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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 2 + "Hearing" to "Helmond" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 23, 2012 [EBook #39521] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13, SL 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XIII SLICE II<br /><br /> +Hearing to Helmond</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HEARING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HEARN, LAFCADIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HEIDELBERG</a> (town of Germany)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HEARNE, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HEIDELBERG</a> (town of Transvaal)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HEARNE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HEARSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HEART</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HEIDENHEIM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HEART-BURIAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HEIFER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HEARTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HEARTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HEIJERMANS, HERMANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HEAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HEILBRONN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HEATH, BENJAMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HEILIGENSTADT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HEATH, NICHOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HEILSBERG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HEATH, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HEILSBRONN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HEATH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HEATHCOAT, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HEIM, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HEIMDAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HEATHEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HEINE, HEINRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HEATHFIELD, GEORGE AUGUSTUS ELIOTT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HEATING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HEAVEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HEINICKE, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HEBBURN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HEINSIUS, DANIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HEBDEN BRIDGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HEBE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HEIR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HEBEL, JOHANN PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HEIRLOOM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HEBER, REGINALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HEJAZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HEBER, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HEJIRA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HEBERDEN, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HÉBERT, EDMOND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HELDENBUCH, DAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HÉBERT, JACQUES RENÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HELDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HEBREW LANGUAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HELEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HEBREW LITERATURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HELENA, ST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HEBREW RELIGION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HELENA</a> (Arkansas, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HELENA</a> (Montana, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HEBRIDES, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HELENSBURGH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HEBRON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HELENUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HECATAEUS OF ABDERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HELGAUD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HECATAEUS OF MILETUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HELGESEN, POVL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HECATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HELIACAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HECATOMB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HELIAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HECATO OF RHODES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HELICON</a> (mountain range)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HELICON</a> (contrabass tuba)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HELIGOLAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HECKMONDWIKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HELIOCENTRIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HECTOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HELIODORUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HECUBA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HELIOGRAPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HELIOMETER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HEDGEHOG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HELIOPOLIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HEDGES AND FENCES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HELIOSTAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HEDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HELIOTROPE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HEDONISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HELIOZOA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HEEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HELIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HELIX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HELLANICUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HEER, OSWALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HELLEBORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HELLENISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HELLER, STEPHEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HELLESPONT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HEGEMON OF THASOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HELLEVOETSLUIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HEGEMONY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HELLÍN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HELLO, ERNEST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HEGESIPPUS</a> (Athenian orator)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HEGESIPPUS</a> (early Christian writer)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HEGESIPPUS</a> (author of Jewish War)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HELMET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HELMOLD</a> (historian)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HEIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HELMOND</a> (town in Holland)</td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>122</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HEARING<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (formed from the verb “to hear,” O. Eng. <i>hyran</i>, +<i>heran</i>, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. <i>hören</i>, Dutch +<i>hooren</i>, &c.; the O. Teut. form is seen in Goth. <i>hausjan</i>; the +initial <i>h</i> makes any connexion with “ear,” Lat. <i>audire</i>, or Gr. +<span class="grk" title="akouein">ἀκούειν</span> very doubtful), in physiology, the function of the ear +(<i>q.v.</i>), and the general term for the sense or special sensation, the +cause of which is an excitation of the auditory nerves by the +vibrations of sonorous bodies. The anatomy of the ear is +described in the separate article on that organ. A description of +sonorous vibrations is given in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sound</a></span>; here we shall +consider the transmission of such vibrations from the external +ear to the auditory nerve, and the physiological characters of +auditory sensation.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Transmission in External Ear</i>.—The external ear consists +of the <i>pinna</i>, or auricle, and the <i>external auditory meatus</i>, or +canal, at the bottom of which we find the <i>membrana tympani</i>, +or drum head. In many animals the auricle is trumpet-shaped, +and, being freely movable by muscles, serves to collect +sonorous waves coming from various directions. The auricle +of the human ear presents many irregularities of surface. If +these irregularities are abolished by filling them up with a soft +material such as wax or oil, leaving the entrance to the canal free, +experiment shows that the intensity of sounds is weakened, and +that there is more difficulty in judging of their direction. When +waves of sound strike the auricle, they are partly reflected +outwards, while the remainder, impinging at various angles, +undergo a number of reflections so as to be directed into the +auditory canal. Vibrations are transmitted along the auditory +canal, partly by the air it contains and partly by its walls, to +the membrana tympani. The absence of the auricle, as the +result of accident or injury, does not cause diminution of hearing. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span> +In the auditory canal waves of sound are reflected from side +to side until they reach the membrana tympani. From the +obliquity in position and peculiar curvature of this membrane, +most of the waves strike it nearly perpendicularly, and in the +most advantageous direction.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Transmission in Middle Ear</i>.—The middle ear is a small +cavity, the walls of which are rigid with the exception of the +portions consisting of the membrana tympani, and the membrane +of the round window and of the apparatus filling the oval window. +This cavity communicates with the pharynx by the <i>Eustachian +tube</i>, which forms an air-tube between the pharynx and the +tympanum for the purpose of regulating pressure on the membrana +tympani. During rest the tube is open, but it is closed +during the act of deglutition. As this action is frequently +taking place, not only when food or drink is introduced, but when +saliva is swallowed, it is evident that the pressure of the air in +the tympanum will be kept in a state of equilibrium with that +of the external air on the outer surface of the membrana tympani, +and that thus the membrana tympani will be rendered +independent of variations of atmospheric pressure such as occur +when we descend in a diving bell or ascend in a balloon. By a +forcible expiration, the oral and nasal cavities being closed, air +may be driven into the tympanum, while a forcible inspiration +(Valsalva’s experiment) will draw air from that cavity. In the +first case, the membrana tympani will bulge outwards, in the +second case inwards, and in both, from excessive stretching of +the membrane, there will be partial deafness, especially for +sounds of high pitch. Permanent occlusion of the tube is one of +the most common causes of deafness.</p> + +<p>The membrana tympani is capable of being set into vibration +by a sound of any pitch included in the range of perceptible +sounds. It responds exactly as to number of vibrations (pitch), +intensity of vibrations (intensity), and complexity of vibration +(quality or timbre). Consequently we can hear a sound of any +given pitch, of a certain intensity, and in its own specific timbre +or quality. Generally speaking, very high tones are heard more +easily than low tones of the same intensity. As the membrana +tympani is not only fixed by its margin to a ring or tube of bone, +but is also adherent to the handle of the malleus, which follows +its movements, its vibrations meet with considerable resistance. +This diminishes the intensity of its vibrations, and prevents also +the continued vibration of the membrane after an external +pressure has ceased, so that a sound is not heard much longer +than its physical cause lasts. The tension of the membrane +may be affected (1) by differences of pressure on the two surfaces +of the membrana tympani, as may occur during forcible expiration +or inspiration, and (2) by muscular action, due to contraction +of the <i>tensor tympani</i> muscle. This small muscle arises +from the apex of the petrous temporal and the cartilage of the +Eustachian tube, enters the tympanum at its anterior wall, and +is inserted into the malleus near its root. The handle of the +malleus is inserted between the layers of the membrana tympani, +and, as the malleus and incus move round an axis passing +through the neck of the malleus from before backwards, the +action of the muscle is to pull the membrana tympani inwards +towards the tympanic cavity in the form of a cone, the meridians +of which are not straight but curved, with convexity outwards. +When the muscle contracts, the handle of the malleus is drawn +still farther inwards, and thus a greater tension of the tympanic +membrane is produced. On relaxation of the muscle, the membrane +returns to its position of equilibrium by its elasticity and +by the elasticity of the chain of bones. This power of varying +the tension of the membrane is an accommodating mechanism +for receiving and transmitting sounds of different pitch. With +different degrees of tension it will respond more readily to sounds +of different pitch. Thus, when the membrane is tense, it will +readily respond to high sounds, while relaxation will be the +condition most adapted for low tones. In addition, increased +tension of the membrane, by increasing the resistance, will +diminish the intensity of vibrations. This is especially the case +for sounds of low pitch.</p> + +<p>The vibrations of the membrana tympani are transmitted to +the internal ear partly by the air which the middle ear or tympanum +contains, and partly by the chain of bones, consisting +of the malleus, incus and stapes. Of these, transmission by the +chain of bones is by far the most important. In birds and in the +amphibia, this chain is represented by a single rod-like ossicle, +the <i>columella</i>, but in man the two membranes—the membrana +tympani and the membrane filling the fenestra ovalis—are connected +by a compound lever consisting of three bones, namely, +the <i>malleus</i>, or hammer, inserted into the membrana tympani, +the <i>incus</i>, or anvil, and the <i>stapes</i>, or stirrup, the base of which is +attached to a membrane covering the oval window. It must +also be noted that in the transmission of vibrations of the membrana +tympani to the fluid in the labyrinth or internal ear, +through the oval window, the chain of ossicles vibrates as a whole +and acts efficiently, although its length may be only a fraction +of the wave-length of the sound transmitted. The chain is a +lever in which the handle of the malleus forms the long arm, +the fulcrum is where the short process of the incus abuts against +the wall of the tympanum, while the long process of the incus, +carrying the stapes, forms the short arm. The mechanism is a +lever of the second order. Measurements show that the ratio +of the lengths of the two arms is as 1.5 : 1; the ratio of the +resulting force at the stapes is therefore as 1 : 1.5; while the +amplitudes of the movements at the tip of the handle of the +malleus and the stapes is as 1.5 : 1. Hence, while there is a +diminution in amplitude there is a gain in power, and thus the +pressures are conveyed with great efficiency from the membrana +tympani to the labyrinth, while the amplitude of the oscillation +is diminished so as to be adapted to the small capacity of the +labyrinth. As the drum-head is nearly twenty times greater in +area than the membrane covering the oval window, with which +the base of the stapes is connected, the energy of the movements +of the membrana tympani is concentrated on an area twenty +times smaller; hence the pressure is increased thirtyfold +(1.5 × 20) when it acts at the base of the stapes. Experiments +on the human ear have shown that the movement of greatest +amplitude was at the tip of the handle of the malleus, 0.76 mm.; +the movement of the tip of the long arm process of the incus +was 0.21 mm.; while the greatest amplitude at the base of the +stapes was only .0714 mm. Other observations have shown +the movements at the stapes to have a still smaller amplitude, +varying from 0.001 to 0.032 mm. With tones of feeble intensity +the movements must be almost infinitesimal. There may also +be very minute transverse movements at the base of the stapes.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Transmission in the Internal Ear</i>.—The internal ear is +composed of the labyrinth, formed of the vestibule or central +part, the semicircular canals, and the cochlea, each of which +consists of an osseous and a membranous portion. The osseous +labyrinth may be regarded as an osseous mould in the petrous +portion of the temporal bone, lined by tesselated endothelium, +and containing a small quantity of fluid called the <i>perilymph</i>. +In this mould, partially surrounded by, and to some extent +floating in, this fluid, there is the membranous labyrinth, in +certain parts of which we find the terminal apparatus in connexion +with the auditory nerve, immersed in another fluid called the +<i>endolymph</i>. The membranous labyrinth consists of a vestibular +portion formed by two small sac-like dilatations, called the +<i>saccule</i> and the <i>utricle</i>, the latter of which communicates with the +semicircular canals by five openings. Each canal consists of +a tube, bulging out at each extremity so as to form the so-called +<i>ampulla</i>, in which, on a projecting ridge, called the <i>crista acustica</i>, +there are cells bearing long <i>auditory hairs</i>, which are the peripheral +end-organs of the vestibular branches of the auditory nerve. +The cochlear division of the membranous labyrinth consists of +the <i>ductus cochlearis</i>, a tube of triangular form fitting in between +the two cavities in the cochlea, called the <i>scala vestibuli</i>, because +it commences in the vestibule, and the <i>scala tympani</i>, because it +ends in the tympanum, at the round window. These two scalae +communicate at the apex of the cochlea. The roof of the ductus +cochlearis is formed by a thin membrane called the <i>membrane +of Reissner</i>, while its floor consists of the <i>basilar membrane</i>, +on which we find the remarkable <i>organ of Corti</i>, which constitutes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span> +the terminal organ of the cochlear division of the auditory +nerve. It is sufficient to state here that this organ consists +essentially of an arrangement of epithelial cells bearing hairs +which are in communication with the terminal filaments of this +portion of the auditory nerve, and that groups of these hairs +pass through holes in a closely investing membrane, <i>membrana +reticularis</i>, which may act as a damping apparatus, so as quickly +to stop their movements. The ductus cochlearis and the two +scalae are filled with fluid. Sonorous vibrations may reach the +fluid in the labyrinth by three different ways—(1) by the osseous +walls of the labyrinth, (2) by the air in the tympanum and the +round window, and (3) by the base of the stapes inserted into +the oval window.</p> + +<p>When the head is plunged into water, or brought into direct +contact with any vibrating body, vibrations must be transmitted +directly. Vibrations of the air in the mouth and in the nasal +passages are also communicated directly to the walls of the +cranium, and thus pass to the labyrinth. In like manner, we +may experience auditive sensations, such as blowing, rubbing +and hissing sounds, due to muscular contraction or to the passage +of blood in vessels close to the auditory organ. It is doubtful +whether any vibrations are communicated to the fluid in the +labyrinth by the round window. Vibrations which cause hearing +are communicated by the chain of bones. When the base of the +stirrup is pushed into the oval window, the pressure in the labyrinth +increases, and, as the only mobile part of the wall of the +labyrinth is the membrane covering the round window, this +membrane is forced outwards; when the base of the stirrup +moves outwards a reverse action takes place. Thus the fluid +of the labyrinth receives a series of pulses isochronous with the +movements of the base of the stirrup, and these pulses affect +the terminal apparatus in connexion with the auditory nerve.</p> + +<p>The sacs of the internal ear, known as the utricle and saccule, +receive the impulses of the base of the stapes. They are organs +connected with the perception of sounds as sounds, without +reference to pitch or quality. For the <i>analysis</i> of tone a cochlea +is necessary. Even in mammals all the parts of the ear may +be destroyed or affected by disease, except these sacs, without +causing complete deafness.</p> + +<p>It has been suggested by Lee (<i>Amer. Jour. of Physiol.</i> vol. i. +No. 1, p. 128) that in fishes the sac has nothing to do with +hearing, but serves for the perception of movements, such as +those of rotation and translation through space, movements much +coarser than those that form the physical basis of sound. He +considers, also, that as fishes, with few exceptions, are dumb, +they are also deaf. In the fish there are peculiar organs along the +lateral line which are known to be connected with the perception +of movements of the body as a whole, and Beard (<i>Zool. Anz. +Leipzig</i>, 1884, Bd. vii. S. 140) has attempted to trace a phylogenetic +connexion between the sacs of the internal ear and the +organs in the lateral line. According to this view, when animals +became air-breathers, a part of the ear (the <i>papilla acustica +basilaris</i>) was gradually evolved for the perception of delicate +vibrations of sound. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equilibrium</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>It is by means of the cochlea that we discriminate pitch, +hear beats, and are affected by quality of tone.</p> + +<p>Since the size of the membranous labyrinth is so small, measuring, +in man, not more than ½ in. in length by <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. in diameter +at its widest part, and since it is a chamber consisting partly of +conduits of very irregular form, it is impossible to state accurately +the course of vibrations transmitted to it by impulses communicated +from the base of the stirrup. In the cochlea vibrations +must pass from the saccule along the scala vestibuli to the apex, +thus affecting the membrane of Reissner, which forms its roof; +then, passing through the opening at the apex (the <i>helicotrema</i>), +they must descend by the scala tympani to the round window, +and affect in their passage the membrana basilaris, on which the +organ of Corti is situated. From the round window impulses +must be reflected backwards, but how they affect the advancing +impulses is not known. But the problem is even more complex +when we take into account the fact that impulses are transmitted +simultaneously to the utricle and to the semicircular +canals communicating with it by five openings. The mode of +action of these vibrations or impulses upon the nervous terminations +is still unknown; but to appreciate critically the hypothesis +which has been advanced to explain it, it is necessary, in the first +place, to refer to some of the general characters of auditory +sensation.</p> + +<p>4. <i>General Characters of Auditory Sensations.</i>—Certain conditions +are necessary for excitation of the auditory nerve sufficient +to produce a sensation. In the first place, the vibrations must +have a certain <i>amplitude</i> and <i>energy</i>; if too feeble, no impression +will be produced.</p> + +<p>Various physicists have attempted to measure the sensitiveness +of the ear by estimating the amplitude of the molecular movements +necessary to call forth the feeblest audible sound. Thus +A. Töpler and L. Boltzmann, on data founded on experiments +with organ pipes, state that the ear is affected by vibrations +of molecules of the air not more in amplitude than .0004 mm. +at the ear, or 0.1 of the wave-length of green light, and that the +energy of such a vibration on the drum-head is not more than +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">543</span> billionth kilog., or <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">17</span>th of that produced upon an equal +surface of the retina by a single candle at the same distance +(<i>Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem.</i>, Leipzig. 1870, Bd. cxli. S. 321). Lord +Rayleigh, by two other methods, arrived at the conclusion +“that the streams of energy required to influence the eye and ear +are of the same order of magnitude.” He estimated the amplitude +of the movement of the aërial particles, with a sound just +audible, as less than the ten-millionth of a centimetre, and the +energy emitted when the sound was first becoming audible, at +42.1 ergs per second. He also states that in considering the +amplitude or condensation in progressive aërial waves, at a +distance of 27.4 metres from a tuning-fork, the maximum condensation +was = 6.0 × 10<span class="sp">−9</span> cm., a result showing “that the ear +is able to recognize the addition or subtraction of densities far +less than those to be found in our highest vacua” (<i>Proc. Roy. +Soc.</i>, 1877, vol. xxvi. p. 248; <i>Lond. Edin. and Dub. Phil. Mag.</i>, +1894, vol. xxxviii. p. 366).</p> + +<p>In the next place, vibrations must have a certain <i>duration</i> to +be perceived; and lastly, to excite a sensation of a continuous +musical sound, a certain <i>number</i> of impulses must occur in a given +interval of time. The lower limit is about 30, and the upper +about 30,000 vibrations per second. Below 30, the individual +impulses may be observed, and above 30,000 few ears can detect +any sound at all. The extreme upper limit is not more than +35,000 vibrations per second. Auditory sensations are of two +kinds—noises and musical sounds. <i>Noises</i> are caused by +impulses which are not regular in intensity or duration, or are +not periodic, or they may be caused by a series of musical sounds +occurring instantaneously so as to produce discords, as when we +place our hand at random on the keyboard of a piano. <i>Musical +tones</i> are produced by periodic and regular vibrations. In musical +sounds three characters are prominent—intensity, pitch and +quality. <i>Intensity</i> depends on the amplitude of the vibration, +and a greater or lesser amplitude of the vibration will cause a +corresponding movement of the transmitting apparatus, and a +corresponding intensity of excitation of the terminal apparatus. +<i>Pitch</i>, as a sensation, depends on the length of time in which +a single vibration is executed, or, in other words, the number +of vibrations in a given interval of time. The ear is capable of +appreciating the relative pitch or height of a sound as compared +with another, although it may not ascertain precisely the absolute +pitch of a sound. What we call an acute or high tone is produced +by a large number of vibrations, while a grave or low tone is +caused by few. The musical tones which can be used with +advantage range between 40 and 4000 vibrations per second, +extending thus from 6 to 7 octaves. According to E. H. Weber, +practised musicians can perceive a difference of pitch amounting +to only the <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">64</span>th of a semitone, but this is far beyond average +attainment. In a few individuals, and especially in early life, +there may be an appreciation of absolute pitch. <i>Quality</i> or <i>timbre</i> +(or <i>Klang</i>) is that peculiar characteristic of a musical sound by +which we may identify it as proceeding from a particular instrument +or from a particular human voice. It depends on the fact +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span> +that many waves of sound that reach the ear are compound wave +systems, built up of constituent waves, each of which is capable of +exciting a sensation of a simple tone if it be singled out and +reinforced by a resonator (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sound</a></span>), and which may sometimes +be heard without a resonator, after special practice and tuition. +Thus it appears that the ear must have some arrangement by which +it resolves every wave system, however complex, into simple +pendular vibrations. When we listen to a sound of any quality +we recognize that it is of a certain pitch. This depends on the +number of vibrations of one tone, predominant in intensity over +the others, called the fundamental or ground tone, or first partial +tone. The quality, or timbre, depends on the number and +intensity of other tones added to it. These are termed <i>harmonic</i> +or <i>partial tones</i>, and they are related to the first partial or fundamental +tone in a very simple manner, being multiples of the +fundamental tone: thus—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Fundamental<br />Tone</td> <td class="tcc" colspan="9">Upper Partials or Harmonics.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Notes</td> <td class="tcc">do<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcc">do<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">sol<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">do<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcc">mi<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcc">sol<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcc">si♭<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcc">do<span class="sp">4</span></td> <td class="tcc">re<span class="sp">4</span></td> <td class="tcc">mi<span class="sp">4</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Partial tones</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">2</td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">4</td> <td class="tcc">5</td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc">7</td> <td class="tcc">8</td> <td class="tcc">9</td> <td class="tcc">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Number of vibrations</td> <td class="tcc">33</td> <td class="tcc">66</td> <td class="tcc">99</td> <td class="tcc">132</td> <td class="tcc">165</td> <td class="tcc">198</td> <td class="tcc">231</td> <td class="tcc">264</td> <td class="tcc">297</td> <td class="tcc">330</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>When a simple tone, or one free from partials, is heard, it +gives rise to a simple, soft, somewhat insipid sensation, as may +be obtained by blowing across the mouth of an open bottle or +by a tuning-fork. The lower partials added to the fundamental +tone give softness combined with richness; while the higher, +especially if they be very high, produce a brilliant and thrilling +effect, as is caused by the brass instruments of an orchestra. +Such being the facts, how may they be explained physiologically?</p> + +<p>Little is yet known regarding the mode of action of the vibrations +of the fluid in the labyrinth upon the terminal apparatus +connected with the auditory nerve. There can be no doubt +that it is a mechanical action, a communication of impulses to +delicate hair-like processes, by the movements of which the +nervous filaments are irritated. In the human ear it has been +estimated that there are about 3000 small arches formed by the +<i>rods of Corti.</i> Each arch rests on the basilar membrane, and +supports rows of cells having minute hair-like processes. It +would appear also that the filaments of the auditory nerve +terminate in the basilar membrane, and possibly they may be +connected with the hair-cells. At one time it was supposed by +Helmholtz that these fibres of Corti were elastic and that they +were tuned for particular sounds, so as to form a regular series +corresponding to all the tones audible to the human ear. Thus +2800 fibres distributed over the tones of seven octaves would give +400 fibres for each octave, or nearly 33 for a semitone. Helmholtz +put forward the hypothesis that, when a pendular vibration +reaches the ear, it excites by sympathetic vibration the fibre of +Corti which is tuned for its proper number of vibrations. If, +then, different fibres are tuned to tones of different pitch, it is +evident that we have here a mechanism which, by exciting +different nerve fibres, will give rise to sensations of pitch. When +the vibration is not simple but compound, in consequence of the +blending of vibrations corresponding to various harmonics or +partial tones, the ear has the power of resolving this compound +vibration into its elements. It can only do so by different fibres +responding to the constituent vibrations of the sound—one for +the fundamental tone being stronger, and giving the sensation +of a particular pitch to the sound, and the others, corresponding +to the upper partial tones, being weaker, and causing undefined +sensations, which are so blended together in consciousness as to +terminate in a complex sensation of a tone of a certain quality +or timbre. It would appear at first sight that 33 fibres of Corti +for a semitone are not sufficient to enable us to detect all the +gradations of pitch in that interval, since, as has been stated +above, trained musicians may distinguish a difference of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">64</span>th +of a semitone. To meet this difficulty, Helmholtz stated that if +a sound is produced, the pitch of which may be supposed to come +between two adjacent fibres of Corti, both of these will be set +into sympathetic vibration, but the one which comes nearest +to the pitch of the sound will vibrate with greater intensity than +the other, and that consequently the pitch of that sound would be +thus appreciated. These theoretical views of Helmholtz have +derived much support from experiments of V. Hensen, who +observed that certain hairs on the antennae of <i>Mysis</i>, a Crustacean, +when seen with a low microscopic power, vibrated with certain +tones produced by a keyed horn. It was seen that certain tones +of the horn set some hairs into strong vibration, and other tones +other hairs. Each hair responded also to several tones of the +horn. Thus one hair responded strongly to d♯ and d′♯, more +weakly to g, and very weakly to G. It was probably tuned to +some pitch between d″ and d″♯. (<i>Studien über das Gehörorgan +der Decapoden</i>, Leipzig, 1863.)</p> + +<p>Histological researches have led to a modification of this +hypothesis. It has been found that the rods or arches of Corti +are stiff structures, not adapted for vibrating, but apparently +constituting a support for the hair-cells. It is also known that +there are no rods of Corti in the cochlea of birds, which are +capable nevertheless of appreciating pitch. Hensen and Helmholtz +suggested the view that not only may the segments of the +membrana basilaris be stretched more in the radial than in the +longitudinal direction, but different segments may be stretched +radially with different degrees of tension so as to resemble a +series of tense strings of gradually increasing length. Each +string would then respond to a vibration of a particular pitch +communicated to it by the hair-cells. The exact mechanism +of the hair-cells and of the membrana reticularis, which looks +like a damping apparatus, is unknown.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Physiological Characters of Auditory Sensation.</i>—Under +ordinary circumstances auditory sensations are referred to the +outer world. When we hear a sound, we associate it with some +external cause, and it appears to originate in a particular place +or to come in a particular direction. This feeling of <i>exteriority</i> +of sound seems to require transmission through the membrana +tympani. Sounds which are sent through the walls of the +cranium, as when the head is immersed in, and the external +auditory canals are filled with, water, appear to originate in +the body itself.</p> + +<p>An auditory sensation lasts a short time after the cessation +of the exciting cause, so that a number of separate vibrations, +each capable of exciting a distinct sensation if heard alone, +may succeed each other so rapidly that they are fused into a +single sensation. If we listen to the puffs of a syren, or to +vibrating tongues of low pitch, the single sensation is usually +produced by about 30 or 35 vibrations per second; but when +we listen to beats of considerable intensity, produced by two +adjacent tones of sufficiently high pitch, the ear may follow +as many as 132 intermissions per second.</p> + +<p>The sensibility of the ear for sounds of different pitch is not +the same. It is more sensitive for acute than for grave sounds, +and it is probable that the maximum degree of acuteness is for +sounds produced by about 3000 vibrations per second, that +is near fa<span class="sp">5</span>♯. Sensibility as to pitch varies much with the +individual. Thus some musicians may detect a difference of +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span>th of the total number of vibrations, while other persons +may have difficulty in appreciating a semitone.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>6. <i>Analytical Power of the Ear.</i>—When we listen to a compound +tone, we have the power of picking out these partials from the +general mass of sound. It is known that the frequencies of the +partials as compared with that of the fundamental tone are simple +multiples of the frequency of the fundamental, and also that physically +the waves of the partials so blend with each other as to produce +waves of very complicated forms. Yet the ear, or the ear and the +brain together, can resolve this complicated wave-form into its +constituents, and this is done more easily if we listen to the sound +with resonators, the pitch of which corresponds, or nearly corresponds, +to the frequencies of the partials. Much discussion has taken +place as to how the ear accomplishes this analysis. All are agreed +that there is a complicated apparatus in the cochlea which may +serve this purpose; but while some are of opinion that this structure +is sufficient, others hold that the analysis takes place in the brain. +When a complicated wave falls on the drum-head, it must move out +and in in a way corresponding to the variations of pressure, and these +variations will, in a single vibration, depend on the greater or less +degree of complexity of the wave. Thus a single tone will cause a +movement like that of a pendulum, a simple pendular vibration, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span> +while a complex tone, although occurring in the same duration of +time, will cause the drum-head to move out and in in a much more +complicated manner. The complex movement will be conveyed to +the base of the stapes, thence to the vestibule, and thence to the +cochlea, in which we find the ductus cochlearis containing the organ +of Corti. It is to be noted also that the parts in the cochlea are so +small as to constitute only a fraction of the wave-length of most +tones audible to the human ear. Now it is evident that the cochlea +must act either as a whole, all the nerve fibres being affected by any +variations of pressure, or the nerve fibres may have a selective action, +each fibre being excited by a wave of a definite period, or there may +exist small vibratile bodies between the nerve filaments and the +pressures sent into the organ. The last hypothesis gives the most +rational explanation of the phenomena, and on it is founded a theory +generally accepted and associated with the names of Thomas +Young and Hermann Helmholtz. It may be shortly stated as +follows:—</p> + +<p>“(1) In the cochlea there are vibrators, tuned to frequencies +within the limits of hearing, say from 30 to 40,000 or 50,000 vibs. +per second. (2) Each vibrator is capable of exciting its appropriate +nerve filament or filaments, so that a nervous impulse, corresponding +to the frequency of the vibrator, is transmitted to the brain—not +corresponding necessarily, as regards the number of nervous +impulses, but in such a way that when the impulses along a particular +nerve filament reach the brain, a state of consciousness is aroused +which does correspond with the number of the physical stimuli +and with the period of the auditory vibrator. (3) The mass of +each vibrator is such that it will be easily set in motion, and after +the stimulus has ceased it will readily come to rest. (4) Damping +arrangements exist in the ear, so as quickly to extinguish movements +of the vibrators. (5) If a simple tone falls on the ear, there is a +pendular movement of the base of the stapes, which will affect +all the parts, causing them to move; but any part whose natural +period is nearly the same as that of the sound will respond on the +principle of sympathetic resonance, a particular nerve filament or +nerve filaments will be affected, and a sensation of a tone of definite +pitch will be experienced, thus accounting for discrimination in +pitch. (6) Intensity or loudness will depend on the amplitude of +movement of the vibrating body, and consequently on the intensity +of nerve stimulation. (7) If a compound wave of pressure be communicated +by the base of the stapes, it will be resolved into its +constituents by the vibrators corresponding to tones existing in it, +each picking out its appropriate portion of the wave, and thus +irritating corresponding nerve filaments, so that nervous impulses +are transmitted to the brain, where they are fused in such a way as +to give rise to a sensation of a particular quality or character, +but still so imperfectly fused that each constituent, by a strong effort +of attention, may be specially recognized” (article “Ear,” by +M‘Kendrick, Schäfer’s <i>Text-Book</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>).</p> + +<p>The structure of the ductus cochlearis meets the demands of this +theory, it is highly differentiated, and it can be shown that in it +there are a sufficient number of elements to account for the delicate +appreciation of pitch possessed by the human ear, and on the basis +that the highly trained ear of a violinist can detect a difference of +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">64</span>th of a semitone (M‘Kendrick, <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed.</i>, 1896, vol. +xxxviii. p. 780; also Schäfer’s <i>Text-Book</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>). Measurements +of the cochlea have also shown such differentiation as to make it +difficult to imagine that it can act as a whole. A much less complex +organ might have served this purpose (M‘Kendrick, <i>op. cit.</i>). The +following table, given by Retzius (<i>Das Gehörorgan der Wirbelthiere</i>, +Bd. ii. S. 356), shows differentiations in the cochlea of man, the cat +and the rabbit, all of which no doubt hear tones, although in all +probability they have very different powers of discrimination:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Man.</td> <td class="tcc">Cat.</td> <td class="tcc">Rabbit.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Ear-teeth</td> <td class="tcr">2,490</td> <td class="tcr">2,430</td> <td class="tcr">1,550</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Holes in habenula for nerves</td> <td class="tcr">3,985</td> <td class="tcr">2,780</td> <td class="tcr">1,650</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Inner rods of Corti’s organ</td> <td class="tcr">5,590</td> <td class="tcr">4,700</td> <td class="tcr">2,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Outer rods of Corti’s organ</td> <td class="tcr">3,848</td> <td class="tcr">3,300</td> <td class="tcr">1,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Inner hair-cells (one row)</td> <td class="tcr">3,487</td> <td class="tcr">2,600</td> <td class="tcr">1,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Outer hair-cells (several rows)</td> <td class="tcr">11,750</td> <td class="tcr">9,900</td> <td class="tcr">6,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fibres in basilar membrane</td> <td class="tcr">23,750</td> <td class="tcr">15,700</td> <td class="tcr">10,500</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>7. <i>Dissonance.</i>—The theory can also be used to explain dissonance. +When two tones sufficiently near in pitch are simultaneously sounded, +beats are produced. If the beats are few in number they can be +counted, because they give rise to separate and distinct sensations; +but if they are numerous they blend so as to give roughness or dissonance +to the interval. The roughness or dissonance is most disagreeable +with about 33 beats falling on the ear per second. When +two compound tones are sounded, say a minor third on a harmonium +in the lower part of the keyboard, then we have beats not only +between the primaries, but also between the upper partials of each +of the primaries. The beating distance may, for tones of medium +pitch, be fixed at about a minor third, but this interval will expand +for intervals on low tones and contract for intervals on high ones. +This explains why the same interval in the lower part of the scale +may give slow beats that are not disagreeable, while in the higher +part it may cause harsh and unpleasant dissonance. The partials +up to the seventh are beyond beating distance, but above this they +come close together. Consequently instruments (such as tongues, +or reeds) that abound in upper partials cause an intolerable dissonance +if one of the primaries is slightly out of tune. Some intervals are +pleasant and satisfying when produced on instruments having few +partials in their tones. These are concords. Others are less so, +and they may give rise to an uncomfortable sensation. These are +discords. In this way unison, <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span>, minor third <span class="spp">6</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>, major third <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span>, +fourth <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>, fifth <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span>, minor sixth <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>, major sixth <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> and octave <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span>, are all +concords; while a second <span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>, minor seventh <span class="spp">16</span>⁄<span class="suu">9</span> and major seventh <span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>, +are discords. Helmholtz compares the sensation of dissonance to +that of a flickering light on the eye. “Something similar I have +found to be produced by simultaneously stimulating the skin, or +margin of the lips, by bristles attached to tuning-forks giving forth +beats. If the frequency of the forks is great, the sensation is that +of a most disagreeable tickling. It may be that the instinctive effort +at analysis of tones close in pitch causes the disagreeable sensation” +(Schäfer’s <i>Text-Book</i>, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 1187).</p> + +<p>8. <i>Other Theories.</i>—In 1865 Rennie objected to the analysis +theory, and urged that the cochlea acted as a whole (<i>Ztschr. f. rat. +Med.</i>, Dritte Reihe, Bd. xxiv. Heft 1, S. 12-64). This view was +revived by Voltolini (Virchow’s <i>Archiv</i>, Bd. c. S. 27) some years +later, and in 1886 it was urged by E. Rutherford (<i>Rep. Brit. Assoc. +Ad. Sc.</i>, 1886), who compared the action of the cochlea to that of +a telephone plate. According to this theory, all the hairs of the +auditory cells vibrate to every note, and the hair-cells transform +sound vibrations into nerve vibrations or impulses, similar in frequency, +amplitude and character to the sound vibrations. There +is no analysis in the peripheral organ. A. D. Waller, in 1891 (<i>Proc. +Physiol. Soc.</i>, Jan. 20, 1891) suggested that the basilar membrane +as a whole vibrates to every note, thus repeating the vibrations of +the membrana tympani; and since the hair-cells move with the +basilar membrane, they produce what may be called pressure patterns +against the tectorial membranes, and filaments of the auditory nerve +are stimulated by these pressures. Waller admits a certain degree +of peripheral analysis, but he relegates ultimate analysis to the brain. +These theories, dispensing with peripheral analysis, leave out of +account the highly complex structure of the cochlea, or, in other +words, they assign to that structure a comparatively simple function +which could be performed by a simple membrane capable of vibrating. +We find that the cochlea becomes more elaborate as we ascend the +scale of animals, until in man, who possesses greater powers of +analysis than any other being, the number of hair-cells, fibres of the +basilar membrane and arches of Corti are all much increased in +number (see Retzius’s table, <i>supra</i>). The principle of sympathetic +resonance appears, therefore, to offer the most likely solution of the +problem. Hurst’s view is that with each movement of the stapes +a wave is generated which travels up the scala vestibuli, through +the helicotrema into the scala tympani and down the latter to the +fenestra rotunda. The wave, however, is not merely a movement +of the basilar membrane, but an actual movement of fluid or a +transmission of pressure. As the one wave ascends while the other +descends, a pressure of the basilar membrane occurs at the point +where they meet; this causes the basilar membrane to move towards +the tectorial membrane, forcing this membrane suddenly +against the apices of the hair-cells, thus irritating the nerves. The +point at which the waves meet will depend on the time interval +between the waves (Hurst, “A New Theory of Hearing,” <i>Trans. +Biol. Soc. Liverpool</i>, 1895, vol. ix. p. 321). More recently Max Mayer +has advanced a theory somewhat similar. He supposes that with +each movement of the stapes corresponding to a vibration, a wave +travels up the scala vestibuli, pressing the basilar membrane downwards. +As it meets with resistance in passing upwards, its amplitude +therefore diminishes, and in this way the distance up the scala +through which the wave progresses will be determined by its amplitude. +The wave in its progress irritates a certain number of nerve +terminations, consequently feeble tones will irritate only those nerve +fibres that are near the fenestra ovalis, while stronger tones will pass +farther up and irritate a larger number of nerve fibres the same +number of times per unit of time. Pitch, according to this view, +depends on the number of stimuli per second, while loudness depends +on the number of nerve fibres irritated. Mayer also applies the +theory to the explanation of the powers of the cochlea as an analyser, +by supposing that with a compound tone these are at maxima and +minima of stimulation. As the compound wave travels up the scala, +portions of the wave corresponding to maxima and minima die away +in consecutive series, until only a maximum and minimum are left; +and, finally, as the wave travels farther, these also disappear. With +each maximum and minimum different parts of the basilar membrane +are affected, and affected a different number of times per second, +according to the frequencies of the partials existing in the compound +tone. Thus with a fifth, 2 : 3, there are three maxima and three +minima; but the compound tone is resolved into three tones having +vibration frequencies in the ratio of 3 : 2 : 1. According to Mayer, +we actually hear when a fifth is sounded tones of the relationship of +3 : 2 : 1, the last (1) being the differential tone. He holds, also, that +combinational tones are entirely subjective (Max Mayer, <i>Ztschr. f. +Psych. und Phys. d. Sinnesorgane</i>, Leipzig, Bd. xvi. and xvii.; also +<i>Verhandl. d. physiolog. Gesellsch. zu Berlin</i>, Feb. 18, 1898, S. 49). +Two fatal objections can be urged to these theories, namely, first, it +is impossible to conceive of minute waves following each other in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span> +rapid succession in the minute tubes forming the scalae—the length +of the scala being only a very small part of the wave-length of the +sound; and, secondly, neither theory takes into account the differentiation +of structure found in the epithelium of the organ of Corti. +Each push in and out of the base of the stapes must cause a movement +of the fluid, or a pressure, in the scalae as a whole.</p> + +<p>There are difficulties in the way of applying the resonance theory +to the perception of noises. Noises have pitch, and also each noise +has a special character; if so, if the noise is analysed into its constituents, +why is it that it seems impossible to analyse a noise, +or to perceive any musical element in it? Helmholtz assumed that +a sound is noisy when the wave is irregular in rhythm, and he +suggested that the crista and macula acustica, structures that exist +not in the cochlea but in the vestibule, have to do with the perception +of noise. These structures, however, are concerned rather +in the sense of the perception of equilibrium than of sound (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equilibrium</a></span>).</p> + +<p>9. Hitherto we have considered only the audition of a single +sound, but it is possible also to have simultaneous auditive sensations, +as in musical harmony. It is difficult to ascertain what is the +limit beyond which distinct auditory sensations may be perceived. +We have in listening to an orchestra a multiplicity of sensations +which produces a total effect, while, at the same time, we can with +ease single out and notice attentively the tones of one or two special +instruments. Thus the pleasure of music may arise partly +from listening to simultaneous, and partly from the effect of +contrast or suggestion in passing through successive, auditory +sensations.</p> + +<p>The principles of harmony belong to the subject of music (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmony</a></span>), but it is necessary here briefly to refer to these from the +physiological point of view. If two musical sounds reach the ear +at the same moment, an agreeable or disagreeable sensation is +experienced, which may be termed a <i>concord</i> or a <i>discord</i>, and it can +be shown by experiment with the syren that this depends upon the +vibrational numbers of the two tones. The octave (1 : 2), the +twelfth (1 : 3) and double octave (1 : 4) are absolutely consonant +sounds; the fifth (2 : 3) is said to be perfectly consonant; then +follow, in the direction of dissonance, the fourth (3 : 4), major sixth +(3 : 5), major third (4 : 5), minor sixth (5 : 8) and the minor third +(5 : 6). Helmholtz has attempted to account for this by the application +of his theory of <i>beats</i>.</p> + +<p>Beats are observed when two sounds of nearly the same pitch are +produced together, and the number of beats per second is equal to +the difference of the number of vibrations of the two sounds. Beats +give rise to a peculiarly disagreeable intermittent sensation. The +maximum roughness of beats is attained by 33 per second; beyond +132 per second, the individual impulses are blended into one uniform +auditory sensation. When two notes are sounded, say on a piano, +not only may the first, fundamental or prime tones beat, but partial +tones of each of the primaries may beat also, and as the difference +of pitch of two simultaneous sounds augments, the number of beats, +both of prime tones and of harmonics, augments also. The physiological +effect of beats, though these may not be individually distinguishable, +is to give roughness to the ear. If harmonics or partial +tones of prime tones coincide, there are no beats; if they do not +coincide, the beats produced will give a character of roughness to +the interval. Thus in the octave and twelfth, all the partial tones +of the acute sound coincide with the partial tones of the grave +sound; in the fourth, major sixth and major third, only two pairs +of the partial tones coincide, while in the minor sixth, minor third +and minor seventh only one pair of the harmonics coincide.</p> + +<p>It is possible by means of beats to measure the sensitiveness of +the ear by determining the smallest difference in pitch that may +give rise to a beat. In no part of the scale can a difference smaller +than 0.2 vibration per second be distinguished. The sensitiveness +varies with pitch. Thus at 120 vibs. per second 0.4 vib. per second, +at 500 about 0.3 vib. per second, and at 1000, 0.5 vib. per second +can be distinguished. This is a remarkable illustration of the +sensitiveness of the ear. When tones of low pitch are produced +that do not rapidly die away, as by sounding heavy tuning-forks, +not only may the beats be perceived corresponding to the difference +between the frequencies of the forks, but also other sets of beats. +Thus, if the two tones have frequencies of 40 and 74, a two-order +beat may be heard, one having a frequency of 34 and the other +of 6, as 74 ÷ 40 = 1 + a positive remainder of 34, and 74 ÷ 40 = 2 − 6, +or 80 − 74, a negative remainder of 6. The lower beat is heard most +distinctly when the number is less than half the frequency of the +lower primary, and the upper when the number is greater. The beats +we have been considering are produced when two notes are sounded +slightly differing in frequency, or at all events their frequencies are +not so great as those of two notes separated by a musical interval, +such as an octave or a fifth. But Lord Kelvin has shown that beats +may also be produced on slightly inharmonious musical intervals +(<i>Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed.</i> 1878, vol. ix. p. 602). Thus, take two tuning-forks, +<i>ut</i><span class="su">2</span> = 256 and <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> = 512; slightly flatten <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> so as to make its +frequency 510, and we hear, not a roughness corresponding to 254 +beats, but a slow beat of 2 per second. The sensation also passes +through a cycle, the beats now sounding loudly and fading away in +intensity, again sounding loudly, and so on. One might suppose that +the beat occurred between 510 (the frequency of <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> flattened) and +512, the first partial of <i>ut</i><span class="su">2</span>, namely <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span>, but this is not so, as the beat +is most audible when <i>ut</i><span class="su">2</span> is sounded feebly. In a similar way, beats +may be produced on the approximate harmonies 2 : 3, 3 : 4, 4 : 5, +5 : 6, 6 : 7, 7 : 8, 1 : 3, 3 : 5, and beats may even be produced on the +major chord 4 : 5 : 6 by sounding <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span>, <i>mi</i><span class="su">3</span>, <i>sol</i><span class="su">3</span>, with <i>sol</i><span class="su">3</span> or <i>mi</i><span class="su">3</span> +slightly flattened, “when a peculiar beat will be heard as if a wheel +were being turned against a surface, one small part of which was +rougher than the rest.” These beats on imperfect harmonies +appear to indicate that the ear does distinguish between an increase +of pressure on the drum-head and a diminution, or between a push +and a pull, or, in other words, that it is affected by phase. This +was denied by Helmholtz.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Beat Tones.</i>—Considerable difference of opinion exists as to +whether beats can blend so as to give a sensation of tone; but +R. König, by using pure tones of high pitch, has settled the question. +These tones were produced by large tuning-forks. Thus <i>ut</i><span class="su">6</span> = 2048 +and <i>re</i><span class="su">6</span> = 2304. Then the beat tone is <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> = 256 (2304-2048). If +we strike the two forks, <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> sounds as a grave or lower beat tone. +Again, <i>ut</i><span class="su">6</span> = 2048 and <i>si</i><span class="su">6</span> = 3840. Then (2048)<span class="su">2</span> − 3840 = 256, a +negative remainder, <i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span>, as before, and when both forks are sounded +<i>ut</i><span class="su">3</span> will be heard. Again, <i>ut</i><span class="su">6</span> = 2048 and <i>sol</i><span class="su">6</span> = 3072, and 3072 − 2048 = 1024, +or <i>ut</i><span class="su">6</span>, which will be distinctly heard when <i>ut</i><span class="su">6</span> and <i>sol</i><span class="su">6</span> are +sounded (König, <i>Quelques expériences d’acoustique</i>, Paris, 1882, +p. 87).</p> + +<p>11. <i>Combination Tones.</i>—Frequently, when two tones are sounded, +not only do we hear the compound sound, from which we can pick +out the constituent tones, but we may hear other tones, one of +which is lower in pitch than the lowest primary, and the other +is higher in pitch than the higher primary. These, known as +combination tones, are of two classes: <i>differential</i> tones, in which +the frequency is the difference of the frequencies of the generating +tones, and <i>summational</i> tones, having a frequency which is the +sum of the frequencies of the tones producing them. Differential +tones, first noticed by Sorge about 1740, are easily heard. Thus +an interval of a fifth, 2 : 3, gives a differential tone 1, that is, an octave +below 2; a fourth, 3 : 4, gives 1, a twelfth below 3; a major third, +4 : 5, gives 1, two octaves below 4; a minor third, 5 : 6, gives 1, two +octaves and a major third below 5; a major sixth, 3 : 5, gives 2, +that is, a fifth below 3; and a minor sixth, 5 : 8, gives 3, that is, +a major sixth below 5. Summational tones, first noticed by Helmholtz, +are so difficult to hear that much controversy has taken +place as to their very existence. Some have contended that they +are produced by beats. It appears to be proved physically that +they may exist in the air outside of the ear. Further differential +tones may be generated in the middle ear. Helmholtz also demonstrated +their independent existence, and he states that “whenever +the vibrations of the air or of other elastic bodies, which are set in +motion at the same time by two generating simple tones, are so +powerful that they can no longer be considered infinitely small, +mathematical theory shows that vibrations of the air must arise +which have the same vibrational numbers as the combination tones” +(Helmholtz, <i>Sensations of Tone</i>, p. 235). The importance of these +combinational tones in the theory of hearing is obvious. If the ear +can only analyse compound waves into simple pendular vibrations +of a certain order (simple multiples of the prime tone), how can it +detect combinational tones, which do not belong to that order? +Again, if such tones are purely subjective and only exist in the +mind of the listener, the fact would be fatal to the resonance theory. +There can be no doubt, however, that the ear, in dealing with +them, vibrates in some part of its mechanism with each generator, +while it also is affected by the combinational tone itself, according to +its frequency.</p> + +<p>12. Hearing with two ears does not appear materially to influence +auditive sensation, but probably the two organs are enabled, not +only to correct each other’s errors, but also to aid us in determining +the locality in which a sound originates. It is asserted by +G. T. Fechner that one ear may perceive the same tone at a slightly +higher pitch than the other, but this may probably be due to some +slight pathological condition in one ear. If two tones, produced by +two tuning-forks, of equal pitch, are produced one near each ear, +there is a uniform single sensation; if one of the tuning-forks be +made to revolve round its axis in such a way that its tone increases +and diminishes in intensity, neither fork is heard continuously, but +both sound alternately, the fixed one being only audible when the +revolving one is not. It is difficult to decide whether excitations +of corresponding elements in the two ears can be distinguished from +each other. It is probable that the resulting sensations may be +distinguished, provided one of the generating tones differs from the +other in intensity or quality, although it may be the same in pitch. +Our judgment as to the direction of sounds is formed mainly from +the different degrees of intensity with which they are heard by two +ears. Lord Rayleigh states that diffraction of the sound-waves +will occur as they pass round the head to the ear farthest from the +source of sound; thus partial tones will reach the two ears with +different intensities, and thus quality of tone may be affected +(<i>Trans. Music. Soc.</i>, London, 1876). Silvanus P. Thompson advocates +a similar view, and he shows that the direction of a +complex tone can be more accurately determined than the +direction of a simple tone, especially if it be of low pitch (<i>Phil. +Mag.</i>, 1882).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. M.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEARN, LAFCADIO<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1850-1904), author of books about +Japan, was born on the 27th of June 1850 in Leucadia (pronounced +Lefcadia, whence his name, which was one adopted +by himself), one of the Greek Ionian Islands. He was the son +of Surgeon-major Charles Hearn, of King’s County, Ireland, +who, during the English occupation of the Ionian Islands, was +stationed there, and who married a Greek wife. Artistic and +rather bohemian tastes were in Lafcadio Hearn’s blood. His +father’s brother Richard was at one time a well-known member +of the Barbizon set of artists, though he made no mark as a +painter through his lack of energy. Young Hearn had rather a +casual education, but was for a time (1865) at Ushaw Roman +Catholic College, Durham. The religious faith in which he was +brought up was, however, soon lost; and at nineteen, being +thrown on his own resources, he went to America and at first +picked up a living in the lower grades of newspaper work. The +details are obscure, but he continued to occupy himself with +journalism and with out-of-the-way observation and reading, +and meanwhile his erratic, romantic and rather morbid idiosyncrasies +developed. He was for some time in New Orleans, +writing for the <i>Times Democrat</i>, and was sent by that paper +for two years as correspondent to the West Indies, where he gathered +material for his <i>Two Years in the French West Indies</i> (1890). +At last, in 1891, he went to Japan with a commission as a newspaper +correspondent, which was quickly broken off. But here +he found his true sphere. The list of his books on Japanese +subjects tells its own tale: <i>Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan</i> +(1894); <i>Out of the East</i> (1895); <i>Kokoro</i> (1896); <i>Gleanings in +Buddha Fields</i> (1897); <i>Exotics and Retrospections</i> (1898); <i>In +Ghostly Japan</i> (1899); <i>Shadowings</i> (1900); <i>A Japanese +Miscellany</i> (1901); <i>Kotto</i> (1902); <i>Japanese Fairy Tales</i> and +<i>Kwaidan</i> (1903), and (published just after his death) <i>Japan, +an Attempt at Interpretation</i> (1904), a study full of knowledge +and insight. He became a teacher of English at the University +of Tokyo, and soon fell completely under the spell +of Japanese ideas. He married a Japanese wife, became a +naturalized Japanese under the name of Yakumo Koizumi, and +adopted the Buddhist religion. For the last two years of his life +(he died on the 26th of September 1904) his health was failing, +and he was deprived of his lecturersbip at the University. But +he had gradually become known to the world at large by the +originality, power and literary charm of his writings. This +wayward bohemian genius, who had seen life in so many climes, +and turned from Roman Catholic to atheist and then to Buddhist, +was curiously qualified, among all those who were “interpreting” +the new and the old Japan to the Western world, to see it with +unfettered understanding, and to express its life and thought +with most intimate and most artistic sincerity. Lafcadio Hearn’s +books were indeed unique for their day in the literature about +Japan, in their combination of real knowledge with a literary +art which is often exquisite.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Elizabeth Bisland, <i>The Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn</i> +(2 vols., 1906); G. M. Gould, <i>Concerning Lafcadio Hearn</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEARNE, SAMUEL<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1745-1792), English explorer, was born +in London. In 1756 he entered the navy, and was some time +with Lord Hood; at the end of the Seven Years’ War (1763) +he took service with the Hudson’s Bay Company. In 1768 he +examined portions of the Hudson’s Bay coasts with a view to +improving the cod fishery, and in 1769-1772 he was employed +in north-western discovery, searching especially for certain +copper mines described by Indians. His first attempt (from +the 6th of November 1769) failed through the desertion of his +Indians; his second (from the 23rd of February 1770) through +the breaking of his quadrant; but in his third (December 1770 +to June 1772) he was successful, not only discovering the copper +of the Coppermine river basin, but tracing this river to the +Arctic Ocean. He reappeared at Fort Prince of Wales on the +30th of June 1772. Becoming governor of this fort in 1775, +he was taken prisoner by the French under La Pérouse in 1782. +He returned to England in 1787 and died there in 1792.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his posthumous <i>Journey from Prince of Wales Fort in Hudson’s +Bay to the Northern Ocean</i> (London, 1795).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEARNE, THOMAS<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1678-1735), English antiquary, was +born in July 1678 at Littlefield Green in the parish of White +Waltham, Berkshire. Having received his early education from +his father, George Hearne, the parish clerk, he showed such taste +for study that a wealthy neighbour, Francis Cherry of Shottesbrooke +(<i>c.</i> 1665-1713), a celebrated nonjuror, interested himself +in the boy, and sent him to the school at Bray “on purpose to +learn the Latin tongue.” Soon Cherry took him into his own +house, and his education was continued at Bray until Easter +1696, when he matriculated at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. At +the university he attracted the attention of Dr John Mill (1645-1707), +the principal of St Edmund Hall, who employed him to +compare manuscripts and in other ways. Having taken the +degree of B.A. in 1699 he was made assistant keeper of the +Bodleian Library, where he worked on the catalogue of books, +and in 1712 he was appointed second keeper. In 1715 Hearne +was elected architypographus and esquire bedell in civil law +in the university, but objection having been made to his holding +this office together with that of second librarian, he resigned +it in the same year. As a nonjuror he refused to take the oaths +of allegiance to King George I., and early in 1716 he was deprived +of his librarianship. However he continued to reside in Oxford, +and occupied himself in editing the English chroniclers. Having +refused several important academical positions, including the +librarianship of the Bodleian and the Camden professorship of +ancient history, rather than take the oaths, he died on the 10th +of June 1735.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hearne’s most important work was done as editor of many of +the English chroniclers, and until the appearance of the “Rolls” series +his editions were in many cases the only ones extant. Very carefully +prepared, they were, and indeed are still, of the greatest value to +historical students. Perhaps the most important of a long list are: +Benedict of Peterborough’s (Benedictus Abbas) <i>De vita et gestis +Henrici II. et Ricardi I.</i> (1735); John of Fordun’s <i>Scotichronicon</i> +(1722); the monk of Evesham’s <i>Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II.</i> +(1729); Robert Mannyng’s translation of Peter Langtoft’s <i>Chronicle</i> +(1725); the work of Thomas Otterbourne and John Whethamstede +as <i>Duo rerum Anglicarum scriptores veteres</i> (1732); Robert of +Gloucester’s <i>Chronicle</i> (1724); J. Sprott’s <i>Chronica</i> (1719); the +<i>Vita et gesta Henrici V.</i>, wrongly attributed to Thomas Elmham +(1727); Titus Livy’s <i>Vita Henrici V.</i> (1716); Walter of Hemingburgh’s +<i>Chronicon</i> (1731); and William of Newburgh’s <i>Historia +rerum Anglicarum</i> (1719). He also edited John Leland’s <i>Itinerary</i> +(1710-1712) and the same author’s <i>Collectanea</i> (1715); W. Camden’s +<i>Annales rerum Anglicarum et Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha</i> (1717); +Sir John Spelman’s <i>Life of Alfred</i> (1709); and W. Roper’s <i>Life of +Sir Thomas More</i> (1716). He brought out an edition of Livy (1708); +one of Pliny’s <i>Epistolae et panegyricus</i> (1703); and one of the Acts +of the Apostles (1715). Among his other compilations may be +mentioned: <i>Ductor historicus, a Short System of Universal History</i> +(1704, 1705, 1714, 1724); <i>A Collection of Curious Discourses by +Eminent Antiquaries</i> (1720); and <i>Reliquiae Bodleianae</i> (1703).</p> + +<p>Hearne left his manuscripts to William Bedford, who sold them to +Dr Richard Rawlinson, who in his turn bequeathed them to the +Bodleian. Two volumes of extracts from his voluminous diary +were published by Philip Bliss (Oxford, 1857), and afterwards an +enlarged edition in three volumes appeared (London, 1869). A large +part of his diary entitled <i>Remarks and Collections, 1705-1714</i>, edited +by C. E. Doble and D. W. Rannie, has been published by the Oxford +Historical Society (1885-1898). <i>Bibliotheca Hearniana</i>, excerpts +from the catalogue of Hearne’s library, has been edited by B. +Botfield (1848).</p> + +<p>See <i>Impartial Memorials of the Life and Writings of Thomas Hearne +by several hands</i> (1736); and W. D. Macray, <i>Annals of the Bodleian +Library</i> (1890). Hearne’s autobiography is published in W. Huddesford’s +<i>Lives of Leland, Hearne and Wood</i> (Oxford, 1772). T. Ouvry’s +<i>Letters addressed to Thomas Hearne</i> has been privately printed +(London, 1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEARSE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (an adaptation of Fr. <i>herse</i>, a harrow, from Lat. +<i>hirpex</i>, <i>hirpicem</i>, rake or harrow, Greek <span class="grk" title="arpae">ἅρπαξ</span>, a vehicle for +the conveyance of a dead body at a funeral. The most usual +shape is a four-wheeled car, with a roofed and enclosed body, +sometimes with glass panels, which contains the coffin. This is +the only current use of the word. In its earlier forms it is usually +found as “herse,” and meant, as the French word did, a harrow +(<i>q.v.</i>). It was then applied to other objects resembling a harrow, +following the French. It was then used of a portcullis, and thus +becomes a heraldic term, the “herse” being frequently borne +as a “charge,” as in the arms of the City of Westminster. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span> +chief application of the word is, however, to various objects +used in funeral ceremonies. A “herse” or “hearse” seems +first to have been a barrow-shaped framework of wood, to hold +lighted tapers and decorations placed on a bier or coffin; this +later developed into an elaborate pagoda-shaped erection of +woodwork or metal for the funerals of royal or other distinguished +persons. This held banners, candles, armorial bearings and +other heraldic devices. Complimentary verses or epitaphs +were often attached to the “hearse.” An elaborate “hearse” +was designed by Inigo Jones for the funeral of James I. The +“hearse” is also found as a permanent erection over tombs. +It is generally made of iron or other metal, and was used, +not only to carry lighted candles, but also for the support +of a pall during the funeral ceremony. There is a brass +“hearse” in the Beauchamp Chapel at Warwick Castle, and +one over the tomb of Robert Marmion and his wife at Tanfield +Church near Ripon.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEART,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> in anatomy.—The heart<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> is a four-chambered +muscular bag, which lies in the cavity of the thorax between +the two lungs. It is surrounded by another bag, the pericardium, +for protective and lubricating purposes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coelom and Serous +Membranes</a></span>). Externally the heart is somewhat conical, its +base being directed upward, backward and to the right, its +apex downward, forward and to the left. In transverse section +the cone is flattened, so that there is an anterior and a posterior +surface and a superior and inferior border. The superior border, +running obliquely downward and to the left, is very thick, and +so gains the name of <i>margo obtusus</i>, while the inferior border is +horizontal and sharp and is called <i>margo acutus</i> (see fig. 1). +The divisions between the four chambers of the heart (namely, +the two auricles and two ventricles) are indicated on the surface +by grooves, and when these are followed it will be seen that the +right auricle and ventricle lie on the front and right side, while +the left auricle and ventricle are behind and on the left.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:483px; height:431px" src="images/img129a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span> The Thoracic Viscera.—In this diagram the lungs are +turned to the side, and the pericardium removed to display the +heart, <i>a</i>, upper, a′, lower lobe of left lung; <i>b</i>, upper, <i>b</i>′, middle, +<i>b</i>″, lower lobe of right lung; <i>c</i>, trachea; <i>d</i>, arch of aorta; <i>e</i>, +superior vena cava; <i>f</i>, pulmonary artery; <i>g</i>, left, and <i>h</i>, right +auricle; <i>k</i>, right, and <i>l</i>, left ventricle; <i>m</i>, inferior vena cava; <i>n</i>, +descending aorta; 1, innominate artery; 2, right, and 4, left +common carotid artery; 3, right, and 5, left subclavian artery; +6, 6, right and left innominate vein; 7 and 9, left and right internal +jugular veins; 8 and 10, left and right subclavian veins; 11, 12, 13, +left pulmonary artery, bronchus and vein; 14, 15, 16, right pulmonary +bronchus, artery and vein; 17 and 18, left and right coronary arteries.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:316px; height:465px" src="images/img129b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span> Cavities of the Right Side of the +Heart.—<i>a</i>, superior, and <i>b</i>, inferior vena +cava; <i>c</i>, arch of aorta; <i>d</i>, pulmonary +artery; <i>e</i>, right, and <i>f</i>, left auricular appendage; +<i>g</i>, fossa ovalis; <i>h</i>, Eustachian valve; +<i>k</i>, mouth of coronary vein; <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, cusps +of the tricuspid valve; <i>o</i>, <i>o</i>, papillary +muscles; <i>p</i>, semilunar valve; <i>q</i>, corpus +Arantii; <i>r</i>, lunula.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The <i>right auricle</i> is situated at the base of the heart, and its +outline is seen on looking at the organ from in front. Into the +posterior part of it open the two venae cavae (see fig. 2), the +superior (<i>a</i>) above and the inferior (<i>b</i>) below. In front and to the +left of the superior vena cava is the right auricular appendage (<i>e</i>) +which overlaps the +front of the root of the +aorta, while running +obliquely from the +front of one vena cava +to the other is a shallow +groove called the +<i>sulcus terminalis</i>, which +indicates the original +separation between the +true auricle in front +and the sinus venosus +behind. When the +auricle is opened by +turning the front wall +to the right as a flap +the following structures +are exposed:</p> + +<p>1. A muscular ridge, +called the <i>crista terminalis</i>, +corresponding to +the sulcus terminalis +on the exterior.</p> + +<p>2. A series of ridges +on the anterior wall +and in the appendage, +running downward +from the last and at +right angles to it, like +the teeth of a comb; +these are known as +<i>Musculi pectinati</i>.</p> + +<p>3. The orifice of the superior vena cava (fig. 2, <i>a</i>) at the upper +and back part of the chamber.</p> + +<p>4. The orifice of the inferior vena cava (fig. 2, <i>b</i>) at the lower +and back part.</p> + +<p>5. Attached to the right and lower margins of this opening +are the remains of the <i>Eustachian valve</i> (fig. 2, <i>h</i>), which in the +foetus directs the blood from the inferior vena cava, through the +<i>foramen ovale</i>, into the left auricle.</p> + +<p>6. Below and to the left of this is the opening of the <i>coronary +sinus</i> (fig. 2, <i>k</i>), which collects most of the veins returning blood +from the substance of the heart.</p> + +<p>7. Guarding this opening is the <i>coronary valve</i> or <i>valve of +Thebesius</i>.</p> + +<p>8. On the posterior or septal wall, between the two auricles, +is an oval depression, called the <i>fossa ovalis</i> (fig. 2, <i>g</i>), the remains +of the original communication between the two auricles. In +about a quarter of all normal hearts there is a small valvular +communication between the two auricles in the left margin of +this depression (see “7th Report of the Committee of Collective +Investigation,” <i>J. Anat. and Phys.</i> vol. xxxii. p. 164).</p> + +<p>9. The <i>annulus ovalis</i> is the raised margin surrounding this +depression.</p> + +<p>10. On the left side, opening into the right ventricle, is the +<i>right auriculo-ventricular opening</i>.</p> + +<p>11. On the right wall, between the two caval openings, may +occasionally be seen a slight eminence, the <i>tubercle of Lower</i>, +which is supposed to separate the two streams of blood in the +embryo.</p> + +<p>12. Scattered all over the auricular wall are minute depressions, +the <i>foramina Thebesii</i>, some of which receive small veins +from the substance of the heart.</p> + +<p>The <i>right ventricle</i> is a triangular cavity (see fig. 2) the base of +which is largely formed by the auriculo-ventricular orifice. To +the left of this it is continued up into the root of the pulmonary +artery, and this part is known as the <i>infundibulum</i>. Its anterior +wall forms part of the anterior surface of the heart, while its +posterior wall is chiefly formed by the septum ventriculorum, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span> +between it and the left ventricle. Its lower border is the margo +acutus already mentioned. In transverse section it is crescentic, +since the septal wall bulges into its cavity. In its interior the +following structures are seen:</p> + +<p>1. The <i>tricuspid valve</i> (fig. 2, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>) guarding against reflux +of blood into the right auricle. This consists of a short cylindrical +curtain of fibrous tissue, which projects into the ventricle from +the margin of the auriculo-ventricular aperture, while from its +free edge three triangular flaps hang down, the bases of which +touch one another. These cusps are spoken of as septal, marginal +and infundibular, from their position.</p> + +<p>2. The <i>chordae tendineae</i> are fine fibrous cords which fasten +the cusps to the musculi papillares and ventricular wall, and +prevent the valve being turned inside out when the ventricle +contracts.</p> + +<p>3. The <i>columnae carneae</i> are fleshy columns, and are of three +kinds. The first are attached to the wall of the ventricle in +their whole length and are merely sculptured in relief, as it were; +the second are attached by both ends and are free in the middle; +while the third are known as the <i>musculi papillares</i> and are +attached by one end to the ventricular wall, the other end giving +attachment to the chordae tendineae. These musculi papillares +are grouped into three bundles (fig. 2, <i>o</i>).</p> + +<p>4. The <i>moderator band</i> is really one of the second kind of +columnae carneae which stretches from the septal to the anterior +wall of the ventricle.</p> + +<p>5. The <i>pulmonary valve</i> (fig. 2, <i>p</i>) at the opening of the +pulmonary artery has three crescentic, pocket-like cusps, which, +when the ventricle is filling, completely close the aperture, but +during the contraction of the ventricle fit into three small niches +known as the <i>sinuses of Valsalva</i>, and so are quite out of the way +of the escaping blood. In the middle of the free margin of each +is a small knob called the <i>corpus Arantii</i> (fig. 2, <i>q</i>), and on each +side of this a thin crescent-shaped flap, the <i>lunula</i> (fig. 2, <i>r</i>), which +is only made of two layers of endocardium, whereas in the rest +of the cusp there is a fibrous backing between these two layers.</p> + +<p>The <i>left auricle</i> is situated at the back of the base of the heart, +behind and to the left of the right auricle. Running down behind +it are the oesophagus and the thoracic aorta. When it is opened it +is seen to have a much lighter colour than the other cavities, +owing to the greater thickness of its endocardium obscuring the +red muscle beneath. There are no musculi pectinati except in +the auricular appendage. The openings of the four pulmonary +veins are placed two on each side of the posterior wall, but +sometimes there may be three on the right side, and only one +on the left. On the septal wall is a small depression like the +mark of a finger-nail, which corresponds to the anterior part of +the fossa ovalis and often forms a valvular communication with +the right auricle. The auriculo-ventricular orifice is large and +oval, and is directed downward and to the left. Foramina +Thebesii and venae minimae cordis are found in this auricle, +as in the right, although the chamber is one for arterial or +oxidized blood.</p> + +<p>At the lower part of the posterior surface of the unopened +auricle, lying in the left auriculo-ventricular furrow, is the +coronary sinus, which receives most of the veins returning the +blood from the heart substance; these are the right and left +coronary veins at each extremity and the posterior and left +cardiac veins from below. One small vein, called the oblique +vein of Marshall, runs down into it across the posterior surface +of the auricle, from below the left lower pulmonary vein, and +is of morphological interest.</p> + +<p>The <i>left ventricle</i> is conical, the base being above, behind and +to the right, while the apex corresponds to the apex of the heart +and lies opposite the fifth intercostal space, 3½ in. from the mid +line. The following structures are seen inside it:—</p> + +<p>1. The <i>mitral valve</i> guarding the auriculo-ventricular opening +has the same arrangement as the tricuspid, already described, +save that there are only two cusps, named marginal and aortic, +the latter of which is the larger.</p> + +<p>2. The chordae tendineae and columnae carneae resemble +those of the right ventricle, though there are only two bundles +of musculi papillares instead of three. These are very large. +A moderator band has been found as an abnormality (see +<i>J. Anat. and Phys.</i> vol. xxx. p. 568).</p> + +<p>3. The <i>aortic valve</i> has the same structure as the pulmonary, +though the cusps are more massive. From the anterior and left +posterior sinuses of Valsalva the coronary arteries arise. That +part of the ventricle just below the aortic valve, corresponding +to the infundibulum on the right, is known as the aortic vestibule.</p> + +<p>The walls of the left ventricle are three times as thick as those +of the right, except at the apex, where they are thinner. The +septum ventriculorum is concave towards the left ventricle, so +that a transverse section of that cavity is nearly circular. The +greater part of it has nearly the same thickness as the rest of the +left ventricular wall and is muscular, but a small portion of the +upper part is membranous and thin, and is called the <i>pars +membranacea septi</i>; it lies between the aortic and pulmonary +orifices.</p> + +<p><i>Structure of the Heart.</i>—The arrangement of the muscular +fibres of the heart is very complicated and only imperfectly +known. For details one of the larger manuals, such as Cunningham’s +<i>Anatomy</i> (London, 1910), or Gray’s <i>Anatomy</i> (London, +1909), should be consulted. The general scheme is that there are +superficial fibres common to the two auricles and two ventricles +and deeper fibres for each cavity. Until recently no fibres had +been traced from the auricles to the ventricles, though Gaskell +predicted that these would be found, and the credit for first +demonstrating them is due to Stanley Kent, their details having +subsequently been worked out by W. His, Junr., and S. Tawara. +The fibres of this <i>auriculo-ventricular bundle</i> begin, in the right +auricle, below the opening of the coronary sinus, and run forward +on the right side of the auricular septum, below the fossa ovalis, +and close to the auriculo-ventricular septum. Above the septal +flap of the tricuspid valve they thicken and divide into two main +branches, one on either side of the ventricular septum, which run +down to the bases of the anterior and posterior papillary muscles, +and so reach the walls of the ventricle, where their secondary +branches form the <i>fibres of Purkinje</i>. The bundle is best seen +in the hearts of young Ruminants, and it is presumably through +it that the wave of contraction passes from the auricles to the +ventricles (see article by A. Keith and M. Flack, <i>Lancet</i>, 11th of +August 1906, p. 359).</p> + +<p>The <i>central fibrous body</i> is a triangular mass of fibro-cartilage, +situated between the two auriculo-ventricular and the aortic +orifices. The upper part of the septum ventriculorum blends +with it. The <i>endocardium</i> is a delicate layer of endothelial cells +backed by a very thin layer of fibro-elastic tissue; it is continuous +with the endothelium of the great vessels and lines the whole of +the cavities of the heart.</p> + +<p>The heart is roughly about the size of the closed fist and weighs +from 8 to 12 oz.; it continues to increase in size up to about +fifty years of age, but the increase is more marked in the male +than in the female. Each ventricle holds about 4 f. oz. of blood, +and each auricle rather less. The nerves of the heart are derived +from the vagus, spinal accessory and sympathetic, through the +superficial and deep cardiac plexuses.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Embryology.</i></p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:224px" src="images/img131.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Formation of Septa. Diagram +of the formation of some of the septa of +the heart (viewed from the right side).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>S.V. Sinus venosus.</p> +<p>Au. Auricle.</p> +<p>E.C. Endocardial cushions forming septum intermedium.</p> +<p>V. Septum ventriculorum.</p> +<p>T. Ar. Septum aorticum intruncus arteriosus.</p> +<p>V.A. Ventral aorta.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>In the article on the arteries (<i>q.v.</i>) the formation and coalescence +of the two <i>primitive ventral aortae</i> to form the heart are +noticed, so that we may here start with a straight median tube +lying ventral to the pharynx and being prolonged cephalad into +the ventral aortae and caudad into the vitelline veins. This +soon shows four dilatations, which, from the tail towards the +head end, are called the sinus venosus, the auricle, the ventricle +and the truncus<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> arteriosus. As the tubular heart grows more +rapidly than the pericardium which contains it, it becomes bent +into the form of an S laid on its side (∾), the ventral convexity +being the ventricle and the dorsal the auricle. The passage +from the auricle to the ventricle is known as the <i>auricular canal</i>, +and in the dorsal and ventral parts of this appear two thickenings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span> +known as <i>endocardial cushions</i>, which approach one another and +leave a transverse slit between them (fig. 3, E.C.). Eventually +these two cushions fuse in the middle line, obliterating the +central part of the slit, while the lateral parts remain as the two +auriculo-ventricular orifices; this fusion is known as the <i>septum +intermedium</i>. From the bottom (ventral convexity) of the +ventricle an antero-posterior median septum grows up, which is +the <i>septum inferius</i> or +<i>septum ventriculorum</i> +(fig. 3, V). Posteriorly +(caudally) this septum +fuses with the septum +intermedium, but anteriorly +it is free at the +lower part of the truncus +arteriosus. On referring +to the development of the +arteries (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arteries</a></span>) it +will be seen that another +septum starts between +the last two pairs of +aortic arches and grows +downward (caudad) until +it reaches and joins with +the septum inferius just +mentioned. This <i>septum +aorticum</i> (formed by two +ingrowths from the wall +of the vessel which fuse +later) becomes twisted in such a way that the right ventricle +is continuous with the last pair of aortic arches (pulmonary +artery), while the left ventricle communicates with the other +arches (the permanent ventral aorta and its branches); it +joins the septum ventriculorum in the upper part of the +ventricular cavity and so forms the <i>pars membranacea septi</i> +(fig. 3, T. Ar).</p> + +<p>The fate of the sinus venosus and auricle must now be followed. +Into the former, at first, only the two vitelline veins open, but +later, as they develop, the <i>ducts of Cuvier</i> and the <i>umbilical +veins</i> join in (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Veins</a></span>). As the ducts of Cuvier come from +each side the sinus spreads out to meet them and becomes +transversely elongated. The slight constriction, which at first +is the only separation between the sinus and the auricle, becomes +more marked, and later the opening is into the right part of +the auricle, and is guarded by two valvular folds of endocardium +(the <i>venous valves</i>) which project into that cavity, and are +continuous above with a temporary downgrowth from the +roof, known as the <i>septum spurium</i>. Later the right side of the +sinus enlarges, and so does the right part of the aperture, until +the back part of the right side of the auricle and the right part +of the sinus venosus are thrown into one, and the only remnants +of the partition are the crista terminalis and the Eustachian +and Thebesian Valves. The left part of the sinus venosus, +which does not enlarge at the same rate as the right part, remains +as the coronary sinus. It will now be seen why, in the adult +heart, all the veins which open into the right auricle open into +its posterior part, behind the crista terminalis. The septum +spurium has been referred to as a temporary structure; the +real division between the two auricles occurs at a later date +than that between the ventricles and to the left of the septum +spurium. It is formed by two partitions, the first of which, +called the <i>septum primum</i>, grows down from the auricular roof. +At first it does not quite reach the endocardial cushions in the +auricular canal, already mentioned, but leaves a gap, called +the <i>ostium primum</i>, between. This has nothing to do with the +<i>foramen ovale</i>, which occurs as an independent perforation higher +up, and at first is known as the <i>ostium secundum</i>. When it is +established the septum primum grows down and meets the +endocardial cushions, and so the ostium primum is obliterated. +The <i>septum secundum</i> grows down on the right of the septum +primum and is never complete; it grows round and largely +overlaps the foramen ovale and its edges form the annulus +ovalis, so that, in the later months of foetal life, the foramen +ovale is a valvular opening, the floor of which is formed by the +septum primum and the margins by the septum secundum. +The closure of the foramen is brought about by adhesion of the +two septa.</p> + +<p>The pulmonary veins of the two sides at first join one another, +dorsal to the left auricle, and open into that cavity by a single +median trunk, but, as the auricle grows, this trunk and part of +the right and left veins are absorbed into its cavity.</p> + +<p>The mitral and tricuspid valves are formed by the shortening +of the auricular canal which becomes telescoped into the ventricle, +and the cusps are the remnants of this telescoping process.</p> + +<p>The columnae carneae and chordae tendineae are the remains +of a spongy network which originally filled the cavity of the +primary ventricle.</p> + +<p>The aortic and pulmonary valves are laid down in the ventral +aorta, before it is divided into aorta and pulmonary artery, +as four endocardial cushions; anterior, posterior and two +lateral. The septum aorticum cuts the latter two into two, so +that each artery has the rudiments of three cusps.</p> + +<p>Abnormalities of the heart are very numerous, and can +usually be explained by a knowledge of its development. They +often cause grave clinical symptoms. A clear and well-illustrated +review of the most important of them will be found in the chapter +on congenital disease of the heart in <i>Clinical Applied Anatomy</i>, +by C. R. Box and W. McAdam Eccles, London, 1906.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details of the embryology of the heart see Oscar +Hertwig’s <i>Entwicklungslehre der Wirbeltiere</i> (Jena, 1902); G. Born, +“Entwicklung des Säugetierherzens,” <i>Archiv f. mik. Anat.</i> Bd. 33 +(1889); W. His, <i>Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen</i> (Leipzig, 1881-1885); +Quain’s <i>Anatomy</i>, vol. i. (1908); C. S. Minot, <i>Human +Embryology</i> (New York, 1892); and A. Keith, <i>Human Embryology +and Morphology</i> (London, 1905).</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Comparative Anatomy.</i></p> + +<p>In the Acrania (<i>e.g.</i> lancelet) there is no heart, though the +vessels are specially contractile in the ventral part of the pharynx.</p> + +<p>In the Cyclostomata (lamprey and hag), and Fishes, the +heart has the same arrangement which has been noticed in the +human embryo. There is a smooth, thin-walled sinus venosus, +a thin reticulate-walled auricle, produced laterally into two +appendages, a thick-walled ventricle, and a <i>conus arteriosus</i> +containing valves. In addition to these the beginning of the +ventral aorta is often thickened and expanded to form a <i>bulbus +arteriosus</i>, which is non-contractile, and, strictly speaking, +should rather be described with the arteries than with the heart. +In relation to human embryology the smooth sinus venosus +and reticulated auricle are interesting. Between the auricle +and ventricle is the auriculo-ventricular valve, which primarily +consists of two cusps, comparable to the two endocardial cushions +of the human embryo, though in some forms they may be subdivided. +In the interior of the ventricle is a network of muscular +trabeculae. The conus arteriosus in the Elasmobranchs (sharks +and rays) and Ganoids (sturgeon) is large and provided with +several rows of semilunar valves, but in the Cyclostomes (lamprey) +and Teleosts (bony fishes) the conus is reduced and only the +anterior (cephalic) row of valves retained. With the reduction of +the conus the bulbus arteriosus is enlarged. So far the heart is +a single tubular organ expanded into various cavities and having +the characteristic ∾-shaped form seen in the human embryo; +it contains only venous blood which is forced through the gills +to be oxidized on its way to the tissues. In the Dipnoi (mud +fish), in which rudimentary lungs, as well as gills, are developed, +the auricle is divided into two, and the sinus venosus opens +into the right auricle. The conus arteriosus too begins to be +divided into two chambers, and in Protopterus this division +is complete. This division of the heart is one instance in which +mammalian ontogeny does not repeat the processes of phylogeny, +because, in the human embryo, it has been shown that the +ventricular septum appears before the auricular. This want +of harmony is sometimes spoken of as the “falsification of the +embryological record.”</p> + +<p>In the Amphibia there are also two auricles and one ventricle, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span> +though in the Urodela (tailed amphibians) the auricular septum +is often fenestrated. The sinus venosus is still a separate +chamber, and the conus arteriosus, which may contain many +or few valves, is usually divided into two by a spiral fold. +Structurally the amphibian heart closely resembles the dipnoan, +though the increased size of the left auricle is an advance. In +the Anura (frogs and toads) the whole ventricle is filled with a +spongy network which prevents the arterial and venous blood +from the two auricles mixing to any great extent. (For the +anatomy and physiology of the frog’s heart, see <i>The Frog</i>, +by Milnes Marshall.)</p> + +<p>In the Reptiles the ventricular septum begins to appear; +this in the lizards is quite incomplete, but in the crocodiles, +which are usually regarded as the highest order of living reptiles, +the partition has nearly reached the top of the ventricle, and the +condition resembles that of the human embryo before the pars +membranacea septi is formed. The conus arteriosus becomes +included in the ventricular cavity, but the sinus venosus still +remains distinct, and its opening into the right ventricle is +guarded by two valves which closely resemble the two venous +valves in the auricle of the human embryo already referred to.</p> + +<p>In the Birds the auricular and ventricular septa are complete; +the right ventricle is thin-walled and crescentic in section, as in +Man, and the musculi papillares are developed. The left auriculo-ventricular +valve has three membranous cusps with chordae +tendineae attached to them, but the right auriculo-ventricular +valve has a large fleshy cusp without chordae tendineae. The +sinus venosus is largely included in the right auricle, but remains +of the two venous valves are seen on each side of the orifice of the +inferior vena cava.</p> + +<p>In the Mammals the structure of the heart corresponds closely +with the description of that of Man already given. In the +Ornithorynchus, among the Monotremes, the right auriculo-ventricular +valve has two fleshy and two membranous cusps, +thus showing a resemblance to that of the bird. In the Echidna, +the other member of the order, however, both auriculo-ventricular +valves are membranous. In the Edentates the remains of the +venous valves at the opening of the inferior vena cava are better +marked than in other orders. In the Ungulates the moderator +band in the right ventricle is especially well developed, and the +central fibrous body at the base of the heart is often ossified, +forming the os cordis so well known in the heart of the ox.</p> + +<p>The position of the heart in the lower mammals is not so +oblique as it is in Man.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details, see C. Rose, <i>Beitr. z. vergl. Anal. des Herzens +der Wirbelthiere Morph. Jahrb.</i>, Bd. xvi. (1890); R. Wiedersheim, +<i>Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbelthiere</i> (Jena, 1902) (for literature); +also Parker and Haswell’s <i>Zoology</i> (London, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. G. P.)</div> + +<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Heart Disease.</span>—In the early ages of medicine, the absence +of correct anatomical, physiological and pathological knowledge +prevented diseases of the heart from being recognized with any +certainty during life, and almost entirely precluded them from +becoming the object of medical treatment. But no sooner did +Harvey (1628) publish his discovery of the circulation of the +blood, and its dependence on the heart as its central organ, than +derangements of the circulation began to be recognized as signs +of disease of that central organ. (See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vascular +System</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Among the earliest to profit by this discovery and to make +important contributions to the literature of diseases of the heart +and circulation were, R. Lower (1631-1691), R. Vieussens +(1641-1716). H. Boerhave (1668-1738) and the great pathologists +at the beginning of the 18th century, G. M. Lancisi +(1654-1720), G. B. Morgagni (1682-1771) and J. B. Senac +(1693-1770). The works of these writers form very interesting +reading, and it is remarkable how careful were the observations +made, and how sound the conclusions drawn, by these pioneers +of scientific medicine. J. N. Corvisart (1755-1821) was one of the +earliest to make practical use of R. T. Auenbrugger’s (1722-1809) +invention of percussion to determine the size of the heart. +R. T. H. Laennec (1781-1826) was the first to make a scientific +application of mediate auscultation to the diagnosis of disease of +the chest, by the invention of the stethoscope. J. Bouillaud +(1796-1881) extended its use to the diagnosis of disease of the +heart. To James Hope (1801-1841) we owe much of the precision +we have now attained in diagnosis of valvular disease from +abnormalities in the sounds produced during cardiac movements. +This short list by no means exhausts the earlier literature on the +subject, but each of these names marks an era in the progress of +the diagnosis of cardiac disease. In later years the literature on +this subject has become very copious.</p> + +<p>The heart and great vessels occupy a position immediately to +the left of the centre of the thoracic cavity. The anterior surface +of the heart is projected against the chest wall and is surrounded +on either side by the lungs, which are resonant organs, so that +any increase in the size of the heart, “dilatation,” can be detected +by percussion. By placing the hand on the chest, palpation, +the impulse of the left ventricle, or apex beat, can normally +be felt just below and internal to the nipple. Deviations from +the normal in the position or force of the apex beat will afford +important information as to the nature of the pathological +changes in the heart. Thus, displacement downwards and outwards +of the apex beat, with a forcible thrusting impulse, +will indicate hypertrophy, or increase of the muscular wall +and increased driving power of the left ventricle, whereas a +similar displacement with a feeble diffuse impulse will indicate +dilatation, or over-distension of its cavity from stretching of +the walls.</p> + +<p>By auscultation, or listening with a suitable instrument named +a stethoscope over appropriate areas, we can detect any abnormality +in the sounds of the heart, and the presence of murmurs +indicative of disease of one or other of the valves of the heart.</p> + +<p>The pericardium is a fibro-serous sac which loosely envelops the +heart and the origin of the great vessels. Inflammation of this +sac, or <i>pericarditis</i>, is apt to occur as a result of rheumatism, +more especially in children. It may also occur as a complication of +pneumonia. It is a serious affection associated with pain over +the heart, fever, shortness of breath, rapid pulse and dilatation +of the heart. As a result of the inflammation, fluid may accumulate +in the pericardial sac, or the walls of the sac may become +adherent to the heart and tend to embarrass its action. In +favourable cases, however, recovery may take place without any +untoward sequelae.</p> + +<p>Diseases of the heart may be classified in two main groups, +(1) Disease of the valves, and (2) Disease of the walls of the +heart.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Valvular Disease.</i>—Inflammation of the valves of the heart, +or <i>endocarditis</i>, is one of the most common complications of +rheumatism in children and young adults. More severe types, +which are apt to prove fatal from a form of blood poisoning, may +result when the valves of the heart are attacked by certain +micro-organisms, such as the pneumococcus, which is responsible +for pneumonia, the streptococcus and the staphylococcus +pyogenes, the gonococcus and the influenza bacillus.</p> + +<p>As a result of endocarditis, one or more of the valves may be +seriously damaged, so that it leaks or becomes incompetent. +The valves of the left side of the heart, the aortic and mitral +valves, are affected far more commonly than those of the right +side. It is indeed comparatively rarely that the latter are +attacked. In the process of healing of a damaged valve, scar +tissue is formed which has a tendency to contract, so that in some +cases the orifice of the valve becomes narrowed, and the resulting +stenosis or narrowing gives rise to obstruction of the blood +stream. We may thus have incompetence or stenosis of a valve +or both combined.</p> + +<p>Valvular lesions are detected on auscultation over appropriate +areas by the blowing sounds or murmurs to which they give rise, +which modify or replace the normal heart sounds. Thus, lesions +of the mitral valve give rise to murmurs which are heard at the +apex beat of the heart, and lesions of the aortic valves to murmurs +which are heard over the aortic area, in the second right intercostal +space. Accurate timing of the murmurs in relation to the +heart sounds enables us to judge whether the murmur is due to +stenosis or incompetence of the valve affected.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span></p> + +<p>If the valvular lesion is severe, it is essential for the proper +maintenance of the circulation that certain changes should take +place in the heart to compensate for or neutralize the effects of +the regurgitation or obstruction, as the case may be. In affections +of the aortic valve, the extra work falls on the left ventricle, +which enlarges proportionately and undergoes hypertrophy. In +affections of the mitral valve the effect is felt primarily by the +left auricle, which is a thin walled structure incapable of undergoing +the requisite increase in power to resist the backward flow +through the mitral orifice in case of leakage, or to overcome the +effects of obstruction in case of stenosis. The back pressure is +therefore transmitted to the pulmonary circulation, and as the +right ventricle is responsible for maintaining the flow of blood +through the lungs, the strain and extra work fall on the right +ventricle, which in turn enlarges and undergoes hypertrophy. +The degree of hypertrophy of the left or right ventricle is thus, +up to a certain point, a measure of the extent of the lesion of the +aortic or mitral valve respectively. When the effects of the +valvular lesion are so neutralized by these structural changes in +the heart that the circulation is equably maintained, “compensation” +is said to be efficient.</p> + +<p>When the heart gives way under the strain, compensation +is said to break down, and dropsy, shortness of breath, cough +and cyanosis, are among the distressing symptoms which may +set in. The mere existence of a valvular lesion does not call +for any special treatment so long as compensation is efficient, +and a large number of people with slight valvular lesions are +living lives indistinguishable from those of their neighbours. +It will, however, be readily understood that in the case of the +more serious lesions certain precautions should be observed +in regard to over-exertion, excitement, over-indulgence in +tobacco or alcohol, &c., as the balance is more readily upset +and any undue strain on the heart may cause a breakdown of +compensation. When this occurs treatment is required. A +period of rest in bed is often sufficient to enable the heart to +recover, and this may be supplemented as required by the +administration of mercurial and saline purgatives to relieve +the embarrassed circulation, and of suitable cardiac tonics, +such as digitalis and strychnin, to reinforce and strengthen +the heart’s action.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Affections of the Muscular Wall of the Heart.</i>—Dilatation of +the heart, or stretching of the walls of the heart, is an incident, +as has already been stated, in pericarditis and in the earlier +stages of valvular disease antecedent to hypertrophy. Temporary +over-distension or dilatation of the cavities of the heart occurs +in violent and protracted exertion, but rapidly subsides and is +in no wise harmful to the sound and vigorous heart of the young. +It is otherwise if the heart is weak and flabby from a too sedentary +life or degenerative changes in its walls or during convalescence +from a severe illness, when the same circumstances which will +not injure a healthy heart, may give rise to serious dilatation +from which recovery may be very protracted.</p> + +<p>Influenza is a common cause of cardiac dilatation, and is +liable to be a source of trouble after the acute illness has subsided, +if the patient goes about and resumes his ordinary avocations +too soon.</p> + +<p>Fatty or fibroid degeneration of the heart wall may occur in +later life from impaired nutrition of the muscle, due to partial +obstruction of the blood-vessels supplying it, when they are +the seat of the degenerative changes known as arteriosclerosis +or atheroma. The affection known as <i>angina pectoris</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) may +be a further consequence of this defective blood-supply.</p> + +<p>The treatment will vary according to the nature of the case. +In serious cases of dilatation, rest in bed, purgatives and cardiac +tonics may be required.</p> + +<p>In commencing degenerative change the Oertel treatment, +consisting of graduated exercise up a gentle slope, limitation +of fluids and a special diet, may be indicated.</p> + +<p>In cases of slight dilatation after influenza or recent illness, +the Schott treatment by baths and exercises as carried out at +Nauheim may be sometimes beneficial. The change of air and +scene, the enforced rest, the placid life, together with freedom +from excitement and worry, are among the most important +factors which contribute to success in this class of case.</p> + +<p><i>Disorders of Rhythm of the Heart’s Action.</i>—Under this heading +may be grouped a number of conditions to which the name +“functional affections of the heart” has sometimes been applied, +inasmuch as the disturbances in question cannot usually be +attributed to definite organic disease of the heart. We must, +of course, exclude from this category the irregularity in the +force and frequency of the pulse, which is commonly associated +with incompetence of the mitral valve.</p> + +<p>The heart is a muscular organ possessing certain properties, +rhythmicity, excitability, contractility, conductivity and tonicity, +as pointed out by Gaskell, in virtue of which it is able +to maintain a regular automatic beat independently of nerve +stimulation. It is, however, intimately connected with the brain, +blood-vessels and the abdominal and thoracic viscera, by +innumerable nerves, through which impulses or messages are +being constantly sent to and received from these various portions +of the body. Such messages may give rise to disturbances of +rhythm with which we are all familiar. For instance, sudden +fright or emotion may cause a momentary arrest of the heart’s +action, and excitement or apprehension may set up a rapid +action of the heart or <i>palpitation</i>. Palpitation, again, is often +the result of digestive disorders, the message in this case being +received from the stomach, instead of the brain as in emotional +disturbances. It may also result from over-indulgence in tobacco +and alcohol.</p> + +<p><i>Tachycardia</i> is the name applied to a more or less permanent +increase in the rate of the heart-beat. It is usually a prominent +feature in the affection known as Graves’ disease or exophthalmic +goitre. It may also result from chronic alcoholism. In the +condition known as paroxysmal tachycardia there appears to +be no adequate explanation for its onset.</p> + +<p><i>Bradycardia</i> or abnormal slowness of the heart-beat, is the +converse of tachycardia. An abnormally slow pulse is met +with in melancholia, cerebral tumour, jaundice and certain +toxic conditions, or may follow an attack of influenza. There +is, however, a peculiar affection characterized by abnormal +slowness of pulse (often ranging as low as 30), and the onset, +from time to time, of epileptiform or syncopal attacks. To +this the name “Stokes-Adams disease” has been applied, as it +was first called attention to by Adams in 1827, and subsequently +fully described by Stokes in 1836. It is usually associated +with senile degenerative change of the heart and vascular system, +and is held to be due to impairment of conductivity in the +muscular fibres (bundle of His) which transmit the wave of +contraction from the auricle to the ventricle. It is of serious +significance in view of the symptoms associated with it.</p> + +<p><i>Intermittency of the Pulse.</i>—By this is understood a pulse in +which a beat is dropped from time to time. The dropping of +a beat may occur at regular intervals every two, four or six +beats, &c., or occasionally at irregular intervals after a series +of normal beats. On examining the heart, it is found, as a rule, +that the cause of the intermission at the wrist is not actual +omission of a heart-beat, but the occurrence of a hurried imperfect +cardiac contraction which does not transmit a pulse-wave to +the wrist. It is not characteristic of any special form of heart +affection, and is rarely of serious import. It may be due to +reflex digestive disturbances, or be associated with conditions +of nervous breakdown and irritability, or with an atonic +and relaxed condition of the heart muscle. The treatment of +these disorders of rhythm of the heart will vary greatly +according to the cause and is often a matter of considerable +difficulty.</p> +<div class="author">(J. F. H. B.)</div> + +<p><i>Surgery of Heart and Pericardium.</i>—As the result of acute or +chronic inflammation of the lining membrane of the fibrous +sac which surrounds the heart and the neighbouring parts of +the large blood-vessels, a dropsical or a purulent collection may +form in it, or the sac may be quietly distended by a thin +watery fluid. In either case, but especially in the latter, the +heart may be so embarrassed in its work that death seems +imminent. The condition is generally due to the cultivation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span> +in the pericardium of the germs of rheumatism, influenza +or gonorrhoea, or of those of ordinary suppuration. Respiration +as well as circulation is embarrassed, and there is a marked +fulness and dulness of the front wall of the chest to the left of +the breast-bone. In that region also pain and tenderness are +complained of. By using the slender, hollow needle of an +aspirator great relief may be afforded, but the tapping may have +to be repeated from time to time. If the fluid drawn off is found +to be purulent, it may be necessary to make a trap-door opening +into the chest by cutting across the 4th and 5th ribs, incising +and evacuating the pericardium and providing for drainage. +In short, an abscess in the pericardium must be treated like an +abscess in the pleura.</p> + +<p>Wounds of the heart are apt to be quickly fatal. If the +probability is that the enfeebled action of the heart is due to +pressure from blood which is leaking into, and is locked up +in the pericardium, the proper treatment will be to open +the pericardium, as described above, and, if possible, to +close the opening in the auricle, ventricle or large vessel, by +sutures.</p> +<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In O. Eng. <i>heorte</i>; this is a common Teut. word, cf. Dut. <i>hart</i>, +Ger. <i>Herz</i>, Goth. <i>hairto</i>; related by root are Lat. <i>cor</i> and Gr. <span class="grk" title="kardia">καρδία</span>; +the ultimate root is <i>kard</i>-, to quiver, shake.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This is often called bulbus arteriosus, but it will be seen that +the term is used rather differently in comparative anatomy.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEART-BURIAL,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> the burial of the heart apart from the body. +This is a very ancient practice, the special reverence shown +towards the heart being doubtless due to its early association +with the soul of man, his affections, courage and conscience. +In medieval Europe heart-burial was fairly common. Some +of the more notable cases are those of Richard I., whose heart, +preserved in a casket, was placed in Rouen cathedral; Henry III., +buried in Normandy; Eleanor, queen of Edward I., at Lincoln; +Edward I., at Jerusalem; Louis IX., Philip III., Louis XIII. +and Louis XIV., in Paris. Since the 17th century the hearts +of deceased members of the house of Habsburg have been buried +apart from the body in the Loretto chapel in the Augustiner +Kirche, Vienna. The most romantic story of heart-burial is +that of Robert Bruce. He wished his heart to rest at Jerusalem in +the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and on his deathbed entrusted +the fulfilment of his wish to Douglas. The latter broke his +journey to join the Spaniards in their war with the Moorish king +of Granada, and was killed in battle, the heart of Bruce enclosed +in a silver casket hanging round his neck. Subsequently the +heart was buried at Melrose Abbey. The heart of James, +marquess of Montrose, executed by the Scottish Covenanters in +1650, was recovered from his body, which had been buried by +the roadside outside Edinburgh, and, enclosed in a steel box, +was sent to the duke of Montrose, then in exile. It was lost on +its journey, and years afterwards was discovered in a curiosity +shop in Flanders. Taken by a member of the Montrose family +to India, it was stolen as an amulet by a native chief, was once +more regained, and finally lost in France during the Revolution. +Of notable 17th-century cases there is that of James II., whose +heart was buried in the church of the convent of the Visitation +at Chaillot near Paris, and that of Sir William Temple, at Moor +Park, Farnham. The last ceremonial burial of a heart in England +was that of Paul Whitehead, secretary to the Monks of Medmenham +club, in 1775, the interment taking place in the Le +Despenser mausoleum at High Wycombe, Bucks. Of later cases +the most notable are those of Daniel O’Connell, whose heart is +at Rome, Shelley at Bournemouth, Louis XVII. at Venice, +Kosciusko at the Polish museum at Rapperschwyll, Lake Zürich, +and the marquess of Bute, taken by his widow to Jerusalem for +burial in 1900. Sometimes other parts of the body, removed in +the process of embalming, are given separate and solemn burial. +Thus the viscera of the popes from Sixtus V. (1590) onward have +been preserved in the parish church of the Quirinal. The custom +of heart-burial was forbidden by Pope Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), +but Benedict XI. withdrew the prohibition.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pettigrew, <i>Chronicles of the Tombs</i> (1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEARTH<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (a word which appears in various forms in several +Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch <i>haard</i>, German <i>Herd</i>, in the sense +of “floor”), the part of a room where a fire is made, usually +constructed of stone, bricks, tiles or earth, beaten hard and +having a chimney above; the fire being lighted either on the +hearth itself, or in a receptacle placed there for the purpose. +Like the Latin <i>focus</i>, especially in the phrase for “hearth and +home” answering to <i>pro aris et focis</i>, the word is used as equivalent +to the home or household. The word is also applied to the +fire and cooking apparatus on board ship; the floor of a smith’s +forge; the floor of a reverberatory furnace on which the ore is +exposed to the flame; the lower part of a blast furnace through +which the metal goes down into the crucible; in soldering, a +portable brazier or chafing dish, and an iron box sunk in the +middle of a flat iron plate or table. An “open-hearth furnace” +is a regenerative furnace of the reverberatory type used in making +steel, hence “open-hearth steel” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron and Steel</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Hearth-money, hearth tax or chimney-money, was a tax imposed +in England on all houses except cottages at a rate of +two shillings for every hearth. It was first levied in 1662, but +owing to its unpopularity, chiefly caused by the domiciliary visits +of the collectors, it was repealed in 1689, although it was producing +£170,000 a year. The principle of the tax was not new +in the history of taxation, for in Anglo-Saxon times the king +derived a part of his revenue from a <i>fumage</i> or tax of smoke +farthings levied on all hearths except those of the poor. It +appears also in the hearth-penny or tax of a penny on every +hearth, which as early as the 10th century was paid annually +to the pope (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peter’s Pence</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEARTS,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a game of cards of recent origin, though founded +upon the same principle as many old games, such as <i>Slobberhannes</i>, +<i>Four Jacks</i> and <i>Enflé</i>, namely, that of losing instead of +winning as many tricks as possible. Hearts is played with a full +pack, ace counting highest and deuce lowest. In the four-handed +game, which is usually played, the entire pack is dealt out as at +whist (but without turning up the last card, since there are no +trumps), and the player at the dealer’s left begins by leading any +card he chooses, the trick being taken by the highest card of the +suit led. Each player must follow suit if he can; if he has no +cards of the suit led he is privileged to throw away any card he +likes, thus having an opportunity of getting rid of his hearts, which +is the object of the game. When all thirteen tricks have been +played each player counts the hearts he has taken in and pays +into the pool a certain number of counters for them, according +to an arrangement made before beginning play. In the four-handed, +or sweepstake, game the method of settling called +“Howell’s,” from the name of the inventor, has been generally +adopted, according to which each player begins with an equal +number of chips, say 100, and, after the hand has been played, +pays into the pool as many chips for each heart he had taken as +there are players besides himself. Then each player takes out +of the pool one chip for every heart he did not win. The pool +is thus exhausted with every deal. Hearts may be played by +two, three, four or even more players, each playing for himself.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Spot Hearts.</i>—In this variation the hearts count according to the +number of spots on the cards, excepting that the ace counts 14, +the king 13, queen 12 and knave 11, the combined score of the +thirteen hearts being thus 104.</p> + +<p><i>Auction Hearts.</i>—In this the eldest hand examines his hand +and bids a certain number of counters for the privilege of naming +the suit to be got rid of, but without naming the suit. The other +players in succession have the privilege of outbidding him, and +whoever bids most declares the suit and pays the amount of his bid +into the pool, the winner taking it.</p> + +<p><i>Joker Hearts.</i>—Here the deuce of hearts is discarded, and an extra +card, called the joker, takes its place, ranking in value between ten +and knave. It cannot be thrown away, excepting when hearts +are led and an ace or court card is played, though if an opponent +discards the ace or a court card of hearts, then the holder of the joker +may discard it. The joker is usually considered worth five chips, +which are either paid into the pool or to the player who succeeds +in discarding the joker.</p> + +<p><i>Heartsette.</i>—In this variation the deuce of spades is deleted and +the three cards left after dealing twelve cards to each player are +called the <i>widow</i> (or <i>kitty</i>), and are left face downward on the table. +The winner of the first trick must take the widow without showing it +to his opponents.</p> + +<p><i>Slobberhannes.</i>—The object of this older form of Hearts is to avoid +taking either the first or last trick or a trick containing the queen of +clubs. A euchre pack (thirty two-cards, lacking all below the 7) is +used, and each player is given 10 counters, one being forfeited to the +pool if a player takes the first or last trick, or that containing the +club queen. If he takes all three he forfeits four points.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span></p> + +<p><i>Four Jacks</i> (<i>Polignac or Quatre-Valets</i>) is usually played with a +piquet pack, the cards ranking in France as at écarté, but in Great +Britain and America as at piquet. There is no trump suit. Counters +are used, and the object of the game is to avoid taking any trick +containing a knave, especially the knave of spades, called <i>Polignac</i>. +The player taking such a trick forfeits one counter to the pool.</p> + +<p><i>Enflé</i> (or <i>Schwellen</i>) is usually played by four persons with a piquet +pack and for a pool. The cards rank as at Hearts, and there is no +trump suit. A player must follow suit if he can, but if he cannot +he may not discard, but must take up all tricks already won and add +them to his hand. Play is continued until one player gets rid of all +his cards and thus wins.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEAT<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (O. E. <i>haétu</i>, which like “hot,” Old Eng. <i>hát</i>, is from the +Teutonic type <i>haita, hit</i>, to be hot; cf. Ger. <i>hitze, heiss</i>; Dutch, +<i>hitte, heet</i>, &c.), a general term applied to that branch of physical +science which deals with the effects produced by heat on material +bodies, with the laws of transference of heat, and with the +transformations of heat into other kinds of energy. The object +of the present article is to give a brief sketch of the historical +development of the science of heat, and to indicate the relation +of the different branches of the subject, which are discussed in +greater detail with reference to the latest progress in separate +articles.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Meanings of the Term Heat.</i>—The term heat is employed in +ordinary language in a number of different senses. This makes it +a convenient term to employ for the general title of the science, +but the different meanings must be carefully distinguished in +scientific reasoning. For the present purpose, omitting metaphorical +significations, we may distinguish four principal uses +of the term: (<i>a</i>) Sensation of heat; (<i>b</i>) Temperature, or +degree of hotness; (<i>c</i>) Quantity of thermal energy; (<i>d</i>) Radiant +heat, or energy of radiation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) From the sense of heat, aided in the case of very hot bodies +by the sense of sight, we obtain our first rough notions of heat as +a physical entity, which alters the state of a body and its condition +in respect of warmth, and is capable of passing from one body to +another. By touching a body we can tell whether it is warmer or +colder than the hand, and, by touching two similar bodies in succession, +we can form a rough estimate, by the acuteness of the +sensation experienced, of their difference in hotness or coldness +over a limited range. If a hot iron is placed on a cold iron plate, +we may observe that the plate is heated and the iron cooled until +both attain appreciably the same degree of warmth; and we infer +from similar cases that something which we call “heat” tends to +pass from hot to cold bodies, and to attain finally a state of equable +diffusion when all the bodies concerned are equally warm or cold. +Ideas such as these derived entirely from the sense of heat, are, +so to speak, embedded in the language of every nation from the +earliest times.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) From the sense of heat, again, we naturally derive the idea +of a continuous scale or order, expressed by such terms as summer +heat, blood heat, fever heat, red heat, white heat, in which all bodies +may be placed with regard to their degrees of hotness, and we speak +of the <i>temperature</i> of a body as denoting its place in the scale, in +contradistinction to the quantity of heat it may contain.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The quantity of heat contained in a body obviously depends +on the size of the body considered. Thus a large kettleful of boiling +water will evidently contain more heat than a teacupful, though both +may be at the same temperature. The temperature does not depend +on the size of the body, but on the degree of concentration of the +heat in it, <i>i.e.</i> on the quantity of heat per unit mass, other things +being equal. We may regard it as axiomatic that a given body (say +a pound of water) in a given state (say boiling under a given +pressure) must always contain the same quantity of heat, and +conversely that, if it contains a given quantity of heat, and if it +is under conditions in other respects, it must be at a definite temperature, +which will always be the same for the same given conditions.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) It is a matter of common observation that rays of the sun +or of a fire falling on a body warm it, and it was in the first instance +natural to suppose that heat itself somehow travelled across the +intervening space from the sun or fire to the body warmed, in +much the same way as heat may be carried by a current of hot air +or water. But we now know that energy of radiation is not the +same thing as heat, though it is converted into heat when the rays +strike an absorbing substance. The term “radiant heat,” however, +is generally retained, because radiation is commonly measured +in terms of the heat it produces, and because the transference of +energy by radiation and absorption is the most important agency in +the diffusion of heat.</p> +</div> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:165px; height:328px" src="images/img135.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>    <span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>2. <i>Evolution of the Thermometer.</i>—The first step in the development +of the science of heat was necessarily the invention of a +thermometer, an instrument for indicating temperature and +measuring its changes. The first requisite in the case of such an +instrument is that it should always give, at least approximately +the same indication at the same temperature. The air-thermoscope +of Galileo, illustrated in fig. 1, which consisted of a +glass bulb containing air, connected to a glass tube of +small bore dipping into a coloured liquid, though very sensitive +to variations of temperature, was not satisfactory as +a measuring instrument, because it was also affected by variations +of atmospheric pressure. The invention of the type of +thermometer familiar at the present day, containing a liquid +hermetically sealed in a glass bulb with a fine tube attached, +is also generally attributed to Galileo at +a slightly later date, about 1612. Alcohol +was the liquid first employed, and +the degrees, intended to represent +thousandths of the volume of the bulb, +were marked with small beads of enamel +fused on the stem, as shown in fig. 2. +In order to render the readings of such +instruments comparable with each other, +it was necessary to select a fixed point +or standard temperature as the zero or +starting-point of the graduations. Instead +of making each degree a given +fraction of the volume of the bulb, which +would be difficult in practice, and would +give different values for the degree with +different liquids, it was soon found to +be preferable to take <i>two fixed points</i>, +and to divide the interval between +them into the same number of degrees. It was natural in the +first instance to take the temperature of the human body as one +of the fixed points. In 1701 Sir Isaac Newton proposed a scale +in which the freezing-point of water was taken as zero, and the +temperature of the human body as 12°. About the same date +(1714) Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit proposed to take as zero the +lowest temperature obtainable with a freezing mixture of ice +and salt, and to divide the interval between this temperature and +that of the human body into 12°. To obtain finer graduations +the number was subsequently increased to 96°. The freezing-point +of water was at that time supposed to be somewhat variable, +because as a matter of fact it is possible to cool water several +degrees below its freezing-point in the absence of ice. Fahrenheit +showed, however, that as soon as ice began to form the temperature +always rose to the same point, and that a mixture of ice +or snow with pure water always gave the same temperature. +At a later period he also showed that the temperature of boiling +water varied with the barometric pressure, but that it was always +the same at the same pressure, and might therefore be used +as the second fixed point (as Edmund Halley and others had +suggested) provided that a definite pressure, such as the average +atmospheric pressure, were specified. The freezing and boiling-points +on one of his thermometers, graduated as already explained, +with the temperature of the body as 96°, came out in +the neighbourhood of 32° and 212° respectively, giving an interval +of 180° between these points. Shortly after Fahrenheit’s death +(1736) the freezing and boiling-points of water were generally +recognized as the most convenient fixed points to adopt, but +different systems of subdivision were employed. Fahrenheit’s +scale, with its small degrees and its zero below the freezing-point, +possesses undoubted advantages for meteorological work, and +is still retained in most English-speaking countries. But for +general scientific purposes, the centigrade system, in which the +freezing-point is marked 0° and the boiling-point 100°, is now +almost universally employed, on account of its greater simplicity +from an arithmetical point of view. For work of precision the +fixed points have been more exactly defined (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>), +but no change has been made in the fundamental principle of +graduation.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Comparison of Scales based on Expansion.</i>—Thermometers +constructed in the manner already described will give strictly +comparable readings, provided that the tubes be of uniform +bore, and that the same liquid and glass be employed in their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span> +construction. But they possess one obvious defect from a theoretical +point of view, namely, that the subdivision of the temperature +scale depends on the expansion of the particular liquid +selected as the standard. A liquid such as water, which, when continuously +heated at a uniform rate from its freezing-point, first +contracts and then expands, at a rapidly increasing rate, would +obviously be unsuitable. But there is no a priori reason why other +liquids should not behave to some extent in a similar way. As +a matter of fact, it was soon observed that thermometers carefully +constructed with different liquids, such as alcohol, oil and +mercury, did not agree precisely in their indications at points of +the scale intermediate between the fixed points, and diverged +even more widely outside these limits. Another possible method, +proposed in 1694 by Carlo Renaldeni (1615-1698), professor +of mathematics and philosophy at Pisa, would be to determine +the intermediate points of the scale by observing the temperatures +of mixtures of ice-cold and boiling water in varying proportions. +On this method, the temperature of 50° C. would be defined +as that obtained by mixing equal weights of water at 0° C. and +100° C.; 20° C., that obtained by mixing 80 parts of water at +0° C. with 20 parts of water at 100° C. and so on. Each degree +rise of temperature in a mass of water would then represent +the addition of the same quantity of heat. The scale thus +obtained would, as a matter of fact, agree very closely with that +of a mercury thermometer, but the method would be very +difficult to put in practice, and would still have the disadvantage +of depending on the properties of a particular liquid, namely, +water, which is known to behave in an anomalous manner in +other respects. At a later date, the researches of Gay-Lussac +(1802) and Regnault (1847) showed that the laws of the expansion +of gases are much simpler than those of liquids. Whereas the +expansion of alcohol between 0° C. and 100° C. is nearly seven +times as great as that of mercury, all gases (excluding easily +condensible vapours) expand equally, or so nearly equally that +the differences between them cannot be detected without the +most refined observations. This equality of expansion affords +a strong a priori argument for selecting the scale given by the +expansion of a gas as the standard scale of temperature, but there +are still stronger theoretical grounds for this choice, which will +be indicated in discussing the absolute scale (§ 21). Among +liquids mercury is found to agree most nearly with the gas scale, +and is generally employed in thermometers for scientific purposes +on account of its high boiling-point and for other reasons. +The differences of the mercurial scale from the gas scale having +been carefully determined, the mercury thermometer can be +used as a secondary standard to replace the gas thermometer +within certain limits, as the gas thermometer would be very +troublesome to employ directly in ordinary investigations. +For certain purposes, and especially at temperatures beyond +the range of mercury thermometers, electrical thermometers, +also standardized by reference to the gas thermometer, have +been very generally employed in recent years, while for still +higher temperatures beyond the range of the gas thermometer, +thermometers based on the recently established laws of radiation +are the only instruments available. For a further discussion of +the theory and practice of the measurement of temperature, +the reader is referred to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Change of State.</i>—Among the most important effects of +heat is that of changing the state of a substance from solid to +liquid, or from liquid to vapour. With very few exceptions, all +substances, whether simple or compound, are known to be capable +of existing in each of the three states under suitable conditions +of temperature and pressure. The transition of any substance, +from the state of liquid to that of solid or vapour under the +ordinary atmospheric pressure, takes place at fixed temperatures, +the freezing and boiling-points, which are very sharply defined +for pure crystalline substances, and serve in fact as fixed points +of the thermometric scale. A change of state cannot, however, +be effected in any case without the addition or subtraction of a +certain definite quantity of heat. If a piece of ice below the +freezing-point is gradually heated at a uniform rate, its temperature +may be observed to rise regularly till the freezing-point +is reached. At this point it begins to melt, and its temperature +ceases to rise. The melting takes a considerable time, during the +whole of which heat is being continuously supplied without +producing any rise of temperature, although if the same quantity +of heat were supplied to an equal mass of water, the temperature +of the water would be raised nearly 80° C. Heat thus absorbed +in producing a change of state without rise of temperature is +called “Latent Heat,” a term introduced by Joseph Black, who +was one of the first to study the subject of change of state from +the point of view of heat absorbed, and who in many cases +actually adopted the comparatively rough method described +above of estimating quantities of heat by observing the time +required to produce a given change when the substance was +receiving heat at a steady rate from its surroundings. For +every change of state a definite quantity of heat is required, +without which the change cannot take place. Heat must be +added to melt a solid, or to vaporize a solid or a liquid, and +conversely, heat must be subtracted to reverse the change, <i>i.e.</i> +to condense a vapour or freeze a liquid. The quantity required +for any given change depends on the nature of the substance +and the change considered, and varies to some extent with the +conditions (as to pressure, &c.) under which the change is made, +but is always the same for the same change under the same +conditions. A rough measurement of the latent heat of steam +was made as early as 1764 by James Watt, who found that steam +at 212° F., when passed from a kettle into a jar of cold water, +was capable of raising nearly six times its weight of water to +the boiling point. He gives the volume of the steam as about +1800 times that of an equal weight of water.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The phenomena which accompany change of state, and the +physical laws by which such changes are governed, are discussed +in a series of special articles dealing with particular cases. The +articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fusion</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span> deal with the change from the +solid to the liquid state, and the analogous case of solution is discussed +in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solution</a></span>. The articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Condensation +of Gases</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquid Gases</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vaporization</a></span> deal with the theory +of the change of state from liquid to vapour, and with the important +applications of liquid gases to other researches. The methods of +measuring the latent heat of fusion or vaporization are described in +the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>, and need not be further discussed here +except as an introduction to the history of the evolution of knowledge +with regard to the nature of heat.</p> +</div> + +<p>5. <i>Calorimetry by Latent Heat.</i>—In principle, the simplest +and most direct method of measuring quantities of heat consists +in observing the effects produced in melting a solid or vaporizing +a liquid. It was, in fact, by the fusion of ice that quantities +of heat were first measured. If a hot body is placed in a cavity +in a block of ice at 0° C., and is covered by a closely fitting slab +of ice, the quantity of ice melted will be directly proportional to +the quantity of heat lost by the body in cooling to 0° C. None +of the heat can possibly escape through the ice, and conversely +no heat can possibly get in from outside. The body must cool +exactly to 0° C., and every fraction of the heat it loses must melt +an equivalent quantity of ice. Apart from heat lost in transferring +the heated body to the ice block, the method is theoretically +perfect. The only difficulty consists in the practical +measurement of the quantity of ice melted. Black estimated this +quantity by mopping out the cavity with a sponge before and +after the operation. But there is a variable film of water adhering +to the walls of the cavity, which gives trouble in accurate work. +In 1780 Laplace and Lavoisier used a double-walled metallic +vessel containing broken ice, which was in many respects more +convenient than the block, but aggravated the difficulty of the film +of water adhering to the ice. In spite of this practical +difficulty, the quantity of heat required to melt unit weight of +ice was for a long time taken as the unit of heat. This unit +possesses the great advantage that it is independent of the scale +of temperature adopted. At a much later date R. Bunsen +(<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1871), adopting a suggestion of Sir John Herschel’s, +devised an ice-calorimeter suitable for measuring small quantities +of heat, in which the difficulty of the water film was overcome +by measuring the change in volume due to the melting of +the ice. The volume of unit mass of ice is approximately 1.0920 +times that of unit mass of water, so that the diminution of volume +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span> +is 0.092 a cubic centimetre for each gramme of ice melted. +The method requires careful attention to details of manipulation, +which are more fully discussed in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>.</p> + +<p>For measuring large quantities of heat, such as those produced +by the combustion of fuel in a boiler, the most convenient method +is the evaporation of water, which is commonly employed by +engineers for the purpose. The natural unit in this case is the +quantity of heat required to evaporate unit mass of water at the +boiling point under atmospheric pressure. In boilers working at +a higher pressure, or supplied with water at a lower temperature, +appropriate corrections are applied to deduce the quantity +evaporated in terms of this unit.</p> + +<p>For laboratory work on a small scale the converse method of +condensation has been successfully applied by John Joly, in +whose steam-calorimeter the quantity of heat required to raise +the temperature of a body from the atmospheric temperature +to that of steam condensing at atmospheric pressure is observed +by weighing the mass of steam condensed on it. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>6. <i>Thermometric Calorimetry.</i>—For the majority of purposes +the most convenient and the most readily applicable method +of measuring quantities of heat, is to observe the rise of temperature +produced in a known mass of water contained in a +suitable vessel or calorimeter. This method was employed from +a very early date by Count Rumford and other investigators, +and was brought to a high pitch of perfection by Regnault in his +extensive calorimetric researches (<i>Mémoires de l’Institut de Paris</i>, +1847); but it is only within comparatively recent years that it +has really been placed on a satisfactory basis by the accurate +definition of the units involved. The theoretical objections to +the method, as compared with latent heat calorimetry, are that +some heat is necessarily lost by the calorimeter when its temperature +is raised above that of the surroundings, and that some +heat is used in heating the vessel containing the water. These are +small corrections, which can be estimated with considerable +accuracy in practice. A more serious difficulty, which has +impaired the value of much careful work by this method, is that +the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a given +mass of water 1° C. depends on the temperature at which the +water is taken, and also on the scale of the thermometer employed. +It is for this reason, in many cases, impossible to say, at the +present time, what was the precise value, within ½ or even 1% +of the heat unit, in terms of which many of the older results, +such as those of Regnault, were expressed. For many purposes +this would not be a serious matter, but for work of scientific +precision such a limitation of accuracy would constitute a very +serious bar to progress. The unit generally adopted for scientific +purposes is the quantity of heat required to raise 1 gram (or +kilogram) of water 1° C., and is called the calorie (or kilo-calorie). +English engineers usually state results in terms of the British +Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.), which is the quantity of heat required +to raise 1 ℔ of water 1° F.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Watt’s Indicator Diagram; Work of Expansion.</i>—The +rapid development of the steam-engine (<i>q.v.