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diff --git a/39521.txt b/39521.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d56ea30 --- /dev/null +++ b/39521.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18923 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 13, Slice 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 2 + "Hearing" to "Helmond" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 23, 2012 [EBook #39521] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SL 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE HEAT: "This line of reasoning does not appear quite + satisfactory, because it is tacitly assumed, in the reasoning by + which Carnot's principle was established, ..." 'tacitly' amended + from 'tactitly'. + + ARTICLE HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE: "Clement himself, taking it for + granted that an epistle to Hebrews must have been written in + Hebrew, supposes that Luke translated it for the Greeks." 'been' + amended from 'beeen'. + + ARTICLE HEBRIDES, THE: "The United Free Church has a strong hold on + the people, but in a few of the islands the Roman Catholics have a + great following." 'people' amended feom 'poeple'. + + ARTICLE HEBRIDES, THE: "A new system of management and high rents + was imposed, in consequence of which numbers of the tacksmen, or + large tenants, emigrated to North America." 'was' amended from + 'were'. + + ARTICLE HEBRON: "It is an enclosure measuring 112 ft. east and west + by 198 north and south, surrounded with high rampart walls of + masonry similar in size and dressing to that of the Jerusalem Haram + walls." 'similar' amended from 'similiar'. + + ARTICLE HEINE, HEINRICH: "... the beginning of a new era in German + journalism and a healthy revolt against the unwieldy prose of the + Romantic period." 'unwieldy' amended from 'unwieldly'. + + ARTICLE HELIOMETER: "The reader is referred to that paper for an + exhaustive history and discussion of the instrument." 'instrument' + amended from 'intrument'. + + ARTICLE HELIUM: "M. Travers, G. Senter and A. Jacquerod (Phil. + Trans. A. 1903, 200, p. 105) carefully examined the behaviour of a + constant volume gas thermometer filled with helium." 'behaviour' + amended from 'behavour'. + + ARTICLE HELLENISM: "It has even been thought that some developments + of the Egyptian religion are due to Hellenistic influence, ..." + 'Egyptian' amended from 'Egyptain'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XIII, SLICE II + + HEARING to HELMOND + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + HEARING HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH + HEARN, LAFCADIO HEIDELBERG (town of Germany) + HEARNE, SAMUEL HEIDELBERG (town of Transvaal) + HEARNE, THOMAS HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE + HEARSE HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON + HEART HEIDENHEIM + HEART-BURIAL HEIFER + HEARTH HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON + HEARTS HEIJERMANS, HERMANN + HEAT HEILBRONN + HEATH, BENJAMIN HEILIGENSTADT + HEATH, NICHOLAS HEILSBERG + HEATH, WILLIAM HEILSBRONN + HEATH HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN + HEATHCOAT, JOHN HEIM, FRANCOIS JOSEPH + HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT HEIMDAL + HEATHEN HEINE, HEINRICH + HEATHFIELD, GEORGE ELIOTT HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB + HEATING HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH + HEAVEN HEINICKE, SAMUEL + HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM + HEBBURN HEINSIUS, DANIEL + HEBDEN BRIDGE HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES + HEBE HEIR + HEBEL, JOHANN PETER HEIRLOOM + HEBER, REGINALD HEJAZ + HEBER, RICHARD HEJIRA + HEBERDEN, WILLIAM HEL + HEBERT, EDMOND HELDENBUCH, DAS + HEBERT, JACQUES RENE HELDER + HEBREW LANGUAGE HELEN + HEBREW LITERATURE HELENA, ST + HEBREW RELIGION HELENA (Arkansas, U.S.A.) + HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE HELENA (Montana, U.S.A.) + HEBRIDES, THE HELENSBURGH + HEBRON HELENUS + HECATAEUS OF ABDERA HELGAUD + HECATAEUS OF MILETUS HELGESEN, POVL + HECATE HELIACAL + HECATOMB HELIAND + HECATO OF RHODES HELICON (mountain range) + HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL HELICON (contrabass tuba) + HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS HELIGOLAND + HECKMONDWIKE HELIOCENTRIC + HECTOR HELIODORUS + HECUBA HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS) + HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ HELIOGRAPH + HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER HELIOMETER + HEDGEHOG HELIOPOLIS + HEDGES AND FENCES HELIOSTAT + HEDON HELIOTROPE + HEDONISM HELIOZOA + HEEL HELIUM + HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN HELIX + HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN HELL + HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ HELLANICUS + HEER, OSWALD HELLEBORE + HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG HELLENISM + HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON HELLER, STEPHEN + HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH HELLESPONT + HEGEMON OF THASOS HELLEVOETSLUIS + HEGEMONY HELLIN + HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA HELLO, ERNEST + HEGESIPPUS (Athenian orator) HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK + HEGESIPPUS (early Christian writer) HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON + HEGESIPPUS (author of Jewish War) HELMET + HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG VON + HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG HELMOLD (historian) + HEIDE HELMOND (town in Holland) + + + + +HEARING (formed from the verb "to hear," O. Eng. _hyran_, _heran_, &c., +a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. _horen_, Dutch _hooren_, &c.; the O. +Teut. form is seen in Goth. _hausjan_; the initial _h_ makes any +connexion with "ear," Lat. _audire_, or Gr. [Greek: akouein] very +doubtful), in physiology, the function of the ear (q.v.), and the +general term for the sense or special sensation, the cause of which is +an excitation of the auditory nerves by the vibrations of sonorous +bodies. The anatomy of the ear is described in the separate article on +that organ. A description of sonorous vibrations is given in the article +SOUND; here we shall consider the transmission of such vibrations from +the external ear to the auditory nerve, and the physiological characters +of auditory sensation. + +1. _Transmission in External Ear._--The external ear consists of the +_pinna_, or auricle, and the _external auditory meatus_, or canal, at +the bottom of which we find the _membrana tympani_, or drum head. In +many animals the auricle is trumpet-shaped, and, being freely movable by +muscles, serves to collect sonorous waves coming from various +directions. The auricle of the human ear presents many irregularities of +surface. If these irregularities are abolished by filling them up with a +soft material such as wax or oil, leaving the entrance to the canal +free, experiment shows that the intensity of sounds is weakened, and +that there is more difficulty in judging of their direction. When waves +of sound strike the auricle, they are partly reflected outwards, while +the remainder, impinging at various angles, undergo a number of +reflections so as to be directed into the auditory canal. Vibrations are +transmitted along the auditory canal, partly by the air it contains and +partly by its walls, to the membrana tympani. The absence of the +auricle, as the result of accident or injury, does not cause diminution +of hearing. In the auditory canal waves of sound are reflected from side +to side until they reach the membrana tympani. From the obliquity in +position and peculiar curvature of this membrane, most of the waves +strike it nearly perpendicularly, and in the most advantageous +direction. + +2. _Transmission in Middle Ear._--The middle ear is a small cavity, the +walls of which are rigid with the exception of the portions consisting +of the membrana tympani, and the membrane of the round window and of the +apparatus filling the oval window. This cavity communicates with the +pharynx by the _Eustachian tube_, which forms an air-tube between the +pharynx and the tympanum for the purpose of regulating pressure on the +membrana tympani. During rest the tube is open, but it is closed during +the act of deglutition. As this action is frequently taking place, not +only when food or drink is introduced, but when saliva is swallowed, it +is evident that the pressure of the air in the tympanum will be kept in +a state of equilibrium with that of the external air on the outer +surface of the membrana tympani, and that thus the membrana tympani will +be rendered independent of variations of atmospheric pressure such as +occur when we descend in a diving bell or ascend in a balloon. By a +forcible expiration, the oral and nasal cavities being closed, air may +be driven into the tympanum, while a forcible inspiration (Valsalva's +experiment) will draw air from that cavity. In the first case, the +membrana tympani will bulge outwards, in the second case inwards, and in +both, from excessive stretching of the membrane, there will be partial +deafness, especially for sounds of high pitch. Permanent occlusion of +the tube is one of the most common causes of deafness. + +The membrana tympani is capable of being set into vibration by a sound +of any pitch included in the range of perceptible sounds. It responds +exactly as to number of vibrations (pitch), intensity of vibrations +(intensity), and complexity of vibration (quality or timbre). +Consequently we can hear a sound of any given pitch, of a certain +intensity, and in its own specific timbre or quality. Generally +speaking, very high tones are heard more easily than low tones of the +same intensity. As the membrana tympani is not only fixed by its margin +to a ring or tube of bone, but is also adherent to the handle of the +malleus, which follows its movements, its vibrations meet with +considerable resistance. This diminishes the intensity of its +vibrations, and prevents also the continued vibration of the membrane +after an external pressure has ceased, so that a sound is not heard much +longer than its physical cause lasts. The tension of the membrane may be +affected (1) by differences of pressure on the two surfaces of the +membrana tympani, as may occur during forcible expiration or +inspiration, and (2) by muscular action, due to contraction of the +_tensor tympani_ muscle. This small muscle arises from the apex of the +petrous temporal and the cartilage of the Eustachian tube, enters the +tympanum at its anterior wall, and is inserted into the malleus near its +root. The handle of the malleus is inserted between the layers of the +membrana tympani, and, as the malleus and incus move round an axis +passing through the neck of the malleus from before backwards, the +action of the muscle is to pull the membrana tympani inwards towards the +tympanic cavity in the form of a cone, the meridians of which are not +straight but curved, with convexity outwards. When the muscle contracts, +the handle of the malleus is drawn still farther inwards, and thus a +greater tension of the tympanic membrane is produced. On relaxation of +the muscle, the membrane returns to its position of equilibrium by its +elasticity and by the elasticity of the chain of bones. This power of +varying the tension of the membrane is an accommodating mechanism for +receiving and transmitting sounds of different pitch. With different +degrees of tension it will respond more readily to sounds of different +pitch. Thus, when the membrane is tense, it will readily respond to high +sounds, while relaxation will be the condition most adapted for low +tones. In addition, increased tension of the membrane, by increasing the +resistance, will diminish the intensity of vibrations. This is +especially the case for sounds of low pitch. + +The vibrations of the membrana tympani are transmitted to the internal +ear partly by the air which the middle ear or tympanum contains, and +partly by the chain of bones, consisting of the malleus, incus and +stapes. Of these, transmission by the chain of bones is by far the most +important. In birds and in the amphibia, this chain is represented by a +single rod-like ossicle, the _columella_, but in man the two +membranes--the membrana tympani and the membrane filling the fenestra +ovalis--are connected by a compound lever consisting of three bones, +namely, the _malleus_, or hammer, inserted into the membrana tympani, +the _incus_, or anvil, and the _stapes_, or stirrup, the base of which +is attached to a membrane covering the oval window. It must also be +noted that in the transmission of vibrations of the membrana tympani to +the fluid in the labyrinth or internal ear, through the oval window, the +chain of ossicles vibrates as a whole and acts efficiently, although its +length may be only a fraction of the wave-length of the sound +transmitted. The chain is a lever in which the handle of the malleus +forms the long arm, the fulcrum is where the short process of the incus +abuts against the wall of the tympanum, while the long process of the +incus, carrying the stapes, forms the short arm. The mechanism is a +lever of the second order. Measurements show that the ratio of the +lengths of the two arms is as 1.5 : 1; the ratio of the resulting force +at the stapes is therefore as 1 : 1.5; while the amplitudes of the +movements at the tip of the handle of the malleus and the stapes is as +1.5 : 1. Hence, while there is a diminution in amplitude there is a gain +in power, and thus the pressures are conveyed with great efficiency from +the membrana tympani to the labyrinth, while the amplitude of the +oscillation is diminished so as to be adapted to the small capacity of +the labyrinth. As the drum-head is nearly twenty times greater in area +than the membrane covering the oval window, with which the base of the +stapes is connected, the energy of the movements of the membrana tympani +is concentrated on an area twenty times smaller; hence the pressure is +increased thirtyfold (1.5 X 20) when it acts at the base of the stapes. +Experiments on the human ear have shown that the movement of greatest +amplitude was at the tip of the handle of the malleus, 0.76 mm.; the +movement of the tip of the long arm process of the incus was 0.21 mm.; +while the greatest amplitude at the base of the stapes was only .0714 +mm. Other observations have shown the movements at the stapes to have a +still smaller amplitude, varying from 0.001 to 0.032 mm. With tones of +feeble intensity the movements must be almost infinitesimal. There may +also be very minute transverse movements at the base of the stapes. + +3. _Transmission in the Internal Ear._--The internal ear is composed of +the labyrinth, formed of the vestibule or central part, the semicircular +canals, and the cochlea, each of which consists of an osseous and a +membranous portion. The osseous labyrinth may be regarded as an osseous +mould in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, lined by tesselated +endothelium, and containing a small quantity of fluid called the +_perilymph_. In this mould, partially surrounded by, and to some extent +floating in, this fluid, there is the membranous labyrinth, in certain +parts of which we find the terminal apparatus in connexion with the +auditory nerve, immersed in another fluid called the _endolymph_. The +membranous labyrinth consists of a vestibular portion formed by two +small sac-like dilatations, called the _saccule_ and the _utricle_, the +latter of which communicates with the semicircular canals by five +openings. Each canal consists of a tube, bulging out at each extremity +so as to form the so-called _ampulla_, in which, on a projecting ridge, +called the _crista acustica_, there are cells bearing long _auditory +hairs_, which are the peripheral end-organs of the vestibular branches +of the auditory nerve. The cochlear division of the membranous labyrinth +consists of the _ductus cochlearis_, a tube of triangular form fitting +in between the two cavities in the cochlea, called the _scala +vestibuli_, because it commences in the vestibule, and the _scala +tympani_, because it ends in the tympanum, at the round window. These +two scalae communicate at the apex of the cochlea. The roof of the +ductus cochlearis is formed by a thin membrane called the _membrane of +Reissner_, while its floor consists of the _basilar membrane_, on which +we find the remarkable _organ of Corti_, which constitutes the terminal +organ of the cochlear division of the auditory nerve. It is sufficient +to state here that this organ consists essentially of an arrangement of +epithelial cells bearing hairs which are in communication with the +terminal filaments of this portion of the auditory nerve, and that +groups of these hairs pass through holes in a closely investing +membrane, _membrana reticularis_, which may act as a damping apparatus, +so as quickly to stop their movements. The ductus cochlearis and the two +scalae are filled with fluid. Sonorous vibrations may reach the fluid in +the labyrinth by three different ways--(1) by the osseous walls of the +labyrinth, (2) by the air in the tympanum and the round window, and (3) +by the base of the stapes inserted into the oval window. + +When the head is plunged into water, or brought into direct contact with +any vibrating body, vibrations must be transmitted directly. Vibrations +of the air in the mouth and in the nasal passages are also communicated +directly to the walls of the cranium, and thus pass to the labyrinth. In +like manner, we may experience auditive sensations, such as blowing, +rubbing and hissing sounds, due to muscular contraction or to the +passage of blood in vessels close to the auditory organ. It is doubtful +whether any vibrations are communicated to the fluid in the labyrinth by +the round window. Vibrations which cause hearing are communicated by the +chain of bones. When the base of the stirrup is pushed into the oval +window, the pressure in the labyrinth increases, and, as the only mobile +part of the wall of the labyrinth is the membrane covering the round +window, this membrane is forced outwards; when the base of the stirrup +moves outwards a reverse action takes place. Thus the fluid of the +labyrinth receives a series of pulses isochronous with the movements of +the base of the stirrup, and these pulses affect the terminal apparatus +in connexion with the auditory nerve. + +The sacs of the internal ear, known as the utricle and saccule, receive +the impulses of the base of the stapes. They are organs connected with +the perception of sounds as sounds, without reference to pitch or +quality. For the _analysis_ of tone a cochlea is necessary. Even in +mammals all the parts of the ear may be destroyed or affected by +disease, except these sacs, without causing complete deafness. + +It has been suggested by Lee (_Amer. Jour. of Physiol._ vol. i. No. 1, +p. 128) that in fishes the sac has nothing to do with hearing, but +serves for the perception of movements, such as those of rotation and +translation through space, movements much coarser than those that form +the physical basis of sound. He considers, also, that as fishes, with +few exceptions, are dumb, they are also deaf. In the fish there are +peculiar organs along the lateral line which are known to be connected +with the perception of movements of the body as a whole, and Beard +(_Zool. Anz. Leipzig_, 1884, Bd. vii. S. 140) has attempted to trace a +phylogenetic connexion between the sacs of the internal ear and the +organs in the lateral line. According to this view, when animals became +air-breathers, a part of the ear (the _papilla acustica basilaris_) was +gradually evolved for the perception of delicate vibrations of sound. +(See EQUILIBRIUM.) + +It is by means of the cochlea that we discriminate pitch, hear beats, +and are affected by quality of tone. + +Since the size of the membranous labyrinth is so small, measuring, in +man, not more than 1/2 in. in length by 1/8 in. in diameter at its +widest part, and since it is a chamber consisting partly of conduits of +very irregular form, it is impossible to state accurately the course of +vibrations transmitted to it by impulses communicated from the base of +the stirrup. In the cochlea vibrations must pass from the saccule along +the scala vestibuli to the apex, thus affecting the membrane of +Reissner, which forms its roof; then, passing through the opening at the +apex (the _helicotrema_), they must descend by the scala tympani to the +round window, and affect in their passage the membrana basilaris, on +which the organ of Corti is situated. From the round window impulses +must be reflected backwards, but how they affect the advancing impulses +is not known. But the problem is even more complex when we take into +account the fact that impulses are transmitted simultaneously to the +utricle and to the semicircular canals communicating with it by five +openings. The mode of action of these vibrations or impulses upon the +nervous terminations is still unknown; but to appreciate critically the +hypothesis which has been advanced to explain it, it is necessary, in +the first place, to refer to some of the general characters of auditory +sensation. + +4. _General Characters of Auditory Sensations._--Certain conditions are +necessary for excitation of the auditory nerve sufficient to produce a +sensation. In the first place, the vibrations must have a certain +_amplitude_ and _energy_; if too feeble, no impression will be produced. + +Various physicists have attempted to measure the sensitiveness of the +ear by estimating the amplitude of the molecular movements necessary to +call forth the feeblest audible sound. Thus A. Topler and L. Boltzmann, +on data founded on experiments with organ pipes, state that the ear is +affected by vibrations of molecules of the air not more in amplitude +than .0004 mm. at the ear, or 0.1 of the wave-length of green light, and +that the energy of such a vibration on the drum-head is not more than +1/543 billionth kilog., or 1/17th of that produced upon an equal surface +of the retina by a single candle at the same distance (_Ann. d. Phys. u. +Chem._, Leipzig. 1870, Bd. cxli. S. 321). Lord Rayleigh, by two other +methods, arrived at the conclusion "that the streams of energy required +to influence the eye and ear are of the same order of magnitude." He +estimated the amplitude of the movement of the aerial particles, with a +sound just audible, as less than the ten-millionth of a centimetre, and +the energy emitted when the sound was first becoming audible, at 42.1 +ergs per second. He also states that in considering the amplitude or +condensation in progressive aerial waves, at a distance of 27.4 metres +from a tuning-fork, the maximum condensation was = 6.0 X 10^-9 cm., a +result showing "that the ear is able to recognize the addition or +subtraction of densities far less than those to be found in our highest +vacua" (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1877, vol. xxvi. p. 248; _Lond. Edin. and +Dub. Phil. Mag._, 1894, vol. xxxviii. p. 366). + +In the next place, vibrations must have a certain _duration_ to be +perceived; and lastly, to excite a sensation of a continuous musical +sound, a certain _number_ of impulses must occur in a given interval of +time. The lower limit is about 30, and the upper about 30,000 vibrations +per second. Below 30, the individual impulses may be observed, and above +30,000 few ears can detect any sound at all. The extreme upper limit is +not more than 35,000 vibrations per second. Auditory sensations are of +two kinds--noises and musical sounds. _Noises_ are caused by impulses +which are not regular in intensity or duration, or are not periodic, or +they may be caused by a series of musical sounds occurring +instantaneously so as to produce discords, as when we place our hand at +random on the keyboard of a piano. _Musical tones_ are produced by +periodic and regular vibrations. In musical sounds three characters are +prominent--intensity, pitch and quality. _Intensity_ depends on the +amplitude of the vibration, and a greater or lesser amplitude of the +vibration will cause a corresponding movement of the transmitting +apparatus, and a corresponding intensity of excitation of the terminal +apparatus. _Pitch_, as a sensation, depends on the length of time in +which a single vibration is executed, or, in other words, the number of +vibrations in a given interval of time. The ear is capable of +appreciating the relative pitch or height of a sound as compared with +another, although it may not ascertain precisely the absolute pitch of a +sound. What we call an acute or high tone is produced by a large number +of vibrations, while a grave or low tone is caused by few. The musical +tones which can be used with advantage range between 40 and 4000 +vibrations per second, extending thus from 6 to 7 octaves. According to +E. H. Weber, practised musicians can perceive a difference of pitch +amounting to only the 1/64th of a semitone, but this is far beyond +average attainment. In a few individuals, and especially in early life, +there may be an appreciation of absolute pitch. _Quality_ or _timbre_ +(or _Klang_) is that peculiar characteristic of a musical sound by which +we may identify it as proceeding from a particular instrument or from a +particular human voice. It depends on the fact that many waves of sound +that reach the ear are compound wave systems, built up of constituent +waves, each of which is capable of exciting a sensation of a simple tone +if it be singled out and reinforced by a resonator (see SOUND), and +which may sometimes be heard without a resonator, after special practice +and tuition. Thus it appears that the ear must have some arrangement by +which it resolves every wave system, however complex, into simple +pendular vibrations. When we listen to a sound of any quality we +recognize that it is of a certain pitch. This depends on the number of +vibrations of one tone, predominant in intensity over the others, called +the fundamental or ground tone, or first partial tone. The quality, or +timbre, depends on the number and intensity of other tones added to it. +These are termed _harmonic_ or _partial tones_, and they are related to +the first partial or fundamental tone in a very simple manner, being +multiples of the fundamental tone: thus-- + + Fundamental Upper Partials or Harmonics. + Tone + Notes do^1 do^2 sol^2 do^3 mi^3 sol^3 si[flat]^3 do^4 re^4 mi^4 + Partial tones 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + Number of + vibrations 33 66 99 132 165 198 231 264 297 330 + +When a simple tone, or one free from partials, is heard, it gives rise +to a simple, soft, somewhat insipid sensation, as may be obtained by +blowing across the mouth of an open bottle or by a tuning-fork. The +lower partials added to the fundamental tone give softness combined with +richness; while the higher, especially if they be very high, produce a +brilliant and thrilling effect, as is caused by the brass instruments of +an orchestra. Such being the facts, how may they be explained +physiologically? + +Little is yet known regarding the mode of action of the vibrations of +the fluid in the labyrinth upon the terminal apparatus connected with +the auditory nerve. There can be no doubt that it is a mechanical +action, a communication of impulses to delicate hair-like processes, by +the movements of which the nervous filaments are irritated. In the human +ear it has been estimated that there are about 3000 small arches formed +by the _rods of Corti._ Each arch rests on the basilar membrane, and +supports rows of cells having minute hair-like processes. It would +appear also that the filaments of the auditory nerve terminate in the +basilar membrane, and possibly they may be connected with the +hair-cells. At one time it was supposed by Helmholtz that these fibres +of Corti were elastic and that they were tuned for particular sounds, so +as to form a regular series corresponding to all the tones audible to +the human ear. Thus 2800 fibres distributed over the tones of seven +octaves would give 400 fibres for each octave, or nearly 33 for a +semitone. Helmholtz put forward the hypothesis that, when a pendular +vibration reaches the ear, it excites by sympathetic vibration the fibre +of Corti which is tuned for its proper number of vibrations. If, then, +different fibres are tuned to tones of different pitch, it is evident +that we have here a mechanism which, by exciting different nerve fibres, +will give rise to sensations of pitch. When the vibration is not simple +but compound, in consequence of the blending of vibrations corresponding +to various harmonics or partial tones, the ear has the power of +resolving this compound vibration into its elements. It can only do so +by different fibres responding to the constituent vibrations of the +sound--one for the fundamental tone being stronger, and giving the +sensation of a particular pitch to the sound, and the others, +corresponding to the upper partial tones, being weaker, and causing +undefined sensations, which are so blended together in consciousness as +to terminate in a complex sensation of a tone of a certain quality or +timbre. It would appear at first sight that 33 fibres of Corti for a +semitone are not sufficient to enable us to detect all the gradations of +pitch in that interval, since, as has been stated above, trained +musicians may distinguish a difference of 1/64th of a semitone. To meet +this difficulty, Helmholtz stated that if a sound is produced, the pitch +of which may be supposed to come between two adjacent fibres of Corti, +both of these will be set into sympathetic vibration, but the one which +comes nearest to the pitch of the sound will vibrate with greater +intensity than the other, and that consequently the pitch of that sound +would be thus appreciated. These theoretical views of Helmholtz have +derived much support from experiments of V. Hensen, who observed that +certain hairs on the antennae of _Mysis_, a Crustacean, when seen with a +low microscopic power, vibrated with certain tones produced by a keyed +horn. It was seen that certain tones of the horn set some hairs into +strong vibration, and other tones other hairs. Each hair responded also +to several tones of the horn. Thus one hair responded strongly to +d[sharp] and d'[sharp], more weakly to g, and very weakly to G. It was +probably tuned to some pitch between d" and d"[sharp]. (_Studien uber +das Gehororgan der Decapoden_, Leipzig, 1863.) + +Histological researches have led to a modification of this hypothesis. +It has been found that the rods or arches of Corti are stiff structures, +not adapted for vibrating, but apparently constituting a support for the +hair-cells. It is also known that there are no rods of Corti in the +cochlea of birds, which are capable nevertheless of appreciating pitch. +Hensen and Helmholtz suggested the view that not only may the segments +of the membrana basilaris be stretched more in the radial than in the +longitudinal direction, but different segments may be stretched radially +with different degrees of tension so as to resemble a series of tense +strings of gradually increasing length. Each string would then respond +to a vibration of a particular pitch communicated to it by the +hair-cells. The exact mechanism of the hair-cells and of the membrana +reticularis, which looks like a damping apparatus, is unknown. + +5. _Physiological Characters of Auditory Sensation._--Under ordinary +circumstances auditory sensations are referred to the outer world. When +we hear a sound, we associate it with some external cause, and it +appears to originate in a particular place or to come in a particular +direction. This feeling of _exteriority_ of sound seems to require +transmission through the membrana tympani. Sounds which are sent through +the walls of the cranium, as when the head is immersed in, and the +external auditory canals are filled with, water, appear to originate in +the body itself. + +An auditory sensation lasts a short time after the cessation of the +exciting cause, so that a number of separate vibrations, each capable of +exciting a distinct sensation if heard alone, may succeed each other so +rapidly that they are fused into a single sensation. If we listen to the +puffs of a syren, or to vibrating tongues of low pitch, the single +sensation is usually produced by about 30 or 35 vibrations per second; +but when we listen to beats of considerable intensity, produced by two +adjacent tones of sufficiently high pitch, the ear may follow as many as +132 intermissions per second. + +The sensibility of the ear for sounds of different pitch is not the +same. It is more sensitive for acute than for grave sounds, and it is +probable that the maximum degree of acuteness is for sounds produced by +about 3000 vibrations per second, that is near fa^5[sharp]. Sensibility +as to pitch varies much with the individual. Thus some musicians may +detect a difference of 1/1000th of the total number of vibrations, while +other persons may have difficulty in appreciating a semitone. + + 6. _Analytical Power of the Ear._--When we listen to a compound tone, + we have the power of picking out these partials from the general mass + of sound. It is known that the frequencies of the partials as compared + with that of the fundamental tone are simple multiples of the + frequency of the fundamental, and also that physically the waves of + the partials so blend with each other as to produce waves of very + complicated forms. Yet the ear, or the ear and the brain together, can + resolve this complicated wave-form into its constituents, and this is + done more easily if we listen to the sound with resonators, the pitch + of which corresponds, or nearly corresponds, to the frequencies of the + partials. Much discussion has taken place as to how the ear + accomplishes this analysis. All are agreed that there is a complicated + apparatus in the cochlea which may serve this purpose; but while some + are of opinion that this structure is sufficient, others hold that the + analysis takes place in the brain. When a complicated wave falls on + the drum-head, it must move out and in in a way corresponding to the + variations of pressure, and these variations will, in a single + vibration, depend on the greater or less degree of complexity of the + wave. Thus a single tone will cause a movement like that of a + pendulum, a simple pendular vibration, while a complex tone, although + occurring in the same duration of time, will cause the drum-head to + move out and in in a much more complicated manner. The complex + movement will be conveyed to the base of the stapes, thence to the + vestibule, and thence to the cochlea, in which we find the ductus + cochlearis containing the organ of Corti. It is to be noted also that + the parts in the cochlea are so small as to constitute only a fraction + of the wave-length of most tones audible to the human ear. Now it is + evident that the cochlea must act either as a whole, all the nerve + fibres being affected by any variations of pressure, or the nerve + fibres may have a selective action, each fibre being excited by a wave + of a definite period, or there may exist small vibratile bodies + between the nerve filaments and the pressures sent into the organ. The + last hypothesis gives the most rational explanation of the phenomena, + and on it is founded a theory generally accepted and associated with + the names of Thomas Young and Hermann Helmholtz. It may be shortly + stated as follows:-- + + "(1) In the cochlea there are vibrators, tuned to frequencies within + the limits of hearing, say from 30 to 40,000 or 50,000 vibs. per + second. (2) Each vibrator is capable of exciting its appropriate nerve + filament or filaments, so that a nervous impulse, corresponding to the + frequency of the vibrator, is transmitted to the brain--not + corresponding necessarily, as regards the number of nervous impulses, + but in such a way that when the impulses along a particular nerve + filament reach the brain, a state of consciousness is aroused which + does correspond with the number of the physical stimuli and with the + period of the auditory vibrator. (3) The mass of each vibrator is such + that it will be easily set in motion, and after the stimulus has + ceased it will readily come to rest. (4) Damping arrangements exist in + the ear, so as quickly to extinguish movements of the vibrators. (5) + If a simple tone falls on the ear, there is a pendular movement of the + base of the stapes, which will affect all the parts, causing them to + move; but any part whose natural period is nearly the same as that of + the sound will respond on the principle of sympathetic resonance, a + particular nerve filament or nerve filaments will be affected, and a + sensation of a tone of definite pitch will be experienced, thus + accounting for discrimination in pitch. (6) Intensity or loudness will + depend on the amplitude of movement of the vibrating body, and + consequently on the intensity of nerve stimulation. (7) If a compound + wave of pressure be communicated by the base of the stapes, it will be + resolved into its constituents by the vibrators corresponding to tones + existing in it, each picking out its appropriate portion of the wave, + and thus irritating corresponding nerve filaments, so that nervous + impulses are transmitted to the brain, where they are fused in such a + way as to give rise to a sensation of a particular quality or + character, but still so imperfectly fused that each constituent, by a + strong effort of attention, may be specially recognized" (article + "Ear," by M'Kendrick, Schafer's _Text-Book_, _loc. cit._). + + The structure of the ductus cochlearis meets the demands of this + theory, it is highly differentiated, and it can be shown that in it + there are a sufficient number of elements to account for the delicate + appreciation of pitch possessed by the human ear, and on the basis + that the highly trained ear of a violinist can detect a difference of + 1/64th of a semitone (M'Kendrick, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed._, 1896, vol. + xxxviii. p. 780; also Schafer's _Text-Book_, loc. cit.). Measurements + of the cochlea have also shown such differentiation as to make it + difficult to imagine that it can act as a whole. A much less complex + organ might have served this purpose (M'Kendrick, _op. cit._). The + following table, given by Retzius (_Das Gehororgan der Wirbelthiere_, + Bd. ii. S. 356), shows differentiations in the cochlea of man, the cat + and the rabbit, all of which no doubt hear tones, although in all + probability they have very different powers of discrimination:-- + + Man. Cat. Rabbit. + + Ear-teeth 2,490 2,430 1,550 + Holes in habenula for nerves 3,985 2,780 1,650 + Inner rods of Corti's organ 5,590 4,700 2,800 + Outer rods of Corti's organ 3,848 3,300 1,900 + Inner hair-cells (one row) 3,487 2,600 1,600 + Outer hair-cells (several rows) 11,750 9,900 6,100 + Fibres in basilar membrane 23,750 15,700 10,500 + + 7. _Dissonance._--The theory can also be used to explain dissonance. + When two tones sufficiently near in pitch are simultaneously sounded, + beats are produced. If the beats are few in number they can be + counted, because they give rise to separate and distinct sensations; + but if they are numerous they blend so as to give roughness or + dissonance to the interval. The roughness or dissonance is most + disagreeable with about 33 beats falling on the ear per second. When + two compound tones are sounded, say a minor third on a harmonium in + the lower part of the keyboard, then we have beats not only between + the primaries, but also between the upper partials of each of the + primaries. The beating distance may, for tones of medium pitch, be + fixed at about a minor third, but this interval will expand for + intervals on low tones and contract for intervals on high ones. This + explains why the same interval in the lower part of the scale may give + slow beats that are not disagreeable, while in the higher part it may + cause harsh and unpleasant dissonance. The partials up to the seventh + are beyond beating distance, but above this they come close together. + Consequently instruments (such as tongues, or reeds) that abound in + upper partials cause an intolerable dissonance if one of the primaries + is slightly out of tune. Some intervals are pleasant and satisfying + when produced on instruments having few partials in their tones. These + are concords. Others are less so, and they may give rise to an + uncomfortable sensation. These are discords. In this way unison, 1/1, + minor third 6/5, major third 5/4, fourth 4/3, fifth 3/2, minor sixth + 8/5, major sixth 5/3 and octave 2/1, are all concords; while a second + 9/8, minor seventh 16/9 and major seventh 15/8, are discords. + Helmholtz compares the sensation of dissonance to that of a flickering + light on the eye. "Something similar I have found to be produced by + simultaneously stimulating the skin, or margin of the lips, by + bristles attached to tuning-forks giving forth beats. If the frequency + of the forks is great, the sensation is that of a most disagreeable + tickling. It may be that the instinctive effort at analysis of tones + close in pitch causes the disagreeable sensation" (Schafer's + _Text-Book_, _op. cit._ p. 1187). + + 8. _Other Theories._--In 1865 Rennie objected to the analysis theory, + and urged that the cochlea acted as a whole (_Ztschr. f. rat. Med._, + Dritte Reihe, Bd. xxiv. Heft 1, S. 12-64). This view was revived by + Voltolini (Virchow's _Archiv_, Bd. c. S. 27) some years later, and in + 1886 it was urged by E. Rutherford (_Rep. Brit. Assoc. Ad. Sc._, + 1886), who compared the action of the cochlea to that of a telephone + plate. According to this theory, all the hairs of the auditory cells + vibrate to every note, and the hair-cells transform sound vibrations + into nerve vibrations or impulses, similar in frequency, amplitude and + character to the sound vibrations. There is no analysis in the + peripheral organ. A. D. Waller, in 1891 (_Proc. Physiol. Soc._, Jan. + 20, 1891) suggested that the basilar membrane as a whole vibrates to + every note, thus repeating the vibrations of the membrana tympani; and + since the hair-cells move with the basilar membrane, they produce what + may be called pressure patterns against the tectorial membranes, and + filaments of the auditory nerve are stimulated by these pressures. + Waller admits a certain degree of peripheral analysis, but he + relegates ultimate analysis to the brain. These theories, dispensing + with peripheral analysis, leave out of account the highly complex + structure of the cochlea, or, in other words, they assign to that + structure a comparatively simple function which could be performed by + a simple membrane capable of vibrating. We find that the cochlea + becomes more elaborate as we ascend the scale of animals, until in + man, who possesses greater powers of analysis than any other being, + the number of hair-cells, fibres of the basilar membrane and arches of + Corti are all much increased in number (see Retzius's table, _supra_). + The principle of sympathetic resonance appears, therefore, to offer + the most likely solution of the problem. Hurst's view is that with + each movement of the stapes a wave is generated which travels up the + scala vestibuli, through the helicotrema into the scala tympani and + down the latter to the fenestra rotunda. The wave, however, is not + merely a movement of the basilar membrane, but an actual movement of + fluid or a transmission of pressure. As the one wave ascends while the + other descends, a pressure of the basilar membrane occurs at the point + where they meet; this causes the basilar membrane to move towards the + tectorial membrane, forcing this membrane suddenly against the apices + of the hair-cells, thus irritating the nerves. The point at which the + waves meet will depend on the time interval between the waves (Hurst, + "A New Theory of Hearing," _Trans. Biol. Soc. Liverpool_, 1895, vol. + ix. p. 321). More recently Max Mayer has advanced a theory somewhat + similar. He supposes that with each movement of the stapes + corresponding to a vibration, a wave travels up the scala vestibuli, + pressing the basilar membrane downwards. As it meets with resistance + in passing upwards, its amplitude therefore diminishes, and in this + way the distance up the scala through which the wave progresses will + be determined by its amplitude. The wave in its progress irritates a + certain number of nerve terminations, consequently feeble tones will + irritate only those nerve fibres that are near the fenestra ovalis, + while stronger tones will pass farther up and irritate a larger number + of nerve fibres the same number of times per unit of time. Pitch, + according to this view, depends on the number of stimuli per second, + while loudness depends on the number of nerve fibres irritated. Mayer + also applies the theory to the explanation of the powers of the + cochlea as an analyser, by supposing that with a compound tone these + are at maxima and minima of stimulation. As the compound wave travels + up the scala, portions of the wave corresponding to maxima and minima + die away in consecutive series, until only a maximum and minimum are + left; and, finally, as the wave travels farther, these also disappear. + With each maximum and minimum different parts of the basilar membrane + are affected, and affected a different number of times per second, + according to the frequencies of the partials existing in the compound + tone. Thus with a fifth, 2 : 3, there are three maxima and three + minima; but the compound tone is resolved into three tones having + vibration frequencies in the ratio of 3 : 2 : 1. According to Mayer, + we actually hear when a fifth is sounded tones of the relationship of + 3 : 2 : 1, the last (1) being the differential tone. He holds, also, + that combinational tones are entirely subjective (Max Mayer, _Ztschr. + f. Psych. und Phys. d. Sinnesorgane_, Leipzig, Bd. xvi. and xvii.; + also _Verhandl. d. physiolog. Gesellsch. zu Berlin_, Feb. 18, 1898, S. + 49). Two fatal objections can be urged to these theories, namely, + first, it is impossible to conceive of minute waves following each + other in rapid succession in the minute tubes forming the scalae--the + length of the scala being only a very small part of the wave-length of + the sound; and, secondly, neither theory takes into account the + differentiation of structure found in the epithelium of the organ of + Corti. Each push in and out of the base of the stapes must cause a + movement of the fluid, or a pressure, in the scalae as a whole. + + There are difficulties in the way of applying the resonance theory to + the perception of noises. Noises have pitch, and also each noise has a + special character; if so, if the noise is analysed into its + constituents, why is it that it seems impossible to analyse a noise, + or to perceive any musical element in it? Helmholtz assumed that a + sound is noisy when the wave is irregular in rhythm, and he suggested + that the crista and macula acustica, structures that exist not in the + cochlea but in the vestibule, have to do with the perception of noise. + These structures, however, are concerned rather in the sense of the + perception of equilibrium than of sound (see EQUILIBRIUM). + + 9. Hitherto we have considered only the audition of a single sound, + but it is possible also to have simultaneous auditive sensations, as + in musical harmony. It is difficult to ascertain what is the limit + beyond which distinct auditory sensations may be perceived. We have in + listening to an orchestra a multiplicity of sensations which produces + a total effect, while, at the same time, we can with ease single out + and notice attentively the tones of one or two special instruments. + Thus the pleasure of music may arise partly from listening to + simultaneous, and partly from the effect of contrast or suggestion in + passing through successive, auditory sensations. + + The principles of harmony belong to the subject of music (see + HARMONY), but it is necessary here briefly to refer to these from the + physiological point of view. If two musical sounds reach the ear at + the same moment, an agreeable or disagreeable sensation is + experienced, which may be termed a _concord_ or a _discord_, and it + can be shown by experiment with the syren that this depends upon the + vibrational numbers of the two tones. The octave (1 : 2), the twelfth + (1 : 3) and double octave (1 : 4) are absolutely consonant sounds; the + fifth (2 : 3) is said to be perfectly consonant; then follow, in the + direction of dissonance, the fourth (3 : 4), major sixth (3 : 5), + major third (4 : 5), minor sixth (5 : 8) and the minor third (5 : 6). + Helmholtz has attempted to account for this by the application of his + theory of _beats_. + + Beats are observed when two sounds of nearly the same pitch are + produced together, and the number of beats per second is equal to the + difference of the number of vibrations of the two sounds. Beats give + rise to a peculiarly disagreeable intermittent sensation. The maximum + roughness of beats is attained by 33 per second; beyond 132 per + second, the individual impulses are blended into one uniform auditory + sensation. When two notes are sounded, say on a piano, not only may + the first, fundamental or prime tones beat, but partial tones of each + of the primaries may beat also, and as the difference of pitch of two + simultaneous sounds augments, the number of beats, both of prime tones + and of harmonics, augments also. The physiological effect of beats, + though these may not be individually distinguishable, is to give + roughness to the ear. If harmonics or partial tones of prime tones + coincide, there are no beats; if they do not coincide, the beats + produced will give a character of roughness to the interval. Thus in + the octave and twelfth, all the partial tones of the acute sound + coincide with the partial tones of the grave sound; in the fourth, + major sixth and major third, only two pairs of the partial tones + coincide, while in the minor sixth, minor third and minor seventh only + one pair of the harmonics coincide. + + It is possible by means of beats to measure the sensitiveness of the + ear by determining the smallest difference in pitch that may give rise + to a beat. In no part of the scale can a difference smaller than 0.2 + vibration per second be distinguished. The sensitiveness varies with + pitch. Thus at 120 vibs. per second 0.4 vib. per second, at 500 about + 0.3 vib. per second, and at 1000, 0.5 vib. per second can be + distinguished. This is a remarkable illustration of the sensitiveness + of the ear. When tones of low pitch are produced that do not rapidly + die away, as by sounding heavy tuning-forks, not only may the beats be + perceived corresponding to the difference between the frequencies of + the forks, but also other sets of beats. Thus, if the two tones have + frequencies of 40 and 74, a two-order beat may be heard, one having a + frequency of 34 and the other of 6, as 74 / 40 = 1 + a positive + remainder of 34, and 74 / 40 = 2 - 6, or 80 - 74, a negative remainder + of 6. The lower beat is heard most distinctly when the number is less + than half the frequency of the lower primary, and the upper when the + number is greater. The beats we have been considering are produced + when two notes are sounded slightly differing in frequency, or at all + events their frequencies are not so great as those of two notes + separated by a musical interval, such as an octave or a fifth. But + Lord Kelvin has shown that beats may also be produced on slightly + inharmonious musical intervals (_Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed._ 1878, vol. ix. + p. 602). Thus, take two tuning-forks, ut2 = 256 and ut3 = 512; + slightly flatten ut3 so as to make its frequency 510, and we hear, not + a roughness corresponding to 254 beats, but a slow beat of 2 per + second. The sensation also passes through a cycle, the beats now + sounding loudly and fading away in intensity, again sounding loudly, + and so on. One might suppose that the beat occurred between 510 (the + frequency of ut3 flattened) and 512, the first partial of ut2, namely + ut3, but this is not so, as the beat is most audible when ut2 is + sounded feebly. In a similar way, beats may be produced on the + approximate harmonies 2 : 3, 3 : 4, 4 : 5, 5 : 6, 6 : 7, 7 : 8, 1 : 3, + 3 : 5, and beats may even be produced on the major chord 4 : 5 : 6 by + sounding ut3, mi3, sol3, with sol3 or mi3 slightly flattened, "when a + peculiar beat will be heard as if a wheel were being turned against a + surface, one small part of which was rougher than the rest." These + beats on imperfect harmonies appear to indicate that the ear does + distinguish between an increase of pressure on the drum-head and a + diminution, or between a push and a pull, or, in other words, that it + is affected by phase. This was denied by Helmholtz. + + 10. _Beat Tones._--Considerable difference of opinion exists as to + whether beats can blend so as to give a sensation of tone; but R. + Konig, by using pure tones of high pitch, has settled the question. + These tones were produced by large tuning-forks. Thus ut6 = 2048 and + re6 = 2304. Then the beat tone is ut3 = 256 (2304-2048). If we strike + the two forks, ut3 sounds as a grave or lower beat tone. Again, ut6 = + 2048 and si6 = 3840. Then (2048)2 - 3840 = 256, a negative remainder, + ut3, as before, and when both forks are sounded ut3 will be heard. + Again, ut6 = 2048 and sol6 = 3072, and 3072 - 2048 = 1024, or ut6, + which will be distinctly heard when ut6 and sol6 are sounded (Konig, + _Quelques experiences d'acoustique_, Paris, 1882, p. 87). + + 11. _Combination Tones._--Frequently, when two tones are sounded, not + only do we hear the compound sound, from which we can pick out the + constituent tones, but we may hear other tones, one of which is lower + in pitch than the lowest primary, and the other is higher in pitch + than the higher primary. These, known as combination tones, are of two + classes: _differential_ tones, in which the frequency is the + difference of the frequencies of the generating tones, and + _summational_ tones, having a frequency which is the sum of the + frequencies of the tones producing them. Differential tones, first + noticed by Sorge about 1740, are easily heard. Thus an interval of a + fifth, 2 : 3, gives a differential tone 1, that is, an octave below 2; + a fourth, 3 : 4, gives 1, a twelfth below 3; a major third, 4 : 5, + gives 1, two octaves below 4; a minor third, 5 : 6, gives 1, two + octaves and a major third below 5; a major sixth, 3 : 5, gives 2, that + is, a fifth below 3; and a minor sixth, 5 : 8, gives 3, that is, a + major sixth below 5. Summational tones, first noticed by Helmholtz, + are so difficult to hear that much controversy has taken place as to + their very existence. Some have contended that they are produced by + beats. It appears to be proved physically that they may exist in the + air outside of the ear. Further differential tones may be generated in + the middle ear. Helmholtz also demonstrated their independent + existence, and he states that "whenever the vibrations of the air or + of other elastic bodies, which are set in motion at the same time by + two generating simple tones, are so powerful that they can no longer + be considered infinitely small, mathematical theory shows that + vibrations of the air must arise which have the same vibrational + numbers as the combination tones" (Helmholtz, _Sensations of Tone_, p. + 235). The importance of these combinational tones in the theory of + hearing is obvious. If the ear can only analyse compound waves into + simple pendular vibrations of a certain order (simple multiples of the + prime tone), how can it detect combinational tones, which do not + belong to that order? Again, if such tones are purely subjective and + only exist in the mind of the listener, the fact would be fatal to the + resonance theory. There can be no doubt, however, that the ear, in + dealing with them, vibrates in some part of its mechanism with each + generator, while it also is affected by the combinational tone itself, + according to its frequency. + + 12. Hearing with two ears does not appear materially to influence + auditive sensation, but probably the two organs are enabled, not only + to correct each other's errors, but also to aid us in determining the + locality in which a sound originates. It is asserted by G. T. Fechner + that one ear may perceive the same tone at a slightly higher pitch + than the other, but this may probably be due to some slight + pathological condition in one ear. If two tones, produced by two + tuning-forks, of equal pitch, are produced one near each ear, there is + a uniform single sensation; if one of the tuning-forks be made to + revolve round its axis in such a way that its tone increases and + diminishes in intensity, neither fork is heard continuously, but both + sound alternately, the fixed one being only audible when the revolving + one is not. It is difficult to decide whether excitations of + corresponding elements in the two ears can be distinguished from each + other. It is probable that the resulting sensations may be + distinguished, provided one of the generating tones differs from the + other in intensity or quality, although it may be the same in pitch. + Our judgment as to the direction of sounds is formed mainly from the + different degrees of intensity with which they are heard by two ears. + Lord Rayleigh states that diffraction of the sound-waves will occur as + they pass round the head to the ear farthest from the source of sound; + thus partial tones will reach the two ears with different intensities, + and thus quality of tone may be affected (_Trans. Music. Soc._, + London, 1876). Silvanus P. Thompson advocates a similar view, and he + shows that the direction of a complex tone can be more accurately + determined than the direction of a simple tone, especially if it be of + low pitch (_Phil. Mag._, 1882). (J. G. M.) + + + + +HEARN, LAFCADIO (1850-1904), author of books about Japan, was born on +the 27th of June 1850 in Leucadia (pronounced Lefcadia, whence his name, +which was one adopted by himself), one of the Greek Ionian Islands. He +was the son of Surgeon-major Charles Hearn, of King's County, Ireland, +who, during the English occupation of the Ionian Islands, was stationed +there, and who married a Greek wife. Artistic and rather bohemian tastes +were in Lafcadio Hearn's blood. His father's brother Richard was at one +time a well-known member of the Barbizon set of artists, though he made +no mark as a painter through his lack of energy. Young Hearn had rather +a casual education, but was for a time (1865) at Ushaw Roman Catholic +College, Durham. The religious faith in which he was brought up was, +however, soon lost; and at nineteen, being thrown on his own resources, +he went to America and at first picked up a living in the lower grades +of newspaper work. The details are obscure, but he continued to occupy +himself with journalism and with out-of-the-way observation and reading, +and meanwhile his erratic, romantic and rather morbid idiosyncrasies +developed. He was for some time in New Orleans, writing for the _Times +Democrat_, and was sent by that paper for two years as correspondent to +the West Indies, where he gathered material for his _Two Years in the +French West Indies_ (1890). At last, in 1891, he went to Japan with a +commission as a newspaper correspondent, which was quickly broken off. +But here he found his true sphere. The list of his books on Japanese +subjects tells its own tale: _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (1894); _Out +of the East_ (1895); _Kokoro_ (1896); _Gleanings in Buddha Fields_ +(1897); _Exotics and Retrospections_ (1898); _In Ghostly Japan_ (1899); +_Shadowings_ (1900); _A Japanese Miscellany_ (1901); _Kotto_ (1902); +_Japanese Fairy Tales_ and _Kwaidan_ (1903), and (published just after +his death) _Japan, an Attempt at Interpretation_ (1904), a study full of +knowledge and insight. He became a teacher of English at the University +of Tokyo, and soon fell completely under the spell of Japanese ideas. He +married a Japanese wife, became a naturalized Japanese under the name of +Yakumo Koizumi, and adopted the Buddhist religion. For the last two +years of his life (he died on the 26th of September 1904) his health was +failing, and he was deprived of his lecturersbip at the University. But +he had gradually become known to the world at large by the originality, +power and literary charm of his writings. This wayward bohemian genius, +who had seen life in so many climes, and turned from Roman Catholic to +atheist and then to Buddhist, was curiously qualified, among all those +who were "interpreting" the new and the old Japan to the Western world, +to see it with unfettered understanding, and to express its life and +thought with most intimate and most artistic sincerity. Lafcadio Hearn's +books were indeed unique for their day in the literature about Japan, in +their combination of real knowledge with a literary art which is often +exquisite. + + See Elizabeth Bisland, _The Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn_ (2 + vols., 1906); G. M. Gould, _Concerning Lafcadio Hearn_ (1908). + + + + +HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745-1792), English explorer, was born in London. In +1756 he entered the navy, and was some time with Lord Hood; at the end +of the Seven Years' War (1763) he took service with the Hudson's Bay +Company. In 1768 he examined portions of the Hudson's Bay coasts with a +view to improving the cod fishery, and in 1769-1772 he was employed in +north-western discovery, searching especially for certain copper mines +described by Indians. His first attempt (from the 6th of November 1769) +failed through the desertion of his Indians; his second (from the 23rd +of February 1770) through the breaking of his quadrant; but in his third +(December 1770 to June 1772) he was successful, not only discovering the +copper of the Coppermine river basin, but tracing this river to the +Arctic Ocean. He reappeared at Fort Prince of Wales on the 30th of June +1772. Becoming governor of this fort in 1775, he was taken prisoner by +the French under La Perouse in 1782. He returned to England in 1787 and +died there in 1792. + + See his posthumous _Journey from Prince of Wales Fort in Hudson's Bay + to the Northern Ocean_ (London, 1795). + + + + +HEARNE, THOMAS (1678-1735), English antiquary, was born in July 1678 at +Littlefield Green in the parish of White Waltham, Berkshire. Having +received his early education from his father, George Hearne, the parish +clerk, he showed such taste for study that a wealthy neighbour, Francis +Cherry of Shottesbrooke (c. 1665-1713), a celebrated nonjuror, +interested himself in the boy, and sent him to the school at Bray "on +purpose to learn the Latin tongue." Soon Cherry took him into his own +house, and his education was continued at Bray until Easter 1696, when +he matriculated at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. At the university he +attracted the attention of Dr John Mill (1645-1707), the principal of St +Edmund Hall, who employed him to compare manuscripts and in other ways. +Having taken the degree of B.A. in 1699 he was made assistant keeper of +the Bodleian Library, where he worked on the catalogue of books, and in +1712 he was appointed second keeper. In 1715 Hearne was elected +architypographus and esquire bedell in civil law in the university, but +objection having been made to his holding this office together with that +of second librarian, he resigned it in the same year. As a nonjuror he +refused to take the oaths of allegiance to King George I., and early in +1716 he was deprived of his librarianship. However he continued to +reside in Oxford, and occupied himself in editing the English +chroniclers. Having refused several important academical positions, +including the librarianship of the Bodleian and the Camden professorship +of ancient history, rather than take the oaths, he died on the 10th of +June 1735. + + Hearne's most important work was done as editor of many of the English + chroniclers, and until the appearance of the "Rolls" series his + editions were in many cases the only ones extant. Very carefully + prepared, they were, and indeed are still, of the greatest value to + historical students. Perhaps the most important of a long list are: + Benedict of Peterborough's (Benedictus Abbas) _De vita et gestis + Henrici II. et Ricardi I._ (1735); John of Fordun's _Scotichronicon_ + (1722); the monk of Evesham's _Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II._ + (1729); Robert Mannyng's translation of Peter Langtoft's _Chronicle_ + (1725); the work of Thomas Otterbourne and John Whethamstede as _Duo + rerum Anglicarum scriptores veteres_ (1732); Robert of Gloucester's + _Chronicle_ (1724); J. Sprott's _Chronica_ (1719); the _Vita et gesta + Henrici V._, wrongly attributed to Thomas Elmham (1727); Titus Livy's + _Vita Henrici V._ (1716); Walter of Hemingburgh's _Chronicon_ (1731); + and William of Newburgh's _Historia rerum Anglicarum_ (1719). He also + edited John Leland's _Itinerary_ (1710-1712) and the same author's + _Collectanea_ (1715); W. Camden's _Annales rerum Anglicarum et + Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha_ (1717); Sir John Spelman's _Life of + Alfred_ (1709); and W. Roper's _Life of Sir Thomas More_ (1716). He + brought out an edition of Livy (1708); one of Pliny's _Epistolae et + panegyricus_ (1703); and one of the Acts of the Apostles (1715). Among + his other compilations may be mentioned: _Ductor historicus, a Short + System of Universal History_ (1704, 1705, 1714, 1724); _A Collection + of Curious Discourses by Eminent Antiquaries_ (1720); and _Reliquiae + Bodleianae_ (1703). + + Hearne left his manuscripts to William Bedford, who sold them to Dr + Richard Rawlinson, who in his turn bequeathed them to the Bodleian. + Two volumes of extracts from his voluminous diary were published by + Philip Bliss (Oxford, 1857), and afterwards an enlarged edition in + three volumes appeared (London, 1869). A large part of his diary + entitled _Remarks and Collections, 1705-1714_, edited by C. E. Doble + and D. W. Rannie, has been published by the Oxford Historical Society + (1885-1898). _Bibliotheca Hearniana_, excerpts from the catalogue of + Hearne's library, has been edited by B. Botfield (1848). + + See _Impartial Memorials of the Life and Writings of Thomas Hearne by + several hands_ (1736); and W. D. Macray, _Annals of the Bodleian + Library_ (1890). Hearne's autobiography is published in W. + Huddesford's _Lives of Leland, Hearne and Wood_ (Oxford, 1772). T. + Ouvry's _Letters addressed to Thomas Hearne_ has been privately + printed (London, 1874). + + + + +HEARSE (an adaptation of Fr. _herse_, a harrow, from Lat. _hirpex_, +_hirpicem_, rake or harrow, Greek [Greek: arpae], a vehicle for the +conveyance of a dead body at a funeral. The most usual shape is a +four-wheeled car, with a roofed and enclosed body, sometimes with glass +panels, which contains the coffin. This is the only current use of the +word. In its earlier forms it is usually found as "herse," and meant, as +the French word did, a harrow (q.v.). It was then applied to other +objects resembling a harrow, following the French. It was then used of a +portcullis, and thus becomes a heraldic term, the "herse" being +frequently borne as a "charge," as in the arms of the City of +Westminster. The chief application of the word is, however, to various +objects used in funeral ceremonies. A "herse" or "hearse" seems first to +have been a barrow-shaped framework of wood, to hold lighted tapers and +decorations placed on a bier or coffin; this later developed into an +elaborate pagoda-shaped erection of woodwork or metal for the funerals +of royal or other distinguished persons. This held banners, candles, +armorial bearings and other heraldic devices. Complimentary verses or +epitaphs were often attached to the "hearse." An elaborate "hearse" was +designed by Inigo Jones for the funeral of James I. The "hearse" is also +found as a permanent erection over tombs. It is generally made of iron +or other metal, and was used, not only to carry lighted candles, but +also for the support of a pall during the funeral ceremony. There is a +brass "hearse" in the Beauchamp Chapel at Warwick Castle, and one over +the tomb of Robert Marmion and his wife at Tanfield Church near Ripon. + + + + +HEART, in anatomy.--The heart[1] is a four-chambered muscular bag, which +lies in the cavity of the thorax between the two lungs. It is surrounded +by another bag, the pericardium, for protective and lubricating purposes +(see COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES). Externally the heart is somewhat +conical, its base being directed upward, backward and to the right, its +apex downward, forward and to the left. In transverse section the cone +is flattened, so that there is an anterior and a posterior surface and a +superior and inferior border. The superior border, running obliquely +downward and to the left, is very thick, and so gains the name of _margo +obtusus_, while the inferior border is horizontal and sharp and is +called _margo acutus_ (see fig. 1). The divisions between the four +chambers of the heart (namely, the two auricles and two ventricles) are +indicated on the surface by grooves, and when these are followed it will +be seen that the right auricle and ventricle lie on the front and right +side, while the left auricle and ventricle are behind and on the left. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. The Thoracic Viscera.--In this diagram the lungs +are turned to the side, and the pericardium removed to display the +heart, a, upper, a', lower lobe of left lung; b, upper, b', middle, b", +lower lobe of right lung; c, trachea; d, arch of aorta; e, superior vena +cava; f, pulmonary artery; g, left, and h, right auricle; k, right, and +l, left ventricle; m, inferior vena cava; n, descending aorta; 1, +innominate artery; 2, right, and 4, left common carotid artery; 3, +right, and 5, left subclavian artery; 6, 6, right and left innominate +vein; 7 and 9, left and right internal jugular veins; 8 and 10, left and +right subclavian veins; 11, 12, 13, left pulmonary artery, bronchus and +vein; 14, 15, 16, right pulmonary bronchus, artery and vein; 17 and 18, +left and right coronary arteries.] + +The _right auricle_ is situated at the base of the heart, and its +outline is seen on looking at the organ from in front. Into the +posterior part of it open the two venae cavae (see fig. 2), the superior +(a) above and the inferior (b) below. In front and to the left of the +superior vena cava is the right auricular appendage (e) which overlaps +the front of the root of the aorta, while running obliquely from the +front of one vena cava to the other is a shallow groove called the +_sulcus terminalis_, which indicates the original separation between the +true auricle in front and the sinus venosus behind. When the auricle is +opened by turning the front wall to the right as a flap the following +structures are exposed: + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. Cavities of the Right Side of the Heart.