhens wissenschaftlicher Bildung_ (1826); C. Krafft and W.
+  Crecelius, "Alexander Hegius und seine Schuler," from the works of
+  Johannes Butzbach, one of Hegius's pupils, in _Zeitschrift des
+  bergischen Geschichtsvereins_, vii. (Bonn, 1871).
+
+
+
+
+HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG (1791-1860), Danish poet and critic, son of the
+political writer Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841), and of the famous
+novelist, afterwards the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard, was born at
+Copenhagen on the 14th of December 1791. In 1800 his father was exiled
+and settled in Paris, where he was employed in the French foreign
+office, retiring in 1817 with a pension. His political and satirical
+writings continued to exercise great influence over his
+fellow-countrymen. Johan Ludvig Heiberg was taken by K. L. Rahbek and
+his wife into their house at Bakkehuset. He was educated at the
+university of Copenhagen, and his first publication, entitled _The
+Theatre for Marionettes_ (1814), included two romantic dramas. This was
+followed by _Christmas Jokes and New Year's Tricks_ (1816), _The
+Initiation of Psyche_ (1817), and _The Prophecy of Tycho Brahe_, a
+satire on the eccentricities of the Romantic writers, especially on the
+sentimentality of Ingemann. These works attracted attention at a time
+when Baggesen, Ohlenschlager and Ingemann possessed the popular ear, and
+were understood at once to be the opening of a great career. In 1817
+Heiberg took his degree, and in 1819 went abroad with a grant from
+government. He proceeded to Paris, and spent the next three years there
+with his father. In 1822 he published his drama of _Nina_, and was made
+professor of the Danish language at the university of Kiel, where he
+delivered a course of lectures, comparing the Scandinavian mythology as
+found in the _Edda_ with the poems of Ohlenschlager. These lectures were
+published in German in 1827.
+
+In 1825 Heiberg came back to Copenhagen for the purpose of introducing
+the vaudeville on the Danish stage. He composed a great number of these
+vaudevilles, of which the best known are _King Solomon and George the
+Hatmaker_ (1825); _April Fools_ (1826); _A Story in Rosenborg Garden_
+(1827); _Kjoge Huskors_ (1831); _The Danes in Paris_ (1833); _No_
+(1836); and _Yes_ (1839). He took his models from the French theatre,
+but showed extraordinary skill in blending the words and the music; but
+the subjects and the humour were essentially Danish and even topical.
+Meanwhile he was producing dramatic work of a more serious kind; in 1828
+he brought out the national drama of _Elverhoi_; in 1830 _The
+Inseparables_; in 1835 the fairy comedy of _The Elves_, a dramatic
+version of Tieck's _Elfin_; and in 1838 _Fata Morgana_. In 1841 Heiberg
+published a volume of _New Poems_ containing "A Soul after Death," a
+comedy which is perhaps his masterpiece, "The Newly Wedded Pair," and
+other pieces. He edited from 1827 to 1830 the famous weekly, the
+_Flyvende Post_ (The Flying Post), and subsequently the _Interimsblade_
+(1834-1837) and the _Intelligensblade_ (1842-1843). In his journalism he
+carried on his warfare against the excessive pretensions of the
+Romanticists, and produced much valuable and penetrating criticism of
+art and literature. In 1831 he married the actress Johanne Louise
+Paetges (1812-1890), herself the author of some popular vaudevilles.
+Heiberg's scathing satires, however, made him very unpopular; and this
+antagonism reached its height when, in 1845, he published his malicious
+little drama of _The Nut Crackers_. Nevertheless he became in 1847
+director of the national theatre. He filled the post for seven years,
+working with great zeal and conscientiousness, but was forced by
+intrigues from without to resign it in 1854. Heiberg died at Bonderup,
+near Ringsted, on the 25th of August 1860. His influence upon taste and
+critical opinion was greater than that of any writer of his time, and
+can only be compared with that of Holberg in the 18th century. Most of
+the poets of the Romantic movement in Denmark were very grave and
+serious; Heiberg added the element of humour, elegance and irony. He had
+the genius of good taste, and his witty and delicate productions stand
+almost unique in the literature of his country.
+
+  The poetical works of Heiberg were collected, in 11 vols., in
+  1861-1862, and his prose writings (11 vols.) in the same year. The
+  last volume of his prose works contains some fragments of
+  autobiography. See also G. Brandes, _Essays_ (1889). For the elder
+  Heiberg see monographs by Thaarup (1883) and by Schwanenflugel (1891).
+
+
+
+
+HEIDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, on a small plateau which stands between the marshes
+and moors bordering the North Sea, 35 m. N.N.W. of Gluckstadt, at the
+junction of the railways Elmshorn-Hvidding and Neumunster-Tonning. Pop.
+(1905), 8758. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a
+high-grade school, and tobacco and cigar manufactories and breweries.
+Heide in 1447 became the capital of the Ditmarsh peasant republic, but
+on the 13th of June 1559 it was the scene of the complete defeat of the
+peasant forces by the Danes.
+
+
+
+
+HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1633-1698), Swiss theologian, was born at
+Barentschweil, in the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, on the 1st of July
+1633. He studied at Marburg and at Heidelberg, where he became the
+friend of J. L. Fabricius (1632-1696), and was appointed _professor
+extraordinarius_ of Hebrew and later of philosophy. In 1659 he was
+called to Steinfurt to fill the chair of dogmatics and ecclesiastical
+history, and in the same year he became doctor of theology of
+Heidelberg. In 1660 he revisited Switzerland; and, after marrying, he
+travelled in the following year to Holland, where he made the
+acquaintance of Johannes Cocceius. He returned in 1665 to Zurich, where
+he was elected professor of moral philosophy. Two years later he
+succeeded J. H. Hottinger (1620-1667) in the chair of theology, which he
+occupied till his death on the 18th of January 1698, having declined an
+invitation in 1669 to succeed J. Cocceius at Leiden, as well as a call
+to Groningen. Heidegger was the principal author of the _Formula
+Consensus Helvetica_ in 1675, which was designed to unite the Swiss
+Reformed churches, but had an opposite effect. W. Gass describes him as
+the most notable of the Swiss theologians of the time.
+
+His writings are largely controversial, though without being bitter, and
+are in great part levelled against the Roman Catholic Church. The chief
+are _De historia sacra patriarcharum exercitationes selectae_
+(1667-1671); _Dissertatio de Peregrinationibus religiosis_ (1670); _De
+ratione studiorum, opuscula aurea_, &c. (1670); _Historia papatus_
+(1684; under the name Nicander von Hohenegg); _Manuductio in viam
+concordiae Protestantium ecclesiasticae_ (1686); _Tumulus concilii
+Tridentini_ (1690); _Exercitationes biblicae_ (1700), with a life of the
+author prefixed; _Corpus theologiae Christianae_ (1700, edited by J. H.
+Schweizer); _Ethicae Christianae elementa_ (1711); and lives of J. H.
+Hottinger (1667) and J. L. Fabricius (1698). His autobiography appeared
+in 1698, under the title _Historia vitae J. H. Heideggeri_.
+
+  See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ and the
+  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; and cf. W. Gass, _Geschichte der
+  protestantischen Dogmatik_, ii. 353 ff.
+
+
+
+
+HEIDELBERG, a town of Germany, on the south bank of the Neckar, 12 m.
+above its confluence with the Rhine, 13 m. S.E. from Mannheim and 54 m.
+from Frankfort-on-Main by rail. The situation of the town, lying between
+lofty hills covered with vineyards and forests, at the spot where the
+rapid Neckar leaves the gorge and enters the plain of the Rhine, is one
+of great natural beauty. The town itself consists practically of one
+long, narrow street--the Hauptstrasse--running parallel to the river,
+from the railway station on the west to the Karlstor on the east (where
+there is also a local station) for a distance of 2 m. To the south of
+this is the Anlage, a pleasant promenade flanked by handsome villas and
+gardens, leading directly to the centre of the place. A number of
+smaller streets intersect the Hauptstrasse at right angles and run down
+to the river, which is crossed by two fine bridges. Of these, the old
+bridge on the east, built in 1788, has a fine gateway and is adorned
+with statues of Minerva and the elector Charles Theodore of the
+Palatinate; the other, the lower bridge, on the west, built in 1877,
+connects Heidelberg with the important suburbs of Neuenheim and
+Handschuchsheim. Of recent years the town has grown largely towards the
+west on both sides of the river; but the additions have been almost
+entirely of the better class of residences. Heidelberg is an important
+railway centre, and is connected by trunk lines with Frankfort,
+Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Spires and Wurzburg. Electric trams provide for
+local traffic, and there are also several light railways joining it with
+the neighbouring villages. Of the churches the chief are the Protestant
+Peterskirche dating from the 15th century and restored in 1873, to the
+door of which Jerome of Prague in 1460 nailed his theses; the Heilige
+Geist Kirche (Church of the Holy Ghost), an imposing Gothic edifice of
+the 15th century; the Jesuitenkirche (Roman Catholic), with a
+sumptuously decorated interior, and the new Evangelical Christuskirche.
+The town hall and the university buildings, dating from 1712 and
+restored in 1886, are commonplace erections; but to the south of the
+Ludwigsplatz, upon which most of the academical buildings lie, stands
+the new university library, a handsome structure of pink sandstone in
+German Renaissance style. In addition to the Ludwigsplatz with its
+equestrian statue of the emperor William I. there are other squares in
+the town, among them being the Bismarckplatz with a statue of Bismarck,
+and the Jubilaumsplatz.
+
+The chief attraction of Heidelberg is the castle, which overhangs the
+east part of the town. It stands on the Jettenbuhl, a spur of the
+Konigsstuhl (1800 ft.), at a height of 330 ft. above the Neckar. Though
+now a ruin, yet its extent, its magnificence, its beautiful situation
+and its interesting history render it by far the most noteworthy, as it
+certainly is the grandest and largest, of the old castles of Germany.
+The building was begun early in the 13th century. The elector palatine
+and German king Rupert III. (d. 1410) greatly improved it, and built the
+wing, Ruprechtsbau or Rupert's building, that bears his name. Succeeding
+electors further extended and embellished it (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate
+VII., figs. 78-80); notably Otto Henry "the Magnanimous" (d. 1559), who
+built the beautiful early Renaissance wing known as the
+Otto-Heinrichsbau (1556-1559); Frederick IV., for whom the fine late
+Renaissance wing called the Friedrichsbau was built (1601-1607); and
+Frederick V., the unfortunate "winter king" of Bohemia, who on the west
+side added the Elisabethenbau or Englischebau (1618), named after his
+wife, the daughter of James I. of Great Britain and ancestress of the
+present English reigning family. In 1648, at the peace of Westphalia,
+Heidelberg was given back to Frederick V.'s son, Charles Louis, who
+restored the castle to its former splendour. In 1688, during Louis
+XIV.'s invasion of the Palatinate, the castle was taken, after a long
+siege, by the French, who blew part of it up when they found they could
+not hope to hold it (March 2, 1689). In 1693 it was again captured by
+them and still further wrecked. Finally, in 1764, it was struck by
+lightning and reduced to its present ruinous condition.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Heidelberg.]
+
+Apart from the outworks, the castle forms an irregular square with round
+towers at the angles, the principal buildings being grouped round a
+central courtyard, the entrance to which is from the south through a
+series of gateways. In this courtyard, besides the buildings already
+mentioned, are the oldest parts of the castle, the so-called Alte Bau
+(old building) and the Bandhaus. The Friedrichsbau, which is decorated
+with statues of the rulers of the Palatinate, was elaborately restored
+and rendered habitable between 1897 and 1903. Other noteworthy objects
+in the castle are the fountain in the courtyard, decorated with four
+granite columns from Charlemagne's palace at Ingelheim; the
+Elisabethentor, a beautiful gateway named after the English princess;
+the beautiful octagonal bell-tower at the N.E. angle; the ruins of the
+Krautturm, now known as the Gesprengte Turm, or blown-up tower, and the
+castle chapel and the museum of antiquities in the Friedrichsbau. In a
+cellar entered from the courtyard is the famous Great Tun of Heidelberg.
+This vast vat was built in 1751, but has only been used on one or two
+occasions. Its capacity is 49,000 gallons, and it is 20 ft. high and 31
+ft. long. Behind the Friedrichsbau is the Altan (1610), or castle
+balcony, from which is obtained a view of great beauty, extending from
+the town beneath to the heights across the Neckar and over the broad
+luxuriant plain of the Rhine to Mannheim and the dim contours of the
+Hardt Mountains behind. On the terrace of the beautiful grounds is a
+statue of Victor von Scheffel, the poet of Heidelberg.
+
+The university of Heidelberg was founded by the elector Rupert I., in
+1385, the bull of foundation being issued by Pope Urban VI. in that
+year. It was constructed after the type of Paris, had four faculties,
+and possessed numerous privileges. Marselius von Inghen was its first
+rector. The electors Frederick I., the Victorious, Philip the Upright
+and Louis V. respectively cherished it. Otto Henry gave it a new
+organization, further endowed it and founded the library. At the
+Reformation it became a stronghold of Protestant learning, the
+Heidelberg catechism being drawn up by its theologians. Then the tide
+turned. Damaged by the Thirty Years' War, it led a struggling existence
+for a century and a half. A large portion of its remaining endowments
+was cut off by the peace of Luneville (1801). In 1803, however, Charles
+Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, raised it anew and reconstituted it
+under the name of "Ruperto-Carola." The number of professors and
+teachers is at present about 150 and of students 1700. The library was
+first kept in the choir of the Heilige Geist Kirche, and then consisted
+of 3500 MSS. In 1623 it was sent to Rome by Maximilian I., duke of
+Bavaria, and stored as the Bibliotheca Palatina in the Vatican. It was
+afterwards taken to Paris, and in 1815 was restored to Heidelberg. It
+has more than 500,000 volumes, besides 4000 MSS. Among the other
+university institutions are the academic hospital, the maternity
+hospital, the physiological institution, the chemical laboratory, the
+zoological museum, the botanical garden and the observatory on the
+Konigsstuhl.
+
+The other educational foundations are a gymnasium, a modern and a
+technical school. There is a small theatre, an art and several other
+scientific societies. The manufactures of Heidelberg include cigars,
+leather, cement, surgical instruments and beer, but the inhabitants
+chiefly support themselves by supplying the wants of a large and
+increasing body of foreign permanent residents, of the considerable
+number of tourists who during the summer pass through the town, and of
+the university students. A funicular railway runs from the Korn-Markt up
+to the level of the castle and thence to the Molkenkur (700 ft. above
+the town). The town is well lighted and is supplied with excellent water
+from the Wolfsbrunnen. Pop. (1885), 29,304; (1905), 49,527.
+
+At an early period Heidelberg was a fief of the bishop of Worms, who
+entrusted it about 1225 to the count palatine of the Rhine, Louis I. It
+soon became a town and the chief residence of the counts palatine.
+Heidelberg was one of the great centres of the reformed teaching and was
+the headquarters of the Calvinists. On this account it suffered much
+during the Thirty Years' War, being captured and plundered by Count
+Tilly in 1622, by the Swedes in 1633 and again by the imperialists in
+1635. By the peace of Westphalia it was restored to the elector Charles
+Louis. In 1688 and again in 1693 Heidelberg was sacked by the French. On
+the latter occasion the work of destruction was carried out so
+thoroughly that only one house escaped; this being a quaintly decorated
+erection in the Marktplatz, which is now the Hotel zum Ritter. In 1720
+the elector Charles II. removed his court to Mannheim, and in 1803 the
+town became part of the grand-duchy of Baden. On the 5th of March 1848
+the Heidelberg assembly was held here, and at this meeting the steps
+were taken which led to the revolution in Germany in that year.
+
+  See Oncken, _Stadt, Schloss und Hochschule Heidelberg; Bilder aus
+  ihrer Vergangenheit_ (Heidelberg, 1885); Ochelhauser, _Das
+  Heidelberger Schloss, bau- und kunstgeschichtlicher Fuhrer_
+  (Heidelberg, 1902); Pfaff, _Heidelberg und Umgebung_ (Heidelberg,
+  1902); Lorentzen, _Heidelberg und Umgebung_ (Stuttgart, 1902); Durm,
+  _Das Heidelberger Schloss, eine Studie_ (Berlin, 1884); Koch and
+  Seitz, _Das Heidelberger Schloss_ (Darmstadt, 1887-1891); J. F. Hautz,
+  _Geschickte der Universitat Heidelberg_ (1863-1864); A. Thorbecke,
+  _Geschichte der Universitat Heidelberg_ (Stuttgart, 1886); the
+  _Urkundenbuch der Universitat Heidelberg_, edited by Winkelmann
+  (Heidelberg, 1886); Bahr, _Die Entfuhrung der Heidelberger Bibliothek
+  nach Rom_ (Leipzig, 1845); and G. Weber, _Heidelberger Erinnerungen_
+  (Stuttgart, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+HEIDELBERG, a town and district of the Transvaal. The district is
+bounded S. by the Vaal river and includes the south-eastern part of the
+Witwatersrand gold-fields. The town of Heidelberg is 42 m. S.E. of
+Johannesburg and 441 m. N.W. of Durban by rail. Pop. (1904), 3220, of
+whom 1837 were white. It was founded in 1865, is built on the slopes of
+the Rand at an elevation of 5029 ft., and is reputed the best sanatorium
+in the colony. It is the centre of the eastern Rand goldmines.
+
+
+
+
+HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE, the most attractive of all the catechisms of
+the Reformation, was drawn up at the bidding of Frederick III., elector
+of the Palatinate, and published on Tuesday the 19th of January 1563.
+The new religion in the Palatinate had been largely under the guidance
+of Philip Melanchthon, who had revived the old university of Heidelberg
+and staffed it with sympathetic teachers. One of these, Tillemann,
+Heshusius, who became general superintendent in 1558, held extreme
+Lutheran views on the Real Presence, and in his desire to force the
+community into his own position excommunicated his colleague Klebitz,
+who held Zwinglian views. When the breach was widening Frederick, "der
+fromme Kurfurst," came to the succession, dismissed the two chief
+combatants and referred the trouble to Melanchthon, whose guarded
+verdict was distinctly Swiss rather than Lutheran. In a decree of August
+1560 the elector declared for Calvin and Zwingli, and soon after he
+resolved to issue a new and unambiguous catechism of the evangelical
+faith. He entrusted the task to two young men who have won deserved
+remembrance by their learning and their character alike. Zacharias
+Ursinus was born at Breslau in July 1534 and attained high honour in the
+university of Wittenberg. In 1558 he was made rector of the gymnasium in
+his native town, but the incessant strife with the extreme Lutherans
+drove him to Zurich, whence Frederick, on the advice of Peter Martyr,
+summoned him to be professor of theology at Heidelberg and
+superintendent of the _Sapientiae Collegium_. He was a man of modest and
+gentle spirit, not endowed with great preaching gifts, but unwearied in
+study and consummately able to impart his learning to others. Deposed
+from his chair by the elector Louis in 1576, he lived with John Casimir
+at Neustadt and found a congenial sphere in the new seminary there,
+dying in his 49th year, in March 1583.
+
+Caspar Olevianus was born at Treves in 1536. He gave up law for
+theology, studied under Calvin in Geneva, Peter Martyr in Zurich, and
+Beza in Lausanne. Urged by William Farel he preached the new faith in
+his native city, and when banished therefrom found a home with Frederick
+of Heidelberg, where he gained high renown as preacher and
+administrator. His ardour and enthusiasm made him the happy complement
+of Ursinus. When the reaction came under Louis he was befriended by
+Ludwig von Sain, prince of Wittgenstein, and John, count of Nassau, in
+whose city of Herborn he did notable work at the high school until his
+death on the 15th of March 1587. The elector could have chosen no better
+men, young as they were, for the task in hand. As a first step each drew
+up a catechism of his own composition, that of Ursinus being naturally
+of a more grave and academic turn than the freer production of
+Olevianus, while each made full use of the earlier catechisms already in
+use. But when the union was effected it was found that the spirits of
+the two authors were most happily and harmoniously wedded, the exactness
+and erudition of the one being blended with the fervency and grace of
+the other. Thus the Heidelberg Catechism, which was completed within a
+year of its inception, has an individuality that marks it out from all
+its predecessors and successors. The Heidelberg synod unanimously
+approved of it, it was published in January 1563, and in the same year
+officially turned into Latin by Jos. Lagus and Lambert Pithopoeus.
+
+The ultra-Lutherans attacked the catechism with great bitterness, the
+assault being led by Heshusius and Flacius Illyricus. Maximilian II.
+remonstrated against it as an infringement of the peace of Augsburg. A
+conference was held at Maulbronn in April 1564, and a personal attack
+was made on the elector at the diet of Augsburg in 1566, but the defence
+was well sustained, and the Heidelberg book rapidly passed beyond the
+bounds of the Palatinate (where indeed it suffered eclipse from 1576 to
+1583, during the electorate of Louis), and gained an abundant success
+not only in Germany (Hesse, Anhalt, Brandenburg and Bremen) but also in
+the Netherlands (1588), and in the Reformed churches of Hungary,
+Transylvania and Poland. It was officially recognized by the synod of
+Dort in 1619, passed into France, Britain and America, and probably
+shares with the _De imitatione Christi_ and _The Pilgrim's Progress_ the
+honour of coming next to the Bible in the number of tongues into which
+it has been translated.
+
+This wide acceptance and high esteem are due largely to an avoidance of
+polemical and controversial subjects, and even more to an absence of the
+controversial spirit. There is no mistake about its Protestantism, even
+when we omit the unhappy addition made to answer 80 by Frederick himself
+(in indignant reply to the ban pronounced by the Council of Trent), in
+which the Mass is described as "nothing else than a denial of the one
+sacrifice and passion of Jesus Christ, and an accursed idolatry"--an
+addition which is the one blot on the [Greek: epieikeia] of the
+catechism. The work is the product of the best qualities of head and
+heart, and its prose is frequently marked by all the beauty of a lyric.
+It follows the plan of the epistle to the Romans (excepting chapters
+ix.-xi.) and falls into three parts: Sin, Redemption and the New Life.
+This arrangement alone would mark it out from the normal reformation
+catechism, which runs along the stereotyped lines of Decalogue, Creed,
+Lord's Prayer, Church and Sacraments. These themes are included, but are
+shown as organically related. The Commandments, e.g. "belong to the
+first part so far as they are a mirror of our sin and misery, but also
+to the third part, as being the rule of our new obedience and Christian
+life." The Creed--a panorama of the sublime facts of redemption--and the
+sacraments find their place in the second part; the Lord's Prayer (with
+the Decalogue) in the third.
+
+  See _The Heidelberg Catechism_, the _German Text, with a Revised
+  Translation and Introduction_, edited by A. Smellie (London, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON (1788-1865), German architect, the son of
+Victor Peter Heideloff, a painter, was born at Stuttgart. He studied at
+the art academy of his native town, and after following the profession
+of an architect for some time at Coburg was in 1818 appointed city
+architect at Nuremberg. In 1822 he became professor at the polytechnic
+school, holding his post until 1854, and some years later he was chosen
+conservator of the monuments of art. Heideloff devoted his chief
+attention to the Gothic style of architecture, and the buildings
+restored and erected by him at Nuremberg and in its neighbourhood attest
+both his original skill and his purity of taste. He also achieved some
+success as a painter in watercolour. He died at Hassfurt on the 28th of
+September 1865. Among his architectural works should be mentioned the
+castle of Reinhardsbrunn, the Hall of the Knights in the fortress at
+Coburg, the castle of Landsberg, the mortuary chapel in Meiningen, the
+little castle of Rosenburg near Bonn, the chapel of the castle of
+Rheinstein near Bingen, and the Catholic church in Leipzig. His powers
+in restoration are shown in the castle of Lichtenstein, the cathedral of
+Bamberg, and the Knights' Chapel (_Ritter Kapelle_) at Hassfurt.
+
+  Among his writings on architecture are _Die Lehre von den
+  Saulenordnungen_ (1827); _Der Kleine Vignola_ (1832); _Nurnbergs
+  Baudenkmaler der Vorzeit_ (1838-1843, complete edition 1854); and _Die
+  Ornamentik des Mittelalters_ (1838-1842).
+
+
+
+
+HEIDENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 31 m. by
+rail north by east of Ulm. Pop. (1905), 12,173. It has an Evangelical
+and a Roman Catholic church, and several schools. Its industrial
+establishments include cotton, woollen, tobacco, machinery and chemical
+factories, bleach-works, dye-works and breweries, and corn and cattle
+markets. The town, which received municipal privileges in 1356, is
+overlooked by the ruins of the castle of Hellenstein, standing on a hill
+1985 ft. high. Heidenheim is also the name of a small place in Bavaria
+famous on account of the Benedictine abbey which formerly stood therein.
+Founded in 748 by Wilibald, bishop of Eichstatt, this was plundered by
+the peasantry in 1525 and was closed in 1537.
+
+
+
+
+HEIFER, a young cow that has not calved. The O. Eng. _heahfore_ or
+_heafru_, from which the word is derived, is of obscure origin. It is
+found in Bede's _History_ (A.D. 900) as _heahfore_, and has passed
+through many forms. It is possibly derived from _heah_, high, and
+_faren_ (fare), to go, meaning "high-stepper." It has also been
+suggested that the derivation is from _hea_, a stall, and _fore_, a cow.
+
+
+
+
+HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON (1835-1905), German novelist, was born, the son
+of a _regisseur_ or stage-manager of the court theatre, on the 25th of
+March 1835 at Munich. In this city he received his early schooling and
+studied (1854-1858) philosophy at the university. He was then appointed
+librarian to Prince Heinrich zu Carolath-Beuthen in Lower Silesia, and
+accompanied the nephew of the prince on travels. In 1863 he settled in
+Berlin, where from 1865 to 1875 he was engaged in journalism. He next
+resided at Munich, employed in literary work for the king, Ludwig II.,
+who in 1881 conferred upon him a title of nobility. On the death of the
+king in 1886 he removed to Riva on the Lago di Garda, where he died on
+the 6th of September 1905. Karl von Heigel attained some popularity with
+his novels: _Wohin?_ (1873), _Die Dame ohne Herz_ (1873), _Das Geheimnis
+des Konigs_ (1891), _Der Roman einer Stadt_ (1898), _Der Maharadschah_
+(1900), _Die nervose Frau_ (1900), _Die neuen Heiligen_ (1901), and
+_Bromels Gluck und Ende_ (1902). He also wrote some plays, notably
+_Josephine Bonaparte_ (1892) and _Die Zarin_ (1883); and several
+collections of short stories, _Neue Erzahlungen_ (1876), _Neueste
+Novellen_ (1878), and _Heitere Erzahlungen_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+HEIJERMANS, HERMANN (1864-   ), Dutch writer, of Jewish origin, was born
+on the 3rd of December 1864 at Rotterdam. In the Amsterdam _Handelsblad_
+he published a series of sketches of Jewish family life under the
+pseudonym of "Samuel Falkland," which were collected in volume form. His
+novels and tales include _Trinette_ (1892), _Fles_ (1893),
+_Kamertjeszonde_ (2 vols., 1896), _Interieurs_ (1897), _Diamantstadt_ (2
+vols., 1903). He created great interest by his play _Op Hoop van Zegen_
+(1900), represented at the Theatre Antoine in Paris, and in English by
+the Stage Society as _The Good Hope_. His other plays are: _Dora Kremer_
+(1893), _Ghetto_ (1898), _Het zevende Gebot_ (1899), _Het Pantser_
+(1901), _Ora et labora_ (1901), and numerous one-act pieces. _A Case of
+Arson_, an English version of the one-act play _Brand in de Jonge Jan_,
+was notable for the impersonation (1904 and 1905) by Henri de Vries of
+all the seven witnesses who appear as characters.
+
+
+
+
+HEILBRONN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, situated in
+a pleasant and fruitful valley on the Neckar, 33 m. by rail N. of
+Stuttgart, and at the junction of lines to Jagdsfeld, Crailsheim and
+Eppingen. Pop. (1905), 40,026. In the older part of the town the streets
+are narrow, and contain a number of high turreted houses with quaintly
+adorned gables. The old fortifications have now been demolished, and
+their site is occupied by promenades, outside of which are the more
+modern parts of the town with wide streets and many handsome buildings.
+The principal public buildings are the church of St Kilian (restored
+1886-1895) in the Gothic and Renaissance styles, begun about 1019 and
+completed in 1529, with an elegant tower 210 ft. high, a beautiful
+choir, and a finely carved altar; the town hall (Rathaus), founded in
+1540, and possessing a curious clock made in 1580, and a collection of
+interesting letters and other documents; the house of the Teutonic
+knights (Deutsches Haus), now used as a court of law; the Roman Catholic
+church of St Joseph, formerly the church of the Teutonic Order; the
+tower (Diebsturm or Gotzens Turm) on the Neckar, in which Gotz von
+Berlichingen was confined in 1519; a fine synagogue; an historical
+museum and several monuments, among them those to the emperors William
+I. and Frederick I., to Bismarck, to Schiller and to Robert von Mayer
+(1814-1878), a native of the town, famous for his discoveries concerning
+heat. The educational establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial
+school and an agricultural academy. The town in a commercial point of
+view is the most important in Wurttemberg, and possesses an immense
+variety of manufactures, of which the principal are gold, silver, steel
+and iron wares, machines, sugar of lead, white lead, vinegar, beer,
+sugar, tobacco, soap, oil, cement, chemicals, artificial manure, glue,
+soda, tapestry, paper and cloth. Grapes, fruit, vegetables and flowering
+shrubs are largely grown in the neighbourhood, and there are large
+quarries for sandstone and gypsum and extensive salt-works. By means of
+the Neckar a considerable trade is carried on in wood, bark, leather,
+agricultural produce, fruit and cattle.
+
+Heilbronn occupies the site of an old Roman settlement; it is first
+mentioned in 741, and the Carolingian princes had a palace here. It owes
+its name--originally Heiligbronn, or holy spring--to a spring of water
+which until 1857 was to be seen issuing from under the high altar of the
+church of St Kilian. Heilbronn obtained privileges from Henry IV. and
+from Rudolph I. and became a free imperial city in 1360. It was
+frequently besieged during the middle ages, and it suffered greatly
+during the Peasants' War, the Thirty Years' War, and the various wars
+with France. In April 1633 a convention was entered into here between
+Oxenstierna, the Swabian and Frankish estates and the French, English
+and Dutch ambassadors, as a result of which the Heilbronn treaty, for
+the prosecution of the Thirty Years' War, was concluded. In 1802
+Heilbronn was annexed by Wurttemberg.
+
+  See Jager, _Geschichte von Heilbronn_ (Heilbronn, 1828); Kuttler,
+  _Heilbronn, seine Umgebungen und seine Geschichte_ (Heilbronn, 1859);
+  Durr, _Heilbronner Chronik_ (Halle, 1896); Schliz, _Die Entstehung der
+  Stadtgemeinde Heilbronn_ (Leipzig, 1903); and A. Kusel, _Der
+  Heilbrunner Konvent_ (Halle, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+HEILIGENSTADT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Leine, 32
+m. E.N.E. of Cassel, on the railway to Halle. Pop. (1905), 7955. It
+possesses an old castle, formerly belonging to the electors of Mainz,
+one Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, several educational
+establishments, and an infirmary. The principal manufactures are cotton
+goods, cigars, paper, cement and needles. Heiligenstadt is said to have
+been built by the Frankish king Dagobert and was formerly the capital of
+the principality of Eichsfeld. In 1022 it was acquired by the archbishop
+of Mainz, and in 1103 it came into the possession of Henry the Proud,
+duke of Saxony, but when his son Henry the Lion was placed under the ban
+of the Empire, it again came to Mainz. It was destroyed by fire in 1333,
+and was captured in 1525 by Duke Henry of Brunswick. In 1803 it came
+into possession of Prussia. The Jesuits had a celebrated college here
+from 1581 to 1773.
+
+
+
+
+HEILSBERG, a town of Germany, in the province of East Prussia, at the
+junction of the Simser and Alle, 38 m. S. of Konigsberg. Pop. (1905),
+6042. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and an old
+castle formerly the seat of the prince-bishops of Ermeland, but now used
+as an infirmary. The principal industries are tanning, dyeing and
+brewing, and there is considerable trade in grain. The castle founded at
+Heilsberg by the Teutonic order in 1240 became in 1306 the seat of the
+bishops of Ermeland, an honour which it retained for 500 years. On the
+10th of June 1807 a battle took place at Heilsberg between the French
+under Soult and Murat, and the Russians and Prussians under Bennigsen.
+
+
+
+
+HEILSBRONN (or KLOSTER-HEILSBRONN), a village of Germany, in the
+Bavarian province of Middle Franconia, with a station on the railway
+between Nuremberg and Ansbach, has 1200 inhabitants. In the middle ages
+it was the seat of one of the great monasteries of Germany. This
+foundation, which belonged to the Cistercian order, owed its origin to
+Bishop Otto of Bamberg in 1132, and continued to exist till 1555. Its
+sepulchral monuments, many of which are figured by Hocker,
+_Heilsbronnischer Antiquitatenschatz_ (Ansbach, 1731-1740), are of
+exceptionally high artistic interest. It was the hereditary burial-place
+of the Hohenzollern family and ten burgraves of Nuremberg, five
+margraves and three electors of Brandenburg, and many other persons of
+note are buried within its walls. The buildings of the monastery have
+mostly disappeared, with the exception of the fine church, a Romanesque
+basilica, restored between 1851 and 1866, and possessing paintings by
+Albert Durer. The "Monk of Heilsbronn" is the ordinary appellation of a
+didactic poet of the 14th century, whose _Sieben Graden_, _Tochter Syon_
+and _Leben des heiligen Alexius_ were published by J. F. L. T. Merzdorf
+at Berlin in 1870.
+
+  See Rehm, _Ein Gang durch und um die Munster-Kirche zu
+  Kloster-Heilsbronn_ (Ansbach, 1875); Stillfried, _Kloster-Heilsbronn,
+  ein Beitrag zu den Hohenzollernschen Forschungen_ (Berlin, 1877);
+  Muck, _Geschichte von Kloster-Heilsbronn_ (Nordlingen, 1879-1880); J.
+  Meyer, _Die Hohenzollerndenkmale in Heilsbronn_ (Ansbach, 1891); and
+  A. Wagner, _Uber den Monch von Heilsbronn_ (Strassburg, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN (1849-   ), Swiss geologist, was born at
+Zurich on the 12th of April 1849. He was educated at Zurich and Berlin
+universities. Very early in life he became interested in the physical
+features of the Alps, and at the age of sixteen he made a model of the
+Todi group. This came under the notice of Arnold Escher von der Linth,
+to whom Heim was indebted for much encouragement and geological
+instruction in the field. In 1873 he became professor of geology in the
+polytechnic school at Zurich, and in 1875 professor of geology in the
+university. In 1882 he was appointed director of the Geological Survey
+of Switzerland, and in 1884 the hon. degree of Ph.D. was conferred upon
+him at Berne. He is especially distinguished for his researches on the
+structure of the Alps and for the light thereby thrown on the structure
+of mountain masses in general. He traced the plications from minor to
+major stages, and illustrated the remarkable foldings and overthrust
+faultings in numerous sections and with the aid of pictorial drawings.
+His magnificent work, _Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung_ (1878), is now
+regarded as a classic, and it served to inspire Professor C. Lapworth in
+his brilliant researches on the Scottish Highlands (see _Geol. Mag._
+1883). Heim also devoted considerable attention to the glacial phenomena
+of the Alpine regions. The Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1904 by
+the Geological Society of London.
+
+
+
+
+HEIM, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1787-1865), French painter, was born at Belfort
+on the 16th of December 1787. He early distinguished himself at the
+Ecole Centrale of Strassburg, and in 1803 entered the studio of Vincent
+at Paris. In 1807 he obtained the first prize, and in 1812 his picture
+of "The Return of Jacob" (Musee de Bordeaux) won for him a gold medal of
+the first class, which he again obtained in 1817, when he exhibited,
+together with other works, a St John--bought by Vivant Denon. In 1819
+the "Resurrection of Lazarus" (Cathedral Autun), the "Martyrdom of St
+Cyr" (St Gervais), and two scenes from the life of Vespasian (ordered by
+the king) attracted attention. In 1823 the "Re-erection of the Royal
+Tombs at St Denis," the "Martyrdom of St Laurence" (Notre Dame) and
+several full-length portraits increased the painter's popularity; and in
+1824, when he exhibited his great canvas, the "Massacre of the Jews"
+(Louvre), Heim was rewarded with the legion of honour. In 1827 appeared
+the "King giving away Prizes at the Salon of 1824" (Louvre--engraved by
+Jazet)--the picture by which Heim is best known--and "Saint Hyacinthe."
+Heim was now commissioned to decorate the Gallery Charles X. (Louvre).
+Though ridiculed by the romantists, Heim succeeded Regnault at the
+Institute in 1834, shortly after which he commenced a series of drawings
+of the celebrities of his day, which are of much interest. His
+decorations of the Conference room of the Chamber of Deputies were
+completed in 1844; and in 1847 his works at the Salon--"Champ de Mai"
+and "Reading a Play at the Theatre Francais"--were the signal for
+violent criticisms. Yet something like a turn of opinion in his favour
+took place at the exhibition of 1851; his powers as a draughtsman and
+the occasional merits of his composition were recognized, and toleration
+extended even to his colour. Heim was awarded the great gold medal, and
+in 1855--having sent to the Salon no less than sixteen portraits,
+amongst which may be cited those of "Cuvier," "Geoffroy de St Hilaire,"
+and "Madame Hersent"--he was made officer of the legion of honour. In
+1859 he again exhibited a curious collection of portraits, sixty-four
+members of the Institute arranged in groups of four. He died on the 29th
+of September 1865. Besides the paintings already mentioned, there is to
+be seen in Notre Dame de Lorette (Paris) a work executed on the spot;
+and the museum of Strassburg contains an excellent example of his easel
+pictures, the subject of which is a "Shepherd Drinking from a Spring."
+
+
+
+
+HEIMDAL, or _Heimdall_, in Scandinavian mythology, the keeper of the
+gates of Heaven and the guardian of the rainbow bridge Bifrost. He is
+the son of Odin by nine virgins, all sisters. He is called "the god with
+the golden teeth." He lives in the stronghold of Himinsbiorg at the end
+of Bifrost. His chief attribute is a vigilance which nothing can escape.
+He sleeps less than a bird; sees at night and even in his sleep; can
+hear the grass, and even the wool on a lamb's back grow. He is armed
+with Gjallar, the magic horn, with which he will summon the gods on the
+day of judgment.
+
+
+
+
+HEINE, HEINRICH, (1797-1856), German poet and journalist, was born at
+Dusseldorf, of Jewish parents, on the 13th of December 1797. His father,
+after various vicissitudes in business, had finally settled in
+Dusseldorf, and his mother, who possessed much energy of character, was
+the daughter of a physician of the same place. Heinrich (or, more
+exactly, Harry) was the eldest of four children, and received his
+education, first in private schools, then in the Lyceum of his native
+town; although not an especially apt or diligent pupil, he acquired a
+knowledge of French and English, as well as some tincture of the
+classics and Hebrew. His early years coincided with the most brilliant
+period of Napoleon's career, and the boundless veneration which he is
+never tired of expressing for the emperor throughout his writings shows
+that his true schoolmasters were rather the drummers and troopers of a
+victorious army than the masters of the Lyceum. By freeing the Jews from
+many of the political disabilities under which they had hitherto
+suffered, Napoleon became, it may be noted, the object of particular
+enthusiasm in the circles amidst which Heine grew up. When he left
+school in 1815, an attempt was made to engage him in business in
+Frankfort, but without success. In the following year his uncle, Solomon
+Heine, a wealthy banker in Hamburg, took him into his office. A passion
+for his cousin Amalie Heine seems to have made the young man more
+contented with his lot in Hamburg, and his success was such that his
+uncle decided to set him up in business for himself. This, however,
+proved too bold a step; in a very few months the firm of "Harry Heine &
+Co." was insolvent. His uncle now generously provided him with money to
+enable him to study at a university, with the view to entering the legal
+profession, and in the spring of 1819 Heine became a student of the
+university of Bonn. During his stay there he devoted himself rather to
+the study of literature and history than to that of law; amongst his
+teachers A. W. von Schlegel, who took a kindly interest in Heine's
+poetic essays, exerted the most lasting influence on him. In the autumn
+of 1820 Heine left Bonn for Gottingen, where he proposed to devote
+himself more assiduously to professional studies, but in February of the
+following year he challenged to a pistol duel a fellow-student who had
+insulted him, and was, in consequence, rusticated for six months. The
+pedantic atmosphere of the university of Gottingen was, however, little
+to his taste; the news of his cousin's marriage unsettled him still
+more; and he was glad of the opportunity to seek distraction in Berlin.