</i>) in England during +the latter part of the 18th century had a marked effect on the +progress of the science of heat. In the first steam-engines the +working cylinder served both as boiler and condenser, a very +wasteful method, as most of the heat was transferred directly +from the fire to the condensing water without useful effect. +The first improvement (about 1700) was to use a separate boiler, +but the greater part of the steam supplied was still wasted in +reheating the cylinder, which had been cooled by the injection +of cold water to condense the steam after the previous stroke. +In 1769 James Watt showed how to avoid this waste by using +a separate condenser and keeping the cylinder as hot as possible. +In his earlier engines the steam at full boiler pressure was +allowed to raise the piston through nearly the whole of its stroke. +Connexion with the boiler was then cut off, and the steam at +full pressure was discharged into the condenser. Here again +there was unnecessary waste, as the steam was still capable of +doing useful work. He subsequently introduced “expansive +working,” which effected still further economy. The connexion +with the boiler was cut off when a fraction only, say ¼, of the +stroke had been completed, the remainder of the stroke being +effected by the expansion of the steam already in the cylinder +with continually diminishing pressure. By the end of the stroke, +when connexion was made to the condenser, the pressure was +so reduced that there was comparatively little waste from this +cause. Watt also devised an instrument called an <i>indicator</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Steam Engine</a></span>), in which a pencil, moved up and down +vertically by the steam pressure, recorded the pressure in the +cylinder at every point of the stroke on a sheet of paper moving +horizontally in time with the stroke of the piston. The diagram +thus obtained made it possible to study what was happening +inside the cylinder, and to deduce the work done by the steam +in each stroke. The method of the indicator diagram has since +proved of great utility in physics in studying the properties of +gases and vapours. The work done, or the useful effect obtained +from an engine or any kind of machine, is measured by the +product of the resistance overcome and the distance through +which it is overcome. The result is generally expressed in terms +of the equivalent weight raised through a certain height against +the force of gravity.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> If, for instance, the pressure on a piston +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span> +is 50 ℔ per sq. in., and the area of the piston is 100 sq. in., the +force on the piston is 5000 ℔ weight. If the stroke of the piston +is 1 ft., the work done per stroke is capable of raising a +weight of 5000 ℔ through a height of 1 ft., or 50 ℔ through a +height of 100 ft. and so on.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:490px; height:224px" src="images/img138.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Watt’s Indicator Diagram. Patent of 1782.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fig. 3 represents an imaginary indicator diagram for a steam-engine, +taken from one of Watt’s patents. Steam is admitted to +the cylinder when the piston is at the beginning of its stroke, at S. +ST represents the length of the stroke or the limit of horizontal +movement of the paper on which the diagram is drawn. The indicating +pencil rises to the point A, representing the absolute pressure of +60 ℔ per sq. in. As the piston moves outwards the pencil traces +the horizontal line AB, the pressure remaining constant till the point +B is reached, at which connexion to the boiler is cut off. The work +done so far is represented by the area of the rectangle ABSF, namely +AS × SF, multiplied by the area of the piston in sq. in. The +result is in foot-pounds if the fraction of the stroke SF is taken in +feet. After cut-off at B the steam expands under diminishing +pressure, and the pencil falls gradually from B to C, following the +steam pressure until the exhaust valve opens at the end of the stroke. +The pressure then falls rapidly to that of the condenser, which for +an ideal case may be taken as zero, following Watt. The work +done during expansion is found by dividing the remainder of the +stroke FT into a number of equal parts (say 8, Watt takes 20) and +measuring the pressure at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., corresponding +to the middle of each. We thus obtain a number of small rectangles, +the sum of which is evidently very nearly equal to the whole area +BCTF under the expansion curve, or to the remainder of the stroke +FT multiplied by the average or mean value of the pressure. The +whole work done in the forward stroke is represented by the area +ABCTSA, or by the average value of the pressure P over the whole +stroke multiplied by the stroke L. This area must be multiplied +by the area of the piston A in sq. in. as before, to get the +work done per stroke in foot-pounds, which is PLA. If the engine +repeats this cycle N times per minute, the work done per minute is +PLAN foot-pounds, which is reduced to horse-power by dividing +by 33,000. If the steam is ejected by the piston at atmospheric +pressure (15 ℔ per sq. in.) instead of being condensed at zero pressure, +the area CDST under the atmospheric line CD, representing work +done against back-pressure on the return stroke must be subtracted. +If the engine repeats the same cycle or series of operations continuously, +the indicator diagram will be a closed curve, and the nett +work done per cycle will be represented by the included area, whatever +the form of the curve.</p> +</div> + +<p>8. <i>Thermal Efficiency.</i>—The thermal efficiency of an engine +is the ratio of the work done by the engine to the heat supplied +to it. According to Watt’s observations, confirmed later by +Clément and Désormes, the total heat required to produce +1 ℔ of saturated steam at any temperature from water at +0° C. was approximately 650 times the quantity of heat required +to raise 1 ℔ of water 1° C. Since 1 ℔ of steam represented +on this assumption a certain quantity of heat, the efficiency +could be measured naturally in foot-pounds of work obtainable +per ℔ of steam, or conversely in pounds of steam consumed +per horse-power-hour.</p> + +<p>In his patent of 1782 Watt gives the following example of the +improvement in thermal efficiency obtained by expansive working. +Taking the diagram already given, if the quantity of steam +represented by AB, or 300 cub. in. at 60 ℔ pressure, were employed +without expansion, the work realized, represented by the +area ABSF, would be 6000/4 = 1500 foot-pounds. With expansion +to 4 times its original volume, as shown in the diagram by the +whole area ABCTSA, the mean pressure (as calculated by Watt, +assuming Boyle’s law) would be 0.58 of the original pressure, +and the work done would be 6000 × 0.58 = 3480 foot-pounds for +the same quantity of steam, or the thermal efficiency would be +2.32 times greater. The advantage actually obtained would not +be so great as this, on account of losses by condensation, back-pressure, +&c., which are neglected in Watt’s calculation, but the +margin would still be very considerable. Three hundred cub. +in. of steam at 60 ℔ pressure would represent about .0245 of +1 ℔ of steam, or 28.7 B.Th.U., so that, neglecting all losses, +the possible thermal efficiency attainable with steam at this +pressure and four expansions (¼ cut-off) would be 3480/28.7, or 121 +foot-pounds per B.Th.U. At a later date, about 1820, it was usual +to include the efficiency of the boiler with that of the engine, +and to reckon the efficiency or “duty” in foot-pounds per bushel +or cwt. of coal. The best Cornish pumping-engines of that date +achieved about 70 million foot-pounds per cwt., or consumed +about 3.2 ℔ per horse-power-hour, which is roughly equivalent to +43 foot-pounds per B.Th.U. The efficiency gradually increased +as higher pressures were used, with more complete expansion, +but the conditions upon which the efficiency depended were +not fully worked out till a much later date. Much additional +knowledge with regard to the nature of heat, and the properties +of gases and vapours, was required before the problem could +be attacked theoretically.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Of the Nature of Heat</i>.—In the early days of the science it +was natural to ascribe the manifestations of heat to the action +of a subtle imponderable fluid called “caloric,” with the power +of penetrating, expanding and dissolving bodies, or dissipating +them in vapour. The fluid was imponderable, because the most +careful experiments failed to show that heat produced any increase +in weight. The opposite property of levitation was often +ascribed to heat, but it was shown by more cautious investigators +that the apparent loss of weight due to heating was to be attributed +to evaporation or to upward air currents. The fundamental +idea of an imaginary fluid to represent heat was useful +as helping the mind to a conception of something remaining +invariable in quantity through many transformations, but in +some respects the analogy was misleading, and tended greatly +to retard the progress of science. The caloric theory was very +simple in its application to the majority of calorimetric experiments, +and gave a fair account of the elementary phenomena +of change of state, but it encountered serious difficulties in +explaining the production of heat by friction, or the changes +of temperature accompanying the compression or expansion +of a gas. The explanation which the calorists offered of the +production of heat by friction or compression was that some +of the latent caloric was squeezed or ground out of the bodies +concerned and became “sensible.” In the case of heat developed +by friction, they supposed that the abraded portions of the +material were capable of holding a smaller quantity of heat, +or had less “capacity for heat,” than the original material. +From a logical point of view, this was a perfectly tenable +hypothesis, and one difficult to refute. It was easy to account +in this way for the heat produced in boring cannon and similar +operations, where the amount of abraded material was large. +To refute this explanation, Rumford (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1798) made +his celebrated experiments with a blunt borer, in one of +which he succeeded in boiling by friction 26.5 ℔ of cold +water in 2½ hours, with the production of only 4145 grains +of metallic powder. He then showed by experiment that the +metallic powder required the same amount of heat to raise its +temperature 1°, as an equal weight of the original metal, or that +its “capacity for heat” (in this sense) was unaltered by reducing +it to powder; and he argued that “in any case so small a +quantity of powder could not possibly account for all the heat +generated, that the supply of heat appeared to be inexhaustible, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span> +and that heat could not be a material substance, but must be +something of the nature of motion.” Unfortunately Rumford’s +argument was not quite conclusive. The supporters of the +caloric theory appear, whether consciously or unconsciously, +to have used the phrase “capacity for heat” in two entirely +distinct senses without any clear definition of the difference. +The phrase “capacity for heat” might very naturally denote +the total quantity of heat contained in a body, which we have +no means of measuring, but it was generally used to signify the +quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body +one degree, which is quite a different thing, and has no necessary +relation to the total heat. In proving that the powder and the +solid metal required the same quantity of heat to raise the +temperature of equal masses of either one degree, Rumford +did not prove that they contained equal quantities of heat, +which was the real point at issue in this instance. The metal +tin actually changes into powder below a certain temperature, +and in so doing evolves a measurable quantity of heat. A +mixture of the gases oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportions +in which they combine to form water, evolves when burnt +sufficient heat to raise more than thirty times its weight of water +from the freezing to the boiling point; and the mixture of gases +may, in this sense, be said to contain so much more heat than +the water, although its capacity for heat in the ordinary sense +is only about half that of the water produced. To complete +the refutation of the calorists’ explanation of the heat produced +by friction, it would have been necessary for Rumford to show +that the powder when reconverted into the same state as the +solid metal did not absorb a quantity of heat equivalent to that +evolved in the grinding; in other words that the heat produced +by friction was not simply that due to the change of state of +the metal from solid to powder.</p> + +<p>Shortly afterwards, in 1799, Davy<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> described an experiment +in which he melted ice by rubbing two blocks together. This +experiment afforded a very direct refutation of the calorists’ +view, because it was a well-known fact that ice required to have +a quantity of heat added to it to convert it into water, so that +the water produced by the friction contained more heat than the +ice. In stating as the conclusion to be drawn from this experiment +that “friction consequently does not diminish the capacity +of bodies for heat,” Davy apparently uses the phrase capacity +for heat in the sense of total heat contained in a body, because +in a later section of the same essay he definitely gives the phrase +this meaning, and uses the term “capability of temperature” to +denote what we now term capacity for heat.</p> + +<p>The delay in the overthrow of the caloric theory, and in the +acceptance of the view that heat is a mode of motion, was no +doubt partly due to some fundamental confusion of ideas in the +use of the term “capacity for heat” and similar phrases. A +still greater obstacle lay in the comparative vagueness of the +motion or vibration theory. Davy speaks of heat as being +“repulsive motion,” and distinguishes it from light, which is +“projective motion”; though heat is certainly not a substance—according +to Davy in the essay under discussion—and may not +even be treated as an imponderable fluid, light as certainly is a +material substance, and is capable of forming chemical compounds +with ordinary matter, such as oxygen gas, which is not a +simple substance, but a compound, termed phosoxygen, of light +and oxygen. Accepting the conclusions of Davy and Rumford +that heat is not a material substance but a mode of motion, +there still remains the question, what definite conception is to be +attached to a quantity of heat? What do we mean by a quantity +of vibratory motion, how is the quantity of motion to be estimated, +and why should it remain invariable in many transformations? +The idea that heat was a “mode of motion” +was applicable as a qualitative explanation of many of the +effects of heat, but it lacked the quantitative precision of a +scientific statement, and could not be applied to the calculation +and prediction of definite results. The state of science at the +time of Rumford’s and Davy’s experiments did not admit of a +more exact generalization. The way was paved in the first +instance by a more complete study of the laws of gases, to which +Laplace, Dalton, Gay-Lussac, Dulong and many others contributed +both on the experimental and theoretical side. Although +the development proceeded simultaneously along many parallel +lines, it is interesting and instructive to take the investigation +of the properties of gases, and to endeavour to trace the steps +by which the true theory was finally attained.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Thermal Properties of Gases.</i>—The most characteristic +property of a gaseous or elastic fluid, namely, the elasticity, or +resistance to compression, was first investigated scientifically +by Robert Boyle (1662), who showed that the pressure <i>p</i> of a +given mass of gas varied inversely as the volume <i>v</i>, provided that +the temperature remained constant. This is generally expressed +by the formula <i>pv</i> = C, where C is a constant for any given +temperature, and <i>v</i> is taken to represent the specific volume, or +the volume of unit mass, of the gas at the given pressure +and temperature. Boyle was well aware of the effect of heat +in expanding a gas, but he was unable to investigate this properly +as no thermometric scale had been defined at that date. According +to Boyle’s law, when a mass of gas is compressed by a small +amount at constant temperature, the percentage increase of +pressure is equal to the percentage diminution of volume (if the +compression is <i>v</i>/100, the increase of pressure is very nearly +<i>p</i>/100). Adopting this law, Newton showed, by a most ingenious +piece of reasoning (<i>Principia</i>, ii., sect. 8), that the velocity of +sound in air should be equal to the velocity acquired by a body +falling under gravity through a distance equal to half the height +of the atmosphere, considered as being of uniform density equal +to that at the surface of the earth. This gave the result 918 ft. +per sec. (280 metres per sec.) for the velocity at the freezing +point. Newton was aware that the actual velocity of sound was +somewhat greater than this, but supposed that the difference +might be due in some way to the size of the air particles, of which +no account could be taken in the calculation. The first accurate +measurement of the velocity of sound by the French Académie +des Sciences in 1738 gave the value 332 metres per sec. as the +velocity at 0° C. The true explanation of the discrepancy was +not discovered till nearly 100 years later.</p> + +<p>The law of expansion of gases with change of temperature was +investigated by Dalton and Gay-Lussac (1802), who found that +the volume of a gas under constant pressure increased by 1/267th +part of its volume at 0° C. for each 1° C. rise in temperature. +This value was generally assumed in all calculations for nearly +50 years. More exact researches, especially those of Regnault, +at a later date, showed that the law was very nearly correct for +all permanent gases, but that the value of the coefficient should +be <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">173</span>rd. According to this law the volume of a gas at any +temperature <i>t</i>° C. should be proportional to 273 + <i>t</i>, <i>i.e.</i> to the +temperature reckoned from a zero 273° below that of the +Centigrade scale, which was called the absolute zero of the gas +thermometer. If T = 273 + <i>t</i>, denotes the temperature measured +from this zero, the law of expansion of a gas may be combined +with Boyle’s law in the simple formula</p> + +<p class="center"><i>pv</i> = RT</p> +<div class="author">(1)</div> + +<p class="noind">which is generally taken as the expression of the gaseous laws. +If equal volumes of different gases are taken at the same temperature +and pressure, it follows that the constant R is the same for +all gases. If equal masses are taken, the value of the constant R +for different gases varies inversely as the molecular weight or as +the density relative to hydrogen.</p> + +<p>Dalton also investigated the laws of vapours, and of mixtures +of gases and vapours. He found that condensible vapours +approximately followed Boyle’s law when compressed, until the +condensation pressure was reached, at which the vapour liquefied +without further increase of pressure. He found that when a +liquid was introduced into a closed space, and allowed to evaporate +until the space was saturated with the vapour and evaporation +ceased, the increase of pressure in the space was equal to the +condensation pressure of the vapour, and did not depend on the +volume of the space or the presence of any other gas or vapour +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span> +provided that there was no solution or chemical action. He +showed that the condensation or saturation-pressure of a vapour +depended only on the temperature, and increased by nearly the +same fraction of itself per degree rise of temperature, and that +the pressures of different vapours were nearly the same at equal +distances from their boiling points. The increase of pressure +per degree C. at the boiling point was about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">28</span>th of 760 mm. or +27.2 mm., but increased in geometrical progression with rise of +temperature. These results of Dalton’s were confirmed, and in +part corrected, as regards increase of vapour-pressure, by Gay-Lussac, +Dulong, Regnault and other investigators, but were found +to be as close an approximation to the truth as could be obtained +with such simple expressions. More accurate empirical expressions +for the increase of vapour-pressure of a liquid with +temperature were soon obtained by Thomas Young, J. P. L. A. +Roche and others, but the explanation of the relation was not +arrived at until a much later date (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vaporization</a></span>).</p> + +<p>11. <i>Specific Heats of Gases.</i>—In order to estimate the quantities +of heat concerned in experiments with gases, it was necessary +in the first instance to measure their specific heats, which presented +formidable difficulties. The earlier attempts by Lavoisier +and others, employing the ordinary methods of calorimetry, +gave very uncertain and discordant results, which were not +regarded with any confidence even by the experimentalists +themselves. Gay-Lussac (<i>Mémoires d’Arcueil</i>, 1807) devised +an ingenious experiment, which, though misinterpreted at the +time, is very interesting and instructive. With the object of +comparing the specific heats of different gases, he took two equal +globes A and B connected by a tube with a stop-cock. The globe +B was exhausted, the other A being filled with gas. On opening +the tap between the vessels, the gas flowed from A to B and the +pressure was rapidly equalized. He observed that the fall of +temperature in A was nearly equal to the rise of temperature in +B, and that for the same initial pressure the change of temperature +was very nearly the same for all the gases he tried, except +hydrogen, which showed greater changes of temperature than +other gases. He concluded from this experiment that equal +volumes of gases had the same capacity for heat, except hydrogen, +which he supposed to have a larger capacity, because it showed +a greater effect. The method does not in reality afford any +direct information with regard to the specific heats, and the +conclusion with regard to hydrogen is evidently wrong. At +a later date (<i>Ann. de Chim.</i>, 1812, 81, p. 98) Gay-Lussac adopted +A. Crawford’s method of mixture, allowing two equal streams +of different gases, one heated and the other cooled about 20° C., +to mix in a tube containing a thermometer. The resulting +temperature was in all cases nearly the mean of the two, from +which he concluded that equal volumes of all the gases tried, +namely, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, air, oxygen and nitrogen, +had the same thermal capacity. This was correct, except as +regards carbon dioxide, but did not give any information as to +the actual specific heats referred to water or any known substance. +About the same time, F. Delaroche and J. E. Bérard (<i>Ann. de +chim.</i>, 1813, 85, p. 72) made direct determinations of the specific +heats of air, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, +nitrous oxide and ethylene, by passing a stream of gas heated +to nearly 100° C. through a spiral tube in a calorimeter containing +water. Their work was a great advance on previous attempts, +and gave the first trustworthy results. With the exception of +hydrogen, which presents peculiar difficulties, they found that +equal volumes of the permanent gases, air, oxygen and carbon +monoxide, had nearly the same thermal capacity, but that the +compound condensible gases, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide +and ethylene, had larger thermal capacities in the order given. +They were unable to state whether the specific heats of the gases +increased or diminished with temperature, but from experiments +on air at pressures of 740 mm. and 1000 mm., they found the +specific heats to be .269 and .245 respectively, and concluded +that the specific heat diminished with increase of pressure. +The difference they observed was really due to errors of experiment, +but they regarded it as proving beyond doubt the truth +of the calorists’ contention that the heat disengaged on the +compression of a gas was due to the diminution of its thermal +capacity.</p> + +<p>Dalton and others had endeavoured to measure directly the +rise of temperature produced by the compression of a gas. +Dalton had observed a rise of 50° F. in a gas when suddenly compressed +to half its volume, but no thermometers at that time +were sufficiently sensitive to indicate more than a fraction of +the change of temperature. Laplace was the first to see in this +phenomenon the probable explanation of the discrepancy between +Newton’s calculation of the velocity of sound and the observed +value. The increase of pressure due to a sudden compression, +in which no heat was allowed to escape, or as we now call it an +“adiabatic” compression, would necessarily be greater than the +increase of pressure in a slow isothermal compression, on account +of the rise of temperature. As the rapid compressions and +rarefactions occurring in the propagation of a sound wave were +perfectly adiabatic, it was necessary to take account of the rise +of temperature due to compression in calculating the velocity. +To reconcile the observed and calculated values of the velocity, +the increase of pressure in adiabatic compression must be 1.410 +times greater than in isothermal compression. This is the ratio +of the adiabatic elasticity of air to the isothermal elasticity. +It was a long time, however, before Laplace saw his way to any +direct experimental verification of the value of this ratio. At +a later date (<i>Ann. de chim.</i>, 1816, 3, p. 238) he stated that he +had succeeded in proving that the ratio in question must be the +same as the ratio of the specific heat of air at constant pressure +to the specific heat at constant volume.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the method of measuring the specific heat adopted by Delaroche +and Bérard, the gas under experiment, while passing through a tube +at practically constant pressure, contracts in cooling, as it gives up +its heat to the calorimeter. Part of the heat surrendered to the +calorimeter is due to the contraction of volume. If a gramme of +gas at pressure <i>p</i>, volume <i>v</i> and temperature T abs. is heated 1° C. +at constant pressure <i>p</i>, it absorbs a quantity of heat S = .238 calorie +(according to Regnault) the specific heat at constant pressure. At +the same time the gas expands by a fraction 1/T of v, which is the +same as 1/273 of its volume at 0° C. If now the air is suddenly +compressed by an amount <i>v</i>/T, it will be restored to its original +volume, and its temperature will be raised by the liberation of a +quantity of heat R′, the latent heat of expansion for an increase of +volume <i>v</i>/T. If no heat has been allowed to escape, the air will now +be in the same state as if a quantity of heat S had been communicated +to it at its original volume <i>v</i> without expansion. The rise of temperature +above the original temperature T will be S/<i>s</i> degrees, where s +is the specific heat at constant volume, which is obviously equal to +S − R′. Since <i>p</i>/T is the increase of pressure for 1° C. rise of temperature +at constant volume, the increase of pressure for a rise of S/<i>s</i> +degrees will be γ<i>p</i>/T, where γ is the ratio S/<i>s</i>. But this is the rise +of pressure produced by a sudden compression v/T, and is seen to be +γ times the rise of pressure <i>p</i>/T produced by the same compression +at constant temperature. The ratio of the adiabatic to the isothermal +elasticity, required for calculating the velocity of sound, is +therefore the same as the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure +to that at constant volume.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Experimental Verification of the Ratio of Specific Heats.</i>—This +was a most interesting and important theoretical relation to discover, +but unfortunately it did not help much in the determination +of the ratio required, because it was not practically possible at that +time to measure the specific heat of air at constant volume in a +closed vessel. Attempts had been made to do this, but they had +signally failed, on account of the small heat capacity of the gas as +compared with the containing vessel. Laplace endeavoured to +extract some confirmation of his views from the values given by +Delaroche and Bérard for the specific heat of air at 1000 and 740 +mm. pressure. On the assumption that the quantities of heat contained +in a given mass of air increased in direct proportion to its +volume when heated at constant pressure, he deduced, by some rather +obscure reasoning, that the ratio of the specific heats S and s should +be about 1.5 to 1, which he regarded as a fairly satisfactory agreement +with the value γ = 1.41 deduced from the velocity of sound.</p> + +<p>The ratio of the specific heats could not be directly measured, +but a few years later, Clément and Désormes (<i>Journ. de Phys.</i>, Nov. +1819) succeeded in making a direct measurement of the ratio of +the elasticities in a very simple manner. They took a large globe +containing air at atmospheric pressure and temperature, and removed +a small quantity of air. They then observed the defect of +pressure <i>p</i><span class="su">0</span> when the air had regained its original temperature. +By suddenly opening the globe, and immediately closing it, the +pressure was restored almost instantaneously to the atmospheric, +the rise of pressure <i>p</i><span class="su">0</span> corresponding to the sudden compression +produced. The air, having been heated by the compression, was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span> +allowed to regain its original temperature, the tap remaining closed, +and the final defect of pressure <i>p</i><span class="sp">1</span> was noted. The change of pressure +for the same compression performed isothermally is then <i>p</i><span class="su">0</span> − <i>p</i><span class="sp">1</span>. +The ratio <i>p</i><span class="su">0</span>/(<i>p</i><span class="su">0</span> − <i>p</i><span class="sp">1</span>) is the ratio of the adiabatic and isothermal +elasticities, provided that <i>p</i><span class="su">0</span> is small compared with the whole atmospheric +pressure. In this way they found the ratio 1.354, which is +not much smaller than the value 1.410 required to reconcile the +observed and calculated values of the velocity of sound. Gay-Lussac +and J. J. Welter (<i>Ann. de chim.</i>, 1822) repeated the experiment +with slight improvements, using expansion instead of compression, +and found the ratio 1.375. The experiment has often been +repeated since that time, and there is no doubt that the value of the +ratio deduced from the velocity of sound is correct, the defect of the +value obtained by direct experiment being due to the fact that the +compression or expansion is not perfectly adiabatic. Gay-Lussac +and Welter found the ratio practically constant for a range of pressure +144 to 1460 mm., and for a range of temperature from −20° to ++40° C. The velocity of sound at Quito, at a pressure of 544 mm. +was found to be the same as at Paris at 760 mm. at the same temperature. +Assuming on this evidence the constancy of the ratio of the +specific heats of air, Laplace (<i>Mécanique céleste</i>, v. 143) showed +that, if the specific heat at constant pressure was independent of +the temperature, the specific heat per unit volume at a pressure p +must vary as <i>p</i><span class="sp">1/γ</span>, according to the caloric theory. The specific +heat per unit mass must then vary as <i>p</i><span class="sp">1/γ−1</span> which he found agreed +precisely with the experiment of Delaroche and Bérard already cited. +This was undoubtedly a strong confirmation of the caloric theory. +Poisson by the same assumptions (<i>Ann. de chim.</i>, 1823, 23, p. 337) +obtained the same results, and also showed that the relation between +the pressure and the volume of a gas in adiabatic compression or +expansion must be of the form <i>pv</i><span class="sp">γ</span> = constant.</p> + +<p>P. L. Dulong (<i>Ann. de chim.</i>, 1829, 41, p. 156), adopting a method +due to E. F. F. Chladni, compared the velocities of sound in different +gases by observing the pitch of the note given by the same tube +when filled with the gases in question. He thus obtained the values +of the ratios of the elasticities or of the specific heats for the gases +employed. For oxygen, hydrogen and carbonic oxide, these ratios +were the same as for air. But for carbonic acid, nitrous oxide and +olefiant gas, the values were much smaller, showing that these gases +experienced a smaller change of temperature in compression. On +comparing his results with the values of the specific heats for the +same gases found by Delaroche and Bérard, Dulong observed that +the changes of temperature for the same compression were in the +inverse ratio of the specific heats at constant volume, and deduced +the important conclusion that “<i>Equal volumes of all gases under +the same conditions evolve on compression the same quantity of heat</i>.” +This is equivalent to the statement that the difference of the specific +heats, or the latent heat of expansion R′ per 1°, is the same for all +gases if equal volumes are taken. Assuming the ratio γ = 1.410, +and taking Delaroche and Bérard’s value for the specific heat of air +at constant pressure S = .267, we have <i>s</i> = S/1.41 = .189, and the +difference of the specific heats per unit mass of air S − <i>s</i> = R′ = .078. +Adopting Regnault’s value of the specific heat of air, namely, S = .238, +we should have S − <i>s</i> = .069. This quantity represents the heat +absorbed by unit mass of air in expanding at constant temperature +T by a fraction 1/T of its volume <i>v</i>, or by <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">273</span>rd of its volume 0° C.</p> + +<p>If, instead of taking unit mass, we take a volume <i>v</i><span class="su">0</span> = 22.30 litres +at 0° C. and 760 mm. being the volume of the molecular weight of +the gas in grammes, the quantity of heat evolved by a compression +equal to <i>v</i>/T will be approximately 2 calories, and is the same for +all gases. The work done in this compression is <i>pv</i>/T = R, and is also +the same for all gases, namely, 8.3 joules. Dulong’s experimental +result, therefore, shows that the heat evolved in the compression of +a gas is proportional to the work done. This result had previously +been deduced theoretically by Carnot (1824). At a later date it +was assumed by Mayer, Clausius and others, on the evidence of these +experiments, that the heat evolved was not merely proportional +to the work done, but was equivalent to it. The further experimental +evidence required to justify this assumption was first supplied by +Joule.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Latent heat of expansion R′</td> <td class="tcl">= .069 calorie per gramme of air, per 1° C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">= 2.0 calories per gramme-molecule of any gas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Work done in expansion R</td> <td class="tcl">= .287 joule per gramme of air per 1° C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">= 8.3 joules per gramme-molecule of any gas.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>13. <i>Carnot: On the Motive Power of Heat.</i>—A practical and +theoretical question of the greatest importance was first answered +by Sadi Carnot about this time in his <i>Reflections on the Motive +Power of Heat</i> (1824). How much motive power (defined by +Carnot as weight lifted through a certain height) can be obtained +from heat alone by means of an engine repeating a regular succession +or “cycle” of operations continuously? Is the efficiency +limited, and, if so, how is it limited? Are other agents preferable +to steam for developing motive power from heat? In discussing +this problem, we cannot do better than follow Carnot’s reasoning +which, in its main features could hardly be improved at the +present day.</p> + +<p>Carnot points out that in order to obtain an answer to this +question, it is necessary to consider the essential conditions of +the process, apart from the mechanism of the engine and the +working substance or agent employed. Work cannot be said +to be produced <i>from heat alone</i> unless nothing but heat is supplied, +and the working substance and all parts of the engine are at +the end of the process in precisely the same state as at the +beginning.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Carnot’s Axiom.</i>—Carnot here, and throughout his reasoning, +makes a fundamental assumption, which he states as follows: +“When a body has undergone any changes and after a certain +number of transformations is brought back identically to its +original state, considered relatively to density, temperature +and mode of aggregation, it must contain the same quantity +of heat as it contained originally.”<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>Heat, according to Carnot, in the type of engine we are considering, +can evidently be a cause of motive power only by virtue +of changes of volume or form produced by alternate heating and +cooling. This involves the existence of cold and hot bodies to +act as boiler and condenser, or source and sink of heat, respectively. +Wherever there exists a difference of temperature, it +is possible to have the production of motive power from heat; +and conversely, production of motive power, from heat alone, +is impossible without difference of temperature. In other words +the production of motive power from heat is not merely a question +of the consumption of heat, but always requires transference +of heat from hot to cold. What then are the conditions which +enable the difference of temperature to be most advantageously +employed in the production of motive power, and how much +motive power can be obtained with a given difference of temperature +from a given quantity of heat?</p> + +<p><i>Carnot’s Rule for Maximum Effect.</i>—In order to realize the +maximum effect, it is necessary that, in the process employed, +there should not be any direct interchange of heat between +bodies at different temperatures. Direct transference of heat +by conduction or radiation between bodies at different temperatures +is equivalent to wasting a difference of temperature which +might have been utilized to produce motive power. The working +substance must throughout every stage of the process be in +equilibrium with itself (<i>i.e.</i> at uniform temperature and pressure) +and also with external bodies, such as the boiler and condenser, +at such times as it is put in communication with them. In the +actual engine there is always some interchange of heat between +the steam and the cylinder, and some loss of heat to external +bodies. There may also be some difference of temperature +between the boiler steam and the cylinder on admission, or +between the waste steam and the condenser at release. These +differences represent losses of efficiency which may be reduced +indefinitely, at least in imagination, by suitable means, and +designers had even at that date been very successful in reducing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span> +them. All such losses are supposed to be absent in deducing the +ideal limit of efficiency, beyond which it would be impossible +to go.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Carnot’s Description of his Ideal Cycle.</i>—Carnot first gives +a rough illustration of an incomplete cycle, using steam much in +the same way as it is employed in an ordinary steam-engine. +After expansion down to condenser pressure the steam is +completely condensed to water, and is then returned as cold water +to the hot boiler. He points out that the last step does not +conform exactly to the condition he laid down, because although +the water is restored to its initial state, there is direct passage of +heat from a hot body to a cold body in the last process. He +points out that this difficulty might be overcome by supposing +the difference of temperature small, and by employing a series +of engines, each working through a small range, to cover a finite +interval of temperature. Having established the general notions +of a perfect cycle, he proceeds to give a more exact illustration, +employing a gas as the working substance. He takes as the +basis of his demonstration the well-established experimental +fact that a gas is heated by rapid compression and cooled by +rapid expansion, and that if compressed or expanded slowly in +contact with conducting bodies, the gas will give out heat in +compression or absorb heat in expansion while its temperature +remains constant. He then goes on to say:—</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:173px; height:411px" src="images/img142.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span> 4.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Carnot’s Cylinder.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“This preliminary notion being settled, let us imagine an elastic +fluid, atmospheric air for example, enclosed in a cylinder <i>abcd</i>, fig. 4, +fitted with a movable diaphragm or piston <i>cd</i>. Let there also be +two bodies A, B, each maintained at a +constant temperature, that of A being +more elevated than that of B. Let us now +suppose the following series of operations +to be performed:</p> + +<p>“1. Contact of the body A with the air +contained in the space <i>abcd</i>, or with the +bottom of the cylinder, which we will +suppose to transmit heat easily. The air is +now at the temperature of the body A, and +<i>cd</i> is the actual position of the piston.</p> + +<p>“2. The piston is gradually raised, and +takes the position <i>ef</i>. The air remains in +contact with the body A, and is thereby +maintained at a constant temperature during +the expansion. The body A furnishes the +heat necessary to maintain the constancy +of temperature.</p> + +<p>“3. The body A is removed, and the air +no longer being in contact with any body +capable of giving it heat, the piston continues +nevertheless to rise, and passes from +the position <i>ef</i> to <i>gh</i>. The air expands +without receiving heat and its temperature +falls. Let us imagine that it falls until it +is just equal to that of the body B. At +this moment the piston is stopped and +occupies the position <i>gh</i>.</p> + +<p>“4. The air is placed in contact with the +body B; it is compressed by the return of +the piston, which is brought from the position <i>gh</i> to the position <i>cd</i>. +The air remains meanwhile at a constant temperature, because of its +contact with the body B to which it gives up its heat.</p> + +<p>“5. The body B is removed, and the compression of the air is +continued. The air being now isolated, rises in temperature. The +compression is continued until the air has acquired the temperature +of the body A. The piston passes meanwhile from the position <i>cd</i> +to the position <i>ik</i>.</p> + +<p>“6. The air is replaced in contact with the body A, and the +piston returns from the position <i>ik</i> to the position <i>ef</i>, the temperature +remaining invariable.</p> + +<p>“7. The period described under (3) is repeated, then successively +the periods (4), (5), (6); (3), (4), (5), (6); (3), (4), (5), (6); and so on.</p> + +<p>“During these operations the air enclosed in the cylinder exerts +an effort more or less great on the piston. The pressure of the air +varies both on account of changes of volume and on account of changes +of temperature; but it should be observed that for equal volumes, +that is to say, for like positions of the piston, the temperature is +higher during the dilatation than during the compression. Since the +pressure is greater during the expansion, the quantity of motive +power produced by the dilatation is greater than that consumed by +the compression. We shall thus obtain a balance of motive power, +which may be employed for any purpose. The air has served as +working substance in a heat-engine; it has also been employed in +the most advantageous manner possible, since no useless re-establishment +of the equilibrium of heat has been allowed to occur.</p> + +<p>“All the operations above described may be executed in the +reverse order and direction. Let us imagine that after the sixth +period, that is to say, when the piston has reached the position <i>ef</i>, +we make it return to the position <i>ik</i>, and that at the same time we +keep the air in contact with the hot body A; the heat furnished +by this body during the sixth period will return to its source, that +is, to the body A, and everything will be as it was at the end of the +fifth period. If now we remove the body A, and if we make the piston +move from <i>ik</i> to <i>cd</i>, the temperature of the air will decrease by just +as many degrees as it increased during the fifth period, and will +become that of the body B. We can evidently continue in this way +a series of operations the exact reverse of those which were previously +described; it suffices to place oneself in the same circumstances and +to execute for each period a movement of expansion in place of a +movement of compression, and vice versa.</p> + +<p>“The result of the first series of operations was the production +of a certain quantity of motive power, and the transport of heat from +the body A to the body B; the result of the reverse operations is the +consumption of the motive power produced in the first case, and the +return of heat from the body B to the body A, in such sort that these +two series of operations annul and neutralize each other.</p> + +<p>“The impossibility of producing by the agency of heat alone a +quantity of motive power greater than that which we have obtained +in our first series of operations is now easy to prove. It is demonstrated +by reasoning exactly similar to that which we have already +given. The reasoning will have in this case a greater degree of +exactitude; the air of which we made use to develop the motive +power is brought back at the end of each cycle of operations precisely +to its initial state, whereas this was not quite exactly the case for the +vapour of water, as we have already remarked.”</p> +</div> + +<p>15. <i>Proof of Carnot’s Principle.</i>—Carnot considered the proof +too obvious to be worth repeating, but, unfortunately, his +previous demonstration, referring to an incomplete cycle, is not +so exactly worded that exception cannot be taken to it. We +will therefore repeat his proof in a slightly more definite and +exact form. Suppose that a reversible engine R, working in +the cycle above described, takes a quantity of heat H from the +source in each cycle, and performs a quantity of useful work W<span class="su">r</span>. +If it were possible for any other engine S, working with the same +two bodies A and B as source and refrigerator, to perform a +greater amount of useful work W<span class="su">s</span> per cycle for the same quantity +of heat H taken from the source, it would suffice to take a portion +W<span class="su">r</span> of this motive power (since W<span class="su">s</span> is by hypothesis greater than +W<span class="su">r</span>) to drive the engine R backwards, and return a quantity of +heat H to the source in each cycle. The process might be repeated +indefinitely, and we should obtain at each repetition a +balance of useful work W<span class="su">s</span> − W<span class="su">r</span>, <i>without taking any heat from the +source</i>, which is contrary to experience. Whether the quantity +of heat taken from the condenser by R is equal to that given to +the condenser by S is immaterial. The hot body A might be a +comparatively small boiler, since no heat is taken from it. The +cold body B might be the ocean, or the whole earth. We might +thus obtain without any consumption of fuel a practically +unlimited supply of motive power. Which is absurd.</p> + +<p><i>Carnot’s Statement of his Principle.</i><a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a>—If the above reasoning +be admitted, we must conclude with Carnot that <i>the motive +power obtainable from heat is independent of the agents employed +to realize it</i>. <i>The efficiency is fixed solely by the temperatures of the +bodies between which, in the last resort, the transfer of heat is +effected.</i> “We must understand here that each of the methods +of developing motive power attains the perfection of which it +is susceptible. This condition is fulfilled if, according to our rule, +there is produced in the body no change of temperature that is +not due to change of volume, or in other words, if there is no +direct interchange of heat between bodies of sensibly different +temperatures.”</p> + +<p>It is characteristic of a state of frictionless mechanical equilibrium +that an indefinitely small difference of pressure suffices +to upset the equilibrium and reverse the motion. Similarly in +thermal equilibrium between bodies at the same temperature, +an indefinitely small difference of temperature suffices to reverse +the transfer of heat. Carnot’s rule is therefore the criterion of +the reversibility of a cycle of operations as regards transfer +of heat. It is assumed that the ideal engine is mechanically +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span> +reversible, that there is not, for instance, any communication +between reservoirs of gas or vapour at sensibly different pressures, +and that there is no waste of power in friction. If there is +equilibrium both mechanical and thermal at every stage of the +cycle, the ideal engine will be perfectly reversible. That is to say, +all its operations will be exactly reversed as regards transfer of +heat and work, when the operations are performed in the reverse +order and direction. On this understanding Carnot’s principle +may be put in a different way, which is often adopted, but is really +only the same thing put in different words: <i>The efficiency of a +perfectly reversible engine is the maximum possible, and is a +function solely of the limits of temperature between which it works</i>. +This result depends essentially on the existence of a state of +thermal equilibrium defined by equality of temperature, and +independent, in the majority of cases, of the state of a body in +other respects. In order to apply the principle to the calculation +and prediction of results, it is sufficient to determine the manner +in which the efficiency depends on the temperature for one +particular case, since the efficiency must be the same for all +reversible engines.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>16. <i>Experimental Verification of Carnot’s Principle.</i>—Carnot endeavoured +to test his result by the following simple calculations. +Suppose that we have a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston, +containing 1 gram of water at 100° C., and that the pressure of the +steam, namely 760 mm., is in equilibrium with the external pressure +on the piston at this temperature. Place the cylinder in connexion +with a boiler or hot body at 101° C. The water will then acquire +the temperature of 101° C., and will absorb 1 gram-calorie of heat. +Some waste of motive power occurs here because heat is allowed to +pass from one body to another at a different temperature, but the +waste in this case is so small as to be immaterial. Keep the cylinder +in contact with the hot body at 101° C. and allow the piston to rise. +It may be made to perform useful work as the pressure is now 27.7 +mm. (or 37.7 grams per sq. cm.) in excess of the external pressure. +Continue the process till all the water is converted into steam. +The heat absorbed from the hot body will be nearly 540 gram-calories, +the latent heat of steam at this temperature. The increase +of volume will be approximately 1620 c.c., the volume of 1 gram of +steam at this pressure and temperature. The work done by the +excess pressure will be 37.7 × 1620 = 61,000 gram-centimetres or +0.61 of a kilogrammetre. Remove the hot body, and allow the +steam to expand further till its pressure is 760 mm. and its temperature +has fallen to 100° C. The work which might be done in this +expansion is less than <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span>th part of a kilogrammetre, and may be +neglected for the present purpose. Place the cylinder in contact +with the cold body at 100° C., and allow the steam to condense at +this temperature. No work is done on the piston, because there is +equilibrium of pressure, but a quantity of heat equal to the latent +heat of steam at 100° C. is given to the cold body. The water is +now in its initial condition, and the result of the process has been to +gain 0.61 of a kilogrammetre of work by allowing 540 gram-calories +of heat to pass from a body at 101° C. to a body at 100° C. by means +of an ideally simple steam-engine. The work obtainable in this +way from 1000 gram-calories of heat, or 1 kilo-calorie, would evidently +be 1.13 kilogrammetre (= 0.61 × <span class="spp">1000</span>⁄<span class="suu">540</span>).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:249px" src="images/img143.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.—Elementary Carnot Cycle +for Gas.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Taking the same range of temperature, namely 101° to 100° C., +we may perform a similar series of operations with air in the cylinder, +instead of water and steam. Suppose the cylinder to contain 1 +gramme of air at 100° C. and 760 mm. pressure instead of water. +Compress it without loss of heat (adiabatically), so as to raise its +temperature to 101° C. Place it in contact with the hot body at +101° C., and allow it to expand at this temperature, absorbing heat +from the hot body, until its volume is increased by <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">374</span>th part (the +expansion per degree at constant pressure). The quantity of heat +absorbed in this expansion, as explained in § 14, will be the difference +of the specific heats or the latent heat of expansion R′ = .069 calorie. +Remove the hot body, and allow the gas to expand further without +gain of heat till its temperature falls to 100° C. Compress it at +100° C. to its original volume, abstracting the heat of compression by +contact with the cold body at 100° C. The air is now in its original +state, and the process has been carried out in strict accordance with +Carnot’s rule. The quantity of external work done in the cycle +is easily obtained by the aid of the indicator diagram ABCD (fig. 5), +which is approximately a parallelogram in this instance. The area +of the diagram is equal to that of the rectangle BEHG, being the +product of the vertical height BE, namely, the increase of pressure +per 1° at constant volume, by the increase of volume BG, which is +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">273</span>rd of the volume at 0° C. and 760 mm., or 2.83 c.c. The increase +of pressure BE is <span class="spp">760</span>⁄<span class="suu">373</span>, or 2.03 mm., which is equivalent to 2.76 +gm. per sq. cm. The work done in the cycle is 2.76 × 2.83 = 7.82 +gm. cm., or .0782 gram-metre. The heat absorbed at 101° C. was +.069 gram-calorie, so that the work obtained is .0782/.069 or 1.13 +gram-metre per gram-calorie, or 1.13 kilogrammetre per kilogram-calorie. +This result is precisely the same as that obtained by using +steam with the same range of temperature, but a very different kind +of cycle. Carnot in making the same calculation did not obtain quite +so good an agreement, because the experimental data at that time +available were not so accurate. He used the value <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">267</span> for the +coefficient of expansion, and .267 for the specific heat of air. Moreover, +he did not feel justified in assuming, as above, that the difference +of the specific heats was the +same at 100° C. as at the +ordinary temperature of +15° to 20° C., at which it had +been experimentally determined. +He made similar +calculations for the vapour +of alcohol, which differed +slightly from the vapour of +water. But the agreement +he found was close enough +to satisfy him that his theoretical +deductions were correct, +and that the resulting +ratio of work to heat should +be the same for all substances +at the same temperature.</p> + +<p>17. <i>Carnot’s Function. +Variation of Efficiency with +Temperature.</i>—By means of +calculations, similar to those given above, Carnot endeavoured +to find the amount of motive power obtainable from one unit of +heat per degree fall at various temperatures with various substances. +The value found above, namely 1.13 kilogrammetre +per kilo-calorie per 1° fall, is the value of the efficiency per 1° fall at +100° C. He was able to show that the efficiency per degree fall +probably diminished with rise of temperature, but the experimental +data at that time were too inconsistent to suggest the true relation. +He took as the analytical expression of his principle that the efficiency +W/H of a perfect engine taking in heat H at a temperature <i>t</i>° C., +and rejecting heat at the temperature 0° C., must be some function +F<i>t</i> of the temperature <i>t</i>, which would be the same for all substances. +The efficiency per degree fall at a temperature t he represented by +F′<i>t</i>, the derived function of F<i>t</i>. The function F′<i>t</i> would be the same +for all substances at the same temperature, but would have different +values at different temperatures. In terms of this function, which +is generally known as Carnot’s function, the results obtained in the +previous section might be expressed as follows:—</p> + +<p>“The increase of volume of a mixture of liquid and vapour per +unit-mass vaporized at any temperature, multiplied by the increase +of vapour-pressure per degree, is equal to the product of the function +F′<i>t</i> by the latent heat of vaporization.</p> + +<p>“The difference of the specific heats, or the latent heat of expansion +for any substance multiplied by the function F′<i>t</i>, is equal +to the product of the expansion per degree at constant pressure by +the increase of pressure per degree at constant volume.”</p> + +<p>Since the last two coefficients are the same for all gases if equal +volumes are taken, Carnot concluded that: “The difference of the +specific heats at constant pressure and volume is the same for equal +volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure.”</p> + +<p>Taking the expression W = RT log <span class="su">e</span><i>r</i> for the whole work done by a +gas obeying the gaseous laws <i>pv</i> = RT in expanding at a temperature +T from a volume 1 (unity) to a volume <i>r</i>, or for a ratio of expansion +r, and putting W′ = R log <span class="su">e</span><i>r</i> for the work done in a cycle of range 1°, +Carnot obtained the expression for the heat absorbed by a gas in +isothermal expansion</p> + +<p class="center">H = R log <span class="su">e</span><i>r</i>/F′<i>t</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(2)</div> + +<p class="noind">He gives several important deductions which follow from this formula, +which is the analytical expression of the experimental result already +quoted as having been discovered subsequently by Dulong. Employing +the above expression for the latent heat of expansion, Carnot +deduced a general expression for the specific heat of a gas at constant +volume on the basis of the caloric theory. He showed that if the +specific heat was independent of the temperature (the hypothesis +already adopted by Laplace and Poisson) the function F′<i>t</i> must be +of the form</p> + +<p class="center">F′t = R/C (<i>t</i> + <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span>)</p> +<div class="author">(3)</div> + +<p class="noind">where C and <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span> are unknown constants. A similar result follows +from his expression for the difference of the specific heats. If this is +assumed to be constant and equal to C, the expression for F′<i>t</i> becomes +R/CT, which is the same as the above if <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span> = 273. Assuming the +specific heat to be also independent of the volume, he shows that the +function F′t should be constant. But this assumption is inconsistent +with the caloric theory of latent heat of expansion, which requires +the specific heat to be a function of the volume. It appears in fact +impossible to reconcile Carnot’s principle with the caloric theory +on any simple assumptions. As Carnot remarks: “The main principles +on which the theory of heat rests require most careful examination. +Many experimental facts appear almost inexplicable in the +present state of this theory.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Carnot’s work was subsequently put in a more complete +analytical form by B. P. E. Clapeyron (<i>Journ. de l’Éc. polytechn.</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span> +Paris, 1832, 14, p. 153), who also made use of Watt’s indicator +diagram for the first time in discussing physical problems. +Clapeyron gave the general expressions for the latent heat of a +vapour, and for the latent heat of isothermal expansion of any +substance, in terms of Carnot’s function, employing the notation +of the calculus. The expressions he gave are the same in form as +those in use at the present day. He also gave the general +expression for Carnot’s function, and endeavoured to find its +variation with temperature; but having no better data, he +succeeded no better than Carnot. Unfortunately, in describing +Carnot’s cycle, he assumed the caloric theory of heat, and made +some unnecessary mistakes, which Carnot (who, we now know, +was a believer in the mechanical theory) had been very careful +to avoid. Clapeyron directs one to compress the gas at the lower +temperature in contact with the body B <i>until the heat disengaged +is equal to that which has been absorbed at the higher temperature</i>.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +He assumes that the gas at this point contains the same quantity +of heat as it contained in its original state at the higher temperature, +and that, when the body B is removed, the gas will be +restored to its original temperature, when compressed to its +initial volume. This mistake is still attributed to Carnot, and +regarded as a fatal objection to his reasoning by nearly all +writers at the present day.</p> + +<p>18. <i>Mechanical Theory of Heat.</i>—According to the caloric theory, +the heat absorbed in the expansion of a gas became latent, +like the latent heat of vaporization of a liquid, but remained +in the gas and was again evolved on compressing the gas. This +theory gave no explanation of the source of the motive power +produced by expansion. The mechanical theory had explained +the production of heat by friction as being due to transformation +of visible motion into a brisk agitation of the ultimate molecules, +but it had not so far given any definite explanation of the converse +production of motive power at the expense of heat. The +theory could not be regarded as complete until it had been +shown that in the production of work from heat, a certain +quantity of heat disappeared, and ceased to exist as heat; and +that this quantity was the same as that which could be generated +by the expenditure of the work produced. The earliest complete +statement of the mechanical theory from this point of view +is contained in some notes written by Carnot, about 1830, but +published by his brother (<i>Life of Sadi Carnot</i>, Paris, 1878). +Taking the difference of the specific heats to be .078, he estimated +the mechanical equivalent at 370 kilogrammetres. But he +fully recognized that there were no experimental data at that +time available for a quantitative test of the theory, although +it appeared to afford a good qualitative explanation of the +phenomena. He therefore planned a number of crucial experiments +such as the “porous plug” experiment, to test the +equivalence of heat and motive power. His early death in 1836 +put a stop to these experiments, but many of them have since +been independently carried out by other observers.</p> + +<p>The most obvious case of the production of work from heat +is in the expansion of a gas or vapour, which served in the first +instance as a means of calculating the ratio of equivalence, on +the assumption that all the heat which disappeared had been +transformed into work and had not merely become latent. +Marc Séguin, in his <i>De l’influence des chemins de fer</i> (Paris, +1839), made a rough estimate in this manner of the mechanical +equivalent of heat, assuming that the loss of heat represented +by the fall of temperature of steam on expanding was equivalent +to the mechanical effect produced by the expansion. He also +remarks (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 382) that it was absurd to suppose that “a +finite quantity of heat could produce an indefinite quantity of +mechanical action, and that it was more natural to assume +that a certain quantity of heat disappeared in the very act of +producing motive power.” J. R. Mayer (<i>Liebig’s Annalen</i>, +1842, 42, p. 233) stated the equivalence of heat and work more +definitely, deducing it from the old principle, <i>causa aequat +effectum</i>. Assuming that the sinking of a mercury column by +which a gas was compressed was equivalent to the heat set free +by the compression, he deduced that the warming of a kilogramme +of water 1° C. would correspond to the fall of a weight +of one kilogramme from a height of about 365 metres. But +Mayer did not adduce any fresh experimental evidence, and +made no attempt to apply his theory to the fundamental +equations of thermodynamics. It has since been urged that the +experiment of Gay-Lussac (1807), on the expansion of gas from +one globe to another (see above, § 11), was sufficient justification +for the assumption tacitly involved in Mayer’s calculation. +But Joule was the first to supply the correct interpretation of +this experiment, and to repeat it on an adequate scale with suitable +precautions. Joule was also the first to measure directly +the amount of heat liberated by the compression of a gas, and to +prove that heat was not merely rendered latent, but disappeared +altogether as heat, when a gas did work in expansion.</p> + +<p>19. <i>Joule’s Determinations of the Mechanical Equivalent.</i>—The +honour of placing the mechanical theory of heat on a sound +<i>experimental</i> basis belongs almost exclusively to J. P. Joule, +who showed by direct experiment that in all the most important +cases in which heat was generated by the expenditure of +mechanical work, or mechanical work was produced at the +expense of heat, there was a constant ratio of equivalence +between the heat generated and the work expended and vice +versa. His first experiments were on the relation of the chemical +and electric energy expended to the heat produced in metallic +conductors and voltaic and electrolytic cells; these experiments +were described in a series of papers published in the <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, +1840-1843. He first proved the relation, known as Joule’s +law, that the heat produced in a conductor of resistance R by +a current C is proportional to C²R per second. He went on to +show that the total heat produced in any voltaic circuit was +proportional to the electromotive force E of the battery and +to the number of equivalents electrolysed in it. Faraday had +shown that electromotive force depends on chemical affinity. +Joule measured the corresponding heats of combustion, and +showed that the electromotive force corresponding to a chemical +reaction is proportional to the heat of combustion of the electrochemical +equivalent. He also measured the E.M.F. required +to decompose water, and showed that when part of the electric +energy EC is thus expended in a voltameter, the heat generated +is less than the heat of combustion corresponding to EC by a +quantity representing the heat of combustion of the decomposed +gases. His papers so far had been concerned with the relations +between electrical energy, chemical energy and heat which +he showed to be mutually equivalent. The first paper in which +he discussed the relation of heat to mechanical power was entitled +“On the Calorific Effects of Magneto-Electricity, and on the +Mechanical Value of Heat” (<i>Brit. Assoc.</i>, 1843; <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, +23, p. 263). In this paper he showed that the heat produced +by currents generated by magneto-electric induction followed +the same law as voltaic currents. By a simple and ingenious +arrangement he succeeded in measuring the mechanical power +expended in producing the currents, and deduced the mechanical +equivalent of heat and of electrical energy. The amount of +mechanical work required to raise 1 ℔ of water 1° F. (1 +B.Th.U.), as found by this method, was 838 foot-pounds. In +a note added to the paper he states that he found the value +770 foot-pounds by the more direct method of forcing water +through fine tubes. In a paper “On the Changes of Temperature +produced by the Rarefaction and Condensation of Air” (<i>Phil. +Mag.</i>, May 1845), he made the first direct measurements of +the quantity of heat disengaged by compressing air, and also +of the heat absorbed when the air was allowed to expand against +atmospheric pressure; as the result he deduced the value 798 +foot-pounds for the mechanical equivalent of 1 B.Th.U. He also +showed that there was no appreciable absorption of heat when +air was allowed to expand in such a manner as not to develop +mechanical power, and he pointed out that the mechanical +equivalent of heat could not be satisfactorily deduced from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span> +the relations of the specific heats, because the knowledge of +the specific heats of gases at that time was of so uncertain a +character. He attributed most weight to his later determinations +of the mechanical equivalent made by the direct method +of friction of liquids. He showed that the results obtained with +different liquids, water, mercury and sperm oil, were the same, +namely, 782 foot-pounds; and finally repeating the method with +water, using all the precautions and improvements which his experience +had suggested, he obtained the value 772 foot-pounds, +which was accepted universally for many years, and has only +recently required alteration on account of the more exact definition +of the heat unit, and the standard scale of temperature (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>). The great value of Joule’s work for the general +establishment of the principle of the conservation of energy +lay in the variety and completeness of the experimental evidence +he adduced. It was not sufficient to find the relation between +heat and mechanical work or other forms of energy in one +particular case. It was necessary to show that the same relation +held in all cases which could be examined experimentally, and +that the ratio of equivalence of the different forms of energy, +measured in different ways, was independent of the manner in +which the conversion was effected and of the material or working +substance employed.</p> + +<p>As the result of Joule’s experiments, we are justified in concluding +that heat is a form of energy, and that all its transformations +are subject to the general principle of the conservation +of energy. As applied to heat, the principle is called the first +law of thermodynamics, and may be stated as follows: +<i>When heat is transformed into any other kind of energy, or vice +versa, the total quantity of energy remains invariable; that is to +say, the quantity of heat which disappears is equivalent to the +quantity of the other kind of energy produced and vice versa.</i></p> + +<p>The number of units of mechanical work equivalent to one unit +of heat is generally called the mechanical equivalent of heat, or +Joule’s equivalent, and is denoted by the letter J. Its numerical +value depends on the units employed for heat and mechanical +energy respectively. The values of the equivalent in terms of +the units most commonly employed at the present time are as +follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 777 foot-pounds (Lat. 45°)</td> <td class="tcl">are equivalent to</td> <td class="tcl">1 B.Th.U. (℔ deg. Fahr.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1399 foot-pounds   ”</td> <td class="tcl">  ”     ”</td> <td class="tcl">1 ℔ deg. C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">426.3 kilogrammetres</td> <td class="tcl">  ”     ”</td> <td class="tcl">1 kilogram-deg. C. or kilo-calorie.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">426.3 grammetres</td> <td class="tcl">  ”     ”</td> <td class="tcl">1 gram-deg. C. or calorie.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">4.180 joules</td> <td class="tcl">  ”     ”</td> <td class="tcl">1 gram-deg. C. or calorie.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The water for the heat units is supposed to be taken at 20° C. +or 68° F., and the degree of temperature is supposed to be +measured by the hydrogen thermometer. The acceleration of +gravity in latitude 45° is taken as 980.7 C.G.S. For details of +more recent and accurate methods of determination, the reader +should refer to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>, where tables of the +variation of the specific heat of water with temperature are also +given.</p> + +<p>The second law of thermodynamics is a title often used to +denote Carnot’s principle or some equivalent mathematical +expression. In some cases this title is not conferred on Carnot’s +principle itself, but on some axiom from which the principle +may be indirectly deduced. These axioms, however, cannot +as a rule be directly applied, so that it would appear preferable +to take Carnot’s principle itself as the second law. It may be +observed that, as a matter of history, Carnot’s principle was +established and generally admitted before the principle of the +conservation of energy as applied to heat, and that from this point +of view the titles, first and second laws, are not particularly +appropriate.</p> + +<p>20. <i>Combination of Carnot’s Principle with the Mechanical +Theory</i>.—A very instructive paper, as showing the state of the +science of heat about this time, is that of C. H. A. Holtzmann, +“On the Heat and Elasticity of Gases and Vapours” (Mannheim, +1845; Taylor’s <i>Scientific Memoirs</i>, iv. 189). He points out +that the theory of Laplace and Poisson does not agree with +facts when applied to vapours, and that Clapeyron’s formulae, +though probably correct, contain an undetermined function +(Carnot’s F′<i>t</i>, Clapeyron’s 1/C) of the temperature. He determines +the value of this function to be J/T by assuming, with +Séguin and Mayer, that the work done in the isothermal expansion +of a gas is a measure of the heat absorbed. From the then +accepted value .078 of the difference of the specific heats of air, +he finds the numerical value of J to be 374 kilogrammetres per +kilo-calorie. <i>Assuming the heat equivalent of the work to remain +in the gas</i>, he obtains expressions similar to Clapeyron’s for the +total heat and the specific heats. In consequence of this assumption, +the formulae he obtained for adiabatic expansion were +necessarily wrong, but no data existed at that time for testing +them. In applying his formulae to vapours, he obtained an +expression for the saturation-pressure of steam, which agreed with +the empirical formula of Roche, and satisfied other experimental +data on the supposition that the coefficient of expansion of steam +was .00423, and its specific heat 1.69—values which are now +known to be impossible, but which appeared at the time to give +a very satisfactory explanation of the phenomena.</p> + +<p>The essay of Hermann Helmholtz, <i>On the Conservation of +Force</i> (Berlin, 1847), discusses all the known cases of the transformation +of energy, and is justly regarded as one of the chief +landmarks in the establishment of the energy-principle. Helmholtz +gives an admirable statement of the fundamental principle +as applied to heat, but makes no attempt to formulate the correct +equations of thermodynamics on the mechanical theory. He +points out the fallacy of Holtzmann’s (and Mayer’s) calculation +of the equivalent, but admits that it is supported by Joule’s +experiments, though he does not seem to appreciate the true +value of Joule’s work. He considers that Holtzmann’s formulae +are well supported by experiment, and are much preferable to +Clapeyron’s, because the value of the undetermined function +F′<i>t</i> is found. But he fails to notice that Holtzmann’s equations +are fundamentally inconsistent with the conservation of energy, +because the heat equivalent of the external work done is supposed +to remain in the gas.</p> + +<p>That a quantity of heat equivalent to the work performed +actually disappears when a gas does work in expansion, was first +shown by Joule in the paper on condensation and rarefaction +of air (1845) already referred to. At the conclusion of this paper +he felt justified by direct experimental evidence in reasserting +definitely the hypothesis of Séguin (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 383) that “the +steam while expanding in the cylinder loses heat in quantity +exactly proportional to the mechanical force developed, and that +on the condensation of the steam the heat thus converted into +power is not given back.” He did not see his way to reconcile +this conclusion with Clapeyron’s description of Carnot’s cycle. +At a later date, in a letter to Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) +(1848), he pointed out that, since, according to his own experiments, +the work done in the expansion of a gas at constant +temperature is equivalent to the heat absorbed, by equating +Carnot’s expressions (given in § 17) for the work done and the +heat absorbed, the value of Carnot’s function F′<i>t</i> must be equal to +J/T, in order to reconcile his principle with the mechanical +theory.</p> + +<p>Professor W. Thomson gave an account of Carnot’s theory +(<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i>, Jan. 1849), in which he recognized the +discrepancy between Clapeyron’s statement and Joule’s experiments, +but did not see his way out of the difficulty. He therefore +adopted Carnot’s principle provisionally, and proceeded +to calculate a table of values of Carnot’s function F′<i>t</i>, from +the values of the total-heat and vapour-pressure of steam-then +recently determined by Regnault (<i>Mémoires de l’Institut de Paris</i>, +1847). In making the calculation, he assumed that the specific +volume v of saturated steam at any temperature T and pressure +<i>p</i> is that given by the gaseous laws, <i>pv</i> = RT. The results are +otherwise correct so far as Regnault’s data are accurate, because +the values of the efficiency per degree F′t are not affected by any +assumption with regard to the nature of heat. He obtained the +values of the efficiency F′<i>t</i> over a finite range from <i>t</i> to 0° C., by +adding up the values of F′<i>t</i> for the separate degrees. This latter +proceeding is inconsistent with the mechanical theory, but is the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span> +correct method on the assumption that the heat given up to the +condenser is equal to that taken from the source. The values he +obtained for F′<i>t</i> agreed very well with those previously given by +Carnot and Clapeyron, and showed that this function diminishes +with rise of temperature roughly in the inverse ratio of T, as +suggested by Joule.</p> + +<p>R. J. E. Clausius (<i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1850, 79, p. 369) and W. J. M. +Rankine (<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i>, 1850) were the first to develop +the correct equations of thermodynamics on the mechanical +theory. When heat was supplied to a body to change its temperature +or state, part remained in the body as intrinsic heat energy +E, but part was converted into external work of expansion W +and ceased to exist as heat. The part remaining in the body was +always the same for the same change of state, however performed, +as required by Carnot’s fundamental axiom, but the part corresponding +to the external work was necessarily different for +different values of the work done. Thus in any cycle in which +the body was exactly restored to its initial state, the heat +remaining in the body would always be the same, or as Carnot +puts it, the quantities of heat absorbed and given out in its +diverse transformations are exactly “compensated,” so far as +the body is concerned. But the quantities of heat absorbed and +given out are not necessarily equal. On the contrary, they differ +by the equivalent of the external work done in the cycle. Applying +this principle to the case of steam, Clausius deduced a fact +previously unknown, that the specific heat of steam maintained +in a state of saturation is negative, which was also deduced by +Rankine (<i>loc. cit.</i>) about the same time. In applying the principle +to gases Clausius assumes (with Mayer and Holtzmann) that the +heat absorbed by a gas in isothermal expansion is equivalent +to the work done, but he does not appear to be acquainted with +Joule’s experiment, and the reasons he adduces in support of +this assumption are not conclusive. This being admitted, he +deduces from the energy principle alone the propositions already +given by Carnot with reference to gases, and shows in addition +that the specific heat of a perfect gas must be independent +of the density. In the second part of his paper he introduces +Carnot’s principle, which he quotes as follows: “The performance +of work is equivalent to a transference of heat from a hot +to a cold body without the quantity of heat being thereby +diminished.” This is not Carnot’s way of stating his principle +(see § 15), but has the effect of exaggerating the importance of +Clapeyron’s unnecessary assumption. By equating the expressions +given by Carnot for the work done and the heat absorbed +in the expansion of a gas, he deduces (following Holtzmann) +the value J/T for Carnot’s function F′<i>t</i> (which Clapeyron +denotes by 1/C). He shows that this assumption gives values of +Carnot’s function which agree fairly well with those calculated +by Clapeyron and Thomson, and that it leads to values of the +mechanical equivalent not differing greatly from those of Joule. +Substituting the value J/T for C in the analytical expressions +given by Clapeyron for the latent heat of expansion and vaporization, +these relations are immediately reduced to their modern +form (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermodynamics</a></span>, § 4). Being unacquainted with +Carnot’s original work, but recognizing the invalidity of +Clapeyron’s description of Carnot’s cycle, Clausius substituted +a proof consistent with the mechanical theory, which he based +on the axiom that “heat cannot of itself pass from cold to hot.” +The proof on this basis involves the application of the energy +principle, which does not appear to be necessary, and the axiom +to which final appeal is made does not appear more convincing +than Carnot’s. Strange to say, Clausius did not in this paper +give the expression for the efficiency in a Carnot cycle of finite +range (Carnot’s F<i>t</i>) which follows immediately from the value +J/T assumed for the efficiency F′t of a cycle of infinitesimal range +at the temperature <i>t</i> C or T Abs.</p> + +<p>Rankine did not make the same assumption as Clausius +explicitly, but applied the mechanical theory of heat to the +development of his hypothesis of molecular vortices, and deduced +from it a number of results similar to those obtained by Clausius. +Unfortunately the paper (<i>loc. cit.</i>) was not published till some +time later, but in a summary given in the <i>Phil. Mag.</i> (July 1851) +the principal results were detailed. Assuming the value of +Joule’s equivalent, Rankine deduced the value 0.2404 for the +specific heat of air at constant pressure, in place of 0.267 as +found by Delaroche and Bérard. The subsequent verification +of this value by Regnault (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1853) afforded strong +confirmation of the accuracy of Joule’s work. In a note appended +to the abstract in the <i>Phil. Mag.</i> Rankine states that he has +succeeded in proving that the maximum efficiency of an engine +working in a Carnot cycle of finite range <i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> to <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span> is of the form +(<i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> − <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span>) / (<i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> − <i>k</i>), where <i>k</i> is a constant, the same for all substances. +This is correct if <i>t</i> represents temperature Centigrade, and +<i>k</i> = −273.</p> + +<p>Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in a paper “On the +Dynamical Theory of Heat” (<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i>, 1851, +first published in the <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1852) gave a very clear statement +of the position of the theory at that time. He showed +that the value F′<i>t</i> = J/T, assumed for Carnot’s function by +Clausius without any experimental justification, rested solely +on the evidence of Joule’s experiment, and might possibly not +be true at all temperatures. Assuming the value J/T with this +reservation, he gave as the expression for the efficiency over a +finite range <i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> to <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span> C., or T<span class="su">1</span> to T<span class="su">0</span> Abs., the result,</p> + +<p class="center">W/H = (<i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> − <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span>) / (<i>t</i><span class="su">1</span> + 273) = (T<span class="su">1</span> − T<span class="su">0</span>) / T<span class="su">1</span></p> +<div class="author">(4)</div> + +<p class="noind">which, he observed, agrees in form with that found by Rankine.</p> + +<p>21. <i>The Absolute Scale of Temperature.</i>—Since Carnot’s +function is the same for all substances at the same temperature, +and is a function of the temperature only, it supplies a means of +measuring temperature independently of the properties of any +particular substance. This proposal was first made by Lord +Kelvin (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1848), who suggested that the degree of +temperature should be chosen so that the efficiency of a perfect +engine at any point of the scale should be the same, or that +Carnot’s function F′t should be constant. This would give the +simplest expression for the efficiency on the caloric theory, but +the scale so obtained, when the values of Carnot’s function were +calculated from Regnault’s observations on steam, was found to +differ considerably from the scale of the mercury or air-thermometer. +At a later date, when it became clear that the value +of Carnot’s function was very nearly proportional to the reciprocal +of the temperature T measured from the absolute zero +of the gas thermometer, he proposed a simpler method (<i>Phil. +Trans.</i>, 1854), namely, to define absolute temperature θ as +proportional to the reciprocal of Carnot’s function. On this +definition of absolute temperature, the expression (θ<span class="su">1</span> − θ<span class="su">0</span>) / θ<span class="su">1</span> +for the efficiency of a Carnot cycle with limits θ<span class="su">1</span> and θ<span class="su">0</span> would +be exact, and it became a most important problem to determine +how far the temperature T by gas thermometer differed from +the absolute temperature θ. With this object he devised a very +delicate method, known as the “porous plug experiment” +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermodynamics</a></span>) of testing the deviation of the gas +thermometer from the absolute scale. The experiments were +carried out in conjunction with Joule, and finally resulted in +showing (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1862, “On the Thermal Effects of +Fluids in Motion”) that the deviations of the air thermometer +from the absolute scale as above defined are almost negligible, +and that in the case of the gas hydrogen the deviations are +so small that a thermometer containing this gas may be +taken for all practical purposes as agreeing exactly with the +absolute scale at all ordinary temperatures. For this reason +the hydrogen thermometer has since been generally adopted as +the standard.</p> + +<p>22. <i>Availability of Heat of Combustion.</i>—Taking the value +1.13 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie for 1° C. fall of temperature +at 100° C., Carnot attempted to estimate the possible performance +of a steam-engine receiving heat at 160° C. and rejecting +it at 40° C. Assuming the performance to be simply proportional +to the temperature fall, the work done for 120° fall would be +134 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie. To make an accurate +calculation required a knowledge of the variation of the function +F′t with temperature. Taking the accurate formula of § 20, the +work obtainable is 118 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie, which is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span> +28% of 426, the mechanical equivalent of the kilo-calorie in +kilogrammetres. Carnot pointed out that the fall of 120° C. +utilized in the steam-engine was only a small fraction of the +whole temperature fall obtainable by combustion, and made an +estimate of the total power available if the whole fall could be +utilized, allowing for the probable diminution of the function +F′<i>t</i> with rise of temperature. His estimate was 3.9 million +kilogrammetres per kilogramme of coal. This was certainly +an over-estimate, but was surprisingly close, considering the +scanty data at his disposal.</p> + +<p>In reality the fraction of the heat of combustion available, +even in an ideal engine and apart from practical limitations, is +much less than might be inferred from the efficiency formula of +the Carnot cycle. In applying this formula to estimate the +availability of the heat it is usual to take the temperature +obtainable by the combustion of the fuel as the upper limit of +temperature in the formula. For carbon burnt <i>in air</i> at constant +pressure without any loss of heat, the products of combustion +might be raised 2300° C. in temperature, assuming that the +specific heats of the products were constant and that there was +no dissociation. If all the heat could be supplied to the working +fluid at this temperature, that of the condenser being 40° C., +the possible efficiency by the formula of § 20 would be 89%. +But the combustion obviously cannot maintain so high a temperature +if heat is being continuously abstracted by a boiler. +Suppose that θ′ is the maximum temperature of combustion as +above estimated, θ” the temperature of the boiler, and θ<span class="sp">0</span> that +of the condenser. Of the whole heat supplied by combustion +represented by the rise of temperature θ′ − θ<span class="sp">0</span>, the fraction +(θ′ − θ″) / (θ′ − θ<span class="sp">0</span>) is the maximum that could be supplied to the +boiler, the fraction (θ″ − θ<span class="sp">0</span>) / (θ′ − θ<span class="sp">0</span>) being carried away with the +waste gases. Of the heat supplied to the boiler, the fraction +(θ′ − θ<span class="sp">0</span>) / θ″ might theoretically be converted into work. The +problem in the case of an engine using a separate working fluid, +like a steam-engine, is to find what must be the temperature θ″ +of the boiler in order to obtain the largest possible fraction of the +heat of combustion in the form of work. It is easy to show that θ” +must be the geometric mean of θ′ and θ<span class="sp">0</span>, or θ″ = √<span class="ov">θ′θ</span><span class="sp">0</span>. Taking +θ′ − θ<span class="sp">0</span> = 2300° C., and θ<span class="sp">0</span> = 313° Abs. as before, we find θ″ = +903° Abs. or 630° C. The heat supplied to the boiler is then +74.4% of the heat of combustion, and of this 65.3% is converted +into work, giving a maximum possible efficiency of 49% in +place of 89%. With the boiler at 160° C., the possible efficiency, +calculated in a similar manner, would be 26.3%, which shows +that the possible increase of efficiency by increasing the temperature +range is not so great as is usually supposed. If the +temperature of the boiler were raised to 300° C., corresponding +to a pressure of 1260 ℔ per sq. in., which is occasionally surpassed +in modern flash-boilers, the possible efficiency would be 40%. +The waste heat from the boiler, supposed perfectly efficient, +would be in this case 11%, of which less than a quarter could +be utilized in the form of work. Carnot foresaw that in order +to utilize a larger percentage of the heat of combustion it would +be necessary to employ a series of working fluids, the waste heat +from one boiler and condenser serving to supply the next in the +series. This has actually been effected in a few cases, <i>e.g.</i> +steam and SO<span class="su">2</span>, when special circumstances exist to compensate +for the extra complication. Improvements in the steam-engine +since Carnot’s time have been mainly in the direction of reducing +waste due to condensation and leakage by multiple expansion, +superheating, &c. The gain by increased temperature range +has been comparatively small owing to limitations of pressure, +and the best modern steam-engines do not utilize more than 20% +of the heat of combustion. This is in reality a very respectable +fraction of the ideal limit of 40% above calculated on the +assumption of 1260 ℔ initial pressure, with a perfectly efficient +boiler and complete expansion, and with an ideal engine which +does not waste available motive power by complete condensation +of the steam before it is returned to the boiler.</p> + +<p>23. <i>Advantages of Internal Combustion.</i>—As Carnot pointed +out, the chief advantage of using atmospheric air as a working +fluid in a heat-engine lies in the possibility of imparting heat to +it directly by internal combustion. This avoids the limitation +imposed by the use of a separate boiler, which as we have seen +reduces the possible efficiency at least 50%. Even with internal +combustion, however, the full range of temperature is not +available, because the heat cannot conveniently in practice +be communicated to the working fluid at constant temperature, +owing to the large range of expansion at constant temperature +required for the absorption of a sufficient quantity of heat. +Air-engines of this type, such as Stirling’s or Ericsson’s, taking +in heat at constant temperature, though theoretically the most +perfect, are bulky and mechanically inefficient. In practical +engines the heat is generated by the combustion of an explosive +mixture at constant volume or at constant pressure. The heat +is not all communicated at the highest temperature, but over +a range of temperature from that of the mixture at the beginning +of combustion to the maximum temperature. The earliest +instance of this type of engine is the lycopodium engine of +M. M. Niepce, discussed by Carnot, in which a combustible +mixture of air and lycopodium powder at atmospheric pressure +was ignited in a cylinder, and did work on a piston. The +early gas-engines of E. Lenoir (1860) and N. Otto and E. +Langen (1866), operated in a similar manner with illuminating +gas in place of lycopodium. Combustion in this case is effected +practically at constant volume, and the maximum efficiency +theoretically obtainable is 1 − log<span class="su">e</span><i>r</i> / (<i>r</i> − 1), where <i>r</i> is the ratio +of the maximum temperature θ′ to the initial temperature θ<span class="sp">0</span>. +In order to obtain this efficiency it would be necessary to follow +Carnot’s rule, and expand the gas after ignition without loss +or gain of heat from θ′ down to θ<span class="sp">0</span>, and then to compress it +at θ<span class="sp">0</span> to its initial volume. If the rise of temperature in combustion +were 2300° C., and the initial temperature were 0° C. +or 273° Abs., the theoretical efficiency would be 73.3%, which +is much greater than that obtainable with a boiler. But in +order to reach this value, it would be necessary to expand the +mixture to about 270 times its initial volume, which is obviously +impracticable. Owing to incomplete expansion and rapid +cooling of the heated gases by the large surface exposed, the +actual efficiency of the Lenoir engine was less than 5%, and of +the Otto and Langen, with more rapid expansion, about 10%. +Carnot foresaw that in order to render an engine of this type +practically efficient, it would be necessary to compress the +mixture before ignition. Compression is beneficial in three +ways: (1) it permits a greater range of expansion after ignition; +(2) it raises the mean effective pressure, and thus improves the +mechanical efficiency and the power in proportion to size and +weight; (3) it reduces the loss of heat during ignition by reducing +the surface exposed to the hot gases. In the modern gas or +petrol motor, compression is employed as in Carnot’s cycle, +but the efficiency attainable is limited not so much by considerations +of temperature as by limitations of volume. It is impracticable +before combustion at constant volume to compress a rich +mixture to much less than <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>th of its initial volume, and, for +mechanical simplicity, the range of expansion is made equal +to that of compression. The cycle employed was patented +in 1862 by Beau de Rochas (d. 1892), but was first successfully +carried out by Otto (1876). It differs from the Carnot cycle +in employing reception and rejection of heat at constant volume +instead of at constant temperature. This cycle is not so efficient +as the Carnot cycle for given limits of temperature, but, <i>for the +given limits of volume imposed</i>, it gives a much higher efficiency +than the Carnot cycle. The efficiency depends only on the +range of temperature in expansion and compression, and is +given by the formula (θ′ − θ″) / θ′, where θ′ is the maximum +temperature, and θ″ the temperature at the end of expansion. +The formula is the same as that for the Carnot cycle with the +same range of temperature in expansion. The ratio θ′ / θ″ is +<i>r</i><span class="sp">γ−1</span>, where <i>r</i> is the given ratio of expansion or compression, +and γ is the ratio of the specific heats of the working fluid. +Assuming the working fluid to be a perfect gas with the same +properties as air, we should have γ = 1.41. Taking <i>r</i> = 5, the +formula gives 48% for the maximum possible efficiency. The +actual products of combustion vary with the nature of the fuel +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span> +employed, and have different properties from air, but the +efficiency is found to vary with compression in the same manner +as for air. For this reason a committee of the Institution of Civil +Engineers in 1905 recommended the adoption of the air-standard +for estimating the effects of varying the compression ratio, +and defined the relative efficiency of an internal combustion +engine as the ratio of its observed efficiency to that of a perfect +air-engine with the same compression.</p> + +<p>24. <i>Effect of Dissociation, and Increase of Specific Heat.</i>—One +of the most important effects of heat is the decomposition or +dissociation of compound molecules. Just as the molecules +of a vapour combine with evolution of heat to form the more +complicated molecules of the liquid, and as the liquid molecules +require the addition of heat to effect their separation into +molecules of vapour; so in the case of molecules of different +kinds which combine with evolution of heat, the reversal of the +process can be effected either by the agency of heat, or indirectly +by supplying the requisite amount of energy by electrical or +other methods. Just as the latent heat of vaporization diminishes +with rise of temperature, and the pressure of the dissociated +vapour molecules increases, so in the case of compound molecules +in general the heat of combination diminishes with rise of temperature, +and the pressure of the products of dissociation increases. +There is evidence that the compound carbon dioxide, CO<span class="su">2</span>, is +partly dissociated into carbon monoxide and oxygen at high +temperatures, and that the proportion dissociated increases +with rise of temperature. There is a very close analogy between +these phenomena and the vaporization of a liquid. The laws +which govern dissociation are the same fundamental laws of +thermodynamics, but the relations involved are necessarily +more complex on account of the presence of different kinds of +molecules, and present special difficulties for accurate investigation +in the case where dissociation does not begin to be appreciable +until a high temperature is reached. It is easy, however, to +see that the general effect of dissociation must be to diminish +the available temperature of combustion, and all experiments +go to show that in ordinary combustible mixtures the rise of +temperature actually attained is much less than that calculated +as in § 22, on the assumption that the whole heat of combustion +is developed and communicated to products of constant specific +heat. The defect of temperature observed can be represented +by supposing that the specific heat of the products of combustion +increases with rise of temperature. This is the case for CO<span class="su">2</span> +even at ordinary temperatures, according to Regnault, and +probably also for air and steam at higher temperatures. Increase +of specific heat is a necessary accompaniment of dissociation, +and from some points of view may be regarded as merely another +way of stating the facts. It is the most convenient method to +adopt in the case of products of combustion consisting of a +mixture of CO<span class="su">2</span> and steam with a large excess of inert gases, +because the relations of equilibrium of dissociated molecules +of so many different kinds would be too complex to permit of +any other method of expression. It appears from the researches +of Dugald Clerk, H. le Chatelier and others that the apparent +specific heat of the products of combustion in a gas-engine +may be taken as approximately .34 to .33 in place of .24 at +working temperatures between 1000° C. and 1700° C., and that +the ratio of the specific heats is about 1.29 in place of 1.41. +This limits the availability of the heat of combustion by reducing +the rise of temperature actually obtainable in combustion at +constant volume by 30 or 40%, and also by reducing the range +of temperature θ′ / θ″ for a given ratio of expansions r from <i>r</i><span class="sp">.41</span> to +<i>r</i><span class="sp">.29</span>. The formula given in § 21 is no longer quite exact, because +the ratio of the specific heats of the mixture during compression is +not the same as that of the products of combustion during +expansion. But since the work done depends principally on the +expansion curve, the ratio of the range of temperature in expansion +(θ′ − θ″) to the maximum temperature θ′ will still give +a very good approximation to the possible efficiency. Taking +<i>r</i> = 5, as before, for the compression ratio, the possible efficiency +is reduced from 48% to 38%, if γ = 1.29 instead of 1.41. A +large gas-engine of the present day with <i>r</i> = 5 may actually +realize as much as 34% indicated efficiency, which is 90% of +the maximum possible, showing how perfectly all avoidable heat +losses have been minimized.</p> + +<p>It is often urged that the gas-engine is relatively less efficient +than the steam-engine, because, although it has a much higher +absolute efficiency, it does not utilize so large a fraction of its +temperature range, reckoning that of the steam-engine from the +temperature of the boiler to that of the condenser, and that of +the gas-engine from the maximum temperature of combustion +to that of the air. This is not quite fair, and has given rise to the +mistaken notion that “there is an immense margin for improvement +in the gas-engine,” which is not the case if the practical +limitations of volume are rightly considered. If expansion could +be carried out in accordance with Carnot’s principle of maximum +efficiency, down to the lower limit of temperature θ<span class="su">0</span>, with +rejection of heat at θ<span class="su">0</span> during compression to the original volume +V<span class="su">0</span>, it would no doubt be possible to obtain an ideal efficiency of +nearly 80%. But this would be quite impracticable, as it would +require expansion to about 100 times v<span class="su">0</span>, or 500 times the compression +volume. Some advantage no doubt might be obtained +by carrying the expansion beyond the original volume. This +has been done, but is not found to be worth the extra complication. +A more practical method, which has been applied by +Diesel for liquid fuel, is to introduce the fuel at the end of +compression, and adjust the supply in such a manner as to give +combustion at nearly constant pressure. This makes it possible +to employ higher compression, with a corresponding increase +in the ratio of expansion and the theoretical efficiency. With a +compression ratio of 14, an indicated efficiency of 40% has been +obtained In this way, but owing to additional complications the +brake efficiency was only 31%, which is hardly any improvement +on the brake efficiency of 30% obtained with the ordinary +type of gas-engine. Although Carnot’s principle makes it possible +to calculate in every case what the limiting possible efficiency +would be for any kind of cycle if all heat losses were abolished, +it is very necessary, in applying the principle to practical cases, +to take account of the possibility of avoiding the heat losses +which are supposed to be absent, and of other practical limitations +in the working of the actual engine. An immense amount +of time and ingenuity has been wasted in striving to realize +impossible margins of ideal efficiency, which a close study of +the practical conditions would have shown to be illusory. As +Carnot remarks at the conclusion of his essay: “Economy of +fuel is only one of the conditions a heat-engine must satisfy; +in many cases it is only secondary, and must often give way to +considerations of safety, strength and wearing qualities of the +machine, of smallness of space occupied, or of expense in erecting. +To know how to appreciate justly in each case the considerations +of convenience and economy, to be able to distinguish the +essential from the accessory, to balance all fairly, and finally +to arrive at the best result by the simplest means, such must be +the principal talent of the man called on to direct and co-ordinate +the work of his fellows for the attainment of a useful object of +any kind.”</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Transference of Heat</p> + +<p>25. <i>Modes of Transference.</i>—There are three principal modes +of transference of heat, namely (1) convection, (2) conduction, +and (3) radiation.</p> + +<p>(1) In convection, heat is carried or conveyed by the motion +of heated masses of matter. The most familiar illustrations of +this method of transference are the heating of buildings by the +circulation of steam or hot water, or the equalization of temperature +of a mass of unequally heated liquid or gas by convection +currents, produced by natural changes of density or by artificial +stirring. (2) In conduction, heat is transferred by contact +between contiguous particles of matter and is passed on from +one particle to the next without visible relative motion of the +parts of the body. A familiar illustration of conduction is the +passage of heat through the metal plates of a boiler from the +fire to the water inside, or the transference of heat from a soldering +bolt to the solder and the metal with which it is placed in contact. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span> +(3) In radiation, the heated body gives rise to a motion of +vibration in the aether, which is propagated equally in all +directions, and is reconverted into heat when it encounters any +obstacle capable of absorbing it. Thus radiation differs from +conduction and convection in taking place most perfectly in the +absence of matter, whereas conduction and convection require +material communication between the bodies concerned.</p> + +<p>In the majority of cases of transference of heat all three +modes of transference are simultaneously operative in a greater +or less degree, and the combined effect is generally of great +complexity. The different modes of transference are subject +to widely different laws, and the difficulty of disentangling their +effects and subjecting them to calculation is often one of the +most serious obstacles in the experimental investigation of heat. +In space void of matter, we should have pure radiation, but it +is difficult to obtain so perfect a vacuum that the effects of the +residual gas in transferring heat by conduction or convection +are inappreciable. In the interior of an opaque solid we should +have pure conduction, but if the solid is sensibly transparent +in thin layers there must also be an internal radiation, +while in a liquid or a gas it is very difficult to eliminate the effects +of convection. These difficulties are well illustrated in the +historical development of the subject by the experimental +investigations which have been made to determine the laws of +heat-transference, such as the laws of cooling, of radiation +and of conduction.</p> + +<p>26. <i>Newton’s Law of Cooling.</i>—There is one essential condition +common to all three modes of heat-transference, namely, that +they depend on difference of temperature, that the direction +of the transfer of heat is always from hot to cold, and that the +rate of transference is, for small differences, directly proportional +to the difference of temperature. Without difference of temperature +there is no transfer of heat. When two bodies have been +brought to the same temperature by conduction, they are also in +equilibrium as regards radiation, and vice versa. If this were +not the case, there could be no equilibrium of heat defined by +equality of temperature. A hot body placed in an enclosure of +lower temperature, <i>e.g.</i> a calorimeter in its containing vessel, +generally loses heat by all three modes simultaneously in different +degrees. The loss by each mode will depend in different ways +on the form, extent and nature of its surface and on that of the +enclosure, on the manner in which it is supported, on its relative +position and distance from the enclosure, and on the nature of +the intervening medium. But provided that the difference of +temperature is small, the rate of loss of heat by all modes will +be approximately proportional to the difference of temperature, +the other conditions remaining constant. The rate of cooling +or the rate of fall of temperature will also be nearly proportional +to the rate of loss of heat, if the specific heat of the cooling body +is constant, or the rate of cooling at any moment will be proportional +to the difference of temperature. This simple relation +is commonly known as Newton’s law of cooling, but is limited +in its application to comparatively simple cases such as the +foregoing. Newton himself applied it to estimate the temperature +of a red-hot iron ball, by observing the time which it took to +cool from a red heat to a known temperature, and comparing +this with the time taken to cool through a known range at +ordinary temperatures. According to this law if the excess of +temperature of the body above its surroundings is observed +at equal intervals of time, the observed values will form a +geometrical progression with a common ratio. Supposing, for +instance, that the surrounding temperature were 0° C., that the +red-hot ball took 25 minutes to cool from its original temperature +to 20° C., and 5 minutes to cool from 20° C. to 10° C., the original +temperature is easily calculated on the assumption that the excess +of temperature above 0° C. falls to half its value in each interval +of 5 minutes. Doubling the value 20° at 25 minutes five times, +we arrive at 640° C. as the original temperature. No other method +of estimation of such temperatures was available in the time of +Newton, but, as we now know, the simple law of proportionality +to the temperature difference is inapplicable over such large +ranges of temperature. The rate of loss of heat by radiation, +and also by convection and conduction to the surrounding air, +increases much more rapidly than in simple proportion to the +temperature difference, and the rate of increase of each follows +a different law. At a later date Sir John Herschel measured the +intensity of the solar radiation at the surface of the earth, and +endeavoured to form an estimate of the temperature of the sun +by comparison with terrestrial sources on the assumption that +the intensity of radiation was simply proportional to the temperature +difference. He thus arrived at an estimate of several +million degrees, which we now know would be about a thousand +times too great. The application of Newton’s law necessarily +leads to absurd results when the difference of temperature is +very large, but the error will not in general exceed 2 to 3% if +the temperature difference does not exceed 10° C., and the +percentage error is proportionately much smaller for smaller +differences.</p> + +<p>27. <i>Dulong and Petit’s Empirical Laws of Cooling.</i>—One of the +most elaborate experimental investigations of the law of cooling +was that of Dulong and Petit (<i>Ann. Chim. Phys.</i>, 1817, 7, pp. +225 and 337), who observed the rate of cooling of a mercury +thermometer from 300° C. in a water-jacketed enclosure at +various temperatures from 0° C. to 80° C. In order to obtain the +rate of cooling by radiation alone, they exhausted the enclosure +as perfectly as possible after the introduction of the thermometer, +but with the imperfect appliances available at that time they +were not able to obtain a vacuum better than about 3 or 4 mm. +of mercury. They found that the velocity of cooling V in a +vacuum could be represented by a formula of the type</p> + +<p class="center">V = A (<i>a</i><span class="sp">t</span> − <i>a</i><span class="sp">t</span><span class="su">0</span>)</p> +<div class="author">(5)</div> + +<p class="noind">in which <i>t</i> is the temperature of the thermometer, and <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span> that of +the enclosure, <i>a</i> is a constant having the value 1.0075, and the +coefficient A depends on the form of the bulb and the nature +of its surface. For the ranges of temperature they employed, +this formula gives much better results than Newton’s, but it +must be remembered that the temperatures were expressed on +the arbitrary scale of the mercury thermometer, and were not +corrected for the large and uncertain errors of stem-exposure +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>). Moreover, although the effects of cooling +by convection currents are practically eliminated by exhausting +to 3 or 4 mm. (since the density of the gas is reduced to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">200</span>th +while its viscosity is not appreciably affected), the rate of cooling +by conduction is not materially diminished, since the conductivity, +like the viscosity, is nearly independent of pressure. It has +since been shown by Sir William Crookes (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1881, +21, p. 239) that the rate of cooling of a mercury thermometer +in a vacuum suffers a very great diminution when the pressure +is reduced from 1 mm. to .001 mm., at which pressure the effect +of conduction by the residual gas has practically disappeared.</p> + +<p>Dulong and Petit also observed the rate of cooling under the +same conditions with the enclosure filled with various gases. +They found that the cooling effect of the gas could be represented +by adding to the term already given as representing radiation, +an expression of the form</p> + +<p class="center">V′ = B<i>p</i><span class="sp">c</span> (<i>t</i> − <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span>)<span class="sp">1.233</span>.</p> +<div class="author">(6)</div> + +<p class="noind">They found that the cooling effect of convection, unlike that of +radiation, was independent of the nature of the surface of the +thermometer, whether silvered or blackened, that it varied as +some power <i>c</i> of the pressure <i>p</i>, and that it was independent +of the absolute temperature of the enclosure, but varied as the +excess temperature (<i>t</i> − <i>t</i><span class="su">0</span>) raised to the power 1.233. This +highly artificial result undoubtedly contains some elements of +truth, but could only be applied to experiments similar to those +from which it was derived. F. Hervé de la Provostaye and +P. Q. Desains (<i>Ann. Chim. Phys.</i>, 1846, 16, p. 337), in repeating +these experiments under various conditions, found that the +coefficients A and B were to some extent dependent on the +temperature, and that the manner in which the cooling effect +varied with the pressure depended on the form and size of the +enclosure. It is evident that this should be the case, since the +cooling effect of the gas depends partly on convective currents. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span> +which are necessarily greatly modified by the form of the +enclosure in a manner which it would appear hopeless to +attempt to represent by any general formula.</p> + +<p>28. <i>Surface Emissivity.</i>—The same remark applies to many +attempts which have since been made to determine the general +value of the constant termed by Fourier and early writers the +“exterior conductibility,” but now called the surface emissivity. +This coefficient represents the rate of loss of heat from a body +per unit area of surface per degree excess of temperature, and +includes the effects of radiation, convection and conduction. +As already pointed out, the combined effect will be nearly +proportional to the excess of temperature in any given case +provided that the excess is small, but it is not necessarily proportional +to the extent of surface exposed except in the case of +pure radiation. The rate of loss by convection and conduction +varies greatly with the form of the surface, and, unless the +enclosure is very large compared with the cooling body, the effect +depends also on the size and form of the enclosure. Heat is +necessarily communicated from the cooling body to the layer +of gas in contact with it by conduction. If the linear dimensions +of the body are small, as in the case of a fine wire, or if it is +separated from the enclosure by a thin layer of gas, the rate +of loss depends chiefly on conduction. For very fine metallic +wires heated by an electric current, W. E. Ayrton and H. +Kilgour (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1892) showed that the rate of loss is +nearly independent of the surface, instead of being directly +proportional to it. This should be the case, as Porter has shown +(<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, March 1895), since the effect depends mainly on +conduction. The effects of conduction and radiation may be +approximately estimated if the conductivity of the gas and the +nature and forms of the surfaces of the body and enclosure are +known, but the effect of convection in any case can be determined +only by experiment. It has been found that the rate of cooling +by a current of air is approximately proportional to the velocity +of the current, other things being equal. It is obvious that this +should be the case, but the result cannot generally be applied +to convection currents. Values which are commonly given for +the surface emissivity must therefore be accepted with great +reserve. They can be regarded only as approximate, and as +applicable only to cases precisely similar to those for which they +were experimentally obtained. There cannot be said to be any +general law of convection. The loss of heat is not necessarily +proportional to the area of the surface, and no general value of +the coefficient can be given to suit all cases. The laws of conduction +and radiation admit of being more precisely formulated, +and their effects predicted, except in so far as they are complicated +by convection.</p> + +<p>29. <i>Conduction of Heat.</i>—The laws of transference of heat in +the interior of a solid body formed one of the earliest subjects +of mathematical and experimental treatment in the theory of +heat. The law assumed by Fourier was of the simplest possible +type, but the mathematical application, except in the simplest +cases, was so difficult as to require the development of a new +mathematical method. Fourier succeeded in showing how, +by his method of analysis, the solution of any given problem +with regard to the flow of heat by conduction in any material +could be obtained in terms of a physical constant, the thermal +conductivity of the material, and that the results obtained by +experiment agreed in a qualitative manner with those predicted +by his theory. But the experimental determination of the actual +values of these constants presented formidable difficulties which +were not surmounted till a later date. The experimental methods +and difficulties are discussed in a special article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conduction +of Heat</a></span>. It will suffice here to give a brief historical sketch, +including a few of the more important results by way of +illustration.</p> + +<p>30. <i>Comparison of Conducting Powers.</i>—That the power of +transmitting heat by conduction varied widely in different +materials was probably known in a general way from prehistoric +times. Empirical knowledge of this kind is shown in the construction +of many articles for heating, cooking, &c., such as the +copper soldering bolt, or the Norwegian cooking-stove. One +of the earliest experiments for making an actual comparison of +conducting powers was that suggested by Franklin, but +carried out by Jan Ingenhousz (<i>Journ. de phys.</i>, 1789, 34, +pp. 68 and 380). Exactly similar bars of different materials, +glass, wood, metal, &c., thinly coated with wax, were fixed +in the side of a trough of boiling water so as to project for equal +distances through the side of the trough into the external air. +The wax coating was observed to melt as the heat travelled along +the bars, the distance from the trough to which the wax was +melted along each affording an approximate indication of +the distribution of temperature. When the temperature of each +bar had become stationary the heat which it gained by conduction +from the trough must be equal to the heat lost to the surrounding +air, and must therefore be approximately proportional to the +distance to which the wax had melted along the bar. But the +temperature fall per unit length, or the temperature-gradient, +in each bar at the point where it emerged from the trough would +be inversely proportional to the same distance. For equal +temperature-gradients the quantities of heat conducted (or the +relative conducting powers of the bars) would therefore be +proportional to the squares of the distances to which the wax +finally melted on each bar. This was shown by Fourier and +Despretz (<i>Ann. chim. phys.</i>, 1822, 19, p. 97).</p> + +<p>31. <i>Diffusion of Temperature.</i>—It was shown in connexion +with this experiment by Sir H. Davy, and the experiment was +later popularized by John Tyndall, that the rate at which wax +melted along the bar, or the rate of propagation of a given +temperature, during the first moments of heating, as distinguished +from the melting-distance finally attained, depended on the +specific heat as well as the conductivity. Short prisms of iron +and bismuth coated with wax were placed on a hot metal plate. +The wax was observed to melt first on the bismuth, although its +conductivity is less than that of iron. The reason is that its +specific heat is less than that of iron in the proportion of 3 to 11. +The densities of iron and bismuth being 7.8 and 9.8, the thermal +capacities of equal prisms will be in the ratio .86 for iron to .29 +for bismuth. If the prisms receive heat at equal rates, the bismuth +will reach the temperature of melting wax nearly three +times as quickly as the iron. It is often stated on the strength +of this experiment that the rate of propagation of a temperature +wave, which depends on the ratio of the conductivity to the +specific heat per unit volume, is greater in bismuth than in iron +(<i>e.g.</i> Preston, <i>Heat</i>, p. 628). This is quite incorrect, because the +conductivity of iron is about six times that of bismuth, and the +rate of propagation of a temperature wave is therefore twice +as great in iron as in bismuth. The experiment in reality is +misleading because the rates of reception of heat by the prisms +are limited by the very imperfect contact with the hot metal +plate, and are not proportional to the respective conductivities. +If the iron and bismuth bars are properly faced and soldered to +the top of a copper box (in order to ensure good metallic contact, +and exclude a non-conducting film of air), and the box is then +heated by steam, the rates of reception of heat will be nearly +proportional to the conductivities, and the wax will melt nearly +twice as fast along the iron as along the bismuth. A bar of lead +similarly treated will show a faster rate of propagation than +iron, because, although its conductivity is only half that of iron, +its specific heat per unit volume is 2.5 times smaller.</p> + +<p>32. <i>Bad Conductors. Liquids and Gases.</i>—Count Rumford +(1792) compared the conducting powers of substances used in +clothing, such as wool and cotton, fur and down, by observing +the time which a thermometer took to cool when embedded in a +globe filled successively with the different materials. The times +of cooling observed for a given range varied from 1300 to 900 +seconds for different materials. The low conducting power of +such materials is principally due to the presence of air in the +interstices, which is prevented from forming convection currents +by the presence of the fibrous material. Finely powdered silica +is a very bad conductor, but in the compact form of rock crystal +it is as good a conductor as some of the metals. According to the +kinetic theory of gases, the conductivity of a gas depends on +molecular diffusion. Maxwell estimated the conductivity of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span> +air at ordinary temperatures at about 20,000 times less than that +of copper. This has been verified experimentally by Kundt and +Warburg, Stefan and Winkelmann, by taking special precautions +to eliminate the effects of convection currents and radiation. +It was for some time doubted whether a gas possessed any true +conductivity for heat. The experiment of T. Andrews, repeated +by Grove, and Magnus, showing that a wire heated by an electric +current was raised to a higher temperature in air than in +hydrogen, was explained by Tyndall as being due to the greater +mobility of hydrogen which gave rise to stronger convection +currents. In reality the effect is due chiefly to the greater +velocity of motion of the ultimate molecules of hydrogen, and is +most marked if molar (as opposed to molecular) convection is +eliminated. Molecular convection or diffusion, which cannot be +distinguished experimentally from conduction, as it follows the +same law, is also the main cause of conduction of heat in liquids. +Both in liquids and gases the effects of convection currents are +so much greater than those of diffusion or conduction that the +latter are very difficult to measure, and, except in special cases, +comparatively unimportant as affecting the transference of heat. +Owing to the difficulty of eliminating the effects of radiation +and convection, the results obtained for the conductivities of +liquids are somewhat discordant, and there is in most cases great +uncertainty whether the conductivity increases or diminishes +with rise of temperature. It would appear, however, that liquids, +such as water and glycerin, differ remarkably little in conductivity +in spite of enormous differences of viscosity. The viscosity +of a liquid diminishes very rapidly with rise of temperature, +without any marked change in the conductivity, whereas the +viscosity of a gas increases with rise of temperature, and is +always nearly proportional to the conductivity.</p> + +<p>33. <i>Difficulty of Quantitative Estimation of Heat Transmitted.</i>—The +conducting powers of different metals were compared by +C. M. Despretz, and later by G. H. Wiedemann and R. Franz, +employing an extension of the method of Jan Ingenhousz, in +which the temperatures at different points along a bar heated +at one end were measured by thermometers or thermocouples +let into small holes in the bars, instead of being measured at one +point only by means of melting wax. These experiments undoubtedly +gave fairly accurate relative values, but did not permit +the calculation of the absolute amounts of heat transmitted. +This was first obtained by J. D. Forbes (<i>Brit. Assoc. Rep.</i>, 1852; +<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed.</i>, 1862, 23, p. 133) by deducing the amount +of heat lost to the surrounding air from a separate experiment in +which the rate of cooling of the bar was observed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conduction +of Heat</a></span>). Clément (<i>Ann. chim. phys.</i>, 1841) had previously +attempted to determine the conductivities of metals by +observing the amount of heat transmitted by a plate with one +side exposed to steam at 100° C., and the other side cooled by +water at 28° C. Employing a copper plate 3 mm. thick, and +assuming that the two surfaces of the plate were at the same +temperatures as the water and the steam to which they were +exposed, or that the temperature-gradient in the metal was +72° in 3 mm., he had thus obtained a value which we now know +to be nearly 200 times too small. The actual temperature +difference in the metal itself was really about 0.36° C. The +remainder of the 72° drop was in the badly conducting films +of water and steam close to the metal surface. Similarly in a +boiler plate in contact with flame at 1500° C. on one side and +water at, say, 150° C. on the other, the actual difference of +temperature in the metal, even if it is an inch thick, is only a +few degrees. The metal, unless badly furred with incrustation, +is but little hotter than the water. It is immaterial so far as +the transmission of heat is concerned, whether the plates are +iron or copper. The greater part of the resistance to the passage +of heat resides in a comparatively quiescent film of gas close +to the surface, through which film the heat has to pass mainly +by conduction. If a Bunsen flame, preferably coloured with +sodium, is observed impinging on a cold metal plate, it will be +seen to be separated from the plate by a dark space of a millimetre +or less, throughout which the temperature of the gas is lowered +by its own conductivity below the temperature of incandescence. +There is no abrupt change of temperature in passing from the gas +to the metal, but a continuous temperature-gradient from the +temperature of the metal to that of the flame. It is true that +this gradient may be upwards of 1000° C. per mm., but there +is no discontinuity.</p> + +<p>34. <i>Resistance of a Gas Film to the Passage of Heat.</i>—It is possible +to make a rough estimate of the resistance of such a film to the +passage of heat through it. Taking the average conductivity of +the gas in the film as 10,000 times less than that of copper +(about double the conductivity of air at ordinary temperatures) +a millimetre film would be equivalent to a thickness of 10 metres +of copper, or about 1.2 metres of iron. Taking the temperature-gradient +as 1000° C. per mm. such a film would transmit 1 +gramme-calorie per sq. cm. per sec., or 36,000 kilo-calories per +sq. metre per hour. With an area of 100 sq. cms. the heat +transmitted at this rate would raise a litre of water from 20° C. +to 100° C. in 800 secs. By experiment with a strong Bunsen +flame it takes from 8 to 10 minutes to do this, which would +indicate that on the above assumptions the equivalent thickness +of quiescent film should be rather less than 1 mm. in this case. +The thickness of the film diminishes with the velocity of the +burning gases impinging on the surface. This accounts for +the rapidity of heating by a blowpipe flame, which is not due +to any great increase in temperature of the flame as compared +with a Bunsen. Similarly the efficiency of a boiler is but slightly +reduced if half the tubes are stopped up, because the increase +of draught through the remainder compensates partly for the +diminished heating surface. Some resistance to the passage +of heat into a boiler is also due to the water film on the inside. +But this is of less account, because the conductivity of water +is much greater than that of air, and because the film is continually +broken up by the formation of steam, which abstracts +heat very rapidly.</p> + +<p>35. <i>Heating by Condensation of Steam.</i>—It is often stated that +the rate at which steam will condense on a metal surface at a +temperature below that corresponding to the saturation pressure +of the steam is practically infinite (<i>e.g.</i> Osborne Reynolds, +<i>Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed.</i>, 1873, p. 275), and conversely that the rate +at which water will abstract heat from a metal surface by the +formation of steam (if the metal is above the temperature of +saturation of the steam) is limited only by the rate at which +the metal can supply heat by conduction to its surface layer. +The rate at which heat can be supplied by condensation of +steam appears to be much greater than that at which heat can +be supplied by a flame under ordinary conditions, but there is +no reason to suppose that it is infinite, or that any discontinuity +exists. Experiments by H. L. Callendar and J. T. Nicolson +by three independent methods (<i>Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.</i>, 1898, +131, p. 147; <i>Brit. Assoc. Rep.</i> p. 418) appear to show that the +rate of abstraction of heat by evaporation, or that of communication +of heat by condensation, depends chiefly on the difference +of temperature between the metal surface and the saturated +steam, and is nearly proportional to the temperature difference +(not to the pressure difference, as suggested by Reynolds) for +such ranges of pressure as are common in practice. The rate +of heat transmission they observed was equivalent to about +8 calories per sq. cm. per sec., for a difference of 20° C. between +the temperature of the metal surface and the saturation temperature +of the steam. This would correspond to a condensation +of 530 kilogrammes of steam at 100° C. per sq. metre per hour, +or 109 ℔ per sq. ft. per hour for the same difference of temperature, +values which are many times greater than those actually obtained +in ordinary surface condensers. The reason for this is that there +is generally some air mixed with the steam in a surface condenser, +which greatly retards the condensation. It is also difficult to +keep the temperature of the metal as much as 20° C. below the +temperature of the steam unless a very free and copious circulation +of cold water is available. For the same difference of +temperature, steam can supply heat by condensation about a +thousand times faster than hot air. This rate is not often +approached in practice, but the facility of generation and +transmission of steam, combined with its high latent heat +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span> +and the accuracy of control and regulation of temperature +afforded, render it one of the most convenient agents for the +distribution of large quantities of heat in all kinds of manufacturing +processes.</p> + +<p>36. <i>Spheroidal State.</i>—An interesting contrast to the extreme +rapidity with which heat is abstracted by the evaporation of a +liquid in contact with a metal plate, is the so-called spheroidal +state. A small drop of liquid thrown on a red-hot metal plate +assumes a spheroidal form, and continues swimming about for +some time, while it slowly evaporates at a temperature somewhat +below its boiling-point. The explanation is simply that the +liquid itself cannot come in actual contact with the metal plate +(especially if the latter is above the critical temperature), but +is separated from it by a badly conducting film of vapour, +through which, as we have seen, the heat is comparatively slowly +transmitted even if the difference of temperature is several +hundred degrees. If the metal plate is allowed to cool gradually, +the drop remains suspended on its cushion of vapour, until, in +the case of water, a temperature of about 200° C. is reached, +at which the liquid comes in contact with the plate and boils +explosively, reducing the temperature of the plate, if thin, +almost instantaneously to 100° C. The temperature of the metal +is readily observed by a thermo-electric method, employing a +platinum dish with a platinum-rhodium wire soldered with gold +to its under side. The absence of contact between the liquid +and the dish in the spheroidal state may also be shown by +connecting one terminal of a galvanometer to the drop and the +other through a battery to the dish, and observing that no +current passes until the drop boils.</p> + +<p>37. <i>Early Theories of Radiation.</i>—It was at one time supposed +that there were three distinct kinds of radiation—thermal, +luminous and actinic, combined in the radiation from a luminous +source such as the sun or a flame. The first gave rise to heat, +the second to light and the third to chemical action. The three +kinds were partially separated by a prism, the actinic rays +being generally more refracted, and the thermal rays less refracted +than the luminous. This conception arose very naturally +from the observation that the feebly luminous blue and violet +rays produced the greatest photographic effects, which also +showed the existence of dark rays beyond the violet, whereas the +brilliant yellow and red were practically without action on the +photographic plate. A thermometer placed in the blue or violet +showed no appreciable rise of temperature, and even in the yellow +the effect was hardly discernible. The effect increased rapidly +as the light faded towards the extreme red, and reached a +maximum beyond the extreme limits of the spectrum (Herschel), +showing that the greater part of the thermal radiation was altogether +non-luminous. It is now a commonplace that chemical +action, colour sensation and heat are merely different effects +of one and the same kind of radiation, the particular effect +produced in each case depending on the frequency and intensity +of the vibration, and on the nature of the substance on which +it falls. When radiation is completely absorbed by a black +substance, it is converted into heat, the quantity of heat produced +being equivalent to the total energy of the radiation absorbed, +irrespective of the colour or frequency of the different rays. +The actinic or chemical effects, on the other hand, depend essentially +on some relation between the period of the vibration and +the properties of the substance acted on. The rays producing +such effects are generally those which are most strongly absorbed. +The spectrum of chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of plants, +shows two very strong absorption bands in the red. The red +rays of corresponding period are found to be the most active +in promoting the growth of the plant. The chemically active +rays are not necessarily the shortest. Even photographic +plates may be made to respond to the red rays by staining them +with pinachrome or some other suitable dye.</p> + +<p>The action of light rays on the retina is closely analogous to +the action on a photographic plate. The retina, like the plate, +is sensitive only to rays within certain restricted limits of +frequency. The limits of sensitiveness of each colour sensation +are not exactly defined, but vary slightly from one individual +to another, especially in cases of partial colour-blindness, and +are modified by conditions of fatigue. We are not here concerned +with these important physiological and chemical effects of +radiation, but rather with the question of the conversion of energy +of radiation into heat, and with the laws of emission and absorption +of radiation in relation to temperature. We may here also +assume the identity of visible and invisible radiations from a +heated body in all their physical properties. It has been abundantly +proved that the invisible rays, like the visible, (1) are +propagated in straight lines in homogeneous media; (2) are +reflected and diffused from the surface of bodies according to the +same law; (3) travel with the same velocity in free space, but +with slightly different velocities in denser media, being subject +to the same law of refraction; (4) exhibit all the phenomena +of diffraction and interference which are characteristic of wave-motion +in general; (5) are capable of polarization and double +refraction; (6) exhibit similar effects of selective absorption. +These properties are more easily demonstrated in the case of +visible rays on account of the great sensitiveness of the eye. +But with the aid of the thermopile or other sensitive radiometer, +they may be shown to belong equally to all the radiations from +a heated body, even such as are thirty to fifty times slower in +frequency than the longest visible rays. The same physical +properties have also been shown to belong to electromagnetic +waves excited by an electric discharge, whatever the frequency, +thus including all kinds of aetherial radiation in the same category +as light.</p> + +<p>38. <i>Theory of Exchanges.</i>—The apparent concentration of +cold by a concave mirror, observed by G. B. Porta and rediscovered +by M. A. Pictet, led to the enunciation of the theory +of exchanges by Pierre Prevost in 1791. Prevost’s leading idea +was that all bodies, whether cold or hot, are constantly radiating +heat. Heat equilibrium, he says, consists in an equality of exchange. +When equilibrium is interfered with, it is re-established +by inequalities of exchange. If into a locality at uniform +temperature a refracting or reflecting body is introduced, it has +no effect in the way of changing the temperature at any point +of that locality. A reflecting body, heated or cooled in the +interior of such an enclosure, will acquire the surrounding +temperature more slowly than would a non-reflector, and will +less affect another body placed at a little distance, but will not +affect the final equality of temperature. Apparent radiation of +cold, as from a block of ice to a thermometer placed near it, is +due to the fact that the thermometer being at a higher temperature +sends more heat to the ice than it received back from it. +Although Prevost does not make the statement in so many words, +it is clear that he regards the radiation from a body as depending +only on its own nature and temperature, and as independent of +the nature and presence of any adjacent body. Heat equilibrium +in an enclosure of constant temperature such as is here postulated +by Prevost, has often been regarded as a consequence of Carnot’s +principle. Since difference of temperature is required for +transforming heat into work, no work could be obtained from +heat in such a system, and no spontaneous changes of temperature +can take place, as any such changes might be utilized for the +production of work. This line of reasoning does not appear +quite satisfactory, because it is <span class="correction" title="amended from tactitly">tacitly</span> assumed, in the reasoning +by which Carnot’s principle was established, as a result of +universal experience, that a number of bodies within the same +impervious enclosure, which contains no source of heat, will +ultimately acquire the same temperature, and that difference of +temperature is required to produce flow of heat. Thus although +we may regard the equilibrium in such an enclosure as being +due to equal exchanges of heat in all directions, the equal and +opposite streams of radiation annul and neutralize each other in +such a way that no actual transfer of energy in any direction +takes place. The state of the medium is everywhere the same +in such an enclosure, but its energy of agitation per unit volume +is a function of the temperature, and is such that it would not +be in equilibrium with any body at a different temperature.</p> + +<p>39. <i>”Full” and Selective Radiation. Correspondence of +Emission and Absorption.</i>—The most obvious difficulties in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span> +way of this theory arise from the fact that nearly all radiation +is more or less selective in character, as regards the quality +and frequency of the rays emitted and absorbed. It was shown +by J. Leslie, M. Melloni and other experimentalists that many +substances such as glass and water, which are very transparent to +visible rays, are extremely opaque to much of the invisible +radiation of lower frequency; and that polished metals, which +are perfect reflectors, are very feeble radiators as compared +with dull or black bodies at the same temperature. If two +bodies emit rays of different periods in different proportions, +it is not at first sight easy to see how their radiations can balance +each other at the same temperature. The key to all such +difficulties lies in the fundamental conception, so strongly insisted +on by Balfour Stewart, of the absolute uniformity (qualitative +as well as quantitative) of the full or complete radiation stream +inside an impervious enclosure of uniform temperature. It +follows from this conception that the proportion of the full +radiation stream absorbed by any body in such an enclosure +must be exactly compensated in quality as well as quantity +by the proportion emitted, or that the emissive and absorptive +powers of any body at a given temperature must be precisely +equal. A good reflector, like a polished metal, must also be a +feeble radiator and absorber. Of the incident radiation it absorbs +a small fraction and reflects the remainder, which together with +the radiation emitted (being precisely equal to that absorbed) +makes up the full radiation stream. A partly transparent material, +like glass, absorbs part of the full radiation and transmits part. +But it emits rays precisely equal in quality and intensity to +those which it absorbs, which together with the transmitted +portion make up the full stream. The ideal black body or perfect +radiator is a body which absorbs all the radiation incident on it. +The rays emitted from such a body at any temperature must be +equal to the full radiation stream in an isothermal enclosure at +the same temperature. Lampblack, which may absorb between +98 to 99% of the incident radiation, is generally taken as the +type of a black body. But a closer approximation to full radiation +may be obtained by employing a hollow vessel the internal +walls of which are blackened and maintained at a uniform +temperature by a steam jacket or other suitable means. If +a relatively small hole is made in the side of such a vessel, the +radiation proceeding through the aperture will be the full radiation +corresponding to the temperature. Such a vessel is also a +perfect absorber. Of radiation entering through the aperture an +infinitesimal fraction only could possibly emerge by successive +reflection even if the sides were of polished metal internally. +A thin platinum tube heated by an electric current appears +feebly luminous as compared with a blackened tube at the same +temperature. But if a small hole is made in the side of the +polished tube, the light proceeding through the hole appears +brighter than the blackened tube, as though the inside of the tube +were much hotter than the outside, which is not the case to any +appreciable extent if the tube is thin. The radiation proceeding +through the hole is nearly that of a perfectly black body if the +hole is small. If there were no hole the internal stream of radiation +would be exactly that of a black body at the same temperature +however perfect the reflecting power, or however low the +emissive power of the walls, because the defect in emissive power +would be exactly compensated by the internal reflection.</p> + +<p>Balfour Stewart gave a number of striking illustrations of the +qualitative identity of emission and absorption of a substance. +Pieces of coloured glass placed in a fire appear to lose their colour +when at the same temperature as the coals behind them, because +they compensate exactly for their selective absorption by +radiating chiefly those colours which they absorb. Rocksalt +is remarkably transparent to thermal radiation of nearly all +kinds, but it is extremely opaque to radiation from a heated +plate of rocksalt, because it emits when heated precisely those +rays which it absorbs. A plate of tourmaline cut parallel to +the axis absorbs almost completely light polarized in a plane +parallel to the axis, but transmits freely light polarized in a +perpendicular plane. When heated its radiation is polarized +in the same plane as the radiation which it absorbs. In the case +of incandescent vapours, the exact correspondence of emission +and absorption as regards wave-length of frequency of the light +emitted and absorbed forms the foundation of the science of +spectrum analysis. Fraunhofer had noticed the coincidence of +a pair of bright yellow lines seen in the spectrum of a candle +flame with the dark D lines in the solar spectrum, a coincidence +which was afterwards more exactly verified by W. A. Miller. +Foucault found that the flame of the electric arc showed the same +lines bright in its spectrum, and proved that they appeared as +dark lines in the otherwise continuous spectrum when the light +from the carbon poles was transmitted through the arc. Stokes +gave a dynamical explanation of the phenomenon and illustrated +it by the analogous case of resonance in sound. Kirchhoff +completed the explanation (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1860) of the dark lines +in the solar spectrum by showing that the reversal of the spectral +lines depended on the fact that the body of the sun giving the +continuous spectrum was at a higher temperature than the +absorbing layer of gases surrounding it. Whatever be the nature +of the selective radiation from a body, the radiation of light of +any particular wave-length cannot be greater than a certain +fraction E of the radiation R of the same wave-length from a +black body at the same temperature. The fraction E measures +the emissive power of the body for that particular wave-length, +and cannot be greater than unity. The same fraction, by the +principle of equality of emissive and absorptive powers, will +measure the proportion absorbed of incident radiation R′. If +the black body emitting the radiation R′ is at the same temperature +as the absorbing layer, R = R′, the emission balances the +absorption, and the line will appear neither bright nor dark. If +the source and the absorbing layer are at different temperatures, +the radiation absorbed will be ER′, and that transmitted will be +R′ − ER′. To this must be added the radiation emitted by the +absorbing layer, namely ER, giving R′ − E(R′ − R). The lines +will appear darker than the background R′ if R′ is greater than +R, but bright if the reverse is the case. The D lines are dark in +the sun because the photosphere is much hotter than the reversing +layer. They appear bright in the candle-flame because the outside +mantle of the flame, in which the sodium burns and combustion +is complete, is hotter than the inner reducing flame containing +the incandescent particles of carbon which give rise to the continuous +spectrum. This qualitative identity of emission and +absorption as regards wave-length can be most exactly and easily +verified for luminous rays, and we are justified in assuming that +the relation holds with the same exactitude for non-luminous +rays, although in many cases the experimental proof is less +complete and exact.</p> + +<p>40. <i>Diathermancy.