--a, +superior, and b, inferior vena cava; c, arch of aorta; d, pulmonary +artery; e, right, and f, left auricular appendage; g, fossa ovalis; h, +Eustachian valve; k, mouth of coronary vein; l, m, n, cusps of the +tricuspid valve; o, o, papillary muscles; p, semilunar valve; q, corpus +Arantii; r, lunula.] + +1. A muscular ridge, called the _crista terminalis_, corresponding to +the sulcus terminalis on the exterior. + +2. A series of ridges on the anterior wall and in the appendage, running +downward from the last and at right angles to it, like the teeth of a +comb; these are known as _Musculi pectinati_. + +3. The orifice of the superior vena cava (fig. 2, a) at the upper and +back part of the chamber. + +4. The orifice of the inferior vena cava (fig. 2, b) at the lower and +back part. + +5. Attached to the right and lower margins of this opening are the +remains of the _Eustachian valve_ (fig. 2, h), which in the foetus +directs the blood from the inferior vena cava, through the _foramen +ovale_, into the left auricle. + +6. Below and to the left of this is the opening of the _coronary sinus_ +(fig. 2, k), which collects most of the veins returning blood from the +substance of the heart. + +7. Guarding this opening is the _coronary valve_ or _valve of +Thebesius_. + +8. On the posterior or septal wall, between the two auricles, is an oval +depression, called the _fossa ovalis_ (fig. 2, g), the remains of the +original communication between the two auricles. In about a quarter of +all normal hearts there is a small valvular communication between the +two auricles in the left margin of this depression (see "7th Report of +the Committee of Collective Investigation," _J. Anat. and Phys._ vol. +xxxii. p. 164). + +9. The _annulus ovalis_ is the raised margin surrounding this +depression. + +10. On the left side, opening into the right ventricle, is the _right +auriculo-ventricular opening_. + +11. On the right wall, between the two caval openings, may occasionally +be seen a slight eminence, the _tubercle of Lower_, which is supposed to +separate the two streams of blood in the embryo. + +12. Scattered all over the auricular wall are minute depressions, the +_foramina Thebesii_, some of which receive small veins from the +substance of the heart. + +The _right ventricle_ is a triangular cavity (see fig. 2) the base of +which is largely formed by the auriculo-ventricular orifice. To the left +of this it is continued up into the root of the pulmonary artery, and +this part is known as the _infundibulum_. Its anterior wall forms part +of the anterior surface of the heart, while its posterior wall is +chiefly formed by the septum ventriculorum, between it and the left +ventricle. Its lower border is the margo acutus already mentioned. In +transverse section it is crescentic, since the septal wall bulges into +its cavity. In its interior the following structures are seen: + +1. The _tricuspid valve_ (fig. 2, l, m, n) guarding against reflux of +blood into the right auricle. This consists of a short cylindrical +curtain of fibrous tissue, which projects into the ventricle from the +margin of the auriculo-ventricular aperture, while from its free edge +three triangular flaps hang down, the bases of which touch one another. +These cusps are spoken of as septal, marginal and infundibular, from +their position. + +2. The _chordae tendineae_ are fine fibrous cords which fasten the cusps +to the musculi papillares and ventricular wall, and prevent the valve +being turned inside out when the ventricle contracts. + +3. The _columnae carneae_ are fleshy columns, and are of three kinds. +The first are attached to the wall of the ventricle in their whole +length and are merely sculptured in relief, as it were; the second are +attached by both ends and are free in the middle; while the third are +known as the _musculi papillares_ and are attached by one end to the +ventricular wall, the other end giving attachment to the chordae +tendineae. These musculi papillares are grouped into three bundles (fig. +2, o). + +4. The _moderator band_ is really one of the second kind of columnae +carneae which stretches from the septal to the anterior wall of the +ventricle. + +5. The _pulmonary valve_ (fig. 2, p) at the opening of the pulmonary +artery has three crescentic, pocket-like cusps, which, when the +ventricle is filling, completely close the aperture, but during the +contraction of the ventricle fit into three small niches known as the +_sinuses of Valsalva_, and so are quite out of the way of the escaping +blood. In the middle of the free margin of each is a small knob called +the _corpus Arantii_ (fig. 2, q), and on each side of this a thin +crescent-shaped flap, the _lunula_ (fig. 2, r), which is only made of +two layers of endocardium, whereas in the rest of the cusp there is a +fibrous backing between these two layers. + +The _left auricle_ is situated at the back of the base of the heart, +behind and to the left of the right auricle. Running down behind it are +the oesophagus and the thoracic aorta. When it is opened it is seen to +have a much lighter colour than the other cavities, owing to the greater +thickness of its endocardium obscuring the red muscle beneath. There are +no musculi pectinati except in the auricular appendage. The openings of +the four pulmonary veins are placed two on each side of the posterior +wall, but sometimes there may be three on the right side, and only one +on the left. On the septal wall is a small depression like the mark of a +finger-nail, which corresponds to the anterior part of the fossa ovalis +and often forms a valvular communication with the right auricle. The +auriculo-ventricular orifice is large and oval, and is directed downward +and to the left. Foramina Thebesii and venae minimae cordis are found in +this auricle, as in the right, although the chamber is one for arterial +or oxidized blood. + +At the lower part of the posterior surface of the unopened auricle, +lying in the left auriculo-ventricular furrow, is the coronary sinus, +which receives most of the veins returning the blood from the heart +substance; these are the right and left coronary veins at each extremity +and the posterior and left cardiac veins from below. One small vein, +called the oblique vein of Marshall, runs down into it across the +posterior surface of the auricle, from below the left lower pulmonary +vein, and is of morphological interest. + +The _left ventricle_ is conical, the base being above, behind and to the +right, while the apex corresponds to the apex of the heart and lies +opposite the fifth intercostal space, 3(1/2) in. from the mid line. The +following structures are seen inside it:-- + +1. The _mitral valve_ guarding the auriculo-ventricular opening has the +same arrangement as the tricuspid, already described, save that there +are only two cusps, named marginal and aortic, the latter of which is +the larger. + +2. The chordae tendineae and columnae carneae resemble those of the +right ventricle, though there are only two bundles of musculi papillares +instead of three. These are very large. A moderator band has been found +as an abnormality (see _J. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxx. p. 568). + +3. The _aortic valve_ has the same structure as the pulmonary, though +the cusps are more massive. From the anterior and left posterior sinuses +of Valsalva the coronary arteries arise. That part of the ventricle just +below the aortic valve, corresponding to the infundibulum on the right, +is known as the aortic vestibule. + +The walls of the left ventricle are three times as thick as those of the +right, except at the apex, where they are thinner. The septum +ventriculorum is concave towards the left ventricle, so that a +transverse section of that cavity is nearly circular. The greater part +of it has nearly the same thickness as the rest of the left ventricular +wall and is muscular, but a small portion of the upper part is +membranous and thin, and is called the _pars membranacea septi_; it lies +between the aortic and pulmonary orifices. + +_Structure of the Heart._--The arrangement of the muscular fibres of the +heart is very complicated and only imperfectly known. For details one of +the larger manuals, such as Cunningham's _Anatomy_ (London, 1910), or +Gray's _Anatomy_ (London, 1909), should be consulted. The general scheme +is that there are superficial fibres common to the two auricles and two +ventricles and deeper fibres for each cavity. Until recently no fibres +had been traced from the auricles to the ventricles, though Gaskell +predicted that these would be found, and the credit for first +demonstrating them is due to Stanley Kent, their details having +subsequently been worked out by W. His, Junr., and S. Tawara. The fibres +of this _auriculo-ventricular bundle_ begin, in the right auricle, below +the opening of the coronary sinus, and run forward on the right side of +the auricular septum, below the fossa ovalis, and close to the +auriculo-ventricular septum. Above the septal flap of the tricuspid +valve they thicken and divide into two main branches, one on either side +of the ventricular septum, which run down to the bases of the anterior +and posterior papillary muscles, and so reach the walls of the +ventricle, where their secondary branches form the _fibres of Purkinje_. +The bundle is best seen in the hearts of young Ruminants, and it is +presumably through it that the wave of contraction passes from the +auricles to the ventricles (see article by A. Keith and M. Flack, +_Lancet_, 11th of August 1906, p. 359). + +The _central fibrous body_ is a triangular mass of fibro-cartilage, +situated between the two auriculo-ventricular and the aortic orifices. +The upper part of the septum ventriculorum blends with it. The +_endocardium_ is a delicate layer of endothelial cells backed by a very +thin layer of fibro-elastic tissue; it is continuous with the +endothelium of the great vessels and lines the whole of the cavities of +the heart. + +The heart is roughly about the size of the closed fist and weighs from 8 +to 12 oz.; it continues to increase in size up to about fifty years of +age, but the increase is more marked in the male than in the female. +Each ventricle holds about 4 f. oz. of blood, and each auricle rather +less. The nerves of the heart are derived from the vagus, spinal +accessory and sympathetic, through the superficial and deep cardiac +plexuses. + + +_Embryology._ + +In the article on the arteries (q.v.) the formation and coalescence of +the two _primitive ventral aortae_ to form the heart are noticed, so +that we may here start with a straight median tube lying ventral to the +pharynx and being prolonged cephalad into the ventral aortae and caudad +into the vitelline veins. This soon shows four dilatations, which, from +the tail towards the head end, are called the sinus venosus, the +auricle, the ventricle and the truncus[2] arteriosus. As the tubular +heart grows more rapidly than the pericardium which contains it, it +becomes bent into the form of an S laid on its side ([rotated S]), the +ventral convexity being the ventricle and the dorsal the auricle. The +passage from the auricle to the ventricle is known as the _auricular +canal_, and in the dorsal and ventral parts of this appear two +thickenings known as _endocardial cushions_, which approach one another +and leave a transverse slit between them (fig. 3, E.C.). Eventually +these two cushions fuse in the middle line, obliterating the central +part of the slit, while the lateral parts remain as the two +auriculo-ventricular orifices; this fusion is known as the _septum +intermedium_. From the bottom (ventral convexity) of the ventricle an +antero-posterior median septum grows up, which is the _septum inferius_ +or _septum ventriculorum_ (fig. 3, V). Posteriorly (caudally) this +septum fuses with the septum intermedium, but anteriorly it is free at +the lower part of the truncus arteriosus. On referring to the +development of the arteries (see ARTERIES) it will be seen that another +septum starts between the last two pairs of aortic arches and grows +downward (caudad) until it reaches and joins with the septum inferius +just mentioned. This _septum aorticum_ (formed by two ingrowths from the +wall of the vessel which fuse later) becomes twisted in such a way that +the right ventricle is continuous with the last pair of aortic arches +(pulmonary artery), while the left ventricle communicates with the other +arches (the permanent ventral aorta and its branches); it joins the +septum ventriculorum in the upper part of the ventricular cavity and so +forms the _pars membranacea septi_ (fig. 3, T. Ar). + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Formation of Septa. Diagram of the formation of +some of the septa of the heart (viewed from the right side). + + S.V. Sinus venosus. + Au. Auricle. + E.C. Endocardial cushions forming septum intermedium. + V. Septum ventriculorum. + T. Ar. Septum aorticum intruncus arteriosus. + V.A. Ventral aorta.] + +The fate of the sinus venosus and auricle must now be followed. Into the +former, at first, only the two vitelline veins open, but later, as they +develop, the _ducts of Cuvier_ and the _umbilical veins_ join in (see +VEINS). As the ducts of Cuvier come from each side the sinus spreads out +to meet them and becomes transversely elongated. The slight +constriction, which at first is the only separation between the sinus +and the auricle, becomes more marked, and later the opening is into the +right part of the auricle, and is guarded by two valvular folds of +endocardium (the _venous valves_) which project into that cavity, and +are continuous above with a temporary downgrowth from the roof, known as +the _septum spurium_. Later the right side of the sinus enlarges, and so +does the right part of the aperture, until the back part of the right +side of the auricle and the right part of the sinus venosus are thrown +into one, and the only remnants of the partition are the crista +terminalis and the Eustachian and Thebesian Valves. The left part of the +sinus venosus, which does not enlarge at the same rate as the right +part, remains as the coronary sinus. It will now be seen why, in the +adult heart, all the veins which open into the right auricle open into +its posterior part, behind the crista terminalis. The septum spurium has +been referred to as a temporary structure; the real division between the +two auricles occurs at a later date than that between the ventricles and +to the left of the septum spurium. It is formed by two partitions, the +first of which, called the _septum primum_, grows down from the +auricular roof. At first it does not quite reach the endocardial +cushions in the auricular canal, already mentioned, but leaves a gap, +called the _ostium primum_, between. This has nothing to do with the +_foramen ovale_, which occurs as an independent perforation higher up, +and at first is known as the _ostium secundum_. When it is established +the septum primum grows down and meets the endocardial cushions, and so +the ostium primum is obliterated. The _septum secundum_ grows down on +the right of the septum primum and is never complete; it grows round and +largely overlaps the foramen ovale and its edges form the annulus +ovalis, so that, in the later months of foetal life, the foramen ovale +is a valvular opening, the floor of which is formed by the septum primum +and the margins by the septum secundum. The closure of the foramen is +brought about by adhesion of the two septa. + +The pulmonary veins of the two sides at first join one another, dorsal +to the left auricle, and open into that cavity by a single median trunk, +but, as the auricle grows, this trunk and part of the right and left +veins are absorbed into its cavity. + +The mitral and tricuspid valves are formed by the shortening of the +auricular canal which becomes telescoped into the ventricle, and the +cusps are the remnants of this telescoping process. + +The columnae carneae and chordae tendineae are the remains of a spongy +network which originally filled the cavity of the primary ventricle. + +The aortic and pulmonary valves are laid down in the ventral aorta, +before it is divided into aorta and pulmonary artery, as four +endocardial cushions; anterior, posterior and two lateral. The septum +aorticum cuts the latter two into two, so that each artery has the +rudiments of three cusps. + +Abnormalities of the heart are very numerous, and can usually be +explained by a knowledge of its development. They often cause grave +clinical symptoms. A clear and well-illustrated review of the most +important of them will be found in the chapter on congenital disease of +the heart in _Clinical Applied Anatomy_, by C. R. Box and W. McAdam +Eccles, London, 1906. + + For further details of the embryology of the heart see Oscar Hertwig's + _Entwicklungslehre der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1902); G. Born, + "Entwicklung des Saugetierherzens," _Archiv f. mik. Anat._ Bd. 33 + (1889); W. His, _Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen_ (Leipzig, + 1881-1885); Quain's _Anatomy_, vol. i. (1908); C. S. Minot, _Human + Embryology_ (New York, 1892); and A. Keith, _Human Embryology and + Morphology_ (London, 1905). + + +_Comparative Anatomy._ + +In the Acrania (e.g. lancelet) there is no heart, though the vessels are +specially contractile in the ventral part of the pharynx. + +In the Cyclostomata (lamprey and hag), and Fishes, the heart has the same +arrangement which has been noticed in the human embryo. There is a smooth, +thin-walled sinus venosus, a thin reticulate-walled auricle, produced +laterally into two appendages, a thick-walled ventricle, and a _conus +arteriosus_ containing valves. In addition to these the beginning of the +ventral aorta is often thickened and expanded to form a _bulbus +arteriosus_, which is non-contractile, and, strictly speaking, should +rather be described with the arteries than with the heart. In relation to +human embryology the smooth sinus venosus and reticulated auricle are +interesting. Between the auricle and ventricle is the auriculo-ventricular +valve, which primarily consists of two cusps, comparable to the two +endocardial cushions of the human embryo, though in some forms they may be +subdivided. In the interior of the ventricle is a network of muscular +trabeculae. The conus arteriosus in the Elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) +and Ganoids (sturgeon) is large and provided with several rows of +semilunar valves, but in the Cyclostomes (lamprey) and Teleosts (bony +fishes) the conus is reduced and only the anterior (cephalic) row of +valves retained. With the reduction of the conus the bulbus arteriosus is +enlarged. So far the heart is a single tubular organ expanded into various +cavities and having the characteristic [rotated S]-shaped form seen in the +human embryo; it contains only venous blood which is forced through the +gills to be oxidized on its way to the tissues. In the Dipnoi (mud fish), +in which rudimentary lungs, as well as gills, are developed, the auricle +is divided into two, and the sinus venosus opens into the right auricle. +The conus arteriosus too begins to be divided into two chambers, and in +Protopterus this division is complete. This division of the heart is one +instance in which mammalian ontogeny does not repeat the processes of +phylogeny, because, in the human embryo, it has been shown that the +ventricular septum appears before the auricular. This want of harmony is +sometimes spoken of as the "falsification of the embryological record." + +In the Amphibia there are also two auricles and one ventricle, though in +the Urodela (tailed amphibians) the auricular septum is often +fenestrated. The sinus venosus is still a separate chamber, and the +conus arteriosus, which may contain many or few valves, is usually +divided into two by a spiral fold. Structurally the amphibian heart +closely resembles the dipnoan, though the increased size of the left +auricle is an advance. In the Anura (frogs and toads) the whole +ventricle is filled with a spongy network which prevents the arterial +and venous blood from the two auricles mixing to any great extent. (For +the anatomy and physiology of the frog's heart, see _The Frog_, by +Milnes Marshall.) + +In the Reptiles the ventricular septum begins to appear; this in the +lizards is quite incomplete, but in the crocodiles, which are usually +regarded as the highest order of living reptiles, the partition has +nearly reached the top of the ventricle, and the condition resembles +that of the human embryo before the pars membranacea septi is formed. +The conus arteriosus becomes included in the ventricular cavity, but the +sinus venosus still remains distinct, and its opening into the right +ventricle is guarded by two valves which closely resemble the two venous +valves in the auricle of the human embryo already referred to. + +In the Birds the auricular and ventricular septa are complete; the right +ventricle is thin-walled and crescentic in section, as in Man, and the +musculi papillares are developed. The left auriculo-ventricular valve +has three membranous cusps with chordae tendineae attached to them, but +the right auriculo-ventricular valve has a large fleshy cusp without +chordae tendineae. The sinus venosus is largely included in the right +auricle, but remains of the two venous valves are seen on each side of +the orifice of the inferior vena cava. + +In the Mammals the structure of the heart corresponds closely with the +description of that of Man already given. In the Ornithorynchus, among +the Monotremes, the right auriculo-ventricular valve has two fleshy and +two membranous cusps, thus showing a resemblance to that of the bird. In +the Echidna, the other member of the order, however, both +auriculo-ventricular valves are membranous. In the Edentates the remains +of the venous valves at the opening of the inferior vena cava are better +marked than in other orders. In the Ungulates the moderator band in the +right ventricle is especially well developed, and the central fibrous +body at the base of the heart is often ossified, forming the os cordis +so well known in the heart of the ox. + +The position of the heart in the lower mammals is not so oblique as it +is in Man. + + For further details, see C. Rose, _Beitr. z. vergl. Anal. des Herzens + der Wirbelthiere Morph. Jahrb._, Bd. xvi. (1890); R. Wiedersheim, + _Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbelthiere_ (Jena, 1902) (for + literature); also Parker and Haswell's _Zoology_ (London, 1897). + (F. G. P.) + + +HEART DISEASE.--In the early ages of medicine, the absence of correct +anatomical, physiological and pathological knowledge prevented diseases +of the heart from being recognized with any certainty during life, and +almost entirely precluded them from becoming the object of medical +treatment. But no sooner did Harvey (1628) publish his discovery of the +circulation of the blood, and its dependence on the heart as its central +organ, than derangements of the circulation began to be recognized as +signs of disease of that central organ. (See also under VASCULAR +SYSTEM.) + +Among the earliest to profit by this discovery and to make important +contributions to the literature of diseases of the heart and circulation +were, R. Lower (1631-1691), R. Vieussens (1641-1716). H. Boerhave +(1668-1738) and the great pathologists at the beginning of the 18th +century, G. M. Lancisi (1654-1720), G. B. Morgagni (1682-1771) and J. B. +Senac (1693-1770). The works of these writers form very interesting +reading, and it is remarkable how careful were the observations made, +and how sound the conclusions drawn, by these pioneers of scientific +medicine. J. N. Corvisart (1755-1821) was one of the earliest to make +practical use of R. T. Auenbrugger's (1722-1809) invention of percussion +to determine the size of the heart. R. T. H. Laennec (1781-1826) was the +first to make a scientific application of mediate auscultation to the +diagnosis of disease of the chest, by the invention of the stethoscope. +J. Bouillaud (1796-1881) extended its use to the diagnosis of disease of +the heart. To James Hope (1801-1841) we owe much of the precision we +have now attained in diagnosis of valvular disease from abnormalities in +the sounds produced during cardiac movements. This short list by no +means exhausts the earlier literature on the subject, but each of these +names marks an era in the progress of the diagnosis of cardiac disease. +In later years the literature on this subject has become very copious. + +The heart and great vessels occupy a position immediately to the left of +the centre of the thoracic cavity. The anterior surface of the heart is +projected against the chest wall and is surrounded on either side by the +lungs, which are resonant organs, so that any increase in the size of +the heart, "dilatation," can be detected by percussion. By placing the +hand on the chest, palpation, the impulse of the left ventricle, or apex +beat, can normally be felt just below and internal to the nipple. +Deviations from the normal in the position or force of the apex beat +will afford important information as to the nature of the pathological +changes in the heart. Thus, displacement downwards and outwards of the +apex beat, with a forcible thrusting impulse, will indicate hypertrophy, +or increase of the muscular wall and increased driving power of the left +ventricle, whereas a similar displacement with a feeble diffuse impulse +will indicate dilatation, or over-distension of its cavity from +stretching of the walls. + +By auscultation, or listening with a suitable instrument named a +stethoscope over appropriate areas, we can detect any abnormality in the +sounds of the heart, and the presence of murmurs indicative of disease +of one or other of the valves of the heart. + +The pericardium is a fibro-serous sac which loosely envelops the heart +and the origin of the great vessels. Inflammation of this sac, or +_pericarditis_, is apt to occur as a result of rheumatism, more +especially in children. It may also occur as a complication of +pneumonia. It is a serious affection associated with pain over the +heart, fever, shortness of breath, rapid pulse and dilatation of the +heart. As a result of the inflammation, fluid may accumulate in the +pericardial sac, or the walls of the sac may become adherent to the +heart and tend to embarrass its action. In favourable cases, however, +recovery may take place without any untoward sequelae. + +Diseases of the heart may be classified in two main groups, (1) Disease +of the valves, and (2) Disease of the walls of the heart. + +1. _Valvular Disease._--Inflammation of the valves of the heart, or +_endocarditis_, is one of the most common complications of rheumatism in +children and young adults. More severe types, which are apt to prove +fatal from a form of blood poisoning, may result when the valves of the +heart are attacked by certain micro-organisms, such as the pneumococcus, +which is responsible for pneumonia, the streptococcus and the +staphylococcus pyogenes, the gonococcus and the influenza bacillus. + +As a result of endocarditis, one or more of the valves may be seriously +damaged, so that it leaks or becomes incompetent. The valves of the left +side of the heart, the aortic and mitral valves, are affected far more +commonly than those of the right side. It is indeed comparatively rarely +that the latter are attacked. In the process of healing of a damaged +valve, scar tissue is formed which has a tendency to contract, so that +in some cases the orifice of the valve becomes narrowed, and the +resulting stenosis or narrowing gives rise to obstruction of the blood +stream. We may thus have incompetence or stenosis of a valve or both +combined. + +Valvular lesions are detected on auscultation over appropriate areas by +the blowing sounds or murmurs to which they give rise, which modify or +replace the normal heart sounds. Thus, lesions of the mitral valve give +rise to murmurs which are heard at the apex beat of the heart, and +lesions of the aortic valves to murmurs which are heard over the aortic +area, in the second right intercostal space. Accurate timing of the +murmurs in relation to the heart sounds enables us to judge whether the +murmur is due to stenosis or incompetence of the valve affected. + +If the valvular lesion is severe, it is essential for the proper +maintenance of the circulation that certain changes should take place in +the heart to compensate for or neutralize the effects of the +regurgitation or obstruction, as the case may be. In affections of the +aortic valve, the extra work falls on the left ventricle, which enlarges +proportionately and undergoes hypertrophy. In affections of the mitral +valve the effect is felt primarily by the left auricle, which is a thin +walled structure incapable of undergoing the requisite increase in power +to resist the backward flow through the mitral orifice in case of +leakage, or to overcome the effects of obstruction in case of stenosis. +The back pressure is therefore transmitted to the pulmonary circulation, +and as the right ventricle is responsible for maintaining the flow of +blood through the lungs, the strain and extra work fall on the right +ventricle, which in turn enlarges and undergoes hypertrophy. The degree +of hypertrophy of the left or right ventricle is thus, up to a certain +point, a measure of the extent of the lesion of the aortic or mitral +valve respectively. When the effects of the valvular lesion are so +neutralized by these structural changes in the heart that the +circulation is equably maintained, "compensation" is said to be +efficient. + +When the heart gives way under the strain, compensation is said to break +down, and dropsy, shortness of breath, cough and cyanosis, are among the +distressing symptoms which may set in. The mere existence of a valvular +lesion does not call for any special treatment so long as compensation +is efficient, and a large number of people with slight valvular lesions +are living lives indistinguishable from those of their neighbours. It +will, however, be readily understood that in the case of the more +serious lesions certain precautions should be observed in regard to +over-exertion, excitement, over-indulgence in tobacco or alcohol, &c., +as the balance is more readily upset and any undue strain on the heart +may cause a breakdown of compensation. When this occurs treatment is +required. A period of rest in bed is often sufficient to enable the +heart to recover, and this may be supplemented as required by the +administration of mercurial and saline purgatives to relieve the +embarrassed circulation, and of suitable cardiac tonics, such as +digitalis and strychnin, to reinforce and strengthen the heart's action. + +2. _Affections of the Muscular Wall of the Heart._--Dilatation of the +heart, or stretching of the walls of the heart, is an incident, as has +already been stated, in pericarditis and in the earlier stages of +valvular disease antecedent to hypertrophy. Temporary over-distension or +dilatation of the cavities of the heart occurs in violent and protracted +exertion, but rapidly subsides and is in no wise harmful to the sound +and vigorous heart of the young. It is otherwise if the heart is weak +and flabby from a too sedentary life or degenerative changes in its +walls or during convalescence from a severe illness, when the same +circumstances which will not injure a healthy heart, may give rise to +serious dilatation from which recovery may be very protracted. + +Influenza is a common cause of cardiac dilatation, and is liable to be a +source of trouble after the acute illness has subsided, if the patient +goes about and resumes his ordinary avocations too soon. + +Fatty or fibroid degeneration of the heart wall may occur in later life +from impaired nutrition of the muscle, due to partial obstruction of the +blood-vessels supplying it, when they are the seat of the degenerative +changes known as arteriosclerosis or atheroma. The affection known as +_angina pectoris_ (q.v.) may be a further consequence of this defective +blood-supply. + +The treatment will vary according to the nature of the case. In serious +cases of dilatation, rest in bed, purgatives and cardiac tonics may be +required. + +In commencing degenerative change the Oertel treatment, consisting of +graduated exercise up a gentle slope, limitation of fluids and a special +diet, may be indicated. + +In cases of slight dilatation after influenza or recent illness, the +Schott treatment by baths and exercises as carried out at Nauheim may be +sometimes beneficial. The change of air and scene, the enforced rest, +the placid life, together with freedom from excitement and worry, are +among the most important factors which contribute to success in this +class of case. + +_Disorders of Rhythm of the Heart's Action._--Under this heading may be +grouped a number of conditions to which the name "functional affections +of the heart" has sometimes been applied, inasmuch as the disturbances +in question cannot usually be attributed to definite organic disease of +the heart. We must, of course, exclude from this category the +irregularity in the force and frequency of the pulse, which is commonly +associated with incompetence of the mitral valve. + +The heart is a muscular organ possessing certain properties, +rhythmicity, excitability, contractility, conductivity and tonicity, as +pointed out by Gaskell, in virtue of which it is able to maintain a +regular automatic beat independently of nerve stimulation. It is, +however, intimately connected with the brain, blood-vessels and the +abdominal and thoracic viscera, by innumerable nerves, through which +impulses or messages are being constantly sent to and received from +these various portions of the body. Such messages may give rise to +disturbances of rhythm with which we are all familiar. For instance, +sudden fright or emotion may cause a momentary arrest of the heart's +action, and excitement or apprehension may set up a rapid action of the +heart or _palpitation_. Palpitation, again, is often the result of +digestive disorders, the message in this case being received from the +stomach, instead of the brain as in emotional disturbances. It may also +result from over-indulgence in tobacco and alcohol. + +_Tachycardia_ is the name applied to a more or less permanent increase +in the rate of the heart-beat. It is usually a prominent feature in the +affection known as Graves' disease or exophthalmic goitre. It may also +result from chronic alcoholism. In the condition known as paroxysmal +tachycardia there appears to be no adequate explanation for its onset. + +_Bradycardia_ or abnormal slowness of the heart-beat, is the converse of +tachycardia. An abnormally slow pulse is met with in melancholia, +cerebral tumour, jaundice and certain toxic conditions, or may follow an +attack of influenza. There is, however, a peculiar affection +characterized by abnormal slowness of pulse (often ranging as low as +30), and the onset, from time to time, of epileptiform or syncopal +attacks. To this the name "Stokes-Adams disease" has been applied, as it +was first called attention to by Adams in 1827, and subsequently fully +described by Stokes in 1836. It is usually associated with senile +degenerative change of the heart and vascular system, and is held to be +due to impairment of conductivity in the muscular fibres (bundle of His) +which transmit the wave of contraction from the auricle to the +ventricle. It is of serious significance in view of the symptoms +associated with it. + +_Intermittency of the Pulse._--By this is understood a pulse in which a +beat is dropped from time to time. The dropping of a beat may occur at +regular intervals every two, four or six beats, &c., or occasionally at +irregular intervals after a series of normal beats. On examining the +heart, it is found, as a rule, that the cause of the intermission at the +wrist is not actual omission of a heart-beat, but the occurrence of a +hurried imperfect cardiac contraction which does not transmit a +pulse-wave to the wrist. It is not characteristic of any special form of +heart affection, and is rarely of serious import. It may be due to +reflex digestive disturbances, or be associated with conditions of +nervous breakdown and irritability, or with an atonic and relaxed +condition of the heart muscle. The treatment of these disorders of +rhythm of the heart will vary greatly according to the cause and is +often a matter of considerable difficulty. (J. F. H. B.) + +_Surgery of Heart and Pericardium._--As the result of acute or chronic +inflammation of the lining membrane of the fibrous sac which surrounds +the heart and the neighbouring parts of the large blood-vessels, a +dropsical or a purulent collection may form in it, or the sac may be +quietly distended by a thin watery fluid. In either case, but especially +in the latter, the heart may be so embarrassed in its work that death +seems imminent. The condition is generally due to the cultivation in the +pericardium of the germs of rheumatism, influenza or gonorrhoea, or of +those of ordinary suppuration. Respiration as well as circulation is +embarrassed, and there is a marked fulness and dulness of the front wall +of the chest to the left of the breast-bone. In that region also pain +and tenderness are complained of. By using the slender, hollow needle of +an aspirator great relief may be afforded, but the tapping may have to +be repeated from time to time. If the fluid drawn off is found to be +purulent, it may be necessary to make a trap-door opening into the chest +by cutting across the 4th and 5th ribs, incising and evacuating the +pericardium and providing for drainage. In short, an abscess in the +pericardium must be treated like an abscess in the pleura. + +Wounds of the heart are apt to be quickly fatal. If the probability is +that the enfeebled action of the heart is due to pressure from blood +which is leaking into, and is locked up in the pericardium, the proper +treatment will be to open the pericardium, as described above, and, if +possible, to close the opening in the auricle, ventricle or large +vessel, by sutures. (E. O.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In O. Eng. _heorte_; this is a common Teut. word, cf. Dut. + _hart_, Ger. _Herz_, Goth. _hairto_; related by root are Lat. _cor_ + and Gr. [Greek: kardia]: the ultimate root is _kard_-, to quiver, + shake. + + [2] This is often called bulbus arteriosus, but it will be seen that + the term is used rather differently in comparative anatomy. + + + + +HEART-BURIAL, the burial of the heart apart from the body. This is a +very ancient practice, the special reverence shown towards the heart +being doubtless due to its early association with the soul of man, his +affections, courage and conscience. In medieval Europe heart-burial was +fairly common. Some of the more notable cases are those of Richard I., +whose heart, preserved in a casket, was placed in Rouen cathedral; Henry +III., buried in Normandy; Eleanor, queen of Edward I., at Lincoln; +Edward I., at Jerusalem; Louis IX., Philip III., Louis XIII. and Louis +XIV., in Paris. Since the 17th century the hearts of deceased members of +the house of Habsburg have been buried apart from the body in the +Loretto chapel in the Augustiner Kirche, Vienna. The most romantic story +of heart-burial is that of Robert Bruce. He wished his heart to rest at +Jerusalem in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and on his deathbed +entrusted the fulfilment of his wish to Douglas. The latter broke his +journey to join the Spaniards in their war with the Moorish king of +Granada, and was killed in battle, the heart of Bruce enclosed in a +silver casket hanging round his neck. Subsequently the heart was buried +at Melrose Abbey. The heart of James, marquess of Montrose, executed by +the Scottish Covenanters in 1650, was recovered from his body, which had +been buried by the roadside outside Edinburgh, and, enclosed in a steel +box, was sent to the duke of Montrose, then in exile. It was lost on its +journey, and years afterwards was discovered in a curiosity shop in +Flanders. Taken by a member of the Montrose family to India, it was +stolen as an amulet by a native chief, was once more regained, and +finally lost in France during the Revolution. Of notable 17th-century +cases there is that of James II., whose heart was buried in the church +of the convent of the Visitation at Chaillot near Paris, and that of Sir +William Temple, at Moor Park, Farnham. The last ceremonial burial of a +heart in England was that of Paul Whitehead, secretary to the Monks of +Medmenham club, in 1775, the interment taking place in the Le Despenser +mausoleum at High Wycombe, Bucks. Of later cases the most notable are +those of Daniel O'Connell, whose heart is at Rome, Shelley at +Bournemouth, Louis XVII. at Venice, Kosciusko at the Polish museum at +Rapperschwyll, Lake Zurich, and the marquess of Bute, taken by his widow +to Jerusalem for burial in 1900. Sometimes other parts of the body, +removed in the process of embalming, are given separate and solemn +burial. Thus the viscera of the popes from Sixtus V. (1590) onward have +been preserved in the parish church of the Quirinal. The custom of +heart-burial was forbidden by Pope Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), but +Benedict XI. withdrew the prohibition. + + See Pettigrew, _Chronicles of the Tombs_ (1857). + + + + +HEARTH (a word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic +languages, cf. Dutch _haard_, German _Herd_, in the sense of "floor"), +the part of a room where a fire is made, usually constructed of stone, +bricks, tiles or earth, beaten hard and having a chimney above; the fire +being lighted either on the hearth itself, or in a receptacle placed +there for the purpose. Like the Latin _focus_, especially in the phrase +for "hearth and home" answering to _pro aris et focis_, the word is used +as equivalent to the home or household. The word is also applied to the +fire and cooking apparatus on board ship; the floor of a smith's forge; +the floor of a reverberatory furnace on which the ore is exposed to the +flame; the lower part of a blast furnace through which the metal goes +down into the crucible; in soldering, a portable brazier or chafing +dish, and an iron box sunk in the middle of a flat iron plate or table. +An "open-hearth furnace" is a regenerative furnace of the reverberatory +type used in making steel, hence "open-hearth steel" (see IRON AND +STEEL). + +Hearth-money, hearth tax or chimney-money, was a tax imposed in England +on all houses except cottages at a rate of two shillings for every +hearth. It was first levied in 1662, but owing to its unpopularity, +chiefly caused by the domiciliary visits of the collectors, it was +repealed in 1689, although it was producing L170,000 a year. The +principle of the tax was not new in the history of taxation, for in +Anglo-Saxon times the king derived a part of his revenue from a _fumage_ +or tax of smoke farthings levied on all hearths except those of the +poor. It appears also in the hearth-penny or tax of a penny on every +hearth, which as early as the 10th century was paid annually to the pope +(see PETER'S PENCE). + + + + +HEARTS, a game of cards of recent origin, though founded upon the same +principle as many old games, such as _Slobberhannes_, _Four Jacks_ and +_Enfle_, namely, that of losing instead of winning as many tricks as +possible. Hearts is played with a full pack, ace counting highest and +deuce lowest. In the four-handed game, which is usually played, the +entire pack is dealt out as at whist (but without turning up the last +card, since there are no trumps), and the player at the dealer's left +begins by leading any card he chooses, the trick being taken by the +highest card of the suit led. Each player must follow suit if he can; if +he has no cards of the suit led he is privileged to throw away any card +he likes, thus having an opportunity of getting rid of his hearts, which +is the object of the game. When all thirteen tricks have been played +each player counts the hearts he has taken in and pays into the pool a +certain number of counters for them, according to an arrangement made +before beginning play. In the four-handed, or sweepstake, game the +method of settling called "Howell's," from the name of the inventor, has +been generally adopted, according to which each player begins with an +equal number of chips, say 100, and, after the hand has been played, +pays into the pool as many chips for each heart he had taken as there +are players besides himself. Then each player takes out of the pool one +chip for every heart he did not win. The pool is thus exhausted with +every deal. Hearts may be played by two, three, four or even more +players, each playing for himself. + + _Spot Hearts._--In this variation the hearts count according to the + number of spots on the cards, excepting that the ace counts 14, the + king 13, queen 12 and knave 11, the combined score of the thirteen + hearts being thus 104. + + _Auction Hearts._--In this the eldest hand examines his hand and bids + a certain number of counters for the privilege of naming the suit to + be got rid of, but without naming the suit. The other players in + succession have the privilege of outbidding him, and whoever bids most + declares the suit and pays the amount of his bid into the pool, the + winner taking it. + + _Joker Hearts._--Here the deuce of hearts is discarded, and an extra + card, called the joker, takes its place, ranking in value between ten + and knave. It cannot be thrown away, excepting when hearts are led and + an ace or court card is played, though if an opponent discards the ace + or a court card of hearts, then the holder of the joker may discard + it. The joker is usually considered worth five chips, which are either + paid into the pool or to the player who succeeds in discarding the + joker. + + _Heartsette._--In this variation the deuce of spades is deleted and + the three cards left after dealing twelve cards to each player are + called the _widow_ (or _kitty_), and are left face downward on the + table. The winner of the first trick must take the widow without + showing it to his opponents. + + _Slobberhannes._--The object of this older form of Hearts is to avoid + taking either the first or last trick or a trick containing the queen + of clubs. A euchre pack (thirty two-cards, lacking all below the 7) is + used, and each player is given 10 counters, one being forfeited to the + pool if a player takes the first or last trick, or that containing the + club queen. If he takes all three he forfeits four points. + + _Four Jacks (Polignac or Quatre-Valets)_ is usually played with a + piquet pack, the cards ranking in France as at ecarte, but in Great + Britain and America as at piquet. There is no trump suit. Counters are + used, and the object of the game is to avoid taking any trick + containing a knave, especially the knave of spades, called _Polignac_. + The player taking such a trick forfeits one counter to the pool. + + _Enfle_ (or _Schwellen_) is usually played by four persons with a + piquet pack and for a pool. The cards rank as at Hearts, and there is + no trump suit. A player must follow suit if he can, but if he cannot + he may not discard, but must take up all tricks already won and add + them to his hand. Play is continued until one player gets rid of all + his cards and thus wins. + + + + +HEAT (O. E. _haetu_, which like "hot," Old Eng. _hat_, is from the +Teutonic type _haita, hit_, to be hot; cf. Ger. _hitze, heiss_; Dutch, +_hitte, heet_, &c.), a general term applied to that branch of physical +science which deals with the effects produced by heat on material +bodies, with the laws of transference of heat, and with the +transformations of heat into other kinds of energy. The object of the +present article is to give a brief sketch of the historical development +of the science of heat, and to indicate the relation of the different +branches of the subject, which are discussed in greater detail with +reference to the latest progress in separate articles. + +1. _Meanings of the Term Heat._--The term heat is employed in ordinary +language in a number of different senses. This makes it a convenient +term to employ for the general title of the science, but the different +meanings must be carefully distinguished in scientific reasoning. For +the present purpose, omitting metaphorical significations, we may +distinguish four principal uses of the term: (a) Sensation of heat; (b) +Temperature, or degree of hotness; (c) Quantity of thermal energy; (d) +Radiant heat, or energy of radiation. + + (a) From the sense of heat, aided in the case of very hot bodies by + the sense of sight, we obtain our first rough notions of heat as a + physical entity, which alters the state of a body and its condition in + respect of warmth, and is capable of passing from one body to another. + By touching a body we can tell whether it is warmer or colder than the + hand, and, by touching two similar bodies in succession, we can form a + rough estimate, by the acuteness of the sensation experienced, of + their difference in hotness or coldness over a limited range. If a hot + iron is placed on a cold iron plate, we may observe that the plate is + heated and the iron cooled until both attain appreciably the same + degree of warmth; and we infer from similar cases that something which + we call "heat" tends to pass from hot to cold bodies, and to attain + finally a state of equable diffusion when all the bodies concerned are + equally warm or cold. Ideas such as these derived entirely from the + sense of heat, are, so to speak, embedded in the language of every + nation from the earliest times. + + (b) From the sense of heat, again, we naturally derive the idea of a + continuous scale or order, expressed by such terms as summer heat, + blood heat, fever heat, red heat, white heat, in which all bodies may + be placed with regard to their degrees of hotness, and we speak of the + _temperature_ of a body as denoting its place in the scale, in + contradistinction to the quantity of heat it may contain. + + (c) The quantity of heat contained in a body obviously depends on the + size of the body considered. Thus a large kettleful of boiling water + will evidently contain more heat than a teacupful, though both may be + at the same temperature. The temperature does not depend on the size + of the body, but on the degree of concentration of the heat in it, + i.e. on the quantity of heat per unit mass, other things being equal. + We may regard it as axiomatic that a given body (say a pound of water) + in a given state (say boiling under a given pressure) must always + contain the same quantity of heat, and conversely that, if it contains + a given quantity of heat, and if it is under conditions in other + respects, it must be at a definite temperature, which will always be + the same for the same given conditions. + + (d) It is a matter of common observation that rays of the sun or of a + fire falling on a body warm it, and it was in the first instance + natural to suppose that heat itself somehow travelled across the + intervening space from the sun or fire to the body warmed, in much the + same way as heat may be carried by a current of hot air or water. But + we now know that energy of radiation is not the same thing as heat, + though it is converted into heat when the rays strike an absorbing + substance. The term "radiant heat," however, is generally retained, + because radiation is commonly measured in terms of the heat it + produces, and because the transference of energy by radiation and + absorption is the most important agency in the diffusion of heat. + +2. _Evolution of the Thermometer._--The first step in the development of +the science of heat was necessarily the invention of a thermometer, an +instrument for indicating temperature and measuring its changes. The +first requisite in the case of such an instrument is that it should +always give, at least approximately the same indication at the same +temperature. The air-thermoscope of Galileo, illustrated in fig. 1, +which consisted of a glass bulb containing air, connected to a glass +tube of small bore dipping into a coloured liquid, though very sensitive +to variations of temperature, was not satisfactory as a measuring +instrument, because it was also affected by variations of atmospheric +pressure. The invention of the type of thermometer familiar at the +present day, containing a liquid hermetically sealed in a glass bulb +with a fine tube attached, is also generally attributed to Galileo at a +slightly later date, about 1612. Alcohol was the liquid first employed, +and the degrees, intended to represent thousandths of the volume of the +bulb, were marked with small beads of enamel fused on the stem, as shown +in fig. 2. In order to render the readings of such instruments +comparable with each other, it was necessary to select a fixed point or +standard temperature as the zero or starting-point of the graduations. +Instead of making each degree a given fraction of the volume of the +bulb, which would be difficult in practice, and would give different +values for the degree with different liquids, it was soon found to be +preferable to take _two fixed points_, and to divide the interval +between them into the same number of degrees. It was natural in the +first instance to take the temperature of the human body as one of the +fixed points. In 1701 Sir Isaac Newton proposed a scale in which the +freezing-point of water was taken as zero, and the temperature of the +human body as 12 deg. About the same date (1714) Gabriel Daniel +Fahrenheit proposed to take as zero the lowest temperature obtainable +with a freezing mixture of ice and salt, and to divide the interval +between this temperature and that of the human body into 12 deg. To +obtain finer graduations the number was subsequently increased to 96 +deg. The freezing-point of water was at that time supposed to be +somewhat variable, because as a matter of fact it is possible to cool +water several degrees below its freezing-point in the absence of ice. +Fahrenheit showed, however, that as soon as ice began to form the +temperature always rose to the same point, and that a mixture of ice or +snow with pure water always gave the same temperature. At a later period +he also showed that the temperature of boiling water varied with the +barometric pressure, but that it was always the same at the same +pressure, and might therefore be used as the second fixed point (as +Edmund Halley and others had suggested) provided that a definite +pressure, such as the average atmospheric pressure, were specified. The +freezing and boiling-points on one of his thermometers, graduated as +already explained, with the temperature of the body as 96 deg., came out +in the neighbourhood of 32 deg. and 212 deg. respectively, giving an +interval of 180 deg. between these points. Shortly after Fahrenheit's +death (1736) the freezing and boiling-points of water were generally +recognized as the most convenient fixed points to adopt, but different +systems of subdivision were employed. Fahrenheit's scale, with its small +degrees and its zero below the freezing-point, possesses undoubted +advantages for meteorological work, and is still retained in most +English-speaking countries. But for general scientific purposes, the +centigrade system, in which the freezing-point is marked 0 deg. and the +boiling-point 100 deg., is now almost universally employed, on account +of its greater simplicity from an arithmetical point of view. For work +of precision the fixed points have been more exactly defined (see +THERMOMETRY), but no change has been made in the fundamental principle +of graduation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2.] + +3. _Comparison of Scales based on Expansion._--Thermometers constructed +in the manner already described will give strictly comparable readings, +provided that the tubes be of uniform bore, and that the same liquid and +glass be employed in their construction. But they possess one obvious +defect from a theoretical point of view, namely, that the subdivision of +the temperature scale depends on the expansion of the particular liquid +selected as the standard. A liquid such as water, which, when +continuously heated at a uniform rate from its freezing-point, first +contracts and then expands, at a rapidly increasing rate, would +obviously be unsuitable. But there is no a priori reason why other +liquids should not behave to some extent in a similar way. As a matter +of fact, it was soon observed that thermometers carefully constructed +with different liquids, such as alcohol, oil and mercury, did not agree +precisely in their indications at points of the scale intermediate +between the fixed points, and diverged even more widely outside these +limits. Another possible method, proposed in 1694 by Carlo Renaldeni +(1615-1698), professor of mathematics and philosophy at Pisa, would be +to determine the intermediate points of the scale by observing the +temperatures of mixtures of ice-cold and boiling water in varying +proportions. On this method, the temperature of 50 deg. C. would be +defined as that obtained by mixing equal weights of water at 0 deg. C. +and 100 deg. C.; 20 deg. C., that obtained by mixing 80 parts of water +at 0 deg. C. with 20 parts of water at 100 deg. C. and so on. Each +degree rise of temperature in a mass of water would then represent the +addition of the same quantity of heat. The scale thus obtained would, as +a matter of fact, agree very closely with that of a mercury thermometer, +but the method would be very difficult to put in practice, and would +still have the disadvantage of depending on the properties of a +particular liquid, namely, water, which is known to behave in an +anomalous manner in other respects. At a later date, the researches of +Gay-Lussac (1802) and Regnault (1847) showed that the laws of the +expansion of gases are much simpler than those of liquids. Whereas the +expansion of alcohol between 0 deg. C. and 100 deg. C. is nearly seven +times as great as that of mercury, all gases (excluding easily +condensible vapours) expand equally, or so nearly equally that the +differences between them cannot be detected without the most refined +observations. This equality of expansion affords a strong a priori +argument for selecting the scale given by the expansion of a gas as the +standard scale of temperature, but there are still stronger theoretical +grounds for this choice, which will be indicated in discussing the +absolute scale (S 21). Among liquids mercury is found to agree most +nearly with the gas scale, and is generally employed in thermometers for +scientific purposes on account of its high boiling-point and for other +reasons. The differences of the mercurial scale from the gas scale +having been carefully determined, the mercury thermometer can be used as +a secondary standard to replace the gas thermometer within certain +limits, as the gas thermometer would be very troublesome to employ +directly in ordinary investigations. For certain purposes, and +especially at temperatures beyond the range of mercury thermometers, +electrical thermometers, also standardized by reference to the gas +thermometer, have been very generally employed in recent years, while +for still higher temperatures beyond the range of the gas thermometer, +thermometers based on the recently established laws of radiation are the +only instruments available. For a further discussion of the theory and +practice of the measurement of temperature, the reader is referred to +the article THERMOMETRY. + +_4. Change of State._--Among the most important effects of heat is that +of changing the state of a substance from solid to liquid, or from +liquid to vapour. With very few exceptions, all substances, whether +simple or compound, are known to be capable of existing in each of the +three states under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure. The +transition of any substance, from the state of liquid to that of solid +or vapour under the ordinary atmospheric pressure, takes place at fixed +temperatures, the freezing and boiling-points, which are very sharply +defined for pure crystalline substances, and serve in fact as fixed +points of the thermometric scale. A change of state cannot, however, be +effected in any case without the addition or subtraction of a certain +definite quantity of heat. If a piece of ice below the freezing-point is +gradually heated at a uniform rate, its temperature may be observed to +rise regularly till the freezing-point is reached. At this point it +begins to melt, and its temperature ceases to rise. The melting takes a +considerable time, during the whole of which heat is being continuously +supplied without producing any rise of temperature, although if the same +quantity of heat were supplied to an equal mass of water, the +temperature of the water would be raised nearly 80 deg. C. Heat thus +absorbed in producing a change of state without rise of temperature is +called "Latent Heat," a term introduced by Joseph Black, who was one of +the first to study the subject of change of state from the point of view +of heat absorbed, and who in many cases actually adopted the +comparatively rough method described above of estimating quantities of +heat by observing the time required to produce a given change when the +substance was receiving heat at a steady rate from its surroundings. For +every change of state a definite quantity of heat is required, without +which the change cannot take place. Heat must be added to melt a solid, +or to vaporize a solid or a liquid, and conversely, heat must be +subtracted to reverse the change, i.e. to condense a vapour or freeze a +liquid. The quantity required for any given change depends on the nature +of the substance and the change considered, and varies to some extent +with the conditions (as to pressure, &c.) under which the change is +made, but is always the same for the same change under the same +conditions. A rough measurement of the latent heat of steam was made as +early as 1764 by James Watt, who found that steam at 212 deg. F., when +passed from a kettle into a jar of cold water, was capable of raising +nearly six times its weight of water to the boiling point. He gives the +volume of the steam as about 1800 times that of an equal weight of +water. + + The phenomena which accompany change of state, and the physical laws + by which such changes are governed, are discussed in a series of + special articles dealing with particular cases. The articles on FUSION + and ALLOYS deal with the change from the solid to the liquid state, + and the analogous case of solution is discussed in the article on + SOLUTION. The articles on CONDENSATION OF GASES, LIQUID GASES and + VAPORIZATION deal with the theory of the change of state from liquid + to vapour, and with the important applications of liquid gases to + other researches. The methods of measuring the latent heat of fusion + or vaporization are described in the article CALORIMETRY, and need not + be further discussed here except as an introduction to the history of + the evolution of knowledge with regard to the nature of heat. + +5. _Calorimetry by Latent Heat._--In principle, the simplest and most +direct method of measuring quantities of heat consists in observing the +effects produced in melting a solid or vaporizing a liquid. It was, in +fact, by the fusion of ice that quantities of heat were first measured. +If a hot body is placed in a cavity in a block of ice at 0 deg. C., and +is covered by a closely fitting slab of ice, the quantity of ice melted +will be directly proportional to the quantity of heat lost by the body +in cooling to 0 deg. C. None of the heat can possibly escape through the +ice, and conversely no heat can possibly get in from outside. The body +must cool exactly to 0 deg. C., and every fraction of the heat it loses +must melt an equivalent quantity of ice. Apart from heat lost in +transferring the heated body to the ice block, the method is +theoretically perfect. The only difficulty consists in the practical +measurement of the quantity of ice melted. Black estimated this quantity +by mopping out the cavity with a sponge before and after the operation. +But there is a variable film of water adhering to the walls of the +cavity, which gives trouble in accurate work. In 1780 Laplace and +Lavoisier used a double-walled metallic vessel containing broken ice, +which was in many respects more convenient than the block, but +aggravated the difficulty of the film of water adhering to the ice. In +spite of this practical difficulty, the quantity of heat required to +melt unit weight of ice was for a long time taken as the unit of heat. +This unit possesses the great advantage that it is independent of the +scale of temperature adopted. At a much later date R. Bunsen (_Phil. +Mag._, 1871), adopting a suggestion of Sir John Herschel's, devised an +ice-calorimeter suitable for measuring small quantities of heat, in +which the difficulty of the water film was overcome by measuring the +change in volume due to the melting of the ice. The volume of unit mass +of ice is approximately 1.0920 times that of unit mass of water, so that +the diminution of volume is 0.092 a cubic centimetre for each gramme of +ice melted. The method requires careful attention to details of +manipulation, which are more fully discussed in the article on +CALORIMETRY. + +For measuring large quantities of heat, such as those produced by the +combustion of fuel in a boiler, the most convenient method is the +evaporation of water, which is commonly employed by engineers for the +purpose. The natural unit in this case is the quantity of heat required +to evaporate unit mass of water at the boiling point under atmospheric +pressure. In boilers working at a higher pressure, or supplied with +water at a lower temperature, appropriate corrections are applied to +deduce the quantity evaporated in terms of this unit. + +For laboratory work on a small scale the converse method of condensation +has been successfully applied by John Joly, in whose steam-calorimeter +the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body from +the atmospheric temperature to that of steam condensing at atmospheric +pressure is observed by weighing the mass of steam condensed on it. (See +CALORIMETRY.) + +6. _Thermometric Calorimetry._--For the majority of purposes the most +convenient and the most readily applicable method of measuring +quantities of heat, is to observe the rise of temperature produced in a +known mass of water contained in a suitable vessel or calorimeter. This +method was employed from a very early date by Count Rumford and other +investigators, and was brought to a high pitch of perfection by Regnault +in his extensive calorimetric researches (_Memoires de l'Institut de +Paris_, 1847); but it is only within comparatively recent years that it +has really been placed on a satisfactory basis by the accurate +definition of the units involved. The theoretical objections to the +method, as compared with latent heat calorimetry, are that some heat is +necessarily lost by the calorimeter when its temperature is raised above +that of the surroundings, and that some heat is used in heating the +vessel containing the water. These are small corrections, which can be +estimated with considerable accuracy in practice. A more serious +difficulty, which has impaired the value of much careful work by this +method, is that the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature +of a given mass of water 1 deg. C. depends on the temperature at which +the water is taken, and also on the scale of the thermometer employed. +It is for this reason, in many cases, impossible to say, at the present +time, what was the precise value, within 1/2 or even 1% of the heat +unit, in terms of which many of the older results, such as those of +Regnault, were expressed. For many purposes this would not be a serious +matter, but for work of scientific precision such a limitation of +accuracy would constitute a very serious bar to progress. The unit +generally adopted for scientific purposes is the quantity of heat +required to raise 1 gram (or kilogram) of water 1 deg. C., and is called +the calorie (or kilo-calorie). English engineers usually state results +in terms of the British Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.), which is the quantity of +heat required to raise 1 lb. of water 1 deg. F. + +7. _Watt's Indicator Diagram; Work of Expansion._--The rapid development +of the steam-engine (q.v.) in England during the latter part of the 18th +century had a marked effect on the progress of the science of heat. In +the first steam-engines the working cylinder served both as boiler and +condenser, a very wasteful method, as most of the heat was transferred +directly from the fire to the condensing water without useful effect. +The first improvement (about 1700) was to use a separate boiler, but the +greater part of the steam supplied was still wasted in reheating the +cylinder, which had been cooled by the injection of cold water to +condense the steam after the previous stroke. In 1769 James Watt showed +how to avoid this waste by using a separate condenser and keeping the +cylinder as hot as possible. In his earlier engines the steam at full +boiler pressure was allowed to raise the piston through nearly the whole +of its stroke. Connexion with the boiler was then cut off, and the steam +at full pressure was discharged into the condenser. Here again there was +unnecessary waste, as the steam was still capable of doing useful work. +He subsequently introduced "expansive working," which effected still +further economy. The connexion with the boiler was cut off when a +fraction only, say 1/4, of the stroke had been completed, the remainder +of the stroke being effected by the expansion of the steam already in +the cylinder with continually diminishing pressure. By the end of the +stroke, when connexion was made to the condenser, the pressure was so +reduced that there was comparatively little waste from this cause. Watt +also devised an instrument called an _indicator_ (see STEAM ENGINE), in +which a pencil, moved up and down vertically by the steam pressure, +recorded the pressure in the cylinder at every point of the stroke on a +sheet of paper moving horizontally in time with the stroke of the +piston. The diagram thus obtained made it possible to study what was +happening inside the cylinder, and to deduce the work done by the steam +in each stroke. The method of the indicator diagram has since proved of +great utility in physics in studying the properties of gases and +vapours. The work done, or the useful effect obtained from an engine or +any kind of machine, is measured by the product of the resistance +overcome and the distance through which it is overcome. The result is +generally expressed in terms of the equivalent weight raised through a +certain height against the force of gravity.[1] If, for instance, the +pressure on a piston is 50 lb. per sq. in., and the area of the piston +is 100 sq. in., the force on the piston is 5000 lb. weight. If the +stroke of the piston is 1 ft., the work done per stroke is capable of +raising a weight of 5000 lb. through a height of 1 ft., or 50 lb. +through a height of 100 ft. and so on. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Watt's Indicator Diagram. Patent of 1782.] + + Fig. 3 represents an imaginary indicator diagram for a steam-engine, + taken from one of Watt's patents. Steam is admitted to the cylinder + when the piston is at the beginning of its stroke, at S. ST represents + the length of the stroke or the limit of horizontal movement of the + paper on which the diagram is drawn. The indicating pencil rises to + the point A, representing the absolute pressure of 60 lb. per sq. in. + As the piston moves outwards the pencil traces the horizontal line AB, + the pressure remaining constant till the point B is reached, at which + connexion to the boiler is cut off. The work done so far is + represented by the area of the rectangle ABSF, namely AS X SF, + multiplied by the area of the piston in sq. in. The result is in + foot-pounds if the fraction of the stroke SF is taken in feet. After + cut-off at B the steam expands under diminishing pressure, and the + pencil falls gradually from B to C, following the steam pressure until + the exhaust valve opens at the end of the stroke. The pressure then + falls rapidly to that of the condenser, which for an ideal case may be + taken as zero, following Watt. The work done during expansion is found + by dividing the remainder of the stroke FT into a number of equal + parts (say 8, Watt takes 20) and measuring the pressure at the points + 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., corresponding to the middle of each. We thus obtain a + number of small rectangles, the sum of which is evidently very nearly + equal to the whole area BCTF under the expansion curve, or to the + remainder of the stroke FT multiplied by the average or mean value of + the pressure. The whole work done in the forward stroke is represented + by the area ABCTSA, or by the average value of the pressure P over the + whole stroke multiplied by the stroke L. This area must be multiplied + by the area of the piston A in sq. in. as before, to get the work done + per stroke in foot-pounds, which is PLA. If the engine repeats this + cycle N times per minute, the work done per minute is PLAN + foot-pounds, which is reduced to horse-power by dividing by 33,000. If + the steam is ejected by the piston at atmospheric pressure (15 lb. per + sq. in.) instead of being condensed at zero pressure, the area CDST + under the atmospheric line CD, representing work done against + back-pressure on the return stroke must be subtracted. If the engine + repeats the same cycle or series of operations continuously, the + indicator diagram will be a closed curve, and the nett work done per + cycle will be represented by the included area, whatever the form of + the curve. + +8. _Thermal Efficiency._--The thermal efficiency of an engine is the +ratio of the work done by the engine to the heat supplied to it. +According to Watt's observations, confirmed later by Clement and +Desormes, the total heat required to produce 1 lb. of saturated steam at +any temperature from water at 0 deg. C. was approximately 650 times the +quantity of heat required to raise 1 lb. of water 1 deg. C. Since 1 lb. +of steam represented on this assumption a certain quantity of heat, the +efficiency could be measured naturally in foot-pounds of work obtainable +per lb. of steam, or conversely in pounds of steam consumed per +horse-power-hour. + +In his patent of 1782 Watt gives the following example of the +improvement in thermal efficiency obtained by expansive working. Taking +the diagram already given, if the quantity of steam represented by AB, +or 300 cub. in. at 60 lb. pressure, were employed without expansion, the +work realized, represented by the area ABSF, would be 6000/4 = 1500 +foot-pounds. With expansion to 4 times its original volume, as shown in +the diagram by the whole area ABCTSA, the mean pressure (as calculated +by Watt, assuming Boyle's law) would be 0.58 of the original pressure, +and the work done would be 6000 X 0.58 = 3480 foot-pounds for the same +quantity of steam, or the thermal efficiency would be 2.32 times +greater. The advantage actually obtained would not be so great as this, +on account of losses by condensation, back-pressure, &c., which are +neglected in Watt's calculation, but the margin would still be very +considerable. Three hundred cub. in. of steam at 60 lb. pressure would +represent about .0245 of 1 lb. of steam, or 28.7 B.Th.U., so that, +neglecting all losses, the possible thermal efficiency attainable with +steam at this pressure and four expansions (1/4 cut-off) would be +3480/28.7, or 121 foot-pounds per B.Th.U. At a later date, about 1820, +it was usual to include the efficiency of the boiler with that of the +engine, and to reckon the efficiency or "duty" in foot-pounds per bushel +or cwt. of coal. The best Cornish pumping-engines of that date achieved +about 70 million foot-pounds per cwt., or consumed about 3.2 lb. per +horse-power-hour, which is roughly equivalent to 43 foot-pounds per +B.Th.U. The efficiency gradually increased as higher pressures were +used, with more complete expansion, but the conditions upon which the +efficiency depended were not fully worked out till a much later date. +Much additional knowledge with regard to the nature of heat, and the +properties of gases and vapours, was required before the problem could +be attacked theoretically. + +9. _Of the Nature of Heat._--In the early days of the science it was +natural to ascribe the manifestations of heat to the action of a subtle +imponderable fluid called "caloric," with the power of penetrating, +expanding and dissolving bodies, or dissipating them in vapour. The +fluid was imponderable, because the most careful experiments failed to +show that heat produced any increase in weight. The opposite property of +levitation was often ascribed to heat, but it was shown by more cautious +investigators that the apparent loss of weight due to heating was to be +attributed to evaporation or to upward air currents. The fundamental +idea of an imaginary fluid to represent heat was useful as helping the +mind to a conception of something remaining invariable in quantity +through many transformations, but in some respects the analogy was +misleading, and tended greatly to retard the progress of science. The +caloric theory was very simple in its application to the majority of +calorimetric experiments, and gave a fair account of the elementary +phenomena of change of state, but it encountered serious difficulties in +explaining the production of heat by friction, or the changes of +temperature accompanying the compression or expansion of a gas. The +explanation which the calorists offered of the production of heat by +friction or compression was that some of the latent caloric was squeezed +or ground out of the bodies concerned and became "sensible." In the case +of heat developed by friction, they supposed that the abraded portions +of the material were capable of holding a smaller quantity of heat, or +had less "capacity for heat," than the original material. From a logical +point of view, this was a perfectly tenable hypothesis, and one +difficult to refute. It was easy to account in this way for the heat +produced in boring cannon and similar operations, where the amount of +abraded material was large. To refute this explanation, Rumford (_Phil. +Trans._, 1798) made his celebrated experiments with a blunt borer, in +one of which he succeeded in boiling by friction 26.5 lb. of cold water +in 2(1/2) hours, with the production of only 4145 grains of metallic +powder. He then showed by experiment that the metallic powder required +the same amount of heat to raise its temperature 1 deg., as an equal +weight of the original metal, or that its "capacity for heat" (in this +sense) was unaltered by reducing it to powder; and he argued that "in +any case so small a quantity of powder could not possibly account for +all the heat generated, that the supply of heat appeared to be +inexhaustible, and that heat could not be a material substance, but must +be something of the nature of motion." Unfortunately Rumford's argument +was not quite conclusive. The supporters of the caloric theory appear, +whether consciously or unconsciously, to have used the phrase "capacity +for heat" in two entirely distinct senses without any clear definition +of the difference. The phrase "capacity for heat" might very naturally +denote the total quantity of heat contained in a body, which we have no +means of measuring, but it was generally used to signify the quantity of +heat required to raise the temperature of a body one degree, which is +quite a different thing, and has no necessary relation to the total +heat. In proving that the powder and the solid metal required the same +quantity of heat to raise the temperature of equal masses of either one +degree, Rumford did not prove that they contained equal quantities of +heat, which was the real point at issue in this instance. The metal tin +actually changes into powder below a certain temperature, and in so +doing evolves a measurable quantity of heat. A mixture of the gases +oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportions in which they combine to form +water, evolves when burnt sufficient heat to raise more than thirty +times its weight of water from the freezing to the boiling point; and +the mixture of gases may, in this sense, be said to contain so much more +heat than the water, although its capacity for heat in the ordinary +sense is only about half that of the water produced. To complete the +refutation of the calorists' explanation of the heat produced by +friction, it would have been necessary for Rumford to show that the +powder when reconverted into the same state as the solid metal did not +absorb a quantity of heat equivalent to that evolved in the grinding; in +other words that the heat produced by friction was not simply that due +to the change of state of the metal from solid to powder. + +Shortly afterwards, in 1799, Davy[2] described an experiment in which he +melted ice by rubbing two blocks together. This experiment afforded a +very direct refutation of the calorists' view, because it was a +well-known fact that ice required to have a quantity of heat added to it +to convert it into water, so that the water produced by the friction +contained more heat than the ice. In stating as the conclusion to be +drawn from this experiment that "friction consequently does not diminish +the capacity of bodies for heat," Davy apparently uses the phrase +capacity for heat in the sense of total heat contained in a body, +because in a later section of the same essay he definitely gives the +phrase this meaning, and uses the term "capability of temperature" to +denote what we now term capacity for heat. + +The delay in the overthrow of the caloric theory, and in the acceptance of +the view that heat is a mode of motion, was no doubt partly due to some +fundamental confusion of ideas in the use of the term "capacity for heat" +and similar phrases. A still greater obstacle lay in the comparative +vagueness of the motion or vibration theory. Davy speaks of heat as being +"repulsive motion," and distinguishes it from light, which is "projective +motion"; though heat is certainly not a substance--according to Davy in +the essay under discussion--and may not even be treated as an imponderable +fluid, light as certainly is a material substance, and is capable of +forming chemical compounds with ordinary matter, such as oxygen gas, which +is not a simple substance, but a compound, termed phosoxygen, of light and +oxygen. Accepting the conclusions of Davy and Rumford that heat is not a +material substance but a mode of motion, there still remains the question, +what definite conception is to be attached to a quantity of heat? What do +we mean by a quantity of vibratory motion, how is the quantity of motion +to be estimated, and why should it remain invariable in many +transformations? The idea that heat was a "mode of motion" was applicable +as a qualitative explanation of many of the effects of heat, but it lacked +the quantitative precision of a scientific statement, and could not be +applied to the calculation and prediction of definite results. The state +of science at the time of Rumford's and Davy's experiments did not admit +of a more exact generalization. The way was paved in the first instance by +a more complete study of the laws of gases, to which Laplace, Dalton, +Gay-Lussac, Dulong and many others contributed both on the experimental +and theoretical side. Although the development proceeded simultaneously +along many parallel lines, it is interesting and instructive to take the +investigation of the properties of gases, and to endeavour to trace the +steps by which the true theory was finally attained. + +10. _Thermal Properties of Gases._--The most characteristic property of +a gaseous or elastic fluid, namely, the elasticity, or resistance to +compression, was first investigated scientifically by Robert Boyle +(1662), who showed that the pressure p of a given mass of gas varied +inversely as the volume v, provided that the temperature remained +constant. This is generally expressed by the formula pv = C, where C is +a constant for any given temperature, and v is taken to represent the +specific volume, or the volume of unit mass, of the gas at the given +pressure and temperature. Boyle was well aware of the effect of heat in +expanding a gas, but he was unable to investigate this properly as no +thermometric scale had been defined at that date. According to Boyle's +law, when a mass of gas is compressed by a small amount at constant +temperature, the percentage increase of pressure is equal to the +percentage diminution of volume (if the compression is v/100, the +increase of pressure is very nearly p/100). Adopting this law, Newton +showed, by a most ingenious piece of reasoning (_Principia_, ii., sect. +8), that the velocity of sound in air should be equal to the velocity +acquired by a body falling under gravity through a distance equal to +half the height of the atmosphere, considered as being of uniform +density equal to that at the surface of the earth. This gave the result +918 ft. per sec. (280 metres per sec.) for the velocity at the freezing +point. Newton was aware that the actual velocity of sound was somewhat +greater than this, but supposed that the difference might be due in some +way to the size of the air particles, of which no account could be taken +in the calculation. The first accurate measurement of the velocity of +sound by the French Academie des Sciences in 1738 gave the value 332 +metres per sec. as the velocity at 0 deg. C. The true explanation of the +discrepancy was not discovered till nearly 100 years later. + +The law of expansion of gases with change of temperature was +investigated by Dalton and Gay-Lussac (1802), who found that the volume +of a gas under constant pressure increased by 1/267th part of its volume +at 0 deg. C. for each 1 deg. C. rise in temperature. This value was +generally assumed in all calculations for nearly 50 years. More exact +researches, especially those of Regnault, at a later date, showed that +the law was very nearly correct for all permanent gases, but that the +value of the coefficient should be 1/273rd. According to this law the +volume of a gas at any temperature t deg. C. should be proportional to +273 + t, i.e. to the temperature reckoned from a zero 273 deg. below +that of the Centigrade scale, which was called the absolute zero of the +gas thermometer. If T = 273 + t, denotes the temperature measured from +this zero, the law of expansion of a gas may be combined with Boyle's +law in the simple formula + + pv = RT (1) + +which is generally taken as the expression of the gaseous laws. If equal +volumes of different gases are taken at the same temperature and +pressure, it follows that the constant R is the same for all gases. If +equal masses are taken, the value of the constant R for different gases +varies inversely as the molecular weight or as the density relative to +hydrogen. + +Dalton also investigated the laws of vapours, and of mixtures of gases +and vapours. He found that condensible vapours approximately followed +Boyle's law when compressed, until the condensation pressure was +reached, at which the vapour liquefied without further increase of +pressure. He found that when a liquid was introduced into a closed +space, and allowed to evaporate until the space was saturated with the +vapour and evaporation ceased, the increase of pressure in the space was +equal to the condensation pressure of the vapour, and did not depend on +the volume of the space or the presence of any other gas or vapour +provided that there was no solution or chemical action. He showed that +the condensation or saturation-pressure of a vapour depended only on the +temperature, and increased by nearly the same fraction of itself per +degree rise of temperature, and that the pressures of different vapours +were nearly the same at equal distances from their boiling points. The +increase of pressure per degree C. at the boiling point was about 1/28th +of 760 mm. or 27.2 mm., but increased in geometrical progression with +rise of temperature. These results of Dalton's were confirmed, and in +part corrected, as regards increase of vapour-pressure, by Gay-Lussac, +Dulong, Regnault and other investigators, but were found to be as close +an approximation to the truth as could be obtained with such simple +expressions. More accurate empirical expressions for the increase of +vapour-pressure of a liquid with temperature were soon obtained by +Thomas Young, J. P. L. A. Roche and others, but the explanation of the +relation was not arrived at until a much later date (see VAPORIZATION). + +11. _Specific Heats of Gases._--In order to estimate the quantities of +heat concerned in experiments with gases, it was necessary in the first +instance to measure their specific heats, which presented formidable +difficulties. The earlier attempts by Lavoisier and others, employing +the ordinary methods of calorimetry, gave very uncertain and discordant +results, which were not regarded with any confidence even by the +experimentalists themselves. Gay-Lussac (_Memoires d'Arcueil_, 1807) +devised an ingenious experiment, which, though misinterpreted at the +time, is very interesting and instructive. With the object of comparing +the specific heats of different gases, he took two equal globes A and B +connected by a tube with a stop-cock. The globe B was exhausted, the +other A being filled with gas. On opening the tap between the vessels, +the gas flowed from A to B and the pressure was rapidly equalized. He +observed that the fall of temperature in A was nearly equal to the rise +of temperature in B, and that for the same initial pressure the change +of temperature was very nearly the same for all the gases he tried, +except hydrogen, which showed greater changes of temperature than other +gases. He concluded from this experiment that equal volumes of gases had +the same capacity for heat, except hydrogen, which he supposed to have a +larger capacity, because it showed a greater effect. The method does not +in reality afford any direct information with regard to the specific +heats, and the conclusion with regard to hydrogen is evidently wrong. At +a later date (_Ann. de Chim._, 1812, 81, p. 98) Gay-Lussac adopted A. +Crawford's method of mixture, allowing two equal streams of different +gases, one heated and the other cooled about 20 deg. C., to mix in a tube +containing a thermometer. The resulting temperature was in all cases +nearly the mean of the two, from which he concluded that equal volumes +of all the gases tried, namely, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, air, oxygen +and nitrogen, had the same thermal capacity. This was correct, except as +regards carbon dioxide, but did not give any information as to the +actual specific heats referred to water or any known substance. About +the same time, F. Delaroche and J. E. Berard (_Ann. de chim._, 1813, 85, +p. 72) made direct determinations of the specific heats of air, oxygen, +hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and ethylene, +by passing a stream of gas heated to nearly 100 deg. C. through a spiral +tube in a calorimeter containing water. Their work was a great advance +on previous attempts, and gave the first trustworthy results. With the +exception of hydrogen, which presents peculiar difficulties, they found +that equal volumes of the permanent gases, air, oxygen and carbon +monoxide, had nearly the same thermal capacity, but that the compound +condensible gases, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and ethylene, had +larger thermal capacities in the order given. They were unable to state +whether the specific heats of the gases increased or diminished with +temperature, but from experiments on air at pressures of 740 mm. and +1000 mm., they found the specific heats to be .269 and .245 +respectively, and concluded that the specific heat diminished with +increase of pressure. The difference they observed was really due to +errors of experiment, but they regarded it as proving beyond doubt the +truth of the calorists' contention that the heat disengaged on the +compression of a gas was due to the diminution of its thermal capacity. + +Dalton and others had endeavoured to measure directly the rise of +temperature produced by the compression of a gas. Dalton had observed a +rise of 50 deg. F. in a gas when suddenly compressed to half its volume, +but no thermometers at that time were sufficiently sensitive to indicate +more than a fraction of the change of temperature. Laplace was the first +to see in this phenomenon the probable explanation of the discrepancy +between Newton's calculation of the velocity of sound and the observed +value. The increase of pressure due to a sudden compression, in which no +heat was allowed to escape, or as we now call it an "adiabatic" +compression, would necessarily be greater than the increase of pressure +in a slow isothermal compression, on account of the rise of temperature. +As the rapid compressions and rarefactions occurring in the propagation +of a sound wave were perfectly adiabatic, it was necessary to take +account of the rise of temperature due to compression in calculating the +velocity. To reconcile the observed and calculated values of the +velocity, the increase of pressure in adiabatic compression must be +1.410 times greater than in isothermal compression. This is the ratio of +the adiabatic elasticity of air to the isothermal elasticity. It was a +long time, however, before Laplace saw his way to any direct +experimental verification of the value of this ratio. At a later date +(_Ann. de chim._, 1816, 3, p. 238) he stated that he had succeeded in +proving that the ratio in question must be the same as the ratio of the +specific heat of air at constant pressure to the specific heat at +constant volume. + + In the method of measuring the specific heat adopted by Delaroche and + Berard, the gas under experiment, while passing through a tube at + practically constant pressure, contracts in cooling, as it gives up + its heat to the calorimeter. Part of the heat surrendered to the + calorimeter is due to the contraction of volume. If a gramme of gas at + pressure p, volume v and temperature T abs. is heated 1 deg. C. at + constant pressure p, it absorbs a quantity of heat S = .238 calorie + (according to Regnault) the specific heat at constant pressure. At the + same time the gas expands by a fraction 1/T of v, which is the same as + 1/273 of its volume at 0 deg. C. If now the air is suddenly compressed + by an amount v/T, it will be restored to its original volume, and its + temperature will be raised by the liberation of a quantity of heat R', + the latent heat of expansion for an increase of volume v/T. If no heat + has been allowed to escape, the air will now be in the same state as + if a quantity of heat S had been communicated to it at its original + volume v without expansion. The rise of temperature above the original + temperature T will be S/s degrees, where s is the specific heat at + constant volume, which is obviously equal to S - R'. Since p/T is the + increase of pressure for 1 deg. C. rise of temperature at constant + volume, the increase of pressure for a rise of S/s degrees will be + [gamma]p/T, where [gamma] is the ratio S/s. But this is the rise of + pressure produced by a sudden compression v/T, and is seen to be + [gamma] times the rise of pressure p/T produced by the same + compression at constant temperature. The ratio of the adiabatic to the + isothermal elasticity, required for calculating the velocity of sound, + is therefore the same as the ratio of the specific heat at constant + pressure to that at constant volume. + + 12. _Experimental Verification of the Ratio of Specific Heats._--This + was a most interesting and important theoretical relation to discover, + but unfortunately it did not help much in the determination of the + ratio required, because it was not practically possible at that time + to measure the specific heat of air at constant volume in a closed + vessel. Attempts had been made to do this, but they had signally + failed, on account of the small heat capacity of the gas as compared + with the containing vessel. Laplace endeavoured to extract some + confirmation of his views from the values given by Delaroche and + Berard for the specific heat of air at 1000 and 740 mm. pressure. On + the assumption that the quantities of heat contained in a given mass + of air increased in direct proportion to its volume when heated at + constant pressure, he deduced, by some rather obscure reasoning, that + the ratio of the specific heats S and s should be about 1.5 to 1, + which he regarded as a fairly satisfactory agreement with the value + [gamma] = 1.41 deduced from the velocity of sound. + + The ratio of the specific heats could not be directly measured, but a + few years later, Clement and Desormes (_Journ. de Phys._, Nov. 1819) + succeeded in making a direct measurement of the ratio of the + elasticities in a very simple manner. They took a large globe + containing air at atmospheric pressure and temperature, and removed a + small quantity of air. They then observed the defect of pressure p0 + when the air had regained its original temperature. By suddenly + opening the globe, and immediately closing it, the pressure was + restored almost instantaneously to the atmospheric, the rise of + pressure p0 corresponding to the sudden compression produced. The air, + having been heated by the compression, was allowed to regain its + original temperature, the tap remaining closed, and the final defect + of pressure p^1 was noted. The change of pressure for the same + compression performed isothermally is then p0 - p^1. The ratio p0/(p0 + - p^1) is the ratio of the adiabatic and isothermal elasticities, + provided that p0 is small compared with the whole atmospheric + pressure. In this way they found the ratio 1.354, which is not much + smaller than the value 1.410 required to reconcile the observed and + calculated values of the velocity of sound. Gay-Lussac and J. J. + Welter (_Ann. de chim._, 1822) repeated the experiment with slight + improvements, using expansion instead of compression, and found the + ratio 1.375. The experiment has often been repeated since that time, + and there is no doubt that the value of the ratio deduced from the + velocity of sound is correct, the defect of the value obtained by + direct experiment being due to the fact that the compression or + expansion is not perfectly adiabatic. Gay-Lussac and Welter found the + ratio practically constant for a range of pressure 144 to 1460 mm., + and for a range of temperature from -20 deg. to +40 deg. C. The + velocity of sound at Quito, at a pressure of 544 mm. was found to be + the same as at Paris at 760 mm. at the same temperature. Assuming on + this evidence the constancy of the ratio of the specific heats of air, + Laplace (_Mecanique celeste_, v. 143) showed that, if the specific + heat at constant pressure was independent of the temperature, the + specific heat per unit volume at a pressure p must vary as + p^(1/[gamma]), according to the caloric theory. The specific heat per + unit mass must then vary as p^(1/[gamma]-1) which he found agreed + precisely with the experiment of Delaroche and Berard already cited. + This was undoubtedly a strong confirmation of the caloric theory. + Poisson by the same assumptions (_Ann. de chim._, 1823, 23, p. 337) + obtained the same results, and also showed that the relation between + the pressure and the volume of a gas in adiabatic compression or + expansion must be of the form pv^[gamma] = constant. + + P. L. Dulong (_Ann. de chim._, 1829, 41, p. 156), adopting a method + due to E. F. F. Chladni, compared the velocities of sound in different + gases by observing the pitch of the note given by the same tube when + filled with the gases in question. He thus obtained the values of the + ratios of the elasticities or of the specific heats for the gases + employed. For oxygen, hydrogen and carbonic oxide, these ratios were + the same as for air. But for carbonic acid, nitrous oxide and olefiant + gas, the values were much smaller, showing that these gases + experienced a smaller change of temperature in compression. On + comparing his results with the values of the specific heats for the + same gases found by Delaroche and Berard, Dulong observed that the + changes of temperature for the same compression were in the inverse + ratio of the specific heats at constant volume, and deduced the + important conclusion that "_Equal volumes of all gases under the same + conditions evolve on compression the same quantity of heat_." This is + equivalent to the statement that the difference of the specific heats, + or the latent heat of expansion R' per 1 deg., is the same for all + gases if equal volumes are taken. Assuming the ratio [gamma] = 1.410, + and taking Delaroche and Berard's value for the specific heat of air + at constant pressure S = .267, we have s = S/1.41 = .189, and the + difference of the specific heats per unit mass of air S - s = R' = + .078. Adopting Regnault's value of the specific heat of air, namely, S + = .238, we should have S - s = .069. This quantity represents the heat + absorbed by unit mass of air in expanding at constant temperature T by + a fraction 1/T of its volume v, or by 1/273rd of its volume 0 deg. C. + + If, instead of taking unit mass, we take a volume v0 = 22.30 litres at + 0 deg. C. and 760 mm. being the volume of the molecular weight of the + gas in grammes, the quantity of heat evolved by a compression equal to + v/T will be approximately 2 calories, and is the same for all gases. + The work done in this compression is pv/T = R, and is also the same + for all gases, namely, 8.3 joules. Dulong's experimental result, + therefore, shows that the heat evolved in the compression of a gas is + proportional to the work done. This result had previously been deduced + theoretically by Carnot (1824). At a later date it was assumed by + Mayer, Clausius and others, on the evidence of these experiments, that + the heat evolved was not merely proportional to the work done, but was + equivalent to it. The further experimental evidence required to + justify this assumption was first supplied by Joule. + + Latent heat of expansion R' = .069 calorie per gramme of air, per 1 + deg. C. + = 2.0 calories per gramme-molecule of any + gas. + Work done in expansion R = .287 joule per gramme of air per 1 deg. C. + = 8.3 joules per gramme-molecule of any + gas. + +13. _Carnot: On the Motive Power of Heat._--A practical and theoretical +question of the greatest importance was first answered by Sadi Carnot +about this time in his _Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat_ (1824). +How much motive power (defined by Carnot as weight lifted through a +certain height) can be obtained from heat alone by means of an engine +repeating a regular succession or "cycle" of operations continuously? Is +the efficiency limited, and, if so, how is it limited? Are other agents +preferable to steam for developing motive power from heat? In discussing +this problem, we cannot do better than follow Carnot's reasoning which, +in its main features could hardly be improved at the present day. + +Carnot points out that in order to obtain an answer to this question, it +is necessary to consider the essential conditions of the process, apart +from the mechanism of the engine and the working substance or agent +employed. Work cannot be said to be produced _from heat alone_ unless +nothing but heat is supplied, and the working substance and all parts of +the engine are at the end of the process in precisely the same state as +at the beginning.[3] + +_Carnot's Axiom._--Carnot here, and throughout his reasoning, makes a +fundamental assumption, which he states as follows: "When a body has +undergone any changes and after a certain number of transformations is +brought back identically to its original state, considered relatively to +density, temperature and mode of aggregation, it must contain the same +quantity of heat as it contained originally."[4] + +Heat, according to Carnot, in the type of engine we are considering, can +evidently be a cause of motive power only by virtue of changes of volume +or form produced by alternate heating and cooling. This involves the +existence of cold and hot bodies to act as boiler and condenser, or +source and sink of heat, respectively. Wherever there exists a +difference of temperature, it is possible to have the production of +motive power from heat; and conversely, production of motive power, from +heat alone, is impossible without difference of temperature. In other +words the production of motive power from heat is not merely a question +of the consumption of heat, but always requires transference of heat +from hot to cold. What then are the conditions which enable the +difference of temperature to be most advantageously employed in the +production of motive power, and how much motive power can be obtained +with a given difference of temperature from a given quantity of heat? + +_Carnot's Rule for Maximum Effect._--In order to realize the maximum +effect, it is necessary that, in the process employed, there should not +be any direct interchange of heat between bodies at different +temperatures. Direct transference of heat by conduction or radiation +between bodies at different temperatures is equivalent to wasting a +difference of temperature which might have been utilized to produce +motive power. The working substance must throughout every stage of the +process be in equilibrium with itself (i.e. at uniform temperature and +pressure) and also with external bodies, such as the boiler and +condenser, at such times as it is put in communication with them. In the +actual engine there is always some interchange of heat between the steam +and the cylinder, and some loss of heat to external bodies. There may +also be some difference of temperature between the boiler steam and the +cylinder on admission, or between the waste steam and the condenser at +release. These differences represent losses of efficiency which may be +reduced indefinitely, at least in imagination, by suitable means, and +designers had even at that date been very successful in reducing them. +All such losses are supposed to be absent in deducing the ideal limit of +efficiency, beyond which it would be impossible to go. + +14. _Carnot's Description of his Ideal Cycle._--Carnot first gives a +rough illustration of an incomplete cycle, using steam much in the same +way as it is employed in an ordinary steam-engine. After expansion down +to condenser pressure the steam is completely condensed to water, and is +then returned as cold water to the hot boiler. He points out that the +last step does not conform exactly to the condition he laid down, +because although the water is restored to its initial state, there is +direct passage of heat from a hot body to a cold body in the last +process. He points out that this difficulty might be overcome by +supposing the difference of temperature small, and by employing a series +of engines, each working through a small range, to cover a finite +interval of temperature. Having established the general notions of a +perfect cycle, he proceeds to give a more exact illustration, employing +a gas as the working substance. He takes as the basis of his +demonstration the well-established experimental fact that a gas is +heated by rapid compression and cooled by rapid expansion, and that if +compressed or expanded slowly in contact with conducting bodies, the gas +will give out heat in compression or absorb heat in expansion while its +temperature remains constant. He then goes on to say:-- + + "This preliminary notion being settled, let us imagine an elastic + fluid, atmospheric air for example, enclosed in a cylinder _abcd_, + fig. 4, fitted with a movable diaphragm or piston cd. Let there also + be two bodies A, B, each maintained at a constant temperature, that of + A being more elevated than that of B. Let us now suppose the following + series of operations to be performed: + + [Illustration: FIG 4. Carnot's Cylinder.] + + "1. Contact of the body A with the air contained in the space _abcd_, + or with the bottom of the cylinder, which we will suppose to transmit + heat easily. The air is now at the temperature of the body A, and _cd_ + is the actual position of the piston. + + "2. The piston is gradually raised, and takes the position _ef_. The + air remains in contact with the body A, and is thereby maintained at a + constant temperature during the expansion. The body A furnishes the + heat necessary to maintain the constancy of temperature. + + "3. The body A is removed, and the air no longer being in contact with + any body capable of giving it heat, the piston continues nevertheless + to rise, and passes from the position _ef_ to _gh_. The air expands + without receiving heat and its temperature falls. Let us imagine that + it falls until it is just equal to that of the body B. At this moment + the piston is stopped and occupies the position _gh_. + + "4. The air is placed in contact with the body B; it is compressed by + the return of the piston, which is brought from the position _gh_ to + the position _cd_. The air remains meanwhile at a constant + temperature, because of its contact with the body B to which it gives + up its heat. + + "5. The body B is removed, and the compression of the air is + continued. The air being now isolated, rises in temperature. The + compression is continued until the air has acquired the temperature of + the body A. The piston passes meanwhile from the position _cd_ to the + position _ik_. + + "6. The air is replaced in contact with the body A, and the piston + returns from the position _ik_ to the position _ef_, the temperature + remaining invariable. + + "7. The period described under (3) is repeated, then successively the + periods (4), (5), (6); (3), (4), (5), (6); (3), (4), (5), (6); and so + on. + + "During these operations the air enclosed in the cylinder exerts an + effort more or less great on the piston. The pressure of the air + varies both on account of changes of volume and on account of changes + of temperature; but it should be observed that for equal volumes, that + is to say, for like positions of the piston, the temperature is higher + during the dilatation than during the compression. Since the pressure + is greater during the expansion, the quantity of motive power produced + by the dilatation is greater than that consumed by the compression. We + shall thus obtain a balance of motive power, which may be employed for + any purpose. The air has served as working substance in a heat-engine; + it has also been employed in the most advantageous manner possible, + since no useless re-establishment of the equilibrium of heat has been + allowed to occur. + + "All the operations above described may be executed in the reverse + order and direction. Let us imagine that after the sixth period, that + is to say, when the piston has reached the position _ef_, we make it + return to the position _ik_, and that at the same time we keep the air + in contact with the hot body A; the heat furnished by this body during + the sixth period will return to its source, that is, to the body A, + and everything will be as it was at the end of the fifth period. If + now we remove the body A, and if we make the piston move from _ik_ to + _cd_, the temperature of the air will decrease by just as many degrees + as it increased during the fifth period, and will become that of the + body B. We can evidently continue in this way a series of operations + the exact reverse of those which were previously described; it + suffices to place oneself in the same circumstances and to execute for + each period a movement of expansion in place of a movement of + compression, and vice versa. + + "The result of the first series of operations was the production of a + certain quantity of motive power, and the transport of heat from the + body A to the body B; the result of the reverse operations is the + consumption of the motive power produced in the first case, and the + return of heat from the body B to the body A, in such sort that these + two series of operations annul and neutralize each other. + + "The impossibility of producing by the agency of heat alone a quantity + of motive power greater than that which we have obtained in our first + series of operations is now easy to prove. It is demonstrated by + reasoning exactly similar to that which we have already given. The + reasoning will have in this case a greater degree of exactitude; the + air of which we made use to develop the motive power is brought back + at the end of each cycle of operations precisely to its initial state, + whereas this was not quite exactly the case for the vapour of water, + as we have already remarked." + +15. _Proof of Carnot's Principle._--Carnot considered the proof too +obvious to be worth repeating, but, unfortunately, his previous +demonstration, referring to an incomplete cycle, is not so exactly +worded that exception cannot be taken to it. We will therefore repeat +his proof in a slightly more definite and exact form. Suppose that a +reversible engine R, working in the cycle above described, takes a +quantity of heat H from the source in each cycle, and performs a +quantity of useful work W_r. If it were possible for any other engine S, +working with the same two bodies A and B as source and refrigerator, to +perform a greater amount of useful work W_s per cycle for the same +quantity of heat H taken from the source, it would suffice to take a +portion W_r of this motive power (since W_s is by hypothesis greater +than W_r) to drive the engine R backwards, and return a quantity of heat +H to the source in each cycle. The process might be repeated +indefinitely, and we should obtain at each repetition a balance of +useful work W_s - W_r, _without taking any heat from the source_, which +is contrary to experience. Whether the quantity of heat taken from the +condenser by R is equal to that given to the condenser by S is +immaterial. The hot body A might be a comparatively small boiler, since +no heat is taken from it. The cold body B might be the ocean, or the +whole earth. We might thus obtain without any consumption of fuel a +practically unlimited supply of motive power. Which is absurd. + +_Carnot's Statement of his Principle._[5]--If the above reasoning be +admitted, we must conclude with Carnot that _the motive power obtainable +from heat is independent of the agents employed to realize it_. _The +efficiency is fixed solely by the temperatures of the bodies between +which, in the last resort, the transfer of heat is effected._ "We must +understand here that each of the methods of developing motive power +attains the perfection of which it is susceptible. This condition is +fulfilled if, according to our rule, there is produced in the body no +change of temperature that is not due to change of volume, or in other +words, if there is no direct interchange of heat between bodies of +sensibly different temperatures." + +It is characteristic of a state of frictionless mechanical equilibrium +that an indefinitely small difference of pressure suffices to upset the +equilibrium and reverse the motion. Similarly in thermal equilibrium +between bodies at the same temperature, an indefinitely small difference +of temperature suffices to reverse the transfer of heat. Carnot's rule +is therefore the criterion of the reversibility of a cycle of operations +as regards transfer of heat. It is assumed that the ideal engine is +mechanically reversible, that there is not, for instance, any +communication between reservoirs of gas or vapour at sensibly different +pressures, and that there is no waste of power in friction. If there is +equilibrium both mechanical and thermal at every stage of the cycle, the +ideal engine will be perfectly reversible. That is to say, all its +operations will be exactly reversed as regards transfer of heat and +work, when the operations are performed in the reverse order and +direction. On this understanding Carnot's principle may be put in a +different way, which is often adopted, but is really only the same thing +put in different words: _The efficiency of a perfectly reversible engine +is the maximum possible, and is a function solely of the limits of +temperature between which it works_. This result depends essentially on +the existence of a state of thermal equilibrium defined by equality of +temperature, and independent, in the majority of cases, of the state of +a body in other respects. In order to apply the principle to the +calculation and prediction of results, it is sufficient to determine the +manner in which the efficiency depends on the temperature for one +particular case, since the efficiency must be the same for all +reversible engines. + + 16. _Experimental Verification of Carnot's Principle._--Carnot + endeavoured to test his result by the following simple calculations. + Suppose that we have a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston, + containing 1 gram of water at 100 deg. C., and that the pressure of + the steam, namely 760 mm., is in equilibrium with the external + pressure on the piston at this temperature. Place the cylinder in + connexion with a boiler or hot body at 101 deg. C. The water will then + acquire the temperature of 101 deg. C., and will absorb 1 gram-calorie + of heat. Some waste of motive power occurs here because heat is + allowed to pass from one body to another at a different temperature, + but the waste in this case is so small as to be immaterial. Keep the + cylinder in contact with the hot body at 101 deg. C. and allow the + piston to rise. It may be made to perform useful work as the pressure + is now 27.7 mm. (or 37.7 grams per sq. cm.) in excess of the external + pressure. Continue the process till all the water is converted into + steam. The heat absorbed from the hot body will be nearly 540 + gram-calories, the latent heat of steam at this temperature. The + increase of volume will be approximately 1620 c.c., the volume of 1 + gram of steam at this pressure and temperature. The work done by the + excess pressure will be 37.7 X 1620 = 61,000 gram-centimetres or 0.61 + of a kilogrammetre. Remove the hot body, and allow the steam to expand + further till its pressure is 760 mm. and its temperature has fallen to + 100 deg. C. The work which might be done in this expansion is less + than 1/1000th part of a kilogrammetre, and may be neglected for the + present purpose. Place the cylinder in contact with the cold body at + 100 deg. C., and allow the steam to condense at this temperature. No + work is done on the piston, because there is equilibrium of pressure, + but a quantity of heat equal to the latent heat of steam at 100 deg. + C. is given to the cold body. The water is now in its initial + condition, and the result of the process has been to gain 0.61 of a + kilogrammetre of work by allowing 540 gram-calories of heat to pass + from a body at 101 deg. C. to a body at 100 deg. C. by means of an + ideally simple steam-engine. The work obtainable in this way from 1000 + gram-calories of heat, or 1 kilo-calorie, would evidently be 1.13 + kilogrammetre (= 0.61 X 1000/540). + + Taking the same range of temperature, namely 101 deg. to 100 deg. C., + we may perform a similar series of operations with air in the + cylinder, instead of water and steam. Suppose the cylinder to contain + 1 gramme of air at 100 deg. C. and 760 mm. pressure instead of water. + Compress it without loss of heat (adiabatically), so as to raise its + temperature to 101 deg. C. Place it in contact with the hot body at + 101 deg. C., and allow it to expand at this temperature, absorbing + heat from the hot body, until its volume is increased by 1/374th part + (the expansion per degree at constant pressure). The quantity of heat + absorbed in this expansion, as explained in S 14, will be the + difference of the specific heats or the latent heat of expansion R' = + .069 calorie. Remove the hot body, and allow the gas to expand further + without gain of heat till its temperature falls to 100 deg. C. + Compress it at 100 deg. C. to its original volume, abstracting the + heat of compression by contact with the cold body at 100 deg. C. The + air is now in its original state, and the process has been carried out + in strict accordance with Carnot's rule. The quantity of external work + done in the cycle is easily obtained by the aid of the indicator + diagram ABCD (fig. 5), which is approximately a parallelogram in this + instance. The area of the diagram is equal to that of the rectangle + BEHG, being the product of the vertical height BE, namely, the + increase of pressure per 1 deg. at constant volume, by the increase of + volume BG, which is 1/273rd of the volume at 0 deg. C. and 760 mm., or + 2.83 c.c. The increase of pressure BE is 760/373, or 2.03 mm., which + is equivalent to 2.76 gm. per sq. cm. The work done in the cycle is + 2.76 X 2.83 = 7.82 gm. cm., or .0782 gram-metre. The heat absorbed at + 101 deg. C. was .069 gram-calorie, so that the work obtained is + .0782/.069 or 1.13 gram-metre per gram-calorie, or 1.13 kilogrammetre + per kilogram-calorie. This result is precisely the same as that + obtained by using steam with the same range of temperature, but a very + different kind of cycle. Carnot in making the same calculation did not + obtain quite so good an agreement, because the experimental data at + that time available were not so accurate. He used the value 1/267 for + the coefficient of expansion, and .267 for the specific heat of air. + Moreover, he did not feel justified in assuming, as above, that the + difference of the specific heats was the same at 100 deg. C. as at the + ordinary temperature of 15 deg. to 20 deg. C., at which it had been + experimentally determined. He made similar calculations for the vapour + of alcohol, which differed slightly from the vapour of water. But the + agreement he found was close enough to satisfy him that his + theoretical deductions were correct, and that the resulting ratio of + work to heat should be the same for all substances at the same + temperature. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Elementary Carnot Cycle for Gas.] + + 17. _Carnot's Function. Variation of Efficiency with Temperature._--By + means of calculations, similar to those given above, Carnot + endeavoured to find the amount of motive power obtainable from one + unit of heat per degree fall at various temperatures with various + substances. The value found above, namely 1.13 kilogrammetre per + kilo-calorie per 1 deg. fall, is the value of the efficiency per 1 + deg. fall at 100 deg. C. He was able to show that the efficiency per + degree fall probably diminished with rise of temperature, but the + experimental data at that time were too inconsistent to suggest the + true relation. He took as the analytical expression of his principle + that the efficiency W/H of a perfect engine taking in heat H at a + temperature t deg. C., and rejecting heat at the temperature 0 deg. + C., must be some function Ft of the temperature t, which would be the + same for all substances. The efficiency per degree fall at a + temperature t he represented by F't, the derived function of Ft. The + function F't would be the same for all substances at the same + temperature, but would have different values at different + temperatures. In terms of this function, which is generally known as + Carnot's function, the results obtained in the previous section might + be expressed as follows:-- + + "The increase of volume of a mixture of liquid and vapour per + unit-mass vaporized at any temperature, multiplied by the increase of + vapour-pressure per degree, is equal to the product of the function + F't by the latent heat of vaporization. + + "The difference of the specific heats, or the latent heat of expansion + for any substance multiplied by the function F't, is equal to the + product of the expansion per degree at constant pressure by the + increase of pressure per degree at constant volume." + + Since the last two coefficients are the same for all gases if equal + volumes are taken, Carnot concluded that: "The difference of the + specific heats at constant pressure and volume is the same for equal + volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure." + + Taking the expression W = RT log _e r for the whole work done by a gas + obeying the gaseous laws pv = RT in expanding at a temperature T from + a volume 1 (unity) to a volume r, or for a ratio of expansion r, and + putting W' = R log _e r for the work done in a cycle of range 1 deg., + Carnot obtained the expression for the heat absorbed by a gas in + isothermal expansion + + H = R log_e r/F't. (2) + + He gives several important deductions which follow from this formula, + which is the analytical expression of the experimental result already + quoted as having been discovered subsequently by Dulong. Employing the + above expression for the latent heat of expansion, Carnot deduced a + general expression for the specific heat of a gas at constant volume + on the basis of the caloric theory. He showed that if the specific + heat was independent of the temperature (the hypothesis already + adopted by Laplace and Poisson) the function F't must be of the form + + F't = R/C(t + t0) (3) + + where C and t0 are unknown constants. A similar result follows from + his expression for the difference of the specific heats. If this is + assumed to be constant and equal to C, the expression for F't becomes + R/CT, which is the same as the above if t0 = 273. Assuming the + specific heat to be also independent of the volume, he shows that the + function F't should be constant. But this assumption is inconsistent + with the caloric theory of latent heat of expansion, which requires + the specific heat to be a function of the volume. It appears in fact + impossible to reconcile Carnot's principle with the caloric theory on + any simple assumptions. As Carnot remarks: "The main principles on + which the theory of heat rests require most careful examination. Many + experimental facts appear almost inexplicable in the present state of + this theory." + +Carnot's work was subsequently put in a more complete analytical form by +B. P. E. Clapeyron (_Journ. de l'Ec. polytechn._, Paris, 1832, 14, p. +153), who also made use of Watt's indicator diagram for the first time +in discussing physical problems. Clapeyron gave the general expressions +for the latent heat of a vapour, and for the latent heat of isothermal +expansion of any substance, in terms of Carnot's function, employing the +notation of the calculus. The expressions he gave are the same in form +as those in use at the present day. He also gave the general expression +for Carnot's function, and endeavoured to find its variation with +temperature; but having no better data, he succeeded no better than +Carnot. Unfortunately, in describing Carnot's cycle, he assumed the +caloric theory of heat, and made some unnecessary mistakes, which Carnot +(who, we now know, was a believer in the mechanical theory) had been +very careful to avoid. Clapeyron directs one to compress the gas at the +lower temperature in contact with the body B _until the heat disengaged +is equal to that which has been absorbed at the higher temperature_.[6] +He assumes that the gas at this point contains the same quantity of heat +as it contained in its original state at the higher temperature, and +that, when the body B is removed, the gas will be restored to its +original temperature, when compressed to its initial volume. This +mistake is still attributed to Carnot, and regarded as a fatal objection +to his reasoning by nearly all writers at the present day. + +18. _Mechanical Theory of Heat._--According to the caloric theory, the +heat absorbed in the expansion of a gas became latent, like the latent +heat of vaporization of a liquid, but remained in the gas and was again +evolved on compressing the gas. This theory gave no explanation of the +source of the motive power produced by expansion. The mechanical theory +had explained the production of heat by friction as being due to +transformation of visible motion into a brisk agitation of the ultimate +molecules, but it had not so far given any definite explanation of the +converse production of motive power at the expense of heat. The theory +could not be regarded as complete until it had been shown that in the +production of work from heat, a certain quantity of heat disappeared, +and ceased to exist as heat; and that this quantity was the same as that +which could be generated by the expenditure of the work produced. The +earliest complete statement of the mechanical theory from this point of +view is contained in some notes written by Carnot, about 1830, but +published by his brother (_Life of Sadi Carnot_, Paris, 1878). Taking +the difference of the specific heats to be .078, he estimated the +mechanical equivalent at 370 kilogrammetres. But he fully recognized +that there were no experimental data at that time available for a +quantitative test of the theory, although it appeared to afford a good +qualitative explanation of the phenomena. He therefore planned a number +of crucial experiments such as the "porous plug" experiment, to test the +equivalence of heat and motive power. His early death in 1836 put a stop +to these experiments, but many of them have since been independently +carried out by other observers. + +The most obvious case of the production of work from heat is in the +expansion of a gas or vapour, which served in the first instance as a +means of calculating the ratio of equivalence, on the assumption that +all the heat which disappeared had been transformed into work and had +not merely become latent. Marc Seguin, in his _De l'influence des +chemins de fer_ (Paris, 1839), made a rough estimate in this manner of +the mechanical equivalent of heat, assuming that the loss of heat +represented by the fall of temperature of steam on expanding was +equivalent to the mechanical effect produced by the expansion. He also +remarks (_loc. cit._ p. 382) that it was absurd to suppose that "a +finite quantity of heat could produce an indefinite quantity of +mechanical action, and that it was more natural to assume that a certain +quantity of heat disappeared in the very act of producing motive power." +J. R. Mayer (_Liebig's Annalen_, 1842, 42, p. 233) stated the +equivalence of heat and work more definitely, deducing it from the old +principle, _causa aequat effectum_. Assuming that the sinking of a +mercury column by which a gas was compressed was equivalent to the heat +set free by the compression, he deduced that the warming of a kilogramme +of water 1 deg. C. would correspond to the fall of a weight of one +kilogramme from a height of about 365 metres. But Mayer did not adduce +any fresh experimental evidence, and made no attempt to apply his theory +to the fundamental equations of thermodynamics. It has since been urged +that the experiment of Gay-Lussac (1807), on the expansion of gas from +one globe to another (see above, S 11), was sufficient justification for +the assumption tacitly involved in Mayer's calculation. But Joule was +the first to supply the correct interpretation of this experiment, and +to repeat it on an adequate scale with suitable precautions. Joule was +also the first to measure directly the amount of heat liberated by the +compression of a gas, and to prove that heat was not merely rendered +latent, but disappeared altogether as heat, when a gas did work in +expansion. + +19. _Joule's Determinations of the Mechanical Equivalent._--The honour +of placing the mechanical theory of heat on a sound _experimental_ basis +belongs almost exclusively to J. P. Joule, who showed by direct +experiment that in all the most important cases in which heat was +generated by the expenditure of mechanical work, or mechanical work was +produced at the expense of heat, there was a constant ratio of +equivalence between the heat generated and the work expended and vice +versa. His first experiments were on the relation of the chemical and +electric energy expended to the heat produced in metallic conductors and +voltaic and electrolytic cells; these experiments were described in a +series of papers published in the _Phil. Mag._, 1840-1843. He first +proved the relation, known as Joule's law, that the heat produced in a +conductor of resistance R by a current C is proportional to C^2R per +second. He went on to show that the total heat produced in any voltaic +circuit was proportional to the electromotive force E of the battery and +to the number of equivalents electrolysed in it. Faraday had shown that +electromotive force depends on chemical affinity. Joule measured the +corresponding heats of combustion, and showed that the electromotive +force corresponding to a chemical reaction is proportional to the heat +of combustion of the electrochemical equivalent. He also measured the +E.M.F. required to decompose water, and showed that when part of the +electric energy EC is thus expended in a voltameter, the heat generated +is less than the heat of combustion corresponding to EC by a quantity +representing the heat of combustion of the decomposed gases. His papers +so far had been concerned with the relations between electrical energy, +chemical energy and heat which he showed to be mutually equivalent. The +first paper in which he discussed the relation of heat to mechanical +power was entitled "On the Calorific Effects of Magneto-Electricity, and +on the Mechanical Value of Heat" (_Brit. Assoc._, 1843; _Phil. Mag._, +23, p. 263). In this paper he showed that the heat produced by currents +generated by magneto-electric induction followed the same law as voltaic +currents. By a simple and ingenious arrangement he succeeded in +measuring the mechanical power expended in producing the currents, and +deduced the mechanical equivalent of heat and of electrical energy. The +amount of mechanical work required to raise 1 lb. of water 1 deg. F. (1 +B.Th.U.), as found by this method, was 838 foot-pounds. In a note added +to the paper he states that he found the value 770 foot-pounds by the +more direct method of forcing water through fine tubes. In a paper "On +the Changes of Temperature produced by the Rarefaction and Condensation +of Air" (_Phil. Mag._, May 1845), he made the first direct measurements +of the quantity of heat disengaged by compressing air, and also of the +heat absorbed when the air was allowed to expand against atmospheric +pressure; as the result he deduced the value 798 foot-pounds for the +mechanical equivalent of 1 B.Th.U. He also showed that there was no +appreciable absorption of heat when air was allowed to expand in such a +manner as not to develop mechanical power, and he pointed out that the +mechanical equivalent of heat could not be satisfactorily deduced from +the relations of the specific heats, because the knowledge of the +specific heats of gases at that time was of so uncertain a character. He +attributed most weight to his later determinations of the mechanical +equivalent made by the direct method of friction of liquids. He showed +that the results obtained with different liquids, water, mercury and +sperm oil, were the same, namely, 782 foot-pounds; and finally repeating +the method with water, using all the precautions and improvements which +his experience had suggested, he obtained the value 772 foot-pounds, +which was accepted universally for many years, and has only recently +required alteration on account of the more exact definition of the heat +unit, and the standard scale of temperature (see CALORIMETRY). The great +value of Joule's work for the general establishment of the principle of +the conservation of energy lay in the variety and completeness of the +experimental evidence he adduced. It was not sufficient to find the +relation between heat and mechanical work or other forms of energy in +one particular case. It was necessary to show that the same relation +held in all cases which could be examined experimentally, and that the +ratio of equivalence of the different forms of energy, measured in +different ways, was independent of the manner in which the conversion +was effected and of the material or working substance employed. + +As the result of Joule's experiments, we are justified in concluding +that heat is a form of energy, and that all its transformations are +subject to the general principle of the conservation of energy. As +applied to heat, the principle is called the first law of +thermodynamics, and may be stated as follows: _When heat is transformed +into any other kind of energy, or vice versa, the total quantity of +energy remains invariable; that is to say, the quantity of heat which +disappears is equivalent to the quantity of the other kind of energy +produced and vice versa._ + +The number of units of mechanical work equivalent to one unit of heat is +generally called the mechanical equivalent of heat, or Joule's +equivalent, and is denoted by the letter J. Its numerical value depends +on the units employed for heat and mechanical energy respectively. The +values of the equivalent in terms of the units most commonly employed at +the present time are as follows:-- + + 777 foot-pounds (Lat. 45 deg.) are equivalent to 1 B.Th.U. (lb. deg. Fahr.) + 1399 foot-pounds " " " 1 lb. deg. C. + 426.3 kilogrammetres " " 1 kilogram-deg. C. or + kilo-calorie. + 426.3 grammetres " " 1 gram-deg. C. or calorie. + 4.180 joules " " 1 gram-deg. C. or calorie. + +The water for the heat units is supposed to be taken at 20 deg. C. or 68 +deg. F., and the degree of temperature is supposed to be measured by the +hydrogen thermometer. The acceleration of gravity in latitude 45 deg. is +taken as 980.7 C.G.S. For details of more recent and accurate methods of +determination, the reader should refer to the article CALORIMETRY, where +tables of the variation of the specific heat of water with temperature +are also given. + +The second law of thermodynamics is a title often used to denote +Carnot's principle or some equivalent mathematical expression. In some +cases this title is not conferred on Carnot's principle itself, but on +some axiom from which the principle may be indirectly deduced. These +axioms, however, cannot as a rule be directly applied, so that it would +appear preferable to take Carnot's principle itself as the second law. +It may be observed that, as a matter of history, Carnot's principle was +established and generally admitted before the principle of the +conservation of energy as applied to heat, and that from this point of +view the titles, first and second laws, are not particularly +appropriate. + +20. _Combination of Carnot's Principle with the Mechanical Theory._--A +very instructive paper, as showing the state of the science of heat +about this time, is that of C. H. A. Holtzmann, "On the Heat and +Elasticity of Gases and Vapours" (Mannheim, 1845; Taylor's _Scientific +Memoirs_, iv. 189). He points out that the theory of Laplace and Poisson +does not agree with facts when applied to vapours, and that Clapeyron's +formulae, though probably correct, contain an undetermined function +(Carnot's F't, Clapeyron's 1/C) of the temperature. He determines the +value of this function to be J/T by assuming, with Seguin and Mayer, +that the work done in the isothermal expansion of a gas is a measure of +the heat absorbed. From the then accepted value .078 of the difference +of the specific heats of air, he finds the numerical value of J to be +374 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie. _Assuming the heat equivalent of +the work to remain in the gas_, he obtains expressions similar to +Clapeyron's for the total heat and the specific heats. In consequence of +this assumption, the formulae he obtained for adiabatic expansion were +necessarily wrong, but no data existed at that time for testing them. In +applying his formulae to vapours, he obtained an expression for the +saturation-pressure of steam, which agreed with the empirical formula of +Roche, and satisfied other experimental data on the supposition that the +coefficient of expansion of steam was .00423, and its specific heat +1.69--values which are now known to be impossible, but which appeared at +the time to give a very satisfactory explanation of the phenomena. + +The essay of Hermann Helmholtz, _On the Conservation of Force_ (Berlin, +1847), discusses all the known cases of the transformation of energy, +and is justly regarded as one of the chief landmarks in the +establishment of the energy-principle. Helmholtz gives an admirable +statement of the fundamental principle as applied to heat, but makes no +attempt to formulate the correct equations of thermodynamics on the +mechanical theory. He points out the fallacy of Holtzmann's (and +Mayer's) calculation of the equivalent, but admits that it is supported +by Joule's experiments, though he does not seem to appreciate the true +value of Joule's work. He considers that Holtzmann's formulae are well +supported by experiment, and are much preferable to Clapeyron's, because +the value of the undetermined function F't is found. But he fails to +notice that Holtzmann's equations are fundamentally inconsistent with +the conservation of energy, because the heat equivalent of the external +work done is supposed to remain in the gas. + +That a quantity of heat equivalent to the work performed actually +disappears when a gas does work in expansion, was first shown by Joule +in the paper on condensation and rarefaction of air (1845) already +referred to. At the conclusion of this paper he felt justified by direct +experimental evidence in reasserting definitely the hypothesis of Seguin +(_loc. cit._ p. 383) that "the steam while expanding in the cylinder +loses heat in quantity exactly proportional to the mechanical force +developed, and that on the condensation of the steam the heat thus +converted into power is not given back." He did not see his way to +reconcile this conclusion with Clapeyron's description of Carnot's +cycle. At a later date, in a letter to Professor W. Thomson (Lord +Kelvin) (1848), he pointed out that, since, according to his own +experiments, the work done in the expansion of a gas at constant +temperature is equivalent to the heat absorbed, by equating Carnot's +expressions (given in S 17) for the work done and the heat absorbed, the +value of Carnot's function F't must be equal to J/T, in order to +reconcile his principle with the mechanical theory. + +Professor W. Thomson gave an account of Carnot's theory (_Trans. Roy. +Soc. Edin._, Jan. 1849), in which he recognized the discrepancy between +Clapeyron's statement and Joule's experiments, but did not see his way +out of the difficulty. He therefore adopted Carnot's principle +provisionally, and proceeded to calculate a table of values of Carnot's +function F't, from the values of the total-heat and vapour-pressure of +steam-then recently determined by Regnault (_Memoires de l'Institut de +Paris_, 1847). In making the calculation, he assumed that the specific +volume v of saturated steam at any temperature T and pressure p is that +given by the gaseous laws, pv = RT. The results are otherwise correct so +far as Regnault's data are accurate, because the values of the +efficiency per degree F't are not affected by any assumption with regard +to the nature of heat. He obtained the values of the efficiency F't over +a finite range from t to 0 deg. C., by adding up the values of F't for +the separate degrees. This latter proceeding is inconsistent with the +mechanical theory, but is the correct method on the assumption that the +heat given up to the condenser is equal to that taken from the source. +The values he obtained for F't agreed very well with those previously +given by Carnot and Clapeyron, and showed that this function diminishes +with rise of temperature roughly in the inverse ratio of T, as suggested +by Joule. + +R. J. E. Clausius (_Pogg. Ann._, 1850, 79, p. 369) and W. J. M. Rankine +(_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._, 1850) were the first to develop the correct +equations of thermodynamics on the mechanical theory. When heat was +supplied to a body to change its temperature or state, part remained in +the body as intrinsic heat energy E, but part was converted into +external work of expansion W and ceased to exist as heat. The part +remaining in the body was always the same for the same change of state, +however performed, as required by Carnot's fundamental axiom, but the +part corresponding to the external work was necessarily different for +different values of the work done. Thus in any cycle in which the body +was exactly restored to its initial state, the heat remaining in the +body would always be the same, or as Carnot puts it, the quantities of +heat absorbed and given out in its diverse transformations are exactly +"compensated," so far as the body is concerned. But the quantities of +heat absorbed and given out are not necessarily equal. On the contrary, +they differ by the equivalent of the external work done in the cycle. +Applying this principle to the case of steam, Clausius deduced a fact +previously unknown, that the specific heat of steam maintained in a +state of saturation is negative, which was also deduced by Rankine (loc. +cit.) about the same time. In applying the principle to gases Clausius +assumes (with Mayer and Holtzmann) that the heat absorbed by a gas in +isothermal expansion is equivalent to the work done, but he does not +appear to be acquainted with Joule's experiment, and the reasons he +adduces in support of this assumption are not conclusive. This being +admitted, he deduces from the energy principle alone the propositions +already given by Carnot with reference to gases, and shows in addition +that the specific heat of a perfect gas must be independent of the +density. In the second part of his paper he introduces Carnot's +principle, which he quotes as follows: "The performance of work is +equivalent to a transference of heat from a hot to a cold body without +the quantity of heat being thereby diminished." This is not Carnot's way +of stating his principle (see S 15), but has the effect of exaggerating +the importance of Clapeyron's unnecessary assumption. By equating the +expressions given by Carnot for the work done and the heat absorbed in +the expansion of a gas, he deduces (following Holtzmann) the value J/T +for Carnot's function F't (which Clapeyron denotes by 1/C). He shows +that this assumption gives values of Carnot's function which agree +fairly well with those calculated by Clapeyron and Thomson, and that it +leads to values of the mechanical equivalent not differing greatly from +those of Joule. Substituting the value J/T for C in the analytical +expressions given by Clapeyron for the latent heat of expansion and +vaporization, these relations are immediately reduced to their modern +form (see THERMODYNAMICS, S 4). Being unacquainted with Carnot's +original work, but recognizing the invalidity of Clapeyron's description +of Carnot's cycle, Clausius substituted a proof consistent with the +mechanical theory, which he based on the axiom that "heat cannot of +itself pass from cold to hot." The proof on this basis involves the +application of the energy principle, which does not appear to be +necessary, and the axiom to which final appeal is made does not appear +more convincing than Carnot's. Strange to say, Clausius did not in this +paper give the expression for the efficiency in a Carnot cycle of finite +range (Carnot's Ft) which follows immediately from the value J/T assumed +for the efficiency F't of a cycle of infinitesimal range at the +temperature t C or T Abs. + +Rankine did not make the same assumption as Clausius explicitly, but +applied the mechanical theory of heat to the development of his +hypothesis of molecular vortices, and deduced from it a number of +results similar to those obtained by Clausius. Unfortunately the paper +(loc. cit.) was not published till some time later, but in a summary +given in the _Phil. Mag._ (July 1851) the principal results were +detailed. Assuming the value of Joule's equivalent, Rankine deduced the +value 0.2404 for the specific heat of air at constant pressure, in place +of 0.267 as found by Delaroche and Berard. The subsequent verification +of this value by Regnault (_Comptes rendus_, 1853) afforded strong +confirmation of the accuracy of Joule's work. In a note appended to the +abstract in the _Phil. Mag._ Rankine states that he has succeeded in +proving that the maximum efficiency of an engine working in a Carnot +cycle of finite range t1 to t0 is of the form (t1 - t0)/(t1 - k), where +k is a constant, the same for all substances. This is correct if t +represents temperature Centigrade, and k = -273. + +Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in a paper "On the Dynamical Theory +of Heat" (_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._, 1851, first published in the _Phil. +Mag._, 1852) gave a very clear statement of the position of the theory +at that time. He showed that the value F't = J/T, assumed for Carnot's +function by Clausius without any experimental justification, rested +solely on the evidence of Joule's experiment, and might possibly not be +true at all temperatures. Assuming the value J/T with this reservation, +he gave as the expression for the efficiency over a finite range t1 to +t0 C., or T1 to T0 Abs., the result, + + W/H = (t1 - t0)/(t1 + 273) = (T1 - T0)/T1 (4) + +which, he observed, agrees in form with that found by Rankine. + +21. _The Absolute Scale of Temperature._--Since Carnot's function is the +same