+
+In the Prussian capital a new world opened up to him; a very different
+life from that of Gottingen was stirring in the new university there,
+and Heine, like all his contemporaries, sat at the feet of Hegel and
+imbibed from him, doubtless, those views which in later years made the
+poet the apostle of an outlook upon life more modern than that of his
+romantic predecessors. Heine was also fortunate in having access to the
+chief literary circles of the capital; he was on terms of intimacy with
+Varnhagen von Ense and his wife, the celebrated Rahel, at whose house he
+frequently met such men as the Humboldts, Hegel himself and
+Schleiermacher; he made the acquaintance of leading men of letters like
+Fouque and Chamisso, and was on a still more familiar footing with the
+most distinguished of his co-religionists in Berlin. Under such
+favourable circumstances his own gifts were soon displayed. He
+contributed poems to the _Berliner Gesellschafter_, many of which were
+subsequently incorporated in the _Buch der Lieder_, and in December 1821
+a little volume came from the press entitled _Gedichte_, his first
+avowed act of authorship. He was also employed at this time as
+correspondent of a Rhenish newspaper, as well as in completing his
+tragedies _Almansor_ and _William Ratcliff_, which were published in
+1823 with small success. In that same year Heine, not in the most
+hopeful spirits, returned to his family, who had meanwhile moved to
+Luneburg. He had plans of settling in Paris, but as he was still
+dependent on his uncle, the latter's consent had to be obtained. As was
+to be expected, Solomon Heine did not favour the new plan, but promised
+to continue his support on the condition that Harry completed his course
+of legal study. He sent the young student for a six weeks' holiday at
+Cuxhaven, which opened the poet's eyes to the wonders of the sea; and
+three weeks spent subsequently at his uncle's county seat near Hamburg
+were sufficient to awaken a new passion in Heine's breast--this time for
+Amalie's sister, Therese. In January 1824 Heine returned to Gottingen,
+where, with the exception of a visit to Berlin and the excursion to the
+Hartz mountains in the autumn of 1824, which is immortalized in the
+first volume of the _Reisebilder_, he remained until his graduation in
+the summer of the following year. It was on the latter of these journeys
+that he had the interview with Goethe which was so amusingly described
+by him in later years. A few weeks before obtaining his degree, he took
+a step which he had long meditated; he formally embraced Christianity.
+This "act of apostasy," which has been dwelt upon at unnecessary length
+both by Heine's enemies and admirers, was actuated wholly by practical
+considerations, and did not arise from any wish on the poet's part to
+deny his race. The summer months which followed his examination Heine
+spent by his beloved sea in the island of Norderney, his uncle having
+again generously supplied the means for this purpose. The question of
+his future now became pressing, and for a time he seriously considered
+the plan of settling as a solicitor in Hamburg, a plan which was
+associated in his mind with the hope of marrying his cousin Therese.
+Meanwhile he had made arrangements for the publication of the
+_Reisebilder_, the first volume of which, _Die Harzreise_, appeared in
+May 1826. The success of the book was instantaneous. Its lyric outbursts
+and flashes of wit; its rapid changes from grave to gay; its flexibility
+of thought and style, came as a revelation to a generation which had
+grown weary of the lumbering literary methods of the later Romanticists.
+
+In the spring of the following year Heine paid a long planned visit to
+England, where he was deeply impressed by the free and vigorous public
+life, by the size and bustle of London; above all, he was filled with
+admiration for Canning, whose policy had realized many a dream of the
+young German idealists of that age. But the picture had also its
+reverse; the sordidly commercial spirit of English life, and brutal
+egotism of the ordinary Englishman, grated on Heine's sensitive nature;
+he missed the finer literary and artistic tastes of the continent and
+was repelled by the austerity of English religious sentiment and
+observance. Unfortunately the latter aspects of English life left a
+deeper mark on his memory than the bright side. In October Baron Cotta,
+the well-known publisher, offered Heine--the second volume of whose
+_Reisebilder_ and the _Buch der Lieder_ had meanwhile appeared and won
+him fresh laurels--the joint-editorship of the _Neue allgemeine
+politische Annalen_. He gladly accepted the offer and betook himself to
+Munich. Heine did his best to adapt himself and his political opinions
+to the new surroundings, in the hope of coming in for a share of the
+good things which Ludwig I. of Bavaria was so generously distributing
+among artists and men of letters. But the stings of the _Reisebilder_
+were not so easily forgotten; the clerical party in particular did not
+leave him long in peace. In July 1828, the professorship on which he had
+set his hopes being still not forthcoming, he left Munich for Italy,
+where he remained until the following November, a holiday which provided
+material for the third and part of the fourth volumes of the
+_Reisebilder_. A blow more serious than the Bavarian king's refusal to
+establish him in Munich awaited him on his return to Germany--the death
+of his father. In the beginning of 1829 Heine took up his abode in
+Berlin, where he resumed old acquaintanceships; in summer he was again
+at the sea, and in autumn he returned to the city he now loathed above
+all others, Hamburg, where he virtually remained until May 1831. These
+years were not a happy period of the poet's life; his efforts to obtain
+a position, apart from that which he owed to his literary work, met with
+rebuffs on every side; his relations with his uncle were unsatisfactory
+and disturbed by constant friction, and for a time he was even seriously
+ill. His only consolation in these months of discontent was the
+completion and publication of the _Reisebilder_. When in 1830 the news
+of the July Revolution in the streets of Paris reached him, Heine hailed
+it as the beginning of a new era of freedom, and his thoughts reverted
+once more to his early plan of settling in Paris. All through the
+following winter the plan ripened, and in May 1831 he finally said
+farewell to his native land.
+
+Heine's first impressions of the "New Jerusalem of Liberalism" were
+jubilantly favourable; Paris, he proclaimed, was the capital of the
+civilized world, to be a citizen of Paris the highest of honours. He was
+soon on friendly terms with many of the notabilities of the capital, and
+there was every prospect of a congenial and lucrative journalistic
+activity as correspondent for German newspapers. Two series of his
+articles were subsequently collected and published under the titles
+_Franzosische Zustande_ (1832) and _Lutezia_ (written 1840-1843,
+published in the _Vermischte Schriften_, 1854). In December 1835,
+however, the German Bund, incited by W. Menzel's attacks on "Young
+Germany," issued its notorious decree, forbidding the publication of any
+writings by the members of that coterie; the name of Heine, who had been
+stigmatized as the leader of the movement headed the list. This was the
+beginning of a series of literary feuds in which Heine was, from now on,
+involved; but a more serious and immediate effect of the decree was to
+curtail considerably his sources of income. His uncle, it is true, had
+allowed him 4000 francs a year when he settled in Paris, but at this
+moment he was not on the best of terms with his Hamburg relatives. Under
+these circumstances he was induced to take a step which his
+fellow-countrymen have found it hard to forgive; he applied to the
+French government for support from a secret fund formed for the benefit
+of "political refugees" who were willing to place themselves at the
+service of France. From 1836 or 1837 until the Revolution of 1848 Heine
+was in receipt of 4800 francs annually from this source.
+
+In October 1834 Heine made the acquaintance of a young Frenchwoman,
+Eugenie Mirat, a saleswoman in a boot-shop in Paris, and before long had
+fallen passionately in love with her. Although ill-educated, vain and
+extravagant, she inspired the poet with a deep and lasting affection,
+and in 1841, on the eve of a duel in which he had become involved, he
+made her his wife. "Mathilde," as Heine called her, was not the comrade
+to help the poet in days of adversity, or to raise him to better things,
+but, in spite of passing storms, he seems to have been happy with her,
+and she nursed him faithfully in his last illness. Her death occurred in
+1883. His relations with Mathilde undoubtedly helped to weaken his ties
+with Germany; and notwithstanding the affection he professed to cherish
+for his native land, he only revisited it twice, in the autumn of 1843
+and the summer of 1847. In 1845 appeared the first unmistakable signs of
+the terrible spinal disease, which, for eight years, from the spring of
+1848 till his death, condemned him to a "mattress grave." These years of
+suffering--suffering which left his intellect as clear and vivacious as
+ever--seem to have effected what might be called a spiritual
+purification in Heine's nature, and to have brought out all the good
+sides of his character, whereas adversity in earlier years only
+intensified his cynicism. The lyrics of the _Romanzero_ (1851) and the
+collection of _Neueste Gedichte_ (1853-1854) surpass in imaginative
+depth and sincerity of purpose the poetry of the _Buch der Lieder_. Most
+wonderful of all are the poems inspired by Heine's strange mystic
+passion for the lady he called _Die Mouche_, a countrywoman of his
+own--her real name was Elise von Krienitz, but she had written in French
+under the _nom de plume_ of Camille Selden--who helped to brighten the
+last months of the poet's life. He died on the 17th of February 1856,
+and lies buried in the cemetery of Montmartre.
+
+Besides the purely journalistic work of Heine's Paris years, to which
+reference has already been made, he published a collection of more
+serious prose writings under the title _Der Salon_ (1833-1839). In this
+collection will be found, besides papers on French art and the French
+stage, the essays "Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in
+Deutschland," which he had written for the _Revue des deux mondes_.
+Here, too, are the more characteristic productions of Heine's genius,
+_Aus den Memoiren des Herrn von Schnabelewopski_, _Der Rabbi von
+Bacherach_ and _Florentinische Nachte_. _Die romantische Schule_ (1836),
+with its unpardonable personal attack on the elder Schlegel, is a less
+creditable essay in literary criticism. In 1839 appeared _Shakespeares
+Madchen und Frauen_, which, however, was merely the text to a series of
+illustrations; and in 1840, the witty and trenchant satire on a writer,
+who, in spite of many personal disagreements, had been Heine's
+fellow-fighter in the liberal cause, Ludwig Borne. Of Heine's poetical
+work in these years, his most important publications were, besides the
+_Romanzero_, the two admirable satires, _Deutschland, ein Wintermarchen_
+(1844), the result of his visit to Germany, and _Atta Troll, ein
+Sommernachtstraum_ (1876), an attack on the political _Tendenzliteratur_
+of the 'forties.
+
+In the case of no other of the greater German poets is it so hard to
+arrive at a final judgment as in that of Heinrich Heine. In his _Buch
+der Lieder_ he unquestionably struck a new lyric note, not merely for
+Germany but for Europe. No singer before him had been so daring in the
+use of nature-symbolism as he, none had given such concrete and plastic
+expression to the spiritual forces of heart and soul; in this respect
+Heine was clearly the descendant of the Hebrew poets of the Old
+Testament. At times, it is true, his imagery is exaggerated to the
+degree of absurdity, but it exercised, none the less, a fascination over
+his generation. Heine combined with a spiritual delicacy, a fineness of
+perception, that firm hold on reality which is so essential to the
+satirist. His lyric appealed with particular force to foreign peoples,
+who had little understanding for the intangible, undefinable
+spirituality which the German people regard as an indispensable element
+in their national lyric poetry. Thus his fame has always stood higher in
+England and France than in Germany itself, where his lyric method, his
+self-consciousness, his cynicism in season and out of season, were
+little in harmony with the literary traditions. As far, indeed, as the
+development of the German lyric is concerned, Heine's influence has been
+of questionable value. But he introduced at least one new and refreshing
+element into German poetry with his lyrics of the North Sea; no other
+German poet has felt and expressed so well as Heine the charm of sea and
+coast.
+
+As a prose writer, Heine's merits were very great. His work was, in the
+main, journalism, but it was journalism of a high order, and, after all,
+the best literature of the "Young German" school to which he belonged
+was of this character. Heine's light fancy, his agile intellect, his
+straightforward, clear style stood him here in excellent stead. The
+prose writings of his French period mark, together with Borne's _Briefe
+aus Paris_, the beginning of a new era in German journalism and a
+healthy revolt against the unwieldy prose of the Romantic period. Above
+all things, Heine was great as a wit and a satirist. His lyric may not
+be able to assert itself beside that of the very greatest German
+singers, but as a satirist he had powers of the highest order. He
+combined the holy zeal and passionate earnestness of the "soldier of
+humanity" with the withering scorn and ineradicable sense of justice
+common to the leaders of the Jewish race. It was Heine's real mission to
+be a reformer, to restore with instruments of war rather than of peace
+"the interrupted order of the world." The more's the pity that his
+magnificent Aristophanic genius should have had so little room for its
+exercise, and have been frittered away in the petty squabbles of an
+exiled journalist.
+
+  The first collected edition of Heine's works was edited by A.
+  Strodtmann in 21 vols. (1861-1866), the best critical edition is the
+  _Samtliche Werke_, edited by E. Elster (7 vols., 1887-1890). Heine has
+  been more translated into other tongues than any other German writer
+  of his time. Mention may here be made of the French translation of his
+  _Oeuvres completes_ (14 vols., 1852-1868), and the English translation
+  (by C. G. Leland and others) recently completed, _The Works of
+  Heinrich Heine_ (13 vols., 1892-1905). For biography and criticism see
+  the following works: A. Strodtmann, _Heines Leben und Werke_ (3rd ed.,
+  1884); H. Hueffer, _Aus dem Leben H. Heines_ (1878); and by the same
+  author, _H. Heine: Gesammelte Aufsatze_ (1906); G. Karpeles, _H. Heine
+  und seine Zeitgenossen_ (1888), and by the same author, _H. Heine: aus
+  seinem Leben und aus seiner Zeit_ (1900); W. Bolsche, _H. Heine:
+  Versuch einer asthetischkritischen Analyse seiner Werke und seiner
+  Weltanschauung_ (1888); G. Brandes, _Det unge Tyskland_ (1890; Eng.
+  trans., 1905). An English biography by W. Stigand, _Life, Works and
+  Opinions of Heinrich Heine_, appeared in 1875, but it has little
+  value; there is also a short life by W. Sharp (1888). The essays on
+  Heine by George Eliot and Matthew Arnold are well known. The best
+  French contributions to Heine criticism are J. Legras, _H. Heine,
+  poete_ (1897), and H. Lichtenberger, _H. Heine, penseur_ (1905). See
+  also L.P. Betz, _Heine in Frankreich_ (1895).     (J. W. F.; J. G. R.)
+
+
+
+
+HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1681-1741), German jurist, was born on the
+11th of September 1681 at Eisenberg, Altenburg. He studied theology at
+Leipzig, and law at Halle; and at the latter university he was appointed
+in 1713 professor of philosophy, and in 1718 professor of jurisprudence.
+He subsequently filled legal chairs at Franeker in Holland and at
+Frankfort, but finally returned to Halle in 1733 as professor of
+philosophy and jurisprudence. He died there on the 31st of August 1741.
+Heineccius belonged to the school of philosophical jurists. He
+endeavoured to treat law as a rational science, and not merely as an
+empirical art whose rules had no deeper source than expediency. Thus he
+continually refers to first principles, and he develops his legal
+doctrines as a system of philosophy.
+
+  His chief works were _Antiquitatum Romanarum jurisprudentiam
+  illustrantium syntagma_ (1718), _Historia juris civilis Romani ac
+  Germanici_ (1733), _Elementa juris Germanici_ (1735), _Elementa juris
+  naturae et gentium_ (1737; Eng. trans. by Turnbull, 2 vols., London,
+  1763). Besides these works he wrote on purely philosophical subjects,
+  and edited the works of several of the classical jurists. His _Opera
+  omnia_ (9 vols., Geneva, 1771, &c.) were edited by his son Johann
+  Christian Gottlieb Heineccius (1718-1791).
+
+Heineccius's brother, JOHANN MICHAEL HEINECCIUS (1674-1722), was a
+well-known preacher and theologian, but is remembered more from the fact
+that he was the first to make a systematic study of seals, concerning
+which he left a book, _De veteribus Germanorum aliarumque nationum
+sigillis_ (Leipzig, 1710; 2nd ed., 1719).
+
+
+
+
+HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH (1721-1725), a child remarkable for
+precocity of intellect, was born on the 6th of February 1721 at Lubeck,
+where his father was a painter. Able to speak at the age of ten months,
+by the time he was one year old he knew by heart the principal incidents
+in the Pentateuch. At two years of age he had mastered sacred history;
+at three he was intimately acquainted with history and geography,
+ancient and modern, sacred and profane, besides being able to speak
+French and Latin; and in his fourth year he devoted himself to the study
+of religion and church history. This wonderful precocity was no mere
+feat of memory, for the youthful savant could reason on and discuss the
+knowledge he had acquired. Crowds of people flocked to Lubeck to see the
+wonderful child; and in 1724 he was taken to Copenhagen at the desire of
+the king of Denmark. On his return to Lubeck he began to learn writing,
+but his sickly constitution gave way, and he died on the 22nd of June
+1725.
+
+  _The Life, Deeds, Travels and Death of the Child of Lubeck_ were
+  published in the following year by his tutor Schoneich. See also
+  _Teutsche Bibliothek_, xvii., and _Memoires de Trevoux_ (Jan. 1731).
+
+
+
+
+HEINICKE, SAMUEL (1727-1790), the originator in Germany of systematic
+education for the deaf and dumb, was born on the 10th of April 1727, at
+Nautschutz, Germany. Entering the electoral bodyguard at Dresden, he
+subsequently supported himself by teaching. About 1754 his first deaf
+and dumb pupil was brought him. His success in teaching this pupil was
+so great that he determined to devote himself entirely to this work. The
+outbreak of the Seven Years' War upset his plans for a time. Taken
+prisoner at Pirna, he was brought to Dresden, but soon made his escape.
+In 1768, when living in Hamburg, he successfully taught a deaf and dumb
+boy to talk, following the methods prescribed by Amman in his book
+_Surdus loquens_, but improving on them. Recalled to his own country by
+the elector of Saxony, he opened in Leipzig, in 1778, the first deaf and
+dumb institution in Germany. This school he directed till his death,
+which took place on the 30th of April 1790. He was the author of a
+variety of books on the instruction of the deaf and dumb.
+
+
+
+
+HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM (1749-1803), German author, was born at
+Langewiesen near Ilmenau in Thuringia on the 16th of February 1749.
+After attending the gymnasium at Schleusingen he studied law at Jena and
+Erfurt. In Erfurt he became acquainted with Wieland and through him with
+"Father" Gleim who in 1772 procured him the post of tutor in a family at
+Quedlinburg. In 1774 he went to Dusseldorf, where he assisted the poet
+J. G. Jacobi to edit the periodical _Iris_. Here the famous picture
+gallery inspired him with a passion for art, to the study of which he
+devoted himself with so much zeal and insight that Jacobi furnished him
+with funds for a stay in Italy, where he remained for three years
+(1780-1783), He returned to Dusseldorf in 1784, and in 1786 was
+appointed reader to the elector Frederick Charles Joseph, archbishop of
+Mainz, who subsequently made him his librarian at Aschaffenburg, where
+he died on the 22nd of June 1803.
+
+The work upon which Heinse's fame mainly rests is _Ardinghello und die
+gluckseligen Inseln_ (1787), a novel which forms the framework for the
+exposition of his views on art and life, the plot being laid in the
+Italy of the 16th century. This and his other novels _Laidion, oder die
+eleusinischen Geheimnisse_ (1774) and _Hildegard von Hohenthal_ (1796)
+combine the frank voluptuousness of Wieland with the enthusiasm of the
+"Sturm und Drang." Both as novelist and art critic, Heinse had
+considerable influence on the romantic school.
+
+  Heinse's complete works (_Samtliche Schriften_) were published by H.
+  Laube in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1838). A new edition by C. Schuddekopf is
+  in course of publication (Leipzig, 1901 sqq.). See H. Prohle,
+  _Lessing, Wieland, Heinse_ (Berlin, 1877), and J. Schober, _Johann
+  Jacob Wilhelm Heinse, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (Leipzig, 1882);
+  also K. D. Jessen, _Heinses Stellung zur bildenden Kunst_ (Berlin,
+  1903).
+
+
+
+
+HEINSIUS (or HEINS) DANIEL (1580-1655), one of the most famous scholars
+of the Dutch Renaissance, was born at Ghent on the 9th of June 1580. The
+troubles of the Spanish war drove his parents to settle first at Veere
+in Zeeland, then in England, next at Ryswick and lastly at Flushing. In
+1594, being already remarkable for his attainments, he was sent to the
+university of Franeker to perfect himself in Greek under Henricus
+Schotanus. He stayed at Franeker half a year, and then settled at Leiden
+for the remaining sixty years of his life. There he studied under Joseph
+Scaliger, and there he found Marnix de St Aldegonde, Janus Douza, Paulus
+Merula and others, and was soon taken into the society of these
+celebrated men as their equal. His proficiency in the classic languages
+won the praise of all the best scholars of Europe, and offers were made
+to him, but in vain, to accept honourable positions outside Holland. He
+soon rose in dignity at the university of Leiden. In 1602 he was made
+professor of Latin, in 1605 professor of Greek, and at the death of
+Merula in 1607 he succeeded that illustrious scholar as librarian to
+the university. The remainder of his life is recorded in a list of his
+productions. He died at the Hague on the 25th of February 1655. The
+Dutch poetry of Heinsius is of the school of Roemer Visscher, but
+attains no very high excellence. It was, however, greatly admired by
+Martin Opitz, who was the pupil of Heinsius, and who, in translating the
+poetry of the latter, introduced the German public to the use of the
+rhyming alexandrine.
+
+  He published his original Latin poems in three volumes--_Iambi_
+  (1602), _Elegiae_ (1603) and _Poemata_ (1605); his _Emblemata
+  amatoria_, poems in Dutch and Latin, were first printed in 1604. In
+  the same year he edited Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, having edited
+  Hesiod in 1603. In 1609 he printed his Latin _Orations_. In 1610 he
+  edited Horace, and in 1611 Aristotle and Seneca. In 1613 appeared in
+  Dutch his tragedy of _The Massacre of the Innocents_; and in 1614 his
+  treatise _De politico sapientia_. In 1616 he collected his original
+  Dutch poems into a volume. He edited Terence in 1618, Livy in 1620,
+  published his oration _De contemptu mortis_ in 1621, and brought out
+  the _Epistles_ of Joseph Scaliger in 1627.
+
+
+
+
+HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES (1620-1681), Dutch scholar, son of Daniel Heinsius,
+was born at Leiden on the 20th of July 1620. His boyish Latin poem of
+_Breda expugnata_ was printed in 1637, and attracted much attention. In
+1642 he began his wanderings with a visit to England in search of MSS.
+of the classics; but he met with little courtesy from the English
+scholars. In 1644 he was sent to Spa to drink the waters; his health
+restored, he set out once more in search of codices, passing through
+Louvain, Brussels, Mechlin, Antwerp and so back to Leiden, everywhere
+collating MSS. and taking philological and textual notes. Almost
+immediately he set out again, and arriving in Paris was welcomed with
+open arms by the French savants. After investigating all the classical
+texts he could lay hands on, he proceeded southwards, and visited on the
+same quest Lyons, Marseilles, Pisa, Florence (where he paused to issue a
+new edition of Ovid) and Rome. Next year, 1647, found him in Naples,
+from which he fled during the reign of Masaniello; he pursued his
+labours in Leghorn, Bologna, Venice and Padua, at which latter city he
+published in 1648 his volume of original Latin verse entitled _Italica_.
+He proceeded to Milan, and worked for a considerable time in the
+Ambrosian library; he was preparing to explore Switzerland in the same
+patient manner, when the news of his father's illness recalled him
+hurriedly to Leiden. He was soon called away to Stockholm at the
+invitation of Queen Christina, at whose court he waged war with
+Salmasius, who accused him of having supplied Milton with facts from the
+life of that great but irritable scholar. Heinsius paid a flying visit
+to Leiden in 1650, but immediately returned to Stockholm. In 1651 he
+once more visited Italy; the remainder of his life was divided between
+Upsala and Holland. He collected his Latin poems into a volume in 1653.
+His latest labours were the editing of Velleius Paterculus in 1678, and
+of Valerius Flaccus in 1680. He died at the Hague on the 7th of October
+1681. Nikolaes Heinsius was one of the purest and most elegant of
+Latinists, and if his scholarship was not quite so perfect as that of
+his father, he displayed higher gifts as an original writer.
+
+His illegitimate son, NIKOLAES HEINSIUS (b. 1655), was the author of
+_The Delightful Adventures and Wonderful Life of Mirandor_ (1675), the
+single Dutch romance of the 17th century. He had to flee the country in
+1677 for committing a murder in the streets of the Hague, and died in
+obscurity.
+
+
+
+
+HEIR (Lat. _heres_, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in _herus_ or
+_erus_, master of a house, Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, Sans, _harana_,
+hand), in law, technically one who succeeds, by descent, to an estate of
+inheritance, in contradistinction to one who succeeds to personal
+property, i.e. next of kin. The word is now used generally to denote the
+person who is entitled by law to inherit property, titles, &c., of
+another. The rules regulating the descent of property to an heir will be
+found in the articles INHERITANCE, SUCCESSION, &c.
+
+An _heir apparent_ (Lat. _apparens_, manifest) is he whose right of
+inheritance is indefeasible, provided he outlives the ancestor, e.g. an
+eldest or only son.
+
+_Heir by custom_, or customary heir, he who inherits by a particular and
+local custom, as in borough-English, whereby the youngest son inherits,
+or in gavelkind, whereby all the sons inherit as parceners, and made but
+one heir.
+
+_Heir general_, or heir at law, he who after the death of his ancestor
+has, by law, the right to the inheritance.
+
+_Heir presumptive_, one who is next in succession, but whose right is
+defeasible by the birth of a nearer heir, e.g. a brother or nephew,
+whose presumptive right may be destroyed by the birth of a child, or a
+daughter, whose right may be defeated by the birth of a son.
+
+_Special heir_, one not heir at law (i.e. at common law), but by special
+custom.
+
+_Ultimate heir_, he to whom lands come by escheat on failure of proper
+heirs. In Scots law the technical use of the word "heir" is not confined
+to the succession to real property, but includes succession to personal
+property as well.
+
+
+
+
+HEIRLOOM, strictly so called in English law, a chattel ("loom" meaning
+originally a tool) which by immemorial usage is regarded as annexed by
+inheritance to a family estate. Any owner of such heirloom may dispose
+of it during his lifetime, but he cannot bequeath it by will away from
+the estate. If he dies intestate it goes to his heir-at-law, and if he
+devises the estate it goes to the devisee. At the present time such
+heirlooms are almost unknown, and the word has acquired a secondary and
+popular meaning and is applied to furniture, pictures, &c., vested in
+trustees to hold on trust for the person for the time being entitled to
+the possession of a settled house. Such things are more properly called
+settled chattels. An heirloom in the strict sense is made by family
+custom, not by settlement. A settled chattel may, under the Settled Land
+Act 1882, be sold under the direction of the court, and the money
+arising under such sale is capital money. The court will only sanction
+such a sale if it be shown that it is to the benefit of all parties
+concerned; and if the article proposed to be sold is of unique or
+historical character, it will have regard to the intention of the
+settlor and the wishes of the remainder men (Re _Hope_, _De Cetto_ v.
+_Hope_, 1899, 2 ch. 679).
+
+
+
+
+HEJAZ (HIJAZ), a Turkish vilayet and a province of Western Arabia,
+extending along the Red Sea coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba in
+29 deg. 30' N. to the south of Taif in 20 deg. N. It is bounded N. by
+Syria, E. by the Nafud desert and by Nejd and S. by Asir. Its length is
+about 750 m. and its greatest breadth from the Harra east of Khaibar to
+the coast is 200 m. The name Hejaz, which signifies "separating," is
+sometimes limited to the region extending from Medina in the north to
+Taif in the south, which separates the island province Nejd from the
+Tehama (Tihama) or coastal district, but most authorities, both Arab and
+European, define it in the wider sense. Though physically the most
+desolate and uninviting province in Arabia, it has a special interest
+and importance as containing the two sacred cities of Islam, Mecca and
+Medina (q.v.), respectively the birthplace and burial-place of Mahomet,
+which are visited yearly by large numbers of Moslem pilgrims from all
+parts of the world.
+
+Hejaz is divided longitudinally by the Tehama range of mountains into
+two zones, a narrow littoral and a broader upland. This range attains
+its greatest height in Jebel Shar, the Mount Seir of scripture,
+overlooking the Midian coast, which probably reaches 7000 ft., and Jebel
+Radhwa a little N.E. of Yambu rising to 6000 ft. It is broken through by
+several valleys which carry off the drainage of the inland zone; the
+principal of these is the Wadi Hamd, the main source of which is on the
+Harra east of Khaibar. Its northern tributary the Wadi Jizil drains the
+Harrat el Awerid and a southern branch comes from the neighbourhood of
+Medina. Farther south the Wadi es Safra cuts through the mountains and
+affords the principal access to the valley of Medina from Yambu or
+Jidda. None of the Hejaz Wadis has a perennial stream, but they are
+liable to heavy floods after the winter rains, and thick groves of
+date-palms and occasional settlements are met with along their courses
+wherever permanent springs are found. The northern part of Hejaz
+contains but few inhabited sites. Muwela, Damgha and El Wijh are small
+ports used by coasting craft. The last named was formerly an important
+station on the Egyptian pilgrim route, and in ancient days was a Roman
+settlement, and the port of the Nabataean towns of el Hajr 150 m. to the
+east. Inland the sandstone desert of El Hisma reaches from the Syrian
+border at Ma'an to Jebel Awerid, where the volcanic tracts known as
+_harra_ begin, and extend southwards along the western borders of the
+Nejd plateau as far as the latitude of Mecca. East of Jebel Awerid lies
+the oasis of Tema, identified with the Biblical Teman, which belongs to
+the Shammar tribe; its fertility depends on the famous well, known as
+Bir el Hudaj. Farther south and on the main pilgrim route is El 'Ala,
+the principal settlement of El Hajr, the Egra of Ptolemy, to whom it was
+known as an oasis town on the gold and frankincense road. Higher up the
+same valley are the rock-cut tombs of Medina Salih, similar to those at
+Petra and shown by the Nabataean coins and inscriptions discovered there
+by Doughty and Huber to date from the beginning of the Christian era. To
+the south-east again is the oasis of Khaibar, with some 2500
+inhabitants, chiefly negroes, the remnants of an earlier slave
+population. The citadel, known as the Kasr el Yahudi, preserves the
+tradition of its former Jewish ownership. With these exceptions there
+are no settled villages between Ma'an and Medina, the stations on the
+pilgrim road being merely small fortified posts with reservoirs, at
+intervals of 30 or 40 m., which are kept up by the Turkish government
+for the protection of the yearly caravan.
+
+The southern part of the province is more favoured by nature. Medina is
+a city of 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, situated in a broad plain
+between the coast range and the low hills across which lies the road to
+Nejd. Its altitude above the sea is about 2500 ft. It is well supplied
+with water and is surrounded by gardens and plantations; barley and
+wheat are grown, but the staple produce, as in all the cultivated
+districts of Hejaz, is dates, of which 100 different sorts are said to
+grow. Yambu' has a certain importance as the port for Medina. The route
+follows for part of the way along the Wadi es Safra, which contains
+several small settlements with abundant date groves; from Badr Hunen,
+the last of these, the route usually taken from Medina to Mecca runs
+near the coast, passing villages with some cultivation at each stage.
+The eastern route though more direct is less used; it passes through a
+barren country described by Burton as a succession of low plains and
+basins surrounded by rolling hills and intersected by torrent beds; the
+predominant formation is basalt. Suwerikiya and Es Safina are the only
+villages of importance on this route.
+
+Mecca and the holy places in its vicinity are described in a separate
+article; it is about 48 m. from the port of Jidda, the most important
+trade centre of the Hejaz province. The great majority of pilgrims for
+Mecca arrive by sea at Jidda. Their transport and the supply of their
+wants is therefore the chief business of the place; in 1904 the number
+was 66,500, and the imports amounted in value to L1,400,000.
+
+From the hot lowland in which Mecca is situated the country rises
+steeply up to the Taif plateau, some 6000 ft. above sea-level, a
+district resembling in climate and physical character the highlands of
+Asir and Yemen. Jebel el Kura at the northern edge of the plateau is a
+fertile well-watered district, producing wheat and barley and fruit.
+Taif, a day's journey farther south, lies in a sandy plain, surrounded
+by low mountains. The houses, though small, are well built of stone; the
+gardens for which it is celebrated lie at a distance of a mile or more
+to the S.W. at the foot of the mountains.
+
+Hejaz, together with the other provinces of Arabia which on the
+overthrow of the Bagdad Caliphate in 1258 had fallen under Egyptian
+domination, became by the conquest of Egypt in 1517 a dependency of the
+Ottoman empire. Beyond assuming the title of Caliph, neither Salim I.
+nor his successors interfered much in the government, which remained in
+the hands of the sharifs of Mecca until the religious upheaval which
+culminated at the beginning of the 19th century in the pillage of the
+holy cities by the Wahhabi fanatics. Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, was
+entrusted by the sultan with the task of establishing order, and after
+several arduous campaigns the Wahhabis were routed and their capital
+Deraiya in Nejd taken by Ibrahim Pasha in 1817. Hejaz remained in
+Egyptian occupation until 1845, when its administration was taken over
+directly by Constantinople, and it was constituted a vilayet under a
+vali or governor-general. The population is estimated at 300,000, about
+half of which are inhabitants of the towns and the remainder Bedouin,
+leading a nomad or pastoral life. The principal tribes are the Sherarat,
+Beni Atiya and Huwetat in the north; the Juhena between Yambu' and
+Medina, and the various sections of the Harb throughout the centre and
+south; the Ateba also touch the Mecca border on the south-east. All
+these tribes receive surra or money payments of large amount from the
+Turkish government to ensure the safe conduct of the annual pilgrimage,
+otherwise they are practically independent of the Turkish
+administration, which is limited to the large towns and garrisons. The
+troops occupying these latter belong to the 16th (Hejaz) division of the
+Turkish army.
+
+
+  The Hejaz railway.
+
+The difficulties of communication with his Arabian provinces, and of
+relieving or reinforcing the garrisons there, induced the sultan Abdul
+Hamid in 1900 to undertake the construction of a railway directly
+connecting the Hejaz cities with Damascus without the necessity of
+leaving Turkish territory at any point, as hitherto required by the Suez
+Canal. Actual construction was begun in May 1901 and on the 1st of
+September 1904 the section Damascus-Ma'an (285 m.) was officially
+opened. The line has a narrow gauge of 1.05 metre = 41 in., the same
+gauge as that of the Damascus-Beirut line; it has a ruling gradient of 1
+in 50 and follows generally the pilgrim track, through a desert country
+presenting no serious engineering difficulties. The graver difficulties
+due to the scarcity of water, and the lack of fuel, supplies and labour
+were successfully overcome; in 1906 the line was completed to El Akhdar,
+470 m. from Damascus and 350 from Medina, In time to be used by the
+pilgrim caravan of that year; and the section to Medina was opened in
+1908. Its military value was shown in the previous year, when it
+conveyed 28 battalions from Damascus to Ma'an, from which station the
+troops marched to Akaba for embarkation _en route_ to Hodeda. The length
+of the line from Damascus to Medina is approximately 820 m., and from
+Medina to Mecca 280 m.; the highest level attained is about 4000 ft. at
+Dar el Hamra in the section Ma'an-Medina.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J. L. Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1829);
+  'Ali Bey, _Travels_ (London, 1816); R. F. Burton, _Pilgrimage to
+  Medinah and Mecca_ (1893); _Land of Midian_ (London, 1879); J. S.
+  Hurgronje, _Mekka_ (Hague, 1888); C. M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_
+  (Cambridge, 1888); Auler Pasha, _Die Hedschasbahn_ (Gotha, 1906).
+       (R. A. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HEJIRA,[1] or HEGIRA (Arab. _hijra_, flight, departure from one's
+country, from _hajara_, to go away), the name of the Mahommedan era. It
+dates from 622, the year in which Mahomet "fled" from Mecca to Medina to
+escape the persecution of his kinsmen of the Koreish tribe. The years of
+this era are distinguished by the initials "A.H." (_anno hegirae_). The
+Mahommedan year is a lunar one, about 11 days shorter than the
+Christian; allowance must be made for this in translating _Hegira_ dates
+into Christian dates; thus A.H. 1321 corresponds roughly to A.D. 1903.
+The actual date of the "flight" is fixed as 8 Rabia I., i.e. 20th of
+September 622, by the tradition that Mahomet arrived at Kufa on the
+Hebrew Day of Atonement. Although Mahomet himself appears to have dated
+events by his flight, it was not till seventeen years later that the
+actual era was systematized by Omar, the second caliph (see CALIPHATE),
+as beginning from the 1st day of Muharram (the first lunar month of the
+year) which in that year (639) corresponded to July 16. The term
+_hejira_ is also applied in its more general sense to other
+"emigrations" of the faithful, e.g. to that to Abyssinia (see MAHOMET),
+and to that of Mahomet's followers to Medina before the capture of
+Mecca. These latter are known as _Muhajirun_.
+
+  For the problems of Moslem chronology and comparative tables of dates
+  see (beside the articles CALENDAR, CHRONOLOGY and MAHOMET),
+  Wustenfeld, _Vergleichungstabellen der muhammedanischen und
+  christlichen Zeitrechnung_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1903); Mas Latrie,
+  _Tresor de chronologie_ (Paris, 1889); Durbaneh, _Universal Calendar_
+  (Cairo, 1896); Winckler, _Altorientalische Forschungen_, ii. 326-350;
+  D. Nielson, _Die altarabische Mondreligion_ (Strassburg, 1904);
+  Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, s.v. "Hijrah."
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The _i_ in the second syllable is short.
+
+
+
+
+HEL, or _Hela_, in Scandinavian mythology, the goddess of the dead. She
+was a child of Loki and the giantess Angurboda, and dwelt beneath the
+roots of the sacred ash, Yggdrasil. She was given dominion over the nine
+worlds of Helheim. In early myth all the dead went to her: in later
+legend only those who died of old age or sickness, and she then became
+synonymous with suffering and horror. Her dwelling was _Elvidnir_ (dark
+clouds), her dish _Hungr_ (hunger), her knife _Sullt_ (starvation), her
+servants _Ganglate_ (tardy feet), her bed _Kor_ (sickness), and her
+bed-curtains _Blikiandabol_ (splendid misery).
+
+
+
+
+HELDENBUCH, DAS, the title under which a large body of German epic
+poetry of the 13th century has come down to us. The subjects of the
+individual poems are taken from national German sagas which originated
+in the epoch of the Migrations (_Volkerwanderung_), although doubtless
+here, as in all purely popular sagas, motives borrowed from the forces
+and phenomena of nature were, in course of time, woven into events
+originally historical. While the saga of the Nibelungs crystallized in
+the 13th century into the _Nibelungenlied_ (q.v.), and the Low German
+Hilde-saga into the epic of _Gudrun_ (q.v.) the poems of the
+_Heldenbuch_, in the more restricted use of that term, belong almost
+exclusively to two cycles, (1) the Ostrogothic saga of Ermanrich,
+Dietrich von Bern (i.e. Dietrich of Verona, Theodorich the Great) and
+Etzel (Attila), and (2) the cycle of Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and
+Ortnit, which like the _Nibelungen_ saga, was probably of Franconian
+origin. The romances of the _Heldenbuch_ are of varying poetic value;
+only occasionally do they rise to the height of the two chief epics, the
+_Nibelungenlied_ and _Gudrun_. Dietrich von Bern, the central figure of
+the first and more important group, was the ideal type of German
+medieval hero, and, under more favourable literary conditions, he might
+have become the centre of an epic more nationally German than even the
+_Nibelungenlied_ itself. Of the romances of this group, the chief are
+_Biterolf und Dietlieb_, evidently the work of an Austrian poet, who
+introduced many elements from the court epic of chivalry into a milieu
+and amongst characters familiar to us from the _Nibelungenlied_. _Der
+Rosengarten_ tells of the conflicts which took place round Kriemhild's
+"rose garden" in Worms--conflicts from which Dietrich always emerges
+victor, even when he is confronted by Siegfried himself. In _Laurin und
+der kleine Rosengarten_, the Heldensage is mingled with elements of
+popular fairy-lore; it deals with the adventures of Dietrich and his
+henchman Witege with the wily dwarf Laurin, who watches over another
+rose garden, that of the Tyrol. Similar in character are the adventures
+of Dietrich with the giants Ecke (_Eckenlied_) and Sigenot, with the
+dwarf Goldemar, and the deeds of chivalry he performs for queen Virginal
+(_Dietrichs erste Ausfahrt_)--all of these romances being written in the
+fresh and popular tone characteristic of the wandering singers or
+_Spielleute_. Other elements of the Dietrich saga are represented by the
+poems _Alpharts Tod_, _Dietrichs Flucht_ and _Die Rabenschlacht_
+("Battle of Ravenna"). Of these, the first is much the finest poem of
+the entire cycle and worthy of a place beside the best popular poetry of
+the Middle High German epoch. Alphart, a young hero in Dietrich's army,
+goes out to fight single-handed with Witege and Heime, who had deserted
+to Ermanrich, and he falls, not in fair battle, but by the treachery of
+Witege whose life he had spared. The other two Dietrich epics belong to
+a later period, the end of the 13th century--the author being an
+Austrian, Heinrich der Vogler--and show only too plainly the decay that
+had by this time set in in Middle High German poetry.