</i>—A great array of data with regard to the +transmissive power or diathermancy of transparent substances +for the heat radiated from various sources at different temperatures +were collected by Melloni, Tyndall, Magnus and other +experimentalists. The measurements were chiefly of a qualitative +character, and were made by interposing between the source +and a thermopile a layer or plate of the substance to be examined. +This method lacked quantitative precision, but led to a number +of striking and interesting results, which are admirably set forth +in Tyndall’s <i>Heat</i>. It also gave rise to many curious discrepancies, +some of which were recognized as being due to selective +absorption, while others are probably to be explained by imperfections +in the methods of experiment adopted. The general +result of such researches was to show that substances, like water, +alum and glass, which are practically opaque to radiation from +a source at low temperature, such as a vessel filled with boiling +water, transmit an increasing percentage of the radiation when +the temperature of the source is increased. This is what would +be expected, as these substances are very transparent to visible +rays. That the proportion transmitted is not merely a question +of the temperature of the source, but also of the quality of the +radiation, was shown by a number of experiments. For instance, +K. H. Knoblauch (<i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1847) found that a plate of glass +interposed between a spirit lamp and a thermopile intercepts a +larger proportion of the radiation from the flame itself than +of the radiation from a platinum spiral heated in the flame, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span> +although the spiral is undoubtedly at a lower temperature than +the flame. The explanation is that the spiral is a fairly good +radiator of the visible rays to which the glass is transparent, +but a bad radiator of the invisible rays absorbed by the glass +which constitute the greater portion of the heat-radiation from +the feebly luminous flame.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:504px; height:163px" src="images/img154.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Tyndall’s Apparatus for observing absorption of heat by +gas and vapours.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Assuming that the radiation from the source under investigation +is qualitatively determinate, like that of a black body at a +given temperature, the proportion transmitted by plates of +various substances may easily be measured and tabulated for +given plates and sources. But owing to the highly selective character +of the radiation and absorption, it is impossible to give +any general relation between the thickness of the absorbing plate +or layer and the proportion of the total energy absorbed. For +these reasons the relative diathermancies of different materials +do not admit of any simple numerical statement as physical +constants, though many of the qualitative results obtained are +very striking. Among the most interesting experiments were +those of Tyndall, on the absorptive powers of gases and vapours, +which led to a good deal of controversy at the time, owing to +the difficulty of the experiments, and the contradictory results +obtained by other observers. The arrangement employed by +Tyndall for these measurements is shown in Fig. 6. A brass +tube AB, polished inside, and closed with plates of highly +diathermanous rocksalt at either end, was fitted with stopcocks +C and D for exhausting and admitting air or other gases or +vapours. The source of heat S was usually a plate of copper heated +by a Bunsen burner, or a Leslie cube containing boiling water +as shown at E. To obtain greater sensitiveness for differential +measurements, the radiation through the tube AB incident on +one face of the pile P was balanced against the radiation from +a Leslie cube on the other face of the pile by means of an adjustable +screen H. The radiation on the two faces of the pile being +thus balanced with the tube exhausted, Tyndall found that the +admission of dry air into the tube produced practically no absorption +of the radiation, whereas compound gases such as carbonic +acid, ethylene or ammonia absorbed 20 to 90%, and a trace +of aqueous vapour in the air increased its absorption 50 to 100 +times. H. G. Magnus, on the other hand, employing a thermopile +and a source of heat, both of which were enclosed in the same +exhausted receiver, in order to avoid interposing any rocksalt +or other plates between the source and the pile, found an absorption +of 11% on admitting dry air, but could not detect any +difference whether the air were dry or moist. Tyndall suggested +that the apparent absorption observed by Magnus may have +been due to the cooling of his radiating surface by convection, +which is a very probable source of error in this method of experiment. +Magnus considered that the remarkable effect of aqueous +vapour observed by Tyndall might have been caused by condensation +on the polished internal walls of his experimental +tube, or on the rocksalt plates at either end.<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The question of +the relative diathermancy of air and aqueous vapour for radiation +from the sun to the earth and from the earth into space is one +of great interest and importance in meteorology. Assuming +with Magnus that at least 10% of the heat from a source at +100° C. is absorbed in passing through a single foot of air, a very +moderate thickness of atmosphere should suffice to absorb +practically all the heat radiated from the earth into space. This +could not be reconciled with well-known facts in regard to +terrestrial radiation, and it was generally recognized that the +result found by Magnus must be erroneous. Tyndall’s experiment +on the great diathermancy of dry air agreed much better +with meteorological phenomena, but he appears to have +exaggerated the effect of aqueous vapour. He concluded from +his experiments that the water vapour present in the air absorbs +at least 10% of the heat radiated from the earth within 10 ft. +of its surface, and that the absorptive power of the vapour is +about 17,000 times that of air at the same pressure. If the +absorption of aqueous vapour were really of this order of magnitude, +it would exert a far greater effect in modifying climate +than is actually observed to be the case. Radiation is observed +to take place freely through the atmosphere at times when the +proportion of aqueous vapour is such as would practically stop +all radiation if Tyndall’s results were correct. The very careful +experiments of E. Lecher and J. Pernter (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, Jan. 1881) +confirmed Tyndall’s observations on the absorptive powers of +gases and vapours satisfactorily in nearly all cases with the +single exception of aqueous vapour. They found that there was +no appreciable absorption of heat from a source at 100° C. in +passing through 1 ft. of air (whether dry or moist), but that +CO and CO<span class="su">2</span> at atmospheric pressure absorbed about 8%, and +ethylene (olefiant gas) about 50% in the same distance; the +vapours of alcohol and ether showed absorptive powers of the +same order as that of ethylene. They confirmed Tyndall’s +important result that the absorption does not diminish in proportion +to the pressure, being much greater in proportion for +smaller pressures in consequence of the selective character of +the effect. They also supported his conclusion that absorptive +power increases with the complexity of the molecule. But they +could not detect any absorption by water vapour at a pressure +of 7 mm., though alcohol at the same pressure absorbed 3% +and acetic acid 10%. Later researches, especially those of +S. P. Langley with the spectro-bolometer on the infra-red +spectrum of sunlight, demonstrated the existence of marked +absorption bands, some of which are due to water vapour. +From the character of these bands and the manner in which +they vary with the state of the air and the thickness traversed, +it may be inferred that absorption by water vapour plays an +important part in meteorology, but that it is too small to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span> +readily detected by laboratory experiments in a 4 ft. tube, without +the aid of spectrum analysis.</p> + +<p>41. <i>Relation between Radiation and Temperature.</i>—Assuming, in +accordance with the reasoning of Balfour Stewart and Kirchhoff, +that the radiation stream inside an impervious enclosure at a +uniform temperature is independent of the nature of the walls +of the enclosure, and is the same for all substances at the same +temperature, it follows that the full stream of radiation in such +an enclosure, or the radiation emitted by an ideal black body +or full radiator, is a function of the temperature only. The form +of this function may be determined experimentally by observing +the radiation between two black bodies at different temperatures, +which will be proportional to the difference of the full radiation +streams corresponding to their several temperatures. The law +now generally accepted was first proposed by Stefan as an +empirical relation. Tyndall had found that the radiation from +a white hot platinum wire at 1200° C. was 11.7 times its radiation +when dull red at 525° C. Stefan (<i>Wien. Akad. Ber.</i>, 1879, 79, +p. 421) noticed that the ratio 11.7 is nearly that of the fourth +power of the absolute temperatures as estimated by Tyndall. +On making the somewhat different assumption that the radiation +between two bodies varied as the difference of the fourth powers +of their absolute temperatures, he found that it satisfied approximately +the experiments of Dulong and Petit and other observers. +According to this law the radiation between a black body at +a temperature θ and a black enclosure or a black radiometer +at a temperature θ<span class="su">0</span> should be proportional to (θ<span class="sp">4</span> − θ<span class="su">0</span><span class="sp">4</span>). The +law was very simple and convenient in form, but it rested so far +on very insecure foundations. The temperatures given by +Tyndall were merely estimated from the colour of the light +emitted, and might have been some hundred degrees in error. +We now know that the radiation from polished platinum is +of a highly selective character, and varies more nearly as the +fifth power of the absolute temperature. The agreement of the +fourth power law with Tyndall’s experiment appears therefore +to be due to a purely accidental error in estimating the temperatures +of the wire. Stefan also found a very fair agreement with +Draper’s observations of the intensity of radiation from a +platinum wire, in which the temperature of the wire was deduced +from the expansion. Here again the apparent agreement was +largely due to errors in estimating the temperature, arising +from the fact that the coefficient of expansion of platinum +increases considerably with rise of temperature. So far as the +experimental results available at that time were concerned, +Stefan’s law could be regarded only as an empirical expression +of doubtful significance. But it received a much greater importance +from theoretical investigations which were even then in +progress. James Clerk Maxwell (<i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, +1873) had shown that a directed beam of electromagnetic +radiation or light incident normally on an absorbing surface +should produce a mechanical pressure equal to the energy of the +radiation per unit volume. A. G. Bartoli (1875) took up this idea +and made it the basis of a thermodynamic treatment of radiation. +P. N. Lebedew in 1900, and E. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull in 1901, +proved the existence of this pressure by direct experiments. +L. Boltzmann (1884) employing radiation as the working substance +in a Carnot cycle, showed that the energy of full +radiation at any temperature per unit volume should be proportional +to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. +This law was first verified in a satisfactory manner by Heinrich +Schneebeli (<i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1884, 22, p. 30). He observed the +radiation from the bulb of an air thermometer heated to known +temperatures through a small aperture in the walls of the furnace. +With this arrangement the radiation was very nearly that of a +black body. Measurements by J. T. Bottomley, August Schleiermacher, +L. C. H. F. Paschen and others of the radiation from +electrically heated platinum, failed to give concordant results +on account of differences in the quality of the radiation, the +importance of which was not fully realized at first. Later +researches by Paschen with improved methods verified the law, +and greatly extended our knowledge of radiation in other +directions. One of the most complete series of experiments on +the relation between full radiation and temperature is that of +O. R. Lummer and Ernst Pringsheim (<i>Ann. Phys.</i>, 1897, 63, +p. 395). They employed an aperture in the side of an enclosure +at uniform temperature as the source of radiation, and compared +the intensities at different temperatures by means of a bolometer. +The fourth power law was well satisfied throughout the whole +range of their experiments from −190° C. to 2300° C. According +to this law, the rate of loss of heat by radiation R from a body +of emissive power E and surface S at a temperature θ in an +enclosure at θ<span class="su">0</span> is given by the formula</p> + +<p class="center">R = σES (θ<span class="sp">4</span> − θ<span class="su">0</span><span class="sp">4</span>),</p> + +<p class="noind">where σ is the radiation constant. The absolute value of σ was +determined by F. Kurlbaum using an electric compensation +method (<i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1898, 65, p. 746), in which the radiation received +by a bolometer from a black body at a known temperature +was measured by finding the electric current required to produce +the same rise of temperature in the bolometer. K. Ångstrom +employed a similar method for solar radiation. Kurlbaum gives +the value σ = 5.32 × 10<span class="sp">−5</span> ergs per sq. cm. per sec. C. Christiansen +(<i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1883, 19, p. 267) had previously found a value +about 5% smaller, by observing the rate of cooling of a copper +plate of known thermal capacity, which is probably a less accurate +method.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>42. <i>Theoretical Proof of the Fourth Power Law.</i>—The proof given +by Boltzmann may be somewhat simplified if we observe that full +radiation in an enclosure at constant temperature behaves exactly +like a saturated vapour, and must therefore obey Carnot’s or Clapeyron’s +equation given in section 17. The energy of radiation per unit +volume, and the radiation-pressure at any temperature, are functions +of the temperature only, like the pressure of a saturated vapour. +If the volume of the enclosure is increased by any finite amount, +the temperature remaining the same, radiation is given off from the +walls so as to fill the space to the same pressure as before. The +heat absorbed when the volume is increased corresponds with the +latent heat of vaporization. In the case of radiation, as in the case +of a vapour, the latent heat consists partly of internal energy of +formation and partly of external work of expansion at constant +pressure. Since in the case of full or undirected radiation the pressure +is one-third of the energy per unit volume, the external work +for any expansion is one-third of the internal energy added. The +latent heat absorbed is, therefore, four times the external work of +expansion. Since the external work is the product of the pressure P +and the increase of volume V, the latent heat per unit increase of +volume is four times the pressure. But by Carnot’s equation the +latent heat of a saturated vapour per unit increase of volume is +equal to the rate of increase of saturation-pressure per degree divided +by Carnot’s function or multiplied by the absolute temperature. +Expressed in symbols we have,</p> + +<p class="center">θ (dP/dθ) = L/V = 4P,</p> + +<p class="noind">where (dP/dθ) represents the rate of increase of pressure. This +equation shows that the percentage rate of increase of pressure is +four times the percentage rate of increase of temperature, or that if +the temperature is increased by 1%, the pressure is increased by +4%. This is equivalent to the statement that the pressure varies +as the fourth power of the temperature, a result which is mathematically +deduced by integrating the equation.</p> +</div> + +<p>43. <i>Wien’s Displacement Law.</i>—Assuming that the fourth +power law gives the quantity of full radiation at any temperature, +it remains to determine how the quality of the radiation +varies with the temperature, since as we have seen both quantity +and quality are determinate. This question may be regarded +as consisting of two parts. (1) How is the wave-length or +frequency of any given kind of radiation changed when its +temperature is altered? (2) What is the form of the curve +expressing the distribution of energy between the various wave-lengths +in the spectrum of full radiation, or what is the distribution +of heat in the spectrum? The researches of Tyndall, +Draper, Langley and other investigators had shown that while +the energy of radiation of each frequency increased with rise +of temperature, the maximum of intensity was shifted or displaced +along the spectrum in the direction of shorter wave-lengths +or higher frequencies. W. Wien (<i>Ann. Phys.</i>, 1898, +58, p. 662), applying Doppler’s principle to the adiabatic compression +of radiation in a perfectly reflecting enclosure, deduced +that the wave-length of each constituent of the radiation should +be shortened in proportion to the rise of temperature produced +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span> +by the compression, in such a manner that the product λθ of +wave-length and the absolute temperature should remain +constant. According to this relation, which is known as Wien’s +Displacement Law, the frequency corresponding to the maximum +ordinate of the energy curve of the normal spectrum of full +radiation should vary directly (or the wave-length inversely) +as the absolute temperature, a result previously obtained by +H. F. Weber (1888). Paschen, and Lummer and Pringsheim +verified this relation by observing with a bolometer the intensity +at different points in the spectrum produced by a fluorite prism. +The intensities were corrected and reduced to a wave-length +scale with the aid of Paschen’s results on the dispersion formula +of fluorite (<i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1894, 53, p. 301). The curves in fig. 7 +illustrate results obtained by Lummer and Pringsheim (<i>Ber. +deut. phys. Ges.</i>, 1899, 1, p. 34) at three different temperatures, +namely 1377°, 1087° and 836° absolute, plotted on a wave-length +base with a scale of microns (μ) or millionths of a metre. +The wave-lengths O<i>a</i>, O<i>b</i>, O<i>c</i>, corresponding to the maximum +ordinates of each curve, vary inversely as the absolute temperatures +given. The constant value of the product λθ at the +maximum point is found to be 2920. Thus for a temperature +of 1000° Abs. the maximum is at wave-length 2.92 μ; at 2000° +the maximum is at 1.46 μ.</p> + +<p>44. <i>Form of the Curve representing the Distribution of Energy +in the Spectrum.</i>—Assuming Wien’s displacement law, it follows +that the form of the curve representing the distribution of +energy in the spectrum of full radiation should be the same +for different temperatures with the maximum displaced in +proportion to the absolute temperature, and with the total area +increased in proportion to the fourth power of the absolute +temperature. Observations taken with a bolometer along the +length of a normal or wave-length spectrum, would give the +form of the curve plotted on a wave-length base. The height of +the ordinate at each point would represent the energy included +between given limits of wave-length, depending on the width +of the bolometer strip and the slit. Supposing that the bolometer +strip had a width corresponding to .01 μ, and were placed at +1.0 μ in the spectrum of radiation at 2000° Abs., it would receive +the energy corresponding to wave-lengths between 1.00 and +1.01 μ. At a temperature of 1000° Abs. the corresponding part +of the energy, by Wien’s displacement law, would lie between +the limits 2.00 and 2.02 μ, and the total energy between these +limits would be 16 times smaller. But the bolometer strip +placed at 2.0 μ would now receive only half of the energy, or the +energy in a band .01 μ wide, and the deflection would be 32 times +less. Corresponding ordinates of the curves at different temperatures +will therefore vary as the fifth power of the temperature, +when the curves are plotted on a wave-length base. The +maximum ordinates in the curves already given are found to +vary as the fifth powers of the corresponding temperatures. +The equation representing the distribution of energy on a wave-length +base must be of the form</p> + +<p class="center">E = Cλ<span class="sp">−5</span>F (λθ) = +Cθ<span class="sp">5</span> (λθ)<span class="sp">−5</span>F (λθ)</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:322px; height:296px" src="images/img156a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Distribution of energy in the +spectrum of a black body.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:337px; height:245px" src="images/img156b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Distribution of energy in the +spectrum of full radiation at 2000° Abs. +according to formulae of Planck & Wien.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where F (λθ) represents some function of the product of the +wave-length and temperature, which remains constant for +corresponding wave-lengths when θ is changed. If the curves +were plotted on a frequency base, owing to the change of scale, +the maximum ordinates would vary as the cube of the temperature +instead of the fifth power, but the form of the function F would +remain unaltered. Reasoning on the analogy of the distribution +of velocities among the particles of a gas on the kinetic theory, +which is a very similar problem, Wien was led to assume that +the function F should be of the form <i>e</i><span class="sp">−c/λθ</span>, where <i>e</i> is the base +of Napierian logarithms, and <i>c</i> is a constant having the value +14,600 if the wave-length is measured in microns μ. This +expression was found by Paschen to give a very good approximation +to the form of the curve obtained experimentally for those +portions of the visible and infra-red spectrum where observations +could be most accurately made. The formula was tested in +two ways: (1) by plotting the curves of distribution of energy +in the spectrum for constant temperatures as illustrated in +fig. 7; (2) by plotting the energy corresponding to a given wave-length +as a function of the temperature. Both methods gave +very good agreement with Wien’s formula for values of the +product λθ not much exceeding 3000. A method of isolating +rays of great wave-length by successive reflection was devised +by H. Rubens and E. +F. Nichols (<i>Wied. Ann.</i>, +1897, 60, p. 418). They +found that quartz and +fluorite possessed the +property of selective +reflection for rays of +wave-length 8.8μ and +24μ to 32μ respectively, +so that after +four to six reflections +these rays could be +isolated from a source +at any temperature in +a state of considerable +purity. The residual +impurity at any stage +could be estimated +by interposing a thin plate of quartz or fluorite which +completely reflected or absorbed the residual rays, but +allowed the impurity to pass. H. Beckmann, under the +direction of Rubens, investigated the variation with temperature +of the residual rays reflected from fluorite employing +sources from −80° to 600° C., and found the results could not +be represented by Wien’s formula unless the constant c were +taken as 26,000 in place of 14,600. In their first series of observations +extending to 6μ O. R. Lummer and E. Pringsheim (<i>Deut. +phys. Ges.</i>, 1899, 1, p. 34) found systematic deviations indicating +an increase in the value of the constant <i>c</i> for long waves and +high temperatures. In a theoretical discussion of the subject, +Lord Rayleigh (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1900, 49, p. 539) pointed out that +Wien’s law would lead to a limiting value Cλ<span class="sp">−5</span>, of the radiation +corresponding to any particular wave-length when the temperature +increased to infinity, whereas according to his view the +radiation of great wave-length should ultimately increase in +direct proportion to the temperature. Lummer and Pringsheim +(<i>Deut. phys. Ges.</i>, 1900, 2, p. 163) extended the range of their +observations to 18 μ by employing a prism of sylvine in place of +fluorite. They found deviations from Wien’s formula increasing +to nearly 50% at 18μ, where, however, the observations were +very difficult on account of the smallness of the energy to be +measured. Rubens and F. Kurlbaum (<i>Ann. Phys.</i>, 1901, 4, +p. 649) extended the residual reflection method to a temperature +range from −190° to 1500° C., and employed the rays reflected +from quartz 8.8μ, +and rocksalt 51μ, in +addition to those +from fluorite. It appeared +from these +researches that the +rays of great wave-length +from a source +at a high temperature +tended to vary in the +limit directly as the +absolute temperature +of the source, as +suggested by Lord +Rayleigh, and could +not be represented +by Wien’s formula with any value of the constant c. The +simplest type of formula satisfying the required conditions +is that proposed by Max Planck (<i>Ann. Phys.</i>, 1901, 4, p. 553) +namely,</p> + +<p class="center">E = Cλ<span class="sp">−5</span> (<i>e</i><span class="sp">c/λθ</span> − 1)<span class="sp">−1</span>,</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:172px; height:219px" src="images/img157.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Variation of +energy of radiation corresponding +to wave-length +30μ, with temperature +of source.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">which agrees with Wien’s formula when θ is small, where Wien’s +formula is known to be satisfactory, but approaches the limiting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span> +form E = Cλ<span class="sp">−4</span>θ/<i>c</i>, when θ is large, thus satisfying the condition +proposed by Lord Rayleigh. The theoretical interpretation of +this formula remains to some extent a matter of future investigation, +but it appears to satisfy experiment within the limits of +observational error. In order to compare Planck’s formula +graphically with Wien’s, the distribution curves corresponding +to both formulae are plotted in fig. 8 for a temperature of 2000° +abs., taking the value of the constant +<i>c</i> = 14,600 with a scale of wave-length +in microns μ. The curves in fig. 9 +illustrate the difference between the +two formulae for the variation of the +intensity of radiation corresponding to +a fixed wave-length 30μ. Assuming +Wien’s displacement law, the curves +may be applied to find the energy for +any other wave-length or temperature, +by simply altering the wave-length +scale in inverse ratio to the temperature, +or vice versa. Thus to find the +distribution curve for 1000° abs., it is +only necessary to multiply all the +numbers in the wave-length scale of +fig. 8 by 2; or to find the variation +curve for wave-length 60μ, the numbers on the temperature scale +of fig. 9 should be divided by 2. The ordinate scales must be +increased in proportion to the fifth power of the temperature, or +inversely as the fifth power of the wave-length respectively +in figs. 8 and 9 if comparative results are required for different +temperatures or wave-lengths. The results hitherto obtained +for cases other than full radiation are not sufficiently simple and +definite to admit of profitable discussion in the present article.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—It would not be possible, within the limits of an +article like the present, to give tables of the specific thermal properties +of different substances so far as they have been ascertained by experiment. +To be of any use, such tables require to be extremely +detailed, with very full references and explanations with regard to +the value of the experimental evidence, and the limits within which +the results may be relied on. The quantity of material available +is so enormous and its value so varied, that the most elaborate tables +still require reference to the original authorities. Much information +will be found collected in Landolt and Bornstein’s <i>Physical and +Chemical Tables</i> (Berlin, 1905). Shorter tables, such as Everett’s +<i>Units and Physical Constants</i>, are useful as illustrations of a system, +but are not sufficiently complete for use in scientific investigations. +Some of the larger works of reference, such as A. A. Winkelmann’s +<i>Handbuch der Physik</i>, contain fairly complete tables of specific +properties, but these tables occupy so much space, and are so misleading +if incomplete, that they are generally omitted in theoretical +textbooks.</p> + +<p>Among older textbooks on heat, Tyndall’s <i>Heat</i> may be recommended +for its vivid popular interest, and Balfour Stewart’s <i>Heat</i> +for early theories of radiation. Maxwell’s <i>Theory of Heat</i> and Tait’s +<i>Heat</i> give a broad and philosophical survey of the subject. Among +modern textbooks, Preston’s <i>Theory of Heat</i> and Poynting and +Thomson’s <i>Heat</i> are the best known, and have been brought well +up to date. Sections on heat are included in all the general textbooks +of Physics, such as those of Deschanel (translated by Everett), +Ganot (translated by Atkinson), Daniell, Watson, &c. Of the original +investigations on the subject, the most important have already been +cited. Others will be found in the collected papers of Joule, Kelvin +and Maxwell. Treatises on special branches of the subject, such as +Fourier’s <i>Conduction of Heat</i>, are referred to in the separate articles +in this encyclopaedia dealing with recent progress, of which the +following is a list: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Condensation of Gases</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conduction +of Heat</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diffusion</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Energetics</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fusion</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquid Gases</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Radiation</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Radiometer</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solution</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermodynamics</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermoelectricity</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vaporization</a></span>. For the practical +aspects of heating see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heating</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. L. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Units of Work, Energy and Power.</i>—In English-speaking countries +work is generally measured in <i>foot-pounds</i>. Elsewhere it is generally +measured in <i>kilogrammetres</i>, or in terms of the work done in raising +1 kilogramme weight through the height of 1 metre. In the middle +of the 19th century the terms “force” and “motive power” were +commonly employed in the sense of “power of doing work.” The +term “energy” is now employed in this sense. A quantity of +energy is measured by the work it is capable of performing. A +body may possess energy in virtue of its state (gas or steam under +pressure), or in virtue of its position (a raised weight), or in various +other ways, when at rest. In these cases it is said to possess <i>potential +energy</i>. It may also possess energy in virtue of its motion or rotation +(as a fly-wheel or a cannon-ball). In this case it is said to possess +<i>kinetic energy</i>, or energy of motion. In many cases the energy (as +in the case of a vibrating body, like a pendulum) is partly kinetic +and partly potential, and changes continually from one to the other +throughout the motion. For instance, the energy of a pendulum +is wholly potential when it is momentarily at rest at the top of its +swing, but is wholly kinetic when the pendulum is moving with its +maximum velocity at the lowest point of its swing. The whole +energy at any moment is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy, +and this sum remains constant so long as the amplitude of the +vibration remains the same. The potential energy of a weight W ℔ +raised to a height h ft. above the earth, is Wh foot-pounds. If +allowed to fall freely, without doing work, its kinetic energy on +reaching the earth would be Wh foot-pounds, and its velocity of +motion would be such that if projected upwards with the same +velocity it would rise to the height h from which it fell. We have +here a simple and familiar case of the conversion of one kind of energy +into a different kind. But the two kinds of energy are mechanically +equivalent, and they can both be measured in terms of the same +units. The units already considered, namely foot-pounds or kilogrammetres, +are gravitational units, depending on the force of gravity. +This is the most obvious and natural method of measuring the +potential energy of a raised weight, but it has the disadvantage of +varying with the force of gravity at different places. The natural +measure of the kinetic energy of a moving body is the product of +its mass by half the square of its velocity, which gives a measure +in kinetic or absolute units independent of the force of gravity. +Kinetic and gravitational units are merely different ways of measuring +the same thing. Just as foot-pounds may be reduced to kilogrammetres +by dividing by the number of foot-pounds in one kilogrammetre, +so kinetic may be reduced to gravitational units by +dividing by the kinetic measure of the intensity of gravity, namely, +the work in kinetic units done by the weight of unit mass acting +through unit distance. For scientific purposes, it is necessary to +take account of the variation of gravity. The scientific unit of +energy is called the <i>erg</i>. The erg is the kinetic energy of a mass +of 2 gm. moving with a velocity of 1 cm. per sec. The work in +ergs done by a force acting through a distance of 1 cm. is the absolute +measure of the force. A force equal to the weight of 1 gm. (in +England) acting through a distance of 1 cm. does 981 ergs of work. +A force equal to the weight of 1000 gm. (1 kilogramme) acting +through a distance of 1 metre (100 cm.) does 98.1 million ergs of +work. As the erg is a very small unit, for many purposes, a unit +equal to 10 million ergs, called a <i>joule</i>, is employed. In England, +where the weight of 1 gm. is 981 ergs per cm., a foot-pound is equal +to 1.356 joules, and a kilogrammetre is equal to 9.81 joules.</p> + +<p>The term <i>power</i> is now generally restricted to mean “rate of working.” +Watt estimated that an average horse was capable of raising +550 ℔ 1 ft. in each second, or doing work at the rate of 550 foot-pounds +per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. This conventional +horse-power is the unit commonly employed for estimating +the power of engines. The <i>horse-power-hour</i>, or the work done by one +horse-power in one hour, is nearly 2 million foot-pounds. For electrical +and scientific purposes the unit of power employed is called the <i>watt</i>. +The watt is the work per second done by an electromotive force of +1 volt in driving a current of 1 ampere, and is equal to 10 million +ergs or 1 joule per second. One horse-power is 746 watts or nearly +¾ of a kilowatt. The <i>kilowatt-hour</i>, which is the unit by which +electrical energy is sold, is 3.6 million joules or 2.65 million foot-pounds, +or 366,000 kilogrammetres, and is capable of raising nearly +19 ℔ of water from the freezing to the boiling point.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In an essay on “Heat, Light, and Combinations of Light,” +republished in Sir H. Davy’s <i>Collected Works</i>, ii. (London, 1836).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For instance a mass of compressed air, if allowed to expand in a +cylinder at the ordinary temperature, will do work, and will at the +same time absorb a quantity of heat which, as we now know, is the +thermal equivalent of the work done. But this work cannot be said +to have been produced solely from the heat absorbed in the process, +because the air at the end of the process is in a changed condition, +and could not be restored to its original state at the same temperature +without having work done upon it precisely equal to that obtained +by its expansion. The process could not be repeated indefinitely +without a continual supply of compressed air. The source of the +work in this case is work previously done in compressing the air, +and no part of the work is really generated at the expense of heat +alone, unless the compression is effected at a lower temperature than +the expansion.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Clausius (<i>Pogg. Ann.</i> 79, p. 369) and others have misinterpreted +this assumption, and have taken it to mean that the quantity of heat +required to produce any given change of state is independent of the +manner in which the change is effected, which Carnot does not here +assume.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Carnot’s description of his cycle and statement of his principle +have been given as nearly as possible in his own words, because some +injustice has been done him by erroneous descriptions and statements.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> It was for this reason that Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) +stated (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1852, 4) that “Carnot’s original demonstration +utterly fails,” and that he introduced the “corrections” attributed +to James Thomson and Clerk Maxwell respectively. In reality +Carnot’s original demonstration requires no correction.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> In reference to this objection, Tyndall remarks (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, +1862, p. 422; <i>Heat</i>, p. 385); “In the first place the plate of salt +nearest the source of heat is never moistened, unless the experiments +are of the roughest character. Its proximity to the source enables +the heat to chase away every trace of humidity from its surface.” +He therefore took precautions to dry only the circumferential portions +of the plate nearest the pile, assuming that the flux of heat +through the central portions would suffice to keep them dry. This +reasoning is not at all satisfactory, because rocksalt is very hygroscopic +and becomes wet, even in unsaturated air, if the vapour +pressure is greater than that of a saturated solution of salt at the +temperature of the plate. Assuming that the vapour pressure of +the saturated salt solution is only half that of pure water, it would +require an elevation of temperature of 10° C. to dry the rocksalt +plates in saturated air at 15° C. It is only fair to say that the laws +of the vapour pressures of solutions were unknown in Tyndall’s +time, and that it was usual to assume that the plates would not +become wetted until the dew-point was reached. The writer has +repeated Tyndall’s experiments with a facsimile of one of Tyndall’s +tubes in the possession of the Royal College of Science, fitted with +plates of rocksalt cut from the same block as Tyndall’s, and therefore +of the same hygroscopic quality. Employing a reflecting galvanometer +in conjunction with a differential bolometer, which is quicker +in its action than Tyndall’s pile, there appears to be hardly any +difference between dry and moist air, provided that the latter is not +more than half saturated. Using saturated air with a Leslie cube +as source of heat, both rocksalt plates invariably become wet in a +minute or two and the absorption rises to 10 or 20% according to +the thickness of the film of deposited moisture. Employing the open +tube method as described by Tyndall, without the rocksalt plates, +the absorption is certainly less than 1% in 3 ft. of air saturated at +20° C., unless condensation is induced on the walls of the tube. It +is possible that the walls of Tyndall’s tube may have become covered +with a very hygroscopic film from the powder of the calcium chloride +which he was in the habit of introducing near one end. Such a film +would be exceedingly difficult to remove, and would account for the +excessive precautions which he found necessary in drying the air +in order to obtain the same transmitting power as a vacuum. It is +probable that Tyndall’s experiments on aqueous vapour were effected +by experimental errors of this character.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEATH, BENJAMIN<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1704-1766), English classical scholar +and bibliophile, was born at Exeter on the 20th of April 1704. +He was the son of a wealthy merchant, and was thus able to +devote himself mainly to travel and book-collecting. He became +town clerk of his native city in 1752, and held the office till his +death on the 13th of September 1766. In 1763 he had published +a pamphlet advocating the repeal of the cider tax in Devonshire, +and his endeavours led to success three years later. As a classical +scholar he made his reputation by his critical and metrical notes +on the Greek tragedians, which procured him an honorary +D.C.L. from Oxford (31st of March 1752). He also left MS. +notes on Burmann’s and Martyn’s editions of Virgil, on Euripides, +Catullus, Tibullus, and the greater part of Hesiod. In some of +these he adopts the whimsical name Dexiades Ericius. His +<i>Revisal of Shakespear’s Text</i> (1765) was an answer to the “insolent +dogmatism” of Bishop Warburton. <i>The Essay towards a +Demonstrative Proof of the Divine Existence, Unity and Attributes</i> +(1740) was intended to combat the opinions of Voltaire, Rousseau +and Hume. Two of his sons (among a family of thirteen) were +Benjamin, headmaster of Harrow (1771-1785), and George, +headmaster of Eton (1796). His collection of rare classical works +formed the nucleus of his son Benjamin’s famous library (Bibliotheca +Heathiana).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An account of the Heath family will be found in Sir W. R. Drake’s +<i>Heathiana</i> (1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEATH, NICHOLAS<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1501-1578), archbishop of York and +lord chancellor, was born in London about 1501 and graduated +B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He then migrated to Christ’s College, +Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1520, M.A. in 1522, and +was elected fellow in 1524. After holding minor preferments +he was appointed archdeacon of Stafford in 1534 and graduated +D.D. in 1535. He then accompanied Edward Fox (<i>q.v.</i>), bishop +of Hereford, on his mission to promote a theological and political +understanding with the Lutheran princes of Germany. His +selection for this duty implies a readiness on Heath’s part to +proceed some distance along the path of reform; but his dealings +with the Lutherans did not confirm this tendency, and Heath’s +subsequent career was closely associated with the cause of reaction. +In 1539, the year of the Six Articles, he was made bishop +of Rochester, and in 1543 he succeeded Latimer at Worcester. +His Catholicism, however, was of a less rigid type than Gardiner’s +and Bonner’s; he felt something of the force of the national +antipathy to foreign influence, whether ecclesiastical or secular, +and was always impressed by the necessity of national unity, +so far as was possible, in matters of faith. Apparently he made +no difficulty about carrying out the earlier reforms of Edward VI., +and he accepted the first book of common prayer after it had +been modified by the House of Lords in a Catholic direction.</p> + +<p>His definite breach with the Reformation occurred on the +grounds, on which four centuries later Leo XIII. denied the +Catholicity of the reformed English Church, namely, on the +question of the Ordinal drawn up in February 1550. Heath +refused to accept it, was imprisoned, and in 1551 deprived of his +bishopric. On Mary’s accession he was released and restored, +and made president of the council of the Marches and Wales. +In 1555 he was promoted to the archbishopric of York, which he +did much to enrich after the Protestant spoliation; he built +York House in the Strand. After Gardiner’s death he was +appointed lord chancellor, probably on Pole’s recommendation; +for Heath, like Pole himself, disliked the Spanish party in +England. Unlike Pole, however, he seems to have been averse +from the excessive persecution of Mary’s reign, and no Protestants +were burnt in his diocese. He exercised, however, little influence +on Mary’s secular or ecclesiastical policy.</p> + +<p>On Mary’s death Heath as chancellor at once proclaimed +Elizabeth. Like Sir Thomas More he held that it was entirely +within the competence of the national state, represented by +parliament, to determine questions of the succession to the +throne; and although Elizabeth did not renew his commission +as lord chancellor, he continued to sit in the privy council for +two months until the government had determined to complete +the breach with the Roman Catholic Church; and as late as +April 1559 he assisted the government by helping to arrange +the Westminster Conference, and reproving his more truculent +co-religionists. He refused to crown Elizabeth because she +would not have the coronation service accompanied with the +elevation of the Host; and ecclesiastical ceremonies and doctrine +could not, in Heath’s view, be altered or abrogated by any mere +national authority. Hence he steadily resisted Elizabeth’s acts +of supremacy and uniformity, although he had acquiesced in the +acts of 1534 and 1549. Like others of Henry’s bishops, he had +been convinced by the events of Edward VI.’s reign that Sir +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span> +Thomas More was right and Henry VIII. was wrong in their +attitude towards the claims of the papacy and the Catholic +Church. He was therefore necessarily deprived of his archbishopric +in 1559, but he remained loyal to Elizabeth; and after +a temporary confinement he was suffered to pass the remaining +nineteen years of his life in peace and quiet, never attending +public worship and sometimes hearing mass in private. The +queen visited him more than once at his house at Chobham, +Surrey; he died and was buried there at the end of 1578.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the +Privy Council; Cal. State Papers, Domestic, Addenda, Spanish and +Venetian; Kemp’s Loseley MSS.; Froude’s <i>History</i>; Burnet, +Collier, Dixon and Frere’s <i>Church Histories</i>; Strype’s <i>Works</i> (General +Index); Parker Soc. Publications (Gough’s Index); Birt’s <i>Elizabethan +Settlement</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEATH, WILLIAM<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1737-1814), American soldier, was born +in Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of March 1737 (old +style). He was brought up as a farmer and had a passion for +military exercises. In 1765 he entered the Ancient and Honourable +Artillery Company of Boston, of which he became commander +in 1770. In the same year he wrote to the <i>Boston Gazette</i> letters +signed “A Military Countryman,” urging the necessity of +military training. He was a member of the Massachusetts +General Court from 1770 to 1774, of the provincial committee of +safety, and in 1774-1775 of the provincial congress. He was +commissioned a provincial brig.-general in December 1774, +directed the pursuit of the British from Concord (April 19, 1775), +was promoted to be provincial major-general on the 20th of June +1775, and two days later was commissioned fourth brig.-general +in the Continental Army. He became major-general on the 9th +of August 1776, and was in active service around New York +until early the next year. In January 1777 he attempted to +take Fort Independence, near Spuyten Duyvil, then garrisoned +by about 2000 Hessians, but at the first sally of the garrison his +troops became panic-stricken and a few days later he withdrew. +Washington reprimanded him and never again entrusted to him +any important operation in the field. Throughout the war, +however, Heath was very efficient in muster service and in the +barracks. From March 1777 to October 1778 he was in command +of the Eastern Department with headquarters at Boston, and +had charge (Nov. 1777-Oct. 1778) of the prisoners of war from +Burgoyne’s army held at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In May 1779 +he was appointed a commissioner of the Board of War. He was +placed in command of the troops on the E. side of the Hudson +in June 1779, and of other troops and posts on the Hudson in +November of the same year. In July 1780 he met the French +allies under Rochambeau on their arrival in Rhode Island; in +October of the same year he succeeded Arnold in command of +West Point and its dependencies; and in August 1781, when +Washington went south to meet Cornwallis, Heath was left in +command of the Army of the Hudson to watch Clinton. After +the war he retired to his farm at Roxbury, was a member of the +state House of Representatives in 1788, of the Massachusetts +convention which ratified the Federal Constitution in the same +year, and of the governor’s council in 1789-1790, was a state +senator (1791-1793), and in 1806 was elected lieutenant-governor +of Massachusetts but declined to serve. He died at Roxbury on +the 24th of January 1814, the last of the major-generals of the +War of American Independence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memoirs of Major-General Heath, containing Anecdotes, Details +of Skirmishes, Battles and other Military Events during the American +War, written by Himself</i> (Boston, 1798; frequently reprinted, perhaps +the best edition being that published in New York in 1901 by William +Abbatt), particularly valuable for the descriptions of Lexington +and Bunker Hill, of the fighting around New York, of the controversies +with Burgoyne and his officers during their stay in Boston, +and of relations with Rochambeau; and his correspondence, <i>The +Heath Papers</i>, vols. iv.-v., seventh series, <i>Massachusetts Historical +Society Collections</i> (Boston, 1904-1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEATH,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> the English form of a name given in most Teutonic +dialects to the common ling or heather (<i>Calluna vulgaris</i>), but +now applied to all species of <i>Erica</i>, an extensive genus of monopetalous +plants, belonging to the order Ericaceae. The heaths +are evergreen shrubs, with small narrow leaves, in whorls usually +set rather thickly on the shoots; the persistent flowers have 4 +sepals, and a 4-cleft campanulate or tubular corolla, in many +species more or less ventricose or inflated; the dry capsule is +4-celled, and opens, in the true Ericae, in 4 segments, to the +middle of which the partitions adhere, though in the ling the +valves separate at the dissepiments. The plants are mostly of +low growth, but several African kinds reach the size of large +bushes, and a common South European species, <i>E. arborea</i>, +occasionally attains almost the aspect and dimensions of a tree.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:146px; height:447px" src="images/img158.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Calluna vulgaris.</i></td></tr></table> + +<p>One of the best known and most interesting of the family is +the common heath, heather or ling, <i>Calluna vulgaris</i> (fig. 1), +placed by most botanists in a separate +genus on account of the peculiar dehiscence +of the fruit, and from the coloured calyx, +which extends beyond the corolla, having +a whorl of sepal-like bracts beneath. This +shrub derives some economic importance +from its forming the chief vegetation on +many of those extensive wastes that occupy +so large a portion of the more sterile lands +of northern and western Europe, the usually +desolate appearance of which is enlivened +in the latter part of summer by its abundant +pink blossoms. When growing erect to the +height of 3 ft. or more, as it often does in +sheltered places, its purple stems, close-leaved +green shoots and feathery spikes +of bell-shaped flowers render it one of the +handsomest of the heaths; but on the +bleaker elevations and more arid slopes it +frequently rises only a few inches above the +ground. In all moorland countries the ling +is applied to many rural purposes; the +larger stems are made into brooms, the +shorter tied up into bundles that serve as +brushes, while the long trailing shoots are +woven into baskets. Pared up with the peat about its roots +it forms a good fuel, often the only one obtainable on the +drier moors. The shielings of the Scottish Highlanders were +formerly constructed of heath stems, cemented together with +peat-mud, worked into a kind of mortar with dry grass or +straw; hovels and sheds for temporary purposes are still +sometimes built in a similar way, and roofed in with ling. +Laid on the ground, with the flowers above, it forms a soft +springy bed, the luxurious couch of the ancient Gael, still gladly +resorted to at times by the hill shepherd or hardy deer-stalker. +The young shoots were in former days employed as a substitute +for hops in brewing, while their astringency rendered them +valuable as a tanning material in Ireland and the Western Isles. +They are said also to have been used by the Highlanders for +dyeing woollen yarn yellow, and other colours are asserted to +have been obtained from them, but some writers appear to confuse +the dyer’s-weed, <i>Genista tinctoria</i>, with the heather. The +young juicy shoots and the seeds, which remain long in the +capsules, furnish the red grouse of Scotland with the larger portion +of its sustenance; the ripe seeds are eaten by many birds. The +tops of the ling afford a considerable part of the winter fodder of +the hill flocks, and are popularly supposed to communicate the +fine flavour to Welsh and Highland mutton, but sheep seldom crop +heather while the mountain grasses and rushes are sweet and +accessible. Ling has been suggested as a material for paper, +but the stems are hardly sufficiently fibrous for that purpose. +The purple or fine-leaved heath, <i>E. cinerea</i> (fig. 2), one of the most +beautiful of the genus, abounds on the lower moors and commons +of Great Britain and western Europe, in such situations being +sometimes more prevalent than the ling. The flowers of both +these species yield much honey, furnishing a plentiful supply +to the bees in moorland districts; from this heath honey the +Picts probably brewed the mead said by Boetius to have been +made from the flowers themselves.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:165px; height:403px" src="images/img159.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Erica cinerea.</i></td></tr></table> + +<p>The genus contains about 420 known species, by far the greater +part being indigenous to the western districts of South Africa, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span> +but it is also a characteristic genus of the Mediterranean region, +while several species extend into northern Europe. No species is +native in America, but ling occurs as an introduced plant on the +Atlantic side from Newfoundland to New Jersey. Five species +occur in Britain: <i>E. cinerea</i>, <i>E. tetralix</i> (cross-leaved heath), +both abundant on heaths and commons, +<i>E. vagans</i>, Cornish heath, found only in +West Cornwall, <i>E. ciliaris</i> in the west of +England and Ireland and <i>E. mediterranea</i> +in Ireland. The three last are south-west +European species which reach the northern +limit of their distribution in the west of +England and Ireland. <i>E. scoparia</i> is a +common heath in the centre of France +and elsewhere in the Mediterranean +region, forming a spreading bush several +feet high. It is known as <i>bruyère</i>, and +its stout underground rootstocks yield +the briar-wood used for pipes.</p> + +<p>The Cape heaths have long been +favourite objects of horticulture. In the +warmer parts of Britain several will bear +exposure to the cold of ordinary winters +in a sheltered border, but most need the +protection of the conservatory. They are +sometimes raised from seed, but are chiefly +multiplied by cuttings “struck” in sand, +and afterwards transferred to pots filled +with a mixture of black peat and sand; the peat should be dry +and free from sourness. Much attention is requisite in watering +heaths, as they seldom recover if once allowed to droop, while +they will not bear much water about their roots: the heath-house +should be light and well ventilated, the plants requiring +sun, and soon perishing in a close or permanently damp atmosphere; +in England little or no heat is needed in ordinary seasons. +The European heaths succeed well in English gardens, only +requiring a peaty soil and sunny situation to thrive as well as in +their native localities: <i>E. carnea</i>, <i>mediterranea</i>, <i>ciliaris</i>, <i>vagans</i>, +and the pretty cross-leaved heath of boggy moors, <i>E. Tetralix</i>, +are among those most worthy of cultivation. The beautiful large-flowered +St Dabeoc’s heath, belonging to the closely allied genus +<i>Dabeocia</i>, is likewise often seen in gardens. It is found in boggy +heaths in Connemara and Mayo, and is also native in West +France, Spain and the Azores.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A beautiful work on heaths is that by H. C. Andrews, containing +coloured engravings of nearly 300 species and varieties, with descriptions +in English and Latin (4 vols., 1802-1805).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEATHCOAT, JOHN<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1783-1861), English inventor, was born +at Duffield near Derby on the 7th of August 1783. During his +apprenticeship to a framesmith near Loughborough, he made +an improvement in the construction of the warp-loom, so as to +produce mitts of a lace-like appearance by means of it. He +began business on his own account at Nottingham, but finding +himself subjected to the intrusion of competing inventors he +removed to Hathern. There in 1808 he constructed a machine +capable of producing an exact imitation of real pillow-lace. +This was by far the most expensive and complex textile apparatus +till then existing; and in describing the process of his invention +Heathcoat said in 1836, “The single difficulty of getting the +diagonal threads to twist in the allotted space was so great that, +if now to be done, I should probably not attempt its accomplishment.” +Some time before perfecting his invention, which he +patented in 1809, he removed to Loughborough, where he +entered into partnership with Charles Lacy, a Nottingham +manufacturer; but in 1816 their factory was attacked by the +Luddites and their 55 lace frames destroyed. The damages +were assessed in the King’s Bench at £10,000; but as Heathcoat +declined to expend the money in the county of Leicester he never +received any part of it. Undaunted by his loss, he began at +once to construct new and greatly improved machines in an +unoccupied factory at Tiverton, Devon, propelling them by +water-power and afterwards by steam. His claim to the invention +of the twisting and traversing lace machine was disputed, +and a patent was taken out by a clever workman for a similar +machine, which was decided at a trial in 1816 to be an infringement +of Heathcoat’s patent. He followed his great invention by +others of much ability, as, for instance, contrivances for ornamenting +net while in course of manufacture and for making +ribbons and platted and twisted net upon his machines, improved +yarn spinning-frames, and methods for winding raw silk from +cocoons. He also patented an improved process for extracting +and purifying salt. An offer of £10,000 was made to him in +1833 for the use of his processes in dressing and finishing silk nets, +but he allowed the highly profitable secret to remain undivulged. +In 1832 he patented a steam plough. Heathcoat was elected +member of parliament for Tiverton in 1832. Though he seldom +spoke in the House he was constantly engaged on committees, +where his thorough knowledge of business and sound judgment +were highly valued. He retained his seat until 1859, and after +two years of declining health he died on the 18th of January +1861 at Bolham House, near Tiverton.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1651-1733), lord mayor of +London, belonged to an old Derbyshire family and was educated +at Christ’s College, Cambridge, afterwards becoming a merchant +in London. His trading ventures were very successful; he +was one of the promoters of the new East India company and +he emerged victorious from a contest between himself and the +old East India company in 1693; he was also one of the founders +and first directors of the bank of England. In 1702 he became +an alderman of the city of London and was knighted; he served +as lord mayor in 1711, being the last lord mayor to ride on horseback +in his procession. In 1700 Heathcote was sent to parliament +as member for the city of London, but he was soon expelled +for his share in the circulation of some exchequer bills; however, +he was again elected for the city later in the same year, and +he retained his seat until 1710. In 1714 he was member for +Helston, in 1722 for New Lymington, and in 1727 for St +Germans. He was a consistent Whig, and was made a baronet +eight days before his death. Although extremely rich, Heathcote’s +meanness is referred to by Pope; and it was this trait +that accounts largely for his unpopularity with the lower classes. +He died in London on the 25th of January 1733 and was buried +at Normanton, Rutland, a residence which he had purchased +from the Mackworths.</p> + +<p>A descendant, Sir Gilbert John Heathcote, Bart. (1795-1867), +was created Baron Aveland in 1856; and his son Gilbert Henry, +who in 1888 inherited from his mother the barony of Willoughby +de Eresby, became 1st earl of Ancaster in 1892.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEATHEN,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a term originally applied to all persons or races +who did not hold the Jewish or Christian belief, thus including +Mahommedans. It is now more usually given to polytheistic +races, thus excluding Mahommedans. The derivation of the +word has been much debated. It is common to all Germanic +languages; cf. German <i>Heide</i>, Dutch <i>heiden</i>. It is usually ascribed +to a Gothic <i>haiþi</i>, heath. In Ulfilas’ Gothic version of the +Bible, the earliest extant literary monument of the Germanic +languages, the Syrophoenician woman (Mark vii. 26) is called +<i>haiþno</i>, where the Vulgate has <i>gentilis</i>. “Heathen,” <i>i.e.</i> the +people of the heath or open country, would thus be a translation +of the Latin <i>paganus</i>, pagan, <i>i.e.</i> the people of the <i>pagus</i> or +village, applied to the dwellers in the country where the worship +of the old gods still lingered, when the people of the towns were +Christians (but see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pagan</a></span> for a more tenable explanation of that +term). On the other hand it has been suggested (Prof. S. +Bugge, <i>Indo-German. Forschungen</i>, v. 178, quoted in the <i>New +English Dictionary</i>) that Ulfilas may have adopted the word +from the Armenian <i>hetanos</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Greek <span class="grk" title="ethnê">ἔθνη</span>, tribes, races, the +word used for the “Gentiles” in the New Testament. <i>Gentilis</i> +in Latin, properly meaning “tribesman,” came to be used of +foreigners and non-Roman peoples, and was adopted in ecclesiastical +usage for the non-Christian nations and in the Old +Testament for non-Jewish races.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEATHFIELD, GEORGE AUGUSTUS ELIOTT,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1717-1790), +British general, a younger son of Sir Gilbert Eliott, Bart., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span> +of Stobs, Roxburghshire, was born on the 25th of December +1717, and educated abroad for the military profession. As a +volunteer he fought with the Prussian army in 1735 and 1736, +and then entered the Grenadier Guards. He went through the +war of the Austrian Succession, and was wounded at Dettingen, +rising to be lieutenant-colonel in 1754. In 1759 he became colonel +of a new regiment of light horse (afterwards the 15th Hussars) +and became well known for the efficiency which it displayed in +the subsequent campaigns. He became lieutenant-general in +1765. In 1775 he was selected to be governor of Gibraltar (<i>q.v.</i>), +and it is in connexion with his magnificent defence in the great +siege of 1779 that his name is famous. His portrait by Sir +Joshua Reynolds is in the National Gallery. In 1787 he was +created Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar, but died on the 6th of +July 1790. He had married in 1748 the heiress of the Drake +family, to which Sir Francis Drake belonged. His son, the +2nd baron, died in 1813 and the peerage became extinct, but +the estates went to the family of Eliott-Drake (baronetcy of +1821) through his sister.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEATING.<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> In temperate latitudes the climate is generally +such as to necessitate in dwellings during a great portion of the +year a temperature warmer than that out of doors. The object +of the art of heating is to secure this required warmth with the +greatest economy and efficiency. For reasons of health it may +be assumed that no system of heating is advisable which does +not provide for a constant renewal of the air in the locality +warmed, and on this account there is a difficulty in treating as +separate matters the subjects of heating and ventilation, which +in practical schemes should be considered conjointly. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ventilation</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The object of all heating apparatus is the transference of heat +from the fire to the various parts of the building it is intended +to warm, and this transfer may be effected by radiation, by conduction +or by convection. An open fire acts by radiation; it +warms the air in a room by first warming the walls, floor, ceiling +and articles in the room, and these in turn warm the air. Therefore +in a room with an open fire the air is, as a rule, less heated +than the walls. In many forms of fireplaces fresh air is brought +in and passed around the back and sides of the stove before being +admitted into the room. A closed stove acts mainly by convection; +though when heated to a high temperature it gives +out radiant heat. Windows have a chilling effect on a room, +and in calculations extra allowance should be made for window +areas.</p> + +<p>There are a number of methods available for adoption in the +heating of buildings, but it is a matter of considerable difficulty +to suit the method of warming to the class of building to be +warmed. Heating may be effected by one of the following +systems, or installations may be so arranged as to combine the +advantages of more than one method: open fires, closed stoves, +hot-air apparatus, hot water circulating in pipes at low or at high +pressure, or steam at high or low pressure.</p> + +<p>The open grate still holds favour in England, though in +America and on the continent of Europe it has been superseded +by the closed stove. The old form of open fire is +certainly wasteful of fuel, and the loss of heat up the +<span class="sidenote">Open fires.</span> +chimney and by conduction into the brickwork +backing of the stove is considerable. Great improvements, +however, have been effected in the design of open fireplaces, +and many ingenious contrivances of this nature are now in the +market which combine efficiency of heating with economy of +fuel. Unless suitable fresh air inlets are provided, this form +of stove will cause the room to be draughty, the strong current +of warm air up the flue drawing cold air in through the crevices +in the doors and windows. The best form of open fireplace is +the ventilating stove, in which fresh air is passed around the +back and sides of the stove before being admitted through +convenient openings into the room. This has immense advantages +over the ordinary type of fireplace. The illustrations show +two forms of ventilating fireplace, one (fig. 1) similar in appearance +to the ordinary domestic grate, the other (fig. 2) with descending +smoke flue suitable for hospitals and public rooms, where it +might be fixed in the middle of the apartment. The fixing of +stoves of this kind entails the laying of pipes or ducts from the +open to convey fresh air to the back of the stove.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:528px; height:248px" src="images/img160.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td> +<td class="caption">    <span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>With closed stoves much less heat is wasted, and consequently +less fuel is burned, than with open grates, but they often cause +an unpleasant sensation of dryness in the air, and the +products of combustion also escape to some extent, +<span class="sidenote">Closed stoves.</span> +rendering this method of heating not only unpleasant +but sometimes even dangerous. The method in Great Britain +is almost entirely confined to places of public assembly, but in +America and on the continent of Europe it is much used for +domestic heating. If the flue pipe be carried up a considerable +distance inside the apartment to be warmed before being turned +into the external air, practically the whole of the heat generated +will be utilized. Charcoal, coke or anthracite coal are the fuels +generally used in slow combustion heating stoves.</p> + +<p>Gas fires, as a substitute for the open coal fire, have many +points in their favour, for they are conducive to cleanliness, they +need but little attention, and the heat is easily controlled. +On the other hand, they may give off unhealthy +<span class="sidenote">Gas fires.</span> +fumes and produce unpleasant odours. They usually +take the form of cast iron open stoves fitted with a number of +Bunsen burners which heat perforated lumps of asbestos. The +best form of stove is that with which perfect combustion is +most nearly attained, and to which a pan of water is affixed to +supply a desirable humidity to the air, the gas having the effect +of drying the atmosphere. With another form of gas stove +coke is used in place of the perforated asbestos; the fire is +started with the gas, which, when the coke is well alight, may +be dispensed with, and the fire kept up with coke in the usual +way.</p> + +<p>Electrical heating appliances have only recently passed the +experimental stage; there is, however, undoubtedly a great +future for electric heating, and the perfecting of the +<span class="sidenote">Electrical heating.</span> +stove, together with the cheapening of the electric +current, may be expected to result in many of the +other stoves and convectors being superseded. Hitherto the +large bill for electric energy has debarred the general use of +electrical heating, in spite of its numerous advantages.</p> + +<p>Oils are powerful fuels, but the high price of refined petroleum, +the oil generally preferred, precludes its widespread use for +many purposes for which it is suitable. In small +stoves for warming and for cooking, petroleum presents +<span class="sidenote">Oil stoves.</span> +some advantages over other fuels, in that there is no +chimney to sweep, and if well managed no unpleasant fumes, +and the stoves are easily portable. On the other hand, these +stoves need a considerable amount of attention in filling, trimming +and cleaning, and there is some risk of explosion and damage by +accidental leaking and smoking. Crude or unrefined petroleum +needs a special air-spray pressure burner for its use, and this +suffers from the disadvantage of being noisy. Gas and oil +radiators would be more properly termed “convectors,” since +they warm mainly by converted currents. They are similar +in appearance to a hot-water or steam radiator, and, indeed, +some are designed to be filled with water and used as such. +They should always be fitted with a pan of water to supply the +necessary humidity to the warmed air, and a flue to carry off +any disagreeable fumes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span></p> + +<p>Heating by warmed air, one of the oldest methods in use, +has been much improved by attention to the construction of +the apparatus, and if properly installed will give as +good effects as it is possible to obtain. The system +<span class="sidenote">Warm air.</span> +is especially suitable for churches, assembly halls and +large rooms. A stove of special design is placed in a chamber +in the basement or cellar, and cold fresh air is passed through +it, and led by means of flues to the various apartments for distribution +by means of easily regulated inlet valves. To prevent +the atmosphere from becoming unduly dry a pan of water is +fitted to the stove; this serves to moisten the air before it +passes into the distributing flues. If each distributing flue is +connected by means of a mixing valve with a cold-air flue, the +warmth of the incoming air can be regulated to a nicety (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ventilation</a></span>).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:287px; height:541px" src="images/img161a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>There are many different systems of heating by hot water +circulating in pipes. The oldest and best known is the “two +pipe” system, others being the “one pipe” or “simple +circuit,” and the “drop” or “overhead.” The high +<span class="sidenote">Low pressure hot water.</span> +pressure system is of later invention, having been +first put to practical use by A. M. Perkins in 1845. +All these methods warm chiefly by means of convected heat, +the amount of true radiation from the pipes being small. The +manner in which the circulation of hot water takes place in the +tubes is as follows. Fire heats the water in a boiler from the top +of which a “flow” pipe communicates with the rooms to be +warmed (fig. 3). As the water is heated it becomes lighter, +rises to the top of the boiler, +and passes along the flow +pipe. It is followed by +more and more hot water, +and so travels along the flow +pipe, which is rising all the +time, to the farthest point +of the circuit, by which +time it has in all probability +cooled considerably. +From this point the “return” +pipe drops, usually at +the same rate as the flow +pipe rises; and in due course +the water reaches its starting +point, the boiler, and is +again heated and again circulated +through the system. +The connexion of the return +pipe is made with the lower +part of the boiler. Branches +may be made from the main +pipes by means of smaller +pipes arranged in the same +manner as the mains, the +branch flow pipe being connected +with the main flow +pipe and returning into the +main return. To obtain a +larger heating surface than +a pipe affords, radiators are connected with the pipes where +desired, and the water passing through them warms the surrounding +air.</p> + +<p>The “one pipe” system (fig. 4) acts on precisely the +same principle, but in place of two pipes being placed +in adjacent positions one large main makes a complete +circuit of the area to be warmed, starting from and returning +to the boiler, and from this main flow and return branches +are taken and connected with radiators and other heating +appliances.</p> + +<p>In the “drop” or “overhead” system (fig. 5) a rising main +is taken directly from the boiler to the topmost floor of the +building, and from this branches are dropped to the lower floors, +and connected by means of smaller branches to radiators or +coils. The vertical branches descend to the basement and +generally merge in a single return pipe which is connected to +the lower part of the boiler.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:372px" src="images/img161b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:374px; height:648px" src="images/img161c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The rate of circulation in the ordinary low pressure hot-water +system may be considerably accelerated by means of steam +injections. The water after being heated passes into a circulating +tank into which steam is introduced; this, mixing with the hot +water, gives it additional motive power, resulting in a faster +circulation. This steam condensing adds to the water in the +pipe and naturally causes an overflow, which is led back to the +boiler and re-used. In districts where the water is hard, this +arrangement considerably lengthens the life of the boiler, as +the same water is used over and over again, and no fresh deposit +of fur occurs. Owing to the very rapid movement and the +consequent increased rate of transmission of heat, the pipes and +radiators may be reduced in size, in many circumstances a very +desirable thing to achieve. With this system the temperature +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span> +can be quickly raised and easily controlled. If the weather is +mild, a moderate heat may be obtained by using the apparatus +as an ordinary hot water system, and shutting off the steam +injectors.</p> + +<p>The cold-water supply and expansion tank (fig. 3) are often +combined in one tank placed at a point above the level of circulation. +The tank should be of a size to hold not less than a +twentieth part of the total amount of water held in the system. +The automatic inlet of cold water to the hot water system from +the main house tank or other source is controlled by a ball valve, +which is so fixed as to allow the water to rise no more than an +inch above the bottom of the tank, thus leaving the remainder +of the space clear for expansion. An overflow is provided, +discharging into the open air to allow the water to escape should +the ball valve become defective.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:273px; height:530px" src="images/img162.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:241px; height:116px" src="images/img162a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The “Perkins” or “small bore high pressure” system +(fig. 6) has many advantages, for it is safe, the boiler is small +and is easily managed, the temperature is well under +control and may be regulated to suit the changing +<span class="sidenote">High pressure hot water.</span> +weather, and the small pipes present a neat appearance +in a room. The whole system is constructed of wrought +iron pipe of small diameter, strong enough to resist a testing +pressure of 2000 to 2500 ℔ per sq. in. The boiler consists of +similar pipe coiled up to form +a fire-box, inside which the +furnace is lighted. The coil +is encased with firebricks +and brickwork, and the +smoke from the fire is carried +off by a flue in the ordinary +way. The flow pipe of similar +section (usually having an +internal diameter of about 1 +in., the metal being nearly ¼ in. +thick) continues from the top +of the coil, and after travelling +round the various apartments +returns to, and is +connected with, the lowest +part of the boiler coil. The +joints take a special form to +enable them to withstand the +great strain to which they +are subjected (fig. 7). One +end of a pipe is finished flat, +the end of the other pipe +being brought to a conical +edge. On one end also a +right-handed, and on the +other a left-handed, screw-thread +is turned. A coupling +collar, tapped in the same +manner, is screwed on, and causes the conical edge to impress +itself tightly on the flat end, giving a sound and lasting joint. +The system is hermetically sealed after being pumped full of +water, an expansion chamber in the shape of a pipe of larger +dimensions being provided at the top of the system above +the highest point of circulation. Upon the application of heat +to the fire-box coil the water +naturally expands and forces its +way up into the expansion +chamber; but there it encounters +the pressure of the confined air, +and ebullition is consequently +prevented. Thus at no time +can steam form in the system. +This system is trustworthy and safe in working. The smallness +of the pipes renders it liable to damage by frost, but this accident +may be prevented by always keeping in frosty weather a small +fire in the furnace. If this course is inconvenient, some liquid +of low freezing-point, such as glycerine, may be mixed with the +water.</p> + +<p>For large public buildings, factories, &c., heating by steam +is generally adopted on account of the rapidity with which heat +is available, and the great distance from the boiler at +which warming is effected. In the case of factories +<span class="sidenote">Steam heating.</span> +the exhaust steam from the engines used for driving +the working machinery is made use of and forms the most +economical method of heating possible. There are several +different systems of heating by steam—low pressure, high +pressure and minus pressure.</p> + +<p>In the low pressure two pipe system the flow pipe is carried +to a sufficient height directly above the boiler to allow of its +gradual fall to a little beyond the most distant point at which +connexion is to be made with the return pipe, which thence +slopes towards the boiler. Branches are taken off the flow pipe, +and after circulating through coils or radiators are connected +with the return pipe. In a well-proportioned system the pressure +need not exceed 2 or 3 ℔ per sq. in. for excellent +results to be obtained. The one-pipe system is similar in principle, +the pipe rising to its greatest height above the boiler +and being then carried around as a single pipe falling all the +while. It resembles in many points the one-pipe low pressure +hot-water system. Radiators are fed directly from the main. +Where, as in factories or workshops, there are already installed +engines working at a high steam pressure, say 120 to 180 ℔ per +sq. in., a portion of the steam generated in the boilers may be +utilized for heating by the aid of a reducing valve. The steam +is passed through the valve and emerges at the pressure required +generally from 3 ℔ upwards. It is then used for one of the +systems described above.</p> + +<p>High-pressure steam-heating, compared with the heating by +low pressure, is little used. The principles are the same as those +applied to low-pressure work, but all fittings and appliances +must, of course, be made to stand the higher strain to which +they are subjected.</p> + +<p>The “minus pressure” steam system, sometimes termed +“atmospheric” or “vacuum,” is of more recent introduction +than those just described. It is certainly the most scientific +method of steam-heating, and heat can be made to travel a +greater distance by its aid than by any other means. The heat +of the pipes is great, but can be easily regulated. The system +is economical in fuel, but needs skilled attendance to keep the +appliances and fittings in order. The steam is introduced into +the pipes at about the pressure of the atmosphere, and is sucked +through the system by means of a vacuum pump, which at the +same operation frees the pipes from air and from condensation +water. This pumping action results in an extremely rapid +circulation of the heating agent, enabling long distances to be +traversed without much loss of heat.</p> + +<p>Compared with heating by hot water, steam-heating requires +less piping, which, further, may be of much smaller diameter +to attain a similar result, because of the higher temperature +of the heat yielding surface. A drawback to the use of steam +is the fact that the high temperature of the pipes and radiators +attracts and spreads a great deal of dust. There is also a risk +that woodwork near the pipes may warp and split. The apparatus +needs constant attention, since neglect in stoking would result +in stopping the generation of steam, and the whole system +would almost immediately cool. To regulate the heat it is +necessary either to instal a number of small radiators or to +divide the radiators into sections, each section controlled by +distinct valves; steam may then be admitted to all the sections +of the radiator or to any less number of sections as desired. +In a hot-water system the heat is given off at a lower temperature +and is consequently more agreeable than that yielded by a +steam-heating apparatus. The joint most commonly used for +hot-water pipes is termed the “rust” joint, which is cheap to +make, but unfortunately is inefficient. The materials required +are iron borings, sal-ammoniac and sulphur; these are mixed +together, moistened with water, and rammed into the socket, +which is previously half filled with yarn, well caulked. The +materials mixed with the iron borings cause them to rust into a +solid mass, and in doing so a slight expansion takes place. On +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span> +this account it is necessary to exercise some skill in forming the +joint, or the socket of the pipe will be split; numbers of pipes +are undoubtedly spoilt in this way. Suitable proportions of +materials to form a rust joint are 90 parts by weight of iron +borings well mixed with 2 parts of flowers of sulphur, and 1 +part of powdered sal-ammoniac. Another joint, less rigid but +sound and durable, is made with yarn and white and red lead. +The white and red lead are mixed together to form a putty, and +are filled into the socket alternately with layers of well-caulked +yarn, starting with yarn and finishing off with the lead mixture.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:128px; height:143px" src="images/img163a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Iron expands when heated to the temperature of boiling +water (212° F.) about 1 part in 900, that is to say, a pipe +100 ft. long would expand or increase in length when +heated to this temperature about 1½ in., an amount +<span class="sidenote">Joints for pipes.</span> +which seems small but which would be quite sufficient +to destroy one or more of the joints if provision were not made +to prevent damage. The amount of expansion increases as the +temperature is raised; at 340° F. it is 2½ in. +in 100 ft. With wrought iron pipes bends +may be arranged, as shown in fig. 8, to take +up this expansion. With cast iron pipe this +cannot be done, and no length of piping over +40 ft. should be without a proper expansion +joint. The pipes are best supported on rollers +which allow of movement without straining +the joints.</p> + +<p>There are several joints in general use for the +best class of work which are formed with the aid of india-rubber +rings or collars, any expansion being divided amongst the whole +number of joints. In the rubber ring joint an india-rubber ring is +used; slightly less in diameter than the pipe. The rubber is circular +in section, and about ½ in. thick, and is stretched on the extreme +end of a pipe which is then forced into the next socket. This +joint is durable, secure and easily made; it allows for expansion +and by its use the risk of pipe sockets being cracked is avoided. +It is much used for greenhouse heating works. Richardson’s +patent joint (fig. 9) is a good form of this class of joint. The +pipes have specially shaped ends between which a rubber collar +is placed, the joint being held together by clips. The result +is very satisfactory and will stand heavy water pressure. +Messenger’s joint (fig. 10) is designed to allow more freedom of +expansion and at the same time to withstand considerable +pressure; one loose cast iron collar is used, and another is +formed as a socket on the end of the pipe itself. One end of +each pipe is plain, so that it may be cut to any desired length; +pipes with shaped ends obviously +must be obtained in the exact lengths +required. Jones’s expansion joint +(fig. 11) is somewhat similar to +Messenger’s but it is not capable +of withstanding so great a pressure. +In this case both collars of cast +iron are loose.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:441px; height:115px" src="images/img163b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:187px; height:114px" src="images/img163c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Radiators (really convectors) were in their primitive design +coils of pipe, used to give a larger heating area than the single +pipe would afford. They are now usually of special +design, and may be divided into three classes—indirect +<span class="sidenote">Radiators.</span> +radiators, direct radiators and direct ventilating radiators. +Indirect radiators are placed beneath the floor of the apartment +to be heated and give off heat through a grating. This method +is frequently adopted in combined schemes of heating and +ventilating; the fresh air is warmed by being passed over their +surfaces previously to being admitted through the gratings into +the room. Direct radiators are a development of the early coil +of pipe; they are made in various types and designs and are +usually of cast iron. Ventilating radiators are similar, but have +an inlet arrangement at the base to allow external air to pass +over the heating surface before passing out through the perforations. +Radiators should not be fixed directly on to the main +heating pipe, but always on branches of smaller diameter leading +from the flow pipe to one end of the radiator and back to the +main return pipe from the other end; they may then be easily +controlled by a valve placed on the branch from the flow pipe. +To each radiator should be fitted an air tap, which when opened +will permit the escape of any air that has accumulated in the +coil; otherwise free circulation is impossible, and the full +benefit of the heat is not obtained.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:285px; height:414px" src="images/img163d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>A plentiful supply of hot water is a necessity in every house +for domestic and hygienic purposes. In small houses all requirements +may be satisfied with a boiler heated by the +kitchen fire. For large buildings where large quantities +<span class="sidenote">Hot-water supply.</span> +of hot water are used an independent boiler of suitable +size should be installed. Every installation is made +up of a boiler or other water heater, a tank or cylinder to contain +the water when heated, and a cistern of cold water, the supply +from which to the system is regulated automatically by a ball +valve. These containers, proportioned to the required supply +of hot water, are connected with each other by means of pipes, +a “flow” and a “return” connecting the boiler with the +cylinder or tank (fig. 12). The flow pipe starts from the top +of the boiler and is connected near the top of the cylinder, the +return pipe joining the +lower portions of the +cylinder and boiler. The +supply from the cold water +cistern enters the bottom +of the cylinder, and thence +travels by way of the return +pipe to the boiler, +where it is heated, and +back through the flow +pipe to the cylinder, which +is thus soon filled with hot +water. A flow pipe which +serves also for expansion +is taken from the top of +the cylinder to a point +above the cold-water +supply and turned down +to prevent the ingress of +dirt. From this pipe at +various points are taken +the supply pipes to baths, +lavatories, sinks and other +appliances. It will be observed that in fig. 12 the cylinder +is placed in proximity to the boiler; this is the usual and +most effective method, but it may be placed some distance +away if desired. The tank system is of much earlier date than +this cylinder system, and although the two resemble each other +in many respects, the tank system is in practice the less effective. +The tank is placed above the level of the topmost draw off, and +often in a cupboard which it will warm sufficiently to permit +of its being used as a linen airing closet. An expansion pipe is +taken from the top of the tank to a point above the roof. All +draw off services are taken off from the flow pipe which connects +the boiler with the tank. This method differs from that adopted +in the cylinder system, where all services are led from the top +of the cylinder. A suitable proportion between the size of the +tank or cylinder and that of the boiler is 8 or 10 to 1. Water +may also be heated by placing a coil of steam or high-pressure +hot-water pipes in a water tank (fig. 6), the water heated in this +way circulating in the manner already described. An alternative +plan is to pass the water through pipes placed in a steam chest.</p> + +<p>Cylinders, tanks and independent boilers should be encased +in a non-conducting material such as silicate cotton, thick felt +or asbestos composition. The two first mentioned are affixed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span> +by means of bands or straps or stitched on; the asbestos is laid +on in the form of a plaster from 2 to 6 in. thick.</p> + +<p>Taps to baths and lavatories should be connected to the main +services by a flow and return pipe so that hot water is constantly +flowing past the tap, thus enabling hot water to be obtained +immediately. Frequently a single pipe is led to the tap, but the +water in this branch cools and must therefore be drawn off before +hot water can be obtained.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:127px; height:154px" src="images/img164a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:178px; height:208px" src="images/img164b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Two classes of boilers are chiefly used in hot-water heating +installations, viz. those heated by the fire of the kitchen range, +and those heated separately or independently. Of +the first class there are two varieties in common use—a +<span class="sidenote">Boilers.</span> +form of “saddle” boiler (fig. 13) and the “boot” boiler +(fig. 14). Independent boilers are made in every conceivable +size and form of construction, and many of +them are capable of doing excellent work. In +the choice of a boiler of this description it +should be remembered that rapid heating, +economical combustion of fuel, and facilities +for cleaning, are requisites, the absence of +any of which considerably lowers the efficiency +of the apparatus. Boilers set in brickwork +are sometimes used in domestic work, although +they are more favoured for horticultural +heating. The shape mostly used is the “saddle” boiler, or +some variation upon this very old pattern. The coiled pipe fire-box +of the high-pressure hot-water system previously described +may be also classed with boilers.</p> + +<p>A notable feature of modern boiler construction is the mode of +building the apparatus of cast iron in either horizontal or vertical +sections. Both the types intended to be set in brickwork and +those working independently are formed on the sectional +principle, which has many good points. The parts are easy of +transport and can be handled without difficulty through narrow +doorways and in confined situations. The size of the boiler may +be increased or diminished by the addition or subtraction of one +or more sections; these, being simple in design, are easily fitted +together, and should a section become defective it is a simple +matter to insert a new one in its place. Should a defect occur +with a wrought iron boiler it is usually necessary for the purpose +of repair to disconnect and remove the +whole apparatus, the heating system of +which it forms a part being in the +meantime useless. In a type built with +vertical sections each division is complete +in itself, and is not directly connected +with the next section, but communicates +with flow and return drums. A defective +section may thus be left in position and +stopped off by means of plugs from the +drums until it is convenient to fit a new +one in its place. A boiler with horizontal +sections is shown in fig. 15; it will be +seen that each of the upper sections has a number of cross +waterways which form a series of gratings over the fire-box +and intercept most of the heat generated, effecting great +economy of fuel.</p> + +<p>In the ordinary working of a hot-water apparatus the expansion +pipe already referred to will prevent any overdue pressure +occurring in the boiler; should, however, the pipes +become blocked in any way while the apparatus is +<span class="sidenote">Safety valves.</span> +in use, or the water in them become frozen, the lighting +of the fire would cause the water to expand, and having no outlet +it would in all probability burst the boiler. To prevent this a +safety valve should be fitted on the top of the boiler, or be connected +thereto with a large pipe so as to be visible. The valve +may be of the dead weight (fig. 16), lever weight, spring (fig. 17) +or diaphragm variety. The three first named are largely used. +In the diaphragm valve a thin piece of metal is fixed to an outlet +from the boiler, and when a moderate pressure is exceeded this +gives way, allowing the water and steam to escape.</p> + +<p>Fusible plugs are little used; they consist of pieces of softer +metal inserted on the side of the boiler, which melt should the +heat of the water rise above a certain temperature.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:490px; height:696px" src="images/img164c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>A “Geyser” is a very convenient form of apparatus for heating +a quantity of water in a short time. A water pipe of copper +or wrought iron is passed through a cylinder in which +gas or oil heating burners are placed. The piping +<span class="sidenote">Geysers.</span> +takes a winding or zigzag course, and by the time the outlet is +reached, the water it contains has reached a high temperature. +By this means a continuous stream of hot water is obtained, +greater or smaller in proportion to the size and power of the +apparatus. The improved types of gas geysers are provided +with a single control to both gas and water supplies, with a +small “pilot” burner to ignite the gas. A flue should in all cases +be provided to carry off the fumes of the fuel.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:162px; height:177px" src="images/img164d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>   <span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>In districts where the water is of a “hard nature,” that is, +contains bicarbonate of lime in solution, the interior of the +boiler, cylinders, tanks and pipes of a hot water +system will become incrusted with a deposit of lime +<span class="sidenote">Incrustation.</span> +which is gradually precipitated as the water is heated +to boiling point. With “very hard” water this deposit +may require removal every three months; in London it is +usual to clean out the boiler every six months and the cylinders +and tanks at longer intervals. For this +purpose manlids must be provided (figs. +13 and 14), and pipes should be fitted +with removable caps at the bends to +allow for periodical cleaning. The lime +deposit or “fur” is a poor conductor of +heat, and it is therefore most detrimental +to the efficiency of the system to allow +the interior of the boiler or any other +portion to become furred up. Further, if +not removed, the fur will in a short time +bring about a fracture in the boiler. The use of soft water entails +a disadvantage of another character—that of corroding iron and +lead work, soft water exercising a very vigorous chemical action +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span> +upon these metals. In districts supplied with soft water, copper +should be employed to as large an extent as possible.</p> + +<p>The table given below will be useful in calculating the size of the +radiating surface necessary to raise the temperature to the extent +required when the external air is at freezing point (32° Fahr.):—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Description of Building<br />to be heated.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Temperature<br />required.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Cubic Feet of Air heated by<br />1 sq. ft. of Radiator or<br />Pipe Surface.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Low Pressure<br />Water.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Low Pressure<br />Steam.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dwelling rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">55°-60°</td> <td class="tcc rb">85-90</td> <td class="tcc rb">115-125</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Schools</td> <td class="tcc rb">60°</td> <td class="tcc rb">90-100</td> <td class="tcc rb">120-130</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Churches and chapels</td> <td class="tcc rb">55°-60°</td> <td class="tcc rb">100-120</td> <td class="tcc rb">135-160</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Offices and shops</td> <td class="tcc rb">55°-60°</td> <td class="tcc rb">120-125</td> <td class="tcc rb">160-170</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Public halls, workshops, waiting-rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">55°</td> <td class="tcc rb">130-150</td> <td class="tcc rb">175-200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Warehouses, stores</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">50°-55°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">140-160</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">190-220</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In closing this account of heating and the practical methods +of application of heat, an example may be mentioned to show +the great capabilities of a carefully planned system. +At the city of Lockport in New York state, America, +<span class="sidenote">Steam supply at Lockport.</span> +an interesting example of the direct application of +steam-heating on a large scale has been carried out +under the direction of Mr Birdsill Holly of that city. Houses +within a radius of 3 m. from the boiler house are supplied with +superheated steam at a pressure of 35 ℔ to the in. The mains, +the largest of which are 4 in. in diameter, and the smallest +2 in., are wrapped in asbestos, felt and other non-conducting +materials, and are placed in wooden tubes laid under ground +like water and gas pipes. The house branches pipes are 1½ in. +in diameter, and ¾-in. pipes are used inside the houses. The +steam is employed for warming apartments by means of pipe +radiators, for heating water by steam injections, and for all +cooking purposes. The steam mains to the houses are laid by +the supply company; the internal pipes and fittings are paid +for or rented by the occupier, costing for an installation from +£30 for an ordinary eight-roomed house to £100 or more for +larger buildings. With the success of this undertaking in view +it is a matter of wonder that the example set in this instance +has not been adopted to a much greater extent elsewhere.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The principal publications on heating are: Hood, <i>Practical Treatise +on Warming Buildings by Hot Water</i>; Baldwin, <i>Hot Water Heating +and Fittings</i>; Baldwin, <i>Steam Heating for Buildings</i>; Billings, +<i>Ventilation and Heating</i>; Carpenter, <i>Heating and Ventilating +Buildings</i>; Jones, <i>Heating by Hot Water</i>, <i>Ventilation and Hot Water +Supply</i>; Dye, <i>Hot Water Supply</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Bt.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEAVEN<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hefen</i>, <i>heofon</i>, <i>heofone</i>; this word appears +in O.S. <i>hevan</i>; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. <i>Himmel</i>, +Dutch <i>hemel</i>; there does not seem to be any connexion between +the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is +unknown; the suggestion that it is connected with “to heave,” +in the sense of something “lifted up,” is erroneous), properly +the expanse, taking the appearance of a domed vault above the +earth, in which the sun, moon, planets and stars seem to be placed, +the firmament; hence also used, generally in the plural, of the +space immediately above the earth, the atmospheric region +of winds, rain, clouds, and of the birds of the air. The heaven +and the earth together, therefore, to the ancient cosmographers, +and still in poetical language, make up the universe. In the +cosmogonies of many ancient peoples there was a plurality of +heavens, probably among the earlier Hebrews, the idea being +elaborated in rabbinical literature, among the Babylonians and +in Zoroastrianism. The number of these heavens, the higher +transcending the lower in glory, varied from three to seven. +Heaven, as in the Hebrew <i>shamayim</i>, the Greek <span class="grk" title="ouranos">οὐρανός</span>, the +Latin <i>caelum</i>, is the abode of God, and as such in Christian +eschatology is the place of the blessed in the next world (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eschatology</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paradise</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1813-1863), German +poet and dramatist, was born at Wesselburen in Ditmarschen, +Holstein, on the 18th of March 1813. Though only the son of a +poor bricklayer, he early showed a talent for poetry, which was +first displayed to the world by the publication, in the Hamburg +<i>Modezeitung</i>, of verses which he had sent to Amalie Schoppe +(1791-1858), a then popular journalist and author of nursery +tales. Through the kindness of this lady, who interested several +of her friends on his behalf, he was enabled to go to Hamburg +and there prepare himself for the university. +A year later he went to Heidelberg to study +law, but finding this uncongenial he passed +on to the university of Munich, where he +devoted himself to philosophy, history and +literature. In 1839 Hebbel left Munich and +wandered back to Hamburg on foot, where +he resumed his relations with Elsie Lensing, +whose self-sacrificing assistance had helped +him over the darkest days in Munich. In +the same year he wrote his first tragedy +<i>Judith</i> (published 1841), which in the +following year was performed in Hamburg +and Berlin and made his name known throughout Germany. +In 1840 he wrote the tragedy <i>Genoveva</i>, and the following year +finished a comedy, <i>Der Diamant</i>, which he had begun at Munich. +In 1842 he visited Copenhagen, where he obtained from the +king of Denmark a small travelling studentship, which enabled +him to spend some time in Paris and two years (1844-1846) in +Italy. In Paris he wrote his fine “tragedy of common life,” +<i>Maria Magdalene</i> (1844). On his return from Italy Hebbel +met at Vienna two Polish noblemen, the brothers Zerboni di +Sposetti, who in their enthusiasm for his genius urged him to +remain, and supplied him with the means to mingle in the best +intellectual society of the Austrian capital. The unwonted +life of ease had its effect. The old precarious existence became +a horror to him, he made a deliberate breach with it by marrying +(in 1846) the beautiful and wealthy actress Christine Enghaus, +ruthlessly sacrificing the girl who had given up all for him and +who remained faithful till her death, on the ground that “a +man’s first duty is to the most powerful force within him, that +which alone can give him happiness and be of service to the +world”: in his case the poetical faculty, which would have +perished “in the miserable struggle for existence.” This “deadly +sin,” which, “if peace of conscience be the test of action,” was, +he considered, the best act of his life, established his fortunes. +Elise, however, still provided useful inspiration for his art. As +late as 1855, shortly after her death, he wrote the little epic +<i>Mutter und Kind</i>, intended to show that the relation of parent +and child is the essential factor which makes the quality of +happiness among all classes and under all conditions equal. +Long before this Hebbel had become famous. German sovereigns +bestowed decorations upon him; and in foreign capitals he +was fêted as the greatest of living German dramatists. From +the grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar he received a flattering invitation +to take up his residence at Weimar, where several of his plays +were first performed. He remained, however, at Vienna until +his death on the 13th of December 1863.</p> + +<p>Besides the works already mentioned, Hebbel’s principal +tragedies are <i>Herodes und Mariamne</i> (1850); <i>Julia</i> (1851); +<i>Michel Angelo</i> (1851); <i>Agnes Bernauer</i> (1855); <i>Gyges und sein +Ring</i> (1856), and the magnificently conceived trilogy <i>Die +Nibelungen</i> (1862), his last work (consisting of a prologue, <i>Der +gehörnte Siegfried</i>, and the tragedies, <i>Siegfrieds Tod</i> and <i>Kriemhilds +Rache</i>), which won for the author the Schiller prize. Of +his comedies <i>Der Diamant</i> (1847), <i>Der Rubin</i> (1850), and the +tragi-comedy <i>Ein Trauerspiel in Sizilien</i> (1845), are the more +important, but they are heavy and hardly rise above mediocrity. +All his dramatic productions, however, exhibit skill in characterization, +great glow of passion, and a true feeling for dramatic +situation; but their poetic effect is frequently marred by +extravagances which border on the grotesque, and by the introduction +of incidents the unpleasant character of which is not +sufficiently relieved. In many of his lyric poems, and especially +in <i>Mutter und Kind</i>, published in 1859, Hebbel showed that his +poetic gifts were not restricted to the drama.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His collected works were first published by E. Kuh (12 vols., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span> +Hamburg, 1866-1868); revised by H. Krumm (12 vols., Hamburg, +1892). The best critical edition is that by R. M. Werner (12 vols., +1901-1903), to which have been added Hebbel’s Diaries (4 vols.) +and Correspondence (6 vols.). Hebbel’s <i>Briefwechsel mit Freunden +und berühmten Zeitgenossen</i> was issued by F. Bamberg (1890-1892). +The chief biographies of Hebbel are those by E. Kuh (1877) and +R. M. Werner (1905). See also L. A. Frankl, <i>Zur Biographie F. +Hebbels</i> (1884); T. Poppe, <i>F. Hebbel und sein Drama</i> (1900); A. +Scheunert, <i>Der Pantragismus als System der Weltanschauung und +Ästhetik Hebbels</i> (1903); E. A. Georgy, <i>Die Tragödie F. Hebbels +nach ihrem Ideengehalt</i> (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBBURN,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary +division of Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne, +4½ m. below Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern +railway. Pop. (1881), 11,802; (1901), 20,901. It has extensive +shipbuilding and engineering works, rope and sail factories, +chemical, colour and cement works, and collieries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBDEN BRIDGE,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> an urban district in the Sowerby parliamentary +division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, +on the Calder and Hebden rivers, 7 m. W. by N. of Halifax +by the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 7536. +The town has cotton factories, dye-works, foundries and manufactories +of shuttles. The upper Calder valley, between Halifax +and Todmorden, is walled with bold hills, the summits of which +consist of wild moorland. The vale itself is densely populated, +but its beauty is not destroyed, and the contrast with its desolate +surroundings is remarkable.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBE,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> in Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus and Hera, the +goddess of youth. In the Homeric poems she is the female +counterpart of Ganymede, and acts as cupbearer to the gods +(<i>Iliad</i>, iv. 2). She was the special attendant of her mother, +whose horses she harnessed (<i>Iliad</i>, v. 722). When Heracles +was received amongst the gods, Hebe was bestowed upon him in +marriage (<i>Odyssey</i>, xi. 603). When the custom of the heroic +age, which permitted female cupbearers, fell into disuse, Hebe +was replaced by Ganymede in the popular mythology. To +account for her retirement from her office, it was said that she +fell down in the presence of the gods while handing the wine, +and was so ashamed that she refused to appear before them +again. Hebe exhibits many striking points of resemblance with +the pure Greek goddess Aphrodite. She is the daughter of Zeus +and Hera, Aphrodite of Zeus and Dione; but Dione and Hera +are often identified. Hebe is called Dia, a regular epithet of +Aphrodite; at Phlius, a festival called <span class="grk" title="Kissotomoi">Κισσοτόμοι</span> (the days of +ivy-cutting) was annually celebrated in her honour (Pausanias, +ii. 13); and ivy was sacred also to Aphrodite. The apotheosis +of Heracles and his marriage with Hebe became a favourite +subject with poets and painters, and many instances occur on +vases. In later art she is often represented, like Ganymede, +caressing the eagle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Kekulé, <i>Hebe</i> (1867), mainly dealing with the representations +of Hebe in art; and P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio’s +<i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>The meaning of the word Hebe tended to transform the +goddess into a mere personification of the eternal youth that +belongs to the gods, and this conception is frequently met with. +Then she becomes identical with the Roman Juventas, who is +simply an abstraction of an attribute of Jupiter Juventus, +the god of increase and blessing and youth. To Juventas, as +personifying the eternal youth of the Roman state, a chapel +was dedicated in very early times in the <i>cella</i> of Minerva in +the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. With this temple is connected +the legend of Juventas and Terminus, who alone of all the gods +refused to give way when it was being built—an indication of the +eternal solidity and youth of Rome. The cult of Juventas did +not, however, become firmly established until the time of the +second Punic war. In 218 the Sibylline books ordered a lectisternium +in honour of Juventas and a supplicatio in honour of +Hercules, and in 191 a temple was dedicated in her honour in +the Circus Maximus. In later times Juventas became the +personification, not of the Roman youth, but of the emperor, +who assumed the attributes of a god (Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, +xxxvi. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 69; G. Wissowa in Roscher’s +<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBEL, JOHANN PETER<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1760-1826), German poet and +popular writer, was born at Basel on the 10th of May 1760. +The father dying when the child was little over a year old, he +was brought up amidst poverty-stricken conditions in the village +of Hausen in the Wiesental, where he received his earliest +education. Being of brilliant promise, he found friends who +enabled him to complete his school education and to study +theology (1778-1780) at Erlangen. At the end of his university +course he was for a time a private tutor, then became teacher at +the Gymnasium in Karlsruhe, and in 1808 was appointed director +of the school. He was subsequently appointed member of the +Consistory and “evangelical prelate.” He died at Schwetzingen, +near Heidelberg, on the 22nd of September 1826. Hebel is one +of the most widely read of all German popular poets and writers. +His poetical narratives and lyric poems, written in the “Alemanic” +dialect, are “popular” in the best sense. His <i>Allemannische +Gedichte</i> (1803) “bucolicize,” in the words of Goethe, “the +whole world in the most attractive manner” (<i>verbauert das ganze +Universum auf die anmutigste Weise</i>). Indeed, few modern +German poets surpass him in fidelity, <i>naïveté</i>, humour, and in the +freshness and vigour of his descriptions. His poem, <i>Die Wiese</i>, +has been described by Johannes Scherr as the “pearl of German +idyllic poetry”; while his prose writings, especially the narratives +and essays contained in the <i>Schatzkästlein des rheinischen +Hausfreundes</i> (Tübingen, 1811; new edition, Stuttg. 1869, +1888), belong to the best class of German stories, and according +to August Friedrich Christian Vilmar (1800-1868) in his <i>Geschichte +der deutschen Literatur</i> are “worth more than a cartload of +novels” (<i>wiegen ein ganzes Fuder Romane auf</i>). Memorials +have been erected to him at Karlsruhe, Basel and Schwetzingen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of Hebel’s works—<i>Sämtliche Werke</i>—was +first published at Stuttgart in 8 vols. (1832-1834); subsequent +editions appeared in 1847 (3 vols.), 1868 (2 vols.), 1873 (edited by +G. Wendt, 2 vols.), 1883-1885 (edited by O. Behaghel, 2 vols.) and +1905 (edited by E. Keller, 5 vols.), as well as innumerable reprints. +Hebel’s correspondence has been edited by O. Behaghel (1883). +See G. Längin, <i>J. P. Hebel, ein Lebensbild</i> (1894), and the introduction +to Behaghel’s edition.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBER, REGINALD<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1783-1826), English bishop and hymn-writer, +was born at Malpas in Cheshire on the 21st of April +1783. His father, who belonged to an old Yorkshire family, +held a moiety of the living of Malpas. Reginald Heber early +showed remarkable promise, and was entered in November 1800 +at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he proved a distinguished +student, carrying off prizes for a Latin poem entitled <i>Carmen +seculare</i>, an English poem on <i>Palestine</i>, and a prose essay on +<i>The Sense of Honour</i>. In November 1804 he was elected a +fellow of All Souls College; and, after finishing his distinguished +university career, he made a long tour in Europe. He was +admitted to holy orders in 1807, and was then presented to the +family living of Hodnet in Shropshire. In 1809 Heber married +Amelia, daughter of Dr Shipley, dean of St Asaph. He was +made prebendary of St Asaph in 1812, appointed Bampton +lecturer for 1815, preacher at Lincoln’s Inn in 1822, and bishop +of Calcutta in January 1823. Before sailing for India he received +the degree of D.D. from the university of Oxford. In India +Bishop Heber laboured indefatigably, not only for the good of +his own diocese, but for the spread of Christianity throughout +the East. He undertook numerous tours in India, consecrating +churches, founding schools and discharging other Christian +duties. His devotion to his work in a trying climate told severely +on his health. At Trichinopoly he was seized with an apoplectic +fit when in his bath, and died on the 3rd of April 1826. A +statue of him, by Chantrey, was erected at Calcutta.</p> + +<p>Heber was a pious man of profound learning, literary taste +and great practical energy. His fame rests mainly on his +hymns, which rank among the best in the English language. +The following may be instanced: “Lord of mercy and of +might”; “Brightest and best of the sons of the morning”; +“By cool Siloam’s shady rill”; “God, that madest earth +and heaven”; “The Lord of might from Sinai’s brow”; +“Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty”; “From Greenland’s +icy mountains”; “The Lord will come, the earth shall quake”; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span> +“The Son of God goes forth to war.” Heber’s hymns and other +poems are distinguished by finish of style, pathos and soaring +aspiration; but they lack originality, and are rather rhetorical +than poetical in the strict sense.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among Heber’s works are: <i>Palestine: a Poem, to which is added +the Passage of the Red Sea</i> (1809); <i>Europe: Lines on the Present War</i> +(1809); a volume of poems in 1812; <i>The Personality and Office of +the Christian Comforter asserted and explained</i> (being the Bampton +Lectures for 1815); <i>The Whole Works of Bishop Jeremy Taylor, with +a Life of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings</i> (1822); +<i>Hymns written and adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the Year, +principally by Bishop Heber</i> (1827); <i>A Journey through India</i> (1828); +<i>Sermons preached in England</i>, and <i>Sermons preached in India</i> (1829); +<i>Sermons on the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle for every Sunday in +the Year</i> (1837). <i>The Poetical Works of Reginald Heber</i> were collected +in 1841.</p> + +<p>See the <i>Life of Reginald Heber, D.D. ...</i>, by his widow, Amelia +Heber (1830), which also contains a number of Heber’s miscellaneous +writings; <i>The Last Days of Bishop Heber</i>, by Thomas Robinson, +A.M., archdeacon of Madras (1830); T. S. Smyth, The Character +and Religious Doctrine of Bishop Heber (1831), and <i>Memorials of a +Quiet Life</i>, by Augustus J. C. Hare (1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBER, RICHARD<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1773-1833), English book-collector, +the half-brother of Reginald Heber, was born in London on +the 5th of January 1773. As an undergraduate at Brasenose +College, Oxford, he began to collect a purely classical library, +but his taste broadening, he became interested in early English +drama and literature, and began his wonderful collection of rare +books in these departments. He attended continental book-sales, +purchasing sometimes single volumes, sometimes whole +libraries. Sir Walter Scott, whose intimate friend he was, and +who dedicated to him the sixth canto of <i>Marmion</i>, classed +Heber’s library as “superior to all others in the world”; +Campbell described him as “the fiercest and strongest of all the +bibliomaniacs.” He did not confine himself to the purchase +of a single copy of a work which took his fancy. “No gentleman,” +he remarked, “can be without three copies of a book, one for +show, one for use, and one for borrowers.” To such a size did +his library grow that it over-ran eight houses, some in England, +some on the Continent. It is estimated to have cost over £100,000, +and after his death the sale of that part of his collection stored +in England realized more than £56,000. He is known to have +owned 150,000 volumes, and probably many more. He possessed +extensive landed property in Shropshire and Yorkshire, and was +sheriff of the former county in 1821, was member of Parliament +for Oxford University from 1821-1826, and in 1822 was made +a D.C.L. of that University. He was one of the founders of the +Athenaeum Club, London. He died in London on the 4th of +October 1833.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBERDEN, WILLIAM<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1710-1801), English physician, was +born in London in 1710. In the end of 1724 he was sent to St +John’s College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship +about 1730, became master of arts in 1732, and took the degree +of M.D. in 1739. He remained at Cambridge nearly ten years +longer practising medicine, and gave an annual course of lectures +on materia medica. In 1746 he became a fellow of the Royal +College of Physicians in London; and two years later he settled +in London, where he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society +in 1749, and enjoyed an extensive medical practice for more +than thirty years. At the age of seventy-two he partially +retired, spending his summers at a house which he had taken +at Windsor, but he continued to practise in London during the +winter for some years longer. In 1778 he was made an honorary +member of the Paris Royal Society of Medicine. He died in +London on the 17th of May 1801. Heberden, who was a good +classical scholar, published several papers in the Phil. Trans. +of the Royal Society, and among his noteworthy contributions +to the <i>Medical Transactions</i> (issued, largely at his suggestion, by +the College of Physicians) were papers on chicken-pox (1767) +and angina pectoris (1768). His <i>Commentarii de morborum +historia et curatione</i>, the result of careful notes made in his +pocket-book at the bedside of his patients, were published in +1802; in the following year an English translation appeared, +believed to be from the pen of his son, William Heberden (1767-1845), +also a distinguished scholar and physician, who attended +King George III. in his last illness.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÉBERT, EDMOND<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1812-1890), French geologist, was +born at Villefargau, Yonne, on the 12th of June 1812. He was +educated at the Collège de Meaux, Auxerre, and at the École +Normale in Paris. In 1836 he became professor at Meaux, +in 1838 demonstrator in chemistry and physics at the École +Normale, and in 1841 sub-director of studies at that school and +lecturer on geology. In 1857 the degree of D. ès Sc. was conferred +upon him, and he was appointed professor of geology at the +Sorbonne. There he was eminently successful as a teacher, +and worked with great zeal in the field, adding much to the +knowledge of the Jurassic and older strata. He devoted, however, +special attention to the subdivisions of the Cretaceous +and Tertiary formations in France, and to their correlation with +the strata in England and in southern Europe. To him we owe +the first definite arrangement of the Chalk into palaeontological +zones (see Table in <i>Geol. Mag.</i>, 1869, p. 200). During his later +years he was regarded as the leading geologist in France. He +was elected a member of the Institute in 1877, Commander +of the Legion of Honour in 1885, and he was three times president +of the Geological Society of France. He died in Paris on the +4th of April 1890.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÉBERT, JACQUES RENÉ<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1757-1794), French Revolutionist, +called “Père Duchesne,” from the newspaper he edited, was +born at Alençon, on the 15th of November 1757, where his +father, who kept a goldsmith’s shop, had held some municipal +office. His family was ruined, however, by a lawsuit while +he was still young, and Hébert came to Paris, where in his +struggle against poverty he endured great hardships; the +accusations of theft directed against him later by Camille +Desmoulins were, however, without foundation. In 1790 he +attracted attention by some pamphlets, and became a prominent +member of the club of the Cordeliers in 1791. On the 10th of +August 1792 he was a member of the revolutionary Commune +of Paris, and became second substitute of the <i>procureur</i> of the +Commune on the 2nd of December 1792. His violent attacks +on the Girondists led to his arrest on the 24th of May 1793, but +he was released owing to the threatening attitude of the mob. +Henceforth very popular, Hébert organized with P. G. Chaumette +(<i>q.v.</i>) the “worship of Reason,” in opposition to the theistic +cult inaugurated by Robespierre, against whom he tried to excite +a popular movement. The failure of this brought about the +arrest of the Hébertists, or <i>enragés</i>, as his partisans were called. +Hébert was guillotined on the 24th of March 1794. His wife, +who had been a nun, was executed twenty days later. Hébert’s +influence was mainly due to his articles in his journal <i>Le Père +Duchesne</i>,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which appeared from 1790 to 1794. These articles, +while not lacking in a certain cleverness, were violent and +abusive, and purposely couched in foul language in order to +appeal to the mob.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Louis Duval, “Hébert chez lui,” in <i>La Révolution Française, +revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine</i>, t. xii. and t. xiii.; D. Mater, +<i>J. R. Hébert, l’auteur du Père Duchesne avant la journée du 10 août +1792</i> (Bourges, Comm. Hist. du Cher, 1888); F. A. Aulard, <i>Le Culte +de la raison et de l’être suprême</i> (Paris, 1892).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There were several journals of this name, the best known of the +others being that edited by Lemaire.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBREW LANGUAGE.<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> The name “Hebrew” is derived, +through the Greek <span class="grk" title="Hebraios">Ἑβραῖος</span>, from <i>‘ibhray</i>, the Aramaic equivalent +of the Old Testament word <i>‘ibhrī</i>, denoting the people who +commonly spoke of themselves as Israel or Children of Israel +from the name of their common ancestor (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>). The +later derivative <i>Yisra’elī</i>, Israelite, from Yisra’el, is not found +in the Old Testament.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Other names used for the language of +Israel are <i>speech of Canaan</i> (Isa. xix. 18) and <i>Yehūdhīth</i>, Jewish, +(2 Kings xviii. 26). In later times it was called the <i>holy tongue</i>. +The real meaning of the word <i>‘ibhrī</i> must ultimately be sought +in the root <i>‘abhar</i>, to pass across, to go beyond, from which is +derived the noun <i>‘ebher</i>, meaning the “farther bank” of a river. +The usual explanation of the term is that of Jewish tradition +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span> +that <i>’ibhrī</i> means the man “from the other side,” <i>i.e.</i> either of +the Euphrates or the Jordan. Hence the Septuagint in Gen. +xiv. 13 render Abram <i>ha-‘ibhrī</i> by <span class="grk" title="ho peratês">ὁ περάτης</span>, the “crosser,” +and Aquila, following the same tradition, has <span class="grk" title="ho peraitês">ὁ περαἴτης</span>, the +man “from beyond.” This view of course implies that the term +was originally applied to Abram or his descendants by a people +living on the west of the Euphrates or of the Jordan. It has +been suggested that the root <i>‘abhar</i> is to be taken in the sense +of “travelling,” and that Abram the wandering Aramaean +(Deut. xxvi. 5) was called <i>ha-‘ibhrī</i> because he travelled about +for trading purposes, his language, <i>‘ibhrī</i>, being the <i>lingua +franca</i> of Eastern trade. The use of the term <span class="grk" title="hebraisti">ἑβραϊστί</span> for +biblical Hebrew is first found in the Greek prologue to Ecclesiasticus +(<i>c.</i> 130 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In the New Testament it denotes the native +language of Palestine (Aramaic and Hebrew being popularly +confused) as opposed to Greek. In modern usage the name +Hebrew is applied to that branch of the northern part of the +Semitic family of languages which was used by the Israelites +during most of the time of their national existence in Palestine, +and in which nearly all their sacred writings are composed. As +to its characteristics and relation to other languages of the same +stock, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Semitic Languages</a></span>. It also includes the later forms +of the same language as used by Jewish writers after the close +of the Canon throughout the middle ages (Rabbinical Hebrew) +and to the present day (New Hebrew).</p> + +<p>Before the rise of comparative philology it was a popular +opinion that Hebrew was the original speech of mankind, from +which all others were descended. This belief, derived from the +Jews (cf. Pal. Targ. Gen. xi. 1), was supported by the etymologies +and other data supplied by the early chapters of Genesis. But +though Hebrew possesses a very old literature, it is not, as we +know it, structurally as early as, <i>e.g.</i> Arabic, or, in other words, +it does not come so near to that primitive Semitic speech which +may be pre-supposed as the common parent of all the Semitic +languages. Owing to the imperfection of the Hebrew alphabet, +which, like that of most Semitic languages, has no means of +expressing vowel-sounds, it is only partly possible to trace the +development of the language. In its earliest form it was no +doubt most closely allied to the Canaanite or Phoenician stock, +to the language of Moab, as revealed by the stele of Mesha +(<i>c.</i> 850 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and to Edomite. The vocalization of Canaanite, +as far as it is known to us, <i>e.g.</i> from glosses in the Tell-el-Amarna +tablets (15th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and much later from the Punic +passages in the <i>Poenulus</i> of Plautus, differs in many respects +from that of the Hebrew of the Old Testament, as also does the +Septuagint transcription of proper names. The uniformity, +however, of the Old Testament text is due to the labours of +successive schools of grammarians who elaborated the Massorah +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Literature</a></span>), thereby obliterating local or dialectic +differences, which undoubtedly existed, and establishing the +pronunciation current in the synagogues about the 7th century +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> The only mention of such differences in the Old Testament +is in Judges xii. 6, where it is stated that the Ephraimites pronounced +<span title="sh">ש</span> (sh) as <span title="s">ש</span> or <span title="s">ס</span> (s). In Neh. xiii. 24, the “speech +of Ashdod” is more probably a distinct (Philistine) language. +Certain peculiarities in the language of the Pentateuch (<span title="hu">הוא</span> for +<span title="hi">היא</span>, <span title="naar">נער</span> for <span title="naara">נערה</span>), which used to be regarded as archaisms, +are to be explained as purely orthographical.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In a series of +writings, however, extending over so long a period as those of +the Old Testament, some variation or development in language +is to be expected apart from the natural differences between the +poetic (or prophetic) and prose styles. The consonantal text +sometimes betrays these in spite of the Massorah. In general, +the later books of the Old Testament show, roughly speaking, +a greater simplicity and uniformity of style, as well as a tendency +to Aramaisms. For some centuries after the Exile, the people +of Palestine must have been bilingual, speaking Aramaic for +ordinary purposes, but still at least understanding Hebrew. +Not that they forgot their own tongue in the Captivity and learnt +Aramaic in Babylon, as used to be supposed. In the western +provinces of the Persian empire Aramaic was the official language, +spoken not only in Palestine but in all the surrounding +countries, even in Egypt and among Arab tribes such as the +Nabateans. It is natural, therefore, that it should influence and +finally supplant Hebrew in popular use, so that translations even +of the Old Testament eventually appear in it (<span class="sc">Targums</span>). Meanwhile +Hebrew did not become a dead language—indeed it can +hardly be said ever to have died, since it has continued in use +till the present day for the purposes of ordinary life among +educated Jews in all parts of the world. It gradually became a +literary rather than a popular tongue, as appears from the style +of the later books of the Old Testament (Chron., Dan., Eccles.), +and from the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus (<i>c.</i> 170 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). During +the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> we have no direct +evidence of its characteristics. After that period there is a great +development in the language of the Mishna. It was still living +Hebrew, although mainly confined to the schools, with very +clear differences from the biblical language. In the Old Testament +the range of subjects was limited. In the Mishna it was +very much extended. Matters relating to daily life had to be +discussed, and words and phrases were adopted from what was +no doubt the popular language of an earlier period. A great +many foreign words were also introduced. The language being +no longer familiar in the same sense as formerly, greater definiteness +of expression became necessary in the written style. In +order to avoid the uncertainty arising from the lack of vowels +to distinguish forms consisting of the same consonants (for +the vowel-points were not yet invented), the aramaising use of +the reflexive conjugations (Hithpa‘el, Nithpa‘el) for the internal +passives (Pu‘al, Hoph‘al) became common; particles were used +to express the genitive and other relations, and in general there +was an endeavour to avoid the obscurities of a purely consonantal +writing. What is practically Mishnic Hebrew continued to be +used in Midrash for some centuries. The language of both +Talmuds, which, roughly speaking, were growing contemporaneously +with Midrash, is a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic +(Eastern Aram. in the Babylonian, Western in the Jerusalem +Talmud), as was also that of the earlier commentators. As the +popular use of Aramaic was gradually restricted by the spread +of Arabic as the vernacular (from the 7th century onwards), +while the dispersion of the Jews became wider, biblical Hebrew +again came to be the natural standard both of East and West. +The cultivation of it is shown and was no doubt promoted by +the many philological works (grammars, lexicons and masorah) +which are extant from the 10th century onward. In Spain, +under Moorish dominion, most of the important works of that +period were composed in Arabic, and the influence of Arabic +writers both on language and method may be seen in contemporaneous +Hebrew compositions. No other vernacular +(except, of course, Aramaic) ever had the same influence upon +Hebrew, largely because no other bears so close a relation to it. +At the present day in the East, and among learned Jews elsewhere, +Hebrew is still cultivated conversationally, and it is +widely used for literary purposes. Numerous works on all kinds +of subjects are produced in various countries, periodicals flourish, +and Hebrew is the vehicle of correspondence between Jews in +all parts of the world. Naturally its quality varies with the +ability and education of the writer. In the modern <i>pronunciation</i> +the principal differences are between the Ashkenazim (German +and Polish Jews) and the Sephardim (Spanish and Portuguese +Jews), and concern not only the vowels but also certain consonants, +and in some cases probably go back to early times. As +regards <i>writing</i>, it is most likely that the oldest Hebrew records +were preserved in some form of cuneiform script. The alphabet +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writing</a></span>) subsequently adopted is seen in its earliest form +on the stele of Mesha, and has been retained, with modifications, +by the Samaritans. According to Jewish tradition Ezra introduced +the Assyrian character (<span title="ktav ashuri">כתב אשורי</span>), a much-debated +statement which no doubt means that the Aramaic hand in use +in Babylonia was adopted by the Jews about the 5th century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> Another form of the same hand, allowing for differences of +material, is found in Egyptian Aramaic papyri of the 5th and 4th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span> +centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> From this were developed (<i>a</i>) the <i>square</i> character +used in MSS. of the Bible or important texts, and in most printed +books, (<i>b</i>) the <i>Rabbinic</i> (or Rashi) character, used in commentaries +and treatises of all kinds, both in MS. and in printed books, +(<i>c</i>) the <i>Cursive</i> character, used in letters and for informal purposes, +not as a rule printed. In the present state of Hebrew palaeography +it is not possible to determine accurately the date of a +MS., but it is easy to recognize the country in which it was written. +The most clearly marked distinctions are between Spanish, +French, German, Italian, Maghrebi, Greek, Syrian (including +Egyptian), Yemenite, Persian and Qaraite hands. It is in the +Rabbinic and Cursive characters that the differences are most +noticeable. The Hebrew alphabet is also used, generally with +the addition of some diacritical marks, by Jews to write other +languages, chiefly Arabic, Spanish, Persian, Greek, Tatar (by +Qaraites) and in later times German.</p> + +<p>The philological study of Hebrew among the Jews is described +below, under Hebrew Literature, of which it formed an integral +part. Among Christian scholars there was no independent +school of Hebraists before the revival of learning. In the Greek +and Latin Church the few fathers who, like Origen and Jerome, +knew something of the language, were wholly dependent on their +Jewish teachers, and their chief value for us is as depositaries +of Jewish tradition. Similarly in the East, the Syriac version +of the Old Testament is largely under the influence of the synagogue, +and the homilies of Aphraates are a mine of Rabbinic +lore. In the middle ages some knowledge of Hebrew was preserved +in the Church by converted Jews and even by non-Jewish +scholars, of whom the most notable were the Dominican controversialist +Raymundus Martini (in his <i>Pugio fidei</i>) and the +Franciscan Nicolaus of Lyra, on whom Luther drew largely in +his interpretation of Scripture. But there was no tradition of +Hebrew study apart from the Jews, and in the 15th century +when an interest in the subject was awakened, only the most +ardent zeal could conquer the obstacles that lay in the way. +Orthodox Jews refused to teach those who were not of their +faith, and on the other hand many churchmen conscientiously +believed in the duty of entirely suppressing Jewish learning. +Even books were to be had only with the greatest difficulty, +at least north of the Alps. In Italy things were somewhat +better. Jews expelled from Spain received favour from the popes. +Study was facilitated by the use of the printing-press, and some +of the earliest books printed were in Hebrew. The father of +Hebrew study among Christians was the humanist Johann +Reuchlin (1455-1522), the author of the <i>Rudimenta Hebraica</i> +(Pforzheim, 1506), whose contest with the converted Jew +Pfefferkorn and the Cologne obscurantists, established the claim +of the new study to recognition by the Church. Interest in the +subject spread rapidly. Among Reuchlin’s own pupils were +Melanchthon, Oecolampadius and Cellarius, while Sebastian +Münster in Heidelberg (afterwards professor at Basel), and +Büchlein (Fagius) at Isny, Strasburg and Cambridge, were +pupils of the liberal Jewish scholar Elias Levita. France +drew teachers from Italy. Santes Pagninus of Lucca was at +Lyons; and the trilingual college of Francis I. at Paris, with +Vatablus and le Mercier, attracted, among other foreigners, +Giustiniani, bishop of Nebbio, the editor of the Genoa psalter +of 1516. In Rome the converted Jew Felix Pratensis taught +under the patronage of Leo X., and did useful work in connexion +with the great Bomberg Bibles. In Spain Hebrew learning +was promoted by Cardinal Ximenes, the patron of the Complutensian +Polyglot. The printers, as J. Froben at Basel and +Etienne at Paris, also produced Hebrew books. For a time +Christian scholars still leaned mainly on the Rabbis. But a more +independent spirit soon arose, of which le Mercier in the 16th, +and Drusius early in the 17th century, may be taken as representatives. +In the 17th century too the cognate languages were +studied by J. Selden, E. Castell (Heptaglott lexicon) and E. +Pococke (Arabic) in England, Ludovicus de Dieu in Holland, +S. Bochart in France, J. Ludolf (Ethiopic) and J. H. Hottinger +(Syriac) in Germany, with advantage to the Hebrew grammar +and lexicon. Rabbinic learning moreover was cultivated at +Basel by the elder Buxtorf who was the author of grammatical +works and a lexicon. With the rise of criticism Hebrew philology +soon became a necessary department of theology. Cappellus +(d. 1658) followed Levita in maintaining, against Buxtorf, the +late introduction of the vowel-points, a controversy in which +the authority of the massoretic text was concerned. He was +supported by J. Morin and R. Simon in France. In the 18th +century in Holland A. Schultens and N. W. Schroeder used the +comparative method, with great success, relying mainly on +Arabic. In Germany there was the meritorious J. D. Michaelis +and in France the brilliant S. de Sacy. In the 19th century +the greatest name among Hebraists is that of Gesenius, at Halle, +whose shorter grammar (of Biblical Hebrew) first published in +1813, is still the standard work, thanks to the ability with which +his pupil E. Rödiger and recently E. Kautzsch have revised +and enlarged it. Important work was also done by G. H. A. +Ewald, J. Olshausen and P. A. de Lagarde, not to mention +later scholars who have utilized the valuable results of Assyriological +research.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Among the numerous works dealing with the +study of Hebrew, the following are some of the most practically +useful.</p> + +<p><span class="bold">Grammars, Introductory.</span>—Davidson, <i>Introductory Hebrew Grammar</i> +(9th ed., Edinburgh, 1888); and <i>Syntax</i> (Edinburgh, 1894). Advanced: +Gesenius’s <i>Hebräische Grammatik</i>, ed. Kautzsch (28th ed., +Leipzig, 1909; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1910); also Driver, <i>Treatise on +the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew</i> (3rd ed., Oxford, 1892). For post-biblical +Hebrew, Strack and Siegfried, <i>Lehrbuch d. neuhebräischen +Sprache</i> (Leipzig, 1884).</p> + +<p><span class="bold">Comparative Grammar.</span>—Wright, <i>Lectures on the Comp. Grammar +of the Sem. Lang.</i> (Cambridge, 1890); Brockelmann, <i>Grundriss der +vergleichenden Grammatik</i> (Berlin, 1907, &c.).</p> + +<p><span class="bold">Lexicons.</span>—Gesenius’s <i>Thesaurus philologicus</i> (Leipzig, 1829-1858), +and his <i>Hebräisches Handwörterbuch</i> (15th ed. by Zimmern and Buhl, +Leipzig, 1910); Brown, Briggs and Driver, <i>Hebrew and Eng. Lexicon</i> +(Oxford, 1892-1906). For later Hebrew: Levy, <i>Neuhebräisches +Wörterbuch</i> (Leipzig, 1876-1889); Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumi, +&c. (New York, 1886, &c.); Dalman, <i>Aramaisches neuhebräisches +Wörterbuch</i> (Frankfort a. M., 1897); Kohut, <i>Aruch completum</i> +(Vienna, 1878-1890) (in Hebrew) is valuable for the language of the +Talmud.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Cy.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In 2 Sam. xvii. 25 <i>Israelite</i> should be <i>Ishmaelite</i>, as in the +parallel passage 1 Chron. ii. 17.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Zimmern, in <i>Ztsch. für Assyriol.</i> (1891), p. 154.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Gesenius-Kautzsch, <i>Hebr. Gram.</i> § 17 c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBREW LITERATURE.<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> Properly speaking, “Hebrew +Literature” denotes all works written in the Hebrew language. +In catalogues and bibliographies, however, the expression is now +generally used, conveniently if incorrectly, as synonymous with +Jewish literature, including all works written by Jews in Hebrew +characters, whether the language be Aramaic, Arabic or even +some vernacular not related to Hebrew.</p> + +<p>The literature begins with, as it is almost entirely based upon, +the Old Testament. There were no doubt in the earliest times +popular songs orally transmitted and perhaps books +of annals and laws, but except in so far as remnants +<span class="sidenote">Old Testament-Scriptures.</span> +of them are embedded in the biblical books, they have +entirely disappeared. Thus the Book of the Wars of +the Lord is mentioned in Num. xxi. 14; the Book of Jashar +in Josh. x. 13, 2. Sam. i. 18; the Song of the Well is quoted in +Num. xxi. 17, 18, and the song of Sihon and Moab, ib. 27-30; +of Lamech, Gen. iv. 23, 24; of Moses, Exod. xv. As in other +literatures, these popular elements form the foundation on which +greater works are gradually built, and it is one function of literary +criticism to show the way in which the component parts were +welded into a uniform whole. The traditional view that Moses +was the author of the Pentateuch in its present form, would +make this the earliest monument of Hebrew literature. Modern +inquiry, however, has arrived at other conclusions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>, +<i>Old Testament</i>), which may be briefly summarized as follows: +the Pentateuch is compiled from various documents, the earliest +of which is denoted by J (beginning at Gen. ii. 4) from the fact +that its author regularly uses the divine name Jehovah (Yahweh). +Its date is now usually given as about 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the next +century the document E was composed, so called from its using +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span> +Elohīm (God) instead of Yahweh. Both these documents are +considered to have originated in the Northern kingdom, Israel, +where also in the 8th century appeared the prophets Amos and +Hosea. To the same period belong the book of Micah, the earlier +parts of the books of Samuel, of Isaiah and of Proverbs, and +perhaps some Psalms. In 722 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Samaria was taken and the +Northern kingdom ceased to exist. Judah suffered also, and it is +not until a century later that any important literary activity +is again manifested. The main part of the book of Deuteronomy +was “found” shortly before 621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and about the same time +appeared the prophets Jeremiah and Zephaniah, and perhaps +the book of Ruth. A few years later (about 600) the two Pentateuchal +documents J and E were woven together, the books of +Kings were compiled, the book of Habakkuk and parts of the +Proverbs were written. Early in the next century Jerusalem +was taken by Nebuchadrezzar, and the prophet Ezekiel was +among the exiles with Jehoiachin. Somewhat later (<i>c.</i> 550) the +combined document JE was edited by a writer under the influence +of Deuteronomy, the later parts of the books of Samuel were +written, parts of Isaiah, the books of Obadiah, Haggai, Zechariah +and perhaps the later Proverbs. In the exile, but probably after +500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, an important section of the Hexateuch, usually called +the Priest’s Code (P), was drawn up. At various times in the +same century are to be placed the book of Job, the post-exilic +parts of Isaiah, the books of Joel, Jonah, Malachi and the Song +of Songs. The Pentateuch (or Hexateuch) was finally completed +in its present form at some time before 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The latest parts +of the Old Testament are the books of Chronicles, Ezra and +Nehemiah (<i>c.</i> 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Ecclesiastes and Esther (3rd century) +and Daniel, composed either in the 3rd century or according +to some views as late as the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (<i>c.</i> 168 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>). With regard to the date of the Psalms, internal evidence, +from the nature of the case, leads to few results which are convincing. +The most reasonable view seems to be that the collection +was formed gradually and that the process was going on during +most of the period sketched above.</p> + +<p>It is not to be supposed that all the contents of the Old Testament +were immediately accepted as sacred, or that they were +ever all regarded as being on the same level. The +Torah, the Law delivered to Moses, held among the +<span class="sidenote">Apocryphal literature.</span> +Jews of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as it holds now, a pre-eminent +position. The inclusion of other books in the +Canon was gradual, and was effected only after centuries of +debate. The Jews have always been, however, an intensely +literary people, and the books ultimately accepted as canonical +were only a selection from the literature in existence at the +beginning of the Christian era. The rejected books receiving +little attention have mostly either been altogether lost or have +survived only in translations, as in the case of the Apocrypha. +Hence from the composition of the latest canonical books to the +redaction of the Mishna (see below) in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, the +remains of Hebrew literature are very scanty. Of books of this +period which are known to have existed in Hebrew or Aramaic +up to the time of Jerome (and even later) we now possess most +of the original Hebrew text of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus) in a +somewhat corrupt form, and fragments of an Aramaic text of a recension +of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, both discovered +within recent years. Besides definite works of this kind, there +was also being formed during this period a large body of exegetical +and legal material, for the most part orally transmitted, +which only received its literary form much later. As Hebrew +became less familiar to the people, a system of translating +the text of the Law into the Aramaic vernacular verse by verse, +was adopted in the synagogue. The beginnings of it are supposed +to be indicated in Neh. viii. 8. The translation was no doubt +originally extemporary, and varied with the individual translators, +but its form gradually became fixed and was ultimately +<span class="sidenote">Targum.