for all substances at the same temperature, and is a function of +the temperature only, it supplies a means of measuring temperature +independently of the properties of any particular substance. This +proposal was first made by Lord Kelvin (_Phil. Mag._, 1848), who +suggested that the degree of temperature should be chosen so that the +efficiency of a perfect engine at any point of the scale should be the +same, or that Carnot's function F't should be constant. This would give +the simplest expression for the efficiency on the caloric theory, but +the scale so obtained, when the values of Carnot's function were +calculated from Regnault's observations on steam, was found to differ +considerably from the scale of the mercury or air-thermometer. At a +later date, when it became clear that the value of Carnot's function was +very nearly proportional to the reciprocal of the temperature T measured +from the absolute zero of the gas thermometer, he proposed a simpler +method (_Phil. Trans._, 1854), namely, to define absolute temperature +[theta] as proportional to the reciprocal of Carnot's function. On this +definition of absolute temperature, the expression ([theta]1 - +[theta]0)/[theta]1 for the efficiency of a Carnot cycle with limits +[theta]1 and [theta]0 would be exact, and it became a most important +problem to determine how far the temperature T by gas thermometer +differed from the absolute temperature [theta]. With this object he +devised a very delicate method, known as the "porous plug experiment" +(see THERMODYNAMICS) of testing the deviation of the gas thermometer +from the absolute scale. The experiments were carried out in conjunction +with Joule, and finally resulted in showing (_Phil. Trans._, 1862, "On +the Thermal Effects of Fluids in Motion") that the deviations of the air +thermometer from the absolute scale as above defined are almost +negligible, and that in the case of the gas hydrogen the deviations are +so small that a thermometer containing this gas may be taken for all +practical purposes as agreeing exactly with the absolute scale at all +ordinary temperatures. For this reason the hydrogen thermometer has +since been generally adopted as the standard. + +22. _Availability of Heat of Combustion._--Taking the value 1.13 +kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie for 1 deg. C. fall of temperature at 100 +deg. C., Carnot attempted to estimate the possible performance of a +steam-engine receiving heat at 160 deg. C. and rejecting it at 40 deg. +C. Assuming the performance to be simply proportional to the temperature +fall, the work done for 120 deg. fall would be 134 kilogrammetres per +kilo-calorie. To make an accurate calculation required a knowledge of +the variation of the function F't with temperature. Taking the accurate +formula of S 20, the work obtainable is 118 kilogrammetres per +kilo-calorie, which is 28% of 426, the mechanical equivalent of the +kilo-calorie in kilogrammetres. Carnot pointed out that the fall of 120 +deg. C. utilized in the steam-engine was only a small fraction of the +whole temperature fall obtainable by combustion, and made an estimate of +the total power available if the whole fall could be utilized, allowing +for the probable diminution of the function F't with rise of +temperature. His estimate was 3.9 million kilogrammetres per kilogramme +of coal. This was certainly an over-estimate, but was surprisingly +close, considering the scanty data at his disposal. + +In reality the fraction of the heat of combustion available, even in an +ideal engine and apart from practical limitations, is much less than +might be inferred from the efficiency formula of the Carnot cycle. In +applying this formula to estimate the availability of the heat it is +usual to take the temperature obtainable by the combustion of the fuel +as the upper limit of temperature in the formula. For carbon burnt _in +air_ at constant pressure without any loss of heat, the products of +combustion might be raised 2300 deg. C. in temperature, assuming that +the specific heats of the products were constant and that there was no +dissociation. If all the heat could be supplied to the working fluid at +this temperature, that of the condenser being 40 deg. C., the possible +efficiency by the formula of S 20 would be 89%. But the combustion +obviously cannot maintain so high a temperature if heat is being +continuously abstracted by a boiler. Suppose that [theta]' is the +maximum temperature of combustion as above estimated, [theta]" the +temperature of the boiler, and [theta]^0 that of the condenser. Of the +whole heat supplied by combustion represented by the rise of temperature +[theta]' - [theta]^0, the fraction ([theta]' - [theta]")/([theta]' +-[theta]^0) is the maximum that could be supplied to the boiler, the +fraction ([theta]" - [theta]^0)/([theta]' - [theta]^0) being carried +away with the waste gases. Of the heat supplied to the boiler, the +fraction ([theta]' - [theta]^0)/[theta]" might theoretically be +converted into work. The problem in the case of an engine using a +separate working fluid, like a steam-engine, is to find what must be the +temperature [theta]" of the boiler in order to obtain the largest +possible fraction of the heat of combustion in the form of work. It is +easy to show that [theta]" must be the geometric mean of [theta]' and +[theta]^0, or [theta]" = [root]([theta]'[theta]^0). Taking [theta]' +-[theta]^0 = 2300 deg. C., and [theta]^0 = 313 deg. Abs. as before, we +find [theta]" = 903 deg. Abs. or 630 deg. C. The heat supplied to the +boiler is then 74.4% of the heat of combustion, and of this 65.3% is +converted into work, giving a maximum possible efficiency of 49% in +place of 89%. With the boiler at 160 deg. C., the possible efficiency, +calculated in a similar manner, would be 26.3%, which shows that the +possible increase of efficiency by increasing the temperature range is +not so great as is usually supposed. If the temperature of the boiler +were raised to 300 deg. C., corresponding to a pressure of 1260 lb. per +sq. in., which is occasionally surpassed in modern flash-boilers, the +possible efficiency would be 40%. The waste heat from the boiler, +supposed perfectly efficient, would be in this case 11%, of which less +than a quarter could be utilized in the form of work. Carnot foresaw +that in order to utilize a larger percentage of the heat of combustion +it would be necessary to employ a series of working fluids, the waste +heat from one boiler and condenser serving to supply the next in the +series. This has actually been effected in a few cases, e.g. steam and +SO2, when special circumstances exist to compensate for the extra +complication. Improvements in the steam-engine since Carnot's time have +been mainly in the direction of reducing waste due to condensation and +leakage by multiple expansion, superheating, &c. The gain by increased +temperature range has been comparatively small owing to limitations of +pressure, and the best modern steam-engines do not utilize more than 20% +of the heat of combustion. This is in reality a very respectable +fraction of the ideal limit of 40% above calculated on the assumption of +1260 lb. initial pressure, with a perfectly efficient boiler and +complete expansion, and with an ideal engine which does not waste +available motive power by complete condensation of the steam before it +is returned to the boiler. + +23. _Advantages of Internal Combustion._--As Carnot pointed out, the +chief advantage of using atmospheric air as a working fluid in a +heat-engine lies in the possibility of imparting heat to it directly by +internal combustion. This avoids the limitation imposed by the use of a +separate boiler, which as we have seen reduces the possible efficiency +at least 50%. Even with internal combustion, however, the full range of +temperature is not available, because the heat cannot conveniently in +practice be communicated to the working fluid at constant temperature, +owing to the large range of expansion at constant temperature required +for the absorption of a sufficient quantity of heat. Air-engines of this +type, such as Stirling's or Ericsson's, taking in heat at constant +temperature, though theoretically the most perfect, are bulky and +mechanically inefficient. In practical engines the heat is generated by +the combustion of an explosive mixture at constant volume or at constant +pressure. The heat is not all communicated at the highest temperature, +but over a range of temperature from that of the mixture at the +beginning of combustion to the maximum temperature. The earliest +instance of this type of engine is the lycopodium engine of M. M. +Niepce, discussed by Carnot, in which a combustible mixture of air and +lycopodium powder at atmospheric pressure was ignited in a cylinder, and +did work on a piston. The early gas-engines of E. Lenoir (1860) and N. +Otto and E. Langen (1866), operated in a similar manner with +illuminating gas in place of lycopodium. Combustion in this case is +effected practically at constant volume, and the maximum efficiency +theoretically obtainable is 1 - log_e r/(r - 1), where r is the ratio of +the maximum temperature [theta]' to the initial temperature [theta]^0. +In order to obtain this efficiency it would be necessary to follow +Carnot's rule, and expand the gas after ignition without loss or gain of +heat from [theta]' down to [theta]^0, and then to compress it at +[theta]^0 to its initial volume. If the rise of temperature in +combustion were 2300 deg. C., and the initial temperature were 0 deg. C. +or 273 deg. Abs., the theoretical efficiency would be 73.3%, which is +much greater than that obtainable with a boiler. But in order to reach +this value, it would be necessary to expand the mixture to about 270 +times its initial volume, which is obviously impracticable. Owing to +incomplete expansion and rapid cooling of the heated gases by the large +surface exposed, the actual efficiency of the Lenoir engine was less +than 5%, and of the Otto and Langen, with more rapid expansion, about +10%. Carnot foresaw that in order to render an engine of this type +practically efficient, it would be necessary to compress the mixture +before ignition. Compression is beneficial in three ways: (1) it permits +a greater range of expansion after ignition; (2) it raises the mean +effective pressure, and thus improves the mechanical efficiency and the +power in proportion to size and weight; (3) it reduces the loss of heat +during ignition by reducing the surface exposed to the hot gases. In the +modern gas or petrol motor, compression is employed as in Carnot's +cycle, but the efficiency attainable is limited not so much by +considerations of temperature as by limitations of volume. It is +impracticable before combustion at constant volume to compress a rich +mixture to much less than 1/5th of its initial volume, and, for +mechanical simplicity, the range of expansion is made equal to that of +compression. The cycle employed was patented in 1862 by Beau de Rochas +(d. 1892), but was first successfully carried out by Otto (1876). It +differs from the Carnot cycle in employing reception and rejection of +heat at constant volume instead of at constant temperature. This cycle +is not so efficient as the Carnot cycle for given limits of temperature, +but, _for the given limits of volume imposed_, it gives a much higher +efficiency than the Carnot cycle. The efficiency depends only on the +range of temperature in expansion and compression, and is given by the +formula ([theta]' - [theta]")/[theta]', where [theta]' is the maximum +temperature, and [theta]" the temperature at the end of expansion. The +formula is the same as that for the Carnot cycle with the same range of +temperature in expansion. The ratio [theta]'/[theta]" is r^([gamma] - +1), where r is the given ratio of expansion or compression, and [gamma] +is the ratio of the specific heats of the working fluid. Assuming the +working fluid to be a perfect gas with the same properties as air, we +should have [gamma] = 1.41. Taking r = 5, the formula gives 48% for the +maximum possible efficiency. The actual products of combustion vary with +the nature of the fuel employed, and have different properties from air, +but the efficiency is found to vary with compression in the same manner +as for air. For this reason a committee of the Institution of Civil +Engineers in 1905 recommended the adoption of the air-standard for +estimating the effects of varying the compression ratio, and defined the +relative efficiency of an internal combustion engine as the ratio of its +observed efficiency to that of a perfect air-engine with the same +compression. + +24. _Effect of Dissociation, and Increase of Specific Heat._--One of the +most important effects of heat is the decomposition or dissociation of +compound molecules. Just as the molecules of a vapour combine with +evolution of heat to form the more complicated molecules of the liquid, +and as the liquid molecules require the addition of heat to effect their +separation into molecules of vapour; so in the case of molecules of +different kinds which combine with evolution of heat, the reversal of +the process can be effected either by the agency of heat, or indirectly +by supplying the requisite amount of energy by electrical or other +methods. Just as the latent heat of vaporization diminishes with rise of +temperature, and the pressure of the dissociated vapour molecules +increases, so in the case of compound molecules in general the heat of +combination diminishes with rise of temperature, and the pressure of the +products of dissociation increases. There is evidence that the compound +carbon dioxide, CO2, is partly dissociated into carbon monoxide and +oxygen at high temperatures, and that the proportion dissociated +increases with rise of temperature. There is a very close analogy +between these phenomena and the vaporization of a liquid. The laws which +govern dissociation are the same fundamental laws of thermodynamics, but +the relations involved are necessarily more complex on account of the +presence of different kinds of molecules, and present special +difficulties for accurate investigation in the case where dissociation +does not begin to be appreciable until a high temperature is reached. It +is easy, however, to see that the general effect of dissociation must be +to diminish the available temperature of combustion, and all experiments +go to show that in ordinary combustible mixtures the rise of temperature +actually attained is much less than that calculated as in S 22, on the +assumption that the whole heat of combustion is developed and +communicated to products of constant specific heat. The defect of +temperature observed can be represented by supposing that the specific +heat of the products of combustion increases with rise of temperature. +This is the case for CO2 even at ordinary temperatures, according to +Regnault, and probably also for air and steam at higher temperatures. +Increase of specific heat is a necessary accompaniment of dissociation, +and from some points of view may be regarded as merely another way of +stating the facts. It is the most convenient method to adopt in the case +of products of combustion consisting of a mixture of CO2 and steam with +a large excess of inert gases, because the relations of equilibrium of +dissociated molecules of so many different kinds would be too complex to +permit of any other method of expression. It appears from the researches +of Dugald Clerk, H. le Chatelier and others that the apparent specific +heat of the products of combustion in a gas-engine may be taken as +approximately .34 to .33 in place of .24 at working temperatures between +1000 deg. C. and 1700 deg. C., and that the ratio of the specific heats +is about 1.29 in place of 1.41. This limits the availability of the heat +of combustion by reducing the rise of temperature actually obtainable in +combustion at constant volume by 30 or 40%, and also by reducing the +range of temperature [theta]'/[theta]" for a given ratio of expansions r +from r^(.41) to r^(.29). The formula given in S 21 is no longer quite +exact, because the ratio of the specific heats of the mixture during +compression is not the same as that of the products of combustion during +expansion. But since the work done depends principally on the expansion +curve, the ratio of the range of temperature in expansion ([theta]' +-[theta]") to the maximum temperature [theta]' will still give a very +good approximation to the possible efficiency. Taking r = 5, as before, +for the compression ratio, the possible efficiency is reduced from 48% +to 38%, if [gamma] = 1.29 instead of 1.41. A large gas-engine of the +present day with r = 5 may actually realize as much as 34% indicated +efficiency, which is 90% of the maximum possible, showing how perfectly +all avoidable heat losses have been minimized. + +It is often urged that the gas-engine is relatively less efficient than +the steam-engine, because, although it has a much higher absolute +efficiency, it does not utilize so large a fraction of its temperature +range, reckoning that of the steam-engine from the temperature of the +boiler to that of the condenser, and that of the gas-engine from the +maximum temperature of combustion to that of the air. This is not quite +fair, and has given rise to the mistaken notion that "there is an +immense margin for improvement in the gas-engine," which is not the case +if the practical limitations of volume are rightly considered. If +expansion could be carried out in accordance with Carnot's principle of +maximum efficiency, down to the lower limit of temperature [theta]0, +with rejection of heat at [theta]0 during compression to the original +volume V0, it would no doubt be possible to obtain an ideal efficiency +of nearly 80%. But this would be quite impracticable, as it would +require expansion to about 100 times v0, or 500 times the compression +volume. Some advantage no doubt might be obtained by carrying the +expansion beyond the original volume. This has been done, but is not +found to be worth the extra complication. A more practical method, which +has been applied by Diesel for liquid fuel, is to introduce the fuel at +the end of compression, and adjust the supply in such a manner as to +give combustion at nearly constant pressure. This makes it possible to +employ higher compression, with a corresponding increase in the ratio of +expansion and the theoretical efficiency. With a compression ratio of +14, an indicated efficiency of 40% has been obtained In this way, but +owing to additional complications the brake efficiency was only 31%, +which is hardly any improvement on the brake efficiency of 30% obtained +with the ordinary type of gas-engine. Although Carnot's principle makes +it possible to calculate in every case what the limiting possible +efficiency would be for any kind of cycle if all heat losses were +abolished, it is very necessary, in applying the principle to practical +cases, to take account of the possibility of avoiding the heat losses +which are supposed to be absent, and of other practical limitations in +the working of the actual engine. An immense amount of time and +ingenuity has been wasted in striving to realize impossible margins of +ideal efficiency, which a close study of the practical conditions would +have shown to be illusory. As Carnot remarks at the conclusion of his +essay: "Economy of fuel is only one of the conditions a heat-engine must +satisfy; in many cases it is only secondary, and must often give way to +considerations of safety, strength and wearing qualities of the machine, +of smallness of space occupied, or of expense in erecting. To know how +to appreciate justly in each case the considerations of convenience and +economy, to be able to distinguish the essential from the accessory, to +balance all fairly, and finally to arrive at the best result by the +simplest means, such must be the principal talent of the man called on +to direct and co-ordinate the work of his fellows for the attainment of +a useful object of any kind." + + +TRANSFERENCE OF HEAT + +25. _Modes of Transference._--There are three principal modes of +transference of heat, namely (1) convection, (2) conduction, and (3) +radiation. + +(1) In convection, heat is carried or conveyed by the motion of heated +masses of matter. The most familiar illustrations of this method of +transference are the heating of buildings by the circulation of steam or +hot water, or the equalization of temperature of a mass of unequally +heated liquid or gas by convection currents, produced by natural changes +of density or by artificial stirring. (2) In conduction, heat is +transferred by contact between contiguous particles of matter and is +passed on from one particle to the next without visible relative motion +of the parts of the body. A familiar illustration of conduction is the +passage of heat through the metal plates of a boiler from the fire to +the water inside, or the transference of heat from a soldering bolt to +the solder and the metal with which it is placed in contact. (3) In +radiation, the heated body gives rise to a motion of vibration in the +aether, which is propagated equally in all directions, and is +reconverted into heat when it encounters any obstacle capable of +absorbing it. Thus radiation differs from conduction and convection in +taking place most perfectly in the absence of matter, whereas conduction +and convection require material communication between the bodies +concerned. + +In the majority of cases of transference of heat all three modes of +transference are simultaneously operative in a greater or less degree, +and the combined effect is generally of great complexity. The different +modes of transference are subject to widely different laws, and the +difficulty of disentangling their effects and subjecting them to +calculation is often one of the most serious obstacles in the +experimental investigation of heat. In space void of matter, we should +have pure radiation, but it is difficult to obtain so perfect a vacuum +that the effects of the residual gas in transferring heat by conduction +or convection are inappreciable. In the interior of an opaque solid we +should have pure conduction, but if the solid is sensibly transparent in +thin layers there must also be an internal radiation, while in a liquid +or a gas it is very difficult to eliminate the effects of convection. +These difficulties are well illustrated in the historical development of +the subject by the experimental investigations which have been made to +determine the laws of heat-transference, such as the laws of cooling, of +radiation and of conduction. + +26. _Newton's Law of Cooling._--There is one essential condition common +to all three modes of heat-transference, namely, that they depend on +difference of temperature, that the direction of the transfer of heat is +always from hot to cold, and that the rate of transference is, for small +differences, directly proportional to the difference of temperature. +Without difference of temperature there is no transfer of heat. When two +bodies have been brought to the same temperature by conduction, they are +also in equilibrium as regards radiation, and vice versa. If this were +not the case, there could be no equilibrium of heat defined by equality +of temperature. A hot body placed in an enclosure of lower temperature, +e.g. a calorimeter in its containing vessel, generally loses heat by all +three modes simultaneously in different degrees. The loss by each mode +will depend in different ways on the form, extent and nature of its +surface and on that of the enclosure, on the manner in which it is +supported, on its relative position and distance from the enclosure, and +on the nature of the intervening medium. But provided that the +difference of temperature is small, the rate of loss of heat by all +modes will be approximately proportional to the difference of +temperature, the other conditions remaining constant. The rate of +cooling or the rate of fall of temperature will also be nearly +proportional to the rate of loss of heat, if the specific heat of the +cooling body is constant, or the rate of cooling at any moment will be +proportional to the difference of temperature. This simple relation is +commonly known as Newton's law of cooling, but is limited in its +application to comparatively simple cases such as the foregoing. Newton +himself applied it to estimate the temperature of a red-hot iron ball, +by observing the time which it took to cool from a red heat to a known +temperature, and comparing this with the time taken to cool through a +known range at ordinary temperatures. According to this law if the +excess of temperature of the body above its surroundings is observed at +equal intervals of time, the observed values will form a geometrical +progression with a common ratio. Supposing, for instance, that the +surrounding temperature were 0 deg. C., that the red-hot ball took 25 +minutes to cool from its original temperature to 20 deg. C., and 5 +minutes to cool from 20 deg. C. to 10 deg. C., the original temperature +is easily calculated on the assumption that the excess of temperature +above 0 deg. C. falls to half its value in each interval of 5 minutes. +Doubling the value 20 deg. at 25 minutes five times, we arrive at 640 +deg. C. as the original temperature. No other method of estimation of +such temperatures was available in the time of Newton, but, as we now +know, the simple law of proportionality to the temperature difference is +inapplicable over such large ranges of temperature. The rate of loss of +heat by radiation, and also by convection and conduction to the +surrounding air, increases much more rapidly than in simple proportion +to the temperature difference, and the rate of increase of each follows +a different law. At a later date Sir John Herschel measured the +intensity of the solar radiation at the surface of the earth, and +endeavoured to form an estimate of the temperature of the sun by +comparison with terrestrial sources on the assumption that the intensity +of radiation was simply proportional to the temperature difference. He +thus arrived at an estimate of several million degrees, which we now +know would be about a thousand times too great. The application of +Newton's law necessarily leads to absurd results when the difference of +temperature is very large, but the error will not in general exceed 2 to +3% if the temperature difference does not exceed 10 deg. C., and the +percentage error is proportionately much smaller for smaller +differences. + +27. _Dulong and Petit's Empirical Laws of Cooling._--One of the most +elaborate experimental investigations of the law of cooling was that of +Dulong and Petit (_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1817, 7, pp. 225 and 337), who +observed the rate of cooling of a mercury thermometer from 300 deg. C. +in a water-jacketed enclosure at various temperatures from 0 deg. C. to +80 deg. C. In order to obtain the rate of cooling by radiation alone, +they exhausted the enclosure as perfectly as possible after the +introduction of the thermometer, but with the imperfect appliances +available at that time they were not able to obtain a vacuum better than +about 3 or 4 mm. of mercury. They found that the velocity of cooling V +in a vacuum could be represented by a formula of the type + + V = A(a^t - a^t0) (5) + +in which t is the temperature of the thermometer, and t0 that of the +enclosure, a is a constant having the value 1.0075, and the coefficient +A depends on the form of the bulb and the nature of its surface. For the +ranges of temperature they employed, this formula gives much better +results than Newton's, but it must be remembered that the temperatures +were expressed on the arbitrary scale of the mercury thermometer, and +were not corrected for the large and uncertain errors of stem-exposure +(see THERMOMETRY). Moreover, although the effects of cooling by +convection currents are practically eliminated by exhausting to 3 or 4 +mm. (since the density of the gas is reduced to 1/200th while its +viscosity is not appreciably affected), the rate of cooling by +conduction is not materially diminished, since the conductivity, like +the viscosity, is nearly independent of pressure. It has since been +shown by Sir William Crookes (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1881, 21, p. 239) that +the rate of cooling of a mercury thermometer in a vacuum suffers a very +great diminution when the pressure is reduced from 1 mm. to .001 mm., at +which pressure the effect of conduction by the residual gas has +practically disappeared. + +Dulong and Petit also observed the rate of cooling under the same +conditions with the enclosure filled with various gases. They found that +the cooling effect of the gas could be represented by adding to the term +already given as representing radiation, an expression of the form + + V' = Bp^c (t - t0)^(1.233). (6) + +They found that the cooling effect of convection, unlike that of +radiation, was independent of the nature of the surface of the +thermometer, whether silvered or blackened, that it varied as some power +c of the pressure p, and that it was independent of the absolute +temperature of the enclosure, but varied as the excess temperature (t - +t0) raised to the power 1.233. This highly artificial result undoubtedly +contains some elements of truth, but could only be applied to +experiments similar to those from which it was derived. F. Herve de la +Provostaye and P. Q. Desains (_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1846, 16, p. 337), in +repeating these experiments under various conditions, found that the +coefficients A and B were to some extent dependent on the temperature, +and that the manner in which the cooling effect varied with the pressure +depended on the form and size of the enclosure. It is evident that this +should be the case, since the cooling effect of the gas depends partly +on convective currents. which are necessarily greatly modified by the +form of the enclosure in a manner which it would appear hopeless to +attempt to represent by any general formula. + +28. _Surface Emissivity._--The same remark applies to many attempts +which have since been made to determine the general value of the +constant termed by Fourier and early writers the "exterior +conductibility," but now called the surface emissivity. This coefficient +represents the rate of loss of heat from a body per unit area of surface +per degree excess of temperature, and includes the effects of radiation, +convection and conduction. As already pointed out, the combined effect +will be nearly proportional to the excess of temperature in any given +case provided that the excess is small, but it is not necessarily +proportional to the extent of surface exposed except in the case of pure +radiation. The rate of loss by convection and conduction varies greatly +with the form of the surface, and, unless the enclosure is very large +compared with the cooling body, the effect depends also on the size and +form of the enclosure. Heat is necessarily communicated from the cooling +body to the layer of gas in contact with it by conduction. If the linear +dimensions of the body are small, as in the case of a fine wire, or if +it is separated from the enclosure by a thin layer of gas, the rate of +loss depends chiefly on conduction. For very fine metallic wires heated +by an electric current, W. E. Ayrton and H. Kilgour (_Phil. Trans._, +1892) showed that the rate of loss is nearly independent of the surface, +instead of being directly proportional to it. This should be the case, +as Porter has shown (_Phil. Mag._, March 1895), since the effect depends +mainly on conduction. The effects of conduction and radiation may be +approximately estimated if the conductivity of the gas and the nature +and forms of the surfaces of the body and enclosure are known, but the +effect of convection in any case can be determined only by experiment. +It has been found that the rate of cooling by a current of air is +approximately proportional to the velocity of the current, other things +being equal. It is obvious that this should be the case, but the result +cannot generally be applied to convection currents. Values which are +commonly given for the surface emissivity must therefore be accepted +with great reserve. They can be regarded only as approximate, and as +applicable only to cases precisely similar to those for which they were +experimentally obtained. There cannot be said to be any general law of +convection. The loss of heat is not necessarily proportional to the area +of the surface, and no general value of the coefficient can be given to +suit all cases. The laws of conduction and radiation admit of being more +precisely formulated, and their effects predicted, except in so far as +they are complicated by convection. + +29. _Conduction of Heat._--The laws of transference of heat in the +interior of a solid body formed one of the earliest subjects of +mathematical and experimental treatment in the theory of heat. The law +assumed by Fourier was of the simplest possible type, but the +mathematical application, except in the simplest cases, was so difficult +as to require the development of a new mathematical method. Fourier +succeeded in showing how, by his method of analysis, the solution of any +given problem with regard to the flow of heat by conduction in any +material could be obtained in terms of a physical constant, the thermal +conductivity of the material, and that the results obtained by +experiment agreed in a qualitative manner with those predicted by his +theory. But the experimental determination of the actual values of these +constants presented formidable difficulties which were not surmounted +till a later date. The experimental methods and difficulties are +discussed in a special article on CONDUCTION OF HEAT. It will suffice +here to give a brief historical sketch, including a few of the more +important results by way of illustration. + +30. _Comparison of Conducting Powers._--That the power of transmitting +heat by conduction varied widely in different materials was probably +known in a general way from prehistoric times. Empirical knowledge of +this kind is shown in the construction of many articles for heating, +cooking, &c., such as the copper soldering bolt, or the Norwegian +cooking-stove. One of the earliest experiments for making an actual +comparison of conducting powers was that suggested by Franklin, but +carried out by Jan Ingenhousz (_Journ. de phys._, 1789, 34, pp. 68 and +380). Exactly similar bars of different materials, glass, wood, metal, +&c., thinly coated with wax, were fixed in the side of a trough of +boiling water so as to project for equal distances through the side of +the trough into the external air. The wax coating was observed to melt +as the heat travelled along the bars, the distance from the trough to +which the wax was melted along each affording an approximate indication +of the distribution of temperature. When the temperature of each bar had +become stationary the heat which it gained by conduction from the trough +must be equal to the heat lost to the surrounding air, and must +therefore be approximately proportional to the distance to which the wax +had melted along the bar. But the temperature fall per unit length, or +the temperature-gradient, in each bar at the point where it emerged from +the trough would be inversely proportional to the same distance. For +equal temperature-gradients the quantities of heat conducted (or the +relative conducting powers of the bars) would therefore be proportional +to the squares of the distances to which the wax finally melted on each +bar. This was shown by Fourier and Despretz (_Ann. chim. phys._, 1822, +19, p. 97). + +31. _Diffusion of Temperature._--It was shown in connexion with this +experiment by Sir H. Davy, and the experiment was later popularized by +John Tyndall, that the rate at which wax melted along the bar, or the +rate of propagation of a given temperature, during the first moments of +heating, as distinguished from the melting-distance finally attained, +depended on the specific heat as well as the conductivity. Short prisms +of iron and bismuth coated with wax were placed on a hot metal plate. +The wax was observed to melt first on the bismuth, although its +conductivity is less than that of iron. The reason is that its specific +heat is less than that of iron in the proportion of 3 to 11. The +densities of iron and bismuth being 7.8 and 9.8, the thermal capacities +of equal prisms will be in the ratio .86 for iron to .29 for bismuth. If +the prisms receive heat at equal rates, the bismuth will reach the +temperature of melting wax nearly three times as quickly as the iron. It +is often stated on the strength of this experiment that the rate of +propagation of a temperature wave, which depends on the ratio of the +conductivity to the specific heat per unit volume, is greater in bismuth +than in iron (e.g. Preston, _Heat_, p. 628). This is quite incorrect, +because the conductivity of iron is about six times that of bismuth, and +the rate of propagation of a temperature wave is therefore twice as +great in iron as in bismuth. The experiment in reality is misleading +because the rates of reception of heat by the prisms are limited by the +very imperfect contact with the hot metal plate, and are not +proportional to the respective conductivities. If the iron and bismuth +bars are properly faced and soldered to the top of a copper box (in +order to ensure good metallic contact, and exclude a non-conducting film +of air), and the box is then heated by steam, the rates of reception of +heat will be nearly proportional to the conductivities, and the wax will +melt nearly twice as fast along the iron as along the bismuth. A bar of +lead similarly treated will show a faster rate of propagation than iron, +because, although its conductivity is only half that of iron, its +specific heat per unit volume is 2.5 times smaller. + +32. _Bad Conductors. Liquids and Gases._--Count Rumford (1792) compared +the conducting powers of substances used in clothing, such as wool and +cotton, fur and down, by observing the time which a thermometer took to +cool when embedded in a globe filled successively with the different +materials. The times of cooling observed for a given range varied from +1300 to 900 seconds for different materials. The low conducting power of +such materials is principally due to the presence of air in the +interstices, which is prevented from forming convection currents by the +presence of the fibrous material. Finely powdered silica is a very bad +conductor, but in the compact form of rock crystal it is as good a +conductor as some of the metals. According to the kinetic theory of +gases, the conductivity of a gas depends on molecular diffusion. Maxwell +estimated the conductivity of air at ordinary temperatures at about +20,000 times less than that of copper. This has been verified +experimentally by Kundt and Warburg, Stefan and Winkelmann, by taking +special precautions to eliminate the effects of convection currents and +radiation. It was for some time doubted whether a gas possessed any true +conductivity for heat. The experiment of T. Andrews, repeated by Grove, +and Magnus, showing that a wire heated by an electric current was raised +to a higher temperature in air than in hydrogen, was explained by +Tyndall as being due to the greater mobility of hydrogen which gave rise +to stronger convection currents. In reality the effect is due chiefly to +the greater velocity of motion of the ultimate molecules of hydrogen, +and is most marked if molar (as opposed to molecular) convection is +eliminated. Molecular convection or diffusion, which cannot be +distinguished experimentally from conduction, as it follows the same +law, is also the main cause of conduction of heat in liquids. Both in +liquids and gases the effects of convection currents are so much greater +than those of diffusion or conduction that the latter are very difficult +to measure, and, except in special cases, comparatively unimportant as +affecting the transference of heat. Owing to the difficulty of +eliminating the effects of radiation and convection, the results +obtained for the conductivities of liquids are somewhat discordant, and +there is in most cases great uncertainty whether the conductivity +increases or diminishes with rise of temperature. It would appear, +however, that liquids, such as water and glycerin, differ remarkably +little in conductivity in spite of enormous differences of viscosity. +The viscosity of a liquid diminishes very rapidly with rise of +temperature, without any marked change in the conductivity, whereas the +viscosity of a gas increases with rise of temperature, and is always +nearly proportional to the conductivity. + +33. _Difficulty of Quantitative Estimation of Heat Transmitted._--The +conducting powers of different metals were compared by C. M. Despretz, +and later by G. H. Wiedemann and R. Franz, employing an extension of the +method of Jan Ingenhousz, in which the temperatures at different points +along a bar heated at one end were measured by thermometers or +thermocouples let into small holes in the bars, instead of being +measured at one point only by means of melting wax. These experiments +undoubtedly gave fairly accurate relative values, but did not permit the +calculation of the absolute amounts of heat transmitted. This was first +obtained by J. D. Forbes (_Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1852; _Trans. Roy. Soc. +Ed._, 1862, 23, p. 133) by deducing the amount of heat lost to the +surrounding air from a separate experiment in which the rate of cooling +of the bar was observed (see CONDUCTION OF HEAT). Clement (_Ann. chim. +phys._, 1841) had previously attempted to determine the conductivities +of metals by observing the amount of heat transmitted by a plate with +one side exposed to steam at 100 deg. C., and the other side cooled by +water at 28 deg. C. Employing a copper plate 3 mm. thick, and assuming +that the two surfaces of the plate were at the same temperatures as the +water and the steam to which they were exposed, or that the +temperature-gradient in the metal was 72 deg. in 3 mm., he had thus +obtained a value which we now know to be nearly 200 times too small. The +actual temperature difference in the metal itself was really about 0.36 +deg. C. The remainder of the 72 deg. drop was in the badly conducting +films of water and steam close to the metal surface. Similarly in a +boiler plate in contact with flame at 1500 deg. C. on one side and water +at, say, 150 deg. C. on the other, the actual difference of temperature +in the metal, even if it is an inch thick, is only a few degrees. The +metal, unless badly furred with incrustation, is but little hotter than +the water. It is immaterial so far as the transmission of heat is +concerned, whether the plates are iron or copper. The greater part of +the resistance to the passage of heat resides in a comparatively +quiescent film of gas close to the surface, through which film the heat +has to pass mainly by conduction. If a Bunsen flame, preferably coloured +with sodium, is observed impinging on a cold metal plate, it will be +seen to be separated from the plate by a dark space of a millimetre or +less, throughout which the temperature of the gas is lowered by its own +conductivity below the temperature of incandescence. There is no abrupt +change of temperature in passing from the gas to the metal, but a +continuous temperature-gradient from the temperature of the metal to +that of the flame. It is true that this gradient may be upwards of 1000 +deg. C. per mm., but there is no discontinuity. + +34. _Resistance of a Gas Film to the Passage of Heat._--It is possible +to make a rough estimate of the resistance of such a film to the passage +of heat through it. Taking the average conductivity of the gas in the +film as 10,000 times less than that of copper (about double the +conductivity of air at ordinary temperatures) a millimetre film would be +equivalent to a thickness of 10 metres of copper, or about 1.2 metres of +iron. Taking the temperature-gradient as 1000 deg. C. per mm. such a +film would transmit 1 gramme-calorie per sq. cm. per sec., or 36,000 +kilo-calories per sq. metre per hour. With an area of 100 sq. cms. the +heat transmitted at this rate would raise a litre of water from 20 deg. +C. to 100 deg. C. in 800 secs. By experiment with a strong Bunsen flame +it takes from 8 to 10 minutes to do this, which would indicate that on +the above assumptions the equivalent thickness of quiescent film should +be rather less than 1 mm. in this case. The thickness of the film +diminishes with the velocity of the burning gases impinging on the +surface. This accounts for the rapidity of heating by a blowpipe flame, +which is not due to any great increase in temperature of the flame as +compared with a Bunsen. Similarly the efficiency of a boiler is but +slightly reduced if half the tubes are stopped up, because the increase +of draught through the remainder compensates partly for the diminished +heating surface. Some resistance to the passage of heat into a boiler is +also due to the water film on the inside. But this is of less account, +because the conductivity of water is much greater than that of air, and +because the film is continually broken up by the formation of steam, +which abstracts heat very rapidly. + +35. _Heating by Condensation of Steam._--It is often stated that the +rate at which steam will condense on a metal surface at a temperature +below that corresponding to the saturation pressure of the steam is +practically infinite (e.g. Osborne Reynolds, _Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed._, +1873, p. 275), and conversely that the rate at which water will abstract +heat from a metal surface by the formation of steam (if the metal is +above the temperature of saturation of the steam) is limited only by the +rate at which the metal can supply heat by conduction to its surface +layer. The rate at which heat can be supplied by condensation of steam +appears to be much greater than that at which heat can be supplied by a +flame under ordinary conditions, but there is no reason to suppose that +it is infinite, or that any discontinuity exists. Experiments by H. L. +Callendar and J. T. Nicolson by three independent methods (_Proc. Inst. +Civ. Eng._, 1898, 131, p. 147; _Brit. Assoc. Rep._ p. 418) appear to +show that the rate of abstraction of heat by evaporation, or that of +communication of heat by condensation, depends chiefly on the difference +of temperature between the metal surface and the saturated steam, and is +nearly proportional to the temperature difference (not to the pressure +difference, as suggested by Reynolds) for such ranges of pressure as are +common in practice. The rate of heat transmission they observed was +equivalent to about 8 calories per sq. cm. per sec., for a difference of +20 deg. C. between the temperature of the metal surface and the +saturation temperature of the steam. This would correspond to a +condensation of 530 kilogrammes of steam at 100 deg. C. per sq. metre +per hour, or 109 lb. per sq. ft. per hour for the same difference of +temperature, values which are many times greater than those actually +obtained in ordinary surface condensers. The reason for this is that +there is generally some air mixed with the steam in a surface condenser, +which greatly retards the condensation. It is also difficult to keep the +temperature of the metal as much as 20 deg. C. below the temperature of +the steam unless a very free and copious circulation of cold water is +available. For the same difference of temperature, steam can supply heat +by condensation about a thousand times faster than hot air. This rate is +not often approached in practice, but the facility of generation and +transmission of steam, combined with its high latent heat and the +accuracy of control and regulation of temperature afforded, render it +one of the most convenient agents for the distribution of large +quantities of heat in all kinds of manufacturing processes. + +36. _Spheroidal State._--An interesting contrast to the extreme rapidity +with which heat is abstracted by the evaporation of a liquid in contact +with a metal plate, is the so-called spheroidal state. A small drop of +liquid thrown on a red-hot metal plate assumes a spheroidal form, and +continues swimming about for some time, while it slowly evaporates at a +temperature somewhat below its boiling-point. The explanation is simply +that the liquid itself cannot come in actual contact with the metal +plate (especially if the latter is above the critical temperature), but +is separated from it by a badly conducting film of vapour, through +which, as we have seen, the heat is comparatively slowly transmitted +even if the difference of temperature is several hundred degrees. If the +metal plate is allowed to cool gradually, the drop remains suspended on +its cushion of vapour, until, in the case of water, a temperature of +about 200 deg. C. is reached, at which the liquid comes in contact with +the plate and boils explosively, reducing the temperature of the plate, +if thin, almost instantaneously to 100 deg. C. The temperature of the +metal is readily observed by a thermo-electric method, employing a +platinum dish with a platinum-rhodium wire soldered with gold to its +under side. The absence of contact between the liquid and the dish in +the spheroidal state may also be shown by connecting one terminal of a +galvanometer to the drop and the other through a battery to the dish, +and observing that no current passes until the drop boils. + +37. _Early Theories of Radiation._--It was at one time supposed that +there were three distinct kinds of radiation--thermal, luminous and +actinic, combined in the radiation from a luminous source such as the +sun or a flame. The first gave rise to heat, the second to light and the +third to chemical action. The three kinds were partially separated by a +prism, the actinic rays being generally more refracted, and the thermal +rays less refracted than the luminous. This conception arose very +naturally from the observation that the feebly luminous blue and violet +rays produced the greatest photographic effects, which also showed the +existence of dark rays beyond the violet, whereas the brilliant yellow +and red were practically without action on the photographic plate. A +thermometer placed in the blue or violet showed no appreciable rise of +temperature, and even in the yellow the effect was hardly discernible. +The effect increased rapidly as the light faded towards the extreme red, +and reached a maximum beyond the extreme limits of the spectrum +(Herschel), showing that the greater part of the thermal radiation was +altogether non-luminous. It is now a commonplace that chemical action, +colour sensation and heat are merely different effects of one and the +same kind of radiation, the particular effect produced in each case +depending on the frequency and intensity of the vibration, and on the +nature of the substance on which it falls. When radiation is completely +absorbed by a black substance, it is converted into heat, the quantity +of heat produced being equivalent to the total energy of the radiation +absorbed, irrespective of the colour or frequency of the different rays. +The actinic or chemical effects, on the other hand, depend essentially +on some relation between the period of the vibration and the properties +of the substance acted on. The rays producing such effects are generally +those which are most strongly absorbed. The spectrum of chlorophyll, the +green colouring matter of plants, shows two very strong absorption bands +in the red. The red rays of corresponding period are found to be the +most active in promoting the growth of the plant. The chemically active +rays are not necessarily the shortest. Even photographic plates may be +made to respond to the red rays by staining them with pinachrome or some +other suitable dye. + +The action of light rays on the retina is closely analogous to the +action on a photographic plate. The retina, like the plate, is sensitive +only to rays within certain restricted limits of frequency. The limits +of sensitiveness of each colour sensation are not exactly defined, but +vary slightly from one individual to another, especially in cases of +partial colour-blindness, and are modified by conditions of fatigue. We +are not here concerned with these important physiological and chemical +effects of radiation, but rather with the question of the conversion of +energy of radiation into heat, and with the laws of emission and +absorption of radiation in relation to temperature. We may here also +assume the identity of visible and invisible radiations from a heated +body in all their physical properties. It has been abundantly proved +that the invisible rays, like the visible, (1) are propagated in +straight lines in homogeneous media; (2) are reflected and diffused from +the surface of bodies according to the same law; (3) travel with the +same velocity in free space, but with slightly different velocities in +denser media, being subject to the same law of refraction; (4) exhibit +all the phenomena of diffraction and interference which are +characteristic of wave-motion in general; (5) are capable of +polarization and double refraction; (6) exhibit similar effects of +selective absorption. These properties are more easily demonstrated in +the case of visible rays on account of the great sensitiveness of the +eye. But with the aid of the thermopile or other sensitive radiometer, +they may be shown to belong equally to all the radiations from a heated +body, even such as are thirty to fifty times slower in frequency than +the longest visible rays. The same physical properties have also been +shown to belong to electromagnetic waves excited by an electric +discharge, whatever the frequency, thus including all kinds of aetherial +radiation in the same category as light. + +38. _Theory of Exchanges._--The apparent concentration of cold by a +concave mirror, observed by G. B. Porta and rediscovered by M. A. +Pictet, led to the enunciation of the theory of exchanges by Pierre +Prevost in 1791. Prevost's leading idea was that all bodies, whether +cold or hot, are constantly radiating heat. Heat equilibrium, he says, +consists in an equality of exchange. When equilibrium is interfered +with, it is re-established by inequalities of exchange. If into a +locality at uniform temperature a refracting or reflecting body is +introduced, it has no effect in the way of changing the temperature at +any point of that locality. A reflecting body, heated or cooled in the +interior of such an enclosure, will acquire the surrounding temperature +more slowly than would a non-reflector, and will less affect another +body placed at a little distance, but will not affect the final equality +of temperature. Apparent radiation of cold, as from a block of ice to a +thermometer placed near it, is due to the fact that the thermometer +being at a higher temperature sends more heat to the ice than it +received back from it. Although Prevost does not make the statement in +so many words, it is clear that he regards the radiation from a body as +depending only on its own nature and temperature, and as independent of +the nature and presence of any adjacent body. Heat equilibrium in an +enclosure of constant temperature such as is here postulated by Prevost, +has often been regarded as a consequence of Carnot's principle. Since +difference of temperature is required for transforming heat into work, +no work could be obtained from heat in such a system, and no spontaneous +changes of temperature can take place, as any such changes might be +utilized for the production of work. This line of reasoning does not +appear quite satisfactory, because it is tacitly assumed, in the +reasoning by which Carnot's principle was established, as a result of +universal experience, that a number of bodies within the same impervious +enclosure, which contains no source of heat, will ultimately acquire the +same temperature, and that difference of temperature is required to +produce flow of heat. Thus although we may regard the equilibrium in +such an enclosure as being due to equal exchanges of heat in all +directions, the equal and opposite streams of radiation annul and +neutralize each other in such a way that no actual transfer of energy in +any direction takes place. The state of the medium is everywhere the +same in such an enclosure, but its energy of agitation per unit volume +is a function of the temperature, and is such that it would not be in +equilibrium with any body at a different temperature. + +39. _"Full" and Selective Radiation. Correspondence of Emission and +Absorption._--The most obvious difficulties in the way of this theory +arise from the fact that nearly all radiation is more or less selective +in character, as regards the quality and frequency of the rays emitted +and absorbed. It was shown by J. Leslie, M. Melloni and other +experimentalists that many substances such as glass and water, which are +very transparent to visible rays, are extremely opaque to much of the +invisible radiation of lower frequency; and that polished metals, which +are perfect reflectors, are very feeble radiators as compared with dull +or black bodies at the same temperature. If two bodies emit rays of +different periods in different proportions, it is not at first sight +easy to see how their radiations can balance each other at the same +temperature. The key to all such difficulties lies in the fundamental +conception, so strongly insisted on by Balfour Stewart, of the absolute +uniformity (qualitative as well as quantitative) of the full or complete +radiation stream inside an impervious enclosure of uniform temperature. +It follows from this conception that the proportion of the full +radiation stream absorbed by any body in such an enclosure must be +exactly compensated in quality as well as quantity by the proportion +emitted, or that the emissive and absorptive powers of any body at a +given temperature must be precisely equal. A good reflector, like a +polished metal, must also be a feeble radiator and absorber. Of the +incident radiation it absorbs a small fraction and reflects the +remainder, which together with the radiation emitted (being precisely +equal to that absorbed) makes up the full radiation stream. A partly +transparent material, like glass, absorbs part of the full radiation and +transmits part. But it emits rays precisely equal in quality and +intensity to those which it absorbs, which together with the transmitted +portion make up the full stream. The ideal black body or perfect +radiator is a body which absorbs all the radiation incident on it. The +rays emitted from such a body at any temperature must be equal to the +full radiation stream in an isothermal enclosure at the same +temperature. Lampblack, which may absorb between 98 to 99% of the +incident radiation, is generally taken as the type of a black body. But +a closer approximation to full radiation may be obtained by employing a +hollow vessel the internal walls of which are blackened and maintained +at a uniform temperature by a steam jacket or other suitable means. If a +relatively small hole is made in the side of such a vessel, the +radiation proceeding through the aperture will be the full radiation +corresponding to the temperature. Such a vessel is also a perfect +absorber. Of radiation entering through the aperture an infinitesimal +fraction only could possibly emerge by successive reflection even if the +sides were of polished metal internally. A thin platinum tube heated by +an electric current appears feebly luminous as compared with a blackened +tube at the same temperature. But if a small hole is made in the side of +the polished tube, the light proceeding through the hole appears +brighter than the blackened tube, as though the inside of the tube were +much hotter than the outside, which is not the case to any appreciable +extent if the tube is thin. The radiation proceeding through the hole is +nearly that of a perfectly black body if the hole is small. If there +were no hole the internal stream of radiation would be exactly that of a +black body at the same temperature however perfect the reflecting power, +or however low the emissive power of the walls, because the defect in +emissive power would be exactly compensated by the internal reflection. + +Balfour Stewart gave a number of striking illustrations of the +qualitative identity of emission and absorption of a substance. Pieces +of coloured glass placed in a fire appear to lose their colour when at +the same temperature as the coals behind them, because they compensate +exactly for their selective absorption by radiating chiefly those +colours which they absorb. Rocksalt is remarkably transparent to thermal +radiation of nearly all kinds, but it is extremely opaque to radiation +from a heated plate of rocksalt, because it emits when heated precisely +those rays which it absorbs. A plate of tourmaline cut parallel to the +axis absorbs almost completely light polarized in a plane parallel to +the axis, but transmits freely light polarized in a perpendicular plane. +When heated its radiation is polarized in the same plane as the +radiation which it absorbs. In the case of incandescent vapours, the +exact correspondence of emission and absorption as regards wave-length +of frequency of the light emitted and absorbed forms the foundation of +the science of spectrum analysis. Fraunhofer had noticed the coincidence +of a pair of bright yellow lines seen in the spectrum of a candle flame +with the dark D lines in the solar spectrum, a coincidence which was +afterwards more exactly verified by W. A. Miller. Foucault found that +the flame of the electric arc showed the same lines bright in its +spectrum, and proved that they appeared as dark lines in the otherwise +continuous spectrum when the light from the carbon poles was transmitted +through the arc. Stokes gave a dynamical explanation of the phenomenon +and illustrated it by the analogous case of resonance in sound. +Kirchhoff completed the explanation (_Phil. Mag._, 1860) of the dark +lines in the solar spectrum by showing that the reversal of the spectral +lines depended on the fact that the body of the sun giving the +continuous spectrum was at a higher temperature than the absorbing layer +of gases surrounding it. Whatever be the nature of the selective +radiation from a body, the radiation of light of any particular +wave-length cannot be greater than a certain fraction E of the radiation +R of the same wave-length from a black body at the same temperature. The +fraction E measures the emissive power of the body for that particular +wave-length, and cannot be greater than unity. The same fraction, by the +principle of equality of emissive and absorptive powers, will measure +the proportion absorbed of incident radiation R'. If the black body +emitting the radiation R' is at the same temperature as the absorbing +layer, R = R', the emission balances the absorption, and the line will +appear neither bright nor dark. If the source and the absorbing layer +are at different temperatures, the radiation absorbed will be ER', and +that transmitted will be R' - ER'. To this must be added the radiation +emitted by the absorbing layer, namely ER, giving R' - E(R' - R). The +lines will appear darker than the background R' if R' is greater than R, +but bright if the reverse is the case. The D lines are dark in the sun +because the photosphere is much hotter than the reversing layer. They +appear bright in the candle-flame because the outside mantle of the +flame, in which the sodium burns and combustion is complete, is hotter +than the inner reducing flame containing the incandescent particles of +carbon which give rise to the continuous spectrum. This qualitative +identity of emission and absorption as regards wave-length can be most +exactly and easily verified for luminous rays, and we are justified in +assuming that the relation holds with the same exactitude for +non-luminous rays, although in many cases the experimental proof is less +complete and exact. + +40. _Diathermancy._--A great array of data with regard to the +transmissive power or diathermancy of transparent substances for the +heat radiated from various sources at different temperatures were +collected by Melloni, Tyndall, Magnus and other experimentalists. The +measurements were chiefly of a qualitative character, and were made by +interposing between the source and a thermopile a layer or plate of the +substance to be examined. This method lacked quantitative precision, but +led to a number of striking and interesting results, which are admirably +set forth in Tyndall's _Heat_. It also gave rise to many curious +discrepancies, some of which were recognized as being due to selective +absorption, while others are probably to be explained by imperfections +in the methods of experiment adopted. The general result of such +researches was to show that substances, like water, alum and glass, +which are practically opaque to radiation from a source at low +temperature, such as a vessel filled with boiling water, transmit an +increasing percentage of the radiation when the temperature of the +source is increased. This is what would be expected, as these substances +are very transparent to visible rays. That the proportion transmitted is +not merely a question of the temperature of the source, but also of the +quality of the radiation, was shown by a number of experiments. For +instance, K. H. Knoblauch (_Pogg. Ann._, 1847) found that a plate of +glass interposed between a spirit lamp and a thermopile intercepts a +larger proportion of the radiation from the flame itself than of the +radiation from a platinum spiral heated in the flame, although the +spiral is undoubtedly at a lower temperature than the flame. The +explanation is that the spiral is a fairly good radiator of the visible +rays to which the glass is transparent, but a bad radiator of the +invisible rays absorbed by the glass which constitute the greater +portion of the heat-radiation from the feebly luminous flame. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Tyndall's Apparatus for observing absorption of +heat by gas and vapours.] + +Assuming that the radiation from the source under investigation is +qualitatively determinate, like that of a black body at a given +temperature, the proportion transmitted by plates of various substances +may easily be measured and tabulated for given plates and sources. But +owing to the highly selective character of the radiation and absorption, +it is impossible to give any general relation between the thickness of +the absorbing plate or layer and the proportion of the total energy +absorbed. For these reasons the relative diathermancies of different +materials do not admit of any simple numerical statement as physical +constants, though many of the qualitative results obtained are very +striking. Among the most interesting experiments were those of Tyndall, +on the absorptive powers of gases and vapours, which led to a good deal +of controversy at the time, owing to the difficulty of the experiments, +and the contradictory results obtained by other observers. The +arrangement employed by Tyndall for these measurements is shown in Fig. +6. A brass tube AB, polished inside, and closed with plates of highly +diathermanous rocksalt at either end, was fitted with stopcocks C and D +for exhausting and admitting air or other gases or vapours. The source +of heat S was usually a plate of copper heated by a Bunsen burner, or a +Leslie cube containing boiling water as shown at E. To obtain greater +sensitiveness for differential measurements, the radiation through the +tube AB incident on one face of the pile P was balanced against the +radiation from a Leslie cube on the other face of the pile by means of +an adjustable screen H. The radiation on the two faces of the pile being +thus balanced with the tube exhausted, Tyndall found that the admission +of dry air into the tube produced practically no absorption of the +radiation, whereas compound gases such as carbonic acid, ethylene or +ammonia absorbed 20 to 90%, and a trace of aqueous vapour in the air +increased its absorption 50 to 100 times. H. G. Magnus, on the other +hand, employing a thermopile and a source of heat, both of which were +enclosed in the same exhausted receiver, in order to avoid interposing +any rocksalt or other plates between the source and the pile, found an +absorption of 11% on admitting dry air, but could not detect any +difference whether the air were dry or moist. Tyndall suggested that the +apparent absorption observed by Magnus may have been due to the cooling +of his radiating surface by convection, which is a very probable source +of error in this method of experiment. Magnus considered that the +remarkable effect of aqueous vapour observed by Tyndall might have been +caused by condensation on the polished internal walls of his +experimental tube, or on the rocksalt plates at either end.[7] The +question of the relative diathermancy of air and aqueous vapour for +radiation from the sun to the earth and from the earth into space is one +of great interest and importance in meteorology. Assuming with Magnus +that at least 10% of the heat from a source at 100 deg. C. is absorbed in +passing through a single foot of air, a very moderate thickness of +atmosphere should suffice to absorb practically all the heat radiated +from the earth into space. This could not be reconciled with well-known +facts in regard to terrestrial radiation, and it was generally +recognized that the result found by Magnus must be erroneous. Tyndall's +experiment on the great diathermancy of dry air agreed much better with +meteorological phenomena, but he appears to have exaggerated the effect +of aqueous vapour. He concluded from his experiments that the water +vapour present in the air absorbs at least 10% of the heat radiated from +the earth within 10 ft. of its surface, and that the absorptive power of +the vapour is about 17,000 times that of air at the same pressure. If +the absorption of aqueous vapour were really of this order of magnitude, +it would exert a far greater effect in modifying climate than is +actually observed to be the case. Radiation is observed to take place +freely through the atmosphere at times when the proportion of aqueous +vapour is such as would practically stop all radiation if Tyndall's +results were correct. The very careful experiments of E. Lecher and J. +Pernter (_Phil. Mag._, Jan. 1881) confirmed Tyndall's observations on +the absorptive powers of gases and vapours satisfactorily in nearly all +cases with the single exception of aqueous vapour. They found that there +was no appreciable absorption of heat from a source at 100 deg. C. in +passing through 1 ft. of air (whether dry or moist), but that CO and CO2 +at atmospheric pressure absorbed about 8%, and ethylene (olefiant gas) +about 50% in the same distance; the vapours of alcohol and ether showed +absorptive powers of the same order as that of ethylene. They confirmed +Tyndall's important result that the absorption does not diminish in +proportion to the pressure, being much greater in proportion for smaller +pressures in consequence of the selective character of the effect. They +also supported his conclusion that absorptive power increases with the +complexity of the molecule. But they could not detect any absorption by +water vapour at a pressure of 7 mm., though alcohol at the same pressure +absorbed 3% and acetic acid 10%. Later researches, especially those of +S. P. Langley with the spectro-bolometer on the infra-red spectrum of +sunlight, demonstrated the existence of marked absorption bands, some of +which are due to water vapour. From the character of these bands and the +manner in which they vary with the state of the air and the thickness +traversed, it may be inferred that absorption by water vapour plays an +important part in meteorology, but that it is too small to be readily +detected by laboratory experiments in a 4 ft. tube, without the aid of +spectrum analysis. + +41. _Relation between Radiation and Temperature._--Assuming, in +accordance with the reasoning of Balfour Stewart and Kirchhoff, that the +radiation stream inside an impervious enclosure at a uniform temperature +is independent of the nature of the walls of the enclosure, and is the +same for all substances at the same temperature, it follows that the +full stream of radiation in such an enclosure, or the radiation emitted +by an ideal black body or full radiator, is a function of the +temperature only. The form of this function may be determined +experimentally by observing the radiation between two black bodies at +different temperatures, which will be proportional to the difference of +the full radiation streams corresponding to their several temperatures. +The law now generally accepted was first proposed by Stefan as an +empirical relation. Tyndall had found that the radiation from a white +hot platinum wire at 1200 deg. C. was 11.7 times its radiation when dull +red at 525 deg. C. Stefan (_Wien. Akad. Ber._, 1879, 79, p. 421) noticed +that the ratio 11.7 is nearly that of the fourth power of the absolute +temperatures as estimated by Tyndall. On making the somewhat different +assumption that the radiation between two bodies varied as the +difference of the fourth powers of their absolute temperatures, he found +that it satisfied approximately the experiments of Dulong and Petit and +other observers. According to this law the radiation between a black +body at a temperature [theta] and a black enclosure or a black +radiometer at a temperature [theta]0 should be proportional to +([theta]^4 - [theta]0^4). The law was very simple and convenient in +form, but it rested so far on very insecure foundations. The +temperatures given by Tyndall were merely estimated from the colour of +the light emitted, and might have been some hundred degrees in error. We +now know that the radiation from polished platinum is of a highly +selective character, and varies more nearly as the fifth power of the +absolute temperature. The agreement of the fourth power law with +Tyndall's experiment appears therefore to be due to a purely accidental +error in estimating the temperatures of the wire. Stefan also found a +very fair agreement with Draper's observations of the intensity of +radiation from a platinum wire, in which the temperature of the wire was +deduced from the expansion. Here again the apparent agreement was +largely due to errors in estimating the temperature, arising from the +fact that the coefficient of expansion of platinum increases +considerably with rise of temperature. So far as the experimental +results available at that time were concerned, Stefan's law could be +regarded only as an empirical expression of doubtful significance. But +it received a much greater importance from theoretical investigations +which were even then in progress. James Clerk Maxwell (_Electricity and +Magnetism_, 1873) had shown that a directed beam of electromagnetic +radiation or light incident normally on an absorbing surface should +produce a mechanical pressure equal to the energy of the radiation per +unit volume. A. G. Bartoli (1875) took up this idea and made it the +basis of a thermodynamic treatment of radiation. P. N. Lebedew in 1900, +and E. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull in 1901, proved the existence of this +pressure by direct experiments. L. Boltzmann (1884) employing radiation +as the working substance in a Carnot cycle, showed that the energy of +full radiation at any temperature per unit volume should be proportional +to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. This law was first +verified in a satisfactory manner by Heinrich Schneebeli (_Wied. Ann._, +1884, 22, p. 30). He observed the radiation from the bulb of an air +thermometer heated to known temperatures through a small aperture in the +walls of the furnace. With this arrangement the radiation was very +nearly that of a black body. Measurements by J. T. Bottomley, August +Schleiermacher, L. C. H. F. Paschen and others of the radiation from +electrically heated platinum, failed to give concordant results on +account of differences in the quality of the radiation, the importance +of which was not fully realized at first. Later researches by Paschen +with improved methods verified the law, and greatly extended our +knowledge of radiation in other directions. One of the most complete +series of experiments on the relation between full radiation and +temperature is that of O. R. Lummer and Ernst Pringsheim (_Ann. Phys._, +1897, 63, p. 395). They employed an aperture in the side of an enclosure +at uniform temperature as the source of radiation, and compared the +intensities at different temperatures by means of a bolometer. The +fourth power law was well satisfied throughout the whole range of their +experiments from -190 deg. C. to 2300 deg. C. According to this law, the +rate of loss of heat by radiation R from a body of emissive power E and +surface S at a temperature [theta] in an enclosure at [theta]0 is given +by the formula + + R = [sigma]ES([theta]^4 - [theta]0^4), + +where [sigma] is the radiation constant. The absolute value of [sigma] +was determined by F. Kurlbaum using an electric compensation method +(_Wied. Ann._, 1898, 65, p. 746), in which the radiation received by a +bolometer from a black body at a known temperature was measured by +finding the electric current required to produce the same rise of +temperature in the bolometer. K. Angstrom employed a similar method for +solar radiation. Kurlbaum gives the value [sigma] = 5.32 X 10^(-5) ergs +per sq. cm. per sec. C. Christiansen (_Wied. Ann._, 1883, 19, p. 267) +had previously found a value about 5% smaller, by observing the rate of +cooling of a copper plate of known thermal capacity, which is probably a +less accurate method. + + 42. _Theoretical Proof of the Fourth Power Law._--The proof given by + Boltzmann may be somewhat simplified if we observe that full radiation + in an enclosure at constant temperature behaves exactly like a + saturated vapour, and must therefore obey Carnot's or Clapeyron's + equation given in section 17. The energy of radiation per unit volume, + and the radiation-pressure at any temperature, are functions of the + temperature only, like the pressure of a saturated vapour. If the + volume of the enclosure is increased by any finite amount, the + temperature remaining the same, radiation is given off from the walls + so as to fill the space to the same pressure as before. The heat + absorbed when the volume is increased corresponds with the latent heat + of vaporization. In the case of radiation, as in the case of a vapour, + the latent heat consists partly of internal energy of formation and + partly of external work of expansion at constant pressure. Since in + the case of full or undirected radiation the pressure is one-third of + the energy per unit volume, the external work for any expansion is + one-third of the internal energy added. The latent heat absorbed is, + therefore, four times the external work of expansion. Since the + external work is the product of the pressure P and the increase of + volume V, the latent heat per unit increase of volume is four times + the pressure. But by Carnot's equation the latent heat of a saturated + vapour per unit increase of volume is equal to the rate of increase of + saturation-pressure per degree divided by Carnot's function or + multiplied by the absolute temperature. Expressed in symbols we have, + + [theta](dP/d[theta]) = L/V = 4P, + + where (dP/d[theta]) represents the rate of increase of pressure. This + equation shows that the percentage rate of increase of pressure is + four times the percentage rate of increase of temperature, or that if + the temperature is increased by 1%, the pressure is increased by 4%. + This is equivalent to the statement that the pressure varies as the + fourth power of the temperature, a result which is mathematically + deduced by integrating the equation. + +43. _Wien's Displacement Law._--Assuming that the fourth power law gives +the quantity of full radiation at any temperature, it remains to +determine how the quality of the radiation varies with the temperature, +since as we have seen both quantity and quality are determinate. This +question may be regarded as consisting of two parts. (1) How is the +wave-length or frequency of any given kind of radiation changed when its +temperature is altered? (2) What is the form of the curve expressing the +distribution of energy between the various wave-lengths in the spectrum +of full radiation, or what is the distribution of heat in the spectrum? +The researches of Tyndall, Draper, Langley and other investigators had +shown that while the energy of radiation of each frequency increased +with rise of temperature, the maximum of intensity was shifted or +displaced along the spectrum in the direction of shorter wave-lengths or +higher frequencies. W. Wien (_Ann. Phys._, 1898, 58, p. 662), applying +Doppler's principle to the adiabatic compression of radiation in a +perfectly reflecting enclosure, deduced that the wave-length of each +constituent of the radiation should be shortened in proportion to the +rise of temperature produced by the compression, in such a manner that +the product [lambda][theta] of wave-length and the absolute temperature +should remain constant. According to this relation, which is known as +Wien's Displacement Law, the frequency corresponding to the maximum +ordinate of the energy curve of the normal spectrum of full radiation +should vary directly (or the wave-length inversely) as the absolute +temperature, a result previously obtained by H. F. Weber (1888). +Paschen, and Lummer and Pringsheim verified this relation by observing +with a bolometer the intensity at different points in the spectrum +produced by a fluorite prism. The intensities were corrected and reduced +to a wave-length scale with the aid of Paschen's results on the +dispersion formula of fluorite (_Wied. Ann._, 1894, 53, p. 301). The +curves in fig. 7 illustrate results obtained by Lummer and Pringsheim +(_Ber. deut. phys. Ges._, 1899, 1, p. 34) at three different +temperatures, namely 1377 deg., 1087 deg. and 836 deg. absolute, plotted +on a wave-length base with a scale of microns ([mu]) or millionths of a +metre. The wave-lengths Oa, Ob, Oc, corresponding to the maximum +ordinates of each curve, vary inversely as the absolute temperatures +given. The constant value of the product [lambda][theta] at the maximum +point is found to be 2920. Thus for a temperature of 1000 deg. Abs. the +maximum is at wave-length 2.92 [mu]; at 2000 deg. the maximum is at 1.46 +[mu]. + +44. _Form of the Curve representing the Distribution of Energy in the +Spectrum._--Assuming Wien's displacement law, it follows that the form +of the curve representing the distribution of energy in the spectrum of +full radiation should be the same for different temperatures with the +maximum displaced in proportion to the absolute temperature, and with +the total area increased in proportion to the fourth power of the +absolute temperature. Observations taken with a bolometer along the +length of a normal or wave-length spectrum, would give the form of the +curve plotted on a wave-length base. The height of the ordinate at each +point would represent the energy included between given limits of +wave-length, depending on the width of the bolometer strip and the slit. +Supposing that the bolometer strip had a width corresponding to .01 +[mu], and were placed at 1.0 [mu] in the spectrum of radiation at 2000 +deg. Abs., it would receive the energy corresponding to wave-lengths +between 1.00 and 1.01 [mu]. At a temperature of 1000 deg. Abs. the +corresponding part of the energy, by Wien's displacement law, would lie +between the limits 2.00 and 2.02 [mu], and the total energy between +these limits would be 16 times smaller. But the bolometer strip placed +at 2.0 [mu] would now receive only half of the energy, or the energy in +a band .01 [mu] wide, and the deflection would be 32 times less. +Corresponding ordinates of the curves at different temperatures will +therefore vary as the fifth power of the temperature, when the curves +are plotted on a wave-length base. The maximum ordinates in the curves +already given are found to vary as the fifth powers of the corresponding +temperatures. The equation representing the distribution of energy on a +wave-length base must be of the form + + E = C[lambda]^(-5) F([lambda][theta]) = + C[theta]^5 ([lambda][theta])^(-5) F([lambda][theta]) + +where F([lambda][theta]) represents some function of the product of the +wave-length and temperature, which remains constant for corresponding +wave-lengths when [theta] is changed. If the curves were plotted on a +frequency base, owing to the change of scale, the maximum ordinates +would vary as the cube of the temperature instead of the fifth power, +but the form of the function F would remain unaltered. Reasoning on the +analogy of the distribution of velocities among the particles of a gas +on the kinetic theory, which is a very similar problem, Wien was led to +assume that the function F should be of the form e^(-c/[lambda][theta]), +where e is the base of Napierian logarithms, and c is a constant having +the value 14,600 if the wave-length is measured in microns [mu]. This +expression was found by Paschen to give a very good approximation to the +form of the curve obtained experimentally for those portions of the +visible and infra-red spectrum where observations could be most +accurately made. The formula was tested in two ways: (1) by plotting the +curves of distribution of energy in the spectrum for constant +temperatures as illustrated in fig. 7; (2) by plotting the energy +corresponding to a given wave-length as a function of the temperature. +Both methods gave very good agreement with Wien's formula for values of +the product [lambda][theta] not much exceeding 3000. A method of +isolating rays of great wave-length by successive reflection was devised +by H. Rubens and E. F. Nichols (_Wied. Ann._, 1897, 60, p. 418). They +found that quartz and fluorite possessed the property of selective +reflection for rays of wave-length 8.8 [mu] and 24 [mu] to 32 [mu] +respectively, so that after four to six reflections these rays could be +isolated from a source at any temperature in a state of considerable +purity. The residual impurity at any stage could be estimated by +interposing a thin plate of quartz or fluorite which completely +reflected or absorbed the residual rays, but allowed the impurity to +pass. H. Beckmann, under the direction of Rubens, investigated the +variation with temperature of the residual rays reflected from fluorite +employing sources from -80 deg. to 600 deg. C., and found the results +could not be represented by Wien's formula unless the constant c were +taken as 26,000 in place of 14,600. In their first series of +observations extending to 6 [mu] O. R. Lummer and E. Pringsheim (_Deut. +phys. Ges._, 1899, 1, p. 34) found systematic deviations indicating an +increase in the value of the constant c for long waves and high +temperatures. In a theoretical discussion of the subject, Lord Rayleigh +(_Phil. Mag._, 1900, 49, p. 539) pointed out that Wien's law would lead +to a limiting value C[lambda]^(-5), of the radiation corresponding to +any particular wave-length when the temperature increased to infinity, +whereas according to his view the radiation of great wave-length should +ultimately increase in direct proportion to the temperature. Lummer and +Pringsheim (_Deut. phys. Ges._, 1900, 2, p. 163) extended the range of +their observations to 18 [mu] by employing a prism of sylvine in place +of fluorite. They found deviations from Wien's formula increasing to +nearly 50% at 18 [mu], where, however, the observations were very +difficult on account of the smallness of the energy to be measured. +Rubens and F. Kurlbaum (_Ann. Phys._, 1901, 4, p. 649) extended the +residual reflection method to a temperature range from -190 deg. to 1500 +deg. C., and employed the rays reflected from quartz 8.8 [mu], and +rocksalt 51 [mu], in addition to those from fluorite. It appeared from +these researches that the rays of great wave-length from a source at a +high temperature tended to vary in the limit directly as the absolute +temperature of the source, as suggested by Lord Rayleigh, and could not +be represented by Wien's formula with any value of the constant c. The +simplest type of formula satisfying the required conditions is that +proposed by Max Planck (_Ann. Phys._, 1901, 4, p. 553) namely, + + E = C[lambda]^(-5) (e^c/[lambda][theta] - 1)^(-1), + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Distribution of energy in the spectrum of a +black body.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Distribution of energy in the spectrum of full +radiation at 2000 deg. Abs. according to formulae of Planck & Wien.] + +which agrees with Wien's formula when [theta] is small, where Wien's +formula is known to be satisfactory, but approaches the limiting form E += C[lambda]^(-4)[theta]/c, when [theta] is large, thus satisfying the +condition proposed by Lord Rayleigh. The theoretical interpretation of +this formula remains to some extent a matter of future investigation, +but it appears to satisfy experiment within the limits of observational +error. In order to compare Planck's formula graphically with Wien's, the +distribution curves corresponding to both formulae are plotted in fig. 8 +for a temperature of 2000 deg. abs., taking the value of the constant c += 14,600 with a scale of wave-length in microns [mu]. The curves in fig. +9 illustrate the difference between the two formulae for the variation +of the intensity of radiation corresponding to a fixed wave-length 30 +[mu]. Assuming Wien's displacement law, the curves may be applied to +find the energy for any other wave-length or temperature, by simply +altering the wave-length scale in inverse ratio to the temperature, or +vice versa. Thus to find the distribution curve for 1000 deg. abs., it +is only necessary to multiply all the numbers in the wave-length scale +of fig. 8 by 2; or to find the variation curve for wave-length 60 [mu], +the numbers on the temperature scale of fig. 9 should be divided by 2. +The ordinate scales must be increased in proportion to the fifth power +of the temperature, or inversely as the fifth power of the wave-length +respectively in figs. 8 and 9 if comparative results are required for +different temperatures or wave-lengths. The results hitherto obtained +for cases other than full radiation are not sufficiently simple and +definite to admit of profitable discussion in the present article. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Variation of energy of radiation corresponding +to wave-length 30 [mu], with temperature of source.] + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--It would not be possible, within the limits of an + article like the present, to give tables of the specific thermal + properties of different substances so far as they have been + ascertained by experiment. To be of any use, such tables require to be + extremely detailed, with very full references and explanations with + regard to the value of the experimental evidence, and the limits + within which the results may be relied on. The quantity of material + available is so enormous and its value so varied, that the most + elaborate tables still require reference to the original authorities. + Much information will be found collected in Landolt and Bornstein's + _Physical and Chemical Tables_ (Berlin, 1905). Shorter tables, such as + Everett's _Units and Physical Constants_, are useful as illustrations + of a system, but are not sufficiently complete for use in scientific + investigations. Some of the larger works of reference, such as A. A. + Winkelmann's _Handbuch der Physik_, contain fairly complete tables of + specific properties, but these tables occupy so much space, and are so + misleading if incomplete, that they are generally omitted in + theoretical textbooks. + + Among older textbooks on heat, Tyndall's _Heat_ may be recommended for + its vivid popular interest, and Balfour Stewart's _Heat_ for early + theories of radiation. Maxwell's _Theory of Heat_ and Tait's _Heat_ + give a broad and philosophical survey of the subject. Among modern + textbooks, Preston's _Theory of Heat_ and Poynting and Thomson's + _Heat_ are the best known, and have been brought well up to date. + Sections on heat are included in all the general textbooks of Physics, + such as those of Deschanel (translated by Everett), Ganot (translated + by Atkinson), Daniell, Watson, &c. Of the original investigations on + the subject, the most important have already been cited. Others will + be found in the collected papers of Joule, Kelvin and Maxwell. + Treatises on special branches of the subject, such as Fourier's + _Conduction of Heat_, are referred to in the separate articles in this + encyclopaedia dealing with recent progress, of which the following is + a list: CALORIMETRY, CONDENSATION OF GASES, CONDUCTION OF HEAT, + DIFFUSION, ENERGETICS, FUSION, LIQUID GASES, RADIATION, RADIOMETER, + SOLUTION, THERMODYNAMICS, THERMOELECTRICITY, THERMOMETRY, + VAPORIZATION. For the practical aspects of heating see HEATING. + (H. L. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Units of Work, Energy and Power._--In English-speaking countries + work is generally measured in _foot-pounds_. Elsewhere it is + generally measured in _kilogrammetres_, or in terms of the work done + in raising 1 kilogramme weight through the height of 1 metre. In the + middle of the 19th century the terms "force" and "motive power" were + commonly employed in the sense of "power of doing work." The term + "energy" is now employed in this sense. A quantity of energy is + measured by the work it is capable of performing. A body may possess + energy in virtue of its state (gas or steam under pressure), or in + virtue of its position (a raised weight), or in various other ways, + when at rest. In these cases it is said to possess _potential + energy_. It may also possess energy in virtue of its motion or + rotation (as a fly-wheel or a cannon-ball). In this case it is said + to possess _kinetic energy_, or energy of motion. In many cases the + energy (as in the case of a vibrating body, like a pendulum) is + partly kinetic and partly potential, and changes continually from one + to the other throughout the motion. For instance, the energy of a + pendulum is wholly potential when it is momentarily at rest at the + top of its swing, but is wholly kinetic when the pendulum is moving + with its maximum velocity at the lowest point of its swing. The whole + energy at any moment is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy, + and this sum remains constant so long as the amplitude of the + vibration remains the same. The potential energy of a weight W lb. + raised to a height h ft. above the earth, is Wh foot-pounds. If + allowed to fall freely, without doing work, its kinetic energy on + reaching the earth would be Wh foot-pounds, and its velocity of + motion would be such that if projected upwards with the same velocity + it would rise to the height h from which it fell. We have here a + simple and familiar case of the conversion of one kind of energy into + a different kind. But the two kinds of energy are mechanically + equivalent, and they can both be measured in terms of the same units. + The units already considered, namely foot-pounds or kilogrammetres, + are gravitational units, depending on the force of gravity. This is + the most obvious and natural method of measuring the potential energy + of a raised weight, but it has the disadvantage of varying with the + force of gravity at different places. The natural measure of the + kinetic energy of a moving body is the product of its mass by half + the square of its velocity, which gives a measure in kinetic or + absolute units independent of the force of gravity. Kinetic and + gravitational units are merely different ways of measuring the same + thing. Just as foot-pounds may be reduced to kilogrammetres by + dividing by the number of foot-pounds in one kilogrammetre, so + kinetic may be reduced to gravitational units by dividing by the + kinetic measure of the intensity of gravity, namely, the work in + kinetic units done by the weight of unit mass acting through unit + distance. For scientific purposes, it is necessary to take account of + the variation of gravity. The scientific unit of energy is called the + _erg_. The erg is the kinetic energy of a mass of 2 gm. moving with a + velocity of 1 cm. per sec. The work in ergs done by a force acting + through a distance of 1 cm. is the absolute measure of the force. A + force equal to the weight of 1 gm. (in England) acting through a + distance of 1 cm. does 981 ergs of work. A force equal to the weight + of 1000 gm. (1 kilogramme) acting through a distance of 1 metre (100 + cm.) does 98.1 million ergs of work. As the erg is a very small unit, + for many purposes, a unit equal to 10 million ergs, called a _joule_, + is employed. In England, where the weight of 1 gm. is 981 ergs per + cm., a foot-pound is equal to 1.356 joules, and a kilogrammetre is + equal to 9.81 joules. + + The term _power_ is now generally restricted to mean "rate of + working." Watt estimated that an average horse was capable of raising + 550 lb. 1 ft. in each second, or doing work at the rate of 550 + foot-pounds per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. This + conventional horse-power is the unit commonly employed for estimating + the power of engines. The _horse-power-hour_, or the work done by one + horse-power in one hour, is nearly 2 million foot-pounds. For + electrical and scientific purposes the unit of power employed is + called the _watt_. The watt is the work per second done by an + electromotive force of 1 volt in driving a current of 1 ampere, and + is equal to 10 million ergs or 1 joule per second. One horse-power is + 746 watts or nearly 3/4 of a kilowatt. The _kilowatt-hour_, which is + the unit by which electrical energy is sold, is 3.6 million joules or + 2.65 million foot-pounds, or 366,000 kilogrammetres, and is capable + of raising nearly 19 lb. of water from the freezing to the boiling + point. + + [2] In an essay on "Heat, Light, and Combinations of Light," + republished in Sir H. Davy's _Collected Works_, ii. (London, 1836). + + [3] For instance a mass of compressed air, if allowed to expand in a + cylinder at the ordinary temperature, will do work, and will at the + same time absorb a quantity of heat which, as we now know, is the + thermal equivalent of the work done. But this work cannot be said to + have been produced solely from the heat absorbed in the process, + because the air at the end of the process is in a changed condition, + and could not be restored to its original state at the same + temperature without having work done upon it precisely equal to that + obtained by its expansion. The process could not be repeated + indefinitely without a continual supply of compressed air. The source + of the work in this case is work previously done in compressing the + air, and no part of the work is really generated at the expense of + heat alone, unless the compression is effected at a lower temperature + than the expansion. + + [4] Clausius (_Pogg. Ann._ 79, p. 369) and others have misinterpreted + this assumption, and have taken it to mean that the quantity of heat + required to produce any given change of state is independent of the + manner in which the change is effected, which Carnot does not here + assume. + + [5] Carnot's description of his cycle and statement of his principle + have been given as nearly as possible in his own words, because some + injustice has been done him by erroneous descriptions and statements. + + [6] It was for this reason that Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) + stated (_Phil. Mag._, 1852, 4) that "Carnot's original demonstration + utterly fails," and that he introduced the "corrections" attributed + to James Thomson and Clerk Maxwell respectively. In reality Carnot's + original demonstration requires no correction. + + [7] In reference to this objection, Tyndall remarks (_Phil. Mag._, + 1862, p. 422; _Heat_, p. 385); "In the first place the plate of salt + nearest the source of heat is never moistened, unless the experiments + are of the roughest character. Its proximity to the source enables + the heat to chase away every trace of humidity from its surface." He + therefore took precautions to dry only the circumferential portions + of the plate nearest the pile, assuming that the flux of heat through + the central portions would suffice to keep them dry. This reasoning + is not at all satisfactory, because rocksalt is very hygroscopic and + becomes wet, even in unsaturated air, if the vapour pressure is + greater than that of a saturated solution of salt at the temperature + of the plate. Assuming that the vapour pressure of the saturated salt + solution is only half that of pure water, it would require an + elevation of temperature of 10 deg. C. to dry the rocksalt plates in + saturated air at 15 deg. C. It is only fair to say that the laws of + the vapour pressures of solutions were unknown in Tyndall's time, and + that it was usual to assume that the plates would not become wetted + until the dew-point was reached. The writer has repeated Tyndall's + experiments with a facsimile of one of Tyndall's tubes in the + possession of the Royal College of Science, fitted with plates of + rocksalt cut from the same block as Tyndall's, and therefore of the + same hygroscopic quality. Employing a reflecting galvanometer in + conjunction with a differential bolometer, which is quicker in its + action than Tyndall's pile, there appears to be hardly any difference + between dry and moist air, provided that the latter is not more than + half saturated. Using saturated air with a Leslie cube as source of + heat, both rocksalt plates invariably become wet in a minute or two + and the absorption rises to 10 or 20% according to the thickness of + the film of deposited moisture. Employing the open tube method as + described by Tyndall, without the rocksalt plates, the absorption is + certainly less than 1% in 3 ft. of air saturated at 20 deg. C., unless + condensation is induced on the walls of the tube. It is possible that + the walls of Tyndall's tube may have become covered with a very + hygroscopic film from the powder of the calcium chloride which he was + in the habit of introducing near one end. Such a film would be + exceedingly difficult to remove, and would account for the excessive + precautions which he found necessary in drying the air in order to + obtain the same transmitting power as a vacuum. It is probable that + Tyndall's experiments on aqueous vapour were effected by experimental + errors of this character. + + + + +HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766), English classical scholar and bibliophile, +was born at Exeter on the 20th of April 1704. He was the son of a +wealthy merchant, and was thus able to devote himself mainly to travel +and book-collecting. He became town clerk of his native city in 1752, +and held the office till his death on the 13th of September 1766. In +1763 he had published a pamphlet advocating the repeal of the cider tax +in Devonshire, and his endeavours led to success three years later. As a +classical scholar he made his reputation by his critical and metrical +notes on the Greek tragedians, which procured him an honorary D.C.L. +from Oxford (31st of March 1752). He also left MS. notes on Burmann's +and Martyn's editions of Virgil, on Euripides, Catullus, Tibullus, and +the greater part of Hesiod. In some of these he adopts the whimsical +name Dexiades Ericius. His _Revisal of Shakespear's Text_ (1765) was an +answer to the "insolent dogmatism" of Bishop Warburton. _The Essay +towards a Demonstrative Proof of the Divine Existence, Unity and +Attributes_ (1740) was intended to combat the opinions of Voltaire, +Rousseau and Hume. Two of his sons (among a family of thirteen) were +Benjamin, headmaster of Harrow (1771-1785), and George, headmaster of +Eton (1796). His collection of rare classical works formed the nucleus +of his son Benjamin's famous library (Bibliotheca Heathiana). + + An account of the Heath family will be found in Sir W. R. Drake's + _Heathiana_ (1882). + + + + +HEATH, NICHOLAS (c. 1501-1578), archbishop of York and lord chancellor, +was born in London about 1501 and graduated B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He +then migrated to Christ's College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in +1520, M.A. in 1522, and was elected fellow in 1524. After holding minor +preferments he was appointed archdeacon of Stafford in 1534 and +graduated D.D. in 1535. He then accompanied Edward Fox (q.v.), bishop of +Hereford, on his mission to promote a theological and political +understanding with the Lutheran princes of Germany. His selection for +this duty implies a readiness on Heath's part to proceed some distance +along the path of reform; but his dealings with the Lutherans did not +confirm this tendency, and Heath's subsequent career was closely +associated with the cause of reaction. In 1539, the year of the Six +Articles, he was made bishop of Rochester, and in 1543 he succeeded +Latimer at Worcester. His Catholicism, however, was of a less rigid type +than Gardiner's and Bonner's; he felt something of the force of the +national antipathy to foreign influence, whether ecclesiastical or +secular, and was always impressed by the necessity of national unity, so +far as was possible, in matters of faith. Apparently he made no +difficulty about carrying out the earlier reforms of Edward VI., and he +accepted the first book of common prayer after it had been modified by +the House of Lords in a Catholic direction. + +His definite breach with the Reformation occurred on the grounds, on +which four centuries later Leo XIII. denied the Catholicity of the +reformed English Church, namely, on the question of the Ordinal drawn up +in February 1550. Heath refused to accept it, was imprisoned, and in +1551 deprived of his bishopric. On Mary's accession he was released and +restored, and made president of the council of the Marches and Wales. In +1555 he was promoted to the archbishopric of York, which he did much to +enrich after the Protestant spoliation; he built York House in the +Strand. After Gardiner's death he was appointed lord chancellor, +probably on Pole's recommendation; for Heath, like Pole himself, +disliked the Spanish party in England. Unlike Pole, however, he seems to +have been averse from the excessive persecution of Mary's reign, and no +Protestants were burnt in his diocese. He exercised, however, little +influence on Mary's secular or ecclesiastical policy. + +On Mary's death Heath as chancellor at once proclaimed Elizabeth. Like +Sir Thomas More he held that it was entirely within the competence of +the national state, represented by parliament, to determine questions of +the succession to the throne; and although Elizabeth did not renew his +commission as lord chancellor, he continued to sit in the privy council +for two months until the government had determined to complete the +breach with the Roman Catholic Church; and as late as April 1559 he +assisted the government by helping to arrange the Westminster +Conference, and reproving his more truculent co-religionists. He refused +to crown Elizabeth because she would not have the coronation service +accompanied with the elevation of the Host; and ecclesiastical +ceremonies and doctrine could not, in Heath's view, be altered or +abrogated by any mere national authority. Hence he steadily resisted +Elizabeth's acts of supremacy and uniformity, although he had acquiesced +in the acts of 1534 and 1549. Like others of Henry's bishops, he had +been convinced by the events of Edward VI.'s reign that Sir Thomas More +was right and Henry VIII. was wrong in their attitude towards the claims +of the papacy and the Catholic Church. He was therefore necessarily +deprived of his archbishopric in 1559, but he remained loyal to +Elizabeth; and after a temporary confinement he was suffered to pass the +remaining nineteen years of his life in peace and quiet, never attending +public worship and sometimes hearing mass in private. The queen visited +him more than once at his house at Chobham, Surrey; he died and was +buried there at the end of 1578. + + AUTHORITIES.--Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the Privy + Council; Cal. State Papers, Domestic, Addenda, Spanish and Venetian; + Kemp's Loseley MSS.; Froude's _History_; Burnet, Collier, Dixon and + Frere's _Church Histories_; Strype's _Works_ (General Index); Parker + Soc. Publications (Gough's Index); Birt's _Elizabethan Settlement_. + (A. F. P.) + + + + +HEATH, WILLIAM (1737-1814), American soldier, was born in Roxbury, +Massachusetts, on the 2nd of March 1737 (old style). He was brought up +as a farmer and had a passion for military exercises. In 1765 he entered +the Ancient and Honourable Artillery Company of Boston, of which he +became commander in 1770. In the same year he wrote to the _Boston +Gazette_ letters signed "A Military Countryman," urging the necessity of +military training. He was a member of the Massachusetts General Court +from 1770 to 1774, of the provincial committee of safety, and in +1774-1775 of the provincial congress. He was commissioned a provincial +brig.-general in December 1774, directed the pursuit of the British from +Concord (April 19, 1775), was promoted to be provincial major-general on +the 20th of June 1775, and two days later was commissioned fourth +brig.-general in the Continental Army. He became major-general on the +9th of August 1776, and was in active service around New York until +early the next year. In January 1777 he attempted to take Fort +Independence, near Spuyten Duyvil, then garrisoned by about 2000 +Hessians, but at the first sally of the garrison his troops became +panic-stricken and a few days later he withdrew. Washington reprimanded +him and never again entrusted to him any important operation in the +field. Throughout the war, however, Heath was very efficient in muster +service and in the barracks. From March 1777 to October 1778 he was in +command of the Eastern Department with headquarters at Boston, and had +charge (Nov. 1777-Oct. 1778) of the prisoners of war from Burgoyne's +army held at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In May 1779 he was appointed a +commissioner of the Board of War. He was placed in command of the troops +on the E. side of the Hudson in June 1779, and of other troops and posts +on the Hudson in November of the same year. In July 1780 he met the +French allies under Rochambeau on their arrival in Rhode Island; in +October of the same year he succeeded Arnold in command of West Point +and its dependencies; and in August 1781, when Washington went south to +meet Cornwallis, Heath was left in command of the Army of the Hudson to +watch Clinton. After the war he retired to his farm at Roxbury, was a +member of the state House of Representatives in 1788, of the +Massachusetts convention which ratified the Federal Constitution in the +same year, and of the governor's council in 1789-1790, was a state +senator (1791-1793), and in 1806 was elected lieutenant-governor of +Massachusetts but declined to serve. He died at Roxbury on the 24th of +January 1814, the last of the major-generals of the War of American +Independence. + + See _Memoirs of Major-General Heath, containing Anecdotes, Details of + Skirmishes, Battles and other Military Events during the American War, + written by Himself_ (Boston, 1798; frequently reprinted, perhaps the + best edition being that published in New York in 1901 by William + Abbatt), particularly valuable for the descriptions of Lexington and + Bunker Hill, of the fighting around New York, of the controversies + with Burgoyne and his officers during their stay in Boston, and of + relations with Rochambeau; and his correspondence, _The Heath Papers_, + vols. iv.-v., seventh series, _Massachusetts Historical Society + Collections_ (Boston, 1904-1905). + + + + +HEATH, the English form of a name given in most Teutonic dialects to the +common ling or heather (_Calluna vulgaris_), but now applied to all +species of _Erica_, an extensive genus of monopetalous plants, belonging +to the order Ericaceae. The heaths are evergreen shrubs, with small +narrow leaves, in whorls usually set rather thickly on the shoots; the +persistent flowers have 4 sepals, and a 4-cleft campanulate or tubular +corolla, in many species more or less ventricose or inflated; the dry +capsule is 4-celled, and opens, in the true Ericae, in 4 segments, to +the middle of which the partitions adhere, though in the ling the valves +separate at the dissepiments. The plants are mostly of low growth, but +several African kinds reach the size of large bushes, and a common South +European species, _E. arborea_, occasionally attains almost the aspect +and dimensions of a tree. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. _Calluna vulgaris._] + +One of the best known and most interesting of the family is the common +heath, heather or ling, _Calluna vulgaris_ (fig. 1), placed by most +botanists in a separate genus on account of the peculiar dehiscence of +the fruit, and from the coloured calyx, which extends beyond the +corolla, having a whorl of sepal-like bracts beneath. This shrub derives +some economic importance from its forming the chief vegetation on many +of those extensive wastes that occupy so large a portion of the more +sterile lands of northern and western Europe, the usually desolate +appearance of which is enlivened in the latter part of summer by its +abundant pink blossoms. When growing erect to the height of 3 ft. or +more, as it often does in sheltered places, its purple stems, +close-leaved green shoots and feathery spikes of bell-shaped flowers +render it one of the handsomest of the heaths; but on the bleaker +elevations and more arid slopes it frequently rises only a few inches +above the ground. In all moorland countries the ling is applied to many +rural purposes; the larger stems are made into brooms, the shorter tied +up into bundles that serve as brushes, while the long trailing shoots +are woven into baskets. Pared up with the peat about its roots it forms +a good fuel, often the only one obtainable on the drier moors. The +shielings of the Scottish Highlanders were formerly constructed of heath +stems, cemented together with peat-mud, worked into a kind of mortar +with dry grass or straw; hovels and sheds for temporary purposes are +still sometimes built in a similar way, and roofed in with ling. Laid on +the ground, with the flowers above, it forms a soft springy bed, the +luxurious couch of the ancient Gael, still gladly resorted to at times +by the hill shepherd or hardy deer-stalker. The young shoots were in +former days employed as a substitute for hops in brewing, while their +astringency rendered them valuable as a tanning material in Ireland and +the Western Isles. They are said also to have been used by the +Highlanders for dyeing woollen yarn yellow, and other colours are +asserted to have been obtained from them, but some writers appear to +confuse the dyer's-weed, _Genista tinctoria_, with the heather. The +young juicy shoots and the seeds, which remain long in the capsules, +furnish the red grouse of Scotland with the larger portion of its +sustenance; the ripe seeds are eaten by many birds. The tops of the ling +afford a considerable part of the winter fodder of the hill flocks, and +are popularly supposed to communicate the fine flavour to Welsh and +Highland mutton, but sheep seldom crop heather while the mountain +grasses and rushes are sweet and accessible. Ling has been suggested as +a material for paper, but the stems are hardly sufficiently fibrous for +that purpose. The purple or fine-leaved heath, _E. cinerea_ (fig. 2), +one of the most beautiful of the genus, abounds on the lower moors and +commons of Great Britain and western Europe, in such situations being +sometimes more prevalent than the ling. The flowers of both these +species yield much honey, furnishing a plentiful supply to the bees in +moorland districts; from this heath honey the Picts probably brewed the +mead said by Boetius to have been made from the flowers themselves. + +The genus contains about 420 known species, by far the greater part +being indigenous to the western districts of South Africa, but it is +also a characteristic genus of the Mediterranean region, while several +species extend into northern Europe. No species is native in America, +but ling occurs as an introduced plant on the Atlantic side from +Newfoundland to New Jersey. Five species occur in Britain: _E. cinerea_, +_E. tetralix_ (cross-leaved heath), both abundant on heaths and commons, +_E. vagans_, Cornish heath, found only in West Cornwall, _E. ciliaris_ +in the west of England and Ireland and _E. mediterranea_ in Ireland. The +three last are south-west European species which reach the northern +limit of their distribution in the west of England and Ireland. _E. +scoparia_ is a common heath in the centre of France and elsewhere in the +Mediterranean region, forming a spreading bush several feet high. It is +known as _bruyere_, and its stout underground rootstocks yield the +briar-wood used for pipes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. _Erica cinerea._] + +The Cape heaths have long been favourite objects of horticulture. In the +warmer parts of Britain several will bear exposure to the cold of +ordinary winters in a sheltered border, but most need the protection of +the conservatory. They are sometimes raised from seed, but are chiefly +multiplied by cuttings "struck" in sand, and afterwards transferred to +pots filled with a mixture of black peat and sand; the peat should be +dry and free from sourness. Much attention is requisite in watering +heaths, as they seldom recover if once allowed to droop, while they will +not bear much water about their roots: the heath-house should be light +and well ventilated, the plants requiring sun, and soon perishing in a +close or permanently damp atmosphere; in England little or no heat is +needed in ordinary seasons. The European heaths succeed well in English +gardens, only requiring a peaty soil and sunny situation to thrive as +well as in their native localities: _E. carnea_, _mediterranea_, +_ciliaris_, _vagans_, and the pretty cross-leaved heath of boggy moors, +_E. Tetralix_, are among those most worthy of cultivation. The beautiful +large-flowered St Dabeoc's heath, belonging to the closely allied genus +_Dabeocia_, is likewise often seen in gardens. It is found in boggy +heaths in Connemara and Mayo, and is also native in West France, Spain +and the Azores. + + A beautiful work on heaths is that by H. C. Andrews, containing + coloured engravings of nearly 300 species and varieties, with + descriptions in English and Latin (4 vols., 1802-1805). + + + + +HEATHCOAT, JOHN (1783-1861), English inventor, was born at Duffield near +Derby on the 7th of August 1783. During his apprenticeship to a +framesmith near Loughborough, he made an improvement in the construction +of the warp-loom, so as to produce mitts of a lace-like appearance by +means of it. He began business on his own account at Nottingham, but +finding himself subjected to the intrusion of competing inventors he +removed to Hathern. There in 1808 he constructed a machine capable of +producing an exact imitation of real pillow-lace. This was by far the +most expensive and complex textile apparatus till then existing; and in +describing the process of his invention Heathcoat said in 1836, "The +single difficulty of getting the diagonal threads to twist in the +allotted space was so great that, if now to be done, I should probably +not attempt its accomplishment." Some time before perfecting his +invention, which he patented in 1809, he removed to Loughborough, where +he entered into partnership with Charles Lacy, a Nottingham +manufacturer; but in 1816 their factory was attacked by the Luddites and +their 55 lace frames destroyed. The damages were assessed in the King's +Bench at L10,000; but as Heathcoat declined to expend the money in the +county of Leicester he never received any part of it. Undaunted by his +loss, he began at once to construct new and greatly improved machines in +an unoccupied factory at Tiverton, Devon, propelling them by water-power +and afterwards by steam. His claim to the invention of the twisting and +traversing lace machine was disputed, and a patent was taken out by a +clever workman for a similar machine, which was decided at a trial in +1816 to be an infringement of Heathcoat's patent. He followed his great +invention by others of much ability, as, for instance, contrivances for +ornamenting net while in course of manufacture and for making ribbons +and platted and twisted net upon his machines, improved yarn +spinning-frames, and methods for winding raw silk from cocoons. He also +patented an improved process for extracting and purifying salt. An offer +of L10,000 was made to him in 1833 for the use of his processes in +dressing and finishing silk nets, but he allowed the highly profitable +secret to remain undivulged. In 1832 he patented a steam plough. +Heathcoat was elected member of parliament for Tiverton in 1832. Though +he seldom spoke in the House he was constantly engaged on committees, +where his thorough knowledge of business and sound judgment were highly +valued. He retained his seat until 1859, and after two years of +declining health he died on the 18th of January 1861 at Bolham House, +near Tiverton. + + + + +HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT (c. 1651-1733), lord mayor of London, belonged to +an old Derbyshire family and was educated at Christ's College, +Cambridge, afterwards becoming a merchant in London. His trading +ventures were very successful; he was one of the promoters of the new +East India company and he emerged victorious from a contest between +himself and the old East India company in 1693; he was also one of the +founders and first directors of the bank of England. In 1702 he became +an alderman of the city of London and was knighted; he served as lord +mayor in 1711, being the last lord mayor to ride on horseback in his +procession. In 1700 Heathcote was sent to parliament as member for the +city of London, but he was soon expelled for his share in the +circulation of some exchequer bills; however, he was again elected for +the city later in the same year, and he retained his seat until 1710. In +1714 he was member for Helston, in 1722 for New Lymington, and in 1727 +for St Germans. He was a consistent Whig, and was made a baronet eight +days before his death. Although extremely rich, Heathcote's meanness is +referred to by Pope; and it was this trait that accounts largely for his +unpopularity with the lower classes. He died in London on the 25th of +January 1733 and was buried at Normanton, Rutland, a residence which he +had purchased from the Mackworths. + +A descendant, Sir Gilbert John Heathcote, Bart. (1795-1867), was created +Baron Aveland in 1856; and his son Gilbert Henry, who in 1888 inherited +from his mother the barony of Willoughby de Eresby, became 1st earl of +Ancaster in 1892. + + + + +HEATHEN, a term originally applied to all persons or races who did not +hold the Jewish or Christian belief, thus including Mahommedans. It is +now more usually given to polytheistic races, thus excluding +Mahommedans. The derivation of the word has been much debated. It is +common to all Germanic languages; cf. German _Heide_, Dutch _heiden_. It +is usually ascribed to a Gothic _haithi_, heath. In Ulfilas' Gothic +version of the Bible, the earliest extant literary monument of the +Germanic languages, the Syrophoenician woman (Mark vii. 26) is called +_haithno_, where the Vulgate has _gentilis_. "Heathen," i.e. the people +of the heath or open country, would thus be a translation of the Latin +_paganus_, pagan, i.e. the people of the _pagus_ or village, applied to +the dwellers in the country where the worship of the old gods still +lingered, when the people of the towns were Christians (but see PAGAN +for a more tenable explanation of that term). On the other hand it has +been suggested (Prof. S. Bugge, _Indo-German. Forschungen_, v. 178, +quoted in the _New English Dictionary_) that Ulfilas may have adopted +the word from the Armenian _hetanos_, i.e. Greek [Greek: ethne], tribes, +races, the word used for the "Gentiles" in the New Testament. _Gentilis_ +in Latin, properly meaning "tribesman," came to be used of foreigners +and non-Roman peoples, and was adopted in ecclesiastical usage for the +non-Christian nations and in the Old Testament for non-Jewish races. + + + + +HEATHFIELD, GEORGE AUGUSTUS ELIOTT, BARON (1717-1790), British general, +a younger son of Sir Gilbert Eliott, Bart., of Stobs, Roxburghshire, was +born on the 25th of December 1717, and educated abroad for the military +profession. As a volunteer he fought with the Prussian army in 1735 and +1736, and then entered the Grenadier Guards. He went through the war of +the Austrian Succession, and was wounded at Dettingen, rising to be +lieutenant-colonel in 1754. In 1759 he became colonel of a new regiment +of light horse (afterwards the 15th Hussars) and became well known for +the efficiency which it displayed in the subsequent campaigns. He became +lieutenant-general in 1765. In 1775 he was selected to be governor of +Gibraltar (q.v.), and it is in connexion with his magnificent defence in +the great siege of 1779 that his name is famous. His portrait by Sir +Joshua Reynolds is in the National Gallery. In 1787 he was created Baron +Heathfield of Gibraltar, but died on the 6th of July 1790. He had +married in 1748 the heiress of the Drake family, to which Sir Francis +Drake belonged. His son, the 2nd baron, died in 1813 and the peerage +became extinct, but the estates went to the family of Eliott-Drake +(baronetcy of 1821) through his sister. + + + + +HEATING. In temperate latitudes the climate is generally such as to +necessitate in dwellings during a great portion of the year a +temperature warmer than that out of doors. The object of the art of +heating is to secure this required warmth with the greatest economy and +efficiency. For reasons of health it may be assumed that no system of +heating is advisable which does not provide for a constant renewal of +the air in the locality warmed, and on this account there is a +difficulty in treating as separate matters the subjects of heating and +ventilation, which in practical schemes should be considered conjointly. +(See VENTILATION). + +The object of all heating apparatus is the transference of heat from the +fire to the various parts of the building it is intended to warm, and +this transfer may be effected by radiation, by conduction or by +convection. An open fire acts by radiation; it warms the air in a room +by first warming the walls, floor, ceiling and articles in the room, and +these in turn warm the air. Therefore in a room with an open fire the +air is, as a rule, less heated than the walls. In many forms of +fireplaces fresh air is brought in and passed around the back and sides +of the stove before being admitted into the room. A closed stove acts +mainly by convection; though when heated to a high temperature it gives +out radiant heat. Windows have a chilling effect on a room, and in +calculations extra allowance should be made for window areas. + +There are a number of methods available for adoption in the heating of +buildings, but it is a matter of considerable difficulty to suit the +method of warming to the class of building to be warmed. Heating may be +effected by one of the following systems, or installations may be so +arranged as to combine the advantages of more than one method: open +fires, closed stoves, hot-air apparatus, hot water circulating in pipes +at low or at high pressure, or steam at high or low pressure. + + + Open fires. + +The open grate still holds favour in England, though in America and on +the continent of Europe it has been superseded by the closed stove. The +old form of open fire is certainly wasteful of fuel, and the loss of +heat up the chimney and by conduction into the brickwork backing of the +stove is considerable. Great improvements, however, have been effected +in the design of open fireplaces, and many ingenious contrivances of +this nature are now in the market which combine efficiency of heating +with economy of fuel. Unless suitable fresh air inlets are provided, +this form of stove will cause the room to be draughty, the strong +current of warm air up the flue drawing cold air in through the crevices +in the doors and windows. The best form of open fireplace is the +ventilating stove, in which fresh air is passed around the back and +sides of the stove before being admitted through convenient openings +into the room. This has immense advantages over the ordinary type of +fireplace. The illustrations show two forms of ventilating fireplace, +one (fig. 1) similar in appearance to the ordinary domestic grate, the +other (fig. 2) with descending smoke flue suitable for hospitals and +public rooms, where it might be fixed in the middle of the apartment. +The fixing of stoves of this kind entails the laying of pipes or ducts +from the open to convey fresh air to the back of the stove. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + + Closed stoves. + +With closed stoves much less heat is wasted, and consequently less fuel +is burned, than with open grates, but they often cause an unpleasant +sensation of dryness in the air, and the products of combustion also +escape to some extent, rendering this method of heating not only +unpleasant but sometimes even dangerous. The method in Great Britain is +almost entirely confined to places of public assembly, but in America +and on the continent of Europe it is much used for domestic heating. If +the flue pipe be carried up a considerable distance inside the apartment +to be warmed before being turned into the external air, practically the +whole of the heat generated will be utilized. Charcoal, coke or +anthracite coal are the fuels generally used in slow combustion heating +stoves. + + + Gas fires. + +Gas fires, as a substitute for the open coal fire, have many points in +their favour, for they are conducive to cleanliness, they need but +little attention, and the heat is easily controlled. On the other hand, +they may give off unhealthy fumes and produce unpleasant odours. They +usually take the form of cast iron open stoves fitted with a number of +Bunsen burners which heat perforated lumps of asbestos. The best form of +stove is that with which perfect combustion is most nearly attained, and +to which a pan of water is affixed to supply a desirable humidity to the +air, the gas having the effect of drying the atmosphere. With another +form of gas stove coke is used in place of the perforated asbestos; the +fire is started with the gas, which, when the coke is well alight, may +be dispensed with, and the fire kept up with coke in the usual way. + + + Electrical heating. + +Electrical heating appliances have only recently passed the experimental +stage; there is, however, undoubtedly a great future for electric +heating, and the perfecting of the stove, together with the cheapening +of the electric current, may be expected to result in many of the other +stoves and convectors being superseded. Hitherto the large bill for +electric energy has debarred the general use of electrical heating, in +spite of its numerous advantages. + + + Oil stoves. + +Oils are powerful fuels, but the high price of refined petroleum, the +oil generally preferred, precludes its widespread use for many purposes +for which it is suitable. In small stoves for warming and for cooking, +petroleum presents some advantages over other fuels, in that there is no +chimney to sweep, and if well managed no unpleasant fumes, and the +stoves are easily portable. On the other hand, these stoves need a +considerable amount of attention in filling, trimming and cleaning, and +there is some risk of explosion and damage by accidental leaking and +smoking. Crude or unrefined petroleum needs a special air-spray pressure +burner for its use, and this suffers from the disadvantage of being +noisy. Gas and oil radiators would be more properly termed "convectors," +since they warm mainly by converted currents. They are similar in +appearance to a hot-water or steam radiator, and, indeed, some are +designed to be filled with water and used as such. They should always be +fitted with a pan of water to supply the necessary humidity to the +warmed air, and a flue to carry off any disagreeable fumes. + + + Warm air. + +Heating by warmed air, one of the oldest methods in use, has been much +improved by attention to the construction of the apparatus, and if +properly installed will give as good effects as it is possible to +obtain. The system is especially suitable for churches, assembly halls +and large rooms. A stove of special design is placed in a chamber in the +basement or cellar, and cold fresh air is passed through it, and led by +means of flues to the various apartments for distribution by means of +easily regulated inlet valves. To prevent the atmosphere from becoming +unduly dry a pan of water is fitted to the stove; this serves to moisten +the air before it passes into the distributing flues. If each +distributing flue is connected by means of a mixing valve with a +cold-air flue, the warmth of the incoming air can be regulated to a +nicety (see VENTILATION). + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + + Low pressure hot water. + +There are many different systems of heating by hot water circulating in +pipes. The oldest and best known is the "two pipe" system, others being +the "one pipe" or "simple circuit," and the "drop" or "overhead." The +high pressure system is of later invention, having been first put to +practical use by A. M. Perkins in 1845. All these methods warm chiefly +by means of convected heat, the amount of true radiation from the pipes +being small. The manner in which the circulation of hot water takes +place in the tubes is as follows. Fire heats the water in a boiler from +the top of which a "flow" pipe communicates with the rooms to be warmed +(fig. 3). As the water is heated it becomes lighter, rises to the top of +the boiler, and passes along the flow pipe. It is followed by more and +more hot water, and so travels along the flow pipe, which is rising all +the time, to the farthest point of the circuit, by which time it has in +all probability cooled considerably. From this point the "return" pipe +drops, usually at the same rate as the flow pipe rises; and in due +course the water reaches its starting point, the boiler, and is again +heated and again circulated through the system. The connexion of the +return pipe is made with the lower part of the boiler. Branches may be +made from the main pipes by means of smaller pipes arranged in the same +manner as the mains, the branch flow pipe being connected with the main +flow pipe and returning into the main return. To obtain a larger heating +surface than a pipe affords, radiators are connected with the pipes +where desired, and the water passing through them warms the surrounding +air. + +The "one pipe" system (fig. 4) acts on precisely the same principle, but +in place of two pipes being placed in adjacent positions one large main +makes a complete circuit of the area to be warmed, starting from and +returning to the boiler, and from this main flow and return branches are +taken and connected with radiators and other heating appliances. + +In the "drop" or "overhead" system (fig. 5) a rising main is taken +directly from the boiler to the topmost floor of the building, and from +this branches are dropped to the lower floors, and connected by means of +smaller branches to radiators or coils. The vertical branches descend to +the basement and generally merge in a single return pipe which is +connected to the lower part of the boiler. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +The rate of circulation in the ordinary low pressure hot-water system +may be considerably accelerated by means of steam injections. The water +after being heated passes into a circulating tank into which steam is +introduced; this, mixing with the hot water, gives it additional motive +power, resulting in a faster circulation. This steam condensing adds to +the water in the pipe and naturally causes an overflow, which is led +back to the boiler and re-used. In districts where the water is hard, +this arrangement considerably lengthens the life of the boiler, as the +same water is used over and over again, and no fresh deposit of fur +occurs. Owing to the very rapid movement and the consequent increased +rate of transmission of heat, the pipes and radiators may be reduced in +size, in many circumstances a very desirable thing to achieve. With this +system the temperature can be quickly raised and easily controlled. If +the weather is mild, a moderate heat may be obtained by using the +apparatus as an ordinary hot water system, and shutting off the steam +injectors. + +The cold-water supply and expansion tank (fig. 3) are often combined in +one tank placed at a point above the level of circulation. The tank +should be of a size to hold not less than a twentieth part of the total +amount of water held in the system. The automatic inlet of cold water to +the hot water system from the main house tank or other source is +controlled by a ball valve, which is so fixed as to allow the water to +rise no more than an inch above the bottom of the tank, thus leaving the +remainder of the space clear for expansion. An overflow is provided, +discharging into the open air to allow the water to escape should the +ball valve become defective. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + + High pressure hot water. + +The "Perkins" or "small bore high pressure" system (fig. 6) has many +advantages, for it is safe, the boiler is small and is easily managed, +the temperature is well under control and may be regulated to suit the +changing weather, and the small pipes present a neat appearance in a +room. The whole system is constructed of wrought iron pipe of small +diameter, strong enough to resist a testing pressure of 2000 to 2500 lb. +per sq. in. The boiler consists of similar pipe coiled up to form a +fire-box, inside which the furnace is lighted. The coil is encased with +firebricks and brickwork, and the smoke from the fire is carried off by +a flue in the ordinary way. The flow pipe of similar section (usually +having an internal diameter of about 1 in., the metal being nearly 1/4 +in. thick) continues from the top of the coil, and after travelling +round the various apartments returns to, and is connected with, the +lowest part of the boiler coil. The joints take a special form to enable +them to withstand the great strain to which they are subjected (fig. 7). +One end of a pipe is finished flat, the end of the other pipe being +brought to a conical edge. On one end also a right-handed, and on the +other a left-handed, screw-thread is turned. A coupling collar, tapped +in the same manner, is screwed on, and causes the conical edge to +impress itself tightly on the flat end, giving a sound and lasting +joint. The system is hermetically sealed after being pumped full of +water, an expansion chamber in the shape of a pipe of larger dimensions +being provided at the top of the system above the highest point of +circulation. Upon the application of heat to the fire-box coil the water +naturally expands and forces its way up into the expansion chamber; but +there it encounters the pressure of the confined air, and ebullition is +consequently prevented. Thus at no time can steam form in the system. +This system is trustworthy and safe in working. The smallness of the +pipes renders it liable to damage by frost, but this accident may be +prevented by always keeping in frosty weather a small fire in the +furnace. If this course is inconvenient, some liquid of low +freezing-point, such as glycerine, may be mixed with the water. + + + Steam heating. + +For large public buildings, factories, &c., heating by steam is +generally adopted on account of the rapidity with which heat is +available, and the great distance from the boiler at which warming is +effected. In the case of factories the exhaust steam from the engines +used for driving the working machinery is made use of and forms the most +economical method of heating possible. There are several different +systems of heating by steam--low pressure, high pressure and minus +pressure. + +In the low pressure two pipe system the flow pipe is carried to a +sufficient height directly above the boiler to allow of its gradual fall +to a little beyond the most distant point at which connexion is to be +made with the return pipe, which thence slopes towards the boiler. +Branches are taken off the flow pipe, and after circulating through +coils or radiators are connected with the return pipe. In a +well-proportioned system the pressure need not exceed 2 or 3 lb. per sq. +in. for excellent results to be obtained. The one-pipe system is similar +in principle, the pipe rising to its greatest height above the boiler +and being then carried around as a single pipe falling all the while. It +resembles in many points the one-pipe low pressure hot-water system. +Radiators are fed directly from the main. Where, as in factories or +workshops, there are already installed engines working at a high steam +pressure, say 120 to 180 lb. per sq. in., a portion of the steam +generated in the boilers may be utilized for heating by the aid of a +reducing valve. The steam is passed through the valve and emerges at the +pressure required generally from 3 lb. upwards. It is then used for one +of the systems described above. + +High-pressure steam-heating, compared with the heating by low pressure, +is little used. The principles are the same as those applied to +low-pressure work, but all fittings and appliances must, of course, be +made to stand the higher strain to which they are subjected. + +The "minus pressure" steam system, sometimes termed "atmospheric" or +"vacuum," is of more recent introduction than those just described. It +is certainly the most scientific method of steam-heating, and heat can +be made to travel a greater distance by its aid than by any other means. +The heat of the pipes is great, but can be easily regulated. The system +is economical in fuel, but needs skilled attendance to keep the +appliances and fittings in order. The steam is introduced into the pipes +at about the pressure of the atmosphere, and is sucked through the +system by means of a vacuum pump, which at the same operation frees the +pipes from air and from condensation water. This pumping action results +in an extremely rapid circulation of the heating agent, enabling long +distances to be traversed without much loss of heat. + +Compared with heating by hot water, steam-heating requires less piping, +which, further, may be of much smaller diameter to attain a similar +result, because of the higher temperature of the heat yielding surface. +A drawback to the use of steam is the fact that the high temperature of +the pipes and radiators attracts and spreads a great deal of dust. There +is also a risk that woodwork near the pipes may warp and split. The +apparatus needs constant attention, since neglect in stoking would +result in stopping the generation of steam, and the whole system would +almost immediately cool. To regulate the heat it is necessary either to +instal a number of small radiators or to divide the radiators into +sections, each section controlled by distinct valves; steam may then be +admitted to all the sections of the radiator or to any less number of +sections as desired. In a hot-water system the heat is given off at a +lower temperature and is consequently more agreeable than that yielded +by a steam-heating apparatus. The joint most commonly used for hot-water +pipes is termed the "rust" joint, which is cheap to make, but +unfortunately is inefficient. The materials required are iron borings, +sal-ammoniac and sulphur; these are mixed together, moistened with +water, and rammed into the socket, which is previously half filled with +yarn, well caulked. The materials mixed with the iron borings cause them +to rust into a solid mass, and in doing so a slight expansion takes +place. On this account it is necessary to exercise some skill in forming +the joint, or the socket of the pipe will be split; numbers of pipes are +undoubtedly spoilt in this way. Suitable proportions of materials to +form a rust joint are 90 parts by weight of iron borings well mixed with +2 parts of flowers of sulphur, and 1 part of powdered sal-ammoniac. +Another joint, less rigid but sound and durable, is made with yarn and +white and red lead. The white and red lead are mixed together to form a +putty, and are filled into the socket alternately with layers of +well-caulked yarn, starting with yarn and finishing off with the lead +mixture. + + + Joints for pipes. + +Iron expands when heated to the temperature of boiling water (212 deg. +F.) about 1 part in 900, that is to say, a pipe 100 ft. long would +expand or increase in length when heated to this temperature about +1(1/2) in., an amount which seems small but which would be quite +sufficient to destroy one or more of the joints if provision were not +made to prevent damage. The amount of expansion increases as the +temperature is raised; at 340 deg. F. it is 2(1/2) in. in 100 ft. With +wrought iron pipes bends may be arranged, as shown in fig. 8, to take up +this expansion. With cast iron pipe this cannot be done, and no length +of piping over 40 ft. should be without a proper expansion joint. The +pipes are best supported on rollers which allow of movement without +straining the joints. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +There are several joints in general use for the best class of work which +are formed with the aid of india-rubber rings or collars, any expansion +being divided amongst the whole number of joints. In the rubber ring +joint an india-rubber ring is used; slightly less in diameter than the +pipe. The rubber is circular in section, and about 1/2 in. thick, and is +stretched on the extreme end of a pipe which is then forced into the +next socket. This joint is durable, secure and easily made; it allows +for expansion and by its use the risk of pipe sockets being cracked is +avoided. It is much used for greenhouse heating works. Richardson's +patent joint (fig. 9) is a good form of this class of joint. The pipes +have specially shaped ends between which a rubber collar is placed, the +joint being held together by clips. The result is very satisfactory and +will stand heavy water pressure. Messenger's joint (fig. 10) is designed +to allow more freedom of expansion and at the same time to withstand +considerable pressure; one loose cast iron collar is used, and another +is formed as a socket on the end of the pipe itself. One end of each +pipe is plain, so that it may be cut to any desired length; pipes with +shaped ends obviously must be obtained in the exact lengths required. +Jones's expansion joint (fig. 11) is somewhat similar to Messenger's but +it is not capable of withstanding so great a pressure. In this case both +collars of cast iron are loose. + + + Radiators. + +Radiators (really convectors) were in their primitive design coils of +pipe, used to give a larger heating area than the single pipe would +afford. They are now usually of special design, and may be divided into +three classes--indirect radiators, direct radiators and direct +ventilating radiators. Indirect radiators are placed beneath the floor +of the apartment to be heated and give off heat through a grating. This +method is frequently adopted in combined schemes of heating and +ventilating; the fresh air is warmed by being passed over their surfaces +previously to being admitted through the gratings into the room. Direct +radiators are a development of the early coil of pipe; they are made in +various types and designs and are usually of cast iron. Ventilating +radiators are similar, but have an inlet arrangement at the base to +allow external air to pass over the heating surface before passing out +through the perforations. Radiators should not be fixed directly on to +the main heating pipe, but always on branches of smaller diameter +leading from the flow pipe to one end of the radiator and back to the +main return pipe from the other end; they may then be easily controlled +by a valve placed on the branch from the flow pipe. To each radiator +should be fitted an air tap, which when opened will permit the escape of +any air that has accumulated in the coil; otherwise free circulation is +impossible, and the full benefit of the heat is not obtained. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + + Hot-water supply. + +A plentiful supply of hot water is a necessity in every house for +domestic and hygienic purposes. In small houses all requirements may be +satisfied with a boiler heated by the kitchen fire. For large buildings +where large quantities of hot water are used an independent boiler of +suitable size should be installed. Every installation is made up of a +boiler or other water heater, a tank or cylinder to contain the water +when heated, and a cistern of cold water, the supply from which to the +system is regulated automatically by a ball valve. These containers, +proportioned to the required supply of hot water, are connected with +each other by means of pipes, a "flow" and a "return" connecting the +boiler with the cylinder or tank (fig. 12). The flow pipe starts from +the top of the boiler and is connected near the top of the cylinder, the +return pipe joining the lower portions of the cylinder and boiler. The +supply from the cold water cistern enters the bottom of the cylinder, +and thence travels by way of the return pipe to the boiler, where it is +heated, and back through the flow pipe to the cylinder, which is thus +soon filled with hot water. A flow pipe which serves also for expansion +is taken from the top of the cylinder to a point above the cold-water +supply and turned down to prevent the ingress of dirt. From this pipe at +various points are taken the supply pipes to baths, lavatories, sinks +and other appliances. It will be observed that in fig. 12 the cylinder +is placed in proximity to the boiler; this is the usual and most +effective method, but it may be placed some distance away if desired. +The tank system is of much earlier date than this cylinder system, and +although the two resemble each other in many respects, the tank system +is in practice the less effective. The tank is placed above the level of +the topmost draw off, and often in a cupboard which it will warm +sufficiently to permit of its being used as a linen airing closet. An +expansion pipe is taken from the top of the tank to a point above the +roof. All draw off services are taken off from the flow pipe which +connects the boiler with the tank. This method differs from that adopted +in the cylinder system, where all services are led from the top of the +cylinder. A suitable proportion between the size of the tank or cylinder +and that of the boiler is 8 or 10 to 1. Water may also be heated by +placing a coil of steam or high-pressure hot-water pipes in a water tank +(fig. 6), the water heated in this way circulating in the manner already +described. An alternative plan is to pass the water through pipes placed +in a steam chest. + +Cylinders, tanks and independent boilers should be encased in a +non-conducting material such as silicate cotton, thick felt or asbestos +composition. The two first mentioned are affixed by means of bands or +straps or stitched on; the asbestos is laid on in the form of a plaster +from 2 to 6 in. thick. + +Taps to baths and lavatories should be connected to the main services by +a flow and return pipe so that hot water is constantly flowing past the +tap, thus enabling hot water to be obtained immediately. Frequently a +single pipe is led to the tap, but the water in this branch cools and +must therefore be drawn off before hot water can be obtained. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + + + Boilers. + +Two classes of boilers are chiefly used in hot-water heating +installations, viz. those heated by the fire of the kitchen range, and +those heated separately or independently. Of the first class there are +two varieties in common use--a form of "saddle" boiler (fig. 13) and the +"boot" boiler (fig. 14). Independent boilers are made in every +conceivable size and form of construction, and many of them are capable +of doing excellent work. In the choice of a boiler of this description +it should be remembered that rapid heating, economical combustion of +fuel, and facilities for cleaning, are requisites, the absence of any of +which considerably lowers the efficiency of the apparatus. Boilers set +in brickwork are sometimes used in domestic work, although they are more +favoured for horticultural heating. The shape mostly used is the +"saddle" boiler, or some variation upon this very old pattern. The +coiled pipe fire-box of the high-pressure hot-water system previously +described may be also classed with boilers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +A notable feature of modern boiler construction is the mode of building +the apparatus of cast iron in either horizontal or vertical sections. +Both the types intended to be set in brickwork and those working +independently are formed on the sectional principle, which has many good +points. The parts are easy of transport and can be handled without +difficulty through narrow doorways and in confined situations. The size +of the boiler may be increased or diminished by the addition or +subtraction of one or more sections; these, being simple in design, are +easily fitted together, and should a section become defective it is a +simple matter to insert a new one in its place. Should a defect occur +with a wrought iron boiler it is usually necessary for the purpose of +repair to disconnect and remove the whole apparatus, the heating system +of which it forms a part being in the meantime useless. In a type built +with vertical sections each division is complete in itself, and is not +directly connected with the next section, but communicates with flow and +return drums. A defective section may thus be left in position and +stopped off by means of plugs from the drums until it is convenient to +fit a new one in its place. A boiler with horizontal sections is shown +in fig. 15; it will be seen that each of the upper sections has a number +of cross waterways which form a series of gratings over the fire-box and +intercept most of the heat generated, effecting great economy of fuel. + + + Safety valves. + +In the ordinary working of a hot-water apparatus the expansion pipe +already referred to will prevent any overdue pressure occurring in the +boiler; should, however, the pipes become blocked in any way while the +apparatus is in use, or the water in them become frozen, the lighting of +the fire would cause the water to expand, and having no outlet it would +in all probability burst the boiler. To prevent this a safety valve +should be fitted on the top of the boiler, or be connected thereto with +a large pipe so as to be visible. The valve may be of the dead weight +(fig. 16), lever weight, spring (fig. 17) or diaphragm variety. The +three first named are largely used. In the diaphragm valve a thin piece +of metal is fixed to an outlet from the boiler, and when a moderate +pressure is exceeded this gives way, allowing the water and steam to +escape. + +Fusible plugs are little used; they consist of pieces of softer metal +inserted on the side of the boiler, which melt should the heat of the +water rise above a certain temperature. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.] + + + Geysers. + +A "Geyser" is a very convenient form of apparatus for heating a quantity +of water in a short time. A water pipe of copper or wrought iron is +passed through a cylinder in which gas or oil heating burners are +placed. The piping takes a winding or zigzag course, and by the time the +outlet is reached, the water it contains has reached a high temperature. +By this means a continuous stream of hot water is obtained, greater or +smaller in proportion to the size and power of the apparatus. The +improved types of gas geysers are provided with a single control to both +gas and water supplies, with a small "pilot" burner to ignite the gas. A +flue should in all cases be provided to carry off the fumes of the fuel. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.] + + + Incrustation. + +In districts where the water is of a "hard nature," that is, contains +bicarbonate of lime in solution, the interior of the boiler, cylinders, +tanks and pipes of a hot water system will become incrusted with a +deposit of lime which is gradually precipitated as the water is heated +to boiling point. With "very hard" water this deposit may require +removal every three months; in London it is usual to clean out the +boiler every six months and the cylinders and tanks at longer intervals. +For this purpose manlids must be provided (figs. 13 and 14), and pipes +should be fitted with removable caps at the bends to allow for +periodical cleaning. The lime deposit or "fur" is a poor conductor of +heat, and it is therefore most detrimental to the efficiency of the +system to allow the interior of the boiler or any other portion to +become furred up. Further, if not removed, the fur will in a short time +bring about a fracture in the boiler. The use of soft water entails a +disadvantage of another character--that of corroding iron and lead work, +soft water exercising a very vigorous chemical action upon these metals. +In districts supplied with soft water, copper should be employed to as +large an extent as possible. + +The table given below will be useful in calculating the size of the +radiating surface necessary to raise the temperature to the extent +required when the external air is at freezing point (32 deg. Fahr.):-- + + +-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+ + | | | Cubic Feet of Air heated by | + | | | 1 sq. ft. of Radiator or | + | Description of Building | Temperature | Pipe Surface. | + | to be heated. | required. +-----------------------------+ + | | | Low Pressure | Low Pressure | + | | | Water. | Steam. | + +-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+ + | Dwelling rooms | 55 deg.-60 deg. | 85-90 | 115-125 | + | Schools | 60 deg. | 90-100 | 120-130 | + | Churches and chapels | 55 deg.-60 deg. | 100-120 | 135-160 | + | Offices and shops | 55 deg.-60 deg. | 120-125 | 160-170 | + | Public halls, workshops,| | | | + | waiting-rooms | 55 deg. | 130-150 | 175-200 | + | Warehouses, stores | 50 deg.-55 deg. | 140-160 | 190-220 | + +-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+ + + + Steam supply at Lockport. + +In closing this account of heating and the practical methods of +application of heat, an example may be mentioned to show the great +capabilities of a carefully planned system. At the city of Lockport in +New York state, America, an interesting example of the direct +application of steam-heating on a large scale has been carried out under +the direction of Mr Birdsill Holly of that city. Houses within a radius +of 3 m. from the boiler house are supplied with superheated steam at a +pressure of 35 lb. to the in. The mains, the largest of which are 4 in. +in diameter, and the smallest 2 in., are wrapped in asbestos, felt and +other non-conducting materials, and are placed in wooden tubes laid +under ground like water and gas pipes. The house branches pipes are +1(1/2) in. in diameter, and 3/4-in. pipes are used inside the houses. +The steam is employed for warming apartments by means of pipe radiators, +for heating water by steam injections, and for all cooking purposes. The +steam mains to the houses are laid by the supply company; the internal +pipes and fittings are paid for or rented by the occupier, costing for +an installation from L30 for an ordinary eight-roomed house to L100 or +more for larger buildings. With the success of this undertaking in view +it is a matter of wonder that the example set in this instance has not +been adopted to a much greater extent elsewhere. + + The principal publications on heating are: Hood, _Practical Treatise + on Warming Buildings by Hot Water_; Baldwin, _Hot Water Heating and + Fittings_; Baldwin, _Steam Heating for Buildings_; Billings, + _Ventilation and Heating_; Carpenter, _Heating and Ventilating + Buildings_; Jones, _Heating by Hot Water_, _Ventilation and Hot Water + Supply_; Dye, _Hot Water Supply_. (J. Bt.) + + + + +HEAVEN (O. Eng. _hefen_, _heofon_, _heofone_; this word appears in O.S. +_hevan_; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. _Himmel_, Dutch _hemel_; +there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the +ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the suggestion that it is +connected with "to heave," in the sense of something "lifted up," is +erroneous), properly the expanse, taking the appearance of a domed vault +above the earth, in which the sun, moon, planets and stars seem to be +placed, the firmament; hence also used, generally in the plural, of the +space immediately above the earth, the atmospheric region of winds, +rain, clouds, and of the birds of the air. The heaven and the earth +together, therefore, to the ancient cosmographers, and still in poetical +language, make up the universe. In the cosmogonies of many ancient +peoples there was a plurality of heavens, probably among the earlier +Hebrews, the idea being elaborated in rabbinical literature, among the +Babylonians and in Zoroastrianism. The number of these heavens, the +higher transcending the lower in glory, varied from three to seven. +Heaven, as in the Hebrew _shamayim_, the Greek [Greek: ouranos], the +Latin _caelum_, is the abode of God, and as such in Christian +eschatology is the place of the blessed in the next world (see +ESCHATOLOGY and PARADISE). + + + + +HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1813-1863), German poet and dramatist, was +born at Wesselburen in Ditmarschen, Holstein, on the 18th of March 1813. +Though only the son of a poor bricklayer, he early showed a talent for +poetry, which was first displayed to the world by the publication, in +the Hamburg _Modezeitung_, of verses which he had sent to Amalie Schoppe +(1791-1858), a then popular journalist and author of nursery tales. +Through the kindness of this lady, who interested several of her friends +on his behalf, he was enabled to go to Hamburg and there prepare himself +for the university. A year later he went to Heidelberg to study law, but +finding this uncongenial he passed on to the university of Munich, where +he devoted himself to philosophy, history and literature. In 1839 Hebbel +left Munich and wandered back to Hamburg on foot, where he resumed his +relations with Elsie Lensing, whose self-sacrificing assistance had +helped him over the darkest days in Munich. In the same year he wrote +his first tragedy _Judith_ (published 1841), which in the following year +was performed in Hamburg and Berlin and made his name known throughout +Germany. In 1840 he wrote the tragedy _Genoveva_, and the following year +finished a comedy, _Der Diamant_, which he had begun at Munich. In 1842 +he visited Copenhagen, where he obtained from the king of Denmark a +small travelling studentship, which enabled him to spend some time in +Paris and two years (1844-1846) in Italy. In Paris he wrote his fine +"tragedy of common life," _Maria Magdalene_ (1844). On his return from +Italy Hebbel met at Vienna two Polish noblemen, the brothers Zerboni di +Sposetti, who in their enthusiasm for his genius urged him to remain, +and supplied him with the means to mingle in the best intellectual +society of the Austrian capital. The unwonted life of ease had its +effect. The old precarious existence became a horror to him, he made a +deliberate breach with it by marrying (in 1846) the beautiful and +wealthy actress Christine Enghaus, ruthlessly sacrificing the girl who +had given up all for him and who remained faithful till her death, on +the ground that "a man's first duty is to the most powerful force within +him, that which alone can give him happiness and be of service to the +world": in his case the poetical faculty, which would have perished "in +the miserable struggle for existence." This "deadly sin," which, "if +peace of conscience be the test of action," was, he considered, the best +act of his life, established his fortunes. Elise, however, still +provided useful inspiration for his art. As late as 1855, shortly after +her death, he wrote the little epic _Mutter und Kind_, intended to show +that the relation of parent and child is the essential factor which +makes the quality of happiness among all classes and under all +conditions equal. Long before this Hebbel had become famous. German +sovereigns bestowed decorations upon him; and in foreign capitals he was +feted as the greatest of living German dramatists. From the grand-duke +of Saxe-Weimar he received a flattering invitation to take up his +residence at Weimar, where several of his plays were first performed. He +remained, however, at Vienna until his death on the 13th of December +1863. + +Besides the works already mentioned, Hebbel's principal tragedies are +_Herodes und Mariamne_ (1850); _Julia_ (1851); _Michel Angelo_ (1851); +_Agnes Bernauer_ (1855); _Gyges und sein Ring_ (1856), and the +magnificently conceived trilogy _Die Nibelungen_ (1862), his last work +(consisting of a prologue, _Der gehornte Siegfried_, and the tragedies, +_Siegfrieds Tod_ and _Kriemhilds Rache_), which won for the author the +Schiller prize. Of his comedies _Der Diamant_ (1847), _Der Rubin_ +(1850), and the tragi-comedy _Ein Trauerspiel in Sizilien_ (1845), are +the more important, but they are heavy and hardly rise above mediocrity. +All his dramatic productions, however, exhibit skill in +characterization, great glow of passion, and a true feeling for dramatic +situation; but their poetic effect is frequently marred by extravagances +which border on the grotesque, and by the introduction of incidents the +unpleasant character of which is not sufficiently relieved. In many of +his lyric poems, and especially in _Mutter und Kind_, published in 1859, +Hebbel showed that his poetic gifts were not restricted to the drama. + + His collected works were first published by E. Kuh (12 vols., Hamburg, + 1866-1868); revised by H. Krumm (12 vols., Hamburg, 1892). The best + critical edition is that by R. M. Werner (12 vols., 1901-1903), to + which have been added Hebbel's Diaries (4 vols.) and Correspondence (6 + vols.). Hebbel's _Briefwechsel mit Freunden und beruhmten + Zeitgenossen_ was issued by F. Bamberg (1890-1892). The chief + biographies of Hebbel are those by E. Kuh (1877) and R. M. Werner + (1905). See also L. A. Frankl, _Zur Biographie F. Hebbels_ (1884); T. + Poppe, _F. Hebbel und sein Drama_ (1900); A. Scheunert, _Der + Pantragismus als System der Weltanschauung und Asthetik Hebbels_ + (1903); E. A. Georgy, _Die Tragodie F. Hebbels nach ihrem Ideengehalt_ + (1904). + + + + +HEBBURN, an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary division of +Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne, 4(1/2) m. below +Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1881), +11,802; (1901), 20,901. It has extensive shipbuilding and engineering +works, rope and sail factories, chemical, colour and cement works, and +collieries. + + + + +HEBDEN BRIDGE, an urban district in the Sowerby parliamentary division +of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the Calder and Hebden +rivers, 7 m. W. by N. of Halifax by the Lancashire and Yorkshire +railway. Pop. (1901), 7536. The town has cotton factories, dye-works, +foundries and manufactories of shuttles. The upper Calder valley, +between Halifax and Todmorden, is walled with bold hills, the summits of +which consist of wild moorland. The vale itself is densely populated, +but its beauty is not destroyed, and the contrast with its desolate +surroundings is remarkable. + + + + +HEBE, in Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus and Hera, the goddess of +youth. In the Homeric poems she is the female counterpart of Ganymede, +and acts as cupbearer to the gods (_Iliad_, iv. 2). She was the special +attendant of her mother, whose horses she harnessed (_Iliad_, v. 722). +When Heracles was received amongst the gods, Hebe was bestowed upon him +in marriage (_Odyssey_, xi. 603). When the custom of the heroic age, +which permitted female cupbearers, fell into disuse, Hebe was replaced +by Ganymede in the popular mythology. To account for her retirement from +her office, it was said that she fell down in the presence of the gods +while handing the wine, and was so ashamed that she refused to appear +before them again. Hebe exhibits many striking points of resemblance +with the pure Greek goddess Aphrodite. She is the daughter of Zeus and +Hera, Aphrodite of Zeus and Dione; but Dione and Hera are often +identified. Hebe is called Dia, a regular epithet of Aphrodite; at +Phlius, a festival called [Greek: Kissotomoi] (the days of ivy-cutting) +was annually celebrated in her honour (Pausanias, ii. 13); and ivy was +sacred also to Aphrodite. The apotheosis of Heracles and his marriage +with Hebe became a favourite subject with poets and painters, and many +instances occur on vases. In later art she is often represented, like +Ganymede, caressing the eagle. + + See R. Kekule, _Hebe_ (1867), mainly dealing with the representations + of Hebe in art; and P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio's + _Dictionnaire des antiquites_. + +The meaning of the word Hebe tended to transform the goddess into a mere +personification of the eternal youth that belongs to the gods, and this +conception is frequently met with. Then she becomes identical with the +Roman Juventas, who is simply an abstraction of an attribute of Jupiter +Juventus, the god of increase and blessing and youth. To Juventas, as +personifying the eternal youth of the Roman state, a chapel was +dedicated in very early times in the _cella_ of Minerva in the temple of +Jupiter Capitolinus. With this temple is connected the legend of +Juventas and Terminus, who alone of all the gods refused to give way +when it was being built--an indication of the eternal solidity and youth +of Rome. The cult of Juventas did not, however, become firmly +established until the time of the second Punic war. In 218 the Sibylline +books ordered a lectisternium in honour of Juventas and a supplicatio in +honour of Hercules, and in 191 a temple was dedicated in her honour in +the Circus Maximus. In later times Juventas became the personification, +not of the Roman youth, but of the emperor, who assumed the attributes +of a god (Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 69; G. +Wissowa in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_). + + + + +HEBEL, JOHANN PETER (1760-1826), German poet and popular writer, was +born at Basel on the 10th of May 1760. The father dying when the child +was little over a year old, he was brought up amidst poverty-stricken +conditions in the village of Hausen in the Wiesental, where he received +his earliest education. Being of brilliant promise, he found friends who +enabled him to complete his school education and to study theology +(1778-1780) at Erlangen. At the end of his university course he was for +a time a private tutor, then became teacher at the Gymnasium in +Karlsruhe, and in 1808 was appointed director of the school. He was +subsequently appointed member of the Consistory and "evangelical +prelate." He died at Schwetzingen, near Heidelberg, on the 22nd of +September 1826. Hebel is one of the most widely read of all German +popular poets and writers. His poetical narratives and lyric poems, +written in the "Alemanic" dialect, are "popular" in the best sense. His +_Allemannische Gedichte_ (1803) "bucolicize," in the words of Goethe, +"the whole world in the most attractive manner" (_verbauert das ganze +Universum auf die anmutigste Weise_). Indeed, few modern German poets +surpass him in fidelity, _naivete_, humour, and in the freshness and +vigour of his descriptions. His poem, _Die Wiese_, has been described by +Johannes Scherr as the "pearl of German idyllic poetry"; while his prose +writings, especially the narratives and essays contained in the +_Schatzkastlein des rheinischen Hausfreundes_ (Tubingen, 1811; new +edition, Stuttg. 1869, 1888), belong to the best class of German +stories, and according to August Friedrich Christian Vilmar (1800-1868) +in his _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_ are "worth more than a +cartload of novels" (_wiegen ein ganzes Fuder Romane auf_). Memorials +have been erected to him at Karlsruhe, Basel and Schwetzingen. + + A complete edition of Hebel's works--_Samtliche Werke_--was first + published at Stuttgart in 8 vols. (1832-1834); subsequent editions + appeared in 1847 (3 vols.), 1868 (2 vols.), 1873 (edited by G. Wendt, + 2 vols.), 1883-1885 (edited by O. Behaghel, 2 vols.) and 1905 (edited + by E. Keller, 5 vols.), as well as innumerable reprints. Hebel's + correspondence has been edited by O. Behaghel (1883). See G. Langin, + _J. P. Hebel, ein Lebensbild_ (1894), and the introduction to + Behaghel's edition. + + + + +HEBER, REGINALD (1783-1826), English bishop and hymn-writer, was born at +Malpas in Cheshire on the 21st of April 1783. His father, who belonged +to an old Yorkshire family, held a moiety of the living of Malpas. +Reginald Heber early showed remarkable promise, and was entered in +November 1800 at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he proved a +distinguished student, carrying off prizes for a Latin poem entitled +_Carmen seculare_, an English poem on _Palestine_, and a prose essay on +_The Sense of Honour_. In November 1804 he was elected a fellow of All +Souls College; and, after finishing his distinguished university career, +he made a long tour in Europe. He was admitted to holy orders in 1807, +and was then presented to the family living of Hodnet in Shropshire. In +1809 Heber married Amelia, daughter of Dr Shipley, dean of St Asaph. He +was made prebendary of St Asaph in 1812, appointed Bampton lecturer for +1815, preacher at Lincoln's Inn in 1822, and bishop of Calcutta in +January 1823. Before sailing for India he received the degree of D.D. +from the university of Oxford. In India Bishop Heber laboured +indefatigably, not only for the good of his own diocese, but for the +spread of Christianity throughout the East. He undertook numerous tours +in India, consecrating churches, founding schools and discharging other +Christian duties. His devotion to his work in a trying climate told +severely on his health. At Trichinopoly he was seized with an apoplectic +fit when in his bath, and died on the 3rd of April 1826. A statue of +him, by Chantrey, was erected at Calcutta. + +Heber was a pious man of profound learning, literary taste and great +practical energy. His fame rests mainly on his hymns, which rank among +the best in the English language. The following may be instanced: "Lord +of mercy and of might"; "Brightest and best of the sons of the morning"; +"By cool Siloam's shady rill"; "God, that madest earth and heaven"; "The +Lord of might from Sinai's brow"; "Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty"; +"From Greenland's icy mountains"; "The Lord will come, the earth shall +quake"; "The Son of God goes forth to war." Heber's hymns and other +poems are distinguished by finish of style, pathos and soaring +aspiration; but they lack originality, and are rather rhetorical than +poetical in the strict sense. + + Among Heber's works are: _Palestine: a Poem, to which is added the + Passage of the Red Sea_ (1809); _Europe: Lines on the Present War_ + (1809); a volume of poems in 1812; _The Personality and Office of the + Christian Comforter asserted and explained_ (being the Bampton + Lectures for 1815); _The Whole Works of Bishop Jeremy Taylor, with a + Life of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings_ + (1822); _Hymns written and adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the + Year, principally by Bishop Heber_ (1827); _A Journey through India_ + (1828); _Sermons preached in England_, and _Sermons preached in India_ + (1829); _Sermons on the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle for every + Sunday in the Year_ (1837). _The Poetical Works of Reginald Heber_ + were collected in 1841. + + See the _Life of Reginald Heber, D.D. ..._, by his widow, Amelia Heber + (1830), which also contains a number of Heber's miscellaneous + writings; _The Last Days of Bishop Heber_, by Thomas Robinson, A.M., + archdeacon of Madras (1830); T. S. Smyth, The Character and Religious + Doctrine of Bishop Heber (1831), and _Memorials of a Quiet Life_, by + Augustus J. C. Hare (1874). + + + + +HEBER, RICHARD (1773-1833), English book-collector, the half-brother of +Reginald Heber, was born in London on the 5th of January 1773. As an +undergraduate at Brasenose College, Oxford, he began to collect a purely +classical library, but his taste broadening, he became interested in +early English drama and literature, and began his wonderful collection +of rare books in these departments. He attended continental book-sales, +purchasing sometimes single volumes, sometimes whole libraries. Sir +Walter Scott, whose intimate friend he was, and who dedicated to him the +sixth canto of _Marmion_, classed Heber's library as "superior to all +others in the world"; Campbell described him as "the fiercest and +strongest of all the bibliomaniacs." He did not confine himself to the +purchase of a single copy of a work which took his fancy. "No +gentleman," he remarked, "can be without three copies of a book, one for +show, one for use, and one for borrowers." To such a size did his +library grow that it over-ran eight houses, some in England, some on the +Continent. It is estimated to have cost over L100,000, and after his +death the sale of that part of his collection stored in England realized +more than L56,000. He is known to have owned 150,000 volumes, and +probably many more. He possessed extensive landed property in Shropshire +and Yorkshire, and was sheriff of the former county in 1821, was member +of Parliament for Oxford University from 1821-1826, and in 1822 was made +a D.C.L. of that University. He was one of the founders of the Athenaeum +Club, London. He died in London on the 4th of October 1833. + + + + +HEBERDEN, WILLIAM (1710-1801), English physician, was born in London in +1710. In the end of 1724 he was sent to St John's College, Cambridge, +where he obtained a fellowship about 1730, became master of arts in +1732, and took the degree of M.D. in 1739. He remained at Cambridge +nearly ten years longer practising medicine, and gave an annual course +of lectures on materia medica. In 1746 he became a fellow of the Royal +College of Physicians in London; and two years later he settled in +London, where he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1749, and +enjoyed an extensive medical practice for more than thirty years. At the +age of seventy-two he partially retired, spending his summers at a house +which he had taken at Windsor, but he continued to practise in London +during the winter for some years longer. In 1778 he was made an honorary +member of the Paris Royal Society of Medicine. He died in London on the +17th of May 1801. Heberden, who was a good classical scholar, published +several papers in the Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society, and among his +noteworthy contributions to the _Medical Transactions_ (issued, largely +at his suggestion, by the College of Physicians) were papers on +chicken-pox (1767) and angina pectoris (1768). His _Commentarii de +morborum historia et curatione_, the result of careful notes made in his +pocket-book at the bedside of his patients, were published in 1802; in +the following year an English translation appeared, believed to be from +the pen of his son, William Heberden (1767-1845), also a distinguished +scholar and physician, who attended King George III. in his last +illness. + + + + +HEBERT, EDMOND (1812-1890), French geologist, was born at Villefargau, +Yonne, on the 12th of June 1812. He was educated at the College de +Meaux, Auxerre, and at the Ecole Normale in Paris. In 1836 he became +professor at Meaux, in 1838 demonstrator in chemistry and physics at the +Ecole Normale, and in 1841 sub-director of studies at that school and +lecturer on geology. In 1857 the degree of D. es Sc. was conferred upon +him, and he was appointed professor of geology at the Sorbonne. There he +was eminently successful as a teacher, and worked with great zeal in the +field, adding much to the knowledge of the Jurassic and older strata. He +devoted, however, special attention to the subdivisions of the +Cretaceous and Tertiary formations in France, and to their correlation +with the strata in England and in southern Europe. To him we owe the +first definite arrangement of the Chalk into palaeontological zones (see +Table in _Geol. Mag._, 1869, p. 200). During his later years he was +regarded as the leading geologist in France. He was elected a member of +the Institute in 1877, Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1885, and he +was three times president of the Geological Society of France. He died +in Paris on the 4th of April 1890. + + + + +HEBERT, JACQUES RENE (1757-1794), French Revolutionist, called "Pere +Duchesne," from the newspaper he edited, was born at Alencon, on the +15th of November 1757, where his father, who kept a goldsmith's shop, +had held some municipal office. His family was ruined, however, by a +lawsuit while he was still young, and Hebert came to Paris, where in his +struggle against poverty he endured great hardships; the accusations of +theft directed against him later by Camille Desmoulins were, however, +without foundation. In 1790 he attracted attention by some pamphlets, +and became a prominent member of the club of the Cordeliers in 1791. On +the 10th of August 1792 he was a member of the revolutionary Commune of +Paris, and became second substitute of the _procureur_ of the Commune on +the 2nd of December 1792. His violent attacks on the Girondists led to +his arrest on the 24th of May 1793, but he was released owing to the +threatening attitude of the mob. Henceforth very popular, Hebert +organized with P. G. Chaumette (q.v.) the "worship of Reason," in +opposition to the theistic cult inaugurated by Robespierre, against whom +he tried to excite a popular movement. The failure of this brought about +the arrest of the Hebertists, or _enrages_, as his partisans were +called. Hebert was guillotined on the 24th of March 1794. His wife, who +had been a nun, was executed twenty days later. Hebert's influence was +mainly due to his articles in his journal _Le Pere Duchesne_,[1] which +appeared from 1790 to 1794. These articles, while not lacking in a +certain cleverness, were violent and abusive, and purposely couched in +foul language in order to appeal to the mob. + + See Louis Duval, "Hebert chez lui," in _La Revolution Francaise, revue + d'histoire moderne et contemporaine_, t. xii. and t. xiii.; D. Mater, + _J. R. Hebert, l'auteur du Pere Duchesne avant la journee du 10 aout + 1792_ (Bourges, Comm. Hist. du Cher, 1888); F. A. Aulard, _Le Culte de + la raison et de l'etre supreme_ (Paris, 1892). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] There were several journals of this name, the best known of the + others being that edited by Lemaire. + + + + +HEBREW LANGUAGE. The name "Hebrew" is derived, through the Greek [Greek: +Hebraios], from _'ibhray_, the Aramaic equivalent of the Old Testament +word _'ibhri_, denoting the people who commonly spoke of themselves as +Israel or Children of Israel from the name of their common ancestor (see +JEWS). The later derivative _Yisra'eli_, Israelite, from Yisra'el, is +not found in the Old Testament.[1] Other names used for the language of +Israel are _speech of Canaan_ (Isa. xix. 18) and _Yehudhith_, Jewish, (2 +Kings xviii. 26). In later times it was called the _holy tongue_. The +real meaning of the word _'ibhri_ must ultimately be sought in the root +_'abhar_, to pass across, to go beyond, from which is derived the noun +_'ebher_, meaning the "farther bank" of a river. The usual explanation +of the term is that of Jewish tradition that _'ibhri_ means the man +"from the other side," i.e. either of the Euphrates or the Jordan. Hence +the Septuagint in Gen. xiv. 13 render Abram _ha-'ibhri_ by [Greek: ho +perates], the "crosser," and Aquila, following the same tradition, has +[Greek: ho peraites], the man "from beyond." This view of course implies +that the term was originally applied to Abram or his descendants by a +people living on the west of the Euphrates or of the Jordan. It has been +suggested that the root _'abhar_ is to be taken in the sense of +"travelling," and that Abram the wandering Aramaean (Deut. xxvi. 5) was +called _ha-'ibhri_ because he travelled about for trading purposes, his +language, _'ibhri_, being the _lingua franca_ of Eastern trade. The use +of the term [Greek: hebraisti] for biblical Hebrew is first found in the +Greek prologue to Ecclesiasticus (c. 130 B.C.). In the New Testament it +denotes the native language of Palestine (Aramaic and Hebrew being +popularly confused) as opposed to Greek. In modern usage the name Hebrew +is applied to that branch of the northern part of the Semitic family of +languages which was used by the Israelites during most of the time of +their national existence in Palestine, and in which nearly all their +sacred writings are composed. As to its characteristics and relation to +other languages of the same stock, see SEMITIC LANGUAGES. It also +includes the later forms of the same language as used by Jewish writers +after the close of the Canon throughout the middle ages (Rabbinical +Hebrew) and to the present day (New Hebrew). + +Before the rise of comparative philology it was a popular opinion that +Hebrew was the original speech of mankind, from which all others were +descended. This belief, derived from the Jews (cf. Pal. Targ. Gen. xi. +1), was supported by the etymologies and other data supplied by the +early chapters of Genesis. But though Hebrew possesses a very old +literature, it is not, as we know it, structurally as early as, e.g. +Arabic, or, in other words, it does not come so near to that primitive +Semitic speech which may be pre-supposed as the common parent of all the +Semitic languages. Owing to the imperfection of the Hebrew alphabet, +which, like that of most Semitic languages, has no means of expressing +vowel-sounds, it is only partly possible to trace the development of the +language. In its earliest form it was no doubt most closely allied to +the Canaanite or Phoenician stock, to the language of Moab, as revealed +by the stele of Mesha (c. 850 B.C.), and to Edomite. The vocalization of +Canaanite, as far as it is known to us, e.g. from glosses in the +Tell-el-Amarna tablets (15th century B.C.)[2] and much later from the +Punic passages in the _Poenulus_ of Plautus, differs in many respects +from that of the Hebrew of the Old Testament, as also does the +Septuagint transcription of proper names. The uniformity, however, of +the Old Testament text is due to the labours of successive schools of +grammarians who elaborated the Massorah (see HEBREW LITERATURE), thereby +obliterating local or dialectic differences, which undoubtedly existed, +and establishing the pronunciation current in the synagogues about the +7th century A.D. The only mention of such differences in the Old +Testament is in Judges xii. 6, where it is stated that the Ephraimites +pronounced [Hebrew: sh] (sh) as [Hebrew: s] or [Hebrew: s] (s). In Neh. +xiii. 24, the "speech of Ashdod" is more probably a distinct +(Philistine) language. Certain peculiarities in the language of the +Pentateuch ([Hebrew: hu] for [Hebrew: hi], [Hebrew: naar] for [Hebrew: +naara]), which used to be regarded as archaisms, are to be explained as +purely orthographical.[3] In a series of writings, however, extending +over so long a period as those of the Old Testament, some variation or +development in language is to be expected apart from the natural +differences between the poetic (or prophetic) and prose styles. The +consonantal text sometimes betrays these in spite of the Massorah. In +general, the later books of the Old Testament show, roughly speaking, a +greater simplicity and uniformity of style, as well as a tendency to +Aramaisms. For some centuries after the Exile, the people of Palestine +must have been bilingual, speaking Aramaic for ordinary purposes, but +still at least understanding Hebrew. Not that they forgot their own +tongue in the Captivity and learnt Aramaic in Babylon, as used to be +supposed. In the western provinces of the Persian empire Aramaic was the +official language, spoken not only in Palestine but in all the +surrounding countries, even in Egypt and among Arab tribes such as the +Nabateans. It is natural, therefore, that it should influence and +finally supplant Hebrew in popular use, so that translations even of the +Old Testament eventually appear in it (TARGUMS). Meanwhile Hebrew did +not become a dead language--indeed it can hardly be said ever to have +died, since it has continued in use till the present day for the +purposes of ordinary life among educated Jews in all parts of the world. +It gradually became a literary rather than a popular tongue, as appears +from the style of the later books of the Old Testament (Chron., Dan., +Eccles.), and from the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus (c. 170 B.C.). +During the 1st century B.C. and the 1st century A.D. we have no direct +evidence of its characteristics. After that period there is a great +development in the language of the Mishna. It was still living Hebrew, +although mainly confined to the schools, with very clear differences +from the biblical language. In the Old Testament the range of subjects +was limited. In the Mishna it was very much extended. Matters relating +to daily life had to be discussed, and words and phrases were adopted +from what was no doubt the popular language of an earlier period. A +great many foreign words were also introduced. The language being no +longer familiar in the same sense as formerly, greater definiteness of +expression became necessary in the written style. In order to avoid the +uncertainty arising from the lack of vowels to distinguish forms +consisting of the same consonants (for the vowel-points were not yet +invented), the aramaising use of the reflexive conjugations (Hithpa'el, +Nithpa'el) for the internal passives (Pu'al, Hoph'al) became common; +particles were used to express the genitive and other relations, and in +general there was an endeavour to avoid the obscurities of a purely +consonantal writing. What is practically Mishnic Hebrew continued to be +used in Midrash for some centuries. The language of both Talmuds, which, +roughly speaking, were growing contemporaneously with Midrash, is a +mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic (Eastern Aram. in the Babylonian, Western +in the Jerusalem Talmud), as was also that of the earlier commentators. +As the popular use of Aramaic was gradually restricted by the spread of +Arabic as the vernacular (from the 7th century onwards), while the +dispersion of the Jews became wider, biblical Hebrew again came to be +the natural standard both of East and West. The cultivation of it is +shown and was no doubt promoted by the many philological works +(grammars, lexicons and masorah) which are extant from the 10th century +onward. In Spain, under Moorish dominion, most of the important works of +that period were composed in Arabic, and the influence of Arabic writers +both on language and method may be seen in contemporaneous Hebrew +compositions. No other vernacular (except, of course, Aramaic) ever had +the same influence upon Hebrew, largely because no other bears so close +a relation to it. At the present day in the East, and among learned Jews +elsewhere, Hebrew is still cultivated conversationally, and it is widely +used for literary purposes. Numerous works on all kinds of subjects are +produced in various countries, periodicals flourish, and Hebrew is the +vehicle of correspondence between Jews in all parts of the world. +Naturally its quality varies with the ability and education of the +writer. In the modern _pronunciation_ the principal differences are +between the Ashkenazim (German and Polish Jews) and the Sephardim +(Spanish and Portuguese Jews), and concern not only the vowels but also +certain consonants, and in some cases probably go back to early times. +As regards _writing_, it is most likely that the oldest Hebrew records +were preserved in some form of cuneiform script. The alphabet (see +WRITING) subsequently adopted is seen in its earliest form on the stele +of Mesha, and has been retained, with modifications, by the Samaritans. +According to Jewish tradition Ezra introduced the Assyrian character +([Hebrew: ktav ashuri]), a much-debated statement which no doubt means +that the Aramaic hand in use in Babylonia was adopted by the Jews about +the 5th century B.C. Another form of the same hand, allowing for +differences of material, is found in Egyptian Aramaic papyri of the 5th +and 4th centuries B.C. From this were developed (a) the _square_ +character used in MSS. of the Bible or important texts, and in most +printed books, (b) the _Rabbinic_ (or Rashi) character, used in +commentaries and treatises of all kinds, both in MS. and in printed +books, (c) the _Cursive_ character, used in letters and for informal +purposes, not as a rule printed. In the present state of Hebrew +palaeography it is not possible to determine accurately the date of a +MS., but it is easy to recognize the country in which it was written. +The most clearly marked distinctions are between Spanish, French, +German, Italian, Maghrebi, Greek, Syrian (including Egyptian), Yemenite, +Persian and Qaraite hands. It is in the Rabbinic and Cursive characters +that the differences are most noticeable. The Hebrew alphabet is also +used, generally with the addition of some diacritical marks, by Jews to +write other languages, chiefly Arabic, Spanish, Persian, Greek, Tatar +(by Qaraites) and in later times German. + +The philological study of Hebrew among the Jews is described below, +under Hebrew Literature, of which it formed an integral part. Among +Christian scholars there was no independent school of Hebraists before +the revival of learning. In the Greek and Latin Church the few fathers +who, like Origen and Jerome, knew something of the language, were wholly +dependent on their Jewish teachers, and their chief value for us is as +depositaries of Jewish tradition. Similarly in the East, the Syriac +version of the Old Testament is largely under the influence of the +synagogue, and the homilies of Aphraates are a mine of Rabbinic lore. In +the middle ages some knowledge of Hebrew was preserved in the Church by +converted Jews and even by non-Jewish scholars, of whom the most notable +were the Dominican controversialist Raymundus Martini (in his _Pugio +fidei_) and the Franciscan Nicolaus of Lyra, on whom Luther drew largely +in his interpretation of Scripture. But there was no tradition of Hebrew +study apart from the Jews, and in the 15th century when an interest in +the subject was awakened, only the most ardent zeal could conquer the +obstacles that lay in the way. Orthodox Jews refused to teach those who +were not of their faith, and on the other hand many churchmen +conscientiously believed in the duty of entirely suppressing Jewish +learning. Even books were to be had only with the greatest difficulty, +at least north of the Alps. In Italy things were somewhat better. Jews +expelled from Spain received favour from the popes. Study was +facilitated by the use of the printing-press, and some of the earliest +books printed were in Hebrew. The father of Hebrew study among +Christians was the humanist Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), the author of +the _Rudimenta Hebraica_ (Pforzheim, 1506), whose contest with the +converted Jew Pfefferkorn and the Cologne obscurantists, established the +claim of the new study to recognition by the Church. Interest in the +subject spread rapidly. Among Reuchlin's own pupils were Melanchthon, +Oecolampadius and Cellarius, while Sebastian Munster in Heidelberg +(afterwards professor at Basel), and Buchlein (Fagius) at Isny, +Strasburg and Cambridge, were pupils of the liberal Jewish scholar Elias +Levita. France drew teachers from Italy. Santes Pagninus of Lucca was at +Lyons; and the trilingual college of Francis I. at Paris, with Vatablus +and le Mercier, attracted, among other foreigners, Giustiniani, bishop +of Nebbio, the editor of the Genoa psalter of 1516. In Rome the +converted Jew Felix Pratensis taught under the patronage of Leo X., and +did useful work in connexion with the great Bomberg Bibles. In Spain +Hebrew learning was promoted by Cardinal Ximenes, the patron of the +Complutensian Polyglot. The printers, as J. Froben at Basel and Etienne +at Paris, also produced Hebrew books. For a time Christian scholars +still leaned mainly on the Rabbis. But a more independent spirit soon +arose, of which le Mercier in the 16th, and Drusius early in the 17th +century, may be taken as representatives. In the 17th century too the +cognate languages were studied by J. Selden, E. Castell (Heptaglott +lexicon) and E. Pococke (Arabic) in England, Ludovicus de Dieu in +Holland, S. Bochart in France, J. Ludolf (Ethiopic) and J. H. Hottinger +(Syriac) in Germany, with advantage to the Hebrew grammar and lexicon. +Rabbinic learning moreover was cultivated at Basel by the elder Buxtorf +who was the author of grammatical works and a lexicon. With the rise of +criticism Hebrew philology soon became a necessary department of +theology. Cappellus (d. 1658) followed Levita in maintaining, against +Buxtorf, the late introduction of the vowel-points, a controversy in +which the authority of the massoretic text was concerned. He was +supported by J. Morin and R. Simon in France. In the 18th century in +Holland A. Schultens and N. W. Schroeder used the comparative method, +with great success, relying mainly on Arabic. In Germany there was the +meritorious J. D. Michaelis and in France the brilliant S. de Sacy. In +the 19th century the greatest name among Hebraists is that of Gesenius, +at Halle, whose shorter grammar (of Biblical Hebrew) first published in +1813, is still the standard work, thanks to the ability with which his +pupil E. Rodiger and recently E. Kautzsch have revised and enlarged it. +Important work was also done by G. H. A. Ewald, J. Olshausen and P. A. +de Lagarde, not to mention later scholars who have utilized the valuable +results of Assyriological research. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the numerous works dealing with the study of + Hebrew, the following are some of the most practically useful. + + Grammars, Introductory.--Davidson, _Introductory Hebrew Grammar_ (9th + ed., Edinburgh, 1888); and _Syntax_ (Edinburgh, 1894). Advanced: + Gesenius's _Hebraische Grammatik_, ed. Kautzsch (28th ed., Leipzig, + 1909; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1910); also Driver, _Treatise on the Use of + the Tenses in Hebrew_ (3rd ed., Oxford, 1892). For post-biblical + Hebrew, Strack and Siegfried, _Lehrbuch d. neuhebraischen Sprache_ + (Leipzig, 1884). + + Comparative Grammar.--Wright, _Lectures on the Comp. Grammar of the + Sem. Lang._ (Cambridge, 1890); Brockelmann, _Grundriss der + vergleichenden Grammatik_ (Berlin, 1907, &c.). + + Lexicons.--Gesenius's _Thesaurus philologicus_ (Leipzig, 1829-1858), + and his _Hebraisches Handworterbuch_ (15th ed. by Zimmern and Buhl, + Leipzig, 1910); Brown, Briggs and Driver, _Hebrew and Eng. Lexicon_ + (Oxford, 1892-1906). For later Hebrew: Levy, _Neuhebraisches + Worterbuch_ (Leipzig, 1876-1889); Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumi, + &c. (New York, 1886, &c.); Dalman, _Aramaisches neuhebraisches + Worterbuch_ (Frankfort a. M., 1897); Kohut, _Aruch completum_ (Vienna, + 1878-1890) (in Hebrew) is valuable for the language of the Talmud. + (A. Cy.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In 2 Sam. xvii. 25 _Israelite_ should be _Ishmaelite_, as in the + parallel passage 1 Chron. ii. 17. + + [2] See Zimmern, in _Ztsch. fur Assyriol._ (1891), p. 154. + + [3] See Gesenius-Kautzsch, _Hebr. Gram._ S 17 c. + + + + +HEBREW LITERATURE. Properly speaking, "Hebrew Literature" denotes all +works written in the Hebrew language. In catalogues and bibliographies, +however, the expression is now generally used, conveniently if +incorrectly, as synonymous with Jewish literature, including all works +written by Jews in Hebrew characters, whether the language be Aramaic, +Arabic or even some vernacular not related to Hebrew. + + + Old Testament-Scriptures. + +The literature begins with, as it is almost entirely based upon, the Old +Testament. There were no doubt in the earliest times popular songs +orally transmitted and perhaps books of annals and laws, but except in +so far as remnants of them are embedded in the biblical books, they have +entirely disappeared. Thus the Book of the Wars of the Lord is mentioned +in Num. xxi. 14; the Book of Jashar in Josh. x. 13, 2. Sam. i. 18; the +Song of the Well is quoted in Num. xxi. 17, 18, and the song of Sihon +and Moab, ib. 27-30; of Lamech, Gen. iv. 23, 24; of Moses, Exod. xv. As +in other literatures, these popular elements form the foundation on +which greater works are gradually built, and it is one function of +literary criticism to show the way in which the component parts were +welded into a uniform whole. The traditional view that Moses was the +author of the Pentateuch in its present form, would make this the +earliest monument of Hebrew literature. Modern inquiry, however, has +arrived at other conclusions (see BIBLE, _Old Testament_), which may be +briefly summarized as follows: the Pentateuch is compiled from various +documents, the earliest of which is denoted by J (beginning at Gen. ii. +4) from the fact that its author regularly uses the divine name Jehovah +(Yahweh). Its date is now usually given as about 800 B.C.[1] In the next +century the document E was composed, so called from its using Elohim +(God) instead of Yahweh. Both these documents are considered to have +originated in the Northern kingdom, Israel, where also in the 8th +century appeared the prophets Amos and Hosea. To the same period belong +the book of Micah, the earlier parts of the books of Samuel, of Isaiah +and of Proverbs, and perhaps some Psalms. In 722 B.C. Samaria was taken +and the Northern kingdom ceased to exist. Judah suffered also, and it is +not until a century later that any important literary activity is again +manifested. The main part of the book of Deuteronomy was "found" shortly +before 621 B.C. and about the same time appeared the prophets Jeremiah +and Zephaniah, and perhaps the book of Ruth. A few years later (about +600) the two Pentateuchal documents J and E were woven together, the +books of Kings were compiled, the book of Habakkuk and parts of the +Proverbs were written. Early in the next century Jerusalem was taken by +Nebuchadrezzar, and the prophet Ezekiel was among the exiles with +Jehoiachin. Somewhat later (c. 550) the combined document JE was edited +by a writer under the influence of Deuteronomy, the later parts of the +books of Samuel were written, parts of Isaiah, the books of Obadiah, +Haggai, Zechariah and perhaps the later Proverbs. In the exile, but +probably after 500 B.C., an important section of the Hexateuch, usually +called the Priest's Code (P), was drawn up. At various times in the same +century are to be placed the book of Job, the post-exilic parts of +Isaiah, the books of Joel, Jonah, Malachi and the Song of Songs. The +Pentateuch (or Hexateuch) was finally completed in its present form at +some time before 400 B.C. The latest parts of the Old Testament are the +books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah (c. 330 B.C.), Ecclesiastes and +Esther (3rd century) and Daniel, composed either in the 3rd century or +according to some views as late as the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (c. +168 B.C.). With regard to the date of the Psalms, internal evidence, +from the nature of the case, leads to few results which are convincing. +The most reasonable view seems to be that the collection was formed +gradually and that the process was going on during most of the period +sketched above. + + + Apocryphal literature. + + Targum. + +It is not to be supposed that all the contents of the Old Testament were +immediately accepted as sacred, or that they were ever all regarded as +being on the same level. The Torah, the Law delivered to Moses, held +among the Jews of the 4th century B.C. as it holds now, a pre-eminent +position. The inclusion of other books in the Canon was gradual, and was +effected only after centuries of debate. The Jews have always been, +however, an intensely literary people, and the books ultimately accepted +as canonical were only a selection from the literature in existence at +the beginning of the Christian era. The rejected books receiving little +attention have mostly either been altogether lost or have survived only +in translations, as in the case of the Apocrypha. Hence from the +composition of the latest canonical books to the redaction of the Mishna +(see below) in the 2nd century A.D., the remains of Hebrew literature +are very scanty. Of books of this period which are known to have existed +in Hebrew or Aramaic up to the time of Jerome (and even later) we now +possess most of the original Hebrew text of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus) in +a somewhat corrupt form, and fragments of an Aramaic text of a recension +of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, both discovered within +recent years. Besides definite works of this kind, there was also being +formed during this period a large body of exegetical and legal material, +for the most part orally transmitted, which only received its literary +form much later. As Hebrew became less familiar to the people, a system +of translating the text of the Law into the Aramaic vernacular verse by +verse, was adopted in the synagogue. The beginnings of it are supposed +to be indicated in Neh. viii. 8. The translation was no doubt originally +extemporary, and varied with the individual translators, but its form +gradually became fixed and was ultimately written down. It was called +_Targum_, from the Aramaic _targem_, to translate. The earliest to be +thus edited was the Targum of Onkelos (Onqelos), the proselyte, on the +Law. It received its final form in Babylonia probably in the 3rd century +A.D. The Samaritan Targum, of about the same date, clearly rests on the +same tradition. Parallel to Onkelos was another Targum on the Law, +generally called pseudo-Jonathan, which was edited in the 7th century in +Palestine, and is based on the same system of interpretation but is +fuller and closer to the original tradition. There is also a fragmentary +Targum (Palestinian) the relation of which to the others is obscure. It +may be only a series of disconnected glosses on Onkelos. For the other +books, the recognized Targum on the Prophets is that ascribed to +Jonathan ben Uzziel (4th century?), which originated in Palestine, but +was edited in Babylonia, so that it has the same history and linguistic +character as Onkelos. Just as there is a Palestinian Targum on the Law +parallel to the Babylonian Onkelos, so there is a Palestinian Targum +(called _Yerushalmi_) on the Prophets parallel to that of Ben Uzziel, +but of later date and incomplete. The Law and the Prophets being alone +used in the services of the synagogue, there was no authorized version +of the rest of the Canon. There are, however, Targumim on the Psalms and +Job, composed in the 5th century, on Proverbs, resembling the Peshitta +version, on the five Meghilloth, paraphrastic and agadic (see below) in +character, and on Chronicles--all Palestinian. There is also a second +Targum on Esther. There is none on Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah. + + + Halakhah. + +We must now return to the 2nd century. During the period which followed +the later canonical books, not only was translation, and therefore +exegesis, cultivated, but even more the amplification of the Law. +According to Jewish teaching (e.g. Abhoth i. 1) Moses received on Mount +Sinai not only the written Law as set down in the Pentateuch, but also +the Oral Law, which he communicated personally to the 70 elders and +through them by a "chain of tradition" to succeeding ages. The +application of this oral law is called _Halakhah_, the rules by which a +man's daily "walk" is regulated. The halakhah was by no means inferior +in prestige to the written Law. Indeed some teachers even went so far as +to ascribe a higher value to it, since it comes into closer relation +with the details of everyday life. It was not independent of the written +Law, still less could it be in opposition to it. Rather it was +implicitly contained in the Torah, and the duty of the teacher was to +show this. It was therefore of the first importance that the chain of +tradition should be continuous and trustworthy. The line is traced +through biblical teachers to Ezra, the first of the Sopherim or scribes, +who handed on the charge to the "men of the Great Synagogue," a +much-discussed term for a body or succession of teachers inaugurated by +Ezra. The last member of it, Simon the Just (either Simon I., who died +about 300 B.C., or Simon II., who died about 200 B.C.), was the first of +the next series, called Elders, represented in the tradition by _pairs_ +of teachers, ending with Hillel and Shammai about the beginning of the +Christian era. Their pupils form the starting-point of the next series, +the Tannaim (from Aram. _tena_ to teach), who occupy the first two +centuries A.D. + + + Mishnah. + +By this time the collection of halakhic material had become very large +and various, and after several attempts had been made to reduce it to +uniformity, a code of oral tradition was finally drawn up in the 2nd +century by Judah ha-Nasi, called Rabbi _par excellence_. This was the +Mishnah. Its name is derived from the Hebrew _shanah_, corresponding to +the Aramaic _tena_, and therefore a suitable name for a tannaitic work, +meaning the _repetition_ or _teaching_ of the oral law. It is written in +the Hebrew of the schools (_leshon hakhamim_) which differs in many +respects from that of the Old Testament (see HEBREW LANGUAGE). It is +divided into six "orders," according to subject, and each order is +subdivided into chapters. In making his selection of halakhoth, Rabbi +used the earlier compilations, which are quoted as "words of Rabbi +'Aqiba" or of R. Me'ir, but rejected much which was afterwards collected +under the title of Tosefta (_addition_) and Baraita (_outside_ the +Mishnah). + + + Midrash. + +Traditional teaching was, however, not confined to halakhah. As observed +above, it was the duty of the teachers to show the connexion of +practical rules with the written Law, the more so since the Sadducees +rejected the authority of the oral law as such. Hence arises Midrash, +_exposition_, from _darash_ to "investigate" a scriptural passage. Of +this halakhic Midrash we possess that on Exodus, called Mekhilta, that +on Leviticus, called Sifra, and that on Numbers and Deuteronomy, called +Sifre. All of these were drawn up in the period of the Amoraim, the +order of teachers who succeeded the Tannaim, from the close of the +Mishnah to about A.D. 500. The term Midrash, however, more commonly +implies _agada_, i.e. the homiletical exposition of the text, with +illustrations designed to make it more attractive to the readers or +hearers. Picturesque teaching of this kind was always popular, and +specimens of it are familiar in the Gospel discourses. It began, as a +method, with the Sopherim (though there are traces in the Old Testament +itself), and was most developed among the Tannaim and Amoraim, rivalling +even the study of halakhah. As the existing halakhoth were collected and +edited in the Mishnah, so the much larger agadic material was gathered +together and arranged in the Midrashim. Apart from the agadic parts of +the earlier Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre, the most important of these +collections (which are anonymous) form a sort of continuous commentary +on various books of the Bible. They were called _Rabboth_ (_great_ +Midrashim) to distinguish them from preceding smaller collections. +_Bereshith Rabba_, on Genesis, and _Ekhah Rabbati_, on Lamentations, +were probably edited in the 7th century. Of the same character and of +about the same date are the _Pesiqta_, on the lessons for Sabbaths and +feast-days, and _Wayyiqra R._ on Leviticus. A century perhaps later is +the _Tanhuma_, on the sections of the Pentateuch, and later still the +_Pesiqta Rabbati_, _Shemoth R._ (on Exodus), _Bemidhbar R._ (on +Numbers), _Debharim R._ (on Deuteronomy). There are also Midrashim on +the Canticle, Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and the Psalms, belonging to +this later period, the _Pirqe R. Eliezer_, of the 8th or 9th century, a +sort of history of creation and of the patriarchs, and the _Tanna debe +Eliyahu_ (an ethical work of the 10th century but containing much that +is old), besides a large number of minor compositions.[2] In general, +these performed very much the same function as the lives of saints in +the early and medieval church. Very important for the study of Midrashic +literature are the _Yalqut (gleaning) Shim'oni_, on the whole Bible, the +_Yalqut Mekhiri_, on the Prophets, Psalms, Proverbs and Job, and the +_Midrash ha-gadhol_,[3] all of which are of uncertain but late date and +preserve earlier material. The last, which is preserved in MSS. from +Yemen, is especially valuable as representing an independent tradition. + + + Talmud. + +Meanwhile, if agadic exegesis was popular in the centuries following the +redaction of the Mishna, the study of halakhah was by no means +neglected. As the discussion of the Law led up to the compilation of the +Mishnah, so the Mishnah itself became in turn the subject of further +discussion. The material thus accumulated, both halakhic and agadic, +forming a commentary on and amplification of the Mishnah, was eventually +written down under the name of _Gemara_ (from _gemar_, to learn +completely), the two together forming the _Talmud_ (properly +"_instruction_"). The tradition, as in the case of the Targums, was +again twofold; that which had grown up in the Palestinian Schools and +that of Babylonia. The foundation, however, the Mishnah, was the same in +both. Both works were due to the Amoraim and were completed by about +A.D. 500, though the date at which they were actually committed to +writing is very uncertain. It is probable that notes or selections were +from time to time written down to help in teaching and learning the +immense mass of material, in spite of the fact that even in Sherira's +time (11th century) such aids to memory were not officially recognized. +Both Talmuds are arranged according to the six orders of the Mishnah, +but the discussion of the Mishnic text often wanders off into widely +different topics. Neither is altogether complete. In the Palestinian +Talmud (_Yerushalmi_) the gemara of the 5th order (_Qodashim_) and of +nearly all the 6th (_Tohoroth_) is missing, besides smaller parts. In +the Babylonian Talmud (_Babhli_) there is no gemara to the smaller +tractates of Order 1, and to parts of ii., iv., v., vi. The language of +both gemaras is in the main the Aramaic vernacular (western Aramaic in +Yerushalmi, eastern in Babhli), but early halakhic traditions (e.g. of +Tannaitic origin) are given in their original form, and the discussion +of them is usually also in Hebrew. Babhli is not only greater in bulk +than Yerushalmi, but has also received far greater attention, so that +the name Talmud alone is often used for it. As being a constant object +of study numerous commentaries have been written on the Talmud from the +earliest times till the present. The most important of them for the +understanding of the gemara (Babhli) is that of Rashi[4] (Solomon ben +Isaac, d. 1104) with the Tosafoth (_additions_, not to be confused with +the Tosefta) chiefly by the French school of rabbis following Rashi. +These are always printed in the editions on the same page as the Mishnah +and Gemara, the whole, with various other matter, filling generally +about 12 folio volumes. Since the introduction of printing, the Talmud +is always cited by the number of the leaf in the first edition (Venice, +1520, &c.), to which all subsequent editions conform. In order to +facilitate the practical study of the Talmud, it was natural that +abridgements of it should be made. Two of these may be mentioned which +are usually found in the larger editions: that by Isaac Alfasi (i.e. of +Fez) in the 11th century, often cited in the Jewish manner as _Rif_; and +that by Asher ben Yehiel (d. 1328) of Toledo, usually cited as _Rabbenu +Asher_. The object of both was to collect all halakhoth having a +practical importance, omitting all those which owing to circumstances no +longer possess more than an academic interest, and excluding the +discussions on them and all agada. Both add notes and explanations of +their own, and both have in turn formed the text of commentaries. + + + Masorah. + +With the Talmud, the anonymous period of Hebrew literature may be +considered to end. Henceforward important works are produced not by +schools but by particular teachers, who, however, no doubt often +represent the opinions of a school. There are two branches of work which +partake of both characters, the Masorah and the Liturgy. The name +Masorah (Massorah) is usually derived from _masar_, to hand on, and +explained as "tradition." According to others[5] it is the word found in +Ezek. xx. 37, meaning a "fetter." Its object was to fix the biblical +text unalterably. It is generally divided into the Great and the Small +Masorah, forming together an _apparatus criticus_ which grew up +gradually in the course of centuries and now accompanies the text in +most MSS. and printed editions to a greater or less extent. There are +also separate masoretic treatises. Some system of the kind was necessary +to guard against corruptions of copyists, while the care bestowed upon +it no doubt reacted so as to enhance the sanctity ascribed to the text. +Many apparent puerilities, such as the counting of letters and the +marking of the middle point of books, had a practical use in enabling +copyists of MSS. to determine the amount of work done. The registration +of anomalies, such as the suspended letters, inverted _nuns_ and larger +letters, enabled any one to test the accuracy of a copy. But the work of +the Masoretes was much greater than this. Their long lists of the +occurrences of words and forms fixed with accuracy the present +(Masoretic) text, which they had produced, and were invaluable to +subsequent lexicographers, while their system of vowel-points and +accents not only gives us the pronunciation and manner of reading +traditional about the 7th century A.D., but frequently serves also the +purpose of an explanatory commentary. (See further under BIBLE.) Most of +the Masorah is anonymous, including the _Massekheth Soferim_ (of various +dates from perhaps the 6th to the 9th century) and the _Okhlah +we-Okhlah_, but when the period of anonymous literature ceases, there +appear (in the 10th century) Ben Asher of Tiberias, the greatest +authority on the subject, and his opponent Ben Naphthali. Later on, +Jacob ben Hayyim arranged the Masorah for the great Bomberg Bible of +1524. Elias Levita's _Massoreth ha-Massoreth_ (1538) and Buxtorf's +_Tiberias_ (1620) are also important. + + + Liturgy. + +We must now turn back to a most difficult subject--the growth of the +Liturgy. We are not concerned here with indications of the ritual used +in the Temple. Of the prayer-book as it is at present, the earliest +parts are the Shema' (Deut. vi. 4, &c.) and the anonymous blessings +commonly called Shemoneh 'Esreh (the Eighteen), together with certain +Psalms. (Readings from the Law and the Prophets [Haphtarah] also formed +part of the service.) To this framework were fitted, from time to time, +various prayers, and, for festivals especially, numerous hymns. The +earliest existing codification of the prayer-book is the _Siddur_ +(_order_) drawn up by Amram Gaon of Sura about 850. Half a century later +the famous Gaon Seadiah, also of Sura, issued his _Siddur_, in which the +rubrical matter is in Arabic. Besides the _Siddur_, or order for +Sabbaths and general use, there is the _Mahzor_ (_cycle_) for festivals +and fasts. In both there are ritual differences according to the +Sephardic (Spanish), Ashkenazic (German-Polish), Roman (Greek and South +Italian) and some minor uses, in the later additions to the Liturgy. The +Mahzor of each rite is also distinguished by hymns (_piyyutim_) composed +by authors (_payyetanim_) of the district. The most important writers +are Yoseh ben Yoseh, probably in the 6th century, chiefly known for his +compositions for the day of Atonement, Eleazar Qalir, the founder of the +payyetanic style, perhaps in the 7th century, Seadiah, and the Spanish +school consisting of Joseph ibn Abitur (died in 970), Ibn Gabirol, Isaac +Gayyath, Moses ben Ezra, Abraham ben Ezra and Judah ha-levi, who will be +mentioned below; later, Moses ben Nahman and Isaac Luria the +Kabbalist.