+
+The second cycle of sagas is represented by several long romances, all
+of them unmistakably "popular" in tone--conflicts with dragons,
+supernatural adventures, the wonderland of the East providing the chief
+features of interest. The epics of this group are _Ortnit_,
+_Hugdietrich_, _Wolfdietrich_, the latter with its pathetic episode of
+the unswerving loyalty of Wolfdietrich's vassal Duke Berchtung and his
+ten sons. Although many of the incidents and motives of this cycle are
+drawn from the best traditions of the _Heldensage_, its literary value
+is not very high.
+
+  This collection of popular romances was one of the first German books
+  to be printed. The date of the first edition is unknown, but the
+  second edition appeared in the year 1491 and was followed by later
+  reprints in 1509, 1545, 1560 and 1590. The last of these forms the
+  basis of the text edited by A. von Keller for the Stuttgart
+  _Literarische Verein_ in 1867. In 1472 the _Heldenbuch_ was adapted to
+  the popular tastes of the time by being remodelled in rough
+  _Knittelvers_ or doggerel; the author, or at least copyist, of the MS.
+  was a certain Kaspar von dor Roen, of Munnerstadt in Franconia. This
+  version was printed by F. von der Hagen and S. Primisser in their
+  _Heldenbuch_ (1820-1825). _Das Heldenbuch_, which F. von der Hagen
+  published in 2 vols, in 1855, was the first attempt to reproduce the
+  original text by collating the MSS. A critical edition, based not
+  merely on the oldest printed text--the only one which has any value
+  for this purpose, as the others are all copies of it--but also on the
+  MSS., was published in 5 vols. by O. Janicke, E. Martin, A. Amelung
+  and J. Zupitza at Berlin (1866-1873). A selection, edited by E.
+  Henrici, will be found in Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_,
+  vol. 7 (1887). Recent editions have appeared of _Der Rosengarten_ and
+  _Laurin_, by G. Holz (1893 and 1897). All the poems have been
+  translated into modern German by K. Simrock and others. See F. E.
+  Sandbach, _The Heroic Saga-Cycle of Dietrich of Bern_ (1906). The
+  literature of the _Heldensage_ is very extensive. See especially W.
+  Grimm, _Die deutsche Heldensage_ (3rd ed., 1889); L. Uhland,
+  "Geschichte der deutschen Poesie im Mittelalter," _Schriften_, vol. i.
+  (1866); O. L. Jiriczek, _Deutsche Heldensage_, vol. i. (1898); and
+  especially B. Symons, "Germanische Heldensage," in Paul's _Grundriss
+  der germanischen Philologie_ (2nd ed., 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HELDER, a seaport town at the northern extremity of the province of
+North Holland, in the kingdom of Holland, 51 m. by rail N.N.W. of
+Amsterdam. Pop. (1900) 25,842. It is situated on the Marsdiep, the
+channel separating the island of Texel from the mainland, and the main
+entrance to the Zuider Zee, and besides being the terminus of the North
+Holland canal from Amsterdam, it is an important naval and military
+station. On the east side of the town, called the Nieuwe Diep, is
+situated the fine harbour, which formerly served, as Ymuiden now does,
+as the outer port of Amsterdam. In this neighbourhood are the naval
+wharves and magazines, wet and dry docks, and the naval cadet school of
+Holland, the name Willemsoord being given to the whole naval
+establishment. From Nieuwe Diep to Fort Erfprins on the west side of the
+town, a distance of about 5 m., stretches the great sea-dike which here
+takes the place of the dunes. This dike descends at an angle of 40 deg.
+for a distance of 200 ft. into the sea, and is composed of Norwegian
+granite and Belgian limestone, strengthened at intervals by projecting
+jetties of piles and fascines. A circle of forts and batteries defends
+the town and coast, and there is a permanent garrison of 7000 to 9000
+men, while 30,000 men can be accommodated within the lines, and the
+province flooded from this point. Besides several churches and a
+synagogue, there are a town hall (1836), a hospital, an orphan asylum,
+the "palace" of the board of marine, a meteorological observatory, a
+zoological station and a lighthouse. The industries of the town are
+sustained by the garrison and marine establishments.
+
+
+
+
+HELEN, or HELENA (Gr. [Greek: Elene]),in Greek mythology, daughter of
+Zeus by Leda (wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta), sister of Castor,
+Pollux and Clytaemnestra, and wife of Menelaus. Other accounts make her
+the daughter of Zeus and Nemesis, or of Oceanus and Tethys. She was the
+most beautiful woman in Greece, and indirectly the cause of the Trojan
+war. When a child she was carried off from Sparta by Theseus to Attica,
+but was recovered and taken back by her brothers. When she grew up, the
+most famous of the princes of Greece sought her hand in marriage, and
+her father's choice fell upon Menelaus. During her husband's absence she
+was induced by Paris, son of Priam, with the connivance of Aphrodite, to
+flee with him to Troy. After the death of Paris she married his brother
+Deiphobus, whom she is said to have betrayed into the hands of Menelaus
+at the capture of the city (_Aeneid_, vi. 517 ff.). Menelaus thereupon
+took her back, and they returned together to Sparta, where they lived
+happily till their death, and were buried at Therapnae in Laconia.
+According to another story, Helen survived her husband, and was driven
+out by her stepsons. She fled to Rhodes, where she was hanged on a tree
+by her former friend Polyxo, to avenge the loss of her husband
+Tlepolemus in the Trojan War (Pausanias iii. 19). After death, Helen was
+said to have married Achilles in his home in the island of Leuke. In
+another version, Paris, on his voyage to Troy with Helen, was driven
+ashore on the coast of Egypt, where King Proteus, upon learning the
+facts of the case, detained the real Helen in Egypt, while a phantom
+Helen was carried off to Troy. Menelaus on his way home was also driven
+by stress of winds to Egypt, where he found his wife and took her home
+(Herodotus ii. 112-120; Euripides, _Helena_). Helen was worshipped as
+the goddess of beauty at Therapnae in Laconia, where a festival was held
+in her honour. At Rhodes she was worshipped under the name of Dendritis
+(the tree goddess), where the inhabitants built a temple in her honour
+to expiate the crime of Polyxo. The Rhodian story probably contains a
+reference to the worship connected with her name (cf. Theocritus xviii.
+48 [Greek: sebou m', Helenas phyton eimi]). She was the subject of a
+tragedy by Euripides and an epic by Colluthus. Originally, Helen was
+perhaps a goddess of light, a moon-goddess, who was gradually
+transformed into the beautiful heroine round whom the action of the
+_Iliad_ revolves. Like her brothers, the Dioscuri, she was a patron
+deity of sailors.
+
+  See E. Oswald, _The Legend of Fair Helen_ (1905); J. A. Symonds,
+  _Studies of the Greek Poets_, i. (1893); F. Decker, _Die griechische
+  Helena in Mythos und Epos_ (1894); Andrew Lang, _Helen of Troy_
+  (1883); P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquites_; the exhaustive article by R. Engelmann in Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_; and O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, i.
+  163, according to whom Helen originally represented, in the
+  Helenephoria (a mystic festival of Artemis, Iphigeneia or Tauropolos),
+  the sacred basket ([Greek: helene]) in which the holy objects were
+  carried; and hence, as the personification of the initiation ceremony,
+  she was connected with or identified with the moon, the first
+  appearance of which probably marked the beginning of the festivity.
+
+
+
+
+HELENA, ST (c. 247-c. 327) the wife of the emperor Constantius I.
+Chlorus, and mother of Constantine the Great. She was a woman of humble
+origin, born probably at Drepanum, a town on the Gulf of Nicomedia,
+which Constantine named Helenopolis in her honour. Very little is known
+of her history. It is certain that, at an advanced age, she undertook a
+pilgrimage to Palestine, visited the holy places, and founded several
+churches. She was still living at the time of the murder of Crispus
+(326). Constantine had coins struck with the effigy of his mother. The
+name of Helena is intimately connected with the commonly received story
+of the discovery of the Cross. But the accounts which connect her with
+the discovery are much later than the date of the event. The Pilgrim of
+Bordeaux (333), Eusebius and Cyril of Jerusalem were unaware of this
+important episode in the life of the empress. It was only at the end of
+the 4th century and in the West that the legend appeared. The principal
+centre of the cult of St Helena in the West seems to be the abbey of
+Hautvilliers, near Reims, where since the 9th century they have claimed
+to be in possession of her body. In England legends arose representing
+her as the daughter of a prince of Britain. Following these Geoffrey of
+Monmouth makes her the daughter of Coel, the king who is supposed to
+have given his name to the town of Colchester. These legends have
+doubtless not been without influence on the cult of the saint in
+England, where a great number of churches are dedicated either to St
+Helena alone, or to St Cross and St Helena. Her festival is celebrated
+in the Latin Church on the 18th of August. The Greeks make no
+distinction between her festival and that of Constantine, the 21st of
+May.
+
+  See _Acta sanctorum_, Augusti iii. 548-580; Tixeront, _Les Origines de
+  l'eglise d'Edesse_ (Paris, 1888); F. Arnold-Forster, _Studies in
+  Church Dedications or England's Patron Saints_, i. 181-189, iii. 16,
+  365-366 (1899).     (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+HELENA, a city and the county-seat of Phillips county, Arkansas, U.S.A.,
+situated on and at the foot of Crowly's Ridge, about 150 ft. above
+sea-level, in the alluvial bottoms of the Mississippi river, about 65 m.
+by rail S.W. of Memphis, Tennessee. Pop. (1890) 5189, (1900) 5550, of
+whom 3400 were negroes; (1910) 8772. It is served by the Yazoo &
+Mississippi Valley (Illinois Central), the St Louis, Iron Mountain &
+Southern (Missouri Pacific), the Arkansas Midland, and the Missouri &
+North Arkansas railways. Built in part upon "made land," well protected
+by levees, and lying within the richest cotton-producing region of the
+south, the rich timber country of the St Francis river, and the
+Mississippi "bottom lands," Helena concentrates its economic interests
+in cotton-compressing and shipping, the manufacture of cotton-seed
+products, lumbering and wood-working. The city was founded about 1821,
+but so late as 1860 the population was only 800. During the Civil War
+the place was of considerable strategic importance. It was occupied in
+July 1862 by the Union forces, who strongly fortified it to guard their
+communications with the lower Mississippi; on the 4th of July 1863, when
+occupied by General Benjamin M. Prentiss (1819-1901) with 4500 men, it
+was attacked by a force of 9000 Confederates under General Theophilus H.
+Holmes (1804-1880), who hoped to raise the siege of Vicksburg or close
+the river to the Union forces. The attack was repulsed, with a loss to
+the Confederates of one-fifth their numbers, the Union loss being
+slight.
+
+
+
+
+HELENA, a city and the county-seat of Lewis and Clark county, Montana,
+U.S.A., and the capital of the state, at the E. base of the main range
+of the Rocky Mountains, 80 m. N.E. of Butte, at an altitude of about
+4000 ft. Pop. (1880) 3624; (1890) 13,834; (1900) 10,770, of whom 2793
+were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,515. It is served by the Great
+Northern and the Northern Pacific railways. Helena is delightfully
+situated with Mt Helena as a background in the hollow of the Prickly
+Pear valley, a rich agricultural region surrounded by rolling hills and
+lofty mountains, and contains many fine buildings, including the state
+capitol, county court house, the Montana club house, high school, the
+cathedral of St Helena, a federal building, and the United States assay
+office. It is the seat of the Montana Wesleyan University (Methodist
+Episcopal), founded in 1890; St Aloysius College and St Vincent's
+Academy (Roman Catholic); and has a public library with about 35,000
+volumes, the Montana state library with about 40,000 volumes, and the
+state law library with about 24,000 volumes. The city is the commercial
+and financial centre of the state (Butte being the mining centre), and
+is one of the richest cities in the United States in proportion to its
+population. It has large railway car-shops, extensive smelters and
+quartz crushers (at East Helena), and various manufacturing
+establishments; the value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,309,746,
+an increase of 68.7% over that of 1900. The surrounding country abounds
+in gold- and silver-bearing quartz deposits, and it is estimated that
+from the famous Last Chance Gulch alone, which runs across the city,
+more than $40,000,000 in gold has been taken. The street railway and the
+lighting system of the city are run by power generated at a plant and 40
+ft. dam at Canyon Ferry, on the Missouri river, 18 m. E. of Helena.
+There is another great power plant at Hauser Plant, 20 m. N. of Helena.
+Three miles W. of the city is the Broadwater Natatorium with swimming
+pool, 300 ft. long and 100 ft. wide, the water for which is furnished by
+hot springs with a temperature at the source of 160 deg. Fort Harrison, a
+United States army post, is situated 3 m. W. of the city. Helena was
+established as a placer mining camp in 1864 upon the discovery of gold
+in Last Chance Gulch. The town was laid out in the same year, and after
+the organization of Montana Territory it was designated as the capital.
+Helena was burned down in 1869 and in 1874. It was chartered as a city
+in 1881.
+
+
+
+
+HELENSBURGH, a municipal and police burgh and watering-place of
+Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the N. shore of the Firth of Clyde,
+opposite Greenock, 24 m. N.W. of Glasgow by the North British railway.
+Pop. (1901) 8554. There is a station at Upper Helensburgh on the West
+Highland railway, and from the railway pier at Craigendoran there is
+steamer communication with Garelochhead, Dunoon and other pleasure
+resorts on the western coast. In 1776 the site began to be built upon,
+and in 1802 the town, named after Lady Helen, wife of Sir James
+Colquhoun of Luss, the ground landlord, was erected into a burgh of
+barony, under a provost and council. The public buildings include the
+burgh hall, municipal buildings, Hermitage schools and two hospitals. On
+the esplanade stands an obelisk to Henry Bell, the pioneer of steam
+navigation, who died at Helensburgh in 1830.
+
+
+
+
+HELENUS, in Greek legend, son of Priam and Hecuba, and twin-brother of
+Cassandra. He is said to have been originally called Scamandrius, and to
+have received the name of Helenus from a Thracian soothsayer who
+instructed him in the prophetic art. In the _Iliad_ he is described as
+the prince of augurs and a brave warrior; in the _Odyssey_ he is not
+mentioned at all. Various details concerning him are added by later
+writers. It is related that he and his sister fell asleep in the temple
+of Apollo Thymbraeus and that snakes came and cleansed their ears,
+whereby they obtained the gift of prophecy and were able to understand
+the language of birds. After the death of Paris, Helenus and his brother
+Deiphobus became rivals for the hand of Helen. Deiphobus was preferred,
+and Helenus withdrew in indignation to Mount Ida, where he was captured
+by the Greeks, whom he advised to build the wooden horse and carry off
+the Palladium. According to other accounts, having been made prisoner by
+a stratagem of Odysseus, he declared that Philoctetes must be fetched
+from Lemnos before Troy could be taken; or he surrendered to Diomedes
+and Odysseus in the temple of Apollo, whither he had fled in disgust at
+the sacrilegious murder of Achilles by Paris in the sanctuary. After the
+capture of Troy, he and his sister-in-law Andromache accompanied
+Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus) as captives to Epirus, where Helenus persuaded him
+to settle. After the death of Neoptolemus, Helenus married Andromache
+and became ruler of the country. He was the reputed founder of Buthrotum
+and Chaonia, named after a brother or companion whom he had accidentally
+slain while hunting. He was said to have been buried at Argos, where his
+tomb was shown. When Aeneas, in the course of his wanderings, reached
+Epirus, he was hospitably received by Helenus, who predicted his future
+destiny.
+
+  Homer, _Iliad_, vi. 76, vii. 44, xii. 94, xiii. 576; Sophocles,
+  _Philoctetes_, 604, who probably follows the _Little Iliad_ of
+  Lesches; Pausanias i. 11, ii. 23; Conon, _Narrationes_, 34; Dictys
+  Cretensis iv. 18; Virgil, _Aeneid_, iii. 294-490; Servius on _Aeneid_,
+  ii. 166, iii. 334.
+
+
+
+
+HELGAUD, or HELGALDUS (d. c. 1048), French chronicler, was a monk of the
+Benedictine abbey of Fleury. Little else is known about him save that he
+was chaplain to the French king, Robert II. the Pious, whose life he
+wrote. This _Epitoma vitae Roberti regis_, which is probably part of a
+history of the abbey of Fleury, deals rather with the private than with
+the public life of the king, and its value is not great either from the
+literary or from the historical point of view. The only existing
+manuscript is in the Vatican, and the _Epitoma_ has been printed by J.
+P. Migne in the _Patrologia Latina_, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844); and by M.
+Bouquet in the _Recueil des historiens des Gaules_, tome x. (Paris,
+1760).
+
+  See _Histoire litteraire de la France_, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869);
+  and A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_, tome ii.
+  (Paris, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+HELGESEN, POVL,[1] Danish humanist, was born at Varberg in Halland about
+1480, of a Danish father and a Swedish mother. Helgesen was educated
+first at the Carmelite monastery of his native place and afterwards at
+another monastery at Elsinore, where he devoted himself to humanistic
+studies and adopted Erasmus as his model. None had a keener eye for the
+abuses of the Church; long before the appearance of Luther, he denounced
+the ignorance and immorality of the clergy, and, as lector at the
+university of Copenhagen, gathered round him a band of young
+enthusiasts, the future leaders of the Danish Reformation. But Helgesen
+desired an orderly, methodical, rational reformation, and denounced
+Luther, whose ablest opponent in Denmark he subsequently became, as a
+hot-headed revolutionist. Christian II. was also an object of Helgesen's
+detestation, and so boldly did he oppose that monarch's measures that,
+to save his life, he had to flee to Jutland. Under Frederick I.
+(1523-1533) he returned to Copenhagen and resumed his chair at the
+university, becoming soon afterwards provincial of the Carmelite Order
+for Scandinavia. But like all moderate men in a time of crisis, Helgesen
+could gain the confidence of neither party, and was frequently attacked
+as bitterly by the Catholics as by the Protestants. From 1530 to 1533 he
+and the Protestant champion Hans Tausen exhausted the whole vocabulary
+of vituperation in their fruitless polemics. In October 1534, however,
+Helgesen issued an eirenicon in which he attempted to reconcile the two
+contending confessions. After that every trace of him is lost. For a
+long time he was unjustly regarded as a turn-coat, but he was too
+superior to the prejudices of his age to be understood by his
+contemporaries. His ideal was a moral internal reformation of the Church
+on a rational basis, conducted not by ill-informed fanatics, but by an
+enlightened and well-educated clergy; and from this standpoint he never
+diverged. Helgesen was indisputably the greatest master of style of his
+age in Denmark, and as a historian he also occupies a prominent
+position. He always endeavours to probe down to the very soul of things,
+though his passionate nature made it very difficult for him to be
+impartial. His chief works are _Danmark's Kongers Historie_ and _Skibby
+Kroniken_.
+
+  See Ludwig Schmitt, _Der Karmeliter Paulus Helia_ (Freiburg, 1893);
+  _Danmarks Riges Historie_ (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. iii.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] He wrote his name Heliae or Eliae.
+
+
+
+
+HELIACAL, relating to the sun ([Greek: helios]), a term applied in the
+ancient astronomy to the first rising of a star which could be seen
+after it emerged from the rays of the sun, or the last setting that
+could be seen before it was lost from sight by proximity to the sun.
+
+
+
+
+HELIAND. The 9th-century poem on the Gospel history, to which its first
+editor, J. A. Schmeller, gave the appropriate name of _Heliand_ (the
+word used in the text for "Saviour," answering to the O. Eng. _haelend_
+and the Ger. _Heiland_), is, with the fragments of a version of the
+story of Genesis believed to be by the same author, all that remains of
+the poetical literature of the old Saxons, i.e. the Saxons who continued
+in their original home. It contained when entire about 6000 lines, and
+portions of it are preserved in four MSS. The Cotton MS. in the British
+Museum, written probably late in the 10th century, is nearly complete,
+ending in the middle of the story of the journey to Emmaus. The Munich
+MS., formerly at Bamberg, begins at line 85, and has many lacunae, but
+continues the history down to the last verse of St Luke's Gospel,
+ending, however, in the middle of a sentence. A MS. discovered at Prague
+in 1881 contains lines 958-1106, and another, in the Vatican library,
+discovered by K. Zangemeister in 1894, contains lines 1279-1358. The
+poem is based, not directly on the New Testament, but on the
+pseudo-Tatian's harmony of the Gospels, and it shows acquaintance with
+the commentaries of Alcuin, Baeda and Hrabanus Maurus.
+
+The questions relating to the _Heliand_ cannot be adequately discussed
+without considering also the poem on the history of Genesis, which, on
+the grounds of similarity in style and vocabulary, and for other reasons
+afterwards to be mentioned, may with some confidence be referred to the
+same author. A part of this poem, as is mentioned in the article CAEDMON,
+is extant only in an Old English translation. The portions that have
+been preserved in the original language are contained in the same
+Vatican MS. that includes the fragment of the _Heliand_ referred to
+above. In the one language or the other, there are in existence the
+following three fragments: (1) The passage which appears as lines
+235-851 in the so-called "Caedmon's _Genesis_," on the revolt of the
+angels and the temptation and fall of Adam and Eve. Of this the part
+corresponding to lines 790-820 exists also in the original Old Saxon.
+(2) The story of Cain and Abel, in 124 lines. (3) The account of the
+destruction of Sodom, in 187 lines. The main source of the _Genesis_ is
+the Bible, but Professor E. Sievers has shown that considerable use was
+made of the two Latin poems by Alcimus Avitus, _De initio mundi_ and _De
+peccato originali_.
+
+The two poems give evidence of genius and trained skill, though the
+poet was no doubt hampered by the necessity of not deviating too widely
+from the sacred originals. Within the limits imposed by the nature of
+his task, his treatment of his sources is remarkably free, the details
+unsuited for poetic handling being passed over, or, in some instances,
+boldly altered. In many passages his work gives the impression of being
+not so much an imitation of the ancient Germanic epic, as a genuine
+example of it, though concerned with the deeds of other heroes than
+those of Germanic tradition. In the _Heliand_ the Saviour and His
+Apostles are conceived as a king and his faithful warriors, and the use
+of the traditional epic phrases appears to be not, as with Cynewulf or
+the author of _Andreas_, a mere following of accepted models, but the
+spontaneous mode of expression of one accustomed to sing of heroic
+themes. The _Genesis_ fragments have less of the heroic tone, except in
+the splendid passage describing the rebellion of Satan and his host. It
+is noteworthy that the poet, like Milton, sees in Satan no mere
+personification of evil, but the fallen archangel, whose awful guilt
+could not obliterate all traces of his native majesty. Somewhat
+curiously, but very naturally, Enoch the son of Cain is confused with
+the Enoch who was translated to heaven--an error which the author of the
+Old English _Genesis_ avoids, though (according to the existing text) he
+confounds the names of Enoch and Enos.
+
+Such external evidence as exists bearing on the origin of the _Heliand_
+and the companion poem is contained in a Latin document printed by
+Flacius Illyricus in 1562. This is in two parts; the one in prose,
+entitled (perhaps only by Flacius himself) "_Praefatio ad librum
+antiquum in lingua Saxonica conscriptum_"; the other in verse, headed
+"_Versus de poeta et Interpreta hujus codicis_." The Praefatio begins by
+stating that the emperor Ludwig the Pious, desirous that his subjects
+should possess the word of God in their own tongue, commanded a certain
+Saxon, who was esteemed among his countrymen as an eminent poet, to
+translate poetically into the German language the Old and New
+Testaments. The poet willingly obeyed, all the more because he had
+previously received a divine command to undertake the task. He rendered
+into verse all the most important parts of the Bible with admirable
+skill, dividing his work into _vitteas_, a term which, the writer says,
+may be rendered by "_lectiones_" or "_sententias_." The Praefatio goes
+on to say that it was reported that the poet, till then knowing nothing
+of the art of poetry, had been admonished in a dream to turn into verse
+the precepts of the divine law, which he did with so much skill that his
+work surpasses in beauty all other German poetry (_ut cuncta Theudisca
+poemata suo vincat decore_). The _Versus_ practically reproduce in
+outline Baeda's account of Caedmon's dream, without mentioning the dream,
+but describing the poet as a herdsman, and adding that his poems,
+beginning with the creation, relate the history of the five ages of the
+world down to the coming of Christ.
+
+The suspicion of some earlier scholars that the _Praefatio_ and the
+_Versus_ might be a modern forgery is refuted by the occurrence of the
+word _vitteas_, which is the Old Saxon _fittea_, corresponding to the
+Old English _fitt_, which means a "canto" of a poem. It is impossible
+that a scholar of the 16th century could have been acquainted with this
+word, and internal evidence shows clearly that both the prose and the
+verse are of early origin. The _Versus_, considered in themselves, might
+very well be supposed to relate to Caedmon; but the mention of the five
+ages of the world in the concluding lines is obviously due to
+recollection of the opening of the _Heliand_ (lines 46-47). It is
+therefore certain that the _Versus_, as well as the _Praefatio_,
+attribute to the author of the _Heliand_ a poetic rendering of the Old
+Testament. Their testimony, if accepted, confirms the ascription to him
+of the Genesis fragments, which is further supported by the fact that
+they occur in the same MS. with a portion of the _Heliand_. As the
+_Praefatio_ speaks of the emperor Ludwig in the present tense, the
+former part of it at least was probably written in his reign, i.e. not
+later than A.D. 840. The general opinion of scholars is that the latter
+part, which represents the poet as having received his vocation in a
+dream, is by a later hand, and that the sentences in the earlier part
+which refer to the dream are interpolations by this second author. The
+date of these additions, and of the _Versus_, is of no importance, as
+their statements are incredible. That the author of the _Heliand_ was,
+so to speak, another Caedmon--an unlearned man who turned into poetry
+what was read to him from the sacred writings--is impossible, because in
+many passages the text of the sources is so closely followed that it is
+clear that the poet wrote with the Latin books before him. On the other
+hand, there is no reason for rejecting the almost contemporary testimony
+of the first part of the _Praefatio_ that the author of the _Heliand_
+had won renown as a poet before he undertook his great task at the
+emperor's command. It is certainly not impossible that a Christian
+Saxon, sufficiently educated to read Latin easily, may have chosen to
+follow the calling of a _scop_ or minstrel[1] instead of entering the
+priesthood or the cloister; and if such a person existed, it would be
+natural that he should be selected by the emperor to execute his design.
+As has been said above, the tone of many portions of the _Heliand_ is
+that of a man who was no mere imitator of the ancient epic, but who had
+himself been accustomed to sing of heroic themes.
+
+The commentary on the gospel of Matthew by Hrabanus Maurus was finished
+about 821, which is therefore the superior limit of date for the
+composition of the _Heliand_. It is usually maintained that this work
+was written before the Old Testament poems. The arguments for this view
+are that the _Heliand_ contains no allusion to any foregoing poetical
+treatment of the antecedent history, and that the Genesis fragments
+exhibit a higher degree of poetic skill. This reasoning does not appear
+conclusive, and if it be set aside, the limit of date for the beginning
+of the work is carried back to A.D. 814, the year of the accession of
+Ludwig.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first complete edition of the _Heliand_ was
+  published by J. A. Schmeller in 1830; the second volume, containing
+  the glossary and grammar, appeared in 1840. The standard edition is
+  that of E. Sievers (1877), in which the texts of the Cotton and Munich
+  MSS. are printed side by side. It is not provided with a glossary, but
+  contains an elaborate and most valuable analysis of the diction,
+  synonymy and syntactical features of the poem. Other useful editions
+  are those of M. Heyne (3rd ed., 1903), O. Behaghel (1882) and P. Piper
+  (1897, containing also the Genesis fragments). The fragments of the
+  _Heliand_ and the _Genesis_ contained in the Vatican MS. were edited
+  in 1894 by K. Zangemeister and W. Braune under the title _Bruchstucke
+  der altsachsischen Bibeldichtung_. Among the works treating of the
+  authorship, sources and place of origin of the poems, the most
+  important are the following: E. Windisch, _Der Heliand und seine
+  Quellen_ (1868); E. Sievers, _Der Heliand und die angelsachsische
+  Genesis_ (1875); R. Kogel, _Deutsche Literaturgeschichte_, Bd. i.
+  (1894) and _Die altsachsische Genesis_ (1895); R. Kogel and W.
+  Bruckner, "Althoch- und altniederdeutsche Literatur," in Paul's
+  _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, Bd. ii. (2nd ed., 1901),
+  which contains references to many other works; Hermann Collitz, _Zum
+  Dialekte des Heliand_ (1901).     (H. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The term _Volkssanger_, commonly used in German discussions of
+    this question, is misleading; the audience for heroic poetry was not
+    "the people" in the modern sense, but the nobles.
+
+
+
+
+HELICON, a mountain range, of Boeotia in ancient Greece, celebrated in
+classical literature as the favourite haunt of the Muses, is situated
+between Lake Copais and the Gulf of Corinth. On the fertile eastern
+slopes stood a temple and grove sacred to the Muses, and adorned with
+beautiful statues, which, taken by Constantine the Great to beautify his
+new city, were consumed there by a fire in A.D. 404. Hard by were the
+famous fountains, Aganippe and Hippocrene, the latter fabled to have
+gushed from the earth at the tread of the winged horse Pegasus, whose
+favourite browsing place was there. At the neighbouring Ascra dwelt the
+poet Hesiod, a fact which probably enhanced the poetic fame of the
+region. Pausanias, who describes Helicon in his ninth book, asserts that
+it was the most fertile mountain in Greece, and that neither poisonous
+plant nor serpent was to be found on it, while many of its herbs
+possessed a miraculous healing virtue. The highest summit, the present
+Palaeovouni (old hill), rises to the height of about 5000 ft. Modern
+travellers, aided by ancient remains and inscriptions, and guided by the
+local descriptions of Pausanias, have succeeded in identifying many of
+the ancient classical spots, and the French excavators have discovered
+the temple of the Muses and a theatre.
+
+  See also Clarke, _Travels in Various Countries_ (vol. vii., 1818);
+  Dodwell, _Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece_ (1818); W.
+  M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (vol. ii., 1835); J. G.
+  Frazer's edition of _Pausanias_, v. 150.
+
+
+
+
+HELICON (Fr. _helicon, bombardon circulaire_; Ger. _Helikon_), the
+circular form of the B[flat] contrabass tuba used in military bands,
+worn round the body, with the enormous bell resting on the left shoulder
+and towering above the head of the performer. The pitch of the helicon
+is an octave below that of the euphonium. The idea of winding the long
+tube of the contrabass tuba and of wearing it round the shoulders was
+suggested by the ancient Roman buccina and cornu, represented in mosaics
+and on the sculptured reliefs surrounding Trajan's Column. The buccina
+and cornu[1] differed in the diameter of their respective bores, the
+former having the narrow, almost cylindrical bore and harmonic series of
+the trumpet and trombone, whereas the cornu, having a bore in the form
+of a wide cone, was the prototype of the bugle and tubas.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For illustrations of the cornu see the altar of Julius Victor ex
+    Collegio, reproduced in Bartoli, Pict. Ant. p. 76; Bellori, _Pict.
+    antiq. crypt. rom._ p. 76, pl. viii.; in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict.
+    des antiq. grecques et romaines_, under "Cornu," the buccina and
+    cornu have not been distinguished.
+
+
+
+
+HELIGOLAND (Ger. _Helgoland_), an island of Germany, in the North Sea,
+lying off the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, 28 m. from the nearest
+point in the mainland. Pop. (1900) 2307. From 1807 to 1890 a British
+possession, it was ceded in 1890 to Germany, and since 1892 has formed
+part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It consists of two
+islets, the smaller, the Dunen-Insel, a quarter of a mile E. of the
+main, or Rock Island, connected until 1720, when it was severed by a
+violent irruption of the sea, with the other by a neck of land, and the
+main, or Rock Island. The latter is nearly triangular in shape and is
+surrounded by steep red cliffs, the only beach being the sandy spit near
+the south-east point, where the landing-stage is situated. The rocks
+composing the cliffs are worn into caves, and around the island are many
+fantastic arches and columns. The impression made by the red cliffs,
+fringed by a white beach and supporting the green Oberland, is commonly
+believed to have suggested the national colours, red, white and green,
+or, as the old Frisian rhyme goes:--
+
+  "Gron is dat Land,
+   Rood is de Kant,
+   Witt is de Sand,
+   Dat is de Flagg vun't hillige Land."
+
+The lower town of Unterland, on the spit, and the upper town, or
+Oberland, situated on the cliff above, are connected by a wooden stair
+and a lift. There is a powerful lighthouse, and since its cession by
+Great Britain to Germany, the main island has been strongly fortified,
+the old English batteries being replaced by armoured turrets mounting
+guns of heavy calibre. Inside the Dunen-Insel the largest ships can ride
+safely at anchor, and take in coal and other supplies. The greatest
+length of the main island, which slopes somewhat from west to east, is
+just a mile, and the greatest breadth less than a third of a mile, its
+average height 198 ft., and the highest point, crowned by the church,
+with a conspicuous spire, 216 ft. The Dunen-Insel is a sand-bank
+protected by groines. It is only about 200 ft. above the sea at its
+highest point, but the drifting sands make the height rather variable.
+The sea-bathing establishment is situated here; a shelving beach of
+white sand presenting excellent facilities for bathing. Most of the
+houses are built of brick, but some are of wood. There are a theatre, a
+Kurhaus, and a number of hotels and restaurants. In 1892 a biological
+institute, with a marine museum and aquarium (1900) attached, was
+opened.
+
+During the summer some 20,000 people visit the island for sea-bathing.
+German is the official language, though among themselves the natives
+speak a dialect of Frisian, barely intelligible to the other islands of
+the group. There is regular communication with Bremen and Hamburg.
+
+The winters are stormy. May and the early part of June are wet and
+foggy, so that few visitors arrive before the middle of the latter
+month.
+
+The generally accepted derivation of Heligoland (or Helgoland) from
+_Heiligeland_, i.e. "Holy Land," seems doubtful. According to northern
+mythology, Forseti, a son of Balder and Nanna, the god of justice, had a
+temple on the island, which was subsequently destroyed by St Ludger.
+This legend may have given rise to the derivation "Holy Land." The more
+probable etymology, however, is that of Hallaglun, or Halligland, i.e.
+"land of banks, which cover and uncover." Here Hertha, according to
+tradition, had her great temple, and hither came from the mainland the
+Angles to worship at her shrine. Here also lived King Radbod, a pagan,
+and on this isle St Willibrord in the 7th century first preached
+Christianity; and for its ownership, before and after that date, many
+sea-rovers have fought. Finally it became a fief of the dukes of
+Schleswig-Holstein, though often hypothecated for loans advanced to
+these princes by the free city of Hamburg. The island was a Danish
+possession in 1807, when the English seized and held it until it was
+formally ceded to them in 1814. In the picturesque old church there are
+still traces of a painted Dannebrog.
+
+In 1890 the island was ceded to Germany, and in 1892 it was incorporated
+with Prussia, when it was provided that natives born before the year
+1880 should be allowed to elect either for British or German
+nationality, and until 1901 no additional import duties were imposed.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Von der Decken, _Philosophisch-historisch-geographische
+  Untersuchungen uber die Insel Helgoland, oder Heiligeland, und ihre
+  Bewohner_ (Hanover, 1826); Wiebel, _Die Insel Helgoland,
+  Untersuchungen uber deren Grosse in Vorzeit und Gegenwart vom
+  Standpunkte der Geschichte und Geologie_ (Hamburg, 1848); J. M.
+  Lappenberg, _Uber den ehemaligen Umfang und die alte Geschichte
+  Helgolands_ (Hamburg, 1831); F. Otker, _Helgoland. Schilderungen und
+  Erorterungen_ (Berlin, 1855); E. Hallier, _Helgoland, Nordseestudien_
+  (Hamburg, 1893); A. W. F. Moller, _Rechtsgeschichte der Insel
+  Helgoland_ (Weimar, 1904); W. G. Black, _Heligoland and the Islands of
+  the North Sea_ (Glasgow, 1888); E. Lindermann, _Die Nordseeinsel
+  Helgoland in topographischer, geschichtlicher, sanitarer Beziehung_
+  (Berlin, 1889); and Tittel, _Die naturlichen Veranderungen Helgolands_
+  (Leipzig, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+HELIOCENTRIC, i.e. referred to the centre of the sun ([Greek: helios])
+as an origin, a term designating especially co-ordinates or heavenly
+bodies referred to that origin.
+
+
+
+
+HELIODORUS, of Emesa in Syria, Greek writer of romance. According to his
+own statement his father's name was Theodosius, and he belonged to a
+family of priests of the sun. He was the author of the _Aethiopica_, the
+oldest and best of the Greek romances that have come down to us. It was
+first brought to light in modern times in a MS. from the library of
+Matthias Corvinus, found at the sack of Buda (Ofen) in 1526, and printed
+at Basel in 1534. Other codices have since been discovered. The title is
+taken from the fact that the action of the beginning and end of the
+story takes place in Aethiopia. The daughter of Persine, wife of
+Hydaspes, king of Aethiopia, was born white through the effect of the
+sight of a marble statue upon the queen during pregnancy. Fearing an
+accusation of adultery, the mother gives the babe to the care of
+Sisimithras, a gymnosophist, who carries her to Egypt and places her in
+charge of Charicles, a Pythian priest. The child is taken to Delphi, and
+made a priestess of Apollo under the name of Chariclea. Theagenes, a
+noble Thessalian, comes to Delphi and the two fall in love with each
+other. He carries off the priestess with the help of Calasiris, an
+Egyptian, employed by Persine to seek for her daughter. Then follow many
+perils from sea-rovers and others, but the chief personages ultimately
+meet at Meroe at the very moment when Chariclea is about to be
+sacrificed to the gods by her own father. Her birth is made known, and
+the lovers are happily married. The rapid succession of events, the
+variety of the characters, the graphic descriptions of manners and of
+natural scenery, the simplicity and elegance of the style, give the
+_Aethiopica_ great charm. As a whole it offends less against good taste
+and morality than others of the same class. Homer and Euripides were the
+favourite authors of Heliodorus, who in his turn was imitated by French,
+Italian and Spanish writers. The early life of Clorinda in Tasso's
+_Jerusalem Delivered_ (canto xii. 21 sqq.) is almost identical with that
+of Chariclea; Racine meditated a drama on the same subject; and it
+formed the model of the _Persiles y Sigismunda_ of Cervantes. According
+to the ecclesiastical historian Socrates (_Hist. eccles._ v. 22), the
+author of the _Aethiopica_ was a certain Heliodorus, bishop of Tricca in
+Thessaly. It is supposed that the work was written in his early years
+before he became a Christian, and that, when confronted with the
+alternative of disowning it or resigning his bishopric, he preferred
+resignation. But it is now generally agreed that the real author was a
+sophist of the 3rd century A.D.
+
+  The best editions are: A. Coraes (1804), G. A. Hirschig (1856); see
+  also M. Oeftering, _H. und seine Bedeutung fur die Literatur_, with
+  full bibliographies (1901); J. C. Dunlop, _History of Prose Fiction_
+  (1888); and especially E. Rohde, _Der griechische Roman_ (1900). There
+  are translations in almost all European languages: in English, in
+  Bohn's _Classical Library_ and the "Tudor" series (v., 1895,
+  containing the old translation by T. Underdowne, 1587, with
+  introduction by C. Whibley); in French by Amyot and Zevort.