</span> +written down. It was called <i>Targum</i>, from the +Aramaic <i>targem</i>, to translate. The earliest to be thus +edited was the Targum of Onkelos (Onqelōs), the proselyte, on +the Law. It received its final form in Babylonia probably in the +3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The Samaritan Targum, of about the same +date, clearly rests on the same tradition. Parallel to Onkelos +was another Targum on the Law, generally called pseudo-Jonathan, +which was edited in the 7th century in Palestine, and +is based on the same system of interpretation but is fuller and +closer to the original tradition. There is also a fragmentary +Targum (Palestinian) the relation of which to the others is +obscure. It may be only a series of disconnected glosses on +Onkelos. For the other books, the recognized Targum on the +Prophets is that ascribed to Jonathan ben Uzziel (4th century?), +which originated in Palestine, but was edited in Babylonia, so +that it has the same history and linguistic character as Onkelos. +Just as there is a Palestinian Targum on the Law parallel to the +Babylonian Onkelos, so there is a Palestinian Targum (called +<i>Yerushalmi</i>) on the Prophets parallel to that of Ben Uzziel, but +of later date and incomplete. The Law and the Prophets being +alone used in the services of the synagogue, there was no authorized +version of the rest of the Canon. There are, however, +Targumim on the Psalms and Job, composed in the 5th century, +on Proverbs, resembling the Peshiṭtā version, on the five +Meghillōth, paraphrastic and agadic (see below) in character, +and on Chronicles—all Palestinian. There is also a second +Targum on Esther. There is none on Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah.</p> + +<p>We must now return to the 2nd century. During the period +which followed the later canonical books, not only was translation, +and therefore exegesis, cultivated, but even more the +amplification of the Law. According to Jewish teaching +<span class="sidenote">Halakhah.</span> +(<i>e.g.</i> Abhoth i. 1) Moses received on Mount Sinai not +only the written Law as set down in the Pentateuch, but also +the Oral Law, which he communicated personally to the 70 +elders and through them by a “chain of tradition” to succeeding +ages. The application of this oral law is called <i>Halakhah</i>, the +rules by which a man’s daily “walk” is regulated. The halakhah +was by no means inferior in prestige to the written Law. Indeed +some teachers even went so far as to ascribe a higher value to it, +since it comes into closer relation with the details of everyday +life. It was not independent of the written Law, still less could +it be in opposition to it. Rather it was implicitly contained +in the Torah, and the duty of the teacher was to show +this. It was therefore of the first importance that the chain of +tradition should be continuous and trustworthy. The line is +traced through biblical teachers to Ezra, the first of the Sōpherīm +or scribes, who handed on the charge to the “men of the Great +Synagogue,” a much-discussed term for a body or succession of +teachers inaugurated by Ezra. The last member of it, Simon the +Just (either Simon I., who died about 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, or Simon II., who +died about 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), was the first of the next series, called Elders, +represented in the tradition by <i>pairs</i> of teachers, ending with +Hillel and Shammai about the beginning of the Christian era. +Their pupils form the starting-point of the next series, the +Tannāīm (from Aram. <i>tenā</i> to teach), who occupy the first two +centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p> + +<p>By this time the collection of halakhic material had become +very large and various, and after several attempts had been made +to reduce it to uniformity, a code of oral tradition was +finally drawn up in the 2nd century by Judah ha-Nasī, +<span class="sidenote">Mishnah.</span> +called Rabbi <i>par excellence</i>. This was the Mishnah. Its name +is derived from the Hebrew <i>shanah</i>, corresponding to the Aramaic +<i>tenā</i>, and therefore a suitable name for a tannaitic work, meaning +the <i>repetition</i> or <i>teaching</i> of the oral law. It is written in the +Hebrew of the schools (<i>leshōn hakhamīm</i>) which differs in +many respects from that of the Old Testament (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew +Language</a></span>). It is divided into six “orders,” according to +subject, and each order is subdivided into chapters. In making +his selection of halakhōth, Rabbi used the earlier compilations, +which are quoted as “words of Rabbi ‘Aqība” or of R. Me‘īr, +but rejected much which was afterwards collected under the +title of Tosefta (<i>addition</i>) and Baraita (<i>outside</i> the Mishnah).</p> + +<p>Traditional teaching was, however, not confined to halakhah. +As observed above, it was the duty of the teachers to show the +connexion of practical rules with the written Law, +the more so since the Sadducees rejected the authority +<span class="sidenote">Midrash.</span> +of the oral law as such. Hence arises Midrash, <i>exposition</i>, from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span> +<i>darash</i> to “investigate” a scriptural passage. Of this halakhic +Midrash we possess that on Exodus, called Mekhilta, that on +Leviticus, called Sifra, and that on Numbers and Deuteronomy, +called Sifrē. All of these were drawn up in the period of the +Amorāīm, the order of teachers who succeeded the Tannāīm, +from the close of the Mishnah to about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500. The term +Midrash, however, more commonly implies <i>agada</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the +homiletical exposition of the text, with illustrations designed +to make it more attractive to the readers or hearers. Picturesque +teaching of this kind was always popular, and specimens of it +are familiar in the Gospel discourses. It began, as a method, +with the Sōpherīm (though there are traces in the Old Testament +itself), and was most developed among the Tannāīm and Amorāīm, +rivalling even the study of halakhah. As the existing +halakhōth were collected and edited in the Mishnah, so the +much larger agadic material was gathered together and arranged +in the Midrashīm. Apart from the agadic parts of the earlier +Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifrē, the most important of these collections +(which are anonymous) form a sort of continuous commentary +on various books of the Bible. They were called <i>Rabbōth</i> (<i>great</i> +Midrashīm) to distinguish them from preceding smaller collections. +<i>Bereshīth Rabba</i>, on Genesis, and <i>Ēkhah Rabbatī</i>, on Lamentations, +were probably edited in the 7th century. Of the same +character and of about the same date are the <i>Pesīqta</i>, on the +lessons for Sabbaths and feast-days, and <i>Wayyiqra R.</i> on Leviticus. +A century perhaps later is the <i>Tanḥūma</i>, on the sections of +the Pentateuch, and later still the <i>Pesīqta Rabbatī</i>, <i>Shemōth R.</i> +(on Exodus), <i>Bemidhbar R.</i> (on Numbers), <i>Debharīm R.</i> (on +Deuteronomy). There are also Midrashīm on the Canticle, +Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and the Psalms, belonging to this +later period, the <i>Pirqē R. Eliezer</i>, of the 8th or 9th century, a +sort of history of creation and of the patriarchs, and the <i>Tanna +debē Eliyahū</i> (an ethical work of the 10th century but containing +much that is old), besides a large number of minor compositions.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +In general, these performed very much the same function as +the lives of saints in the early and medieval church. Very +important for the study of Midrashic literature are the <i>Yalqūṭ</i> +(<i>gleaning</i>) <i>Shim’ōnī</i>, on the whole Bible, the <i>Yalqūṭ Mekhīrī</i>, +on the Prophets, Psalms, Proverbs and Job, and the <i>Midrash +ha-gadhōl</i>,<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> all of which are of uncertain but late date and +preserve earlier material. The last, which is preserved in MSS. +from Yemen, is especially valuable as representing an independent +tradition.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, if agadic exegesis was popular in the centuries +following the redaction of the Mishna, the study of halakhah +was by no means neglected. As the discussion of the +Law led up to the compilation of the Mishnah, so the +<span class="sidenote">Talmud.</span> +Mishnah itself became in turn the subject of further discussion. +The material thus accumulated, both halakhic and agadic, +forming a commentary on and amplification of the Mishnah, +was eventually written down under the name of <i>Gemara</i> (from +<i>gemar</i>, to learn completely), the two together forming the +<i>Talmud</i> (properly “<i>instruction</i>”). The tradition, as in the case +of the Targums, was again twofold; that which had grown up +in the Palestinian Schools and that of Babylonia. The foundation, +however, the Mishnah, was the same in both. Both works +were due to the Amoraim and were completed by about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500, +though the date at which they were actually committed to +writing is very uncertain. It is probable that notes or selections +were from time to time written down to help in teaching and +learning the immense mass of material, in spite of the fact that +even in Sherira’s time (11th century) such aids to memory were +not officially recognized. Both Talmuds are arranged according +to the six orders of the Mishnah, but the discussion of the +Mishnic text often wanders off into widely different topics. +Neither is altogether complete. In the Palestinian Talmud +(<i>Yerushalmī</i>) the gemara of the 5th order (<i>Qodashīm</i>) and of +nearly all the 6th (<i>Ṭohōrōth</i>) is missing, besides smaller parts. +In the Babylonian Talmud (<i>Babhlī</i>) there is no gemara to the +smaller tractates of Order 1, and to parts of ii., iv., v., vi. The +language of both gemaras is in the main the Aramaic vernacular +(western Aramaic in Yerushalmī, eastern in Babhlī), but early +halakhic traditions (<i>e.g.</i> of Tannaitic origin) are given in their +original form, and the discussion of them is usually also in +Hebrew. Babhlī is not only greater in bulk than Yerushalmī, +but has also received far greater attention, so that the name +Talmud alone is often used for it. As being a constant object of +study numerous commentaries have been written on the Talmud +from the earliest times till the present. The most important of +them for the understanding of the gemara (Babhlī) is that of +Rashi<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> (Solomon ben Isaac, d. 1104) with the Tōsafōth (<i>additions</i>, +not to be confused with the Tosefta) chiefly by the French school +of rabbis following Rashi. These are always printed in the +editions on the same page as the Mishnah and Gemara, the whole, +with various other matter, filling generally about 12 folio volumes. +Since the introduction of printing, the Talmud is always cited by +the number of the leaf in the first edition (Venice, 1520, &c.), +to which all subsequent editions conform. In order to facilitate +the practical study of the Talmud, it was natural that abridgements +of it should be made. Two of these may be mentioned +which are usually found in the larger editions: that by Isaac +Alfasī (<i>i.e.</i> of Fez) in the 11th century, often cited in the Jewish +manner as <i>Rif</i>; and that by Asher ben Yeḥīel (d. 1328) of +Toledo, usually cited as <i>Rabbenū Asher</i>. The object of both was +to collect all halakhōth having a practical importance, omitting +all those which owing to circumstances no longer possess more +than an academic interest, and excluding the discussions on them +and all agada. Both add notes and explanations of their own, +and both have in turn formed the text of commentaries.</p> + +<p>With the Talmud, the anonymous period of Hebrew literature +may be considered to end. Henceforward important works +are produced not by schools but by particular teachers, +who, however, no doubt often represent the opinions +<span class="sidenote">Masorah.</span> +of a school. There are two branches of work which partake +of both characters, the Masorah and the Liturgy. The name +Masorah (Massorah) is usually derived from <i>masar</i>, to hand on, +and explained as “tradition.” According to others<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> it is the word +found in Ezek. xx. 37, meaning a “fetter.” Its object was to +fix the biblical text unalterably. It is generally divided into the +Great and the Small Masorah, forming together an <i>apparatus +criticus</i> which grew up gradually in the course of centuries and +now accompanies the text in most MSS. and printed editions to a +greater or less extent. There are also separate masoretic treatises. +Some system of the kind was necessary to guard against +corruptions of copyists, while the care bestowed upon it no doubt +reacted so as to enhance the sanctity ascribed to the text. Many +apparent puerilities, such as the counting of letters and the +marking of the middle point of books, had a practical use in +enabling copyists of MSS. to determine the amount of work +done. The registration of anomalies, such as the suspended +letters, inverted <i>nūns</i> and larger letters, enabled any one to test +the accuracy of a copy. But the work of the Masoretes was much +greater than this. Their long lists of the occurrences of words +and forms fixed with accuracy the present (Masoretic) text, +which they had produced, and were invaluable to subsequent +lexicographers, while their system of vowel-points and accents +not only gives us the pronunciation and manner of reading +traditional about the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but frequently serves +also the purpose of an explanatory commentary. (See further +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>.) Most of the Masorah is anonymous, including +the <i>Massekheth Sōferīm</i> (of various dates from perhaps the 6th +to the 9th century) and the <i>Okhlah we-Okhlah</i>, but when the +period of anonymous literature ceases, there appear (in the 10th +century) Ben Asher of Tiberias, the greatest authority on the +subject, and his opponent Ben Naphthali. Later on, Jacob +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span> +ben Ḥayyīm arranged the Masorah for the great Bomberg Bible +of 1524. Elias Levita’s <i>Massoreth ha-Massoreth</i> (1538) and +Buxtorf’s <i>Tiberias</i> (1620) are also important.</p> + +<p>We must now turn back to a most difficult subject—the +growth of the Liturgy. We are not concerned here with indications +of the ritual used in the Temple. Of the prayer-book +as it is at present, the earliest parts are the +<span class="sidenote">Liturgy.</span> +Shema‘ (Deut. vi. 4, &c.) and the anonymous blessings commonly +called Shemoneh ‘Esreh (the Eighteen), together with certain +Psalms. (Readings from the Law and the Prophets [Haphṭarah] +also formed part of the service.) To this framework were fitted, +from time to time, various prayers, and, for festivals especially, +numerous hymns. The earliest existing codification of the prayer-book +is the <i>Siddūr</i> (<i>order</i>) drawn up by Amram Gaon of Sura +about 850. Half a century later the famous Gaon Seadiah, also +of Sura, issued his <i>Siddūr</i>, in which the rubrical matter is in +Arabic. Besides the <i>Siddūr</i>, or order for Sabbaths and general +use, there is the <i>Maḥzōr</i> (<i>cycle</i>) for festivals and fasts. In both +there are ritual differences according to the Sephardic (Spanish), +Ashkenazic (German-Polish), Roman (Greek and South Italian) +and some minor uses, in the later additions to the Liturgy. The +Maḥzor of each rite is also distinguished by hymns (<i>piyyūṭīm</i>) +composed by authors (<i>payyeṭanīm</i>) of the district. The most +important writers are Yoseh ben Yoseh, probably in the 6th +century, chiefly known for his compositions for the day of Atonement, +Eleazar Qalīr, the founder of the payyetanic style, perhaps +in the 7th century, Seadiah, and the Spanish school consisting +of Joseph ibn Abitur (died in 970), Ibn Gabirol, Isaac Gayyath, +Moses ben Ezra, Abraham ben Ezra and Judah ha-levi, who will +be mentioned below; later, Moses ben Naḥman and Isaac Luria +the Kabbalist.<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p>The order of the Amoraim, which ended with the close of the +Talmud (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500), was succeeded by that of the Sabōrāīm, who +merely continued and explained the work of their +predecessors, and these again were followed by the +<span class="sidenote">The Geōnīm.</span> +Geōnīm, the heads of the schools of Sura and Pumbeditha +in Babylonia. The office of Gaōn lasted for something +over 400 years, beginning about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 600, and varied in importance +according to the ability of the holders of it. Individual +Geōnīm produced valuable works (of which later), but what is +perhaps most important from the point of view of the development +of Judaism is the literature of their Responsa or answers +to questions, chiefly on halakhic matters, addressed to them from +various countries. Some of these were actual decisions of +particular Geōnīm; others were an official summary of the +discussion of the subject by the members of the School. They +begin with Mar Rab Sheshna (7th century) and continue to +Hai Gaon, who died in 1038, and are full of historical and literary +interest.<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The She’iltōth (<i>questions</i>) of Rab Aḥai (8th century) +also belong probably to the school of Pumbeditha, though their +author was not Gaon. Besides the Responsa, but closely related +to them, we have the lesser Halakhōth of Yehūdai Gaon of Sura +(8th century) and the great Halakhōth of Simeon Qayyara of +Sura (not Gaon) in the 9th century. In a different department +there is the first Talmud lexicon (<i>‘Arūkh</i>) now lost, by Ẓemaḥ ben +Palṭoi, Gaon of Pumbeditha in the 9th century. The <i>Siddūr</i> +of Amram ben Sheshna has been already mentioned. All these +writers, however, are entirely eclipsed by the commanding +personality of the most famous of the Geōnīm, <span class="sc">Seadiah</span> ben +Joseph (<i>q.v.</i>) of Sura, often called al-Fayyūmī (of the Fayum in +Egypt), one of the greatest representatives of Jewish learning +of all times, who died in 942. The last three holders of the office +were also distinguished. Sherira of Pumbeditha (d. 998) was +the author of the famous “Letter” (in the form of a Responsum +to a question addressed to him by residents in Kairawan), an +historical document of the highest value and the foundation of +our knowledge of the history of tradition. His son Hai, last +Gaon of Pumbeditha (d. 1038), a man of wide learning, wrote +(partly in Arabic) not only numerous Responsa, but also treatises +on law, commentaries on the Mishnah and the Bible, a lexicon +called in Arabic <i>al-Ḥāwī</i>, and poems such as the <i>Mūsar Haskel</i>, +but most of them are now lost or known only from translations +or quotations. Though his teaching was largely directed against +superstition, he seems to have been inclined to mysticism, and +perhaps for this reason various kabbalistic works were ascribed +to him in later times. His father-in-law Samuel ben Ḥophni, +last Gaon of Sura (d. 1034), was a voluminous writer on law, +translated the Pentateuch into Arabic, commented on much of +the Bible, and composed an Arabic introduction to the Talmud, +of which the existing Hebrew introduction (by Samuel the Nagid) +is perhaps a translation. Most of his works are now lost.</p> + +<p>In the Geonic period there came into prominence the sect of +the Karaites (<i>Benē miqrā</i>), “followers of the Scripture”, the protestants +of Judaism, who rejected rabbinical authority, +basing their doctrine and practice exclusively on +<span class="sidenote">The Karaites.</span> +the Bible. The sect was founded by ‘Anan in the 8th +century, and, after many vicissitudes, still exists. Their literature, +with which alone we are here concerned, is largely polemical +and to a great extent deals with grammar and exegesis. Of +their first important authors, Benjamin al-Nehawendi and Daniel +al-Qūmisī (both in the 9th century), little is preserved. In the +10th century Jacob al-Qirqisanī wrote his <i>Kitāb al-anwār</i>, on +law, Solomon ben Yeruḥam (against Seadiah) and Yefet ben +‘Alī wrote exegetical works; in the 11th century Abū’l-faraj +Furqān, exegesis, and Yūsuf al-Baṣīr against Samuel ben Ḥophni. +Most of these wrote in Arabic. In the 12th century and in +S. Europe, Judah Hadassi composed his <i>Eshkol ha-Kōpher</i>, a +great theological compendium in the form of a commentary on +the Decalogue. Other writers are Aaron (the elder) ben Joseph, +13th century, who wrote the commentary <i>Sepher ha-mibhḥar</i>; +Aaron (the younger) of Nicomedia (14th century), author of +<i>‘Eẓ Ḥayyīm</i>, on philosophy, <i>Gan ‘Eden</i>, on law, and the commentary +<i>Kether Tōrah</i>; in the 15th century Elijah Bashyaẓī, +on law (<i>Addereth Eliyahū</i>), and Caleb Efendipoulo, poet and +theologian; in the 16th century Moses Bashyaẓī, theologian. +From the 12th century onward the sect gradually declined, +being ultimately restricted mainly to the Crimea and Lithuania, +learning disappeared and their literature became merely popular +and of little interest. Much of it in later times was written in +a curious Tatar dialect. Mention need only be made further +of Isaac of Troki, whose anti-Christian polemic <i>Ḥizzūq Emūnah</i> +(1593) was translated into English by Moses Mocatta under the +title of <i>Faith Strengthened</i> (1851); Solomon of Troki, whose +<i>Appiryōn</i>, an account of Karaism, was written at the request of +Pufendorf (about 1700); and Abraham Firkovich, who, in spite +of his impostures, did much for the literature of his people about +the middle of the 19th century. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Qaraites</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>To return to the period of the Geōnīm. While the schools +of Babylonia were flourishing as the religious head of Judaism, +the West, and especially Spain under Moorish rule, +was becoming the home of Jewish scholarship. On the +<span class="sidenote">Medieval scholarship.</span> +breaking up of the schools many of the fugitives fled +to the West and helped to promote rabbinical learning +there. The communities of Fez, Kairawan and N. Africa were in +close relation with those of Spain, and as early as the beginning +of the 9th century Judah ben Quraish of Tahort had composed +his <i>Risālah</i> (<i>letter</i>) to the Jews of Fez on grammatical subjects +from a comparative point of view, and a dictionary now lost. +His work was used in the 10th century by Menahem ben Sarūq, +of Cordova, in his <i>Mahbereth</i> (dictionary). Menahem’s system +of bi-literal and uni-literal roots was violently attacked by +Dūnash ibn Labrāṭ, and as violently defended by the author’s +pupils. Among these was Judah Ḥayyūj of Cordova, the father +of modern Hebrew grammar, who first established the principle +of tri-literal roots. His treatises on the verbs, written in +Arabic, were translated into Hebrew by Moses Giqatilla +(11th century), himself a considerable grammarian and commentator, +and by Ibn Ezra. His system was adopted by +Abū’l-walīd ibn Jannāḥ, of Saragossa (died early in the 11th +century), in his lexicon (<i>Kitāb al-uṣūl</i>, in Arabic) and other works. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span> +In Italy appeared the invaluable Talmud-lexicon (<i>‘Arūkh</i>) by +Nathan b. Yehiel, of Rome (d. 1106), who was indirectly +indebted to Babylonian teaching. He does not strictly follow +the system of Ḥayyūj. Other works of a different kind also +originated in Italy about this time: the very popular history +of the Jews, called <i>Josippon</i> (probably of the 10th or even 9th +century), ascribed to Joseph ben Gōriōn (Gorionides)<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a>; the +medical treatises of Shabbethai Donnolo (10th century) and his +commentary on the <i>Sepher Yeẓīrah</i>, the anonymous and earliest +Hebrew kabbalistic work ascribed to the patriarch Abraham. +In North Africa, probably in the 9th century, appeared the +book known under the name of <i>Eldad ha-Danī</i>, giving an account +of the ten tribes, from which much medieval legend was derived;<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +and in Kairawan the medical and philosophical treatises of Isaac +Israeli, who died in 932.</p> + +<p>The aim of the grammatical studies of the Spanish school was +ultimately exegesis. This had already been cultivated in the +East. In the 9th century Ḥīvī of Balkh wrote a +rationalistic treatise<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> on difficulties in the Bible, +<span class="sidenote">Exegesis.</span> +which was refuted by Seadiah. The commentaries of the Geonim +have been mentioned above. The impulse to similar work in the +West came also from Babylonia. In the 10th century Ḥushīel, +one of four prisoners, perhaps from Babylonia, though that is +doubtful, was ransomed and settled at Kairawan, where he +acquired great reputation as a Talmudist. His son Hananeel +(d. 1050) wrote a commentary on (probably all) the Talmud, and +one now lost on the Pentateuch. Hananeel’s contemporary Nissīm +ben Jacob, of Kairawan, who corresponded with Hai Gaon of +Pumbeditha as well as with Samuel the Nagīd in Spain, likewise +wrote on the Talmud, and is probably the author of a collection +of <i>Ma‘asiyyōth</i> or edifying stories, besides works now lost. +The activity in North Africa reacted on Spain. There the most +prominent figure was that of Samuel ibn Nagdela (or Nagrela), +generally known as Samuel the Nagīd or head of the Jewish +settlement, who died in 1055. As vizier to the Moorish king at +Granada, he was not only a patron of learning, but himself +a man of wide knowledge and a considerable author. Some +of his poems are extant, and an Introduction to the Talmud +mentioned above. In grammar he followed Ḥayyūj, whose +pupil he was. Among others he was the patron of Solomon +ibn Gabirol (<i>q.v.</i>), the poet and philosopher. To this period +belong Ḥafẓ al-Qūṭī (the Goth?) who made a version of the +Psalms in Arabic rhyme, and Baḥya (more correctly Beḥai) +ibn Paqūda, dayyan at Saragossa, whose Arabic ethical treatise +has always had great popularity among the Jews in its Hebrew +translation, <i>Ḥōbhōth ha-lebhabhōth</i>. He also composed liturgical +poems. At the end of the 11th century Judah ibn Bal’am +wrote grammatical works and commentaries (on the Pentateuch, +Isaiah, &c.) in Arabic; the liturgist Isaac Gayyath (d. in 1089 +at Cordova) wrote on ritual. Moses Giqatilla has been already +mentioned.</p> + +<p>The French school of the 11th century was hardly less important. +Gershom ben Judah, the “Light of the Exile” (d. +in 1040 at Mainz), a famous Talmudist and commentator, +his pupil Jacob ben Yaqar, and Moses of +<span class="sidenote">Rashi.</span> +Narbonne, called ha-Darshan, the “Exegete,” were the forerunners +of the greatest of all Jewish commentators, Solomon +ben Isaac (Rashi), who died at Troyes in 1105. Rashi was a pupil +of Jacob ben Yaqar, and studied at Worms and Mainz. Unlike +his contemporaries in Spain, he seems to have confined himself +wholly to Jewish learning, and to have known nothing of Arabic +or other languages except his native French. Yet no commentator +is more valuable or indeed more voluminous, and for the study +of the Talmud he is even now indispensable. He commented +on all the Bible and on nearly all the Talmud, has been himself +the text of several super-commentaries, and has exercised great +influence on Christian exegesis. The biblical commentary was +translated into Latin by Breithaupt (Gotha, 1710-1714), that on +the Pentateuch rather freely into German by L. Dukes (Prag, +1838, in Hebrew-German characters, with the text), and parts +by others. Closely connected with Rashi, or of his school, are +Joseph Qara, of Troyes (d. about 1130), the commentator, +and his teacher Menahem ben Ḥelbō, Jacob ben Me’īr, called +Rabbenū Tam (d. 1171), the most important of the Tosaphists +(<i>v. sup.</i>), and later in the 12th century the liberal and rationalizing +Joseph Bekhōr Shōr, and Samuel ben Me’īr (d. about 1174) of +Ramerupt, commentator and Talmudist.</p> + +<p>In the 12th and 13th centuries literature maintained a high +level in Spain. Abraham bar Ḥiyya, known to Christian scholars +as Abraham Judaeus (d. about 1136), was a mathematician, +astronomer and philosopher much studied in the middle ages. +Moses ben Ezra, of Granada (d. about 1140), wrote in Arabic +a philosophical work based on Greek and Arabic as well as +Jewish authorities, known by the name of the Hebrew translation +as <i>‘Arūgath ha-bosem</i>, and the <i>Kitāb al-Maḥaḍarah</i>, of great +value for literary history. He is even better known as a poet, +for his <i>Dīwān</i> and the <i>‘Anaq</i>, and as a hymn-writer. His +relative Abraham ben Ezra, generally called simply Ibn Ezra,<a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> +was still more distinguished. He was born at Toledo, spent +most of his life in travel, wandering even to England and to the +East, and died in 1167. Yet he contrived to write his great +commentary on the Pentateuch and other books of the Bible, +treatises on philosophy (as the <i>Yesōdh mōra</i>), astronomy, +mathematics, grammar (translation of Ḥayyūj), besides a Dīwān. +The man, however, who shares with Ibn Gabirol the first place +in Jewish poetry is Judah Ha-levi, of Toledo, who died in +Jerusalem about 1140. His poems, both secular and religious, +contained in his Dīwān and scattered in the liturgy, are all in +Hebrew, though he employed Arabic metres. In Arabic he +wrote his philosophical work, called in the Hebrew translation +<i>Sepher ha-Kūzarī</i>, a defence of revelation as against non-Jewish +philosophy and Qaraite doctrine. It shows considerable +knowledge of Greek and Arabic thought (Avicenna). Joseph +ibn Mīgāsh (d. 1141 at Lucena), a friend of Judah Ha-levi +and of Moses ben Ezra, wrote Responsa and Ḥiddūshīn (<i>annotations</i>) +on parts of the Talmud. In another sphere mention must +be made of the travellers Benjamin of Tudela (d. after 1173), +whose Massa’ōth are of great value for the history and geography +of his time, and (though not belonging to Spain) Pethahiah, of +Regensburg (d. about 1190), who wrote short notes of his +journeys. Abraham ben David, of Toledo (d. about 1180), +in philosophy an Aristotelian (through Avicenna) and the +precursor of Maimonides, is chiefly known for his <i>Sepher ha-qabbalah</i>, +written as a polemic against Karaism, but valuable +for the history of tradition.</p> + +<p>The greatest of all medieval Jewish scholars was Moses ben +Maimōn (Rambam), called <i>Maimonides</i> by Christians. He was +born at Cordova in 1135, fled with his parents from +persecution in 1148, settled at Fez in 1160, passing +<span class="sidenote">Maimonides.</span> +there for a Moslem, fled again to Jerusalem in 1165, +and finally went to Cairo where he died in 1204. He was distinguished +in his profession as a physician, and wrote a number +of medical works in Arabic (including a commentary on the +aphorisms of Hippocrates), all of which were translated into +Hebrew, and most of them into Latin, becoming the textbooks +of Europe in the succeeding centuries. But his fame rests mainly +on his theological works. Passing over the less important, +these are the <i>Mōreh Nebhūkhīm</i> (so the Hebrew translation of +the Arabic original), an endeavour to show philosophically the +reasonableness of the faith, parts of which, translated into Latin, +were studied by the Christian schoolmen, and the <i>Mishneh +Tōrah</i>, also called <i>Yad haḥazaqah</i> (<span title="id">יד</span> = 14, the number of the +parts), a classified compendium of the Law, written in Hebrew +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span> +and early translated into Arabic. The latter of these, though +generally accepted in the East, was much opposed in the West, +especially at the time by the Talmudist Abraham ben David +of Posquières (d. 1198). Maimonides also wrote an Arabic +commentary on the Mishnah, soon afterwards translated into +<span class="sidenote">Maimonists and anti-Maimonists.</span> +Hebrew, commentaries on parts of the Talmud (now +lost), and a treatise on Logic. His breadth of view +and his Aristotelianism were a stumbling-block to the +orthodox, and subsequent teachers may be mostly +classified as Maimonists or anti-Maimonists. Even +his friend Joseph ibn ‘Aqnīn (d. 1226), author of a philosophical +treatise in Arabic and of a commentary on the Song of Solomon, +found so much difficulty in the new views that the <i>Mōreh +Nebhūkhīm</i> was written in order to convince him. Maimonides’ +son Abraham (d. 1234), also a great Talmudist, wrote in Arabic +<i>Ma‘aseh Yerūshalmī</i>, on oaths, and <i>Kitāb al-Kifāyah</i>, theology. +His grandson David was also an author. A very different person +was Moses ben Naḥman (Ramban) or Nahmanides, who was born +at Gerona in 1194 and died in Palestine about 1270. His whole +tendency was as conservative as that of Maimonides was liberal, +and like all conservatives he may be said to represent a lost +though not necessarily a less desirable cause. Much of his life +was spent in controversy, not only with Christians (in 1293 +before the king of Aragon), but also with his own people and on +the views of the time. His greatest work is the commentary +on the Pentateuch in opposition to Maimonides and Ibn Ezra. +He had a strong inclination to mysticism, but whether certain +kabbalistic works are rightly attributed to him is doubtful. +It is, however, not a mere coincidence that the two great kabbalistic +textbooks, the <i>Bahir</i> and the <i>Zohar</i> (both meaning “brightness”), +appear first in the 13th century. If not due to his teaching +they are at least in sympathy with it. The <i>Bahir</i>, a sort of outline +of the <i>Zohar</i>, and traditionally ascribed to Neḥunya (1st century), +is believed by some to be the work of Isaac the Blind ben Abraham +of Posquières (d. early in the 13th century), the founder of the +modern Kabbalah and the author of the names for the 10 +Sephīrōth. The <i>Zohar</i>, supposed to be by Simeon ben Yoḥai +(2nd century), is now generally attributed to Moses of Leon +(d. 1305), who, however, drew his material in part from earlier +written or traditional sources, such as the Sepher Yeẓīrah. +At any rate the work was immediately accepted by the kabbalists, +and has formed the basis of all subsequent study of the subject. +Though put into the form of a commentary on the Pentateuch, +it is really an exposition of the kabbalistic view of the universe, +and incidentally shows considerable acquaintance with the +natural science of the time. A pupil, though not a follower of +Nahmanides, was Solomon Adreth (not Addereth), of Barcelona +(d. 1310), a prolific writer of Talmudic and polemical works +(against the Kabbalists and Mahommedans) as well as of responsa. +He was opposed by Abraham Abulafia (d. about 1291) and his +pupil Joseph Giqatilla (d. about 1305), the author of numerous +kabbalistic works. Solomon’s pupil Baḥya ben Asher, of +Saragossa (d. 1340) was the author of a very popular commentary +on the Pentateuch and of religious discourses entitled +<i>Kad ha-qemaḥ</i>, in both of which, unlike his teacher, he made +large use of the Kabbalah. Other studies, however, were not +neglected. In the first half of the 13th century, Abraham ibn +Ḥasdai, a vigorous supporter of Maimonides, translated (or +adapted) a large number of philosophical works from Arabic, +among them being the <i>Sepher ha-tappūaḥ</i>, based on Aristotle’s +<i>de Anima</i>, and the <i>Mōzenē Ẓedeq</i> of Ghazzali on moral philosophy, +of both of which the originals are lost. Another Maimonist was +Shem Ṭōbh ben Joseph Falaquera (d. after 1290), philosopher +(following Averroes), poet and author of a commentary on the +Mōreh. A curious mixture of mysticism and Aristotelianism +is seen in Isaac Aboab (about 1300), whose <i>Menorath ha-Ma’ōr</i>, +a collection of agadōth, attained great popularity and has been +frequently printed and translated. Somewhat earlier in the 13th +century lived Judah al-Ḥarīzī, who belongs in spirit to the time +of Ibn Gabirol and Judah ha-levi. He wrote numerous translations, +of Galen, Aristotle, Ḥarīrī, Ḥunain ben Isaac and +Maimonides, as well as several original works, a <i>Sepher ‘Anaq</i> +in imitation of Moses ben Ezra, and treatises on grammar and +medicine (<i>Rephūath geviyyah</i>), but he is best known for his +<i>Taḥkemōnī</i>, a diwan in the style of Ḥarīrī’s <i>Maqāmāt</i>.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the literary activity of the Jews in Spain had its +effect on those of France. The fact that many of the most +important works were written in Arabic, the vernacular of the +Spanish Jews under the Moors, which was not understood in +France, gave rise to a number of translations into Hebrew, +chiefly by the family of Ibn Tibbōn (or Tabbōn). The first of +them, Judah ibn Tibbōn, translated works of Baḥya ibn Paqūdah, +Judah ha-levi, Seadiah, Abū’lwalīd and Ibn Gabirol, besides +writing works of his own. He was a native of Granada, but +migrated to Lunel, where he probably died about 1190. His +son Samuel, who died at Marseilles about 1230, was equally +prolific. He translated the <i>Mōreh Nebhūkhīm</i> during the life +of the author, and with some help from him, so that this may +be regarded as the authorized version; Maimonides’ commentary +on the Mishnah tractate <i>Pirqē Abhōth</i>, and some minor works; +treatises of Averroes and other Arabic authors. His original +works are mostly biblical commentaries and some additional +matter on the Mōreh. His son Moses, who died about the end +of the 13th century, translated the rest of Maimonides, much of +Averroes, the lesser Canon of Avicenna, Euclid’s <i>Elements</i> +(from the Arabic version), Ibn al-Jazzār’s <i>Viaticum</i>, medical +works of Ḥunain ben Isaac (Johannitius) and Razi (Rhazes), +besides works of less-known Arabic authors. His original works +are commentaries and perhaps a treatise on immortality. His +nephew Jacob ben Makhīr, of Montpellier (d. about 1304), +translated Arabic scientific works, such as parts of Averroes and +Ghazzali, Arabic versions from the Greek, as Euclid’s <i>Data</i>, +Autolycus, Menelaus (<span title="Milium">מיליום</span>) and Theodosius on the Sphere, +and Ptolemy’s <i>Almagest</i>. He also compiled astronomical tables +and a treatise on the quadrant. The great importance of these +translations is that many of them were afterwards rendered +into Latin,<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> thus making Arabic and, through it, Greek learning +accessible to medieval Europe. Another important family +about this time is that of Qimḥi (or Qamḥi). It also originated +in Spain, where Joseph ben Isaac Qimḥi was born, who migrated +to S. France, probably for the same reason which caused the +flight of Maimonides, and died there about 1170. He wrote on +grammar (<i>Sepher ha-galui</i> and <i>Sepher Zikkaron</i>), commentaries +on Proverbs and the Song of Solomon, an apologetic work, +<i>Sepher ha-berīth</i>, and a translation of Baḥya’s <i>Ḥōbhōth +ha-lebhabhōth</i>. His son Moses (d. about 1190) also wrote on +grammar and some commentaries, wrongly attributed to Ibn +Ezra. A younger son, David (Radaq) of Narbonne (d. 1235) +is the most famous of the name. His great work, the <i>Mikhlōl</i>, +consists of a grammar and lexicon; his commentaries on various +parts of the Bible are admirably luminous, and, in spite of his +anti-Christian remarks, have been widely used by Christian +theologians and largely influenced the English authorized version +of the Bible. A friend of Joseph Qimḥi, Jacob ben Me’īr, known +as Rabbenū Tam of Ramerupt (d. 1171), the grandson of +Rashi, wrote the <i>Sepher ha-yashar</i> (ḥiddūshīn and responsa) and +was one of the chief Tosaphists. Of the same school were +Menahem ben Simeon of Posquières, a commentator, who died +about the end of the 12th century, and Moses ben Jacob of Coucy +(13th century), author of the <i>Semag</i> (book of precepts, positive +and negative) a very popular and valuable halakhic work. A +younger contemporary of David Qimḥi was Abraham ben Isaac +Bedersi (<i>i.e.</i> of Béziers), the poet, and some time in the 13th +century lived Joseph Ezobhi of Perpignan, whose ethical poem, +<i>Qe‘arath Yōseph</i>, was translated by Reuchlin and later by +others. Berachiah,<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a> the compiler of the “Fox Fables” (which +have much in common with the “Ysopet” of Marie de France), +is generally thought to have lived in Provence in the 13th century, +but according to others in England in the 12th century. In +Germany, Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (d. 1238), besides being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span> +a Talmudist, was an earnest promoter of kabbalistic studies. +Isaac ben Moses (d. about 1270), who had studied in France, +wrote the famous <i>Or Zarūa‘</i> (from which he is often called), +an halakhic work somewhat resembling Maimonides’ <i>Mishneh +Tōrah</i>, but more diffuse. In the course of his wanderings he +settled for a time at Würzburg, where he had as a pupil Me’īr +of Rothenburg (d. 1293). The latter was a prolific writer of +great influence, chiefly known for his Responsa, but also for his +halakhic treatises, ḥiddūshīn and tōsaphōth. He also composed +a number of piyyūṭīm. Me’īr’s pupil, Mordecai ben Hillel of +Nürnberg (d. 1298), had an even greater influence through his +halakhic work, usually known as the <i>Mordekhai</i>. This is a codification +of halakhōth, based on all the authorities then known, +some of them now lost. Owing to the fact that the material +collected by Mordecai was left to his pupils to arrange, the work +was current in two recensions, an Eastern (in Austria) and a +Western (in Germany, France, &c.). In the East, Tanḥūm ben +Joseph of Jerusalem was the author of commentaries (not to be +confounded with the <i>Midrash Tanḥūmā</i>) on many books of the +Bible, and of an extensive lexicon (<i>Kitāb al-Murshid</i>) to the +Mishnah, all in Arabic.</p> + +<p>With the 13th century Hebrew literature may be said to have +reached the limit of its development. Later writers to a large +extent used over again the materials of their predecessors, while +secular works tend to be influenced by the surrounding civilization, +or even are composed in the vernacular languages. From +the 14th century onward only the most notable names can be mentioned. +In Italy Immanuel ben Solomon, of Rome (d. about +1330), perhaps the friend and certainly the imitator of Dante, +wrote his diwan, of which the last part, “Topheth ve-‘Eden,” +is suggested by the <i>Divina Commedia</i>. In Spain Israel Israeli, of +Toledo (d. 1326), was a translator and the author of an Arabic +work on ritual and a commentary on <i>Pirqē Abhōth</i>. About the +same time Isaac Israeli wrote his <i>Yesōdh ‘Olam</i> and other astronomical +works which were much studied. Asher ben Jehiel, +a pupil of Me’īr of Rothenburg, was the author of the popular +Talmudic compendium, generally quoted as <i>Rabbenu Asher</i>, on +the lines of Alfasi, besides other halakhic works. He migrated +from Germany and settled at Toledo, where he died in 1328. +His son Jacob, of Toledo (d. 1340), was the author of the <i>Tūr</i> +(or the four Ṭūrīm), a most important manual of Jewish law, +serving as an abridgement of the <i>Mishneh Tōrah</i> brought up to +date. His pupil David Abudrahim, of Seville (d. after 1340), +wrote a commentary on the liturgy. Both the 14th and 15th +centuries in Spain were largely taken up with controversy, as +by Isaac ibn Pulgar (about 1350), and Shem Ṭōbh ibn Shaprūṭ +(about 1380), who translated St Matthew’s gospel into Hebrew. +In France Jedaiah Bedersi, <i>i.e.</i> of Béziers (d. about 1340), wrote +poems (<i>Beḥīnath ha-‘ōlam</i>), commentaries on agada and a defence +of Maimonides against Solomon Adreth. Levi ben Gershom +(d. 1344), called Ralbag, the great commentator on the Bible and +Talmud, in philosophy a follower of Aristotle and Averroes, +known to Christians as Leo Hebraeus, wrote also many works +on halakhah, mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Kaspī, +<i>i.e.</i> of Largentière (d. 1340), wrote a large number of treatises +on grammar and philosophy (mystical), besides commentaries +and piyyūṭim. In the first half of the 14th century lived the +two translators Qalonymos ben David and Qalonymos ben +Qalonymos, the latter of whom translated many works of Galen +and Averroes, and various scientific treatises, besides writing +original works, <i>e.g.</i> one against Kaspī, and an ethical work +entitled <i>Eben Bōḥan</i>. At the end of the century Isaac ben +Moses, called Profiat Duran (Efodi), is chiefly known as an anti-Christian +controversialist (letter to Me’īr Alguadez), but also +wrote on grammar (<i>Ma‘aseh Efod</i>) and a commentary on the +Mōreh. In philosophy he was an Aristotelian. About the same +time in Spain controversy was very active. Ḥasdai Crescas +(d. 1410) wrote against Christianity and in his <i>Or Adōnai</i> +against the Aristotelianism of the Maimonists. His pupil Joseph +Albo in his <i>‘Iqqarīm</i> had the same two objects. On the side of +the Maimonists was Simeon Duran (d. at Algiers 1444) in his +<i>Magen Abhōth</i> and in his numerous commentaries. Shem Ṭōbh +ibn Shem Ṭōbh, the kabbalist, was a strong anti-Maimonist, +as was his son Joseph of Castile (d. 1480), a commentator with +kabbalistic tendencies but versed in Aristotle, Averroes and +Christian doctrine. Joseph’s son Shem Ṭōbh was, on the contrary, +a follower of Maimonides and the Aristotelians. In other +subjects, Saadyah ibn Danān, of Granada (d. at Oran after 1473), +is chiefly important for his grammar and lexicon, in Arabic; +Judah ibn Verga, of Seville (d. after 1480), was a mathematician +and astronomer; Solomon ibn Verga, somewhat later, wrote +<i>Shebeṭ Yehūdah</i>, of doubtful value historically; Abraham +Zakkuth or Zakkuto, of Salamanca (d. after 1510), astronomer, +wrote the <i>Sepher Yuḥasīn</i>, an historical work of importance. +In Italy, Obadiah Bertinoro (d. about 1500) compiled his very +useful commentary on the Mishnah, based on those of Rashi +and Maimonides. His account of his travels and his letters are +also of great interest. Isaac Abravanel (d. 1508) wrote commentaries +(not of the first rank) on the Pentateuch and Prophets +and on the Mōreh, philosophical treatises and apologetics, such as +the <i>Yeshū‘oth Meshīḥō</i>, all of which had considerable influence. +Elijah Delmedigo, of Crete (d. 1497), a strong opponent of +Kabbalah, was the author of the philosophical treatise <i>Beḥīnath +ha-dath</i>, but most of his work (on Averroes) was in Latin.</p> + +<p>The introduction of printing (first dated Hebrew printed book, +Rashi, Reggio, 1475) gave occasion for a number of scholarly +compositors and proof-readers, some of whom were +also authors, such as Jacob ben Ḥayyīm of Tunis +<span class="sidenote">Later writers.</span> +(d. about 1530), proof-reader to Bomberg, chiefly +known for his masoretic work in connexion with the Rabbinic +Bible and his introduction to it; Elias Levita, of Venice (d. 1549), +also proof-reader to Bomberg, author of the <i>Massoreth ha-Massoreth</i> +and other works on grammar and lexicography; and +Cornelius Adelkind, who however was not an author. In the +East, Joseph Karo (Qārō) wrote his <i>Bēth Yōseph</i> (Venice, 1550), +a commentary on the <i>Ṭūr</i>, and his <i>Shulḥan ‘Arūkh</i> (Venice, +1564) an halakhic work like the <i>Ṭūr</i>, which is still a standard +authority. The influence of non-Jewish methods is seen in the +more modern tendency of Azariah dei Rossi, who was opposed +by Joseph Karo. In his <i>Me’ōr ‘Enayīm</i> (Mantua, 1573) Del +Rossi endeavoured to investigate Jewish history in a scientific +spirit, with the aid of non-Jewish authorities, and even criticizes +Talmudic and traditional statements. Another historian living +also in Italy was Joseph ben Joshua, whose <i>Dibhrē ha-yamīm</i> +(Venice, 1534) is a sort of history of the world, and his <i>‘Emeq +ha-bakhah</i> an account of Jewish troubles to the year 1575. In +Germany David Gans wrote on astronomy, and also the historical +work <i>Ẓemaḥ David</i> (Prag, 1592). The study of Kabbalah was +promoted and the practical Kabbalah founded by Isaac Luria +in Palestine (d. 1572). Numerous works, representing the +extreme of mysticism, were published by his pupils as the result +of his teaching. Foremost among these was Ḥayyīm Vital, +author of the <i>’Ez ḥayyīm</i>, and his son Samuel, who wrote an +introduction to the Kabbalah, called <i>Shemoneh She‘arīm</i>. To +the same school belonged Moses Zakkuto, of Mantua (d. 1697), +poet and kabbalist. Contemporary with Luria and also living +at Safed, was Moses Cordovero (d. 1570), the kabbalist, whose +chief work was the <i>Pardes Rimmōnīm</i> (Cracow, 1591). In the +17th century Leon of Modena (d. 1648) wrote his <i>Bēth Yehūdah</i>, +and probably <i>Qōl Sakhal</i>, against traditionalism, besides many +controversial works and commentaries. Joseph Delmedigo, of +Prag (d. 1655), wrote almost entirely on scientific subjects. +Also connected with Prag was Yōm Ṭōbh Lipmann Heller, a +voluminous author, best known for the <i>Tōsaphōth Yōm Tōbh</i> +on the Mishna (Prag, 1614; Cracow, 1643). Another important +Talmudist, Shabbethai ben Me’īr, of Wilna (d. 1662), commented +on the <i>Shulḥan ‘Arūkh</i>. In the East, David Conforte (d. about +1685) wrote the historical work <i>Qōrē ha-dōrōth</i> (Venice, 1746), +using Jewish and other sources; Jacob ben Ḥayyīm Ẓemaḥ, +kabbalist and student of Luria, wrote <i>Qōl be-ramah</i>, a commentary +on the <i>Zohar</i> and on the liturgy; Abraham Hayekīnī, +kabbalist, chiefly remembered as a supporter of the would-be +Messiah, Shabbethai Zebhī, wrote <i>Hōd Malkūth</i> (Constantinople, +1655) and sermons. In the 18th century the study of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span> +kabbalah was cultivated by Moses Ḥayyīm Luzzatto (d. 1747) +and by Elijah ben Solomon, called Gaon, of Wilna (d. 1797), +who commented on the whole Bible and on many Talmudic +and kabbalistic works. In spite of his own leaning towards +mysticism he was a strong opponent of the Ḥasīdīm, a mystical +sect founded by Israel Ba’al Shem Ṭōbh (Beshṭ) and promoted +by Baer of Meseritz. Elijah’s son Abraham (d. 1808), the commentator, +is valuable for his work on Midrash. An historical +work which makes an attempt to be scientific, is the <i>Seder +ha-dōrōth</i> of Yeḥiel Heilprin (d. 1746). These, however, belong in +spirit to the previous century.</p> + +<p>The characteristic of the 18th and 19th centuries is the endeavour, +connected with the name of Moses Mendelssohn, to +bring Judaism more into relation with external +learning, and in using the Hebrew language to purify +<span class="sidenote">Modernizing tendencies.</span> +and develop it in accordance with the biblical standard. +The result, while linguistically more uniform and +pleasing, often lacks the spontaneity of medieval literature. It +was Moses Mendelssohn’s German translation of the Pentateuch +(1780-1793) which marked the new spirit, while the views of +his opponents belong to a bygone age. In fact the controversy +of which he was the centre may fitly be compared with the +earlier battles between the Maimonists and anti-Maimonists. +One of the most remarkable writers of the new Hebrew was +Mendelssohn’s friend N. H. Wessely, of Hamburg (d. 1805), +author of <i>Shīrē Tiphe‘reth</i>, a long poem on the Exodus, <i>Dibhrē +Shalōm</i>, a plea for liberalism, <i>Sepher ha-middōth</i>, on ethics, +besides philological works and commentaries. A curious combination +of new and old was Ḥayyīm Azulai (d. 1807), a kabbalist, +but also the author of <i>Shem ha-gedhōlīm</i>, a valuable contribution +to literary history.</p> + +<p>In the 19th century the modernizing tendency continued to +grow, though always side by side with a strong conservative +opposition, and the most prominent names on both sides are +those of scholars rather than literary men. Among them may +be mentioned, Akiba (‘Aqībhā) Eger (d. 1837), Talmudist of +the orthodox, conservative school; W. Heidenheim (d. 1832), a +liberal, and editor of the Pentateuch and Maḥzor; N. Krochmal, +of Galicia (d. 1840), author of <i>Mōreh Nebhūkhē ha-zeman</i>, on +Jewish history and literature; his son Abraham (d. 1895), +conservative commentator and philosopher. One consequence +of the Mendelssohn movement was that many writers used their +vernacular language besides or instead of Hebrew, or translated +from one to the other. Thus Isaac Samuel Reggio (d. 1855), +a strong liberal, wrote both in Hebrew and Italian; Joseph +Almanzi, of Padua (d. 1860), a poet, translated Italian poems +into Hebrew; S. D. Luzzatto, of Padua (d. 1865), a distinguished +scholar and opponent of the philosophy of Maimonides, wrote +much in Italian; M. H. Letteris, of Vienna (d. 1871), translated +German poems into Hebrew; S. Bacher, of Hungary (d. 1891), +was a poet and moderate liberal; L. Gordon (d. 1892), poet and +prose-writer in Hebrew and Russian, of liberal views; A. +Jellinek, of Vienna (d. 1893), preacher and scholar; Jacob +Reifmann (d. 1895), scholar, wrote only in Hebrew. The +endeavour to bring Judaism into relation with the modern +world and to change the current impressions about Jews by +making their teaching accessible to the rest of the world, is +connected chiefly with the names of Z. Frankel (d. 1875), the +first Jewish scholar to study the Septuagint; Abraham Geiger +(d. 1874), critic of the first rank; L. Zunz (d. 1884) and L. Dukes +(d. 1891), both scholarly investigators of Jewish literary history. +Their most important works are in German. The question of +the use of the vernacular or of Hebrew is bound up with the +differences between the orthodox and the liberal or reform parties, +complicated by the many problems involved. Patriotic efforts +are made to encourage the use of Hebrew both for writing and +speaking, but the continued existence of it as a literary language +depends on the direction in which the future history of the Jews +will develop.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Only the more comprehensive works are mentioned +here, omitting those relating to particular authors, and those +already cited.</p> + +<p>Introductory: Abrahams, <i>Short History of Jewish Literature</i> +(London, 1906); Steinschneider, <i>Jewish Literature</i> (London, 1857); +Winter and Wünsche, <i>Die jüdische Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1893-1895) +(containing selections translated into German).</p> + +<p>For further study: Graetz, <i>Geschichte der Juden</i> (Leipzig, 1853, +&c.) (the volumes are in various editions), with special reference to +the notes; English translation by B. Löwy (London, 1891-1892) +(without the notes); Zunz, <i>Gottesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden</i> +(new ed., Frankfort-on-Main, 1892); <i>Zur Geschichte und Literatur</i> +(Berlin, 1845). The <i>Synagogale Poesie</i> has been mentioned above. +Steinschneider, <i>Arabische Literatur der Juden</i> (Frankfort-on-Main, +1902); <i>Hebräische Übersetzungen des Mittelalters</i> (Berlin, 1893).</p> + +<p>On particular authors and subjects there are many excellent +monographs in the <i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i> (New York, 1901-6), to which +the present article is much indebted.</p> + +<p>Bibliographies of printed books: Steinschneider, <i>Catalogus libr. +Hebr. in Bibl. Bodleiana</i> (Berlin, 1852-1860) (more than a catalogue); +Zedner, <i>Catalogue of the Hebr. Books in the British Museum</i> (London, +1867; continued by van Straalen, London, 1894). Of manuscripts: +Neubauer, <i>Catal. of the Hebrew MSS. in the Bodleian Library</i> (Oxford, +1886), vol. ii. by Neubauer and Cowley (Oxford, 1906); G. Margoliouth, +<i>Catal. of the Hebr. ... MSS. in the British Museum</i> (London, +1899, &c.). Of both: Benjacob, <i>Ozar ha-sepharim</i> (Wilna, 1880) (in +Hebrew; arranged by titles).</p> + +<p>Periodicals: <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>; <i>Revue des études juives</i>; +<i>Hebräische Bibliographie</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Cy.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The dating of these documents is extremely difficult, since it is +based entirely on internal evidence. Various scholars, while agreeing +on the actual divisions of the text, differ on the question of priority. +The dates here given are those which seem to be most generally +accepted at the present time. They are not put forward as the result +of an independent review of the evidence.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See especially A. Jellinek’s <i>Bet-ha-Midrasch</i> (Leipzig, 1853), for +these lesser midrashīm.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> That on Genesis was edited for the first time by Schechter +(Cambridge, 1902).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In Hebrew <span title="rashi">רשי</span>, from the initial letters of Rabbi Shelomoh +Yiẓḥaqī, a convenient method used by Jewish writers in referring +to well-known authors. The name Jarchi, formerly used for Rashi, +rests on a misunderstanding.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> So Bacher in <i>J.Q.R.</i> iii. 785 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> For the history of the very extensive literature of this class, +Zunz, <i>Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie</i> (Berlin, 1865), is +indispensable.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See the edition of them in Harkavy, <i>Studien</i>, iv. (Berlin, 1885).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Two different texts of it exist: (1) in the ed. pr. (Mantua, 1476); +(2) ed. by Seb. Münster (Basel, 1541). There is also an early Arabic +recension, but its relation to the Hebrew and to the Arabic +2 Maccabees is still obscure. See <i>J. Q. R.</i>, xi. 355 sqq. The Hebrew +text was edited with a Latin translation by Breithaupt (Gotha, 1707).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> On the various recensions of the text see D. H. Müller in the +<i>Denkschriften</i> of the Vienna Academy (<i>Phil.-hist. Cl.</i>, xli. 1, p. 41) and +Epstein’s ed. (Pressburg, 1891).</p> + +<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> A fragment of such a work, probably emanating from the school +of Ḥīvī was found by Schechter and published in <i>J.Q.R.</i>, xiii. 345 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See M. Friedländer in <i>Publications of the Society of Hebrew Lit.</i>, +1st ser. vol. i., and 2nd ser. vol. iv.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The fullest account of them is to be found in Steinschneider’s +<i>Hebräische Übersetzungen des Mittelalters</i> (Berlin, 1893).</p> + +<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See H. Gollancz, <i>The Ethical Treatises of Berachya</i> (London, +1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBREW RELIGION<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1) <i>Introductory.</i>—To trace the +history of the religion of the Hebrews is a complex task, because +the literary sources from which our knowledge of that history is +derived are themselves complex and replete with problems as +to age and authorship, some of which have been solved according +to the consensus of nearly all the best scholars, but some of +which still await solution or are matters of dispute. Even if +the analysis of the literature into component documents were +complete, we should still possess a most imperfect record, since +the documents themselves have passed through many redactions, +and these redactions have proceeded from varying +standpoints of religious tradition, successively eliminating +or modifying certain elements deemed inconsistent with the +canons of religious usage or propriety which prevailed in the age +when the redaction took place. Lastly it should be recollected +that the entire body of the fragments of tradition and literature +belonging to <i>northern</i> Israel has come down to us through the +channel of <i>Judaean</i> recensions.</p> + +<p>The influence of the Deuteronomic tradition in redaction is +seen in such passages as Genesis xxxiii. 20 (cf. xxxi. 45 fol.); +Josh. iv. 9-20, xxiv. 26 fol.; 1 Sam. vii. 12, where the <i>maṣṣēbhah</i> +or stone symbol of deity (forbidden in Deut. xii. 3, xvi. 22) +is in some way got rid of (in Gen. xxxiii. 20 the word “altar” +in Hebrew is substituted). Similarly in Gen. xiii. 18, xiv. 13, +xviii. 1, the Septuagint shows that the singular form “terebinth” +stood in the original text. But the Massoretes altered +this to the plural as this form was less suggestive of tree-worship +(see Smend, <i>A. Tliche Religionsgesch</i>. i. p. 134, footnote 1; +Nowack, <i>Heb. Archäol.</i> p. 12, footnote 1). Many other examples +might be cited, as the “suspended <i>nun</i>” which transforms +the pronunciation of the original Mosheh (Moses) into Menashsheh +(Manasseh) owing to the irregular practices of his descendant, +Jonathan ben Gershom (Jud. xviii. 30). It is not improbable +that in 2 Kings iii. 27 the words “from Kemōsh” stood after +“great wrath” in the original document, as the phraseology +seems bald without them, and the motives for their suppression +are obvious.</p> + +<p>So far as concerns the critical problems which stand at the +threshold of our task, it must suffice to say that the main conclusions +reached by the school of Kuenen and Wellhausen as +to the literary problems of the Old Testament are assumed +throughout this sketch of the evolution of Hebrew religion. +The documents underlying the Pentateuch and book of Joshua, +represented by the ciphers J, E, D and P, are assumed to have +been drawn up in the chronological order in which those ciphers +are here set down, and the period of their composition extends +from the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in which the earlier portions of J +were written, to the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in which P finally took +shape. The view of Professor Dillmann, who placed P before +D in the regal period (though he admitted exilic and post-exilic +additions in Exod., Levit. and Numb.), a view which he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span> +maintained in his commentary on Genesis (edition of 1892), has +now been abandoned by nearly all scholars of repute. In the +following pages we shall not attempt to do more than to sketch +in very succinct outline the general results of investigation into +the origins and growth of Hebrew religion.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Pre-Mosaic Religion.</i>—Can any clear indications be found +to guide us as to the religion of the Hebrew clans before the time +of Moses? That Moses united the scattered tribes, probably +consisting at first mainly of the Josephite, under the common +worship of Yahweh, and that upon the religion of Yahweh a +distinctly ethical character was impressed, is generally recognized. +The tradition of the earliest document J ascribes the worship of +Yahweh to much earlier times, in fact to the dawn of human life. +A close survey of the facts, however, would lead us to regard it +as probable that some at least of the Hebrew clans had patron-deities +of their own.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Both Moab and Ammon as well as Edom had their separate +tribal deities, viz. Chemosh (Moab) and Milk (Milcōm), the god +of Ammon, and in the case of Edom a deity known from the +inscriptions as Kōs (in Assyrian Kauš).<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> From the patriarchal +narratives and genealogies in Genesis we infer that these races +were closely allied to Israel. That in early pre-Mosaic times +parallel cults existed among the various Hebrew tribes is by +no means improbable. It would be reasonable to assume that +Moab, Ammon, Edom and kindred tribes of Israel in the 15th +and preceding centuries were included in the generic term +Ḥabirī (or Hebrews) mentioned in the Tell el-Amarna inscriptions +as forming predatory bands that disturbed the security of the +Canaanite dwellers west of the Jordan. Lastly pre-Mosaic polytheism +seems to be implied in the Mosaic prohibition Ex. xx. +3, xxii. 20.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The tribal names Gad and Asher are suggestive of the +worship of a deity of fortune (Gad) and of the male counterpart +of the goddess, Ashērah. Under the name Shaddai (which +Nöldeke suggests<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> was originally Shēdī “my demon”) it is +possible to discern the name of a deity who in later times came +to be identified with Yahweh. On the other hand, the connexion +of the name Samson with sun-worship throws light on the period +of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan and not on pre-Mosaic +times. Nor is it possible to agree with Baudissin (<i>Studien zur +semit. Religionsgesch.</i> i. 55) that Elōhīm as a plural form +for the name of the Hebrew deity “can hardly be understood +otherwise than as a comprehensive expression for the multitude +of gods embraced in the One God of Old Testament religion,” +in other words that it presupposes an original polytheism. For +(1) Elōhīm is also applied in Judges xi. 24 to the Moabite Chemosh +(Kemōsh); in 1 Sam. v. 7 to Dagon; in 1 Kings xi. 5 to Ashtoreth; +in 2 Kings i. 2, iii. 6, 16 to Ba‘al Zebūl of Ekron. (2) +It is merely a plural of dignity (<i>pluralis majestatis</i>) parallel to +<i>adōnīm</i> (applied to a king in 1 Kings xviii. 8, whereas in the +previous verse the <i>singular</i> form <i>adōni</i> is applied to the prophet +Elijah). (3) The Tell el-Amarna inscriptions indicate that the +term <i>Elōhīm</i> might even be applied in abject homage to an +Egyptian monarch as the use of the term <i>ilāni</i> in this connexion +obviously implies.<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>The religion of the Arabian tribes in the days of Mahomet, +of which a picture is presented to us by Wellhausen in his +<i>Remains of Arabic Heathendom</i>, furnishes some suggestive indications +of the religion that prevailed in nomadic Israel before as +well as during the lifetime of Moses. It is true that Arabian +polytheism in the time of Mahomet was in a state of decay. +Nevertheless the life of the desert changes but slowly. We may +therefore infer that ancient Israel during the period when they +inhabited the <i>negebh</i> (S. of Canaan) stood in awe of the demons +(Jinn) of the desert, just as the Arabs at the present day described +in Doughty’s <i>Arabia deserta</i>. We know that diseases were attributed +by the Israelites to malignant demons which they, like the +Arabs, identified with serpents. The counterspell took the form +of a bronze image of the serpent-demon; see Frazer, <i>Golden +Bough</i>, ii. 426; and I Sam. v. 6, vi. 4, 5 (LXX. and Heb.) as well +as Buchanan Gray’s instructive note in <i>Numbers</i>, p. 276. The +slaughter of a lamb at the Passover or Easter season, whose blood +was smeared on the door-post, as described in Ex. xii. 21-23, +probably points back to an immemorial custom. In this case +the counterspell assumed a different form. Westermarck has +shown from his observations in Morocco that the blood of the +victim was considered to visit a curse upon the object to whom +the sacrifice is offered and thereby the latter is made amenable +to the sacrificer.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a> It is hardly possible to doubt that in the +original form of the rite described in Exodus the blood offering +was made to the plague demon (“the destroyer”) and possessed +over him a magic power of arrest.</p> + +<p>It is therefore certain that belief in demons and magic spells +prevailed in pre-Mosaic times<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> among the Israelite clans. And it +is also probable that certain persons combined in their own +individuality the functions of magician and sacrificer as well as +soothsayer. For we know that in Arabic the <i>Kāhin</i>, or soothsayer, +is the same participial form that we meet with in the Hebrew +<i>Kōhēn</i>, or priest, and in the early period of Hebrew history (<i>e.g.</i> +in the days of Saul and David) it was the priest with the ephod +or image of Yahweh who gave answers to those who consulted +him. How far <i>totemism</i>, or belief in deified animal ancestors, +existed in prehistoric Israel, as evidenced by the tribal names +Simeon (hyena, wolf), Caleb (dog), Ḥamor (ass), Raḥel (ewe) +and Leah (wild cow), &c.,<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> as well as by the laws respecting +clean and unclean animals, is too intricate and speculative +a problem to be discussed here. That the food-taboo against +eating the flesh of a particular animal would prevail in the +clan of which that animal was the deified totem-ancestor is +obvious, and it would be a plausible theory to hold that the +laws in question arose when the Israelite tribes were to be consolidated +into a national unity (<i>i.e.</i> in the time of David and +Solomon), but the application of this theory to the list of unclean +foods in Deut. xiv. (Lev. xi.) seems to present insuperable +difficulties. In fact, while Robertson Smith (in <i>Kinship and +Marriage in Early Arabia</i>, as well as his <i>Religion of the Semites</i>, +followed by Stade and Benzinger) strongly advocated the view +that clear traces of totemism can be found in early Israel, later +writers, such as Marti, <i>Gesch. der israelit. Religion</i>, 4th ed., p. 24, +Kautzsch in his <i>Religion of Israel</i> already cited, p. 613, and +recently Addis in his <i>Hebrew Religion</i>, p. 33 foll., have abandoned +the theory as applied to Israel.<a name="fa7f" id="fa7f" href="#ft7f"><span class="sp">7</span></a> On the other hand, the evidence +for the existence of ancestor-worship in primitive Israel cannot +be so easily disposed of as Kautzsch (<i>ibid.</i> p. 615) appears to +think. We have examples (1 Sam. xxviii. 13) in which <i>Elōhīm</i> +is the term which is applied to departed spirits. Oracles were +received from them (Isa. viii. 19, xxviii. 15, 18; Deut. xviii. +10 foll.). At the graves of national heroes or ancestors worship +was paid. In Gen. xxxv. 20 we read that a <i>maṣṣēbah</i> or sacred +pillar was erected at Raḥel’s tomb. That the Terāphīm, which +we know to have resembled the human form (1 Sam. xix. 13, 16), +were ancestral images is a reasonable theory. That they were +employed in divination is consonant with the facts already +noted. Lastly, the rite of circumcision (<i>q.v.</i>), which the Hebrews +practised in common with their Semitic neighbours as well as the +Egyptians, belonged to ages long anterior to the time of Moses. +This is a fact which has long been recognized: cf. Gen. xvii. 10 foll., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span> +Herod. ii. 104, and Barton, <i>Semitic Origins</i>, pp. 98-100. Probably +the custom was of African origin, and came from eastern Africa +along with the Semitic race. Respecting Arabia, see Doughty, +<i>Arabia deserta</i>, i. 340 foll.</p> + +<p>It is necessary here to advert to a subject much debated during +recent years, viz. the effects of Babylonian culture in western +Asia on Israel and Israel’s religion in early times even preceding +the advent of Moses. The great influence exercised by Babylonian +culture over Palestine between 2000 and 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (<i>circa</i>), which +has been clearly revealed to us since 1887 by the discovery of the +Tell el Amarna tablets, is now universally acknowledged. The +subsequent discovery of a document written in Babylonian +cuneiform at Lachish (Tell el Hesy), and more recently still +of another in the excavations at Ta’annek, have established +the fact beyond all dispute. The last discovery had tended to +confirm the views of Fried. Delitzsch, Jeremias (<i>Monotheistische +Strömungen</i>) and Baentsch, that monotheistic tendencies are +to be found in the midst of Babylonian polytheism. Page +Renouf, in his Hibbert lectures, <i>Origin and Growth of Religion +as illustrated by that of Ancient Egypt</i> (1879), p. 89 foll., pointed +out this monotheistic tendency in Egyptian religion, as did +de Rougé before him. Baentsch draws attention to this feature +in his monograph <i>Altorientalischer u. israelitischer Monotheismus</i> +(1906). This tendency, however, he, unlike the earlier conservative +writers, rightly considers to have emerged out of polytheism. +He ventures into a more disputable region when he penetrates +into the obscure realm of the Abrahamic migration and finds in +the Abrahamic traditions of Genesis the higher Canaanite monotheistic +tendencies evolved out of Babylonian astral religion, +and reflected in the name El ‘Elyon (Gen. xiv. 18, 22). Further +discoveries like Sellin’s find at Ta’annek may elucidate the +problem. See Baudissin in <i>Theolog. lit. Zeitung</i> (27th October +1906).</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Era of Moses.</i>—We are now on safer ground though +still obscure. Moses was the first historic individuality who can +be said to have welded the Israelite clans into a whole. This +could never have been accomplished without unity of worship. +The object of this worship was Yahweh. As we have already +indicated, the document J assumes that Yahweh was worshipped +by the Hebrew race from the first. On the other hand, according +to P (Ex. vi. 2), God spake to Moses and said to him: “I am +Yahweh. But I appeared to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as El +Shaddai and by my name Yahweh I did not make myself known to +them.” According to this later tradition Yahweh was unknown +till the days of Moses, and under the aegis of His power the +Hebrew tribes were delivered from Egyptian thraldom. The +truth probably lies somewhere between these two sharply contrasted +traditions. So much is clear. Yahweh now becomes the +supreme deity of the Hebrew people, and an ark analogous to the +Egyptian and Babylonian arks portrayed on the monuments<a name="fa8f" id="fa8f" href="#ft8f"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +was constructed as embodiment of the <i>numen</i> of Yahweh and was +borne in front of the Hebrew army when it marched to war. It +was the signal victory won by Moses at the exodus against the +Egyptians and in the subsequent battle at Rephīdīm against +‘Amālēk (Ex. xvii.) that consolidated the prestige of Yahweh, +Israel’s war-god. Indications in the Old Testament itself clearly +point to the celestial or atmospheric character of the Yahweh of +the Hebrews. The supposition that the name originally contained +the notion of permanent or eternal being, and was derived +from the verbal root signifying “to be,” involves too abstract a +conception to be probable, though it is based on Ex. iii. 15 (E) +representing a tradition which may have prevailed in the 8th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Kautzsch, however, supports it (Hastings’s <i>D.B.</i>, +extra vol. “Rel. of Isr.” p. 625 foll.) against the other derivations +proposed by recent scholars (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jehovah</a></span>). That the name also +prevailed as that of a god among other Semitic races (or even +non-Semitic) is rendered certain by the proper names Jau-bi’-di +(= Ilu-bi‘di) of Hamath in Sargon’s inscriptions, Aḥi-jawi (mi) +in Sellin’s discovered tablet at Ta‘annek, to say nothing of those +which have been found in the documents of Khammurabi’s reign. +It has generally been held that Stade’s supposition has much to +recommend it, that it was derived by Moses from the Kenites, and +should be connected with the Sinai-Horeb region. The name +Sinai suggests moon-worship and the moon-god Sin; and it also +suggests Babylonian influence (cf. also Mount Nebo, which was a +place-name both in Moab and in Judah, and naturally connects +itself with the name of the Babylonian deity). Several indications +favour the view of the connexion in the age of Moses between +the Yahweh-cult at Sinai and the moon-worship of Babylonian +origin to which the name Sinai points (Sin being the Babylonian +moon-god). We note (<i>a</i>) that in the worship of Yahweh the +sacred seasons of new moon and Sabbath are obviously <i>lunar</i>. +Recent investigations have even been held to disclose the fact +that the Sabbath coincided originally, <i>i.e.</i> in early pre-exilian +days, with the full moon.<a name="fa9f" id="fa9f" href="#ft9f"><span class="sp">9</span></a> (<i>b</i>) It also accords with the name +bestowed on Yahweh as “Lord of Hosts” (<i>ṣebāōth</i>) or stars, +which were regarded as personified beings (Job xxxviii. 7) and +attendants on the celestial Yahweh, constituting His retinue +(1 Kings xxii. 19) which fought on high while the earthly armies +of Israel, His people, contended below (Judges v. 20).</p> + +<p>The atmospheric and celestial character which belonged from +the first to the Hebrew conception of Yahweh explains to us the +ease with which the idea of His universal sovereignty arose, +which the Yahwistic creation account (belonging to the earlier +stratum of J, Gen. ii. 4<i>b</i> foll.) presupposes. How this came to be +overlaid by narrow local limitations of His power and province +will be shown later. It is probable that Moses held the larger +rather than the narrower conception of Yahweh’s sphere of +influence. While the ark carried with Israel’s host symbolized +His presence in their midst, He was also known to be present in +the cloud which hovered before the host and in the lightning +(’<i>ēsh Yahweh</i> or “fire of Yahweh”) and the thunder (<i>kōl Yahweh</i> +or “voice of Yahweh”) which played around Mount Sinai. +Moreover, it is hardly probable that a great leader like Moses +remained unaffected by the higher conceptions tending towards +monotheism which prevailed in the great empires on the Nile and +on the Euphrates. In Egypt we know that Amenophis IV. +came under this monotheistic movement, and attempted to +suppress all other cults except that of the sun-deity, of which he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span> +was a devoted worshipper. We also know that between 2000 +and 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Babylonian language as well as Babylonian +civilization and ideas spread over Palestine (as the Tell el Amarna +tables clearly testify). The ancient Babylonian psalms clearly +reveal that the highest minds were moving out of polytheism to a +monotheistic identification of various deities as diverse phases of +one underlying essence. A remarkable Babylonian tablet discovered +by Dr Pinches represents Marduk, the god of light, as +identified in his person with all the chief deities of Babylonia, +who are evidently regarded as his varying manifestations.<a name="fa10f" id="fa10f" href="#ft10f"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p> + +<p>Through the influence of Mosaic teaching and law a definitely +ethical character was ascribed to Yahweh. It was His “finger” +that wrote the brief code which has come down to us in the +decalogue. At first, as Erdmanns suggests, it may have consisted +of only seven commands. So also Kautzsch, <i>ibid.</i> p. 634. +The most strongly distinguishing feature of the code is the rigid +exclusion of the worship of other gods than Yahweh. Moreover, +the definitely ethical character of the religion of Yahweh established +by Moses is exhibited in the strict exclusion of all sexual +impurity in His worship. Unlike the Canaanite Baal, Yahweh +has no female consort, and this remained throughout a distinguishing +trait of the original and unadulterated Hebrew religion (see +Bäthgen, <i>Beiträge</i>, p. 265). Indeed, Hebrew, unlike Assyrian +or Phoenician, has no distinctive form for “goddess.” From +first to last the true religion of Yahweh was pure of sexual taint. +The kedēshīm and kedēshōth, the male and female priest attendants +in the Baal and ‘Ashtoreth shrines (cf. the <i>kadishtu</i> of the +temples of the Babylonian Ishtar) were foreign Canaanite +elements which became imported into Hebrew worship during +the period of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the earliest codes of Hebrew legislation (Ex. xxi.-xxiii.) +bear the distinct impress of the high ethical character of +Yahweh’s requirements originally set forth by Moses. Of this +tradition the Naboth incident in the time of Ahab furnishes a +clear example which brings to light the contrast between the +Tyrian Baal-cult, which was scarcely ethical, and of which +Jezebel and Ahab were devotees, and the moral requirements of +the religion of Yahweh of which Elijah was the prophet and impassioned +exponent. It was this definite basis of ethical Mosaic +religion to which the prophets of the 8th century appealed, and +apart from which their denunciations become meaningless. To +this early standard of life and practice Ephraim was faithless in +the days of the prophet Hosea (see his oracles <i>passim</i>—especially +chaps. i.-iv. and xiv.), and Judah in the time of Isaiah turned a +deaf ear (Isa. i. 2-4, 21).</p> + +<p>4. <i>Influence of Canaan.</i>—The entrance of Israel into Canaan +marks the beginning of a new epoch in the development of +Israel’s religious life. For it involved a transition from the simple +nomadic relations to those of the agricultural and more highly +civilized Canaanite life. This subject has been recently treated +with admirable clearness by Marti in his useful treatise <i>Die +Religion des A.T.</i> (1906), pp. 25-41.</p> + +<p>It is in the festivals of the annual calendar that this agricultural +impress is most fully manifested. To the original nomadic +<i>Pesaḥ</i> (Passover)—sacrifice of a lamb—there was attached a +distinct and agricultural festival of unleavened cakes (<i>maṣṣōth</i>) +which marks the beginning of the corn harvest in the middle of +the month <i>Abīb</i> (the name of which points to its Canaanite and +agricultural origin). The close of the corn-harvest was marked +by the festival <i>Shabhūōth</i> (weeks) or <i>Ḳāṣīr</i> (harvest) held seven +weeks after maṣṣōth. The last and most characteristic +festival of Canaanite life was that of <i>Asīph</i> or “ingathering” +which after the Deuteronomic reformation (621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) had made +a single sanctuary and therefore a considerable journey with a +longer stay necessary, came to be called <i>Succōth</i> or booths. +This was the autumn festival held at the close of September or +beginning of October. It marked the close of the year’s agricultural +operations when the olives and grapes had been gathered +[Ex. xxiii. 14-17 (E), xxxiv. 18, 22, 23 (J)]; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feasts</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Passover</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pentecost</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tabernacles</a></span>. Another special +characteristic of Israel’s religion in Canaan was the considerable +increase of sacrificial offerings. Animal sacrifices became much +more frequent, and included not only the bloody sacrifice +(Zebaḥ) but also burnt offerings (<i>kālīl</i>, <i>’ōlah</i>) whereby the whole +animal was consumed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sacrifice</a></span>). But we have in addition +to the animal sacrifices, vegetable offerings of meal, oil and cakes +(<i>maṣṣōth</i>, <i>ashīshah</i> and <i>kawwān</i>, which last is specially connected +with the ‘Ashtoreth cult: Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 19), as well as the +“bread of the Presence” (<i>leḥem happānīm</i>), 1 Sam. xxi. 6. +Whether the primitive rite of <i>water-offerings</i> (1 Sam. vii. 6; +2 Sam. xxiii. 16) belonged to early nomadic Israel (as seems +probable) it is not possible to determine with any certainty.</p> + +<p>Again, the conception of Yahweh suffered modification. +In the desert he was worshipped as an atmospheric deity, who +manifested himself in thunder and lightning, whose abode was +in the sky, whose sanctuary was on the mountain summit of +Horeb-Sinai, and whose movable palladium was the ark of the +covenant. But when the nomadic clans of Israel came to occupy +the settled abodes of the agricultural Canaanites who had a +stake in the soil which they cultivated, these conditions evidently +reacted on their religion. Now the local Baal was the divine +owner of the fertile spot where his sanctuary (<i>qōdesh</i>) was marked +by the upright stone pillar, the symbol of his presence, on which +the blood of the slaughtered victim was smeared. To this Baal +the productiveness of the soil was due. Consequently it was +needful to secure his favour, and in order to gain this, gifts were +made to him by the local resident population who depended +on the produce of the land (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baal</a></span>, especially <i>ad init.</i>). Now +when the Hebrews succeeded to these agricultural conditions +and acquired possession of the Canaanite abodes, they naturally +fell into the same cycle of religious ideas and tradition. Yahweh +ceased to be exclusively regarded as god of the atmosphere, +worshipped in a distant mountain, Horeb-Sinai, situated in the +south country (<i>negebh</i>), and moving in the clouds of heaven before +the Israelites in the desert, but he came to be associated with +Israel’s life in Canaan. He manifested His presence either by a +signal victory over Israel’s foes (Josh. x. 10, 11; 1 Sam. vii. 10-12) +or by a thunderstorm (1 Sam. xii. 18) or through a dream (Gen. +xxviii. 16 foll.; cf. 1 Kings iii. 5 foll.) at a sacred spot like Bethel. +Accordingly, whenever His presence and power were displayed in +places where the Canaanite Baal had been worshipped, they came +to be attached to these spots. He had “put his name,” <i>i.e.</i> +power and presence (<i>numen</i>) there, and the same festivals and +sacrifices which had previously been devoted to the cult of +the Canaanite Baal were now annexed to the service of Yahweh, +the war-god of the conquering race. The process of transference +was facilitated by two potent causes: (<i>a</i>) Both Canaanite and +Hebrew spoke a common language; (<i>b</i>) the name Baal is not in +reality an individual proper name like Kemōsh (Chemosh), +Rammān or Hadad, but is, like Ēl (Ilu) “god,” an appellative +meaning “lord,” “owner” or “husband.” The name Baal +might therefore be used for any deity such as Milk (Milcom) +or Shemesh (“sun”) who was the divine owner of the spot. +It was simply a covering epithet, and like the word “god” +could be transferred from one deity to another. In this way +Yahweh came to be called the Baal or “lord” of any sacred +place where the armies of Israel by their victories attested +“his mighty hand and outstretched arm.” (See Kautzsch in +Hastings’s <i>D.B.</i>, extra vol., p. 645 foll.)</p> + +<p>Such was the path of syncretism, and it was fraught with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span> +peril to the older and purer faith. For when Yahweh gradually +became Israel’s local Baal he became worshipped like the old +Canaanite deity, and all the sensuous accompaniments of +Kedēshōth,<a name="fa11f" id="fa11f" href="#ft11f"><span class="sp">11</span></a> as well as the presence of the <i>ashērah</i> or sacred +pole, became attached to his cult. But the symbol carried +with it the <i>numen</i> of the goddess symbolized, and there can be +little doubt that Ashērah came to be regarded as Yahweh’s +consort. In the days of Manasseh syncretism went on unchecked +even in the Jerusalem temple and its precincts, and it was not +till the year of Jesiah’s reformation (621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) that the Kedēshīm +and Kedēshōth as well as the Ashērah were banished for ever +from Yahweh’s sanctuary (2 Kings xxi. 7, xxiii. 7), which their +presence had profaned.</p> + +<p>Now local worship means the differentiation of the personality +worshipped in the varied local shrines, in other words Ba’ālīm +or Baals. Just as we have in Assyria an Ishtar of Arbela and +an Ishtar of Nineveh (treated in Assur-bani-pal’s (Rassam) +cylinder<a name="fa12f" id="fa12f" href="#ft12f"><span class="sp">12</span></a> like two distinct deities), as we have local Madonnas +in Roman Catholic countries, so must it have been with the cults +of Yahweh in the regal period carried on in the numerous high +places, Bethel, Shechem, Shiloh (till its destruction in the +days of Eli) and Jerusalem. Each in turn claimed that Yahweh +had placed his name (<i>i.e.</i> personal presence and power or numen) +<i>there</i>. Each had a Yahweh of its own.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, old deities still lurked in old spots which +had been for centuries their abode. It was no easy task to +establish Yahweh in permanent possession of the new lands +conquered by the Hebrew settlers. The old gods were not to +be at once discrowned of might. Of this we have a vivid example +in the episode 2 Kings xviii. 24-28. The inhabitants of Babylonia +and other regions whom the Assyrian kings had settled in +Ephraim after 721 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (cf. Ezra iv. 10) are described as suffering +from the depredations of lions, and a priest from the deported +Ephraimites is sent to them to teach them the worship of Yahweh, +the god of the land. Similarly in the earlier pre-exilian period +of Israel’s occupation of Canaanite territory the Hebrews were +always subject to this tendency to worship the <i>old</i> Baal or +’Ashtoreth (the goddess who made the cattle and flocks prolific).<a name="fa13f" id="fa13f" href="#ft13f"><span class="sp">13</span></a> +A few years of drought or of bad seasons would make a Hebrew +settler betake himself to the old Canaanite gods. Even in the +days of Hosea the rivalry between Yahweh and the old Canaanite +Baal still continued. The prophet reproaches his Ephraimite +countrymen for going after their “lovers,” the old local Baals +who were supposed to have bestowed on them the bread, water, +wool, flax and oil, and for not knowing that “it is I (Yahweh) +who have bestowed on her (<i>i.e.</i> Israel) the corn, the new wine +and the oil, and have bestowed on her silver and gold in abundance +which they have wrought into a Baal image” (Hos. ii. 10).</p> + +<p>External danger from a foreign foe, such as Midian or the +Philistines, at once brought into prominence the claim and power +of Yahweh, Israel’s national war-god since the great days of +the exodus. The religion of Yahweh (as Wellhausen said) +meant patriotism, and in war-time tended to weld the participating +tribes into a national unity. The book of Judges with its +“monotonous tempo—religious declension, oppression, repentance, +peace,” to which Wellhausen<a name="fa14f" id="fa14f" href="#ft14f"><span class="sp">14</span></a> refers as its ever-recurring +cycle, makes us familiar with these alternating phases of action +and reaction. Times of peace meant national disintegration +and the lapse of Israel into the Canaanite local cults, which is +interpreted by the redactor as the prophets of the 8th century +would have interpreted it, viz. as defection from Yahweh. On +the other hand, times of war against a foreign foe meant on +the religious side the unification, partial or complete, of the +Israelite tribes by the rallying cry “the sword of Yahweh” +(Judges vii. 20). In this way ’Ophrah became the centre of +the coalition under Gideon in the tribe of Manasseh. Its importance +is attested by Judges viii. 22-28, and we may disregard +the “snare” which the Deuteronomic writer condemns in +accordance with the later canons of orthodoxy. What ’Ophrah +became on a small scale in the days of Gideon, Jerusalem became +on a larger scale in the days of David and his successors. It was +the religious expression of the unity of Israel which the life and +death struggle with the Philistines had gradually wrought out.</p> + +<p>Despite the capture of the ark after the disastrous battle +of Shiloh, Yahweh had in the end shown himself through a +destructive plague superior in might to the Philistine Dagon. +There are indeed abundant indications that prove that in the +prevalent popular religion of the regal period monotheistic +conceptions had no place. Yahweh was god only of Israel and +of Israel’s land. An invasion of foreign territory would bring +Israel under the power of its patron-deity. The wrath with +which the Israelite armies believed themselves to be visited +(probably an outbreak of pestilence) when the king of Moab +was reduced to his last extremity, was obviously the wrath of +Chemosh the god of Moab, which the king’s sacrifice of his only +son had awakened against the invading army (2 Kings iii. 27). +In other words, the ordinary Israelite worshipper of Yahweh +was at this time far removed from monotheism, and still remained +in the preliminary stage of henotheism, which regarded Yahweh +as sole god of Israel and Israel’s land, but at the same time +recognized the existence and power of the deities of other lands +and peoples. Of this we have recurring examples in pre-exilian +Hebrew history. See 1 Sam. xxvi. 19; Judges xi. 23, 24; +Ruth i. 16.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Characteristics and Constituent Elements.</i>—It is only possible +here to refer in briefest enumeration to the material and external +objects and forms of popular Hebrew religion. These +were of the simplest character. The upright stone +<span class="sidenote">Material objects.</span> +(or <i>maṣṣēbah</i>) was the material symbol of deity +on which the blood of sacrifice was smeared, and in which the +<i>numen</i> of the god resided. It is probable that in some primitive +sanctuaries no real distinction was made between this stone-pillar +and the altar or place where the animal was slaughtered. +In ordinary pre-exilian high places the custom described in the +primitive compend of laws (Ex. xx. 24) would be observed. +A mound of earth was raised which would serve as a platform +on which the victim would be slaughtered in the presence of +the concourse of spectators. In the more important shrines, +as at Jerusalem or Samaria, there would be an altar of stone +or of bronze. Another accompaniment of the sanctuary would +be the sacred tree—most frequently a terebinth (cf. Judges ix. +37 “terebinth of soothsayers”), or it might be a palm tree +(cf. “palm tree of Deborah” in Judges iv. 5), or a tamarisk +(<i>‘ēshel</i>), or pomegranate (<i>rimmōn</i>), as at the high place in Gibeah +where Saul abode. Moreover, we have frequent references to +sacred springs, as that of <i>Beēr-sheba</i>, <i>‘Ēnharōd</i> (<i>‘ēyn-ḥarod</i>) +(Judges vii. 1; cf. also Judges 19, <i>‘Ēn-haḳḳōrē</i> [<i>‘ēyn-haqqōre’</i>]). +(On this subject of holy trees, holy waters and holy stones, +consult article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tree-Worship</a></span>, and Robertson Smith’s <i>Religion +of the Semites</i>, 2nd ed., pp. 165-197.)</p> + +<p>The wide prevalence of magic and soothsaying may be +illustrated from the historical books of the Old Testament +as well as from the pre-exilian prophets. The latter indeed +tolerated the <i>qōsēm</i> (soothsayer) as they did the seer (rō’ēh). +The rhabdomancy denounced by Hosea (iv. 12) was associated +with idolatry at the high places. But the arts of the necromancer +were always and without exception treated as foreign to the +religion of Yahweh. The necromancer of <i>ba‘al ‘ōbh’</i> was held +to be possessed of the spirit who spoke through him with a +hollow voice. Indeed both necromancer and the spirit that +possessed him were sometimes identified, and the former was +simply called <i>ōbh</i>. It is probable that necromancy, like the +worship of Ashērah and ’Ashtoreth, as well as the cult of graven +images, was a Canaanite importation into Israel’s religious +practices. (See Marti, <i>Religion des A.T.</i>, p. 32.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span></p> + +<p>The history of the rise of the priesthood in Israel is exceedingly +obscure. In the nomadic period and during the earlier years of +the settlement of Israel in Canaan the head of every +family could offer sacrifices. In the primitive codes, +<span class="sidenote">Priesthood.</span> +Ex. xx. 22-xxiii. 19 (E), xxxiv. 10-28 (J), we have +no allusion to any separate order of men who were qualified to +offer sacrifices. In Ex. xxiv. 5 (E) we read that Moses simply +commissioned young men to offer sacrifices. On the other hand +the <i>addendum</i> to the book of Judges, chaps. xvii., xviii. (which +Budde, Moore and other critics consider to belong to the two +sources of the narratives in Judges, viz. J<a name="fa15f" id="fa15f" href="#ft15f"><span class="sp">15</span></a> as well as E), makes +reference to a Levite of Bethlehem-Judah, expressly stated +in xvii. 7 as belonging to a clan of Judah. This man Micah took +into his household as priest. This narrative has all the marks +of primitive simplicity. There can be no reasonable doubt that +the Levite here was member of a priestly tribe or order, and this +view is confirmed by the discovery of what is really the same +word in south Arabian inscriptions.<a name="fa16f" id="fa16f" href="#ft16f"><span class="sp">16</span></a> The narrative is of some +value as it shows that while it was possible to appoint any one +as a priest, since Micah, like David, appointed one of his own +sons (xvii. 5), yet a special priest-tribe or order also existed, +and Micah considered that the acquisition of one of its members +was for his household a very exceptional advantage: “Now +I know that Yahweh will befriend me because I have the <i>Levite</i> +as priest.”<a name="fa17f" id="fa17f" href="#ft17f"><span class="sp">17</span></a> In other words a priest who was a Levite possessed +a superior professional qualification. He is paid ten shekels +per annum, together with his food and clothing, and is dignified +by the appellation “father” (cf. the like epithet of “mother” +applied to the prophetess Deborah, Judges v. 7; see also +2 Kings ii. 12, vi. 21, xiii. 14). This same narrative dwells upon +the graven images, ephod and terāphīm, as forming the apparatus +of religious ceremonial in Micah’s household. Now the ephod +and teraphim are constantly mentioned together (cf. Hos. iii. 4) +and were used in divination. The former was the plated image +of Yahweh (cf. Judges viii. 26, 27) and the latter were ancestral +images (see Marti, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 27, 29; Harper, <i>Int. Comm.</i> +“Amos and Hosea,” p. 222). In other words the function of +the priest was not merely sacrificial (a duty which Kautzsch +unnecessarily detaches from the services which he originally +rendered), nor did he merely bear the ark of the covenant and +take charge of God’s house; but he was also and mainly (as the +Arabic name <i>kāhin</i> shows) the <i>soothsayer</i> who consulted the ephod +and gave the answers required on the field of battle (see 1 Sam. +and 2 Sam. <i>passim</i>) and on other occasions. This is clearly +shown in the “blessing of Moses” (Deut. xxxiii. 8), where the +Levite is specially associated with another apparatus of inquiry, +viz. the sacred lots, <i>Urīm</i> and <i>Thummīm</i>. The true character +of <i>Urīm</i> (as expressing “aye”) and <i>Thummīm</i> (as expressing +“nay”) is shown by the reconstructed text of 1 Sam. xiv. 41 +on the basis of the Septuagint. See Driver <i>ad loc.</i></p> + +<p>The chief and most salient characteristic of the worship of +the high places was geniality. The sacrifice was a feast of social +communion between the deity and his worshippers, +and knit both deity and clan-members together in +<span class="sidenote">Geniality of Worship.</span> +the bonds of a close fellowship. This genial aspect +of Hebrew worship is nowhere depicted more graphically +than in the old narrative (a J section = Budde’s G) 1 Sam. +ix. 19-24, where a day of sacrifice in the high place is described. +Saul and his attendant are invited by the seer-priest Samuel +into the banqueting chamber (<i>lishkah</i>) where thirty persons +partake of the sacrificial meal. It was the <i>’āsīph</i> or festival +of ingathering, when the agricultural operations were brought +to a close, which exhibited these genial features of Canaanite-Hebrew +life most vividly. References to them abound in pre-exilian +literature: Judges xxi. 21 (cf. ix. 27); Amos viii. 1 foll.; +Hos. ix. 1 foll., Jer. xxxi. 4; Isa. xvi. 10 (Jer. xlviii. 33). +These festivals formed the veins and arteries of ancient Hebrew +clan and tribal life.<a name="fa18f" id="fa18f" href="#ft18f"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Wellhausen’s characterization of the +Arabian <i>hajj</i><a name="fa19f" id="fa19f" href="#ft19f"><span class="sp">19</span></a> applies with equal force to the Hebrew <i>hagg</i> +(festival): “They formed the rendezvous of ancient life. Here +came under the protection of the peace of God the tribes and +clans which otherwise lived apart from one another and only +knew peace and security within their own frontiers.” 1 Sam. +xx. 28 foll. indicates the strong claims on personal attendance +exercised on each individual member by the local clan festival +at Bethlehem-Judah.</p> + +<p>It is easy to discern from varied allusions in the Old Testament +that the Canaanite impress of sensuous life clung to the autumnal +vintage festivals. They became orgiastic in character and +scenes of drunkenness, cf. Judges ix. 27; 1 Sam. 14-16; Isa. +xxviii. 7, 8. Against this tendency the <i>Nazirite</i> order and +tradition was a protest. Cf. Amos ii. 11 foll.; Judges xiii. 7, 14. +As certain sanctuaries, Shiloh, Shechem, Bethel, &c., grew in +importance, the priesthoods that officiated at them would acquire +special prestige. Eli, the head priest at Shiloh in the early youth +of Samuel, held an important position in what was then the +chief religious and political centre of Ephraim; and the office +passed by inheritance to the sons in ordinary cases. In the regal +period the royal residence gave the priesthood of that place an +exceptional position. Thus Zadok, who obtained the priestly +office at Jerusalem in the reign of Solomon and was succeeded +by his sons, was regarded in later days as the founder of the true +and legitimate succession of the priesthood descended from Levi +(Ezek. xl. 46, xliii. 19, xliv. 15; cf. 1 Kings ii. 27, 35). His +descent, however, from Eleazar, the elder brother of Aaron, +can only be regarded as the later artificial construction of the +post-exilian chronicler (1 Chron. vi. 4-15, 50-53, xxiv. 1 foll.), +who was controlled by the traditions which prevailed in the 4th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and after.</p> + +<p>6. <i>The Prophets.</i>—The rise of the order of prophets, who +gradually emerged out of and became distinct from the old +Hebrew “seer” or augur (1 Sam. ix. 9),<a name="fa20f" id="fa20f" href="#ft20f"><span class="sp">20</span></a> marks a new epoch +in the religious development of the Hebrews. Over the successive +stages of this growth we pass lightly (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prophet</a></span>). The life-and-death +struggle between Israel and the Philistines in the reign +of Saul called forth under Samuel’s leadership a new order of +“men of God,” who were called “prophets” or divinely inspired +speakers.<a name="fa21f" id="fa21f" href="#ft21f"><span class="sp">21</span></a> These men were distributed in various settlements, +and their exercises were usually of an ecstatic character. The +closest modern analogy would be the orders of dervishes in +Islām. Probably there was little externally to distinguish the +prophet of Yahweh in the days of Samuel from the Canaanite-Phoenician +prophets of Baal and Ashērah (1 Kings xviii. 19, 26, +28), for the practices of both were ecstatic and orgiastic (cf. +1 Sam. x. 5 foll., xviii. 10, xix. 23 foll.). The special quality which +distinguished these prophetic gilds or companies was an intense +patriotism combined with enthusiastic devotion to the cause +of Yahweh. This necessarily involved in that primitive age an +extreme jealousy of foreign importations or innovations in +ritual. It is obvious from numerous passages that these prophetic +gilds recognized the superior position and leadership of +Samuel, or of any other distinguished prophet such as Elijah +or Elisha. Thus 1 Sam. xix. 20, 23 et seq. show that Samuel +was regarded as head of the prophetic settlement at Naiōth. +With reference to Elijah and Elisha, see 2 Kings ii. 3, 5, 15, +iv. 1, 38 et seq., vi. 1 et seq. There cannot be any doubt that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span> +such enthusiastic devotees of Yahweh, in days when religion +meant patriotism, did much to keep alive the flame of Israel’s +hope and courage in the dark period of national disaster. It is +significant that Saul in his last unavailing struggle against the +overwhelming forces of the Philistines sought through the medium +of a sorceress for an interview with the deceased prophet Samuel. +It was the advice of Elisha that rescued the armies of Jehoram +and Jehoshaphat in their war against Moab when they were +involved in the waterless wastes that surrounded them (2 Kings +iii. 14 foll.). We again find Elisha intervening with effect on +behalf of Israel in the wars against Syria, so that his fame spread +to Syria itself (2 Kings v.-viii. 7 foll.). Lastly it was the fiery +counsels of the dying prophet, accompanied by the acted magic +of the arrow shot through the open window, and also of the +thrice smitten floor, that gave nerve and courage to Joash, king +of Israel, when the armies of Syria pressed heavily on the northern +kingdom (2 Kings xiii. 14-19).</p> + +<p>We see that the prophet had now definitely emerged from the +old position of “seer.” Prophetic personality now moved in a +larger sphere than that of divination, important though that +function be in the social life of the ancient state<a name="fa22f" id="fa22f" href="#ft22f"><span class="sp">22</span></a> as instrumental +in declaring the will of the deity when any enterprise was on +foot. For the prophet’s function became in an increasing degree +a function of <i>mind</i>, and not merely of traditional routine or +mechanical technique, like that of the diviner with his arrows +or his lots which he cast in the presence of the ephod or plated +Yahweh image. The new name <i>nabhi’</i> became necessary to +express this function of more exalted significance, in which human +personality played its larger rôle. Even as early as the time of +David it would seem that Nathan assumed this more developed +function as interpreter of Yahweh’s righteous will to David. +But both in 2 Sam. xii. 1-15 as well as in 2 Sam. vii. we have +sections which are evidently coloured by the conceptions of a +later time. We stand on safer ground when we come to Elijah’s +bold intervention on behalf of righteousness when he declared +in the name of Yahweh the divine judgment on Ahab and his +house for the judicial murder of Naboth. We here observe a +great advance in the vocation of the prophet. He becomes the +interpreter and vindicator of divine justice, the vocal exponent +of a nation’s conscience. For Elijah was in this case obviously +no originator or innovator. He represents the old ethical +Mosaism, which had not disappeared from the national consciousness, +but still remained as the moral pre-supposition on +which the prophets of the following century based their appeals +and denunciations. It is highly significant that Elijah, when +driven from the northern kingdom by the threats of the Tyrian +Jezebel, retreats to the old sanctuary at Horeb, whence Moses +derived his inspiration and his Tōrah.</p> + +<p>We have hitherto dealt with isolated examples of prophetism +and its rare and distinguished personalities. The ordinary +Hebrew <i>nabhi’</i> still remained not the reflective visionary, stirred +at times by music into strange raptures (2 Kings iii. 15), but the +ecstatic and orgiastic dervish who was <i>meshuggah</i> or “frenzied,” +a term which was constantly applied to him from the days of +Elisha to those of Jeremiah (2 Kings ix. 11; in Hos. ix. 7 and +Jer. xxix. 26 it is regarded as a term of reproach). It is only in +rare instances that some exalted personality is raised to a higher +level. Of this we have an interesting example in the vivid +episode that preceded the battle of Ramoth-Gilead described +in 1 Kings xxii., when Micaiah appears as the true prophet of +Yahweh, who in his rare independence stands in sharp contrast +with the conventional court prophets, who prophesied then, as +their descendants prophesied more than two centuries later, +smooth things.</p> + +<p>It is not, however, till the 8th century that prophecy attained +its highest level as the interpreter of God’s ways to men. This +is due to the fact that it for the first time unfolded the true +character of Yahweh, implicit in the old Mosaic religion and +submerged in the subsequent centuries of Israel’s life in Canaan, +but now at length made clear and explicit to the mind of the +nation. It became now detached from the limitations of nationalism +and local association with which it had been hitherto +circumscribed.</p> + +<p>Even Elisha, the greatest prophet of the 9th century, had +remained within these national limitations which characterized +the popular conceptions of Yahweh. Yahweh was Israel’s war-god. +His power was asserted in and from Canaanite soil. If +Naaman was to be healed, it could only be in a Palestinian river, +and two mules’ load of earth would be the only permanent +guarantee of Yahweh’s effective blessing on the Syrian general +in his Syrian home.</p> + +<p>That larger conceptions prevailed in some of the loftier minds +of Israel, and may be held to have existed even as far back as +the age of Moses, is a fact which the Yahwistic cosmogony in +Gen. ii. 4<i>b</i>-9 (which may have been composed in the 9th century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) clearly suggests, and it is strongly sustained by the overwhelming +evidence of the powerful influence of Babylonian +culture in the Palestinian region during the centuries 2000-1400 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa23f" id="fa23f" href="#ft23f"><span class="sp">23</span></a> Probably in our modern construction of ancient +Hebrew history sufficient consideration has not been given to the +inevitable coexistence of different types and planes of thought, +each evolved from earlier and more primordial forms. In other +words we have to deal not with <i>one</i> evolution but with +evolutions.</p> + +<p>The existence of the purer and larger conception of Yahweh’s +character and power before the advent of Amos indicates that +the transition from the past was not so sudden as Wellhausen’s +graphic portrayal in the 9th edition of this <i>Encyclopaedia</i> (art. +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Israel</a></span>) would have led us to suppose. There were pre-existent +ideas upon which that prophet’s epoch-making message was +based. Yet this consideration should in no way obscure the fact +that the prophet lived and worked in the all-pervading atmosphere +of the popular syncretic Yahweh religion, intensely national +and local in its character. In Wellhausen’s words, each petty +state “revolved on its own axis” of social-religious life till the +armies of Tiglath-Pileser III. broke up the security within the +Canaanite borders. According to the dominating popular +conception, the destruction of the national power by a foreign +army meant the overthrow of the prestige of the national deity +by the foreign nation’s god. If Assyria finally overthrew Israel +and carried off Yahweh’s shrine, Assur (Ašur), the tutelary +deity of Assyria, was mightier than Yahweh. This was precisely +what was happening among the northern states, and Amos +foresaw that this might eventually be Israel’s doom. Rabshakeh’s +appeal to the besieged inhabitants of Jerusalem was based on +these same considerations. He argued from past history that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span> +Yahweh would be powerless in the presence of Ashur (2 Kings +xviii. 33-35).</p> + +<p>This problem of religion was solved by Amos and by the +prophets who succeeded him through a more exalted conception +of Yahweh and His sphere of working, which tended to detach +Him from His limited realm as a national deity. Amos exhibited +Him to his countrymen as lord of the universe, who made the +seven stars and Orion and turns the deep midnight darkness into +morning. He calls to the waters of the sea and pours them on +the earth’s surface (chap. v. 8). Such a universal God of the +world would hardly make Israel His exclusive concern. Thus +He not only brought the Israelites out of Egypt, but also the +Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir (ix. 7). But +Amos went beyond this. Yahweh was not only the lord of the +universe and possessed of sovereign power. The prophet also +emphasized with passionate earnestness that Yahweh was a God +whose character was righteous, and God’s demand upon His +people Israel was not for sacrifices but for <i>righteous conduct</i>. +Sacrifice, as this prophet, like his successor Jeremiah, insisted +(Amos v. 25; cf. Jer. vii. 22) played no part in Mosaic religion. +In words which evidently impressed his younger contemporary +Isaiah (cf. esp. Is. chap. i. 11-17), Amos denounced the non-ethical +ceremonial formalism of his countrymen which then +prevailed (chap. v. 21 foll.):—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“I hate, I contemn your festivals and in your feasts I delight not; +for when you offer me your burnt-offerings and gifts, I do not regard +them with favour and your fatted peace-offerings I will not look at. +Take away from me the clamour of your songs; and the music of +your viols I will not hear. But let judgment roll down like waters +and justice like a perennial brook.”</p> +</div> + +<p>In the younger contemporary prophet of Ephraim, Hosea, +the stress is laid on the relation of love (<i>ḥesēd</i>) between Yahweh, +the divine husband, and Israel, the faithless spouse. Israel’s +faithlessness is shown in idolatry and the prevailing corruption +of the high places in which the old Canaanite Baal was worshipped +instead of Yahweh. It is shown, moreover, in foreign alliances. +Compacts with a powerful foreign state, under whose aegis +Israel was glad to shelter, involved covenants sealed by sacrificial +rites in which the deity or deities of the foreign state were involved +as well as Yahweh, the god of the weaker vassal-state. And so +Yahweh’s honour was compromised. While these aspects of +Israel’s relation to Yahweh are emphasized by the Ephraimite +prophet, the larger conceptions of Yahweh’s character as universal +Lord and the God of righteousness, whose government of the +world is ethical, emphasized by the prophet of Tekoah, are +scarcely presented.</p> + +<p>In Isaiah both aspects—divine universal sovereignty and +justice, taught by Amos, and divine loving-kindness to Israel +and God’s claims on His people’s allegiance, taught by Hosea—are +fully expressed. Yahweh’s relation of love to Israel is +exhibited under the purer symbol of fatherhood (Isa. i. 2-4), a +conception which was as ancient and familiar as that of husband, +though perhaps the latter recurs more frequently in prophecy +(Isa. i. 21; Ezek. xvi. &c.). Even more insistently does Isaiah +present the great truth of God’s universal sovereignty. As with +his elder contemporary, the foreign peoples—(but in Isaiah’s +oracles Assyria and Egypt as well as the Palestinian races)—come +within his survey. The “fullness of the earth” is Yahweh’s +glory (vi. 3) and the nations of the earth are the instruments of His +irresistible and righteous will. Assyria is the “bee” and Egypt +the “fly” for which Yahweh hisses. Assyria is the “hired razor” +(Isa. vii. 18, 19), or the “rod of His wrath,” for the chastisement +of Israel (x. 5). But the instrument unduly exalts itself, +and Assyria itself shall suffer humiliation at the hands of the +world’s divine sovereign (x. 7-15).</p> + +<p>And so the old limitations of Israel’s popular religion,—the +same limitations that encumbered also the religions of all the +neighbouring races that succumbed in turn to Assyria’s invincible +progress,—now began to disappear. Therefore, while +every other religion which was purely national was extinguished +in the nation’s overthrow, the religion of Israel survived even +amid exile and dispersion. For Amos and Isaiah were able to +single out those loftier spiritual and ethical elements which lay +implicit in Mosaism and to lift them into their due place of +prominence. National <i>sacra</i> and the ceremonial requirements +were made to assume a secondary rôle or were even ignored.<a name="fa24f" id="fa24f" href="#ft24f"><span class="sp">24</span></a> +The centre of gravity in Hebrew religion was shifted from +ceremonial observance and local sacra to righteous conduct. +Religion and righteousness were henceforth welded into an +indissoluble whole. The religion of Yahweh was no longer to +rest upon the narrow perishable basis of locality and national +sacra, but on the broad adamantine foundations of a universal +divine sovereignty over all mankind and of righteousness as +the essential element in the character of Yahweh and in his +claims on man. This was the “corner-stone of precious solid +foundation”: “I will make judgment the measuring-line and +righteousness the plummet” (Isa. xxviii. 16, 17). The religion of +the Hebrew race—properly the Jews—now enters on a new +stage, for it should be observed that it was Amos, Isaiah and +Micah—prophets of Judah—who laid the actual foundations. +The latter half of the 8th century, which witnessed a rapid +succession of reigns in the northern kingdom accompanied by +dismemberment of its territory and final overthrow, witnessed +also the humiliating vassalage and religious decline of the kingdom +of Judah. Unlike Amos and Micah, Isaiah was not only the +prophet of denunciation but also the prophet of hope. Though +Yahweh’s chastisements on Ephraim and Judah would continue +to fall till scarcely a remnant was left (Isa. vi. 13, LXX.), yet all +was not to be lost. A remnant of the people was to return, <i>i.e.</i> +be converted to Yahweh. The name given to an infant child—Immanuel—was +to become the mystic symbol of a growing hope. +God’s presence was to abide in Jerusalem, and, as the century +drew near its close, “Immanuel” became the watchword and +talisman of a strong faith that God would never permit Jerusalem +to be captured by the Assyrians. In fact it is not improbable +that the words of consolation uttered by the prophet (Isa. viii. +9-10) in the dark days of Ahaz (735-734 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) were among the +oracles which God commanded Isaiah “to seal up among his +disciples” (verse 16), and that they were quoted once more with +effect as the armies of Sennacherib closed around Jerusalem. +The talismanic name Immanuel became the nucleus out of which +the later <i>Messianic</i> prophecies of Isaiah grew. To this age alone +can we probably assign Isa. ix. 1-7, xi. 1-9, xxxii. 1-3. The hopes +expressed in the word Immanuel, “God with us,” were to become +embodied in a personality of the royal seed of David, an ideal +righteous ruler who was to bring peace to the war-distraught +realm. Thus Isaiah became in that troubled age the true founder +of <i>Messianic</i> prophecy. The strange contrast between the succession +of dynasties and kings cut off by assassination in the northern +kingdom, ending in the tragic overthrow of 721 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the +persistent succession through three centuries of the seed of David +on the throne of Jerusalem, as well as the marvellous escape +of Jerusalem in 701 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> from the fate of Samaria, must have +invested the seed of David in the eyes of all thoughtful observers +with a mysterious and divine significance. The Messianic +prophecies of Isaiah, the prophet of faith and deliverance, were +destined to reverberate through all subsequent centuries. We +hear the echoes in Jeremiah and Ezekiel and lastly in Haggai +in ever feebler tones, and they were destined to reawaken in +the Psalter (Pss. ii. and lxxii.), in the psalms of Solomon and in +the days of Christ. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Messiah</a></span> (and also the article “Messiah” +in Hastings’s <i>Dict. of Christ and the Gospels</i>).</p> + +<p>The next notable contribution to the permanent growth of +Hebrew prophetic religion was made about a century after the +lifetime of Isaiah by Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The reaction into +idolatry and Babylonian star worship in the long reign of +Manasseh synchronized and was connected with vassalage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span> +to Assyria, while the reformation in the reign of Josiah (621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +is conversely associated with the decay of Assyrian power after +the death of Assur-bani-pal. That reformation failed to effect +its purifying mission. The hurt of the daughter of God’s people +was but lightly healed (Jer. vi. 14, 15; cf. viii. 11, 12). No +possibility of recovery now remained to the diseased Hebrew +state. The outlook appeared indeed far darker to Jeremiah +than it seemed more than a century before to Isaiah in the +evil days of Jotham and Ahaz, “when the whole head was sick +and the whole heart faint” (Isa. i. 5). Jeremiah foresaw +that there was now no possibility of recovery. The Hebrew +state was doomed and even its temple was to be destroyed. This +involved an entire reconstruction of theological ideas which +went beyond even the reconstructions of Amos and Isaiah. In +the old religion the race or clan was the unit of religion as well +as of social life. Properly speaking, the individual was related +to God only through the externalities of the clan or tribal life, +its common temple and its common <i>sacra</i>. But now that these +external bases of the old religion were to be swept away, a +reconstruction of religious ideas became necessary. For the +external supports which had vanished Jeremiah substituted a +basis which was <i>internal, personal and spiritual</i> (<i>i.e.</i> <i>ethical</i>). +In place of the old covenant based on external observance, +which had been violated, there was to be a <i>new covenant</i> which +was to consist not in outward prescription, but in the law which +God would place <i>in the heart</i> (Jer. xxxi. 30-33). This was to +take place by an act of divine grace (Jer. xxiv. 5 foll.): “I +will give them an heart to know me that I am the Lord” (verse +7). Ezekiel, who borrowed both Jeremiah’s language and +ideas, expresses the same thought in the well-known words that +Yahweh would give the people instead of a heart of stone a heart +of flesh (Ezek. xi. 19, 20, xx. 40 foll., xxxvi. 25-27), and would +shame them by his loving-kindness into repentance, and there +“shall ye remember your ways and all your doings wherein +ye have been defiled and ye shall loathe yourselves in your +own sight” (xx. 43).</p> + +<p><i>Personal religion</i> now became an important element in Hebrew +piety and upon this there logically followed the idea of <i>personal +responsibility</i>. The solidarity of race or family was expressed +in the old tradition reflected in Deut. v. 9, 10, that God would +visit the sins of the fathers upon the children, and it lived on +in later Judaism under exaggerated forms. The hopes of the +individual Jew were based on the piety of holy ancestors. “We +have Abraham as our father.” But <i>Ezekiel</i> expressed the strong +reaction which had set in against this belief in its older forms. +He denies that the individual ever dies for the sins of the father. +“The soul that sinneth, it (the pronoun emphasized in the +original) shall die” (Ezek. xviii. 4). Neither Noah, Daniel +nor Job could have rescued by his righteousness any but his +own soul (xiv. 14). And as a further consequence <i>individual +freedom</i> is strongly asserted. It is possible for every sinner +to turn to God and escape punishment, and conversely for a +righteous man to backslide and fall. In the presence of these +awful truths which Ezekiel preached of individual freedom and +of impending judgment, the prophet is weighted with a heavy +responsibility. It is his duty to warn every individual, for no +sinner is to be punished without warning (Ezek. iii. 16 foll. +xxxiii.).</p> + +<p>The closing years of the Judaean kingdom and the final +destruction of the temple (586 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) shattered the Messianic +ideals cherished in the evening of Isaiah’s lifetime and again in +the opening years of the reign of Josiah. The untimely death +of that monarch upon the battlefield of Megiddo (608 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +followed by the inglorious reigns of the kings who succeeded +him, who became puppets in turn of Egypt or of Babylonia, +silenced for a while the Messianic hopes for a future king or line +of kings of Davidic lineage who would rule a renovated kingdom +in righteousness and peace. Even in the darkness of the exile +period hopes did not die. Yet they no longer remained the same. +In the Deutero-Isaiah (chaps. xl.-lv.) we have no longer a +Jewish but a <i>foreign</i> messiah. The onward progress of the +Persian Cyrus and his anticipated conquest of Babylonia marked +him out as Yahweh’s anointed instrument for effecting the +deliverance of exiled Israel and their restoration to their old home +and city (Isa. xli. 2, xliv. 24, xlv.). This was, however, but a +subsidiary issue and possesses no permanent spiritual significance. +Of far more vital importance is the conception of Israel as God’s +<i>suffering servant</i>. This is not the place to enter into the prolonged +controversy as to the real significance of this term, +whether it signifies the nation Israel or the righteous community +only, or finally an idealized prophetic individual who, like the +prophet Jeremiah, was destined to suffer for the well-being of +his people. Duhm, in his epoch-making commentary, distinguishes +on the grounds of metre and contents <i>the four servant-passages</i>, +in the last of which (lii. 13-liii. 12) the ideal suffering +servant of Yahweh is portrayed most definitely as an individual. +In the “servant-passages” he is innocent, while in the rest of +the Deutero-Isaiah he appears as by no means faultless, and +the personal traits are not prominent. These views of Duhm, +in which a severe distinction is thus drawn between the representation +of Yahweh’s servant in the servant-passages, and that +which meets us in the rest of the Deutero-Isaiah, have been +challenged by a succession of critics.<a name="fa25f" id="fa25f" href="#ft25f"><span class="sp">25</span></a> It is only necessary for +us to take note of the ideal in its general features. It probably +arose from the fact that the calamities from which Israel had +suffered both before and during the exile had drawn the reflective +minds of the race to the contemplation of the problem of suffering. +The “servant of Yahweh” presents one aspect of the problem +and its attempted solution, the book of Job another, while in +the Psalms, <i>e.g.</i> Pss. xxii., xlii.-xliii., lxxiii., lxxvii., other +phases of the problem are presented. In the Deutero-Isaiah +the meaning of Israel’s sufferings is exhibited as vicarious. Israel +is suffering for a great end. He suffers, is despised, rejected, +chastened and afflicted that others may be blessed and be at +peace through his chastisement. This noble conception of +Israel’s great destiny is conveyed in Isa. xlix. 6, in words which +may be regarded as perhaps the noblest utterance in Hebrew +prophecy: “To establish the tribes of Jacob and bring back +the preserved of Israel is less important than being my servant. +Yea, I will make you a light to the <i>Gentiles</i> that my salvation +may be unto the end of the earth.”<a name="fa26f" id="fa26f" href="#ft26f"><span class="sp">26</span></a> This passage, which +belongs to the second of the brief “servant-songs,” sets the +mission of Israel in its true relation to the world. It is the +necessary corollary to the teaching of Amos, that God is the +righteous lord of all the world. If Jerusalem has been chosen +as His sanctuary and Israel as His own people, it is only that +Israel may diffuse God’s blessings in the world even at the cost +of Israel’s own humiliation, exile and dispersion.</p> + +<p>The Deutero-Isaiah closes a great prophetic succession, which +begins with Amos, continues in Isaiah in even greater splendour +with the added elements of hope and Messianic expectation, and +receives further accession in Jeremiah with his special teaching +on inward spiritual and personal religion which constituted the +new covenant of divine grace. Finally the Deutero-Isaiah +conveyed to captive Israel the message of Yahweh’s unceasing +love and care, and the certainty of their return to Judaea and +the restoration of the national prosperity which Ezekiel had +already announced in the earlier period of the exile. To this +is united the noble ideal of the suffering servant, which serves +both as a contribution to the great problem of suffering as +purifying and vicarious and as the interpretation to the mind +of the nation itself of that nation’s true function in the future, +a lesson which the actual future showed that Israel was slow +to receive. Nowhere in the Old Testament does the doctrine +taught by Amos of Yahweh’s universal power and sovereignty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span> +receive ampler and more splendid exposition than in the great +lyrical passages of chap. xl. It marks the highest point to which +the Hebrew race attained in its progress from henotheism to +monotheism. Here again we see the wholesome influences of the +exile. The Jew had passed from the narrow confines of his +homeland into a wider world, and this larger vision of human +life reacted on the prophet’s theology. This closes the evolution +of Hebrew prophetism. What immediately follows is on a +descending slope with some striking exceptions, <i>e.g.</i> the book +of Job and the book of Jonah.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Deuteronomic Legalism.</i>—The book of Deuteronomy was +the product of prophetic teaching operating on traditional +custom, which was represented in its essential features by +the two codes of legislation contained in Ex. xx. 24-xxiii. 19 +(E) and Ex. xxxiv. 10-26 (J), but had also become tainted +and corrupted by centuries of Canaanite influence and practice +which especially infected the cult of the <i>high places</i>. The +existence of “high places” is pre-supposed in those two ancient +codes and is also presumed in the narratives of the documents +E and J which contain them. But the prevalence of the worship +of “other gods” and of graven images in these “high places,” +and the moral debasement of life which accompanied these cults, +made it clear that the “high places” were sources of grave +injury to Israel’s social life. In all probability the reformation +instituted in the reign of Hezekiah, to which 2 Kings xviii. 4 +(cf. verse 22) refers, was only partial. It is hardly possible that +all the high places were suppressed. The idolatrous reaction +in the reign of Manasseh appears to have restored all the evils +of the past and added to them. Another and more drastic +reform than that which had been previously initiated (probably +at the instigation of Isaiah and Micah) now became necessary +to save the state. It is universally held by critics that our present +book of Deuteronomy (certainly chaps. xii.-xxvi.) is closely +connected with the reformation in the reign of Josiah. It is +quite clear that many provisions in the old codes of J and E +expanded lie at the basis of the book of Deuteronomy. But +new features were added. We note for the first time definite +regulations respecting Passover and the close union of that +celebration with <i>Massōth</i> or “unleavened bread.” We note +the laws respecting the clean and unclean animals (certainly +based on ancient custom). Moreover, the prohibitions are +strengthened and multiplied. In addition to the bare interdict +of the sorceress (Ex. xxii. 18), of stone pillars to the Canaanite +Baal, of the Ashērah-pole, molten images and the worship of +other gods than Yahweh (Ex. xxxiv. 13-17), we now have the +strict prohibition of <i>any employment whatever</i> of the stone-symbol +(<i>Maṣṣēbhah</i>), and of all forms of sorcery, soothsaying +and necromancy (Deut. xviii. 10, 11. Respecting the stone-pillar +see xvi. 22). But of much more far-reaching importance +was the <i>law of the central sanctuary</i> which constantly meets us +in Deuteronomy in the reference to “the place (<i>i.e.</i> Jerusalem) +which Yahweh your God shall choose out of all your tribes to +put His name there” (xii. 5, xvi. 5, 11, 16, xxvi. 2). There +alone all offerings of any kind were to be presented (xii. 6, 7, +xvi. 7). By this positive enactment all the high places outside +the one sanctuary in Jerusalem became illegitimate. A further +consequence directly followed from the limitation as to sanctuary, +viz. limitation as to the officiating ministers of the sanctuary. +In the “book of the covenant” (Ex. xx. 22-xxii. 19), as we +have already seen, and in the general practice of the regal +period, there was no limitation as to the priesthood, but a definite +order of priesthood, viz. Levites, existed, to whom a higher +professional prestige belonged. As it was impossible to find a +place for the officiating priests of the high places, non-levitical +as well as levitical, in the single sanctuary, it became necessary +to restrict the functions of sacrifice to the Levites only as well +as to the existing official priesthood of the Jerusalem temple +(see PRIEST). Doubtless such a reform met with strong resistance +from the disestablished and vested interests, but it was firmly +supported by royal influence and by the Jerusalem priesthood +as well as by the true prophets of Yahweh who had protested +against the idolatrous usages and corruptions of the high places.</p> + +<p>The strong impress of Hebrew prophecy is to be found in +the deeply marked ethical spirit of the Deuteronomic legislation. +Love to God and love to man is stamped on a large number +of its provisions. Love to God is emphasized in Deut. vi. 5, +while love to man meets us in the constant reference to the +fatherless and the widow (cf. especially Deut. xvi.). This note +of philanthropy is frequently found as a mitigating element +(<i>e.g.</i> in the laws respecting slavery and war)<a name="fa27f" id="fa27f" href="#ft27f"><span class="sp">27</span></a> that subdues or +even removes the harshness of earlier laws or usages. It should +be noted, however, that the spirit of brotherly love was confined +within national barriers. It did not operate as a rule beyond +the limits of race.</p> + +<p>The book of Deuteronomy, in conjunction with the reformation +of Josiah’s reign (which synchronizes with the rapid decline +of Assyria and the reviving prestige of Yahweh), appeared to +mark the triumph of the great prophetic movement. It became +at once a codified standard of purer religious life and ultimately +served as a beacon of light for the future. But there was shadow +as well as light. We note (<i>a</i>) that though the book of Deuteronomy +bears the prophetic impress, the priestly impress is perhaps more +marked. The writer “evinces a warm regard for the priestly +tribe; he guards its privileges (xviii. 1-8), demands obedience +for its decisions (xxiv. 8; cf. xvii. 10-12) and earnestly commends +its members to the Israelites’ benevolence (xii. 18-19, xiv. 27-29, +&c.).”<a name="fa28f" id="fa28f" href="#ft28f"><span class="sp">28</span></a> (<i>b</i>) In many passages Jewish particularism is painfully +manifest. Yahweh’s care for other peoples does not appear. +The flesh of a dead (unslaughtered) beast is not to be eaten, but +it may be given to the “stranger within the gates”! (Deut. +xiv. 21).<a name="fa29f" id="fa29f" href="#ft29f"><span class="sp">29</span></a> (<i>c</i>) Prophetic religion was a religion of the spirit +which came to the messenger (Isa. lxi. 1) and expressed itself +as a word of instruction of Yahweh (<i>tōrah</i>); see Isa. 1. 10. Now +when the Hebrew religion was reduced to written form it began to +be a book-religion, and since the book consisted of fixed rules and +enactments, religion began to acquire a stereotyped character. +It will be seen in the sequel that this was destined to be the growing +tendency of Jewish religious life—to conform itself to +prescribed rules, in other words, it became <i>legalism</i>. (<i>d</i>) Lastly, +the old genial life of the high places, in which the “new moon” +or Sabbath or the annual festival was a sacrificial feast of communion, +in which the members of the local community or clan +enjoyed fellowship with one another—all this picturesque +life ceased to be. And though there was positive gain in the +removal of idolatrous and corrupt modes of worship, there was +also positive loss in the disappearance of this old genial phase +of Hebrew social life and worship. It involved a vast difference +to many a Judaean village when the festival pilgrimage was no +longer made to the familiar local sanctuary with its hoary +associations of ancient heroic or patriarchal story, but to a +distant and comparatively unfamiliar city with its stately +shrine and priesthood.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Ezekiel’s System.</i>—Ezekiel was the successor of Jeremiah +and inherited his conceptions. But though the younger prophet +adopted the ideas respecting personal religion and individual +responsibility from the elder, the characters of the two men +were very different. Jeremiah, when he foretold the destruction +of the external state and temple ritual, found no resource save +in a reconstruction that was internal and spiritual. In this +he was true to his prophetic impulse and genius. But Ezekiel +was, as Wellhausen well describes him, “a priest in prophet’s +mantle.” While Jeremiah’s tendency was spiritual and ideal, +Ezekiel’s was constructive and practical. He was the first to +foretell with clearness the return of his people from captivity +foreshadowed by Jeremiah, and he set himself the task even in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span> +the midnight darkness of Israel’s exile to prepare for the nation’s +renewed life. The external bases of Israel’s religion had been +swept away, and in exchange for these Jeremiah had led his +countrymen to the more permanent internal grounds of a +spiritual renewal. But a religion could not permanently subsist +in this world of space and time without some external concrete +embodiment. It was the task of Ezekiel to take up once more +the broken threads of Israel’s religious traditions, and weave +them anew into statelier forms of ritual and national polity. +The priest-prophet’s keen eye for detail, manifested in the +elaborate vision of the wheels and living creatures (Ezek. i.) +and in his lamentation on Tyre (chap. xxvii.), is also exhibited +in the visions contained in chaps. xl.-xlviii., which describe the +ideal reconstructed temple and theocracy of the restored Israel. +The foreground is filled by the temple and its precincts. The +officiating priests are now the descendants of the line of Zadok +belonging to the tribe of Levi. Thus the priesthood is still +further restricted as compared with the restriction already +noted in the Deuteronomic legislation. It is the sons of Zadok +only that have any right to offer sacrifice at the altar of burnt +offering (xliii. 19, xliv. 15 foll.). The Levites, who formerly +ministered in the high places, now discharge the subordinate +offices of gate-keepers and slaughterers of the sacrificial +victims.</p> + +<p>Another element in this ideal scheme which comes into +prominence is the sharp distinction between <i>holy</i> and <i>profane</i>. +The word <i>holiness</i> (<i>qodesh</i>) in primitive Hebrew usage partook +of the nature of taboo, and came to be applied to whatever, +whether thing or person, stood in close relation to deity and +belonged to him, and could not, therefore, be used or treated like +other objects not so related, and so was separated or stood apart. +The idea underlying the word, which to <i>us</i> is invested with deep +ethical meaning, had only this non-ethical, ritual significance +in Ezekiel. Unlike the old temple and city, the ideal temple +of Ezekiel is entirely separate from the city of Jerusalem. In +the immediate surroundings of the temple there is an open space. +Then come two concentric forecourts of the temple. The temple +stands in the midst of what is called the <i>gizrah</i> or space severed +off. The outer court lies higher than the open space, the inner +court higher still, and the temple-building in the centre highest +of all. No heathen may tread the outer court, no layman the +inner court, while the holiest of all may not be trodden even +by the priest Ezekiel but only by the angel who accompanies +him. “The temple-house has a graduated series of compartments +increasing in sanctity inwards” (Davidson). In the innermost +the presence of Yahweh abides.</p> + +<p>We are here moving in a realm of ideas prevailing in +ancient Israel respecting <i>holiness</i>, <i>uncleanness</i> and <i>sin</i>, which are +ceremonial and not ethical; see especially Robertson Smith’s +<i>Religion of the Semites</i>, 2nd ed., p. 446 foll. (additional note B.) +on holiness, uncleanness and taboo. It is, of course, true that +the ethical conception of sin as violation of righteousness and +an act of rebellion against the divine righteous will had been +developed since the days of Amos and Isaiah; but, as we have +already observed, cultus and prophetic teaching were separated +by an immense gulf, and in spite of the reformation of 621 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +still remain separated. In the sacrificial system of sin-offerings +(<i>ḥattāth</i> and <i>’āshām</i>) we have to do with sin as ceremonial violation +and neglect (frequently involuntary), or violation of holiness in +the old sense of the term or as personal uncleanness (touching a +corpse, eating unclean food, sexual impurity, &c.). In the +historical evolution of Hebrew sacrifice it is remarkable how +long this non-ethical and primitive survival of old custom still +survived, even far into post-exilian times. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sacrifice</a></span>; +also Moore’s art. “Sacrifice” in <i>Ency. Bibl.</i>)</p> + +<p>One conspicuous feature of Ezekiel’s system is the predominance +of piacular sacrifice. It undoubtedly existed in pre-exilian +Israel, especially in times of crisis or calamity, for the appeasement +of an offended deity (2 Sam. xxiv. 18 foll.), and in Deut. +xxi. 1-9, we have details of the purificatory rite which was +necessary when human blood was shed; but now and in the +future propitiatory sacrifice and ideas of propitiation began to +overshadow all the other forms of sacrifice and their ideas. +Ezekiel prescribes a half-yearly ritual of sin-offering whereby +atonement was to be made (xlv. 18-20). We shall see subsequently +to what great institution this led the way.</p> + +<p>Ezekiel’s system constituted an <i>ecclesiastical</i> in place of a +political organization, a <i>church-state</i> in place of a nation. We +clearly discern how this reacted on his Messianic conceptions. +In his earlier oracles (xxxiv. 23 foll.) we find one shepherd ruling +over united Israel, viz. Yahweh’s servant David, whereas in the +ideal scheme detailed in chap. xl. et seq. the rôle of the prince +as a ruler is a very shadowy one. The prince, it is true, has a +central domain, but his functions are ecclesiastical and subordinate +and his powers strictly limited (xlvi. 3-8, 12, 16-18).</p> + +<p>Thus the exile period marks the parting of the ways in the +development of Hebrew religion. In the Deutero-Isaiah we +reach the highest point in the evolution of prophetism. It is +true that we have some noble resounding echoes in the lyrical +passages lx.-lxii. In the Trito-Isaiah during the post-exilian +period, and in such psalm literature as Pss. xxii., xxxvii., l., +lxii., cvii., cxlv. 9-12 and others; and also in Isa. xxxv., which +is obviously a lyrical reproduction of earlier literature. But +it cannot be said that we possess in later literature any fresh +contribution to the conception of God or any presentation of a +higher ideal of human life<a name="fa30f" id="fa30f" href="#ft30f"><span class="sp">30</span></a> or national destiny than that which +meets us in chap. xl. or in the servant-passages of the Deutero-Isaiah. +It may with truth be said that <i>after Jeremiah we +discern the parting of the ways</i>. The <i>first</i> is represented by the +Deutero-Isaiah, who constitutes the climax and close of Hebrew +prophetism, which is henceforth (with the possible exception +of the Trito-Isaiah, Malachi and Jonah, who reproduce some +features of the earlier prophecy) a virtually arrested development. +The <i>second path</i> is that which is traced out by the priest-prophet +Ezekiel, and is that of <i>legalism</i>, which was destined to secure a +permanent place in the life and literature of the Jewish people. +It is essentially the path which may be summed up in the word +<i>Judaism</i>, though, as will be shown in the sequel, Judaism came +to include many other factors. The statement, however, remains +virtually true, since Judaism is mainly constituted by the body +of legal precepts called the Tōrah, and, moreover, by the +post-exilian +Tōrah.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Post-exilian Law—The Priestercodex.</i><a name="fa31f" id="fa31f" href="#ft31f"><span class="sp">31</span></a>—The oracles of +Malachi clearly reveal the continued influence of the book of +Deuteronomy in his day. But the new conditions created by +the return of the exiles and the germinating influence of Ezekiel’s +ideas developed a process of new legislative construction. The +code of holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.) is the most obvious product +of that influence. The ideas of expiation and atonement so +prevalent in Ezekiel’s scheme, which there find expression in the +half-yearly sacrificial celebrations, are expressed in Lev. xvi. in +the single <i>annual great fast of atonement</i>. It is impossible to enter +here into the numerous details of that impressive ceremonial. +Two special features, however, which characterize the celebration +should here be noted: (<i>a</i>) The person of the <i>high priest</i>, who is +throughout the entire drama the chief and indeed the sole actor. +This supreme official, who was destined ultimately to take the +place of the king in the church-nation of post-exilian Judaism, +is mentioned for the first time in Zech. iii. 1<a name="fa32f" id="fa32f" href="#ft32f"><span class="sp">32</span></a> (in the person of +Joshua). In the Priestercodex he stands at the head of the priests, +who are, in the post-exilian system, the <i>sons of Aaron</i> and +possessed the sole right to offer the temple sacrifices. On the +great day of atonement the high priest appears in a vicarious +and representative capacity, and offers on behalf of the whole +nation which he was considered to embody in his sacred person. +(<i>b</i>) The rite of the <i>goat devoted to Azazel</i>. There can be little +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span> +doubt that <i>Azazel</i> was an evil demon (like an Arabic Jinn) of +the desert. The goat set apart for Azazel was in the concluding +part of the ceremonial brought before the high priest, who laid +both his hands upon it and confessed over it the sins of the +people. It was then carried off by an appointed person to a +lonely spot and there set free.</p> + +<p>In later post-exilian times this great day of atonement became +to an increasing degree a day of humiliation for sin and penitent +sorrow, accompanied by confession; and the sins confessed were +not only of a purely ceremonial character, whether voluntary +or inadvertent, but also sins against righteousness and the +duties which we owe to God and man. This element of public +confession for sin became more prominent in the days when +synagogal worship developed, and prayer took the place of the +sacrificial offerings which could only be offered in the Jerusalem +temple. The development of the priestly code of legislation +(Priestercodex) was a gradual process, and probably occupied +a considerable part of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Hebrew race +now definitely entered upon the new path of organized Jewish +legalism which had been originally marked out for it by Ezekiel +in the preceding century. It became a holy people on holy +ground. Circumcision and Sabbath, separation from marriage +with a foreigner, which rendered a Jew unclean, as well as strict +conformity to the precepts of the Tōrah, constituted henceforth +an adamantine bond which was to preserve the Jewish +communities from disintegration.</p> + +<p>10. <i>The later Post-exilian Developments in Jewish Religion.</i>—These +may be briefly referred to under the following aspects:</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Codified law</i> and the written record of the patriarchal +history, as well as the life and work of the lawgiver Moses (to +whom the entire body of law came to be ascribed), assumed an +ever greater importance. The reverence felt for the canonized +<i>Tōrah</i> or law (the Pentateuch or so-called five books of Moses) +grew even into worship. Of this spirit we find clear expression +in some of the later psalms, <i>e.g.</i> the elaborate alphabetic Ps. cxix. +and the latter portion of Ps. xix. There were various causes +which combined to enhance the importance of the written <i>Tōrah</i> +(the “instruction” <i>par excellence</i> communicated by God through +Moses). Chief among these were (1) <i>The conception of God as +transcendent</i>. We have taken due note of Amos, who unfolded +the character of Yahweh as universal righteous sovereign; and +also the sublime portrayal of His exalted nature in Isa. xl. +(verse 15; cf. 22-26, and Job xxxvi. 22-xlii. 6). The intellectual +influence of Greece, manifested in Alexandrian philosophy, +tended to remove God still further from the human world of +phenomena into that of an inaccessible transcendental abstraction. +Little, therefore, was possible for the Jew save strict performance +of the requirements of the Tōrah, once for all given +to Moses on Sinai, and, in his approach to the awful and unknown +mystery, to rely on ceremonial and ascetic performances (see +Wendt’s <i>Teaching of Jesus</i>, i. 55 foll.). The same tendency +led the pious worshippers to avoid His awful name and to substitute +<i>Adonai</i> in their scriptures or to use in the Mishna the +term “name” (<i>shēm</i>) or “heaven.” (2) The <i>Maccabean conflict</i> +(165 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) tended to accentuate the national sentiment of antagonism +to Hellenic influence. The Ḥasīdim or pious devotees, +who arose at that time, were the originators of the Pharisaic +movement which was conservative as well as national, and laid +stress on the strict performance of the law.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Eschatology</i> in the Judaism of the Greek period began to +assume a new form. The pre-exilian prophets (especially Isaiah) +spoke of the forthcoming crisis in the world’s history as a “day +of the Lord.” These were usually regarded as visitations of +chastisement for national sins and vindications of divine +righteousness or judgments, <i>i.e.</i> assertions of God’s power as +judge (<i>shōphet</i>). By the older prophets this judgment of God +or “day of Yahweh” was never held to be far removed from +the horizon of the present or the world in which they lived. But +now as we enter the Greek period (320 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and onwards) there +is a gradual change from prophecy to <i>apocalyptic</i>. “It may be +asserted in general terms that whereas prophecy foretells a +definite future which has its foundation in the present, apocalyptic +directs its anticipations solely and simply to the future, +to a new world-period which stands sharply contrasted with the +present. The classical model for all apocalyptic is to be found in +Dan. vii. It is only after a great war of destruction, a day of +Yahweh’s great judgment, that the dominion of God will begin” +(Bousset). Ezek. xxxviii. and xxxix. clearly bear the apocalyptic +character; so also Isa. xxxiv. and notably Isa. xxiv.