[6] + + + The Geonim. + +The order of the Amoraim, which ended with the close of the Talmud (A.D. +500), was succeeded by that of the Saboraim, who merely continued and +explained the work of their predecessors, and these again were followed +by the Geonim, the heads of the schools of Sura and Pumbeditha in +Babylonia. The office of Gaon lasted for something over 400 years, +beginning about A.D. 600, and varied in importance according to the +ability of the holders of it. Individual Geonim produced valuable works +(of which later), but what is perhaps most important from the point of +view of the development of Judaism is the literature of their Responsa +or answers to questions, chiefly on halakhic matters, addressed to them +from various countries. Some of these were actual decisions of +particular Geonim; others were an official summary of the discussion of +the subject by the members of the School. They begin with Mar Rab +Sheshna (7th century) and continue to Hai Gaon, who died in 1038, and +are full of historical and literary interest.[7] The She'iltoth +(_questions_) of Rab Ahai (8th century) also belong probably to the +school of Pumbeditha, though their author was not Gaon. Besides the +Responsa, but closely related to them, we have the lesser Halakhoth of +Yehudai Gaon of Sura (8th century) and the great Halakhoth of Simeon +Qayyara of Sura (not Gaon) in the 9th century. In a different department +there is the first Talmud lexicon (_'Arukh_) now lost, by Zemah ben +Paltoi, Gaon of Pumbeditha in the 9th century. The _Siddur_ of Amram ben +Sheshna has been already mentioned. All these writers, however, are +entirely eclipsed by the commanding personality of the most famous of +the Geonim, SEADIAH ben Joseph (q.v.) of Sura, often called al-Fayyumi +(of the Fayum in Egypt), one of the greatest representatives of Jewish +learning of all times, who died in 942. The last three holders of the +office were also distinguished. Sherira of Pumbeditha (d. 998) was the +author of the famous "Letter" (in the form of a Responsum to a question +addressed to him by residents in Kairawan), an historical document of +the highest value and the foundation of our knowledge of the history of +tradition. His son Hai, last Gaon of Pumbeditha (d. 1038), a man of wide +learning, wrote (partly in Arabic) not only numerous Responsa, but also +treatises on law, commentaries on the Mishnah and the Bible, a lexicon +called in Arabic _al-Hawi_, and poems such as the _Musar Haskel_, but +most of them are now lost or known only from translations or quotations. +Though his teaching was largely directed against superstition, he seems +to have been inclined to mysticism, and perhaps for this reason various +kabbalistic works were ascribed to him in later times. His father-in-law +Samuel ben Hophni, last Gaon of Sura (d. 1034), was a voluminous writer +on law, translated the Pentateuch into Arabic, commented on much of the +Bible, and composed an Arabic introduction to the Talmud, of which the +existing Hebrew introduction (by Samuel the Nagid) is perhaps a +translation. Most of his works are now lost. + + + The Karaites. + +In the Geonic period there came into prominence the sect of the Karaites +(_Bene miqra_), "followers of the Scripture", the protestants of +Judaism, who rejected rabbinical authority, basing their doctrine and +practice exclusively on the Bible. The sect was founded by 'Anan in the +8th century, and, after many vicissitudes, still exists. Their +literature, with which alone we are here concerned, is largely polemical +and to a great extent deals with grammar and exegesis. Of their first +important authors, Benjamin al-Nehawendi and Daniel al-Qumisi (both in +the 9th century), little is preserved. In the 10th century Jacob +al-Qirqisani wrote his _Kitab al-anwar_, on law, Solomon ben Yeruham +(against Seadiah) and Yefet ben 'Ali wrote exegetical works; in the 11th +century Abu'l-faraj Furqan, exegesis, and Yusuf al-Basir against Samuel +ben Hophni. Most of these wrote in Arabic. In the 12th century and in S. +Europe, Judah Hadassi composed his _Eshkol ha-Kopher_, a great +theological compendium in the form of a commentary on the Decalogue. +Other writers are Aaron (the elder) ben Joseph, 13th century, who wrote +the commentary _Sepher ha-mibhhar_; Aaron (the younger) of Nicomedia +(14th century), author of _'Ez Hayyim_, on philosophy, _Gan 'Eden_, on +law, and the commentary _Kether Torah_; in the 15th century Elijah +Bashyazi, on law (_Addereth Eliyahu_), and Caleb Efendipoulo, poet and +theologian; in the 16th century Moses Bashyazi, theologian. From the +12th century onward the sect gradually declined, being ultimately +restricted mainly to the Crimea and Lithuania, learning disappeared and +their literature became merely popular and of little interest. Much of +it in later times was written in a curious Tatar dialect. Mention need +only be made further of Isaac of Troki, whose anti-Christian polemic +_Hizzuq Emunah_ (1593) was translated into English by Moses Mocatta +under the title of _Faith Strengthened_ (1851); Solomon of Troki, whose +_Appiryon_, an account of Karaism, was written at the request of +Pufendorf (about 1700); and Abraham Firkovich, who, in spite of his +impostures, did much for the literature of his people about the middle +of the 19th century. (See also QARAITES.) + + + Medieval scholarship. + +To return to the period of the Geonim. While the schools of Babylonia +were flourishing as the religious head of Judaism, the West, and +especially Spain under Moorish rule, was becoming the home of Jewish +scholarship. On the breaking up of the schools many of the fugitives +fled to the West and helped to promote rabbinical learning there. The +communities of Fez, Kairawan and N. Africa were in close relation with +those of Spain, and as early as the beginning of the 9th century Judah +ben Quraish of Tahort had composed his _Risalah_ (_letter_) to the Jews +of Fez on grammatical subjects from a comparative point of view, and a +dictionary now lost. His work was used in the 10th century by Menahem +ben Saruq, of Cordova, in his _Mahbereth_ (dictionary). Menahem's system +of bi-literal and uni-literal roots was violently attacked by Dunash ibn +Labrat, and as violently defended by the author's pupils. Among these +was Judah Hayyuj of Cordova, the father of modern Hebrew grammar, who +first established the principle of tri-literal roots. His treatises on +the verbs, written in Arabic, were translated into Hebrew by Moses +Giqatilla (11th century), himself a considerable grammarian and +commentator, and by Ibn Ezra. His system was adopted by Abu'l-walid ibn +Jannah, of Saragossa (died early in the 11th century), in his lexicon +(_Kitab al-usul_, in Arabic) and other works. In Italy appeared the +invaluable Talmud-lexicon (_'Arukh_) by Nathan b. Yehiel, of Rome (d. +1106), who was indirectly indebted to Babylonian teaching. He does not +strictly follow the system of Hayyuj. Other works of a different kind +also originated in Italy about this time: the very popular history of +the Jews, called _Josippon_ (probably of the 10th or even 9th century), +ascribed to Joseph ben Gorion (Gorionides)[8]; the medical treatises of +Shabbethai Donnolo (10th century) and his commentary on the _Sepher +Yezirah_, the anonymous and earliest Hebrew kabbalistic work ascribed to +the patriarch Abraham. In North Africa, probably in the 9th century, +appeared the book known under the name of _Eldad ha-Dani_, giving an +account of the ten tribes, from which much medieval legend was +derived;[9] and in Kairawan the medical and philosophical treatises of +Isaac Israeli, who died in 932. + + + Exegesis. + +The aim of the grammatical studies of the Spanish school was ultimately +exegesis. This had already been cultivated in the East. In the 9th +century Hivi of Balkh wrote a rationalistic treatise[10] on difficulties +in the Bible, which was refuted by Seadiah. The commentaries of the +Geonim have been mentioned above. The impulse to similar work in the +West came also from Babylonia. In the 10th century Hushiel, one of four +prisoners, perhaps from Babylonia, though that is doubtful, was ransomed +and settled at Kairawan, where he acquired great reputation as a +Talmudist. His son Hananeel (d. 1050) wrote a commentary on (probably +all) the Talmud, and one now lost on the Pentateuch. Hananeel's +contemporary Nissim ben Jacob, of Kairawan, who corresponded with Hai +Gaon of Pumbeditha as well as with Samuel the Nagid in Spain, likewise +wrote on the Talmud, and is probably the author of a collection of +_Ma'asiyyoth_ or edifying stories, besides works now lost. The activity +in North Africa reacted on Spain. There the most prominent figure was +that of Samuel ibn Nagdela (or Nagrela), generally known as Samuel the +Nagid or head of the Jewish settlement, who died in 1055. As vizier to +the Moorish king at Granada, he was not only a patron of learning, but +himself a man of wide knowledge and a considerable author. Some of his +poems are extant, and an Introduction to the Talmud mentioned above. In +grammar he followed Hayyuj, whose pupil he was. Among others he was the +patron of Solomon ibn Gabirol (q.v.), the poet and philosopher. To this +period belong Hafz al-Quti (the Goth?) who made a version of the Psalms +in Arabic rhyme, and Bahya (more correctly Behai) ibn Paquda, dayyan at +Saragossa, whose Arabic ethical treatise has always had great popularity +among the Jews in its Hebrew translation, _Hobhoth ha-lebhabhoth_. He +also composed liturgical poems. At the end of the 11th century Judah ibn +Bal'am wrote grammatical works and commentaries (on the Pentateuch, +Isaiah, &c.) in Arabic; the liturgist Isaac Gayyath (d. in 1089 at +Cordova) wrote on ritual. Moses Giqatilla has been already mentioned. + + + Rashi. + +The French school of the 11th century was hardly less important. Gershom +ben Judah, the "Light of the Exile" (d. in 1040 at Mainz), a famous +Talmudist and commentator, his pupil Jacob ben Yaqar, and Moses of +Narbonne, called ha-Darshan, the "Exegete," were the forerunners of the +greatest of all Jewish commentators, Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi), who died +at Troyes in 1105. Rashi was a pupil of Jacob ben Yaqar, and studied at +Worms and Mainz. Unlike his contemporaries in Spain, he seems to have +confined himself wholly to Jewish learning, and to have known nothing of +Arabic or other languages except his native French. Yet no commentator +is more valuable or indeed more voluminous, and for the study of the +Talmud he is even now indispensable. He commented on all the Bible and +on nearly all the Talmud, has been himself the text of several +super-commentaries, and has exercised great influence on Christian +exegesis. The biblical commentary was translated into Latin by +Breithaupt (Gotha, 1710-1714), that on the Pentateuch rather freely into +German by L. Dukes (Prag, 1838, in Hebrew-German characters, with the +text), and parts by others. Closely connected with Rashi, or of his +school, are Joseph Qara, of Troyes (d. about 1130), the commentator, and +his teacher Menahem ben Helbo, Jacob ben Me'ir, called Rabbenu Tam (d. +1171), the most important of the Tosaphists (_v. sup._), and later in +the 12th century the liberal and rationalizing Joseph Bekhor Shor, and +Samuel ben Me'ir (d. about 1174) of Ramerupt, commentator and Talmudist. + +In the 12th and 13th centuries literature maintained a high level in +Spain. Abraham bar Hiyya, known to Christian scholars as Abraham Judaeus +(d. about 1136), was a mathematician, astronomer and philosopher much +studied in the middle ages. Moses ben Ezra, of Granada (d. about 1140), +wrote in Arabic a philosophical work based on Greek and Arabic as well +as Jewish authorities, known by the name of the Hebrew translation as +_'Arugath ha-bosem_, and the _Kitab al-Mahadarah_, of great value for +literary history. He is even better known as a poet, for his _Diwan_ and +the _'Anaq_, and as a hymn-writer. His relative Abraham ben Ezra, +generally called simply Ibn Ezra,[11] was still more distinguished. He +was born at Toledo, spent most of his life in travel, wandering even to +England and to the East, and died in 1167. Yet he contrived to write his +great commentary on the Pentateuch and other books of the Bible, +treatises on philosophy (as the _Yesodh mora_), astronomy, mathematics, +grammar (translation of Hayyuj), besides a Diwan. The man, however, who +shares with Ibn Gabirol the first place in Jewish poetry is Judah +Ha-levi, of Toledo, who died in Jerusalem about 1140. His poems, both +secular and religious, contained in his Diwan and scattered in the +liturgy, are all in Hebrew, though he employed Arabic metres. In Arabic +he wrote his philosophical work, called in the Hebrew translation +_Sepher ha-Kuzari_, a defence of revelation as against non-Jewish +philosophy and Qaraite doctrine. It shows considerable knowledge of +Greek and Arabic thought (Avicenna). Joseph ibn Migash (d. 1141 at +Lucena), a friend of Judah Ha-levi and of Moses ben Ezra, wrote Responsa +and Hiddushin (_annotations_) on parts of the Talmud. In another sphere +mention must be made of the travellers Benjamin of Tudela (d. after +1173), whose Massa'oth are of great value for the history and geography +of his time, and (though not belonging to Spain) Pethahiah, of +Regensburg (d. about 1190), who wrote short notes of his journeys. +Abraham ben David, of Toledo (d. about 1180), in philosophy an +Aristotelian (through Avicenna) and the precursor of Maimonides, is +chiefly known for his _Sepher ha-qabbalah_, written as a polemic against +Karaism, but valuable for the history of tradition. + + + Maimonides. + + Maimonists and anti-Maimonists. + +The greatest of all medieval Jewish scholars was Moses ben Maimon +(Rambam), called _Maimonides_ by Christians. He was born at Cordova in +1135, fled with his parents from persecution in 1148, settled at Fez in +1160, passing there for a Moslem, fled again to Jerusalem in 1165, and +finally went to Cairo where he died in 1204. He was distinguished in his +profession as a physician, and wrote a number of medical works in Arabic +(including a commentary on the aphorisms of Hippocrates), all of which +were translated into Hebrew, and most of them into Latin, becoming the +textbooks of Europe in the succeeding centuries. But his fame rests +mainly on his theological works. Passing over the less important, these +are the _Moreh Nebhukhim_ (so the Hebrew translation of the Arabic +original), an endeavour to show philosophically the reasonableness of +the faith, parts of which, translated into Latin, were studied by the +Christian schoolmen, and the _Mishneh Torah_, also called _Yad +hahazaqah_ ([Hebrew: id] = 14, the number of the parts), a classified +compendium of the Law, written in Hebrew and early translated into +Arabic. The latter of these, though generally accepted in the East, was +much opposed in the West, especially at the time by the Talmudist +Abraham ben David of Posquieres (d. 1198). Maimonides also wrote an +Arabic commentary on the Mishnah, soon afterwards translated into +Hebrew, commentaries on parts of the Talmud (now lost), and a treatise +on Logic. His breadth of view and his Aristotelianism were a +stumbling-block to the orthodox, and subsequent teachers may be mostly +classified as Maimonists or anti-Maimonists. Even his friend Joseph ibn +'Aqnin (d. 1226), author of a philosophical treatise in Arabic and of a +commentary on the Song of Solomon, found so much difficulty in the new +views that the _Moreh Nebhukhim_ was written in order to convince him. +Maimonides' son Abraham (d. 1234), also a great Talmudist, wrote in +Arabic _Ma'aseh Yerushalmi_, on oaths, and _Kitab al-Kifayah_, theology. +His grandson David was also an author. A very different person was Moses +ben Nahman (Ramban) or Nahmanides, who was born at Gerona in 1194 and +died in Palestine about 1270. His whole tendency was as conservative as +that of Maimonides was liberal, and like all conservatives he may be +said to represent a lost though not necessarily a less desirable cause. +Much of his life was spent in controversy, not only with Christians (in +1293 before the king of Aragon), but also with his own people and on the +views of the time. His greatest work is the commentary on the Pentateuch +in opposition to Maimonides and Ibn Ezra. He had a strong inclination to +mysticism, but whether certain kabbalistic works are rightly attributed +to him is doubtful. It is, however, not a mere coincidence that the two +great kabbalistic textbooks, the _Bahir_ and the _Zohar_ (both meaning +"brightness"), appear first in the 13th century. If not due to his +teaching they are at least in sympathy with it. The _Bahir_, a sort of +outline of the _Zohar_, and traditionally ascribed to Nehunya (1st +century), is believed by some to be the work of Isaac the Blind ben +Abraham of Posquieres (d. early in the 13th century), the founder of the +modern Kabbalah and the author of the names for the 10 Sephiroth. The +_Zohar_, supposed to be by Simeon ben Yohai (2nd century), is now +generally attributed to Moses of Leon (d. 1305), who, however, drew his +material in part from earlier written or traditional sources, such as +the Sepher Yezirah. At any rate the work was immediately accepted by the +kabbalists, and has formed the basis of all subsequent study of the +subject. Though put into the form of a commentary on the Pentateuch, it +is really an exposition of the kabbalistic view of the universe, and +incidentally shows considerable acquaintance with the natural science of +the time. A pupil, though not a follower of Nahmanides, was Solomon +Adreth (not Addereth), of Barcelona (d. 1310), a prolific writer of +Talmudic and polemical works (against the Kabbalists and Mahommedans) as +well as of responsa. He was opposed by Abraham Abulafia (d. about 1291) +and his pupil Joseph Giqatilla (d. about 1305), the author of numerous +kabbalistic works. Solomon's pupil Bahya ben Asher, of Saragossa (d. +1340) was the author of a very popular commentary on the Pentateuch and +of religious discourses entitled _Kad ha-qemah_, in both of which, +unlike his teacher, he made large use of the Kabbalah. Other studies, +however, were not neglected. In the first half of the 13th century, +Abraham ibn Hasdai, a vigorous supporter of Maimonides, translated (or +adapted) a large number of philosophical works from Arabic, among them +being the _Sepher ha-tappuah_, based on Aristotle's _de Anima_, and the +_Mozene Zedeq_ of Ghazzali on moral philosophy, of both of which the +originals are lost. Another Maimonist was Shem Tobh ben Joseph Falaquera +(d. after 1290), philosopher (following Averroes), poet and author of a +commentary on the Moreh. A curious mixture of mysticism and +Aristotelianism is seen in Isaac Aboab (about 1300), whose _Menorath +ha-Ma'or_, a collection of agadoth, attained great popularity and has +been frequently printed and translated. Somewhat earlier in the 13th +century lived Judah al-Harizi, who belongs in spirit to the time of Ibn +Gabirol and Judah ha-levi. He wrote numerous translations, of Galen, +Aristotle, Hariri, Hunain ben Isaac and Maimonides, as well as several +original works, a _Sepher 'Anaq_ in imitation of Moses ben Ezra, and +treatises on grammar and medicine (_Rephuath geviyyah_), but he is best +known for his _Tahkemoni_, a diwan in the style of Hariri's _Maqamat_. + +Meanwhile the literary activity of the Jews in Spain had its effect on +those of France. The fact that many of the most important works were +written in Arabic, the vernacular of the Spanish Jews under the Moors, +which was not understood in France, gave rise to a number of +translations into Hebrew, chiefly by the family of Ibn Tibbon (or +Tabbon). The first of them, Judah ibn Tibbon, translated works of Bahya +ibn Paqudah, Judah ha-levi, Seadiah, Abu'lwalid and Ibn Gabirol, besides +writing works of his own. He was a native of Granada, but migrated to +Lunel, where he probably died about 1190. His son Samuel, who died at +Marseilles about 1230, was equally prolific. He translated the _Moreh +Nebhukhim_ during the life of the author, and with some help from him, +so that this may be regarded as the authorized version; Maimonides' +commentary on the Mishnah tractate _Pirqe Abhoth_, and some minor works; +treatises of Averroes and other Arabic authors. His original works are +mostly biblical commentaries and some additional matter on the Moreh. +His son Moses, who died about the end of the 13th century, translated +the rest of Maimonides, much of Averroes, the lesser Canon of Avicenna, +Euclid's _Elements_ (from the Arabic version), Ibn al-Jazzar's +_Viaticum_, medical works of Hunain ben Isaac (Johannitius) and Razi +(Rhazes), besides works of less-known Arabic authors. His original works +are commentaries and perhaps a treatise on immortality. His nephew Jacob +ben Makhir, of Montpellier (d. about 1304), translated Arabic scientific +works, such as parts of Averroes and Ghazzali, Arabic versions from the +Greek, as Euclid's _Data_, Autolycus, Menelaus (Hebrew: Milium) and +Theodosius on the Sphere, and Ptolemy's _Almagest_. He also compiled +astronomical tables and a treatise on the quadrant. The great importance +of these translations is that many of them were afterwards rendered into +Latin,[12] thus making Arabic and, through it, Greek learning accessible +to medieval Europe. Another important family about this time is that of +Qimhi (or Qamhi). It also originated in Spain, where Joseph ben Isaac +Qimhi was born, who migrated to S. France, probably for the same reason +which caused the flight of Maimonides, and died there about 1170. He +wrote on grammar (_Sepher ha-galui_ and _Sepher Zikkaron_), commentaries +on Proverbs and the Song of Solomon, an apologetic work, _Sepher +ha-berith_, and a translation of Bahya's _Hobhoth ha-lebhabhoth_. His +son Moses (d. about 1190) also wrote on grammar and some commentaries, +wrongly attributed to Ibn Ezra. A younger son, David (Radaq) of Narbonne +(d. 1235) is the most famous of the name. His great work, the _Mikhlol_, +consists of a grammar and lexicon; his commentaries on various parts of +the Bible are admirably luminous, and, in spite of his anti-Christian +remarks, have been widely used by Christian theologians and largely +influenced the English authorized version of the Bible. A friend of +Joseph Qimhi, Jacob ben Me'ir, known as Rabbenu Tam of Ramerupt (d. +1171), the grandson of Rashi, wrote the _Sepher ha-yashar_ (hiddushin +and responsa) and was one of the chief Tosaphists. Of the same school +were Menahem ben Simeon of Posquieres, a commentator, who died about the +end of the 12th century, and Moses ben Jacob of Coucy (13th century), +author of the _Semag_ (book of precepts, positive and negative) a very +popular and valuable halakhic work. A younger contemporary of David +Qimhi was Abraham ben Isaac Bedersi (i.e. of Beziers), the poet, and +some time in the 13th century lived Joseph Ezobhi of Perpignan, whose +ethical poem, _Qe'arath Yoseph_, was translated by Reuchlin and later by +others. Berachiah,[13] the compiler of the "Fox Fables" (which have much +in common with the "Ysopet" of Marie de France), is generally thought to +have lived in Provence in the 13th century, but according to others in +England in the 12th century. In Germany, Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (d. +1238), besides being a Talmudist, was an earnest promoter of kabbalistic +studies. Isaac ben Moses (d. about 1270), who had studied in France, +wrote the famous _Or Zarua'_ (from which he is often called), an +halakhic work somewhat resembling Maimonides' _Mishneh Torah_, but more +diffuse. In the course of his wanderings he settled for a time at +Wurzburg, where he had as a pupil Me'ir of Rothenburg (d. 1293). The +latter was a prolific writer of great influence, chiefly known for his +Responsa, but also for his halakhic treatises, hiddushin and tosaphoth. +He also composed a number of piyyutim. Me'ir's pupil, Mordecai ben +Hillel of Nurnberg (d. 1298), had an even greater influence through his +halakhic work, usually known as the _Mordekhai_. This is a codification +of halakhoth, based on all the authorities then known, some of them now +lost. Owing to the fact that the material collected by Mordecai was left +to his pupils to arrange, the work was current in two recensions, an +Eastern (in Austria) and a Western (in Germany, France, &c.). In the +East, Tanhum ben Joseph of Jerusalem was the author of commentaries (not +to be confounded with the _Midrash Tanhuma_) on many books of the Bible, +and of an extensive lexicon (_Kitab al-Murshid_) to the Mishnah, all in +Arabic. + +With the 13th century Hebrew literature may be said to have reached the +limit of its development. Later writers to a large extent used over +again the materials of their predecessors, while secular works tend to +be influenced by the surrounding civilization, or even are composed in +the vernacular languages. From the 14th century onward only the most +notable names can be mentioned. In Italy Immanuel ben Solomon, of Rome +(d. about 1330), perhaps the friend and certainly the imitator of Dante, +wrote his diwan, of which the last part, "Topheth ve-'Eden," is +suggested by the _Divina Commedia_. In Spain Israel Israeli, of Toledo +(d. 1326), was a translator and the author of an Arabic work on ritual +and a commentary on _Pirqe Abhoth_. About the same time Isaac Israeli +wrote his _Yesodh 'Olam_ and other astronomical works which were much +studied. Asher ben Jehiel, a pupil of Me'ir of Rothenburg, was the +author of the popular Talmudic compendium, generally quoted as _Rabbenu +Asher_, on the lines of Alfasi, besides other halakhic works. He +migrated from Germany and settled at Toledo, where he died in 1328. His +son Jacob, of Toledo (d. 1340), was the author of the _Tur_ (or the four +Turim), a most important manual of Jewish law, serving as an abridgement +of the _Mishneh Torah_ brought up to date. His pupil David Abudrahim, of +Seville (d. after 1340), wrote a commentary on the liturgy. Both the +14th and 15th centuries in Spain were largely taken up with controversy, +as by Isaac ibn Pulgar (about 1350), and Shem Tobh ibn Shaprut (about +1380), who translated St Matthew's gospel into Hebrew. In France Jedaiah +Bedersi, i.e. of Beziers (d. about 1340), wrote poems (_Behinath +ha-'olam_), commentaries on agada and a defence of Maimonides against +Solomon Adreth. Levi ben Gershom (d. 1344), called Ralbag, the great +commentator on the Bible and Talmud, in philosophy a follower of +Aristotle and Averroes, known to Christians as Leo Hebraeus, wrote also +many works on halakhah, mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Kaspi, i.e. of +Largentiere (d. 1340), wrote a large number of treatises on grammar and +philosophy (mystical), besides commentaries and piyyutim. In the first +half of the 14th century lived the two translators Qalonymos ben David +and Qalonymos ben Qalonymos, the latter of whom translated many works of +Galen and Averroes, and various scientific treatises, besides writing +original works, e.g. one against Kaspi, and an ethical work entitled +_Eben Bohan_. At the end of the century Isaac ben Moses, called Profiat +Duran (Efodi), is chiefly known as an anti-Christian controversialist +(letter to Me'ir Alguadez), but also wrote on grammar (_Ma'aseh Efod_) +and a commentary on the Moreh. In philosophy he was an Aristotelian. +About the same time in Spain controversy was very active. Hasdai Crescas +(d. 1410) wrote against Christianity and in his _Or Adonai_ against the +Aristotelianism of the Maimonists. His pupil Joseph Albo in his +_'Iqqarim_ had the same two objects. On the side of the Maimonists was +Simeon Duran (d. at Algiers 1444) in his _Magen Abhoth_ and in his +numerous commentaries. Shem Tobh ibn Shem Tobh, the kabbalist, was a +strong anti-Maimonist, as was his son Joseph of Castile (d. 1480), a +commentator with kabbalistic tendencies but versed in Aristotle, +Averroes and Christian doctrine. Joseph's son Shem Tobh was, on the +contrary, a follower of Maimonides and the Aristotelians. In other +subjects, Saadyah ibn Danan, of Granada (d. at Oran after 1473), is +chiefly important for his grammar and lexicon, in Arabic; Judah ibn +Verga, of Seville (d. after 1480), was a mathematician and astronomer; +Solomon ibn Verga, somewhat later, wrote _Shebet Yehudah_, of doubtful +value historically; Abraham Zakkuth or Zakkuto, of Salamanca (d. after +1510), astronomer, wrote the _Sepher Yuhasin_, an historical work of +importance. In Italy, Obadiah Bertinoro (d. about 1500) compiled his +very useful commentary on the Mishnah, based on those of Rashi and +Maimonides. His account of his travels and his letters are also of great +interest. Isaac Abravanel (d. 1508) wrote commentaries (not of the first +rank) on the Pentateuch and Prophets and on the Moreh, philosophical +treatises and apologetics, such as the _Yeshu'oth Meshiho_, all of which +had considerable influence. Elijah Delmedigo, of Crete (d. 1497), a +strong opponent of Kabbalah, was the author of the philosophical +treatise _Behinath ha-dath_, but most of his work (on Averroes) was in +Latin. + + + Later writers. + +The introduction of printing (first dated Hebrew printed book, Rashi, +Reggio, 1475) gave occasion for a number of scholarly compositors and +proof-readers, some of whom were also authors, such as Jacob ben Hayyim +of Tunis (d. about 1530), proof-reader to Bomberg, chiefly known for his +masoretic work in connexion with the Rabbinic Bible and his introduction +to it; Elias Levita, of Venice (d. 1549), also proof-reader to Bomberg, +author of the _Massoreth ha-Massoreth_ and other works on grammar and +lexicography; and Cornelius Adelkind, who however was not an author. In +the East, Joseph Karo (Qaro) wrote his _Beth Yoseph_ (Venice, 1550), a +commentary on the _Tur_, and his _Shulhan 'Arukh_ (Venice, 1564) an +halakhic work like the _Tur_, which is still a standard authority. The +influence of non-Jewish methods is seen in the more modern tendency of +Azariah dei Rossi, who was opposed by Joseph Karo. In his _Me'or +'Enayim_ (Mantua, 1573) Del Rossi endeavoured to investigate Jewish +history in a scientific spirit, with the aid of non-Jewish authorities, +and even criticizes Talmudic and traditional statements. Another +historian living also in Italy was Joseph ben Joshua, whose _Dibhre +ha-yamim_ (Venice, 1534) is a sort of history of the world, and his +_'Emeq ha-bakhah_ an account of Jewish troubles to the year 1575. In +Germany David Gans wrote on astronomy, and also the historical work +_Zemah David_ (Prag, 1592). The study of Kabbalah was promoted and the +practical Kabbalah founded by Isaac Luria in Palestine (d. 1572). +Numerous works, representing the extreme of mysticism, were published by +his pupils as the result of his teaching. Foremost among these was +Hayyim Vital, author of the _'Ez hayyim_, and his son Samuel, who wrote +an introduction to the Kabbalah, called _Shemoneh She'arim_. To the same +school belonged Moses Zakkuto, of Mantua (d. 1697), poet and kabbalist. +Contemporary with Luria and also living at Safed, was Moses Cordovero +(d. 1570), the kabbalist, whose chief work was the _Pardes Rimmonim_ +(Cracow, 1591). In the 17th century Leon of Modena (d. 1648) wrote his +_Beth Yehudah_, and probably _Qol Sakhal_, against traditionalism, +besides many controversial works and commentaries. Joseph Delmedigo, of +Prag (d. 1655), wrote almost entirely on scientific subjects. Also +connected with Prag was Yom Tobh Lipmann Heller, a voluminous author, +best known for the _Tosaphoth Yom Tobh_ on the Mishna (Prag, 1614; +Cracow, 1643). Another important Talmudist, Shabbethai ben Me'ir, of +Wilna (d. 1662), commented on the _Shulhan 'Arukh_. In the East, David +Conforte (d. about 1685) wrote the historical work _Qore ha-doroth_ +(Venice, 1746), using Jewish and other sources; Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah, +kabbalist and student of Luria, wrote _Qol be-ramah_, a commentary on +the _Zohar_ and on the liturgy; Abraham Hayekini, kabbalist, chiefly +remembered as a supporter of the would-be Messiah, Shabbethai Zebhi, +wrote _Hod Malkuth_ (Constantinople, 1655) and sermons. In the 18th +century the study of the kabbalah was cultivated by Moses Hayyim +Luzzatto (d. 1747) and by Elijah ben Solomon, called Gaon, of Wilna (d. +1797), who commented on the whole Bible and on many Talmudic and +kabbalistic works. In spite of his own leaning towards mysticism he was +a strong opponent of the Hasidim, a mystical sect founded by Israel +Ba'al Shem Tobh (Besht) and promoted by Baer of Meseritz. Elijah's son +Abraham (d. 1808), the commentator, is valuable for his work on Midrash. +An historical work which makes an attempt to be scientific, is the +_Seder ha-doroth_ of Yehiel Heilprin (d. 1746). These, however, belong +in spirit to the previous century. + + + Modernizing tendencies. + +The characteristic of the 18th and 19th centuries is the endeavour, +connected with the name of Moses Mendelssohn, to bring Judaism more into +relation with external learning, and in using the Hebrew language to +purify and develop it in accordance with the biblical standard. The +result, while linguistically more uniform and pleasing, often lacks the +spontaneity of medieval literature. It was Moses Mendelssohn's German +translation of the Pentateuch (1780-1793) which marked the new spirit, +while the views of his opponents belong to a bygone age. In fact the +controversy of which he was the centre may fitly be compared with the +earlier battles between the Maimonists and anti-Maimonists. One of the +most remarkable writers of the new Hebrew was Mendelssohn's friend N. H. +Wessely, of Hamburg (d. 1805), author of _Shire Tiphe'reth_, a long poem +on the Exodus, _Dibhre Shalom_, a plea for liberalism, _Sepher +ha-middoth_, on ethics, besides philological works and commentaries. A +curious combination of new and old was Hayyim Azulai (d. 1807), a +kabbalist, but also the author of _Shem ha-gedholim_, a valuable +contribution to literary history. + +In the 19th century the modernizing tendency continued to grow, though +always side by side with a strong conservative opposition, and the most +prominent names on both sides are those of scholars rather than literary +men. Among them may be mentioned, Akiba ('Aqibha) Eger (d. 1837), +Talmudist of the orthodox, conservative school; W. Heidenheim (d. 1832), +a liberal, and editor of the Pentateuch and Mahzor; N. Krochmal, of +Galicia (d. 1840), author of _Moreh Nebhukhe ha-zeman_, on Jewish +history and literature; his son Abraham (d. 1895), conservative +commentator and philosopher. One consequence of the Mendelssohn movement +was that many writers used their vernacular language besides or instead +of Hebrew, or translated from one to the other. Thus Isaac Samuel Reggio +(d. 1855), a strong liberal, wrote both in Hebrew and Italian; Joseph +Almanzi, of Padua (d. 1860), a poet, translated Italian poems into +Hebrew; S. D. Luzzatto, of Padua (d. 1865), a distinguished scholar and +opponent of the philosophy of Maimonides, wrote much in Italian; M. H. +Letteris, of Vienna (d. 1871), translated German poems into Hebrew; S. +Bacher, of Hungary (d. 1891), was a poet and moderate liberal; L. Gordon +(d. 1892), poet and prose-writer in Hebrew and Russian, of liberal +views; A. Jellinek, of Vienna (d. 1893), preacher and scholar; Jacob +Reifmann (d. 1895), scholar, wrote only in Hebrew. The endeavour to +bring Judaism into relation with the modern world and to change the +current impressions about Jews by making their teaching accessible to +the rest of the world, is connected chiefly with the names of Z. Frankel +(d. 1875), the first Jewish scholar to study the Septuagint; Abraham +Geiger (d. 1874), critic of the first rank; L. Zunz (d. 1884) and L. +Dukes (d. 1891), both scholarly investigators of Jewish literary +history. Their most important works are in German. The question of the +use of the vernacular or of Hebrew is bound up with the differences +between the orthodox and the liberal or reform parties, complicated by +the many problems involved. Patriotic efforts are made to encourage the +use of Hebrew both for writing and speaking, but the continued existence +of it as a literary language depends on the direction in which the +future history of the Jews will develop. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Only the more comprehensive works are mentioned here, + omitting those relating to particular authors, and those already + cited. + + Introductory: Abrahams, _Short History of Jewish Literature_ (London, + 1906); Steinschneider, _Jewish Literature_ (London, 1857); Winter and + Wunsche, _Die judische Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1893-1895) (containing + selections translated into German). + + For further study: Graetz, _Geschichte der Juden_ (Leipzig, 1853, &c.) + (the volumes are in various editions), with special reference to the + notes; English translation by B. Lowy (London, 1891-1892) (without the + notes); Zunz, _Gottesdienstliche Vortrage der Juden_ (new ed., + Frankfort-on-Main, 1892); _Zur Geschichte und Literatur_ (Berlin, + 1845). The _Synagogale Poesie_ has been mentioned above. + Steinschneider, _Arabische Literatur der Juden_ (Frankfort-on-Main, + 1902); _Hebraische Ubersetzungen des Mittelalters_ (Berlin, 1893). + + On particular authors and subjects there are many excellent monographs + in the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_ (New York, 1901-6), to which the present + article is much indebted. + + Bibliographies of printed books: Steinschneider, _Catalogus libr. + Hebr. in Bibl. Bodleiana_ (Berlin, 1852-1860) (more than a catalogue); + Zedner, _Catalogue of the Hebr. Books in the British Museum_ (London, + 1867; continued by van Straalen, London, 1894). Of manuscripts: + Neubauer, _Catal. of the Hebrew MSS. in the Bodleian Library_ (Oxford, + 1886), vol. ii. by Neubauer and Cowley (Oxford, 1906); G. Margoliouth, + _Catal. of the Hebr. ... MSS. in the British Museum_ (London, 1899, + &c.). Of both: Benjacob, _Ozar ha-sepharim_ (Wilna, 1880) (in Hebrew; + arranged by titles). + + Periodicals: _Jewish Quarterly Review_; _Revue des etudes juives_; + _Hebraische Bibliographie_. (A. Cy.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The dating of these documents is extremely difficult, since it is + based entirely on internal evidence. Various scholars, while agreeing + on the actual divisions of the text, differ on the question of + priority. The dates here given are those which seem to be most + generally accepted at the present time. They are not put forward as + the result of an independent review of the evidence. + + [2] See especially A. Jellinek's _Bet-ha-Midrasch_ (Leipzig, 1853), + for these lesser midrashim. + + [3] That on Genesis was edited for the first time by Schechter + (Cambridge, 1902). + + [4] In Hebrew [Hebrew: rashi], from the initial letters of Rabbi + Shelomoh Yiz[h.]aqi, a convenient method used by Jewish writers in + referring to well-known authors. The name Jarchi, formerly used for + Rashi, rests on a misunderstanding. + + [5] So Bacher in _J.Q.R._ iii. 785 sqq. + + [6] For the history of the very extensive literature of this class, + Zunz, _Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie_ (Berlin, 1865), is + indispensable. + + [7] See the edition of them in Harkavy, _Studien_, iv. (Berlin, + 1885). + + [8] Two different texts of it exist: (1) in the ed. pr. (Mantua, + 1476); (2) ed. by Seb. Munster (Basel, 1541). There is also an early + Arabic recension, but its relation to the Hebrew and to the Arabic 2 + Maccabees is still obscure. See _J. Q. R._, xi. 355 sqq. The Hebrew + text was edited with a Latin translation by Breithaupt (Gotha, 1707). + + [9] On the various recensions of the text see D. H. Muller in the + _Denkschriften_ of the Vienna Academy (_Phil.-hist. Cl._, xli. 1, p. + 41) and Epstein's ed. (Pressburg, 1891). + + [10] A fragment of such a work, probably emanating from the school of + Hivi was found by Schechter and published in _J.Q.R._, xiii. 345 sqq. + + [11] See M. Friedlander in _Publications of the Society of Hebrew + Lit._, 1st ser. vol. i., and 2nd ser. vol. iv. + + [12] The fullest account of them is to be found in Steinschneider's + _Hebraische Ubersetzungen des Mittelalters_ (Berlin, 1893). + + [13] See H. Gollancz, _The Ethical Treatises of Berachya_ (London, + 1902). + + + + +HEBREW RELIGION (1) _Introductory._--To trace the history of the +religion of the Hebrews is a complex task, because the literary sources +from which our knowledge of that history is derived are themselves +complex and replete with problems as to age and authorship, some of +which have been solved according to the consensus of nearly all the best +scholars, but some of which still await solution or are matters of +dispute. Even if the analysis of the literature into component documents +were complete, we should still possess a most imperfect record, since +the documents themselves have passed through many redactions, and these +redactions have proceeded from varying standpoints of religious +tradition, successively eliminating or modifying certain elements deemed +inconsistent with the canons of religious usage or propriety which +prevailed in the age when the redaction took place. Lastly it should be +recollected that the entire body of the fragments of tradition and +literature belonging to _northern_ Israel has come down to us through +the channel of _Judaean_ recensions. + +The influence of the Deuteronomic tradition in redaction is seen in such +passages as Genesis xxxiii. 20 (cf. xxxi. 45 fol.); Josh. iv. 9-20, +xxiv. 26 fol.; 1 Sam. vii. 12, where the _massebhah_ or stone symbol of +deity (forbidden in Deut. xii. 3, xvi. 22) is in some way got rid of (in +Gen. xxxiii. 20 the word "altar" in Hebrew is substituted). Similarly in +Gen. xiii. 18, xiv. 13, xviii. 1, the Septuagint shows that the singular +form "terebinth" stood in the original text. But the Massoretes altered +this to the plural as this form was less suggestive of tree-worship (see +Smend, _A. Tliche Religionsgesch_. i. p. 134, footnote 1; Nowack, _Heb. +Archaol._ p. 12, footnote 1). Many other examples might be cited, as the +"suspended _nun_" which transforms the pronunciation of the original +Mosheh (Moses) into Menashsheh (Manasseh) owing to the irregular +practices of his descendant, Jonathan ben Gershom (Jud. xviii. 30). It +is not improbable that in 2 Kings iii. 27 the words "from Kemosh" stood +after "great wrath" in the original document, as the phraseology seems +bald without them, and the motives for their suppression are obvious. + +So far as concerns the critical problems which stand at the threshold of +our task, it must suffice to say that the main conclusions reached by +the school of Kuenen and Wellhausen as to the literary problems of the +Old Testament are assumed throughout this sketch of the evolution of +Hebrew religion. The documents underlying the Pentateuch and book of +Joshua, represented by the ciphers J, E, D and P, are assumed to have +been drawn up in the chronological order in which those ciphers are here +set down, and the period of their composition extends from the 9th +century B.C., in which the earlier portions of J were written, to the +5th century B.C., in which P finally took shape. The view of Professor +Dillmann, who placed P before D in the regal period (though he admitted +exilic and post-exilic additions in Exod., Levit. and Numb.), a view +which he maintained in his commentary on Genesis (edition of 1892), has +now been abandoned by nearly all scholars of repute. In the following +pages we shall not attempt to do more than to sketch in very succinct +outline the general results of investigation into the origins and growth +of Hebrew religion. + +2. _Pre-Mosaic Religion._--Can any clear indications be found to guide +us as to the religion of the Hebrew clans before the time of Moses? That +Moses united the scattered tribes, probably consisting at first mainly +of the Josephite, under the common worship of Yahweh, and that upon the +religion of Yahweh a distinctly ethical character was impressed, is +generally recognized. The tradition of the earliest document J ascribes +the worship of Yahweh to much earlier times, in fact to the dawn of +human life. A close survey of the facts, however, would lead us to +regard it as probable that some at least of the Hebrew clans had +patron-deities of their own. + +(a) Both Moab and Ammon as well as Edom had their separate tribal +deities, viz. Chemosh (Moab) and Milk (Milcom), the god of Ammon, and in +the case of Edom a deity known from the inscriptions as Kos (in Assyrian +Kaus).[1] From the patriarchal narratives and genealogies in Genesis we +infer that these races were closely allied to Israel. That in early +pre-Mosaic times parallel cults existed among the various Hebrew tribes +is by no means improbable. It would be reasonable to assume that Moab, +Ammon, Edom and kindred tribes of Israel in the 15th and preceding +centuries were included in the generic term Habiri (or Hebrews) +mentioned in the Tell el-Amarna inscriptions as forming predatory bands +that disturbed the security of the Canaanite dwellers west of the +Jordan. Lastly pre-Mosaic polytheism seems to be implied in the Mosaic +prohibition Ex. xx. 3, xxii. 20. + +(b) The tribal names Gad and Asher are suggestive of the worship of a +deity of fortune (Gad) and of the male counterpart of the goddess, +Asherah. Under the name Shaddai (which Noldeke suggests[2] was +originally Shedi "my demon") it is possible to discern the name of a +deity who in later times came to be identified with Yahweh. On the other +hand, the connexion of the name Samson with sun-worship throws light on +the period of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan and not on pre-Mosaic +times. Nor is it possible to agree with Baudissin (_Studien zur semit. +Religionsgesch._ i. 55) that Elohim as a plural form for the name of the +Hebrew deity "can hardly be understood otherwise than as a comprehensive +expression for the multitude of gods embraced in the One God of Old +Testament religion," in other words that it presupposes an original +polytheism. For (1) Elohim is also applied in Judges xi. 24 to the +Moabite Chemosh (Kemosh); in 1 Sam. v. 7 to Dagon; in 1 Kings xi. 5 to +Ashtoreth; in 2 Kings i. 2, iii. 6, 16 to Ba'al Zebul of Ekron. (2) It +is merely a plural of dignity (_pluralis majestatis_) parallel to +_adonim_ (applied to a king in 1 Kings xviii. 8, whereas in the previous +verse the _singular_ form _adoni_ is applied to the prophet Elijah). (3) +The Tell el-Amarna inscriptions indicate that the term _Elohim_ might +even be applied in abject homage to an Egyptian monarch as the use of +the term _ilani_ in this connexion obviously implies.[3] + +The religion of the Arabian tribes in the days of Mahomet, of which a +picture is presented to us by Wellhausen in his _Remains of Arabic +Heathendom_, furnishes some suggestive indications of the religion that +prevailed in nomadic Israel before as well as during the lifetime of +Moses. It is true that Arabian polytheism in the time of Mahomet was in +a state of decay. Nevertheless the life of the desert changes but +slowly. We may therefore infer that ancient Israel during the period +when they inhabited the _negebh_ (S. of Canaan) stood in awe of the +demons (Jinn) of the desert, just as the Arabs at the present day +described in Doughty's _Arabia deserta_. We know that diseases were +attributed by the Israelites to malignant demons which they, like the +Arabs, identified with serpents. The counterspell took the form of a +bronze image of the serpent-demon; see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, ii. 426; +and I Sam. v. 6, vi. 4, 5 (LXX. and Heb.) as well as Buchanan Gray's +instructive note in _Numbers_, p. 276. The slaughter of a lamb at the +Passover or Easter season, whose blood was smeared on the door-post, as +described in Ex. xii. 21-23, probably points back to an immemorial +custom. In this case the counterspell assumed a different form. +Westermarck has shown from his observations in Morocco that the blood of +the victim was considered to visit a curse upon the object to whom the +sacrifice is offered and thereby the latter is made amenable to the +sacrificer.[4] It is hardly possible to doubt that in the original form +of the rite described in Exodus the blood offering was made to the +plague demon ("the destroyer") and possessed over him a magic power of +arrest. + +It is therefore certain that belief in demons and magic spells prevailed +in pre-Mosaic times[5] among the Israelite clans. And it is also +probable that certain persons combined in their own individuality the +functions of magician and sacrificer as well as soothsayer. For we know +that in Arabic the _Kahin_, or soothsayer, is the same participial form +that we meet with in the Hebrew _Kohen_, or priest, and in the early +period of Hebrew history (e.g. in the days of Saul and David) it was the +priest with the ephod or image of Yahweh who gave answers to those who +consulted him. How far _totemism_, or belief in deified animal +ancestors, existed in prehistoric Israel, as evidenced by the tribal +names Simeon (hyena, wolf), Caleb (dog), Hamor (ass), Rahel (ewe) and +Leah (wild cow), &c.,[6] as well as by the laws respecting clean and +unclean animals, is too intricate and speculative a problem to be +discussed here. That the food-taboo against eating the flesh of a +particular animal would prevail in the clan of which that animal was the +deified totem-ancestor is obvious, and it would be a plausible theory to +hold that the laws in question arose when the Israelite tribes were to +be consolidated into a national unity (i.e. in the time of David and +Solomon), but the application of this theory to the list of unclean +foods in Deut. xiv. (Lev. xi.) seems to present insuperable +difficulties. In fact, while Robertson Smith (in _Kinship and Marriage +in Early Arabia_, as well as his _Religion of the Semites_, followed by +Stade and Benzinger) strongly advocated the view that clear traces of +totemism can be found in early Israel, later writers, such as Marti, +_Gesch. der israelit. Religion_, 4th ed., p. 24, Kautzsch in his +_Religion of Israel_ already cited, p. 613, and recently Addis in his +_Hebrew Religion_, p. 33 foll., have abandoned the theory as applied to +Israel.[7] On the other hand, the evidence for the existence of +ancestor-worship in primitive Israel cannot be so easily disposed of as +Kautzsch (_ibid._ p. 615) appears to think. We have examples (1 Sam. +xxviii. 13) in which _Elohim_ is the term which is applied to departed +spirits. Oracles were received from them (Isa. viii. 19, xxviii. 15, 18; +Deut. xviii. 10 foll.). At the graves of national heroes or ancestors +worship was paid. In Gen. xxxv. 20 we read that a _massebah_ or sacred +pillar was erected at Rahel's tomb. That the Teraphim, which we know to +have resembled the human form (1 Sam. xix. 13, 16), were ancestral +images is a reasonable theory. That they were employed in divination is +consonant with the facts already noted. Lastly, the rite of circumcision +(q.v.), which the Hebrews practised in common with their Semitic +neighbours as well as the Egyptians, belonged to ages long anterior to +the time of Moses. This is a fact which has long been recognized: cf. +Gen. xvii. 10 foll., Herod. ii. 104, and Barton, _Semitic Origins_, pp. +98-100. Probably the custom was of African origin, and came from eastern +Africa along with the Semitic race. Respecting Arabia, see Doughty, +_Arabia deserta_, i. 340 foll. + +It is necessary here to advert to a subject much debated during recent +years, viz. the effects of Babylonian culture in western Asia on Israel +and Israel's religion in early times even preceding the advent of Moses. +The great influence exercised by Babylonian culture over Palestine +between 2000 and 1400 B.C. (_circa_), which has been clearly revealed to +us since 1887 by the discovery of the Tell el Amarna tablets, is now +universally acknowledged. The subsequent discovery of a document written +in Babylonian cuneiform at Lachish (Tell el Hesy), and more recently +still of another in the excavations at Ta'annek, have established the +fact beyond all dispute. The last discovery had tended to confirm the +views of Fried. Delitzsch, Jeremias (_Monotheistische Stromungen_) and +Baentsch, that monotheistic tendencies are to be found in the midst of +Babylonian polytheism. Page Renouf, in his Hibbert lectures, _Origin and +Growth of Religion as illustrated by that of Ancient Egypt_ (1879), p. +89 foll., pointed out this monotheistic tendency in Egyptian religion, +as did de Rouge before him. Baentsch draws attention to this feature in +his monograph _Altorientalischer u. israelitischer Monotheismus_ (1906). +This tendency, however, he, unlike the earlier conservative writers, +rightly considers to have emerged out of polytheism. He ventures into a +more disputable region when he penetrates into the obscure realm of the +Abrahamic migration and finds in the Abrahamic traditions of Genesis the +higher Canaanite monotheistic tendencies evolved out of Babylonian +astral religion, and reflected in the name El 'Elyon (Gen. xiv. 18, 22). +Further discoveries like Sellin's find at Ta'annek may elucidate the +problem. See Baudissin in _Theolog. lit. Zeitung_ (27th October 1906). + +3. _The Era of Moses._--We are now on safer ground though still obscure. +Moses was the first historic individuality who can be said to have +welded the Israelite clans into a whole. This could never have been +accomplished without unity of worship. The object of this worship was +Yahweh. As we have already indicated, the document J assumes that Yahweh +was worshipped by the Hebrew race from the first. On the other hand, +according to P (Ex. vi. 2), God spake to Moses and said to him: "I am +Yahweh. But I appeared to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as El Shaddai and by +my name Yahweh I did not make myself known to them." According to this +later tradition Yahweh was unknown till the days of Moses, and under the +aegis of His power the Hebrew tribes were delivered from Egyptian +thraldom. The truth probably lies somewhere between these two sharply +contrasted traditions. So much is clear. Yahweh now becomes the supreme +deity of the Hebrew people, and an ark analogous to the Egyptian and +Babylonian arks portrayed on the monuments[8] was constructed as +embodiment of the _numen_ of Yahweh and was borne in front of the Hebrew +army when it marched to war. It was the signal victory won by Moses at +the exodus against the Egyptians and in the subsequent battle at +Rephidim against 'Amalek (Ex. xvii.) that consolidated the prestige of +Yahweh, Israel's war-god. Indications in the Old Testament itself +clearly point to the celestial or atmospheric character of the Yahweh of +the Hebrews. The supposition that the name originally contained the +notion of permanent or eternal being, and was derived from the verbal +root signifying "to be," involves too abstract a conception to be +probable, though it is based on Ex. iii. 15 (E) representing a tradition +which may have prevailed in the 8th century B.C. Kautzsch, however, +supports it (Hastings's _D.B._, extra vol. "Rel. of Isr." p. 625 foll.) +against the other derivations proposed by recent scholars (see JEHOVAH). +That the name also prevailed as that of a god among other Semitic races +(or even non-Semitic) is rendered certain by the proper names +Jau-bi'-di (= Ilu-bi'di) of Hamath in Sargon's inscriptions, Ahi-jawi +(mi) in Sellin's discovered tablet at Ta'annek, to say nothing of those +which have been found in the documents of Khammurabi's reign. It has +generally been held that Stade's supposition has much to recommend it, +that it was derived by Moses from the Kenites, and should be connected +with the Sinai-Horeb region. The name Sinai suggests moon-worship and +the moon-god Sin; and it also suggests Babylonian influence (cf. also +Mount Nebo, which was a place-name both in Moab and in Judah, and +naturally connects itself with the name of the Babylonian deity). +Several indications favour the view of the connexion in the age of Moses +between the Yahweh-cult at Sinai and the moon-worship of Babylonian +origin to which the name Sinai points (Sin being the Babylonian +moon-god). We note (a) that in the worship of Yahweh the sacred seasons +of new moon and Sabbath are obviously _lunar_. Recent investigations +have even been held to disclose the fact that the Sabbath coincided +originally, i.e. in early pre-exilian days, with the full moon.[9] (b) +It also accords with the name bestowed on Yahweh as "Lord of Hosts" +(_sebaoth_) or stars, which were regarded as personified beings (Job +xxxviii. 7) and attendants on the celestial Yahweh, constituting His +retinue (1 Kings xxii. 19) which fought on high while the earthly armies +of Israel, His people, contended below (Judges v. 20). + +The atmospheric and celestial character which belonged from the first to +the Hebrew conception of Yahweh explains to us the ease with which the +idea of His universal sovereignty arose, which the Yahwistic creation +account (belonging to the earlier stratum of J, Gen. ii. 4b foll.) +presupposes. How this came to be overlaid by narrow local limitations of +His power and province will be shown later. It is probable that Moses +held the larger rather than the narrower conception of Yahweh's sphere +of influence. While the ark carried with Israel's host symbolized His +presence in their midst, He was also known to be present in the cloud +which hovered before the host and in the lightning ('_esh Yahweh_ or +"fire of Yahweh") and the thunder (_kol Yahweh_ or "voice of Yahweh") +which played around Mount Sinai. Moreover, it is hardly probable that a +great leader like Moses remained unaffected by the higher conceptions +tending towards monotheism which prevailed in the great empires on the +Nile and on the Euphrates. In Egypt we know that Amenophis IV. came +under this monotheistic movement, and attempted to suppress all other +cults except that of the sun-deity, of which he was a devoted +worshipper. We also know that between 2000 and 1400 B.C. the Babylonian +language as well as Babylonian civilization and ideas spread over +Palestine (as the Tell el Amarna tables clearly testify). The ancient +Babylonian psalms clearly reveal that the highest minds were moving out +of polytheism to a monotheistic identification of various deities as +diverse phases of one underlying essence. A remarkable Babylonian tablet +discovered by Dr Pinches represents Marduk, the god of light, as +identified in his person with all the chief deities of Babylonia, who +are evidently regarded as his varying manifestations.[10] + +Through the influence of Mosaic teaching and law a definitely ethical +character was ascribed to Yahweh. It was His "finger" that wrote the +brief code which has come down to us in the decalogue. At first, as +Erdmanns suggests, it may have consisted of only seven commands. So also +Kautzsch, _ibid._ p. 634. The most strongly distinguishing feature of +the code is the rigid exclusion of the worship of other gods than +Yahweh. Moreover, the definitely ethical character of the religion of +Yahweh established by Moses is exhibited in the strict exclusion of all +sexual impurity in His worship. Unlike the Canaanite Baal, Yahweh has no +female consort, and this remained throughout a distinguishing trait of +the original and unadulterated Hebrew religion (see Bathgen, _Beitrage_, +p. 265). Indeed, Hebrew, unlike Assyrian or Phoenician, has no +distinctive form for "goddess." From first to last the true religion of +Yahweh was pure of sexual taint. The kedeshim and kedeshoth, the male +and female priest attendants in the Baal and 'Ashtoreth shrines (cf. the +_kadishtu_ of the temples of the Babylonian Ishtar) were foreign +Canaanite elements which became imported into Hebrew worship during the +period of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan. + +Lastly, the earliest codes of Hebrew legislation (Ex. xxi.-xxiii.) bear +the distinct impress of the high ethical character of Yahweh's +requirements originally set forth by Moses. Of this tradition the Naboth +incident in the time of Ahab furnishes a clear example which brings to +light the contrast between the Tyrian Baal-cult, which was scarcely +ethical, and of which Jezebel and Ahab were devotees, and the moral +requirements of the religion of Yahweh of which Elijah was the prophet +and impassioned exponent. It was this definite basis of ethical Mosaic +religion to which the prophets of the 8th century appealed, and apart +from which their denunciations become meaningless. To this early +standard of life and practice Ephraim was faithless in the days of the +prophet Hosea (see his oracles _passim_--especially chaps. i.-iv. and +xiv.), and Judah in the time of Isaiah turned a deaf ear (Isa. i. 2-4, +21). + +4. _Influence of Canaan._--The entrance of Israel into Canaan marks the +beginning of a new epoch in the development of Israel's religious life. +For it involved a transition from the simple nomadic relations to those +of the agricultural and more highly civilized Canaanite life. This +subject has been recently treated with admirable clearness by Marti in +his useful treatise _Die Religion des A.T._ (1906), pp. 25-41. + +It is in the festivals of the annual calendar that this agricultural +impress is most fully manifested. To the original nomadic _Pesah_ +(Passover)--sacrifice of a lamb--there was attached a distinct and +agricultural festival of unleavened cakes (_massoth_) which marks the +beginning of the corn harvest in the middle of the month _Abib_ (the +name of which points to its Canaanite and agricultural origin). The +close of the corn-harvest was marked by the festival _Shabhuoth_ (weeks) +or _Kasir_ (harvest) held seven weeks after massoth. The last and most +characteristic festival of Canaanite life was that of _Asiph_ or +"ingathering" which after the Deuteronomic reformation (621 B.C.) had +made a single sanctuary and therefore a considerable journey with a +longer stay necessary, came to be called _Succoth_ or booths. This was +the autumn festival held at the close of September or beginning of +October. It marked the close of the year's agricultural operations when +the olives and grapes had been gathered [Ex. xxiii. 14-17 (E), xxxiv. +18, 22, 23 (J)]; see FEASTS, PASSOVER, PENTECOST and TABERNACLES. +Another special characteristic of Israel's religion in Canaan was the +considerable increase of sacrificial offerings. Animal sacrifices became +much more frequent, and included not only the bloody sacrifice (Zebah) +but also burnt offerings (_kalil_, _'olah_) whereby the whole animal was +consumed (see SACRIFICE). But we have in addition to the animal +sacrifices, vegetable offerings of meal, oil and cakes (_massoth_, +_ashishah_ and _kawwan_, which last is specially connected with the +'Ashtoreth cult: Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 19), as well as the "bread of the +Presence" (_lehem happanim_), 1 Sam. xxi. 6. Whether the primitive rite +of _water-offerings_ (1 Sam. vii. 6; 2 Sam. xxiii. 16) belonged to early +nomadic Israel (as seems probable) it is not possible to determine with +any certainty. + +Again, the conception of Yahweh suffered modification. In the desert he +was worshipped as an atmospheric deity, who manifested himself in +thunder and lightning, whose abode was in the sky, whose sanctuary was +on the mountain summit of Horeb-Sinai, and whose movable palladium was +the ark of the covenant. But when the nomadic clans of Israel came to +occupy the settled abodes of the agricultural Canaanites who had a stake +in the soil which they cultivated, these conditions evidently reacted on +their religion. Now the local Baal was the divine owner of the fertile +spot where his sanctuary (_qodesh_) was marked by the upright stone +pillar, the symbol of his presence, on which the blood of the +slaughtered victim was smeared. To this Baal the productiveness of the +soil was due. Consequently it was needful to secure his favour, and in +order to gain this, gifts were made to him by the local resident +population who depended on the produce of the land (see BAAL, especially +_ad init._). Now when the Hebrews succeeded to these agricultural +conditions and acquired possession of the Canaanite abodes, they +naturally fell into the same cycle of religious ideas and tradition. +Yahweh ceased to be exclusively regarded as god of the atmosphere, +worshipped in a distant mountain, Horeb-Sinai, situated in the south +country (_negebh_), and moving in the clouds of heaven before the +Israelites in the desert, but he came to be associated with Israel's +life in Canaan. He manifested His presence either by a signal victory +over Israel's foes (Josh. x. 10, 11; 1 Sam. vii. 10-12) or by a +thunderstorm (1 Sam. xii. 18) or through a dream (Gen. xxviii. 16 foll.; +cf. 1 Kings iii. 5 foll.) at a sacred spot like Bethel. Accordingly, +whenever His presence and power were displayed in places where the +Canaanite Baal had been worshipped, they came to be attached to these +spots. He had "put his name," i.e. power and presence (_numen_) there, +and the same festivals and sacrifices which had previously been devoted +to the cult of the Canaanite Baal were now annexed to the service of +Yahweh, the war-god of the conquering race. The process of transference +was facilitated by two potent causes: (a) Both Canaanite and Hebrew +spoke a common language; (b) the name Baal is not in reality an +individual proper name like Kemosh (Chemosh), Ramman or Hadad, but is, +like El (Ilu) "god," an appellative meaning "lord," "owner" or +"husband." The name Baal might therefore be used for any deity such as +Milk (Milcom) or Shemesh ("sun") who was the divine owner of the spot. +It was simply a covering epithet, and like the word "god" could be +transferred from one deity to another. In this way Yahweh came to be +called the Baal or "lord" of any sacred place where the armies of Israel +by their victories attested "his mighty hand and outstretched arm." (See +Kautzsch in Hastings's _D.B._, extra vol., p. 645 foll.) + +Such was the path of syncretism, and it was fraught with peril to the +older and purer faith. For when Yahweh gradually became Israel's local +Baal he became worshipped like the old Canaanite deity, and all the +sensuous accompaniments of Kedeshoth,[11] as well as the presence of the +_asherah_ or sacred pole, became attached to his cult. But the symbol +carried with it the _numen_ of the goddess symbolized, and there can be +little doubt that Asherah came to be regarded as Yahweh's consort. In +the days of Manasseh syncretism went on unchecked even in the Jerusalem +temple and its precincts, and it was not till the year of Jesiah's +reformation (621 B.C.) that the Kedeshim and Kedeshoth as well as the +Asherah were banished for ever from Yahweh's sanctuary (2 Kings xxi. 7, +xxiii. 7), which their presence had profaned. + +Now local worship means the differentiation of the personality +worshipped in the varied local shrines, in other words Ba'alim or Baals. +Just as we have in Assyria an Ishtar of Arbela and an Ishtar of Nineveh +(treated in Assur-bani-pal's (Rassam) cylinder[12] like two distinct +deities), as we have local Madonnas in Roman Catholic countries, so must +it have been with the cults of Yahweh in the regal period carried on in +the numerous high places, Bethel, Shechem, Shiloh (till its destruction +in the days of Eli) and Jerusalem. Each in turn claimed that Yahweh had +placed his name (i.e. personal presence and power or numen) _there_. +Each had a Yahweh of its own. + +On the other hand, old deities still lurked in old spots which had been +for centuries their abode. It was no easy task to establish Yahweh in +permanent possession of the new lands conquered by the Hebrew settlers. +The old gods were not to be at once discrowned of might. Of this we have +a vivid example in the episode 2 Kings xviii. 24-28. The inhabitants of +Babylonia and other regions whom the Assyrian kings had settled in +Ephraim after 721 B.C. (cf. Ezra iv. 10) are described as suffering from +the depredations of lions, and a priest from the deported Ephraimites is +sent to them to teach them the worship of Yahweh, the god of the land. +Similarly in the earlier pre-exilian period of Israel's occupation of +Canaanite territory the Hebrews were always subject to this tendency to +worship the _old_ Baal or 'Ashtoreth (the goddess who made the cattle +and flocks prolific).[13] A few years of drought or of bad seasons would +make a Hebrew settler betake himself to the old Canaanite gods. Even in +the days of Hosea the rivalry between Yahweh and the old Canaanite Baal +still continued. The prophet reproaches his Ephraimite countrymen for +going after their "lovers," the old local Baals who were supposed to +have bestowed on them the bread, water, wool, flax and oil, and for not +knowing that "it is I (Yahweh) who have bestowed on her (i.e. Israel) +the corn, the new wine and the oil, and have bestowed on her silver and +gold in abundance which they have wrought into a Baal image" (Hos. ii. +10). + +External danger from a foreign foe, such as Midian or the Philistines, +at once brought into prominence the claim and power of Yahweh, Israel's +national war-god since the great days of the exodus. The religion of +Yahweh (as Wellhausen said) meant patriotism, and in war-time tended to +weld the participating tribes into a national unity. The book of Judges +with its "monotonous tempo--religious declension, oppression, +repentance, peace," to which Wellhausen[14] refers as its ever-recurring +cycle, makes us familiar with these alternating phases of action and +reaction. Times of peace meant national disintegration and the lapse of +Israel into the Canaanite local cults, which is interpreted by the +redactor as the prophets of the 8th century would have interpreted it, +viz. as defection from Yahweh. On the other hand, times of war against a +foreign foe meant on the religious side the unification, partial or +complete, of the Israelite tribes by the rallying cry "the sword of +Yahweh" (Judges vii. 20). In this way 'Ophrah became the centre of the +coalition under Gideon in the tribe of Manasseh. Its importance is +attested by Judges viii. 22-28, and we may disregard the "snare" which +the Deuteronomic writer condemns in accordance with the later canons of +orthodoxy. What 'Ophrah became on a small scale in the days of Gideon, +Jerusalem became on a larger scale in the days of David and his +successors. It was the religious expression of the unity of Israel which +the life and death struggle with the Philistines had gradually wrought +out. + +Despite the capture of the ark after the disastrous battle of Shiloh, +Yahweh had in the end shown himself through a destructive plague +superior in might to the Philistine Dagon. There are indeed abundant +indications that prove that in the prevalent popular religion of the +regal period monotheistic conceptions had no place. Yahweh was god only +of Israel and of Israel's land. An invasion of foreign territory would +bring Israel under the power of its patron-deity. The wrath with which +the Israelite armies believed themselves to be visited (probably an +outbreak of pestilence) when the king of Moab was reduced to his last +extremity, was obviously the wrath of Chemosh the god of Moab, which the +king's sacrifice of his only son had awakened against the invading army +(2 Kings iii. 27). In other words, the ordinary Israelite worshipper of +Yahweh was at this time far removed from monotheism, and still remained +in the preliminary stage of henotheism, which regarded Yahweh as sole +god of Israel and Israel's land, but at the same time recognized the +existence and power of the deities of other lands and peoples. Of this +we have recurring examples in pre-exilian Hebrew history. See 1 Sam. +xxvi. 19; Judges xi. 23, 24; Ruth i. 16. + + + Material objects. + +5. _Characteristics and Constituent Elements._--It is only possible here +to refer in briefest enumeration to the material and external objects +and forms of popular Hebrew religion. These were of the simplest +character. The upright stone (or _massebah_) was the material symbol of +deity on which the blood of sacrifice was smeared, and in which the +_numen_ of the god resided. It is probable that in some primitive +sanctuaries no real distinction was made between this stone-pillar and +the altar or place where the animal was slaughtered. In ordinary +pre-exilian high places the custom described in the primitive compend of +laws (Ex. xx. 24) would be observed. A mound of earth was raised which +would serve as a platform on which the victim would be slaughtered in +the presence of the concourse of spectators. In the more important +shrines, as at Jerusalem or Samaria, there would be an altar of stone or +of bronze. Another accompaniment of the sanctuary would be the sacred +tree--most frequently a terebinth (cf. Judges ix. 37 "terebinth of +soothsayers"), or it might be a palm tree (cf. "palm tree of Deborah" in +Judges iv. 5), or a tamarisk (_'eshel_), or pomegranate (_rimmon_), as +at the high place in Gibeah where Saul abode. Moreover, we have frequent +references to sacred springs, as that of _Beer-sheba_, _'Enharod_ +(_'eyn-harod_) (Judges vii. 1; cf. also Judges 19, _'En-hakkore_ +[_'eyn-haqqore'_]). (On this subject of holy trees, holy waters and holy +stones, consult article TREE-WORSHIP, and Robertson Smith's _Religion of +the Semites_, 2nd ed., pp. 165-197.) + +The wide prevalence of magic and soothsaying may be illustrated from the +historical books of the Old Testament as well as from the pre-exilian +prophets. The latter indeed tolerated the _qosem_ (soothsayer) as they +did the seer (ro'eh). The rhabdomancy denounced by Hosea (iv. 12) was +associated with idolatry at the high places. But the arts of the +necromancer were always and without exception treated as foreign to the +religion of Yahweh. The necromancer of _ba'al 'obh'_ was held to be +possessed of the spirit who spoke through him with a hollow voice. +Indeed both necromancer and the spirit that possessed him were sometimes +identified, and the former was simply called _obh_. It is probable that +necromancy, like the worship of Asherah and 'Ashtoreth, as well as the +cult of graven images, was a Canaanite importation into Israel's +religious practices. (See Marti, _Religion des A.T._, p. 32.) + + + Priesthood. + +The history of the rise of the priesthood in Israel is exceedingly +obscure. In the nomadic period and during the earlier years of the +settlement of Israel in Canaan the head of every family could offer +sacrifices. In the primitive codes, Ex. xx. 22-xxiii. 