+
+
+
+
+HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS), Roman emperor (A.D. 218-222), was born at
+Emesa about 205. His real name was Varius Avitus. On the murder of
+Caracalla (217), Julia Maesa, Varius's grandmother and Caracalla's aunt,
+left Rome and retired to Emesa, accompanied by her grandsons (Varius and
+Alexander Severus). Varius, though still only a boy, was appointed high
+priest of the Syrian sun-god Elagabalus, one of the chief seats of whose
+worship was Emesa (Homs). His beauty, and the splendid ceremonials at
+which he presided, made him a great favourite with the troops stationed
+in that part of Syria, and Maesa increased his popularity by spreading
+reports that he was in reality the illegitimate son of Caracalla.
+Macrinus, the successor and instigator of the murder of Caracalla, was
+very unpopular with the army; an insurrection was easily set on foot,
+and on the 16th of May 218 Varius was proclaimed emperor as Marcus
+Aurelius Antoninus. The troops sent to quell the revolt went over to
+him, and Macrinus was defeated near Antioch on the 8th of June.
+Heliogabalus was at once recognized by the senate as emperor. After
+spending the winter in Nicomedia, he proceeded in 219 to Rome, where he
+made it his business to exalt the deity whose priest he was and whose
+name he assumed. The Syrian god was proclaimed the chief deity in Rome,
+and all other gods his servants; splendid ceremonies in his honour were
+celebrated, at which Heliogabalus danced in public, and it was believed
+that secret rites accompanied by human sacrifice were performed in his
+honour. In addition to these affronts upon the state religion, he
+insulted the intelligence of the community by horseplay of the wildest
+description and by childish practical joking. The shameless profligacy
+of the emperor's life was such as to shock even a Roman public. His
+popularity with the army declined, and Maesa, perceiving that the
+soldiers were in favour of Alexander Severus, persuaded Heliogabalus to
+raise his cousin to the dignity of Caesar (221), a step of which he soon
+repented. An attempt to murder Alexander was frustrated by the watchful
+Maesa. Another attempt in 222 produced a mutiny among the praetorians,
+in which Heliogabalus and his mother Soemias (Soaemias) were slain
+(probably in the first half of March).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Life by Aelius Lampridius in _Scriptores historiae
+  Augustae_; Herodian v. 3-8; Dio Cassius lxxviii. 30 sqq., lxxix. 1-21;
+  monograph by G. Duviquet, _Heliogabale_ (1903), containing a
+  translation of the various accounts of Heliogabalus in Greek and Latin
+  authors, notes, bibliography and illustrations; O. F. Butler, _Studies
+  in the Life of Heliogabalus_ (New York, 1908); Gibbon, _Decline and
+  Fall_, ch. 6; H. Schiller, _Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit_, i.
+  pt. ii. (1883), p. 759 ff. On the Syrian god see F. Cumont in
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, v. pt. ii. (1905).
+
+
+
+
+HELIOGRAPH (from Gr. [Greek: elios], sun, and [Greek: graphein] to
+write), an instrument for reflecting the rays of the sun (or the light
+obtained from any other source) over a considerable distance. Its main
+application is in military signalling (see SIGNAL). A similar instrument
+is the heliotrope, used principally for defining distant points in
+geodetic surveys, such as in the triangulation of India, and in the
+verification of the African arc of the meridian. It is necessary to
+distinguish the method of signalling termed heliography from the
+photographic process of the same name (see PHOTOGRAPHY).
+
+
+
+
+HELIOMETER (from Gr. [Greek: helios], sun, and [Greek: metron], a
+measure), an instrument originally designed for measuring the variation
+of the sun's diameter at different seasons of the year, but applied now
+to the modern form of the instrument which is capable of much wider use.
+The present article also deals with other forms of double-image
+micrometer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  The discovery of the method of making measures by double images is
+  stated to have been first suggested by O. Roemer about 1768. But no
+  such suggestion occurs in the _Basis Astronomiae_ of Peter Horrebow
+  (Copenhagen, 1735), which contains the only works of Roemer that
+  remain to us. It would appear that to Servington Savary is due the
+  first invention of a micrometer for measurement by double image. His
+  heliometer (described in a paper communicated to the Royal Society in
+  1743, and printed, along with a letter from James Short, in _Phil.
+  Trans._, 1753, p. 156) was constructed by cutting from a complete lens
+  abcd the equal portions aghc and acfe (fig. 1). The segments gbh and
+  efd so formed were then attached to the end of a tube having an
+  internal diameter represented by the dotted circle (fig. 2). The width
+  of each of the portions aghc and acfe cut away from the lens was made
+  slightly greater than the focal length of lens X tangent of sun's
+  greatest diameter. Thus at the focus two images of the sun were formed
+  nearly in contact as in fig. 3. The small interval between the
+  adjacent limbs was then measured with a wire micrometer.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  Savary also describes another form of heliometer, on the same
+  principle, in which the segments aghc and acfe are utilized by
+  cementing their edges gh and ef together (fig. 4), and covering all
+  except the portion indicated by the unshaded circle. Savary expresses
+  preference for this second plan, and makes the pertinent remark that
+  in both these models "the rays of red light in the two solar images
+  will be next to each other, which will render the sun's disk more easy
+  to be observed than the violet ones." This he mentions "because the
+  glasses in these two sorts are somewhat prismatical, but mostly those
+  of the first model, which could therefore bear no great charge
+  (magnifying power)."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  A third model proposed by Savary consists of two complete lenses of
+  equal focal length, mounted in cylinders side by side, and attached to
+  a strong brass plate (fig. 5). Here, in order to fulfil the purposes
+  of the previous models, the distance of the centres of the lenses from
+  each other should only slightly exceed the tangent of sun's diameter X
+  focal length of lenses. Savary dwells on the difficulty both of
+  procuring lenses sufficiently equal in focus and of accurately
+  adjusting and centring them.
+
+  In the _Mem. Acad. de Paris_ (1748), Pierre Bouguer describes an
+  instrument which he calls a heliometer. Lalande in his _Astronomie_
+  (vol. ii. p. 639) mentions such a heliometer which had been in his
+  possession from the year 1753, and of which he gives a representation
+  on Plate XXVIII., fig. 186, of the same volume. Bouguer's heliometer
+  was in fact similar to that of Savary's third model, with the
+  important difference that, instead of both object-glasses being fixed,
+  one of them is movable by a screw provided with a divided head. No
+  auxiliary filar micrometer was required, as in Savary's heliometer, to
+  measure the interval between the limbs of two adjacent images of the
+  sun, it being only necessary to turn the screw with the divided head
+  to change the distance between the object-glasses till the two images
+  of the sun are in contact as in fig. 6. The differences of the
+  readings of the screw, when converted into arc, afford the means of
+  measuring the variations of the sun's apparent diameter.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  On the 4th of April 1754 John Dollond communicated a paper to the
+  Royal Society of London (_Phil. Trans._, vol. xlviii. p. 551) in which
+  he shows that a micrometer can be much more easily constructed by
+  dividing a single object-glass through its axis than by the employment
+  of two object-glasses. He points out--(1) that a telescope with an
+  object-glass so divided still produces a single image of any object to
+  which it may be directed, provided that the optical centres of the
+  segments are in coincidence (i.e. provided the segments retain the
+  same relative positions to each other as before the glass was cut);
+  (2) that if the segments are separated in any direction two images of
+  the object viewed will be produced; (3) that the most convenient
+  direction of separation for micrometric purposes is to slide these
+  straight edges one along the other as the figure on the margin (fig.
+  7) represents them: "for thus they may be moved without suffering any
+  false light to come in between them; and by this way of removing them
+  the distance between their centres may be very conveniently measured,
+  viz. by having a vernier's division fixed to the brass work that holds
+  one segment, so as to slide along a scale on the plate to which the
+  other part of the glass is fitted."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  Dollond then points out three different types in which a glass so
+  divided and mounted may be used as a micrometer:--
+
+  "1. It may be fixed at the end of a tube, of a suitable length to its
+  focal distance, as an object-glass,--the other end of the tube having
+  an eye-glass fitted as usual in astronomical telescopes.
+
+  "2. It may be applied to the end of a tube much shorter than its focal
+  distance, by having another convex glass within the tube, to shorten
+  the focal distance of that which is cut in two.
+
+  "3. It may be applied to the open end of a reflecting telescope,
+  either of the Newtonian or the Cassegrain construction."
+
+  Dollond adds his opinion that the third type is "much the best and
+  most convenient of the three"; yet it is the first type that has
+  survived the test of time and experience, and which is in fact the
+  modern heliometer. It must be remembered, however, that when Dollond
+  expressed preference for this third type he had not then invented the
+  achromatic object-glass.
+
+  Some excellent instruments of the second type were subsequently made
+  by Dollond's eldest son Peter, in which for the "convex glass within
+  the tube" was substituted an achromatic object-glass, and outside that
+  a divided negative achromatic combination of long focus. In the fine
+  example of this instrument at the Cape Observatory the movable
+  negative lenses consist of segments of the shape gach and acfe (fig.
+  1) cut from a complete negative achromatic combination of 8(1/4) in.
+  aperture and about 41 ft. focal length, composed of a double concave
+  flint lens and a double convex crown. This was applied to an excellent
+  achromatic telescope of 3(1/4) in. aperture and 42 in. focal length. In
+  this instrument a considerable linear relative movement of the divided
+  lens corresponds with a comparatively small separation of the double
+  image, so that simple verniers reading to 1/1000 in. are sufficient
+  for measurement.
+
+  With one of these instruments of somewhat smaller dimensions
+  (telescope 2(1/2) in. aperture and 3(1/2) ft. focus), Franz von Paula
+  Triesnecker made a series of measurements at the observatory of Vienna
+  which has been reduced by Dr Wilhelm Schur of Strasburg (_Nova Acta
+  der Ksl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Natursforscher_, 1882,
+  xlv. No. 3). The angle between the stars [zeta] and g Ursae maj.
+  (708".55) was measured on four nights; the probable error of a measure
+  on one night was [+-]0".44. Jupiter was measured on eleven nights in
+  the months of June and July 1794; from these measures Schur derives
+  the values 35".39 and 37".94 for the polar and equatorial diameter
+  respectively, at mean distance, corresponding with a compression
+  1/14.44. These agree satisfactorily with the corresponding values
+  35".21, 37".60, 1/15.59 afterwards obtained by F. W. Bessel
+  (_Konigsberger Beobachtungen_, xix. 102). From a series of measures of
+  the angle between Jupiter's satellites and the planet, made in June
+  and July 1794 and in August and September 1795, Schur finds the mass
+  of Jupiter = 1/1048.55 [+-] 1.45, a result which accords well within
+  the limits of its probable error with the received value of the mass
+  derived from modern researches. The probable errors for the measures
+  of one night are [+-]0".577, [+-]0".889, [+-]0".542, [+-]1".096, for
+  Satellites I., II., III. and IV. respectively.
+
+  Considering the accuracy of these measures (an accuracy far surpassing
+  that of any other contemporary observations), it is somewhat
+  surprising that this form of micrometer was never systematically used
+  in any sustained or important astronomical researches, although a
+  number of instruments of the kind were made by Dollond. Probably the
+  last example of its employment is an observation of the transit of
+  Mercury (November 4, 1868) by Mann, at the Royal Observatory, Cape of
+  Good Hope (_Monthly Notices R.A.S._ vol. xxix. p. 197-209). The most
+  important part, however, which this type of instrument seems to have
+  played in the history of astronomy arises from the fact that one of
+  them was in the possession of Bessel at Konigsberg during the time
+  when his new observatory there was being built. In 1812 Bessel
+  measured with it the angle between the components of the double star
+  61 Cygni and observed the great comet of 1811. He also observed the
+  eclipse of the sun on May 4, 1818. In the discussion of these
+  observations (_Konigsberger Beobacht_, Abt. 5, p. iv.) he found that
+  the index error of the scale changed systematically in different
+  position angles by quantities which were independent of the direction
+  of gravity relative to the position angle under measurement, but which
+  depended solely on the direction of the measured position angle
+  relative to a fixed radius of the object-glass. Bessel attributed this
+  to non-homogeneity in the object-glass, and determined with great care
+  the necessary corrections. But he was so delighted with the general
+  performance of the instrument, with the sharpness of the images and
+  the possibilities which a kindred construction offered for the
+  measurement of considerable angles with micrometric accuracy, that he
+  resolved, when he should have the choice of a new telescope for the
+  observatory, to secure some form of heliometer.
+
+  Nor is it difficult to imagine the probable course of reasoning which
+  led Bessel to select the model of his new heliometer. Why, he might
+  ask, should he not select the simple form of Dollond's first type?
+  Given the achromatic object-glass, why should not it be divided? This
+  construction would give all the advantage of the younger Dollond's
+  object-glass micrometer, and more than its sharpness of definition,
+  without liability to the systematic errors which may be due to want of
+  homogeneity of the object-glass; for the lenses will not be turned
+  with respect to each other, but, in measurement, will always have the
+  same relation in position angle to the line joining the objects under
+  observation. It is true that the scale will require to be capable of
+  being read with much greater accuracy than 1/1000th of an inch--for
+  that, even in a telescope of 10 ft. focus, would correspond with 2"
+  of arc. But, after all, this is no practical difficulty, for screws
+  can be used to separate the lenses, and, by these screws, as in a
+  Gascoigne micrometer, the separation of the lenses can be measured; or
+  we can have scales for this purpose, read by microscopes, like the
+  Troughton[1] circles of Piazzi or Pond, or those of the Carey circle,
+  with almost any required accuracy.
+
+  Whether Bessel communicated such a course of reasoning to Fraunhofer,
+  or whether that great artist arrived independently at like
+  conclusions, we have been unable to ascertain with certainty. The fact
+  remains that before 1820[2] Fraunhofer had completed one or more of
+  the five heliometers (3 in. aperture and 39 in. focus) which have
+  since become historical instruments. In 1824 the great Konigsberg
+  heliometer was commenced, and it was completed in 1829.
+
+  To sum up briefly the history of the development of the heliometer.
+  The first application of the divided object-glass and the employment
+  of double images in astronomical measures is due to Savary in 1743. To
+  Bouguer in 1748 is due the true conception of measurement by double
+  image without the auxiliary aid of a filar micrometer, viz. by
+  changing the distance between two object-glasses of equal focus. To
+  Dollond in 1754 we owe the combination of Savary's idea of the divided
+  object-glass with Bouguer's method of measurement, and the
+  construction of the first really practical heliometers. To Fraunhofer,
+  some time not long previous to 1820, is due, so far as we can
+  ascertain, the construction of the first heliometer with an achromatic
+  divided object-glass, i.e. the first heliometer of the modern type.
+
+
+  _The Modern Heliometer._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  The Konigsberg heliometer is represented in fig. 8. No part of the
+  equatorial mounting is shown in the figure, as it resembles in every
+  respect the usual Fraunhofer mounting. An adapter h is fixed on a
+  telescope-tube, made of wood, in Fraunhofer's usual fashion. To this
+  adapter is attached a flat circular flange h. The slides carrying the
+  segments of the divided object-glass are mounted on a plate, which is
+  fitted and ground to rotate smoothly on the flange h. Rotation is
+  communicated by a pinion, turned by the handle c (concealed in the
+  figure), which works in teeth cut on the edge of the flange h. The
+  counterpoise w balances the head about its axis of rotation. The
+  slides are moved by the screws a and b, the divided heads of which
+  serve to measure the separation of the segments. These screws are
+  turned from the eye-end by bevelled wheels and pinions, the latter
+  connected with the handles a', b'. The reading micrometers e, f also
+  serve to measure, independently, the separation of the segments, by
+  scales attached to the slides; such measurements can be employed as a
+  check on those made by the screws. The measurement of position angles
+  is provided for by a graduated circle attached to the head. There is
+  also a position circle, attached at m to the eye-end, provided with a
+  slide to move the eye-piece radially from the axis of the telescope,
+  and with a micrometer to measure the distance of an object from that
+  axis. The ring c, which carries the supports of the handles a', b', is
+  capable of a certain amount of rotation on the tube. The weight of the
+  handles and their supports is balanced by the counterpoise z. This
+  ring is necessary in order to allow the rods to follow the micrometer
+  heads when the position angle is changed. Complete rotation of the
+  head is obviously impossible because of the interference of the
+  declination axis with the rods, and therefore, in some angles, objects
+  cannot be measured in two positions of the circle. The object-glass
+  has an aperture of 6(1/2) in. and 102 in. focal length.
+
+  There are three methods in which this heliometer can be used.
+
+  _First Method._--One of the segments is fixed in the axis of the
+  telescope, and the eye-piece is also placed in the axis. Measures are
+  made with the moving segment displaced alternately on opposite sides
+  of the fixed segment.
+
+  _Second Method._--One segment is fixed, and the measures are made as
+  in the first method, excepting that the eye-piece is placed
+  symmetrically with respect to the images under measurement. For this
+  purpose the position angle of the eye-piece micrometer is set to that
+  of the head, and the eye-piece is displaced from the axis of the tube
+  (in the direction of the movable segment) by an amount equal to half
+  the angle under measurement.
+
+  _Third Method._--The eye-piece is fixed in the axis, and the segments
+  are symmetrically displaced from the axis each by an amount equal to
+  half the angle measured.
+
+  Of these methods Bessel generally employed the first because of its
+  simplicity, notwithstanding that it involved a resetting of the right
+  ascension and declination of the axis of the tube with each reversal
+  of the segments. The chief objections to the method are that, as one
+  star is in the axis of the telescope and the other displaced from it,
+  the images are not both in focus of the eye-piece,[3] and the rays
+  from the two stars do not make the same angle with the optical axis of
+  each segment. Thus the two images under measurement are not defined
+  with equal sharpness and symmetry. The second method is free from the
+  objection of non-coincidence in focus of the images, but is more
+  troublesome in practice from the necessity for frequent readjustment
+  of the position of the eye-piece. The third method is the most
+  symmetrical of all, both in observation and reduction; but it was not
+  employed by Bessel, on the ground that it involved the determination
+  of the errors of two screws instead of one. On the other hand it is
+  not necessary to reset the telescope after each reversal of the
+  segments.[4]
+
+  When Bessel ordered the Konigsberg heliometer, he was anxious to have
+  the segments made to move in cylindrical slides, of which the radius
+  should be equal to the focal length of the object-glass. Fraunhofer,
+  however, did not execute this wish, on the ground that the mechanical
+  difficulties were too great.
+
+  M. L. G. Wichmann states (_Konigsb. Beobach._ xxx. 4) that Bessel had
+  indicated, by notes in his handbooks, the following points which
+  should be kept in mind in the construction of future heliometers: (1)
+  The segments should move in cylindrical slides;[5] (2) the screw
+  should be protected from dust;[6] (3) the zero of the position circle
+  should not be so liable to change;[7] (4) the distance of the optical
+  centres of the segments should not change in different position angles
+  or otherwise;[8] (5) the points of the micrometer screws should rest
+  on ivory plates;[9] (6) there should be an apparatus for changing the
+  screen.[10]
+
+  Wilhelm Struve, in describing the Pulkowa heliometer,[11] made by
+  Merz in 1839 on the model of Bessel's heliometer, submits the
+  following suggestions for its improvement:[12] (1) to give
+  automatically to the two segments simultaneous equal and opposite
+  movement;[13] and (2) to make the tube of metal instead of wood; to
+  attach the heliometer head firmly to this tube; to place the eye-piece
+  permanently in the axis of the telescope; and to fix a strong cradle
+  on the end of the declination axis, in which the tube, with the
+  attached head and eye-piece, could rotate on its axis.
+
+  Both suggestions are important. The first is originally the idea of
+  Dollond; its advantages were overlooked by his son, and it seems to
+  have been quite forgotten till resuggested by Struve. But the method
+  is not available if the separation is to be measured by screws; it is
+  found, in that case, that the direction of the final motion of turning
+  of the screw must always be such as to produce motion of the segment
+  against gravity, otherwise the "loss of time" is apt to be variable.
+  Thus the simple connexion of the two screws by cog-wheels to give them
+  automatic opposite motion is not an available method unless the
+  separation of the segments is independently measured by scales.
+
+  Struve's second suggestion has been adopted in nearly all succeeding
+  heliometers. It permits complete rotation of the tube and measurement
+  of all angles in reversed positions of the circle; the handles that
+  move the slides can be brought down to the eye-end, inside the tube,
+  and consequently made to rotate with it; and the position circle may
+  be placed at the end of the cradle next the eye-end where it is
+  convenient of access. Struve also points out that by attaching a fine
+  scale to the focusing slide of the eye-piece, and knowing the
+  coefficient of expansion of the metal tube, the means would be
+  provided for determining the absolute change of the focal length of
+  the object-glass at any time by the simple process of focusing on a
+  double star. This, with a knowledge of the temperature of the screw or
+  scale and its coefficient of expansion, would enable the change of
+  screw-value to be determined at any instant.
+
+  It is probable that the Bonn heliometer was in course of construction
+  before these suggestions of Struve were published or discussed, since
+  its construction resembles that of the Konigsberg and Pulkowa
+  instruments. Its dimensions are similar to those of the former
+  instrument. Bessel, having been consulted by the celebrated statesman,
+  Sir Robert Peel, on behalf of the Radcliffe trustees, as to what
+  instrument, added to the Radcliffe Observatory, would probably most
+  promote the advancement of astronomy, strongly advised the selection
+  of a heliometer. The order for the instrument was given to the
+  Repsolds in 1840, but "various circumstances, for which the makers are
+  not responsible, contributed to delay the completion of the
+  instrument, which was not delivered before the winter of 1848."[14]
+  The building to receive it was commenced in March 1849 and completed
+  in the end of the same year. This instrument has a superb object-glass
+  of 7(1/2) in. aperture and 126 in. focal length. The makers availed
+  themselves of Bessel's suggestion to make the segments move in
+  cylindrical slides, and of Struve's to have the head attached to a
+  brass tube; the eye-piece is set permanently in the axis, and the
+  whole rotates in a cradle attached to the declination axis. They
+  provided a splendid, rigidly mounted, equatorial stand, fitted with
+  every luxury in the way of slow motion, and scales for measuring the
+  displacement of the segments were read by powerful micrometers from
+  the eye-end.[15] It is somewhat curious that, though Struve's second
+  suggestion was adopted, his first was overlooked by the makers. But it
+  is still more curious that it was not afterwards carried out, for the
+  communication of automatic symmetrical motion to both segments only
+  involves a simple alteration previously described. But, as it came
+  from the hands of the makers in 1849, the Oxford heliometer was
+  incomparably the most powerful and perfect instrument in the world for
+  the highest order of micrometric research. It so remained, unrivalled
+  in every respect, till 1873.
+
+  As the transit of Venus of 1874 approached, preparations were set on
+  foot by the German Government in good time; a commission of the most
+  celebrated astronomers was appointed, and it was resolved that the
+  heliometer should be the instrument chiefly relied on. The four
+  long-neglected small heliometers made by Fraunhofer were brought into
+  requisition. Fundamental alterations were made upon them: their wooden
+  tubes were replaced by tubes of metal; means of measuring the focal
+  point were provided; symmetrical motion was given to the slides;
+  scales on each slide were provided instead of screws for measuring the
+  separation of the segments, and both scales were read by the same
+  micrometer microscope; a metallic thermometer was added to determine
+  the temperature of the scales. These small instruments have since done
+  admirable work in the hands of Schur, Hartwig, Kustner, Elkin, Auwers
+  and others.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  The Russian Government ordered three new heliometers (each of 4 in.
+  aperture and 5 ft. focal length) from the Repsolds, and the design for
+  their construction was superintended by Struve, Auwers and Winnecke,
+  the last-named making the necessary experiments at Carlsruhe. Fig. 9
+  represents the resulting type of instrument which was finally designed
+  and constructed by Repsolds. The brass tube, strengthened at the
+  bearing points by strong truly turned collars, rotates in the cast
+  iron cradle q attached to the declination axis, a is the eye-piece
+  fixed in the optical axis, b the micrometer for reading both scales, c
+  and d are telescopes for reading the position circle p, e the handle
+  for quick motion in position angle, f the slow motion in position
+  angle, g the handle for changing the separation of the segments by
+  acting on the bevel-wheel g' (fig. 10). h is a milled head connected
+  by a rod with h' (fig. 10), for the purpose of interposing at pleasure
+  the prism [pi] in the axis of the reading micrometer; this enables the
+  observer to view the graduations on the face of the metallic
+  thermometer [tau tau] (composed of a rod of brass and a rod of zinc),
+  i is a milled head connected with the wheel i'i' (fig. 10), and
+  affords the means of placing the screen s (fig. 9), counterpoised by w
+  over either half of the object-glass. k clamps the telescope in
+  declination, n clamps it in right ascension, and the handles m and l
+  provide slow motion in declination and right ascension respectively.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  The details of the interior mechanism of the "head" will be almost
+  evident from fig. 10 without description. The screw, turned by the
+  wheels at g', acts in a toothed arc, whence, as shown in the figure,
+  equal and opposite motion is communicated to the slides by the jointed
+  rods v, v. The slides are kept firmly down to their bearings by the
+  rollers r, r, r, r, attached to axes which are, in the middle, very
+  strong springs. Side-shake is prevented by the screws and pieces k, k,
+  k, k. The scales are at n, n; they are fastened only at the middle,
+  and are kept down by the brass pieces t, t.
+
+  A similar heliometer was made by the Repsolds to the order of Lord
+  Lindsay for his Mauritius expedition in 1874. It differed only from
+  the three Russian instruments in having a mounting by the Cookes in
+  which the declination circle reads from the eye-end.[16] This
+  instrument was afterwards most generously lent by Lord Lindsay to Gill
+  for his expedition to Ascension in 1877.[17]
+
+  These four Repsold heliometers proved to be excellent instruments,
+  easy and convenient in use, and yielding results of very high
+  accuracy in measuring distances. Their slow motion in position angle,
+  however, was not all that could be desired. When small movements were
+  communicated to the handle e (fig. 9) by the tangent screw f, acting
+  on a small toothed wheel clamped to the rod connected with the driving
+  pinion, there was apt to be a torsion of the rod rather than an
+  immediate action. Thus the slow motion would take place by jerks
+  instead of with the necessary smoothness and certainty. When the
+  heliometer-part of Lord Lindsay's heliometer was acquired by Gill in
+  1879, he changed the manner of imparting the motion in question. A
+  square toothed racked wheel was applied to the tube at r (fig. 9).
+  This wheel is acted on by a tangent screw whose bearings are attached
+  to the cradle; the screw is turned by means of a handle supported by
+  bearings attached to the cradle, and coming within convenient reach of
+  the observer's hand. The tube turns smoothly in the racked wheel, or
+  can be clamped to it at the will of the observer. This alteration and
+  the new equatorial mounting have been admirably made by Grubb; the
+  result is completely successful. The instrument so altered was in use
+  at the Cape Observatory from March 1881 till 1887 in determining the
+  parallax of some of the more interesting southern stars. The
+  instrument then passed, by purchase from Gill, to Lord McLaren, by
+  whom it was presented to the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+  Still more recently the Repsolds have completed a new heliometer for
+  Yale College, New Haven, United States. The object-glass is of 6 in.
+  aperture and 98 in. focal length. The mounting, the tube,
+  objective-cell, slides, &c., are all of steel.[18] The instrument is
+  shown in fig. 11. The circles for position angle and declination are
+  read by micrometer-microscopes illuminated by the lamp L; the scales
+  are illuminated by the lamp l. T is part of the tube proper, and turns
+  with the head. The tube V, on the contrary, is attached to the cradle,
+  and merely forms a support for the finder Q, the handles at f and p,
+  and the moving ring P. The latter gives quick motion in position
+  angle; the handles at p clamp and give slow motion in position angle,
+  those at f clamp and give slow motion in right ascension and
+  declination. a is the eye-piece, b the handle for moving the segments,
+  c the micrometer microscope for reading the scales and scale
+  micrometer, d the micrometer readers of the position and declination
+  circles, e the handle for rotating the large wheel E which carries the
+  screens. The hour circle is also read by microscopes, and the
+  instrument can be used in both positions (tube preceding and
+  following) for elimination of the effect of flexure on the position
+  angles. Elkin found that the chief drawbacks to speed and convenience
+  in working this heliometer were: (1) The loss of time involved in
+  entering the corresponding readings of the micrometer pointings on two
+  scales. (2) That an additional motion intermediate between the quick
+  and slow motion in position angle was necessary, because, whilst the
+  slow motion provided by Repsolds was admirably adapted for adjusting
+  the pointings in position angle, it was too slow for causing the
+  images to "cross through" each other in the process of measuring
+  distances. To remedy drawback (1) Repsolds devised the form of
+  printing micrometer which is shown in figs. 12 and 13. This micrometer
+  is provided with two pairs of parallel webs. One fixed pair of webs is
+  attached to the micrometer-box, the other pair is moved by the screw
+  S. The whole micrometer-box is moved by the screw attached to the
+  heads. Accordingly, in reading the scales A and B (attached to the
+  slides which carry the two halves of the object-glass), it is only
+  necessary to turn the screws until the fixed double web is pointed
+  symmetrically on one of the divisions of scale A, then to move the
+  other double web by the screw S until it is symmetrically pointed on
+  the adjoining division of scale B. By turning the quick acting screw P
+  (fig. 13) to the right, the cushion C (which is faced with
+  india-rubber) presses the paper ribbon (shown in fig. 13) against the
+  index-edge and type-wheels, and thus the beautifully cut divisions of
+  the micrometer-head, the numbers marking the 1/100 parts of the head,
+  the index and the total number of revolutions are all sharply embossed
+  together upon the paper ribbon. Fig. 14 shows the record of several
+  successive paintings on the same scale as that given by the
+  micrometer. The reverse motion of P automatically moves the paper
+  ribbon forward, ready to receive the next impression. It must be
+  mentioned that the pressure of the cushion C on the type-wheels has no
+  influence whatever upon the micrometer-screw, because the type-wheels
+  are mounted on a hollow cylindrical axis, concentric with the axis of
+  the screw, but entirely disconnected from the screw itself. The only
+  connexion between the type-wheel and the screw-head S is by the pin p
+  (which is screwed into S), the cylindrical end of which acts in a slot
+  cut in the type-wheel. To remedy drawback (2) Repsolds provided for
+  the Yale heliometer an additional handle for motion in position angle,
+  intermediate in velocity between the original quick and slow motions.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+  [Illustration: From _Engineering_, vol. xlix.
+
+  FIG. 15.]
+
+  In the 7-in. heliometer, completed in 1887 for the Royal Observatory
+  at the Cape of Good Hope, Repsolds, on Gill's suggestion, introduced
+  the following improvements: (a) Four different speeds of motion in
+  position angle were provided. The quickest movement is given by the
+  hand-ring, 73 (fig. 15). This ring runs between friction wheels and is
+  provided with teeth on its inner periphery, and these teeth transmit
+  motion to a pinion on a spindle having at its other end another pinion
+  which, through an intermediate wheel, rotates the heliometer tube. The
+  transmission spindle, just mentioned, carries at its end a head, 74,
+  which, if turned directly, gives the second speed. The slowest speed
+  is given by means of a tangent screw which is carried by a
+  ball-bearing on the flange of the telescope-sleeve, whilst its nut is
+  double-jointed to a ring that encircles the flange of the
+  heliometer-tube. This ring is provided with a clamping screw, which,
+  through the intervention of bevel-gear and rods, is operated by means
+  of the hand-wheel 78. With similar bevel-gear and rods the tangent
+  screw is connected to the hand-wheel, 79, by which the observer
+  communicates the fourth or slowest motion in position angle. Finally
+  the hand-wheel 80 is connected by gearing to the rod carrying the
+  hand-wheel 79, and it can thus be used to give the latter a more rapid
+  motion than if used direct; this constitutes the third speed of
+  movement.
+
+  (b) In lieu of oil-lamps, small, conveniently placed incandescent
+  electric 6-volt lamps are employed; and these are fitted with suitable
+  switches and variable resistances. Thus the scales, the position- and
+  declination-circles, the field of view, the heads of all the
+  micrometer-microscopes, the focusing scale, &c., are read without the
+  aid of a hand-lamp and with an amount of illumination that can be
+  regulated at the observer's pleasure.
+
+  (c) A button in the centre of the position-angle handle (74) connects
+  with a chronograph which enables the observer to record the instant of
+  observation. Little card-holders (81) (also illuminated) enable the
+  astronomer to enter beforehand the R.A. and Dec. of the object to be
+  observed, the scale divisions to be pointed upon, and thus, in
+  measures of distance, with the aid of the chronograph and printing
+  micrometer, enable the observer to adjust the instrument for
+  observation and obtain a record of his observations without the aid of
+  a hand-lamp or the necessity to make any records in his notebook. In
+  observations of position angle one of the two tablets 81 can be used
+  to record the readings.
+
+  (d) The scales are made of iridio-platinum instead of silver, and the
+  magnifying power of the reading microscope is increased fourfold (viz.
+  to 100 diameters). A special microscope is introduced for determining
+  the division errors of the scales. It enables the observer to compare
+  any division-interval on one half of either scale with any
+  corresponding interval on the other scale. With this apparatus Gill
+  was enabled (_Annals Cape Obs._ vii. 29-42, and _Monthly Notices,
+  R.A.S._, xlix. 105-115) to determine the division error of every line
+  on both scales with a probable error corresponding to [+-]0".0092 arc.
+
+  (e) A position-micrometer is attached to the finder to enable the
+  observer to select comparison stars for observation with some
+  unexpected object. Thus a comet may be encountered in the morning dawn
+  or evening twilight, and without such an adjunct the astronomer may
+  lose the whole available opportunity for observation in the vain
+  endeavour to find a suitable comparison-star. But with such a
+  position-micrometer of large field he has no difficulty. Directing the
+  finder to the comet, he has at once in the field of view all available
+  comparison stars. Having selected the most suitable one he directs the
+  axis of the finder to the estimated middle point between the comet and
+  the star, turns the finder-micrometer in position angle until the
+  images of comet and star lie symmetrically between the parallel
+  position wires, and then turns the micrometer screw (which moves the
+  distance-wires symmetrically from the centre in opposite directions)
+  till one wire bisects the comet and the other the star. The reading of
+  the position-circle of the finder is then the reading to which the
+  position-circle of the heliometer should be set, and from the readings
+  of the micrometer-screw he finds, by a convenient table, the proper
+  settings of the heliometer scales in distance. When the scales and
+  position-circle of the heliometer have been set to these readings, the
+  comet and the selected comparison-star appear together in the field of
+  view.
+
+  Fig. 15 shows the very convenient arrangement of the eye-end of the
+  instrument. The disk, 30 with its small projecting handle enables the
+  2 segments of the divided object to be moved rapidly or with any
+  required delicacy relative to each other. The disk 32 operates the
+  wire gauze screens for equalizing the brightness of the two stars
+  under observation. The dial between 30 and 32 indicates the screen in
+  use. 18 clamps and 19 gives slow motion in declination; 20 clamps and
+  21 gives slow motion in right ascension. The two handles 82 serve for
+  manipulating the instrument. The microscopes adjoining 82 read the
+  position and declination circles; for, by an ingenious arrangement of
+  prisms and screens, the images of both circles can be read by each
+  single microscope as shown in fig. 16, thus avoiding the necessity for
+  the employment of two additional micrometers.
+
+  Experience has shown that there is little that can be advantageously
+  changed to improve this instrument either in convenience or precision
+  of working. A series of observations can be easily and more accurately
+  accomplished with the Cape heliometer in half an hour; with the Oxford
+  heliometer it would occupy 2 hours, and with the 4 in. Repsold
+  heliometer (fig. 9) 1 hour. Heliometers of 6 to 8 in. aperture have
+  subsequently been constructed by Repsolds on these plans for
+  Gottingen, Bamberg, Leipzig and the Kuffner Observatory (near Vienna),
+  and all of them have made important contributions to astronomy of
+  precision.
+
+  Heliometer observations of distance in their most refined sense cannot
+  be considered absolute measures of angles. Essentially the scale-value
+  of the instrument depends on the relation of the focal length of the
+  object-glass to the length of the unit of the scale. But _the eye is
+  tolerant of small changes in the focal adjustment which sensibly
+  affect the scale-value_. These changes may and do arise from the
+  following causes: (i.) The focal length of the object-glass and the
+  length of the tube are affected by temperature. (ii.) The focal length
+  is sensibly different for objects of different colour. (iii.) The
+  length of the scale is affected by temperature. (iv.) The state of
+  adaptation of the observer's eye is dependent on his state of health,
+  on a condition of greater or less fatigue, or on the inclination of
+  the head in consequence of the altitude of the object observed. (v.)
+  The temperature of the object-glass, of the scale and of the tube,
+  cannot be assumed to be identical.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Engineering_, vol. xlix.
+
+  FIG. 16.]
+
+  Thus, for refined purposes, it cannot be assumed with any certainty
+  that the instantaneous scale-value of the heliometer is known, or that
+  it is a function of the temperature. Of course, for many purposes,
+  mean conditions may be adopted and mean scale-values be found which
+  are applicable with considerable precision to small angles or to
+  comparatively crude observations of large distances; but the highest
+  refinement is lost unless means are provided for determining the
+  scale-value for each observer at each epoch of observation.
+
+  In determinations of stellar or solar parallax, comparison stars,
+  symmetrically situated with respect to the object whose parallax is
+  sought, should be employed, in which case the instantaneous
+  scale-value may be regarded as an unknown quantity which can be
+  derived in the process of the computation of the results. Examples of
+  this mode of procedure will be found, in the case of stellar parallax
+  in the _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xlviii. pp. 1-194, and in the _Annals of the
+  Cape Observatory_, vol. viii. parts 1 and 2; and in the case of
+  planetary parallax in the _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xlvi. pp. 1-171, and in
+  the _Annals of the Cape Observatory_, vol. vi. In other operations,
+  such as the triangulation of large groups of stars, it is necessary to
+  select a pair of standard stars, if possible near the middle of the
+  group, and to determine the scale-value by measures of this standard
+  distance at frequent intervals during the night (see _Annals of the
+  Cape Observatory_, vol. vi. pp. 3-224). In other cases, such as the
+  measurement of the mutual distances and position angles of the
+  satellites of Jupiter, for derivation of the elements of the orbits of
+  the satellites and the mass of Jupiter, reference must also be made to
+  measures of standard stars whose relative distance and position angle
+  is accurately determined by independent methods (see _Annals of the
+  Cape Observatory_, vol. xii. part 2).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+  Gill introduced a powerful auxiliary to the accuracy of heliometer
+  measures in the shape of a reversing prism placed in front of the
+  eye-piece, between the latter and the observer's eye. If measures are
+  made by placing the image of a star in the centre of the disk of a
+  planet, the observer may have a tendency to do so systematically in
+  error from some acquired habit or from natural astigmatism of the eye.
+  But by rotating the prism 90 deg. the image is presented entirely
+  reversed to the eye, so that in the mean of measures made in two such
+  positions personal error is eliminated. Similarly the prism may be
+  used for the study and elimination of personal errors depending on the
+  angle made by a double star with the vertical. The best plan of
+  mounting such a prism has been found to be the following. l^1, l^2
+  (fig. 17) are the eye lens and field lens respectively of a Merz
+  positive eye-piece. In this construction the lenses are much closer
+  together and the diaphragm for the eye is much farther from the lenses
+  than in Ramsden's eye-piece. The prism p is fitted accurately into
+  brass slides (care has to be taken in the construction to place the
+  prism so that an object in the centre of the field will so remain when
+  the eye-piece is rotated in its adapter). There is a collar, clamped
+  by the screw at S, which is so adjusted that the eye-piece is in focus
+  when pushed home, in its adapter, to this collar. The prism and
+  eye-piece are then rotated together in the adapter.