-xxvii. +Apocalyptic, as Baldensperger has shown, formed a counterpoise +to the normal current of conformity to law. It arose from a +spiritual movement in answer to the yearning of the heart: +“O that Thou mightest rend the heavens and come down and +the mountains quake at Thy presence!” (Isa. lxiv. 1 [Heb. +lxiii. 19]); and it was intended to meet the craving of souls sick +with waiting and disappointment. The present outlook was +hopeless, but in the enlarged horizon of time as well as space the +thoughts of some of the most spiritual minds in Judaism were +directed to the transcendent and ultimate. The present world +was corrupt and subject to Satan and the powers of darkness. +This they called “the present <i>aeon</i>” (age). Their hopes were +therefore directed to “the coming aeon.” Between the two +aeons there would take place the <i>advent of the Messiah</i>, who +would lead the struggle with evil powers which was called “the +agonies of the Messiah.” This terrible intermezzo was no longer +terrestrial, but was a cosmic and universal crisis in which the +Messiah would emerge victorious from the final conflict with the +heathen and demonic powers. This victory inaugurates the +entrance of the “aeon to come,” in which the faithful Jews +would enter their inheritance. In this way we perceive the +transformation of the old Messianic doctrine through apocalyptic. +Of apocalyptic literature we have numerous examples extending +from the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (See especially +Charles’s <i>Book of Enoch</i>.)</p> + +<p>The doctrine of the <i>resurrection of the righteous</i> to life in the +heavenly world became engrafted on to the old doctrine of Sheōl, +or the dark shadowy underworld (Hades), where life was joyless +and feeble, and from which the soul might be for a brief space +summoned forth by the arts of the necromancer. The most +vivid portraiture of Sheōl is to be found in the exilian passage +Isa. xiv. 9-20 (cf. Job x. 21-22). With this also compare the +Babylonian <i>Descent of Ishtar to Hades</i>. The added conception +of the resurrection of the righteous does not appear in the world +of Jewish thought till the early Greek period in Isa. xxvi. 19. +R. H. Charles thinks that in this passage the idea of resurrection +is of purely Jewish and not of Mazdaan (or Zoroastrian) origin, +but it is otherwise with Dan. xii. 2; see his <i>Eschatology, Hebrew, +Jewish and Christian</i>. Corresponding to heaven, the abode of +the righteous, we have <i>Gē-henna</i> (originally <i>Gē-Hinnom</i>, the +scene of the Moloch rites of human sacrifice), the place of punishment +after death for apostate Jews.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Doctrine of Angels and of Hypostases.</i>—In the writings +of the pre-exilian period we have frequent references to supernatural +personalities good and bad. It is only necessary to +refer to them by name. <i>Sebāōth</i>, or “hosts,” attached to the +name of Yahweh, denoted the heavenly retinue of stars. The +<i>seraphīm</i> were burning serpentine forms who hovered above +the enthroned Yahweh and chanted the Trisagion in Isaiah’s +consecration vision (Isa. vi.). We have also constant references +to “angels” (<i>malāchīm</i>) of God, divine messengers who represent +Him and may be regarded as the manifestation of His power +and presence. This especially applies to the “angel of Yahweh” +or angel of His Presence [Ex. xxiii. 20, 23 (E). Note in Ex. +xxxiii. 14 (J) he is called “my face” or “presence”<a name="fa33f" id="fa33f" href="#ft33f"><span class="sp">33</span></a> (cf. +Isa. lxiii. 9)]. We also know that from earliest times Israel +believed in the evil as well as good spirits. Like the Arabs they +held that demons became incorporate in serpents, as in Gen. iii. +The <i>nephīlīm</i> were a monstrous brood begotten of the intercourse +of the supernatural beings called “sons of God” with the +women of earth. We also read of the “evil spirit” that came +upon Saul. Contact with Babylonia tended to stimulate the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span> +angelology and demonology of Israel. The Hebrew word <i>shēd</i> or +“demon” is no more than a Babylonian loan word, and came +to designate the deities of foreign peoples degraded into the +position of demons.<a name="fa34f" id="fa34f" href="#ft34f"><span class="sp">34</span></a> <i>Līlīth</i>, the blood-sucking night-hag of +the post-exilian Isa. xxxiv. 14, is the Babylonian <i>Lilātu</i>. +Whether the <i>se’īrīm</i> or shaggy satyrs (Isa. xiii. 31; Lev. xvii. 7) +and <i>Azāzēl</i> were of Babylonian origin it is difficult to determine. +The emergence of <i>Satan</i> as a definite supernatural personality, +the head or prince of the world of evil spirits, is entirely a phenomenon +of post-exilian Judaism. He is portrayed as the arch-adversary +and accuser of man. It is impossible to deny Persian +influence in the development of this conception, and that the +Persian Ahriman (Angromainyu), the evil personality opposed to +the good, Ahura Mazda, moulded the Jewish counterpart, Satan. +But in Judaism monotheistic conceptions reigned supreme, and +the Satan of Jewish belief as opposed to God stops short of the +dualism of Persian religion. Of this we see evidence in the +multiplication of Satans in the Book of Enoch. In the Book of +Jubilees he is called <i>mastēmā</i>. In later Judaism <i>Sammael</i> is +the equivalent of Satan. Persian influence is also responsible +for the <i>vast multiplication of good spirits or angels</i>, Gabriel, +Raphael, Michael, &c., who play their part in apocalyptic works, +such as the Book of Daniel and the Book of Enoch.</p> + +<p>Probably the transcendent nature of the deity in the Judaism +of this later period made the interposition of mediating spirits an +intellectual necessity (cf. Ps. civ. 4). It also stimulated the +creation of <i>divine hypostases</i>. First among these may be mentioned +<i>Wisdom</i>. The roots of this conception belong to pre-exilian +times, in which the “word” of divine denunciation was regarded +as a quasi-material thing. (It is hurled against offending +Israel, Isa. ix. 8.). In the post-exilian cosmogony it is the divine +word or fiat that creates the world (Gen. i.; cf. Ps. xxxiii. 6, 9). +Out of these earlier conceptions the idea of the divine wisdom +(Heb. <i>ḥokhmah</i>) gradually arose during the Persian period. +The expression “wisdom,” as it is employed in the <i>locus classicus</i>, +Prov. viii., connotes the contents of the Divine reason—His +conscious life, out of which created things emerge. This wisdom +is personified. It dwelt with God (Prov. viii. 22 foll.) before the +world was made. It is the companion of His throne, and by it +He made the world (Prov. iii. 19, viii. 27; cf. Ps. civ. 24). It, +moreover, enters into the life of the world and especially man +(Prov. viii. 31). This conception of wisdom became still further +hypostatized. It becomes redemptive of man. In the Wisdom +of Solomon it is the sharer of God’s throne (<span class="grk" title="paredros">πάρεδρος</span>), the +effulgence of the eternal light and the outflow of His glory +(Wisd. vii. 25, viii. 3 foll., ix. 4, 9); “Them that love her the +Lord doth love” (Ecclesiasticus iv. 14). This group of ideas +culminated in the Logos of Philo, expressing the world of divine +ideas which God first of all creates and which becomes the +mediating and formative power between the absolute and transcendent +deity and passive formless matter, transmuted thereby +into a rational, ordered universe.</p> + +<p>In later Jewish literature we meet with further examples of +similar hypostases in the form of <i>Mēmrā</i>, <i>Metatron</i>, <i>Shechinah</i>, +<i>Holy Spirit</i> and <i>Bath kōl</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) The doctrine of <i>pre-existence</i> is another product of the +speculative tendency of the Jewish mind. The Messiah’s pre-existent +state before the creation of the world is asserted in the +Book of Enoch (xlviii. 6, 7). Pre-existence is also asserted of +Moses and of sacred institutions such as the New Jerusalem, the +Temple, Paradise, the Tōrah, &c. (Apocal. of Baruch iv. 3-lix. 4; +Assumptio Mosis i. 14, 17); Edersheim’s <i>Life and Times of the +Messiah</i>, i. 175 and footnote 1.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Christ resumes the Broken Tradition of Prophetism.</i>—The +Psalms of Solomon and the synoptic Gospels (70 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100) +clearly reveal the powerful revival of Messianic hopes of a +national deliverer of the seed of David. This Messianic expectation +had been a fermenting leaven since the great days of Judas +Maccabaeus. The conceptions of Jesus of Nazareth, however, +were not the Messianic conceptions of his fellow-countrymen, but +of the spiritual “son of man” destined to found a kingdom of +God which was righteousness and peace. The Tōrah of Jesus was +essentially prophetic and in no sense priestly or legal. The +arrested prophetic movement of Jeremiah and Deutero-Isaiah +reappears in John the Baptist and Jesus after an interval of more +than five centuries. The new covenant of redeeming grace—the +righteousness which is in the heart and not in externalities of +legal observance or ceremonial—are once more proclaimed, and +the exalted ideals of the suffering servant of Isa. xlix. 6 and +Isa. liii. (nearly suppressed in the Targum of Jonathan) are +reasserted and vindicated by the words and life of Jesus. Like +Jeremiah He foretold the destruction of the temple and suffered +the extreme penalties of anti-patriotism. And thus Israel’s old +prophetic Tōrah was at length to achieve its victory, for after Jesus +came St Paul. “Many shall come from the east and the west +and sit down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of +heaven” (Matt. viii. 11, 12). The fetters of nationalism were to +be broken, and the Hebrew religion in its essential spiritual +elements was to become the heritage of all humanity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—1. On Semitic religion generally: Wellhausen’s +<i>Reste des arabischen Heidentums</i> (2nd ed.) and Robertson Smith’s +<i>Religion of the Semites</i> (2nd ed.) are chiefly to be recommended. +Barton’s <i>Semitic Origins</i> is extremely able, but his doctrine of the +derivation of male from original female deities is pushed to an +extreme. Bäthgen’s <i>Beiträge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte</i> +(1888) is most useful, and contains valuable epigraphic material. +Baudissin’s <i>Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte</i> (1876) is still +valuable. See also Kuenen’s <i>National Religions and Universal +Religions</i> (Hibbert lectures) and Lagrange’s <i>Études sur les religions +sémitiques</i> (2nd ed.).</p> + +<p>2. On Hebrew religion in particular: specially full and helpful is +Kautzsch’s article “Religion of Israel” in Hastings’s D.B., extra +vol.; Marti’s recent <i>Religion des A.T.</i> (1906) and his <i>Geschichte der +israelitischen Religion</i>, are clear, compact and most serviceable, +and the former work presents the subject in fresh and suggestive +aspects. Wellhausen’s <i>Prolegomena</i> and <i>Jüdische Geschichte</i> should +be read both for criticism and Hebrew history generally. Duhm’s +<i>Theologie der Propheten</i> and Robertson Smith’s <i>Prophets of Israel</i> +should also be consulted. Strongly to be recommended are Smend, +<i>Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte</i>; Bennett, <i>Theology +of the Old Testament</i> and <i>Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets</i>; +A. B. Davidson, <i>The Theology of the Old Testament</i>, as well as the +sections devoted to “Sacralaltertümer” in the <i>Hebräische Archäologie</i> +both of Benzinger and also of Nowack. Budde’s <i>Die Religion +des Volkes Israel bis zur Verbannung</i>, as well as Addis’s recent +<i>Hebrew Religion</i> (1906), is a most careful and scholarly compendium. +Harper’s Introd. to his <i>Commentary on Amos and Hosea</i> (I. and T. +Clark) contains a useful survey of the history of Hebrew religion +before the 8th century. Buchanan Gray’s <i>Divine Discipline of +Israel</i>, and A. S. Peake’s <i>Problem of Suffering in the O.T.</i>, are suggestive. +See also S. A. Cook, <i>Religion of Ancient Palestine</i>.</p> + +<p>3. On the history of Judaism till the time of Christ, Schürer’s +<i>Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Christi</i> (3rd ed.), vol. ii. and +in part vol. iii., are indispensable. Bousset’s <i>Religion des Judentums</i> +(2nd ed.), and Volz, <i>Die jüdische Eschatologie von Daniel bis Akiba</i>, +are highly to be commended. Weber’s <i>Jüdische Theologie</i> is a useful +compendium of the theology of later Judaism.</p> + +<p>4. On the special department of eschatology the standard works +are R. H. Charles, <i>Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and Christian</i>, and +Schwally, <i>Das Leben nach dem Tode</i>, as well as Gressmann’s suggestive +work <i>Der Ursprung der israelitisch-jüdischen Eschatologie</i>, which +contains, however, much that is speculative. On apocalyptic +generally the introductions to Charles’s Book of Enoch, Apocalypse +of Baruch, Ascension of Isaiah and Book of Jubilees, should be +carefully noted. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eschatology</a></span>.</p> + +<p>5. On the religion of Babylonia, Jastrow’s work is the standard +one. Zimmern’s Heft ii. in <i>K.A.T.</i> (3rd ed.) is specially important +to the Old Testament student. See also W. Schrank, <i>Babylonische +Sühnriten</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(O. C. W.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Bäthgen, <i>Beiträge zur semit. Religionsgesch.</i> p. 11 (Edom); +and cf. Schrader, C.O.T. i. 137; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), p. 472 foll. See +also <i>Beiträge</i>, pp. 13-15; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), pp. 469-472.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Z.D.M.G.</i> (1886). It is impossible to discuss the other theories +of the origin of this name. See Driver, <i>Commentary on Genesis</i>, +excursus i. pp. 404-406.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Tell el-Amarna despatches are crowded with evidences of +Canaanite forms and idioms impressed on the Babylonian language +of these cuneiform documents. <i>Ilāni</i> here simply corresponds to the +Canaanite <i>Elōhīm</i>. See opening of the letters of Abimelech of Tyre, +Bezold’s <i>Oriental Diplomacy</i>, Nos. 28, 29, 30.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> “Magic and Social Relations” in <i>Sociological Papers</i>, ii. +160.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See Kautzsch, “Religion of Israel,” in Hastings’s <i>Dict. of the +Bible</i>, extra vol., p. 614.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See Benzinger, <i>Hebräische Archäologie</i>, pp. 152, 297 foll. (1st ed.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7f" id="ft7f" href="#fa7f"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The theory was opposed by Nöldeke, 1886 (<i>Z.D.M.G.</i> p. 157 foll.), +as well as Wellhausen, and since then by Jacobs and Zapletal. (<i>Der +Totemismus u. die Religion Israels</i>). See Stanley A. Cook, “Israel +and Totemism,” in <i>J.Q.R.</i> (April, 1902).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8f" id="ft8f" href="#fa8f"><span class="fn">8</span></a> These sacred arks were carried in procession accompanied by +symbolic figures. We note in this connexion the form of a sacred +bark represented in Meyer’s <i>Hist. of Egypt</i> (Oncken series), p. 257, +viz. the procession carrying the sacred ark and the bark of the god +Amōn belonging to the reign of Rameses II. (Lepsius, <i>Denkmäler</i>, iii. +189b). See also Birch, <i>Egypt</i> (S.P.C.K.), p. 151 (ark of Khonsu); cf. +Jeremias, <i>Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients</i> (2nd ed.), pp. 436-441.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9f" id="ft9f" href="#fa9f"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Cf. Zimmern in <i>Z.D.M.G.</i> (1904), pp. 199 foll., 458 foll. This +view is based on Dr Pinches’s discovered list in which <i>Sapatti</i> is called +the 15th day (<i>Proc. of the Soc. of Biblical Arch.</i>, p. 51 foll.). See +A. Jeremias, <i>Das A. T. im Lichte des alten Orients</i> (2nd ed.), pp. 182-187. +Marti, in his stimulating work <i>Religion des A.T.</i>, pp. 5, 72, +advocates the exclusive reference of the word Sabbath to the full +moon until the time of Ezekiel on the basis of Meinhold’s arguments +in <i>Sabbat u. Woche im A.T.</i> The latter regards Ezekiel as the +organizer of the Jewish community and the originator of the sanctity +of the Sabbath as a seventh day (Ezek. xlvi. 1; cf. Ezek. xx. 12, 13, +16, 20, 24, xxii. 8, 26, xxiii. 38, in which the reproaches for the +profanation or neglect of the Sabbath in no way sustain Meinhold’s +view). In opposition to Meinhold, see Lotz in <i>P.R.E.</i> (3rd ed., art. +“Sabbath,” vol. xvii. pp. 286-289). To this Meinhold replies in +<i>Z.A.T.W.</i> (1909), p. 81 f. Cf. also Hehn, <i>Siebenzahl und Sabbat</i>. +While admitting that a special significance may have been attached +in pre-exilian times to the full-moon Sabbath, and that the latter +may have been specially intended in the combination “new moon +and Sabbath” in the 8th-century prophets (Hos. ii. 13; Amos +viii. 5; Isa. i. 13), we are not prepared to deny that the institution of +a seventh-day Sabbath was an ancient pre-exilian tradition. The +sacredness of the number seven is based on the seven planetary +deities to whom each day of the week was respectively dedicated, +<i>i.e.</i> was astral in origin. Cf. <i>C.O.T.</i> i. 18 foll., and Winckler, +<i>Religionsgeschichtlicher u. geschichtlicher Orient</i>, p. 39. See also <i>K.A.T.</i> +(3rd ed.), pp. 620-626. In the Old Testament the sanctity of the +number seven is clearly fundamental (<i>e.g.</i> in the Nif’al form <i>nišba’</i>, +“to swear,” in the derivative subst. for “oath,” in Beēr-sheba’, &c.). +The seventh day of rest was parallel to the seventh year of release +and of the fallow field. It is, therefore, impossible to detach Ex. +xxiii. 12 from Ex. xxi. 2. xxiii. 10 foll.; cf. Ex. xxxiv. 21. We +therefore hold that the law of the seventh-day Sabbath goes back +to the Mosaic age. The general coincidence of the Sabbath or +seventh day with the easily recognized first quarter and full moon +established its sacred character as <i>lunar</i> as well as planetary.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10f" id="ft10f" href="#fa10f"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The tablet is neo-Babylonian and published by Dr Pinches in the +<i>Transactions of the Victoria Institute</i>, and is cited by Professor Fried. +Delitzsch in the notes appended to his first lecture <i>Babel u. Bibel</i> +(5th German ed., p. 81 ad fin. and p. 82). On this subject of Babylonian +influence over Israel see Jeremias, <i>Monotheistische Strömungen +innerhalb der babylonischen Religion</i>, and E. Baentsch, <i>Altorientalischer +u. israelitischer Monotheismus</i>. The text and rendering of +the passage are doubtful in the cuneiform letter discovered by +Sellin in Ta’annek (biblical Ta’anach, near Megiddo) addressed by +Aḥi-jawi (? Aḥijah) to Ishtar-wasur, in which the following remarkable +phrases are read: “May the Lord of the gods protect thy life.... +Above thy head is one who is above the towns. See now +whether he will show thee good. When he reveals his face, then +will they be put to shame and the victory will be complete.” The +letter appears to belong to about 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> See A. Jeremias, <i>Das +A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients</i> (2nd ed.), pp. 315, 316, 323. Sellin, +<i>Ertrag der Ausgrabungen im Orient</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11f" id="ft11f" href="#fa11f"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The allusion in Amos ii. 7; Hos. iv. 13, 14 is sufficiently explicit; +cf. Jer. ii. 20-23, iii. 6-11, v. 7, 8. The practice is prohibited in +Deut. xxiii. 17.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12f" id="ft12f" href="#fa12f"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Column i. 15, 16, 42, 43, ii. 128, iii. 30, 31, iv. 47, 48, &c. +Probably we should regard them as differentiated <i>hypostases</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13f" id="ft13f" href="#fa13f"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Hence the ’Ashtārōth or offspring of flocks in Deut. vii. 13, +xxviii. 18. A like function belonged to the Babylonian Ishtar. +See “Descent of Ishtar to Hades,” Rev. lines 6-10, where universal +non-intercourse of sexes follows Ishtar’s departure from earth to +Hades.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14f" id="ft14f" href="#fa14f"><span class="fn">14</span></a> <i>Proleg. Gesch. Israels</i> (2nd ed.), p. 240 foll., cf. p. 258.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15f" id="ft15f" href="#fa15f"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Internat. Crit. Commentary, Judges</i>, Introd. p. xxx., also p. 367 +foll.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16f" id="ft16f" href="#fa16f"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <span title="leva">לוא</span> “priest,” <span title="levat">לואת</span> “priestess”; see Hommel, <i>Süd-arabische +Chrestomathie</i>, p. 127; <i>Ancient Hebrew Tradition</i>, p. 278 foll.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17f" id="ft17f" href="#fa17f"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Moore regards this verse as belonging to the J or older document, +<i>op. cit.</i> p. 367.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18f" id="ft18f" href="#fa18f"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Similarly in ancient Greece. See the instructive passage in +Aristotle, <i>Nic. Eth.</i> viii. 9 (4, 5), on the relation of Greek sacrifices +and festivals to <span class="grk" title="koinôniai">κοινωνίαι</span> and politics: <span class="grk" title="ai gar archaiai thusiai kai +sunodoi phainontai gignesthai met a tas tôn karpôn sugkomidàs oion aparchai">αἱ γὰρ ἀρχαῖαι θυσίαι καὶ +σύνοδοι φαίνονται γίγνεσθαι μετὰ τὰς τῶν καρπῶν συγκομιδὰς οἷον ἀπαρχαί</span>; +cf. Grote on Pan-Hellenic festivals, <i>History of Greece</i>, vol. iii., ch. +28.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19f" id="ft19f" href="#fa19f"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Wellhausen, <i>Reste arabischen Heidentums</i> (2nd ed.), p. 89.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20f" id="ft20f" href="#fa20f"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Though this be an interpolated gloss (Thenius, Budde), it states +a significant truth as Kautzsch clearly shows, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 672. In +Micah iii. 7 the <i>ḥōzeh</i> is mentioned in a sense analogous to the <i>rō’ēh</i> +or “seer,” and coupled with the <i>qōsēm</i> or “soothsayer,” viz. as +spurious; cf. Deut. xviii. 10.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21f" id="ft21f" href="#fa21f"><span class="fn">21</span></a> No better derivation is forthcoming of the word <i>nabhi’</i>, +“prophet,” than that it is a Kāṭīl form of the root <i>nābā</i> = Assyr. +<i>nabū</i>, “speak.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft22f" id="ft22f" href="#fa22f"><span class="fn">22</span></a> In Isa. iii. 2 the soothsayer is placed on a level with the judge, +prophet and elder.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23f" id="ft23f" href="#fa23f"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Kautzsch, in his profoundly learned article on the “Religion +of Israel,” to which frequent reference has been made, exhibits (pp. +669-671) an excess of scepticism, in our opinion, towards the views +propounded by Gunkel in 1895 (<i>Schöpfung und Chaos</i>) respecting +the intimate connexion between the early Hebrew cosmogonic ideas +and those of Babylonia. Stade indeed (<i>Z.A.T.W.</i>, 1903, pp. 176-178) +maintained that the conception of Yahweh as creator of the +world could not have arisen till after the middle of the 8th century +as the result of prophetic teaching, and that it was not till the time +of Ezekiel that Babylonian conceptions entered the world of Hebrew +thought in any fulness. Such a theory appears to ignore the remarkable +results of archaeology since 1887. At that time Stade’s position +might have appeared reasonable. It was the conclusion to which +Wellhausen’s brilliant literary analysis, when not supplemented +by the discoveries at Tell el-Amarna and Tell el-Hesi, appeared to +many scholars (by no means all) inevitably to conduct us. But the +years 1887 to 1891 opened many eyes to the fact that the Hebrews +lived their life on the great highways of intercourse between Egypt +on the one hand, and Babylonia, Assyria and the N. Palestinian +states on the other, and that they could scarcely have escaped the +all-pervading Babylonian influences of 2000-1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is now +becoming clearer every day, especially since the discovery of the +laws of Khammurabi, that, if we are to think sanely about Hebrew +history <i>before</i> as well as after the exile, we can only think of Israel +as part of the great complex of Semitic and especially Canaanite +humanity that lived its life in western Asia between 2000 and 600 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and that while the Hebrew race maintained by the aid of +prophetism its own individual and exalted place, it was not less +susceptible <i>then</i>, than it has been since, to the moulding influences of +great adjacent civilizations and ideas. Cf. C. H. W. Johns in <i>Interpreter</i>, +pp. 300-304 (in April 1906), on prophetism in Babylonia.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24f" id="ft24f" href="#fa24f"><span class="fn">24</span></a> There is some danger in too strictly construing the language +of the prophets and also the psalmists. It is not to be supposed +that either Amos or Isaiah would have countenanced the total +suppression of all sacrificial observance. It was the existing ceremonial +observance <i>divorced from the ethical piety</i> that they denounced. +The speech of prophecy is poetical and rhetorical, not strictly defined +and logical like that of a modern essayist. See Moore in <i>Encyc. +Bibl.</i>, “Sacrifice,” col. 4222.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25f" id="ft25f" href="#fa25f"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Viz. Budde in <i>Die so-genannten Ebed-Jahweh Lieder u. die +Bedeutung des Knechtes Jahwehs in Jes. xl.-lv.</i> (Giessen, 1900); Karl +Marti in his well-known commentary on Isaiah, and F. Giesebrecht, +<i>Der Knecht Jahwes des Deuterojesaja</i>. The special servant-songs +which Duhm asserts can be readily detached from the texture of the +Deutero-Isaiah without disturbance to its integrity are Isa. xlii. 1-4, +xlix. 1-6, l. 4-9, lii. 13-liii. 12.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26f" id="ft26f" href="#fa26f"><span class="fn">26</span></a> We have here followed Dillmann’s construction of a difficult +passage which Duhm attempts to simplify by omission of the complicating +clause without altering the general sense.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27f" id="ft27f" href="#fa27f"><span class="fn">27</span></a>: Thus in comparison with the “book of the covenant,” Deuteronomy +adds the stipulation in reference to the release of the slave; +that his master was to provide him liberally from his flocks, his corn +and his wine (Deut. xv. 13, 14). See Hastings’s <i>D.B.</i>, arts. “Servant,” +“Slave,” p. 464, where other examples may be found. In +war fruit-trees are to be spared (Deut. xx. 19 foll.), whereas the +old universal practice is the barbarous custom Elisha commended +(2 Kings iii. 19) of ruthlessly destroying them.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28f" id="ft28f" href="#fa28f"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Driver, <i>Internat. Commentary on Deuteronomy</i>, Introd. p. xxx.</p> + +<p><a name="ft29f" id="ft29f" href="#fa29f"><span class="fn">29</span></a> It should be noted that in P (Code of Holiness) Lev. xvii. 15 foll. +the resident alien (<i>gēr</i>) is placed on an equality with the Jew.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30f" id="ft30f" href="#fa30f"><span class="fn">30</span></a> We shall have to note the emergence of the doctrine of the +<i>resurrection of the righteous</i> in later Judaism, which is obviously a +fresh contribution of permanent value to Hebrew doctrine. On +the other hand, the doctrine of <i>pre-existence</i> is speculative rather than +religious, and applies to institutions rather than persons.</p> + +<p><a name="ft31f" id="ft31f" href="#fa31f"><span class="fn">31</span></a> The legislative portions are mainly comprised in Ex. xxxv.-end, +Leviticus entire and Num. i.-x.</p> + +<p><a name="ft32f" id="ft32f" href="#fa32f"><span class="fn">32</span></a> But this term (literally the <i>chief</i> priest) was already in use +during the regal period to designate the head priest of an important +sanctuary such as Jerusalem (2 Kings xii. 11).</p> + +<p><a name="ft33f" id="ft33f" href="#fa33f"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Cf. the Phoenician parallel of “Face of Baal,” worshipped as +Tanit, “queen of Heaven” (Bäthgen, <i>Beiträge zur Semit. Religionsgeschichte</i>, +p. 55 foll.); also the place Penuel (face of God).</p> + +<p><a name="ft34f" id="ft34f" href="#fa34f"><span class="fn">34</span></a> Deut. xxxii. 17; Ps. cvi. 37. Baal Zebūb of the Philistine +Ekron became the Beelzebub who was equivalent to Satan.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> one of the books of the New +Testament. In the oldest MSS. it bears no other title than “To +Hebrews.” This brief heading embraces all that on which +Christian tradition from the end of the 2nd century was unanimous; +and it says no more than that the readers addressed +were Christians of Jewish extraction. This would be no sufficient +address for an epistolary writing (xiii. 22) directed to a definite +circle of readers, to whose history repeated reference is made, +and with whom the author had personal relations (xiii. 19, 23). +Probably, then, the original and limited address, or rather salutation, +was never copied when this treatise in letter form, like the +epistle to the Romans, passed into the wider circulation which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span> +its contents merited. In any case the Roman Church, where the +first traces of the epistle occur, about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 96 (1 Clement), had +nothing to contribute to the question of authorship except the +negative opinion that it was not by Paul (Euseb. <i>Eccl. Hist.</i> +iii. 3): yet this central church was in constant connexion with +provincial churches.</p> + +<p>The earliest positive traditions belong to Alexandria and N. +Africa. The Alexandrine tradition can be traced back as far as a +teacher of Clement, presumably Pantaenus (Euseb. <i>Eccl. Hist.</i> +vi. 14), who sought to explain why Paul did not name himself as +usual at the head of the epistle. Clement himself, taking it for +granted that an epistle to Hebrews must have <span class="correction" title="amended from beeen">been</span> written in +Hebrew, supposes that Luke translated it for the Greeks. Origen +implies that “the men of old” regarded it as Paul’s, and that +some churches at least in his own day shared this opinion. But +he feels that the language is un-Pauline, though the “admirable” +thoughts are not second to those of Paul’s unquestioned writings. +Thus he is led to the view that the ideas were orally set forth by +Paul, but that the language and composition were due to some one +giving from memory a sort of free interpretation of his teacher’s +mind. According to some this disciple was Clement of Rome; +others name Luke; but the truth, says Origen, is known to +God alone (Euseb. vi. 25, cf. iii. 38). Still from the time of +Origen the opinion that Paul wrote the epistle became prevalent +in the East. The earliest African tradition, on the other hand, +preserved by Tertullian<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (<i>De pudicitia</i>, c. 20), but certainly not +invented by him, ascribed the epistle to Barnabas. Yet it was +perhaps, like those named by Origen, only an inference from the +epistle itself, as if a “word of exhortation” (xiii. 22) by the Son +of Exhortation (Acts iv. 36; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barnabas</a></span>). On the whole, then, +the earliest traditions in East and West alike agree in effect, viz. +that our epistle was not by Paul, but by one of his associates.</p> + +<p>This is also the twofold result reached by modern scholarship +with growing clearness. The vacillation of tradition and the +dissimilarity of the epistle from those of Paul were brought out +with great force by Erasmus. Luther (who suggests Apollos) +and Calvin (who thinks of Luke or Clement) followed with the +decisive argument that Paul, who lays such stress on the fact that +his gospel was not taught him by man (Gal. i.), could not have +written Heb. ii. 3. Yet the wave of reaction which soon overwhelmed +the freer tendencies of the first reformers, brought +back the old view until the revival of biblical criticism more than +a century ago. Since then the current of opinion has set irrevocably +against any form of Pauline authorship. Its type of thought +is quite unique. The Jewish Law is viewed not as a code of +ethics or “works of righteousness,” as by Paul, but as a system +of religious rites (vii. 11) shadowing forth the way of access to +God in worship, of which the Gospel reveals the archetypal +realities (ix. 1, 11, 15, 23 f., x. 1 ff., 19 ff.). The Old and the +New Covenants are related to one another as imperfect (earthly) +and perfect (heavenly) forms of the same method of salvation, +each with its own type of sacrifice and priesthood. Thus the +conception of Christ as High Priest emerges, for the first time, +as a central point in the author’s conception of Christianity. +The Old Testament is cited after the Alexandrian version more +exclusively than by Paul, even where the Hebrew is divergent. +Nor is this accidental. There is every appearance that the +author was a Hellenist who lacked knowledge of the Hebrew +text, and derived his metaphysic and his allegorical method +from the Alexandrian rather than the Palestinian schools. +Yet the epistle has manifest Pauline affinities, and can hardly +have originated beyond the Pauline circle, to which it is referred +not only by the author’s friendship with Timothy (xiii. 23), +but by many echoes of the Pauline theology and even, it seems, +of passages in Paul’s epistles (see Holtzmann, <i>Einleitung in das +N. T.</i>, 1892, p. 298). These features early suggested Paul as the +author of a book which stood in MSS. immediately after the +epistles of that apostle, and contained nothing in its title to +distinguish it from the preceding books with like headings, +“To the Romans,” “To the Corinthians,” and the like. A +similar history attaches to the so-called Second Epistle of Clement +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clementine Literature</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Everything turns, then, on internal criticism of the epistle, +working on the distinctive features already noticed, together +with such personal allusions as it affords. As to its first readers, +with whom the author stood in close relations (xiii. 19, 23, cf. vi. +10, x. 32-34), it used generally to be agreed that they were +“Hebrews” or Christians of Jewish birth. But, for a generation +or so, it has been denied that this can be inferred simply from +the fact that the epistle approaches all Christian truth through +Old Testament forms. This, it is said, was the common method +of proof, since the Jewish scriptures were the Word of God to +all Christians alike. Still it remains true that the exclusive +use of the argument from Mosaism, as itself implying the Gospel +of Jesus the Christ as final cause (<span class="grk" title="telos">τέλος</span>), does favour the view +that the readers were of Jewish origin. Further there is no +allusion to the incorporation of “strangers and foreigners” (Eph. +ii. 19) with the people of God. Yet the readers are not to be +sought in Jerusalem (see <i>e.g.</i> ii. 3), nor anywhere in Judaea +proper. The whole Hellenistic culture of the epistle (let alone +its language), and the personal references in it, notably that to +Timothy in xiii. 23, are against any such view: while the doubly +emphatic “all” in xiii. 24 suggests that those addressed were +but part of a community composed of both Jews and Gentiles. +Caesarea, indeed, as a city of mixed population and lying just +outside Judaea proper—a place, moreover, where Timothy might +have become known during Paul’s two years’ detention there—would +satisfy many conditions of the problem. Yet these very +conditions are no more than might exist among intensely Jewish +members of the Dispersion, like “the Jews of Asia” (cf. Sir W. M. +Ramsay, <i>The Letters to the Seven Churches</i>, 155 f.), whose zeal for +the Temple and the Mosaic ritual customs led to Paul’s arrest in +Jerusalem (Acts xix. 27 f., cf. 20 f.), in keeping both with his +former experiences at their hands and with his forebodings resulting +therefrom (xx. 19, 22-24). Our “Hebrews” had obviously +high regard for the ordinances of Temple worship. But this was +the case with the dispersed Jews generally, who kept in touch +with the Temple, and its intercessory worship for all Israel, in +every possible way; in token of this they sent with great care +their annual contribution to its services, the Temple tribute. +This bond was doubtless preserved by Christian Hellenists, +and must have tended to continue their reliance on the Temple +services for the forgiveness of their recurring “sins of ignorance”—subsequent +to the great initial Messianic forgiveness coming +with faith in Jesus. Accordingly many of them, while placing +their hope for the future upon Messiah and His eagerly expected +return in power, might seek assurance of present forgiveness +of daily offences and cleansing of conscience in the old mediatorial +system. In particular the annual Day of Atonement would be +relied on, and that in proportion as the expected Parousia +tarried, and the first enthusiasm of a faith that was largely +eschatological died away, while ever-present temptation pressed +the harder as disappointment and perplexity increased.</p> + +<p>Such was the general situation of the readers of this epistle, +men who rested partly on the Gospel and partly on Judaism. +For lack of a true theory as to the relation between the two, +they were now drifting away (ii. 1) from effective faith in the +Gospel, as being mainly future in its application, while Judaism +was a very present, concrete, and impressive system of religious +aids—to which also their sacred scriptures gave constant witness. +The points at which it chiefly touched them may be inferred +from the author’s counter-argument, with its emphasis in the +spiritual ineffectiveness of the whole Temple-system, its high-priesthood +and its supreme sacrifice on the Day of Atonement. +With passionate earnestness he sets over against these his +constructive theory as to the efficacy, the heavenly yet unseen +reality, of the definitive “purification of sins” (i. 3) and perfected +access to God’s inmost presence, secured for Christians as +such by Jesus the Son of God (x. 9-22), and traces their moral +feebleness and slackened zeal to want of progressive insight +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span> +into the essential nature of the Gospel as a “new covenant,” +moving on a totally different plane of religious reality from the +now antiquated covenant given by Moses (viii. 13).</p> + +<p>The following plan of the epistle may help to make apparent +the writer’s theory of Christianity as distinct from Judaism, +which is related to it as “shadow” to reality:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<div class="list"> +<p><i>Thesis</i>: The finality of the form of religion mediated in God’s +Son, i. 1-4.</p> + +<p>i. The supreme excellence of the Son’s Person (i. 5-iii. 6), as +compared with (<i>a</i>) angels, (<i>b</i>) Moses.</p> + +<p>   Practical exhortation, iii. 7-iv. 13, leading up to:</p> + +<p>ii. The corresponding efficacy of the Son’s High-priesthood +(iv. 14-ix.).</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>(1) The Son has the qualifications of all priesthood, especially +sympathy.</p> + +<p>   Exhortation, raising the reader’s thought to the height +of the topic reached (v. 11-vi. 20).</p> + +<p>(2) The Son as absolute high priest, in an order transcending +the Aaronic (vii.) and relative to a Tabernacle of ministry +and a Covenant higher than the Mosaic in point of reality +and finality (viii., ix.).</p> + +<p>(3) His Sacrifice, then, is definitive in its effects (<span class="grk" title="teteleiôke">τετελείωκε</span>), +and supersedes all others (x. 1-18).</p> +</div> + +<div class="list"> +<p>iii. Appropriation of the benefits of the Son’s high-priesthood, by +steadfast faith, the paramount duty (x. 19-xii.). More +personal epilogue (xiii.).</p> +</div></div> + +<p>As lack of insight lay at the root of their troubles, it was not +enough simply to enjoin the moral fidelity to conviction which +is three parts of faith to the writer, who has but little sense +of the mystical side of faith, so marked in Paul. There was +need of a positive theory based on real insight, in order to inspire +faith for more strenuous conflict with the influences tending to +produce the apostasy from Christ, and so from “the living +God,” which already threatened some of them (iii. 12). Such +“apostasy” was not a formal abjuring of Jesus as Messiah, +but the subtler lapse involved in ceasing to rely on relation to +Him for daily moral and religious needs, summed up in purity +of conscience and peace before God (x. 19-23, xiii. 20 f.). This +“falling aside” (vi. 5, cf. xii. 12 f.), rather than conscious +“turning back,” is what is implied in the repeated exhortations +which show the intensely practical spirit of the whole argument. +These exhortations are directed chiefly against the dullness of +spirit which hinders progressive moral insight into the genius +of the New Covenant (v. 11-vi. 8), and which, in its blindness +to the full work of Jesus, amounts to counting His blood as devoid +of divine efficacy to consecrate the life (x. 26, 29), and so to a +personal “crucifying anew” of the Son of God (vi. 6). The +antidote to such “profane” negligence (ii. 1, 3, xii. 12 f., 15-17) +is an earnestness animated by a fully-assured hope, and sustained +by a “faith” marked by patient waiting (<span class="grk" title="makrothymia">μακροθυμία</span>) for +the inheritance guaranteed by divine promise (x. ii f.). The +outward expression of such a spirit is “bold confession,” a +glorying in that Hope, and mutual encouragement therein +(iii. 6, 12 f.); while the sign of its decay is neglect to assemble +together for mutual stimulus, as if it were not worth the odium +and opposition from fellow Jews called forth by a marked +Christian confession (x. 23-25, xii. 3)—a very different estimate +of the new bond from that shown by readiness in days gone by to +suffer for it (x. 32 ff.). Their special danger, then, the sin which +deceived (iii. 13) the more easily that it represented the line of least +resistance (perhaps the best paraphrase of <span class="grk" title="euperistatos hamartia">εὐπερίστατος ἁμαρτία</span> +in xii. i), was the exact opposite of “faith” as the author uses +it, especially in the chapter devoted to its illustration by Old +Testament examples. His readers needed most the moral +heroism of fidelity to the Unseen, which made men “despise +shame” due to aught that sinners in their unbelief might do to +them (xii. 2-11, xiii. 5 f.)—and of which Jesus Himself +was at once the example and the inspiration. To quicken this +by awakening deeper insight into the real objects of “faith,” +as these bore on their actual life, he develops his high argument +on the lines already indicated.</p> + +<p>Their situation was so dangerous just because it combined +inward debility and outward pressure, both tending to the same +result, viz. practical disuse of the distinctively Christian means +of grace, as compared with those recognized by Judaism, and +such conformity to the latter as would make the reproach of +the Cross to cease (xiii. 13, cf. xi. 26). This might, indeed, +relieve the external strain of the contest (<span class="grk" title="agôn">ἀγών</span> xii. 1), which +had become well-nigh intolerable to them. But the practical +surrender of what was distinctive in their new faith meant a +theoretic surrender of the value once placed on that element, when +it was matter of a living religious experience far in advance of +what Judaism had given them (vi. 4 [ff]., x. 26-29). This twofold +infidelity, in thought and deed, God, the “living” God of progress +from the “shadow” to the substance, would require at +their hands (x. 30 f., xii. 22-29). For it meant turning away +from an appeal that had been known as “heavenly,” for something +inferior and earthly (xii. 25); from a call sanctioned by +the incomparable authority of Him in whom it had reached +men, a greater than Moses and all media of the Old Covenant, +even the Son of God. Thus the key of the whole exhortation +is struck in the opening words, which contrast the piecemeal +revelation “to the fathers” in the past, with the complete and +final revelation to themselves in the last stage of the existing +order of the world’s history, in a Son of transcendent dignity +(i. 1 ff., cf. ii. 1 ff., x. 28 f., xii. 18 ff.). This goes to the root +of their difficulty, ambiguity as to the relation of the old and +the new elements in Judaeo-Christian piety, so that there was +constant danger of the old overshadowing the new, since national +Judaism remained hostile. At a stroke the author separates +the new from the old, as belonging to a new “covenant” or +order of God’s revealed will. It is a confusion, resulting in loss, +not in gain, as regards spiritual power, to try to combine the +two types of piety, as his readers were more and more apt to do. +There is <i>no use</i>, religiously, in falling back upon the old forms, +in order to avoid the social penalties of a sectarian position +within Judaism, when the secret of religious “perfection” or +maturity (vi. 1, cf. the frequent use of the kindred verb) lies +elsewhere. Hence the moral of his whole argument as to the +two covenants, though it is formulated only incidentally amid +final detailed counsels (xiii. 13 f.) is to leave Judaism, and adopt +a frankly Christian standing, on the same footing with their +non-Jewish brethren in the local church. For this the time +was now ripe; and in it lay the true path of safety—eternal +safety as before God, whatever man might say or do (xiii. 5 f.).</p> + +<p>The obscure section, xiii. 9 f., is to be taken as “only a symptom +of the general retrogression of religious energy” (Jülicher), +and not as bearing directly on the main danger of these +“Hebrews.” The “foods” in question probably refer neither +to temple sacrifices nor to the Levitical laws of clean and unclean +foods, nor yet to ascetic scruples (as in Rom. xiv., Col. ii. 20 ff.), +but rather to some form of the idea, found also among the +Essenes, that food might so be partaken of as to have the value +of a sacrifice (see verse 15 foll.) and thus ensure divine favour. +Over against this view, which might well grow up among the +Jews of the Dispersion as a sort of substitute for the possibility +of offering sacrifices in the Temple—but which would be a lame +addition to the Christianity of their own former leaders (xiii. +7 f.)—the author first points his readers to its refutation from +experience, and then to the fact that the Christian’s “altar” +or sacrifice (<i>i.e.</i> the supreme sin-offering) is of the kind which +the Law itself forbids to be associated with “eating.” If +Christians wish to offer any special sacrifice to God, let it be that +of grateful praise or deeds of beneficence (15 f.).</p> + +<p>In trying further to define the readers addressed in the epistle, +one must note the stress laid on suffering as part of the divinely +appointed discipline of sonship (ii. 10, v. 8, xii. 7 f.), and the way +in which the analogy in this respect between Jesus, as Messianic +Son, and those united to Him by faith, is set in relief. He is +not only the inspiring example for heroic faith in the face of +opposition due to unbelievers (xii. 3 ff.), but also the mediator +qualified by his very experience of suffering to sympathize with +His tried followers, and so to afford them moral aid (ii. 17 f., +v. 8 f., cf. iv. 15). This means that suffering for Christianity, +at least in respect of possessions (xiii. 5 f., cf. x. 34) and social +standing, was imminent for those addressed: and it seems +as if they were mostly men of wealth and position (xiii. 1-6, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span> +vi. 10 f., x. 34), who would feel this sort of trial acutely (cf. +Jas. i. 10). Such men would also possess a superior mental +culture (cf. v. 11 f.), capable of appreciating the form of an +epistle “far too learned for the average Christian” (Jülicher), +yet for which its author apologizes to them as inadequate +(xiii. 22). It was now long since they themselves had suffered +seriously for their faith (x. 32 f.); but others had recently been +harassed even to the point of imprisonment (xiii. 3); and the +writer’s very impatience to hurry to their side implies that the +crisis was both sudden and urgent. The finished form of the +epistle’s argument is sometimes urged to prove that it was +not originally an epistle at all, written more or less on the spur +of the moment, but a literary composition, half treatise and half +homily, to which its author—as an afterthought—gave the +suggestion of being a Pauline epistle by adding the personal +matter in ch. xiii. (so W. Wrede, <i>Das literarische Rätsel des +Hebräerbriefs</i>, 1906, pp. 70-73). The latter part of this theory +fails to explain why the Pauline origin was not made more +obvious, <i>e.g.</i> in an opening address. But even the first part +of it overlooks the probability that our author was here only +fusing into a fresh form materials often used before in his oral +ministry of Christian instruction.</p> + +<p>Many attempts have been made to identify the home of the +Hellenistic Christians addressed in this epistle. For Alexandria +little can be urged save a certain strain of “Alexandrine” +idealism and allegorism, mingling with the more Palestinian +realism which marks the references to Christ’s sufferings, as well +as the eschatology, and recalling many a passage in Philo. +But Alexandrinism was a mode of thought diffused throughout +the Eastern Mediterranean, and the divergences from Philo’s +spirit are as notable as the affinities (cf. Milligan, <i>ut infra</i>, 203 ff.). +For Rome there is more to be said, in view of the references to +Timothy and to “them of Italy” (xiii. 23 f.); and the theory +has found many supporters. It usually contemplates a special +Jewish-Christian house-church (so Zahn), like those which Paul +salutes at the end of Romans, <i>e.g.</i> that meeting in the house of +Prisca and Aquila (xvi. 5); and Harnack has gone so far as to +suggest that they, and especially Prisca, actually wrote our +epistle. There is, however, really little that points to Rome in +particular, and a good deal that points away from it. The +words in xii. 4, “Not yet unto blood have ye resisted,” would +ill suit Rome after the Neronian “bath of blood” in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 64 +(as is usually held), save at a date too late to suit the reference +to Timothy. Nor does early currency in Rome prove that the +epistle was written to Rome, any more than do the words “they +of Italy salute you.” This clause must in fact be read in the +light of the reference to Timothy, which suggests that he had +been in prison in Rome and was about to return, possibly in the +writer’s company, to the region which was apparently the +headquarters of both. Now this in Timothy’s case, as far as +we can trace his steps, was Ephesus; and it is natural to ask +whether it will not suit all the conditions of the problem. It +suits those of the readers,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> as analysed above; and it has the +merit of suggesting to us as author the very person of all those +described in the New Testament who seems most capable of the +task, Apollos, the learned Alexandrian (Acts xviii. 24 ff.), +connected with Ephesus and with Paul and his circle (cf. 1 Cor. +xvi. 12), yet having his own distinctive manner of presenting +the Gospel (1 Cor. iv. 6). That Apollos visited Italy at any rate +once during Paul’s imprisonment in Rome is a reasonable +inference from Titus iii. 13 (see Paul); and if so, it is quite +natural that he should be there again about the time of Paul’s +martyrdom. With that event it is again natural to connect +Timothy’s imprisonment, his release from which our author +records in closing; while the news of Jewish success in Paul’s +case would enhance any tendency among Asian Jewish Christians +to shirk “boldness” of confession (x. 23, 35, 38 f.), in fear of +further aggression from their compatriots. On the chronology +adopted in the article Paul, this would yield as probable date +for the epistle <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 61-62. The place of writing would be some +spot in Italy (“they of Italy salute you”) outside Rome, probably +a port of embarkation for Asia, such as Brundisium.</p> + +<p>Be this as it may, the epistle is of great historical importance, +as reflecting a crisis inevitable in the development of the Jewish-Christian +consciousness, when a definite choice between the old and +the new form of Israel’s religion had to be made, both for internal +and external reasons. It seems to follow directly on the situation +implied by the appeal of James to Israel in dispersion, in view +of Messiah’s winnowing-fan in their midst (i. 1-4, ii. 1-7, v. 1-6, +and especially v. 7-11). It may well be the immediate antecedent +of that revealed in 1 Peter, an epistle which perhaps shows +traces of its influence (<i>e.g.</i> in i. 2, “sprinkling of the blood of +Jesus Christ,” cf. Heb. ix. 13 f., x. 22, xii. 24). It is also of +high interest theologically, as exhibiting, along with affinities +to several types of New Testament teaching (see Stephen), a +type all its own, and one which has had much influence on +later Christian thought (cf. Milligan, <i>ut infra</i>, ch. ix.). Indeed, +it shares with Romans the right to be styled “the first treatise +of Christian theology.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Literature.</i>—The older literature may be seen in the great work of +F. Bleek, <i>Der Brief an die Hebräer</i> (1828-1840), still a valuable +storehouse of material, while Bleek’s later views are to be found in +a posthumous work (Elberfeld, 1868); also in Franz Delitzsch’s +<i>Commentary</i> (Edinburgh, 1868). The more recent literature is given +in G. Milligan, <i>The Theology of the Epistle of the Hebrews</i> (1899), a +useful summary of all bearing on the epistle, and in the large New +Testament Introductions and Biblical Theologies. See also Hastings’s +<i>Dict. of the Bible</i>, the <i>Encycl. Biblica</i> and T. Zahn’s article in +Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. V. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Also in Codex Claromontanus, the <i>Tractatus de libris</i> (x.), +Philastrius of Brescia (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 380), and a prologue to the Catholic +Epistles (<i>Revue bénédictine</i>, xxiii. 82 ff.). It is defended in a monograph +by H. H. B. Ayles (Cambridge, 1899).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> a house-church of upper-class Jewish Christians, not fully +in touch with the attitude even of their own past and present +“leaders” (xiii. 7, 17), as distinct from the local church generally +(xiii. 24). The Gospel had reached them, as also the writer himself +(cf. Acts xviii. 25), through certain hearers of the Lord (ii. 3), not +necessarily apostles.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBRIDES, THE,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Western Isles</span>, a group of islands off +the west coast of Scotland. They are situated between 55° 35′ +and 58° 30′ N. and 5° 26′ and 8° 40′ W. Formerly the term +was held to embrace not only all the islands off the Scottish +western coast, including the islands in the Firth of Clyde, but +also the peninsula of Kintyre, the Isle of Man and the Isle of +Rathlin, off the coast of Antrim. They have been broadly +classified into the Outer Hebrides and the Inner Hebrides, the +Minch and Little Minch dividing the one group from the other. +Geologically, they have also been differentiated as the Gneiss +Islands and the Trap Islands. The Outer Hebrides being almost +entirely composed of gneiss the epithet suitably serves them, +but, strictly speaking, only the more northerly of the Inner +Hebrides may be distinguished as Trap Islands. The chief +islands of the Outer Hebrides are Lewis-with-Harris (or Long +Island), North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist, Barra, the Shiants, +St Kilda and the Flannan Isles, or Seven Hunters, an uninhabited +group, about 20 m. N.W. of Gallon Head in Lewis. +Of these the Lewis portion of Long Island, the Shiants and +the Flannan belong to the county of Ross and Cromarty, and +the remainder to Inverness-shire. The total length of this +group, from Barra Head to the Butt of Lewis, is 130 m., the +breadth varying from less than 1 m. to 30 m. The Inner Hebrides +are much more scattered and principally include Skye, Small +Isles (Canna, Sanday, Rum, Eigg and Muck), Coll, Tyree, +Lismore, Mull, Ulva, Staffa, Iona, Kerrera, the Slate Islands +(Seil, Easdale, Luing, Shuna, Torsay), Colonsay, Oronsay, +Scarba, Jura, Islay and Gigha. Of these Skye and Small Isles +belong to Inverness-shire, and the rest to Argyllshire. The +Hebridean islands exceed 500 in number, of which one-fifth are +inhabited. Of the inhabited islands 11 belong to Ross and +Cromarty, 47 to Inverness-shire, and 44 to Argyllshire, but of +this total of 102 islands, one-third have a population of only +10 souls, or fewer, each. The population of the Hebrides in +1901 numbered 78,947 (or 28 to the sq. m.), of whom 41,031 +were females, who thus exceeded the males by 10%, and 22,733 +spoke Gaelic only and 47,666 Gaelic and English. The most +populous island is Lewis-with-Harris (32,160), and next to it +are Skye (13,883), Islay (6857) and Mull (4334).</p> + +<p>Of the total area of 1,800,000 acres, or 2812 sq. m., only +one-ninth is cultivated, most of the surface being moorland +and mountain. The annual rainfall, particularly in the Inner +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span> +Hebrides, is heavy (42.6 in. at Stornoway) but the temperature +is high, averaging for the year 47° F. Potatoes and turnips +are the only root crops that succeed, and barley and oats are +grown in some of the islands. Sheep-farming and cattle-raising +are carried on very generally, and, with the fisheries, provide +the main occupation of the inhabitants, though they profit not +a little from the tourists who flock to many of the islands throughout +the summer. The principal industries include distilling, +slate-quarrying and the manufacture of tweeds, tartans and +other woollens. There are extensive deer forests in Lewis-with-Harris, +Skye, Mull and Jura. On many of the islands there are +prehistoric remains and antiquities within the Christian period. +The more populous islands are in regular communication with +certain points of the mainland by means of steamers from Glasgow, +Oban and Mallaig. The United Free Church has a strong hold +on the <span class="correction" title="amended feom poeple">people</span>, but in a few of the islands the Roman Catholics +have a great following. In the larger inhabited islands board +schools have been established. The islands unite with the +counties to which they belong in returning members to parliament +(one for each shire).</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The Hebrides are mentioned by Ptolemy under the +name of <span class="grk" title="Eboudai">Ἔβουδαι</span> and by Pliny under that of <i>Hebudes</i>, the modern +spelling having, it is said, originated in a misprint. By the +Norwegians they were called <i>Sudreyjar</i> or Southern Islands. +The Latinized form was <i>Sodorenses</i>, preserved to modern times +in the title of the bishop of Sodor and Man. The original +inhabitants seem to have been of the same Celtic race as those +settled on the mainland. In the 6th century Scandinavian +hordes poured in with their northern idolatry and lust of plunder, +but in time they adopted the language and faith of the islanders. +Mention is made of incursions of the vikings as early as 793, +but the principal immigration took place towards the end of +the 9th century in the early part of the reign of Harald Fairhair, +king of Norway, and consisted of persons driven to the Hebrides, +as well as to Orkney and Shetland, to escape from his tyrannous +rule. Soon afterwards they began to make incursions against +their mother-country, and on this account Harald fitted out an +expedition against them, and placed Orkney, Shetland, the +Hebrides and the Isle of Man under Norwegian government. +The chief seat of the Norwegian sovereignty was Colonsay. +About the year 1095 Godred Crovan, king of Dublin, Man and +the Hebrides, died in Islay. His third son, Olaf, succeeded to +the government about 1103, and the daughter of Olaf was +married to Somerled, who became the founder of the dynasty +known as Lords of the Isles. Many efforts were made by the +Scottish monarchs to displace the Norwegians. Alexander II. +led a fleet and army to the shores of Argyllshire in 1249, but he +died on the island of Kerrera. On the other hand, Haakon IV., +king of Norway, at once to restrain the independence of his +jarls and to keep in check the ambition of the Scottish kings, +set sail in 1263 on a great expedition, which, however, ended +disastrously at Largs. Magnus, son of Haakon, concluded in +1266 a peace with the Scots, renouncing all claim to the Hebrides +and other islands except Orkney and Shetland, and Alexander +III. agreed to give him a sum of 4000 merks in four yearly +payments. It was also stipulated that Margaret, daughter of +Alexander, should be betrothed to Eric, the son of Magnus, +whom she married in 1281. She died two years later, leaving +an only daughter afterwards known as the Maid of Norway.</p> + +<p>The race of Somerled continued to rule the islands, and from +a younger son of the same potentate sprang the lords of Lorne, +who took the patronymic of Macdougall. John Macdonald of +Islay, who died about 1386, was the first to adopt the title of +Lord of the Isles. He was one of the most potent of the island +princes, and was married to a daughter of the earl of Strathearn, +afterwards Robert II. His son, Donald of the Isles, was memorable +for his rebellion in support of his claim to the earldom of +Ross, in which, however, he was unsuccessful. Alexander, son +of Donald, resumed the hereditary warfare against the Scottish +crown; and in 1462 a treaty was concluded between Alexander’s +son and successor John and Edward IV. of England, by which +John, his son John, and his cousin Donald Balloch, became +bound to assist King Edward and James, earl of Douglas, in +subduing the kingdom of Scotland. The alliance seems to have +led to no active operations. In the reign of James V. another +John of Islay resumed the title of Lord of the Isles, but was +compelled to surrender the dignity. The glory of the lordship +of the isles—the insular sovereignty—had departed. From +the time of Bruce the Campbells had been gaining the ascendancy +in Argyll. The Macleans, Macnaughtons, Maclachlans, Lamonts, +and other ancient races had sunk before this favoured family. +The lordship of Lorne was wrested from the Macdougalls by +Robert Bruce, and their extensive possessions, with Dunstaffnage +Castle, bestowed on the king’s relative, Stewart, and his descendants, +afterwards lords of Lorne. The Macdonalds of Sleat, +the direct representatives of Somerled, though driven from +Islay and deprived of supreme power by James V., still kept a +sort of insular state in Skye. There were also the Macdonalds +of Clanranald and Glengarry (descendants of Somerled), with +the powerful houses of Macleod of Dunvegan and Macleod of +Harris, M‘Neill of Barra and Maclean of Mull. Sanguinary +feuds continued throughout the 16th and 17th centuries among +these rival clans and their dependent tribes, and the turbulent +spirit was not subdued till a comparatively recent period. James +VI. made an abortive endeavour to colonize Lewis. William III. +and Queen Anne attempted to subsidize the chiefs in order to +preserve tranquillity, but the wars of Montrose and Dundee, and +the Jacobite insurrections of 1715 and 1745, showed how futile +were all such efforts. It was not till 1748, when a decisive +blow was struck at the power of the chiefs by the abolition of +heritable jurisdictions, and the appointment of sheriffs in the +different districts, that the arts of peace and social improvement +made way in these remote regions. The change was great, and +at first not unmixed with evil. A new system of management +and high rents <span class="correction" title="amended from were">was</span> imposed, in consequence of which numbers +of the tacksmen, or large tenants, emigrated to North America. +The exodus continued for many years. Sheep-farming on a large +scale was next introduced, and the crofters were thrust into +villages or barren corners of the land. The result was that, +despite the numbers who entered the army or emigrated to +Canada, the standard of civilization sank lower, and the population +multiplied in the islands. The people came to subsist +almost entirely on potatoes and herrings; and in 1846, when +the potato blight began its ravages, nearly universal destitution +ensued—embracing, over the islands generally, 70% of the +inhabitants. Temporary relief was administered in the shape +of employment on roads and other works; and an emigration +fund being raised, from 4000 to 5000 of the people in the most +crowded districts were removed to Australia. Matters, however, +were not really mended, and in 1884 a royal commission reported +upon the condition of the crofters of the islands and mainland. +As a result of their inquiry the Crofters’ Holdings Act was passed +in 1886, and in the course of a few years some improvement was +evident and has since been sustained.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Martin Martin’s <i>Description of the Western Islands +of Scotland</i> (1703); T. Pennant’s <i>Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the +Hebrides</i> (1774); James Boswell’s <i>Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel +Johnson, LL.D.</i> (1898); John Macculloch’s <i>Geological Account of the +Hebrides</i> (1819); Hugh Miller’s <i>Cruise of the “Betsy”</i> (1858); W. A. +Smith’s <i>Lewisiana, or Life in the Outer Hebrides</i> (1874); Alexander +Smith, <i>A Summer in Skye</i> (1865); Robert Buchanan, <i>The Hebrid +Isles</i> (1883); C. F. Gordon-Cumming, <i>In the Hebrides</i> (1883); <i>Report +of the Crofters’ Commission</i> (1884); A. Goodrich-Freer, <i>Outer Isles</i> +(1902); and W. C. Mackenzie, <i>History of the Outer Hebrides</i> (1903). +Their history under Norwegian rule is given in the <i>Chronica regum +Manniae et insularum</i>, edited, with learned notes, from the MS. in +the British Museum by Professor P. A. Münch of Christiania (1860).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEBRON<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (mod. <i>Khulīl er-Rahmān</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “the friend of the +Merciful One”—an allusion to Abraham), a city of Palestine +some 20 m. S. by S.W. of Jerusalem. The city, which lies 3040 ft. +above the sea, is of extreme antiquity (see Num. xiii. 22, and +Josephus, <i>War</i>, iv. 9, 7) and until taken by the Calebites (Josh. xv. +13) bore the name Kirjath-Arba. Biblical traditions connect it +closely with the patriarch Abraham and make it a “city of +refuge.” The town figures prominently under David as the +headquarters of his early rule, the scene of Abner’s murder +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span> +and the centre of Absalom’s rebellion. In later days the Edomites +held it for a time, but Judas Maccabaeus recovered it. +It was destroyed in the great war under Vespasian. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1167 +Hebron became the see of a Latin bishop, and it was taken in +1187 by Saladin. In 1834 it joined the rebellion against Ibrahim +Pasha, who took the town and pillaged it. Modern Hebron rises +on the east slope of a shallow valley—a long narrow town of +stone houses, the flat roofs having small stone domes. The +main quarter is about 700 yds. long, and two smaller groups of +houses exist north and south of this. The hill behind is terraced, +and luxuriant vineyards and fruit plantations surround the place, +which is well watered on the north by three principal springs, +including the Well Sirah, now ‘Ain Sāra (2 Sam. iii. 26). Three +conspicuous minarets rise, two from the <i>Haram</i>, the other in +the north quarter. The population (10,000) includes Moslems +and about 500 Jews. The Bedouins bring wool and camel’s +hair to the market; and glass bracelets, lamps and leather water-skins +are manufactured in the town. The most conspicuous +building is the <i>Haram</i> built over the supposed site of the cave of +Machpelah. It is an enclosure measuring 112 ft. east and west +by 198 north and south, surrounded with high rampart walls of +masonry <span class="correction" title="amended from similiar">similar</span> in size and dressing to that of the Jerusalem +Haram walls. These ramparts are ascribed by architectural +authorities to the Herodian period. The interior area is partly +occupied by a 12th-century Gothic church, and contains six +modern cenotaphs of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebecca +and Leah. The cave beneath the platform has probably not +been entered for at least 600 years. The numerous traditional +sites now shown round Hebron are traceable generally to medieval +legendary topography; they include the Oak of Mamre (Gen. xiii. +18 R.V.) which has at various times been shown in different +positions from ¾ to 2 m. from the town.</p> + +<p>There are a British medical mission, a German Protestant +mission with church and schools, and, near Abraham’s Oak, a +Russian mission. Since 1880 several notices of the Haram, +within which are the tombs of the Patriarchs, have appeared.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. R. Conder, Pal. Exp. Fund, <i>Memoirs</i>, iii. 333, &c.; Riant, +<i>Archives de l’orient latin</i>, ii. 411, &c.; Dalton and Chaplin, <i>P.E.F. +Quarterly Statement</i> (1897); Goldziher, “Das Patriarchengrab in +Hebron,” in <i>Zeitschrift d. Dn. Pal. Vereins</i>, xvii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HECATAEUS OF ABDERA<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (or of Teos), Greek historian and +Sceptic philosopher, flourished in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He +accompanied Ptolemy I. Soter in an expedition to Syria, and +sailed up the Nile with him as far as Thebes (Diogenes Laërtius +ix. 61). The result of his travels was set down by him in two +works—<span class="grk" title="Aiguptiaka">Αἰγυπτιακά</span> and <span class="grk" title="Peri Uperboreôn">Περὶ Ὑπερβορέων</span>, which were used +by Diodorus Siculus. According to Suidas, he also wrote a +treatise on the poetry of Hesiod and Homer. Regarding his +authorship of a work on the Jews (utilized by Josephus in <i>Contra +Apionem</i>), it is conjectured that portions of the <span class="grk" title="Aiguptiaka">Αἰγυπτιακά</span> +were revised by a Hellenistic Jew from his point of view and +published as a special work.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in C. W. Müller’s <i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HECATAEUS OF MILETUS<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (6th-5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek +historian, son of Hegesander, flourished during the time of the +Persian invasion. After having travelled extensively, he settled +in his native city, where he occupied a high position, and devoted +his time to the composition of geographical and historical works. +When Aristagoras held a council of the leading Ionians at +Miletus, to organize a revolt against the Persian rule, Hecataeus +in vain tried to dissuade his countrymen from the undertaking +(Herodotus v. 36, 125). In 494, when the defeated Ionians were +obliged to sue for terms, he was one of the ambassadors to the +Persian satrap Artaphernes, whom he persuaded to restore the +constitution of the Ionic cities (Diod. Sic. x. 25). He is by some +credited with a work entitled <span class="grk" title="Gês periodos">Γῆς περίοδος</span> (“Travels round the +Earth”), in two books, one on Europe, the other on Asia, in +which were described the countries and inhabitants of the +known world, the account of Egypt being especially comprehensive; +the descriptive matter was accompanied by a +map, based upon Anaximander’s map of the earth, which he +corrected and enlarged. The authenticity of the work is, however, +strongly attacked by J. Wells in the <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, +xxix. pt. i. 1909. The only certainly genuine work of Hecataeus +was the <span class="grk" title="Geneêlogiai">Γενεηλογίαι</span> or <span class="grk" title="Historiai">Ἱστορίαι</span>, a systematic account of the +traditions and mythology of the Greeks. He was probably the +first to attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical +method to distinguish myth from historical fact, though he +accepts Homer and the other poets as trustworthy authority. +Herodotus, though he once at least controverts his statements, is +indebted to Hecataeus not only for facts, but also in regard of +method and general scheme, but the extent of the debt depends +on the genuineness of the <span class="grk" title="Gês periodos">Γῆς περίοδος</span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See fragments in C. W. Müller, <i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum</i>, i.; +H. Berger, <i>Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen</i> +(1903); E. H. Bunbury, <i>History of Ancient Geography</i>, i.; W. Mure, +<i>History of Greek Literature</i>, iv.; especially J. V. Prašek, <i>Hekataios +als Herodots Quelle zur Geschichte Vorderasiens. Beiträge zur alten +Geschichte</i> (<i>Klio</i>), iv. 193 seq. (1904), and J. Wells in <i>Journ. Hell. +Stud.</i>, as above.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HECATE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Hekatê">Ἑκατή</span>, “she who works from afar”<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), a goddess +in Greek mythology. According to the generally accepted view, +she is of Hellenic origin, but Farnell regards her as a foreign +importation from Thrace, the home of Bendis, with whom Hecate +has many points in common. She is not mentioned in the <i>Iliad</i> +or the <i>Odyssey</i>, but in Hesiod (<i>Theogony</i>, 409) she is the daughter +of the Titan Perses and Asterie, in a passage which may be a +later interpolation by the Orphists (for other genealogies see +Steuding in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon</i>). She is there represented as a +mighty goddess, having power over heaven, earth and sea; +hence she is the bestower of wealth and all the blessings of daily +life. The range of her influence is most varied, extending to war, +athletic games, the tending of cattle, hunting, the assembly of +the people and the law-courts. Hecate is frequently identified +with Artemis, an identification usually justified by the assumption +that both were moon-goddesses. Farnell, who regards +Artemis as originally an earth-goddess, while recognizing a +“genuine lunar element” in Hecate from the 5th century, +considers her a chthonian rather than a lunar divinity (see also +Warr in <i>Classical Review</i>, ix. 390). He is of opinion that neither +borrowed much from, nor exercised much influence on, the cult +and character of the other.</p> + +<p>Hecate is the chief goddess who presides over magic arts and +spells, and in this connexion she is the mother of the sorceresses +Circe and Medea. She is constantly invoked, in the well-known +idyll (ii.) of Theocritus, in the incantation to bring back a woman’s +faithless lover. As a chthonian power, she is worshipped at the +Samothracian mysteries, and is closely connected with Demeter. +Alone of the gods besides Helios, she witnessed the abduction of +Persephone, and, torch in hand (a natural symbol for the moon’s +light, but see Farnell), assisted Demeter in her search for her +daughter. On moonlight nights she is seen at the cross-roads +(hence her name <span class="grk" title="trioditis">τριοδῖτις</span>, Lat. <i>Trivia</i>) accompanied by the +dogs of the Styx and crowds of the dead. Here, on the last day +of the month, eggs and fish were offered to her. Black puppies +and she-lambs (black victims being offered to chthonian deities) +were also sacrificed (Schol. on Theocritus ii. 12). Pillars +like the Hermae, called Hecataea, stood, especially in Athens, +at cross-roads and doorways, perhaps to keep away the spirits +of evil. Like Artemis, Hecate is also a goddess of fertility, +presiding especially over the birth and the youth of wild animals, +and over human birth and marriage. She also attends when the +soul leaves the body at death, and is found near graves, and on +the hearth, where the master of the house was formerly buried. +It is to be noted that Hecate plays little or no part in mythological +legend. Her worship seems to have flourished especially in the +wilder parts of Greece, such as Samothrace and Thessaly, in +Caria and on the coasts of Asia Minor. In Greece proper it +prevailed on the east coast and especially in Aegina, where +her aid was invoked against madness.</p> + +<p>In older times Hecate is represented as single-formed, clad in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span> +a long robe, holding burning torches; later she becomes <i>triformis</i>, +“triple-formed,” with three bodies standing back to back—corresponding, +according to those who regard her as a moon-goddess, +to the new, the full and the waning moon. In her six +hands are torches, sometimes a snake, a key (as wardress of the +lower world), a whip or a dagger; her favourite animal was +the dog, which was sacrificed to her—an indication of her non-Hellenic +origin, since this animal very rarely fills this part in +genuine Greek ritual.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Steuding in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon</i>, where the functions of +Hecate are systematically derived from the conception of her as a +moon-goddess; L. R. Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, ii., where this +view is examined; P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire +des antiquités</i>; O. Gruppe, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>, ii. (1906) p. 1288.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> J. B. Bury, in <i>Classical Review</i>, iii. p. 416, suggests that the name +means “dog,” against which see J. H. Vince, ib. iv. p. 47. G. C. +Warr, ib. ix. 390, takes the Hesiodic Hecate to be a moon-goddess, +daughter of the sun-god Perseus.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HECATOMB<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hekatombê">ἑκατόμβη</span> from <span class="grk" title="hekaton">ἑκατόν</span>, a hundred, and +<span class="grk" title="bous">βοῦς</span>, an ox), originally the sacrifice of a hundred oxen in the +religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans; later a large +number of any kind of animals devoted for sacrifice. Figuratively, +“hecatomb” is used to describe the sacrifice or destruction +by fire, tempest, disease or the sword of any large number +of persons or animals; and also of the wholesale destruction of +inanimate objects, and even of mental and moral attributes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HECATO OF RHODES,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> Greek Stoic philosopher and disciple +of Panaetius (Cicero, <i>De officiis</i>, iii. 15). Nothing else is known +of his life, but it is clear that he was eminent amongst the Stoics +of the period. He was a voluminous writer, but nothing remains. +A list is preserved by Diogenes, who mentions works on <i>Duty</i>, +<i>Good</i>, <i>Virtues</i>, <i>Ends</i>. The first, dedicated to Tubero, is eulogized +by Cicero in the <i>De officiis</i>, and Seneca refers to him frequently +in the <i>De beneficiis</i>. According to Diogenes Laërtius, he divided +the virtues into two kinds, those founded on scientific intellectual +principles (<i>i.e.</i> wisdom and justice), and those which have no +such basis (<i>e.g.</i> temperance and the resultant health and vigour). +Cicero shows that he was much interested in casuistical questions, +as, for example, whether a good man who had received a coin +which he knew to be bad was justified in passing it on to another. +On the whole, his moral attitude is cynical, and he is inclined +to regard self-interest as the best criterion. This he modifies +by explaining that self-interest is based on the relationships of +life; a man needs money for the sake of his children, his friends +and the state whose general prosperity depends on the wealth +of its citizens. Like the earlier Stoics, Cleanthes and Chrysippus, +he held that virtue may be taught. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stoics</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Panaetius</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1811-1881), German +revolutionist, was born at Eichtersheim in the Palatinate on +the 28th of September 1811, his father being a revenue official. +He studied law with the intention of becoming an advocate, +but soon became absorbed in politics. On entering the Second +Chamber of Baden in 1842, he at once began to take part in the +opposition against the government, which assumed a more and +more openly Radical character, and in the course of which his +talents as an agitator and his personal charm won him wide +popularity and influence. A speech, denouncing the projected +incorporation of Schleswig and Holstein with Denmark, delivered +in the Chamber of Baden on the 6th of February 1845, spread his +fame beyond the limits of his own state, and his popularity was +increased by his expulsion from Prussia on the occasion of a +journey to Stettin. After the death of his more moderate-minded +friend Adolf Sander (March 9th, 1845), Hecker’s tone +towards the government became more and more bitter. In +spite of the shallowness and his culture and his extremely weak +character, he enjoyed an ever-increasing popularity. Even before +the outbreak of the revolution he included Socialistic claims +in his programme. In 1847 he was temporarily occupied with +ideas of emigration, and with this object made a journey to +Algiers, but returned to Baden and resumed his former position +as the Radical champion of popular rights, later becoming +president of the <i>Volksverein</i>, where he was destined to fall still +further under the influence of the agitator Gustav von Struve. +In conjunction with Struve he drew up the Radical programme +carried at the great Liberal meeting held at Offenburg on the +12th of September 1847 (entitled “Thirteen Claims put forward +by the People of Baden”). In addition to the Offenburg programme, +the <i>Sturmpetition</i> of the 1st of March 1848 attempted +to extort from the government the most far-reaching concessions. +But it was in vain that on becoming a deputy Hecker endeavoured +to carry out its impracticable provisions. He had +to yield to the more moderate majority, but on this account was +driven still further towards the Left. The proof lies in the new +Offenburg demands of the 19th of March, and in the resolution +moved by Hecker in the preliminary parliament of Frankfort that +Germany should be declared a republic. But neither in Baden +nor Frankfort did he at any time gain his point.</p> + +<p>This double failure, combined with various energetic measures +of the government, which were indirectly aimed at him (<i>e.g.</i> the +arrest of the editor of the <i>Constanzer Seeblatt</i>, a friend of Hecker’s, +in Karlsruhe station on the 8th of April), inspired Hecker with +the idea of an armed rising under pretext of the foundation of +the German republic. The 9th to the 11th of April was secretly +spent in preliminaries. On the 12th of April Hecker and Struve +sent a proclamation to the inhabitants of the <i>Seekreis</i> and of the +Black Forest “to summon the people who can bear arms to +Donaueschingen at mid-day on the 14th, with arms, ammunition +and provisions for six days.” They expected 70,000 men, but +only a few thousand appeared. The grand-ducal government +of the <i>Seekreis</i> was dissolved, and Hecker gradually gained +reinforcements. But friendly advisers also joined him, pointing +out the risks of his undertaking. Hecker, however, was not at +all ready to listen to them; on the contrary, he added to violence +an absurd defiance, and offered an amnesty to the German princes +on condition of their retiring within fourteen days into private +life. The troops of Baden and Hesse marched against him, +under the command of General Friedrich von Gagern, and on +the 20th of April they met near Kandern, where Gagern was +killed, it is true, but Hecker was completely defeated.</p> + +<p>Like many of the revolutionaries of that period, Hecker retired +to Switzerland. He was, it is true, again elected to the Chamber +of Baden by the circle of Thiengen, but the government, no +longer willing to respect his immunity as a deputy, refused its +ratification. On this account Hecker resolved in September +1848 to emigrate to North America, and obtained possession of +a farm near Belleville in the state of Illinois.</p> + +<p>During the second rising in Baden in the spring of 1849 he +again made efforts to obtain a footing in his own state, but without +success. He only came as far as Strassburg, but had to +retreat before the victories of the Prussian troops over the Baden +insurgents.</p> + +<p>On his return to America he won some distinction during the +Civil War as colonel of a regiment which he had himself got +together on the Federal side in 1861 and 1864. It was with +great joy that he heard of the union of Germany brought about +by the victory over France in 1870-71. It was then that +he made his famous festival speech at St Louis, in which he +gave an animated expression to the enthusiasm of the German +Americans for their newly-united fatherland. He received a +less favourable impression during a journey he made in Germany +in 1873. He died at St Louis on the 24th of March 1881.</p> + +<p>Hecker was always very much beloved of all the German +democrats. The song and the hat named after him (the latter +a broad slouch hat with a feather) became famous as the symbols +of the middle-classes in revolt. In America, too, he had won +great esteem, not only on political grounds but also for his +personal qualities.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Hecker, <i>Die Erhebung des Volkes in Baden für die deutsche +Republik</i> (Baden, 1848); F. Hecker, <i>Reden und Vorlesungen</i> (Neerstadt +a. d. H., 1872); F. v. Weech, <i>Badische Biographien</i>, iv. (1891); +L. Mathy, <i>Aus dem Nachlasse von K. Matty, Briefe aus den Jahren +1846-1848</i> (Leipzig, 1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1819-1888), American Roman +Catholic priest, the founder of the “Paulist Fathers,” was +born in New York City, of German immigrant parents, on the +18th of December 1819. When barely twelve years of age, +he had to go to work, and pushed a baker’s cart for his elder +brothers, who had a bakery in Rutgers Street. But he studied +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span> +at every possible opportunity, becoming immersed in Kant’s +<i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, and while still a lad took part in certain +politico-social movements which aimed at the elevation of the +working man. It was at this juncture that he met Orestes +Brownson, who exercised a marked influence over him. Isaac +was deeply religious, a characteristic for which he gave much +credit to his prayerful mother, and remained so amid all the +reading and agitating in which he engaged. Having grown +into young manhood, he joined the Brook Farm movement, +and in that colony he tarried some six months. Shortly after +leaving it (in 1844) he was baptized into the Roman Catholic +Church by Bishop McCloskey of New York. One year later +he was entered in the novitiate of the Redemptorists in Belgium, +and there he cultivated to a high degree the spirit of lofty +mystical piety which marked him through life.</p> + +<p>Ordained a priest in London by Wiseman in 1849, he returned +to America, and worked until 1857 as a Redemptorist missionary. +With all his mysticism, Isaac Hecker had the wide-awake mind +of the typical American, and he perceived that the missionary +activity of the Catholic Church in the United States must +remain to a large extent ineffective unless it adopted methods +suited to the country and the age. In this he had the sympathy +of four fellow Redemptorists, who like himself were of American +birth and converts from Protestantism. Acting as their agent, +and with the consent of his local superiors, Hecker went to Rome +to beg of the Rector Major of his Order that a Redemptorist +novitiate might be opened in the United States, in order thus to +attract American youths to the missionary life. In furtherance +of this request, he took with him the strong approval of some +members of the American hierarchy. The Rector Major, instead +of listening to Father Hecker, expelled him from the Order for +having made the journey to Rome without sufficient authorization. +The outcome of the trouble was that Hecker and the other +four American Redemptorists were permitted by Pius IX. in 1858 +to form the separate religious community of the Paulists. Hecker +trained and governed this community in spiritual exercises and +mission-preaching until his death in New York City, after +seventeen years of suffering, on the 22nd of December 1888. +He founded and was the director of the Catholic Publication +Society, was the founder, and from 1865 until his death the +editor, of the <i>Catholic World</i>, and wrote <i>Questions of the Soul</i> +(1855), <i>Aspirations of Nature</i> (1857), <i>Catholicity in the United +States</i> (1879) and <i>The Church and the Age</i> (1888).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The name of Hecker is closely associated with that of “Americanism.” +To understand this movement it is necessary to comprehend +the tendency of events in Catholic Europe rather than in America +itself. The steady decline in the power and influence of French +Catholicism since shortly after 1870 is the most remarkable feature +of the history of the Third Republic. Not only did the French State +pass laws bearing more and more stringently on the Church, under +each succeeding ministry, but the bulk of the people acquiesced in the +policy of its legislators. The clergy, if not Catholicism, was rapidly +losing its hold over the once Catholic nation. Observing this fact, +and encouraged by the action of Leo XIII., who, in 1892 called on +French Catholics loyally to accept the Republic, a body of vigorous +young French priests set themselves to check the disaster. They +studied the causes which produced it. These causes, they considered +to be, first, the clergy’s predominant sympathy with the monarchists, +and in its undisguised hostility to the Republic; secondly, the +Church’s aloofness from modern men, methods and thought. The +progressive party believed that there was too little cultivation of +individual, independent character, while too much stress was laid +upon what might be called the mechanical or routine side of religion. +The party perceived, too, that Catholicism was making scarcely +any use of modern aggressive modes of propaganda; that, for +example, the Church took but an insignificant part in social movements, +in the organization of clubs for social study, in the establishing +of settlements and similar philanthropic endeavour. Lack of +adaptability to modern needs expresses in short the deficiencies in +Catholicism which these men endeavoured to correct. They began +a domestic apostolate which had for one of its rallying cries, “<i>Allons +au peuple</i>,”—“Let us go to the people.” They agitated for the +inauguration of social works, for a more intimate mingling of priests +with the people, and for general cultivation of personal initiative, +both in clergy and in laity.</p> + +<p>Not unnaturally, they looked for inspiration to America. There +they saw a vigorous Church among a free people, with priests +publicly respected, and with a note of aggressive zeal in every +project of Catholic enterprise. From the American priesthood, +Father Hecker stood out conspicuous for sturdy courage, deep +interior piety, an assertive self-initiative and immense love of modern +times and modern liberty. So they took Father Hecker for a kind +of patron saint. His biography (New York, 1891), written in English +by the Paulist Father Elliott, was translated into French (1897), +and speedily became the book of the hour. Under the inspiration +of Father Hecker’s life and character, the more spirited section of +the French clergy undertook the task of persuading their fellow-priests +loyally to accept the actual political establishment, and then, +breaking out of their isolation, to put themselves in touch with the +intellectual life of the country, and take an active part in the work of +social amelioration.</p> + +<p>In 1897 the movement received an impetus—and a warning—when +Mgr O’Connell, former Rector of the American College in +Rome, spoke on behalf of Father Hecker’s ideas at the Catholic +Congress in Friburg. The conservatives took alarm at what they +considered to be symptoms of pernicious modernism or “Liberalism.” +Did not the watchword “<i>Allons au peuple</i>” savour of heresy? +Did it not tend toward breaking down the divinely established +distinction between the priest and the layman, and conceding +something to the laity in the management of the Church? The +insistence upon individual initiative was judged to be incompatible +with the fundamental principle of Catholicism, obedience to authority. +Moreover, the conservatives were, almost to a man, anti-republicans +who distrusted and disliked the democratic abbés. Complaints +were sent to Rome. A violent polemic against the new movement +was launched in Abbé Maignan’s <i>Le père Hecker, est-il un saint?</i> +(1898). Repugnance to American tendencies and influences had a +strong representation in the Curia and in powerful circles in Rome. +Leo XIII. was extremely reluctant to pronounce any strictures +upon American Catholics, of whose loyalty to the Roman See, and +to their faith, he had often spoken in terms of high approbation. +But he yielded, in a measure, to the pressure brought to bear upon +him, and, early in February 1899, addressed to Cardinal Gibbons the +Brief <i>Testem Benevolentiae</i>. This document contained a condemnation +of the following doctrines or tendencies: (<i>a</i>) undue insistence +on interior initiative in the spiritual life, as leading to disobedience; +(<i>b</i>) attacks on religious vows, and disparagement of the value in the +present age, of religious orders; (<i>c</i>) minimizing Catholic doctrine; +(<i>d</i>) minimizing the importance of spiritual direction. The brief did +not assert that any unsound doctrine on the above points had been +held by Hecker or existed among Americans. Its tenour was, that +if such opinions did exist, the Pope called upon the hierarchy to +eradicate the evil. Cardinal Gibbons and many other prelates +replied to Rome. With all but unanimity, they declared that the +incriminated opinions had no existence among American Catholics. +It was well known that Hecker never had countenanced the slightest +departure from Catholic principles in their fullest and most strict +application. The disturbance caused by the condemnation was +slight; almost the entire laity, and a considerable part of the clergy, +never understood what the noise was about. The affair was soon +forgotten, but the result was to strengthen the hands of the conservatives +in France.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. J. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HECKMONDWIKE,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> an urban district in the Spen Valley +parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, +8 m. S.S.E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great +Northern, and London & North-Western railways. Pop. (1901), +9459. Like the town of Dewsbury, on the south-east, it is an +important centre of the blanket and carpet manufactures, and +there are also machine works, dye works and iron foundries. +Coal is extensively wrought in the vicinity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HECTOR,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> in Greek mythology, son of Priam and Hecuba, the +husband of Andromache. Like Paris and other Trojans, he had +an Oriental name, Darius. In Homer he is represented as an +ideal warrior, the champion of the Trojans and the mainstay of +the city. His character, is drawn in most favourable colours as +a good son, a loving husband and father, and a trusty friend. +His leave-taking of Andromache in the sixth book of the <i>Iliad</i>, +and his departure to meet Achilles for the last time, are most +touchingly described. He is an especial favourite of Apollo; +and later poets even describe him as son of that god. His chief +exploits during the war were his defence of the wounded Sarpedon, +his fight with Ajax, son of Telamon (his particular enemy), and +the storming of the Greek ramparts. When Achilles, enraged +with Agamemnon, deserted the Greeks, Hector drove them back +to their ships, which he almost succeeded in burning. Patroclus, +the friend of Achilles, who came to the help of the Greeks, was +slain by Hector with the help of Apollo. Then Achilles, to +revenge his friend’s death, returned to the war, slew Hector, +dragged his body behind his chariot to the camp, and afterwards +round the tomb of Patroclus. Aphrodite and Apollo preserved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span> +it from corruption and mutilation. Priam, guarded by Hermes, +went to Achilles and prevailed on him to give back the body, +which was buried with great honour. Hector was afterwards +worshipped in the Troad by the Boeotian tribe Gephyraei, who +offered sacrifices at his grave.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HECUBA<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Hekabê">Ἑκάβη</span>), wife of Priam, daughter of the Phrygian +king Dymas (or of Cisseus, or of the river-god Sangarius). +According to Homer she was the mother of nineteen of Priam’s +fifty sons. When Troy was captured and Priam slain, she was +made prisoner by the Greeks. Her fate is told in various ways, +most of which connect her with the promontory Cynossema, +on the Thracian shore of the Hellespont. According to Euripides +(in the <i>Hecuba</i>), her youngest son Polydorus had been placed +during the siege of Troy under the care of Polymestor, king of +Thrace. When the Greeks reached the Thracian Chersonese +on their way home Hecuba discovered that her son had been +murdered, and in revenge put out the eyes of Polymestor and +murdered his two sons. She was acquitted by Agamemnon; +but, as Polymestor foretold, she was turned into a dog, and her +grave became a mark for ships (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xiii. 399-575; +Juvenal x. 271 and Mayor’s note). According to another story, +she fell to the lot of Odysseus, as a slave, and in despair threw +herself into the Hellespont; or, she used such insulting language +towards her captors that they put her to death (Dictys Cretensis +v. 13. 16). It is obvious from the tales of Hecuba’s transformation +and death that she is a form of some goddess +to whom dogs were sacred; and the analogy with Scylla is +striking.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1504-<i>c.</i> 1670), Dutch painter, +born at Haarlem, was one of the earliest Dutchmen who devoted +himself exclusively to the painting of still life. He was the +contemporary and comrade of Dirk Hals, with whom he had +in common pictorial touch and technical execution. But Heda +was more careful and finished than Hals, and showed considerable +skill and not a little taste in arranging and colouring +chased cups and beakers and tankards of precious and inferior +metals. Nothing is so appetizing as his “luncheon,” with rare +comestibles set out upon rich plate, oysters—seldom without +the cut lemon—bread, champagne, olives and pastry. Even +the commoner “refection” is also not without charm, as it +comprises a cut ham, bread, walnuts and beer. One of Heda’s +early masterpieces, dated 1623, in the Munich Pinakothek is +as homely as a later one of 1651 in the Liechtenstein Gallery at +Vienna. A more luxurious repast is a “Luncheon in the Augsburg +Gallery,” dated 1644. Most of Heda’s pictures are on the +European continent, notably in the galleries of Paris, Parma, +Ghent, Darmstadt, Gotha, Munich and Vienna. He was a +man of repute in his native city, and filled all the offices of dignity +and trust in the gild of Haarlem. He seems to have had considerable +influence in forming the younger Frans Hals.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1828-1897), Scottish +mineralogist, was born at Hoy in Orkney on the 28th of April +1828. After receiving his early education at the Edinburgh +academy, he entered as a medical student at the university in +that city, and subsequently studied chemistry and mineralogy +at Klausthal and Freiburg. In 1851 he took his degree of M.D. +at Edinburgh, and for about five years practised there. Medical +work, however, possessed for him little attraction; he became +assistant to Prof. Connell, who held the chair of chemistry at +St Andrews, and in 1862 succeeded him as professor. This post +he held until in 1880 he was invited to report on some gold mines +in South Africa. On his return he devoted himself with great +assiduity to mineralogy, and formed one of the finest collections +by means of personal exploration in almost every part of Scotland. +His specimens are now in the Royal Scottish Museum at +Edinburgh. It had been his intention to publish a comprehensive +work on the mineralogy of Scotland. This he did not live to +complete, but the MSS. fell into able hands, and <i>The Mineralogy +of Scotland</i>, in 2 vols., edited by J. G. Goodchild, was issued +in 1901. Heddle was one of the founders of the Mineralogical +Society, and he contributed many articles on Scottish minerals, +and on the geology of the northern parts of Scotland, to the +<i>Mineralogical Magazine</i>, as well as to the <i>Transactions of the +Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>. He died on the 19th of November +1897.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Dr Heddle and his Geological Work</i> (with portrait), by J. G. +Goodchild, <i>Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc.</i> (1898) vii. 317.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEDGEHOG,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Urchin</span>, a member of the mammalian order +Insectivora, remarkable for its dentition, its armature of spines +and its short tail. The upper jaw is longer than the lower, the +snout is long and flexible, with the nostrils narrow, and the +claws are long but weak. The animal is about 10 in. long, +its eyes are small, and the lower surface covered with hairs of +the ordinary character. The brain is remarkable for its low +development, the cerebral hemispheres being small, and marked +with but one groove, and that a shallow one, on each side. The +hedgehog has the power of rolling itself up into a ball, from +which the spines stand out in every direction. The spines are +sharp, hard and elastic, and form so efficient a defence that +there are few animals able to effect a successful attack on this +creature. The moment it is touched, or even hears the report of +a gun, it rolls itself up by the action of the muscles beneath +the skin, while this contraction effects the erection of the spines. +The most important muscle is the <i>orbicularis panniculi</i>, which +extends over the anterior region of the skull, as far down the body +as the ventral hairy region, and on to the tail, but three other +muscles aid in the contraction.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:305px" src="images/img196.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus europaeus</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Though insectivorous, the hedgehog is reported to have a +liking for mice, while frogs and toads, as well as plants and fruits, +all seem to be acceptable. It will also eat snakes, and its fondness +for eggs has caused it to meet with the enmity of game-preservers; +and there is no doubt it occasionally attacks leverets +and game-chicks. In a state of nature it does not emerge from +its retreat during daylight, unless urged by hunger or by the +necessities of its young. During winter it passes into a state +of hibernation, when its temperature falls considerably; having +provided itself with a nest of dry leaves, it is well protected +from the influences of the rain, and rolling itself up, remains +undisturbed till warmer weather returns. In July or August +the female brings forth four to eight young, or, according to +others, two to four at a somewhat earlier period; at birth the +spines, which in the adult are black in the middle, are white +and soft, but soon harden, though they do not attain their +full size until the succeeding spring.</p> + +<p>The hedgehog, which is known scientifically as <i>Erinaceus +europaeus</i>, and is the type of the family <i>Erinaceidae</i>, is found +in woods and gardens, and extends over nearly the whole of +Europe; and has been found at 6000 to 8000 ft. above the level +of the sea. The adult is provided with thirty-six teeth; in the +upper jaw are 6 incisors, 2 canines and 12 cheek-teeth, and in +the lower jaw 4 incisors, 2 canines and 10 cheek-teeth. The +genus is represented by about a score of species, ranging over +Europe, Asia, except the Malay countries, and Africa.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEDGES AND FENCES.<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> The object of the hedge<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or fence +(abbreviation of “defence”) is to mark a boundary or to enclose +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span> +an area of land on which stock is kept. The hedge, <i>i.e.</i> a row +of bushes or small trees, forms a characteristic feature of the +scenery of England, especially in the midlands and south; it is +more rarely found in other countries. Its disadvantages as a +fence are that it is not portable, that it requires cutting and +training while young, that it harbours weeds and vermin and +that it occupies together with the ditch which usually borders +it a considerable space of ground, the margins of which cannot +be cultivated. For these reasons it is to some extent superseded +by the fence proper, especially where shelter for cattle is not +required. In Great Britain the hawthorn (<i>q.v.</i>) is by far the most +important of hedge plants. Holly resembles the hawthorn +in its amenability to pruning and in its prickly nature and +closeness of growth, which make it an effective barrier to, and +shelter for, stock, but it is less hardy and more slow-growing +than the hawthorn. Hornbeam, beech, myrobalan or cherry +plum and blackthorn also have their advantages, hornbeam +being proof against great exposure, blackthorn thriving on poor +land and possessing great impenetrability and so on. Box, yew, +privet and many other plants are used for ornamental hedging; +in the United States the osage orange and honey locust are +favourite hedge plants. As fences, wooden posts and rails and +stone walls may be conveniently used in districts where the +requisite materials are plentiful. But the most modern form +of fence is formed of wire strands either smooth or barbed (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barbed Wire</a></span>), strained between iron standards or wooden or +concrete posts. The wire may be interwoven with vertical strands +or, if necessary, may be kept apart by iron droppers between the +standards. Fences of a lighter description are machine-made +with pickets of split chestnut or other wood closely set, woven +with a few strands of wire; they are braced by posts at intervals.</p> + +<p>From the fact that tramps and vagabonds frequently sleep +under hedges the word has come to be used as a term of contempt, +as in “hedge-priest,” an inferior and illiterate kind of parson +at one time existing in England and Ireland, and in “hedge-school,” +a low class school held in the open air, formerly very +common in Ireland. From the sense of “hedge” as an enclosure +or barrier the verb “to hedge” means to enclose, to form a +barrier or defence, to bound or limit. As a sporting term +the word is used in betting to mean protection from loss, by +betting on both sides, by “laying off” on one side, after laying +odds on another or vice versa. The word was early used +figuratively in the sense of to avoid committing oneself.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See articles in the <i>Cyclopaedia of American Agriculture</i>, vol. i., +ed. by L. H. Bailey (New York, 1907); in the <i>Standard Cyclopaedia +of Modern Agriculture</i>, ed. by R. P. Wright (London, 1908-1909); +and in the <i>Encyclopaedia of Agriculture</i>, vol. ii., ed. by C. E. Green +and D. Young (Edinburgh, 1908).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hedge is a Teutonic word, cf. Dutch <i>heg</i>, Ger. <i>Hecke</i>; the root +appears in other English words, <i>e.g.</i> “haw,” as in “hawthorn.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEDON,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a municipal borough in the Holderness parliamentary +division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. E. of +Hull by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), +1010. It stands in a low-lying, flat district bordering the +Humber. It is 2 m. from the river, but was formerly reached +by a navigable inlet, now dry, and was a considerable port. +There is a small harbour, but the prosperity of the port has passed +to Hull. The church of St Augustine is a splendid cruciform +building with central tower. It is Early English, Decorated +and Perpendicular, the tower being of the last period. The west +front is particularly fine, and the church, with its noble proportions +and lofty clerestories, resembles a cathedral in miniature. +There are a manufacture of bricks and an agricultural trade. +The corporation consists of a mayor, 3 aldermen and 9 +councillors; and possesses a remarkable ancient mace, of 15th-century +workmanship. Area, 321 acres.</p> + +<p>According to tradition the men of Hedon received a charter +of liberties from King Æthelstan, but there is no evidence to +prove this or indeed to prove any settlement in the town until +after the Conquest. The manor is not mentioned in the +Domesday Survey, but formed part of the lordship of Holderness +which William the Conqueror granted to Odo, count of Albemarle. +A charter of Henry II., which is undated, contains the first certain +evidence of settlement. By it the king granted to William, +count of Albemarle, free borough rights in Hedon so that his +burgesses there might hold of him as freely and quietly as the +burgesses of York or Lincoln held of the king. An earlier charter +granted to the inhabitants of York shows that these rights +included a trade gild and freedom from many dues not only in +England but also in France. King John in 1200 granted a +confirmation of these liberties to Baldwin, count of Albemarle, +and Hawisia his wife and for this second charter the burgesses +themselves paid 70 marks. In 1272 Henry III. granted to +Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and Avelina his wife, then lord and +lady of the manor, the right of holding a fair at Hedon on the +eve, day, and morrow of the feast of St Augustine and for five +following days. After the countess’s death the manor came to +the hands of Edward I. In 1280 it was found by an inquisition +that the men of Hedon “were few and poor” and that if the town +were demised at a fee-farm rent the town might improve. The +grant, however, does not appear to have been made until 1346. +Besides this charter Edward III. also granted the burgesses the +privilege of electing a mayor and bailiffs every year. At that time +Hedon was one of the chief ports in the Humber, but its place was +gradually taken by Hull after that town came into the hands of +the king. Hedon was incorporated by Charles II. in 1661, and +James II. in 1680 gave the burgesses another charter granting +among other privileges that of holding two extra fairs, but of +this they never appear to have taken advantage. The burgesses +returned two members to parliament in 1295, and from 1547 to +1832 when the borough was disfranchised.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Yorkshire</i>; J. R. Boyle, <i>The Early +History of the Town and Port of Hedon</i> (Hull and York, 1895); G. H. +Park, <i>History of the Ancient Borough of Hedon</i> (Hull, 1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEDONISM<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêdonê">ἡδονή</span>, pleasure, from <span class="grk" title="hêdys">ἡδύς</span>, sweet, pleasant), +in ethics, a general term for all theories of conduct in which the +criterion is pleasure of one kind or another. Hedonistic theories +of conduct have been held from the earliest times, though they +have been by no means of the same character. Moreover, +hedonism has, especially by its critics, been very much misrepresented +owing mainly to two simple misconceptions. In the +first place hedonism may confine itself to the view that, as a +matter of observed fact, all men do in practice make pleasure the +criterion of action, or it may go further and assert that men ought +to seek pleasure as the sole human good. The former statement +takes no view as to whether or not there is any absolute good: +if merely denies that men aim at anything more than pleasure. +The latter statement admits an ideal, <i>summum bonum</i>—namely, +pleasure. The second confusion is the tacit assumption that the +pleasure of the hedonist is necessarily or characteristically of a +purely physical kind; this assumption is in the case of some +hedonistic theories a pure perversion of the facts. Practically all +hedonists have argued that what are known as the “lower” +pleasures are not only ephemeral in themselves but also productive +of so great an amount of consequent pain that the wise +man cannot regard them as truly pleasurable; the sane hedonist +will, therefore, seek those so-called “higher” pleasures which +are at once more lasting and less likely to be discounted by +consequent pain. It should be observed, however, that this +choice of pleasures by a hedonist is conditioned not by “moral” +(absolute) but by prudential (relative) considerations.</p> + +<p>The earliest and the most extreme type of hedonism is that +of the Cyrenaic School as stated by Aristippus, who argued that +the only good for man is the sentient pleasure of the moment. +Since (following Protagoras) knowledge is solely of momentary +sensations, it is useless to try, as Socrates recommended, to make +calculations as to future pleasures, and to balance present enjoyment +with disagreeable consequences. The true art of life is to +crowd as much enjoyment as possible into every moment. This +extreme or “pure” hedonism regarded as a definite philosophic +theory practically died with the Cyrenaics, though the same +spirit has frequently found expression in ancient and modern, +especially poetical, literature.</p> + +<p>The confusion already alluded to between “pure” and +“rational” hedonism is nowhere more clearly exemplified than +in the misconceptions which have arisen as to the doctrine of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span> +the Epicureans. To identify Epicureanism with Cyrenaicism +is a complete misunderstanding. It is true that pleasure is the +<i>summum bonum</i> of Epicurus, but his conception of that pleasure +is profoundly modified by the Socratic doctrine of prudence +and the eudaemonism of Aristotle. The true hedonist will aim +at a life of enduring rational happiness; pleasure is the end of +life, but true pleasure can be obtained only under the guidance +of reason. Self-control in the choice of pleasures with a view +to reducing pain to a minimum is indispensable. “Of all this, +the beginning, and the greatest good, is prudence.” The negative +side of Epicurean hedonism was developed to such an extent by +some members of the school (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hegesias</a></span>) that the ideal life +is held to be rather indifference to pain than positive enjoyment. +This pessimistic attitude is far removed from the positive +hedonism of Aristippus.</p> + +<p>Between the hedonism of the ancients and that of modern +philosophers there lies a great gulf. Practically speaking +ancient hedonism advocated the happiness of the individual: +the modern hedonism of Hume, Bentham and Mill is based on a +wider conception of life. The only real happiness is the happiness +of the community, or at least of the majority: the criterion is +society, not the individual. Thus we pass from Egoistic to +Universalistic hedonism, Utilitarianism, Social Ethics, more +especially in relation to the still broader theories of evolution. +These theories are confronted by the problem of reconciling and +adjusting the claims of the individual with those of society. +One of the most important contributions to the discussion is that +of Sir Leslie Stephen (<i>Science of Ethics</i>), who elaborated a theory +of the “social organism” in relation to the individual. The end +of the evolution process is the production of a “social tissue” +which will be “vitally efficient.” Instead, therefore, of the +criterion of “the greatest happiness of the greatest number,” +Stephen has that of the “health of the organism.” Life is not +“a series of detached acts, in each of which a man can calculate +the sum of happiness or misery attainable by different courses.” +Each action must be regarded as directly bearing upon the +structure of society.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A criticism of the various hedonistic theories will be found in the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span> (<i>ad fin.</i>). See also, beside works quoted under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrenaics</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Epicurus</a></span>, &c., and the general histories of philosophy, +J. S. Mackenzie, <i>Manual of Ethics</i> (3rd ed., 1897); J. H. Muirhead, +<i>Elements of Ethics</i> (1892); J. Watson, <i>Hedonistic Theories</i> (1895); +J. Martineau, <i>Types of Ethical Theory</i> (2nd ed., 1886); F. H. Bradley, +<i>Ethical Studies</i> (1876); H. Sidgwick, <i>Methods of Ethics</i> (6th ed., +1901); Jas. Seth, <i>Ethical Principles</i> (3rd ed., 1898); other works +quoted under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEEL.<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1) (O. Eng. <i>héla</i>, cf. Dutch <i>hiel</i>; a derivative of O. Eng. +hóh, hough, hock), that part of the foot in man which is situated +below and behind the ankle; by analogy, the calcaneal part +of the tarsus in other vertebrates. The heel proper in digitigrades +and ungulates is raised off the ground and is commonly known as +the “knee” or “hock,” while the term “heel” is applied to the +hind hoofs. (2) (A variant of the earlier <i>hield</i>; cf. Dutch <i>hellen</i>, +for <i>helden</i>), to turn over to one side, especially of a ship. It is +this word probably, in the sense of “tip-up,” used particularly +of the tilting or tipping of a cask or barrel of liquor, that explains +the origin of the expression “no heel-taps,” a direction to the +drinkers of a toast to drain their glasses and leave no dregs +remaining. “Tap” is a common word for liquor, and a cask +is said to be “heeled” when it is tipped and only dregs or +muddy liquor are left. This suits the actual sense of the phrase +better than the explanations which connect it with tapping the +“heel” or bottom of the glass (see <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 4th series, +vols. xi.-xii., and 5th series, vol. i.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Johannes de</span>), (<i>c.</i>1600-<i>c.</i>1683), +Dutch painter. He was, if not the first, certainly the greatest +painter of still life in Holland; no artist of his class combined +more successfully perfect reality of form and colour with brilliancy +and harmony of tints. No object of stone or silver, no flower +humble or gorgeous, no fruit of Europe or the tropics, no twig +or leaf, with which he was not familiar. Sometimes he merely +represented a festoon or a nosegay. More frequently he worked +with a purpose to point a moral or illustrate a motto. Here +the snake lies coiled under the grass, there a skull rests on +blooming plants. Gold and silver tankards or cups suggest +the vanity of earthly possessions; salvation is allegorized in a +chalice amidst blossoms, death as a crucifix inside a wreath. +Sometimes de Heem painted alone, sometimes in company with +men of his school, Madonnas or portraits surrounded by festoons +of fruit or flowers. At one time he signed with initials, at others +with Johannes, at others again with the name of his father +joined to his own. At rare intervals he condescended to a date, +and when he did the work was certainly of the best. De Heem +entered the gild of Antwerp in 1635-1636, and became a burgher +of that city in 1637. He steadily maintained his residence till +1667, when he moved to Utrecht, where traces of his presence +are preserved in records of 1668, 1669 and 1670. It is not known +when he finally returned to Antwerp, but his death is recorded +in the gild books of that place. A very early picture, dated +1628, in the gallery of Gotha, bearing the signature of Johannes +in full, shows that de Heem at that time was familiar with the +technical habits of execution peculiar to the youth of Albert +Cuyp. In later years he completely shook off dependence, +and appears in all the vigour of his own originality.</p> + +<p>Out of 100 pictures or more to be met with in European +galleries scarcely eighteen are dated. The earliest after that of +Gotha is a chased tankard, with a bottle, a silver cup, and a +lemon on a marble table, dated 1640, in the museum of +Amsterdam. A similar work of 1645, with the addition of +fruit and flowers and a distant landscape, is in Lord Radnor’s +collection at Longford. A chalice in a wreath, with the radiant +host amidst wheatsheaves, grapes and flowers, is a masterpiece +of 1648 in the Belvedere of Vienna. A wreath round a Madonna +of life size, dated 1650, in the museum of Berlin, shows that de +Heem could paint brightly and harmoniously on a large scale. +In the Pinakothek at Munich is the celebrated composition of +1653, in which creepers, beautifully commingled with gourds +and blackberries, twigs of orange, myrtle and peach, are +enlivened by butterflies, moths and beetles. A landscape with +a blooming rose tree, a jug of strawberries, a selection of fruit, +and a marble bust of Pan, dated 1655, is in the Hermitage at +St Petersburg; an allegory of abundance in a medallion wreathed +with fruit and flowers, in the gallery of Brussels, is inscribed +with de Heem’s monogram, the date of 1668, and the name of +an obscure artist called Lambrechts. All these pieces exhibit +the master in full possession of his artistic faculties.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Cornelius de Heem</span>, the son of Johannes, was in practice +as a flower painter at Utrecht in 1658, and was still active in +his profession in 1671 at the Hague. His pictures are not equal +to those of his father, but they are all well authenticated, and +most of them in the galleries of the Hague, Dresden, Cassel, +Vienna and Berlin. In the Staedel at Frankfort is a fruit +piece, with pot-herbs and a porcelain jug, dated 1658; another, +dated 1671, is in the museum of Brussels. <span class="sc">David de Heem</span>, +another member of the family, entered the gild of Utrecht in +1668 and that of Antwerp in 1693. The best piece assigned +to him is a table with a lobster, fruit and glasses, in the gallery +of Amsterdam; others bear his signature in the museums of +Florence, St Petersburg and Brunswick. It is well to guard +against the fallacy that David de Heem above mentioned is +the father of Jan de Heem. We should also be careful not to +make two persons of the first artist, who sometimes signs +Johannes, sometimes Jan Davidsz or J. D. Heem.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1597-1656), Dutch poet, was +born at Amsterdam in 1597. He was educated as a child at +Bayonne, and entered the university of Leiden in 1617. In +1621 he went abroad on the grand tour, leaving behind him his +first volume of poems, <i>Minnekunst</i> (The Art of Love), which +appeared in 1622. He was absent from Holland four years. He +was made master of arts at Bourges in 1623, and in 1624 visited +Hugo Grotius in Paris. On his return in 1625 he published +<i>Minnepligt</i> (The Duty of Love), and began to practise as an +advocate in the Hague. In 1628 he was sent to England in his +legal capacity by the Dutch East India Company, to settle the +dispute respecting Amboyna. In the same year he published +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span> +the poem entitled <i>Minnekunde</i>, or the Science of Love. He +proceeded to Amsterdam in 1640, where he married Alida, +sister of the statesman Van Beuningen. In 1641 he published +a Dutch version of Corneille’s <i>The Cid</i>, a tragi-comedy, and in +1647 his most famous work, the pastoral romance of <i>Batavische +Arcadia</i>, which he had written ten years before. During the +last twelve years of his life Heemskerk sat in the upper chamber +of the states-general. He died at Amsterdam on the 27th of +February 1656.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The poetry of Heemskerk, which fell into oblivion during the +18th century, is once more read and valued. His famous pastoral, +the <i>Batavische Arcadia</i>, which was founded on the <i>Astrée</i> of Honoré +d’Urfé, enjoyed a great popularity for more than a century, and +passed through twelve editions. It provoked a host of more or less +able imitations, of which the most distinguished were the <i>Dordrechtsche +Arcadia</i> (1663) of Lambert van den Bos (1610-1698), the +<i>Saanlandsche Arcadia</i> (1658) of Hendrik Sooteboom (1616-1678) +and the <i>Rotterdamsche Arcadia</i> (1703) of Willem den Elger (d. 1703). +But the original work of Heemskerk, in which a party of nymphs +and shepherds go out from the Hague to Katwijk, and there indulge +in polite and pastoral discourse, surpasses all these in brightness and +versatility.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1498-1574), Dutch +painter, sometimes called Van Veen, was born at Heemskerk in +Holland in 1498, and apprenticed by his father, a small farmer, +to Cornelisz Willemsz, a painter at Haarlem. Recalled after a +time to the paternal homestead and put to the plough or the +milking of cows, young Heemskerk took the first opportunity +that offered to run away, and demonstrated his wish to leave +home for ever by walking in a single day the 50 miles which +separate his native hamlet from the town of Delft. There he +studied under a local master whom he soon deserted for John +Schoreel of Haarlem. At Haarlem he formed what is known as +his first manner, which is but a quaint and <i>gauche</i> imitation of the +florid style brought from Italy by Mabuse and others. He then +started on a wandering tour, during which he visited the whole of +northern and central Italy, stopping at Rome, where he had +letters for a cardinal. It is evidence of the facility with which he +acquired the rapid execution of a scene-painter that he was +selected to co-operate with Antonio da San Gallo, Battista +Franco and Francesco Salviati to decorate the triumphal arches +erected at Rome in April 1536 in honour of Charles V. Vasari, +who saw the battle-pieces which Heemskerk then produced, says +they were well composed and boldly executed. On his return to +the Netherlands he settled at Haarlem, where he soon (1540) +became president of his gild, married twice, and secured a large +and lucrative practice. In 1572 he left Haarlem for Amsterdam, +to avoid the siege which the Spaniards laid to the place, and +there he made a will which has been preserved, and shows that he +had lived long enough and prosperously enough to make a fortune. +At his death, which took place on the 1st of October 1574, he left +money and land in trust to the orphanage of Haarlem, with +interest to be paid yearly to any couple who should be willing to +perform the marriage ceremony on the slab of his tomb in the +cathedral of Haarlem. It was a superstition which still exists in +Catholic Holland that a marriage so celebrated would secure the +peace of the dead within the tomb.</p> + +<p>The works of Heemskerk are still very numerous. “Adam and +Eve,” and “St Luke painting the Likeness of the Virgin and +Child” in presence of a poet crowned with ivy leaves, and a parrot +in a cage—an altar-piece in the gallery of Haarlem, and the +“Ecce Homo” in the museum of Ghent, are characteristic works +of the period preceding Heemskerk’s visit to Italy. An altar-piece +executed for St Laurence of Alkmaar in 1538-1541, and composed +of at least a dozen large panels, would, if preserved, have given +us a clue to his style after his return from the south. In its +absence we have a “Crucifixion” executed for the Riches Claires +at Ghent (now in the Ghent Museum) in 1543, and the altar-piece +of the Drapers Company at Haarlem, now in the gallery of the +Hague, and finished in 1546. In these we observe that Heemskerk +studied and repeated the forms which he had seen at Rome +in the works of Michelangelo and Raphael, and in Lombardy in +the frescoes of Mantegna and Giulio Romano. But he never forgot +the while his Dutch origin or the models first presented to him by +Schoreel and Mabuse. As late as 1551 his memory still served +him to produce a copy from Raphael’s “Madonna di Loretto” +(gallery of Haarlem). A “Judgment of Momus,” dated 1561, in +the Berlin Museum, proves him to have been well acquainted +with anatomy, but incapable of selection and insensible of grace, +bold of hand and prone to daring though tawdry contrasts of +colour, and fond of florid architecture. Two altar-pieces which +he finished for churches at Delft in 1551 and 1559, one complete, +the other a fragment, in the museum of Haarlem, a third of 1551 in +the Brussels Museum, representing “Golgotha,” the “Crucifixion,” +the “Flight into Egypt,” “Christ on the Mount,” and scenes from +the lives of St Bernard and St Benedict, are all fairly representative +of his style. Besides these we have the “Crucifixion” in the +Hermitage of St Petersburg, and two “Triumphs of Silenus” in the +gallery of Vienna, in which the same relation to Giulio Romano +may be noted as we mark in the canvases of Rinaldo of Mantua. +Other pieces of varying importance are in the galleries of +Rotterdam, Munich, Cassel, Brunswick, Karlsruhe, Mainz and +Copenhagen. In England the master is best known by his +drawings. A comparatively feeble picture by him is the +“Last Judgment” in the palace of Hampton Court.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEER, OSWALD<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1809-1883), Swiss geologist and naturalist, +was born at Nieder-Utzwyl in Canton St Gallen on the 31st of +August 1809. He was educated as a clergyman and took holy +orders, and he also graduated as doctor of philosophy and +medicine. Early in life his interest was aroused in entomology, +on which subject he acquired special knowledge, and later he took +up the study of plants and became one of the pioneers in palaeo-botany, +distinguished for his researches on the Miocene flora. In +1851 he became professor of botany in the university of Zürich, +and he directed his attention to the Tertiary plants and insects of +Switzerland. For some time he was director of the botanic +garden at Zürich. In 1863 (with W. Pengelly, <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, +1862) he investigated the plant-remains from the lignite-deposits +of Bovey Tracey in Devonshire, regarding them as of Miocene +age; but they are now classed as Eocene. Heer also reported +on the Miocene flora of Arctic regions, on the plants of the +Pleistocene lignites of Dürnten on lake Zürich, and on the cereals +of some of the lake-dwellings (<i>Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten</i>, +1866). During a great part of his career he was hampered by +slender means and ill-health, but his services to science were +acknowledged in 1873 when the Geological Society of London +awarded to him the Wollaston medal. Dr Heer died at Lausanne +on the 27th of September 1883. He published <i>Flora Tertiaria +Helvetiae</i> (3 vols., 1855-1859); <i>Die Urwelt der Schweiz</i> (1865), and +<i>Flora fossilis Arctica</i> (1868-1883).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1760-1842), +German historian, was born on the 25th of October 1760 at +Arbergen, near Bremen. He studied philosophy, theology and +history at Göttingen, and thereafter travelled in France, Italy +and the Netherlands. In 1787 he was appointed one of the +professors of philosophy, and then of history at Göttingen, and +he afterwards was chosen aulic councillor, privy councillor, &c., +the usual rewards of successful German scholars. He died at +Göttingen on the 6th of March 1842. Heeren’s great merit as an +historian was that he regarded the states of antiquity from an +altogether fresh point of view. Instead of limiting himself to a +narration of their political events, he examined their economic +relations, their constitutions, their financial systems, and thus +was enabled to throw a new light on the development of the old +world. He possessed vast and varied learning, perfect calmness +and impartiality, and great power of historical insight, and is +now looked back to as the pioneer in the movement for the +economic interpretation of history.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Heeren’s chief works are: <i>Ideen über Politik, den Verkehr, und den +Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt</i> (2 vols., Göttingen, +1793-1796; 4th ed., 6 vols., 1824-1826; Eng. trans., Oxford, +1833); <i>Geschichte des Studiums der klassischen Litteratur seit dem +Wiederaufleben der Wissenschaften</i> (2 vols., Göttingen, 1797-1802; +new ed., 1822); <i>Geschichte der Staaten des Altertums</i> (Göttingen, +1799; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1840); <i>Geschichte des europäischen +Staatensystems</i> (Göttingen, 1800; 5th ed., 1830; Eng. trans., +1834); <i>Versuch einer Entwicklung der Folgen der Kreuzzüge</i> (Göttingen, +1808; French trans., Paris, 1808), a prize essay of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span> +Institute of France. Besides these, Heeren wrote brief biographical +sketches of Johann von Müller (Leipzig, 1809); Ludwig Spittler +(Berlin, 1812); and Christian Heyne (Göttingen, 1813). With +Friedrich August Ukert (1780-1851) he founded the famous historical +collection, <i>Geschichte der europäischen Staaten</i> (Gotha, 1819 seq.), +and contributed many papers to learned periodicals.</p> + +<p>A collection of his historical works, with autobiographical notice, +was published in 15 volumes (Göttingen, 1821-1830).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1809-1893), German theologian, +was born at Unterkochen in Württemberg on the 15th of March +1809, and was educated at Tübingen, where in 1839 he became +professor-ordinary of Church history and patristics in the Roman +Catholic faculty of theology. From 1842 to 1845 he sat in the +National Assembly of Württemberg. In December 1869 he was +enthroned bishop of Rottenburg. His literary activity, which +had been considerable, was in no way diminished by his elevation +to the episcopate. Among his numerous theological works may +be mentioned his well-known edition of the <i>Apostolic Fathers</i>, +issued in 1839; his <i>Life of Cardinal Ximenes</i>, published in 1844 +(Eng. trans., 1860); and his still more celebrated <i>History of the +Councils of the Church</i>, in seven volumes, which appeared between +1855 and 1874 (Eng. trans., 1871, 1882). Hefele’s theological +opinions inclined towards the more liberal school in the Roman +Catholic Church, but he nevertheless received considerable signs +of favour from its authorities, and was a member of the commission +that made preparations for the Vatican Council of 1870. +On the eve of that council he published at Naples his <i>Causa +Honorii Papae</i>, which aimed at demonstrating the moral and +historical impossibility of papal infallibility. About the same +time he brought out a work in German on the same subject. He +took rather a prominent part in the discussions at the council, +associating himself with Félix Dupanloup and with Georges +Darboy, archbishop of Paris, in his opposition to the doctrine +of Infallibility, and supporting their arguments from his vast +knowledge of ecclesiastical history. In the preliminary discussions +he voted against the promulgation of the dogma. He was absent +from the important sitting of the 18th of June 1870, and did not +send in his submission to the decrees until 1871, when he explained +in a pastoral letter that the dogma “referred only to doctrine +given forth <i>ex cathedra</i>, and therein to the definitions proper only, +but not to its proofs or explanations.” In 1872 he took part in +the congress summoned by the Ultramontanes at Fulda, and by +his judicious use of minimizing tactics he kept his diocese free +from any participation in the Old Catholic schism. The last four +volumes of the second edition of his <i>History of the Councils</i> have +been described as skilfully adapted to the new situation created +by the Vatican decrees. During the later years of his life he +undertook no further literary efforts on behalf of his church, but +retired into comparative privacy. He died on the 6th of June +1893.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vii. 525.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1770-1831), +German philosopher, was born at Stuttgart on the 27th of August +1770. His father, an official in the fiscal service of Württemberg, +is not otherwise known to fame; and of his mother we hear +only that she had scholarship enough to teach him the elements +of Latin. He had one sister, Christiana, who died unmarried, +and a brother Ludwig, who served in the campaigns of Napoleon. +At the grammar school of Stuttgart, where Hegel was educated +between the ages of seven and eighteen, he was not remarkable. +His main productions were a diary kept at intervals during +eighteen months (1785-1787), and translations of the <i>Antigone</i>, +the <i>Manual</i> of Epictetus, &c. But the characteristic feature +of his studies was the copious extracts which from this time +onward he unremittingly made and preserved. This collection, +alphabetically arranged, comprised annotations on classical +authors, passages from newspapers, treatises on morals and +mathematics from the standard works of the period. In this way +he absorbed in their integrity the raw materials for elaboration. +Yet as evidence that he was not merely receptive we have essays +already breathing that admiration of the classical world which he +never lost. His chief amusement was cards, and he began the +habit of taking snuff.</p> + +<p>In the autumn of 1788 he entered at Tübingen as a student +of theology; but he showed no interest in theology: his sermons +were a failure, and he found more congenial reading in the classics, +on the advantages of studying which his first essay was written. +After two years he took the degree of Ph.D., and in the autumn +of 1793 received his theological certificate, stating him to be of +good abilities, but of middling industry and knowledge, and +especially deficient in philosophy.</p> + +<p>As a student, his elderly appearance gained him the title +“Old man,” but he took part in the walks, beer-drinking and +love-making of his fellows. He gained most from intellectual +intercourse with his contemporaries, the two best known of +whom were J. C. F. Hölderlin and Schelling. With Hölderlin +Hegel learned to feel for the old Greeks a love which grew stronger +as the semi-Kantianized theology of his teachers more and more +failed to interest him. With Schelling like sympathies bound him. +They both protested against the political and ecclesiastical +inertia of their native state, and adopted the doctrines of freedom +and reason. The story which tells how the two went out one +morning to dance round a tree of liberty in a meadow is an +anachronism, though in keeping with their opinions.</p> + +<p>On leaving college, he became a private tutor at Bern and +lived in intellectual isolation. He was, however, far from +inactive. He compiled a systematic account of the fiscal system +of the canton Bern, but the main factor in his mental growth +came from his study of Christianity. Under the impulse given +by Lessing and Kant he turned to the original records of Christianity, +and attempted to construe for himself the real significance +of Christ. He wrote a life of Jesus, in which Jesus was simply +the son of Joseph and Mary. He did not stop to criticize as a +philologist, and ignored the miraculous. He asked for the secret +contained in the conduct and sayings of this man which made him +the hope of the human race. Jesus appeared as revealing the +unity with God in which the Greeks in their best days unwittingly +rejoiced, and as lifting the eyes of the Jews from a lawgiver who +metes out punishment on the transgressor, to the destiny which +in the Greek conception falls on the just no less than on the unjust.</p> + +<p>The interest of these ideas is twofold. In Jesus Hegel finds the +expression for something higher than mere morality: he finds +a noble spirit which rises above the contrasts of virtue and vice +into the concrete life, seeing the infinite always embracing our +finitude, and proclaiming the divine which is in man and cannot +be overcome by error and evil, unless the man close his eyes and +ears to the godlike presence within him. In religious life, in +short, he finds the principle which reconciles the opposition +of the temporal mind. But, secondly, the general source of the +doctrine that life is higher than all its incidents is of interest. +He does not free himself from the current theology either by +rational moralizing like Kant, or by bold speculative synthesis +like Fichte and Schelling. He finds his panacea in the concrete +life of humanity. But although he goes to the Scriptures, and +tastes the mystical spirit of the medieval saints, the Christ of his +conception has traits that seem borrowed from Socrates and +from the heroes of Attic tragedy, who suffer much and yet +smile gently on a destiny to which they were reconciled. Instead +of the Hebraic doctrine of a Jesus punished for our sins, we +have the Hellenic idea of a man who is calmly tranquil in the +consciousness of his unity with God.</p> + +<p>During these years Hegel kept up a slack correspondence +with Schelling and Hölderlin. Schelling, already on the way +to fame, kept Hegel abreast with German speculation. Both +of them were intent on forcing the theologians into the daylight, +and grudged them any aid they might expect from Kant’s +postulation of God and immortality to crown the edifice of ethics. +Meanwhile, Hölderlin in Jena had been following Fichte’s career +with an enthusiasm with which he infected Hegel.</p> + +<p>It is pleasing to turn from these vehement struggles of thought +to a tour which Hegel in company with three other tutors made +through the Bernese Oberland in July and August 1796. Of this +tour he left a minute diary. He was delighted with the varied +play of the waterfalls, but no glamour blinded him to the squalor +of Swiss peasant life. The glaciers and the rocks called forth no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span> +raptures. “The spectacle of these eternally dead masses gave +me nothing but the monotonous and at last tedious idea, ‘Es +ist so.’”</p> + +<p>Towards the close of his engagement at Bern, Hegel had +received hopes from Schelling of a post at Jena. Fortunately +his friend Hölderlin, now tutor in Frankfort, secured a similar +situation there for Hegel in the family of Herr Gogol, a merchant +(January 1797). The new post gave him more leisure and the +society he needed.</p> + +<p>About this time he turned to questions of economics and +government. He had studied Gibbon, Hume and Montesquieu +in Switzerland. We now find him making extracts from the +English newspapers on the Poor-Law Bill of 1796; criticising +the Prussian land laws, promulgated about the same time; +and writing a commentary on Sir James Steuart’s <i>Inquiry into +the Principles of Political Economy</i>. Here, as in contemporaneous +criticisms of Kant’s ethical writings, Hegel aims at correcting +the abstract discussion of a topic by treating it in its systematic +interconnexions. Church and state, law and morality, commerce +and art are reduced to factors in the totality of human +life, from which the specialists had isolated them.</p> + +<p>But the best evidence of Hegel’s attention to contemporary +politics is two unpublished essays—one of them written in 1798, +“On the Internal Condition of Württemberg in Recent Times, +particularly on the Defects in the Magistracy,” the other a +criticism on the constitution of Germany, written, probably, +not long after the peace of Lunéville (1801). Both essays are +critical rather than constructive. In the first Hegel showed how +the supineness of the committee of estates in Württemberg had +favoured the usurpations of the superior officials in whom the +court had found compliant servants. And though he perceived +the advantages of change in the constitution of the estates, +he still doubted if an improved system could work in the actual +conditions of his native province. The main feature in the +pamphlet is the recognition that a spirit of reform is abroad. +If Württemberg suffered from a bureaucracy tempered by +despotism, the Fatherland in general suffered no less. “Germany,” +so begins the second of these unpublished papers, “is +no longer a state.” Referring the collapse of the empire to +the retention of feudal forms and to the action of religious +animosities, Hegel looked forward to reorganization by a central +power (Austria) wielding the imperial army, and by a representative +body elected by the geographical districts of the empire. +But such an issue, he saw well, could only be the outcome of +violence—of “blood and iron.” The philosopher did not pose +as a practical statesman. He described the German empire in +its nullity as a conception without existence in fact. In such a +state of things it was the business of the philosopher to set forth +the outlines of the coming epoch, as they were already moulding +themselves into shape, amidst what the ordinary eye saw only +as the disintegration of the old forms of social life.</p> + +<p>His old interest in the religious question reappears, but in a +more philosophical form. Starting with the contrast between +a natural and a positive religion, he regards a positive religion +as one imposed upon the mind from without, not a natural +growth crowning the round of human life. A natural religion, +on the other hand, was not, he thought, the one universal +religion of every clime and age, but rather the spontaneous +development of the national conscience varying in varying +circumstances. A people’s religion completes and consecrates +their whole activity: in it the people rises above its finite life +in limited spheres to an infinite life where it feels itself all at one. +Even philosophy with Hegel at this epoch was subordinate to +religion; for philosophy must never abandon the finite in the +search for the infinite. Soon, however, Hegel adopted a view +according to which philosophy is a higher mode of apprehending +the infinite than even religion.</p> + +<p>At Frankfort, meanwhile, the philosophic ideas of Hegel +first assumed the proper philosophic form. In a MS. of 102 +quarto sheets, of which the first three and the seventh are +wanting, there is preserved the original sketch of the Hegelian +system, so far as the logic and metaphysics and part of the +philosophy of nature are concerned. The third part of the +system—the ethical theory—seems to have been composed +afterwards; it is contained in its first draft in another MS. +of 30 sheets. Even these had been preceded by earlier Pythagorean +constructions envisaging the divine life in divine triangles.</p> + +<p>Circumstances soon put Hegel in the way to complete these +outlines. His father died in January 1799; and the slender +sum which Hegel received as his inheritance, 3154 gulden (about +£260), enabled him to think once more of a studious life. At +the close of 1800 we find him asking Schelling for letters of +introduction to Bamberg, where with cheap living and good beer +he hoped to prepare himself for the intellectual excitement +of Jena. The upshot was that Hegel arrived at Jena in January +1801. An end had already come to the brilliant epoch at Jena, +when the romantic poets, Tieck, Novalis and the Schlegels +made it the headquarters of their fantastic mysticism, and Fichte +turned the results of Kant into the banner of revolutionary +ideas. Schelling was the main philosophical lion of the time; +and in some quarters Hegel was spoken of as a new champion +summoned to help him in his struggle with the more prosaic +continuators of Kant. Hegel’s first performance seemed to +justify the rumour. It was an essay on the difference between +the philosophic systems of Fichte and Schelling, tending in the +main to support the latter. Still more striking was the agreement +shown in the <i>Critical Journal of Philosophy</i>, which Schelling +and Hegel wrote conjointly during the years 1802-1803. So +latent was the difference between them at this epoch that in +one or two cases it is not possible to determine by whom the +essay was written. Even at a later period foreign critics like +Cousin saw much that was alike in the two doctrines, and did not +hesitate to regard Hegel as a disciple of Schelling. The dissertation +by which Hegel qualified for the position of <i>Privatdozent</i> +(<i>De orbitis planetarum</i>) was probably chosen under the influence +of Schelling’s philosophy of nature. It was an unfortunate +subject. For while Hegel, depending on a numerical proportion +suggested by Plato, hinted in a single sentence that it might be +a mistake to look for a planet between Mars and Jupiter, Giuseppe +Piazzi (<i>q.v.</i>) had already discovered the first of the asteroids +(Ceres) on the 1st of January 1801. Apparently in August, when +Hegel qualified, the news of the discovery had not yet reached +him, but critics have made this luckless suggestion the ground +of attack on a priori philosophy.</p> + +<p>Hegel’s lectures, in the winter of 1801-1802, on logic and +metaphysics were attended by about eleven students. Later, +in 1804, we find him with a class of about thirty, lecturing on +his whole system; but his average attendance was rather less. +Besides philosophy, he once at least lectured on mathematics. +As he taught, he was led to modify his original system, and notice +after notice of his lectures promised a text-book of philosophy—which, +however, failed to appear. Meanwhile, after the departure +of Schelling from Jena in the middle of 1803, Hegel was left +to work out his own views. Besides philosophical studies, +where he now added Aristotle to Plato, he read Homer and the +Greek tragedians, made extracts from books, attended lectures +on physiology, and dabbled in other sciences. On his own +representation at Weimar, he was in February 1805 made a +professor extraordinarius, and in July 1806 drew his first and +only stipend—100 thalers. At Jena, though some of his hearers +became attached to him, Hegel was not a popular lecturer any +more than K. C. F. Krause (<i>q.v.</i>). The ordinary student found +J. F. Fries (<i>q.v.</i>) more intelligible.</p> + +<p>Of the lectures of that period there still remain considerable +notes. The language often had a theological tinge (never +entirely absent), as when the “idea” was spoken of, or “the +night of the divine mystery,” or the dialectic of the absolute +called the “course of the divine life.” Still his view was growing +clearer, and his difference from Schelling more palpable. Both +Schelling and Hegel stand in a relation to art, but while the +aesthetic model of Schelling was found in the contemporary +world, where art was a special sphere and the artist a separate +profession in no intimate connexion with the age and nation, +the model of Hegel was found rather in those works of national +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span> +art in which art is not a part but an aspect of the common life, +and the artist is not a mere individual but a concentration of the +passion and power of beauty in the whole community. “Such +art,” says Hegel, “is the common good and the work of all. +Each generation hands it on beautified to the next; each has +done something to give utterance to the universal thought. +Those who are said to have genius have acquired some special +aptitude by which they render the general shapes of the nation +their own work, one in one point, another in another. What +they produce is not their invention, but the invention of the whole +nation; or rather, what they find is that the whole nation has +found its true nature. Each, as it were, piles up his stone. +So too does the artist. Somehow he has the good fortune to +come last, and when he places his stone the arch stands self-supported.” +Hegel, as we have already seen, was fully aware +of the change that was coming over the world. “A new epoch,” +he says, “has arisen. It seems as if the world-spirit had now +succeeded in freeing itself from all foreign objective existence, +and finally apprehending itself as absolute mind.” These words +come from lectures on the history of philosophy, which laid +the foundation for his <i>Phänomenologie des Geistes</i> (Bamberg, +1807).</p> + +<p>On the 14th of October 1806 Napoleon was at Jena. Hegel, +like Goethe, felt no patriotic shudder at the national disaster, +and in Prussia he saw only a corrupt and conceited bureaucracy. +Writing to his friend F. J. Niethammer (1766-1848) on the day +before the battle, he speaks with admiration of the “world-soul,” +the emperor, and with satisfaction of the probable overthrow +of the Prussians. The scholar’s wish was to see the clouds of +war pass away, and leave thinkers to their peaceful work. His +manuscripts were his main care; and doubtful of the safety +of his last despatch to Bamberg, and disturbed by the French +soldiers in his lodgings, he hurried off, with the last pages of the +<i>Phänomenologie</i>, to take refuge in the pro-rector’s house. Hegel’s +fortunes were now at the lowest ebb. Without means, and +obliged to borrow from Niethammer, he had no further hopes +from the impoverished university. He had already tried to get +away from Jena. In 1805, when several lecturers left in consequence +of diminished classes, he had written to Johann Heinrich +Voss (<i>q.v.</i>), suggesting that his philosophy might find more +congenial soil in Heidelberg; but the application bore no fruit. +He was, therefore, glad to become editor of the <i>Bamberger +Zeitung</i> (1807-1808). Of his editorial work there is little to tell; +no leading articles appeared in his columns. It was not a +suitable vocation, and he gladly accepted the rectorship of the +Aegidien-gymnasium in Nuremberg, a post which he held from +December 1808 to August 1816. Bavaria at this time was +modernizing her institutions. The school system was reorganized +by new regulations, in accordance with which Hegel wrote a +series of lessons in the outlines of philosophy—ethical, logical +and psychological. They were published in 1840 by Rosenkranz +from Hegel’s papers.</p> + +<p>As a teacher and master Hegel inspired confidence in his +pupils, and maintained discipline without pedantic interference +in their associations and sports. On prize-days his addresses +summing up the history of the school year discussed some topic +of general interest. Five of these addresses are preserved. +The first is an exposition of the advantages of a classical training, +when it is not confined to mere grammar. “The perfection +and grandeur of the master-works of Greek and Roman literature +must be the intellectual bath, the secular baptism, which gives +the first and unfading tone and tincture of taste and science.” +In another address, speaking of the introduction of military +exercises at school, he says: “These exercises, while not intended +to withdraw the students from their more immediate +duty, so far as they have any calling to it, still remind them of +the possibility that every one, whatever rank in society he may +belong to, may one day have to defend his country and his king, +or help to that end. This duty, which is natural to all, was +formerly recognized by every citizen, though whole ranks in +the state have become strangers to the very idea of it.”</p> + +<p>On the 16th of September 1811 Hegel married Marie von +Tucher (twenty-two years his junior) of Nuremberg. She +brought her husband no fortune, but the marriage was entirely +happy. The husband kept a careful record of income and +expenditure. His income amounted at Nuremberg to 1500 +gulden (£130) and a house; at Heidelberg, as professor, he +received about the same sum; at Berlin about 3000 thalers +(£300). Two sons were born to them; the elder, Karl, became +eminent as a historian. The younger, Immanuel, was born on +the 24th of September 1816. Hegel’s letters to his wife, written +during his solitary holiday tours to Vienna, the Netherlands +and Paris, breathe of kindly and happy affection. Hegel the +tourist—recalling happy days spent together; confessing that, +were it not because of his sense of duty as a traveller, he would +rather be at home, dividing his time between his books and his +wife; commenting on the shop windows at Vienna; describing +the straw hats of the Parisian ladies—is a contrast to the professor +of a profound philosophical system. But it shows that the +enthusiasm which in his days of courtship moved him to verse +had blossomed into a later age of domestic bliss.</p> + +<p>In 1812 appeared the first two volumes of his <i>Wissenschaft +der Logik</i>, and the work was completed by a third in 1816. This +work, in which his system was for the first time presented in +what, with a few minor alterations, was its ultimate shape, +found some audience in the world. Towards the close of his +eighth session three professorships were almost simultaneously +put within his reach—at Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg. +The Prussian offer expressed a doubt that his long absence from +university teaching might have made him rusty, so he accepted +the post at Heidelberg, whence Fries had just gone to Jena +(October 1816). Only four hearers turned up for one of his +courses. Others, however, on the encyclopaedia of philosophy +and the history of philosophy drew classes of twenty to thirty. +While he was there Cousin first made his acquaintance, but a +more intimate relation dates from Berlin. Among his pupils +was Hermann F. W. Hinrichs (<i>q.v.</i>), to whose <i>Religion in its +Inward Relation to Science</i> (1822) Hegel contributed an important +preface. The strangest of his hearers was an Esthonian baron, +Boris d’Yrkull, who after serving in the Russian army came to +Heidelberg to hear the wisdom of Hegel. But his books and +his lectures were alike obscure to the baron, who betook himself +by Hegel’s advice to simpler studies before he returned to the +Hegelian system.</p> + +<p>At Heidelberg Hegel was active in a literary way also. In +1817 he brought out the <i>Enzyklopädie d. philos. Wissenschaften +im Grundrisse</i> (4th ed., Berlin, 1817; new ed., 1870) for use at +his lectures. It is the only exposition of the Hegelian system +as a whole which we have direct from Hegel’s own hand. +Besides this work he wrote two reviews for the Heidelberg +<i>Jahrbücher</i>—the first on F. H. Jacobi, the other a political +pamphlet which called forth violent criticism. It was entitled +a <i>Criticism on the Transactions of the Estates of Württemberg in +1815-1816</i>. On the 15th of March 1815 King Frederick of +Württemberg, at a meeting of the estates of his kingdom, laid +before them the draft of a new constitution, in accordance with +the resolutions of the congress of Vienna. Though an improvement +on the old constitution, it was unacceptable to the estates, +jealous of their old privileges and suspicious of the king’s +intentions. A decided majority demanded the restitution of +their old laws, though the kingdom now included a large population +to which the old rights were strange. Hegel in his essay, +which was republished at Stuttgart, supported the royal proposals, +and animadverted on the backwardness of the bureaucracy +and the landed interests. In the main he was right; but he +forgot too much the provocation they had received, the usurpations +and selfishness of the governing family, and the unpatriotic +character of the king.</p> + +<p>In 1818 Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of +philosophy at Berlin, vacant since the death of Fichte. The +hopes which this offer raised of a position less precarious than +that of a university teacher of philosophy were in one sense +disappointed; for more than a professor Hegel never became. +But his influence upon his pupils, and his solidarity with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span> +Prussian government, gave him a position such as few professors +have held.</p> + +<p>In 1821 Hegel published the <i>Grundlinien der Philosophie des +Rechts</i> (2nd ed., 1840; ed. G. J. B. Bolland, 1901; Eng. trans., +<i>Philosophy of Right</i>, by S. W. Dyde, 1896). It is a combined +system of moral and political philosophy, or a sociology dominated +by the idea of the state. It turns away contemptuously and +fiercely from the sentimental aspirations of reformers possessed +by the democratic doctrine of the rights of the omnipotent +nation. Fries is stigmatized as one of the “ringleaders of +shallowness” who were bent on substituting a fancied tie of +enthusiasm and friendship for the established order of the state. +The disciplined philosopher, who had devoted himself to the +task of comprehending the organism of the state, had no patience +with feebler or more mercurial minds who recklessly laid hands +on established ordinances, and set them aside where they contravened +humanitarian sentiments. With the principle that +whatever is real is rational, and whatever is rational is real, +Hegel fancied that he had stopped the mouths of political +critics and constitution-mongers. His theory was not a mere +formulation of the Prussian state. Much that he construed as +necessary to a state was wanting in Prussia; and some of the +reforms already introduced did not find their place in his system. +Yet, on the whole, he had taken his side with the government. +Altenstein even expressed his satisfaction with the book. In +his disgust at the crude conceptions of the enthusiasts, who had +hoped that the war of liberation might end in a realm of internal +liberty, Hegel had forgotten his own youthful vows recorded in +verse to Hölderlin, “never, never to live in peace with the +ordinance which regulates feeling and opinion.” And yet if +we look deeper we see that this is no worship of existing powers. +It is rather due to an overpowering sense of the value of organization—a +sense that liberty can never be dissevered from order, +that a vital interconnexion between all the parts of the body +politic is the source of all good, so that while he can find nothing +but brute weight in an organized public, he can compare the +royal person in his ideal form of constitutional monarchy to the +dot upon the letter <i>i</i>. A keen sense of how much is at stake +in any alteration breeds suspicion of every reform.</p> + +<p>During his thirteen years at Berlin Hegel’s whole soul seems +to have been in his lectures. Between 1823 and 1827 his activity +reached its maximum. His notes were subjected to perpetual +revisions and additions. We can form an idea of them from the +shape in which they appear in his published writings. Those on +<i>Aesthetics</i>, on the <i>Philosophy of Religion</i>, on the <i>Philosophy of +History</i> and on the <i>History of Philosophy</i>, have been published +by his editors, mainly from the notes of his students, under +their separate heads; while those on logic, psychology and the +philosophy of nature are appended in the form of illustrative +and explanatory notes to the sections of his <i>Encyklopädie</i>. +During these years hundreds of hearers from all parts of Germany, +and beyond, came under his influence. His fame was carried +abroad by eager or intelligent disciples. At Berlin Henning +served to prepare the intending disciple for fuller initiation by +the master himself. Edward Gans (<i>q.v.</i>) and Heinrich Gustav +Hotho (<i>q.v.</i>) carried the method into special spheres of inquiry. +At Halle Hinrichs maintained the standard of Hegelianism amid +the opposition or indifference of his colleagues.</p> + +<p>Three courses of lectures are especially the product of his +Berlin period: those on aesthetics, the philosophy of religion +and the philosophy of history. In the years preceding the +revolution of 1830, public interest, excluded from political life, +turned to theatres, concert-rooms and picture-galleries. At +these Hegel became a frequent and appreciative visitor and +made extracts from the art-notes in the newspapers. In his +holiday excursions, the interest in the fine arts more than once +took him out of his way to see some old painting. At Vienna +in 1824 he spent every moment at the Italian opera, the ballet +and the picture-galleries. In Paris, in 1827, he saw Charles +Kemble and an English company play Shakespeare. This +familiarity with the facts of art, though neither deep nor historical, +gave a freshness to his lectures on aesthetics, which, as +put together from the notes of 1820, 1823, 1826, are in many +ways the most successful of his efforts.</p> + +<p>The lectures on the philosophy of religion are another application +of his method. Shortly before his death he had prepared +for the press a course of lectures on the proofs for the existence +of God. In his lectures on religion he dealt with Christianity, +as in his philosophy of morals he had regarded the state. On +the one hand he turned his weapons against the rationalistic +school, who reduced religion to the modicum compatible with +an ordinary worldly mind. On the other hand he criticized the +school of Schleiermacher, who elevated feeling to a place in +religion above systematic theology. His middle way attempts +to show that the dogmatic creed is the rational development +of what was implicit in religious feeling. To do so, of course, +philosophy becomes the interpreter and the superior. To the +new school of E. W. Hengstenberg, which regarded Revelation +itself as supreme, such interpretation was an abomination.</p> + +<p>A Hegelian school began to gather. The flock included +intelligent pupils, empty-headed imitators, and romantic natures +who turned philosophy into lyric measures. Opposition and +criticism only served to define more precisely the adherents of +the new doctrine. Hegel himself grew more and more into a +belief in his own doctrine as the one truth for the world. He was +in harmony with the government, and his followers were on the +winning side. Though he had soon resigned all direct official +connexion with the schools of Brandenburg, his real influence in +Prussia was considerable, and as usual was largely exaggerated +in popular estimate. In the narrower circle of his friends his +birthdays were the signal for congratulatory verses. In 1826 a +formal festival was got up by some of his admirers, one of whom, +Herder, spoke of his categories as new gods; and he was presented +with much poetry and a silver mug. In 1830 the students +struck a medal in his honour, and in 1831 he was decorated by +an order from Frederick William III. In 1830 he was rector +of the university; and in his speech at the tricentenary of the +Augsburg Confession in that year he charged the Catholic +Church with regarding the virtues of the pagan world as brilliant +vices, and giving the crown of perfection to poverty, continence +and obedience.</p> + +<p>One of the last literary undertakings in which he took part +was the establishment of the Berlin <i>Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche +Kritik</i>, in which he assisted Edward Gans and Varnhagen +von Ense. The aim of this review was to give a critical account, +certified by the names of the contributors, of the literary and +philosophical productions of the time, in relation to the general +progress of knowledge. The journal was not solely in the +Hegelian interest; and more than once, when Hegel attempted +to domineer over the other editors, he was met by vehement +and vigorous opposition.</p> + +<p>The revolution of 1830 was a great blow to him, and the +prospect of democratic advances almost made him ill. His last +literary work, the first part of which appeared in the <i>Preussische +Staatszeitung</i>, was an essay on the English Reform Bill of 1831. +It contains primarily a consideration of its probable effects on +the character of the new members of parliament, and the measures +which they may introduce. In the latter connexion he enlarged +on several points in which England had done less than many +continental states for the abolition of monopolies and abuses. +Surveying the questions connected with landed property, with +the game laws, the poor, the Established Church, especially in +Ireland, he expressed grave doubt on the legislative capacity +of the English parliament as compared with the power of renovation +manifested in other states of western Europe.</p> + +<p>In 1831 cholera first entered Europe. Hegel and his family +retired for the summer to the suburbs, and there he finished the +revision of the first part of his <i>Science of Logic</i>. On the beginning +of the winter session, however, he returned to his house in the +Kupfergraben. On this occasion an altercation occurred between +him and his friend Gans, who in his notice of lectures on jurisprudence +had recommended Hegel’s <i>Philosophy of Right</i>. Hegel, +indignant at what he deemed patronage, demanded that the note +should be withdrawn. On the 14th of November, after one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span> +day’s illness, he died of cholera and was buried, as he had wished, +between Fichte and Solger.</p> + +<p>Hegel in his class-room was neither imposing nor fascinating. +You saw a plain, old-fashioned face, without life or lustre—a +figure which had never looked young, and was now prematurely +aged; the furrowed face bore witness to concentrated thought. +Sitting with his snuff-box before him, and his head bent down, +he looked ill at ease, and kept turning the folios of his notes. +His utterance was interrupted by frequent coughing; every +sentence came out with a struggle. The style was no less irregular. +Sometimes in plain narrative the lecturer would be +specially awkward, while in abstruse passages he seemed specially +at home, rose into a natural eloquence, and carried away the +hearer by the grandeur of his diction.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Philosophy.</i>—Hegelianism is confessedly one of the most difficult of +all philosophies. Every one has heard the legend which makes Hegel +say, “One man has understood me, and even he has not.” He +abruptly hurls us into a world where old habits of thought fail us. +In three places, indeed, he has attempted to exhibit the transition to +his own system from other levels of thought; but in none with +much success. In the introductory lectures on the philosophy of +religion he gives a rationale of the difference between the modes of +consciousness in religion and philosophy (between <i>Vorstellung</i> and +<i>Begriff</i>). In the beginning of the <i>Encyklopädie</i> he discusses the +defects of dogmatism, empiricism, the philosophies of Kant and +Jacobi. In the first case he treats the formal or psychological +aspect of the difference; in the latter he presents his doctrine less +in its essential character than in special relations to the prominent +systems of his time. The <i>Phenomenology of Spirit</i>, regarded as an +introduction, suffers from a different fault. It is not an introduction—for +the philosophy which it was to introduce was not then fully +elaborated. Even to the last Hegel had not so externalized his +system as to treat it as something to be led up to by gradual steps. +His philosophy was not one aspect of his intellectual life, to be contemplated +from others; it was the ripe fruit of concentrated reflection, +and had become the one all-embracing form and principle of +his thinking. More than most thinkers he had quietly laid himself +open to the influences of his time and the lessons of history.</p> + +<p>The <i>Phenomenology</i> is the picture of the Hegelian philosophy in +the making—at the stage before the scaffolding has been removed +from the building. For this reason the book is at once the +most brilliant and the most difficult of Hegel’s works—the +<span class="sidenote">The Phenomenology.</span> +most brilliant because it is to some degree an autobiography +of Hegel’s mind—not the abstract record of a logical +evolution, but the real history of an intellectual growth; the most +difficult because, instead of treating the rise of intelligence (from its +first appearance in contrast with the real world to its final recognition +of its presence in, and rule over, all things) as a purely subjective +process, it exhibits this rise as wrought out in historical epochs, +national characteristics, forms of culture and faith, and philosophical +systems. The theme is identical with the introduction to the +<i>Encyklopädie</i>; but it is treated in a very different style. From all +periods of the world—from medieval piety and stoical pride, Kant +and Sophocles, science and art, religion and philosophy—with disdain +of mere chronology, Hegel gathers in the vineyards of the human spirit +the grapes from which he crushes the wine of thought. The mind +coming through a thousand phases of mistake and disappointment to +a sense and realization of its true position in the universe—such is the +drama which is consciously Hegel’s own history, but is represented +objectively as the process of spiritual history which the philosopher +reproduces in himself. The <i>Phenomenology</i> stands to the <i>Encyklopädie</i> +somewhat as the dialogues of Plato stand to the Aristotelian +treatises. It contains almost all his philosophy—but irregularly and +without due proportion. The personal element gives an undue +prominence to recent phenomena of the philosophic atmosphere. +It is the account given by an inventor of his own discovery, not +the explanation of an outsider. It therefore to some extent assumes +from the first the position which it proposes ultimately to reach, +and gives not a proof of that position, but an account of the experience +(<i>Erfahrung</i>) by which consciousness is forced from one +position to another till it finds rest in <i>Absolutes Wissen</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>Phenomenology</i> is neither mere psychology, nor logic, nor +moral philosophy, nor history, but is all of these and a great deal +more. It needs not distillation, but expansion and illustration +from contemporary and antecedent thought and literature. It +treats of the attitudes of consciousness towards reality under the +six heads of consciousness, self-consciousness, reason (<i>Vernunft</i>), +spirit (<i>Geist</i>), religion and absolute knowledge. The native attitude +of consciousness towards existence is reliance on the evidence of +the senses; but a little reflection is sufficient to show that the +reality attributed to the external world is as much due to intellectual +conceptions as to the senses, and that these conceptions elude us +when we try to fix them. If consciousness cannot detect a permanent +object outside it, so self-consciousness cannot find a permanent +subject in itself. It may, like the Stoic, assert freedom by holding +aloof from the entanglements of real life, or like the sceptic regard +the world as a delusion, or finally, as the “unhappy consciousness” +(<i>Unglückliches Bewusstseyn</i>), may be a recurrent falling short of a +perfection which it has placed above it in the heavens. But in this +isolation from the world, self-consciousness has closed its gates +against the stream of life. The perception of this is reason. Reason +convinced that the world and the soul are alike rational observes the +external world, mental phenomena, and specially the nervous +organism, as the meeting ground of body and mind. But reason +finds much in the world recognizing no kindred with her, and so +turning to practical activity seeks in the world the realization of +her own aims. Either in a crude way she pursues her own pleasure, +and finds that necessity counteracts her cravings; or she endeavours +to find the world in harmony with the heart, and yet is unwilling +to see fine aspirations crystallized by the act of realizing them. +Finally, unable to impose upon the world either selfish or humanitarian +ends, she folds her arms in pharisaic virtue, with the hope +that some hidden power will give the victory to righteousness. +But the world goes on in its life, heedless of the demands of virtue. +The principle of nature is to live and let live. Reason abandons +her efforts to mould the world, and is content to let the aims of +individuals work out their results independently, only stepping in +to lay down precepts for the cases where individual actions conflict, +and to test these precepts by the rules of formal logic.</p> + +<p>So far we have seen consciousness on one hand and the real world +on the other. The stage of <i>Geist</i> reveals the consciousness no +longer as critical and antagonistic but as the indwelling spirit of a +community, as no longer isolated from its surroundings but the +union of the single and real consciousness with the vital feeling that +animates the community. This is the lowest stage of concrete +consciousness—life, and not knowledge; the spirit inspires, but does +not reflect. It is the age of unconscious morality, when the individual’s +life is lost in the society of which he is an organic member. +But increasing culture presents new ideals, and the mind, absorbing +the ethical spirit of its environment, gradually emancipates itself +from conventions and superstitions. This <i>Aufklärung</i> prepares +the way for the rule of conscience, for the moral view of the world +as subject of a moral law. From the moral world the next step +is religion; the moral law gives place to God; but the idea of Godhead, +too, as it first appears, is imperfect, and has to pass through +the forms of nature-worship and of art before it reaches a full +utterance in Christianity. Religion in this shape is the nearest step +to the stage of absolute knowledge; and this absolute knowledge—“the +spirit knowing itself as spirit”—is not something which +leaves these other forms behind but the full comprehension of them +as the organic constituents of its empire; “they are the memory and +the sepulchre of its history, and at the same time the actuality, truth +and certainty of its throne.” Here, according to Hegel, is the field +of philosophy.</p> + +<p>The preface to the <i>Phenomenology</i> signalled the separation from +Schelling—the adieu to romantic. It declared that a genuine +philosophy has no kindred with the mere aspirations of artistic +minds, but must earn its bread by the sweat of its brow. It sets +its face against the idealism which either thundered against the +world for its deficiencies, or sought something finer than reality. +Philosophy is to be the science of the actual world—it is the spirit +comprehending itself in its own externalizations and manifestations. +The philosophy of Hegel is idealism, but it is an idealism in which +every idealistic unification has its other face in the multiplicity of +existence. It is realism as well as idealism, and never quits its hold +on facts. Compared with Fichte and Schelling, Hegel has a sober, +hard, realistic character. At a later date, with the call of Schelling +to Berlin in 1841, it became fashionable to speak of Hegelianism as a +negative philosophy requiring to be complemented by a “positive” +philosophy which would give reality and not mere ideas. The cry +was the same as that of Krug (<i>q.v.</i>), asking the philosophers who +expounded the absolute to construe his pen. It was the cry of the +Evangelical school for a personal Christ and not a dialectical Logos. +The claims of the individual, the real, material and historical fact, +it was said, had been sacrificed by Hegel to the universal, the ideal, +the spiritual and the logical.</p> + +<p>There was a truth in these criticisms. It was the very aim of +Hegelianism to render fluid the fixed phases of reality—to show +existence not to be an immovable rock limiting the efforts of thought, +but to have thought implicit in it, waiting for release from its +petrifaction. Nature was no longer, as with Fichte, to be a mere +spring-board to evoke the latent powers of the spirit. Nor was it, +as in Schelling’s earlier system, to be a collateral progeny with +mind from the same womb of indifference and identity. Nature and +mind in the Hegelian system—the external and the spiritual world—have +the same origin, but are not co-equal branches. The natural +world proceeds from the “idea,” the spiritual from the idea and +nature. It is impossible, beginning with the natural world, to +explain the mind by any process of distillation or development, +unless consciousness or its potentiality has been there from the +first. Reality, independent of the individual consciousness, there +must be; reality, independent of all mind, is an impossibility. At +the basis of all reality, whether material or mental, there is thought. +But the thought thus regarded as the basis of all existence is not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span> +consciousness with its distinction of ego and non-ego. It is rather +the stuff of which both mind and nature are made, neither extended +as in the natural world, nor self-centred as in mind. Thought in its +primary form is, as it were, thoroughly transparent and absolutely +fluid, free and mutually interpenetrable in every part—the spirit in +its seraphic scientific life, before creation had produced a natural +world, and thought had risen to independent existence in the social +organism. Thought in this primary form, when in all its parts +completed, is what Hegel calls the “idea.” But the idea, though +fundamental, is in another sense final, in the process of the world. +It only appears in consciousness as the crowning development of +the mind. Only with philosophy does thought become fully conscious +of itself in its origin and development. Accordingly the +history of philosophy is the pre-supposition of logic, or the three +branches of philosophy form a circle.</p> + +<p>The exposition or constitution of the “idea” is the work of the +Logic. As the total system falls into three parts, so every part of +the system follows the triadic law. Every truth, every +reality, has three aspects or stages; it is the unification of +<span class="sidenote">Logic.</span> +two contradictory elements, of two partial aspects of truth which are +not merely contrary, like black and white, but contradictory, like +same and different. The first step is a preliminary affirmation and +unification, the second a negation and differentiation, the third a final +synthesis. For example, the seed of the plant is an initial unity of +life, which when placed in its proper soil suffers disintegration into its +constitutents, and yet in virtue of its vital unity keeps these divergent +elements together, and reappears as the plant with its members in +organic union. Or again, the process of scientific induction is a +threefold chain; the original hypothesis (the first unification of the +fact) seems to melt away when confronted with opposite facts, and +yet no scientific progress is possible unless the stimulus of the +original unification is strong enough to clasp the discordant facts +and establish a reunification. Thesis, antithesis and synthesis, a +Fichtean formula, is generalized by Hegel into the perpetual law of +thought.</p> + +<p>In what we may call their psychological aspect these three stages +are known as the abstract stage, or that of understanding (<i>Verstand</i>), +the dialectical stage, or that of negative reason, and the speculative +stage, or that of positive reason (<i>Vernunft</i>). The first of these +attitudes taken alone is dogmatism; the second, when similarly +isolated, is scepticism; the third, when unexplained by its elements, +is mysticism. Thus Hegelianism reduces dogmatism, scepticism +and mysticism to factors in philosophy. The abstract or dogmatic +thinker believes his object to be one, simple and stationary, and +intelligible apart from its surrounding. He speaks, <i>e.g.</i>, as if species +and genera were fixed and unchangeable; and fixing his eye on +the ideal forms in their purity and self-sameness, he scorns the +phenomenal world, whence this identity and persistence are absent. +The dialectic of negative reason rudely dispels these theories. +Appealing to reality it shows that the identity and permanence of +forms are contradicted by history; instead of unity it exhibits +multiplicity, instead of identity difference, instead of a whole, only +parts. Dialectic is, therefore, a dislocating power; it shakes the +solid structures of material thought, and exhibits the instability +latent in such conceptions of the world. It is the spirit of progress +and change, the enemy of convention and conservatism; it is +absolute and universal unrest. In the realm of abstract thought +these transitions take place lightly. In the worlds of nature and +mind they are more palpable and violent. So far as this Hegel +seems on the side of revolution. But reason is not negative only; +while it disintegrates the mass or unconscious unity, it builds up a +new unity with higher organization. But this third stage is the place +of effort, requiring neither the surrender of the original unity nor the +ignoring of the diversity afterwards suggested. The stimulus of +contradiction is no doubt a strong one; but the easiest way of escaping +it is to shut our eyes to one side of the antithesis. What is +required, therefore, is to readjust our original thesis in such a way as +to include and give expression to both the elements in the process.</p> + +<p>The universe, then, is a process or development, to the eye of +philosophy. It is the process of the absolute—in religious language, +the manifestation of God. In the background of all the absolute +is eternally present; the rhythmic movement of thought is the +self-unfolding of the absolute. God reveals Himself in the logical +idea, in nature and in mind; but mind is not alike conscious of its +absoluteness in every stage of development. Philosophy alone sees +God revealing Himself in the ideal organism of thought as it were a +possible deity prior to the world and to any relation between God +and actuality; in the natural world, as a series of materialized +forces and forms of life; and in the spiritual world as the human soul, +the legal and moral order of society, and the creations of art, religion +and philosophy.</p> + +<p>This introduction of the absolute became a stumbling-block to +Feuerbach and other members of the “Left.” They rejected as an +illegitimate interpolation the eternal subject of development, and, +instead of one continuing God as the subject of all the predicates +by which in the logic the absolute is defined, assumed only a series +of ideas, products of philosophic activity. They denied the theological +value of the logical forms—the development of these forms +being in their opinion due to the human thinker, not to a self-revealing +absolute. Thus they made man the creator of the absolute. +But with this modification on the system another necessarily +followed; a mere logical series could not create nature. And thus +the material universe became the real starting-point. Thought +became only the result of organic conditions—subjective and human; +and the system of Hegel was no longer an idealization of religion, +but a naturalistic theory with a prominent and peculiar logic.</p> + +<p>The logic of Hegel is the only rival to the logic of Aristotle. What +Aristotle did for the theory of demonstrative reasoning, Hegel +attempted to do for the whole of human knowledge. His logic is +an enumeration of the forms or categories by which our experience +exists. It carried out Kant’s doctrine of the categories as a priori +synthetic principles, but removed the limitation by which Kant +denied them any constitutive value except in alliance with experience. +According to Hegel the terms in which thought exhibits +itself are a system of their own, with laws and relations which +reappear in a less obvious shape in the theories of nature and mind. +Nor are they restricted to the small number which Kant obtained +by manipulating the current subdivision of judgments. But all +forms by which thought holds sensations in unity (the formative or +synthetic elements of language) had their place assigned in a system +where one leads up to and passes over into another.</p> + +<p>The fact which ordinary thought ignores, and of which ordinary +logic therefore provides no account, is the presence of gradation and +continuity in the world. The general terms of language simplify +the universe by reducing its variety of individuals to a few forms, +none of which exists simply and perfectly. The method of the +understanding is to divide and then to give a separate reality to +what it has thus distinguished. It is part of Hegel’s plan to remedy +this one-sided character of thought, by laying bare the gradations +of ideas. He lays special stress on the point that abstract ideas +when held in their abstraction are almost interchangeable with +their opposites—that extremes meet, and that in every true and +concrete idea there is a coincidence of opposites.</p> + +<p>The beginning of the logic is an illustration of this. The logical +idea is treated under the three heads of being (<i>Seyn</i>), essence (<i>Wesen</i>) +and notion (<i>Begriff</i>). The simplest term of thought is being; we +cannot think less about anything than when we merely say that it is. +Being—the abstract “is”—is <i>nothing</i> definite, and nothing at least is. +Being and not being are thus declared identical—a proposition which +in this unqualified shape was to most people a stumbling-block at +the very door of the system. Instead of the mere “is” which is as +yet nothing, we should rather say “becomes,” and as “becomes” +always implies “something,” we have determinate being—“a +being” which in the next stage of definiteness becomes “one.” And +in this way we pass on to the quantitative aspects of being.</p> + +<p>The terms treated under the first head, in addition to those already +mentioned, are the abstract principles of quantity and number, and +their application in measure to determine the limits of being. Under +the title of essence are discussed those pairs of correlative terms which +are habitually employed in the explanation of the world—such as +law and phenomenon, cause and effect, reason and consequence, +substance and attribute. Under the head of notion are considered, +firstly, the subjective forms of conception, judgment and syllogism; +secondly, their realization in objects as mechanically, chemically +or teleologically constituted; and thirdly, the idea first of life, and +next of science, as the complete interpenetration of thought and +objectivity. The third part of logic evidently is what contains the +topics usually treated in logic-books, though even here the province +of logic in the ordinary sense is exceeded. The first two divisions—the +“objective logic”—are what is usually called metaphysics.</p> + +<p>The characteristic of the system is the gradual way in which idea is +linked to idea so as to make the division into chapters only an arrangement +of convenience. The judgment is completed in the syllogism; +the syllogistic form as the perfection of subjective thought passes into +objectivity, where it first appears embodied in a mechanical system; +and the teleological object, in which the members are as means and +end, leads up to the idea of life, where the end is means and means +end indissolubly till death. In some cases these transitions may +be unsatisfactory and forced; it is apparent that the linear development +from “being” to the “idea” is got by transforming into a +logical order the sequence that has roughly prevailed in philosophy +from the Eleatics; cases might be quoted where the reasoning seems +a play upon words; and it may often be doubted whether certain +ideas do not involve extra-logical considerations. The order of the +categories is in the main outlines fixed; but in the minor details +much depends upon the philosopher, who has to fill in the gaps +between ideas, with little guidance from the data of experience, and +to assign to the stages of development names which occasionally +deal hardly with language. The merit of Hegel is to have indicated +and to a large extent displayed the filiation and mutual limitation +of our forms of thought; to have arranged them in the order of +their comparative capacity to give a satisfactory expression to truth +in the totality of its relations; and to have broken down the partition +which in Kant separated the formal logic from the transcendental +analytic, as well as the general disruption between logic and metaphysic. +It must at the same time be admitted that much of the +work of weaving the terms of thought, the categories, into a system +has a hypothetical and tentative character, and that Hegel has +rather pointed out the path which logic must follow, viz. a criticism +of the terms of scientific and ordinary thought in their filiation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span> +and interdependence, than himself in every case kept to the right +way. The day for a fuller investigation of this problem will partly +depend upon the progress of the study of language in the direction +marked out by W. von Humboldt.</p> + +<p>The Philosophy of Nature starts with the result of the logical +development, with the full scientific “idea.” But the relations of +pure thought, losing their inwardness, appear as relations +of space and time; the abstract development of thought +<span class="sidenote">Philosophy of nature.</span> +appears as matter and movement. Instead of thought, we +have perception; instead of dialectic, gravitation; instead +of causation, sequence in time. The whole falls under the three +heads of mechanics, physics and “organic”—the content under each +varying somewhat in the three editions of the <i>Encyklopädie</i>. The +first treats of space, time, matter, movement; and in the solar system +we have the representation of the idea in its general and abstract +material form. Under the head of physics we have the theory of +the elements, of sound, heat and cohesion, and finally of chemical +affinity—presenting the phenomena of material change and interchange +in a series of special forces which generate the variety of the +life of nature. Lastly, under the head of “organic,” come geology, +botany and animal physiology—presenting the concrete results of +these processes in the three kingdoms of nature.</p> + +<p>The charges of superficial analogies, so freely urged against the +“Natur-philosophie” by critics who forget the impulse it gave to +physical research by the identification of forces then believed to be +radically distinct, do not particularly affect Hegel. But in general +it may be said that he looked down upon the mere natural world. +The meanest of the fancies of the mind and the most casual of its +whims he regarded as a better warrant for the being of God than +any single object of nature. Those who supposed astronomy to +inspire religious awe were horrified to hear the stars compared to +eruptive spots on the face of the sky. Even in the animal world, +the highest stage of nature, he saw a failure to reach an independent +and rational system of organization; and its feelings under the +continuous violence and menaces of the environment he described +as insecure, anxious and unhappy.</p> + +<p>His point of view was essentially opposed to the current views of +science. To metamorphosis he only allowed a logical value, as +explaining the natural classification; the only real, existent metamorphosis +he saw in the development of the individual from its +embryonic stage. Still more distinctly did he contravene the general +tendency of scientific explanation. “It is held the triumph of +science to recognize in the general process of the earth the same +categories as are exhibited in the processes of isolated bodies. This +is, however, an application of categories from a field where the +conditions are finite to a sphere in which the circumstances are +infinite.” In astronomy he depreciates the merits of Newton and +elevates Kepler, accusing Newton particularly, à propos of the +distinction of centrifugal and centripetal forces, of leading to a +confusion between what is mathematically to be distinguished and +what is physically separate. The principles which explain the fall of +an apple will not do for the planets. As to colour, he follows Goethe, +and uses strong language against Newton’s theory, for the barbarism +of the conception that light is a compound, the incorrectness of his +observations, &c. In chemistry, again, he objects to the way in +which all the chemical elements are treated as on the same level.</p> + +<p>The third part of the system is the Philosophy of Mind. Its +three divisions are the “subjective mind” (psychology), the “objective +mind” (philosophic jurisprudence, moral and +political philosophy) and the “absolute mind” (the +<span class="sidenote">Philosophy of mind. 1. Psychology.</span> +philosophy of art, religion and philosophy). The subjects +of the second and third divisions have been treated by +Hegel with great detail. The “objective mind” is the +topic of the <i>Rechts-Philosophie</i>, and of the lectures on the +Philosophy of History; while on the “absolute mind” we have +the lectures on Aesthetic, on the Philosophy of Religion and on the +History of Philosophy—in short, more than one-third of his works.</p> + +<p>The purely psychological branch of the subject takes up half of +the space allotted to <i>Geist</i> in the <i>Encyklopädie</i>. It falls under +the three heads of anthropology, phenomenology and psychology +proper. Anthropology treats of the mind in union with the body—of +the natural soul—and discusses the relations of the soul with +the planets, the races of mankind, the differences of age, dreams, +animal magnetism, insanity and phrenology. In this obscure region +it is rich in suggestions and rapprochements; but the ingenuity of +these speculations attracts curiosity more than it satisfies scientific +inquiry. In the Phenomenology consciousness, self-consciousness +and reason are dealt with. The title of the section and the contents +recall, though with some important variations, the earlier half of his +first work; only that here the historical background on which the +stages in the development of the ego were represented has disappeared. +Psychology, in the stricter sense, deals with the various +forms of theoretical and practical intellect, such as attention, memory, +desire and will. In this account of the development of an independent, +active and intelligent being from the stage where man like +the Dryad is a portion of the natural life around him, Hegel has +combined what may be termed a physiology and pathology of the +mind—a subject far wider than that of ordinary psychologies, and +one of vast intrinsic importance. It is, of course, easy to set aside +these questions as unanswerable, and to find artificiality in the +arrangement. Still it remains a great point to have even attempted +some system in the dark anomalies which lie under the normal +consciousness, and to have traced the genesis of the intellectual +faculties from animal sensitivity.</p> + +<p>The theory of the mind as objectified in the institutions of law, +the family and the state is discussed in the “Philosophy of Right.” +Beginning with the antithesis of a legal system and +morality, Hegel, carrying out the work of Kant, presents +<span class="sidenote">2. Law and history.</span> +the synthesis of these elements in the ethical life (<i>Sittlichkeit</i>) +of the family and the state. Treating the family as +an instinctive realization of the moral life, and not as the result of +contract, he shows how by the means of wider associations due to +private interests the state issues as the full home of the moral spirit, +where intimacy of interdependence is combined with freedom of +independent growth. The state is the consummation of man as +finite; it is the necessary starting-point whence the spirit rises to an +absolute existence in the spheres of art, religion and philosophy. In +the finite world or temporal state, religion, as the finite organization +of a church, is, like other societies, subordinate to the state. But +on another side, as absolute spirit, religion, like art and philosophy, +is not subject to the state, but belongs to a higher region.</p> + +<p>The political state is always an individual, and the relations of +these states with each other and the “world-spirit” of which they +are the manifestations constitute the material of history. The +<i>Lectures on the Philosophy of History</i>, edited by Gans and subsequently +by Karl Hegel, is the most popular of Hegel’s works. The +history of the world is a scene of judgment where one people and +one alone holds for awhile the sceptre, as the unconscious instrument +of the universal spirit, till another rises in its place, with a fuller +measure of liberty—a larger superiority to the bonds of natural +and artificial circumstance. Three main periods—the Oriental, +the Classical and the Germanic—in which respectively the single +despot, the dominant order, and the man as man possess freedom—constitute +the history of the world. Inaccuracy in detail and +artifice in the arrangement of isolated peoples are inevitable in +such a scheme. A graver mistake, according to some critics, is +that Hegel, far from giving a law of progress, seems to suggest that +the history of the world is nearing an end, and has merely reduced +the past to a logical formula. The answer to this charge is partly +that such a law seems unattainable, and partly that the idealistic +content of the present which philosophy extracts is always an +advance upon actual fact, and so does throw a light into the future. +And at any rate the method is greater than Hegel’s employment of it.</p> + +<p>But as with Aristotle so with Hegel—beyond the ethical and +political sphere rises the world of absolute spirit in art, religion and +philosophy. The psychological distinction between the +three forms is that sensuous perception (<i>Anschauung</i>) +<span class="sidenote">3. Art, religion and philosophy.</span> +is the organon of the first, presentative conception +(<i>Vorstellung</i>) of the second and free thought of the third. +The work of art, the first embodiment of absolute mind, +shows a sensuous conformity between the idea and the +reality in which it is expressed. The so-called beauty of nature is +for Hegel an adventitious beauty. The beauty of art is a beauty born +in the spirit of the artist and born again in the spectator; it is not +like the beauty of natural things, an incident of their existence, but +is “essentially a question, an address to a responding breast, a call +to the heart and spirit.” The perfection of art depends on the degree +of intimacy in which idea and form appear worked into each other. +From the different proportion between the idea and the shape in +which it is realized arise three different forms of art. When the idea, +itself indefinite, gets no further than a struggle and endeavour for +its appropriate expression, we have the symbolic, which is the +Oriental, form of art, which seeks to compensate its imperfect expression +by colossal and enigmatic structures. In the second or +classical form of art the idea of humanity finds an adequate sensuous +representation. But this form disappears with the decease of Greek +national life, and on its collapse follows the romantic, the third form +of art; where the harmony of form and content again grows defective, +because the object of Christian art—the infinite spirit—is a +theme too high for art. Corresponding to this division is the classification +of the single arts. First comes architecture—in the main, +symbolic art; then sculpture, the classical art <i>par excellence</i>; they +are found, however, in all three forms. Painting and music are the +specially romantic arts. Lastly, as a union of painting and music +comes poetry, where the sensuous element is more than ever subordinate +to the spirit.</p> + +<p>The lectures on the Philosophy of Art stray largely into the next +sphere and dwell with zest on the close connexion of art and religion; +and the discussion of the decadence and rise of religions, of the +aesthetic qualities of Christian legend, of the age of chivalry, &c., +make the <i>Ästhetik</i> a book of varied interest.</p> + +<p>The lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, though unequal in +their composition and belonging to different dates, serve to exhibit +the vital connexion of the system with Christianity. Religion, like +art, is inferior to philosophy as an exponent of the harmony between +man and the absolute. In it the absolute exists as the poetry and +music of the heart, in the inwardness of feeling. Hegel after expounding +the nature of religion passes on to discuss its historical +phases, but in the immature state of religious science falls into +several mistakes. At the bottom of the scale of nature-worships he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span> +places the religion of sorcery. The gradations which follow are +apportioned with some uncertainty amongst the religions of the +East. With the Persian religion of light and the Egyptian of +enigmas we pass to those faiths where Godhead takes the form of +a spiritual individuality, <i>i.e.</i> to the Hebrew religion (of sublimity), +the Greek (of beauty) and the Roman (of adaptation). Last comes +absolute religion, in which the mystery of the reconciliation between +God and man is an open doctrine. This is Christianity, in which +God is a Trinity, because He is a spirit. The revelation of this +truth is the subject of the Christian Scriptures. For the Son of +God, in the immediate aspect, is the finite world of nature and +man, which far from being at one with its Father is originally in +an attitude of estrangement. The history of Christ is the visible +reconciliation between man and the eternal. With the death of +Christ this union, ceasing to be a mere fact, becomes a vital idea—the +Spirit of God which dwells in the Christian community.</p> + +<p>The lectures on the History of Philosophy deal disproportionately +with the various epochs, and in some parts date from the beginning +of Hegel’s career. In trying to subject history to the order of logic +they sometimes misconceive the filiation of ideas. But they created +the history of philosophy as a scientific study. They showed that +a philosophical theory is not an accident or whim, but an exponent +of its age determined by its antecedents and environments, and +handing on its results to the future.</p> +<div class="author">(W. W.; X.)</div> + +<p><i>Hegelianism in England.</i>—On the continent of Europe the direct +influence of Hegelianism was comparatively short-lived. This was +due among other causes to the direction of attention to the rising +science of psychology, partly to the reaction against the speculative +method. In England and Scotland it had another fate. Both in +theory and practice it here seemed to supply precisely the counter-active +to prevailing tendencies towards empiricism and individualism +that was required. In this respect it stood to philosophy in somewhat +the same relation that the influence of Goethe stood to literature. +This explains the hold which it had obtained upon both +English and Scottish thought soon after the middle of the 19th century. +The first impulse came from J. F. Ferrier and J. H. Stirling +in Edinburgh, and B. Jowett in Oxford. Already in the seventies +there was a powerful school of English thinkers under the lead of +Edward Caird and T. H. Green devoted to the study and exposition +of the Hegelian system. With the general acceptance of its main +principle that the real is the rational, there came in the eighties a +more critical examination of the precise meaning to be attached to +it and its bearing on the problems of religion. The earlier Hegelians +had interpreted it in the sense that the world in its ultimate essence +was not only spiritual but self-conscious intelligence whose nature +was reflected inadequately but truly in the finite mind. They thus +seemed to come forward in the character of exponents rather than +critics of the Western belief in God, freedom and immortality. As +time went on it became obvious that without departure from the +spirit of idealism Hegel’s principle was susceptible of a different +interpretation. Granted that rationality taken in the sense of inner +coherence and self-consistency is the ultimate standard of truth +and reality, does self-consciousness itself answer to the demands of +this criterion? If not, are we not forced to deny ultimate reality +to personality whether human or divine? The question was +definitely raised in F. H. Bradley’s <i>Appearance and Reality</i> (1893; +2nd ed., 1897) and answered in the negative. The completeness and +self-consistency which our ideal requires can be realized only in a +form of being in which subject and object, will and desire, no longer +stand as exclusive opposites, from which it seemed at once to follow +that the finite self could not be a reality nor the infinite reality a self. +On this basis Bradley developed a theory of the Absolute which, while +not denying that it must be conceived of spiritually, insisted that its +spirituality is of a kind that finds no analogy in our self-conscious +experience. More recently J. M. E. McTaggart’s <i>Studies in Hegelian +Dialectic</i> (1896), <i>Studies in Hegelian Cosmology</i> (1901) and <i>Some +Dogmas of Religion</i> (1906) have opened a new chapter in the interpretation +of Hegelianism. Truly perceiving that the ultimate +metaphysical problem is, here as ever, the relation of the One and the +Many, McTaggart starts with a definition of the ideal in which our +thought upon it can come to rest. He finds it where (<i>a</i>) the unity is +for each individual, (<i>b</i>) the whole nature of the individual is to be +<i>for</i> the unity. It follows from such a conception of the relation that +the whole cannot itself be an individual apart from the individuals +in whom it is realized, in other words, the Absolute cannot be a +Person. But for the same reason—viz. that in it first and in it alone +this condition is realized—the individual soul must be held to be an +ultimate reality reflecting in its inmost nature, like the monad of +Leibniz, the complete fulness and harmony of the whole. In reply +to Bradley’s argument for the unreality of the self, Hegel is interpreted +as meaning that the opposition between self and not-self on +which it is founded is one that is self-made and in being made is +transcended. The fuller our knowledge of reality the more does +the object stand out as an invulnerable system of ordered parts, +but the process by which it is thus set in opposition to the subject +is also the process by which we understand and transform it into the +substance of our own thought. From this position further consequences +followed. Seeing that the individual soul must thus be +taken to stand in respect to its inmost essence in complete harmony +with the whole, it must eternally be at one with itself: all +change must be appearance. Seeing, moreover, that it is, and is +maintained in being, by a fixed relation to the Absolute, it cannot +fail of immortality. No pantheistic theory of an eternal substance +continuously expressing itself in different individuals who fall back +into its being like drops into the ocean will here be sufficient. The +ocean is the drops. “The Absolute requires each self not to make +up a sum or to maintain an average but in respect of the self’s special +and unique nature.” Finally as it cannot cease, neither can the +individual soul have had a beginning. Pre-existence is as necessary +and certain as a future life. If memory is lacking as a link between +the different lives, this only shows that memory is not of the substance +of the soul.</p> + +<p>In view of these differences (amounting almost to an antinomy of +paradoxes) in interpretation, it is not surprising to find that recent +years have witnessed a violent reaction in some quarters against +Hegelian influence. This has taken the direction on the one hand of +a revival of realism (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metaphysics</a></span>), on the other of a new form +of subjective idealism (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pragmatism</a></span>). As yet neither of these +movements has shown sufficient coherence or stability to establish +itself as a rival to the main current of philosophy in England. But +they have both been urged with sufficient ability to arrest its progress +and to call for a reconsideration and restatement of the fundamental +principle of idealist philosophy and its relation to the fundamental +problems of religion. This will probably be the main work of the +next generation of thinkers in England (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Idealism</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Among Italian Hegelians are A. Vera, Raffaele Mariano and +B. Spaventa (1817-1883); see V. de Lucia, <i>L’Hegel in Italia</i> (1891). +In Sweden, J. J. Borelius of Lund; in Norway, G. V. Lyng (d. 1884), +M. J. Monrad (1816-1897) and G. Kent (d. 1892) have adopted +Hegelianism; in France, P. Leroux and P. Prévost.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Shortly after Hegel’s death his collected works +were published by a number of his friends, who combined for the +purpose. They appeared in eighteen volumes in 1832, and a second +edition came out about twelve years later. Volumes i.-viii. contain +the works published by himself; the remainder is made up of his +lectures on the Philosophy of History, Aesthetic, the Philosophy of +Religion and the History of Philosophy, besides some essays and +reviews, with a few of his letters, and the Philosophical Propaedeutic.</p> + +<p>For his life see K. Rosenkranz, <i>Leben Hegels</i> (Berlin, 1844); +R. R. Haym, <i>Hegel und seine Zeit</i> (Berlin, 1857); K. Köstlin, <i>Hegel +in philosophischer, politischer und nationaler Beziehung</i> (Tübingen, +1870); Rosenkranz, <i>Hegel als deutscher National-Philosoph</i> (Berlin, +1870), and his <i>Neue Studien</i>, vol. iv. (Berlin, 1878); Kuno Fischer, +<i>Hegels Leben und Werke</i>.</p> + +<p>For the philosophy see A. Ruge’s <i>Aus früherer Zeit</i>, vol. iv. +(Berlin, 1867); Haym (as above); F. A. Trendelenburg (in <i>Logische +Untersuchungen</i>); A. L. Kym (<i>Metaphysische Untersuchungen</i>) and +C. Hermann (<i>Hegel und die logische Frage</i> and other works) are +noticeable as modern critics. Georges Noël, <i>La Logique de Hegel</i> +(Paris, 1897); Aloys Schmid, <i>Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der +Hegelschen Logik</i> (Regensburg, 1858). Vera has translated the +<i>Encyklopädie</i> into French, with notes; C. Bénard, the <i>Ästhetik</i>. +In English J. Hutcheson Stirling’s <i>Secret of Hegel</i> (2 vols., London, +1865) contains a translation of the beginning of the <i>Wissenschaft der +Logik</i>; the “Logic” from the <i>Encyklopädie</i> has been translated, +with Prolegomena, by W. Wallace (Oxford, 1874). W. Wallace also +translated the third part of the <i>Encyklopädie in Hegel’s Philosophy +of Mind</i> (1894); R. B. Haldane the <i>History of Philosophy</i> (1896); +E. B. Speirs, lectures on the <i>Philosophy of Religion</i> (1895); J. Sibree, +lectures on <i>The Philosophy of History</i> (1852); B. Bosanquet, <i>Philosophy +of Fine Art</i>, Introduction (1886); W. Hastie, <i>The Philosophy +of Art</i> (1886); S. W. Dyde, <i>The Philosophy of Right</i> (1896). Other +recent expositions and criticisms in addition to those mentioned +above are W. T. Harris, <i>Hegel’s Logic</i> (1890); J. B. Baillie, <i>Origin +and Significance of Hegel’s Logic</i> (1901), and <i>Outline of the Idealistic +Construction of Experience</i> (1906); P. Barth, <i>Die Geschichtsphilosophie +Hegels</i> (1890); J. A. Marrast, <i>La Philosophie du droit de Hegel</i> +(1869); L. Miraglia, <i>I Principii fondamentali e la dottrina eticogiuridica +di Hegel</i> (1873); <i>Hegel’s Philosophy of the State and History</i> +(Germ. Phil. Classics, 1887); G. Bolland, <i>Philosophie des Rechts</i> +(1902), and <i>Hegels Philosophie der Religion</i> (1901); E. Ott, <i>Die +Religionsphilosophie Hegels</i> (1904); J. M. Sterrett, <i>Studies in Hegel’s +Philosophy of Religion</i> (1891); M. Ehrenhauss, <i>Hegels Gottesbegriff</i> +(1880); E. Caird, Hegel (1880); A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, <i>Hegelianism +and Personality</i> (1893); Millicent Mackenzie, <i>Hegel’s Educational +Theory and Practice</i> (1909), with biographical sketch; J. M. E. +McTaggart, <i>Commentary on Hegel’s Logic</i> (1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. Mu.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEGEMON OF THASOS,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> Greek writer of the old comedy, +nicknamed <span class="grk" title="Phakê">Φακῆ</span> from his fondness for lentils. Hardly anything +is known of him, except that he flourished during the Peloponnesian +War. According to Aristotle (<i>Poetics</i>, ii. 5) he was the +inventor of a kind of parody; by slightly altering the wording +in well-known poems he transformed the sublime into the +ridiculous. When the news of the disaster in Sicily reached +Athens, his parody of the <i>Gigantomachia</i> was being performed; +it is said that the audience were so amused by it that, instead of +leaving to show their grief, they remained in their seats. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span> +was also the author of a comedy called <i>Philinne</i> (<i>Philine</i>), +written in the manner of Eupolis and Cratinus, in which he +attacked a well-known courtesan. Athenaeus (p. 698), who +preserves some parodic hexameters of his, relates other anecdotes +concerning him (pp. 5, 108, 407).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in T. Kock, <i>Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta</i>, i. (1880); +B. J. Peltzer, <i>De parodica Graecorum poesi</i> (1855).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEGEMONY<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêgemonia">ἡγεμονία</span>, leadership, from <span class="grk" title="hêgeisthai">ἡγεῖσθαι</span>, to +lead), the leadership especially of one particular state in a group +of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied +in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual +city-states, <i>e.g.</i> by Athens and Sparta, at different times to a +position of predominance (<i>primus inter pares</i>) among other equal +states, coupled with individual autonomy. The reversion of this +position was claimed by Macedon (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>, +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delian League</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (in Lydia), Greek rhetorician and +historian, flourished about 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Strabo (xiv. 648), speaks +of him as the founder of the florid style of composition known as +“Asiatic” (cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timaeus</a></span>). Agatharchides, Dionysius of Halicarnassus +and Cicero all speak of him in disparaging terms, +although Varro seems to have approved of his work. He professed +to imitate the simple style of Lysias, avoiding long periods, +and expressing himself in short, jerky sentences, without modulation +or finish. His vulgar affectation and bombast made his +writings a mere caricature of the old Attic. Dionysius describes +his composition as tinselled, ignoble and effeminate. It is +generally supposed, from the fragment quoted as a specimen by +Dionysius, that Hegesias is to be classed among the writers of +lives of Alexander the Great. This fragment describes the +treatment of Gaza and its inhabitants by Alexander after its +conquest, but it is possible that it is only part of an epideictic +or show-speech, not of an historical work. This view is supported +by a remark of Agatharchides in Photius (<i>cod.</i> 250) that the +only aim of Hegesias was to exhibit his skill in describing +sensational events.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Cicero, <i>Brutus</i> 83, <i>Orator</i> 67, 69, with J. E. Sandys’s note, <i>ad +Att.</i> xii. 6; Dion. Halic. <i>De verborum comp.</i> iv.; Aulus Gellius ix. +4; Plutarch, <i>Alexander</i>, 3; C. W. Müller, <i>Scriptores rerum Alexandri +Magni</i>, p. 138 (appendix to Didot ed. of Arrian, 1846); Norden, +<i>Die antike Kunstprosa</i> (1898); J. B. Bury, <i>Ancient Greek Historians</i> +(1909), pp. 169-172, on origin and development of “Asiatic” style, +with example from Hegesias.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEGESIPPUS,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> Athenian orator and statesman, nicknamed +<span class="grk" title="Krôbylos">Κρώβυλος</span> (“knot”), probably from the way in which he wore +his hair. He lived in the time of Demosthenes, of whose anti-Macedonian +policy he was an enthusiastic supporter. In 343 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was one of the ambassadors sent to Macedonia to discuss, +amongst other matters, the restoration of the island of +Halonnesus, which had been seized by Philip. The mission was +unsuccessful, but soon afterwards Philip wrote to Athens, offering +to resign possession of the island or to submit to arbitration the +question of ownership. In reply to this letter the oration De +<i>Halonneso</i> was delivered, which, although included among the +speeches of Demosthenes, is generally considered to be by +Hegesippus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, however, +favour the authorship of Demosthenes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Demosthenes, <i>De falsa legatione</i> 364, 447, <i>De corona</i> 250, +<i>Philippica</i> iii. 129; Plutarch, <i>Demosthenes</i> 17, <i>Apophthegmata</i>, +187D; Dionysius Halic. <i>ad Ammaeum</i>, i.; Grote, <i>History of Greece</i>, +ch. 90.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEGESIPPUS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (fl. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 150-180), early Christian writer, was of +Palestinian origin, and lived under the Emperors Antoninus Pius, +Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Like Aristo of Pella he belonged +to that group of Judaistic Christians which, while keeping the law +themselves, did not attempt to impose on others the requirements +of circumcision and Sabbath observance. He was the author of +a treatise (<span class="grk" title="hypomnêmata">ὑπομνήματα</span>) in five books dealing with such subjects +as Christian literature, the unity of church doctrine, paganism, +heresy and Jewish Christianity, fragments of which are found in +Eusebius, who obtained much of his information concerning early +Palestinian church history and chronology from this source. +Hegesippus was also a great traveller, and like many other leaders +of his time came to Rome (having visited Corinth on the way) +about the middle of the 2nd century. His journeyings impressed +him with the idea that the continuity of the church in the cities +he visited was a guarantee of its fidelity to apostolic orthodoxy: +“in each succession and in every city, the doctrine is in accordance +with that which the Law and the Prophets and the Lord [<i>i.e.</i> the +Old Testament and the evangelical tradition] proclaim.” To +illustrate this opinion he drew up a list of the Roman bishops. +Hegesippus is thus a significant figure both for the type of +Christianity taught in the circle to which he belonged, and as +accentuating the point of view which the church began to assume +in the presence of a developing gnosticism.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEGESIPPUS,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the supposed author of a free Latin adaptation +of the <i>Jewish War</i> of Josephus under the title <i>De bello Judaico et +excidio urbis Hierosolymitanae</i>. The seven books of Josephus +are compressed into five, but much has been added from the +Antiquities and from the works of Roman historians, while several +entirely new speeches are introduced to suit the occasion. Internal +evidence shows that the work could not have been written before +the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The author, who is undoubtedly a Christian, +describes it in his preface as a kind of revised edition of Josephus. +Some authorities attribute it to Ambrose, bishop of Milan (340-397), +but there is nothing to settle the authorship definitely. The +name Hegesippus itself appears to be a corruption of Josephus, +through the stages <span class="grk" title="Iôsêpos">Ἰώσηπος</span>, Iosippus, Egesippus, Hegesippus, +unless it was purposely adopted as reminiscent of Hegesippus, the +father of ecclesiastical history (2nd century).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Best edition by C. F. Weber and J. Caesar (1864); authorities +in E. Schürer, <i>History of the Jewish People</i> (Eng. trans.), i. 99 seq.; +F. Vogel, <i>De Hegesippo, qui dicitur, Josephi interprete</i> (Erlangen, +1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1433-1498), German +humanist, so called from his birthplace Heek in Westphalia. In +his youth he was a pupil of Thomas à Kempis, at that time canon +of the convent of St Agnes at Zwolle. In 1474 he settled down at +Deventer in Holland, where he either founded or succeeded to the +headship of a school, which became famous for the number of its +distinguished alumni. First and foremost of these was Erasmus; +others were Hermann von dem Busche, the missionary of +humanism, Conrad Goclenius (Gockelen), Conrad Mutianus +(Muth von Mudt) and pope Adrian VI. Hegius died at Deventer +on the 7th of December 1498. His writings, consisting of short +poems, philosophical essays, grammatical notes and letters, +were published after his death by his pupil Jacob Faber. They +display considerable knowledge of Latin, but less of Greek, on the +value of which he strongly insisted. Hegius’s chief claim to be +remembered rests not upon his published works, but upon his +services in the cause of humanism. He succeeded in abolishing +the old-fashioned medieval textbooks and methods of instruction, +and led his pupils to the study of the classical authors themselves. +His generosity in assisting poor students exhausted a considerable +fortune, and at his death he left nothing but his books and +clothes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See D. Reichling, “Beiträge zur Charakteristik des Alex. Hegius,” +in the <i>Monatsschrift für Westdeutschland</i> (1877); H. Hamelmann, +<i>Opera genealogico-historica</i> (1711); H. A. Erhard, <i>Geschichte des +Wiederaufblühens wissenschaftlicher Bildung</i> (1826); C. Krafft and +W. Crecelius, “Alexander Hegius und seine Schüler,” from the +works of Johannes Butzbach, one of Hegius’s pupils, in <i>Zeitschrift +des bergischen Geschichtsvereins</i>, vii. (Bonn, 1871).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1791-1860), Danish poet and +critic, son of the political writer Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841), +and of the famous novelist, afterwards the Baroness +Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd, was born at Copenhagen on the 14th +of December 1791. In 1800 his father was exiled and settled in +Paris, where he was employed in the French foreign office, retiring +in 1817 with a pension. His political and satirical writings +continued to exercise great influence over his fellow-countrymen. +Johan Ludvig Heiberg was taken by K. L. Rahbek and his wife +into their house at Bakkehuset. He was educated at the university +of Copenhagen, and his first publication, entitled <i>The +Theatre for Marionettes</i> (1814), included two romantic dramas. +This was followed by <i>Christmas Jokes and New Year’s Tricks</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span> +(1816), <i>The Initiation of Psyche</i> (1817), and <i>The Prophecy of +Tycho Brahé</i>, a satire on the eccentricities of the Romantic +writers, especially on the sentimentality of Ingemann. These +works attracted attention at a time when Baggesen, Öhlenschläger +and Ingemann possessed the popular ear, and were +understood at once to be the opening of a great career. In 1817 +Heiberg took his degree, and in 1819 went abroad with a grant +from government. He proceeded to Paris, and spent the next +three years there with his father. In 1822 he published his drama +of <i>Nina</i>, and was made professor of the Danish language at the +university of Kiel, where he delivered a course of lectures, comparing +the Scandinavian mythology as found in the <i>Edda</i> with +the poems of Öhlenschläger. These lectures were published in +German in 1827.</p> + +<p>In 1825 Heiberg came back to Copenhagen for the purpose of +introducing the vaudeville on the Danish stage. He composed a +great number of these vaudevilles, of which the best known are +<i>King Solomon and George the Hatmaker</i> (1825); <i>April Fools</i> +(1826); <i>A Story in Rosenborg Garden</i> (1827); <i>Kjöge Huskors</i> +(1831); <i>The Danes in Paris</i> (1833); <i>No</i> (1836); and <i>Yes</i> +(1839). He took his models from the French theatre, but showed +extraordinary skill in blending the words and the music; but the +subjects and the humour were essentially Danish and even topical. +Meanwhile he was producing dramatic work of a more serious +kind; in 1828 he brought out the national drama of <i>Elverhöi</i>; +in 1830 <i>The Inseparables</i>; in 1835 the fairy comedy of <i>The Elves</i>, +a dramatic version of Tieck’s <i>Elfin</i>; and in 1838 <i>Fata Morgana</i>. +In 1841 Heiberg published a volume of <i>New Poems</i> containing +“A Soul after Death,” a comedy which is perhaps his masterpiece, +“The Newly Wedded Pair,” and other pieces. He edited +from 1827 to 1830 the famous weekly, the <i>Flyvende Post</i> (The +Flying Post), and subsequently the <i>Interimsblade</i> (1834-1837) +and the <i>Intelligensblade</i> (1842-1843). In his journalism he +carried on his warfare against the excessive pretensions of the +Romanticists, and produced much valuable and penetrating +criticism of art and literature. In 1831 he married the actress +Johanne Louise Paetges (1812-1890), herself the author of some +popular vaudevilles. Heiberg’s scathing satires, however, made +him very unpopular; and this antagonism reached its height +when, in 1845, he published his malicious little drama of <i>The +Nut Crackers</i>. Nevertheless he became in 1847 director of the +national theatre. He filled the post for seven years, working +with great zeal and conscientiousness, but was forced by intrigues +from without to resign it in 1854. Heiberg died at Bonderup, +near Ringsted, on the 25th of August 1860. His influence upon +taste and critical opinion was greater than that of any writer of +his time, and can only be compared with that of Holberg in the +18th century. Most of the poets of the Romantic movement in +Denmark were very grave and serious; Heiberg added the +element of humour, elegance and irony. He had the genius of +good taste, and his witty and delicate productions stand almost +unique in the literature of his country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The poetical works of Heiberg were collected, in 11 vols., in 1861-1862, +and his prose writings (11 vols.) in the same year. The last +volume of his prose works contains some fragments of autobiography. +See also G. Brandes, <i>Essays</i> (1889). For the elder Heiberg +see monographs by Thaarup (1883) and by Schwanenflügel (1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIDE,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Schleswig-Holstein, on a small plateau which stands between +the marshes and moors bordering the North Sea, 35 m. N.N.W. +of Glückstadt, at the junction of the railways Elmshorn-Hvidding +and Neumünster-Tönning. Pop. (1905), 8758. It has an +Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a high-grade school, +and tobacco and cigar manufactories and breweries. Heide in +1447 became the capital of the Ditmarsh peasant republic, but +on the 13th of June 1559 it was the scene of the complete defeat +of the peasant forces by the Danes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1633-1698), Swiss +theologian, was born at Bärentschweil, in the canton of Zürich, +Switzerland, on the 1st of July 1633. He studied at Marburg +and at Heidelberg, where he became the friend of J. L. Fabricius +(1632-1696), and was appointed <i>professor extraordinarius</i> of +Hebrew and later of philosophy. In 1659 he was called to +Steinfurt to fill the chair of dogmatics and ecclesiastical history, +and in the same year he became doctor of theology of Heidelberg. +In 1660 he revisited Switzerland; and, after marrying, he +travelled in the following year to Holland, where he made the +acquaintance of Johannes Cocceius. He returned in 1665 to +Zürich, where he was elected professor of moral philosophy. +Two years later he succeeded J. H. Hottinger (1620-1667) in +the chair of theology, which he occupied till his death on the +18th of January 1698, having declined an invitation in 1669 +to succeed J. Cocceius at Leiden, as well as a call to Groningen. +Heidegger was the principal author of the <i>Formula Consensus +Helvetica</i> in 1675, which was designed to unite the Swiss Reformed +churches, but had an opposite effect. W. Gass describes him +as the most notable of the Swiss theologians of the time.</p> + +<p>His writings are largely controversial, though without being +bitter, and are in great part levelled against the Roman Catholic +Church. The chief are <i>De historia sacra patriarcharum exercitationes +selectae</i> (1667-1671); <i>Dissertatio de Peregrinationibus +religiosis</i> (1670); <i>De ratione studiorum, opuscula aurea</i>, &c. +(1670); <i>Historia papatus</i> (1684; under the name Nicander von +Hohenegg); <i>Manuductio in viam concordiae Protestantium +ecclesiasticae</i> (1686); <i>Tumulus concilii Tridentini</i> (1690); +<i>Exercitationes biblicae</i> (1700), with a life of the author prefixed; +<i>Corpus theologiae Christianae</i> (1700, edited by J. H. Schweizer); +<i>Ethicae Christianae elementa</i> (1711); and lives of J. H. Hottinger +(1667) and J. L. Fabricius (1698). His autobiography appeared +in 1698, under the title <i>Historia vitae J. H. Heideggeri</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the articles in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> and the +<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>; and cf. W. Gass, <i>Geschichte der +protestantischen Dogmatik</i>, ii. 353 ff.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIDELBERG,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a town of Germany, on the south bank of the +Neckar, 12 m. above its confluence with the Rhine, 13 m. S.E. +from Mannheim and 54 m. from Frankfort-on-Main by rail. The +situation of the town, lying between lofty hills covered with +vineyards and forests, at the spot where the rapid Neckar leaves +the gorge and enters the plain of the Rhine, is one of great natural +beauty. The town itself consists practically of one long, narrow +street—the Hauptstrasse—running parallel to the river, from +the railway station on the west to the Karlstor on the east +(where there is also a local station) for a distance of 2 m. To +the south of this is the Anlage, a pleasant promenade flanked by +handsome villas and gardens, leading directly to the centre of +the place. A number of smaller streets intersect the Hauptstrasse +at right angles and run down to the river, which is crossed +by two fine bridges. Of these, the old bridge on the east, built +in 1788, has a fine gateway and is adorned with statues of +Minerva and the elector Charles Theodore of the Palatinate; +the other, the lower bridge, on the west, built in 1877, connects +Heidelberg with the important suburbs of Neuenheim and +Handschuchsheim. Of recent years the town has grown largely +towards the west on both sides of the river; but the additions +have been almost entirely of the better class of residences. +Heidelberg is an important railway centre, and is connected by +trunk lines with Frankfort, Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Spires and +Würzburg. Electric trams provide for local traffic, and there +are also several light railways joining it with the neighbouring +villages. Of the churches the chief are the Protestant Peterskirche +dating from the 15th century and restored in 1873, to +the door of which Jerome of Prague in 1460 nailed his theses; +the Heilige Geist Kirche (Church of the Holy Ghost), an imposing +Gothic edifice of the 15th century; the Jesuitenkirche (Roman +Catholic), with a sumptuously decorated interior, and the new +Evangelical Christuskirche. The town hall and the university +buildings, dating from 1712 and restored in 1886, are commonplace +erections; but to the south of the Ludwigsplatz, upon +which most of the academical buildings lie, stands the new +university library, a handsome structure of pink sandstone in +German Renaissance style. In addition to the Ludwigsplatz +with its equestrian statue of the emperor William I. there are +other squares in the town, among them being the Bismarckplatz +with a statue of Bismarck, and the Jubiläumsplatz.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span></p> + +<p>The chief attraction of Heidelberg is the castle, which overhangs +the east part of the town. It stands on the Jettenbühl, +a spur of the Königsstuhl (1800 ft.), at a height of 330 ft. above +the Neckar. Though now a ruin, yet its extent, its magnificence, +its beautiful situation and its interesting history render it by +far the most noteworthy, as it certainly is the grandest and +largest, of the old castles of Germany. The building was begun +early in the 13th century. The elector palatine and German +king Rupert III. (d. 1410) greatly improved it, and built the +wing, Ruprechtsbau or Rupert’s building, that bears his name. +Succeeding electors further extended and embellished it (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate VII., figs. 78-80); notably Otto Henry +“the Magnanimous” (d. 1559), who built the beautiful early +Renaissance wing known as the Otto-Heinrichsbau (1556-1559); +Frederick IV., for whom the fine late Renaissance wing called +the Friedrichsbau was built (1601-1607); and Frederick V., the +unfortunate “winter king” of Bohemia, who on the west side +added the Elisabethenbau or Englischebau (1618), named after +his wife, the daughter of James I. of Great Britain and ancestress +of the present English reigning family. In 1648, at the peace of +Westphalia, Heidelberg was given back to Frederick V.’s son, +Charles Louis, who restored the castle to its former splendour. +In 1688, during Louis XIV.’s invasion of the Palatinate, the +castle was taken, after a long siege, by the French, who blew +part of it up when they found they could not hope to hold it +(March 2, 1689). In 1693 it was again captured by them and still +further wrecked. Finally, in 1764, it was struck by lightning +and reduced to its present ruinous condition.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:509px; height:519px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img210.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">Apart from the outworks, the castle forms an irregular square +with round towers at the angles, the principal buildings being +grouped round a central courtyard, the entrance to which is +from the south through a series of gateways. In this courtyard, +besides the buildings already mentioned, are the oldest parts +of the castle, the so-called Alte Bau (old building) and the +Bandhaus. The Friedrichsbau, which is decorated with statues +of the rulers of the Palatinate, was elaborately restored and +rendered habitable between 1897 and 1903. Other noteworthy +objects in the castle are the fountain in the courtyard, decorated +with four granite columns from Charlemagne’s palace at Ingelheim; +the Elisabethentor, a beautiful gateway named after the +English princess; the beautiful octagonal bell-tower at the N.E. +angle; the ruins of the Krautturm, now known as the Gesprengte +Turm, or blown-up tower, and the castle chapel and the museum +of antiquities in the Friedrichsbau. In a cellar entered from +the courtyard is the famous Great Tun of Heidelberg. This +vast vat was built in 1751, but has only been used on one or +two occasions. Its capacity is 49,000 gallons, and it is 20 ft. +high and 31 ft. long. Behind the Friedrichsbau is the Altan +(1610), or castle balcony, from which is obtained a view of great +beauty, extending from the town beneath to the heights across +the Neckar and over the broad luxuriant plain of the Rhine +to Mannheim and the dim contours of the Hardt Mountains +behind. On the terrace of the beautiful grounds is a statue of +Victor von Scheffel, the poet of Heidelberg.</p> + +<p>The university of Heidelberg was founded by the elector +Rupert I., in 1385, the bull of foundation being issued by Pope +Urban VI. in that year. It was constructed after the type of +Paris, had four faculties, and possessed numerous privileges. +Marselius von Inghen was its first rector. The electors Frederick +I., the Victorious, Philip the Upright and Louis V. respectively +cherished it. Otto Henry gave it a new organization, further +endowed it and founded the library. At the Reformation it +became a stronghold of Protestant learning, the Heidelberg +catechism being drawn up by its theologians. Then the tide +turned. Damaged by the Thirty Years’ War, it led a struggling +existence for a century and a half. A large portion of its remaining +endowments was cut off by the peace of Lunéville (1801). +In 1803, however, Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, +raised it anew and reconstituted it under the name of “Ruperto-Carola.” +The number of professors and teachers is at present +about 150 and of students 1700. The library was first kept in +the choir of the Heilige Geist Kirche, and then consisted of +3500 MSS. In 1623 it was sent to Rome by Maximilian I., +duke of Bavaria, and stored as the Bibliotheca Palatina in the +Vatican. It was afterwards taken to Paris, and in 1815 was +restored to Heidelberg. It has more than 500,000 volumes, +besides 4000 MSS. Among the other university institutions +are the academic hospital, the maternity hospital, the physiological +institution, the chemical laboratory, the zoological +museum, the botanical garden and the observatory on the +Königsstuhl.</p> + +<p>The other educational foundations are a gymnasium, a modern +and a technical school. There is a small theatre, an art and +several other scientific societies. The manufactures of Heidelberg +include cigars, leather, cement, surgical instruments and beer, +but the inhabitants chiefly support themselves by supplying +the wants of a large and increasing body of foreign permanent +residents, of the considerable number of tourists who during +the summer pass through the town, and of the university +students. A funicular railway runs from the Korn-Markt up +to the level of the castle and thence to the Molkenkur (700 ft. +above the town). The town is well lighted and is supplied with +excellent water from the Wolfsbrunnen. Pop. (1885), 29,304; +(1905), 49,527.</p> + +<p>At an early period Heidelberg was a fief of the bishop of +Worms, who entrusted it about 1225 to the count palatine of +the Rhine, Louis I. It soon became a town and the chief +residence of the counts palatine. Heidelberg was one of the +great centres of the reformed teaching and was the headquarters +of the Calvinists. On this account it suffered much during the +Thirty Years’ War, being captured and plundered by Count +Tilly in 1622, by the Swedes in 1633 and again by the imperialists +in 1635. By the peace of Westphalia it was restored to the +elector Charles Louis. In 1688 and again in 1693 Heidelberg +was sacked by the French. On the latter occasion the work of +destruction was carried out so thoroughly that only one house +escaped; this being a quaintly decorated erection in the Marktplatz, +which is now the Hôtel zum Ritter. In 1720 the elector +Charles II. removed his court to Mannheim, and in 1803 the +town became part of the grand-duchy of Baden. On the 5th of +March 1848 the Heidelberg assembly was held here, and at this +meeting the steps were taken which led to the revolution in +Germany in that year.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Oncken, <i>Stadt, Schloss und Hochschule Heidelberg; Bilder +aus ihrer Vergangenheit</i> (Heidelberg, 1885); Öchelhäuser, <i>Das +Heidelberger Schloss, bau- und kunstgeschichtlicher Führer</i> (Heidelberg, +1902); Pfaff, <i>Heidelberg und Umgebung</i> (Heidelberg, 1902); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span> +Lorentzen, <i>Heidelberg und Umgebung</i> (Stuttgart, 1902); Durm, +<i>Das Heidelberger Schloss, eine Studie</i> (Berlin, 1884); Koch and Seitz, +<i>Das Heidelberger Schloss</i> (Darmstadt, 1887-1891); J. F. Hautz, +<i>Geschickte der Universität Heidelberg</i> (1863-1864); A. Thorbecke, +<i>Geschichte der Universität Heidelberg</i> (Stuttgart, 1886); the <i>Urkundenbuch +der Universität Heidelberg</i>, edited by Winkelmann (Heidelberg, +1886); Bähr, <i>Die Entführung der Heidelberger Bibliothek nach Rom</i> +(Leipzig, 1845); and G. Weber, <i>Heidelberger Erinnerungen</i> (Stuttgart, +1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIDELBERG,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a town and district of the Transvaal. The +district is bounded S. by the Vaal river and includes the south-eastern +part of the Witwatersrand gold-fields. The town of +Heidelberg is 42 m. S.E. of Johannesburg and 441 m. N.W. of +Durban by rail. Pop. (1904), 3220, of whom 1837 were white. +It was founded in 1865, is built on the slopes of the Rand at an +elevation of 5029 ft., and is reputed the best sanatorium +in the colony. It is the centre of the eastern Rand goldmines.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> the most attractive of +all the catechisms of the Reformation, was drawn up at the +bidding of Frederick III., elector of the Palatinate, and published +on Tuesday the 19th of January 1563. The new religion in +the Palatinate had been largely under the guidance of Philip +Melanchthon, who had revived the old university of Heidelberg +and staffed it with sympathetic teachers. One of these, Tillemann, +Heshusius, who became general superintendent in 1558, held +extreme Lutheran views on the Real Presence, and in his desire +to force the community into his own position excommunicated +his colleague Klebitz, who held Zwinglian views. When the +breach was widening Frederick, “der fromme Kurfürst,” came +to the succession, dismissed the two chief combatants and +referred the trouble to Melanchthon, whose guarded verdict +was distinctly Swiss rather than Lutheran. In a decree of August +1560 the elector declared for Calvin and Zwingli, and soon after +he resolved to issue a new and unambiguous catechism of the +evangelical faith. He entrusted the task to two young men +who have won deserved remembrance by their learning and their +character alike. Zacharias Ursinus was born at Breslau in July +1534 and attained high honour in the university of Wittenberg. +In 1558 he was made rector of the gymnasium in his native +town, but the incessant strife with the extreme Lutherans drove +him to Zürich, whence Frederick, on the advice of Peter Martyr, +summoned him to be professor of theology at Heidelberg and +superintendent of the <i>Sapientiae Collegium</i>. He was a man of +modest and gentle spirit, not endowed with great preaching +gifts, but unwearied in study and consummately able to impart +his learning to others. Deposed from his chair by the elector +Louis in 1576, he lived with John Casimir at Neustadt and +found a congenial sphere in the new seminary there, dying in +his 49th year, in March 1583.</p> + +<p>Caspar Olevianus was born at Treves in 1536. He gave up +law for theology, studied under Calvin in Geneva, Peter Martyr +in Zürich, and Beza in Lausanne. Urged by William Farel he +preached the new faith in his native city, and when banished +therefrom found a home with Frederick of Heidelberg, where +he gained high renown as preacher and administrator. His +ardour and enthusiasm made him the happy complement of +Ursinus. When the reaction came under Louis he was befriended +by Ludwig von Sain, prince of Wittgenstein, and John, count of +Nassau, in whose city of Herborn he did notable work at the +high school until his death on the 15th of March 1587. The +elector could have chosen no better men, young as they were, +for the task in hand. As a first step each drew up a catechism +of his own composition, that of Ursinus being naturally of a more +grave and academic turn than the freer production of Olevianus, +while each made full use of the earlier catechisms already in use. +But when the union was effected it was found that the spirits +of the two authors were most happily and harmoniously wedded, +the exactness and erudition of the one being blended with the +fervency and grace of the other. Thus the Heidelberg Catechism, +which was completed within a year of its inception, has an +individuality that marks it out from all its predecessors and +successors. The Heidelberg synod unanimously approved of it, +it was published in January 1563, and in the same year officially +turned into Latin by Jos. Lagus and Lambert Pithopoeus.</p> + +<p>The ultra-Lutherans attacked the catechism with great +bitterness, the assault being led by Heshusius and Flacius +Illyricus. Maximilian II. remonstrated against it as an infringement +of the peace of Augsburg. A conference was held at +Maulbronn in April 1564, and a personal attack was made on the +elector at the diet of Augsburg in 1566, but the defence was +well sustained, and the Heidelberg book rapidly passed beyond +the bounds of the Palatinate (where indeed it suffered eclipse +from 1576 to 1583, during the electorate of Louis), and gained +an abundant success not only in Germany (Hesse, Anhalt, +Brandenburg and Bremen) but also in the Netherlands (1588), +and in the Reformed churches of Hungary, Transylvania and +Poland. It was officially recognized by the synod of Dort in +1619, passed into France, Britain and America, and probably +shares with the <i>De imitatione Christi</i> and <i>The Pilgrim’s Progress</i> +the honour of coming next to the Bible in the number of tongues +into which it has been translated.</p> + +<p>This wide acceptance and high esteem are due largely to an +avoidance of polemical and controversial subjects, and even +more to an absence of the controversial spirit. There is no +mistake about its Protestantism, even when we omit the unhappy +addition made to answer 80 by Frederick himself (in indignant +reply to the ban pronounced by the Council of Trent), in which +the Mass is described as “nothing else than a denial of the one +sacrifice and passion of Jesus Christ, and an accursed idolatry”—an +addition which is the one blot on the <span class="grk" title="èpieíkeia">ἐπιείκεια</span> of the +catechism. The work is the product of the best qualities of +head and heart, and its prose is frequently marked by all the +beauty of a lyric. It follows the plan of the epistle to the Romans +(excepting chapters ix.-xi.) and falls into three parts: Sin, +Redemption and the New Life. This arrangement alone would +mark it out from the normal reformation catechism, which runs +along the stereotyped lines of Decalogue, Creed, Lord’s Prayer, +Church and Sacraments. These themes are included, but are +shown as organically related. The Commandments, <i>e.g.</i> “belong +to the first part so far as they are a mirror of our sin and misery, +but also to the third part, as being the rule of our new obedience +and Christian life.” The Creed—a panorama of the sublime +facts of redemption—and the sacraments find their place in +the second part; the Lord’s Prayer (with the Decalogue) in the +third.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Heidelberg Catechism</i>, the <i>German Text, with a Revised +Translation and Introduction</i>, edited by A. Smellie (London, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1788-1865), German +architect, the son of Victor Peter Heideloff, a painter, was born +at Stuttgart. He studied at the art academy of his native +town, and after following the profession of an architect for some +time at Coburg was in 1818 appointed city architect at Nuremberg. +In 1822 he became professor at the polytechnic school, +holding his post until 1854, and some years later he was chosen +conservator of the monuments of art. Heideloff devoted his +chief attention to the Gothic style of architecture, and the +buildings restored and erected by him at Nuremberg and in its +neighbourhood attest both his original skill and his purity of +taste. He also achieved some success as a painter in watercolour. +He died at Hassfurt on the 28th of September 1865. +Among his architectural works should be mentioned the castle +of Reinhardsbrunn, the Hall of the Knights in the fortress at +Coburg, the castle of Landsberg, the mortuary chapel in Meiningen, +the little castle of Rosenburg near Bonn, the chapel of the +castle of Rheinstein near Bingen, and the Catholic church in +Leipzig. His powers in restoration are shown in the castle of +Lichtenstein, the cathedral of Bamberg, and the Knights’ +Chapel (<i>Ritter Kapelle</i>) at Hassfurt.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his writings on architecture are <i>Die Lehre von den Säulenordnungen</i> +(1827); <i>Der Kleine Vignola</i> (1832); <i>Nürnbergs Baudenkmäler +der Vorzeit</i> (1838-1843, complete edition 1854); and <i>Die +Ornamentik des Mittelalters</i> (1838-1842).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIDENHEIM,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of +Württemberg, 31 m. by rail north by east of Ulm. Pop. (1905), +12,173. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span> +and several schools. Its industrial establishments include +cotton, woollen, tobacco, machinery and chemical factories, +bleach-works, dye-works and breweries, and corn and cattle +markets. The town, which received municipal privileges in +1356, is overlooked by the ruins of the castle of Hellenstein, +standing on a hill 1985 ft. high. Heidenheim is also the name +of a small place in Bavaria famous on account of the Benedictine +abbey which formerly stood therein. Founded in 748 by +Wilibald, bishop of Eichstätt, this was plundered by the peasantry +in 1525 and was closed in 1537.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIFER,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a young cow that has not calved. The O. Eng. <i>heahfore</i> +or <i>heafru</i>, from which the word is derived, is of obscure origin. +It is found in Bede’s <i>History</i> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 900) as <i>heahfore</i>, and has +passed through many forms. It is possibly derived from <i>heah</i>, +high, and <i>faren</i> (fare), to go, meaning “high-stepper.” It has +also been suggested that the derivation is from <i>hea</i>, a stall, and +<i>fore</i>, a cow.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1835-1905), German novelist, +was born, the son of a <i>régisseur</i> or stage-manager of the court +theatre, on the 25th of March 1835 at Munich. In this city he +received his early schooling and studied (1854-1858) philosophy +at the university. He was then appointed librarian to Prince +Heinrich zu Carolath-Beuthen in Lower Silesia, and accompanied +the nephew of the prince on travels. In 1863 he settled in Berlin, +where from 1865 to 1875 he was engaged in journalism. He +next resided at Munich, employed in literary work for the king, +Ludwig II., who in 1881 conferred upon him a title of nobility. +On the death of the king in 1886 he removed to Riva on the +Lago di Garda, where he died on the 6th of September 1905. +Karl von Heigel attained some popularity with his novels: +<i>Wohin?</i> (1873), <i>Die Dame ohne Herz</i> (1873), <i>Das Geheimnis +des Königs</i> (1891), <i>Der Roman einer Stadt</i> (1898), <i>Der Maharadschah</i> +(1900), <i>Die nervöse Frau</i> (1900), <i>Die neuen Heiligen</i> +(1901), and <i>Brömels Glück und Ende</i> (1902). He also wrote +some plays, notably <i>Josephine Bonaparte</i> (1892) and <i>Die Zarin</i> +(1883); and several collections of short stories, <i>Neue Erzählungen</i> +(1876), <i>Neueste Novellen</i> (1878), and <i>Heitere Erzählungen</i> +(1893).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIJERMANS, HERMANN<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1864-  ) , Dutch writer, of +Jewish origin, was born on the 3rd of December 1864 at Rotterdam. +In the Amsterdam <i>Handelsblad</i> he published a series of +sketches of Jewish family life under the pseudonym of “Samuel +Falkland,” which were collected in volume form. His novels +and tales include <i>Trinette</i> (1892), <i>Fles</i> (1893), <i>Kamertjeszonde</i> +(2 vols., 1896), <i>Intérieurs</i> (1897), <i>Diamantstadt</i> (2 vols., 1903). +He created great interest by his play <i>Op Hoop van Zegen</i> (1900), +represented at the Théâtre Antoine in Paris, and in English by +the Stage Society as <i>The Good Hope</i>. His other plays are: +<i>Dora Kremer</i> (1893), <i>Ghetto</i> (1898), <i>Het zevende Gebot</i> (1899), +<i>Het Pantser</i> (1901), <i>Ora et labora</i> (1901), and numerous one-act +pieces. <i>A Case of Arson</i>, an English version of the one-act play +<i>Brand in de Jonge Jan</i>, was notable for the impersonation (1904 +and 1905) by Henri de Vries of all the seven witnesses who appear +as characters.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEILBRONN,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, +situated in a pleasant and fruitful valley on the Neckar, +33 m. by rail N. of Stuttgart, and at the junction of lines to +Jagdsfeld, Crailsheim and Eppingen. Pop. (1905), 40,026. In +the older part of the town the streets are narrow, and contain +a number of high turreted houses with quaintly adorned gables. +The old fortifications have now been demolished, and their site +is occupied by promenades, outside of which are the more modern +parts of the town with wide streets and many handsome buildings. +The principal public buildings are the church of St Kilian +(restored 1886-1895) in the Gothic and Renaissance styles, begun +about 1019 and completed in 1529, with an elegant tower 210 ft. +high, a beautiful choir, and a finely carved altar; the town hall +(Rathaus), founded in 1540, and possessing a curious clock made +in 1580, and a collection of interesting letters and other documents; +the house of the Teutonic knights (Deutsches Haus), +now used as a court of law; the Roman Catholic church of St +Joseph, formerly the church of the Teutonic Order; the tower +(Diebsturm or Götzens Turm) on the Neckar, in which Götz +von Berlichingen was confined in 1519; a fine synagogue; an +historical museum and several monuments, among them those +to the emperors William I. and Frederick I., to Bismarck, to +Schiller and to Robert von Mayer (1814-1878), a native of the +town, famous for his discoveries concerning heat. The educational +establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial school +and an agricultural academy. The town in a commercial point +of view is the most important in Württemberg, and possesses +an immense variety of manufactures, of which the principal are +gold, silver, steel and iron wares, machines, sugar of lead, white +lead, vinegar, beer, sugar, tobacco, soap, oil, cement, chemicals, +artificial manure, glue, soda, tapestry, paper and cloth. Grapes, +fruit, vegetables and flowering shrubs are largely grown in the +neighbourhood, and there are large quarries for sandstone and +gypsum and extensive salt-works. By means of the Neckar +a considerable trade is carried on in wood, bark, leather, +agricultural produce, fruit and cattle.</p> + +<p>Heilbronn occupies the site of an old Roman settlement; it +is first mentioned in 741, and the Carolingian princes had a palace +here. It owes its name—originally Heiligbronn, or holy spring—to +a spring of water which until 1857 was to be seen issuing from +under the high altar of the church of St Kilian. Heilbronn +obtained privileges from Henry IV. and from Rudolph I. and +became a free imperial city in 1360. It was frequently besieged +during the middle ages, and it suffered greatly during the +Peasants’ War, the Thirty Years’ War, and the various wars +with France. In April 1633 a convention was entered into here +between Oxenstierna, the Swabian and Frankish estates and the +French, English and Dutch ambassadors, as a result of which the +Heilbronn treaty, for the prosecution of the Thirty Years’ War, +was concluded. In 1802 Heilbronn was annexed by Württemberg.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jäger, <i>Geschichte von Heilbronn</i> (Heilbronn, 1828); Kuttler, +<i>Heilbronn, seine Umgebungen und seine Geschichte</i> (Heilbronn, 1859); +Dürr, <i>Heilbronner Chronik</i> (Halle, 1896); Schliz, <i>Die Entstehung +der Stadtgemeinde Heilbronn</i> (Leipzig, 1903); and A. Küsel, <i>Der +Heilbrunner Konvent</i> (Halle, 1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEILIGENSTADT,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, +on the Leine, 32 m. E.N.E. of Cassel, on the railway to Halle. +Pop. (1905), 7955. It possesses an old castle, formerly belonging +to the electors of Mainz, one Evangelical and two Roman +Catholic churches, several educational establishments, and an +infirmary. The principal manufactures are cotton goods, +cigars, paper, cement and needles. Heiligenstadt is said to have +been built by the Frankish king Dagobert and was formerly +the capital of the principality of Eichsfeld. In 1022 it was +acquired by the archbishop of Mainz, and in 1103 it came into +the possession of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony, but when his +son Henry the Lion was placed under the ban of the Empire, it +again came to Mainz. It was destroyed by fire in 1333, and was +captured in 1525 by Duke Henry of Brunswick. In 1803 it +came into possession of Prussia. The Jesuits had a celebrated +college here from 1581 to 1773.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEILSBERG,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the province of East +Prussia, at the junction of the Simser and Alle, 38 m. S. of +Königsberg. Pop. (1905), 6042. It has an Evangelical and a +Roman Catholic church, and an old castle formerly the seat of +the prince-bishops of Ermeland, but now used as an infirmary. +The principal industries are tanning, dyeing and brewing, and +there is considerable trade in grain. The castle founded at +Heilsberg by the Teutonic order in 1240 became in 1306 the seat +of the bishops of Ermeland, an honour which it retained for +500 years. On the 10th of June 1807 a battle took place at +Heilsberg between the French under Soult and Murat, and the +Russians and Prussians under Bennigsen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEILSBRONN<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Kloster-Heilsbronn</span>), a village of +Germany, in the Bavarian province of Middle Franconia, with +a station on the railway between Nuremberg and Ansbach, has +1200 inhabitants. In the middle ages it was the seat of one of +the great monasteries of Germany. This foundation, which +belonged to the Cistercian order, owed its origin to Bishop Otto +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span> +of Bamberg in 1132, and continued to exist till 1555. Its +sepulchral monuments, many of which are figured by Hocker, +<i>Heilsbronnischer Antiquitätenschatz</i> (Ansbach, 1731-1740), are of +exceptionally high artistic interest. It was the hereditary +burial-place of the Hohenzollern family and ten burgraves of +Nuremberg, five margraves and three electors of Brandenburg, +and many other persons of note are buried within its walls. +The buildings of the monastery have mostly disappeared, with +the exception of the fine church, a Romanesque basilica, restored +between 1851 and 1866, and possessing paintings by Albert +Dürer. The “Monk of Heilsbronn” is the ordinary appellation +of a didactic poet of the 14th century, whose <i>Sieben Graden</i>, +<i>Tochter Syon</i> and <i>Leben des heiligen Alexius</i> were published by +J. F. L. T. Merzdorf at Berlin in 1870.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Rehm, <i>Ein Gang durch und um die Münster-Kirche zu Kloster-Heilsbronn</i> +(Ansbach, 1875); Stillfried, <i>Kloster-Heilsbronn, ein +Beitrag zu den Hohenzollernschen Forschungen</i> (Berlin, 1877); Muck, +<i>Geschichte von Kloster-Heilsbronn</i> (Nördlingen, 1879-1880); J. Meyer, +<i>Die Hohenzollerndenkmale in Heilsbronn</i> (Ansbach, 1891); and A. +Wagner, <i>Über den Mönch von Heilsbronn</i> (Strassburg, 1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1849-  ) , Swiss +geologist, was born at Zürich on the 12th of April 1849. He was +educated at Zürich and Berlin universities. Very early in life +he became interested in the physical features of the Alps, and +at the age of sixteen he made a model of the Tödi group. This +came under the notice of Arnold Escher von der Linth, to whom +Heim was indebted for much encouragement and geological +instruction in the field. In 1873 he became professor of geology +in the polytechnic school at Zürich, and in 1875 professor of +geology in the university. In 1882 he was appointed director of +the Geological Survey of Switzerland, and in 1884 the hon. degree +of Ph.D. was conferred upon him at Berne. He is especially +distinguished for his researches on the structure of the Alps +and for the light thereby thrown on the structure of mountain +masses in general. He traced the plications from minor to major +stages, and illustrated the remarkable foldings and overthrust +faultings in numerous sections and with the aid of pictorial +drawings. His magnificent work, <i>Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung</i> +(1878), is now regarded as a classic, and it served to inspire +Professor C. Lapworth in his brilliant researches on the Scottish +Highlands (see <i>Geol. Mag.</i> 1883). Heim also devoted considerable +attention to the glacial phenomena of the Alpine regions. +The Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1904 by the +Geological Society of London.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIM, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1787-1865), French painter, +was born at Belfort on the 16th of December 1787. He early +distinguished himself at the École Centrale of Strassburg, and +in 1803 entered the studio of Vincent at Paris. In 1807 he +obtained the first prize, and in 1812 his picture of “The +Return of Jacob” (Musée de Bordeaux) won for him a gold +medal of the first class, which he again obtained in 1817, when +he exhibited, together with other works, a St John—bought by +Vivant Denon. In 1819 the “Resurrection of Lazarus” +(Cathédral Autun), the “Martyrdom of St Cyr” (St Gervais), +and two scenes from the life of Vespasian (ordered by the king) +attracted attention. In 1823 the “Re-erection of the Royal +Tombs at St Denis,” the “Martyrdom of St Laurence” (Notre +Dame) and several full-length portraits increased the painter’s +popularity; and in 1824, when he exhibited his great canvas, +the “Massacre of the Jews” (Louvre), Heim was rewarded with +the legion of honour. In 1827 appeared the “King giving away +Prizes at the Salon of 1824” (Louvre—engraved by Jazet)—the +picture by which Heim is best known—and “Saint +Hyacinthe.” Heim was now commissioned to decorate the +Gallery Charles X. (Louvre). Though ridiculed by the romantists, +Heim succeeded Regnault at the Institute in 1834, shortly +after which he commenced a series of drawings of the celebrities +of his day, which are of much interest. His decorations of the +Conference room of the Chamber of Deputies were completed +in 1844; and in 1847 his works at the Salon—“Champ de Mai” +and “Reading a Play at the Théâtre Français”—were the signal +for violent criticisms. Yet something like a turn of opinion in +his favour took place at the exhibition of 1851; his powers as a +draughtsman and the occasional merits of his composition were +recognized, and toleration extended even to his colour. Heim +was awarded the great gold medal, and in 1855—having sent to +the Salon no less than sixteen portraits, amongst which may be +cited those of “Cuvier,” “Geoffroy de St Hilaire,” and “Madame +Hersent”—he was made officer of the legion of honour. In 1859 +he again exhibited a curious collection of portraits, sixty-four +members of the Institute arranged in groups of four. He died +on the 29th of September 1865. Besides the paintings already +mentioned, there is to be seen in Notre Dame de Lorette (Paris) +a work executed on the spot; and the museum of Strassburg +contains an excellent example of his easel pictures, the subject +of which is a “Shepherd Drinking from a Spring.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIMDAL,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> or <i>Heimdall</i>, in Scandinavian mythology, the +keeper of the gates of Heaven and the guardian of the rainbow +bridge Bifrost. He is the son of Odin by nine virgins, all sisters. +He is called “the god with the golden teeth.” He lives in the +stronghold of Himinsbiorg at the end of Bifrost. His chief +attribute is a vigilance which nothing can escape. He sleeps less +than a bird; sees at night and even in his sleep; can hear the +grass, and even the wool on a lamb’s back grow. He is armed +with Gjallar, the magic horn, with which he will summon the gods +on the day of judgment.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEINE, HEINRICH,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1797-1856), German poet and journalist, +was born at Düsseldorf, of Jewish parents, on the 13th of +December 1797. His father, after various vicissitudes in business, +had finally settled in Düsseldorf, and his mother, who possessed +much energy of character, was the daughter of a physician of +the same place. Heinrich (or, more exactly, Harry) was the +eldest of four children, and received his education, first in private +schools, then in the Lyceum of his native town; although not an +especially apt or diligent pupil, he acquired a knowledge of French +and English, as well as some tincture of the classics and Hebrew. +His early years coincided with the most brilliant period of +Napoleon’s career, and the boundless veneration which he is never +tired of expressing for the emperor throughout his writings +shows that his true schoolmasters were rather the drummers +and troopers of a victorious army than the masters of the Lyceum. +By freeing the Jews from many of the political disabilities under +which they had hitherto suffered, Napoleon became, it may be +noted, the object of particular enthusiasm in the circles amidst +which Heine grew up. When he left school in 1815, an attempt +was made to engage him in business in Frankfort, but without +success. In the following year his uncle, Solomon Heine, a +wealthy banker in Hamburg, took him into his office. A passion +for his cousin Amalie Heine seems to have made the young +man more contented with his lot in Hamburg, and his success +was such that his uncle decided to set him up in business for +himself. This, however, proved too bold a step; in a very few +months the firm of “Harry Heine & Co.” was insolvent. His +uncle now generously provided him with money to enable him to +study at a university, with the view to entering the legal profession, +and in the spring of 1819 Heine became a student of the university +of Bonn. During his stay there he devoted himself rather to the +study of literature and history than to that of law; amongst +his teachers A. W. von Schlegel, who took a kindly interest in +Heine’s poetic essays, exerted the most lasting influence on him. +In the autumn of 1820 Heine left Bonn for Göttingen, where he +proposed to devote himself more assiduously to professional +studies, but in February of the following year he challenged to +a pistol duel a fellow-student who had insulted him, and was, +in consequence, rusticated for six months. The pedantic +atmosphere of the university of Göttingen was, however, little +to his taste; the news of his cousin’s marriage unsettled him +still more; and he was glad of the opportunity to seek distraction +in Berlin.</p> + +<p>In the Prussian capital a new world opened up to him; a +very different life from that of Göttingen was stirring in the new +university there, and Heine, like all his contemporaries, sat at +the feet of Hegel and imbibed from him, doubtless, those views +which in later years made the poet the apostle of an outlook +upon life more modern than that of his romantic predecessors. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span> +Heine was also fortunate in having access to the chief +literary circles of the capital; he was on terms of intimacy +with Varnhagen von Ense and his wife, the celebrated Rahel, +at whose house he frequently met such men as the Humboldts, +Hegel himself and Schleiermacher; he made the acquaintance +of leading men of letters like Fouqué and Chamisso, and was +on a still more familiar footing with the most distinguished +of his co-religionists in Berlin. Under such favourable circumstances +his own gifts were soon displayed. He contributed +poems to the <i>Berliner Gesellschafter</i>, many of which were subsequently +incorporated in the <i>Buch der Lieder</i>, and in December +1821 a little volume came from the press entitled <i>Gedichte</i>, his +first avowed act of authorship. He was also employed at this +time as correspondent of a Rhenish newspaper, as well as in +completing his tragedies <i>Almansor</i> and <i>William Ratcliff</i>, which +were published in 1823 with small success. In that same year +Heine, not in the most hopeful spirits, returned to his family, +who had meanwhile moved to Lüneburg. He had plans of +settling in Paris, but as he was still dependent on his uncle, +the latter’s consent had to be obtained. As was to be expected, +Solomon Heine did not favour the new plan, but promised to +continue his support on the condition that Harry completed +his course of legal study. He sent the young student for a six +weeks’ holiday at Cuxhaven, which opened the poet’s eyes to +the wonders of the sea; and three weeks spent subsequently +at his uncle’s county seat near Hamburg were sufficient to +awaken a new passion in Heine’s breast—this time for Amalie’s +sister, Therese. In January 1824 Heine returned to Göttingen, +where, with the exception of a visit to Berlin and the excursion to +the Hartz mountains in the autumn of 1824, which is immortalized +in the first volume of the <i>Reisebilder</i>, he remained until his +graduation in the summer of the following year. It was on the +latter of these journeys that he had the interview with Goethe +which was so amusingly described by him in later years. A few +weeks before obtaining his degree, he took a step which he had +long meditated; he formally embraced Christianity. This +“act of apostasy,” which has been dwelt upon at unnecessary +length both by Heine’s enemies and admirers, was actuated +wholly by practical considerations, and did not arise from any +wish on the poet’s part to deny his race. The summer months +which followed his examination Heine spent by his beloved +sea in the island of Norderney, his uncle having again generously +supplied the means for this purpose. The question of his future +now became pressing, and for a time he seriously considered the +plan of settling as a solicitor in Hamburg, a plan which was +associated in his mind with the hope of marrying his cousin +Therese. Meanwhile he had made arrangements for the publication +of the <i>Reisebilder</i>, the first volume of which, <i>Die Harzreise</i>, +appeared in May 1826. The success of the book was instantaneous. +Its lyric outbursts and flashes of wit; its rapid +changes from grave to gay; its flexibility of thought and style, +came as a revelation to a generation which had grown weary of +the lumbering literary methods of the later Romanticists.</p> + +<p>In the spring of the following year Heine paid a long planned +visit to England, where he was deeply impressed by the free +and vigorous public life, by the size and bustle of London; above +all, he was filled with admiration for Canning, whose policy +had realized many a dream of the young German idealists of +that age. But the picture had also its reverse; the sordidly +commercial spirit of English life, and brutal egotism of the +ordinary Englishman, grated on Heine’s sensitive nature; +he missed the finer literary and artistic tastes of the continent +and was repelled by the austerity of English religious sentiment +and observance. Unfortunately the latter aspects of English +life left a deeper mark on his memory than the bright side. +In October Baron Cotta, the well-known publisher, offered +Heine—the second volume of whose <i>Reisebilder</i> and the <i>Buch +der Lieder</i> had meanwhile appeared and won him fresh laurels—the +joint-editorship of the <i>Neue allgemeine politische Annalen</i>. +He gladly accepted the offer and betook himself to Munich. +Heine did his best to adapt himself and his political opinions to +the new surroundings, in the hope of coming in for a share of +the good things which Ludwig I. of Bavaria was so generously +distributing among artists and men of letters. But the stings +of the <i>Reisebilder</i> were not so easily forgotten; the clerical +party in particular did not leave him long in peace. In July +1828, the professorship on which he had set his hopes being +still not forthcoming, he left Munich for Italy, where he remained +until the following November, a holiday which provided material +for the third and part of the fourth volumes of the <i>Reisebilder</i>. +A blow more serious than the Bavarian king’s refusal to establish +him in Munich awaited him on his return to Germany—the +death of his father. In the beginning of 1829 Heine took up +his abode in Berlin, where he resumed old acquaintanceships; +in summer he was again at the sea, and in autumn he returned +to the city he now loathed above all others, Hamburg, where he +virtually remained until May 1831. These years were not a +happy period of the poet’s life; his efforts to obtain a position, +apart from that which he owed to his literary work, met with +rebuffs on every side; his relations with his uncle were unsatisfactory +and disturbed by constant friction, and for a time +he was even seriously ill. His only consolation in these months +of discontent was the completion and publication of the <i>Reisebilder</i>. +When in 1830 the news of the July Revolution in the +streets of Paris reached him, Heine hailed it as the beginning +of a new era of freedom, and his thoughts reverted once more +to his early plan of settling in Paris. All through the following +winter the plan ripened, and in May 1831 he finally said farewell +to his native land.</p> + +<p>Heine’s first impressions of the “New Jerusalem of Liberalism” +were jubilantly favourable; Paris, he proclaimed, was the +capital of the civilized world, to be a citizen of Paris the highest +of honours. He was soon on friendly terms with many of the +notabilities of the capital, and there was every prospect of a +congenial and lucrative journalistic activity as correspondent +for German newspapers. Two series of his articles were subsequently +collected and published under the titles <i>Französische +Zustände</i> (1832) and <i>Lutezia</i> (written 1840-1843, published in +the <i>Vermischte Schriften</i>, 1854). In December 1835, however, +the German Bund, incited by W. Menzel’s attacks on “Young +Germany,” issued its notorious decree, forbidding the publication +of any writings by the members of that coterie; the name of +Heine, who had been stigmatized as the leader of the movement +headed the list. This was the beginning of a series of literary +feuds in which Heine was, from now on, involved; but a more +serious and immediate effect of the decree was to curtail considerably +his sources of income. His uncle, it is true, had allowed +him 4000 francs a year when he settled in Paris, but at this +moment he was not on the best of terms with his Hamburg +relatives. Under these circumstances he was induced to take +a step which his fellow-countrymen have found it hard to forgive; +he applied to the French government for support from a secret +fund formed for the benefit of “political refugees” who were +willing to place themselves at the service of France. From 1836 +or 1837 until the Revolution of 1848 Heine was in receipt of +4800 francs annually from this source.</p> + +<p>In October 1834 Heine made the acquaintance of a young +Frenchwoman, Eugénie Mirat, a saleswoman in a boot-shop +in Paris, and before long had fallen passionately in love with +her. Although ill-educated, vain and extravagant, she inspired +the poet with a deep and lasting affection, and in 1841, on the +eve of a duel in which he had become involved, he made her +his wife. “Mathilde,” as Heine called her, was not the comrade +to help the poet in days of adversity, or to raise him to better +things, but, in spite of passing storms, he seems to have been +happy with her, and she nursed him faithfully in his last illness. +Her death occurred in 1883. His relations with Mathilde +undoubtedly helped to weaken his ties with Germany; and +notwithstanding the affection he professed to cherish for his +native land, he only revisited it twice, in the autumn of 1843 and +the summer of 1847. In 1845 appeared the first unmistakable +signs of the terrible spinal disease, which, for eight years, from +the spring of 1848 till his death, condemned him to a “mattress +grave.” These years of suffering—suffering which left his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span> +intellect as clear and vivacious as ever—seem to have effected +what might be called a spiritual purification in Heine’s nature, +and to have brought out all the good sides of his character, +whereas adversity in earlier years only intensified his cynicism. +The lyrics of the <i>Romanzero</i> (1851) and the collection of <i>Neueste +Gedichte</i> (1853-1854) surpass in imaginative depth and sincerity +of purpose the poetry of the <i>Buch der Lieder</i>. Most wonderful +of all are the poems inspired by Heine’s strange mystic passion +for the lady he called <i>Die Mouche</i>, a countrywoman of his own—her +real name was Elise von Krienitz, but she had written in +French under the <i>nom de plume</i> of Camille Selden—who helped +to brighten the last months of the poet’s life. He died on the +17th of February 1856, and lies buried in the cemetery of +Montmartre.</p> + +<p>Besides the purely journalistic work of Heine’s Paris years, +to which reference has already been made, he published a collection +of more serious prose writings under the title <i>Der Salon</i> +(1833-1839). In this collection will be found, besides papers on +French art and the French stage, the essays “Zur Geschichte der +Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland,” which he had written +for the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>. Here, too, are the more characteristic +productions of Heine’s genius, <i>Aus den Memoiren des +Herrn von Schnabelewopski</i>, <i>Der Rabbi von Bacherach</i> and +<i>Florentinische Nächte</i>. <i>Die romantische Schule</i> (1836), with +its unpardonable personal attack on the elder Schlegel, is a +less creditable essay in literary criticism. In 1839 appeared +<i>Shakespeares Mädchen und Frauen</i>, which, however, was merely +the text to a series of illustrations; and in 1840, the witty and +trenchant satire on a writer, who, in spite of many personal +disagreements, had been Heine’s fellow-fighter in the liberal +cause, Ludwig Börne. Of Heine’s poetical work in these years, +his most important publications were, besides the <i>Romanzero</i>, +the two admirable satires, <i>Deutschland, ein Wintermärchen</i> +(1844), the result of his visit to Germany, and <i>Atta Troll, ein +Sommernachtstraum</i> (1876), an attack on the political <i>Tendenzliteratur</i> +of the ’forties.</p> + +<p>In the case of no other of the greater German poets is it so +hard to arrive at a final judgment as in that of Heinrich Heine. +In his <i>Buch der Lieder</i> he unquestionably struck a new lyric +note, not merely for Germany but for Europe. No singer +before him had been so daring in the use of nature-symbolism +as he, none had given such concrete and plastic expression to +the spiritual forces of heart and soul; in this respect Heine +was clearly the descendant of the Hebrew poets of the Old +Testament. At times, it is true, his imagery is exaggerated +to the degree of absurdity, but it exercised, none the less, a +fascination over his generation. Heine combined with a spiritual +delicacy, a fineness of perception, that firm hold on reality +which is so essential to the satirist. His lyric appealed with +particular force to foreign peoples, who had little understanding +for the intangible, undefinable spirituality which the German +people regard as an indispensable element in their national +lyric poetry. Thus his fame has always stood higher in England +and France than in Germany itself, where his lyric method, +his self-consciousness, his cynicism in season and out of season, +were little in harmony with the literary traditions. As far, +indeed, as the development of the German lyric is concerned, +Heine’s influence has been of questionable value. But he +introduced at least one new and refreshing element into German +poetry with his lyrics of the North Sea; no other German +poet has felt and expressed so well as Heine the charm of sea +and coast.</p> + +<p>As a prose writer, Heine’s merits were very great. His work +was, in the main, journalism, but it was journalism of a high +order, and, after all, the best literature of the “Young German” +school to which he belonged was of this character. Heine’s +light fancy, his agile intellect, his straightforward, clear style +stood him here in excellent stead. The prose writings of his +French period mark, together with Börne’s <i>Briefe aus Paris</i>, +the beginning of a new era in German journalism and a healthy +revolt against the <span class="correction" title="amended from unwieldly">unwieldy</span> prose of the Romantic period. +Above all things, Heine was great as a wit and a satirist. His +lyric may not be able to assert itself beside that of the very +greatest German singers, but as a satirist he had powers of the +highest order. He combined the holy zeal and passionate +earnestness of the “soldier of humanity” with the withering +scorn and ineradicable sense of justice common to the leaders +of the Jewish race. It was Heine’s real mission to be a reformer, +to restore with instruments of war rather than of peace “the +interrupted order of the world.” The more’s the pity that his +magnificent Aristophanic genius should have had so little +room for its exercise, and have been frittered away in the petty +squabbles of an exiled journalist.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first collected edition of Heine’s works was edited by A. +Strodtmann in 21 vols. (1861-1866), the best critical edition is the +<i>Sämtliche Werke</i>, edited by E. Elster (7 vols., 1887-1890). Heine +has been more translated into other tongues than any other German +writer of his time. Mention may here be made of the French +translation of his <i>Œuvres complètes</i> (14 vols., 1852-1868), and the +English translation (by C. G. Leland and others) recently completed, +<i>The Works of Heinrich Heine</i> (13 vols., 1892-1905). For biography +and criticism see the following works: A. Strodtmann, <i>Heines Leben +und Werke</i> (3rd ed., 1884); H. Hueffer, <i>Aus dem Leben H. Heines</i> +(1878); and by the same author, <i>H. Heine: Gesammelte Aufsätze</i> +(1906); G. Karpeles, <i>H. Heine und seine Zeitgenossen</i> (1888), and +by the same author, <i>H. Heine: aus seinem Leben und aus seiner +Zeit</i> (1900); W. Bölsche, <i>H. Heine: Versuch einer ästhetischkritischen +Analyse seiner Werke und seiner Weltanschauung</i> (1888); +G. Brandes, <i>Det unge Tyskland</i> (1890; Eng. trans., 1905). An +English biography by W. Stigand, <i>Life, Works and Opinions of +Heinrich Heine</i>, appeared in 1875, but it has little value; there is +also a short life by W. Sharp (1888). The essays on Heine by +George Eliot and Matthew Arnold are well known. The best French +contributions to Heine criticism are J. Legras, <i>H. Heine, poète</i> +(1897), and H. Lichtenberger, <i>H. Heine, penseur</i> (1905). See also +L.P. Betz, <i>Heine in Frankreich</i> (1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. W. F.; J. G. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1681-1741), German +jurist, was born on the 11th of September 1681 at Eisenberg, +Altenburg. He studied theology at Leipzig, and law at Halle; +and at the latter university he was appointed in 1713 professor +of philosophy, and in 1718 professor of jurisprudence. He +subsequently filled legal chairs at Franeker in Holland and at +Frankfort, but finally returned to Halle in 1733 as professor +of philosophy and jurisprudence. He died there on the 31st of +August 1741. Heineccius belonged to the school of philosophical +jurists. He endeavoured to treat law as a rational science, and +not merely as an empirical art whose rules had no deeper +source than expediency. Thus he continually refers to first +principles, and he develops his legal doctrines as a system of +philosophy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His chief works were <i>Antiquitatum Romanarum jurisprudentiam +illustrantium syntagma</i> (1718), <i>Historia juris civilis Romani ac +Germanici</i> (1733), <i>Elementa juris Germanici</i> (1735), <i>Elementa juris +naturae et gentium</i> (1737; Eng. trans. by Turnbull, 2 vols., London, +1763). Besides these works he wrote on purely philosophical subjects, +and edited the works of several of the classical jurists. His +<i>Opera omnia</i> (9 vols., Geneva, 1771, &c.) were edited by his son +Johann Christian Gottlieb Heineccius (1718-1791).</p> +</div> + +<p>Heineccius’s brother, <span class="sc">Johann Michael Heineccius</span> (1674-1722), +was a well-known preacher and theologian, but is remembered +more from the fact that he was the first to make a +systematic study of seals, concerning which he left a book, <i>De +veteribus Germanorum aliarumque nationum sigillis</i> (Leipzig, +1710; 2nd ed., 1719).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1721-1725), a child +remarkable for precocity of intellect, was born on the 6th of +February 1721 at Lübeck, where his father was a painter. +Able to speak at the age of ten months, by the time he was one +year old he knew by heart the principal incidents in the +Pentateuch. At two years of age he had mastered sacred +history; at three he was intimately acquainted with history +and geography, ancient and modern, sacred and profane, besides +being able to speak French and Latin; and in his fourth year +he devoted himself to the study of religion and church history. +This wonderful precocity was no mere feat of memory, for the +youthful savant could reason on and discuss the knowledge +he had acquired. Crowds of people flocked to Lübeck to see +the wonderful child; and in 1724 he was taken to Copenhagen +at the desire of the king of Denmark. On his return to Lübeck +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span> +he began to learn writing, but his sickly constitution gave way, +and he died on the 22nd of June 1725.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Life, Deeds, Travels and Death of the Child of Lübeck</i> +were published in the following year by his tutor Schöneich. See +also <i>Teutsche Bibliothek</i>, xvii., and <i>Mémoires de Trévoux</i> (Jan. +1731).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEINICKE, SAMUEL<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1727-1790), the originator in Germany +of systematic education for the deaf and dumb, was born on the +10th of April 1727, at Nautschütz, Germany. Entering the +electoral bodyguard at Dresden, he subsequently supported +himself by teaching. About 1754 his first deaf and dumb pupil +was brought him. His success in teaching this pupil was so +great that he determined to devote himself entirely to this work. +The outbreak of the Seven Years’ War upset his plans for a time. +Taken prisoner at Pirna, he was brought to Dresden, but soon +made his escape. In 1768, when living in Hamburg, he successfully +taught a deaf and dumb boy to talk, following the methods +prescribed by Amman in his book <i>Surdus loquens</i>, but improving +on them. Recalled to his own country by the elector of Saxony, +he opened in Leipzig, in 1778, the first deaf and dumb institution +in Germany. This school he directed till his death, which took +place on the 30th of April 1790. He was the author of a variety +of books on the instruction of the deaf and dumb.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1749-1803), German +author, was born at Langewiesen near Ilmenau in Thuringia on +the 16th of February 1749. After attending the gymnasium at +Schleusingen he studied law at Jena and Erfurt. In Erfurt he +became acquainted with Wieland and through him with “Father” +Gleim who in 1772 procured him the post of tutor in a family at +Quedlinburg. In 1774 he went to Düsseldorf, where he assisted +the poet J. G. Jacobi to edit the periodical <i>Iris</i>. Here the +famous picture gallery inspired him with a passion for art, to the +study of which he devoted himself with so much zeal and insight +that Jacobi furnished him with funds for a stay in Italy, where +he remained for three years (1780-1783), He returned to Düsseldorf +in 1784, and in 1786 was appointed reader to the elector +Frederick Charles Joseph, archbishop of Mainz, who subsequently +made him his librarian at Aschaffenburg, where he died +on the 22nd of June 1803.</p> + +<p>The work upon which Heinse’s fame mainly rests is <i>Ardinghello +und die glückseligen Inseln</i> (1787), a novel which forms the framework +for the exposition of his views on art and life, the plot being +laid in the Italy of the 16th century. This and his other novels +<i>Laidion, oder die eleusinischen Geheimnisse</i> (1774) and <i>Hildegard +von Hohenthal</i> (1796) combine the frank voluptuousness of +Wieland with the enthusiasm of the “Sturm und Drang.” Both +as novelist and art critic, Heinse had considerable influence on +the romantic school.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Heinse’s complete works (<i>Sämtliche Schriften</i>) were published by +H. Laube in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1838). A new edition by C. Schüddekopf +is in course of publication (Leipzig, 1901 sqq.). See H. Pröhle, +<i>Lessing, Wieland, Heinse</i> (Berlin, 1877), and J. Schober, <i>Johann +Jacob Wilhelm Heinse, sein Leben und seine Werke</i> (Leipzig, 1882); +also K. D. Jessen, <i>Heinses Stellung zur bildenden Kunst</i> (Berlin, +1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEINSIUS<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Heins</span>) <b>DANIEL</b> (1580-1655), one of the most +famous scholars of the Dutch Renaissance, was born at Ghent +on the 9th of June 1580. The troubles of the Spanish war drove +his parents to settle first at Veere in Zeeland, then in England, +next at Ryswick and lastly at Flushing. In 1594, being already +remarkable for his attainments, he was sent to the university of +Franeker to perfect himself in Greek under Henricus Schotanus. +He stayed at Franeker half a year, and then settled at Leiden +for the remaining sixty years of his life. There he studied under +Joseph Scaliger, and there he found Marnix de St Aldegonde, +Janus Douza, Paulus Merula and others, and was soon taken +into the society of these celebrated men as their equal. His +proficiency in the classic languages won the praise of all the best +scholars of Europe, and offers were made to him, but in vain, to +accept honourable positions outside Holland. He soon rose in +dignity at the university of Leiden. In 1602 he was made +professor of Latin, in 1605 professor of Greek, and at the death of +Merula in 1607 he succeeded that illustrious scholar as librarian +to the university. The remainder of his life is recorded in a list of +his productions. He died at the Hague on the 25th of February +1655. The Dutch poetry of Heinsius is of the school of Roemer +Visscher, but attains no very high excellence. It was, however, +greatly admired by Martin Opitz, who was the pupil of Heinsius, +and who, in translating the poetry of the latter, introduced the +German public to the use of the rhyming alexandrine.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He published his original Latin poems in three volumes—<i>Iambi</i> +(1602), <i>Elegiae</i> (1603) and <i>Poëmata</i> (1605); his <i>Emblemata amatoria</i>, +poems in Dutch and Latin, were first printed in 1604. In the same +year he edited Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, having edited Hesiod +in 1603. In 1609 he printed his Latin <i>Orations</i>. In 1610 he edited +Horace, and in 1611 Aristotle and Seneca. In 1613 appeared in +Dutch his tragedy of <i>The Massacre of the Innocents</i>; and in 1614 his +treatise <i>De politico sapientia</i>. In 1616 he collected his original Dutch +poems into a volume. He edited Terence in 1618, Livy in 1620, +published his oration <i>De contemptu mortis</i> in 1621, and brought out +the <i>Epistles</i> of Joseph Scaliger in 1627.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1620-1681), Dutch scholar, son of +Daniel Heinsius, was born at Leiden on the 20th of July 1620. +His boyish Latin poem of <i>Breda expugnata</i> was printed in +1637, and attracted much attention. In 1642 he began his +wanderings with a visit to England in search of MSS. of the +classics; but he met with little courtesy from the English +scholars. In 1644 he was sent to Spa to drink the waters; his +health restored, he set out once more in search of codices, passing +through Louvain, Brussels, Mechlin, Antwerp and so back to +Leiden, everywhere collating MSS. and taking philological and +textual notes. Almost immediately he set out again, and arriving +in Paris was welcomed with open arms by the French savants. +After investigating all the classical texts he could lay hands on, +he proceeded southwards, and visited on the same quest Lyons, +Marseilles, Pisa, Florence (where he paused to issue a new edition +of Ovid) and Rome. Next year, 1647, found him in Naples, +from which he fled during the reign of Masaniello; he pursued +his labours in Leghorn, Bologna, Venice and Padua, at which +latter city he published in 1648 his volume of original Latin verse +entitled <i>Italica</i>. He proceeded to Milan, and worked for a considerable +time in the Ambrosian library; he was preparing to +explore Switzerland in the same patient manner, when the news +of his father’s illness recalled him hurriedly to Leiden. He was +soon called away to Stockholm at the invitation of Queen +Christina, at whose court he waged war with Salmasius, who +accused him of having supplied Milton with facts from the life +of that great but irritable scholar. Heinsius paid a flying visit +to Leiden in 1650, but immediately returned to Stockholm. In +1651 he once more visited Italy; the remainder of his life was +divided between Upsala and Holland. He collected his Latin +poems into a volume in 1653. His latest labours were the +editing of Velleius Paterculus in 1678, and of Valerius Flaccus in +1680. He died at the Hague on the 7th of October 1681. Nikolaes +Heinsius was one of the purest and most elegant of Latinists, and +if his scholarship was not quite so perfect as that of his father, he +displayed higher gifts as an original writer.</p> + +<p>His illegitimate son, <span class="sc">Nikolaes Heinsius</span> (b. 1655), was the +author of <i>The Delightful Adventures and Wonderful Life of +Mirandor</i> (1675), the single Dutch romance of the 17th century. +He had to flee the country in 1677 for committing a murder in the +streets of the Hague, and died in obscurity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIR<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (Lat. <i>heres</i>, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in <i>herus</i> +or <i>erus</i>, master of a house, Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheir">χείρ</span>, hand, Sans, <i>harana</i>, +hand), in law, technically one who succeeds, by descent, to an +estate of inheritance, in contradistinction to one who succeeds +to personal property, <i>i.e.</i> next of kin. The word is now used +generally to denote the person who is entitled by law to inherit +property, titles, &c., of another. The rules regulating the descent +of property to an heir will be found in the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inheritance</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Succession</a></span>, &c.</p> + +<p>An <i>heir apparent</i> (Lat. <i>apparens</i>, manifest) is he whose right of +inheritance is indefeasible, provided he outlives the ancestor, +<i>e.g.</i> an eldest or only son.</p> + +<p><i>Heir by custom</i>, or customary heir, he who inherits by a +particular and local custom, as in borough-English, whereby +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span> +the youngest son inherits, or in gavelkind, whereby all the sons +inherit as parceners, and made but one heir.</p> + +<p><i>Heir general</i>, or heir at law, he who after the death of his +ancestor has, by law, the right to the inheritance.</p> + +<p><i>Heir presumptive</i>, one who is next in succession, but whose +right is defeasible by the birth of a nearer heir, <i>e.g.</i> a brother or +nephew, whose presumptive right may be destroyed by the birth +of a child, or a daughter, whose right may be defeated by the +birth of a son.</p> + +<p><i>Special heir</i>, one not heir at law (<i>i.e.</i> at common law), but by +special custom.</p> + +<p><i>Ultimate heir</i>, he to whom lands come by escheat on failure of +proper heirs. In Scots law the technical use of the word “heir” +is not confined to the succession to real property, but includes +succession to personal property as well.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEIRLOOM,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> strictly so called in English law, a chattel +(“loom” meaning originally a tool) which by immemorial +usage is regarded as annexed by inheritance to a family estate. +Any owner of such heirloom may dispose of it during his lifetime, +but he cannot bequeath it by will away from the estate. +If he dies intestate it goes to his heir-at-law, and if he devises +the estate it goes to the devisee. At the present time such +heirlooms are almost unknown, and the word has acquired a +secondary and popular meaning and is applied to furniture, +pictures, &c., vested in trustees to hold on trust for the person +for the time being entitled to the possession of a settled house. +Such things are more properly called settled chattels. An +heirloom in the strict sense is made by family custom, not by +settlement. A settled chattel may, under the Settled Land Act +1882, be sold under the direction of the court, and the money +arising under such sale is capital money. The court will only +sanction such a sale if it be shown that it is to the benefit of all +parties concerned; and if the article proposed to be sold is of +unique or historical character, it will have regard to the intention +of the settlor and the wishes of the remainder men (Re <i>Hope</i>, +<i>De Cetto</i> v. <i>Hope</i>, 1899, 2 ch. 679).