+
+  _The Double Image Micrometer._--Thomas Clausen in 1841 (_Ast. Nach._
+  No. 414) proposed a form of micrometer consisting of a divided plate
+  of parallel glass placed within the cone of rays from the object-glass
+  at right angles to the telescope axis. One-half of this plane remains
+  fixed, the other half is movable. When the inclination of the movable
+  half with respect to the axis of the telescope is changed by rotation
+  about an axis at right angles to the plane of division, two images are
+  produced. The amount of separation is very small, and depends on the
+  thickness of the glass, the index of refraction and the focal length
+  of the telescope. Angelo Secchi (_Comptes rendus_, xli., 1855, p. 906)
+  gives an account of some experiments with a similar micrometer; and
+  Ignarjio Porro (_Comptes rendus_, xli. p. 1058) claims the original
+  invention and construction of such a micrometer in 1842. Clausen,
+  however, has undoubted priority. Helmholtz in his "Ophthalmometer" has
+  employed Clausen's principle, but arranges the plates so that both
+  move symmetrically in opposite directions with respect to the
+  telescope axis. Should Clausen's micrometer be employed as an
+  astronomical instrument, it would be well to adopt the improvement of
+  Helmholtz.
+
+  _Double-Image Micrometers with Divided Lenses._--Various micrometers
+  have been invented besides the heliometer for measuring by double
+  image. Ramsden's dioptric micrometer consists of a divided lens placed
+  in the conjugate focus of the innermost lens of the erecting eye-tube
+  of a terrestrial telescope. The inventor claimed that it would
+  supersede the heliometer, but it has never done anything for
+  astronomy. Dollond claims the independent invention and first
+  construction of a similar instrument (Pearson's _Practical Astronomy_,
+  ii. 182). Of these and kindred instruments only two types have proved
+  of practical value. G. B. Amici of Modena (_Mem. Soc. Ital._ xvii.,
+  1815, pp. 344-359) describes a micrometer in which a negative lens is
+  introduced between the eye-piece and the object-glass. This lens is
+  divided and mounted like a heliometer object-glass; the separation of
+  the lenses produces the required double image, and is measured by a
+  screw. W. R. Dawes very successfully used this micrometer in
+  conjunction with a filar micrometer, and found that the precision of
+  the measures was in this way greatly increased (_Monthly Notices_,
+  vol. xviii. p. 58, and _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xxxv. p. 147).
+
+  In the improved form[19] of Airy's divided eye-glass micrometer (_Mem.
+  R.A.S._ vol. xv. pp. 199-209) the rays from the object-glass pass
+  successively through lenses as follows:
+
+    +-----------------------------------+---------------+---------------+
+    |               Lens.               | Distance from | Focal Length. |
+    |                                   |   next Lens.  |               |
+    +-----------------------------------+---------------+---------------+
+    | a. An equiconvex lens             |       p       | arbitrary = p |
+    | b.       "       "                |       2       |       5       |
+    | c. Plano-convex, convex towards b |     1(3/4)    |       1       |
+    | d. Plano-convex, convex towards c |       "       |       1       |
+    +-----------------------------------+---------------+---------------+
+
+  The lens b is divided, and one of the segments is moved by a
+  micrometer screw. The magnifying power is varied by changing the lens
+  a for another in which p has a different value. The magnifying power
+  of the eye-piece is that of a single lens of focus = 4/5p.
+
+  In 1850 J. B. Valz pointed out that the other optical conditions could
+  be equally satisfied if the divided lens were made concave instead of
+  convex, with the advantage of giving a larger field of view (_Monthly
+  Notices_, vol. x. p. 160).
+
+  The last improvement on this instrument is mentioned in the _Report_
+  of the R.A.S. council, February 1865. It consists in the introduction
+  by Simms of a fifth lens, but no satisfactory description has ever
+  appeared. There is only one practical published investigation of
+  Airy's micrometer that is worthy of mention, viz. that of F. Kaiser
+  (_Annalen der Sternwarte in Leiden_, iii. 111-274). The reader is
+  referred to that paper for an exhaustive history and discussion of the
+  instrument.[20] It is somewhat surprising that, after Kaiser's
+  investigations, observers should continue, as many have done, to
+  discuss their observations with this instrument as if the screw-value
+  were constant for all angles.
+
+  Steinheil (_Journal savant de Munich_, Feb. 28, 1843) describes a
+  "heliometre-oculaire" which he made for the great Pulkowa refractor,
+  the result of consultations between himself and the elder Struve. It
+  is essentially the same in principle as Amici's micrometer, except
+  that the divided lens is an achromatic positive instead of a negative
+  lens. Struve (_Description de l'Observatoire Central de Pulkowa_, pp.
+  196, 197) adds a few remarks to Steinheil's description, in which he
+  states that the images have not all desirable precision--a fault
+  perhaps inevitable in all micrometers with divided lenses, and which
+  is probably in this case aggravated by the fact that the rays falling
+  upon the divided lens have considerable convergence. He, however,
+  successfully employed the instrument in measuring double stars, so
+  close as 1" or 2", and using a power of 300 diameters, with results
+  that agreed satisfactorily amongst themselves and with those obtained
+  with the filar micrometer. If Struve had employed a properly
+  proportioned double circular diaphragm, fixed symmetrically with the
+  axis of the telescope in front of the divided lens and turning with
+  the micrometer, it is probable that his report on the instrument would
+  have been still more favourable. This particular instrument has
+  historical interest, having led Struve to some of those criticisms of
+  the Pulkowa heliometer which ultimately bore such valuable fruit (see
+  _ante_).
+
+  Ramsden (_Phil. Trans._ vol. xix. p. 419) suggested the division of
+  the small speculum of a Cassegrain telescope and the production of
+  double image by micrometric rotation of the semispecula in the plane
+  passing through their axis. Brewster (_Ency. Brit._ 8th ed. vol. xiv.
+  p. 749) proposed a plan on a like principle, by dividing the plane
+  mirror of a Newtonian telescope. Again, in an ocular heliometer by
+  Steinheil double image is similarly produced by a divided prism of
+  total reflection placed in parallel rays. But practically these last
+  three methods are failures. In the last the field is full of false
+  light, and it is not possible to give sufficiently minute and steady
+  separation to the images; and there are of necessity a collimator, two
+  prisms of total reflection, and a small telescope through which the
+  rays must pass; consequently there is great loss of light.
+
+  _Micrometers Depending on Double Refraction._--To the Abbe Rochon
+  (_Jour. de phys._ liii., 1801, pp. 169-198) is due the happy idea of
+  applying the two images formed by double refraction to the
+  construction of a micrometer. He fell upon a most ingenious plan of
+  doubling the amount of double refraction of a prism by using two
+  prisms of rock-crystal, so cut out of the solid as to give each the
+  same quantity of double refraction, and yet to double the quantity in
+  the effect produced. The combination so formed is known as Rochon's
+  prism. Such a prism he placed between the object-glass and eye-piece
+  of a telescope. The separation of the images increases as the prism is
+  approached to the object-glass, and diminishes as it is approached
+  towards the eye-piece.
+
+  D. F. J. Arago (_Comptes rendus_, xxiv., 1847, pp. 400-402) found that
+  in Rochon's micrometer, when the prism was approached close to the
+  eye-piece for the measurement of very small angles, the smallest
+  imperfections in the crystal or its surfaces were inconveniently
+  magnified. He therefore selected for any particular measurement such a
+  Rochon prism as when fixed between the eye and the eye-piece (i.e.
+  where a sunshade is usually placed) would, combined with the normal
+  eye-piece employed, bring the images about to be measured nearly in
+  contact. He then altered the magnifying power by sliding the field
+  lens of the eye-piece (which was fitted with a slipping tube for the
+  purpose) along the eye-tube, till the images were brought into
+  contact. By a scale attached to the sliding tube the magnifying power
+  of the eye-piece was deduced, and this combined with the angle of the
+  prism employed gave the angle measured. If p" is the refracting angle
+  of the prism, and n the magnifying power of the eye-piece, then p"/n
+  will be the distance observed. Arago made many measures of the
+  diameters of the planets with such a micrometer.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+  Dollond (_Phil. Trans._, 1821, pp. 101-103) describes a double-image
+  micrometer of his own invention, in which a sphere of rock-crystal is
+  substituted for the eye-lens of an ordinary eye-piece. In this
+  instrument (figs. 18, 19) a is the sphere, placed in half-holes on the
+  axis bb, so that when its principal axis is parallel to the axis of
+  the telescope it gives only one image of the object. In a direction
+  perpendicular to that axis it must be so placed that when it is moved
+  by rotation of the axis bb the separation of the images shall be
+  parallel to that motion. The angle of rotation is measured on the
+  graduated circle C. The angle between the objects measured is = r sin
+  2[theta], where r is a constant to be determined for each magnifying
+  power employed,[21] and [theta] the angle through which the sphere has
+  been turned from zero (i.e. from coincidence of its principal axis
+  with that of the telescope). The maximum separation is consequently at
+  45 deg. from zero. The measures can be made on both sides of zero for
+  eliminating index error. There are considerable difficulties of
+  construction, but these have been successfully overcome by Dollond;
+  and in the hands of Dawes (_Mem. R.A.S._ xxxv. p. 144 seq.) such
+  instruments have done valuable service. They are liable to the
+  objection that their employment is limited to the measurement of very
+  small angles, viz. 13" or 14" when the magnifying power is 100, and
+  varying inversely as the power. Yet the beautiful images which these
+  micrometers give permit the measurement of very difficult objects as a
+  check on measures with the parallel-wire micrometer.
+
+  On the theory of the heliometer and its use consult Bessel,
+  _Astronomische Untersuchungen_, vol. i.; Hansen, _Ausfuhrliche Methode
+  mit dem Fraunhoferschen Heliometer anzustellen_ (Gotha, 1827);
+  Chauvenet, _Spherical and Practical Astronomy_, vol. ii. (Philadelphia
+  and London, 1876); Seeliger, _Theorie des Heliometers_ (Leipzig,
+  1877); Lindsay and Gill, _Dunecht Publications_, vol. ii. (Dunecht,
+  for private circulation, 1877); Gill, _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xlvi. pp.
+  1-172, and references mentioned in the text.     (D. Gi.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The circles by Reichenbach, then almost exclusively used in
+    Germany, were read by verniers only.
+
+  [2] The diameter of Venus was measured with one of these heliometers
+    at the observatory of Breslau by Brandes in 1820 (_Berlin Jahrbuch_,
+    1824, p. 164).
+
+  [3] The distances of the optical centres of the segments from the
+    eye-piece are in this method as 1; secant of the angle under
+    measurement. In Bessel's heliometer this would amount to a difference
+    of 15/1000th of an inch when an angle of 1 deg. is measured. For 2
+    deg. the difference would amount to nearly 1/10th of an inch. Bessel
+    confined his measures to distances considerably less than 1 deg.
+
+  [4] In criticizing Bessel's choice of methods, and considering the
+    loss of time involved in each, it must be remembered that Fraunhofer
+    provided no means of reading the screws or even the heads from the
+    eye-end. Bessel's practice was to unclamp in declination, lower and
+    read off the head, and then restore the telescope to its former
+    declination reading, the clockwork meanwhile following the stars in
+    right ascension. The setting of both lenses symmetrically would,
+    under such circumstances, be very tedious.
+
+  [5] This most important improvement would permit any two stars under
+    measurement each to be viewed in the optical axis of each segment.
+    The optical centres of the segments would also remain at the same
+    distance from the eye-piece at all angles of separation. Thus, in
+    measuring the largest as well as the smallest angles, the images of
+    both stars would be equally symmetrical and equally well in focus.
+    Modern heliometers made with cylindrical slides measure angles over
+    2 deg., the images remaining as sharp and perfect as when the
+    smallest angles are measured.
+
+  [6] Bessel found, in course of time, that the original corrections
+    for the errors of his screw were no longer applicable. He considered
+    that the changes were due to wear, which would be much lessened if
+    the screws were protected from dust.
+
+  [7] The tube, being of wood, was probably liable to warp and twist in
+    a very uncertain way.
+
+  [8] We have been unable to find any published drawing showing how the
+    segments are fitted in their cells.
+
+  [9] We have been unable to ascertain the reasons which led Bessel to
+    choose _ivory_ planes for the end-bearings of his screws. He actually
+    introduced them in the Konigsberg heliometer in 1840, and they were
+    renewed in 1848 and 1850.
+
+  [10] A screen of wire gauze, placed in front of the segment through
+    which the fainter star is viewed, was employed by Bessel to equalize
+    the brilliancy of the images under observation. An arrangement,
+    afterwards described, has been fitted in modern heliometers for
+    placing the screen in front of either segment by a handle at the
+    eye-end.
+
+  [11] This heliometer resembles Bessel's, except that its foot is a
+    solid block of granite instead of the ill-conceived wooden structure
+    that supported his instrument. The object-glass is of 7.4 in.
+    aperture and 123 in. focus.
+
+  [12] _Description de l'observatoire central de Pulkowa_, p. 208.
+
+  [13] Steinheil applied such motion to a double-image micrometer made
+    for Struve. This instrument suggested to Struve the above-mentioned
+    idea of employing a similar motion for the heliometer.
+
+  [14] Manuel Johnson, M.A., Radcliffe observer, _Astronomical
+    Observations made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the Year
+    1850_, Introduction, p. iii.
+
+  [15] The illumination of these scales is interesting as being the
+    first application of electricity to the illumination of astronomical
+    instruments. Thin platinum wire was rendered incandescent by a
+    voltaic current; a small incandescent electric lamp would now be
+    found more satisfactory.
+
+  [16] For a detailed description of this instrument see _Dunecht
+    Publications_, vol. ii.
+
+  [17] _Mem. Royal Astronomical Society_, xlvi., 1-172.
+
+  [18] The primary object was to have the object-glass mounted in steel
+    cells, which more nearly correspond in expansion with glass. It
+    became then desirable to make the head of steel for sake of
+    uniformity of material, and the advantages of steel in lightness and
+    rigidity for the tube then became evident.
+
+  [19] For description of the earliest form see _Cambridge Phil.
+    Trans._ vol. ii., and _Greenwich Observations_ (1840).
+
+  [20] Dawes (_Monthly Notices_, January 1858, and _Mem. R.A.S._ vol.
+    xxxv. p. 150) suggested and used a valuable improvement for producing
+    round images, instead of the elongated images which are otherwise
+    inevitable when the rays pass through a divided lens of which the
+    optical centres are not in coincidence, viz. "the introduction of a
+    diaphragm having two circular apertures touching each other in a
+    point coinciding with the line of collimation of the telescope, and
+    the diameter of each aperture _exactly equal_ to the semidiameter of
+    the cone of rays at the distance of the diaphragm from the local
+    point of the object-glass." Practically the difficulty of making
+    these diaphragms for the different powers of the _exact_ required
+    equality is insuperable; but, if the observer is content to lose a
+    certain amount of light, we see no reason why they may not readily be
+    made slightly less. Dawes found the best method for the purpose in
+    question was to limit the aperture of the object-glass by a diaphragm
+    having a double circular aperture, placing the line joining the
+    centres of the circles approximately in the position angle under
+    measurement. Dawes successfully employed the double circular aperture
+    also with Amici's micrometer. The present writer has successfully
+    used a similar plan in measuring position angles of a Centauri with
+    the heliometer, viz. by placing circular diaphragms on the two
+    segments of the object-glass.
+
+  [21] Dollond provides for changing the power by sliding the lens d
+    nearer to or farther from a.
+
+
+
+
+HELIOPOLIS, one of the most ancient cities of Egypt, met with in the
+Bible under its native name On. It stood 5 m. E. of the Nile at the apex
+of the Delta. It was the principal seat of sun-worship, and in historic
+times its importance was entirely religious. There appear to have been
+two forms of the sun-god at Heliopolis in the New Kingdom--namely,
+Ra-Harakht, or Re'-Harmakhis, falcon-headed, and Etom, human-headed; the
+former was the sun in his mid-day strength, the latter the evening sun.
+A sacred bull was worshipped here under the name Mnevis (Eg. _Mreu_),
+and was especially connected with Etom. The sun-god Re' (see EGYPT:
+_Religion_) was especially the royal god, the ancestor of all the
+Pharaohs, who therefore held the temple of Heliopolis in great honour.
+Each dynasty might give the first place to the god of its
+residence--Ptah of Memphis, Ammon of Thebes, Neith of Sais, Bubastis of
+Bubastis, but all alike honoured Re'. His temple became in a special
+degree a depository for royal records, and Herodotus states that the
+priests of Heliopolis were the best informed in matters of history of
+all the Egyptians. The schools of philosophy and astronomy are said to
+have been frequented by Plato and other Greek philosophers; Strabo,
+however, found them deserted, and the town itself almost uninhabited,
+although priests were still there, and cicerones for the curious
+traveller. The Ptolemies probably took little interest in their "father"
+Re', and Alexandria had eclipsed the learning of Heliopolis; thus with
+the withdrawal of royal favour Heliopolis quickly dwindled, and the
+students of native lore deserted it for other temples supported by a
+wealthy population of pious citizens. In Roman times obelisks were taken
+from its temples to adorn the northern cities of the Delta, and even
+across the Mediterranean to Rome. Finally the growth of Fostat and
+Cairo, only 6 m. to the S.W., caused the ruins to be ransacked for
+building materials. The site was known to the Arabs as _'Ayin esh
+shems_, "the fountain of the sun," more recently as Tel Hisn. It has now
+been brought for the most part under cultivation, but the ancient city
+walls of crude brick are to be seen in the fields on all sides, and the
+position of the great temple is marked by an obelisk still standing (the
+earliest known, being one of a pair set up by Senwosri I., the second
+king of the Twelfth Dynasty) and a few granite blocks bearing the name
+of Rameses II.
+
+  See Strabo xvii. cap. 1. 27-28; Baedeker's _Egypt_.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HELIOSTAT (from Gr. [Greek: helios], the sun, [Greek: statos], fixed,
+set up), an instrument which will reflect the rays of the sun in a fixed
+direction notwithstanding the motion of the sun. The optical apparatus
+generally consists of a mirror mounted on an axis parallel to the axis
+of the earth, and rotated with the same angular velocity as the sun.
+This construction assumes that the sun describes daily a small circle
+about the pole of the celestial sphere, and ignores any diurnal
+variation in the declination. This variation is, however, so small that
+it can be neglected for most purposes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: From Jamin and Bouty, _Cours de physique_,
+Gauthier-Villars.
+
+FIG. 3.--Silbermann's Heliostat.]
+
+  Many forms of heliostats have been devised, the earliest having been
+  described by Wilhelm Jacob s' Gravesande in the 3rd edition of his
+  _Physices elementa_ (1742). One of the simplest consists of a plane
+  mirror rigidly connected with a revolving axis so that the angle
+  between the normal to the mirror and the axis of the instrument equals
+  half the sun's polar distance, the mirror being adjusted so that the
+  normal has the same right ascension as the sun. It is easily seen that
+  if the mirror be rotated at the same angular velocity as the sun the
+  right ascensions will remain equal throughout the day, and therefore
+  this device reflects the rays in the direction of the earth's axis; a
+  second fixed mirror reflects them in any other fixed direction.
+  Foucault's heliostat reflects the rays horizontally in any required
+  direction. The principle of the apparatus may be explained by
+  reference to fig. 1. The axis of rotation AB bears a rigidly attached
+  rod DBC inclined to it at an angle equal to the sun's polar distance.
+  By adjusting the right ascension of the plane ABC and rotating the
+  axis with the angular velocity of the sun, it follows that BC will be
+  the direction of the solar rays throughout the day. X is the mirror
+  rotating about the point E, and placed so that (if EB is the
+  horizontal direction in which the rays are to be reflected) (1) the
+  normal CE to the mirror is jointed to BC at C and is equal in length
+  to BE, (2) the rod DBC passes through a slot in a rod ED fixed to, and
+  in the plane of, the mirror. Since CE equals BE these directions are
+  equally inclined to, and coplanar with, the normal to the mirror.
+  Hence light incident along the direction BC will be reflected along
+  CE. Silbermann's heliostat reflects the rays in any direction. The
+  principle may be explained by means of fig. 2. AB is the axis of
+  rotation, BC an adjustable rod as in Foucault's construction, and BD
+  is another rod which can be set to the direction in which the rays are
+  to be reflected. The rods BC and DB carry two small rods EF, GF
+  jointed at F; at this joint there is a pin which slides in a slot on
+  the rod BH, which is normal to the mirror X. The rods EF, GF are such
+  that BEFG is a rhombus. It is easy to show that rays falling on the
+  mirror in the direction BC will be reflected along BD. One
+  construction of the instrument, described in Jamin's _Cours de
+  physique_, is shown in fig. 3. The mirror mm is attached to the
+  framework _pafe_, the members of which are parallel to the incident
+  and reflected rays SO, OR, and the diagonal pf is perpendicular to the
+  mirror. The framework is attached to two independent circular arcs Cs
+  and rr' having their centres at O and provided with clamps D and A on
+  the axis F of the instrument. The arc Cs is graduated, and is set so
+  that the angle COD equals the complement of the sun's declination.
+  This can be effected (after setting the axis) by rotating Cs until a
+  needle indicates true time on the hour dial B. The arc rr' is set so
+  as to reflect the rays in the required direction. The axis F of the
+  instrument is set at an angle equal to the latitude of the place of
+  observation and in the meridian by means of the screw K, and rotated
+  by clockwork contained in the barrel H. The setting in the meridian is
+  effected by turning the instrument after setting for latitude until a
+  pin-hole aperture s and a small screen P, placed so that Ps is
+  parallel to CO, are in a line with the sun.
+
+  Many other forms of heliostats have been designed, the chief
+  difference consisting in the mechanical devices for maintaining the
+  constant direction of the reflecting ray. One of the most important
+  applications of the heliostat is as an adjunct to the newer forms of
+  horizontal telescopes (q.v.) and in conjunction with spectroscopic
+  telescopes in observations of eclipses.
+
+
+
+
+HELIOTROPE, or TURNSOLE, _Heliotropium_ (Gr. [Greek: heliotropion], i.e.
+a plant which follows the sun with its flowers or leaves, or, according
+to Theophrastus (_Hist, plant_, vii. 15), which flowers at the summer
+solstice), a genus of usually more or less hairy herbs or undershrubs of
+the tribe _Heliotropieae_ of the natural order Boraginaceae, having
+alternate, rarely almost opposite leaves; small white, lilac or blue
+flowers, in terminal or lateral one-sided simple or once or twice forked
+spikes, with a calyx of five deeply divided segments, a salver-shaped,
+hypogynous, 5-lobed corolla, and entire 4-celled ovary; fruit 2- to
+4-sulcate or lobed, at length separable into four 1-seeded nutlets or
+into two hard 2-celled carpels. The genus contains 220 species
+indigenous in the temperate and warmer parts of both hemispheres. A few
+species are natives of Europe, as _H. europaeum_, which is also a
+naturalized species in the southern parts of North America.
+
+[Illustration: _Heliotropium suaveolens._]
+
+The common heliotrope of English hothouses, _H. peruvianum_, popularly
+known as "cherry-pie," is on account of the delicious odour of its
+flowers a great favourite with florists. It was introduced into Europe
+by the younger Jussieu, who sent seed of it from Peru to the royal
+garden at Paris. About the year 1757 it was grown in England by Philip
+Miller from seed obtained from St Germains. _H. corymbosum_ (also a
+native of Peru), which was grown in Hammersmith nurseries as early as
+1812, has larger but less fragant flowers than _H. peruvianum_. The
+species commonly grown in Russian gardens is _H. suaveolens_, which has
+white, highly fragrant flowers.
+
+Heliotropes may be propagated either from seed, or, as commonly, by
+means of cuttings of young growths taken an inch or two in length.
+Cuttings when sufficiently ripened, are struck in spring or during the
+summer months; when rooted they should be potted singly into small pots,
+using as a compost fibry loam, sandy peat and well-decomposed stable
+manure from an old hotbed. The plants soon require to be shifted into a
+pot a size larger. To secure early-flowering plants, cuttings should be
+struck in August, potted off before winter sets in, and kept in a warm
+greenhouse. In the spring larger pots should be given, and the plants
+shortened back to make them bushy. They require frequent shiftings
+during the summer, to induce them to bloom freely.
+
+The heliotrope makes an elegant standard. The plants must in this case
+be allowed to send up a central shoot, and all the side growths must be
+pinched off until the necessary height is reached, when the shoot must
+be stopped and lateral growths will be produced to form the head. During
+winter they should be kept somewhat dry, and in spring the ball of soil
+should be reduced and the plants repotted, the shoots being slightly
+pruned, so as to maintain a symmetrical head. When they are planted out
+against the walls and pillars of the greenhouse or conservatory an
+abundance of highly perfumed blossoms will be supplied all the year
+round. From the end of May till October heliotropes are excellent for
+massing in beds in the open air by themselves or with other plants. Many
+florists' varieties of the common heliotrope are known in cultivation.
+
+Pliny (_Nat. hist._ xxii. 29) distinguishes two kinds of "heliotropium,"
+the _tricoccum_, and a somewhat taller plant, the _helioscopium_; the
+former, it has been supposed, is _Croton tinctorium_, and the latter the
+[Greek: heliotropion mikron] of Dioscorides or _Heliotropium europaeum_.
+The helioscopium, according to Pliny, was variously employed in
+medicine; thus the juice of the leaves with salt served for the removal
+of warts, whence the term _herba verrucaria_ applied to the plant. What,
+from the perfume of its flowers, is sometimes called winter heliotrope,
+is the fragrant butterbur, or sweet-scented coltsfoot, _Petasites_
+(_Tussilago_) _fragrans_, a perennial Composite plant.
+
+HELIOTROPE, in mineralogy, is the mineral commonly called "bloodstone"
+(q.v.), and sometimes termed girasol--a name applied also to fire-opal.
+The name, like those of many ancient names of minerals, seems to have
+had a fanciful origin. According to Pliny the stone was so called
+because when thrown into the water it turned the sun's light falling
+upon it into a reflection like that of blood.
+
+
+
+
+HELIOZOA, in zoology, a group of the Sarcodina (q.v.) so named by E.
+Haeckel, 1866. They are characterized by the radiate pseudopods, finely
+tapering at the apex, springing abruptly from the superficial
+protoplasm, containing a denser, rather permanent axial rod (figs. 1
+(1), 2 (2)); protoplasm without a clear ectoplasm or pellicle, often
+frothy with large vacuoles, like the alveoli of Radiolaria; nucleus 1 or
+numerous; skeleton absent, gelatinous or of separate siliceous fibres,
+plates or spicules, rarely complete and latticed; reproduction by simple
+fission or by brood-formation, often syngamous; form usually nearly
+spherical, rarely changing slowly. This group was formerly included with
+the Rhizopoda; but was separated from it by Haeckel on account of the
+character of its pseudopods, and its general adaptation to a semipelagic
+existence correlated with the frothy cytoplasm (fig. 1 (1)).
+_Actinophrys sol_ and _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_ (fig. 2), known as
+sun animalcules to the older microscopists, float freely in stagnant or
+slow-flowing waters, and _Myriophrys_ is able by an investment of long
+flagelliform cilia to swim freely. The majority, however, lurk among
+confervae or the light debris of the bottom ooze; and come under the
+head of "sapropelic" rather than pelagic organisms. The body is usually
+of constant spherical form in relation to the floating habit.
+_Nuclearia_, however, shows amoeboid changes of general outline. The
+pseudopods are retractile, the axial filament being absorbed as the
+filament grows shorter and thicker and disappearing when the pseudopod
+merges into the ectoplasm, to be reformed at the same time with the
+pseudopod. There is often a distinction, clear, but never sharp, between
+the richly vacuolate, almost frothy ectoplasm and the denser endoplasm.
+One or more contractile vacuoles may protrude from the ectoplasm. The
+endoplasm contains the nucleus or nuclei. The nucleus when single may be
+central or excentric: in the latter case, the endoplasm contains a clear
+central sphere ("centrosome") on which abut the axial filaments of the
+pseudopods. The ectoplasm contains, in some species, constantly
+(_Raphidiophrys viridis_) or occasionally (_Actinosphaerium_), green
+cells belonging to the genera _Zoochlorella_ and _Sphaerocystis_, both
+probably--the latter certainly--vegetative stages of a Chlamydomonad
+(FLAGELLATA, q.v.) and of symbiotic significance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Heliozoa. 1. _Actinophrys sol_, Ehrb. a,
+food-particle lying in a large food-vacuole; b, deep-lying finely
+granular protoplasm; c, axial filament of a pseudopodium extended
+inwards to the nucleus; d, the central nucleus; e, contractile vacuole;
+f, superficial much vacuolated protoplasm. 2. _Clathrulina elegans_,
+Cienk. 3. _Heterophrys marina_, H. and L. a, nucleus; b, clearer
+protoplasm surrounding the nucleus; c, the peculiar felted envelope. 4.
+_Raphidiophrys pallida_, F. E. Schultze. a, food-particle; b,
+contractile vacuole; c, the nucleus; d, central granule in which all the
+axis-filaments of the pseudopodia meet. The tangentially disposed
+spicules are seen arranged in masses on the surface. 5. _Acanthocystis
+turfacea_, Carter. a, probably the central nucleus; b, clear protoplasm
+around the nucleus; c, more superficial protoplasm with vacuoles and
+chlorophyll corpuscles; d, coarser siliceous spicules; e, finer forked
+siliceous spicules; f, finely granular layer of protoplasm. The long
+pseudopodia reaching beyond the spicules are not lettered. 6.
+Bi-flagellate "flagellula" of _Acanthocystis aculeata_. a, nucleus. 7.
+Id. of _Clathrulina elegans_. a, nucleus; b, granules. 8. _Astrodisculus
+ruber_, Greeff. a, red-coloured central sphere (? nucleus); b,
+peripheral homogeneous envelope.]
+
+The Heliozoa can move by rolling over on their extended pseudopods;
+_Acanthocystis ludibunda_ traversing a path of as much as twenty times
+its diameter in a minute, according to Penard. Several species (e.g.
+_Raphidiophrys elegans_) remain associated by the union of their
+pseudopods, whether into social aggregates (due to approximation) or
+"colonies" due to lack of separation after fission, is not accurately
+known. The multinuclear species _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_ (fig. 2),
+normally apocytial (i.e. the nuclei divide repeatedly without division
+of the cytoplasm), may increase in size by the fusion ("plastogamic")
+of small individuals. If a large specimen be cut up or fragment itself
+under irritation, the small ones so produced soon approach one another
+and fuse completely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Heliozoa. 1. _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_, Ehr.;
+a, nuclei; b, deeper protoplasm with smaller vacuoles and numerous
+nuclei; c, contractile vacuoles; d, peripheral protoplasm with larger
+vacuoles. 2. A portion of the same specimen more highly magnified and
+seen in optical section. a, Nuclei; b, deeper protoplasm (so-called
+endosarc); d, peripheral protoplasm (so-called ectosarc); e, pseudopodia
+showing the granular protoplasm streaming over the stiff axial filament:
+f, food-particle in a good-vacuole. 3, 4. Nuclei of _Actinosphaerium_ in
+the resting condition. 5-13. Successive stages in the division of a
+nucleus of _Actinosphaerium_, showing fibrillation, and in 7 and 8
+formation of an equatorial plate of chromatin substance (after Hertwig).
+14. Cyst-phase of _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_, showing the protoplasm
+divided into twelve chlamydospores, each of which has a siliceous coat;
+a, nucleus of the spore; g, gelatinous wall of the cyst; h, siliceous
+coat of the spore.]
+
+  _Reproduction._--Binary fission has been repeatedly observed; in some
+  cases one or both of the daughter cells may swim for a time as a
+  biflagellate zoospore (fig. 1 (6, 7)). The process may take place when
+  the cell is naked or after preliminary encystment. Budding has been
+  well studied in _Acanthocystis_; the cell nucleus divides repeatedly
+  and most of the daughter nuclei pass to the periphery, aggregate part
+  of the cytoplasm, and with it are constricted off as independent
+  cells; one nucleus remains central and the process may be repeated.
+  The detached bud may assume the typical character after a short
+  amoeboid (lobose) stage, sometimes preceded by rest, or it may develop
+  2 flagella and swim off (fig. 1 (6)).
+
+  Brood formation is only known here in relation to a syngamic process;
+  this is a sharp contrast to Proteomyxa (q.v.) where brood formation is
+  the commonest mode of reproduction, and plasmodium-formation, rare
+  indeed, is the nearest approach to syngamy observed. Indeed, if we
+  knew the life-history of all the species this difference in the life
+  cycle would be a convenient critical character.
+
+  Equal conjugation was demonstrated fully by F. Schaudinn in
+  _Actinophrys_; two individuals approach and enter into close contact,
+  and are surrounded by a common cyst wall. The nucleus of either male
+  divides; and one nucleus passes to the surface at either side, and is
+  budded off with a small portion of the cytoplasm as an abortive cell;
+  the two remaining nuclei which are "first cousins" in cellular
+  relationship now fuse, as is the case with the cytoplasts. The
+  resulting coupled cell or zygote divides into two, which again encyst.
+
+  _Actinosphaerium_ (fig. 2) shows a still more remarkable process,
+  fully studied by R. Hertwig. The large multinucleate animal withdraws
+  its pseudopods, its vacuoles disappear, it encysts and its nuclei
+  diminish in number to about 1/20th partly by fusion, 2 and 2, probably
+  by digestion of the majority. Within the primary cyst the body is now
+  resolved into nuclear cells, which again surround themselves with
+  secondary cysts. The cell in each secondary cyst divides (by
+  karyokinesis), and these sister cells, or rather their offspring, pair
+  in much the same way as the individual cells of _Actinophrys_--the
+  chief difference is that after the first division and budding off of a
+  rudimentary cell, a second division of the same character takes place,
+  with the formation of a second rudimentary cell, which is the niece of
+  the first, absolutely in the same way as the 1st and 2nd polar bodies
+  are formed in the maturation of the ovum in Metazoa. The actual
+  pairing cells are thus second cousins, great-granddaughters of the
+  original cell of the secondary cysts. Complete fusion now takes place
+  to form the coupled cell, which is now contracted and forms a
+  gelatinous wall within the siliceous secondary cyst wall (fig. 2
+  (14)), During a resting stage nuclear divisions occur and finally a
+  brood of young 1-nuclear _Actinosphaerium_ leave the cyst.
+
+
+  _Classification._
+
+  Aphrothoraca. Body naked. Actinophrys Ehrb. (fig. 1 (1)) (nucleate),
+  Actinosphaerium Stein plurinucleate (fig. 2 (1)), Camptonema
+  (plurinucleate) Schaud., Dimorpha Gruber (sometimes 2 flagellate).
+
+  I. Chlamydophora. Investment gelatinous. Astrodiscus.
+
+  II. Chalarothoraca. Body protected by an investment of spicules or
+  fibre scattered or approximated, never fused into a continuous
+  skeleton.
+
+    S 1. Spicules netted or free in the protoplasm. Heterophrys Arch.
+    (fig. 1 (3)), Raphidiophrys Arch. (fig. 1 (4)), Pinacodocystis,
+    Hertw. and Less.
+
+    S 2. Spicules approximated radially. Pinaciophora Greeff,
+    Pompholyxophrys Arch., Lithocolla F. E. Schultze, Elaeorhanis Greeff
+    (in the two foregoing genera the spicules represented by sand
+    granules), Acanthocystis Carter (fig. 1 (5)), Pinacocystis (?)
+    Hertw. and Less, Myriophrys Penard. (Astrodisculus).
+
+  III. Desmothoraca. S 1 attached by a stalk. Clathrulina Cienk. (fig. 1
+  (2, 7)), Hedriocystis, Hertw. and Less.
+
+    S 2. Free Elaster, Grimin, Choanocystis.
+
+  _Literature._--The most important English original papers on this
+  group are those by W. Archer, "On some Freshwater Rhizopoda, new, or
+  little known," _Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science_, N.S.
+  ix.-xi. (1869-1871), and "Resume of Recent Contributions to the
+  Knowledge of Freshwater Rhizopods," _ibid._ xvi., xvii. (1876-1877).
+  See also R. Hertwig and Lesser, "Uber Rhizopoda und denselben
+  nahestehenden Organismen," in _Archiv fur mikroscopische Anatomie_, x.
+  (1874), p. 35; R. Schaudinn, "Heliozoa" in _Tierreich_ (1896); E.
+  Penard, _Les Heliozoaires d'eau douce_ (1904); the two last named
+  contain full bibliographies.     (M. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+HELIUM (from Gr. [Greek: helios], the sun), a gaseous chemical element,
+the modern discovery of which followed closely on that of argon (q.v.).
+The Investigations of Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay had shown
+that indifference to chemical reagents did not sufficiently characterize
+an unknown gas as nitrogen, and it became necessary to reinvestigate
+other cases of the occurrence of "nitrogen" in nature. H. Miers drew
+Ramsay's attention to the work of W. F. Hillebrand, who had noticed, in
+examining the mineral uraninite, that an inert gas was evolved when the
+mineral was decomposed with acid. Ramsay, repeating these experiments,
+found that the inert gas emitted refused to oxidize when sparked with
+oxygen, and on examining it spectroscopically he saw that the spectrum
+was not that of argon, but was characterized by a bright yellow line
+near to, but not identical with, the D line of sodium. This was
+afterwards identified with the D3 line of the solar chromosphere,
+observed in 1868 by Sir J. Norman Lockyer, and ascribed by him to a
+hypothetical element _helium_. This name was adopted for the new gas.
+
+Helium is relatively abundant in many minerals, all of which are
+radioactive, and contain uranium or thorium as important constituents.
+(For the significance of this fact see RADIOACTIVITY.) The richest known
+source is thorianite, which consists mainly of thorium oxide, and
+contains 9.5 cc. of helium per gram. Monazite, a phosphate of thorium
+and other rare earths, contains on the average about 1 cc. per gram.
+Cleveite, samarskite and fergusonite contain a little more than
+monazite. The gas also occurs in minute quantities in the common
+minerals of the earth's crust. In this case too it is associated with
+radioactive matter, which is almost ubiquitous. In two cases, however,
+it has been found in the absence of appreciable quantities of uranium
+and thorium compounds, namely in beryl, and in sylvine (potassium
+chloride). Helium is contained almost universally in the gases which
+bubble up with the water of thermal springs. The proportion varies
+greatly. In the hot springs of Bath it amounts to about one-thousandth
+part of the gas evolved. Much larger percentages have been recorded in
+some French springs (_Compt. rend._, 1906, 143, p. 795, and 146, p.
+435), and considerable quantities occur in some natural gas (_Journ.
+Amer. Chem. Soc._ 29, p. 1524). R. J. Strutt has suggested that helium
+in hot springs may be derived from the disintegration of common rocks at
+great depths.
+
+Helium is present in the atmosphere, of which it constitutes four parts
+in a million. It is conspicuous by its absorption spectrum in many of
+the white stars. Certain stars and nebulae show a bright line helium
+spectrum.
+
+Much the best practical source of helium is thorianite, a mineral
+imported from Ceylon for the manufacture of thoria. It dissolves readily
+in strong nitric acid, and the helium contained is thus liberated. The
+gas contains a certain amount of hydrogen and oxides of carbon, also
+traces of nitrogen. In order to get rid of hydrogen, some oxygen is
+added to the helium, and the mixture exploded by an electric spark. All
+remaining impurities, including the excess of oxygen, can then be taken
+out of the gas by Sir James Dewar's ingenious method of absorption with
+charcoal cooled in liquid air. Helium alone refuses to be absorbed, and
+it can be pumped off from the charcoal in a state of absolute purity. In
+the absence of liquid air the helium must be purified by the methods
+employed for argon (q.v.). If thorianite cannot be obtained, monazite,
+which is more abundant, may be utilized. A part of the helium contained
+in minerals can be extracted by heat or by grinding (J. A. Gray, _Proc.
+Roy. Soc._, 1909, 82A, p. 301).
+
+_Properties._--All attempts to make helium enter into stable chemical
+union have hitherto proved unsuccessful. The gas is in all probability
+only mechanically retained in the minerals in which it is found.
+Jacquerod and Perrot have found that quartz-glass is freely permeable to
+helium below a red-heat (_Compt. rend._, 1904, 139, p. 789). The effect
+is even perceptible at a temperature as low as 220 deg. C. Hydrogen,
+and, in a much less degree, oxygen and nitrogen, will also permeate
+silica, but only at higher temperatures. They have made this observation
+the basis of a practical method of separating helium from the other
+inert gases. M. Travers has suggested that it may explain the liberation
+of helium from minerals by heat, the gas being enabled to permeate the
+siliceous materials in which it is enclosed. Thorianite, however,
+contains no silica, and until it is shown that metallic oxides behave in
+the same way this explanation must be accepted with reserve.
+
+The density of helium has been determined by Ramsay and Travers as 1.98.
+Its ratio of specific heats has very nearly the ideal value 1.666,
+appropriate to a monatomic molecule. The accepted atomic weight is
+accordingly double the density, i.e. approximately four times that of
+hydrogen. The refractivity of helium is 0.1238 (air = 1). The solubility
+in water is the lowest known, being, at 18.2 deg., only .0073 vols. per
+unit volume of water. The viscosity is .96 (air = 1).
+
+The spectrum of helium as observed in a discharge tube is distinguished
+by a moderate number of brilliant lines, distributed over the whole
+visual spectrum. The following are the approximate wave-lengths of the
+most brilliant lines:
+
+  Red       7066
+  Red       6678
+  Yellow    5876
+  Green     4922
+  Blue      4472
+  Violet    4026
+
+When the discharge passes through helium at a pressure of several
+millimetres, the yellow line 5876 is prominent. At lower pressures the
+green line 4922 becomes more conspicuous. At atmospheric pressure the
+discharge is able to pass through a far greater distance in helium than
+in the common gases.
+
+M. Travers, G. Senter and A. Jacquerod (_Phil. Trans._ A. 1903, 200, p.
+105) carefully examined the behaviour of a constant volume gas
+thermometer filled with helium. For the pressure coefficient per degree,
+between 0 deg. and 100 deg. C., they give the value .00366255, when the
+initial pressure is 700 mm. This value is indistinguishable from that
+which they find for hydrogen. Thus at high temperatures a helium
+thermometer is of no special advantage. At low temperatures, on the
+other hand, they find, using an initial pressure of 1000 mm., that the
+temperatures on the helium scale are measurably higher than on the
+hydrogen scale, owing to the more perfectly gaseous condition of helium.
+This difference amounts to about 1/10 deg. at the temperature of liquid
+oxygen, and about 1/5 deg. at that of liquid hydrogen.
+
+The liquefaction of helium was achieved by H. Kamerlingh Onnes at Leiden
+in 1908. According to him its boiling point is 4.3 deg. abs. (-268.7
+deg. C.), the density of the liquid 0.154, the critical temperature 5
+deg. abs., and the critical pressure 2.3 atmospheres (_Communications
+from the Physical Laboratory at Leiden_, No. 108; see also LIQUID
+GASES).
+
+  REFERENCES.--A bibliography and summary of the earlier work on helium
+  will be found in a paper by Ramsay, _Ann. chim. phys._ (1898) [7], 13,
+  p. 433. See also M. Travers, _The Study of Gases_ (1901).
+       (R. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HELIX (Gr. [Greek: helix], a spiral or twist), an architectural term for
+the spiral tendril which is carried up to support the angles of the
+abacus of the Corinthian capital; from the same stalk springs a second
+helix rising to the centre of the capital, its junction with one on the
+opposite side being sometimes marked by a flower. Sometimes the term
+"volute" is given to the angle helix, which is incorrect, as it is of a
+different design and rises from the same stalk as the central helices.
+Its origin is probably metallic, that is to say, it was copied from the
+conventional treatment in Corinthian bronze of the tendrils of a plant.
+
+
+
+
+HELL (O. Eng. _hel_, a Teutonic word from a root meaning "to cover," cf.
+Ger. _Holle_, Dutch _hel_), the word used in English both of the place
+of departed spirits and of the place of torment of the wicked after
+death. It is used in the Old Testament to translate the Hebrew _Sheol_,
+and in the New Testament the Greek [Greek: hades], Hades, and [Greek:
+geenna], Hebrew _Gehenna_ (see ESCHATOLOGY).
+
+
+
+
+HELLANICUS of Lesbos, Greek logographer, flourished during the latter
+half of the 5th century B.C. According to Suidas, he lived for some time
+at the court of one of the kings of Macedon, and died at Perperene, a
+town on the gulf of Adramyttium opposite Lesbos. Some thirty works are
+attributed to him--chronological, historical and episodical. Mention may
+be made of: _The Priestesses of Hera at Argos_, a chronological
+compilation, arranged according to the order of succession of these
+functionaries; the _Carneonikae_, a list of the victors in the Carnean
+games (the chief Spartan musical festival), including notices of
+literary events; an _Atthis_, giving the history of Attica from 683 to
+the end of the Peloponnesian War (404), which is referred to by
+Thucydides (i. 97), who says that he treated the events of the years
+480-431 briefly and superficially, and with little regard to
+chronological sequence: _Phoronis_, chiefly genealogical, with short
+notices of events from the times of Phoroneus the Argive "first man" to
+the return of the Heraclidae; _Troica_ and _Persica_, histories of Troy
+and Persia.
+
+Hellanicus marks a real step in the development of historiography. He
+transcended the narrow local limits of the older logographers, and was
+not content to repeat the traditions that had gained general acceptation
+through the poets. He tried to give the traditions as they were locally
+current, and availed himself of the few national or priestly registers
+that presented something like contemporary registration. He endeavoured
+to lay the foundations of a scientific chronology, based primarily on
+the list of the Argive priestesses of Hera, and secondarily on
+genealogies, lists of magistrates (e.g. the archons at Athens), and
+Oriental dates, in place of the old reckoning by generations. But his
+materials were insufficient and he often had recourse to the older
+methods. On account of his deviations from common tradition, Hellanicus
+is often called an untrustworthy writer by the ancients themselves, and
+it is a curious fact that he appears to have made no systematic use of
+the many inscriptions which were ready to hand. Dionysius of
+Halicarnassus censures him for arranging his history, not according to
+the natural connexion of events, but according to the locality or the
+nation he was describing; and undoubtedly he never, like his
+contemporary Herodotus, rose to the conception of a single current of
+events wider than the local distinction of race. His style, like that of
+the older logographers, was dry and bald.
+
+  Fragments in Muller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, i. and iv.;
+  see among older works L. Preller, _De Hellanico Lesbio historico_
+  (1840); Mure, _History of Greek Literature_, iv.; late criticism in H.
+  Kullmer, "Hellanikos" in _Jahrbucher fur klass. Philologie_
+  (Supplementband, xxvii. 455 sqq.) (1902), which contains new edition
+  and arrangement of fragments; C. F. Lehmann-Haupt, "Hellanikos,
+  Herodot, Thukydides," in _Klio_ vi. 127 sqq. (1906); J. B. Bury,
+  _Ancient Greek Historians_ (1909), pp. 27 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+HELLEBORE (Gr. [Greek: helleboros]: mod. Gr. also [Greek: skaphe]: Ger.
+_Nieswurz_, _Christwurz_; Fr. _hellebore_, and in the district of
+Avranche, _herbe enragee_), a genus (_Helleborus_) of plants of the
+natural order Ranunculaceae, natives of Europe and western Asia. They
+are coarse perennial herbs with palmately or pedately lobed leaves. The
+flowers have five persistent petaloid sepals, within the circle of which
+are placed the minute honey-containing tubular petals of the form of a
+horn with an irregular opening. The stamens are very numerous, and are
+spirally arranged; and the carpels are variable in number, sessile or
+stipitate and slightly united at the base and dehisce by ventral suture.
+
+_Helleborus niger_, black hellebore, or, as from blooming in mid-winter
+it is termed the Christmas rose (Ger. _Schwarze Nieswurz_; Fr., _rose de
+Noel_ or _rose d'hiver_), is found in southern and central Europe, and
+with other species was cultivated in the time of Gerard (see _Herball_,
+p. 977, ed. Johnson, 1633) in English gardens. Its knotty root-stock is
+blackish-brown externally, and, as with other species, gives origin to
+numerous straight roots. The leaves spring from the top of the
+root-stock, and are smooth, distinctly pedate, dark-green above, and
+lighter below, with 7 to 9 segments and long petioles. The scapes, which
+end the branches of the rhizome, have a loose entire bract at the base,
+and terminate in a single flower, with two bracts, from the axis of one
+of which a second flower may be developed. The flowers have 5 white or
+pale-rose, eventually greenish sepals, 15 to 18 lines in breadth; 8 to
+13 tubular green petals containing honey; and 5 to 10 free carpels.
+There are several forms, the best being _maximus_. The Christmas rose is
+extensively grown in many market gardens to provide white flowers forced
+in gentle heat about Christmas time for decorations, emblems, &c.
+
+_H. orientalis_, the Lenten rose, has given rise to several fine hybrids
+with _H. niger_, some of the best forms being clear in colour and
+distinctly spotted. _H. foetidus_, stinking hellebore, is a native of
+England, where like _H. viridis_, it is confined chiefly to limestone
+districts; it is common in France and the south of Europe. Its leaves
+have 7- to 11-toothed divisions, and the flowers are in panicles,
+numerous, cup-shaped and drooping, with many bracts, and green sepals
+tinged with purple, alternating with the five petals.
+
+_H. viridis_, or green hellebore proper, is probably indigenous in some
+of the southern and eastern counties of England, and occurs also in
+central and southern Europe. It has bright yellowish-green flowers, 2 to
+4 on a stem, with large leaf-like bracts. O. Brunfels and H. Bock (16th
+century) regarded the plant as the black hellebore of the Greeks.
+
+_H. lividus_, holly-leaved hellebore, found in the Balearic Islands, and
+in Corsica and Sardinia, is remarkable for the handsomeness of its
+foliage. White hellebore is _Veratrum album_ (see VERATRUM), a
+liliaceous plant.
+
+[Illustration: _Helleborus niger_. 1, Vertical section of flower; 2,
+Nectary, side and front view.]
+
+Hellebores may be grown in any ordinary light garden mould, but thrive
+best in a soil of about equal parts of turfy loam and well-rotted
+manure, with half a part each of fibrous peat and coarse sand, and in
+moist but thoroughly-drained situations, more especially where, as at
+the margins of shrubberies, the plants can receive partial shade in
+summer. For propagation cuttings of the rhizome may be taken in August,
+and placed in pans of light soil, with a bottom heat of 60 deg. to 70
+deg. Fahr.; hellebores can also be grown from seed, which must be sown
+as soon as ripe, since it quickly loses its vitality. The seedlings
+usually blossom in their third year. The exclusion of frost favours the
+production of flowers; but the plants, if forced, must be gradually
+inured to a warm atmosphere, and a free supply of air must be afforded,
+without which they are apt to become much affected by greenfly. For
+potting, _H. niger_ and its varieties, and _H. orientalis_, _atrorubens_
+and _olympicus_ have been found well suited. After lifting, preferably
+in September, the plants should receive plenty of light, with abundance
+of water, and once a week liquid manure, not over-strong. The flowers
+are improved in delicacy of hue, and are brought well up among the
+leaves, by preventing access of light except to the upper part of the
+plants. Of the numerous species of hellebore now grown, the
+deep-purple-flowered _H. colchicus_ is one of the handsomest; by
+crossing with _H. guttatus_ and other species several valuable garden
+forms have been produced, having variously coloured spreading or
+bell-shaped flowers, spotted with crimson, red or purple.
+
+The rhizome of _H. niger_ occurs in commerce in irregular and nodular
+pieces, from about 1 to 3 in. in length, white and of a horny texture
+within. Cut transversely it presents internally a circle of 8 to 12
+cuneiform ligneous bundles, surrounded by a thick bark. It emits a faint
+odour when cut or broken, and has a bitter and slightly acrid taste. The
+drug is sometimes adulterated with the rhizome of baneberry, _Actaea
+spicata_, which, however, may be recognized by the distinctly cruciate
+appearance of the central portion of the attached roots when cut
+across, and by its decoction giving the chemical reactions for
+tannin.[1] The rhizome is darker in colour in proportion to its degree
+of dryness, age and richness in oil. A specimen dried by Schroff lost in
+eleven days 65% of water.
+
+  _H. niger_, _orientalis_, _viridis_, _foetidus_, and several other
+  species of hellebore contain the glucosides _helleborin_, C36H42O6,
+  and _helleborein_, C23H20O15, the former yielding glucose and
+  _helleboresin_, C30H38O4, and the latter glucose and a violet-coloured
+  substance _helleboretin_, C14H20O3. Helleborin is most abundant in _H.
+  viridis_. A third and volatile principle is probably present in _H.
+  foetidus_. Both helleborin and helleborein act poisonously on animals,
+  but their decomposition-products helleboresin and helleboretin seem to
+  be devoid of any injurious qualities. Helleborin produces excitement
+  and restlessness, followed by paralysis of the lower extremities or
+  whole body, quickened respiration, swelling and injection of the
+  mucous membranes, dilatation of the pupil, and, as with helleborein,
+  salivation, vomiting and diarrhoea. Helleborein exercises on the heart
+  an action similar to that of digitalis, but more powerful, accompanied
+  by at first quickened and then slow and laboured respiration; it
+  irritates the conjunctiva, and acts as a sternutatory, but less
+  violently than veratrine. Pliny states that horses, oxen and swine are
+  killed by eating "black hellebore"; and Christison (_On Poisons_, p.
+  876, 11th ed., 1845) writes: "I have known severe griping produced by
+  merely tasting the fresh root in January." Poisonous doses of
+  hellebore occasion in man singing in the ears, vertigo, stupor,
+  thirst, with a feeling of suffocation, swelling of the tongue and
+  fauces, emesis and catharsis, slowing of the pulse, and finally
+  collapse and death from cardiac paralysis. Inspection after death
+  reveals much inflammation of the stomach and intestines, more
+  especially the rectum. The drug has been observed to exercise a
+  cumulative action. Its extract was an ingredient in Bacher's pills, an
+  empirical remedy once in great repute in France. In British medicine
+  the rhizome was formerly official. _H. foetidus_ was in past times
+  much extolled as an anthelmintic, and is recommended by Bisset (_Med.
+  Ess._, pp. 169 and 195, 1766) as the best vermifuge for children; J.
+  Cook, however, remarks of it (_Oxford Mag._, March 1769, p. 99):
+  "Where it killed not the patient, it would certainly kill the worms;
+  but the worst of it is, it will sometimes kill both." This plant, of
+  old termed by farriers ox-heel, setter-wort and setter-grass, as well
+  as _H. viridis_ (Fr. _Herbe a seton_), is employed in veterinary
+  surgery, to which also the use of _H. niger_ is now chiefly confined
+  in Britain.
+
+  In the early days of medicine two kinds of hellebore were recognized,
+  the white or _Veratrum album_ (see VERATRUM), and the black, including
+  the various species of _Helleborus_. The former, according to
+  Codronchius (_Comm.... de elleb._, 1610), Castellus (_De helleb.
+  epist._, 1622), and others, is the drug usually signified in the
+  writings of Hippocrates. Among the hellebores indigenous to Greece and
+  Asia Minor, _H. orientalis_, the rhizome of which differs from that of
+  _H. niger_ and of _H. viridis_ in the bark being readily separable
+  from the woody axis, is the species found by Schroff to answer best to
+  the descriptions given by the ancients of black hellebore, the [Greek:
+  helleboros melas] of Dioscorides. The rhizome of this plant, if
+  identical, as would appear, with that obtained by Tournefort at Prusa
+  in Asia Minor (_Rel. d'un voy. du Levant_, ii. 189, 1718), must be a
+  remedy of no small toxic properties. According to an early tradition,
+  black hellebore administered by the soothsayer and physician Melampus
+  (whence its name _Melampodium_), was the means of curing the madness
+  of the daughters of Proetus, king of Argos. The drug was used by the
+  ancients in paralysis, gout and other diseases, more particularly in
+  insanity, a fact frequently alluded to by classical writers, e.g.
+  Horace (_Sat._ ii. 3. 80-83, _Ep. ad Pis._ 300). Various superstitions
+  were in olden times connected with the cutting of black hellebore. The
+  best is said by Pliny (_Nat. hist._ xxv. 21) to grow on Mt Helicon. Of
+  the three Anticyras that in Phocis was the most famed for its
+  hellebore, which, being there used combined with "sesamoides," was,
+  according to Pliny, taken with more safety than elsewhere.
+
+The British Pharmaceutical Conference has recommended the preparation
+which it terms _the tinctura veratri viridis_, as the best form in which
+to administer this drug. It may be given in doses of 5-15 minims. The
+tincture is prepared from the dried rhizome and rootlets of green
+hellebore, containing the alkaloids jervine, veratrine and veratroidine.
+It is recommended as a cardiac and nervous sedative in cerebral
+haemorrhage and puerperal eclampsia. Black hellebore is a purgative and
+uterine stimulant.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For the microscopical characters and for figures of transverse
+    sections of the rhizome, see Lanessan, _Hist. des drogues_, i. 6
+    (1878).
+
+
+
+
+HELLENISM (from Gr. [Greek: hellenizein], to imitate the Greeks, who
+were known as [Greek: Hellenes], after [Greek: Hellen], the son of
+Deucalion). The term "Hellenism" is ambiguous. It may be used to denote
+ancient Greek culture in all its phases, and even those elements in
+modern civilization which are Greek in origin or in spirit; but, while
+Matthew Arnold made the term popular in the latter connexion as the
+antithesis of "Hebraism," the German historian J. G. Droysen introduced
+the fashion (1836) of using it to describe particularly the latter
+phases of Greek culture from the conquests of Alexander to the end of
+the ancient world, when those over whom this culture extended were
+largely not Greek in blood, i.e. _Hellenes_, but peoples who had adopted
+the Greek speech and way of life, _Hellenistai_. Greek culture had,
+however, both in "Hellenic" and "Hellenistic" times, a common essence,
+just as light is light whether in the original luminous body or in a
+reflection, and to describe this by the term Hellenism seems most
+natural. But whilst using the term in the larger sense, this article, in
+deference to the associations which have come to be specially connected
+with it, will devote its principal attention to Hellenism as it appeared
+in the world after the Macedonian conquests. But it will be first
+necessary to indicate briefly what Hellenism in itself implied.
+
+No verbal formula can really enclose the life of a people or an age, but
+we can best understand the significance of the old Greek cities and the
+life they developed, when, looking at the history of mankind as a whole,
+we see the part played by reason, active and critical, in breaking down
+the barriers by which custom hinders movement, in guiding movement to
+definite ends, in dissipating groundless beliefs and leading onwards to
+fresh scientific conquests--when we see this and then take note that
+among the ancient Greeks such an activity of reason began in an entirely
+novel degree and that its activity in Europe ever since is due to their
+impulsion. When Hellenism came to stand in the world for something
+concrete and organic, it was, of course, no mere abstract principle, but
+embodied in a language, a literature, an artistic tradition. In the
+earliest existing monument of the Hellenic genius, the Homeric poems,
+one may already observe that regulative sense of form and proportion,
+which shaped the later achievements of the race in the intellectual and
+artistic spheres. It was not till the great colonizing epoch of the 8th
+and 7th centuries B.C., when the name "Hellene" came into use as the
+antithesis of "barbarian," that the Greek race came to be conscious of
+itself as a peculiar people; it was yet some three centuries more before
+Hellenism stood fully declared in art and literature, in politics and in
+thought. There was now a new thing in the world, and to see how the
+world was affected by it is our immediate concern.
+
+I. THE EXPANSION OF HELLENISM BEFORE ALEXANDER.--In the 5th century B.C.
+Greek cities dotted the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea
+from Spain to Egypt and the Caucasus, and already Greek culture was
+beginning to pass beyond the limits of the Greek race. Already in the
+7th century B.C., when Hellenism was still in a rudimentary stage, the
+citizens of the Greek city-states had been known to the courts of
+Babylon and Egypt as admirable soldiers, combining hardihood with
+discipline, and Greek mercenaries came to be in request throughout the
+Nearer East. But as Hellenism developed, its social and intellectual
+life began to exercise a power of attraction. The proud old
+civilizations of the Euphrates and the Nile might ignore it, but the
+ruder barbarian peoples in East and West, on whose coasts the Greek
+colonies had been planted, came in various degrees under its spell. In
+some cases an outlying colony would coalesce with a native population,
+and a fusion of Hellenism with barbarian customs take place, as at
+Emporium in Spain (Strabo iii. p. 160) and at Locri in S. Italy (Polyb.
+xii. 5. 10). Perinthus included a Thracian phyle. The stories of
+Anacharsis and Scylas (Herod, iv. 76-80) show how the leading men of the
+tribes in contact with the Greek colonies in the Black Sea might be
+fascinated by the appeal which the exotic culture made to mind and to
+eye.
+
+The great developments of the century and a half before Alexander set
+the Greek people in a very different light before the world. In the
+sphere of material power the repulse of Xerxes and the extension of
+Athenian or Spartan supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean were large
+facts patent to the most obtuse. The kings of the East leant more than
+ever upon Greek mercenaries, whose superiority to barbarian levies was
+sensibly brought home to them by the expedition of Cyrus. But the
+developments within the Hellenic sphere itself were also of great
+consequence for its expansion outwards. The political disunion of the
+Greeks was to some extent neutralized by the rise of Athens to a leading
+position in art, in literature and in philosophy. In Athens the Hellenic
+genius was focussed, its tendencies drawn together and combined; nor was
+it a circumstance of small moment that the Attic dialect attained, for
+prose, a classical authority; for if Hellenism was to be propagated in
+the world at large, it was obviously convenient that it should have some
+one definite form of speech to be its medium.
+
+1. _The Persians._--The ruling race of the East, the Persian, was but
+little open to the influences of the new culture. The military qualities
+of the Greeks were appreciated, and so, too, was Greek science, where it
+touched the immediately useful; a Greek captain was entrusted by Darius
+with the exploration of the Indus; a Greek architect bridged the
+Bosporus for him; Greek physicians (e.g. Democedes, Ctesias) were
+retained for enormous fees at the Persian court. The brisk diplomatic
+intercourse between the Great King and the Greek states in the 4th
+century may have produced effects that were not merely political. We
+certainly find among those members of the Persian aristocracy, who came
+by residence in Asia Minor into closer contact with the Greeks, some
+traces of interest in the more ideal side of Hellenism. A man like the
+younger Cyrus invited Greek captains to his friendship for something
+more than their utility in war, and procured Greek hetaerae for
+something more than sensual pleasure. There is the Mithradates who
+presented the Academy with a statue of Plato by Silanion, not improbably
+identical (though the supposition implies a correction in the text of
+Diogenes Laertius) with that Mithradates who, together with his father
+Ariobarzanes, received the citizenship of Athens (Dem. xxiii. 141, 202).
+Exactly how far Greek influence can be traced in the remains of Persian
+art, such as the royal palaces of Persepolis and Susa may be doubtful
+(see Gayet, _L'Art persan_; R. Phene Spiers, _Architecture East and
+West_, p. 245 f.), but it is certain that the engraved gems for which
+there was a demand in the Persian empire were largely the work of Greek
+artists (Furtwangler, _Antike Gemmen_, iii. p. 116 f.).
+
+2. _The Phoenicians._--As early as the first half of the 4th century we
+find communities of Phoenician traders established in the Peiraeus
+(_C.I.A._ ii. 86). In Cyprus, on the frontier between the Greek and
+Semitic worlds, a struggle for ascendancy went on. The Phoenician
+element seems to have been dominant in the island when Evagoras made
+himself king of Salamis in 412, and restored Hellenism with a strong
+hand. The words of Isocrates (even allowing for their rhetorical colour)
+give us a vivid insight into what such a process meant. "Before Evagoras
+established his rule, they were so hostile and exclusive, that those of
+their rulers were actually held to be the best who were the fiercest
+adversaries of the Greeks; but now such a change has taken place, that
+it is a matter of emulation who shall show himself the most ardent
+phil-hellen, that for the mothers of their children most of them choose
+wives from amongst us, and that they take pride in having Greek things
+about rather than native, in following the Greek fashion of life, whilst
+our masters of the fine arts and other branches of culture now resort to
+them in greater numbers than were once to be found in those quarters
+they specially frequented" (Isoc. 199 = _Evag._ SS 49, 50). Even into
+the original seats of the Phoenicians Hellenism began to intrude.
+Evagoras at one time (about 386) made himself master of Tyre (Isoc.
+_Evag._ S 62; Diod. xv. 2, 4). His grandson Evagoras II. is found as
+governor of Sidon for the Persian king 349-346. (Babelon, _Perses
+Achemenides_, p. cxxii.; cf. Diod. xvi. 46, 3).
+
+Abdashtart, king of Sidon (374-362 B.C.), called Straton by the Greeks,
+had already entered into close relations with the Greek states, and
+imitated the Hellenic princes of Cyprus (_Athen._ xii. 531; _C.I.A._ ii.
+86; _Corp. inscr. Semit._ i. 114). The Phoenician colonists in Sardinia
+purchased or imitated the work of Greek artists (Furtwangler, _Antike
+Gemmen_, iii. 109).
+
+3. _The Carians and Lycians._--The seats of the Greeks in the East
+touched peoples more or less nearly related to the Hellenic stock, with
+native traditions not so far remote from those of the Greeks in a more
+primitive age, the Carians and the Lycians. It came about in the last
+century preceding Alexander that the first of these peoples was
+organized as a strong state under native princes, the line founded by
+Hecatomnus of Mylasa. Hecatomnus made himself master of Caria in the
+first decade of the 4th century, but it was under his son Mausolus, who
+succeeded him in 377-376 that the house rose to its zenith. These Carian
+princes ruled as satraps for the Great King, but they modelled
+themselves upon the pattern of the Greek tyrant. The capital of Mausolus
+was a Greek city, Halicarnassus, and all that we can still trace of his
+great works of construction and adornment shows conformity to the pure
+Hellenic type. His famous sepulchre, the Mausoleum (the remains of it
+are now in the British Museum), was a monument upon which the most
+eminent Greek sculptors of the time worked in rivalry (Plin. _N.H._
+xxxvi. 5, S 30; Vitruv. vii. 13). His court gave a welcome to the
+vagrant Greek philosopher (Diog. Laert. viii. 8, S 87). Even the Carian
+town of Mylasa now shows the forms of a Greek city and records its
+public decrees in Greek (_C.I.G._ 2691 c, d, e = Michel 471). In Lycia,
+which in spite of "the son of Harpagus" and King Pericles, had never
+been brought under one man's rule, the Greek influence is more limited.
+Here, for the most part in the inscriptions, the native language
+maintains itself against Greek. The proper names are (if not native)
+mainly Persian. But the Greek language makes an occasional appearance;
+Greek names are borne by others beside Pericles. The coins are Greek in
+type. And above all the monumental remains of Lycia show strong Greek
+influence, especially the well-known "Nereid Monument" in the British
+Museum, whose date is held to go back to the 5th century (Gardner,
+_Handbook of Gk. Sculp._ p. 344).
+
+4. _South Russia._--Hellenic influences continued to penetrate the
+Scythian peoples from the Greek colonies of the Black Sea, at any rate
+in the matter of artistic fabrication. Our evidence is the actual
+objects recovered from the soil. (See SCYTHIA.)
+
+5. _Egypt._--From the time of Psammetichus (d. 610 B.C.) Greek
+mercenaries had been used to prop Pharaoh's throne. At the same time
+Greek merchants had begun to find their way up the Nile and even to the
+Oases. A Greek city Naucratis (q.v.) was allowed to arise at the
+Bolbitinic mouth of the Nile. But the racial repugnance to the Greek,
+which forbade an Egyptian even to eat an animal which had been carved
+with a Greek's knife (Hdt. ii. 41), probably kept the soul of the people
+more shut against Hellenic influences than was that of the other races
+of the East.
+
+6. _Macedonia._--In Macedonia the native chiefs had been attracted by
+the rich Hellenic life at any rate from the beginning of the 5th
+century, when Alexander I., surnamed "Phil-hellen," persuaded the judges
+at Olympia that the Temenid house was of good Argive descent (Hdt. v.
+22). And, although their enemies might stigmatize them as barbarians,
+the Macedonian kings maintained that they were not Macedonians, but
+Greeks (cf. [Greek: aner Hellen Makedonon hyparchos], Hdt. v. 20). It
+was not probably till the reorganization of the kingdom by Archelaus
+(413-399) that Greek culture found any abundant entrance into Macedonia.
+Now all that was most brilliant in Greek literature and Greek art was
+concentrated in the court of Aegae; the palace was decorated by Zeuxis;
+Euripides spent there the end of his days. From that time, no doubt, a
+certain degree of literary culture was general among the Macedonian
+nobility; their names in the days of Philip are largely Greek; the
+Macedonian service was full of men from the Greek cities within Philip's
+dominions. The values recognized at the court would naturally be
+recognized in noble families generally, and Philip chose Aristotle to be
+the educator of his son. How far the country generally may be regarded
+as Hellenized is a problem which involves the vexed question what right
+the Macedonian people itself has to be classed among the Hellenes, and
+Macedonian to be considered a dialect of Greek.[1] As the literary and
+official language, Greek alone would seem to have had any status.
+
+7. _In the West: the Native Races of Sicily._--Italy and the south of
+Gaul had not remained unaffected by the neighbourhood of the Greek
+colonies. Under the rule of the elder and younger Dionysius in the 4th
+century, the hellenization of the Sicels in the interior of Sicily seems
+to have become complete (Freeman, _History of Sicily_, ii. 387, 388,
+422-424; Beloch, _Griech. Gesch._ iii. [i.] 261).
+
+The alphabets used by the various Italian races from the 5th century
+were directly or indirectly learnt from the Greeks. The peoples of the
+south (Lucanians, Bruttians, Mamertines) show a Greek principle of
+nomenclature (Mommsen, _Unterital. Dialekt_, p. 240 f.). The Pythagorean
+philosophy, whose seat was in southern Italy, won adherents among the
+native chiefs (Cic. _De senec._ 12, cf. Dio Chrys. _Orat. Cor._ 37, S
+24). From the Greeks of southern Gaul Hellenic influences penetrated the
+Celtic races so far that imitations of Greek coins were struck even on
+the coasts of the Atlantic.
+
+II. AFTER ALEXANDER THE GREAT.--When we review generally the extent to
+which Hellenism had penetrated the outer world in the middle of the 4th
+century B.C., it must be admitted that it had not seriously affected any
+but the more primitive races which dwelt upon the borders of the
+Hellenic lands, and here it would seem, with the doubtful exception of
+the Macedonians, to have been an affair rather of the courts than of the
+life of the people. On the other hand it must be taken into account that
+Hellenism had as yet only been a very short while in the world. What
+would have happened had it continued to depend upon its spiritual force
+only for propagation we cannot say. Everything was changed when by the
+conquests of Alexander (334-323) it suddenly rose to material supremacy
+in all the East as far as India, and when cities of Greek speech and
+constitution were planted by the might of kings at all the cardinal
+points of intercourse within those lands. The values honoured by the
+rulers of the world must naturally impress themselves upon the subject
+multitudes. The Macedonian chiefs found their pride in being champions
+of Hellenism. Of Alexander there is no need to speak. The courts of his
+successors in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt were Greek in language and
+atmosphere. All kings liked to win the good word of the Greeks by
+munificence bestowed upon Greek cities and Greek institutions. All of
+them in some degree patronized Greek art and letters, and some sought
+fame for themselves as authors. Even the barbarian courts, their
+neighbours or vassals, were swayed by the dominant fashion to imitation.
+But by the courts alone Hellenism could never have been propagated far.
+Greek culture had been the product of the city-state, and Hellenism
+could not be dissevered from the city. It was upon the system of Greek
+and Macedonian cities, planted by Alexander and his successors, that
+their work rested, and though their dynasties crumbled, their work
+remained. Rome, when it stepped into their place, did no more than
+safeguard its continuance; in the East Rome acted as a Hellenistic
+power, and if, when the legions had thundered past, the brooding East
+"plunged in thought again," that thought was largely directed by the
+Greek schoolmaster who followed in the legions' train. From our present
+point of view we may therefore regard this work of Hellenism as one
+continuous process, initiated by the Macedonians and carried on under
+Roman protection, and ask in the first place what the institution of a
+Greek city implied.
+
+_The Character of the New Greek Cities._--The citizen bodies at the
+outset were really of Greek or Macedonian blood--soldiers who had served
+in the royal armies, or men attracted from the older Greek cities to the
+new lands thrown open to commerce. To fix their European soldiery upon
+the new soil was an obvious necessity for the Macedonian chiefs who had
+set up kingdoms among the barbarians, and the lots of the veterans
+(except in Egypt) were naturally attached to various urban centres. The
+cities, of course, drew in numbers beside of the people of the land;
+Alexander is specially said to have incorporated large bodies of natives
+in some of the new cities of the Eastern provinces (Arr. iv. 4, 1; Diod.
+xvii. 83, 2; Curtius ix. 10, 7). It may generally be taken for granted
+that the lower strata of the city-populations was mainly native; to be
+included in the city population was not, however, to be included in the
+citizen body, and it remains a question how far the latter admitted
+members of other than European origin (Beloch iii. [i.] 414). The
+statements, for instance, of Josephus that the Jews were given full
+citizen rights in the new foundations are probably false (Willrich,
+_Juden und Griechen vor der makkabaischen Erhebung_, 1895, p. 19 f.).
+The social organization of the citizen-body conformed to the regular
+Hellenic type with a division into _phylae_ and, in Egypt, at any rate,
+into _demi_ (Liban. Or. xix. 62; Satyrus, frag. 21 = _F.H.G._ iii. 164;
+Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics_, i. 60; Kenyon, _Archiv f.
+Papyr._ ii. 74; Jonguet, _Bull. corr. hell._ xxi., 1897, 184 f.;
+Liebenam, _Stadteverwaltung_, 220 f.). The cities appear equally
+Hellenic in their political organs and functions with _boule_ and
+_demos_ and popularly elected magistrates. Life was filled with the
+universal Hellenic interests, which centred in the gymnasium and the
+religious festivals, these last including, of course, not only athletic
+contests but performances of the classical dramas or later imitations of
+them. The wandering sophist and rhetorician would find a hearing no less
+than the musical artist. The language of the upper classes was Greek;
+and the material background of building and decoration, of dress and
+furniture, was of Greek design. A greater regularity in the street-plans
+seems to have distinguished the new cities from the older slowly grown
+cities of the Greek lands, just as it distinguishes the cities of the
+New World to-day from those of Europe. Alexandria and Antioch were both
+traversed from end to end by one long straight street, crossed by
+shorter ones at right angles; Nicaea was a square from the centre of
+which all the four gates could be seen at the ends of the intersecting
+thoroughfares (Strabo xii. 565); similar characteristics are noted in
+the rebuilt Smyrna (ib. xiv. 646).
+
+Sometimes the Greek city was not an absolutely new foundation, but an
+old Oriental city, re-colonized and transformed. And in such cases the
+old name was often replaced by a Greek one. Thus Celaenae in Phrygia
+became Apamea; Haleb (Aleppo) in Syria became Beroea; Nisibis in
+Mesopotamia, Antioch; Rhagae (Rai) in Media, Europus. In some cases the
+old name was left unchallenged, e.g. Thyatira, Damascus and Samaria.
+Even where there was no new foundation the older cities of Phoenicia and
+Syria became transformed from the overwhelming prestige of Hellenic
+culture. In Tyre and Sidon, no less than in Antioch or Alexandria, Greek
+literature and philosophy were seriously cultivated, as we may see by
+the great names which they contributed. The process by which Hellenism
+thus leavened an older city we may trace with peculiar vividness in the
+case of Jerusalem; we see there the younger generation captivated by its
+ideals, the appearance of gymnasium and theatre, the eager adoption of
+Greek political forms (1 Macc. i. 13 f.; 2 Macc. 4., 10 f.).
+
+A. _Characteristics of Hellenism after Alexander._--To the number of
+Greek city-states existing before Alexander were now therefore added
+those which extended Hellas as far as India. With the enormous extension
+of Greek territory a great shifting took place in the old centres of
+gravity. What changes in the character of Greek culture did the new
+conditions of the world bring about?
+
+
+  Government.
+
+Hellenism had been the product of the free life of the Greek city-state,
+and after Chaeronea the great days of the city-state were past. Not that
+all liberty was everywhere extinguished. Under Alexander himself the
+Greek states were restive, and Aetolia unsubdued; and, with the break-up
+of the empire at Alexander's death, there was once more scope for the
+action of the individual cities among the rival great powers. In the
+history of the next two or three centuries the cities are by no means
+ciphers. Rhodes takes a great part in _Weltpolitik_, as a sovereign ally
+of one or other of the royal courts. In Greece itself the overlordship
+to which the Macedonian king aspires is imperfect in extent and only
+maintained to that extent by continual wars. The Greek states on their
+side show that they are capable even of progressive political
+development, the needs of the time being met by the federal system, by
+larger unions of equal members than the leading cities of the past would
+have tolerated, with their extreme unwillingness to forego the least
+shred of sovereign independence. The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues are
+independent powers, which the Macedonian can indeed check by garrisons
+in Corinth, Chalcis and elsewhere, but which keep a field clear for
+Hellenic freedom within their borders. Sparta also is a power which can
+cross swords with the Macedonian king, and Cleomenes III. aspires to
+unite the Peloponnesus under his headship. As to the cities outside
+Greece, within or around the royal realms, Seleucid, Ptolemaic or
+Attalid, their degree of freedom probably differed widely according to
+circumstances. At one end of the scale, cities of old renown, e.g.
+Lampsacus or Smyrna, could still make good their independence against
+Antiochus III. at the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. At the other end
+of the scale the cities which were royal capitals, e.g. Alexandria,
+Antioch and Pergamum, were normally controlled altogether by royal
+nominees. At Pergamum indeed and (at any rate after Antiochus IV.) at
+Antioch, forms of self-government subsisted upon which, of course, the
+court had its hand, whilst at Alexandria even such forms were wanting.
+Between the two extremes there was variation not only between city and
+city, but, no doubt, in one and the same city at different times. In
+Syria the independent action of the cities greatly increased during the
+last weakness of the Seleucid monarchy. With the extension of the single
+strong rule of Rome over this Hellenistic world, the conditions were
+changed. Just as the Macedonian conquest, whilst increasing the domain
+of Greek culture, had straitened Greek liberty, so Rome, whilst bringing
+Hellenism finally into secure possession of the nearer East,
+extinguished Greek freedom altogether. Even now the old forms were long
+religiously respected. Formally, the most illustrious Greek states,
+Athens, for instance, or Marseilles, or Rhodes, were not subjects of
+Rome, but free allies. Even in the case of _civitates stipendiariae_
+(tribute-paying states), municipal autonomy, subject indeed to
+interference on the part of the Roman governor, was allowed to go on.
+_Boule_ and _demos_ long continued to function. The old catchword,
+"autonomy of the Hellens," was still heard and indeed was solemnly
+proclaimed by Nero at the Isthmian games of A.D. 67. But during the
+first centuries of the Christian era, this municipal autonomy, by a
+process which can only be imperfectly traced in detail, decayed. The
+_demos_ first sank into political annihilation and the council, no
+longer popularly elected but an aristocratic order, concentrated the
+whole administration in its hands. By the end of the 2nd century A.D.,
+claims made by the imperial government upon the municipal senate are
+more and more changing membership of the order from an honour into an
+intolerable burden, and financial disorganization is calling on imperial
+officials in one place after another to undertake the business of
+government. After Diocletian and under the Eastern Empire the Greek
+world is organized on the principles of a vast bureaucracy.
+
+
+  Social changes.
+
+With this long process of political decline from Alexander to Diocletian
+correspond the inner changes in the temper of the Hellenic and
+Hellenistic peoples. There were, of course, marked differences between
+one region and another. But certain general characteristics
+distinguished at once Greek society after the Macedonian conquests from
+the society of the earlier age. When the vast field of the East was
+opened to Hellenic enterprise and the bullion of its treasuries flung
+abroad, fortunes were made on a scale before unparalleled. A new
+standard of sumptuousness and splendour was set up in the richest
+stratum of society. This material elaboration of life was furthered by
+the existence of Hellenistic courts, where the great ministers amassed
+fabulous riches (e.g. Dionysius, the state secretary of Antiochus IV.,
+Polyb. xxxi. 3, 16; Hermias, the chief minister of Seleucus III., and
+Antiochus III., Polyb. v. 50. 2; cf. Plutarch, _Agis_ 9), and of huge
+cities like Alexandria, Antioch and the enlarged Ephesus. It is
+significant that whereas the earlier Greeks had used precious stones
+only as a medium for the engraver's art, unengraven gems, valuable for
+their mere material, now came to be used in profusion for adornment.