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEJAZ<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hijaz</span>), a Turkish vilayet and a province of Western +Arabia, extending along the Red Sea coast from the head of +the Gulf of Akaba in 29° 30′ N. to the south of Taif in 20° N. It +is bounded N. by Syria, E. by the Nafud desert and by Nejd and +S. by Asir. Its length is about 750 m. and its greatest breadth +from the Harra east of Khaibar to the coast is 200 m. The +name Hejaz, which signifies “separating,” is sometimes limited +to the region extending from Medina in the north to Taif in the +south, which separates the island province Nejd from the +Tehama (Tihama) or coastal district, but most authorities, +both Arab and European, define it in the wider sense. Though +physically the most desolate and uninviting province in Arabia, +it has a special interest and importance as containing the two +sacred cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina (<i>q.v.</i>), respectively +the birthplace and burial-place of Mahomet, which are visited +yearly by large numbers of Moslem pilgrims from all parts of +the world.</p> + +<p>Hejaz is divided longitudinally by the Tehama range of +mountains into two zones, a narrow littoral and a broader +upland. This range attains its greatest height in Jebel Shar, +the Mount Seir of scripture, overlooking the Midian coast, +which probably reaches 7000 ft., and Jebel Radhwa a little N.E. +of Yambu rising to 6000 ft. It is broken through by several +valleys which carry off the drainage of the inland zone; the +principal of these is the Wadi Hamd, the main source of which +is on the Harra east of Khaibar. Its northern tributary the Wadi +Jizil drains the Harrat el Awerid and a southern branch comes +from the neighbourhood of Medina. Farther south the Wadi +es Safra cuts through the mountains and affords the principal +access to the valley of Medina from Yambu or Jidda. None +of the Hejaz Wadis has a perennial stream, but they are liable +to heavy floods after the winter rains, and thick groves of date-palms +and occasional settlements are met with along their +courses wherever permanent springs are found. The northern +part of Hejaz contains but few inhabited sites. Muwela, Damgha +and El Wijh are small ports used by coasting craft. The last +named was formerly an important station on the Egyptian +pilgrim route, and in ancient days was a Roman settlement, +and the port of the Nabataean towns of el Hajr 150 m. to the east. +Inland the sandstone desert of El Hisma reaches from the Syrian +border at Ma’an to Jebel Awerid, where the volcanic tracts +known as <i>harra</i> begin, and extend southwards along the western +borders of the Nejd plateau as far as the latitude of Mecca. East +of Jebel Awerid lies the oasis of Tema, identified with the +Biblical Teman, which belongs to the Shammar tribe; its fertility +depends on the famous well, known as Bir el Hudaj. Farther +south and on the main pilgrim route is El ‘Ala, the principal +settlement of El Hajr, the Egra of Ptolemy, to whom it was +known as an oasis town on the gold and frankincense road. +Higher up the same valley are the rock-cut tombs of Medina +Salih, similar to those at Petra and shown by the Nabataean +coins and inscriptions discovered there by Doughty and Huber +to date from the beginning of the Christian era. To the south-east +again is the oasis of Khaibar, with some 2500 inhabitants, +chiefly negroes, the remnants of an earlier slave population. +The citadel, known as the Kasr el Yahudi, preserves the tradition +of its former Jewish ownership. With these exceptions there +are no settled villages between Ma’an and Medina, the stations +on the pilgrim road being merely small fortified posts with +reservoirs, at intervals of 30 or 40 m., which are kept up by the +Turkish government for the protection of the yearly caravan.</p> + +<p>The southern part of the province is more favoured by nature. +Medina is a city of 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, situated in a +broad plain between the coast range and the low hills across +which lies the road to Nejd. Its altitude above the sea is about +2500 ft. It is well supplied with water and is surrounded by +gardens and plantations; barley and wheat are grown, but the +staple produce, as in all the cultivated districts of Hejaz, is dates, +of which 100 different sorts are said to grow. Yambu’ has a +certain importance as the port for Medina. The route follows +for part of the way along the Wadi es Safra, which contains +several small settlements with abundant date groves; from +Badr Hunen, the last of these, the route usually taken from +Medina to Mecca runs near the coast, passing villages with +some cultivation at each stage. The eastern route though more +direct is less used; it passes through a barren country described +by Burton as a succession of low plains and basins surrounded +by rolling hills and intersected by torrent beds; the predominant +formation is basalt. Suwerikiya and Es Safina are the only +villages of importance on this route.</p> + +<p>Mecca and the holy places in its vicinity are described in a +separate article; it is about 48 m. from the port of Jidda, the +most important trade centre of the Hejaz province. The great +majority of pilgrims for Mecca arrive by sea at Jidda. Their +transport and the supply of their wants is therefore the chief +business of the place; in 1904 the number was 66,500, and the +imports amounted in value to £1,400,000.</p> + +<p>From the hot lowland in which Mecca is situated the country +rises steeply up to the Taif plateau, some 6000 ft. above sea-level, +a district resembling in climate and physical character +the highlands of Asir and Yemen. Jebel el Kura at the northern +edge of the plateau is a fertile well-watered district, producing +wheat and barley and fruit. Taif, a day’s journey farther south, +lies in a sandy plain, surrounded by low mountains. The houses, +though small, are well built of stone; the gardens for which +it is celebrated lie at a distance of a mile or more to the S.W. at +the foot of the mountains.</p> + +<p>Hejaz, together with the other provinces of Arabia which on +the overthrow of the Bagdad Caliphate in 1258 had fallen under +Egyptian domination, became by the conquest of Egypt in 1517 +a dependency of the Ottoman empire. Beyond assuming the +title of Caliph, neither Salim I. nor his successors interfered +much in the government, which remained in the hands of the +sharifs of Mecca until the religious upheaval which culminated +at the beginning of the 19th century in the pillage of the holy +cities by the Wahhabi fanatics. Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, +was entrusted by the sultan with the task of establishing order, +and after several arduous campaigns the Wahhabis were routed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span> +and their capital Deraiya in Nejd taken by Ibrahim Pasha in +1817. Hejaz remained in Egyptian occupation until 1845, +when its administration was taken over directly by Constantinople, +and it was constituted a vilayet under a vali or governor-general. +The population is estimated at 300,000, about half of +which are inhabitants of the towns and the remainder Bedouin, +leading a nomad or pastoral life. The principal tribes are the +Sherarat, Beni Atiya and Huwetat in the north; the Juhena +between Yambu’ and Medina, and the various sections of the +Harb throughout the centre and south; the Ateba also touch +the Mecca border on the south-east. All these tribes receive +surra or money payments of large amount from the Turkish +government to ensure the safe conduct of the annual pilgrimage, +otherwise they are practically independent of the Turkish +administration, which is limited to the large towns and garrisons. +The troops occupying these latter belong to the 16th (Hejaz) +division of the Turkish army.</p> + +<p>The difficulties of communication with his Arabian provinces, +and of relieving or reinforcing the garrisons there, induced the +sultan Abdul Hamid in 1900 to undertake the construction +of a railway directly connecting the Hejaz +<span class="sidenote">The Hejaz railway.</span> +cities with Damascus without the necessity of leaving +Turkish territory at any point, as hitherto required +by the Suez Canal. Actual construction was begun in May 1901 +and on the 1st of September 1904 the section Damascus-Ma’an +(285 m.) was officially opened. The line has a narrow gauge +of 1.05 metre = 41 in., the same gauge as that of the Damascus-Beirut +line; it has a ruling gradient of 1 in 50 and follows generally +the pilgrim track, through a desert country presenting no +serious engineering difficulties. The graver difficulties due to +the scarcity of water, and the lack of fuel, supplies and labour +were successfully overcome; in 1906 the line was completed +to El Akhdar, 470 m. from Damascus and 350 from Medina, +In time to be used by the pilgrim caravan of that year; and the +section to Medina was opened in 1908. Its military value was +shown in the previous year, when it conveyed 28 battalions from +Damascus to Ma’an, from which station the troops marched to +Akaba for embarkation <i>en route</i> to Hodeda. The length of the line +from Damascus to Medina is approximately 820 m., and from +Medina to Mecca 280 m.; the highest level attained is about +4000 ft. at Dar el Hamra in the section Ma‘an-Medina.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—J. L. Burckhardt, <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (London, +1829); ‘Ali Bey, <i>Travels</i> (London, 1816); R. F. Burton, <i>Pilgrimage +to Medinah and Mecca</i> (1893); <i>Land of Midian</i> (London, 1879); +J. S. Hurgronje, <i>Mekka</i> (Hague, 1888); C. M. Doughty, <i>Arabia +Deserta</i> (Cambridge, 1888); Auler Pasha, <i>Die Hedschasbahn</i> (Gotha, +1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. A. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEJIRA,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span><a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or <span class="sc">Hegira</span> (Arab. <i>hijra</i>, flight, departure from +one’s country, from <i>hajara</i>, to go away), the name of the Mahommedan +era. It dates from 622, the year in which Mahomet +“fled” from Mecca to Medina to escape the persecution of his +kinsmen of the Koreish tribe. The years of this era are distinguished +by the initials “<span class="scs">A.H.</span>” (<i>anno hegirae</i>). The Mahommedan +year is a lunar one, about 11 days shorter than the +Christian; allowance must be made for this in translating +<i>Hegira</i> dates into Christian dates; thus <span class="scs">A.H.</span> 1321 corresponds +roughly to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1903. The actual date of the “flight” is fixed +as 8 Rabia I., <i>i.e.</i> 20th of September 622, by the tradition that +Mahomet arrived at Kufa on the Hebrew Day of Atonement. +Although Mahomet himself appears to have dated events by +his flight, it was not till seventeen years later that the actual +era was systematized by Omar, the second caliph (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>), +as beginning from the 1st day of Muharram (the first lunar +month of the year) which in that year (639) corresponded to +July 16. The term <i>hejira</i> is also applied in its more general +sense to other “emigrations” of the faithful, <i>e.g.</i> to that to +Abyssinia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahomet</a></span>), and to that of Mahomet’s followers +to Medina before the capture of Mecca. These latter are known +as <i>Muhajirun</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the problems of Moslem chronology and comparative tables +of dates see (beside the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chronology</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahomet</a></span>), Wüstenfeld, <i>Vergleichungstabellen der muhammedanischen +und christlichen Zeitrechnung</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1903); Mas Latrie, +<i>Trésor de chronologie</i> (Paris, 1889); Durbaneh, <i>Universal Calendar</i> +(Cairo, 1896); Winckler, <i>Altorientalische Forschungen</i>, ii. 326-350; +D. Nielson, <i>Die altarabische Mondreligion</i> (Strassburg, 1904); Hughes, +<i>Dictionary of Islam</i>, s.v. “Hijrah.”</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The <i>i</i> in the second syllable is short.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEL,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> or <i>Hela</i>, in Scandinavian mythology, the goddess of +the dead. She was a child of Loki and the giantess Angurboda, +and dwelt beneath the roots of the sacred ash, Yggdrasil. She +was given dominion over the nine worlds of Helheim. In early +myth all the dead went to her: in later legend only those who +died of old age or sickness, and she then became synonymous +with suffering and horror. Her dwelling was <i>Elvidnir</i> (dark +clouds), her dish <i>Hungr</i> (hunger), her knife <i>Sullt</i> (starvation), +her servants <i>Ganglate</i> (tardy feet), her bed <i>Kör</i> (sickness), and +her bed-curtains <i>Blikiandabol</i> (splendid misery).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELDENBUCH, DAS,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> the title under which a large body of +German epic poetry of the 13th century has come down to us. +The subjects of the individual poems are taken from national +German sagas which originated in the epoch of the Migrations +(<i>Völkerwanderung</i>), although doubtless here, as in all purely +popular sagas, motives borrowed from the forces and phenomena +of nature were, in course of time, woven into events originally +historical. While the saga of the Nibelungs crystallized in the +13th century into the <i>Nibelungenlied</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), and the Low German +Hilde-saga into the epic of <i>Gudrun</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) the poems of the +<i>Heldenbuch</i>, in the more restricted use of that term, belong +almost exclusively to two cycles, (1) the Ostrogothic saga of +Ermanrich, Dietrich von Bern (<i>i.e.</i> Dietrich of Verona, Theodorich +the Great) and Etzel (Attila), and (2) the cycle of Hugdietrich, +Wolfdietrich and Ortnit, which like the <i>Nibelungen</i> saga, was +probably of Franconian origin. The romances of the <i>Heldenbuch</i> +are of varying poetic value; only occasionally do they rise to +the height of the two chief epics, the <i>Nibelungenlied</i> and <i>Gudrun</i>. +Dietrich von Bern, the central figure of the first and more important +group, was the ideal type of German medieval hero, and, +under more favourable literary conditions, he might have become +the centre of an epic more nationally German than even the +<i>Nibelungenlied</i> itself. Of the romances of this group, the chief +are <i>Biterolf und Dietlieb</i>, evidently the work of an Austrian poet, +who introduced many elements from the court epic of chivalry +into a milieu and amongst characters familiar to us from the +<i>Nibelungenlied</i>. <i>Der Rosengarten</i> tells of the conflicts which +took place round Kriemhild’s “rose garden” in Worms—conflicts +from which Dietrich always emerges victor, even when +he is confronted by Siegfried himself. In <i>Laurin und der kleine +Rosengarten</i>, the Heldensage is mingled with elements of popular +fairy-lore; it deals with the adventures of Dietrich and his +henchman Witege with the wily dwarf Laurin, who watches over +another rose garden, that of the Tyrol. Similar in character +are the adventures of Dietrich with the giants Ecke (<i>Eckenlied</i>) +and Sigenot, with the dwarf Goldemar, and the deeds of chivalry +he performs for queen Virginal (<i>Dietrichs erste Ausfahrt</i>)—all +of these romances being written in the fresh and popular tone +characteristic of the wandering singers or <i>Spielleute</i>. Other +elements of the Dietrich saga are represented by the poems +<i>Alpharts Tod</i>, <i>Dietrichs Flucht</i> and <i>Die Rabenschlacht</i> (“Battle +of Ravenna”). Of these, the first is much the finest poem of +the entire cycle and worthy of a place beside the best popular +poetry of the Middle High German epoch. Alphart, a young +hero in Dietrich’s army, goes out to fight single-handed with +Witege and Heime, who had deserted to Ermanrich, and he falls, +not in fair battle, but by the treachery of Witege whose life he +had spared. The other two Dietrich epics belong to a later +period, the end of the 13th century—the author being an Austrian, +Heinrich der Vogler—and show only too plainly the decay that +had by this time set in in Middle High German poetry.</p> + +<p>The second cycle of sagas is represented by several long +romances, all of them unmistakably “popular” in tone—conflicts +with dragons, supernatural adventures, the wonderland of the +East providing the chief features of interest. The epics of this +group are <i>Ortnit</i>, <i>Hugdietrich</i>, <i>Wolfdietrich</i>, the latter with its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span> +pathetic episode of the unswerving loyalty of Wolfdietrich’s +vassal Duke Berchtung and his ten sons. Although many of the +incidents and motives of this cycle are drawn from the best +traditions of the <i>Heldensage</i>, its literary value is not very high.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>This collection of popular romances was one of the first German +books to be printed. The date of the first edition is unknown, but +the second edition appeared in the year 1491 and was followed by +later reprints in 1509, 1545, 1560 and 1590. The last of these forms +the basis of the text edited by A. von Keller for the Stuttgart +<i>Literarische Verein</i> in 1867. In 1472 the <i>Heldenbuch</i> was adapted +to the popular tastes of the time by being remodelled in rough +<i>Knittelvers</i> or doggerel; the author, or at least copyist, of the MS. +was a certain Kaspar von dor Roen, of Münnerstadt in Franconia. +This version was printed by F. von der Hagen and S. Primisser in +their <i>Heldenbuch</i> (1820-1825). <i>Das Heldenbuch</i>, which F. von der +Hagen published in 2 vols, in 1855, was the first attempt to reproduce +the original text by collating the MSS. A critical edition, based not +merely on the oldest printed text—the only one which has any value +for this purpose, as the others are all copies of it—but also on the +MSS., was published in 5 vols. by O. Jänicke, E. Martin, A. Amelung +and J. Zupitza at Berlin (1866-1873). A selection, edited by E. +Henrici, will be found in Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>, +vol. 7 (1887). Recent editions have appeared of <i>Der Rosengarten</i> +and <i>Laurin</i>, by G. Holz (1893 and 1897). All the poems have been +translated into modern German by K. Simrock and others. See +F. E. Sandbach, <i>The Heroic Saga-Cycle of Dietrich of Bern</i> (1906). +The literature of the <i>Heldensage</i> is very extensive. See especially +W. Grimm, <i>Die deutsche Heldensage</i> (3rd ed., 1889); L. Uhland, +“Geschichte der deutschen Poesie im Mittelalter,” <i>Schriften</i>, vol. i. +(1866); O. L. Jiriczek, <i>Deutsche Heldensage</i>, vol. i. (1898); and +especially B. Symons, “Germanische Heldensage,” in Paul’s <i>Grundriss +der germanischen Philologie</i> (2nd ed., 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELDER,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a seaport town at the northern extremity of the +province of North Holland, in the kingdom of Holland, 51 m. +by rail N.N.W. of Amsterdam. Pop. (1900) 25,842. It is +situated on the Marsdiep, the channel separating the island of +Texel from the mainland, and the main entrance to the Zuider +Zee, and besides being the terminus of the North Holland canal +from Amsterdam, it is an important naval and military station. +On the east side of the town, called the Nieuwe Diep, is situated +the fine harbour, which formerly served, as Ymuiden now does, +as the outer port of Amsterdam. In this neighbourhood are the +naval wharves and magazines, wet and dry docks, and the naval +cadet school of Holland, the name Willemsoord being given +to the whole naval establishment. From Nieuwe Diep to Fort +Erfprins on the west side of the town, a distance of about 5 m., +stretches the great sea-dike which here takes the place of the +dunes. This dike descends at an angle of 40° for a distance of +200 ft. into the sea, and is composed of Norwegian granite and +Belgian limestone, strengthened at intervals by projecting +jetties of piles and fascines. A circle of forts and batteries +defends the town and coast, and there is a permanent garrison +of 7000 to 9000 men, while 30,000 men can be accommodated +within the lines, and the province flooded from this point. +Besides several churches and a synagogue, there are a town +hall (1836), a hospital, an orphan asylum, the “palace” of +the board of marine, a meteorological observatory, a zoological +station and a lighthouse. The industries of the town are +sustained by the garrison and marine establishments.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELEN,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Helena</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Elenê">Ἑλένη</span>),in Greek mythology, daughter +of Zeus by Leda (wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta), sister of +Castor, Pollux and Clytaemnestra, and wife of Menelaus. +Other accounts make her the daughter of Zeus and Nemesis, +or of Oceanus and Tethys. She was the most beautiful woman in +Greece, and indirectly the cause of the Trojan war. When +a child she was carried off from Sparta by Theseus to Attica, +but was recovered and taken back by her brothers. When she +grew up, the most famous of the princes of Greece sought her +hand in marriage, and her father’s choice fell upon Menelaus. +During her husband’s absence she was induced by Paris, son of +Priam, with the connivance of Aphrodite, to flee with him to +Troy. After the death of Paris she married his brother Deïphobus, +whom she is said to have betrayed into the hands of Menelaus +at the capture of the city (<i>Aeneid</i>, vi. 517 ff.). Menelaus thereupon +took her back, and they returned together to Sparta, where +they lived happily till their death, and were buried at Therapnae +in Laconia. According to another story, Helen survived her +husband, and was driven out by her stepsons. She fled to Rhodes, +where she was hanged on a tree by her former friend Polyxo, +to avenge the loss of her husband Tlepolemus in the Trojan +War (Pausanias iii. 19). After death, Helen was said to have +married Achilles in his home in the island of Leukē. In another +version, Paris, on his voyage to Troy with Helen, was driven +ashore on the coast of Egypt, where King Proteus, upon learning +the facts of the case, detained the real Helen in Egypt, while a +phantom Helen was carried off to Troy. Menelaus on his way +home was also driven by stress of winds to Egypt, where he +found his wife and took her home (Herodotus ii. 112-120; +Euripides, <i>Helena</i>). Helen was worshipped as the goddess of +beauty at Therapnae in Laconia, where a festival was held in +her honour. At Rhodes she was worshipped under the name +of Dendritis (the tree goddess), where the inhabitants built a +temple in her honour to expiate the crime of Polyxo. The +Rhodian story probably contains a reference to the worship +connected with her name (cf. Theocritus xviii. 48 <span class="grk" title="sebou m', +Helenas phyton eimi">σέβου μ᾽, Ἑλένας φυτὸν εἰμί</span>). She was the subject of a tragedy by +Euripides and an epic by Colluthus. Originally, Helen was +perhaps a goddess of light, a moon-goddess, who was gradually +transformed into the beautiful heroine round whom the action +of the <i>Iliad</i> revolves. Like her brothers, the Dioscuri, she +was a patron deity of sailors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Oswald, <i>The Legend of Fair Helen</i> (1905); J. A. Symonds, +<i>Studies of the Greek Poets</i>, i. (1893); F. Decker, <i>Die griechische +Helena in Mythos und Epos</i> (1894); Andrew Lang, <i>Helen of Troy</i> +(1883); P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; +the exhaustive article by R. Engelmann in Roscher’s +<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; and O. Gruppe, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>, +i. 163, according to whom Helen originally represented, in the +Helenephoria (a mystic festival of Artemis, Iphigeneia or Tauropolos), +the sacred basket (<span class="grk" title="helenê">ἑλένη</span>) in which the holy objects were +carried; and hence, as the personification of the initiation ceremony, +she was connected with or identified with the moon, the first appearance +of which probably marked the beginning of the festivity.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELENA, ST<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 247-<i>c.</i> 327) the wife of the emperor Constantius +I. Chlorus, and mother of Constantine the Great. She was a +woman of humble origin, born probably at Drepanum, a town on +the Gulf of Nicomedia, which Constantine named Helenopolis +in her honour. Very little is known of her history. It is certain +that, at an advanced age, she undertook a pilgrimage to Palestine, +visited the holy places, and founded several churches. She +was still living at the time of the murder of Crispus (326). Constantine +had coins struck with the effigy of his mother. The +name of Helena is intimately connected with the commonly +received story of the discovery of the Cross. But the accounts +which connect her with the discovery are much later than the +date of the event. The Pilgrim of Bordeaux (333), Eusebius +and Cyril of Jerusalem were unaware of this important episode +in the life of the empress. It was only at the end of the 4th +century and in the West that the legend appeared. The principal +centre of the cult of St Helena in the West seems to be the abbey +of Hautvilliers, near Reims, where since the 9th century they +have claimed to be in possession of her body. In England +legends arose representing her as the daughter of a prince of +Britain. Following these Geoffrey of Monmouth makes her +the daughter of Coel, the king who is supposed to have given +his name to the town of Colchester. These legends have doubtless +not been without influence on the cult of the saint in England, +where a great number of churches are dedicated either to St +Helena alone, or to St Cross and St Helena. Her festival is +celebrated in the Latin Church on the 18th of August. The +Greeks make no distinction between her festival and that of +Constantine, the 21st of May.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Acta sanctorum</i>, Augusti iii. 548-580; Tixeront, <i>Les Origines +de l’église d’Édesse</i> (Paris, 1888); F. Arnold-Forster, <i>Studies in +Church Dedications or England’s Patron Saints</i>, i. 181-189, iii. 16, +365-366 (1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. De.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELENA,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Phillips county, +Arkansas, U.S.A., situated on and at the foot of Crowly’s +Ridge, about 150 ft. above sea-level, in the alluvial bottoms of +the Mississippi river, about 65 m. by rail S.W. of Memphis, +Tennessee. Pop. (1890) 5189, (1900) 5550, of whom 3400 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span> +were negroes; (1910) 8772. It is served by the Yazoo & Mississippi +Valley (Illinois Central), the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern +(Missouri Pacific), the Arkansas Midland, and the Missouri & +North Arkansas railways. Built in part upon “made land,” +well protected by levees, and lying within the richest cotton-producing +region of the south, the rich timber country of the +St Francis river, and the Mississippi “bottom lands,” Helena +concentrates its economic interests in cotton-compressing and +shipping, the manufacture of cotton-seed products, lumbering +and wood-working. The city was founded about 1821, but so +late as 1860 the population was only 800. During the Civil War +the place was of considerable strategic importance. It was +occupied in July 1862 by the Union forces, who strongly fortified +it to guard their communications with the lower Mississippi; +on the 4th of July 1863, when occupied by General Benjamin +M. Prentiss (1819-1901) with 4500 men, it was attacked by a +force of 9000 Confederates under General Theophilus H. Holmes +(1804-1880), who hoped to raise the siege of Vicksburg or close +the river to the Union forces. The attack was repulsed, with +a loss to the Confederates of one-fifth their numbers, the Union +loss being slight.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELENA,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Lewis and Clark +county, Montana, U.S.A., and the capital of the state, at the +E. base of the main range of the Rocky Mountains, 80 m. N.E. +of Butte, at an altitude of about 4000 ft. Pop. (1880) 3624; +(1890) 13,834; (1900) 10,770, of whom 2793 were foreign-born; +(1910 census) 12,515. It is served by the Great Northern +and the Northern Pacific railways. Helena is delightfully +situated with Mt Helena as a background in the hollow of the +Prickly Pear valley, a rich agricultural region surrounded by +rolling hills and lofty mountains, and contains many fine buildings, +including the state capitol, county court house, the Montana +club house, high school, the cathedral of St Helena, a federal +building, and the United States assay office. It is the seat of +the Montana Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal), +founded in 1890; St Aloysius College and St Vincent’s Academy +(Roman Catholic); and has a public library with about 35,000 +volumes, the Montana state library with about 40,000 volumes, +and the state law library with about 24,000 volumes. The +city is the commercial and financial centre of the state (Butte +being the mining centre), and is one of the richest cities in the +United States in proportion to its population. It has large +railway car-shops, extensive smelters and quartz crushers (at +East Helena), and various manufacturing establishments; +the value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,309,746, an +increase of 68.7% over that of 1900. The surrounding +country abounds in gold- and silver-bearing quartz deposits, +and it is estimated that from the famous Last Chance Gulch +alone, which runs across the city, more than $40,000,000 in +gold has been taken. The street railway and the lighting system +of the city are run by power generated at a plant and 40 ft. +dam at Canyon Ferry, on the Missouri river, 18 m. E. of Helena. +There is another great power plant at Hauser Plant, 20 m. +N. of Helena. Three miles W. of the city is the Broadwater +Natatorium with swimming pool, 300 ft. long and 100 ft. wide, +the water for which is furnished by hot springs with a temperature +at the source of 160°. Fort Harrison, a United States army post, +is situated 3 m. W. of the city. Helena was established as a +placer mining camp in 1864 upon the discovery of gold in Last +Chance Gulch. The town was laid out in the same year, and +after the organization of Montana Territory it was designated +as the capital. Helena was burned down in 1869 and in 1874. +It was chartered as a city in 1881.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELENSBURGH,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh and watering-place +of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the N. shore of the Firth +of Clyde, opposite Greenock, 24 m. N.W. of Glasgow by the +North British railway. Pop. (1901) 8554. There is a station +at Upper Helensburgh on the West Highland railway, and from +the railway pier at Craigendoran there is steamer communication +with Garelochhead, Dunoon and other pleasure resorts on the +western coast. In 1776 the site began to be built upon, and in +1802 the town, named after Lady Helen, wife of Sir James +Colquhoun of Luss, the ground landlord, was erected into a +burgh of barony, under a provost and council. The public +buildings include the burgh hall, municipal buildings, Hermitage +schools and two hospitals. On the esplanade stands an obelisk +to Henry Bell, the pioneer of steam navigation, who died at +Helensburgh in 1830.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELENUS,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Priam and Hecuba, and +twin-brother of Cassandra. He is said to have been originally +called Scamandrius, and to have received the name of Helenus +from a Thracian soothsayer who instructed him in the prophetic +art. In the <i>Iliad</i> he is described as the prince of augurs and a +brave warrior; in the <i>Odyssey</i> he is not mentioned at all. +Various details concerning him are added by later writers. +It is related that he and his sister fell asleep in the temple of +Apollo Thymbraeus and that snakes came and cleansed their +ears, whereby they obtained the gift of prophecy and were +able to understand the language of birds. After the death of +Paris, Helenus and his brother Deïphobus became rivals for +the hand of Helen. Deïphobus was preferred, and Helenus +withdrew in indignation to Mount Ida, where he was captured +by the Greeks, whom he advised to build the wooden horse and +carry off the Palladium. According to other accounts, having +been made prisoner by a stratagem of Odysseus, he declared +that Philoctetes must be fetched from Lemnos before Troy could +be taken; or he surrendered to Diomedes and Odysseus in the +temple of Apollo, whither he had fled in disgust at the sacrilegious +murder of Achilles by Paris in the sanctuary. After the capture +of Troy, he and his sister-in-law Andromache accompanied +Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus) as captives to Epirus, where Helenus +persuaded him to settle. After the death of Neoptolemus, +Helenus married Andromache and became ruler of the country. +He was the reputed founder of Buthrotum and Chaonia, named +after a brother or companion whom he had accidentally slain +while hunting. He was said to have been buried at Argos, +where his tomb was shown. When Aeneas, in the course of his +wanderings, reached Epirus, he was hospitably received by +Helenus, who predicted his future destiny.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Homer, <i>Iliad</i>, vi. 76, vii. 44, xii. 94, xiii. 576; Sophocles, <i>Philoctetes</i>, +604, who probably follows the <i>Little Iliad</i> of Lesches; Pausanias +i. 11, ii. 23; Conon, <i>Narrationes</i>, 34; Dictys Cretensis iv. 18; +Virgil, <i>Aeneid</i>, iii. 294-490; Servius on <i>Aeneid</i>, ii. 166, iii. 334.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELGAUD,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Helgaldus</span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1048), French chronicler, +was a monk of the Benedictine abbey of Fleury. Little else +is known about him save that he was chaplain to the French +king, Robert II. the Pious, whose life he wrote. This <i>Epitoma +vitae Roberti regis</i>, which is probably part of a history of the +abbey of Fleury, deals rather with the private than with the +public life of the king, and its value is not great either from the +literary or from the historical point of view. The only existing +manuscript is in the Vatican, and the <i>Epitoma</i> has been printed +by J. P. Migne in the <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, tome cxli. (Paris, +1844); and by M. Bouquet in the <i>Recueil des historiens des +Gaules</i>, tome x. (Paris, 1760).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869); +and A. Molinier, <i>Les Sources de l’histoire de France</i>, tome ii. (Paris, +1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELGESEN, POVL,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span><a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Danish humanist, was born at Varberg +in Halland about 1480, of a Danish father and a Swedish mother. +Helgesen was educated first at the Carmelite monastery of +his native place and afterwards at another monastery at Elsinore, +where he devoted himself to humanistic studies and adopted +Erasmus as his model. None had a keener eye for the abuses +of the Church; long before the appearance of Luther, he +denounced the ignorance and immorality of the clergy, and, as +lector at the university of Copenhagen, gathered round him a +band of young enthusiasts, the future leaders of the Danish +Reformation. But Helgesen desired an orderly, methodical, +rational reformation, and denounced Luther, whose ablest +opponent in Denmark he subsequently became, as a hot-headed +revolutionist. Christian II. was also an object of Helgesen’s +detestation, and so boldly did he oppose that monarch’s measures +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span> +that, to save his life, he had to flee to Jutland. Under Frederick I. +(1523-1533) he returned to Copenhagen and resumed his chair +at the university, becoming soon afterwards provincial of the +Carmelite Order for Scandinavia. But like all moderate men +in a time of crisis, Helgesen could gain the confidence of neither +party, and was frequently attacked as bitterly by the Catholics +as by the Protestants. From 1530 to 1533 he and the Protestant +champion Hans Tausen exhausted the whole vocabulary of +vituperation in their fruitless polemics. In October 1534, +however, Helgesen issued an eirenicon in which he attempted to +reconcile the two contending confessions. After that every +trace of him is lost. For a long time he was unjustly regarded +as a turn-coat, but he was too superior to the prejudices of his +age to be understood by his contemporaries. His ideal was a +moral internal reformation of the Church on a rational basis, +conducted not by ill-informed fanatics, but by an enlightened and +well-educated clergy; and from this standpoint he never +diverged. Helgesen was indisputably the greatest master of +style of his age in Denmark, and as a historian he also occupies +a prominent position. He always endeavours to probe down to +the very soul of things, though his passionate nature made it +very difficult for him to be impartial. His chief works are +<i>Danmark’s Kongers Historie</i> and <i>Skibby Kröniken</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ludwig Schmitt, <i>Der Karmeliter Paulus Heliä</i> (Freiburg, +1893); <i>Danmarks Riges Historie</i> (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. iii.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> He wrote his name Heliae or Eliae.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIACAL,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> relating to the sun (<span class="grk" title="hêlios">ἥλιος</span>), a term applied in +the ancient astronomy to the first rising of a star which could +be seen after it emerged from the rays of the sun, or the last +setting that could be seen before it was lost from sight by +proximity to the sun.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIAND.<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> The 9th-century poem on the Gospel history, +to which its first editor, J. A. Schmeller, gave the appropriate +name of <i>Heliand</i> (the word used in the text for “Saviour,” +answering to the O. Eng. <i>hælend</i> and the Ger. <i>Heiland</i>), is, with +the fragments of a version of the story of Genesis believed to be +by the same author, all that remains of the poetical literature +of the old Saxons, <i>i.e.</i> the Saxons who continued in their original +home. It contained when entire about 6000 lines, and portions +of it are preserved in four MSS. The Cotton MS. in the British +Museum, written probably late in the 10th century, is nearly +complete, ending in the middle of the story of the journey to +Emmaus. The Munich MS., formerly at Bamberg, begins at +line 85, and has many lacunae, but continues the history down +to the last verse of St Luke’s Gospel, ending, however, in the +middle of a sentence. A MS. discovered at Prague in 1881 +contains lines 958-1106, and another, in the Vatican library, +discovered by K. Zangemeister in 1894, contains lines 1279-1358. +The poem is based, not directly on the New Testament, but on +the pseudo-Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels, and it shows +acquaintance with the commentaries of Alcuin, Bæda and +Hrabanus Maurus.</p> + +<p>The questions relating to the <i>Heliand</i> cannot be adequately +discussed without considering also the poem on the history of +Genesis, which, on the grounds of similarity in style and vocabulary, +and for other reasons afterwards to be mentioned, may +with some confidence be referred to the same author. A part +of this poem, as is mentioned in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cædmon</a></span>, is extant +only in an Old English translation. The portions that have +been preserved in the original language are contained in the +same Vatican MS. that includes the fragment of the <i>Heliand</i> +referred to above. In the one language or the other, there +are in existence the following three fragments: (1) The passage +which appears as lines 235-851 in the so-called “Cædmon’s +<i>Genesis</i>,” on the revolt of the angels and the temptation and fall +of Adam and Eve. Of this the part corresponding to lines 790-820 +exists also in the original Old Saxon. (2) The story of Cain +and Abel, in 124 lines. (3) The account of the destruction of +Sodom, in 187 lines. The main source of the <i>Genesis</i> is the Bible, +but Professor E. Sievers has shown that considerable use was +made of the two Latin poems by Alcimus Avitus, <i>De initio mundi</i> +and <i>De peccato originali</i>.</p> + +<p>The two poems give evidence of genius and trained skill, +though the poet was no doubt hampered by the necessity of not +deviating too widely from the sacred originals. Within the limits +imposed by the nature of his task, his treatment of his sources +is remarkably free, the details unsuited for poetic handling +being passed over, or, in some instances, boldly altered. In +many passages his work gives the impression of being not so +much an imitation of the ancient Germanic epic, as a genuine +example of it, though concerned with the deeds of other heroes +than those of Germanic tradition. In the <i>Heliand</i> the Saviour +and His Apostles are conceived as a king and his faithful warriors, +and the use of the traditional epic phrases appears to be not, +as with Cynewulf or the author of <i>Andreas</i>, a mere following +of accepted models, but the spontaneous mode of expression of +one accustomed to sing of heroic themes. The <i>Genesis</i> fragments +have less of the heroic tone, except in the splendid passage +describing the rebellion of Satan and his host. It is noteworthy +that the poet, like Milton, sees in Satan no mere personification +of evil, but the fallen archangel, whose awful guilt could not +obliterate all traces of his native majesty. Somewhat curiously, +but very naturally, Enoch the son of Cain is confused with the +Enoch who was translated to heaven—an error which the +author of the Old English <i>Genesis</i> avoids, though (according +to the existing text) he confounds the names of Enoch and Enos.</p> + +<p>Such external evidence as exists bearing on the origin of the +<i>Heliand</i> and the companion poem is contained in a Latin document +printed by Flacius Illyricus in 1562. This is in two parts; +the one in prose, entitled (perhaps only by Flacius himself) +“<i>Praefatio ad librum antiquum in lingua Saxonica conscriptum</i>”; +the other in verse, headed “<i>Versus de poëta et Interpreta hujus +codicis</i>.” The Praefatio begins by stating that the emperor +Ludwig the Pious, desirous that his subjects should possess the +word of God in their own tongue, commanded a certain Saxon, +who was esteemed among his countrymen as an eminent poet, +to translate poetically into the German language the Old and +New Testaments. The poet willingly obeyed, all the more +because he had previously received a divine command to undertake +the task. He rendered into verse all the most important +parts of the Bible with admirable skill, dividing his work into +<i>vitteas</i>, a term which, the writer says, may be rendered by +“<i>lectiones</i>” or “<i>sententias</i>.” The Praefatio goes on to say that +it was reported that the poet, till then knowing nothing of the +art of poetry, had been admonished in a dream to turn into +verse the precepts of the divine law, which he did with so much +skill that his work surpasses in beauty all other German poetry +(<i>ut cuncta Theudisca poëmata suo vincat decore</i>). The <i>Versus</i> +practically reproduce in outline Bæda’s account of Cædmon’s +dream, without mentioning the dream, but describing the poet +as a herdsman, and adding that his poems, beginning with the +creation, relate the history of the five ages of the world down +to the coming of Christ.</p> + +<p>The suspicion of some earlier scholars that the <i>Praefatio</i> and +the <i>Versus</i> might be a modern forgery is refuted by the occurrence +of the word <i>vitteas</i>, which is the Old Saxon <i>fittea</i>, corresponding +to the Old English <i>fitt</i>, which means a “canto” of a +poem. It is impossible that a scholar of the 16th century could +have been acquainted with this word, and internal evidence +shows clearly that both the prose and the verse are of early +origin. The <i>Versus</i>, considered in themselves, might very well +be supposed to relate to Cædmon; but the mention of the five +ages of the world in the concluding lines is obviously due to +recollection of the opening of the <i>Heliand</i> (lines 46-47). It is +therefore certain that the <i>Versus</i>, as well as the <i>Praefatio</i>, attribute +to the author of the <i>Heliand</i> a poetic rendering of the Old +Testament. Their testimony, if accepted, confirms the ascription +to him of the Genesis fragments, which is further supported by +the fact that they occur in the same MS. with a portion of the +<i>Heliand</i>. As the <i>Praefatio</i> speaks of the emperor Ludwig in the +present tense, the former part of it at least was probably written +in his reign, <i>i.e.</i> not later than <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 840. The general opinion of +scholars is that the latter part, which represents the poet as +having received his vocation in a dream, is by a later hand, and +that the sentences in the earlier part which refer to the dream are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span> +interpolations by this second author. The date of these additions, +and of the <i>Versus</i>, is of no importance, as their statements are +incredible. That the author of the <i>Heliand</i> was, so to speak, +another Cædmon—an unlearned man who turned into poetry +what was read to him from the sacred writings—is impossible, +because in many passages the text of the sources is so +closely followed that it is clear that the poet wrote with the +Latin books before him. On the other hand, there is no reason +for rejecting the almost contemporary testimony of the first part +of the <i>Praefatio</i> that the author of the <i>Heliand</i> had won renown +as a poet before he undertook his great task at the emperor’s +command. It is certainly not impossible that a Christian Saxon, +sufficiently educated to read Latin easily, may have chosen to +follow the calling of a <i>scop</i> or minstrel<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> instead of entering the +priesthood or the cloister; and if such a person existed, it would +be natural that he should be selected by the emperor to execute +his design. As has been said above, the tone of many portions of +the <i>Heliand</i> is that of a man who was no mere imitator of the +ancient epic, but who had himself been accustomed to sing of +heroic themes.</p> + +<p>The commentary on the gospel of Matthew by Hrabanus +Maurus was finished about 821, which is therefore the superior +limit of date for the composition of the <i>Heliand</i>. It is usually +maintained that this work was written before the Old Testament +poems. The arguments for this view are that the <i>Heliand</i> contains +no allusion to any foregoing poetical treatment of the antecedent +history, and that the Genesis fragments exhibit a higher +degree of poetic skill. This reasoning does not appear conclusive, +and if it be set aside, the limit of date for the beginning of +the work is carried back to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 814, the year of the accession of +Ludwig.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The first complete edition of the <i>Heliand</i> was +published by J. A. Schmeller in 1830; the second volume, containing +the glossary and grammar, appeared in 1840. The standard edition +is that of E. Sievers (1877), in which the texts of the Cotton and +Munich MSS. are printed side by side. It is not provided with a +glossary, but contains an elaborate and most valuable analysis of +the diction, synonymy and syntactical features of the poem. Other +useful editions are those of M. Heyne (3rd ed., 1903), O. Behaghel +(1882) and P. Piper (1897, containing also the Genesis fragments). +The fragments of the <i>Heliand</i> and the <i>Genesis</i> contained in the +Vatican MS. were edited in 1894 by K. Zangemeister and W. Braune +under the title <i>Bruchstücke der altsächsischen Bibeldichtung</i>. Among +the works treating of the authorship, sources and place of origin of +the poems, the most important are the following: E. Windisch, +<i>Der Heliand und seine Quellen</i> (1868); E. Sievers, <i>Der Heliand und +die angelsächsische Genesis</i> (1875); R. Kögel, <i>Deutsche Literaturgeschichte</i>, +Bd. i. (1894) and <i>Die altsächsische Genesis</i> (1895); R. +Kögel and W. Bruckner, “Althoch- und altniederdeutsche Literatur,” +in Paul’s <i>Grundriss der germanischen Philologie</i>, Bd. ii. +(2nd ed., 1901), which contains references to many other works; +Hermann Collitz, <i>Zum Dialekte des Heliand</i> (1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Br.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The term <i>Volkssänger</i>, commonly used in German discussions +of this question, is misleading; the audience for heroic poetry was +not “the people” in the modern sense, but the nobles.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELICON,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a mountain range, of Boeotia in ancient Greece, +celebrated in classical literature as the favourite haunt of the +Muses, is situated between Lake Copaïs and the Gulf of Corinth. +On the fertile eastern slopes stood a temple and grove sacred to +the Muses, and adorned with beautiful statues, which, taken by +Constantine the Great to beautify his new city, were consumed +there by a fire in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 404. Hard by were the famous fountains, +Aganippe and Hippocrene, the latter fabled to have gushed from +the earth at the tread of the winged horse Pegasus, whose +favourite browsing place was there. At the neighbouring Ascra +dwelt the poet Hesiod, a fact which probably enhanced the +poetic fame of the region. Pausanias, who describes Helicon in +his ninth book, asserts that it was the most fertile mountain in +Greece, and that neither poisonous plant nor serpent was to be +found on it, while many of its herbs possessed a miraculous +healing virtue. The highest summit, the present Palaeovouni +(old hill), rises to the height of about 5000 ft. Modern travellers, +aided by ancient remains and inscriptions, and guided by the +local descriptions of Pausanias, have succeeded in identifying +many of the ancient classical spots, and the French excavators +have discovered the temple of the Muses and a theatre.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Clarke, <i>Travels in Various Countries</i> (vol. vii., 1818); +Dodwell, <i>Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece</i> (1818); +W. M. Leake, <i>Travels in Northern Greece</i> (vol. ii., 1835); J. G. +Frazer’s edition of <i>Pausanias</i>, v. 150.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELICON<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (Fr. <i>hélicon, bombardon circulaire</i>; Ger. <i>Helikon</i>), +the circular form of the B♭ contrabass tuba used in military +bands, worn round the body, with the enormous bell resting on +the left shoulder and towering above the head of the performer. +The pitch of the helicon is an octave below that of the euphonium. +The idea of winding the long tube of the contrabass tuba and of +wearing it round the shoulders was suggested by the ancient +Roman buccina and cornu, represented in mosaics and on the +sculptured reliefs surrounding Trajan’s Column. The buccina and +cornu<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> differed in the diameter of their respective bores, the +former having the narrow, almost cylindrical bore and harmonic +series of the trumpet and trombone, whereas the cornu, having +a bore in the form of a wide cone, was the prototype of the bugle +and tubas.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For illustrations of the cornu see the altar of Julius Victor ex +Collegio, reproduced in Bartoli, Pict. Ant. p. 76; Bellori, <i>Pict. +antiq. crypt. rom.</i> p. 76, pl. viii.; in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dict. +des antiq. grecques et romaines</i>, under “Cornu,” the buccina and cornu +have not been distinguished.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIGOLAND<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Helgoland</i>), an island of Germany, in the +North Sea, lying off the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, 28 m. +from the nearest point in the mainland. Pop. (1900) 2307. +From 1807 to 1890 a British possession, it was ceded in 1890 to +Germany, and since 1892 has formed part of the Prussian +province of Schleswig-Holstein. It consists of two islets, the +smaller, the Dünen-Insel, a quarter of a mile E. of the main, or +Rock Island, connected until 1720, when it was severed by a +violent irruption of the sea, with the other by a neck of land, and +the main, or Rock Island. The latter is nearly triangular in +shape and is surrounded by steep red cliffs, the only beach being +the sandy spit near the south-east point, where the landing-stage +is situated. The rocks composing the cliffs are worn into caves, +and around the island are many fantastic arches and columns. +The impression made by the red cliffs, fringed by a white beach +and supporting the green Oberland, is commonly believed to have +suggested the national colours, red, white and green, or, as the +old Frisian rhyme goes:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Grön is dat Land,</p> +<p class="i05">Rood is de Kant,</p> +<p class="i05">Witt is de Sand,</p> +<p class="i05">Dat is de Flagg vun’t hillige Land.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The lower town of Unterland, on the spit, and the upper town, +or Oberland, situated on the cliff above, are connected by a +wooden stair and a lift. There is a powerful lighthouse, and since +its cession by Great Britain to Germany, the main island has been +strongly fortified, the old English batteries being replaced by +armoured turrets mounting guns of heavy calibre. Inside the +Dünen-Insel the largest ships can ride safely at anchor, and take +in coal and other supplies. The greatest length of the main +island, which slopes somewhat from west to east, is just a mile, +and the greatest breadth less than a third of a mile, its average +height 198 ft., and the highest point, crowned by the church, with +a conspicuous spire, 216 ft. The Dünen-Insel is a sand-bank +protected by groines. It is only about 200 ft. above the sea at its +highest point, but the drifting sands make the height rather +variable. The sea-bathing establishment is situated here; a +shelving beach of white sand presenting excellent facilities for +bathing. Most of the houses are built of brick, but some are of +wood. There are a theatre, a Kurhaus, and a number of hotels +and restaurants. In 1892 a biological institute, with a marine +museum and aquarium (1900) attached, was opened.</p> + +<p>During the summer some 20,000 people visit the island for +sea-bathing. German is the official language, though among +themselves the natives speak a dialect of Frisian, barely intelligible +to the other islands of the group. There is regular +communication with Bremen and Hamburg.</p> + +<p>The winters are stormy. May and the early part of June are +wet and foggy, so that few visitors arrive before the middle of +the latter month.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span></p> + +<p>The generally accepted derivation of Heligoland (or Helgoland) +from <i>Heiligeland</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “Holy Land,” seems doubtful. According +to northern mythology, Forseti, a son of Balder and Nanna, +the god of justice, had a temple on the island, which was subsequently +destroyed by St Ludger. This legend may have given +rise to the derivation “Holy Land.” The more probable +etymology, however, is that of Hallaglun, or Halligland, <i>i.e.</i> +“land of banks, which cover and uncover.” Here Hertha, +according to tradition, had her great temple, and hither came +from the mainland the Angles to worship at her shrine. Here +also lived King Radbod, a pagan, and on this isle St Willibrord +in the 7th century first preached Christianity; and for its ownership, +before and after that date, many sea-rovers have fought. +Finally it became a fief of the dukes of Schleswig-Holstein, +though often hypothecated for loans advanced to these princes +by the free city of Hamburg. The island was a Danish possession +in 1807, when the English seized and held it until it was formally +ceded to them in 1814. In the picturesque old church there are +still traces of a painted Dannebrog.</p> + +<p>In 1890 the island was ceded to Germany, and in 1892 it was +incorporated with Prussia, when it was provided that natives +born before the year 1880 should be allowed to elect either for +British or German nationality, and until 1901 no additional +import duties were imposed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Von der Decken, <i>Philosophisch-historisch-geographische +Untersuchungen über die Insel Helgoland, oder Heiligeland, +und ihre Bewohner</i> (Hanover, 1826); Wiebel, <i>Die Insel Helgoland, +Untersuchungen über deren Grösse in Vorzeit und Gegenwart +vom Standpunkte der Geschichte und Geologie</i> (Hamburg, 1848); +J. M. Lappenberg, <i>Über den ehemaligen Umfang und die alte Geschichte +Helgolands</i> (Hamburg, 1831); F. Otker, <i>Helgoland. Schilderungen +und Erörterungen</i> (Berlin, 1855); E. Hallier, <i>Helgoland, Nordseestudien</i> +(Hamburg, 1893); A. W. F. Möller, <i>Rechtsgeschichte der Insel +Helgoland</i> (Weimar, 1904); W. G. Black, <i>Heligoland and the Islands +of the North Sea</i> (Glasgow, 1888); E. Lindermann, <i>Die Nordseeinsel +Helgoland in topographischer, geschichtlicher, sanitärer Beziehung</i> +(Berlin, 1889); and Tittel, <i>Die natürlichen Veränderungen Helgolands</i> +(Leipzig, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIOCENTRIC,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> <i>i.e.</i> referred to the centre of the sun (<span class="grk" title="hêlios">ἥλιος</span>) +as an origin, a term designating especially co-ordinates or heavenly +bodies referred to that origin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIODORUS,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> of Emesa in Syria, Greek writer of romance. +According to his own statement his father’s name was Theodosius, +and he belonged to a family of priests of the sun. He was the +author of the <i>Aethiopica</i>, the oldest and best of the Greek +romances that have come down to us. It was first brought to +light in modern times in a MS. from the library of Matthias +Corvinus, found at the sack of Buda (Ofen) in 1526, and printed +at Basel in 1534. Other codices have since been discovered. +The title is taken from the fact that the action of the beginning +and end of the story takes place in Aethiopia. The daughter of +Persine, wife of Hydaspes, king of Aethiopia, was born white +through the effect of the sight of a marble statue upon the queen +during pregnancy. Fearing an accusation of adultery, the mother +gives the babe to the care of Sisimithras, a gymnosophist, who +carries her to Egypt and places her in charge of Charicles, a +Pythian priest. The child is taken to Delphi, and made a priestess +of Apollo under the name of Chariclea. Theagenes, a noble +Thessalian, comes to Delphi and the two fall in love with each +other. He carries off the priestess with the help of Calasiris, an +Egyptian, employed by Persine to seek for her daughter. Then +follow many perils from sea-rovers and others, but the chief +personages ultimately meet at Meroë at the very moment when +Chariclea is about to be sacrificed to the gods by her own father. +Her birth is made known, and the lovers are happily married. +The rapid succession of events, the variety of the characters, +the graphic descriptions of manners and of natural scenery, the +simplicity and elegance of the style, give the <i>Aethiopica</i> great +charm. As a whole it offends less against good taste and morality +than others of the same class. Homer and Euripides were the +favourite authors of Heliodorus, who in his turn was imitated +by French, Italian and Spanish writers. The early life of Clorinda +in Tasso’s <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i> (canto xii. 21 sqq.) is almost identical +with that of Chariclea; Racine meditated a drama on the same +subject; and it formed the model of the <i>Persiles y Sigismunda</i> of +Cervantes. According to the ecclesiastical historian Socrates +(<i>Hist. eccles.</i> v. 22), the author of the <i>Aethiopica</i> was a +certain Heliodorus, bishop of Tricca in Thessaly. It is supposed +that the work was written in his early years before he became +a Christian, and that, when confronted with the alternative of +disowning it or resigning his bishopric, he preferred resignation. +But it is now generally agreed that the real author was a sophist +of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best editions are: A. Coraës (1804), G. A. Hirschig (1856); +see also M. Oeftering, <i>H. und seine Bedeutung für die Literatur</i>, +with full bibliographies (1901); J. C. Dunlop, <i>History of Prose +Fiction</i> (1888); and especially E. Rohde, <i>Der griechische Roman</i> +(1900). There are translations in almost all European languages: +in English, in Bohn’s <i>Classical Library</i> and the “Tudor” series (v., +1895, containing the old translation by T. Underdowne, 1587, with +introduction by C. Whibley); in French by Amyot and Zevort.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS),<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> Roman emperor (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +218-222), was born at Emesa about 205. His real name was +Varius Avitus. On the murder of Caracalla (217), Julia Maesa, +Varius’s grandmother and Caracalla’s aunt, left Rome and +retired to Emesa, accompanied by her grandsons (Varius and +Alexander Severus). Varius, though still only a boy, was appointed +high priest of the Syrian sun-god Elagabalus, one of +the chief seats of whose worship was Emesa (Homs). His beauty, +and the splendid ceremonials at which he presided, made him +a great favourite with the troops stationed in that part of Syria, +and Maesa increased his popularity by spreading reports that he +was in reality the illegitimate son of Caracalla. Macrinus, +the successor and instigator of the murder of Caracalla, was +very unpopular with the army; an insurrection was easily set +on foot, and on the 16th of May 218 Varius was proclaimed +emperor as Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. The troops sent to +quell the revolt went over to him, and Macrinus was defeated +near Antioch on the 8th of June. Heliogabalus was at once +recognized by the senate as emperor. After spending the winter +in Nicomedia, he proceeded in 219 to Rome, where he made it +his business to exalt the deity whose priest he was and whose +name he assumed. The Syrian god was proclaimed the chief deity +in Rome, and all other gods his servants; splendid ceremonies +in his honour were celebrated, at which Heliogabalus danced in +public, and it was believed that secret rites accompanied by +human sacrifice were performed in his honour. In addition to +these affronts upon the state religion, he insulted the intelligence +of the community by horseplay of the wildest description +and by childish practical joking. The shameless profligacy +of the emperor’s life was such as to shock even a Roman +public. His popularity with the army declined, and Maesa, +perceiving that the soldiers were in favour of Alexander Severus, +persuaded Heliogabalus to raise his cousin to the dignity of +Caesar (221), a step of which he soon repented. An attempt +to murder Alexander was frustrated by the watchful Maesa. +Another attempt in 222 produced a mutiny among the praetorians, +in which Heliogabalus and his mother Soemias (Soaemias) were +slain (probably in the first half of March).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Life by Aelius Lampridius in <i>Scriptores historiae +Augustae</i>; Herodian v. 3-8; Dio Cassius lxxviii. 30 sqq., lxxix. 1-21; +monograph by G. Duviquet, <i>Héliogabale</i> (1903), containing a translation +of the various accounts of Heliogabalus in Greek and Latin +authors, notes, bibliography and illustrations; O. F. Butler, <i>Studies +in the Life of Heliogabalus</i> (New York, 1908); Gibbon, <i>Decline and +Fall</i>, ch. 6; H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, i. +pt. ii. (1883), p. 759 ff. On the Syrian god see F. Cumont in Pauly-Wissowa’s +<i>Realencyclopädie</i>, v. pt. ii. (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIOGRAPH<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="êlios">ἥλιος</span>, sun, and <span class="grk" title="gráphein">γράφειν</span> to write), +an instrument for reflecting the rays of the sun (or the light +obtained from any other source) over a considerable distance. +Its main application is in military signalling (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Signal</a></span>). A +similar instrument is the heliotrope, used principally for defining +distant points in geodetic surveys, such as in the triangulation +of India, and in the verification of the African arc of the meridian. +It is necessary to distinguish the method of signalling termed +heliography from the photographic process of the same name +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Photography</a></span>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIOMETER<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêlios">ἥλιος</span>, sun, and <span class="grk" title="metron">μέτρον</span>, a measure), +an instrument originally designed for measuring the variation +of the sun’s diameter at different seasons of the year, but applied +now to the modern form of the instrument which is capable of +much wider use. The present article also deals with other +forms of double-image micrometer.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:332px; height:191px" src="images/img224a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The discovery of the method of making measures by double +images is stated to have been first suggested by O. Roemer about +1768. But no such suggestion occurs in the <i>Basis Astronomiae</i> of +Peter Horrebow (Copenhagen, 1735), which contains the only works +of Roemer that remain +to us. It would +appear that to Servington +Savary is due +the first invention of +a micrometer for +measurement by +double image. His +heliometer (described +in a paper communicated +to the Royal +Society in 1743, and +printed, along with +a letter from James +Short, in <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1753, p. 156) was constructed by cutting +from a complete lens <i>abcd</i> the equal portions <i>aghc</i> and <i>acfe</i> +(fig. 1). The segments <i>gbh</i> and <i>efd</i> so formed were then attached +to the end of a tube having an internal diameter represented by the +dotted circle (fig. 2). The width of each of the portions <i>aghc</i> and <i>acfe</i> +cut away from the lens was made slightly greater than the focal +length of lens × tangent of sun’s greatest diameter. Thus at the +focus two images of the sun were formed nearly in +contact as in fig. 3. The small interval between +the adjacent limbs was then measured with a +wire micrometer.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:122px; height:61px" src="images/img224b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:71px; height:176px" src="images/img224c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Savary also describes another form of heliometer, +on the same principle, in which the segments +<i>aghc</i> and <i>acfe</i> are utilized by cementing +their edges <i>gh</i> and <i>ef</i> together (fig. 4), and covering all except +the portion indicated by the unshaded circle. Savary expresses +preference for this second plan, and makes the pertinent remark +that in both these models “the rays of red light in the two solar +images will be next to each other, which will render the sun’s disk +more easy to be observed than the violet ones.” This he mentions +“because the glasses in these two sorts are somewhat prismatical, +but mostly those of the first model, which could therefore +bear no great charge (magnifying power).”</p> + +<p>A third model proposed by Savary consists of two +complete lenses of equal focal length, mounted in +cylinders side by side, and attached to a strong brass +plate (fig. 5). Here, in order to fulfil the purposes of +the previous models, the distance of the centres of the +lenses from each other should only slightly exceed the +tangent of sun’s diameter × focal length of lenses. +Savary dwells on the difficulty both of procuring lenses +sufficiently equal in focus and of accurately adjusting +and centring them.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:138px; height:139px" src="images/img224d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:159px; height:82px" src="images/img224e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>In the <i>Mém. Acad. de Paris</i> (1748), Pierre Bouguer +describes an instrument which he calls a heliometer. +Lalande in his <i>Astronomie</i> (vol. ii. p. 639) mentions such a heliometer +which had been in his possession from the year 1753, and of +which he gives a representation on Plate XXVIII., fig. 186, of the +same volume. Bouguer’s heliometer was in fact similar to that of +Savary’s third model, with the important difference that, instead of +both object-glasses being fixed, one of them is movable by a screw +provided with a divided head. No auxiliary filar micrometer was +required, as in Savary’s heliometer, to measure +the interval between the limbs of two adjacent +images of the sun, it being only necessary to +turn the screw with the divided head to change +the distance between the object-glasses till the +two images of the sun are in contact as in +fig. 6. The differences of the readings of the +screw, when converted into arc, afford the +means of measuring the variations of the sun’s +apparent diameter.</p> + +<p>On the 4th of April 1754 John Dollond communicated +a paper to the Royal Society of +London (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, vol. xlviii. p. 551) in +which he shows that a micrometer can be +much more easily constructed by dividing a +single object-glass through its axis than by +the employment of two object-glasses. He +points out—(1) that a telescope with an object-glass +so divided still produces a single image +of any object to which it may be directed, provided that the optical +centres of the segments are in coincidence (<i>i.e.</i> provided the segments +retain the same relative positions to each other as before the glass +was cut); (2) that if the segments are separated in any direction +two images of the object viewed will be produced; (3) that the most +convenient direction of separation for micrometric purposes is to +slide these straight edges one along the other as the figure on the +margin (fig. 7) represents them: “for thus they +may be moved without suffering any false light to +come in between them; and by this way of +removing them the distance between their centres +may be very conveniently measured, viz. by having +a vernier’s division fixed to the brass work that holds +one segment, so as to slide along a scale on the plate +to which the other part of the glass is fitted.”</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:104px; height:134px" src="images/img224f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Dollond then points out three different types +in which a glass so divided and mounted may +be used as a micrometer:—</p> + +<p>“1. It may be fixed at the end of a tube, of a suitable length to its +focal distance, as an object-glass,—the other end of the tube having +an eye-glass fitted as usual in astronomical telescopes.</p> + +<p>“2. It may be applied to the end of a tube much shorter than its +focal distance, by having another convex glass within the tube, to +shorten the focal distance of that which is cut in two.</p> + +<p>“3. It may be applied to the open end of a reflecting telescope, +either of the Newtonian or the Cassegrain construction.”</p> + +<p>Dollond adds his opinion that the third type is “much the best and +most convenient of the three”; yet it is the first type that has +survived the test of time and experience, and which is in fact the +modern heliometer. It must be remembered, however, that when +Dollond expressed preference for this third type he had not then invented +the achromatic object-glass.</p> + +<p>Some excellent instruments of the second type were subsequently +made by Dollond’s eldest son Peter, in which for the “convex glass +within the tube” was substituted an achromatic object-glass, and +outside that a divided negative achromatic combination of long focus. +In the fine example of this instrument at the Cape Observatory the +movable negative lenses consist of segments of the shape <i>gach</i> and +<i>acfe</i> (fig. 1) cut from a complete negative achromatic combination of +8¼ in. aperture and about 41 ft. focal length, composed of a double +concave flint lens and a double convex crown. This was applied to +an excellent achromatic telescope of 3¼ in. aperture and 42 in. focal +length. In this instrument a considerable linear relative movement +of the divided lens corresponds with a comparatively small separation +of the double image, so that simple verniers reading to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span> in. are +sufficient for measurement.</p> + +<p>With one of these instruments of somewhat smaller dimensions +(telescope 2½ in. aperture and 3½ ft. focus), Franz von Paula Triesnecker +made a series of measurements at the observatory of Vienna +which has been reduced by Dr Wilhelm Schur of Strasburg (<i>Nova +Acta der Ksl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Natursforscher</i>, +1882, xlv. No. 3). The angle between the stars ζ and g Ursae maj. +(708″.55) was measured on four nights; the probable error of a +measure on one night was ±0″.44. Jupiter was measured on eleven +nights in the months of June and July 1794; from these measures +Schur derives the values 35″.39 and 37″.94 for the polar and equatorial +diameter respectively, at mean distance, corresponding with a +compression 1/14.44. These agree satisfactorily with the corresponding +values 35″.21, 37″.60, 1/15.59 afterwards obtained by F. W. +Bessel (<i>Königsberger Beobachtungen</i>, xix. 102). From a series of +measures of the angle between Jupiter’s satellites and the planet, +made in June and July 1794 and in August and September 1795, +Schur finds the mass of Jupiter = 1/1048.55 ± 1.45, a result which +accords well within the limits of its probable error with the received +value of the mass derived from modern researches. The probable +errors for the measures of one night are ±0″.577, ±0″.889, ±0″.542, +±1″.096, for Satellites I., II., III. and IV. respectively.</p> + +<p>Considering the accuracy of these measures (an accuracy far surpassing +that of any other contemporary observations), it is somewhat +surprising that this form of micrometer was never systematically +used in any sustained or important astronomical researches, although +a number of instruments of the kind were made by Dollond. Probably +the last example of its employment is an observation of the +transit of Mercury (November 4, 1868) by Mann, at the Royal +Observatory, Cape of Good Hope (<i>Monthly Notices R.A.S.</i> vol. +xxix. p. 197-209). The most important part, however, which this +type of instrument seems to have played in the history of astronomy +arises from the fact that one of them was in the possession of Bessel +at Königsberg during the time when his new observatory there +was being built. In 1812 Bessel measured with it the angle between +the components of the double star 61 Cygni and observed the great +comet of 1811. He also observed the eclipse of the sun on May 4, +1818. In the discussion of these observations (<i>Königsberger Beobacht</i>, +Abt. 5, p. iv.) he found that the index error of the scale +changed systematically in different position angles by quantities +which were independent of the direction of gravity relative to the +position angle under measurement, but which depended solely on +the direction of the measured position angle relative to a fixed radius +of the object-glass. Bessel attributed this to non-homogeneity +in the object-glass, and determined with great care the necessary +corrections. But he was so delighted with the general performance +of the instrument, with the sharpness of the images and the possibilities +which a kindred construction offered for the measurement of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span> +considerable angles with micrometric accuracy, that he resolved, +when he should have the choice of a new telescope for the observatory, +to secure some form of heliometer.</p> + +<p>Nor is it difficult to imagine the probable course of reasoning +which led Bessel to select the model of his new heliometer. Why, +he might ask, should he not select the simple form of Dollond’s +first type? Given the achromatic object-glass, why should not it be +divided? This construction would give all the advantage of the +younger Dollond’s object-glass micrometer, and more than its sharpness +of definition, without liability to the systematic errors which +may be due to want of homogeneity of the object-glass; for the lenses +will not be turned with respect to each other, but, in measurement, +will always have the same relation in position angle to the line +joining the objects under observation. It is true that the scale will +require to be capable of being read with much greater accuracy than +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span>th of an inch—for that, even in a telescope of 10 ft. focus, would +correspond with 2″ of arc. But, after all, this is no practical difficulty, +for screws can be used to separate the lenses, and, by these +screws, as in a Gascoigne micrometer, the separation of the lenses +can be measured; or we can have scales for this purpose, read by +microscopes, like the Troughton<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> circles of Piazzi or Pond, or those +of the Carey circle, with almost any required accuracy.</p> + +<p>Whether Bessel communicated such a course of reasoning to +Fraunhofer, or whether that great artist arrived independently at +like conclusions, we have been unable to ascertain with certainty. +The fact remains that before 1820<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Fraunhofer had completed +one or more of the five heliometers (3 in. aperture and 39 in. focus) +which have since become historical instruments. In 1824 the great +Königsberg heliometer was commenced, and it was completed in 1829.</p> + +<p>To sum up briefly the history of the development of the heliometer. +The first application of the divided object-glass and the employment +of double images in astronomical measures is due to Savary in 1743. +To Bouguer in 1748 is due the true conception of measurement by +double image without the auxiliary aid of a filar micrometer, viz. +by changing the distance between two object-glasses of equal focus. +To Dollond in 1754 we owe the combination of Savary’s idea of +the divided object-glass with Bouguer’s method of measurement, +and the construction of the first really practical heliometers. To +Fraunhofer, some time not long previous to 1820, is due, so far as +we can ascertain, the construction of the first heliometer with an +achromatic divided object-glass, <i>i.e.</i> the first heliometer of the +modern type.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>The Modern Heliometer.</i></p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:309px; height:119px" src="images/img225a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The Königsberg heliometer is represented in fig. 8. No part of +the equatorial mounting is shown in the figure, as it resembles in +every respect the usual Fraunhofer mounting. An adapter <i>h</i> is fixed +on a telescope-tube, made of wood, in Fraunhofer’s usual fashion. +To this adapter is attached +a flat circular flange <i>h</i>. +The slides carrying the +segments of the divided +object-glass are mounted +on a plate, which is fitted +and ground to rotate +smoothly on the flange <i>h</i>. +Rotation is communicated +by a pinion, turned +by the handle <i>c</i> (concealed in the figure), which works in teeth cut +on the edge of the flange <i>h</i>. The counterpoise <i>w</i> balances the head +about its axis of rotation. The slides are moved by the screws <i>a</i> and +<i>b</i>, the divided heads of which serve to measure the separation of the +segments. These screws are turned from the eye-end by bevelled +wheels and pinions, the latter connected with the handles <i>a</i>′, <i>b</i>′. +The reading micrometers <i>e</i>, <i>f</i> also serve to measure, independently, +the separation of the segments, by scales attached to the slides; +such measurements can be employed as a check on those made by +the screws. The measurement of position angles is provided for +by a graduated circle attached to the head. There is also a position +circle, attached at m to the eye-end, provided with a slide to move +the eye-piece radially from the axis of the telescope, and with a +micrometer to measure the distance of an object from that axis. +The ring <i>c</i>, which carries the supports of the handles <i>a</i>′, <i>b</i>′, is capable +of a certain amount of rotation on the tube. The weight of the +handles and their supports is balanced by the counterpoise <i>z</i>. This +ring is necessary in order to allow the rods to follow the micrometer +heads when the position angle is changed. Complete rotation of the +head is obviously impossible because of the interference of the +declination axis with the rods, and therefore, in some angles, objects +cannot be measured in two positions of the circle. The object-glass +has an aperture of 6½ in. and 102 in. focal length.</p> + +<p>There are three methods in which this heliometer can be used.</p> + +<p><i>First Method.</i>—One of the segments is fixed in the axis of the +telescope, and the eye-piece is also placed in the axis. Measures +are made with the moving segment displaced alternately on opposite +sides of the fixed segment.</p> + +<p><i>Second Method.</i>—One segment is fixed, and the measures are +made as in the first method, excepting that the eye-piece is placed +symmetrically with respect to the images under measurement. +For this purpose the position angle of the eye-piece micrometer is +set to that of the head, and the eye-piece is displaced from the +axis of the tube (in the direction of the movable segment) by an +amount equal to half the angle under measurement.</p> + +<p><i>Third Method.</i>—The eye-piece is fixed in the axis, and the segments +are symmetrically displaced from the axis each by an amount equal +to half the angle measured.</p> + +<p>Of these methods Bessel generally employed the first because of +its simplicity, notwithstanding that it involved a resetting of the +right ascension and declination of the axis of the tube with each +reversal of the segments. The chief objections to the method are +that, as one star is in the axis of the telescope and the other displaced +from it, the images are not both in focus of the eye-piece,<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +and the rays from the two stars do not make the same angle with +the optical axis of each segment. Thus the two images under +measurement are not defined with equal sharpness and symmetry. +The second method is free from the objection of non-coincidence in +focus of the images, but is more troublesome in practice from the +necessity for frequent readjustment of the position of the eye-piece. +The third method is the most symmetrical of all, both in observation +and reduction; but it was not employed by Bessel, on the +ground that it involved the determination of the errors of two +screws instead of one. On the other hand it is not necessary to +reset the telescope after each reversal of the segments.<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>When Bessel ordered the Königsberg heliometer, he was anxious +to have the segments made to move in cylindrical slides, of which +the radius should be equal to the focal length of the object-glass. +Fraunhofer, however, did not execute this wish, on the ground +that the mechanical difficulties were too great.</p> + +<p>M. L. G. Wichmann states (<i>Königsb. Beobach.</i> xxx. 4) that Bessel +had indicated, by notes in his handbooks, the following points which +should be kept in mind in the construction of future heliometers: +(1) The segments should move in cylindrical slides;<a name="fa5n" id="fa5n" href="#ft5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (2) the screw +should be protected from dust;<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> (3) the zero of the position circle +should not be so liable to change;<a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> (4) the distance of the optical +centres of the segments should not change in different position +angles or otherwise;<a name="fa8n" id="fa8n" href="#ft8n"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (5) the points of the micrometer screws should +rest on ivory plates;<a name="fa9n" id="fa9n" href="#ft9n"><span class="sp">9</span></a> (6) there should be an apparatus for changing +the screen.<a name="fa10n" id="fa10n" href="#ft10n"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p> + +<p>Wilhelm Struve, in describing the Pulkowa heliometer,<a name="fa11n" id="fa11n" href="#ft11n"><span class="sp">11</span></a> made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span> +by Merz in 1839 on the model of Bessel’s heliometer, submits the +following suggestions for its improvement:<a name="fa12n" id="fa12n" href="#ft12n"><span class="sp">12</span></a> (1) to give automatically +to the two segments simultaneous equal and opposite movement;<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a> +and (2) to make the tube of metal instead of wood; to attach +the heliometer head firmly to this tube; to place the eye-piece +permanently in the axis of the telescope; and to fix a strong cradle +on the end of the declination axis, in which the tube, with the +attached head and eye-piece, could rotate on its axis.</p> + +<p>Both suggestions are important. The first is originally the idea +of Dollond; its advantages were overlooked by his son, and it seems +to have been quite forgotten till resuggested by Struve. But the +method is not available if the separation is to be measured by screws; +it is found, in that case, that the direction of the final motion of turning +of the screw must always be such as to produce motion of the +segment against gravity, otherwise the “loss of time” is apt to be +variable. Thus the simple connexion of the two screws by cog-wheels +to give them automatic opposite motion is not an available +method unless the separation of the segments is independently +measured by scales.</p> + +<p>Struve’s second suggestion has been adopted in nearly all succeeding +heliometers. It permits complete rotation of the tube and +measurement of all angles in reversed positions of the circle; the +handles that move the slides can be brought down to the eye-end, +inside the tube, and consequently made to rotate with it; and the +position circle may be placed at the end of the cradle next the eye-end +where it is convenient of access. Struve also points out that +by attaching a fine scale to the focusing slide of the eye-piece, and +knowing the coefficient of expansion of the metal tube, the means +would be provided for determining the absolute change of the focal +length of the object-glass at any time by the simple process of +focusing on a double star. This, with a knowledge of the temperature +of the screw or scale and its coefficient of expansion, would +enable the change of screw-value to be determined at any instant.</p> + +<p>It is probable that the Bonn heliometer was in course of construction +before these suggestions of Struve were published or +discussed, since its construction resembles that of the Königsberg +and Pulkowa instruments. Its dimensions are similar to those of +the former instrument. Bessel, having been consulted by the +celebrated statesman, Sir Robert Peel, on behalf of the Radcliffe +trustees, as to what instrument, added to the Radcliffe Observatory, +would probably most promote the advancement of astronomy, +strongly advised the selection of a heliometer. The order for the +instrument was given to the Repsolds in 1840, but “various circumstances, +for which the makers are not responsible, contributed to +delay the completion of the instrument, which was not delivered +before the winter of 1848.”<a name="fa14n" id="fa14n" href="#ft14n"><span class="sp">14</span></a> The building to receive it was commenced +in March 1849 and completed in the end of +the same year. This instrument has a superb object-glass +of 7½ in. aperture and 126 in. focal length. The +makers availed themselves of Bessel’s suggestion to +make the segments move in cylindrical slides, and of +Struve’s to have the head attached to a brass tube; +the eye-piece is set permanently in the axis, and the +whole rotates in a cradle attached to the declination +axis. They provided a splendid, rigidly mounted, +equatorial stand, fitted with every luxury in the way +of slow motion, and scales for measuring the displacement +of the segments were read by powerful micrometers +from the eye-end.<a name="fa15n" id="fa15n" href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> It is somewhat curious +that, though Struve’s second suggestion was adopted, +his first was overlooked by the makers. But it is +still more curious that it was not afterwards carried +out, for the communication of automatic symmetrical +motion to both segments only involves a simple +alteration previously described. But, as it came +from the hands of the makers in 1849, the Oxford +heliometer was incomparably the most powerful and +perfect instrument in the world for the highest order +of micrometric research. It so remained, unrivalled +in every respect, till 1873.</p> + +<p>As the transit of Venus of 1874 approached, preparations +were set on foot by the German Government in good time; a +commission of the most celebrated astronomers was appointed, and it +was resolved that the heliometer should be the instrument chiefly +relied on. The four long-neglected small heliometers made by Fraunhofer +were brought into requisition. Fundamental alterations were +made upon them: their wooden tubes were replaced by tubes of metal; +means of measuring the focal point were provided; symmetrical +motion was given to the slides; scales on each slide were provided +instead of screws for measuring the separation of the segments, and +both scales were read by the same micrometer microscope; a +metallic thermometer was added to determine the temperature of +the scales. These small instruments have since done admirable +work in the hands of Schur, Hartwig, Küstner, Elkin, Auwers and +others.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:481px; height:190px" src="images/img226a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The Russian Government ordered three new heliometers (each of +4 in. aperture and 5 ft. focal length) from the Repsolds, and the +design for their construction was superintended by Struve, Auwers +and Winnecke, the last-named making the necessary experiments at +Carlsruhe. Fig. 9 represents the resulting type of instrument which +was finally designed and constructed by Repsolds. The brass tube, +strengthened at the bearing points by strong truly turned collars, +rotates in the cast iron cradle <i>q</i> attached to the declination axis, +<i>a</i> is the eye-piece fixed in the optical axis, <i>b</i> the micrometer for reading +both scales, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> are telescopes for reading the position circle <i>p</i>, +<i>e</i> the handle for quick motion in position angle, <i>f</i> the slow motion in +position angle, <i>g</i> the handle for changing the separation of the +segments by acting on the bevel-wheel <i>g</i>′ (fig. 10). h is a milled +head connected by a rod with <i>h</i>′ (fig. 10), for the purpose of interposing +at pleasure the prism π in the axis of the reading micrometer; +this enables the observer to view the graduations on the face of the +metallic thermometer ττ (composed of a rod of brass and a rod of +zinc), <i>i</i> is a milled head connected with the wheel <i>i</i>′<i>i</i>′ (fig. 10), and +affords the means of placing the screen <i>s</i> (fig. 9), counterpoised by <i>w</i> +over either half of the object-glass. <i>k</i> clamps the telescope in +declination, <i>n</i> clamps it in right ascension, and the handles <i>m</i> +and <i>l</i> provide slow motion in declination and right ascension +respectively.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:654px; height:356px" src="images/img226b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The details of the interior mechanism of the “head” will be almost +evident from fig. 10 without description. The screw, turned by +the wheels at <i>g</i>′, acts in a toothed arc, whence, as shown in the +figure, equal and opposite motion is communicated to the slides by +the jointed rods <i>v</i>, <i>v</i>. The slides are kept firmly down to their bearings +by the rollers <i>r</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>r</i>, attached to axes which are, in the middle, +very strong springs. Side-shake is prevented by the screws and +pieces <i>k</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>k</i>. The scales are at <i>n</i>, <i>n</i>; they are fastened only at +the middle, and are kept down by the brass pieces <i>t</i>, <i>t</i>.</p> + +<p>A similar heliometer was made by the Repsolds to the order of +Lord Lindsay for his Mauritius expedition in 1874. It differed only +from the three Russian instruments in having a mounting by the +Cookes in which the declination circle reads from the eye-end.<a name="fa16n" id="fa16n" href="#ft16n"><span class="sp">16</span></a> +This instrument was afterwards most generously lent by Lord +Lindsay to Gill for his expedition to Ascension in 1877.<a name="fa17n" id="fa17n" href="#ft17n"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p> + +<p>These four Repsold heliometers proved to be excellent instruments, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span> +easy and convenient in use, and yielding results of very high accuracy +in measuring distances. Their slow motion in position angle, however, +was not all that could be desired. When small movements +were communicated to the handle <i>e</i> (fig. 9) by the tangent screw <i>f</i>, +acting on a small toothed wheel clamped to the rod connected with +the driving pinion, there was apt to be a torsion of the rod rather +than an immediate action. Thus the slow motion would take place +by jerks instead of with the necessary smoothness and certainty. +When the heliometer-part of Lord Lindsay’s heliometer was acquired +by Gill in 1879, he changed the manner of imparting the motion in +question. A square toothed racked wheel was applied to the tube +at <i>r</i> (fig. 9). This wheel is acted on by a tangent screw whose bearings +are attached to the cradle; the screw is turned by means of a +handle supported by bearings attached to the cradle, and coming +within convenient reach of the observer’s hand. The tube turns +smoothly in the racked wheel, or can be clamped to it at the will of +the observer. This alteration and the new equatorial mounting +have been admirably made by Grubb; the result is completely +successful. The instrument so altered was in use at the Cape +Observatory from March 1881 till 1887 in determining +the parallax of some of the more interesting +southern stars. The instrument then passed, by +purchase from Gill, to Lord McLaren, by whom +it was presented to the Royal Observatory, +Edinburgh.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:659px; height:675px" src="images/img227a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:455px; height:373px" src="images/img227b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:343px; height:410px" src="images/img227c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 140px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:68px; height:324px" src="images/img228a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Still more recently the Repsolds have completed +a new heliometer for Yale College, New Haven, +United States. The object-glass is of 6 in. aperture +and 98 in. focal length. The mounting, the +tube, objective-cell, slides, &c., are all of steel.<a name="fa18n" id="fa18n" href="#ft18n"><span class="sp">18</span></a> +The instrument is shown in fig. 11. The circles +for position angle and declination are read by +micrometer-microscopes illuminated by the lamp +L; the scales are illuminated by the lamp <i>l</i>. T is +part of the tube proper, and turns with the head. +The tube V, on the contrary, is attached to the +cradle, and merely forms a support for the finder +Q, the handles at <i>f</i> and <i>p</i>, and the moving ring P. +The latter gives quick motion in position angle; +the handles at <i>p</i> clamp and give slow motion in +position angle, those at <i>f</i> clamp and give slow +motion in right ascension and declination. <i>a</i> is +the eye-piece, <i>b</i> the handle for moving the segments, +<i>c</i> the micrometer microscope for reading +the scales and scale micrometer, <i>d</i> the micrometer +readers of the position and declination circles, +<i>e</i> the handle for rotating the large wheel E +which carries the screens. The hour circle is +also read by microscopes, and the instrument +can be used in both positions (tube preceding +and following) for elimination of the effect of +flexure on the position angles. Elkin found that +the chief drawbacks to speed and convenience +in working this heliometer were: (1) The loss +of time involved in entering the corresponding +readings of the micrometer pointings on two +scales. (2) That an additional motion intermediate +between the quick and slow motion in +position angle was necessary, because, whilst the +slow motion provided by Repsolds was admirably +adapted for adjusting the pointings in position +angle, it was too slow for causing the images to +“cross through” each other in the process of measuring +distances. To remedy drawback (1) Repsolds +devised the form of printing micrometer which is shown in figs. 12 and +13. This micrometer is provided with two pairs of parallel webs. One +fixed pair of webs is attached to the micrometer-box, the other pair +is moved by the screw S. The whole micrometer-box is moved by +the screw attached to the heads. Accordingly, in reading the scales +A and B (attached to the slides which carry the two halves of the +object-glass), it is only necessary to turn the screws until the fixed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span> +double web is pointed symmetrically on one of the divisions of scale +A, then to move the other double web by the screw S until it is +symmetrically pointed on the adjoining division of scale B. By +turning the quick acting screw P (fig. 13) to the right, the cushion C +(which is faced with india-rubber) presses the paper +ribbon (shown in fig. 13) against the index-edge and +type-wheels, and thus the beautifully cut divisions of +the micrometer-head, the numbers marking the <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span> +parts of the head, the index and the total number of +revolutions are all sharply embossed together upon the +paper ribbon. Fig. 14 shows the record of several +successive paintings on the same scale as that given by +the micrometer. The reverse motion of P automatically +moves the paper ribbon forward, ready to +receive the next impression. It must be mentioned +that the pressure of the cushion C on the type-wheels +has no influence whatever upon the micrometer-screw, +because the type-wheels are mounted on a hollow +cylindrical axis, concentric with the axis of the screw, +but entirely disconnected from the screw itself. The +only connexion between the type-wheel and the screw-head +S is by the pin <i>p</i> (which is screwed into S), the +cylindrical end of which acts in a slot cut in the type-wheel. +To remedy drawback (2) Repsolds provided +for the Yale heliometer an additional handle for +motion in position angle, intermediate in velocity +between the original quick and slow motions.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:696px; height:632px" src="images/img228b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Engineering</i>, vol. xlix.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>In the 7-in. heliometer, completed in 1887 for the Royal Observatory +at the Cape of Good Hope, Repsolds, on Gill’s suggestion, +introduced the following improvements: (<i>a</i>) Four different speeds +of motion in position angle were provided. The quickest movement +is given by the hand-ring, 73 (fig. 15). This ring runs between +friction wheels and is provided with teeth on its inner periphery, +and these teeth transmit motion to a pinion on a spindle having at +its other end another pinion which, through an intermediate wheel, +rotates the heliometer tube. The transmission spindle, just mentioned, +carries at its end a head, 74, which, if turned directly, gives +the second speed. The slowest speed is given by means of a tangent +screw which is carried by a ball-bearing on the flange of the telescope-sleeve, +whilst its nut is double-jointed to a ring that encircles the +flange of the heliometer-tube. This ring is provided with a clamping +screw, which, through the intervention of bevel-gear and rods, is +operated by means of the hand-wheel 78. With similar bevel-gear +and rods the tangent screw is connected to the hand-wheel, 79, +by which the observer communicates the fourth or slowest motion +in position angle. Finally the hand-wheel 80 is connected by +gearing to the rod carrying the hand-wheel 79, and it can thus be +used to give the latter a more rapid motion than if used direct; +this constitutes the third speed of movement.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) In lieu of oil-lamps, small, conveniently placed incandescent +electric 6-volt lamps are employed; and these are fitted with +suitable switches and variable resistances. Thus the scales, the +position- and declination-circles, the field of view, the heads of all the +micrometer-microscopes, the focusing scale, &c., are read without the +aid of a hand-lamp and with an amount of illumination that can be +regulated at the observer’s pleasure.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) A button in the centre of the position-angle handle (74) connects +with a chronograph which enables the observer to record the +instant of observation. Little card-holders (81) (also illuminated) +enable the astronomer to enter beforehand the R.A. and Dec. of the +object to be observed, the scale divisions to be pointed upon, and +thus, in measures of distance, with the aid of the chronograph and +printing micrometer, enable the observer to adjust the instrument +for observation and obtain a record of his observations without +the aid of a hand-lamp or the necessity to make any records in his +notebook. In observations of position angle one of the two tablets +81 can be used to record the readings.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) The scales are made of iridio-platinum instead of silver, and the +magnifying power of the reading microscope is increased fourfold +(viz. to 100 diameters). A special microscope is introduced for +determining the division errors of the scales. It enables the observer +to compare any division-interval on one half of either scale with any +corresponding interval on the other scale. With this apparatus +Gill was enabled (<i>Annals Cape Obs.</i> vii. 29-42, and <i>Monthly +Notices, R.A.S.</i>, xlix. 105-115) to determine the division error of +every line on both scales with a probable error corresponding to +± 0″.0092 arc.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) A position-micrometer is attached to the finder to enable the +observer to select comparison stars for observation with some +unexpected object. Thus a comet may be encountered in the morning +dawn or evening twilight, and without such an adjunct the +astronomer may lose the whole available opportunity for observation +in the vain endeavour to find a suitable comparison-star. But +with such a position-micrometer of large field he has no difficulty. +Directing the finder to the comet, he has at once in the field of view +all available comparison stars. Having selected the most suitable +one he directs the axis of the finder to the estimated middle point +between the comet and the star, turns the finder-micrometer in +position angle until the images of comet and +star lie symmetrically between the parallel +position wires, and then turns the micrometer +screw (which moves the distance-wires symmetrically +from the centre in opposite directions) +till one wire bisects the comet and the +other the star. The reading of the position-circle +of the finder is then the reading to which +the position-circle of the heliometer should be +set, and from the readings of the micrometer-screw +he finds, by a convenient table, the proper +settings of the heliometer scales in distance. +When the scales and position-circle of the +heliometer have been set to these readings, the +comet and the selected comparison-star appear +together in the field of view.</p> + +<p>Fig. 15 shows the very convenient arrangement +of the eye-end of the instrument. The +disk, 30 with its small projecting handle +enables the 2 segments of the divided object +to be moved rapidly or with any required +delicacy relative to each other. The disk 32 +operates the wire gauze screens for equalizing +the brightness of the two stars under observation. +The dial between 30 and 32 indicates +the screen in use. 18 clamps and 19 gives +slow motion in declination; 20 clamps and +21 gives slow motion in right ascension. +The two handles 82 serve for manipulating +the instrument. The microscopes adjoining 82 +read the position and declination circles; for, +by an ingenious arrangement of prisms and +screens, the images of both circles can be read +by each single microscope as shown in fig. 16, +thus avoiding the necessity for the employment +of two additional micrometers.</p> + +<p>Experience has shown that there is little +that can be advantageously changed to improve +this instrument either in convenience or +precision of working. A series of observations +can be easily and more accurately accomplished +with the Cape heliometer in half an hour; with +the Oxford heliometer it would occupy 2 hours, and with the 4 in. +Repsold heliometer (fig. 9) 1 hour. Heliometers of 6 to 8 in. +aperture have subsequently been constructed by Repsolds on +these plans for Göttingen, Bamberg, Leipzig and the Kuffner Observatory +(near Vienna), and all of them have made important +contributions to astronomy of precision.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:378px; height:351px" src="images/img229a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From <i>Engineering</i>, vol. xlix.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Heliometer observations of distance in their most refined sense +cannot be considered absolute measures of angles. Essentially the +scale-value of the instrument depends on the relation of the focal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span> +length of the object-glass to the length of the unit of the scale. But +<i>the eye is tolerant of small changes in the focal adjustment which sensibly +affect the scale-value</i>. These changes may and do arise from the +following causes: (i.) The focal length of the object-glass and the +length of the tube are affected by temperature. (ii.) The focal length +is sensibly different for objects of different colour. (iii.) The length +of the scale is affected by temperature. (iv.) The state of adaptation +of the observer’s +eye is dependent +on his state of +health, on a condition +of greater +or less fatigue, or +on the inclination +of the head +in consequence of +the altitude of +the object observed. +(v.) The +temperature of +the object-glass, +of the scale and +of the tube, cannot +be assumed +to be identical.</p> + +<p>Thus, for refined +purposes, it +cannot be assumed +with any +certainty that +the instantaneous +scale-value +of the heliometer +is known, or that it is a function of the temperature. Of course, +for many purposes, mean conditions may be adopted and mean +scale-values be found which are applicable with considerable precision +to small angles or to comparatively crude observations of +large distances; but the highest refinement is lost unless means +are provided for determining the scale-value for each observer at +each epoch of observation.</p> + +<p>In determinations of stellar or solar parallax, comparison stars, +symmetrically situated with respect to the object whose parallax +is sought, should be employed, in which case the instantaneous +scale-value may be regarded as an unknown quantity which can be +derived in the process of the computation of the results. Examples +of this mode of procedure will be found, in the case of stellar parallax +in the <i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol. xlviii. pp. 1-194, and in the <i>Annals of the +Cape Observatory</i>, vol. viii. parts 1 and 2; and in the case of planetary +parallax in the <i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol. xlvi. pp. 1-171, and in the <i>Annals +of the Cape Observatory</i>, vol. vi. In other operations, such as the +triangulation of large groups of stars, it is necessary to select a pair +of standard stars, if possible near the middle of the group, and to +determine the scale-value by measures of this standard distance at +frequent intervals during the night (see <i>Annals of the Cape Observatory</i>, +vol. vi. pp. 3-224). In other cases, such as the measurement +of the mutual distances and position angles of the satellites +of Jupiter, for derivation of the elements of the orbits of the satellites +and the mass of Jupiter, reference must also be made to measures +of standard stars whose relative distance and position angle is +accurately determined by independent methods (see <i>Annals of the +Cape Observatory</i>, vol. xii. part 2).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:85px; height:105px" src="images/img229b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Gill introduced a powerful auxiliary to the accuracy of heliometer +measures in the shape of a reversing prism placed in front +of the eye-piece, between the latter and the observer’s eye. If +measures are made by placing the image of a star in the centre +of the disk of a planet, the observer may have a tendency to do so +systematically in error from some acquired habit or +from natural astigmatism of the eye. But by rotating +the prism 90° the image is presented entirely reversed +to the eye, so that in the mean of measures made in +two such positions personal error is eliminated. Similarly +the prism may be used for the study and elimination +of personal errors depending on the angle made +by a double star with the vertical. The best plan of +mounting such a prism has been found to be the +following. <i>l</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>l</i><span class="sp">2</span> (fig. 17) are the eye lens and field +lens respectively of a Merz positive eye-piece. In this construction +the lenses are much closer together and the diaphragm for the eye +is much farther from the lenses than in Ramsden’s eye-piece. The +prism <i>p</i> is fitted accurately into brass slides (care has to be taken in +the construction to place the prism so that an object in the centre +of the field will so remain when the eye-piece is rotated in its adapter). +There is a collar, clamped by the screw at S, which is so adjusted +that the eye-piece is in focus when pushed home, in its adapter, to +this collar. The prism and eye-piece are then rotated together in +the adapter.</p> + +<p><i>The Double Image Micrometer.</i>—Thomas Clausen in 1841 (<i>Ast. +Nach.</i> No. 414) proposed a form of micrometer consisting of a +divided plate of parallel glass placed within the cone of rays from +the object-glass at right angles to the telescope axis. One-half of +this plane remains fixed, the other half is movable. When the inclination +of the movable half with respect to the axis of the telescope +is changed by rotation about an axis at right angles to the plane of +division, two images are produced. The amount of separation is +very small, and depends on the thickness of the glass, the index of +refraction and the focal length of the telescope. Angelo Secchi +(<i>Comptes rendus</i>, xli., 1855, p. 906) gives an account of some experiments +with a similar micrometer; and Ignarjio Porro (<i>Comptes +rendus</i>, xli. p. 1058) claims the original invention and construction +of such a micrometer in 1842. Clausen, however, has undoubted +priority. Helmholtz in his “Ophthalmometer” has employed +Clausen’s principle, but arranges the plates so that both move symmetrically +in opposite directions with respect to the telescope axis. +Should Clausen’s micrometer be employed as an astronomical +instrument, it would be well to adopt the improvement of Helmholtz.</p> + +<p><i>Double-Image Micrometers with Divided Lenses.</i>—Various micrometers +have been invented besides the heliometer for measuring by +double image. Ramsden’s dioptric micrometer consists of a divided +lens placed in the conjugate focus of the innermost lens of the erecting +eye-tube of a terrestrial telescope. The inventor claimed that it +would supersede the heliometer, but it has never done anything for +astronomy. Dollond claims the independent invention and first +construction of a similar instrument (Pearson’s <i>Practical Astronomy</i>, +ii. 182). Of these and kindred instruments only two types have +proved of practical value. G. B. Amici of Modena (<i>Mem. Soc. +Ital.</i> xvii., 1815, pp. 344-359) describes a micrometer in which a +negative lens is introduced between the eye-piece and the object-glass. +This lens is divided and mounted like a heliometer object-glass; +the separation of the lenses produces the required double +image, and is measured by a screw. W. R. Dawes very successfully +used this micrometer in conjunction with a filar micrometer, and +found that the precision of the measures was in this way greatly +increased (<i>Monthly Notices</i>, vol. xviii. p. 58, and <i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol. +xxxv. p. 147).</p> + +<p>In the improved form<a name="fa19n" id="fa19n" href="#ft19n"><span class="sp">19</span></a> of Airy’s divided eye-glass micrometer +(<i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol. xv. pp. 199-209) the rays from the object-glass +pass successively through lenses as follows:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Lens.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Distance from<br />next Lens.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Focal Length.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>a</i>. An equiconvex lens</td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>p</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">arbitrary = <i>p</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>b</i>.    ”     ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>c</i>. Plano-convex, convex towards <i>b</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">1¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"><i>d</i>. Plano-convex, convex towards <i>c</i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The lens <i>b</i> is divided, and one of the segments is moved by a micrometer +screw. The magnifying power is varied by changing the lens a +for another in which <i>p</i> has a different value. The magnifying power +of the eye-piece is that of a single lens of focus = <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span><i>p</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1850 J. B. Valz pointed out that the other optical conditions +could be equally satisfied if the divided lens were made concave +instead of convex, with the advantage of giving a larger field of view +(<i>Monthly Notices</i>, vol. x. p. 160).</p> + +<p>The last improvement on this instrument is mentioned in the +<i>Report</i> of the R.A.S. council, February 1865. It consists in the +introduction by Simms of a fifth lens, but no satisfactory description +has ever appeared. There is only one practical published +investigation of Airy’s micrometer that is worthy of mention, +viz. that of F. Kaiser (<i>Annalen der Sternwarte in Leiden</i>, iii. +111-274). The reader is referred to that paper for an exhaustive +history and discussion of the <span class="correction" title="amended from intrument">instrument</span>.<a name="fa20n" id="fa20n" href="#ft20n"><span class="sp">20</span></a> It is somewhat surprising +that, after Kaiser’s investigations, observers should continue, as +many have done, to discuss their observations with this instrument +as if the screw-value were constant for all angles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span></p> + +<p>Steinheil (<i>Journal savant de Munich</i>, Feb. 28, 1843) describes +a “heliomètre-oculaire” which he made for the great Pulkowa +refractor, the result of consultations between himself and the elder +Struve. It is essentially the same in principle as Amici’s micrometer, +except that the divided lens is an achromatic positive instead +of a negative lens. Struve (<i>Description de l’Observatoire Central de +Pulkowa</i>, pp. 196, 197) adds a few remarks to Steinheil’s description, +in which he states that the images have not all desirable precision—a +fault perhaps inevitable in all micrometers with divided lenses, +and which is probably in this case aggravated by the fact that the +rays falling upon the divided lens have considerable convergence. +He, however, successfully employed the instrument in measuring +double stars, so close as 1″ or 2″, and using a power of 300 diameters, +with results that agreed satisfactorily amongst themselves and with +those obtained with the filar micrometer. If Struve had employed +a properly proportioned double circular diaphragm, fixed symmetrically +with the axis of the telescope in front of the divided lens and +turning with the micrometer, it is probable that his report on the +instrument would have been still more favourable. This particular +instrument has historical interest, having led Struve to some of those +criticisms of the Pulkowa heliometer which ultimately bore such +valuable fruit (see <i>ante</i>).</p> + +<p>Ramsden (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. xix. p. 419) suggested the division +of the small speculum of a Cassegrain telescope and the production +of double image by micrometric rotation of the semispecula in the +plane passing through their axis. Brewster (<i>Ency. Brit.</i> 8th ed. +vol. xiv. p. 749) proposed a plan on a like principle, by dividing the +plane mirror of a Newtonian telescope. Again, in an ocular heliometer +by Steinheil double image is similarly produced by a divided +prism of total reflection placed in parallel rays. But practically +these last three methods are failures. In the last the field is full of +false light, and it is not possible to give sufficiently minute and steady +separation to the images; and there are of necessity a collimator, +two prisms of total reflection, and a small telescope through which +the rays must pass; consequently there is great loss of light.</p> + +<p><i>Micrometers Depending on Double Refraction.</i>—To the Abbé +Rochon (<i>Jour. de phys.</i> liii., 1801, pp. 169-198) is due the happy +idea of applying the two images formed by double refraction to the +construction of a micrometer. He fell upon a most ingenious plan of +doubling the amount of double refraction of a prism by using two +prisms of rock-crystal, so cut out of the solid as to give each the +same quantity of double refraction, and yet to double the quantity +in the effect produced. The combination so formed is known as +Rochon’s prism. Such a prism he placed between the object-glass +and eye-piece of a telescope. The separation of the images increases +as the prism is approached to the object-glass, and diminishes as it +is approached towards the eye-piece.</p> + +<p>D. F. J. Arago (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, xxiv., 1847, pp. 400-402) found +that in Rochon’s micrometer, when the prism was approached close to +the eye-piece for the measurement of very small angles, the smallest +imperfections in the crystal or its surfaces were inconveniently +magnified. He therefore selected for any particular measurement +such a Rochon prism as when fixed between the eye and the eye-piece +(<i>i.e.</i> where a sunshade is usually placed) would, combined with +the normal eye-piece employed, bring the images about to be +measured nearly in contact. He then altered the magnifying power +by sliding the field lens of the eye-piece (which was fitted with a +slipping tube for the purpose) along the eye-tube, till the images +were brought into contact. By a scale attached to the sliding tube +the magnifying power of the eye-piece was deduced, and this combined +with the angle of the prism employed gave the angle measured. +If <i>p</i>″ is the refracting angle of the prism, and n the magnifying power +of the eye-piece, then <i>p</i>″/<i>n</i> will be the distance observed. Arago +made many measures of the diameters of the planets with such a +micrometer.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:469px; height:212px" src="images/img230.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Dollond (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1821, pp. 101-103) describes a double-image +micrometer of his own invention, in which a sphere of rock-crystal +is substituted for the eye-lens of an ordinary eye-piece. In +this instrument (figs. 18, 19) <i>a</i> is the sphere, placed in half-holes on +the axis <i>bb</i>, so that when its principal axis is parallel to the axis of +the telescope it gives only one image of the object. In a direction +perpendicular to that axis it must be so placed that when it is +moved by rotation of the axis <i>bb</i> the separation of the images shall +be parallel to that motion. The angle of rotation is measured on +the graduated circle C. The angle between the objects measured +is = <i>r</i> sin 2θ, where <i>r</i> is a constant to be determined for each magnifying +power employed,<a name="fa21n" id="fa21n" href="#ft21n"><span class="sp">21</span></a> and θ the angle through which the sphere +has been turned from zero (<i>i.e.</i> from coincidence of its principal +axis with that of the telescope). The maximum separation is consequently +at 45° from zero. The measures can be made on both sides +of zero for eliminating index error. There are considerable difficulties +of construction, but these have been successfully overcome by +Dollond; and in the hands of Dawes (<i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> xxxv. p. 144 seq.) +such instruments have done valuable service. They are liable to +the objection that their employment is limited to the measurement +of very small angles, viz. 13″ or 14″ when the magnifying power is +100, and varying inversely as the power. Yet the beautiful images +which these micrometers give permit the measurement of very +difficult objects as a check on measures with the parallel-wire +micrometer.</p> + +<p>On the theory of the heliometer and its use consult Bessel, <i>Astronomische +Untersuchungen</i>, vol. i.; Hansen, <i>Ausführliche Methode mit +dem Fraunhoferschen Heliometer anzustellen</i> (Gotha, 1827); Chauvenet, +<i>Spherical and Practical Astronomy</i>, vol. ii. (Philadelphia and +London, 1876); Seeliger, <i>Theorie des Heliometers</i> (Leipzig, 1877); +Lindsay and Gill, <i>Dunecht Publications</i>, vol. ii. (Dunecht, for private +circulation, 1877); Gill, <i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol. xlvi. pp. 1-172, and +references mentioned in the text.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. Gi.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The circles by Reichenbach, then almost exclusively used in +Germany, were read by verniers only.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The diameter of Venus was measured with one of these heliometers +at the observatory of Breslau by Brandes in 1820 (<i>Berlin +Jahrbuch</i>, 1824, p. 164).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The distances of the optical centres of the segments from the +eye-piece are in this method as 1; secant of the angle under measurement. +In Bessel’s heliometer this would amount to a difference of +<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span>th of an inch when an angle of 1° is measured. For 2° the +difference would amount to nearly <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span>th of an inch. Bessel confined +his measures to distances considerably less than 1°.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In criticizing Bessel’s choice of methods, and considering the +loss of time involved in each, it must be remembered that Fraunhofer +provided no means of reading the screws or even the heads from the +eye-end. Bessel’s practice was to unclamp in declination, lower and +read off the head, and then restore the telescope to its former declination +reading, the clockwork meanwhile following the stars in right +ascension. The setting of both lenses symmetrically would, under +such circumstances, be very tedious.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This most important improvement would permit any two stars +under measurement each to be viewed in the optical axis of each +segment. The optical centres of the segments would also remain +at the same distance from the eye-piece at all angles of separation. +Thus, in measuring the largest as well as the smallest angles, the +images of both stars would be equally symmetrical and equally well +in focus. Modern heliometers made with cylindrical slides measure +angles over 2°, the images remaining as sharp and perfect as when +the smallest angles are measured.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Bessel found, in course of time, that the original corrections +for the errors of his screw were no longer applicable. He considered +that the changes were due to wear, which would be much lessened +if the screws were protected from dust.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The tube, being of wood, was probably liable to warp and twist +in a very uncertain way.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8n" id="ft8n" href="#fa8n"><span class="fn">8</span></a> We have been unable to find any published drawing showing +how the segments are fitted in their cells.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9n" id="ft9n" href="#fa9n"><span class="fn">9</span></a> We have been unable to ascertain the reasons which led Bessel +to choose <i>ivory</i> planes for the end-bearings of his screws. He actually +introduced them in the Königsberg heliometer in 1840, and they were +renewed in 1848 and 1850.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> A screen of wire gauze, placed in front of the segment through +which the fainter star is viewed, was employed by Bessel to equalize +the brilliancy of the images under observation. An arrangement, +afterwards described, has been fitted in modern heliometers for placing +the screen in front of either segment by a handle at the eye-end.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> This heliometer resembles Bessel’s, except that its foot is a solid +block of granite instead of the ill-conceived wooden structure that +supported his instrument. The object-glass is of 7.4 in. aperture +and 123 in. focus.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Description de l’observatoire central de Pulkowa</i>, p. 208.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Steinheil applied such motion to a double-image micrometer +made for Struve. This instrument suggested to Struve the above-mentioned +idea of employing a similar motion for the heliometer.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Manuel Johnson, M.A., Radcliffe observer, <i>Astronomical Observations +made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the Year 1850</i>, +Introduction, p. iii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The illumination of these scales is interesting as being the first +application of electricity to the illumination of astronomical instruments. +Thin platinum wire was rendered incandescent by a voltaic +current; a small incandescent electric lamp would now be found +more satisfactory.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> For a detailed description of this instrument see <i>Dunecht Publications</i>, +vol. ii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17n" id="ft17n" href="#fa17n"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>Mem. Royal Astronomical Society</i>, xlvi., 1-172.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18n" id="ft18n" href="#fa18n"><span class="fn">18</span></a> The primary object was to have the object-glass mounted in +steel cells, which more nearly correspond in expansion with glass. +It became then desirable to make the head of steel for sake of +uniformity of material, and the advantages of steel in lightness and +rigidity for the tube then became evident.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19n" id="ft19n" href="#fa19n"><span class="fn">19</span></a> For description of the earliest form see <i>Cambridge Phil. Trans.</i> +vol. ii., and <i>Greenwich Observations</i> (1840).</p> + +<p><a name="ft20n" id="ft20n" href="#fa20n"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Dawes (<i>Monthly Notices</i>, January 1858, and <i>Mem. R.A.S.</i> vol. +xxxv. p. 150) suggested and used a valuable improvement for producing +round images, instead of the elongated images which are +otherwise inevitable when the rays pass through a divided lens of +which the optical centres are not in coincidence, viz. “the introduction +of a diaphragm having two circular apertures touching each +other in a point coinciding with the line of collimation of the telescope, +and the diameter of each aperture <i>exactly equal</i> to the semidiameter +of the cone of rays at the distance of the diaphragm from the local +point of the object-glass.” Practically the difficulty of making +these diaphragms for the different powers of the <i>exact</i> required +equality is insuperable; but, if the observer is content to lose a +certain amount of light, we see no reason why they may not readily +be made slightly less. Dawes found the best method for the purpose +in question was to limit the aperture of the object-glass by a diaphragm +having a double circular aperture, placing the line joining +the centres of the circles approximately in the position angle under +measurement. Dawes successfully employed the double circular +aperture also with Amici’s micrometer. The present writer has +successfully used a similar plan in measuring position angles of a +Centauri with the heliometer, viz. by placing circular diaphragms +on the two segments of the object-glass.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21n" id="ft21n" href="#fa21n"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Dollond provides for changing the power by sliding the lens d +nearer to or farther from <i>a</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIOPOLIS,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> one of the most ancient cities of Egypt, met +with in the Bible under its native name On. It stood 5 m. E. +of the Nile at the apex of the Delta. It was the principal seat +of sun-worship, and in historic times its importance was entirely +religious. There appear to have been two forms of the sun-god +at Heliopolis in the New Kingdom—namely, Ra-Harakht, or +Rē’-Harmakhis, falcon-headed, and Etōm, human-headed; +the former was the sun in his mid-day strength, the latter the +evening sun. A sacred bull was worshipped here under the name +Mnevis (Eg. <i>Mreu</i>), and was especially connected with Etōm. +The sun-god Rē’ (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Religion</i>) was especially the royal +god, the ancestor of all the Pharaohs, who therefore held the +temple of Heliopolis in great honour. Each dynasty might +give the first place to the god of its residence—Ptah of Memphis, +Ammon of Thebes, Neith of Sais, Bubastis of Bubastis, but all +alike honoured Rē’. His temple became in a special degree a +depository for royal records, and Herodotus states that the +priests of Heliopolis were the best informed in matters of history +of all the Egyptians. The schools of philosophy and astronomy +are said to have been frequented by Plato and other Greek +philosophers; Strabo, however, found them deserted, and the +town itself almost uninhabited, although priests were still there, +and cicerones for the curious traveller. The Ptolemies probably +took little interest in their “father” Rē’, and Alexandria had +eclipsed the learning of Heliopolis; thus with the withdrawal +of royal favour Heliopolis quickly dwindled, and the students +of native lore deserted it for other temples supported by a +wealthy population of pious citizens. In Roman times obelisks +were taken from its temples to adorn the northern cities of the +Delta, and even across the Mediterranean to Rome. Finally +the growth of Fostat and Cairo, only 6 m. to the S.W., caused +the ruins to be ransacked for building materials. The site was +known to the Arabs as <i>‘Ayin esh shems</i>, “the fountain of the +sun,” more recently as Tel Hisn. It has now been brought for +the most part under cultivation, but the ancient city walls of +crude brick are to be seen in the fields on all sides, and the position +of the great temple is marked by an obelisk still standing (the +earliest known, being one of a pair set up by Senwosri I., the +second king of the Twelfth Dynasty) and a few granite blocks +bearing the name of Rameses II.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Strabo xvii. cap. 1. 27-28; Baedeker’s <i>Egypt</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIOSTAT<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêlios">ἥλιος</span>, the sun, <span class="grk" title="statos">στατός</span>, fixed, set up), +an instrument which will reflect the rays of the sun in a fixed +direction notwithstanding the motion of the sun. The optical +apparatus generally consists of a mirror mounted on an axis +parallel to the axis of the earth, and rotated with the same +angular velocity as the sun. This construction assumes that the +sun describes daily a small circle about the pole of the celestial +sphere, and ignores any diurnal variation in the declination. +This variation is, however, so small that it can be neglected for +most purposes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:213px; height:254px" src="images/img231a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:173px; height:251px" src="images/img231b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:545px" src="images/img231c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Jamin and Bouty, <i>Cours de physique</i>, Gauthier-Villars.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Silbermann’s Heliostat.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many forms of heliostats have been devised, the earliest having +been described by Wilhelm Jacob s’ Gravesande in the 3rd edition +of his <i>Physices elementa</i> (1742). One of the simplest consists of a +plane mirror rigidly connected with a +revolving axis so that the angle between +the normal to the mirror and +the axis of the instrument equals half +the sun’s polar distance, the mirror +being adjusted so that the normal has +the same right ascension as the sun. +It is easily seen that if the mirror be +rotated at the same angular velocity as +the sun the right ascensions will remain +equal throughout the day, and +therefore this device reflects the rays +in the direction of the earth’s axis; a +second fixed mirror reflects them in +any other fixed direction. Foucault’s +heliostat reflects the rays horizontally +in any required direction. The principle +of the apparatus may be explained +by reference to fig. 1. The axis of rotation AB bears a rigidly +attached rod DBC inclined to it at an angle equal to the sun’s polar +distance. By adjusting the right ascension of the plane ABC and +rotating the axis with the angular velocity of the sun, it follows that +BC will be the direction of the solar rays +throughout the day. X is the mirror +rotating about the point E, and placed so +that (if EB is the horizontal direction in +which the rays are to be reflected) (1) the +normal CE to the mirror is jointed to BC +at C and is equal in length to BE, (2) the +rod DBC passes through a slot in a rod ED +fixed to, and in the plane of, the mirror. +Since CE equals BE these directions are +equally inclined to, and coplanar with, the +normal to the mirror. Hence light incident +along the direction BC will be reflected +along CE. Silbermann’s heliostat reflects +the rays in any direction. The principle +may be explained by means of fig. 2. AB +is the axis of rotation, BC an adjustable +rod as in Foucault’s construction, and +BD is another rod which can be set to the direction in which +the rays are to be reflected. The rods BC and DB carry two +small rods EF, GF jointed at F; at this joint there is a pin which +slides in a slot on the rod BH, which is normal to the mirror X. The +rods EF, GF are such that BEFG is a rhombus. It is easy to show +that rays falling on the mirror in the direction BC will be reflected +along BD. One construction of the instrument, described in Jamin’s +<i>Cours de physique</i>, is shown in fig. 3. The mirror <i>mm</i> is attached +to the framework <i>pafe</i>, the members of which are parallel to the +incident and reflected rays SO, OR, and the diagonal <i>pf</i> is perpendicular +to the mirror. The framework is attached to two independent +circular arcs C<i>s</i> and <i>rr</i>′ having their centres at O and provided +with clamps D and A on the axis F of the instrument. The arc C<i>s</i> +is graduated, and is set so that the angle COD equals the complement +of the sun’s declination. This can be effected (after setting the axis) +by rotating C<i>s</i> until a needle indicates true time on the hour dial B. +The arc <i>rr</i>′ is set so as to reflect the rays in the required direction. +The axis F of the instrument is set at an angle equal to the latitude +of the place of observation and in the meridian by means of the screw +K, and rotated by clockwork contained in the barrel H. The setting +in the meridian is effected by turning the instrument after setting +for latitude until a pin-hole aperture s and a small screen P, placed +so that Ps is parallel to CO, are in a line with the sun.</p> + +<p>Many other forms of heliostats have been designed, the chief +difference consisting in the mechanical devices for maintaining the +constant direction of the reflecting ray. One of the most important +applications of the heliostat is as an adjunct to the newer forms of +horizontal telescopes (<i>q.v.</i>) and in conjunction with spectroscopic +telescopes in observations of eclipses.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:205px; height:413px" src="images/img231d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Heliotropium suaveolens.</i></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">HELIOTROPE,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Turnsole</span>, <i>Heliotropium</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêliotropion">ἡλιοτρόπιον</span>, +<i>i.e.</i> a plant which follows the sun with its flowers or leaves, or, +according to Theophrastus (<i>Hist, plant</i>, vii. 15), which flowers +at the summer solstice), a genus of usually more or less hairy +herbs or undershrubs of the tribe <i>Heliotropieae</i> of the natural +order Boraginaceae, having alternate, rarely almost opposite +leaves; small white, lilac or blue flowers, in terminal or lateral +one-sided simple or once or twice +forked spikes, with a calyx of five +deeply divided segments, a salver-shaped, +hypogynous, 5-lobed corolla, +and entire 4-celled ovary; fruit 2- to +4-sulcate or lobed, at length +separable into four 1-seeded nutlets +or into two hard 2-celled carpels. +The genus contains 220 species +indigenous in the temperate and +warmer parts of both hemispheres. +A few species are natives of Europe, +as <i>H. europaeum</i>, which is also a +naturalized species in the southern +parts of North America.</p> + +<p>The common heliotrope of English +hothouses, <i>H. peruvianum</i>, popularly +known as “cherry-pie,” is on +account of the delicious odour of +its flowers a great favourite with +florists. It was introduced into +Europe by the younger Jussieu, +who sent seed of it from Peru +to the royal garden at Paris. About the year 1757 it +was grown in England by Philip Miller from seed obtained +from St Germains. <i>H. corymbosum</i> (also a native of Peru), +which was grown in Hammersmith nurseries as early as 1812, +has larger but less fragant flowers than <i>H. peruvianum</i>. The +species commonly grown in Russian gardens is <i>H. suaveolens</i>, +which has white, highly fragrant flowers.</p> + +<p>Heliotropes may be propagated either from seed, or, as +commonly, by means of cuttings of young growths taken an +inch or two in length. Cuttings when sufficiently ripened, are +struck in spring or during the summer months; when rooted +they should be potted singly into small pots, using as a compost +fibry loam, sandy peat and well-decomposed stable manure +from an old hotbed. The plants soon require to be shifted into +a pot a size larger. To secure early-flowering plants, cuttings +should be struck in August, potted off before winter sets in, and +kept in a warm greenhouse. In the spring larger pots should +be given, and the plants shortened back to make them bushy. +They require frequent shiftings during the summer, to induce +them to bloom freely.</p> + +<p>The heliotrope makes an elegant standard. The plants must +in this case be allowed to send up a central shoot, and all the +side growths must be pinched off until the necessary height is +reached, when the shoot must be stopped and lateral growths +will be produced to form the head. During winter they should +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span> +be kept somewhat dry, and in spring the ball of soil should be +reduced and the plants repotted, the shoots being slightly +pruned, so as to maintain a symmetrical head. When they +are planted out against the walls and pillars of the greenhouse +or conservatory an abundance of highly perfumed blossoms +will be supplied all the year round. From the end of May till +October heliotropes are excellent for massing in beds in the +open air by themselves or with other plants. Many florists’ +varieties of the common heliotrope are known in cultivation.</p> + +<p>Pliny (<i>Nat. hist.</i> xxii. 29) distinguishes two kinds of “heliotropium,” +the <i>tricoccum</i>, and a somewhat taller plant, the +<i>helioscopium</i>; the former, it has been supposed, is <i>Croton +tinctorium</i>, and the latter the <span class="grk" title="hêliotropion mikron">ἡλιοτρόπιον μικρόν</span> of Dioscorides +or <i>Heliotropium europaeum</i>. The helioscopium, according to +Pliny, was variously employed in medicine; thus the juice of +the leaves with salt served for the removal of warts, whence +the term <i>herba verrucaria</i> applied to the plant. What, from the +perfume of its flowers, is sometimes called winter heliotrope, +is the fragrant butterbur, or sweet-scented coltsfoot, <i>Petasites</i> +(<i>Tussilago</i>) <i>fragrans</i>, a perennial Composite plant.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Heliotrope</span>, in mineralogy, is the mineral commonly called +“bloodstone” (<i>q.v.</i>), and sometimes termed girasol—a name +applied also to fire-opal. The name, like those of many ancient +names of minerals, seems to have had a fanciful origin. According +to Pliny the stone was so called because when thrown into the +water it turned the sun’s light falling upon it into a reflection +like that of blood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIOZOA,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> in zoology, a group of the Sarcodina (<i>q.v.</i>) so +named by E. Haeckel, 1866. They are characterized by the +radiate pseudopods, finely tapering at the apex, springing +abruptly from the superficial protoplasm, containing a denser, +rather permanent axial rod (figs. 1 (1), 2 (2)); protoplasm without +a clear ectoplasm or pellicle, often frothy with large vacuoles, +like the alveoli of Radiolaria; nucleus 1 or numerous; skeleton +absent, gelatinous or of separate siliceous fibres, plates or +spicules, rarely complete and latticed; reproduction by simple +fission or by brood-formation, often syngamous; form usually +nearly spherical, rarely changing slowly. This group was +formerly included with the Rhizopoda; but was separated +from it by Haeckel on account of the character of its pseudopods, +and its general adaptation to a semipelagic existence correlated +with the frothy cytoplasm (fig. 1 (1)). <i>Actinophrys sol</i> and +<i>Actinosphaerium eichhornii</i> (fig. 2), known as sun animalcules +to the older microscopists, float freely in stagnant or slow-flowing +waters, and <i>Myriophrys</i> is able by an investment of +long flagelliform cilia to swim freely. The majority, however, +lurk among confervae or the light débris of the bottom ooze; +and come under the head of “sapropelic” rather than pelagic +organisms. The body is usually of constant spherical form in +relation to the floating habit. <i>Nuclearia</i>, however, shows amoeboid +changes of general outline. The pseudopods are retractile, +the axial filament being absorbed as the filament grows shorter +and thicker and disappearing when the pseudopod merges into the +ectoplasm, to be reformed at the same time with the pseudopod. +There is often a distinction, clear, but never sharp, between the +richly vacuolate, almost frothy ectoplasm and the denser +endoplasm. One or more contractile vacuoles may protrude +from the ectoplasm. The endoplasm contains the nucleus or +nuclei. The nucleus when single may be central or excentric: +in the latter case, the endoplasm contains a clear central sphere +(“centrosome”) on which abut the axial filaments of the pseudopods. +The ectoplasm contains, in some species, constantly +(<i>Raphidiophrys viridis</i>) or occasionally (<i>Actinosphaerium</i>), green +cells belonging to the genera <i>Zoochlorella</i> and <i>Sphaerocystis</i>, both +probably—the latter certainly—vegetative stages of a Chlamydomonad +(<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flagellata</a></span>, <i>q.v.</i>) and of symbiotic significance.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:1032px" src="images/img232a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Heliozoa. 1. <i>Actinophrys sol</i>, Ehrb. <i>a</i>, food-particle +lying in a large food-vacuole; <i>b</i>, deep-lying finely granular protoplasm; +<i>c</i>, axial filament of a pseudopodium extended inwards +to the nucleus; <i>d</i>, the central nucleus; <i>e</i>, contractile vacuole; f, +superficial much vacuolated protoplasm. 2. <i>Clathrulina elegans</i>, +Cienk. 3. <i>Heterophrys marina</i>, H. and L. <i>a</i>, nucleus; <i>b</i>, clearer +protoplasm surrounding the nucleus; <i>c</i>, the peculiar felted envelope. +4. <i>Raphidiophrys pallida</i>, F. E. Schultze. <i>a</i>, food-particle; <i>b</i>, contractile +vacuole; <i>c</i>, the nucleus; <i>d</i>, central granule in which all the +axis-filaments of the pseudopodia meet. The tangentially disposed +spicules are seen arranged in masses on the surface. 5. <i>Acanthocystis +turfacea</i>, Carter. <i>a</i>, probably the central nucleus; <i>b</i>, clear +protoplasm around the nucleus; <i>c</i>, more superficial protoplasm with +vacuoles and chlorophyll corpuscles; <i>d</i>, coarser siliceous spicules; +<i>e</i>, finer forked siliceous spicules; <i>f</i>, finely granular layer of protoplasm. +The long pseudopodia reaching beyond the spicules are +not lettered. 6. Bi-flagellate “flagellula” of <i>Acanthocystis aculeata</i>. +a, nucleus. 7. Id. of <i>Clathrulina elegans</i>. <i>a</i>, nucleus; <i>b</i>, granules. +8. <i>Astrodisculus ruber</i>, Greeff. <i>a</i>, red-coloured central sphere (? nucleus); +<i>b</i>, peripheral homogeneous envelope.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The Heliozoa can move by rolling over on their extended pseudopods; +<i>Acanthocystis ludibunda</i> traversing a path of as much +as twenty times its diameter in a minute, according to Penard. +Several species (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Raphidiophrys elegans</i>) remain associated +by the union of their pseudopods, whether into social aggregates +(due to approximation) or “colonies” due to lack of separation +after fission, is not accurately known. The multinuclear species +<i>Actinosphaerium eichhornii</i> (fig. 2), normally apocytial (<i>i.e.</i> the +nuclei divide repeatedly without division of the cytoplasm), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span> +may increase in size by the fusion (“plastogamic”) of small +individuals. If a large specimen be cut up or fragment itself +under irritation, the small ones so produced soon approach one +another and fuse completely.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:1037px" src="images/img233.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Heliozoa. 1. <i>Actinosphaerium eichhornii</i>, Ehr.; <i>a</i>, +nuclei; <i>b</i>, deeper protoplasm with smaller vacuoles and numerous +nuclei; <i>c</i>, contractile vacuoles; <i>d</i>, peripheral protoplasm with +larger vacuoles. 2. A portion of the same specimen more highly +magnified and seen in optical section. <i>a</i>, Nuclei; <i>b</i>, deeper protoplasm +(so-called endosarc); <i>d</i>, peripheral protoplasm (so-called +ectosarc); <i>e</i>, pseudopodia showing the granular protoplasm streaming +over the stiff axial filament: <i>f</i>, food-particle in a good-vacuole. +3, 4. Nuclei of <i>Actinosphaerium</i> in the resting condition. 5-13. +Successive stages in the division of a nucleus of <i>Actinosphaerium</i>, +showing fibrillation, and in 7 and 8 formation of an equatorial +plate of chromatin substance (after Hertwig). 14. Cyst-phase of +<i>Actinosphaerium eichhornii</i>, showing the protoplasm divided into +twelve chlamydospores, each of which has a siliceous coat; <i>a</i>, +nucleus of the spore; <i>g</i>, gelatinous wall of the cyst; <i>h</i>, siliceous +coat of the spore.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2"><i>Reproduction.</i>—Binary fission has been repeatedly observed; in +some cases one or both of the daughter cells may swim for a time +as a biflagellate zoospore (fig. 1 (6, 7)). The process may take place +when the cell is naked or after preliminary encystment. Budding +has been well studied in <i>Acanthocystis</i>; the cell nucleus divides +repeatedly and most of the daughter nuclei pass to the periphery, +aggregate part of the cytoplasm, and with it are constricted off as +independent cells; one nucleus remains central and the process may +be repeated. The detached bud may assume the typical character +after a short amoeboid (lobose) stage, sometimes preceded by rest, +or it may develop 2 flagella and swim off (fig. 1 (6)).</p> + +<p>Brood formation is only known here in relation to a syngamic +process; this is a sharp contrast to Proteomyxa (<i>q.v.</i>) where brood formation +is the commonest mode of reproduction, and plasmodium-formation, +rare indeed, is the nearest approach to syngamy observed. +Indeed, if we knew the life-history of all the species this difference +in the life cycle would be a convenient critical character.</p> + +<p>Equal conjugation was demonstrated fully by F. Schaudinn in +<i>Actinophrys</i>; two individuals approach and enter into close contact, +and are surrounded by a common cyst wall. The nucleus of either +male divides; and one nucleus passes to the surface at either side, +and is budded off with a small portion of the cytoplasm as an abortive +cell; the two remaining nuclei which are “first cousins” in cellular +relationship now fuse, as is the case with the cytoplasts. The resulting +coupled cell or zygote divides into two, which again encyst.</p> + +<p><i>Actinosphaerium</i> (fig. 2) shows a still more remarkable process, +fully studied by R. Hertwig. The large multinucleate animal +withdraws its pseudopods, its vacuoles disappear, it encysts and its +nuclei diminish in number to about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">20</span>th partly by fusion, 2 and +2, probably by digestion of the majority. Within the primary cyst +the body is now resolved into nuclear cells, which again surround +themselves with secondary cysts. The cell in each secondary cyst +divides (by karyokinesis), and these sister cells, or rather their +offspring, pair in much the same way as the individual cells of +<i>Actinophrys</i>—the chief difference is that after the first division and +budding off of a rudimentary cell, a second division of the same +character takes place, with the formation of a second rudimentary +cell, which is the niece of the first, absolutely in the same way as the +1st and 2nd polar bodies are formed in the maturation of the ovum +in Metazoa. The actual pairing cells are thus second cousins, great-granddaughters +of the original cell of the secondary cysts. Complete +fusion now takes place to form the coupled cell, which is now contracted +and forms a gelatinous wall within the siliceous secondary +cyst wall (fig. 2 (14)), During a resting stage nuclear divisions occur +and finally a brood of young 1-nuclear <i>Actinosphaerium</i> leave the +cyst.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Classification.</i></p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Aphrothoraca. Body naked. Actinophrys Ehrb. (fig. 1 (1)) +(nucleate), Actinosphaerium Stein plurinucleate (fig. 2 (1)), +Camptonema (plurinucleate) Schaud., Dimorpha Gruber (sometimes +2 flagellate).</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>I. Chlamydophora. Investment gelatinous. Astrodiscus.</p> + +<p>II. Chalarothoraca. Body protected by an investment of +spicules or fibre scattered or approximated, never fused +into a continuous skeleton.</p> + +<p>   § 1. Spicules netted or free in the protoplasm. Heterophrys +Arch. (fig. 1 (3)), Raphidiophrys Arch. (fig. 1 (4)), +Pinacodocystis, Hertw. and Less.</p> + +<p>   § 2. Spicules approximated radially. Pinaciophora Greeff, +Pompholyxophrys Arch., Lithocolla F. E. Schultze, +Elaeorhanis Greeff (in the two foregoing genera the spicules +represented by sand granules), Acanthocystis Carter (fig. 1 +(5)), Pinacocystis (?) Hertw. and Less, Myriophrys Penard. +(Astrodisculus).</p> + +<p>III. Desmothoraca. § 1 attached by a stalk. Clathrulina Cienk. +(fig. 1 (2, 7)), Hedriocystis, Hertw. and Less.</p> + +<p>   § 2. Free Elaster, Grimin, Choanocystis.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Literature.</i>—The most important English original papers on this +group are those by W. Archer, “On some Freshwater Rhizopoda, +new, or little known,” <i>Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science</i>, +N.S. ix.-xi. (1869-1871), and “Résumé of Recent Contributions to +the Knowledge of Freshwater Rhizopods,” <i>ibid.</i> xvi., xvii. (1876-1877). +See also R. Hertwig and Lesser, “Über Rhizopoda und +denselben nahestehenden Organismen,” in <i>Archiv für mikroscopische +Anatomie</i>, x. (1874), p. 35; R. Schaudinn, “Heliozoa” in <i>Tierreich</i> +(1896); E. Penard, <i>Les Héliozoaires d’eau douce</i> (1904); the two +last named contain full bibliographies.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. Ha.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIUM<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêlios">ἥλιος</span>, the sun), a gaseous chemical +element, the modern discovery of which followed closely on that +of argon (<i>q.v.</i>). The Investigations of Lord Rayleigh and Sir +William Ramsay had shown that indifference to chemical +reagents did not sufficiently characterize an unknown gas as +nitrogen, and it became necessary to reinvestigate other cases of +the occurrence of “nitrogen” in nature. H. Miers drew Ramsay’s +attention to the work of W. F. Hillebrand, who had noticed, in +examining the mineral uraninite, that an inert gas was evolved +when the mineral was decomposed with acid. Ramsay, repeating +these experiments, found that the inert gas emitted refused +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span> +to oxidize when sparked with oxygen, and on examining it +spectroscopically he saw that the spectrum was not that of +argon, but was characterized by a bright yellow line near to, +but not identical with, the D line of sodium. This was afterwards +identified with the D<span class="su">3</span> line of the solar chromosphere, +observed in 1868 by Sir J. Norman Lockyer, and ascribed by +him to a hypothetical element <i>helium</i>. This name was adopted +for the new gas.</p> + +<p>Helium is relatively abundant in many minerals, all of which +are radioactive, and contain uranium or thorium as important +constituents. (For the significance of this fact see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Radioactivity</a></span>.) +The richest known source is thorianite, which +consists mainly of thorium oxide, and contains 9.5 cc. of helium +per gram. Monazite, a phosphate of thorium and other rare +earths, contains on the average about 1 cc. per gram. Cleveite, +samarskite and fergusonite contain a little more than monazite. +The gas also occurs in minute quantities in the common minerals +of the earth’s crust. In this case too it is associated with radioactive +matter, which is almost ubiquitous. In two cases, however, +it has been found in the absence of appreciable quantities +of uranium and thorium compounds, namely in beryl, and in +sylvine (potassium chloride). Helium is contained almost +universally in the gases which bubble up with the water of thermal +springs. The proportion varies greatly. In the hot springs of +Bath it amounts to about one-thousandth part of the gas evolved. +Much larger percentages have been recorded in some French +springs (<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1906, 143, p. 795, and 146, p. 435), and +considerable quantities occur in some natural gas (<i>Journ. Amer. +Chem. Soc.</i> 29, p. 1524). R. J. Strutt has suggested that helium +in hot springs may be derived from the disintegration of common +rocks at great depths.</p> + +<p>Helium is present in the atmosphere, of which it constitutes +four parts in a million. It is conspicuous by its absorption +spectrum in many of the white stars. Certain stars and nebulae +show a bright line helium spectrum.</p> + +<p>Much the best practical source of helium is thorianite, a +mineral imported from Ceylon for the manufacture of thoria. +It dissolves readily in strong nitric acid, and the helium contained +is thus liberated. The gas contains a certain amount of hydrogen +and oxides of carbon, also traces of nitrogen. In order to get +rid of hydrogen, some oxygen is added to the helium, and the +mixture exploded by an electric spark. All remaining impurities, +including the excess of oxygen, can then be taken out of the +gas by Sir James Dewar’s ingenious method of absorption +with charcoal cooled in liquid air. Helium alone refuses to be +absorbed, and it can be pumped off from the charcoal in a state +of absolute purity. In the absence of liquid air the helium must +be purified by the methods employed for argon (<i>q.v.</i>). If +thorianite cannot be obtained, monazite, which is more abundant, +may be utilized. A part of the helium contained in minerals +can be extracted by heat or by grinding (J. A. Gray, <i>Proc. Roy. +Soc.</i>, 1909, 82A, p. 301).</p> + +<p><i>Properties.</i>—All attempts to make helium enter into stable +chemical union have hitherto proved unsuccessful. The gas is +in all probability only mechanically retained in the minerals in +which it is found. Jacquerod and Perrot have found that +quartz-glass is freely permeable to helium below a red-heat +(<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1904, 139, p. 789). The effect is even perceptible +at a temperature as low as 220° C. Hydrogen, and, in a much +less degree, oxygen and nitrogen, will also permeate silica, but +only at higher temperatures. They have made this observation +the basis of a practical method of separating helium from the +other inert gases. M. Travers has suggested that it may explain +the liberation of helium from minerals by heat, the gas being +enabled to permeate the siliceous materials in which it is enclosed. +Thorianite, however, contains no silica, and until it is shown that +metallic oxides behave in the same way this explanation must +be accepted with reserve.</p> + +<p>The density of helium has been determined by Ramsay and +Travers as 1.98. Its ratio of specific heats has very nearly the +ideal value 1.666, appropriate to a monatomic molecule. The +accepted atomic weight is accordingly double the density, <i>i.e.</i> +approximately four times that of hydrogen. The refractivity +of helium is 0.1238 (air = 1). The solubility in water is the +lowest known, being, at 18.2°, only .0073 vols. per unit volume +of water. The viscosity is .96 (air = 1).</p> + +<p>The spectrum of helium as observed in a discharge tube is +distinguished by a moderate number of brilliant lines, distributed +over the whole visual spectrum. The following are +the approximate wave-lengths of the most brilliant lines:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Red</td> <td class="tcc">7066</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Red</td> <td class="tcc">6678</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Yellow</td> <td class="tcc">5876</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Green</td> <td class="tcc">4922</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Blue</td> <td class="tcc">4472</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Violet</td> <td class="tcc">4026</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">When the discharge passes through helium at a pressure of +several millimetres, the yellow line 5876 is prominent. At lower +pressures the green line 4922 becomes more conspicuous. At +atmospheric pressure the discharge is able to pass through a +far greater distance in helium than in the common gases.</p> + +<p>M. Travers, G. Senter and A. Jacquerod (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> A. 1903, +200, p. 105) carefully examined the <span class="correction" title="amended from behavour">behaviour</span> of a constant +volume gas thermometer filled with helium. For the pressure +coefficient per degree, between 0° and 100° C., they give the +value .00366255, when the initial pressure is 700 mm. This +value is indistinguishable from that which they find for hydrogen. +Thus at high temperatures a helium thermometer is of no special +advantage. At low temperatures, on the other hand, they find, +using an initial pressure of 1000 mm., that the temperatures on +the helium scale are measurably higher than on the hydrogen +scale, owing to the more perfectly gaseous condition of helium. +This difference amounts to about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span>° at the temperature of liquid +oxygen, and about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>° at that of liquid hydrogen.</p> + +<p>The liquefaction of helium was achieved by H. Kamerlingh +Onnes at Leiden in 1908. According to him its boiling point +is 4.3° abs. (−268.7° C.), the density of the liquid 0.154, the +critical temperature 5° abs., and the critical pressure 2.3 atmospheres +(<i>Communications from the Physical Laboratory at Leiden</i>, +No. 108; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquid Gases</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">References.</span>—A bibliography and summary of the earlier work +on helium will be found in a paper by Ramsay, <i>Ann. chim. phys.</i> +(1898) [7], 13, p. 433. See also M. Travers, <i>The Study of Gases</i> +(1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELIX<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="helix">ἕλιξ</span>, a spiral or twist), an architectural term +for the spiral tendril which is carried up to support the angles +of the abacus of the Corinthian capital; from the same stalk +springs a second helix rising to the centre of the capital, its +junction with one on the opposite side being sometimes marked +by a flower. Sometimes the term “volute” is given to the angle +helix, which is incorrect, as it is of a different design and rises +from the same stalk as the central helices. Its origin is probably +metallic, that is to say, it was copied from the conventional +treatment in Corinthian bronze of the tendrils of a plant.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELL<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hel</i>, a Teutonic word from a root meaning “to +cover,” cf. Ger. <i>Hölle</i>, Dutch <i>hel</i>), the word used in English +both of the place of departed spirits and of the place of torment +of the wicked after death. It is used in the Old Testament +to translate the Hebrew <i>Sheol</i>, and in the New Testament +the Greek <span class="grk" title="hadês">ᾃδης</span>, Hades, and <span class="grk" title="geenna">γεέννα</span>, Hebrew <i>Gehenna</i> (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eschatology</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELLANICUS<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> of Lesbos, Greek logographer, flourished +during the latter half of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> According to +Suidas, he lived for some time at the court of one of the kings +of Macedon, and died at Perperene, a town on the gulf of Adramyttium +opposite Lesbos. Some thirty works are attributed +to him—chronological, historical and episodical. Mention may +be made of: <i>The Priestesses of Hera at Argos</i>, a chronological +compilation, arranged according to the order of succession of +these functionaries; the <i>Carneonikae</i>, a list of the victors in the +Carnean games (the chief Spartan musical festival), including +notices of literary events; an <i>Atthis</i>, giving the history of Attica +from 683 to the end of the Peloponnesian War (404), which is +referred to by Thucydides (i. 97), who says that he treated the +events of the years 480-431 briefly and superficially, and with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span> +little regard to chronological sequence: <i>Phoronis</i>, chiefly +genealogical, with short notices of events from the times of +Phoroneus the Argive “first man” to the return of the +Heraclidae; <i>Troica</i> and <i>Persica</i>, histories of Troy and +Persia.</p> + +<p>Hellanicus marks a real step in the development of historiography. +He transcended the narrow local limits of the older +logographers, and was not content to repeat the traditions that +had gained general acceptation through the poets. He tried to +give the traditions as they were locally current, and availed +himself of the few national or priestly registers that presented +something like contemporary registration. He endeavoured +to lay the foundations of a scientific chronology, based primarily +on the list of the Argive priestesses of Hera, and secondarily +on genealogies, lists of magistrates (<i>e.g.</i> the archons at Athens), +and Oriental dates, in place of the old reckoning by generations. +But his materials were insufficient and he often had recourse +to the older methods. On account of his deviations from common +tradition, Hellanicus is often called an untrustworthy writer +by the ancients themselves, and it is a curious fact that he +appears to have made no systematic use of the many inscriptions +which were ready to hand. Dionysius of Halicarnassus censures +him for arranging his history, not according to the natural +connexion of events, but according to the locality or the nation +he was describing; and undoubtedly he never, like his contemporary +Herodotus, rose to the conception of a single current of +events wider than the local distinction of race. His style, like +that of the older logographers, was dry and bald.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in Müller, <i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum</i>, i. and iv.; +see among older works L. Preller, <i>De Hellanico Lesbio historico</i> +(1840); Mure, <i>History of Greek Literature</i>, iv.; late criticism in +H. Kullmer, “Hellanikos” in <i>Jahrbücher für klass. Philologie</i> +(Supplementband, xxvii. 455 sqq.) (1902), which contains new +edition and arrangement of fragments; C. F. Lehmann-Haupt, +“Hellanikos, Herodot, Thukydides,” in <i>Klio</i> vi. 127 sqq. (1906); +J. B. Bury, <i>Ancient Greek Historians</i> (1909), pp. 27 sqq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELLEBORE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="helleboros">ἑλλέβορος</span>: mod. Gr. also <span class="grk" title="skaphê">σκάφη</span>: +Ger. <i>Nieswurz</i>, <i>Christwurz</i>; Fr. <i>hellébore</i>, and in the district of +Avranche, <i>herbe enragée</i>), a genus (<i>Helleborus</i>) of plants of the +natural order Ranunculaceae, natives of Europe and western +Asia. They are coarse perennial herbs with palmately or pedately +lobed leaves. The flowers have five persistent petaloid sepals, +within the circle of which are placed the minute honey-containing +tubular petals of the form of a horn with an irregular opening. +The stamens are very numerous, and are spirally arranged; and +the carpels are variable in number, sessile or stipitate and slightly +united at the base and dehisce by ventral suture.</p> + +<p><i>Helleborus niger</i>, black hellebore, or, as from blooming in mid-winter +it is termed the Christmas rose (Ger. <i>Schwarze Nieswurz</i>; +Fr., <i>rose de Noël</i> or <i>rose d’hiver</i>), is found in southern and +central Europe, and with other species was cultivated in the time +of Gerard (see <i>Herball</i>, p. 977, ed. Johnson, 1633) in English +gardens. Its knotty root-stock is blackish-brown externally, +and, as with other species, gives origin to numerous straight roots. +The leaves spring from the top of the root-stock, and are smooth, +distinctly pedate, dark-green above, and lighter below, with 7 to +9 segments and long petioles. The scapes, which end the +branches of the rhizome, have a loose entire bract at the base, and +terminate in a single flower, with two bracts, from the axis of +one of which a second flower may be developed. The flowers +have 5 white or pale-rose, eventually greenish sepals, 15 to 18 +lines in breadth; 8 to 13 tubular green petals containing honey; +and 5 to 10 free carpels. There are several forms, the best being +<i>maximus</i>. The Christmas rose is extensively grown in many +market gardens to provide white flowers forced in gentle heat +about Christmas time for decorations, emblems, &c.</p> + +<p><i>H. orientalis</i>, the Lenten rose, has given rise to several fine +hybrids with <i>H. niger</i>, some of the best forms being clear in +colour and distinctly spotted. <i>H. foetidus</i>, stinking hellebore, +is a native of England, where like <i>H. viridis</i>, it is confined chiefly +to limestone districts; it is common in France and the south +of Europe. Its leaves have 7- to 11-toothed divisions, and the +flowers are in panicles, numerous, cup-shaped and drooping, +with many bracts, and green sepals tinged with purple, alternating +with the five petals.</p> + +<p><i>H. viridis</i>, or green hellebore proper, is probably indigenous +in some of the southern and eastern counties of England, and +occurs also in central and southern Europe. It has bright +yellowish-green flowers, 2 to 4 on a stem, with large leaf-like +bracts. O. Brunfels and H. Bock (16th century) regarded the +plant as the black hellebore of the Greeks.</p> + +<p><i>H. lividus</i>, holly-leaved hellebore, found in the Balearic +Islands, and in Corsica and Sardinia, is remarkable for the handsomeness +of its foliage. White hellebore is <i>Veratrum album</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Veratrum</a></span>), a liliaceous plant.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:416px" src="images/img235.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Helleborus niger</i>. 1, Vertical section of flower; 2, Nectary, side +and front view.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Hellebores may be grown in any ordinary light garden mould, +but thrive best in a soil of about equal parts of turfy loam and +well-rotted manure, with half a part each of fibrous peat and +coarse sand, and in moist but thoroughly-drained situations, +more especially where, as at the margins of shrubberies, the +plants can receive partial shade in summer. For propagation +cuttings of the rhizome may be taken in August, and placed in +pans of light soil, with a bottom heat of 60° to 70° Fahr.; hellebores +can also be grown from seed, which must be sown as soon +as ripe, since it quickly loses its vitality. The seedlings usually +blossom in their third year. The exclusion of frost favours +the production of flowers; but the plants, if forced, must be +gradually inured to a warm atmosphere, and a free supply of +air must be afforded, without which they are apt to become +much affected by greenfly. For potting, <i>H. niger</i> and its varieties, +and <i>H. orientalis</i>, <i>atrorubens</i> and <i>olympicus</i> have been found +well suited. After lifting, preferably in September, the plants +should receive plenty of light, with abundance of water, and once +a week liquid manure, not over-strong. The flowers are improved +in delicacy of hue, and are brought well up among the leaves, +by preventing access of light except to the upper part of the +plants. Of the numerous species of hellebore now grown, the +deep-purple-flowered <i>H. colchicus</i> is one of the handsomest; +by crossing with <i>H. guttatus</i> and other species several valuable +garden forms have been produced, having variously coloured +spreading or bell-shaped flowers, spotted with crimson, red or +purple.</p> + +<p>The rhizome of <i>H. niger</i> occurs in commerce in irregular and +nodular pieces, from about 1 to 3 in. in length, white and of a +horny texture within. Cut transversely it presents internally +a circle of 8 to 12 cuneiform ligneous bundles, surrounded by +a thick bark. It emits a faint odour when cut or broken, and +has a bitter and slightly acrid taste. The drug is sometimes +adulterated with the rhizome of baneberry, <i>Actaea spicata</i>, +which, however, may be recognized by the distinctly cruciate +appearance of the central portion of the attached roots when +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span> +cut across, and by its decoction giving the chemical reactions +for tannin.<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The rhizome is darker in colour in proportion +to its degree of dryness, age and richness in oil. A specimen +dried by Schroff lost in eleven days 65% of water.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>H. niger</i>, <i>orientalis</i>, <i>viridis</i>, <i>foetidus</i>, and several other species of +hellebore contain the glucosides <i>helleborin</i>, C<span class="su">36</span>H<span class="su">42</span>O<span class="su">6</span>, and <i>helleboreïn</i>, +C<span class="su">23</span>H<span class="su">20</span>O<span class="su">15</span>, the former yielding glucose and <i>helleboresin</i>, C<span class="su">30</span>H<span class="su">38</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, +and the latter glucose and a violet-coloured substance <i>helleboretin</i>, +C<span class="su">14</span>H<span class="su">20</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. Helleborin is most abundant in <i>H. viridis</i>. A third and +volatile principle is probably present in <i>H. foetidus</i>. Both helleborin +and helleboreïn act poisonously on animals, but their decomposition-products +helleboresin and helleboretin seem to be devoid of any +injurious qualities. Helleborin produces excitement and restlessness, +followed by paralysis of the lower extremities or whole body, quickened +respiration, swelling and injection of the mucous membranes, +dilatation of the pupil, and, as with helleboreïn, salivation, vomiting +and diarrhoea. Helleboreïn exercises on the heart an action similar +to that of digitalis, but more powerful, accompanied by at first +quickened and then slow and laboured respiration; it irritates the +conjunctiva, and acts as a sternutatory, but less violently than +veratrine. Pliny states that horses, oxen and swine are killed by +eating “black hellebore”; and Christison (<i>On Poisons</i>, p. 876, +11th ed., 1845) writes: “I have known severe griping produced +by merely tasting the fresh root in January.” Poisonous doses of +hellebore occasion in man singing in the ears, vertigo, stupor, thirst, +with a feeling of suffocation, swelling of the tongue and fauces, +emesis and catharsis, slowing of the pulse, and finally collapse and +death from cardiac paralysis. Inspection after death reveals much +inflammation of the stomach and intestines, more especially the +rectum. The drug has been observed to exercise a cumulative +action. Its extract was an ingredient in Bacher’s pills, an empirical +remedy once in great repute in France. In British medicine the +rhizome was formerly official. <i>H. foetidus</i> was in past times much +extolled as an anthelmintic, and is recommended by Bisset (<i>Med. +Ess.</i>, pp. 169 and 195, 1766) as the best vermifuge for children; +J. Cook, however, remarks of it (<i>Oxford Mag.</i>, March 1769, p. 99): +“Where it killed not the patient, it would certainly kill the worms; +but the worst of it is, it will sometimes kill both.” This plant, of +old termed by farriers ox-heel, setter-wort and setter-grass, as well +as <i>H. viridis</i> (Fr. <i>Herbe à séton</i>), is employed in veterinary surgery, +to which also the use of <i>H. niger</i> is now chiefly confined in Britain.</p> + +<p>In the early days of medicine two kinds of hellebore were recognized, +the white or <i>Veratrum album</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Veratrum</a></span>), and the black, +including the various species of <i>Helleborus</i>. The former, according +to Codronchius (<i>Comm.... de elleb.</i>, 1610), Castellus (<i>De helleb. +epist.</i>, 1622), and others, is the drug usually signified in the writings +of Hippocrates. Among the hellebores indigenous to Greece and +Asia Minor, <i>H. orientalis</i>, the rhizome of which differs from that +of <i>H. niger</i> and of <i>H. viridis</i> in the bark being readily separable from +the woody axis, is the species found by Schroff to answer best to the +descriptions given by the ancients of black hellebore, the <span class="grk" title="helleboros +melas">ἑλλέβορος μέλας</span> of Dioscorides. The rhizome of this plant, if identical, as +would appear, with that obtained by Tournefort at Prusa in Asia +Minor (<i>Rel. d’un voy. du Levant</i>, ii. 189, 1718), must be a remedy +of no small toxic properties. According to an early tradition, black +hellebore administered by the soothsayer and physician Melampus +(whence its name <i>Melampodium</i>), was the means of curing the madness +of the daughters of Proetus, king of Argos. The drug was used +by the ancients in paralysis, gout and other diseases, more particularly +in insanity, a fact frequently alluded to by classical writers, +<i>e.g.</i> Horace (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 3. 80-83, <i>Ep. ad Pis.</i> 300). Various superstitions +were in olden times connected with the cutting of black hellebore. +The best is said by Pliny (<i>Nat. hist.</i> xxv. 21) to grow on Mt Helicon. +Of the three Anticyras that in Phocis was the most famed for its +hellebore, which, being there used combined with “sesamoides,” +was, according to Pliny, taken with more safety than elsewhere.</p> +</div> + +<p>The British Pharmaceutical Conference has recommended +the preparation which it terms <i>the tinctura veratri viridis</i>, as the +best form in which to administer this drug. It may be given in +doses of 5-15 minims. The tincture is prepared from the dried +rhizome and rootlets of green hellebore, containing the alkaloids +jervine, veratrine and veratroidine. It is recommended as a +cardiac and nervous sedative in cerebral haemorrhage and +puerperal eclampsia. Black hellebore is a purgative and uterine +stimulant.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the microscopical characters and for figures of transverse +sections of the rhizome, see Lanessan, <i>Hist. des drogues</i>, i. 6 (1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELLENISM<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hellênizein">ἑλληνίζειν</span>, to imitate the Greeks, who +were known as <span class="grk" title="Hellênes">Ἕλληνες</span>, after <span class="grk" title="Hellên">Ἕλλην</span>, the son of Deucalion). +The term “Hellenism” is ambiguous. It may be used to denote +ancient Greek culture in all its phases, and even those elements +in modern civilization which are Greek in origin or in spirit; +but, while Matthew Arnold made the term popular in the latter +connexion as the antithesis of “Hebraism,” the German historian +J. G. Droysen introduced the fashion (1836) of using it to +describe particularly the latter phases of Greek culture from the +conquests of Alexander to the end of the ancient world, when +those over whom this culture extended were largely not Greek +in blood, <i>i.e.</i> <i>Hellenes</i>, but peoples who had adopted the Greek +speech and way of life, <i>Hellenistai</i>. Greek culture had, however, +both in “Hellenic” and “Hellenistic” times, a common essence, +just as light is light whether in the original luminous body or in +a reflection, and to describe this by the term Hellenism seems most +natural. But whilst using the term in the larger sense, this +article, in deference to the associations which have come to be +specially connected with it, will devote its principal attention +to Hellenism as it appeared in the world after the Macedonian +conquests. But it will be first necessary to indicate briefly +what Hellenism in itself implied.</p> + +<p>No verbal formula can really enclose the life of a people or an +age, but we can best understand the significance of the old +Greek cities and the life they developed, when, looking at the +history of mankind as a whole, we see the part played by reason, +active and critical, in breaking down the barriers by which custom +hinders movement, in guiding movement to definite ends, in +dissipating groundless beliefs and leading onwards to fresh +scientific conquests—when we see this and then take note that +among the ancient Greeks such an activity of reason began in an +entirely novel degree and that its activity in Europe ever since +is due to their impulsion. When Hellenism came to stand in the +world for something concrete and organic, it was, of course, no +mere abstract principle, but embodied in a language, a literature, +an artistic tradition. In the earliest existing monument of the +Hellenic genius, the Homeric poems, one may already observe +that regulative sense of form and proportion, which shaped the +later achievements of the race in the intellectual and artistic +spheres. It was not till the great colonizing epoch of the 8th and +7th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the name “Hellene” came into use as +the antithesis of “barbarian,” that the Greek race came to be +conscious of itself as a peculiar people; it was yet some three +centuries more before Hellenism stood fully declared in art and +literature, in politics and in thought. There was now a new thing +in the world, and to see how the world was affected by it is our +immediate concern.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">I. The Expansion of Hellenism before Alexander.</span>—In +the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Greek cities dotted the coasts of the Mediterranean +and the Black Sea from Spain to Egypt and the Caucasus, +and already Greek culture was beginning to pass beyond the +limits of the Greek race. Already in the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when +Hellenism was still in a rudimentary stage, the citizens of the +Greek city-states had been known to the courts of Babylon +and Egypt as admirable soldiers, combining hardihood with +discipline, and Greek mercenaries came to be in request throughout +the Nearer East. But as Hellenism developed, its social +and intellectual life began to exercise a power of attraction. +The proud old civilizations of the Euphrates and the Nile +might ignore it, but the ruder barbarian peoples in East and West, +on whose coasts the Greek colonies had been planted, came in +various degrees under its spell. In some cases an outlying colony +would coalesce with a native population, and a fusion of Hellenism +with barbarian customs take place, as at Emporium in Spain +(Strabo iii. p. 160) and at Locri in S. Italy (Polyb. xii. 5. 10). +Perinthus included a Thracian phyle. The stories of Anacharsis +and Scylas (Herod, iv. 76-80) show how the leading men of the +tribes in contact with the Greek colonies in the Black Sea might +be fascinated by the appeal which the exotic culture made to +mind and to eye.</p> + +<p>The great developments of the century and a half before +Alexander set the Greek people in a very different light before the +world. In the sphere of material power the repulse of Xerxes +and the extension of Athenian or Spartan supremacy in the +eastern Mediterranean were large facts patent to the most obtuse. +The kings of the East leant more than ever upon Greek mercenaries, +whose superiority to barbarian levies was sensibly brought +home to them by the expedition of Cyrus. But the developments +within the Hellenic sphere itself were also of great consequence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span> +for its expansion outwards. The political disunion of the Greeks +was to some extent neutralized by the rise of Athens to a leading +position in art, in literature and in philosophy. In Athens +the Hellenic genius was focussed, its tendencies drawn together +and combined; nor was it a circumstance of small moment +that the Attic dialect attained, for prose, a classical authority; +for if Hellenism was to be propagated in the world at large, +it was obviously convenient that it should have some one definite +form of speech to be its medium.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Persians.</i>—The ruling race of the East, the Persian, +was but little open to the influences of the new culture. The +military qualities of the Greeks were appreciated, and so, too, +was Greek science, where it touched the immediately useful; +a Greek captain was entrusted by Darius with the exploration +of the Indus; a Greek architect bridged the Bosporus for him; +Greek physicians (<i>e.g.</i> Democedes, Ctesias) were retained for +enormous fees at the Persian court. The brisk diplomatic +intercourse between the Great King and the Greek states in the +4th century may have produced effects that were not merely +political. We certainly find among those members of the Persian +aristocracy, who came by residence in Asia Minor into closer +contact with the Greeks, some traces of interest in the more +ideal side of Hellenism. A man like the younger Cyrus invited +Greek captains to his friendship for something more than their +utility in war, and procured Greek hetaerae for something +more than sensual pleasure. There is the Mithradates who +presented the Academy with a statue of Plato by Silanion, not +improbably identical (though the supposition implies a correction +in the text of Diogenes Laërtius) with that Mithradates who, +together with his father Ariobarzanes, received the citizenship of +Athens (Dem. xxiii. 141, 202). Exactly how far Greek influence +can be traced in the remains of Persian art, such as the royal +palaces of Persepolis and Susa may be doubtful (see Gayet, +<i>L’Art persan</i>; R. Phené Spiers, <i>Architecture East and West</i>, +p. 245 f.), but it is certain that the engraved gems for which +there was a demand in the Persian empire were largely the +work of Greek artists (Furtwängler, <i>Antike Gemmen</i>, iii. p. 116 f.).</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Phoenicians.</i>—As early as the first half of the 4th century +we find communities of Phoenician traders established in the +Peiraeus (<i>C.I.A.</i> ii. 86). In Cyprus, on the frontier between +the Greek and Semitic worlds, a struggle for ascendancy went on. +The Phoenician element seems to have been dominant in the +island when Evagoras made himself king of Salamis in 412, +and restored Hellenism with a strong hand. The words of +Isocrates (even allowing for their rhetorical colour) give us a +vivid insight into what such a process meant. “Before Evagoras +established his rule, they were so hostile and exclusive, that +those of their rulers were actually held to be the best who were +the fiercest adversaries of the Greeks; but now such a change +has taken place, that it is a matter of emulation who shall show +himself the most ardent phil-hellen, that for the mothers of +their children most of them choose wives from amongst us, +and that they take pride in having Greek things about rather +than native, in following the Greek fashion of life, whilst our +masters of the fine arts and other branches of culture now resort +to them in greater numbers than were once to be found in those +quarters they specially frequented” (Isoc. 199 = <i>Evag.</i> §§ 49, 50). +Even into the original seats of the Phoenicians Hellenism began to +intrude. Evagoras at one time (about 386) made himself master +of Tyre (Isoc. <i>Evag.</i> § 62; Diod. xv. 2, 4). His grandson Evagoras +II. is found as governor of Sidon for the Persian king 349-346. +(Babelon, <i>Perses Achéménides</i>, p. cxxii.; cf. Diod. xvi. 46, 3).</p> + +<p>Abdashtart, king of Sidon (374-362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), called Straton +by the Greeks, had already entered into close relations with +the Greek states, and imitated the Hellenic princes of Cyprus +(<i>Athen.</i> xii. 531; <i>C.I.A.</i> ii. 86; <i>Corp. inscr. Semit.</i> i. 114). +The Phoenician colonists in Sardinia purchased or imitated the +work of Greek artists (Furtwängler, <i>Antike Gemmen</i>, iii. 109).</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Carians and Lycians.</i>—The seats of the Greeks in +the East touched peoples more or less nearly related to the +Hellenic stock, with native traditions not so far remote from +those of the Greeks in a more primitive age, the Carians and the +Lycians. It came about in the last century preceding Alexander +that the first of these peoples was organized as a strong state +under native princes, the line founded by Hecatomnus of Mylasa. +Hecatomnus made himself master of Caria in the first decade of +the 4th century, but it was under his son Mausolus, who succeeded +him in 377-376 that the house rose to its zenith. These Carian +princes ruled as satraps for the Great King, but they modelled +themselves upon the pattern of the Greek tyrant. The capital +of Mausolus was a Greek city, Halicarnassus, and all that we +can still trace of his great works of construction and adornment +shows conformity to the pure Hellenic type. His famous +sepulchre, the Mausoleum (the remains of it are now in the +British Museum), was a monument upon which the most eminent +Greek sculptors of the time worked in rivalry (Plin. <i>N.H.</i> xxxvi. +5, § 30; Vitruv. vii. 13). His court gave a welcome to the vagrant +Greek philosopher (Diog. Laërt. viii. 8, § 87). Even the Carian +town of Mylasa now shows the forms of a Greek city and records +its public decrees in Greek (<i>C.I.G.</i> 2691 <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i> = Michel 471). +In Lycia, which in spite of “the son of Harpagus” and King +Pericles, had never been brought under one man’s rule, the Greek +influence is more limited. Here, for the most part in the inscriptions, +the native language maintains itself against Greek. +The proper names are (if not native) mainly Persian. But the +Greek language makes an occasional appearance; Greek names +are borne by others beside Pericles. The coins are Greek in type. +And above all the monumental remains of Lycia show strong +Greek influence, especially the well-known “Nereid Monument” +in the British Museum, whose date is held to go back to the +5th century (Gardner, <i>Handbook of Gk. Sculp.</i> p. 344).</p> + +<p>4. <i>South Russia.</i>—Hellenic influences continued to penetrate +the Scythian peoples from the Greek colonies of the Black Sea, +at any rate in the matter of artistic fabrication. Our evidence +is the actual objects recovered from the soil. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scythia</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>5. <i>Egypt.</i>—From the time of Psammetichus (d. 610 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +Greek mercenaries had been used to prop Pharaoh’s throne. +At the same time Greek merchants had begun to find their way +up the Nile and even to the Oases. A Greek city Naucratis (<i>q.v.</i>) +was allowed to arise at the Bolbitinic mouth of the Nile. But +the racial repugnance to the Greek, which forbade an Egyptian +even to eat an animal which had been carved with a Greek’s knife +(Hdt. ii. 41), probably kept the soul of the people more shut against +Hellenic influences than was that of the other races of the East.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Macedonia.</i>—In Macedonia the native chiefs had been +attracted by the rich Hellenic life at any rate from the beginning +of the 5th century, when Alexander I., surnamed “Phil-hellen,” +persuaded the judges at Olympia that the Temenid house was +of good Argive descent (Hdt. v. 22). And, although their +enemies might stigmatize them as barbarians, the Macedonian +kings maintained that they were not Macedonians, but Greeks +(cf. <span class="grk" title="anêr Hellên Makedonôn hyparchos">ἀνὴρ Ἕλλην Μακεδόνων ὕπαρχος</span>, Hdt. v. 20). It was not +probably till the reorganization of the kingdom by Archelaus +(413-399) that Greek culture found any abundant entrance +into Macedonia. Now all that was most brilliant in Greek +literature and Greek art was concentrated in the court of Aegae; +the palace was decorated by Zeuxis; Euripides spent there +the end of his days. From that time, no doubt, a certain degree +of literary culture was general among the Macedonian nobility; +their names in the days of Philip are largely Greek; the +Macedonian service was full of men from the Greek cities within +Philip’s dominions. The values recognized at the court would +naturally be recognized in noble families generally, and Philip +chose Aristotle to be the educator of his son. How far the country +generally may be regarded as Hellenized is a problem which +involves the vexed question what right the Macedonian people +itself has to be classed among the Hellenes, and Macedonian +to be considered a dialect of Greek.<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> As the literary and official +language, Greek alone would seem to have had any status.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span></p> + +<p>7. <i>In the West: the Native Races of Sicily.</i>—Italy and the +south of Gaul had not remained unaffected by the neighbourhood +of the Greek colonies. Under the rule of the elder and younger +Dionysius in the 4th century, the hellenization of the Sicels in +the interior of Sicily seems to have become complete (Freeman, +<i>History of Sicily</i>, ii. 387, 388, 422-424; Beloch, <i>Griech. Gesch.</i> +iii. [i.] 261).</p> + +<p>The alphabets used by the various Italian races from the 5th +century were directly or indirectly learnt from the Greeks. +The peoples of the south (Lucanians, Bruttians, Mamertines) +show a Greek principle of nomenclature (Mommsen, <i>Unterital. +Dialekt</i>, p. 240 f.). The Pythagorean philosophy, whose seat +was in southern Italy, won adherents among the native chiefs +(Cic. <i>De senec.</i> 12, cf. Dio Chrys. <i>Orat. Cor.</i> 37, § 24). From the +Greeks of southern Gaul Hellenic influences penetrated the Celtic +races so far that imitations of Greek coins were struck even on +the coasts of the Atlantic.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">II. After Alexander the Great.</span>—When we review +generally the extent to which Hellenism had penetrated the +outer world in the middle of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it must be +admitted that it had not seriously affected any but the more +primitive races which dwelt upon the borders of the Hellenic +lands, and here it would seem, with the doubtful exception of +the Macedonians, to have been an affair rather of the courts +than of the life of the people. On the other hand it must be +taken into account that Hellenism had as yet only been a very +short while in the world. What would have happened had it +continued to depend upon its spiritual force only for propagation +we cannot say. Everything was changed when by the conquests +of Alexander (334-323) it suddenly rose to material supremacy +in all the East as far as India, and when cities of Greek speech +and constitution were planted by the might of kings at all the +cardinal points of intercourse within those lands. The values +honoured by the rulers of the world must naturally impress +themselves upon the subject multitudes. The Macedonian +chiefs found their pride in being champions of Hellenism. Of +Alexander there is no need to speak. The courts of his successors +in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt were Greek in language and +atmosphere. All kings liked to win the good word of the Greeks +by munificence bestowed upon Greek cities and Greek institutions. +All of them in some degree patronized Greek art and letters, +and some sought fame for themselves as authors. Even the +barbarian courts, their neighbours or vassals, were swayed +by the dominant fashion to imitation. But by the courts alone +Hellenism could never have been propagated far. Greek culture +had been the product of the city-state, and Hellenism could not +be dissevered from the city. It was upon the system of Greek +and Macedonian cities, planted by Alexander and his successors, +that their work rested, and though their dynasties crumbled, +their work remained. Rome, when it stepped into their place, +did no more than safeguard its continuance; in the East +Rome acted as a Hellenistic power, and if, when the legions had +thundered past, the brooding East “plunged in thought again,” +that thought was largely directed by the Greek schoolmaster who +followed in the legions’ train. From our present point of view +we may therefore regard this work of Hellenism as one continuous +process, initiated by the Macedonians and carried on under +Roman protection, and ask in the first place what the institution +of a Greek city implied.</p> + +<p><i>The Character of the New Greek Cities.</i>—The citizen bodies +at the outset were really of Greek or Macedonian blood—soldiers +who had served in the royal armies, or men attracted from the +older Greek cities to the new lands thrown open to commerce. +To fix their European soldiery upon the new soil was an obvious +necessity for the Macedonian chiefs who had set up kingdoms +among the barbarians, and the lots of the veterans (except in +Egypt) were naturally attached to various urban centres. The +cities, of course, drew in numbers beside of the people of the +land; Alexander is specially said to have incorporated large +bodies of natives in some of the new cities of the Eastern provinces +(Arr. iv. 4, 1; Diod. xvii. 83, 2; Curtius ix. 10, 7). It may +generally be taken for granted that the lower strata of the city-populations +was mainly native; to be included in the city +population was not, however, to be included in the citizen body, +and it remains a question how far the latter admitted members +of other than European origin (Beloch iii. [i.] 414). The +statements, for instance, of Josephus that the Jews were given +full citizen rights in the new foundations are probably false +(Willrich, <i>Juden und Griechen vor der makkabäischen Erhebung</i>, +1895, p. 19 f.). The social organization of the citizen-body +conformed to the regular Hellenic type with a division into +<i>phylae</i> and, in Egypt, at any rate, into <i>demi</i> (Liban. Or. xix. +62; Satyrus, frag. 21 = <i>F.H.G.</i> iii. 164; Sir W. M. Ramsay, +<i>Cities and Bishoprics</i>, i. 60; Kenyon, <i>Archiv f. Papyr.</i> ii. 74; +Jonguet, <i>Bull. corr. hell.</i> xxi., 1897, 184 f.; Liebenam, <i>Städteverwaltung</i>, +220 f.). The cities appear equally Hellenic in +their political organs and functions with <i>boulē</i> and <i>demos</i> and +popularly elected magistrates. Life was filled with the universal +Hellenic interests, which centred in the gymnasium and the +religious festivals, these last including, of course, not only athletic +contests but performances of the classical dramas or later +imitations of them. The wandering sophist and rhetorician +would find a hearing no less than the musical artist. The +language of the upper classes was Greek; and the material +background of building and decoration, of dress and furniture, +was of Greek design. A greater regularity in the street-plans +seems to have distinguished the new cities from the older slowly +grown cities of the Greek lands, just as it distinguishes the cities +of the New World to-day from those of Europe. Alexandria +and Antioch were both traversed from end to end by one long +straight street, crossed by shorter ones at right angles; Nicaea +was a square from the centre of which all the four gates could +be seen at the ends of the intersecting thoroughfares (Strabo +xii. 565); similar characteristics are noted in the rebuilt Smyrna +(<i>ib.</i> xiv. 646).</p> + +<p>Sometimes the Greek city was not an absolutely new foundation, +but an old Oriental city, re-colonized and transformed. +And in such cases the old name was often replaced by a Greek +one. Thus Celaenae in Phrygia became Apamea; Haleb +(Aleppo) in Syria became Beroea; Nisibis in Mesopotamia, +Antioch; Rhagae (Rai) in Media, Europus. In some cases +the old name was left unchallenged, <i>e.g.</i> Thyatira, Damascus +and Samaria. Even where there was no new foundation the +older cities of Phoenicia and Syria became transformed from +the overwhelming prestige of Hellenic culture. In Tyre and +Sidon, no less than in Antioch or Alexandria, Greek literature +and philosophy were seriously cultivated, as we may see by the +great names which they contributed. The process by which +Hellenism thus leavened an older city we may trace with peculiar +vividness in the case of Jerusalem; we see there the younger +generation captivated by its ideals, the appearance of gymnasium +and theatre, the eager adoption of Greek political forms (1 +Macc. i. 13 f.; 2 Macc. 4., 10 f.).</p> + +<p>A. <i>Characteristics of Hellenism after Alexander.</i>—To the number +of Greek city-states existing before Alexander were now therefore +added those which extended Hellas as far as India. With the +enormous extension of Greek territory a great shifting took place +in the old centres of gravity. What changes in the character +of Greek culture did the new conditions of the world bring +about?</p> + +<p>Hellenism had been the product of the free life of the Greek +city-state, and after Chaeronea the great days of the city-state +were past. Not that all liberty was everywhere +extinguished. Under Alexander himself the Greek +<span class="sidenote">Government.</span> +states were restive, and Aetolia unsubdued; and, +with the break-up of the empire at Alexander’s death, there +was once more scope for the action of the individual cities among +the rival great powers. In the history of the next two or three +centuries the cities are by no means ciphers. Rhodes takes +a great part in <i>Weltpolitik</i>, as a sovereign ally of one or other +of the royal courts. In Greece itself the overlordship to which +the Macedonian king aspires is imperfect in extent and only +maintained to that extent by continual wars. The Greek +states on their side show that they are capable even of progressive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span> +political development, the needs of the time being met by the +federal system, by larger unions of equal members than the +leading cities of the past would have tolerated, with their +extreme unwillingness to forego the least shred of sovereign +independence. The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues are independent +powers, which the Macedonian can indeed check by +garrisons in Corinth, Chalcis and elsewhere, but which keep a +field clear for Hellenic freedom within their borders. Sparta +also is a power which can cross swords with the Macedonian +king, and Cleomenes III. aspires to unite the Peloponnesus +under his headship. As to the cities outside Greece, within +or around the royal realms, Seleucid, Ptolemaic or Attalid, their +degree of freedom probably differed widely according to circumstances. +At one end of the scale, cities of old renown, <i>e.g.</i> +Lampsacus or Smyrna, could still make good their independence +against Antiochus III. at the beginning of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +At the other end of the scale the cities which were royal capitals, +<i>e.g.</i> Alexandria, Antioch and Pergamum, were normally controlled +altogether by royal nominees. At Pergamum indeed and (at +any rate after Antiochus IV.) at Antioch, forms of self-government +subsisted upon which, of course, the court had its hand, +whilst at Alexandria even such forms were wanting. Between +the two extremes there was variation not only between city +and city, but, no doubt, in one and the same city at different +times. In Syria the independent action of the cities greatly +increased during the last weakness of the Seleucid monarchy. +With the extension of the single strong rule of Rome over this +Hellenistic world, the conditions were changed. Just as the +Macedonian conquest, whilst increasing the domain of Greek +culture, had straitened Greek liberty, so Rome, whilst bringing +Hellenism finally into secure possession of the nearer East, +extinguished Greek freedom altogether. Even now the old +forms were long religiously respected. Formally, the most +illustrious Greek states, Athens, for instance, or Marseilles, or +Rhodes, were not subjects of Rome, but free allies. Even in +the case of <i>civitates stipendiariae</i> (tribute-paying states), municipal +autonomy, subject indeed to interference on the part of the +Roman governor, was allowed to go on. <i>Boulē</i> and <i>demos</i> long +continued to function. The old catchword, “autonomy of the +Hellens,” was still heard and indeed was solemnly proclaimed +by Nero at the Isthmian games of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 67. But during the first +centuries of the Christian era, this municipal autonomy, by a +process which can only be imperfectly traced in detail, decayed. +The <i>demos</i> first sank into political annihilation and the council, +no longer popularly elected but an aristocratic order, concentrated +the whole administration in its hands. By the end of +the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, claims made by the imperial government +upon the municipal senate are more and more changing membership +of the order from an honour into an intolerable burden, +and financial disorganization is calling on imperial officials in +one place after another to undertake the business of government. +After Diocletian and under the Eastern Empire the Greek world +is organized on the principles of a vast bureaucracy.</p> + +<p>With this long process of political decline from Alexander to +Diocletian correspond the inner changes in the temper of the +Hellenic and Hellenistic peoples. There were, of course, +marked differences between one region and another. +<span class="sidenote">Social changes.</span> +But certain general characteristics distinguished at +once Greek society after the Macedonian conquests from the +society of the earlier age. When the vast field of the East was +opened to Hellenic enterprise and the bullion of its treasuries +flung abroad, fortunes were made on a scale before unparalleled. +A new standard of sumptuousness and splendour was set up in +the richest stratum of society. This material elaboration of +life was furthered by the existence of Hellenistic courts, where +the great ministers amassed fabulous riches (<i>e.g.</i> Dionysius, +the state secretary of Antiochus IV., Polyb. xxxi. 3, 16; Hermias, +the chief minister of Seleucus III., and Antiochus III., Polyb. +v. 50. 2; cf. Plutarch, <i>Agis</i> 9), and of huge cities like Alexandria, +Antioch and the enlarged Ephesus. It is significant that whereas +the earlier Greeks had used precious stones only as a medium +for the engraver’s art, unengraven gems, valuable for their +mere material, now came to be used in profusion for adornment. +Already before Alexander pan-hellenic feeling had in various +ways overridden the internal divisions of the Greek race, but +now, with the vast mingling of Greeks of all sorts in the newly-conquered +lands, a generalized Greek culture in which the old +local characteristics were merged, came to overspread the world. +The gradual supersession of the old dialects by the Koinē the +common speech of the Greeks, a modification of the Attic idiom +coloured by Ionic, was one obvious sign of the new order of things +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Language</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In its artistic, its literary, its spiritual products the age after +Alexander gave evidence of the change. In no department did +activity immediately stop; but the old freshness and +creative exuberance was gone. Artistic pleasure, +<span class="sidenote">Art and literature.</span> +grown less delicate, required the stimulus of a more +sensational effect or a more striking realism, as we +may see by the Pergamene and Rhodian schools of sculpture, +by the bas-reliefs with the <i>genre</i> subjects drawn from the life +of the countryside, or, in literature by the sort of historical +writing which became popular with Cleitarchus and Duris, by +the studied emotional or rhetorical point of Callimachus, and +by the portrayal of country life in Theocritus. At the same time, +artists and men of letters were now addressing themselves in +most cases, not to their fellow-citizens in a free city, but to kings +and courtiers, or the educated class generally of the Greek world. +In those departments of intellectual activity which demand +no high ideal faculty, in the study of the world of fact, the +centuries immediately following Alexander witnessed notable +advance. Scientific research might prosper, just as poetry +withered, under the patronage of kings, and such research had +now a vast amount of new material at its disposal and could +profit by the old Babylonian and Egyptian traditions. The +medical schools, especially that of Alexandria, really enlarged +knowledge of the animal frame. Knowledge of the earth gained +immensely by the Macedonian conquests. The literary schools +of Alexandria and Pergamum built up grammatical science, +and brought literary and artistic criticism to a fine point. If +indeed the earlier ages had been those of creative and spontaneous +life, the Hellenistic age was that of conscious criticism and +book-learning. The classical products were registered, studied, +assorted and commented upon. Men travelled and read more. +Books were in demand and were multiplied. Libraries became a +feature of the age, the kings leading the way as collectors, of +books, especially the rival dynasties of Egypt and Pergamum. +The library attached to the Museum at Alexandria is said to +have contained at the time of its destruction in 47 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as many +as 700,000 rolls (Aul. Gell. vi. 17. 3). Even smaller cities, like +Aphrodisias in Caria, had public libraries for the instruction of +their youth (Le Bas, III. No. 1618).</p> + +<p>With the general decay of ancient civilization under the +Roman empire, even scientific research ceased, and though there +were literary revivals, like that connected with the new Atticism +under the Antonine emperors, these were mainly imitative and +artificial, and even learning became at last under the Byzantine +emperors a jejune and formal tradition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Literature</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The diffusion of the Greek race far from the former centres of +its life, the mingling of citizens of many cities, the close contact +between Greek and barbarian in the conquered lands—all +this had made the old sanctions of civic religion +<span class="sidenote">Religion and philosophy.</span> +and civic morality of less account than ever. New +guides of life were needed. The Stoic philosophy, with +its cosmopolitan note, its fixed dogmas and plain ethical precepts, +came into the world at the time of the Macedonian conquests to +meet the needs of the new age. Its ideas became popular among +ordinary men as the older philosophies had never been. The +Stoic or Cynic preacher, attacking the ways of society, in pungent, +often coarse, phrase, became a familiar figure of the Greek +market-place (P. Wendland, <i>Beiträge zur Gesch. d. griech. Philosophie</i>, +1895).</p> + +<p>Although the cults of the old Greek deities in the new cities, +with their splendid apparatus of festivals and sacrifice might still +hold the multitude, men turned ever in large numbers to alien +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span> +religions, felt as more potent because strange, and the various gods +of Egypt and the East began to find larger entrance in the Greek +world. Even in the old Greek religion before Alexander there had +been large elements of foreign origin, and that the Greeks should +now do honour to the gods of the lands into which they came, as +we find the Cilician and Syrian Greeks doing to Baal-tars and Baal-marcod +and the Egyptian Greeks to the gods of Egypt, was only +in accordance with the primitive way of thinking. But it was a +sign of the times when Serapis and Isis, Osiris and Anubis began +to take place among the popular deities in the old Greek lands. +The origin of the cult of Serapis, which Ptolemy I. found, or +established, in Egypt is disputed; the familiar type of the god is +the invention of a Greek artist, but the name and religion came +from somewhere in the East (see discussion under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Serapis</a></span>). +Before the end of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> there were temples of +Serapis in Athens, Rhodes, Delos and Orchomenos in Boeotia. +Under the Roman empire the cult of Isis, now furnished with an +official priesthood and elaborate ritual, became really popular in +the Hellenistic world. King Asoka in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> sent +Buddhist missionaries from India to the Mediterranean lands; +their preaching has, it is true, left little or no trace in our Western +records. But other religions of Oriental origin penetrated far, +the worship of the Phrygian Great Mother, and in the 2nd +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> the religion of the Mithras (Lafaye, <i>Culte des +divinités alexandrines</i>, 1884; Roscher, articles “Anubis,” “Isis,” +&c.; F. Cumont, <i>Mystères de Mithra</i>, Eng. trans., 1903; <i>Les +Religions orientales dans le paganisme romain</i>, 1906).</p> + +<p>The Jews, too, by the time of Christ were finding in many +quarters an open door. Besides those who were ready to go the +whole length and accept circumcision, numbers adopted particular +Jewish practices, observing the Sabbath, for instance, or turned +from polytheism to the doctrine of the One God. The synagogues +in the Gentile cities had generally attached to them, in more or +less close connexion a multitude of those “who feared God” and +frequented the services (Schürer, <i>Gesch. d. jüd. Volks</i>, iii. 102-135).</p> + +<p>Among the religions which penetrated the Hellenistic world +from an Eastern source, one ultimately overpowered all the rest +and made that world its own. The inter-action of +Christianity and Hellenism opens large fields of inquiry. +<span class="sidenote">Christianity.</span> +The teaching of Christ Himself contained, as it is given +to us, no Hellenic element; so far as He built with older material, +that material was exclusively the sacred tradition of Israel. So +soon, however, as the Gospel was carried in Greek to Greeks, +Hellenic elements began to enter into it, in the writings, for +instance, of St Paul, the appeal to what “nature” teaches would +be generally admitted to be the adoption of a Greek mode of +thought. It was, of course, impossible that speaking in Greek +and living among Greeks, Christians should not to some extent +use current conceptions for the expression of their faith. There +was, at the same time, in the early Church a powerful current of +feeling hostile to Greek culture, to the wisdom of the world. +What the attitude of the New People should be to it, whether it +was all bad, or whether there were good things in it which +Christians should appropriate, was a vital question that always +confronted them. The great Christian School of Alexandria represented +by Clement and Origen effected a durable alliance +between Greek education and Christian doctrine. In proportion +as the Christian Church had to go deeper into metaphysics in the +formulation of its belief as to God, as to Christ, as to the soul, the +Greek philosophical terminology, which was the only vehicle then +available for precise thought, had to become more and more an +essential part of Christianity. At the same time Christian ethics +incorporated much of the current popular philosophy, especially +large Stoical elements. In this way the Church itself, as we shall +see, became a propagator of Hellenism (see Hatch, <i>Hibbert +Lectures</i>, 1888; Wendland, “Christentum u. Hellenismus” +in <i>Neue Jahrb. f. kl. Alt.</i> ix. 1902, p. 1 f.; and <i>Die hellenistisch-römische +Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum u. Christentum</i>, +1907).</p> + +<p>B. <i>Effect upon non-Hellenic Peoples.</i>—Hellenism secured by the +Macedonian conquest <i>points d’appui</i> from the Mediterranean to +India, and brought the system of commerce and intercourse into +Greek hands. What effect did it produce in these various +countries? What effect again in the lands of the West which fell +under the sway of Rome?</p> + +<p>(i.) <i>India</i>.—In India (including the valleys of the Kabul and +its northern tributaries, then inhabited by an Indian, not, as +now, by an Iranian, population) Alexander planted +a number of Greek towns. Alexandria “under the +<span class="sidenote">Greek cities.</span> +Caucasus” commanded the road from Bactria over +the Hindu-Kush; it lay somewhere among the hills to the north +of Kabul, perhaps at Opian near Charikar (MacCrindle, <i>Ancient +India</i>, p. 87, note 4); that it is the city meant by “Alasadda +the capital of the Yona (Greek) country” in the Buddhist +Mahavanso, as is generally affirmed, seems doubtful (Tarn, +loc. cit. below, p. 269, note 7). We hear of a Nicaea in the Kabul +valley itself (near Jalalabad?), another Nicaea on the Hydaspes +(Jhelum) where Alexander crossed it, with Bucephala (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bucephalus</a></span>) opposite, a city (unnamed) on the Acesines +(Chenab) (Arr. vi. 29, 3), and a series of foundations strung along +the Indus to the sea. Soon after 321, Macedonian supremacy +beyond the Indus collapsed before the advance of the native +Maurya dynasty, and about 303 even large districts west of the +Indus were ceded by Seleucus. But the chapter of Greek rule +in India was not yet closed. The Maurya dynasty broke up about +180 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and at the same time the Greek rulers of Bactria began +to lead expeditions across the Hindu-Kush. Menander in the +middle of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> extended his rule from the Hindu-Kush +to the Ganges. Then “Scythian” peoples from central +Asia, Sakas and Yue-chi, having conquered Bactria, gradually +squeezed within ever-narrowing limits the Greek power in India. +The last Greek prince, Hermaeus, seems to have succumbed +about 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was just at this time that the Graeco-Roman +world of the West was consolidated as the Roman Empire, and, +though Greek rule in India had disappeared, active commercial +intercourse went on between India and the Hellenistic lands. +How far, through these changes, did the Greek population settled +by Alexander or his successors in India maintain their distinctive +character? What influence did Hellenism during the centuries +in which it was in contact with India exert upon the native +mind? Only extremely qualified answers can be given to these +questions. Capital data are possibly waiting there under +ground—the Kabul valley for instance is almost virgin soil for +the archaeologist—and any conclusion we can arrive at is merely +provisional. If certain statements of classical authors were +true, Hellenism in India flourished exceedingly. But the phil-hellenic +Brahmins in Philostratus’ life of Apollonius had no existence +outside the world of romance, and the statement of Dio +Chrysostom that the Indians were familiar with Homer in their +own tongue (<i>Or.</i> liii. 6) is a traveller’s tale. India, the sceptical +observe, has yielded no Greek inscription, except, of course, on +the coins of the Greek kings and their Scythian rivals and successors. +To what extent can it be inferred from legends on coins +that Greek was a living speech in India? Perhaps to no large +extent outside the Greek courts. The fact, however, that the +Greek character was still used on coins for two centuries after the +last Greek dynasty had come to an end shows that the language +had a prestige in India which any theory, to be plausible, must +account for. If we argue by probability from what we know +of the conditions, we have to consider that the Greek rule in +India was all through fighting for existence, and can have had +“little time or energy left for such things as art, science and +literature” (Tarn, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 292), and it is pointed out that a +casual reference to the Greeks in an Indian work contemporary +with Menander characterizes them as “viciously valiant Yonas.” +How long is it probable that Greek colonies planted in the midst +of alien races would have remained distinct? Mr Tarn builds +much upon the fact that the descendants of the Greek Branchidae +settled by Xerxes in central Asia had become bilingual in six +generations (Curt. vii. 5, 29). But the Greek race before +Alexander had not its later prestige, and we must consider such +a sentiment as leads the Eurasian to-day to cling to his Western +parentage, so that the instance of the Branchidae cannot be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span> +used straight away for the time after Alexander. Certainly, +had the Greek colonies in India been active political bodies, we +could hardly have failed to find some trace of them, in civic +architecture or in inscriptions, by this time. Perhaps we should +rather think of them as resembling the Greeks found to-day +dispersed over the nearer East with interests mainly commercial, +easily assimilating themselves to their environment. A notice +derived from Agatharchides (about 140 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) possibly refers to +the activity of these Indian Greeks in the sea-borne trade of the +Indian Ocean (Müller, <i>Geog. Graeci min.</i> i. p. 191; cf. Diod. +iii. 47. 9). As to what India derived from Greece there has been +a good deal of erudite debate. That the Indian drama took +its origin from the Greek is still maintained by some scholars, +though hardly proved. There is no doubt that Indian astronomy +shows marked Hellenic features, including actual Greek words +borrowed. But by far the most signal borrowing is in the sphere +<span class="sidenote">Greek art.</span> +of art. The stream of Buddhist art which went out +eastwards across Asia had its rise in North-West India, +and the remains of architecture and sculpture unearthed +in this region enable us to trace its development back to +pure Greek types. It remains, of course, a question whether +the tradition was transmitted by the Greek dynasties from +Bactria or by intercourse with the Roman empire; the latter +seems now almost certain; but the fact of the influence is equally +striking on either theory. How far to the east the distinctive +influence of Greece went is shown by the seal-impressions with +Athena and Eros types found by Dr Stein in the buried cities of +Khotan (<i>Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan</i>, p. 396), and according to +Mr E. B. Havell, there exist “paintings treasured as the most +precious relics and rarely shown to Europeans, which closely +resemble the Graeco-Buddhist art of India” in some of the oldest +temples of Japan (<i>Studio</i>, vol. xxvii. 1903, p. 26).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. A. Macdonell, <i>History of Sanskrit Literature</i> (1900) p. 411 f., +and the references on p. 452; V. A. Smith, <i>Early History of India</i> +(1904); Grünwedel, <i>Buddhist Art in India</i> (Eng. trans., edited by +Dr Burgess, 1901); W. W. Tarn, “Notes on Hellenism in Bactria +and India” in <i>Journ. of Hell. Studies</i>, xxii. (1902); Foucher, +<i>L’Art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + +<p>(ii.) <i>Iran and Babylonia.</i>—The colonizing activity of Alexander +and his successors found a large field in Iran where, up till his +time, hardly any walled towns seem to have existed. +Cities now arose in all its provinces, superseding in +<span class="sidenote">Greek cities.</span> +many cases native market places and villages, and +holding the vantage-points of commerce. Media, Polybius says, +was defended by a chain of Greek cities from barbarian incursion +(x. 27. 3); in the neighbourhood of Teheran seem to have stood +Heraclea and Europus. In Eastern Iran the cities which are +its chief places to-day then bore Greek names, and looked upon +Alexander or some other Hellenic prince as their founder. +Khojend, Herat, Kandahar were Alexandrias, Merv was an +Alexandria till it changed that name for Antioch. When the +farther provinces broke away under independent Greek kings, +a Eucratidēa and a Demetrias attested their glory. Even in a +town definitely barbarian like Syrinca in 209 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> there was a +resident mercantile community of Greeks (Polyb. x. 31). The +bulk of Greek historical literature having perished, and in the +absence of both archaeological data from Iran, we can only +speculate on the inner life of these Greek cities under a strange +sky. One precious document is the decree of Antioch in Persis +(about 206 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) cited in a recently discovered inscription (Kern, +<i>Inschr. v. Magnesia</i>, No. 61; Dittenberger, <i>Orient. gr. Inscr.</i> i. +No. 233). This shows us the normal organs of a Greek city, +<i>boulē</i>, <i>ecclesia</i>, <i>prytaneis</i>, &c., in full working, with the annual +election of magistrates, and ordinary forms of public action. +But more than this, it throws a remarkable light upon the +solidarity of the Hellenic Dispersion. The citizen body had been +increased some generations before by colonists from Magnesia-on-Meander +sent at the invitation of Antiochus I. The Magnesians +are instigated by pan-hellenic enthusiasm. And we see a brisk +diplomatic intercourse between the scattered Greek cities going +on. It is especially the local religious festivals which bind them +together. Antioch in Persis, of course, sends athletes to the great +games of Greece, but in this decree it determines to take part in +the new festival being started in honour of Artemis at Magnesia. +The loyalty, too, expressed towards the Seleucid king implies +a predominant interest in pan-hellenic unity, natural in colonies +isolated among barbarians. A list is given (fragmentary) of +other Greek cities in Babylonia and beyond from which similar +decrees had come.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Bactria and Sogdiana +broke away from the Seleucid empire; independent Greek kings +reigned there till the country was conquered by +nomads from Central Asia (Sacae and Yue-chi) a +<span class="sidenote">Greek kingdoms.</span> +century later. Alexander had settled large masses of +Greeks in these regions (Greeks, it would seem, not Macedonians), +whose attempts to return home in 325 and 323 had +been frustrated, and it may well be that a racial antagonism +quickened the revolt against Macedonian rule in 250. The +history of these Greek dynasties is for us almost a blank, and +for estimating the amount and quality of Hellenism in Bactria +during the 180 years or so of Macedonian and Greek rule, we +are reduced to building hypotheses upon the scantiest data. +Probably nothing important bearing on the subject has been left +out of view in W. W. Tarn’s learned discussion (<i>Journ. of Hell. +Stud.</i> xxii., 1902, p. 268 f.), and his result is mainly negative, +that palpable evidences of an active Hellenism have not been +found; he inclines to think that the Greek kingdoms mainly +took on the native Iranian colour. The coins, of course, are +adduced on the other side, being not only Greek in type and +legend, but (in many cases) of a peculiarly fine and vigorous +execution; and excellence in one branch of art is thought to +imply that other branches flourished in the same <i>milieu</i>. Tarn +suggests that they may be a “sport,” a spasmodic outbreak +of genius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bactria</a></span> and works there quoted). In these outlying +provinces the national Iranian sentiment seems to have +been most intense, and it is interesting to see that under Alexander +Hellenism appeared as “belligerent civilization,” in the attempt +to suppress practices like the exposure of the dying to the dogs +(an exaggeration of Zoroastrianism) and, possibly also, abhorrent +forms of marriage (Strabo xi. 517; Porphyr. <i>De abstin.</i> 4. 21; +Plut. <i>De fort. Al.</i> 5).</p> + +<p>The west of Iran slipped from the Seleucids in the course of +the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to be joined to the Parthian kingdom, or +fall under petty native dynasties. Soon after 130 Babylonia +too was conquered by the Parthian, and Mesopotamia before 88. +Then the reconquest of the nearer East by Oriental dynasties +was checked by the advance of Rome. Asia Minor and Syria +remained substantial parts of the Roman Empire till the Mahommedan +conquests of the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> began a new process +of recoil on the part of the Hellenistic power. In Babylonia, also, +in Susiana and Mesopotamia, Hellenism had been established +in a system of cities for 200 years before the coming of the +Parthian. The greatest of all of them stood here—almost on +the site of Bagdad—Seleucia on the Tigris. It superseded +Babylon as the industrial focus of Babylonia and counted some +600,000 inhabitants (<i>plebs urbana</i>) according to Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> vi. +§ 122 (cf. Joseph. <i>Arch.</i> xviii. § 372, 374; for coins, probably of +Seleucia, with the type of Tychē issued in the years <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 43-44 +see Wroth, <i>Coins of Parthia</i>, p. xlvi.). The list of other Greek +cities known to us in these regions is too long to give here (see +Droysen, <i>loc. cit.</i>, and E. Schwartz in Kern’s <i>Inschr. v. Magnesia</i>, +p. 171 f.). In Mesopotamia, Pliny especially notes how the +character of the country was changed when the old village life +was broken in upon by new centres of population in the cities of +Macedonian foundation (Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> vi. § 117; cf. K. Regling, +“Histor. geog. d. mesopot. Parallelograms,” in Lehmann’s +<i>Beiträge</i>, i. p. 442 f.).</p> + +<p>We do not look in vain for notable names in Hellenistic +literature and philosophy produced on an Asiatic soil. Diogenes, +the Stoic philosopher (head of the school in 156 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +was a “Babylonian,” <i>i.e.</i> a citizen of Seleucia on the +<span class="sidenote">Hellenic-Iranian culture.</span> +Tigris; so too was Seleucus, the mathematician and +astronomer, being possibly a native Babylonian; +Berossus, who wrote a Babylonian history in Greek (before +261 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was a Hellenized native. Apollodorus, Strabo’s authority +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span> +for Parthian history (<i>c.</i> 80 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>?), was from the Greek city of +Artemita in Assyria. When the Parthians rent away provinces +from the Seleucid empire, the Greek cities did not cease to exist +by passing under barbarian rule. Gradually no doubt the +Greek colonies were absorbed, but the process was a long one. +In 140 and 130 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> those of Iran were ready to rise in support +of the Seleucid invader (Joseph. <i>Arch.</i> xiii. § 184; Justin xxxviii. +10.6-8). Just so, Crassus in 53 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> found a welcome in the Greek +cities of Mesopotamia. Seleucia on the Tigris is spoken of by +Tacitus as being in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 36 “proof against barbarian influences +and mindful of its founder Seleucus” (<i>Ann.</i> vi. 42). How important +an element the Greek population of their realm seemed +to the Parthian kings we can see by the fact that they claimed +to be themselves champions of Hellenism. From the reign of +Artabanus I. (128/7-123 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) they bear the epithet of “Phil-hellen” +as a regular part of their title upon the coins. Under +the later reigns the Tychē figure (the personification of a Greek +city) becomes common as a coin type (Wroth, <i>Coins of Parthia</i>, +pp. liii., lxxiv.). The coinage may, of course, give a somewhat +one-sided representation of the Parthian kingdom, being specially +designed for the commercial class, in which the population of +the Greek cities was, we may guess, predominant. The state of +things which prevails in modern Afghanistan, where trade is in +the hands of a class distinct in race and speech (Persian in this +case) from the ruling race of fighters is very probably analogous +to that which we should have found in Iran under the Parthians.<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +That the Parthian court itself was to some extent Hellenized +is shown by the story, often adduced, that a Greek company of +actors was performing the <i>Bacchae</i> before the king when the +head of Crassus was brought in. This single instance need not, +it is true, show a Hellenism of any profundity; still it does show +that certain parts of Hellenism had become so essential to the +lustre of a court that even an Arsacid could not be without them. +Artavasdes, king of Armenia (54?-34 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) composed Greek +tragedies and histories (Plut. <i>Crass.</i> 33). Then the prestige +of the Roman Empire, with its prevailingly Hellenistic culture, +must have told powerfully. The Parthian princes were in many +cases the children of Greek mothers who had been taken into the +royal harems (Plut. <i>Crass.</i> 32). Musa, the queen-mother, whose +head appears on the coins of Phraataces (3/2 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 4) had +been an Italian slave-girl. Many of the Parthian princes resided +temporarily, as hostages or refugees, in the Roman Empire; +but one notes that the nation at large looked with anything but +favour upon too liberal an introduction of foreign manners at +the court (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> ii. 2).</p> + +<p>Such slight notices in Western literature do not give us any +penetrating view into the operation of Hellenism among the +Iranians. As an expression of the Iranian mind we have the +Avesta and the Pehlevi theological literature. Unfortunately +in a question of this kind the dating of our documents is the first +matter of importance, and it seems that we can only assign +dates to the different parts of the Avesta by processes of fine-drawn +conjecture. And even if we could date the Avesta +securely, we could only prove borrowing by more or less close +coincidences of idea, a tempting but uncertain method of inquiry. +Taking an opinion based on such data for what it is worth, we +may note that Darmesteter believed in the influence of the later +Greek philosophy (Philonian and Neo-platonic) as one of those +which shaped the Avesta as we have it (<i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, +iv. 54 f.), but we must also note that such an influence is +emphatically denied by Dr L. Mills (<i>Zarathushtra and the Greeks</i>, +Leipzig, 1906). Outside literature, we have to look to the +artistic remains offered by the region to determine Hellenic +influence. But here, too, the preliminary classification of the +documents is beset with doubt. In the case of small objects like +gems the place of manufacture may be far from the place of +discovery. The architectural remains are solidly <i>in situ</i>, but +we may have such vast disagreement as to date as that between +Dieulafoy and M. de Morgan with respect to domed buildings of +Susa, a disagreement of at least five centuries. It is enough +then here to observe that Iran and Babylonia do, as a matter of +fact, continually yield the explorer objects of workmanship +either Greek or influenced by Greek models, belonging to the age +after Alexander, and that we may hence infer at any rate such +an influence of Hellenism upon the tastes of the richer classes +as would create a demand for these things.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For gems see “Gobineau” in the <i>Rev. archéol.</i>, vols. xxvii., xxviii. +(1874); Ménant, <i>Recherches sur la glyptique orientale</i>, ii. 189 f.; +E. Babelon, <i>Catalogue des camées de la Bibl. Nat.</i> (1897), p. 56; +A. Furtwängler, <i>Die antiken Gemmen</i>, pp. 165, 369 ff.; Figurines: +Heuzey, <i>Fig. ant. du Louvre</i> (1883) p. 3; J. P. Peters, <i>Nippur</i>, +ii. 128; Military standard: Heuzey, <i>Comptes rendus de l’Acad. +d. Inscr.</i> (1895) p. 16; <i>Rev. d’Assyr.</i> v. (1903), p. 103 f. Alabaster +vase: Sykes, <i>Ten Thousand Miles in Persia</i>, p. 445. In the case +of the architectural remains, the Greek tradition is obvious at Hatra +(Jacquerel, <i>Rev. archéol.</i>, 1897 [ii.], 343 f.), and in the relics of the +temple at Kingavar (Dieulafoy, <i>L’Art antique de la Perse</i>, v. p. 10 f.).</p> +</div> + +<p>If any vestige of Hellenism still survived under the Sassanian +kings, our records do not show it. The spirit of the Sassanian +monarchy was more jealously national than that of the +Arsacid, and alien grafts could hardly have flourished +<span class="sidenote">Sassanian empire.</span> +under it. Of course, if Darmesteter was right in seeing +a Greek element in Zoroastrianism, Greek influence must still +have operated under the new dynasty, which recognized the +national religion. But, as we saw, the Greek influence has been +authoritatively denied. At the court a limited recognition +might be given, as fashion veered, to the values prevalent in the +Hellenistic world. The story of Hormisdas in Zosimus is suggestive +in this connexion (Zosim. <i>Hist. nov.</i> ii. 27). Chosroes I. +interested himself in Greek philosophy and received its professors +from the West with open arms (Agath. ii. 28 f.); according to +one account, he had his palace at Ctesiphon built by Greeks +(Theophylact. Simocat. v. 6).</p> + +<p>But the account of Chosroes’ mode of action makes it plain +that the Hellenism once planted in Iran had withered away; +representatives of Greek learning and skill have all to be imported +from across the frontier.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Hellenism in Babylonia and Iran, see the useful article of +M. Victor Chapot in the <i>Bull. et mémoires de la Soc. Nat. des Antiquaires +de France</i> for 1902 (published 1904), p. 206 f., which gives +a conspectus of the relevant literature.</p> +</div> + +<p>(iii.) <i>Asia Minor.</i>—Very different were the fortunes of Hellenism +in those lands which became annexed to the Roman Empire.</p> + +<p>In Asia Minor, we have seen how, even before Alexander, +Hellenism had begun to affect the native races and Persian +nobility. During Alexander’s own reign, we cannot +trace any progress in the Hellenization of the interior, +<span class="sidenote">Greek cities of the Diadochi.</span> +nor can we prove here his activity as a builder of +cities. But under the dynasties of his successors a +great work of city-building and colonization went on. Antigonus +fixed his capital at the old Phrygian town of Celaenae, and the +famous cities of Nicaea and Alexandria Troas owed to him +their first foundation, each as an Antigonia; they were refounded +and renamed by Lysimachus (301-281 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Then we have +the great system of Seleucid foundations. Sardis, the Seleucid +capital in Asia Minor, had become a Greek city before the end +of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The main high road between the Aegean +coast and the East was held by a series of new cities. Going +west from the Cilician Gates we have Laodicea Catacecaumene, +Apamea, the Phrygian capital which absorbed Celaenae, Laodicea +on the Lycus, Antioch-on-Meander, Antioch-Nysa, Antioch-Tralles. +To the south of this high road we have among the +Seleucid foundations Antioch in Pisidia (colonized with Magnesians +from the Meander) and Stratonicea in Caria; in the +region to the north of it the most famous Seleucid colony was +Thyatira. Along the southern coast, where the houses of Seleucus +and Ptolemy strove for predominance, we find the names of +Berenice, Arsinoë and Ptolemais confronting those of Antioch +and Seleucia. With the rise of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum, +a system of Pergamene foundation begins to oppose the Seleucid +in the interior, bearing such names as Attalia, Philetaeria, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span> +Eumenia, Apollonis. Of these, one may note for their later +celebrity Philadelphia in Lydia and Attalia on the Pamphylian +coast. The native Bithynian dynasty became Hellenized in the +course of the 3rd century, and in the matter of city building +Prusias (the old Cius), Apamea (the old Myrlea), probably Prusa, +and above all Nicomedia attested its activity. While new +Greek cities were rising in the interior, the older Hellenism of +the western coast grew in material splendour under the munificence +of Hellenistic kings. Its centres of gravity to some +extent shifted. There was a tendency towards concentration +in large cities of the new type, which caused many of the lesser +towns, like Lebedus, Myus or Colophon, to sink to insignificance, +while Ephesus grew in greatness and wealth, and Smyrna rose +again after an extinction of four centuries. The great importance +of Rhodes belongs to the days after Alexander, when it received +the riches of the East from the trade-routes which debouched +into the Mediterranean at Alexandria and Antioch. In Aeolis, +of course, the centre of gravity moved to the Attalid capital, +Pergamum. It was the irruption of the Celts, beginning in +278-277 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, which checked the Hellenization of the interior. +Not only did the Galatian tribes take large tracts towards the +north of the plateau in possession, but they were an element of +perpetual unrest, which hampered and distracted the Hellenistic +monarchies. The wars, therefore, in which the Pergamene +kings in the latter part of the 3rd century stemmed their aggressions, +had the glory of a Hellenic crusade.</p> + +<p>The minor dynasties of non-Greek origin, the native Bithynian +and the two Persian dynasties in Pontus and Cappadocia, were +Hellenized before the Romans drove the Seleucid out +of the country. In Bithynia the upper classes seem to +<span class="sidenote">Native dynasties.</span> +have followed the fashion of the court (Beloch iii. [i.], +278); the dynasty of Pontus was phil-hellenic by ancestral +tradition; the dynasty of Cappadocia, the most conservative, +dated its conversion to Hellenism from the time when a Seleucid +princess came to reign there early in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as the +wife of Ariarathes V. (Diod. xxxi. 19. 8). But Hellenism in +Cappadocia was for centuries to come still confined to the castles +of the king and the barons, and the few towns.</p> + +<p>When Rome began to interfere in Asia Minor, its first action +was to break the power of the Gauls (189 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In 133 Rome +entered formally upon the heritage of the Attalid +kingdom and became the dominant power in the +<span class="sidenote">Hellenism under Roman sway.</span> +Anatolian peninsula for 1200 years. Under Rome the +process of Hellenization, which the divisions and +weakness of the Macedonian kingdoms had checked, went forward. +The coast regions of the west and south the Romans found +already Hellenized. In Lydia “not a trace” of the old language +was left in Strabo’s time (Strabo xiv. 631); in Lycia, the old +language became obsolete in the early days of Macedonian rule +(see Kalinka, <i>Tituli Asiae minoris</i>, i. 8). But inland, in +Phrygia, Hellenism had as yet made little headway outside +the Greek cities. Even the Attalids had not effected much here +(Körte, <i>Athen. Mitth.</i> xxiii., 1898, p. 152), and under the Romans, +the penetration of the interior by Hellenism was slow. It was +not till the reign of Hadrian that city life on the Phrygian plateau +became rich and vigorous, with its material circumstances of +temples, theatres and baths. Among the villages of the north +and east of Phrygia, Hellenism “was only beginning to make +itself felt in the middle of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>” (Ramsay in +Kuhn’s <i>Zeitsch. f. vergleich. Sprachforschung</i>, xxviii., 1885, +p. 382). Gravestones in this region as late as the 4th century +curse violators in the old Phrygian speech. The lower classes +at Lystra in St Paul’s time spoke Lycaonian (Acts xiv. 11). +In that part of Phrygia, which by the settlement of the Celtic +invaders became Galatia, the larger towns seem to have become +Hellenized by the time of the Christian era, whilst the Celtic +speech maintained itself in the country villages till the 4th +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (Jerome, Preface to Comment, in <i>Epist. ad Gal.</i> +book ii.; see J. G. C. Anderson, <i>Journ. of Hell. Stud.</i> xix., 1899, +p. 312 f.). Cappadocia at the beginning of the Christian era +was still comparatively townless (Strabo xii. 537), a country +of large estates with a servile peasantry. Even in the 4th century +its Hellenization was still far from complete; but Christianity +had assimilated so much of the older Hellenic culture that the +Church was now a main propagator of Hellenism in the backward +regions. The native languages of Asia Minor all ultimately +gave way to Greek (unless Phrygian lingered on in parts till the +Turkish invasions; see Mordtmann, <i>Sitzungsb. d. bayer. Ak.</i> +1862, i. p. 30; K. Holl in <i>Hermes</i>, xliii., 1908, p. 240 f.). +The effective Hellenization of Armenia did not take place till +the 5th century, when the school of Mesrop and Sahak gave +Armenia a literature translated from, or imitating, Greek +books (Gelzer in I. v. Müller’s <i>Handbuch</i>, vol. ix. Abt. i. +p. 916.)</p> + +<p>(iv.) <i>Syria.</i>—In Syria, which with Cilicia and Mesopotamia, +formed the central part of the Seleucid empire, the new colonies +were especially numerous. Alexander himself had +perhaps made a beginning with Alexandria-by-Issus +<span class="sidenote">Seleucid empire.</span> +(mod. Alexandretta), Samaria, Pella (the later +Apamea), Carrhae, &c. Antigonus founded Antigonia, which +was absorbed a few years later by Antioch, and after the fall +of Antigonus in 301, the work of planting Syria with Greek +cities was pursued effectively north of the Lebanon by the house +of Seleucus, and, less energetically, south of the Lebanon by the +house of Ptolemy. In the north of Syria four cities stood +pre-eminent above the rest, (1) Antioch on the Orontes, the +Seleucid capital; (2) Seleucia-in-Pieria near the mouth of the +Orontes, which guarded the approach to Antioch from the sea; +(3) Apamea (mod. Famia), on the middle Orontes, the military +headquarters of the kingdom; and (4) Laodicea “on sea” (<i>ad +mare</i>), which had a commercial importance in connexion with +the export of Syrian wine. Of the Ptolemaic foundations in +Coele-Syria only one attained an importance comparable with +that of the larger Seleucid foundations, Ptolemais on the coast, +which was the old Semitic Acco transformed (mod. Acre). The +group of Greek cities east of the Jordan also fell within the +Ptolemaic realm during the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, though their +greatness belonged to a somewhat later day. The whole of +Syria was brought under the Seleucid sceptre, together with +Cilicia, by Antiochus III. the Great (223-187 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Under his +son, Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164), a fresh impulse was +given to Syrian Hellenism. In 1 Maccabees he is represented +as writing an order to all his subjects to forsake the ways of their +fathers and conform to a single prescribed pattern, and though +in this form the account can hardly be exact, it does no doubt +represent the spirit of his action. Other facts there are which +point the same way. We now find a sudden issue of bronze +money by a large number of the cities of the kingdom in their +own name—an indication of liberties extended or confirmed. +Many of them exchange their existing name for that of Antioch +(Adana, Tarsus, Gadara, Ptolemais), Seleucia (Mopsuestia, +Gadara) or Epiphanea (Oeniandus, Hamath). At Antioch +itself great public works were carried out, such as were involved +in the addition of a new quarter to the city, including, we may +suppose, the civic council chamber which is afterwards spoken +of as being here. With the ever-growing weakness of the Seleucid +dynasty, the independence and activity of the cities increased, +although, if, on the one hand, they were less suppressed by a +strong central government, they were less protected against +military adventurers and barbarian chieftains. Accordingly, +when Pompey annexed Syria in 64 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as a Roman province, +<span class="sidenote">Roman period.</span> +he found it a chaos of city-states and petty principalities. +The Nabataeans and the Jews above all had +encroached upon the Hellenistic domain; in the +south the Jewish raids had spread desolation and left many +cities practically in ruins. Under Roman protection, the cities +were soon rebuilt and Hellenism secured from the barbarian peril. +Greek city life, with its political forms, its complement of +festivities, amusements and intellectual exercise, went on more +largely than before. The great majority of the Hellenistic remains +in Syria belong to the Roman period. Such local dynasties as +were suffered by the Romans to exist had, of course, a Hellenistic +complexion. Especially was this the case with that of the Herods. +Not only were such marks of Hellenism as a theatre introduced +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span> +by Herod the Great (37-34 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) at Jerusalem, but in the work +of city-building this dynasty showed itself active. Sebaste +(the old Samaria), Caesarea, Antipatris were built by Herod +the Great, Tiberias by Herod Antipas (4 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 39). The +reclaiming of the wild district of Hauran for civilization and +Hellenistic life was due in the first instance to the house of +Herod (Schürer, <i>Gesch. d. jüd. Volk.</i> 3rd ed., ii. p. 12 f.). In +Syria, too, Hellenism under the Romans advanced upon new +ground. Palmyra, of which we hear nothing before Roman times, +is a notable instance.</p> + +<p>As to the effect of this network of Greek cities upon the +aboriginal population of Syria, we do not find here the same +disappearance of native languages and racial characteristics +as in Asia Minor. Still less was this the case +<span class="sidenote">Greek culture in Syria.</span> +in Mesopotamia, where a strong native element in such +a city as Edessa is indicated by its epithet <span class="grk" title="mixobarbaros">μιξοβάρβαρος</span>. +The old cults naturally went on, and at Carrhae (Harran) even +survived the establishment of Christianity. The lower classes +at Antioch, and no doubt in the cities generally, were in speech +Aramaic or bilingual; we find Aramaic popular nicknames +of the later Seleucids (K. O. Müller, <i>Antiq. Ant.</i> p. 29). The +villages, of course, spoke Aramaic. The richer natives, on the +other hand, those who made their way into the educated classes +of the towns, and attained official position, would become +Hellenized in language and manners, and the “Syrian Code” +shows how far the social structure was modified by the Hellenic +tradition (Mitteis, <i>Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in den öst. Provinzen +des röm. Kaiserreichs</i>, 1891; Arnold Meyer, <i>Jesu Muttersprache</i>, +1896). Of the Syrians who made their mark in +Greek literature, some were of native blood, <i>e.g.</i> Lucian of +Samosata.</p> + +<p>One may notice the great part taken by natives of the +Phoenician cities in the history of later Greek philosophy, and +in the poetic movement of the last century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, which led to +fresh cultivation of the epigram. Greek, in fact, held the +field as the language of literature and polite society. Possibly +at places like Edessa, which for some 350 years (till <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 216) +was under a dynasty of native princes, Aramaic was cultivated +as a literary language. There was a Syriac-speaking church here +as early as the 2nd century, and with the spread of Christianity +Syriac asserted itself against Greek. The Syriac literature +which we possess is all Christian.</p> + +<p><i>But where Greek gave place to Syriac, Hellenism was not thereby +effaced. It was to some extent the passing over of the Hellenic +tradition into a new medium.</i> We must remember the marked +Hellenic elements in Christian theology. The earliest Syriac +work which we possess, the book “On Fate,” produced in the +circle of the heretic Bardaisan or Bardesanes (end of the 2nd +century), largely follows Greek models. There was an extensive +translation of Greek works into Syriac during the next centuries, +handbooks of philosophy and science for the most part. The +version of Homer into Syriac verses made in the 8th century +has perished, all but a few lines (R. Duval, <i>La Litt. syriaque</i>, +1900, p. 325).</p> + +<p>(v.) <i>The relation of the Jews to Hellenism</i> in the first century +and a half of Macedonian rule is very obscure, since the statements +made by later writers like Josephus, as to the +visit of Alexander to Jerusalem or the privileges conferred +<span class="sidenote">The Jews.</span> +upon the Jews in the new Macedonian realms are justly +suspected of being fiction. It has been maintained that Greek +influence is to be traced in parts of the Old Testament assigned +to this period, as, for instance, the Book of Proverbs; but even +in the case of Ecclesiastes, the canonical writing whose affinity +with Greek thought is closest, the coincidence of idea need not +necessarily prove a Greek source. The one solid fact in this connexion +is the translation of the Jewish Law into Greek in the 3rd +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, implying a Jewish Diaspora at Alexandria, so far +Hellenized as to have forgotten the speech of Palestine. Early +in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> we see that the priestly aristocracy of +Jerusalem had, like the well-to-do classes everywhere in Syria, +been carried away by the Hellenistic current, its strength +being evidenced no less by the intensity of the conservative +opposition embodied in the party of the “Pious” (Assideans, +<i>Ḥasīdīm</i>).</p> + +<p>Under Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-165) the Hellenistic +aristocracy contrived to get Jerusalem converted into a Greek +city; the gymnasium appeared, and Greek dress became fashionable +with the young men. But when Antiochus, owing to +political developments, interfered violently at Jerusalem, the +conservative opposition carried the nation with them. The +revolt under the Hasmonaean family (Judas Maccabaeus and +his brethren) followed, ending in 143-142 in the establishment +of an independent Jewish state under a Hasmonaean prince. +But whilst the old Hellenistic party had been crushed the +Hasmonaean state was of the nature of a compromise. The +Mosaic Law was respected, but Hellenism still found an entrance +in various forms. The first Hasmonaean “king,” Aristobulus I. +(104-103), was known to the Greeks as Phil-hellen. He and all +later kings of the dynasty bear Greek names as well as Hebrew +ones, and after Jannaeus Alexander (103-76) the Greek legends +are common on the coins beside the Hebrew. Herod, who supplanted +the Hasmonaean dynasty (37-34 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) made, outside +Judaea, a display of Phil-hellenism, building new Greek cities +and temples, or bestowing gifts upon the older ones of fame. +His court, at the same time, welcomed Greek men of letters +like Nicolaus of Damascus. Even in the neighbourhood of +Jerusalem, he erected a theatre and an amphitheatre. We have +already noticed the work done by the Herodian dynasty in +furthering Hellenism in Syria (see Schürer, <i>Gesch. des jüdisch. +Volkes</i>, vols. i. and ii.). Meanwhile a great part of the Jewish +people was living dispersed among the cities of the Greek world, +speaking Greek as their mother-tongue, and absorbing Greek +influences in much larger measure than their brethren of Palestine. +These are the Jews whom we find contrasted as “Hellenists” +with the “Hebrews” in Acts. They still kept in touch with +the mother-city, and indeed we hear of special synagogues in +Jerusalem in which the Hellenists temporarily resident there +gathered (Acts vi. 9). A large Jewish literature in Greek had +grown up since the translation of the Law in the 3rd century. +Beside the other canonical books of the Old Testament, translated +in many cases with modifications or additions, it included translations +of other Hebrew books (Ecclesiasticus, Judith, &c.), works +composed originally in Greek but imitating to some extent the +Hebraic style (like Wisdom), works modelled more closely on +the Greek literary tradition, either historical, like 2 Maccabees, +or philosophical, like the productions of the Alexandrian school, +represented for us by Aristobulus and Philo, in which style +and thought are almost wholly Greek and the reference to the +Old Testament a mere pretext; or Greek poems on Jewish +subjects, like the epic of the elder Philo and Ezechiel’s tragedy, +<i>Exagogē</i>. It included also a number of forgeries, circulated +under the names of famous Greek authors, verses fathered upon +Aeschylus or Sophocles, or books like the false Hecataeus, or +above all the pretended prophecies of ancient Sibyls in epic +verse. These frauds were all contrived for the heathen public, +as a means of propaganda, calculated to inspire them with respect +for Jewish antiquity or turn them from idols to God.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Jewish Hellenism see Schürer, <i>op. cit.</i> iii.; Susemihl, <i>Gesch. +der griech. Lit. in der Alexandrinerzeit</i>, ii. 601 f.; Willrich, <i>Juden +und Griechen</i> (1895), <i>Judaica</i> (1900); Hastings’ <i>Dict. of the Bible</i>, +art. “Greece”; <i>Encyclop. Biblica</i>, art. “Hellenism”; Pauly-Wissowa, +art. “Aristobulus (15)”; also the work of P. Wendland +cited above.</p> +</div> + +<p>Through the Hellenistic Jews, Greek influences reached +Jerusalem itself, though their effect upon the Aramaic-speaking +Rabbinical schools was naturally not so pronounced. The large +number of Greek words, however, in the language of the Mishnah +and the Talmud is a significant phenomenon. The attitude of +the Rabbinic doctors to a Greek education does not seem to +have been hostile till the time of Hadrian. The sect of the +Essenes probably shows an intermingling of the Greek with +other lines of tradition among the Jews of Palestine.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Schürer ii. 42-67, 583; S. Krauss, <i>Griech. u. latein. +Lehnwörter im Talmud</i> (1898); <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, art. “Greek +Language.”</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span></p> + +<p>(vi.) <i>In Egypt</i> the Ptolemies were hindered by special considerations +from building Greek cities after the manner of the other +Macedonian houses. One Greek city they found +existing, Naucratis; Alexander had called Alexandria +<span class="sidenote">Ptolemaic kingdom.</span> +into being; the first Ptolemy added Ptolemais as +a Greek centre for Upper Egypt. They seem to have suffered +no other community in the Nile Valley with the independent +life of a Greek city, for the Greek and Macedonian +soldier-colonies settled in the Fayum or elsewhere had no +political self-existence. And even at Alexandria Hellenism +was not allowed full development. Ptolemais, indeed, enjoyed +all the ordinary forms of self-government, but Alexandria was +governed despotically by royal officials. In its population, too, +Alexandria was only semi-Hellenic; for besides the proportion +of Egyptian natives in its lower strata, its commercial greatness +drew in elements from every quarter; the Jews, for instance, +formed a majority of the population in two out of the five +divisions of the city. At the same time the prevalent tone of +the populace was, no doubt, Hellenistic, as is shown by the +fact that the Jews who settled there acquired Greek in place +of Aramaic as their mother-tongue, and in its upper circles +Alexandrian society under the Ptolemies was not only +Hellenistic, but notable among the Hellenes for its literary and +artistic brilliance. The state university, the “Museum,” was +in close connexion with the court, and gave to Alexandria +the same pre-eminence in natural science and literary scholarship +which Athens had in moral philosophy.</p> + +<p>Probably in no other country, except Judaea, did Hellenism +encounter as stubborn a national antagonism as in Egypt. +The common description of “the Oriental” as indurated in +his antagonism to the alien conqueror here perhaps has some +truth in it. The assault made upon the Macedonian devotee +in the temple of Serapis at Memphis “because he was a Greek” +is significant (<i>Papyr. Brit. Mus.</i> i. No. 44; cf. Grenfell, <i>Amherst +Papyr.</i> p. 48). And yet even here one must observe qualifications +The papyri show us habitual marriage of Greeks and native +women and a frequent adoption by natives of Greek names. +It has even been thought that some developments of the <span class="correction" title="amended from Egyptain">Egyptian</span> +religion are due to Hellenistic influence, such as the deification +of Imhotp (Bissing, <i>Deutsche Literaturzeitung</i>, 1902, col. 2330) +or the practice of forming voluntary religious associations (Otto, +<i>Priester und Tempel</i>, i. 125). The worship of Serapis was +patronized by the court with the very object of affording a +mixed cultus in which Greek and native might unite. In Egypt, +too, the triumph of Christianity brought into being a native +Christian literature, and if this was in one way the assertion of +the native against Hellenistic predominance, one must remember +that Coptic literature, like Syriac, necessarily incorporated +those Greek elements which had become an essential part of +Christian theology.</p> + +<p>From the Ptolemaic kingdom Hellenism early travelled up +the Nile into Ethiopia. Ergamenes, the king of the Ethiopians +in the time of the second Ptolemy, “who had received +a Greek education and cultivated philosophy,” broke +<span class="sidenote">Ethiopia.</span> +with the native priesthood (Diod. iii. 6), and from that time +traces of Greek influence continue to be found in the monuments +of the Upper Nile. When Ethiopia became a Christian country +in the 4th century, its connexion with the Hellenistic world +became closer.</p> + +<p>(vii.) <i>Hellenism in the West.</i>—Whilst in the East Hellenism +had been sustained by the political supremacy of the Greeks, in +Italy <i>Graecia capta</i> had only the inherent power and +charm of her culture wherewith to win her way. At +<span class="sidenote">Greek culture in the Roman world.</span> +Carthage in the 3rd century the educated classes +seem generally to have been familiar with Greek +culture (Bernhardy, <i>Grundriss d. griech. Lit.</i> § 77). +The philosopher Clitomachus, who presided over the Academy +at Athens in the 2nd century, was a Carthaginian. Even before +Alexander, as we saw, Hellenism had affected the peoples of +Italy, but it was not till the Greeks of south Italy and Sicily +were brought under the supremacy of Rome in the 3rd century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> that the stream of Greek influence entered Rome in any +volume. It was now that the Greek freedman, L. Livius +Andronicus, laid the foundation of a new Latin literature by +his translation of the <i>Odyssey</i>, and that the Greek dramas were +recast in a Latin mould. The first Romans who set about +writing history wrote in Greek. At the end of the 3rd century +there was a circle of enthusiastic phil-hellenes among the Roman +aristocracy, led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, who in Rome’s +name proclaimed the autonomy of the Greeks at the Isthmian +games of 196. In the middle of the 2nd century Roman Hellenism +centred in the circle of Scipio Aemilianus, which included +men like Polybius and the philosopher Panaetius. The visit +of the three great philosophers, Diogenes the “Babylonian,” +Critolaus and Carneades in 155, was an epoch-making event in +the history of Hellenism at Rome. Opposition there could not +fail to be, and in 161 a <i>senatus consultum</i> ordered all Greek +philosophers and rhetoricians to leave the city. The effect of +such measures was, of course, transient. Even though the +opposition found so doughty a champion as the elder Cato +(censor in 184), it was ultimately of no avail. The Italians did +not indeed surrender themselves passively to the Greek tradition. +In different departments of culture the degree of their independence +was different. The system of government framed by +Rome was an original creation. Even in the spheres of art and +literature, the Italians, while so largely guided by Greek canons, +had something of their own to contribute. The mere fact that +they produced a literature in Latin argues a power of creation +as well as receptivity. The great Latin poets were imitators +indeed, but <i>mere</i> imitators they were no more than Petrarch or +Milton. On the other hand, even where the creative originality +of Rome was most pronounced, as in the sphere of Law, there +were elements of Hellenic origin. It has been often pointed out +how the Stoic philosophy especially helped to shape Roman +jurisprudence (Schmekel, <i>Philos. d. mittl. Stoa</i>, p. 454 f.).</p> + +<p>Whilst the upper classes in Italy absorbed Greek influences +by their education, by the literary and artistic tradition, the +lower strata of the population of Rome became largely hellenized +by the actual influx on a vast scale of Greeks and hellenized +Asiatics, brought in for the most part as slaves, and coalescing +as freedmen with the citizen body. Of the Jewish inscriptions +found at Rome some two-thirds are in Greek. So too the early +Christian church in Rome, to which St Paul addressed his +epistle, was Greek-speaking, and continued to be till far into the +3rd century.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">III. Later History.</span>—It remains only to glance at the +ultimate destinies of Hellenism in West and East. In the Latin +West knowledge of Greek, first-hand acquaintance +with the Greek classics, became rarer and rarer as +<span class="sidenote">The middle ages.</span> +general culture declined, till in the dark ages (after +the 5th century) it existed practically nowhere but in +Ireland (Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i>, i. 438). In +Latin literature, however, a great mass of Hellenistic tradition +in a derived form was maintained in currency, wherever, that is, +culture of any kind continued to exist. It was a small number +of monkish communities whose care of those narrow channels +prevented their ever drying up altogether. Then the stream +began to rise again, first with the influx of the learning of the +Spanish Moors, then with the new knowledge of Greek brought +from Constantinople in the 14th century. With the Renaissance +and the new learning, Hellenism came in again in flood, to form +a chief part of that great river on which the modern world is +being carried forward into a future, of which one can only say +that it must be utterly unlike anything that has gone before. +In the East it is popularly thought that Hellenism, as an exotic, +withered altogether away. This view is superficial. During +the dark ages, in the Byzantine East, as well as in the West, +Hellenism had become little more than a dried and shrivelled +tradition, although the closer study of Byzantine culture in +latter years has seemed to discover more vitality than was once +supposed. Ultimately the Greek East was absorbed by Islam; +<span class="sidenote">Islam.</span> +the popular mistake lies in supposing that the Hellenistic +tradition thereby came to an end. The +Mahommedan conquerors found a considerable part of it taken +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span> +over, as we saw, by the Syrian Christians, and Greek philosophical +and scientific classics were now translated from Syriac into +Arabic. These were the starting-points for the Mahommedan +schools in these subjects. Accordingly we find that Arabian +philosophy (<i>q.v.</i>), mathematics, geography, medicine and +philology are all based professedly upon Greek works (Brockelmann, +<i>Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur</i>, 1898, vol. i.; R. A. +Nicholson, <i>A Literary History of the Arabs</i>, 1907, pp. 358-361). +Aristotle in the East no less than in the West was the “master +of them that know”; and Moslem physicians to this day invoke +the names of Hippocrates and Galen. The Hellenistic strain +in Mahommedan civilization has, it is true, flagged and failed, +but only as that civilization as a whole has declined. It was +not that the Hellenistic element failed, whilst the native elements +in the civilization prospered; the culture of Islam has, as a +whole (from whatever causes), sunk ever lower during the +centuries that have witnessed the marvellous expansion of +Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For the inner history of Hellenism after Alexander, +the general historical literature dealing with later Greece and Rome +supplies material in various degrees. See works quoted in articles +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>, <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>, <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ptolemies</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seleucid Dynasty</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bactria</a></span>, &c.</p> + +<p>Different elements (literature, philosophy, art, &c.) are dealt +with in works dealing specially with these subjects, among which +those of Susemihl, Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Erwin Rohde and +E. Schwartz are of especial importance for the literature; those of +Schreiber and Strzygowski for the later Greek art.</p> + +<p>Sketches of Hellenistic civilization generally are found in J. P. +Mahaffy’s <i>Greek Life and Thought</i> (1887), <i>The Greek World under +Roman Sway</i> (1890); <i>The Silver Age of the Greek World</i> (1906); +Julius Kaerst, <i>Gesch. d. hellenist. Zeitalters</i> (Band ii., publ. 1909); +and in Beloch’s <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, vol. iii. (for the century +immediately succeeding Alexander). R. von Scala’s “The Greeks +after Alexander,” in Helmolt’s <i>History of the World</i> (vol. v.), covers +the whole period from Alexander to the end of the Byzantine Empire. +P. Wendland’s <i>Hellenistisch-römische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen +zu Judentum u. Christentum</i> (1907) is an illuminating monograph, +giving a conspectus of the material. For Hellenistic Egypt, Bouché-Leclercq, +<i>Histoire des Lagides</i>, vol. iii. (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. R. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See, among recent writers, on one side Kaerst, <i>Gesch. des hellenist. +Zeitalters</i>, pp. 97 f., and on the other Beloch, <i>Griech. Gesch.</i>, iii. +[i.] 1-9; Kretschmer, <i>Einleitung in die Gesch. d. griech. Sprache</i>, +p. 283 f.; O. Hoffmann, <i>Die Makedonen, ihre Sprache u. ihr Volkstum</i> +(1906).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> “Ce sont les Tadjik de l’Afghanistan qui constituent les trente-deux +corps de métier, qui tiennent boutique, expédient les marchandises, +représentent, en un mot, la vie industrielle et commerciale de +la nation. Ce sont aussi les Tadjik des villes qui forment la classe +lettrée, et qui ont empêché les Afghans de retomber dans la barbarie.” +(Reclus, <i>Nouvelle Géograph. univ.</i> ix. p. 71.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELLER, STEPHEN<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1815-1888), Austrian pianist and +composer, was born at Pest on the 15th of May 1815. (Fétis’s +dictionary says 1814, but this is almost certainly wrong.) He +was at first intended for a lawyer, but at nine years of age +performed so successfully at a concert that he was sent to Vienna +to study under Czerny. Halm was his principal master, and +from the age of twelve he gave concerts in Vienna, and made a +tour through Hungary, Poland and Germany. At Augsburg +he had the good fortune to be befriended when ill by a wealthy +family, who practically adopted him and gave him the opportunity +to complete his musical education. In 1838 he went to +Paris, and soon became intimate with Liszt, Chopin, Berlioz +and their set, among whom was Hallé, throughout his life an +indefatigable performer of Heller’s music. In 1849 he came to +England and played a few times, and in 1862 he appeared with +Hallé at the Crystal Palace. He outlived the great reputation +he had enjoyed among cultivated amateurs for so many years, +and was almost forgotten when he died at Paris on the 14th of +January 1888. His pianoforte pieces, almost all of them published +in sets and provided with fancy names, do not show very +startling originality, but their grace and refinement could not +but make them popular with players and listeners of all classes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELLESPONT<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> “Sea of Helle”; variously named in +classical literature <span class="grk" title="Hellêspontos">Ἑλλήσποντος</span>, <span class="grk" title="ho Hellês pontos">ὁ Ἕλλης πόντος</span>, <i>Hellespontum +Pelagus</i>, and <i>Fretum Hellesponticum</i>), the ancient name +of the Dardanelles (<i>q.v.</i>). It was so-called from Helle, the +daughter of Athamas (<i>q.v.</i>), who was drowned here. See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argonauts</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELLEVOETSLUIS,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Helvoetsluis</span>, a fortified seaport in +the province of South Holland, the kingdom of Holland, on the +south side of the island of Voorne-and-Putten, on the sea-arm +known as the Haringvliet, 5½ m. S. of Brielle. It has daily steamboat +connexion with Rotterdam by the Voornsche canal. Pop. +(1900), 4152. Hellevoetsluis is an important naval station, and +possesses a naval arsenal, dry and wet docks, wharves and a +naval college for engineers. Among the public buildings are the +communal chambers, a Reformed church (1661), a Roman +Catholic church and a synagogue.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELLÍN,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of +Albacete, on the Albacete-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 12,558. +Hellín is built on the outskirts of the low hills which line the left +bank of the river Mundo. It possesses the remains of an old +Roman castle and a beautiful parish church, the masonry and +marble pavement at the entrance of which are worthy of special +notice. The surrounding country yields wine, oil and saffron in +abundance; within the town there are manufactures of coarse +cloth, leather and pottery. Sulphur is obtained from the celebrated +mining district of Minas del Mundo, 12 m. S., at the junction +between the Mundo and the Segura; and there are warm +sulphurous springs in the neighbouring village of Azaraque. +Hellín was known to the Romans who first exploited its sulphur +as Illunum.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELLO, ERNEST<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1828-1885), French critic, was born at +Tréguier. He was the son of a lawyer who held posts of great +importance at Rennes and in Paris, and was well educated at +both places, but took to no profession and resided much, for a +time, in his father’s country-house in Brittany. A very strong +Roman Catholic, he appears to have been specially excited by his +countryman Renan’s attitude to religious matters, and coming +under the influence of J. A. Barbey d’Aurevilly and Louis Veuillot, +the two most brilliant crusaders of the Church in the press, he +started a newspaper of his own, <i>Le Croisé</i>, in 1859; but it only +lasted two years. He wrote, however, much in other papers. +He had very bad health, suffering apparently from spinal or bone +disease. But he was fortunate enough to meet with a wife, Zoe +Berthier, who, ten years older than himself, and a friend for some +years before their marriage, became his devoted nurse, and even +brought upon herself abuse from gutter journalists of the time for +the care with which she guarded him. He died in 1885. Hello’s +work is somewhat varied in form but uniform in spirit. His best-known +book, <i>Physionomie de saints</i> (1875), which has been translated +into English (1903) as <i>Studies in Saintship</i>, does not display +his qualities best. <i>Contes extraordinaires</i>, published not long +before his death, is better and more original. But the real Hello +is to be found in a series of philosophical and critical essays, +from <i>Renan, l’Allemagne et l’athéisme</i> (1861), through <i>L’Homme</i> +(1871) and <i>Les Plateaux de la balance</i> (1880), perhaps his chief +book, to the posthumously published <i>Le Siècle</i>. The peculiarity +of his standpoint and the originality and vigour of his handling +make his studies, of Shakespeare, Hugo and others, of abiding +importance as literary “triangulations,” results of object, subject +and point of view.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1767-1813), Dutch poet, was +born at Amsterdam on the 7th of March 1767. His early poems, +<i>Night</i> (1788) and <i>Socrates</i> (1790), were tame and sentimental, but +after 1805 he determined, in company with his brother-in-law, +Cornelis Loots (1765-1834), to rouse national feeling by a burst +of patriotic poetry. His <i>Poems</i> (2 vols., 1809-1810), but especially +his great work <i>The Dutch Nation</i>, a poem in six cantos (1812), +created great enthusiasm and enjoyed immense success. Helmers +died at Amsterdam on the 26th of February 1813. He owed his +success mainly to the integrity of his patriotism and the opportune +moment at which he sounded his counterblast to the French +oppression. His posthumous poems were collected in 1815.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1803-1885), Russian geologist, +was born at Laugut-Duckershof, near Dorpat, on the 29th of +September (O.S.) 1803. He received an engineering training and +became major-general in the corps of Mining Engineers. In 1837 +he was appointed professor of geology in the mining institute at St +Petersburg. He was author of numerous memoirs on the geology +of Russia, especially on the coal and other mineral deposits of the +country; and he wrote also some explanations to accompany +separate sheets of the geological map of Russia. His geological +work was continued to an advanced age, one of the later publications +being <i>Studien über die Wanderblöcke und die Diluvialgebilde +Russlands</i> (1869 and 1882). Most of his memoirs were published +by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg. He died +at St Petersburg on the 3rd of February (O.S.) 1885.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:114px; height:124px" src="images/img247a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Casque with +Neck-guard.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:225px" src="images/img247b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Casque +with Nasal and +Mail Hood.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:163px; height:154px" src="images/img247c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Heaume, early +13th century.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">HELMET<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (from an obsolete diminutive of O. Fr. <i>helme</i>, mod. +<i>heaume</i>; the English word is “helm,” as in O. Eng., Dutch and +Ger.; all are from the Teutonic base <i>hal</i>-, pre-Teut. <i>kal</i>-, to cover; +cf. Lat. <i>celare</i>, to hide, Eng. “hell,” &c.), a defensive covering for +the head. The present article deals with the helmet during the +middle ages down to the close of the period when body armour +was worn. For the helmet worn by the Greeks and Romans see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arms and Armour.</a></span></p> + +<p>The head-dress of the warriors of the dark ages and of the +earlier feudal period was far from being the elaborate helmet +which is associated in the imagination with +the knight in armour and the tourney. It +was a mere casque, a cap with or without +additional safeguards for the ears, the nape +of the neck and the nose (fig. 1). By those +warriors who possessed the means to equip +themselves fully, the casque was worn over +a hood of mail, as shown in fig. 2. In +manuscripts, &c., armoured men are sometimes +portrayed fighting in their hoods, without casques, basinets +or other form of helmet. The casque was, of course, normally of +plate, but in some instances it was a strong leather cap covered +with mail or imbricated plates. The most +advanced form of this early helmet is the +conical steel or iron cap with nasal (fig. 2), +worn in conjunction with the hood of mail. +This is the typical helmet of the 11th-century +warrior, and is made familiar by the Bayeux +Tapestry. From this point however (<i>c.</i> 1100) +the evolution of war head-gear follows two +different paths for many years. On the one +hand the simple casque easily transformed +itself into the <i>basinet</i>, originally a pointed iron +skull-cap without nasal, ear-guards, &c. On +the other hand the knight in armour, especially +after the fashion of the tournament set in, +found the mere cap with nasal insufficient, +and the <i>heaume</i> (or “helmet”) gradually +came into vogue. This was in principle a large heavy iron pot +covering the head and neck. Often a light basinet was worn +underneath it—or rather the knight usually wore his basinet and +only put the heaume on over it at the +last moment before engaging. The +earlier (12th century) war heaumes are +intended to be worn with the mail +hood and have nasals (fig. 3). Towards +the end of the 13th century, however, +the basinet grew in size and strength, +just as the casque had grown, and +began to challenge comparison with the +heavy and clumsy heaume. Thereupon +the heaume became, by degrees, +the special head-dress of the tournament, and grew heavier, +larger and more elaborate, while the basinet, reinforced with +camail and vizor, was worn in battle. Types of the later, +purely tilting, heaume are shown in figs. 4 and 5.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:466px; height:231px" src="images/img247d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Heaume, 15th century.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Heaume, 15th century.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:504px; height:295px" src="images/img247e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Basinets.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:115px; height:143px" src="images/img247f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:237px; height:310px" src="images/img247g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Salades or Sallets.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The basinet, then, is the battle head-dress of nobles, knights +and sergeants in the 14th century. Its development from the +10th-century cap to the towering helmet of 1350, with its long +snouted vizor and ample drooping “camail,” is shown in fig. 6, +<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, the two latter showing the same helmet with vizor +down and up. But the tendency set in during the earlier years +of the 15th century to make all parts of the armour thicker. +Chain “mail” gradually gave way to plate on the body and the +limbs, remaining only in those parts, such as neck and elbows, +where flexibility was essential, and even there it was in the end +replaced by jointed steel bands or small plates. The final step +was the discarding of the “camail” and the introduction of the +“armet.” The latter will be described later. Soon after the +beginning of the 15th century the high-crowned basinet gave place +to the <i>salade</i> or <i>sallet</i>, a helmet with a low rounded crown and a +long brim or neck-guard at the back. This was the typical headpiece +of the last half of the Hundred Years’ War as the vizored +basinet had been of the first. Like the basinet it was worn in a +simple form by archers and pikemen and in a more elaborate +form by the knights and men-at-arms. The larger and heavier +salades were also often used instead of the heaume in tournaments. +Here again, however, there is a great difference between those +worn by light armed men, foot-soldiers and archers and those of +the heavy cavalry. The former, while possessing as a rule the +bowl shape and the lip or brim of the type, and always destitute +of the conical point which is the distinguishing mark of the +basinet, are cut away in front of +the face (fig. 7 <i>a</i>). In some cases +this was remedied in part by the +addition of a small pivoted vizor, +which, however, could not protect +the throat. In the larger salades +of the heavy cavalry the wide +brim served to protect the whole +head, a slit being +made in that part +of the brim which +came in front of +the eyes (in some +examples the whole +of the front part +of the brim was +made movable). +But the chin and +neck, directly opposed to the enemy’s blows, were scarcely +protected at all, and with these helmets a large volant-piece +or beaver (<i>mentonnière</i>)—usually a continuation of the body +armour up to the chin or even beyond—was worn for this purpose, +as shown in fig. 7 <i>b</i>. This arrangement combined, in a rough way, +the advantages of freedom of movement for the head with +adequate protection for the neck and lower part of the face. +The <i>armet</i>, which came into use about 1475-1500 and completely +superseded the salade, realized these requirements far +better, and later at the zenith of the armourer’s art (about 1520) +and throughout the period of the decline of armour it remained +the standard pattern of helmet, whether for war or for tournament. +It figures indeed in nearly all portraits of kings, nobles and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span> +soldiers up to the time of Frederick the Great, either with the +suit of armour or half-armour worn by the subject of the portrait +or in allegorical trophies, &c. The armet was a fairly close-fitting +rounded shell of iron or steel, with a movable vizor in +front and complete plating over chin, ears and neck, the latter +replacing the mentonnière or beaver. The armet was connected +to the rest of the suit by the gorget, which was usually of thin +laminated steel plates. With a good armet and gorget there was +no weak point for the enemy’s sword to attack, a roped lower +edge of the armet generally fitting into a sort of flange round the +top of the gorget. Thus, and in other and slightly different ways, +was solved the problem which in the early days of plate armour +had been attempted by the clumsy heaume and the flexible, if +tough, camail of the vizored basinet, and still more clumsily in +the succeeding period by the salade and its grotesque mentonnière. +As far as existing examples show, the wide-brimmed salade itself +first gave way to the more rounded armet, the mentonnière +being carried up to the level of the eyes. Then the use (growing +throughout the 15th century) of laminated armour for the joints +of the harness probably suggested the gorget, and once this was +applied to the lower edge of the armet by a satisfactory joint, it +was an easy step to the elaborate pivoted vizor which completed +the new head-dress. Types of armets are shown in fig. 8.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:194px" src="images/img248a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Armets.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:364px" src="images/img248b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Burgonets.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:159px; height:146px" src="images/img248c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Morion.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:159px; height:170px" src="images/img248d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Cabasset.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>burgonet</i>, often confused with the armet, is the typical +helmet of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In its simple +form it was worn by the foot and light cavalry—though the +latter must not be held to include the pistol-armed <i>chevaux-légers</i> +of the wars of religion, these being clad in half-armour and +vizored burgonet—and consisted of a (generally rounded) cap +with a projecting brim shielding the eyes, a neck-guard and earpieces. +It had almost invariably a crest or comb, as shown in the +illustrations (fig. 9). Other forms of infantry head-gear much +in vogue during the 16th century are shown in figs. 10 and 11, +which represent the <i>morion</i> and <i>cabasset</i> respectively. Both +these were lighter and smaller than the burgonet; indeed much +of their popularity was due to the ease with which they were +worn or put on and off, for in the matter of protection they could +not compare with the burgonet, which in one form or another +was used by cavalry (and often by pikemen) up to the final +disappearance of armour from the field of battle about 1670. +Fig. 9 <i>b</i> gives the general outline of richly decorated 16th-century +Italian burgonet which is preserved in Vienna. The archetype +of the burgonet is perhaps the casque worn by the Swiss infantry +(fig. 9 <i>a</i>) at the epoch of Marignan (1515). +This was probably copied by them from +their former Burgundian antagonists, whose +connexion with this helmet is sufficiently +indicated by its name. The lower part of +the more elaborate burgonets worn by +nobles and cavalrymen is often formed into +a complete covering for the ears, cheek +and chin, and connected closely with the +gorget. They therefore resemble the armets +and have often been confused with them, +but the distinguishing feature of the burgonet +is invariably the front peak. Various +forms of vizor were fitted to such helmets; +these as a rule were either fixed bars +(fig. 9 <i>c</i>) or mere upward continuations of +the chin piece. Often a nasal was the only +face protection (fig. 9 <i>d</i>, a Hungarian type). +The latest form of the burgonet used in +active service is the familiar Cromwellian +cavalry helmet with its straight brim, from which depends the +slight vizor of three bars or stout wires joined together at the +bottom.</p> + +<p>The above are of course only the main types. Some writers +class all remaining examples either as casques or as “war-hats,” +the latter term conveniently covering all those helmets which +resemble in any way the head-gear of civil life. For illustrations +of many curiosities of this sort, including the famous iron hat +of King Charles I. of England, and also for examples of Russian, +Mongolian, Indian and Chinese helmets, the reader is referred to +pp. 262-269 and 285-286 of Demmin’s <i>Arms and Armour</i> (English +edition 1894). The helmets in brass, steel or cloth, worn by +troops since the general introduction of uniforms and the disuse +of armour, depend for their shape and material solely on considerations +of comfort and good appearance. From time to +time, however, the readoption of serviceable helmets is advocated +by cavalrymen, and there is much to be said in favour of this. +The burgonet, which was the final type of war helmet evolved by +the old armourers, would certainly appear to be by far the best +head-gear to adopt should these views prevail, and indeed it is +still worn, in a modified yet perfectly recognizable form, by the +German and other cuirassiers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> +(1821-1894), German philosopher and man of science, was born +on the 31st of August 1821 at Potsdam, near Berlin. His father, +Ferdinand, was a teacher of philology and philosophy in the +gymnasium, while his mother was a Hanoverian lady, a lineal +descendant of the great Quaker William Penn. Delicate in +early life, Helmholtz became by habit a student, and his father +at the same time directed his thoughts to natural phenomena. +He soon showed mathematical powers, but these were not +fostered by the careful training mathematicians usually receive, +and it may be said that in after years his attention was directed +to the higher mathematics mainly by force of circumstances. +As his parents were poor, and could not afford to allow him to +follow a purely scientific career, he became a surgeon of the +Prussian army. In 1842 he wrote a thesis in which he announced +the discovery of nerve-cells in ganglia. This was his first work, +and from 1842 to 1894, the year of his death, scarcely a year +passed without several important, and in some cases epoch-making, +papers on scientific subjects coming from his pen. He +lived in Berlin from 1842 to 1849, when he became professor of +physiology in Königsberg. There he remained from 1849 to +1855, when he removed to the chair of physiology in Bonn. In +1858 he became professor of physiology in Heidelberg, and in +1871 he was called to occupy the chair of physics in Berlin. To +this professorship was added in 1887 the post of director of +the physico-technical institute at Charlottenburg, near Berlin, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span> +and he held the two positions together until his death on the +8th of September 1894.</p> + +<p>His investigations occupied almost the whole field of science, +including physiology, physiological optics, physiological acoustics, +chemistry, mathematics, electricity and magnetism, meteorology +and theoretical mechanics. At an early age he contributed to +our knowledge of the causes of putrefaction and fermentation. +In physiological science he investigated quantitatively the +phenomena of animal heat, and he was one of the earliest in the +field of animal electricity. He studied the nature of muscular +contraction, causing a muscle to record its movements on a +smoked glass plate, and he worked out the problem of the velocity +of the nervous impulse both in the motor nerves of the frog and +in the sensory nerves of man. In 1847 Helmholtz read to the +Physical Society of Berlin a famous paper, <i>Über die Erhaltung +der Kraft</i> (on the conservation of force), which became one of the +epoch-making papers of the century; indeed, along with J. R. +Mayer, J. P. Joule and W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin), he may +be regarded as one of the founders of the now universally received +law of the conservation of energy. The year 1851, while he was +lecturing on physiology at Königsberg, saw the brilliant invention +of the ophthalmoscope, an instrument which has been of inestimable +value to medicine. It arose from an attempt to +demonstrate to his class the nature of the glow of reflected light +sometimes seen in the eyes of animals such as the cat. When +the great ophthalmologist, A. von Gräfe, first saw the fundus +of the living human eye, with its optic disc and blood-vessels, +his face flushed with excitement, and he cried, “Helmholtz +has unfolded to us a new world!” Helmholtz’s contributions +to physiological optics are of great importance. He investigated +the optical constants of the eye, measured by his invention, +the ophthalmometer, the radii of curvature of the crystalline +lens for near and far vision, explained the mechanism of accommodation +by which the eye can focus within certain limits, +discussed the phenomena of colour vision, and gave a luminous +account of the movements of the eyeballs so as to secure single +vision with two eyes. In particular he revived and gave new +force to the theory of colour-vision associated with the name of +Thomas Young, showing the three primary colours to be red, +green and violet, and he applied the theory to the explanation +of colour-blindness. His great work on <i>Physiological Optics</i> +(1856-1866) is by far the most important book that has appeared +on the physiology and physics of vision. Equally distinguished +were his labours in physiological acoustics. He explained +accurately the mechanism of the bones of the ear, and he discussed +the physiological action of the cochlea on the principles of sympathetic +vibration. Perhaps his greatest contribution, however, +was his attempt to account for our perception of quality of +tone. He showed, both by analysis and by synthesis, that +quality depends on the order, number and intensity of the overtones +or harmonics that may, and usually do, enter into the +structure of a musical tone. He also developed the theory +of differential and of summational tones. His work on <i>Sensations +of Tone</i> (1862) may well be termed the <i>principia</i> of physiological +acoustics. He may also be said to be the founder of the +fixed-pitch theory of vowel tones, according to which it is +asserted that the pitch of a vowel depends on the resonance of +the mouth, according to the form of the cavity while singing it, +and this independently of the pitch of the note on which the +vowel is sung. For the later years of his life his labours may +be summed up under the following heads: (1) On the conservation +of energy; (2) on hydro-dynamics; (3) on electro-dynamics +and theories of electricity; (4) on meteorological physics; +(5) on optics; and (6) on the abstract principles of dynamics. +In all these fields of labour he made important contributions to +science, and showed himself to be equally great as a mathematician +and a physicist. He studied the phenomena of electrical +oscillations from 1869 to 1871, and in the latter year he announced +that the velocity of the propagation of electromagnetic induction +was about 314,000 metres per second. Faraday had shown that +the passage of electrical action involved time, and he also +asserted that electrical phenomena are brought about by changes +in intervening non-conductors or dielectric substances. This +led Clerk Maxwell to frame his theory of electro-dynamics, in +which electrical impulses were assumed to be transmitted +through the ether by waves. G. F. Fitzgerald was the first to +attempt to measure the length of electric waves; Helmholtz +put the problem into the hands of his favourite pupil, Heinrich +Hertz, and the latter finally gave an experimental demonstration +of electromagnetic waves, the “Hertzian waves,” on which +wireless telegraphy depends, and the velocity of which is the +same as that of light. The last investigations of Helmholtz +related to problems in theoretical mechanics, more especially +as to the relations of matter to the ether, and as to the distribution +of energy in mechanical systems. In particular he explained +the principle of least action, first advanced by P. L. M. de +Maupertuis, and developed by Sir W. R. Hamilton, of quaternion +fame. Helmholtz also wrote on philosophical and aesthetic +problems. His position was that of an empiricist, denying the +doctrine of innate ideas and holding that all knowledge is founded +on experience, hereditarily transmitted or acquired.</p> + +<p>The life of Helmholtz was uneventful in the usual sense. +He was twice married, first, in 1849, to Olga von Velten (by whom +he had two children, a son and daughter), and secondly, in 1861, +to Anna von Mohl, of a Würtemberg family of high social position. +Two children were born of this marriage, a son, Robert, who died +in 1889, after showing in experimental physics indications of +his father’s genius, and a daughter, who married a son of Werner +von Siemens. Helmholtz was a man of simple but refined +tastes, of noble carriage and somewhat austere manner. His +life from first to last was one of devotion to science, and he must +be accounted, on intellectual grounds, one of the foremost men +of the 19th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Königsberger, <i>Hermann von Helmholtz</i> (1902; English +translation by F. A. Welby, Oxford, 1906); J. G. M<span class="sp">c</span>Kendrick, +<i>H. L. F. von Helmholtz</i> (1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELMOLD,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> an historian of the 12th century, was a priest +at Bosau near Plön. He was a friend of the two bishops of +Oldenburg, Vicelin (d. 1154) and Gerold (d. 1163), who did +much to Christianize the Slavs. At Bishop Gerold’s instigation +Helmold wrote his <i>Chronica Slavorum</i>, a history of the conquest +and conversion of the Slavonic countries from the time of +Charlemagne. For the life and times of Henry the Lion, duke of +Saxony, Helmold’s chronicle, as that of a contemporary who had +exceptional means for gaining information, is of first-rate +importance. The history was continued down to 1209 by Abbot +Arnold of Lübeck.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Chronica</i> were first edited by Siegmund Schorkel (Frankfort +a. M., 1556). The best edition is by J. M. Lappenberg in <i>Mon. +Germ. hist. scriptores</i>, xxi. (1869). For critical works on the +<i>Chronica</i> see A. Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi</i>, s. “Helmoldus.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELMOND,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a town in the province of North Brabant, Holland, +on the small river Aa, and on the canal (Zuid-Willems Vaart) +between ’s Hertogenbosch and Maastricht, 24½ m. by rail W.N.W. +of Venlo. It is connected by steam tramway with ’s Hertogenbosch +(21 m. N.W.), a branch line northwards to Osch being +given off at Veghel. Pop. (1900) 11,465. The castle of Helmond, +built in 1402, is a beautiful specimen of architecture, and among +the other buildings of note in the town are the spacious church +of St Lambert, the Reformed church and the town hall. Helmond +is one of the industrial centres of the province, and possesses +over a score of factories for cotton and silk weaving, cotton +printing, dyeing, iron founding, brewing, soap boiling and +tobacco dressing, as well as engine works and a margarine +factory. There is an art school in the town.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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