+Already before Alexander pan-hellenic feeling had in various ways
+overridden the internal divisions of the Greek race, but now, with the
+vast mingling of Greeks of all sorts in the newly-conquered lands, a
+generalized Greek culture in which the old local characteristics were
+merged, came to overspread the world. The gradual supersession of the
+old dialects by the Koine the common speech of the Greeks, a
+modification of the Attic idiom coloured by Ionic, was one obvious sign
+of the new order of things (see GREEK LANGUAGE).
+
+
+  Art and literature.
+
+In its artistic, its literary, its spiritual products the age after
+Alexander gave evidence of the change. In no department did activity
+immediately stop; but the old freshness and creative exuberance was
+gone. Artistic pleasure, grown less delicate, required the stimulus of a
+more sensational effect or a more striking realism, as we may see by the
+Pergamene and Rhodian schools of sculpture, by the bas-reliefs with the
+_genre_ subjects drawn from the life of the countryside, or, in
+literature by the sort of historical writing which became popular with
+Cleitarchus and Duris, by the studied emotional or rhetorical point of
+Callimachus, and by the portrayal of country life in Theocritus. At the
+same time, artists and men of letters were now addressing themselves in
+most cases, not to their fellow-citizens in a free city, but to kings
+and courtiers, or the educated class generally of the Greek world. In
+those departments of intellectual activity which demand no high ideal
+faculty, in the study of the world of fact, the centuries immediately
+following Alexander witnessed notable advance. Scientific research might
+prosper, just as poetry withered, under the patronage of kings, and such
+research had now a vast amount of new material at its disposal and could
+profit by the old Babylonian and Egyptian traditions. The medical
+schools, especially that of Alexandria, really enlarged knowledge of the
+animal frame. Knowledge of the earth gained immensely by the Macedonian
+conquests. The literary schools of Alexandria and Pergamum built up
+grammatical science, and brought literary and artistic criticism to a
+fine point. If indeed the earlier ages had been those of creative and
+spontaneous life, the Hellenistic age was that of conscious criticism
+and book-learning. The classical products were registered, studied,
+assorted and commented upon. Men travelled and read more. Books were in
+demand and were multiplied. Libraries became a feature of the age, the
+kings leading the way as collectors, of books, especially the rival
+dynasties of Egypt and Pergamum. The library attached to the Museum at
+Alexandria is said to have contained at the time of its destruction in
+47 B.C. as many as 700,000 rolls (Aul. Gell. vi. 17. 3). Even smaller
+cities, like Aphrodisias in Caria, had public libraries for the
+instruction of their youth (Le Bas, III. No. 1618).
+
+With the general decay of ancient civilization under the Roman empire,
+even scientific research ceased, and though there were literary
+revivals, like that connected with the new Atticism under the Antonine
+emperors, these were mainly imitative and artificial, and even learning
+became at last under the Byzantine emperors a jejune and formal
+tradition (see GREEK LITERATURE).
+
+
+  Religion and philosophy.
+
+The diffusion of the Greek race far from the former centres of its life,
+the mingling of citizens of many cities, the close contact between Greek
+and barbarian in the conquered lands--all this had made the old
+sanctions of civic religion and civic morality of less account than
+ever. New guides of life were needed. The Stoic philosophy, with its
+cosmopolitan note, its fixed dogmas and plain ethical precepts, came
+into the world at the time of the Macedonian conquests to meet the needs
+of the new age. Its ideas became popular among ordinary men as the older
+philosophies had never been. The Stoic or Cynic preacher, attacking the
+ways of society, in pungent, often coarse, phrase, became a familiar
+figure of the Greek market-place (P. Wendland, _Beitrage zur Gesch. d.
+griech. Philosophie_, 1895).
+
+Although the cults of the old Greek deities in the new cities, with
+their splendid apparatus of festivals and sacrifice might still hold the
+multitude, men turned ever in large numbers to alien religions, felt as
+more potent because strange, and the various gods of Egypt and the East
+began to find larger entrance in the Greek world. Even in the old Greek
+religion before Alexander there had been large elements of foreign
+origin, and that the Greeks should now do honour to the gods of the
+lands into which they came, as we find the Cilician and Syrian Greeks
+doing to Baal-tars and Baal-marcod and the Egyptian Greeks to the gods
+of Egypt, was only in accordance with the primitive way of thinking. But
+it was a sign of the times when Serapis and Isis, Osiris and Anubis
+began to take place among the popular deities in the old Greek lands.
+The origin of the cult of Serapis, which Ptolemy I. found, or
+established, in Egypt is disputed; the familiar type of the god is the
+invention of a Greek artist, but the name and religion came from
+somewhere in the East (see discussion under SERAPIS). Before the end of
+the 2nd century B.C. there were temples of Serapis in Athens, Rhodes,
+Delos and Orchomenos in Boeotia. Under the Roman empire the cult of
+Isis, now furnished with an official priesthood and elaborate ritual,
+became really popular in the Hellenistic world. King Asoka in the 3rd
+century B.C. sent Buddhist missionaries from India to the Mediterranean
+lands; their preaching has, it is true, left little or no trace in our
+Western records. But other religions of Oriental origin penetrated far,
+the worship of the Phrygian Great Mother, and in the 2nd century A.D.
+the religion of the Mithras (Lafaye, _Culte des divinites alexandrines_,
+1884; Roscher, articles "Anubis," "Isis," &c.; F. Cumont, _Mysteres de
+Mithra_, Eng. trans., 1903; _Les Religions orientales dans le paganisme
+romain_, 1906).
+
+The Jews, too, by the time of Christ were finding in many quarters an
+open door. Besides those who were ready to go the whole length and
+accept circumcision, numbers adopted particular Jewish practices,
+observing the Sabbath, for instance, or turned from polytheism to the
+doctrine of the One God. The synagogues in the Gentile cities had
+generally attached to them, in more or less close connexion a multitude
+of those "who feared God" and frequented the services (Schurer, _Gesch.
+d. jud. Volks_, iii. 102-135).
+
+
+  Christianity.
+
+Among the religions which penetrated the Hellenistic world from an
+Eastern source, one ultimately overpowered all the rest and made that
+world its own. The inter-action of Christianity and Hellenism opens
+large fields of inquiry. The teaching of Christ Himself contained, as it
+is given to us, no Hellenic element; so far as He built with older
+material, that material was exclusively the sacred tradition of Israel.
+So soon, however, as the Gospel was carried in Greek to Greeks, Hellenic
+elements began to enter into it, in the writings, for instance, of St
+Paul, the appeal to what "nature" teaches would be generally admitted to
+be the adoption of a Greek mode of thought. It was, of course,
+impossible that speaking in Greek and living among Greeks, Christians
+should not to some extent use current conceptions for the expression of
+their faith. There was, at the same time, in the early Church a powerful
+current of feeling hostile to Greek culture, to the wisdom of the world.
+What the attitude of the New People should be to it, whether it was all
+bad, or whether there were good things in it which Christians should
+appropriate, was a vital question that always confronted them. The great
+Christian School of Alexandria represented by Clement and Origen
+effected a durable alliance between Greek education and Christian
+doctrine. In proportion as the Christian Church had to go deeper into
+metaphysics in the formulation of its belief as to God, as to Christ, as
+to the soul, the Greek philosophical terminology, which was the only
+vehicle then available for precise thought, had to become more and more
+an essential part of Christianity. At the same time Christian ethics
+incorporated much of the current popular philosophy, especially large
+Stoical elements. In this way the Church itself, as we shall see, became
+a propagator of Hellenism (see Hatch, _Hibbert Lectures_, 1888;
+Wendland, "Christentum u. Hellenismus" in _Neue Jahrb. f. kl. Alt._ ix.
+1902, p. 1 f.; and _Die hellenistisch-romische Kultur in ihren
+Beziehungen zu Judentum u. Christentum_, 1907).
+
+B. _Effect upon non-Hellenic Peoples._--Hellenism secured by the
+Macedonian conquest _points d'appui_ from the Mediterranean to India,
+and brought the system of commerce and intercourse into Greek hands.
+What effect did it produce in these various countries? What effect again
+in the lands of the West which fell under the sway of Rome?
+
+
+  Greek cities.
+
+  Greek art.
+
+(i.) _India._--In India (including the valleys of the Kabul and its
+northern tributaries, then inhabited by an Indian, not, as now, by an
+Iranian, population) Alexander planted a number of Greek towns.
+Alexandria "under the Caucasus" commanded the road from Bactria over the
+Hindu-Kush; it lay somewhere among the hills to the north of Kabul,
+perhaps at Opian near Charikar (MacCrindle, _Ancient India_, p. 87, note
+4); that it is the city meant by "Alasadda the capital of the Yona
+(Greek) country" in the Buddhist Mahavanso, as is generally affirmed,
+seems doubtful (Tarn, loc. cit. below, p. 269, note 7). We hear of a
+Nicaea in the Kabul valley itself (near Jalalabad?), another Nicaea on
+the Hydaspes (Jhelum) where Alexander crossed it, with Bucephala (see
+BUCEPHALUS) opposite, a city (unnamed) on the Acesines (Chenab) (Arr.
+vi. 29, 3), and a series of foundations strung along the Indus to the
+sea. Soon after 321, Macedonian supremacy beyond the Indus collapsed
+before the advance of the native Maurya dynasty, and about 303 even
+large districts west of the Indus were ceded by Seleucus. But the
+chapter of Greek rule in India was not yet closed. The Maurya dynasty
+broke up about 180 B.C., and at the same time the Greek rulers of
+Bactria began to lead expeditions across the Hindu-Kush. Menander in the
+middle of the 2nd century B.C. extended his rule from the Hindu-Kush to
+the Ganges. Then "Scythian" peoples from central Asia, Sakas and
+Yue-chi, having conquered Bactria, gradually squeezed within
+ever-narrowing limits the Greek power in India. The last Greek prince,
+Hermaeus, seems to have succumbed about 30 B.C. It was just at this time
+that the Graeco-Roman world of the West was consolidated as the Roman
+Empire, and, though Greek rule in India had disappeared, active
+commercial intercourse went on between India and the Hellenistic lands.
+How far, through these changes, did the Greek population settled by
+Alexander or his successors in India maintain their distinctive
+character? What influence did Hellenism during the centuries in which it
+was in contact with India exert upon the native mind? Only extremely
+qualified answers can be given to these questions. Capital data are
+possibly waiting there under ground--the Kabul valley for instance is
+almost virgin soil for the archaeologist--and any conclusion we can
+arrive at is merely provisional. If certain statements of classical
+authors were true, Hellenism in India flourished exceedingly. But the
+phil-hellenic Brahmins in Philostratus' life of Apollonius had no
+existence outside the world of romance, and the statement of Dio
+Chrysostom that the Indians were familiar with Homer in their own tongue
+(_Or._ liii. 6) is a traveller's tale. India, the sceptical observe, has
+yielded no Greek inscription, except, of course, on the coins of the
+Greek kings and their Scythian rivals and successors. To what extent can
+it be inferred from legends on coins that Greek was a living speech in
+India? Perhaps to no large extent outside the Greek courts. The fact,
+however, that the Greek character was still used on coins for two
+centuries after the last Greek dynasty had come to an end shows that the
+language had a prestige in India which any theory, to be plausible, must
+account for. If we argue by probability from what we know of the
+conditions, we have to consider that the Greek rule in India was all
+through fighting for existence, and can have had "little time or energy
+left for such things as art, science and literature" (Tarn, _loc. cit._
+p. 292), and it is pointed out that a casual reference to the Greeks in
+an Indian work contemporary with Menander characterizes them as
+"viciously valiant Yonas." How long is it probable that Greek colonies
+planted in the midst of alien races would have remained distinct? Mr
+Tarn builds much upon the fact that the descendants of the Greek
+Branchidae settled by Xerxes in central Asia had become bilingual in six
+generations (Curt. vii. 5, 29). But the Greek race before Alexander had
+not its later prestige, and we must consider such a sentiment as leads
+the Eurasian to-day to cling to his Western parentage, so that the
+instance of the Branchidae cannot be used straight away for the time
+after Alexander. Certainly, had the Greek colonies in India been active
+political bodies, we could hardly have failed to find some trace of
+them, in civic architecture or in inscriptions, by this time. Perhaps we
+should rather think of them as resembling the Greeks found to-day
+dispersed over the nearer East with interests mainly commercial, easily
+assimilating themselves to their environment. A notice derived from
+Agatharchides (about 140 B.C.) possibly refers to the activity of these
+Indian Greeks in the sea-borne trade of the Indian Ocean (Muller, _Geog.
+Graeci min._ i. p. 191; cf. Diod. iii. 47. 9). As to what India derived
+from Greece there has been a good deal of erudite debate. That the
+Indian drama took its origin from the Greek is still maintained by some
+scholars, though hardly proved. There is no doubt that Indian astronomy
+shows marked Hellenic features, including actual Greek words borrowed.
+But by far the most signal borrowing is in the sphere of art. The stream
+of Buddhist art which went out eastwards across Asia had its rise in
+North-West India, and the remains of architecture and sculpture
+unearthed in this region enable us to trace its development back to pure
+Greek types. It remains, of course, a question whether the tradition was
+transmitted by the Greek dynasties from Bactria or by intercourse with
+the Roman empire; the latter seems now almost certain; but the fact of
+the influence is equally striking on either theory. How far to the east
+the distinctive influence of Greece went is shown by the
+seal-impressions with Athena and Eros types found by Dr Stein in the
+buried cities of Khotan (_Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan_, p. 396), and
+according to Mr E. B. Havell, there exist "paintings treasured as the
+most precious relics and rarely shown to Europeans, which closely
+resemble the Graeco-Buddhist art of India" in some of the oldest temples
+of Japan (_Studio_, vol. xxvii. 1903, p. 26).
+
+  See A. A. Macdonell, _History of Sanskrit Literature_ (1900) p. 411
+  f., and the references on p. 452; V. A. Smith, _Early History of
+  India_ (1904); Grunwedel, _Buddhist Art in India_ (Eng. trans., edited
+  by Dr Burgess, 1901); W. W. Tarn, "Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and
+  India" in _Journ. of Hell. Studies_, xxii. (1902); Foucher, _L'Art
+  greco-bouddhique du Gandhara_ (1905).
+
+
+  Greek cities.
+
+(ii.) _Iran and Babylonia._--The colonizing activity of Alexander and
+his successors found a large field in Iran where, up till his time,
+hardly any walled towns seem to have existed. Cities now arose in all
+its provinces, superseding in many cases native market places and
+villages, and holding the vantage-points of commerce. Media, Polybius
+says, was defended by a chain of Greek cities from barbarian incursion
+(x. 27. 3); in the neighbourhood of Teheran seem to have stood Heraclea
+and Europus. In Eastern Iran the cities which are its chief places
+to-day then bore Greek names, and looked upon Alexander or some other
+Hellenic prince as their founder. Khojend, Herat, Kandahar were
+Alexandrias, Merv was an Alexandria till it changed that name for
+Antioch. When the farther provinces broke away under independent Greek
+kings, a Eucratidea and a Demetrias attested their glory. Even in a town
+definitely barbarian like Syrinca in 209 B.C. there was a resident
+mercantile community of Greeks (Polyb. x. 31). The bulk of Greek
+historical literature having perished, and in the absence of both
+archaeological data from Iran, we can only speculate on the inner life
+of these Greek cities under a strange sky. One precious document is the
+decree of Antioch in Persis (about 206 B.C.) cited in a recently
+discovered inscription (Kern, _Inschr. v. Magnesia_, No. 61;
+Dittenberger, _Orient. gr. Inscr._ i. No. 233). This shows us the normal
+organs of a Greek city, _boule_, _ecclesia_, _prytaneis_, &c., in full
+working, with the annual election of magistrates, and ordinary forms of
+public action. But more than this, it throws a remarkable light upon the
+solidarity of the Hellenic Dispersion. The citizen body had been
+increased some generations before by colonists from Magnesia-on-Meander
+sent at the invitation of Antiochus I. The Magnesians are instigated by
+pan-hellenic enthusiasm. And we see a brisk diplomatic intercourse
+between the scattered Greek cities going on. It is especially the local
+religious festivals which bind them together. Antioch in Persis, of
+course, sends athletes to the great games of Greece, but in this decree
+it determines to take part in the new festival being started in honour
+of Artemis at Magnesia. The loyalty, too, expressed towards the Seleucid
+king implies a predominant interest in pan-hellenic unity, natural in
+colonies isolated among barbarians. A list is given (fragmentary) of
+other Greek cities in Babylonia and beyond from which similar decrees
+had come.
+
+
+  Greek kingdoms.
+
+In the middle of the 3rd century B.C. Bactria and Sogdiana broke away
+from the Seleucid empire; independent Greek kings reigned there till the
+country was conquered by nomads from Central Asia (Sacae and Yue-chi) a
+century later. Alexander had settled large masses of Greeks in these
+regions (Greeks, it would seem, not Macedonians), whose attempts to
+return home in 325 and 323 had been frustrated, and it may well be that
+a racial antagonism quickened the revolt against Macedonian rule in 250.
+The history of these Greek dynasties is for us almost a blank, and for
+estimating the amount and quality of Hellenism in Bactria during the 180
+years or so of Macedonian and Greek rule, we are reduced to building
+hypotheses upon the scantiest data. Probably nothing important bearing
+on the subject has been left out of view in W. W. Tarn's learned
+discussion (_Journ. of Hell. Stud._ xxii., 1902, p. 268 f.), and his
+result is mainly negative, that palpable evidences of an active
+Hellenism have not been found; he inclines to think that the Greek
+kingdoms mainly took on the native Iranian colour. The coins, of course,
+are adduced on the other side, being not only Greek in type and legend,
+but (in many cases) of a peculiarly fine and vigorous execution; and
+excellence in one branch of art is thought to imply that other branches
+flourished in the same _milieu_. Tarn suggests that they may be a
+"sport," a spasmodic outbreak of genius (see BACTRIA and works there
+quoted). In these outlying provinces the national Iranian sentiment
+seems to have been most intense, and it is interesting to see that under
+Alexander Hellenism appeared as "belligerent civilization," in the
+attempt to suppress practices like the exposure of the dying to the dogs
+(an exaggeration of Zoroastrianism) and, possibly also, abhorrent forms
+of marriage (Strabo xi. 517; Porphyr. _De abstin._ 4. 21; Plut. _De
+fort. Al._ 5).
+
+The west of Iran slipped from the Seleucids in the course of the 2nd
+century B.C. to be joined to the Parthian kingdom, or fall under petty
+native dynasties. Soon after 130 Babylonia too was conquered by the
+Parthian, and Mesopotamia before 88. Then the reconquest of the nearer
+East by Oriental dynasties was checked by the advance of Rome. Asia
+Minor and Syria remained substantial parts of the Roman Empire till the
+Mahommedan conquests of the 7th century A.D. began a new process of
+recoil on the part of the Hellenistic power. In Babylonia, also, in
+Susiana and Mesopotamia, Hellenism had been established in a system of
+cities for 200 years before the coming of the Parthian. The greatest of
+all of them stood here--almost on the site of Bagdad--Seleucia on the
+Tigris. It superseded Babylon as the industrial focus of Babylonia and
+counted some 600,000 inhabitants (_plebs urbana_) according to Pliny,
+_N.H._ vi. S 122 (cf. Joseph. _Arch._ xviii. S 372, 374; for coins,
+probably of Seleucia, with the type of Tyche issued in the years A.D.
+43-44 see Wroth, _Coins of Parthia_, p. xlvi.). The list of other Greek
+cities known to us in these regions is too long to give here (see
+Droysen, _loc. cit._, and E. Schwartz in Kern's _Inschr. v. Magnesia_,
+p. 171 f.). In Mesopotamia, Pliny especially notes how the character of
+the country was changed when the old village life was broken in upon by
+new centres of population in the cities of Macedonian foundation (Pliny,
+_N.H._ vi. S 117; cf. K. Regling, "Histor. geog. d. mesopot.
+Parallelograms," in Lehmann's _Beitrage_, i. p. 442 f.).
+
+
+  Hellenic-Iranian culture.
+
+We do not look in vain for notable names in Hellenistic literature and
+philosophy produced on an Asiatic soil. Diogenes, the Stoic philosopher
+(head of the school in 156 B.C.), was a "Babylonian," i.e. a citizen of
+Seleucia on the Tigris; so too was Seleucus, the mathematician and
+astronomer, being possibly a native Babylonian; Berossus, who wrote a
+Babylonian history in Greek (before 261 B.C.) was a Hellenized native.
+Apollodorus, Strabo's authority for Parthian history (c. 80 B.C.?), was
+from the Greek city of Artemita in Assyria. When the Parthians rent away
+provinces from the Seleucid empire, the Greek cities did not cease to
+exist by passing under barbarian rule. Gradually no doubt the Greek
+colonies were absorbed, but the process was a long one. In 140 and 130
+B.C. those of Iran were ready to rise in support of the Seleucid invader
+(Joseph. _Arch._ xiii. S 184; Justin xxxviii. 10.6-8). Just so, Crassus
+in 53 B.C. found a welcome in the Greek cities of Mesopotamia. Seleucia
+on the Tigris is spoken of by Tacitus as being in A.D. 36 "proof against
+barbarian influences and mindful of its founder Seleucus" (_Ann._ vi.
+42). How important an element the Greek population of their realm seemed
+to the Parthian kings we can see by the fact that they claimed to be
+themselves champions of Hellenism. From the reign of Artabanus I.
+(128/7-123 B.C.) they bear the epithet of "Phil-hellen" as a regular
+part of their title upon the coins. Under the later reigns the Tyche
+figure (the personification of a Greek city) becomes common as a coin
+type (Wroth, _Coins of Parthia_, pp. liii., lxxiv.). The coinage may, of
+course, give a somewhat one-sided representation of the Parthian
+kingdom, being specially designed for the commercial class, in which the
+population of the Greek cities was, we may guess, predominant. The state
+of things which prevails in modern Afghanistan, where trade is in the
+hands of a class distinct in race and speech (Persian in this case) from
+the ruling race of fighters is very probably analogous to that which we
+should have found in Iran under the Parthians.[2] That the Parthian
+court itself was to some extent Hellenized is shown by the story, often
+adduced, that a Greek company of actors was performing the _Bacchae_
+before the king when the head of Crassus was brought in. This single
+instance need not, it is true, show a Hellenism of any profundity; still
+it does show that certain parts of Hellenism had become so essential to
+the lustre of a court that even an Arsacid could not be without them.
+Artavasdes, king of Armenia (54?-34 B.C.) composed Greek tragedies and
+histories (Plut. _Crass._ 33). Then the prestige of the Roman Empire,
+with its prevailingly Hellenistic culture, must have told powerfully.
+The Parthian princes were in many cases the children of Greek mothers
+who had been taken into the royal harems (Plut. _Crass._ 32). Musa, the
+queen-mother, whose head appears on the coins of Phraataces (3/2
+B.C.-A.D. 4) had been an Italian slave-girl. Many of the Parthian
+princes resided temporarily, as hostages or refugees, in the Roman
+Empire; but one notes that the nation at large looked with anything but
+favour upon too liberal an introduction of foreign manners at the court
+(Tac. _Ann._ ii. 2).
+
+Such slight notices in Western literature do not give us any penetrating
+view into the operation of Hellenism among the Iranians. As an
+expression of the Iranian mind we have the Avesta and the Pehlevi
+theological literature. Unfortunately in a question of this kind the
+dating of our documents is the first matter of importance, and it seems
+that we can only assign dates to the different parts of the Avesta by
+processes of fine-drawn conjecture. And even if we could date the Avesta
+securely, we could only prove borrowing by more or less close
+coincidences of idea, a tempting but uncertain method of inquiry. Taking
+an opinion based on such data for what it is worth, we may note that
+Darmesteter believed in the influence of the later Greek philosophy
+(Philonian and Neo-platonic) as one of those which shaped the Avesta as
+we have it (_Sacred Books of the East_, iv. 54 f.), but we must also
+note that such an influence is emphatically denied by Dr L. Mills
+(_Zarathushtra and the Greeks_, Leipzig, 1906). Outside literature, we
+have to look to the artistic remains offered by the region to determine
+Hellenic influence. But here, too, the preliminary classification of the
+documents is beset with doubt. In the case of small objects like gems
+the place of manufacture may be far from the place of discovery. The
+architectural remains are solidly _in situ_, but we may have such vast
+disagreement as to date as that between Dieulafoy and M. de Morgan with
+respect to domed buildings of Susa, a disagreement of at least five
+centuries. It is enough then here to observe that Iran and Babylonia do,
+as a matter of fact, continually yield the explorer objects of
+workmanship either Greek or influenced by Greek models, belonging to the
+age after Alexander, and that we may hence infer at any rate such an
+influence of Hellenism upon the tastes of the richer classes as would
+create a demand for these things.
+
+  For gems see "Gobineau" in the _Rev. archeol._, vols. xxvii., xxviii.
+  (1874); Menant, _Recherches sur la glyptique orientale_, ii. 189 f.;
+  E. Babelon, _Catalogue des camees de la Bibl. Nat._ (1897), p. 56; A.
+  Furtwangler, _Die antiken Gemmen_, pp. 165, 369 ff.; Figurines:
+  Heuzey, _Fig. ant. du Louvre_ (1883) p. 3; J. P. Peters, _Nippur_, ii.
+  128; Military standard: Heuzey, _Comptes rendus de l'Acad. d. Inscr._
+  (1895) p. 16; _Rev. d'Assyr._ v. (1903), p. 103 f. Alabaster vase:
+  Sykes, _Ten Thousand Miles in Persia_, p. 445. In the case of the
+  architectural remains, the Greek tradition is obvious at Hatra
+  (Jacquerel, _Rev. archeol._, 1897 [ii.], 343 f.), and in the relics of
+  the temple at Kingavar (Dieulafoy, _L'Art antique de la Perse_, v. p.
+  10 f.).
+
+
+  Sassanian empire.
+
+If any vestige of Hellenism still survived under the Sassanian kings,
+our records do not show it. The spirit of the Sassanian monarchy was
+more jealously national than that of the Arsacid, and alien grafts could
+hardly have flourished under it. Of course, if Darmesteter was right in
+seeing a Greek element in Zoroastrianism, Greek influence must still
+have operated under the new dynasty, which recognized the national
+religion. But, as we saw, the Greek influence has been authoritatively
+denied. At the court a limited recognition might be given, as fashion
+veered, to the values prevalent in the Hellenistic world. The story of
+Hormisdas in Zosimus is suggestive in this connexion (Zosim. _Hist.
+nov._ ii. 27). Chosroes I. interested himself in Greek philosophy and
+received its professors from the West with open arms (Agath. ii. 28 f.);
+according to one account, he had his palace at Ctesiphon built by Greeks
+(Theophylact. Simocat. v. 6).
+
+But the account of Chosroes' mode of action makes it plain that the
+Hellenism once planted in Iran had withered away; representatives of
+Greek learning and skill have all to be imported from across the
+frontier.
+
+  For Hellenism in Babylonia and Iran, see the useful article of M.
+  Victor Chapot in the _Bull. et memoires de la Soc. Nat. des
+  Antiquaires de France_ for 1902 (published 1904), p. 206 f., which
+  gives a conspectus of the relevant literature.
+
+(iii.) _Asia Minor._--Very different were the fortunes of Hellenism in
+those lands which became annexed to the Roman Empire.
+
+
+  Greek cities of the Diadochi.
+
+In Asia Minor, we have seen how, even before Alexander, Hellenism had
+begun to affect the native races and Persian nobility. During
+Alexander's own reign, we cannot trace any progress in the Hellenization
+of the interior, nor can we prove here his activity as a builder of
+cities. But under the dynasties of his successors a great work of
+city-building and colonization went on. Antigonus fixed his capital at
+the old Phrygian town of Celaenae, and the famous cities of Nicaea and
+Alexandria Troas owed to him their first foundation, each as an
+Antigonia; they were refounded and renamed by Lysimachus (301-281 B.C.).
+Then we have the great system of Seleucid foundations. Sardis, the
+Seleucid capital in Asia Minor, had become a Greek city before the end
+of the 3rd century B.C. The main high road between the Aegean coast and
+the East was held by a series of new cities. Going west from the
+Cilician Gates we have Laodicea Catacecaumene, Apamea, the Phrygian
+capital which absorbed Celaenae, Laodicea on the Lycus,
+Antioch-on-Meander, Antioch-Nysa, Antioch-Tralles. To the south of this
+high road we have among the Seleucid foundations Antioch in Pisidia
+(colonized with Magnesians from the Meander) and Stratonicea in Caria;
+in the region to the north of it the most famous Seleucid colony was
+Thyatira. Along the southern coast, where the houses of Seleucus and
+Ptolemy strove for predominance, we find the names of Berenice, Arsinoe
+and Ptolemais confronting those of Antioch and Seleucia. With the rise
+of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum, a system of Pergamene foundation
+begins to oppose the Seleucid in the interior, bearing such names as
+Attalia, Philetaeria, Eumenia, Apollonis. Of these, one may note for
+their later celebrity Philadelphia in Lydia and Attalia on the
+Pamphylian coast. The native Bithynian dynasty became Hellenized in the
+course of the 3rd century, and in the matter of city building Prusias
+(the old Cius), Apamea (the old Myrlea), probably Prusa, and above all
+Nicomedia attested its activity. While new Greek cities were rising in
+the interior, the older Hellenism of the western coast grew in material
+splendour under the munificence of Hellenistic kings. Its centres of
+gravity to some extent shifted. There was a tendency towards
+concentration in large cities of the new type, which caused many of the
+lesser towns, like Lebedus, Myus or Colophon, to sink to insignificance,
+while Ephesus grew in greatness and wealth, and Smyrna rose again after
+an extinction of four centuries. The great importance of Rhodes belongs
+to the days after Alexander, when it received the riches of the East
+from the trade-routes which debouched into the Mediterranean at
+Alexandria and Antioch. In Aeolis, of course, the centre of gravity
+moved to the Attalid capital, Pergamum. It was the irruption of the
+Celts, beginning in 278-277 B.C., which checked the Hellenization of the
+interior. Not only did the Galatian tribes take large tracts towards the
+north of the plateau in possession, but they were an element of
+perpetual unrest, which hampered and distracted the Hellenistic
+monarchies. The wars, therefore, in which the Pergamene kings in the
+latter part of the 3rd century stemmed their aggressions, had the glory
+of a Hellenic crusade.
+
+
+  Native dynasties.
+
+The minor dynasties of non-Greek origin, the native Bithynian and the
+two Persian dynasties in Pontus and Cappadocia, were Hellenized before
+the Romans drove the Seleucid out of the country. In Bithynia the upper
+classes seem to have followed the fashion of the court (Beloch iii. [i.],
+278); the dynasty of Pontus was phil-hellenic by ancestral tradition;
+the dynasty of Cappadocia, the most conservative, dated its conversion
+to Hellenism from the time when a Seleucid princess came to reign there
+early in the 2nd century B.C. as the wife of Ariarathes V. (Diod. xxxi.
+19. 8). But Hellenism in Cappadocia was for centuries to come still
+confined to the castles of the king and the barons, and the few towns.
+
+
+  Hellenism under Roman sway.
+
+When Rome began to interfere in Asia Minor, its first action was to
+break the power of the Gauls (189 B.C.). In 133 Rome entered formally
+upon the heritage of the Attalid kingdom and became the dominant power
+in the Anatolian peninsula for 1200 years. Under Rome the process of
+Hellenization, which the divisions and weakness of the Macedonian
+kingdoms had checked, went forward. The coast regions of the west and
+south the Romans found already Hellenized. In Lydia "not a trace" of the
+old language was left in Strabo's time (Strabo xiv. 631); in Lycia, the
+old language became obsolete in the early days of Macedonian rule (see
+Kalinka, _Tituli Asiae minoris_, i. 8). But inland, in Phrygia,
+Hellenism had as yet made little headway outside the Greek cities. Even
+the Attalids had not effected much here (Korte, _Athen. Mitth._ xxiii.,
+1898, p. 152), and under the Romans, the penetration of the interior by
+Hellenism was slow. It was not till the reign of Hadrian that city life
+on the Phrygian plateau became rich and vigorous, with its material
+circumstances of temples, theatres and baths. Among the villages of the
+north and east of Phrygia, Hellenism "was only beginning to make itself
+felt in the middle of the 3rd century A.D." (Ramsay in Kuhn's _Zeitsch.
+f. vergleich. Sprachforschung_, xxviii., 1885, p. 382). Gravestones in
+this region as late as the 4th century curse violators in the old
+Phrygian speech. The lower classes at Lystra in St Paul's time spoke
+Lycaonian (Acts xiv. 11). In that part of Phrygia, which by the
+settlement of the Celtic invaders became Galatia, the larger towns seem
+to have become Hellenized by the time of the Christian era, whilst the
+Celtic speech maintained itself in the country villages till the 4th
+century A.D. (Jerome, Preface to Comment, in _Epist. ad Gal._ book ii.;
+see J. G. C. Anderson, _Journ. of Hell. Stud._ xix., 1899, p. 312 f.).
+Cappadocia at the beginning of the Christian era was still comparatively
+townless (Strabo xii. 537), a country of large estates with a servile
+peasantry. Even in the 4th century its Hellenization was still far from
+complete; but Christianity had assimilated so much of the older Hellenic
+culture that the Church was now a main propagator of Hellenism in the
+backward regions. The native languages of Asia Minor all ultimately gave
+way to Greek (unless Phrygian lingered on in parts till the Turkish
+invasions; see Mordtmann, _Sitzungsb. d. bayer. Ak._ 1862, i. p. 30; K.
+Holl in _Hermes_, xliii., 1908, p. 240 f.). The effective Hellenization
+of Armenia did not take place till the 5th century, when the school of
+Mesrop and Sahak gave Armenia a literature translated from, or
+imitating, Greek books (Gelzer in I. v. Muller's _Handbuch_, vol. ix.
+Abt. i. p. 916.)
+
+
+  Seleucid empire.
+
+  Roman period.
+
+(iv.) _Syria._--In Syria, which with Cilicia and Mesopotamia, formed the
+central part of the Seleucid empire, the new colonies were especially
+numerous. Alexander himself had perhaps made a beginning with
+Alexandria-by-Issus (mod. Alexandretta), Samaria, Pella (the later
+Apamea), Carrhae, &c. Antigonus founded Antigonia, which was absorbed a
+few years later by Antioch, and after the fall of Antigonus in 301, the
+work of planting Syria with Greek cities was pursued effectively north
+of the Lebanon by the house of Seleucus, and, less energetically, south
+of the Lebanon by the house of Ptolemy. In the north of Syria four
+cities stood pre-eminent above the rest, (1) Antioch on the Orontes, the
+Seleucid capital; (2) Seleucia-in-Pieria near the mouth of the Orontes,
+which guarded the approach to Antioch from the sea; (3) Apamea (mod.
+Famia), on the middle Orontes, the military headquarters of the kingdom;
+and (4) Laodicea "on sea" (_ad mare_), which had a commercial importance
+in connexion with the export of Syrian wine. Of the Ptolemaic
+foundations in Coele-Syria only one attained an importance comparable
+with that of the larger Seleucid foundations, Ptolemais on the coast,
+which was the old Semitic Acco transformed (mod. Acre). The group of
+Greek cities east of the Jordan also fell within the Ptolemaic realm
+during the 3rd century B.C., though their greatness belonged to a
+somewhat later day. The whole of Syria was brought under the Seleucid
+sceptre, together with Cilicia, by Antiochus III. the Great (223-187
+B.C.). Under his son, Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164), a fresh impulse
+was given to Syrian Hellenism. In 1 Maccabees he is represented as
+writing an order to all his subjects to forsake the ways of their
+fathers and conform to a single prescribed pattern, and though in this
+form the account can hardly be exact, it does no doubt represent the
+spirit of his action. Other facts there are which point the same way. We
+now find a sudden issue of bronze money by a large number of the cities
+of the kingdom in their own name--an indication of liberties extended or
+confirmed. Many of them exchange their existing name for that of Antioch
+(Adana, Tarsus, Gadara, Ptolemais), Seleucia (Mopsuestia, Gadara) or
+Epiphanea (Oeniandus, Hamath). At Antioch itself great public works were
+carried out, such as were involved in the addition of a new quarter to
+the city, including, we may suppose, the civic council chamber which is
+afterwards spoken of as being here. With the ever-growing weakness of
+the Seleucid dynasty, the independence and activity of the cities
+increased, although, if, on the one hand, they were less suppressed by a
+strong central government, they were less protected against military
+adventurers and barbarian chieftains. Accordingly, when Pompey annexed
+Syria in 64 B.C. as a Roman province, he found it a chaos of city-states
+and petty principalities. The Nabataeans and the Jews above all had
+encroached upon the Hellenistic domain; in the south the Jewish raids
+had spread desolation and left many cities practically in ruins. Under
+Roman protection, the cities were soon rebuilt and Hellenism secured
+from the barbarian peril. Greek city life, with its political forms, its
+complement of festivities, amusements and intellectual exercise, went on
+more largely than before. The great majority of the Hellenistic remains
+in Syria belong to the Roman period. Such local dynasties as were
+suffered by the Romans to exist had, of course, a Hellenistic
+complexion. Especially was this the case with that of the Herods. Not
+only were such marks of Hellenism as a theatre introduced by Herod the
+Great (37-34 B.C.) at Jerusalem, but in the work of city-building this
+dynasty showed itself active. Sebaste (the old Samaria), Caesarea,
+Antipatris were built by Herod the Great, Tiberias by Herod Antipas (4
+B.C.-A.D. 39). The reclaiming of the wild district of Hauran for
+civilization and Hellenistic life was due in the first instance to the
+house of Herod (Schurer, _Gesch. d. jud. Volk._ 3rd ed., ii. p. 12 f.).
+In Syria, too, Hellenism under the Romans advanced upon new ground.
+Palmyra, of which we hear nothing before Roman times, is a notable
+instance.
+
+
+  Greek culture in Syria.
+
+As to the effect of this network of Greek cities upon the aboriginal
+population of Syria, we do not find here the same disappearance of
+native languages and racial characteristics as in Asia Minor. Still less
+was this the case in Mesopotamia, where a strong native element in such
+a city as Edessa is indicated by its epithet [Greek: mixobarbaros]. The
+old cults naturally went on, and at Carrhae (Harran) even survived the
+establishment of Christianity. The lower classes at Antioch, and no
+doubt in the cities generally, were in speech Aramaic or bilingual; we
+find Aramaic popular nicknames of the later Seleucids (K. O. Muller,
+_Antiq. Ant._ p. 29). The villages, of course, spoke Aramaic. The richer
+natives, on the other hand, those who made their way into the educated
+classes of the towns, and attained official position, would become
+Hellenized in language and manners, and the "Syrian Code" shows how far
+the social structure was modified by the Hellenic tradition (Mitteis,
+_Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in den ost. Provinzen des rom.
+Kaiserreichs_, 1891; Arnold Meyer, _Jesu Muttersprache_, 1896). Of the
+Syrians who made their mark in Greek literature, some were of native
+blood, e.g. Lucian of Samosata.
+
+One may notice the great part taken by natives of the Phoenician cities
+in the history of later Greek philosophy, and in the poetic movement of
+the last century B.C., which led to fresh cultivation of the epigram.
+Greek, in fact, held the field as the language of literature and polite
+society. Possibly at places like Edessa, which for some 350 years (till
+A.D. 216) was under a dynasty of native princes, Aramaic was cultivated
+as a literary language. There was a Syriac-speaking church here as early
+as the 2nd century, and with the spread of Christianity Syriac asserted
+itself against Greek. The Syriac literature which we possess is all
+Christian.
+
+_But where Greek gave place to Syriac, Hellenism was not thereby
+effaced. It was to some extent the passing over of the Hellenic
+tradition into a new medium._ We must remember the marked Hellenic
+elements in Christian theology. The earliest Syriac work which we
+possess, the book "On Fate," produced in the circle of the heretic
+Bardaisan or Bardesanes (end of the 2nd century), largely follows Greek
+models. There was an extensive translation of Greek works into Syriac
+during the next centuries, handbooks of philosophy and science for the
+most part. The version of Homer into Syriac verses made in the 8th
+century has perished, all but a few lines (R. Duval, _La Litt.
+syriaque_, 1900, p. 325).
+
+
+  The Jews.
+
+(v.) _The relation of the Jews to Hellenism_ in the first century and a
+half of Macedonian rule is very obscure, since the statements made by
+later writers like Josephus, as to the visit of Alexander to Jerusalem
+or the privileges conferred upon the Jews in the new Macedonian realms
+are justly suspected of being fiction. It has been maintained that Greek
+influence is to be traced in parts of the Old Testament assigned to this
+period, as, for instance, the Book of Proverbs; but even in the case of
+Ecclesiastes, the canonical writing whose affinity with Greek thought is
+closest, the coincidence of idea need not necessarily prove a Greek
+source. The one solid fact in this connexion is the translation of the
+Jewish Law into Greek in the 3rd century B.C., implying a Jewish
+Diaspora at Alexandria, so far Hellenized as to have forgotten the
+speech of Palestine. Early in the 2nd century B.C. we see that the
+priestly aristocracy of Jerusalem had, like the well-to-do classes
+everywhere in Syria, been carried away by the Hellenistic current, its
+strength being evidenced no less by the intensity of the conservative
+opposition embodied in the party of the "Pious" (Assideans, _Hasidim_).
+
+Under Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-165) the Hellenistic aristocracy
+contrived to get Jerusalem converted into a Greek city; the gymnasium
+appeared, and Greek dress became fashionable with the young men. But
+when Antiochus, owing to political developments, interfered violently at
+Jerusalem, the conservative opposition carried the nation with them. The
+revolt under the Hasmonaean family (Judas Maccabaeus and his brethren)
+followed, ending in 143-142 in the establishment of an independent
+Jewish state under a Hasmonaean prince. But whilst the old Hellenistic
+party had been crushed the Hasmonaean state was of the nature of a
+compromise. The Mosaic Law was respected, but Hellenism still found an
+entrance in various forms. The first Hasmonaean "king," Aristobulus I.
+(104-103), was known to the Greeks as Phil-hellen. He and all later
+kings of the dynasty bear Greek names as well as Hebrew ones, and after
+Jannaeus Alexander (103-76) the Greek legends are common on the coins
+beside the Hebrew. Herod, who supplanted the Hasmonaean dynasty (37-34
+B.C.) made, outside Judaea, a display of Phil-hellenism, building new
+Greek cities and temples, or bestowing gifts upon the older ones of
+fame. His court, at the same time, welcomed Greek men of letters like
+Nicolaus of Damascus. Even in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, he erected
+a theatre and an amphitheatre. We have already noticed the work done by
+the Herodian dynasty in furthering Hellenism in Syria (see Schurer,
+_Gesch. des judisch. Volkes_, vols. i. and ii.). Meanwhile a great part
+of the Jewish people was living dispersed among the cities of the Greek
+world, speaking Greek as their mother-tongue, and absorbing Greek
+influences in much larger measure than their brethren of Palestine.
+These are the Jews whom we find contrasted as "Hellenists" with the
+"Hebrews" in Acts. They still kept in touch with the mother-city, and
+indeed we hear of special synagogues in Jerusalem in which the
+Hellenists temporarily resident there gathered (Acts vi. 9). A large
+Jewish literature in Greek had grown up since the translation of the Law
+in the 3rd century. Beside the other canonical books of the Old
+Testament, translated in many cases with modifications or additions, it
+included translations of other Hebrew books (Ecclesiasticus, Judith,
+&c.), works composed originally in Greek but imitating to some extent
+the Hebraic style (like Wisdom), works modelled more closely on the
+Greek literary tradition, either historical, like 2 Maccabees, or
+philosophical, like the productions of the Alexandrian school,
+represented for us by Aristobulus and Philo, in which style and thought
+are almost wholly Greek and the reference to the Old Testament a mere
+pretext; or Greek poems on Jewish subjects, like the epic of the elder
+Philo and Ezechiel's tragedy, _Exagoge_. It included also a number of
+forgeries, circulated under the names of famous Greek authors, verses
+fathered upon Aeschylus or Sophocles, or books like the false Hecataeus,
+or above all the pretended prophecies of ancient Sibyls in epic verse.
+These frauds were all contrived for the heathen public, as a means of
+propaganda, calculated to inspire them with respect for Jewish antiquity
+or turn them from idols to God.
+
+  For Jewish Hellenism see Schurer, _op. cit._ iii.; Susemihl, _Gesch.
+  der griech. Lit. in der Alexandrinerzeit_, ii. 601 f.; Willrich,
+  _Juden und Griechen_ (1895), _Judaica_ (1900); Hastings' _Dict. of the
+  Bible_, art. "Greece"; _Encyclop. Biblica_, art. "Hellenism";
+  Pauly-Wissowa, art. "Aristobulus (15)"; also the work of P. Wendland
+  cited above.
+
+Through the Hellenistic Jews, Greek influences reached Jerusalem itself,
+though their effect upon the Aramaic-speaking Rabbinical schools was
+naturally not so pronounced. The large number of Greek words, however,
+in the language of the Mishnah and the Talmud is a significant
+phenomenon. The attitude of the Rabbinic doctors to a Greek education
+does not seem to have been hostile till the time of Hadrian. The sect of
+the Essenes probably shows an intermingling of the Greek with other
+lines of tradition among the Jews of Palestine.
+
+  See Schurer ii. 42-67, 583; S. Krauss, _Griech. u. latein. Lehnworter
+  im Talmud_ (1898); _Jewish Encyclopedia_, art. "Greek Language."
+
+
+  Ptolemaic kingdom.
+
+(vi.) _In Egypt_ the Ptolemies were hindered by special considerations
+from building Greek cities after the manner of the other Macedonian
+houses. One Greek city they found existing, Naucratis; Alexander had
+called Alexandria into being; the first Ptolemy added Ptolemais as a
+Greek centre for Upper Egypt. They seem to have suffered no other
+community in the Nile Valley with the independent life of a Greek city,
+for the Greek and Macedonian soldier-colonies settled in the Fayum or
+elsewhere had no political self-existence. And even at Alexandria
+Hellenism was not allowed full development. Ptolemais, indeed, enjoyed
+all the ordinary forms of self-government, but Alexandria was governed
+despotically by royal officials. In its population, too, Alexandria was
+only semi-Hellenic; for besides the proportion of Egyptian natives in
+its lower strata, its commercial greatness drew in elements from every
+quarter; the Jews, for instance, formed a majority of the population in
+two out of the five divisions of the city. At the same time the
+prevalent tone of the populace was, no doubt, Hellenistic, as is shown
+by the fact that the Jews who settled there acquired Greek in place of
+Aramaic as their mother-tongue, and in its upper circles Alexandrian
+society under the Ptolemies was not only Hellenistic, but notable among
+the Hellenes for its literary and artistic brilliance. The state
+university, the "Museum," was in close connexion with the court, and
+gave to Alexandria the same pre-eminence in natural science and literary
+scholarship which Athens had in moral philosophy.
+
+Probably in no other country, except Judaea, did Hellenism encounter as
+stubborn a national antagonism as in Egypt. The common description of
+"the Oriental" as indurated in his antagonism to the alien conqueror
+here perhaps has some truth in it. The assault made upon the Macedonian
+devotee in the temple of Serapis at Memphis "because he was a Greek" is
+significant (_Papyr. Brit. Mus._ i. No. 44; cf. Grenfell, _Amherst
+Papyr._ p. 48). And yet even here one must observe qualifications The
+papyri show us habitual marriage of Greeks and native women and a
+frequent adoption by natives of Greek names. It has even been thought
+that some developments of the Egyptian religion are due to Hellenistic
+influence, such as the deification of Imhotp (Bissing, _Deutsche
+Literaturzeitung_, 1902, col. 2330) or the practice of forming voluntary
+religious associations (Otto, _Priester und Tempel_, i. 125). The
+worship of Serapis was patronized by the court with the very object of
+affording a mixed cultus in which Greek and native might unite. In
+Egypt, too, the triumph of Christianity brought into being a native
+Christian literature, and if this was in one way the assertion of the
+native against Hellenistic predominance, one must remember that Coptic
+literature, like Syriac, necessarily incorporated those Greek elements
+which had become an essential part of Christian theology.
+
+
+  Ethiopia.
+
+From the Ptolemaic kingdom Hellenism early travelled up the Nile into
+Ethiopia. Ergamenes, the king of the Ethiopians in the time of the
+second Ptolemy, "who had received a Greek education and cultivated
+philosophy," broke with the native priesthood (Diod. iii. 6), and from
+that time traces of Greek influence continue to be found in the
+monuments of the Upper Nile. When Ethiopia became a Christian country in
+the 4th century, its connexion with the Hellenistic world became closer.
+
+
+  Greek culture in the Roman world.
+
+(vii.) _Hellenism in the West._--Whilst in the East Hellenism had been
+sustained by the political supremacy of the Greeks, in Italy _Graecia
+capta_ had only the inherent power and charm of her culture wherewith to
+win her way. At Carthage in the 3rd century the educated classes seem
+generally to have been familiar with Greek culture (Bernhardy,
+_Grundriss d. griech. Lit._ S 77). The philosopher Clitomachus, who
+presided over the Academy at Athens in the 2nd century, was a
+Carthaginian. Even before Alexander, as we saw, Hellenism had affected
+the peoples of Italy, but it was not till the Greeks of south Italy and
+Sicily were brought under the supremacy of Rome in the 3rd century B.C.
+that the stream of Greek influence entered Rome in any volume. It was
+now that the Greek freedman, L. Livius Andronicus, laid the foundation
+of a new Latin literature by his translation of the _Odyssey_, and that
+the Greek dramas were recast in a Latin mould. The first Romans who set
+about writing history wrote in Greek. At the end of the 3rd century
+there was a circle of enthusiastic phil-hellenes among the Roman
+aristocracy, led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, who in Rome's name
+proclaimed the autonomy of the Greeks at the Isthmian games of 196. In
+the middle of the 2nd century Roman Hellenism centred in the circle of
+Scipio Aemilianus, which included men like Polybius and the philosopher
+Panaetius. The visit of the three great philosophers, Diogenes the
+"Babylonian," Critolaus and Carneades in 155, was an epoch-making event
+in the history of Hellenism at Rome. Opposition there could not fail to
+be, and in 161 a _senatus consultum_ ordered all Greek philosophers and
+rhetoricians to leave the city. The effect of such measures was, of
+course, transient. Even though the opposition found so doughty a
+champion as the elder Cato (censor in 184), it was ultimately of no
+avail. The Italians did not indeed surrender themselves passively to the
+Greek tradition. In different departments of culture the degree of their
+independence was different. The system of government framed by Rome was
+an original creation. Even in the spheres of art and literature, the
+Italians, while so largely guided by Greek canons, had something of
+their own to contribute. The mere fact that they produced a literature
+in Latin argues a power of creation as well as receptivity. The great
+Latin poets were imitators indeed, but _mere_ imitators they were no
+more than Petrarch or Milton. On the other hand, even where the creative
+originality of Rome was most pronounced, as in the sphere of Law, there
+were elements of Hellenic origin. It has been often pointed out how the
+Stoic philosophy especially helped to shape Roman jurisprudence
+(Schmekel, _Philos. d. mittl. Stoa_, p. 454 f.).
+
+Whilst the upper classes in Italy absorbed Greek influences by their
+education, by the literary and artistic tradition, the lower strata of
+the population of Rome became largely hellenized by the actual influx on
+a vast scale of Greeks and hellenized Asiatics, brought in for the most
+part as slaves, and coalescing as freedmen with the citizen body. Of the
+Jewish inscriptions found at Rome some two-thirds are in Greek. So too
+the early Christian church in Rome, to which St Paul addressed his
+epistle, was Greek-speaking, and continued to be till far into the 3rd
+century.
+
+
+  The middle ages.
+
+  Islam.
+
+III. LATER HISTORY.--It remains only to glance at the ultimate destinies
+of Hellenism in West and East. In the Latin West knowledge of Greek,
+first-hand acquaintance with the Greek classics, became rarer and rarer
+as general culture declined, till in the dark ages (after the 5th
+century) it existed practically nowhere but in Ireland (Sandys, _History
+of Classical Scholarship_, i. 438). In Latin literature, however, a
+great mass of Hellenistic tradition in a derived form was maintained in
+currency, wherever, that is, culture of any kind continued to exist. It
+was a small number of monkish communities whose care of those narrow
+channels prevented their ever drying up altogether. Then the stream
+began to rise again, first with the influx of the learning of the
+Spanish Moors, then with the new knowledge of Greek brought from
+Constantinople in the 14th century. With the Renaissance and the new
+learning, Hellenism came in again in flood, to form a chief part of that
+great river on which the modern world is being carried forward into a
+future, of which one can only say that it must be utterly unlike
+anything that has gone before. In the East it is popularly thought that
+Hellenism, as an exotic, withered altogether away. This view is
+superficial. During the dark ages, in the Byzantine East, as well as in
+the West, Hellenism had become little more than a dried and shrivelled
+tradition, although the closer study of Byzantine culture in latter
+years has seemed to discover more vitality than was once supposed.
+Ultimately the Greek East was absorbed by Islam; the popular mistake
+lies in supposing that the Hellenistic tradition thereby came to an end.
+The Mahommedan conquerors found a considerable part of it taken over,
+as we saw, by the Syrian Christians, and Greek philosophical and
+scientific classics were now translated from Syriac into Arabic. These
+were the starting-points for the Mahommedan schools in these subjects.
+Accordingly we find that Arabian philosophy (q.v.), mathematics,
+geography, medicine and philology are all based professedly upon Greek
+works (Brockelmann, _Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur_, 1898, vol. i.; R.
+A. Nicholson, _A Literary History of the Arabs_, 1907, pp. 358-361).
+Aristotle in the East no less than in the West was the "master of them
+that know"; and Moslem physicians to this day invoke the names of
+Hippocrates and Galen. The Hellenistic strain in Mahommedan civilization
+has, it is true, flagged and failed, but only as that civilization as a
+whole has declined. It was not that the Hellenistic element failed,
+whilst the native elements in the civilization prospered; the culture of
+Islam has, as a whole (from whatever causes), sunk ever lower during the
+centuries that have witnessed the marvellous expansion of Europe.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For the inner history of Hellenism after Alexander, the
+  general historical literature dealing with later Greece and Rome
+  supplies material in various degrees. See works quoted in articles
+  GREECE, _History_; ROME, _History_; PTOLEMIES; SELEUCID DYNASTY;
+  BACTRIA, &c.
+
+  Different elements (literature, philosophy, art, &c.) are dealt with
+  in works dealing specially with these subjects, among which those of
+  Susemihl, Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Erwin Rohde and E. Schwartz are of
+  especial importance for the literature; those of Schreiber and
+  Strzygowski for the later Greek art.
+
+  Sketches of Hellenistic civilization generally are found in J. P.
+  Mahaffy's _Greek Life and Thought_ (1887), _The Greek World under
+  Roman Sway_ (1890); _The Silver Age of the Greek World_ (1906); Julius
+  Kaerst, _Gesch. d. hellenist. Zeitalters_ (Band ii., publ. 1909); and
+  in Beloch's _Griechische Geschichte_, vol. iii. (for the century
+  immediately succeeding Alexander). R. von Scala's "The Greeks after
+  Alexander," in Helmolt's _History of the World_ (vol. v.), covers the
+  whole period from Alexander to the end of the Byzantine Empire. P.
+  Wendland's _Hellenistisch-romische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu
+  Judentum u. Christentum_ (1907) is an illuminating monograph, giving a
+  conspectus of the material. For Hellenistic Egypt, Bouche-Leclercq,
+  _Histoire des Lagides_, vol. iii. (1906).     (E. R. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See, among recent writers, on one side Kaerst, _Gesch. des
+    hellenist. Zeitalters_, pp. 97 f., and on the other Beloch, _Griech.
+    Gesch._, iii. [i.] 1-9; Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Gesch. d.
+    griech. Sprache_, p. 283 f.; O. Hoffmann, _Die Makedonen, ihre
+    Sprache u. ihr Volkstum_ (1906).
+
+  [2] "Ce sont les Tadjik de l'Afghanistan qui constituent les
+    trente-deux corps de metier, qui tiennent boutique, expedient les
+    marchandises, representent, en un mot, la vie industrielle et
+    commerciale de la nation. Ce sont aussi les Tadjik des villes qui
+    forment la classe lettree, et qui ont empeche les Afghans de retomber
+    dans la barbarie." (Reclus, _Nouvelle Geograph. univ._ ix. p. 71.)
+
+
+
+
+HELLER, STEPHEN (1815-1888), Austrian pianist and composer, was born at
+Pest on the 15th of May 1815. (Fetis's dictionary says 1814, but this is
+almost certainly wrong.) He was at first intended for a lawyer, but at
+nine years of age performed so successfully at a concert that he was
+sent to Vienna to study under Czerny. Halm was his principal master, and
+from the age of twelve he gave concerts in Vienna, and made a tour
+through Hungary, Poland and Germany. At Augsburg he had the good fortune
+to be befriended when ill by a wealthy family, who practically adopted
+him and gave him the opportunity to complete his musical education. In
+1838 he went to Paris, and soon became intimate with Liszt, Chopin,
+Berlioz and their set, among whom was Halle, throughout his life an
+indefatigable performer of Heller's music. In 1849 he came to England
+and played a few times, and in 1862 he appeared with Halle at the
+Crystal Palace. He outlived the great reputation he had enjoyed among
+cultivated amateurs for so many years, and was almost forgotten when he
+died at Paris on the 14th of January 1888. His pianoforte pieces, almost
+all of them published in sets and provided with fancy names, do not show
+very startling originality, but their grace and refinement could not but
+make them popular with players and listeners of all classes.
+
+
+
+
+HELLESPONT (i.e. "Sea of Helle"; variously named in classical literature
+[Greek: Hellespontos], [Greek: ho Helles pontos], _Hellespontum
+Pelagus_, and _Fretum Hellesponticum_), the ancient name of the
+Dardanelles (q.v.). It was so-called from Helle, the daughter of Athamas
+(q.v.), who was drowned here. See ARGONAUTS.
+
+
+
+
+HELLEVOETSLUIS, or HELVOETSLUIS, a fortified seaport in the province of
+South Holland, the kingdom of Holland, on the south side of the island
+of Voorne-and-Putten, on the sea-arm known as the Haringvliet, 5(1/2) m.
+S. of Brielle. It has daily steamboat connexion with Rotterdam by the
+Voornsche canal. Pop. (1900), 4152. Hellevoetsluis is an important naval
+station, and possesses a naval arsenal, dry and wet docks, wharves and a
+naval college for engineers. Among the public buildings are the
+communal chambers, a Reformed church (1661), a Roman Catholic church and
+a synagogue.
+
+
+
+
+HELLIN, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Albacete, on
+the Albacete-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 12,558. Hellin is built on the
+outskirts of the low hills which line the left bank of the river Mundo.
+It possesses the remains of an old Roman castle and a beautiful parish
+church, the masonry and marble pavement at the entrance of which are
+worthy of special notice. The surrounding country yields wine, oil and
+saffron in abundance; within the town there are manufactures of coarse
+cloth, leather and pottery. Sulphur is obtained from the celebrated
+mining district of Minas del Mundo, 12 m. S., at the junction between
+the Mundo and the Segura; and there are warm sulphurous springs in the
+neighbouring village of Azaraque. Hellin was known to the Romans who
+first exploited its sulphur as Illunum.
+
+
+
+
+HELLO, ERNEST (1828-1885), French critic, was born at Treguier. He was
+the son of a lawyer who held posts of great importance at Rennes and in
+Paris, and was well educated at both places, but took to no profession
+and resided much, for a time, in his father's country-house in Brittany.
+A very strong Roman Catholic, he appears to have been specially excited
+by his countryman Renan's attitude to religious matters, and coming
+under the influence of J. A. Barbey d'Aurevilly and Louis Veuillot, the
+two most brilliant crusaders of the Church in the press, he started a
+newspaper of his own, _Le Croise_, in 1859; but it only lasted two
+years. He wrote, however, much in other papers. He had very bad health,
+suffering apparently from spinal or bone disease. But he was fortunate
+enough to meet with a wife, Zoe Berthier, who, ten years older than
+himself, and a friend for some years before their marriage, became his
+devoted nurse, and even brought upon herself abuse from gutter
+journalists of the time for the care with which she guarded him. He died
+in 1885. Hello's work is somewhat varied in form but uniform in spirit.
+His best-known book, _Physionomie de saints_ (1875), which has been
+translated into English (1903) as _Studies in Saintship_, does not
+display his qualities best. _Contes extraordinaires_, published not long
+before his death, is better and more original. But the real Hello is to
+be found in a series of philosophical and critical essays, from _Renan,
+l'Allemagne et l'atheisme_ (1861), through _L'Homme_ (1871) and _Les
+Plateaux de la balance_ (1880), perhaps his chief book, to the
+posthumously published _Le Siecle_. The peculiarity of his standpoint
+and the originality and vigour of his handling make his studies, of
+Shakespeare, Hugo and others, of abiding importance as literary
+"triangulations," results of object, subject and point of view.
+
+
+
+
+HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK (1767-1813), Dutch poet, was born at Amsterdam on
+the 7th of March 1767. His early poems, _Night_ (1788) and _Socrates_
+(1790), were tame and sentimental, but after 1805 he determined, in
+company with his brother-in-law, Cornelis Loots (1765-1834), to rouse
+national feeling by a burst of patriotic poetry. His _Poems_ (2 vols.,
+1809-1810), but especially his great work _The Dutch Nation_, a poem in
+six cantos (1812), created great enthusiasm and enjoyed immense success.
+Helmers died at Amsterdam on the 26th of February 1813. He owed his
+success mainly to the integrity of his patriotism and the opportune
+moment at which he sounded his counterblast to the French oppression.
+His posthumous poems were collected in 1815.
+
+
+
+
+HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON (1803-1885), Russian geologist, was born at
+Laugut-Duckershof, near Dorpat, on the 29th of September (O.S.) 1803. He
+received an engineering training and became major-general in the corps
+of Mining Engineers. In 1837 he was appointed professor of geology in
+the mining institute at St Petersburg. He was author of numerous memoirs
+on the geology of Russia, especially on the coal and other mineral
+deposits of the country; and he wrote also some explanations to
+accompany separate sheets of the geological map of Russia. His
+geological work was continued to an advanced age, one of the later
+publications being _Studien uber die Wanderblocke und die
+Diluvialgebilde Russlands_ (1869 and 1882). Most of his memoirs were
+published by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg. He died
+at St Petersburg on the 3rd of February (O.S.) 1885.
+
+
+
+
+HELMET (from an obsolete diminutive of O. Fr. _helme_, mod. _heaume_;
+the English word is "helm," as in O. Eng., Dutch and Ger.; all are from
+the Teutonic base _hal_-, pre-Teut. _kal_-, to cover; cf. Lat. _celare_,
+to hide, Eng. "hell," &c.), a defensive covering for the head. The
+present article deals with the helmet during the middle ages down to the
+close of the period when body armour was worn. For the helmet worn by
+the Greeks and Romans see ARMS AND ARMOUR.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Casque with Neck-guard.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Casque with Nasal and Mail Hood.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Heaume, early 13th century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Heaume, 15th century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Heaume, 15th century.]
+
+The head-dress of the warriors of the dark ages and of the earlier
+feudal period was far from being the elaborate helmet which is
+associated in the imagination with the knight in armour and the tourney.
+It was a mere casque, a cap with or without additional safeguards for
+the ears, the nape of the neck and the nose (fig. 1). By those warriors
+who possessed the means to equip themselves fully, the casque was worn
+over a hood of mail, as shown in fig. 2. In manuscripts, &c., armoured
+men are sometimes portrayed fighting in their hoods, without casques,
+basinets or other form of helmet. The casque was, of course, normally of
+plate, but in some instances it was a strong leather cap covered with
+mail or imbricated plates. The most advanced form of this early helmet
+is the conical steel or iron cap with nasal (fig. 2), worn in
+conjunction with the hood of mail. This is the typical helmet of the
+11th-century warrior, and is made familiar by the Bayeux Tapestry. From
+this point however (c. 1100) the evolution of war head-gear follows two
+different paths for many years. On the one hand the simple casque easily
+transformed itself into the _basinet_, originally a pointed iron
+skull-cap without nasal, ear-guards, &c. On the other hand the knight in
+armour, especially after the fashion of the tournament set in, found the
+mere cap with nasal insufficient, and the _heaume_ (or "helmet")
+gradually came into vogue. This was in principle a large heavy iron pot
+covering the head and neck. Often a light basinet was worn underneath
+it--or rather the knight usually wore his basinet and only put the
+heaume on over it at the last moment before engaging. The earlier (12th
+century) war heaumes are intended to be worn with the mail hood and have
+nasals (fig. 3). Towards the end of the 13th century, however, the
+basinet grew in size and strength, just as the casque had grown, and
+began to challenge comparison with the heavy and clumsy heaume.
+Thereupon the heaume became, by degrees, the special head-dress of the
+tournament, and grew heavier, larger and more elaborate, while the
+basinet, reinforced with camail and vizor, was worn in battle. Types of
+the later, purely tilting, heaume are shown in figs. 4 and 5.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Basinets.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Salades or Sallets.]
+
+The basinet, then, is the battle head-dress of nobles, knights and
+sergeants in the 14th century. Its development from the 10th-century cap
+to the towering helmet of 1350, with its long snouted vizor and ample
+drooping "camail," is shown in fig. 6, a, b, c and d, the two latter
+showing the same helmet with vizor down and up. But the tendency set in
+during the earlier years of the 15th century to make all parts of the
+armour thicker. Chain "mail" gradually gave way to plate on the body and
+the limbs, remaining only in those parts, such as neck and elbows, where
+flexibility was essential, and even there it was in the end replaced by
+jointed steel bands or small plates. The final step was the discarding of
+the "camail" and the introduction of the "armet." The latter will be
+described later. Soon after the beginning of the 15th century the
+high-crowned basinet gave place to the _salade_ or _sallet_, a helmet
+with a low rounded crown and a long brim or neck-guard at the back. This
+was the typical headpiece of the last half of the Hundred Years' War as
+the vizored basinet had been of the first. Like the basinet it was worn
+in a simple form by archers and pikemen and in a more elaborate form by
+the knights and men-at-arms. The larger and heavier salades were also
+often used instead of the heaume in tournaments. Here again, however,
+there is a great difference between those worn by light armed men,
+foot-soldiers and archers and those of the heavy cavalry. The former,
+while possessing as a rule the bowl shape and the lip or brim of the
+type, and always destitute of the conical point which is the
+distinguishing mark of the basinet, are cut away in front of the face
+(fig. 7 a). In some cases this was remedied in part by the addition of a
+small pivoted vizor, which, however, could not protect the throat. In the
+larger salades of the heavy cavalry the wide brim served to protect the
+whole head, a slit being made in that part of the brim which came in
+front of the eyes (in some examples the whole of the front part of the
+brim was made movable). But the chin and neck, directly opposed to the
+enemy's blows, were scarcely protected at all, and with these helmets a
+large volant-piece or beaver (_mentonniere_)--usually a continuation of
+the body armour up to the chin or even beyond--was worn for this purpose,
+as shown in fig. 7 b. This arrangement combined, in a rough way, the
+advantages of freedom of movement for the head with adequate protection
+for the neck and lower part of the face. The _armet_, which came into use
+about 1475-1500 and completely superseded the salade, realized these
+requirements far better, and later at the zenith of the armourer's art
+(about 1520) and throughout the period of the decline of armour it
+remained the standard pattern of helmet, whether for war or for
+tournament. It figures indeed in nearly all portraits of kings, nobles
+and soldiers up to the time of Frederick the Great, either with the suit
+of armour or half-armour worn by the subject of the portrait or in
+allegorical trophies, &c. The armet was a fairly close-fitting rounded
+shell of iron or steel, with a movable vizor in front and complete
+plating over chin, ears and neck, the latter replacing the mentonniere or
+beaver. The armet was connected to the rest of the suit by the gorget,
+which was usually of thin laminated steel plates. With a good armet and
+gorget there was no weak point for the enemy's sword to attack, a roped
+lower edge of the armet generally fitting into a sort of flange round the
+top of the gorget. Thus, and in other and slightly different ways, was
+solved the problem which in the early days of plate armour had been
+attempted by the clumsy heaume and the flexible, if tough, camail of the
+vizored basinet, and still more clumsily in the succeeding period by the
+salade and its grotesque mentonniere. As far as existing examples show,
+the wide-brimmed salade itself first gave way to the more rounded armet,
+the mentonniere being carried up to the level of the eyes. Then the use
+(growing throughout the 15th century) of laminated armour for the joints
+of the harness probably suggested the gorget, and once this was applied
+to the lower edge of the armet by a satisfactory joint, it was an easy
+step to the elaborate pivoted vizor which completed the new head-dress.
+Types of armets are shown in fig. 8.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Armets.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Burgonets.]
+
+The _burgonet_, often confused with the armet, is the typical helmet of
+the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In its simple form it was worn
+by the foot and light cavalry--though the latter must not be held to
+include the pistol-armed _chevaux-legers_ of the wars of religion, these
+being clad in half-armour and vizored burgonet--and consisted of a
+(generally rounded) cap with a projecting brim shielding the eyes, a
+neck-guard and earpieces. It had almost invariably a crest or comb, as
+shown in the illustrations (fig. 9). Other forms of infantry head-gear
+much in vogue during the 16th century are shown in figs. 10 and 11,
+which represent the _morion_ and _cabasset_ respectively. Both these
+were lighter and smaller than the burgonet; indeed much of their
+popularity was due to the ease with which they were worn or put on and
+off, for in the matter of protection they could not compare with the
+burgonet, which in one form or another was used by cavalry (and often by
+pikemen) up to the final disappearance of armour from the field of
+battle about 1670. Fig. 9 b gives the general outline of richly
+decorated 16th-century Italian burgonet which is preserved in Vienna.
+The archetype of the burgonet is perhaps the casque worn by the Swiss
+infantry (fig. 9 a) at the epoch of Marignan (1515). This was probably
+copied by them from their former Burgundian antagonists, whose connexion
+with this helmet is sufficiently indicated by its name. The lower part
+of the more elaborate burgonets worn by nobles and cavalrymen is often
+formed into a complete covering for the ears, cheek and chin, and
+connected closely with the gorget. They therefore resemble the armets
+and have often been confused with them, but the distinguishing feature
+of the burgonet is invariably the front peak. Various forms of vizor
+were fitted to such helmets; these as a rule were either fixed bars
+(fig. 9 c) or mere upward continuations of the chin piece. Often a nasal
+was the only face protection (fig. 9 d, a Hungarian type). The latest
+form of the burgonet used in active service is the familiar Cromwellian
+cavalry helmet with its straight brim, from which depends the slight
+vizor of three bars or stout wires joined together at the bottom.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Morion.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Cabasset.]
+
+The above are of course only the main types. Some writers class all
+remaining examples either as casques or as "war-hats," the latter term
+conveniently covering all those helmets which resemble in any way the
+head-gear of civil life. For illustrations of many curiosities of this
+sort, including the famous iron hat of King Charles I. of England, and
+also for examples of Russian, Mongolian, Indian and Chinese helmets, the
+reader is referred to pp. 262-269 and 285-286 of Demmin's _Arms and
+Armour_ (English edition 1894). The helmets in brass, steel or cloth,
+worn by troops since the general introduction of uniforms and the disuse
+of armour, depend for their shape and material solely on considerations
+of comfort and good appearance. From time to time, however, the
+readoption of serviceable helmets is advocated by cavalrymen, and there
+is much to be said in favour of this. The burgonet, which was the final
+type of war helmet evolved by the old armourers, would certainly appear
+to be by far the best head-gear to adopt should these views prevail, and
+indeed it is still worn, in a modified yet perfectly recognizable form,
+by the German and other cuirassiers.
+
+
+
+
+HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON (1821-1894), German philosopher
+and man of science, was born on the 31st of August 1821 at Potsdam, near
+Berlin. His father, Ferdinand, was a teacher of philology and philosophy
+in the gymnasium, while his mother was a Hanoverian lady, a lineal
+descendant of the great Quaker William Penn. Delicate in early life,
+Helmholtz became by habit a student, and his father at the same time
+directed his thoughts to natural phenomena. He soon showed mathematical
+powers, but these were not fostered by the careful training
+mathematicians usually receive, and it may be said that in after years
+his attention was directed to the higher mathematics mainly by force of
+circumstances. As his parents were poor, and could not afford to allow
+him to follow a purely scientific career, he became a surgeon of the
+Prussian army. In 1842 he wrote a thesis in which he announced the
+discovery of nerve-cells in ganglia. This was his first work, and from
+1842 to 1894, the year of his death, scarcely a year passed without
+several important, and in some cases epoch-making, papers on scientific
+subjects coming from his pen. He lived in Berlin from 1842 to 1849, when
+he became professor of physiology in Konigsberg. There he remained from
+1849 to 1855, when he removed to the chair of physiology in Bonn. In
+1858 he became professor of physiology in Heidelberg, and in 1871 he was
+called to occupy the chair of physics in Berlin. To this professorship
+was added in 1887 the post of director of the physico-technical
+institute at Charlottenburg, near Berlin, and he held the two positions
+together until his death on the 8th of September 1894.
+
+His investigations occupied almost the whole field of science, including
+physiology, physiological optics, physiological acoustics, chemistry,
+mathematics, electricity and magnetism, meteorology and theoretical
+mechanics. At an early age he contributed to our knowledge of the causes
+of putrefaction and fermentation. In physiological science he
+investigated quantitatively the phenomena of animal heat, and he was one
+of the earliest in the field of animal electricity. He studied the
+nature of muscular contraction, causing a muscle to record its movements
+on a smoked glass plate, and he worked out the problem of the velocity
+of the nervous impulse both in the motor nerves of the frog and in the
+sensory nerves of man. In 1847 Helmholtz read to the Physical Society of
+Berlin a famous paper, _Uber die Erhaltung der Kraft_ (on the
+conservation of force), which became one of the epoch-making papers of
+the century; indeed, along with J. R. Mayer, J. P. Joule and W. Thomson
+(Lord Kelvin), he may be regarded as one of the founders of the now
+universally received law of the conservation of energy. The year 1851,
+while he was lecturing on physiology at Konigsberg, saw the brilliant
+invention of the ophthalmoscope, an instrument which has been of
+inestimable value to medicine. It arose from an attempt to demonstrate
+to his class the nature of the glow of reflected light sometimes seen in
+the eyes of animals such as the cat. When the great ophthalmologist, A.
+von Grafe, first saw the fundus of the living human eye, with its optic
+disc and blood-vessels, his face flushed with excitement, and he cried,
+"Helmholtz has unfolded to us a new world!" Helmholtz's contributions to
+physiological optics are of great importance. He investigated the
+optical constants of the eye, measured by his invention, the
+ophthalmometer, the radii of curvature of the crystalline lens for near
+and far vision, explained the mechanism of accommodation by which the
+eye can focus within certain limits, discussed the phenomena of colour
+vision, and gave a luminous account of the movements of the eyeballs so
+as to secure single vision with two eyes. In particular he revived and
+gave new force to the theory of colour-vision associated with the name
+of Thomas Young, showing the three primary colours to be red, green and
+violet, and he applied the theory to the explanation of
+colour-blindness. His great work on _Physiological Optics_ (1856-1866)
+is by far the most important book that has appeared on the physiology
+and physics of vision. Equally distinguished were his labours in
+physiological acoustics. He explained accurately the mechanism of the
+bones of the ear, and he discussed the physiological action of the
+cochlea on the principles of sympathetic vibration. Perhaps his greatest
+contribution, however, was his attempt to account for our perception of
+quality of tone. He showed, both by analysis and by synthesis, that
+quality depends on the order, number and intensity of the overtones or
+harmonics that may, and usually do, enter into the structure of a
+musical tone. He also developed the theory of differential and of
+summational tones. His work on _Sensations of Tone_ (1862) may well be
+termed the _principia_ of physiological acoustics. He may also be said
+to be the founder of the fixed-pitch theory of vowel tones, according to
+which it is asserted that the pitch of a vowel depends on the resonance
+of the mouth, according to the form of the cavity while singing it, and
+this independently of the pitch of the note on which the vowel is sung.
+For the later years of his life his labours may be summed up under the
+following heads: (1) On the conservation of energy; (2) on
+hydro-dynamics; (3) on electro-dynamics and theories of electricity; (4)
+on meteorological physics; (5) on optics; and (6) on the abstract
+principles of dynamics. In all these fields of labour he made important
+contributions to science, and showed himself to be equally great as a
+mathematician and a physicist. He studied the phenomena of electrical
+oscillations from 1869 to 1871, and in the latter year he announced that
+the velocity of the propagation of electromagnetic induction was about
+314,000 metres per second. Faraday had shown that the passage of
+electrical action involved time, and he also asserted that electrical
+phenomena are brought about by changes in intervening non-conductors or
+dielectric substances. This led Clerk Maxwell to frame his theory of
+electro-dynamics, in which electrical impulses were assumed to be
+transmitted through the ether by waves. G. F. Fitzgerald was the first
+to attempt to measure the length of electric waves; Helmholtz put the
+problem into the hands of his favourite pupil, Heinrich Hertz, and the
+latter finally gave an experimental demonstration of electromagnetic
+waves, the "Hertzian waves," on which wireless telegraphy depends, and
+the velocity of which is the same as that of light. The last
+investigations of Helmholtz related to problems in theoretical
+mechanics, more especially as to the relations of matter to the ether,
+and as to the distribution of energy in mechanical systems. In
+particular he explained the principle of least action, first advanced by
+P. L. M. de Maupertuis, and developed by Sir W. R. Hamilton, of
+quaternion fame. Helmholtz also wrote on philosophical and aesthetic
+problems. His position was that of an empiricist, denying the doctrine
+of innate ideas and holding that all knowledge is founded on experience,
+hereditarily transmitted or acquired.
+
+The life of Helmholtz was uneventful in the usual sense. He was twice
+married, first, in 1849, to Olga von Velten (by whom he had two
+children, a son and daughter), and secondly, in 1861, to Anna von Mohl,
+of a Wurtemberg family of high social position. Two children were born
+of this marriage, a son, Robert, who died in 1889, after showing in
+experimental physics indications of his father's genius, and a daughter,
+who married a son of Werner von Siemens. Helmholtz was a man of simple
+but refined tastes, of noble carriage and somewhat austere manner. His
+life from first to last was one of devotion to science, and he must be
+accounted, on intellectual grounds, one of the foremost men of the 19th
+century.
+
+  See L. Konigsberger, _Hermann von Helmholtz_ (1902; English
+  translation by F. A. Welby, Oxford, 1906); J. G. McKendrick, _H. L. F.
+  von Helmholtz_ (1899).     (J. G. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HELMOLD, an historian of the 12th century, was a priest at Bosau near
+Plon. He was a friend of the two bishops of Oldenburg, Vicelin (d. 1154)
+and Gerold (d. 1163), who did much to Christianize the Slavs. At Bishop
+Gerold's instigation Helmold wrote his _Chronica Slavorum_, a history of
+the conquest and conversion of the Slavonic countries from the time of
+Charlemagne. For the life and times of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
+Helmold's chronicle, as that of a contemporary who had exceptional means
+for gaining information, is of first-rate importance. The history was
+continued down to 1209 by Abbot Arnold of Lubeck.
+
+  The _Chronica_ were first edited by Siegmund Schorkel (Frankfort a.
+  M., 1556). The best edition is by J. M. Lappenberg in _Mon. Germ.
+  hist. scriptores_, xxi. (1869). For critical works on the _Chronica_
+  see A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi_, s. "Helmoldus."
+
+
+
+
+HELMOND, a town in the province of North Brabant, Holland, on the small
+river Aa, and on the canal (Zuid-Willems Vaart) between 's Hertogenbosch
+and Maastricht, 24(1/2) m. by rail W.N.W. of Venlo. It is connected by
+steam tramway with 's Hertogenbosch (21 m. N.W.), a branch line
+northwards to Osch being given off at Veghel. Pop. (1900) 11,465. The
+castle of Helmond, built in 1402, is a beautiful specimen of
+architecture, and among the other buildings of note in the town are the
+spacious church of St Lambert, the Reformed church and the town hall.
+Helmond is one of the industrial centres of the province, and possesses
+over a score of factories for cotton and silk weaving, cotton printing,
+dyeing, iron founding, brewing, soap boiling and tobacco dressing, as
+well as engine works and a margarine factory. There is an art school in
+the town.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 2, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SL 2 ***
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