19 (E), xxxiv. +10-28 (J), we have no allusion to any separate order of men who were +qualified to offer sacrifices. In Ex. xxiv. 5 (E) we read that Moses +simply commissioned young men to offer sacrifices. On the other hand the +_addendum_ to the book of Judges, chaps. xvii., xviii. (which Budde, +Moore and other critics consider to belong to the two sources of the +narratives in Judges, viz. J[15] as well as E), makes reference to a +Levite of Bethlehem-Judah, expressly stated in xvii. 7 as belonging to a +clan of Judah. This man Micah took into his household as priest. This +narrative has all the marks of primitive simplicity. There can be no +reasonable doubt that the Levite here was member of a priestly tribe or +order, and this view is confirmed by the discovery of what is really the +same word in south Arabian inscriptions.[16] The narrative is of some +value as it shows that while it was possible to appoint any one as a +priest, since Micah, like David, appointed one of his own sons (xvii. +5), yet a special priest-tribe or order also existed, and Micah +considered that the acquisition of one of its members was for his +household a very exceptional advantage: "Now I know that Yahweh will +befriend me because I have the _Levite_ as priest."[17] In other words a +priest who was a Levite possessed a superior professional qualification. +He is paid ten shekels per annum, together with his food and clothing, +and is dignified by the appellation "father" (cf. the like epithet of +"mother" applied to the prophetess Deborah, Judges v. 7; see also 2 +Kings ii. 12, vi. 21, xiii. 14). This same narrative dwells upon the +graven images, ephod and teraphim, as forming the apparatus of religious +ceremonial in Micah's household. Now the ephod and teraphim are +constantly mentioned together (cf. Hos. iii. 4) and were used in +divination. The former was the plated image of Yahweh (cf. Judges viii. +26, 27) and the latter were ancestral images (see Marti, _op. cit._ pp. +27, 29; Harper, _Int. Comm._ "Amos and Hosea," p. 222). In other words +the function of the priest was not merely sacrificial (a duty which +Kautzsch unnecessarily detaches from the services which he originally +rendered), nor did he merely bear the ark of the covenant and take +charge of God's house; but he was also and mainly (as the Arabic name +_kahin_ shows) the _soothsayer_ who consulted the ephod and gave the +answers required on the field of battle (see 1 Sam. and 2 Sam. _passim_) +and on other occasions. This is clearly shown in the "blessing of Moses" +(Deut. xxxiii. 8), where the Levite is specially associated with another +apparatus of inquiry, viz. the sacred lots, _Urim_ and _Thummim_. The +true character of _Urim_ (as expressing "aye") and _Thummim_ (as +expressing "nay") is shown by the reconstructed text of 1 Sam. xiv. 41 +on the basis of the Septuagint. See Driver _ad loc._ + + + Geniality of Worship. + +The chief and most salient characteristic of the worship of the high +places was geniality. The sacrifice was a feast of social communion +between the deity and his worshippers, and knit both deity and +clan-members together in the bonds of a close fellowship. This genial +aspect of Hebrew worship is nowhere depicted more graphically than in +the old narrative (a J section = Budde's G) 1 Sam. ix. 19-24, where a +day of sacrifice in the high place is described. Saul and his attendant +are invited by the seer-priest Samuel into the banqueting chamber +(_lishkah_) where thirty persons partake of the sacrificial meal. It was +the _'asiph_ or festival of ingathering, when the agricultural +operations were brought to a close, which exhibited these genial +features of Canaanite-Hebrew life most vividly. References to them +abound in pre-exilian literature: Judges xxi. 21 (cf. ix. 27); Amos +viii. 1 foll.; Hos. ix. 1 foll., Jer. xxxi. 4; Isa. xvi. 10 (Jer. +xlviii. 33). These festivals formed the veins and arteries of ancient +Hebrew clan and tribal life.[18] Wellhausen's characterization of the +Arabian _hajj_[19] applies with equal force to the Hebrew _hagg_ +(festival): "They formed the rendezvous of ancient life. Here came under +the protection of the peace of God the tribes and clans which otherwise +lived apart from one another and only knew peace and security within +their own frontiers." 1 Sam. xx. 28 foll. indicates the strong claims on +personal attendance exercised on each individual member by the local +clan festival at Bethlehem-Judah. + +It is easy to discern from varied allusions in the Old Testament that +the Canaanite impress of sensuous life clung to the autumnal vintage +festivals. They became orgiastic in character and scenes of drunkenness, +cf. Judges ix. 27; 1 Sam. 14-16; Isa. xxviii. 7, 8. Against this +tendency the _Nazirite_ order and tradition was a protest. Cf. Amos ii. +11 foll.; Judges xiii. 7, 14. As certain sanctuaries, Shiloh, Shechem, +Bethel, &c., grew in importance, the priesthoods that officiated at them +would acquire special prestige. Eli, the head priest at Shiloh in the +early youth of Samuel, held an important position in what was then the +chief religious and political centre of Ephraim; and the office passed +by inheritance to the sons in ordinary cases. In the regal period the +royal residence gave the priesthood of that place an exceptional +position. Thus Zadok, who obtained the priestly office at Jerusalem in +the reign of Solomon and was succeeded by his sons, was regarded in +later days as the founder of the true and legitimate succession of the +priesthood descended from Levi (Ezek. xl. 46, xliii. 19, xliv. 15; cf. 1 +Kings ii. 27, 35). His descent, however, from Eleazar, the elder brother +of Aaron, can only be regarded as the later artificial construction of +the post-exilian chronicler (1 Chron. vi. 4-15, 50-53, xxiv. 1 foll.), +who was controlled by the traditions which prevailed in the 4th century +B.C. and after. + +6. _The Prophets._--The rise of the order of prophets, who gradually +emerged out of and became distinct from the old Hebrew "seer" or augur +(1 Sam. ix. 9),[20] marks a new epoch in the religious development of +the Hebrews. Over the successive stages of this growth we pass lightly +(see PROPHET). The life-and-death struggle between Israel and the +Philistines in the reign of Saul called forth under Samuel's leadership +a new order of "men of God," who were called "prophets" or divinely +inspired speakers.[21] These men were distributed in various +settlements, and their exercises were usually of an ecstatic character. +The closest modern analogy would be the orders of dervishes in Islam. +Probably there was little externally to distinguish the prophet of +Yahweh in the days of Samuel from the Canaanite-Phoenician prophets of +Baal and Asherah (1 Kings xviii. 19, 26, 28), for the practices of both +were ecstatic and orgiastic (cf. 1 Sam. x. 5 foll., xviii. 10, xix. 23 +foll.). The special quality which distinguished these prophetic gilds or +companies was an intense patriotism combined with enthusiastic devotion +to the cause of Yahweh. This necessarily involved in that primitive age +an extreme jealousy of foreign importations or innovations in ritual. It +is obvious from numerous passages that these prophetic gilds recognized +the superior position and leadership of Samuel, or of any other +distinguished prophet such as Elijah or Elisha. Thus 1 Sam. xix. 20, 23 +et seq. show that Samuel was regarded as head of the prophetic +settlement at Naioth. With reference to Elijah and Elisha, see 2 Kings +ii. 3, 5, 15, iv. 1, 38 et seq., vi. 1 et seq. There cannot be any doubt +that such enthusiastic devotees of Yahweh, in days when religion meant +patriotism, did much to keep alive the flame of Israel's hope and +courage in the dark period of national disaster. It is significant that +Saul in his last unavailing struggle against the overwhelming forces of +the Philistines sought through the medium of a sorceress for an +interview with the deceased prophet Samuel. It was the advice of Elisha +that rescued the armies of Jehoram and Jehoshaphat in their war against +Moab when they were involved in the waterless wastes that surrounded +them (2 Kings iii. 14 foll.). We again find Elisha intervening with +effect on behalf of Israel in the wars against Syria, so that his fame +spread to Syria itself (2 Kings v.-viii. 7 foll.). Lastly it was the +fiery counsels of the dying prophet, accompanied by the acted magic of +the arrow shot through the open window, and also of the thrice smitten +floor, that gave nerve and courage to Joash, king of Israel, when the +armies of Syria pressed heavily on the northern kingdom (2 Kings xiii. +14-19). + +We see that the prophet had now definitely emerged from the old position +of "seer." Prophetic personality now moved in a larger sphere than that +of divination, important though that function be in the social life of +the ancient state[22] as instrumental in declaring the will of the deity +when any enterprise was on foot. For the prophet's function became in an +increasing degree a function of _mind_, and not merely of traditional +routine or mechanical technique, like that of the diviner with his +arrows or his lots which he cast in the presence of the ephod or plated +Yahweh image. The new name _nabhi'_ became necessary to express this +function of more exalted significance, in which human personality played +its larger role. Even as early as the time of David it would seem that +Nathan assumed this more developed function as interpreter of Yahweh's +righteous will to David. But both in 2 Sam. xii. 1-15 as well as in 2 +Sam. vii. we have sections which are evidently coloured by the +conceptions of a later time. We stand on safer ground when we come to +Elijah's bold intervention on behalf of righteousness when he declared +in the name of Yahweh the divine judgment on Ahab and his house for the +judicial murder of Naboth. We here observe a great advance in the +vocation of the prophet. He becomes the interpreter and vindicator of +divine justice, the vocal exponent of a nation's conscience. For Elijah +was in this case obviously no originator or innovator. He represents the +old ethical Mosaism, which had not disappeared from the national +consciousness, but still remained as the moral pre-supposition on which +the prophets of the following century based their appeals and +denunciations. It is highly significant that Elijah, when driven from +the northern kingdom by the threats of the Tyrian Jezebel, retreats to +the old sanctuary at Horeb, whence Moses derived his inspiration and his +Torah. + +We have hitherto dealt with isolated examples of prophetism and its rare +and distinguished personalities. The ordinary Hebrew _nabhi'_ still +remained not the reflective visionary, stirred at times by music into +strange raptures (2 Kings iii. 15), but the ecstatic and orgiastic +dervish who was _meshuggah_ or "frenzied," a term which was constantly +applied to him from the days of Elisha to those of Jeremiah (2 Kings ix. +11; in Hos. ix. 7 and Jer. xxix. 26 it is regarded as a term of +reproach). It is only in rare instances that some exalted personality is +raised to a higher level. Of this we have an interesting example in the +vivid episode that preceded the battle of Ramoth-Gilead described in 1 +Kings xxii., when Micaiah appears as the true prophet of Yahweh, who in +his rare independence stands in sharp contrast with the conventional +court prophets, who prophesied then, as their descendants prophesied +more than two centuries later, smooth things. + +It is not, however, till the 8th century that prophecy attained its +highest level as the interpreter of God's ways to men. This is due to +the fact that it for the first time unfolded the true character of +Yahweh, implicit in the old Mosaic religion and submerged in the +subsequent centuries of Israel's life in Canaan, but now at length made +clear and explicit to the mind of the nation. It became now detached +from the limitations of nationalism and local association with which it +had been hitherto circumscribed. + +Even Elisha, the greatest prophet of the 9th century, had remained +within these national limitations which characterized the popular +conceptions of Yahweh. Yahweh was Israel's war-god. His power was +asserted in and from Canaanite soil. If Naaman was to be healed, it +could only be in a Palestinian river, and two mules' load of earth would +be the only permanent guarantee of Yahweh's effective blessing on the +Syrian general in his Syrian home. + +That larger conceptions prevailed in some of the loftier minds of +Israel, and may be held to have existed even as far back as the age of +Moses, is a fact which the Yahwistic cosmogony in Gen. ii. 4b-9 (which +may have been composed in the 9th century B.C.) clearly suggests, and it +is strongly sustained by the overwhelming evidence of the powerful +influence of Babylonian culture in the Palestinian region during the +centuries 2000-1400 B.C.[23] Probably in our modern construction of +ancient Hebrew history sufficient consideration has not been given to +the inevitable coexistence of different types and planes of thought, +each evolved from earlier and more primordial forms. In other words we +have to deal not with _one_ evolution but with evolutions. + +The existence of the purer and larger conception of Yahweh's character +and power before the advent of Amos indicates that the transition from +the past was not so sudden as Wellhausen's graphic portrayal in the 9th +edition of this _Encyclopaedia_ (art. ISRAEL) would have led us to +suppose. There were pre-existent ideas upon which that prophet's +epoch-making message was based. Yet this consideration should in no way +obscure the fact that the prophet lived and worked in the all-pervading +atmosphere of the popular syncretic Yahweh religion, intensely national +and local in its character. In Wellhausen's words, each petty state +"revolved on its own axis" of social-religious life till the armies of +Tiglath-Pileser III. broke up the security within the Canaanite borders. +According to the dominating popular conception, the destruction of the +national power by a foreign army meant the overthrow of the prestige of +the national deity by the foreign nation's god. If Assyria finally +overthrew Israel and carried off Yahweh's shrine, Assur (Asur), the +tutelary deity of Assyria, was mightier than Yahweh. This was precisely +what was happening among the northern states, and Amos foresaw that this +might eventually be Israel's doom. Rabshakeh's appeal to the besieged +inhabitants of Jerusalem was based on these same considerations. He +argued from past history that Yahweh would be powerless in the presence +of Ashur (2 Kings xviii. 33-35). + +This problem of religion was solved by Amos and by the prophets who +succeeded him through a more exalted conception of Yahweh and His sphere +of working, which tended to detach Him from His limited realm as a +national deity. Amos exhibited Him to his countrymen as lord of the +universe, who made the seven stars and Orion and turns the deep midnight +darkness into morning. He calls to the waters of the sea and pours them +on the earth's surface (chap. v. 8). Such a universal God of the world +would hardly make Israel His exclusive concern. Thus He not only brought +the Israelites out of Egypt, but also the Philistines from Caphtor and +the Syrians from Kir (ix. 7). But Amos went beyond this. Yahweh was not +only the lord of the universe and possessed of sovereign power. The +prophet also emphasized with passionate earnestness that Yahweh was a +God whose character was righteous, and God's demand upon His people +Israel was not for sacrifices but for _righteous conduct_. Sacrifice, as +this prophet, like his successor Jeremiah, insisted (Amos v. 25; cf. +Jer. vii. 22) played no part in Mosaic religion. In words which +evidently impressed his younger contemporary Isaiah (cf. esp. Is. chap. +i. 11-17), Amos denounced the non-ethical ceremonial formalism of his +countrymen which then prevailed (chap. v. 21 foll.):-- + + "I hate, I contemn your festivals and in your feasts I delight not; + for when you offer me your burnt-offerings and gifts, I do not regard + them with favour and your fatted peace-offerings I will not look at. + Take away from me the clamour of your songs; and the music of your + viols I will not hear. But let judgment roll down like waters and + justice like a perennial brook." + +In the younger contemporary prophet of Ephraim, Hosea, the stress is +laid on the relation of love (_hesed_) between Yahweh, the divine +husband, and Israel, the faithless spouse. Israel's faithlessness is +shown in idolatry and the prevailing corruption of the high places in +which the old Canaanite Baal was worshipped instead of Yahweh. It is +shown, moreover, in foreign alliances. Compacts with a powerful foreign +state, under whose aegis Israel was glad to shelter, involved covenants +sealed by sacrificial rites in which the deity or deities of the foreign +state were involved as well as Yahweh, the god of the weaker +vassal-state. And so Yahweh's honour was compromised. While these +aspects of Israel's relation to Yahweh are emphasized by the Ephraimite +prophet, the larger conceptions of Yahweh's character as universal Lord +and the God of righteousness, whose government of the world is ethical, +emphasized by the prophet of Tekoah, are scarcely presented. + +In Isaiah both aspects--divine universal sovereignty and justice, taught +by Amos, and divine loving-kindness to Israel and God's claims on His +people's allegiance, taught by Hosea--are fully expressed. Yahweh's +relation of love to Israel is exhibited under the purer symbol of +fatherhood (Isa. i. 2-4), a conception which was as ancient and familiar +as that of husband, though perhaps the latter recurs more frequently in +prophecy (Isa. i. 21; Ezek. xvi. &c.). Even more insistently does Isaiah +present the great truth of God's universal sovereignty. As with his +elder contemporary, the foreign peoples--(but in Isaiah's oracles +Assyria and Egypt as well as the Palestinian races)--come within his +survey. The "fullness of the earth" is Yahweh's glory (vi. 3) and the +nations of the earth are the instruments of His irresistible and +righteous will. Assyria is the "bee" and Egypt the "fly" for which +Yahweh hisses. Assyria is the "hired razor" (Isa. vii. 18, 19), or the +"rod of His wrath," for the chastisement of Israel (x. 5). But the +instrument unduly exalts itself, and Assyria itself shall suffer +humiliation at the hands of the world's divine sovereign (x. 7-15). + +And so the old limitations of Israel's popular religion,--the same +limitations that encumbered also the religions of all the neighbouring +races that succumbed in turn to Assyria's invincible progress,--now +began to disappear. Therefore, while every other religion which was +purely national was extinguished in the nation's overthrow, the religion +of Israel survived even amid exile and dispersion. For Amos and Isaiah +were able to single out those loftier spiritual and ethical elements +which lay implicit in Mosaism and to lift them into their due place of +prominence. National _sacra_ and the ceremonial requirements were made +to assume a secondary role or were even ignored.[24] The centre of +gravity in Hebrew religion was shifted from ceremonial observance and +local sacra to righteous conduct. Religion and righteousness were +henceforth welded into an indissoluble whole. The religion of Yahweh was +no longer to rest upon the narrow perishable basis of locality and +national sacra, but on the broad adamantine foundations of a universal +divine sovereignty over all mankind and of righteousness as the +essential element in the character of Yahweh and in his claims on man. +This was the "corner-stone of precious solid foundation": "I will make +judgment the measuring-line and righteousness the plummet" (Isa. xxviii. +16, 17). The religion of the Hebrew race--properly the Jews--now enters +on a new stage, for it should be observed that it was Amos, Isaiah and +Micah--prophets of Judah--who laid the actual foundations. The latter +half of the 8th century, which witnessed a rapid succession of reigns in +the northern kingdom accompanied by dismemberment of its territory and +final overthrow, witnessed also the humiliating vassalage and religious +decline of the kingdom of Judah. Unlike Amos and Micah, Isaiah was not +only the prophet of denunciation but also the prophet of hope. Though +Yahweh's chastisements on Ephraim and Judah would continue to fall till +scarcely a remnant was left (Isa. vi. 13, LXX.), yet all was not to be +lost. A remnant of the people was to return, i.e. be converted to +Yahweh. The name given to an infant child--Immanuel--was to become the +mystic symbol of a growing hope. God's presence was to abide in +Jerusalem, and, as the century drew near its close, "Immanuel" became +the watchword and talisman of a strong faith that God would never permit +Jerusalem to be captured by the Assyrians. In fact it is not improbable +that the words of consolation uttered by the prophet (Isa. viii. 9-10) +in the dark days of Ahaz (735-734 B.C.) were among the oracles which God +commanded Isaiah "to seal up among his disciples" (verse 16), and that +they were quoted once more with effect as the armies of Sennacherib +closed around Jerusalem. The talismanic name Immanuel became the nucleus +out of which the later _Messianic_ prophecies of Isaiah grew. To this +age alone can we probably assign Isa. ix. 1-7, xi. 1-9, xxxii. 1-3. The +hopes expressed in the word Immanuel, "God with us," were to become +embodied in a personality of the royal seed of David, an ideal righteous +ruler who was to bring peace to the war-distraught realm. Thus Isaiah +became in that troubled age the true founder of _Messianic_ prophecy. +The strange contrast between the succession of dynasties and kings cut +off by assassination in the northern kingdom, ending in the tragic +overthrow of 721 B.C., and the persistent succession through three +centuries of the seed of David on the throne of Jerusalem, as well as +the marvellous escape of Jerusalem in 701 B.C. from the fate of Samaria, +must have invested the seed of David in the eyes of all thoughtful +observers with a mysterious and divine significance. The Messianic +prophecies of Isaiah, the prophet of faith and deliverance, were +destined to reverberate through all subsequent centuries. We hear the +echoes in Jeremiah and Ezekiel and lastly in Haggai in ever feebler +tones, and they were destined to reawaken in the Psalter (Pss. ii. and +lxxii.), in the psalms of Solomon and in the days of Christ. See MESSIAH +(and also the article "Messiah" in Hastings's _Dict. of Christ and the +Gospels_). + +The next notable contribution to the permanent growth of Hebrew +prophetic religion was made about a century after the lifetime of Isaiah +by Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The reaction into idolatry and Babylonian star +worship in the long reign of Manasseh synchronized and was connected +with vassalage to Assyria, while the reformation in the reign of Josiah +(621 B.C.) is conversely associated with the decay of Assyrian power +after the death of Assur-bani-pal. That reformation failed to effect its +purifying mission. The hurt of the daughter of God's people was but +lightly healed (Jer. vi. 14, 15; cf. viii. 11, 12). No possibility of +recovery now remained to the diseased Hebrew state. The outlook appeared +indeed far darker to Jeremiah than it seemed more than a century before +to Isaiah in the evil days of Jotham and Ahaz, "when the whole head was +sick and the whole heart faint" (Isa. i. 5). Jeremiah foresaw that there +was now no possibility of recovery. The Hebrew state was doomed and even +its temple was to be destroyed. This involved an entire reconstruction +of theological ideas which went beyond even the reconstructions of Amos +and Isaiah. In the old religion the race or clan was the unit of +religion as well as of social life. Properly speaking, the individual +was related to God only through the externalities of the clan or tribal +life, its common temple and its common _sacra_. But now that these +external bases of the old religion were to be swept away, a +reconstruction of religious ideas became necessary. For the external +supports which had vanished Jeremiah substituted a basis which was +_internal, personal and spiritual_ (i.e. _ethical_). In place of the old +covenant based on external observance, which had been violated, there +was to be a _new covenant_ which was to consist not in outward +prescription, but in the law which God would place _in the heart_ (Jer. +xxxi. 30-33). This was to take place by an act of divine grace (Jer. +xxiv. 5 foll.): "I will give them an heart to know me that I am the +Lord" (verse 7). Ezekiel, who borrowed both Jeremiah's language and +ideas, expresses the same thought in the well-known words that Yahweh +would give the people instead of a heart of stone a heart of flesh +(Ezek. xi. 19, 20, xx. 40 foll., xxxvi. 25-27), and would shame them by +his loving-kindness into repentance, and there "shall ye remember your +ways and all your doings wherein ye have been defiled and ye shall +loathe yourselves in your own sight" (xx. 43). + +_Personal religion_ now became an important element in Hebrew piety and +upon this there logically followed the idea of _personal +responsibility_. The solidarity of race or family was expressed in the +old tradition reflected in Deut. v. 9, 10, that God would visit the sins +of the fathers upon the children, and it lived on in later Judaism under +exaggerated forms. The hopes of the individual Jew were based on the +piety of holy ancestors. "We have Abraham as our father." But _Ezekiel_ +expressed the strong reaction which had set in against this belief in +its older forms. He denies that the individual ever dies for the sins of +the father. "The soul that sinneth, it (the pronoun emphasized in the +original) shall die" (Ezek. xviii. 4). Neither Noah, Daniel nor Job +could have rescued by his righteousness any but his own soul (xiv. 14). +And as a further consequence _individual freedom_ is strongly asserted. +It is possible for every sinner to turn to God and escape punishment, +and conversely for a righteous man to backslide and fall. In the +presence of these awful truths which Ezekiel preached of individual +freedom and of impending judgment, the prophet is weighted with a heavy +responsibility. It is his duty to warn every individual, for no sinner +is to be punished without warning (Ezek. iii. 16 foll. xxxiii.). + +The closing years of the Judaean kingdom and the final destruction of +the temple (586 B.C.) shattered the Messianic ideals cherished in the +evening of Isaiah's lifetime and again in the opening years of the reign +of Josiah. The untimely death of that monarch upon the battlefield of +Megiddo (608 B.C.), followed by the inglorious reigns of the kings who +succeeded him, who became puppets in turn of Egypt or of Babylonia, +silenced for a while the Messianic hopes for a future king or line of +kings of Davidic lineage who would rule a renovated kingdom in +righteousness and peace. Even in the darkness of the exile period hopes +did not die. Yet they no longer remained the same. In the Deutero-Isaiah +(chaps. xl.-lv.) we have no longer a Jewish but a _foreign_ messiah. The +onward progress of the Persian Cyrus and his anticipated conquest of +Babylonia marked him out as Yahweh's anointed instrument for effecting +the deliverance of exiled Israel and their restoration to their old home +and city (Isa. xli. 2, xliv. 24, xlv.). This was, however, but a +subsidiary issue and possesses no permanent spiritual significance. Of +far more vital importance is the conception of Israel as God's +_suffering servant_. This is not the place to enter into the prolonged +controversy as to the real significance of this term, whether it +signifies the nation Israel or the righteous community only, or finally +an idealized prophetic individual who, like the prophet Jeremiah, was +destined to suffer for the well-being of his people. Duhm, in his +epoch-making commentary, distinguishes on the grounds of metre and +contents _the four servant-passages_, in the last of which (lii. +13-liii. 12) the ideal suffering servant of Yahweh is portrayed most +definitely as an individual. In the "servant-passages" he is innocent, +while in the rest of the Deutero-Isaiah he appears as by no means +faultless, and the personal traits are not prominent. These views of +Duhm, in which a severe distinction is thus drawn between the +representation of Yahweh's servant in the servant-passages, and that +which meets us in the rest of the Deutero-Isaiah, have been challenged +by a succession of critics.[25] It is only necessary for us to take note +of the ideal in its general features. It probably arose from the fact +that the calamities from which Israel had suffered both before and +during the exile had drawn the reflective minds of the race to the +contemplation of the problem of suffering. The "servant of Yahweh" +presents one aspect of the problem and its attempted solution, the book +of Job another, while in the Psalms, e.g. Pss. xxii., xlii.-xliii., +lxxiii., lxxvii., other phases of the problem are presented. In the +Deutero-Isaiah the meaning of Israel's sufferings is exhibited as +vicarious. Israel is suffering for a great end. He suffers, is despised, +rejected, chastened and afflicted that others may be blessed and be at +peace through his chastisement. This noble conception of Israel's great +destiny is conveyed in Isa. xlix. 6, in words which may be regarded as +perhaps the noblest utterance in Hebrew prophecy: "To establish the +tribes of Jacob and bring back the preserved of Israel is less important +than being my servant. Yea, I will make you a light to the _Gentiles_ +that my salvation may be unto the end of the earth."[26] This passage, +which belongs to the second of the brief "servant-songs," sets the +mission of Israel in its true relation to the world. It is the necessary +corollary to the teaching of Amos, that God is the righteous lord of all +the world. If Jerusalem has been chosen as His sanctuary and Israel as +His own people, it is only that Israel may diffuse God's blessings in +the world even at the cost of Israel's own humiliation, exile and +dispersion. + +The Deutero-Isaiah closes a great prophetic succession, which begins +with Amos, continues in Isaiah in even greater splendour with the added +elements of hope and Messianic expectation, and receives further +accession in Jeremiah with his special teaching on inward spiritual and +personal religion which constituted the new covenant of divine grace. +Finally the Deutero-Isaiah conveyed to captive Israel the message of +Yahweh's unceasing love and care, and the certainty of their return to +Judaea and the restoration of the national prosperity which Ezekiel had +already announced in the earlier period of the exile. To this is united +the noble ideal of the suffering servant, which serves both as a +contribution to the great problem of suffering as purifying and +vicarious and as the interpretation to the mind of the nation itself of +that nation's true function in the future, a lesson which the actual +future showed that Israel was slow to receive. Nowhere in the Old +Testament does the doctrine taught by Amos of Yahweh's universal power +and sovereignty receive ampler and more splendid exposition than in the +great lyrical passages of chap. xl. It marks the highest point to which +the Hebrew race attained in its progress from henotheism to monotheism. +Here again we see the wholesome influences of the exile. The Jew had +passed from the narrow confines of his homeland into a wider world, and +this larger vision of human life reacted on the prophet's theology. This +closes the evolution of Hebrew prophetism. What immediately follows is +on a descending slope with some striking exceptions, e.g. the book of +Job and the book of Jonah. + +7. _Deuteronomic Legalism._--The book of Deuteronomy was the product of +prophetic teaching operating on traditional custom, which was +represented in its essential features by the two codes of legislation +contained in Ex. xx. 24-xxiii. 19 (E) and Ex. xxxiv. 10-26 (J), but had +also become tainted and corrupted by centuries of Canaanite influence +and practice which especially infected the cult of the _high places_. +The existence of "high places" is pre-supposed in those two ancient +codes and is also presumed in the narratives of the documents E and J +which contain them. But the prevalence of the worship of "other gods" +and of graven images in these "high places," and the moral debasement of +life which accompanied these cults, made it clear that the "high places" +were sources of grave injury to Israel's social life. In all probability +the reformation instituted in the reign of Hezekiah, to which 2 Kings +xviii. 4 (cf. verse 22) refers, was only partial. It is hardly possible +that all the high places were suppressed. The idolatrous reaction in the +reign of Manasseh appears to have restored all the evils of the past and +added to them. Another and more drastic reform than that which had been +previously initiated (probably at the instigation of Isaiah and Micah) +now became necessary to save the state. It is universally held by +critics that our present book of Deuteronomy (certainly chaps. +xii.-xxvi.) is closely connected with the reformation in the reign of +Josiah. It is quite clear that many provisions in the old codes of J and +E expanded lie at the basis of the book of Deuteronomy. But new features +were added. We note for the first time definite regulations respecting +Passover and the close union of that celebration with _Massoth_ or +"unleavened bread." We note the laws respecting the clean and unclean +animals (certainly based on ancient custom). Moreover, the prohibitions +are strengthened and multiplied. In addition to the bare interdict of +the sorceress (Ex. xxii. 18), of stone pillars to the Canaanite Baal, of +the Asherah-pole, molten images and the worship of other gods than +Yahweh (Ex. xxxiv. 13-17), we now have the strict prohibition of _any +employment whatever_ of the stone-symbol (_Massebhah_), and of all forms +of sorcery, soothsaying and necromancy (Deut. xviii. 10, 11. Respecting +the stone-pillar see xvi. 22). But of much more far-reaching importance +was the _law of the central sanctuary_ which constantly meets us in +Deuteronomy in the reference to "the place (i.e. Jerusalem) which Yahweh +your God shall choose out of all your tribes to put His name there" +(xii. 5, xvi. 5, 11, 16, xxvi. 2). There alone all offerings of any kind +were to be presented (xii. 6, 7, xvi. 7). By this positive enactment all +the high places outside the one sanctuary in Jerusalem became +illegitimate. A further consequence directly followed from the +limitation as to sanctuary, viz. limitation as to the officiating +ministers of the sanctuary. In the "book of the covenant" (Ex. xx. +22-xxii. 19), as we have already seen, and in the general practice of +the regal period, there was no limitation as to the priesthood, but a +definite order of priesthood, viz. Levites, existed, to whom a higher +professional prestige belonged. As it was impossible to find a place for +the officiating priests of the high places, non-levitical as well as +levitical, in the single sanctuary, it became necessary to restrict the +functions of sacrifice to the Levites only as well as to the existing +official priesthood of the Jerusalem temple (see PRIEST). Doubtless such +a reform met with strong resistance from the disestablished and vested +interests, but it was firmly supported by royal influence and by the +Jerusalem priesthood as well as by the true prophets of Yahweh who had +protested against the idolatrous usages and corruptions of the high +places. + +The strong impress of Hebrew prophecy is to be found in the deeply +marked ethical spirit of the Deuteronomic legislation. Love to God and +love to man is stamped on a large number of its provisions. Love to God +is emphasized in Deut. vi. 5, while love to man meets us in the constant +reference to the fatherless and the widow (cf. especially Deut. xvi.). +This note of philanthropy is frequently found as a mitigating element +(e.g. in the laws respecting slavery and war)[27] that subdues or even +removes the harshness of earlier laws or usages. It should be noted, +however, that the spirit of brotherly love was confined within national +barriers. It did not operate as a rule beyond the limits of race. + +The book of Deuteronomy, in conjunction with the reformation of Josiah's +reign (which synchronizes with the rapid decline of Assyria and the +reviving prestige of Yahweh), appeared to mark the triumph of the great +prophetic movement. It became at once a codified standard of purer +religious life and ultimately served as a beacon of light for the +future. But there was shadow as well as light. We note (a) that though +the book of Deuteronomy bears the prophetic impress, the priestly +impress is perhaps more marked. The writer "evinces a warm regard for +the priestly tribe; he guards its privileges (xviii. 1-8), demands +obedience for its decisions (xxiv. 8; cf. xvii. 10-12) and earnestly +commends its members to the Israelites' benevolence (xii. 18-19, xiv. +27-29, &c.)."[28] (b) In many passages Jewish particularism is painfully +manifest. Yahweh's care for other peoples does not appear. The flesh of +a dead (unslaughtered) beast is not to be eaten, but it may be given to +the "stranger within the gates"! (Deut. xiv. 21).[29] (c) Prophetic +religion was a religion of the spirit which came to the messenger (Isa. +lxi. 1) and expressed itself as a word of instruction of Yahweh +(_torah_); see Isa. 1. 10. Now when the Hebrew religion was reduced to +written form it began to be a book-religion, and since the book +consisted of fixed rules and enactments, religion began to acquire a +stereotyped character. It will be seen in the sequel that this was +destined to be the growing tendency of Jewish religious life--to conform +itself to prescribed rules, in other words, it became _legalism_. (d) +Lastly, the old genial life of the high places, in which the "new moon" +or Sabbath or the annual festival was a sacrificial feast of communion, +in which the members of the local community or clan enjoyed fellowship +with one another--all this picturesque life ceased to be. And though +there was positive gain in the removal of idolatrous and corrupt modes +of worship, there was also positive loss in the disappearance of this +old genial phase of Hebrew social life and worship. It involved a vast +difference to many a Judaean village when the festival pilgrimage was no +longer made to the familiar local sanctuary with its hoary associations +of ancient heroic or patriarchal story, but to a distant and +comparatively unfamiliar city with its stately shrine and priesthood. + +8. _Ezekiel's System._--Ezekiel was the successor of Jeremiah and +inherited his conceptions. But though the younger prophet adopted the +ideas respecting personal religion and individual responsibility from +the elder, the characters of the two men were very different. Jeremiah, +when he foretold the destruction of the external state and temple +ritual, found no resource save in a reconstruction that was internal and +spiritual. In this he was true to his prophetic impulse and genius. But +Ezekiel was, as Wellhausen well describes him, "a priest in prophet's +mantle." While Jeremiah's tendency was spiritual and ideal, Ezekiel's +was constructive and practical. He was the first to foretell with +clearness the return of his people from captivity foreshadowed by +Jeremiah, and he set himself the task even in the midnight darkness of +Israel's exile to prepare for the nation's renewed life. The external +bases of Israel's religion had been swept away, and in exchange for +these Jeremiah had led his countrymen to the more permanent internal +grounds of a spiritual renewal. But a religion could not permanently +subsist in this world of space and time without some external concrete +embodiment. It was the task of Ezekiel to take up once more the broken +threads of Israel's religious traditions, and weave them anew into +statelier forms of ritual and national polity. The priest-prophet's keen +eye for detail, manifested in the elaborate vision of the wheels and +living creatures (Ezek. i.) and in his lamentation on Tyre (chap. +xxvii.), is also exhibited in the visions contained in chaps. +xl.-xlviii., which describe the ideal reconstructed temple and theocracy +of the restored Israel. The foreground is filled by the temple and its +precincts. The officiating priests are now the descendants of the line +of Zadok belonging to the tribe of Levi. Thus the priesthood is still +further restricted as compared with the restriction already noted in the +Deuteronomic legislation. It is the sons of Zadok only that have any +right to offer sacrifice at the altar of burnt offering (xliii. 19, +xliv. 15 foll.). The Levites, who formerly ministered in the high +places, now discharge the subordinate offices of gate-keepers and +slaughterers of the sacrificial victims. + +Another element in this ideal scheme which comes into prominence is the +sharp distinction between _holy_ and _profane_. The word _holiness_ +(_qodesh_) in primitive Hebrew usage partook of the nature of taboo, and +came to be applied to whatever, whether thing or person, stood in close +relation to deity and belonged to him, and could not, therefore, be used +or treated like other objects not so related, and so was separated or +stood apart. The idea underlying the word, which to _us_ is invested +with deep ethical meaning, had only this non-ethical, ritual +significance in Ezekiel. Unlike the old temple and city, the ideal +temple of Ezekiel is entirely separate from the city of Jerusalem. In +the immediate surroundings of the temple there is an open space. Then +come two concentric forecourts of the temple. The temple stands in the +midst of what is called the _gizrah_ or space severed off. The outer +court lies higher than the open space, the inner court higher still, and +the temple-building in the centre highest of all. No heathen may tread +the outer court, no layman the inner court, while the holiest of all may +not be trodden even by the priest Ezekiel but only by the angel who +accompanies him. "The temple-house has a graduated series of +compartments increasing in sanctity inwards" (Davidson). In the +innermost the presence of Yahweh abides. + +We are here moving in a realm of ideas prevailing in ancient Israel +respecting _holiness_, _uncleanness_ and _sin_, which are ceremonial and +not ethical; see especially Robertson Smith's _Religion of the Semites_, +2nd ed., p. 446 foll. (additional note B.) on holiness, uncleanness and +taboo. It is, of course, true that the ethical conception of sin as +violation of righteousness and an act of rebellion against the divine +righteous will had been developed since the days of Amos and Isaiah; +but, as we have already observed, cultus and prophetic teaching were +separated by an immense gulf, and in spite of the reformation of 621 +B.C. still remain separated. In the sacrificial system of sin-offerings +(_hattath_ and _'asham_) we have to do with sin as ceremonial violation +and neglect (frequently involuntary), or violation of holiness in the +old sense of the term or as personal uncleanness (touching a corpse, +eating unclean food, sexual impurity, &c.). In the historical evolution +of Hebrew sacrifice it is remarkable how long this non-ethical and +primitive survival of old custom still survived, even far into +post-exilian times. (See SACRIFICE; also Moore's art. "Sacrifice" in +_Ency. Bibl._) + +One conspicuous feature of Ezekiel's system is the predominance of +piacular sacrifice. It undoubtedly existed in pre-exilian Israel, +especially in times of crisis or calamity, for the appeasement of an +offended deity (2 Sam. xxiv. 18 foll.), and in Deut. xxi. 1-9, we have +details of the purificatory rite which was necessary when human blood +was shed; but now and in the future propitiatory sacrifice and ideas of +propitiation began to overshadow all the other forms of sacrifice and +their ideas. Ezekiel prescribes a half-yearly ritual of sin-offering +whereby atonement was to be made (xlv. 18-20). We shall see subsequently +to what great institution this led the way. + +Ezekiel's system constituted an _ecclesiastical_ in place of a political +organization, a _church-state_ in place of a nation. We clearly discern +how this reacted on his Messianic conceptions. In his earlier oracles +(xxxiv. 23 foll.) we find one shepherd ruling over united Israel, viz. +Yahweh's servant David, whereas in the ideal scheme detailed in chap. +xl. et seq. the role of the prince as a ruler is a very shadowy one. The +prince, it is true, has a central domain, but his functions are +ecclesiastical and subordinate and his powers strictly limited (xlvi. +3-8, 12, 16-18). + +Thus the exile period marks the parting of the ways in the development +of Hebrew religion. In the Deutero-Isaiah we reach the highest point in +the evolution of prophetism. It is true that we have some noble +resounding echoes in the lyrical passages lx.-lxii. In the Trito-Isaiah +during the post-exilian period, and in such psalm literature as Pss. +xxii., xxxvii., l., lxii., cvii., cxlv. 9-12 and others; and also in +Isa. xxxv., which is obviously a lyrical reproduction of earlier +literature. But it cannot be said that we possess in later literature +any fresh contribution to the conception of God or any presentation of a +higher ideal of human life[30] or national destiny than that which meets +us in chap. xl. or in the servant-passages of the Deutero-Isaiah. It may +with truth be said that _after Jeremiah we discern the parting of the +ways_. The _first_ is represented by the Deutero-Isaiah, who constitutes +the climax and close of Hebrew prophetism, which is henceforth (with the +possible exception of the Trito-Isaiah, Malachi and Jonah, who reproduce +some features of the earlier prophecy) a virtually arrested development. +The _second path_ is that which is traced out by the priest-prophet +Ezekiel, and is that of _legalism_, which was destined to secure a +permanent place in the life and literature of the Jewish people. It is +essentially the path which may be summed up in the word _Judaism_, +though, as will be shown in the sequel, Judaism came to include many +other factors. The statement, however, remains virtually true, since +Judaism is mainly constituted by the body of legal precepts called the +Torah, and, moreover, by the post-exilian Torah. + +9. _Post-exilian Law--The Priestercodex._[31]--The oracles of Malachi +clearly reveal the continued influence of the book of Deuteronomy in his +day. But the new conditions created by the return of the exiles and the +germinating influence of Ezekiel's ideas developed a process of new +legislative construction. The code of holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.) is the +most obvious product of that influence. The ideas of expiation and +atonement so prevalent in Ezekiel's scheme, which there find expression +in the half-yearly sacrificial celebrations, are expressed in Lev. xvi. +in the single _annual great fast of atonement_. It is impossible to +enter here into the numerous details of that impressive ceremonial. Two +special features, however, which characterize the celebration should +here be noted: (a) The person of the _high priest_, who is throughout +the entire drama the chief and indeed the sole actor. This supreme +official, who was destined ultimately to take the place of the king in +the church-nation of post-exilian Judaism, is mentioned for the first +time in Zech. iii. 1[32] (in the person of Joshua). In the Priestercodex +he stands at the head of the priests, who are, in the post-exilian +system, the _sons of Aaron_ and possessed the sole right to offer the +temple sacrifices. On the great day of atonement the high priest appears +in a vicarious and representative capacity, and offers on behalf of the +whole nation which he was considered to embody in his sacred person. (b) +The rite of the _goat devoted to Azazel_. There can be little doubt +that _Azazel_ was an evil demon (like an Arabic Jinn) of the desert. The +goat set apart for Azazel was in the concluding part of the ceremonial +brought before the high priest, who laid both his hands upon it and +confessed over it the sins of the people. It was then carried off by an +appointed person to a lonely spot and there set free. + +In later post-exilian times this great day of atonement became to an +increasing degree a day of humiliation for sin and penitent sorrow, +accompanied by confession; and the sins confessed were not only of a +purely ceremonial character, whether voluntary or inadvertent, but also +sins against righteousness and the duties which we owe to God and man. +This element of public confession for sin became more prominent in the +days when synagogal worship developed, and prayer took the place of the +sacrificial offerings which could only be offered in the Jerusalem +temple. The development of the priestly code of legislation +(Priestercodex) was a gradual process, and probably occupied a +considerable part of the 5th century B.C. The Hebrew race now definitely +entered upon the new path of organized Jewish legalism which had been +originally marked out for it by Ezekiel in the preceding century. It +became a holy people on holy ground. Circumcision and Sabbath, +separation from marriage with a foreigner, which rendered a Jew unclean, +as well as strict conformity to the precepts of the Torah, constituted +henceforth an adamantine bond which was to preserve the Jewish +communities from disintegration. + +10. _The later Post-exilian Developments in Jewish Religion._--These may +be briefly referred to under the following aspects: + +(a) _Codified law_ and the written record of the patriarchal history, as +well as the life and work of the lawgiver Moses (to whom the entire body +of law came to be ascribed), assumed an ever greater importance. The +reverence felt for the canonized _Torah_ or law (the Pentateuch or +so-called five books of Moses) grew even into worship. Of this spirit we +find clear expression in some of the later psalms, e.g. the elaborate +alphabetic Ps. cxix. and the latter portion of Ps. xix. There were +various causes which combined to enhance the importance of the written +_Torah_ (the "instruction" _par excellence_ communicated by God through +Moses). Chief among these were (1) _The conception of God as +transcendent_. We have taken due note of Amos, who unfolded the +character of Yahweh as universal righteous sovereign; and also the +sublime portrayal of His exalted nature in Isa. xl. (verse 15; cf. +22-26, and Job xxxvi. 22-xlii. 6). The intellectual influence of Greece, +manifested in Alexandrian philosophy, tended to remove God still further +from the human world of phenomena into that of an inaccessible +transcendental abstraction. Little, therefore, was possible for the Jew +save strict performance of the requirements of the Torah, once for all +given to Moses on Sinai, and, in his approach to the awful and unknown +mystery, to rely on ceremonial and ascetic performances (see Wendt's +_Teaching of Jesus_, i. 55 foll.). The same tendency led the pious +worshippers to avoid His awful name and to substitute _Adonai_ in their +scriptures or to use in the Mishna the term "name" (_shem_) or "heaven." +(2) The _Maccabean conflict_ (165 B.C.) tended to accentuate the +national sentiment of antagonism to Hellenic influence. The Hasidim or +pious devotees, who arose at that time, were the originators of the +Pharisaic movement which was conservative as well as national, and laid +stress on the strict performance of the law. + +(b) _Eschatology_ in the Judaism of the Greek period began to assume a +new form. The pre-exilian prophets (especially Isaiah) spoke of the +forthcoming crisis in the world's history as a "day of the Lord." These +were usually regarded as visitations of chastisement for national sins +and vindications of divine righteousness or judgments, i.e. assertions +of God's power as judge (_shophet_). By the older prophets this judgment +of God or "day of Yahweh" was never held to be far removed from the +horizon of the present or the world in which they lived. But now as we +enter the Greek period (320 B.C. and onwards) there is a gradual change +from prophecy to _apocalyptic_. "It may be asserted in general terms +that whereas prophecy foretells a definite future which has its +foundation in the present, apocalyptic directs its anticipations solely +and simply to the future, to a new world-period which stands sharply +contrasted with the present. The classical model for all apocalyptic is +to be found in Dan. vii. It is only after a great war of destruction, a +day of Yahweh's great judgment, that the dominion of God will begin" +(Bousset). Ezek. xxxviii. and xxxix. clearly bear the apocalyptic +character; so also Isa. xxxiv. and notably Isa. xxiv.-xxvii. +Apocalyptic, as Baldensperger has shown, formed a counterpoise to the +normal current of conformity to law. It arose from a spiritual movement +in answer to the yearning of the heart: "O that Thou mightest rend the +heavens and come down and the mountains quake at Thy presence!" (Isa. +lxiv. 1 [Heb. lxiii. 19]); and it was intended to meet the craving of +souls sick with waiting and disappointment. The present outlook was +hopeless, but in the enlarged horizon of time as well as space the +thoughts of some of the most spiritual minds in Judaism were directed to +the transcendent and ultimate. The present world was corrupt and subject +to Satan and the powers of darkness. This they called "the present +_aeon_" (age). Their hopes were therefore directed to "the coming aeon." +Between the two aeons there would take place the _advent of the +Messiah_, who would lead the struggle with evil powers which was called +"the agonies of the Messiah." This terrible intermezzo was no longer +terrestrial, but was a cosmic and universal crisis in which the Messiah +would emerge victorious from the final conflict with the heathen and +demonic powers. This victory inaugurates the entrance of the "aeon to +come," in which the faithful Jews would enter their inheritance. In this +way we perceive the transformation of the old Messianic doctrine through +apocalyptic. Of apocalyptic literature we have numerous examples +extending from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. (See +especially Charles's _Book of Enoch_.) + +The doctrine of the _resurrection of the righteous_ to life in the +heavenly world became engrafted on to the old doctrine of Sheol, or the +dark shadowy underworld (Hades), where life was joyless and feeble, and +from which the soul might be for a brief space summoned forth by the +arts of the necromancer. The most vivid portraiture of Sheol is to be +found in the exilian passage Isa. xiv. 9-20 (cf. Job x. 21-22). With +this also compare the Babylonian _Descent of Ishtar to Hades_. The added +conception of the resurrection of the righteous does not appear in the +world of Jewish thought till the early Greek period in Isa. xxvi. 19. R. +H. Charles thinks that in this passage the idea of resurrection is of +purely Jewish and not of Mazdaan (or Zoroastrian) origin, but it is +otherwise with Dan. xii. 2; see his _Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and +Christian_. Corresponding to heaven, the abode of the righteous, we have +_Ge-henna_ (originally _Ge-Hinnom_, the scene of the Moloch rites of +human sacrifice), the place of punishment after death for apostate Jews. + +(c) _Doctrine of Angels and of Hypostases._--In the writings of the +pre-exilian period we have frequent references to supernatural +personalities good and bad. It is only necessary to refer to them by +name. _Sebaoth_, or "hosts," attached to the name of Yahweh, denoted the +heavenly retinue of stars. The _seraphim_ were burning serpentine forms +who hovered above the enthroned Yahweh and chanted the Trisagion in +Isaiah's consecration vision (Isa. vi.). We have also constant +references to "angels" (_malachim_) of God, divine messengers who +represent Him and may be regarded as the manifestation of His power and +presence. This especially applies to the "angel of Yahweh" or angel of +His Presence [Ex. xxiii. 20, 23 (E). Note in Ex. xxxiii. 14 (J) he is +called "my face" or "presence"[33] (cf. Isa. lxiii. 9)]. We also know +that from earliest times Israel believed in the evil as well as good +spirits. Like the Arabs they held that demons became incorporate in +serpents, as in Gen. iii. The _nephilim_ were a monstrous brood begotten +of the intercourse of the supernatural beings called "sons of God" with +the women of earth. We also read of the "evil spirit" that came upon +Saul. Contact with Babylonia tended to stimulate the angelology and +demonology of Israel. The Hebrew word _shed_ or "demon" is no more than +a Babylonian loan word, and came to designate the deities of foreign +peoples degraded into the position of demons.[34] _Lilith_, the +blood-sucking night-hag of the post-exilian Isa. xxxiv. 14, is the +Babylonian _Lilatu_. Whether the _se'irim_ or shaggy satyrs (Isa. xiii. +31; Lev. xvii. 7) and _Azazel_ were of Babylonian origin it is difficult +to determine. The emergence of _Satan_ as a definite supernatural +personality, the head or prince of the world of evil spirits, is +entirely a phenomenon of post-exilian Judaism. He is portrayed as the +arch-adversary and accuser of man. It is impossible to deny Persian +influence in the development of this conception, and that the Persian +Ahriman (Angromainyu), the evil personality opposed to the good, Ahura +Mazda, moulded the Jewish counterpart, Satan. But in Judaism +monotheistic conceptions reigned supreme, and the Satan of Jewish belief +as opposed to God stops short of the dualism of Persian religion. Of +this we see evidence in the multiplication of Satans in the Book of +Enoch. In the Book of Jubilees he is called _mastema_. In later Judaism +_Sammael_ is the equivalent of Satan. Persian influence is also +responsible for the _vast multiplication of good spirits or angels_, +Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, &c., who play their part in apocalyptic +works, such as the Book of Daniel and the Book of Enoch. + +Probably the transcendent nature of the deity in the Judaism of this +later period made the interposition of mediating spirits an intellectual +necessity (cf. Ps. civ. 4). It also stimulated the creation of _divine +hypostases_. First among these may be mentioned _Wisdom_. The roots of +this conception belong to pre-exilian times, in which the "word" of +divine denunciation was regarded as a quasi-material thing. (It is +hurled against offending Israel, Isa. ix. 8.). In the post-exilian +cosmogony it is the divine word or fiat that creates the world (Gen. i.; +cf. Ps. xxxiii. 6, 9). Out of these earlier conceptions the idea of the +divine wisdom (Heb. _hokhmah_) gradually arose during the Persian +period. The expression "wisdom," as it is employed in the _locus +classicus_, Prov. viii., connotes the contents of the Divine reason--His +conscious life, out of which created things emerge. This wisdom is +personified. It dwelt with God (Prov. viii. 22 foll.) before the world +was made. It is the companion of His throne, and by it He made the world +(Prov. iii. 19, viii. 27; cf. Ps. civ. 24). It, moreover, enters into +the life of the world and especially man (Prov. viii. 31). This +conception of wisdom became still further hypostatized. It becomes +redemptive of man. In the Wisdom of Solomon it is the sharer of God's +throne ([Greek: paredros]), the effulgence of the eternal light and the +outflow of His glory (Wisd. vii. 25, viii. 3 foll., ix. 4, 9); "Them +that love her the Lord doth love" (Ecclesiasticus iv. 14). This group of +ideas culminated in the Logos of Philo, expressing the world of divine +ideas which God first of all creates and which becomes the mediating and +formative power between the absolute and transcendent deity and passive +formless matter, transmuted thereby into a rational, ordered universe. + +In later Jewish literature we meet with further examples of similar +hypostases in the form of _Memra_, _Metatron_, _Shechinah_, _Holy +Spirit_ and _Bath kol_. + +(d) The doctrine of _pre-existence_ is another product of the +speculative tendency of the Jewish mind. The Messiah's pre-existent +state before the creation of the world is asserted in the Book of Enoch +(xlviii. 6, 7). Pre-existence is also asserted of Moses and of sacred +institutions such as the New Jerusalem, the Temple, Paradise, the Torah, +&c. (Apocal. of Baruch iv. 3-lix. 4; Assumptio Mosis i. 14, 17); +Edersheim's _Life and Times of the Messiah_, i. 175 and footnote 1. + +11. _Christ resumes the Broken Tradition of Prophetism._--The Psalms of +Solomon and the synoptic Gospels (70 B.C.-A.D. 100) clearly reveal the +powerful revival of Messianic hopes of a national deliverer of the seed +of David. This Messianic expectation had been a fermenting leaven since +the great days of Judas Maccabaeus. The conceptions of Jesus of +Nazareth, however, were not the Messianic conceptions of his +fellow-countrymen, but of the spiritual "son of man" destined to found +a kingdom of God which was righteousness and peace. The Torah of Jesus +was essentially prophetic and in no sense priestly or legal. The +arrested prophetic movement of Jeremiah and Deutero-Isaiah reappears in +John the Baptist and Jesus after an interval of more than five +centuries. The new covenant of redeeming grace--the righteousness which +is in the heart and not in externalities of legal observance or +ceremonial--are once more proclaimed, and the exalted ideals of the +suffering servant of Isa. xlix. 6 and Isa. liii. (nearly suppressed in +the Targum of Jonathan) are reasserted and vindicated by the words and +life of Jesus. Like Jeremiah He foretold the destruction of the temple +and suffered the extreme penalties of anti-patriotism. And thus Israel's +old prophetic Torah was at length to achieve its victory, for after +Jesus came St Paul. "Many shall come from the east and the west and sit +down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven" (Matt. +viii. 11, 12). The fetters of nationalism were to be broken, and the +Hebrew religion in its essential spiritual elements was to become the +heritage of all humanity. + + AUTHORITIES.--1. On Semitic religion generally: Wellhausen's _Reste + des arabischen Heidentums_ (2nd ed.) and Robertson Smith's _Religion + of the Semites_ (2nd ed.) are chiefly to be recommended. Barton's + _Semitic Origins_ is extremely able, but his doctrine of the + derivation of male from original female deities is pushed to an + extreme. Bathgen's _Beitrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_ + (1888) is most useful, and contains valuable epigraphic material. + Baudissin's _Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_ (1876) is + still valuable. See also Kuenen's _National Religions and Universal + Religions_ (Hibbert lectures) and Lagrange's _Etudes sur les religions + semitiques_ (2nd ed.). + + 2. On Hebrew religion in particular: specially full and helpful is + Kautzsch's article "Religion of Israel" in Hastings's D.B., extra + vol.; Marti's recent _Religion des A.T._ (1906) and his _Geschichte + der israelitischen Religion_, are clear, compact and most serviceable, + and the former work presents the subject in fresh and suggestive + aspects. Wellhausen's _Prolegomena_ and _Judische Geschichte_ should + be read both for criticism and Hebrew history generally. Duhm's + _Theologie der Propheten_ and Robertson Smith's _Prophets of Israel_ + should also be consulted. Strongly to be recommended are Smend, + _Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte_; Bennett, + _Theology of the Old Testament_ and _Religion of the Post-Exilic + Prophets_; A. B. Davidson, _The Theology of the Old Testament_, as + well as the sections devoted to "Sacralaltertumer" in the _Hebraische + Archaologie_ both of Benzinger and also of Nowack. Budde's _Die + Religion des Volkes Israel bis zur Verbannung_, as well as Addis's + recent _Hebrew Religion_ (1906), is a most careful and scholarly + compendium. Harper's Introd. to his _Commentary on Amos and Hosea_ (I. + and T. Clark) contains a useful survey of the history of Hebrew + religion before the 8th century. Buchanan Gray's _Divine Discipline of + Israel_, and A. S. Peake's _Problem of Suffering in the O.T._, are + suggestive. See also S. A. Cook, _Religion of Ancient Palestine_. + + 3. On the history of Judaism till the time of Christ, Schurer's + _Geschichte des judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Christi_ (3rd ed.), vol. + ii. and in part vol. iii., are indispensable. Bousset's _Religion des + Judentums_ (2nd ed.), and Volz, _Die judische Eschatologie von Daniel + bis Akiba_, are highly to be commended. Weber's _Judische Theologie_ + is a useful compendium of the theology of later Judaism. + + 4. On the special department of eschatology the standard works are R. + H. Charles, _Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and Christian_, and Schwally, + _Das Leben nach dem Tode_, as well as Gressmann's suggestive work _Der + Ursprung der israelitisch-judischen Eschatologie_, which contains, + however, much that is speculative. On apocalyptic generally the + introductions to Charles's Book of Enoch, Apocalypse of Baruch, + Ascension of Isaiah and Book of Jubilees, should be carefully noted. + See also ESCHATOLOGY. + + 5. On the religion of Babylonia, Jastrow's work is the standard one. + Zimmern's Heft ii. in _K.A.T._ (3rd ed.) is specially important to the + Old Testament student. See also W. Schrank, _Babylonische Suhnriten_. + (O. C. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Bathgen, _Beitrage zur semit. Religionsgesch._ p. 11 (Edom); + and cf. Schrader, C.O.T. i. 137; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), p. 472 foll. See + also _Beitrage_, pp. 13-15; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), pp. 469-472. + + [2] _Z.D.M.G._ (1886). It is impossible to discuss the other theories + of the origin of this name. See Driver, _Commentary on Genesis_, + excursus i. pp. 404-406. + + [3] The Tell el-Amarna despatches are crowded with evidences of + Canaanite forms and idioms impressed on the Babylonian language of + these cuneiform documents. _Ilani_ here simply corresponds to the + Canaanite _Elohim_. See opening of the letters of Abimelech of Tyre, + Bezold's _Oriental Diplomacy_, Nos. 28, 29, 30. + + [4] "Magic and Social Relations" in _Sociological Papers_, ii. 160. + + [5] See Kautzsch, "Religion of Israel," in Hastings's _Dict. of the + Bible_, extra vol., p. 614. + + [6] See Benzinger, _Hebraische Archaologie_, pp. 152, 297 foll. (1st + ed.). + + [7] The theory was opposed by Noldeke, 1886 (_Z.D.M.G._ p. 157 + foll.), as well as Wellhausen, and since then by Jacobs and Zapletal. + (_Der Totemismus u. die Religion Israels_). See Stanley A. Cook, + "Israel and Totemism," in _J.Q.R._ (April, 1902). + + [8] These sacred arks were carried in procession accompanied by + symbolic figures. We note in this connexion the form of a sacred bark + represented in Meyer's _Hist. of Egypt_ (Oncken series), p. 257, viz. + the procession carrying the sacred ark and the bark of the god Amon + belonging to the reign of Rameses II. (Lepsius, _Denkmaler_, iii. + 189b). See also Birch, _Egypt_ (S.P.C.K.), p. 151 (ark of Khonsu); + cf. Jeremias, _Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_ (2nd ed.), pp. + 436-441. + + [9] Cf. Zimmern in _Z.D.M.G._ (1904), pp. 199 foll., 458 foll. This + view is based on Dr Pinches's discovered list in which _Sapatti_ is + called the 15th day (_Proc. of the Soc. of Biblical Arch._, p. 51 + foll.). See A. Jeremias, _Das A. T. im Lichte des alten Orients_ (2nd + ed.), pp. 182-187. Marti, in his stimulating work _Religion des + A.T._, pp. 5, 72, advocates the exclusive reference of the word + Sabbath to the full moon until the time of Ezekiel on the basis of + Meinhold's arguments in _Sabbat u. Woche im A.T._ The latter regards + Ezekiel as the organizer of the Jewish community and the originator + of the sanctity of the Sabbath as a seventh day (Ezek. xlvi. 1; cf. + Ezek. xx. 12, 13, 16, 20, 24, xxii. 8, 26, xxiii. 38, in which the + reproaches for the profanation or neglect of the Sabbath in no way + sustain Meinhold's view). In opposition to Meinhold, see Lotz in + _P.R.E._ (3rd ed., art. "Sabbath," vol. xvii. pp. 286-289). To this + Meinhold replies in _Z.A.T.W._ (1909), p. 81 f. Cf. also Hehn, + _Siebenzahl und Sabbat_. While admitting that a special significance + may have been attached in pre-exilian times to the full-moon Sabbath, + and that the latter may have been specially intended in the + combination "new moon and Sabbath" in the 8th-century prophets (Hos. + ii. 13; Amos viii. 5; Isa. i. 13), we are not prepared to deny that + the institution of a seventh-day Sabbath was an ancient pre-exilian + tradition. The sacredness of the number seven is based on the seven + planetary deities to whom each day of the week was respectively + dedicated, i.e. was astral in origin. Cf. _C.O.T._ i. 18 foll., and + Winckler, _Religionsgeschichtlicher u. geschichtlicher Orient_, p. + 39. See also _K.A.T._ (3rd ed.), pp. 620-626. In the Old Testament + the sanctity of the number seven is clearly fundamental (e.g. in the + Nif'al form _nisba'_, "to swear," in the derivative subst. for + "oath," in Beer-sheba', &c.). The seventh day of rest was parallel to + the seventh year of release and of the fallow field. It is, + therefore, impossible to detach Ex. xxiii. 12 from Ex. xxi. 2. xxiii. + 10 foll.; cf. Ex. xxxiv. 21. We therefore hold that the law of the + seventh-day Sabbath goes back to the Mosaic age. The general + coincidence of the Sabbath or seventh day with the easily recognized + first quarter and full moon established its sacred character as + _lunar_ as well as planetary. + + [10] The tablet is neo-Babylonian and published by Dr Pinches in the + _Transactions of the Victoria Institute_, and is cited by Professor + Fried. Delitzsch in the notes appended to his first lecture _Babel u. + Bibel_ (5th German ed., p. 81 ad fin. and p. 82). On this subject of + Babylonian influence over Israel see Jeremias, _Monotheistische + Stromungen innerhalb der babylonischen Religion_, and E. Baentsch, + _Altorientalischer u. israelitischer Monotheismus_. The text and + rendering of the passage are doubtful in the cuneiform letter + discovered by Sellin in Ta'annek (biblical Ta'anach, near Megiddo) + addressed by Ahi-jawi (? Ahijah) to Ishtar-wasur, in which the + following remarkable phrases are read: "May the Lord of the gods + protect thy life.... Above thy head is one who is above the towns. + See now whether he will show thee good. When he reveals his face, + then will they be put to shame and the victory will be complete." The + letter appears to belong to about 1400 B.C. See A. Jeremias, _Das + A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_ (2nd ed.), pp. 315, 316, 323. + Sellin, _Ertrag der Ausgrabungen im Orient_. + + [11] The allusion in Amos ii. 7; Hos. iv. 13, 14 is sufficiently + explicit; cf. Jer. ii. 20-23, iii. 6-11, v. 7, 8. The practice is + prohibited in Deut. xxiii. 17. + + [12] Column i. 15, 16, 42, 43, ii. 128, iii. 30, 31, iv. 47, 48, &c. + Probably we should regard them as differentiated _hypostases_. + + [13] Hence the 'Ashtaroth or offspring of flocks in Deut. vii. 13, + xxviii. 18. A like function belonged to the Babylonian Ishtar. See + "Descent of Ishtar to Hades," Rev. lines 6-10, where universal + non-intercourse of sexes follows Ishtar's departure from earth to + Hades. + + [14] _Proleg. Gesch. Israels_ (2nd ed.), p. 240 foll., cf. p. 258. + + [15] _Internat. Crit. Commentary, Judges_, Introd. p. xxx., also p. + 367 foll. + + [16] [Hebrew: leva] "priest," [Hebrew: levat] "priestess"; see + Hommel, _Sud-arabische Chrestomathie_, p. 127; _Ancient Hebrew + Tradition_, p. 278 foll. + + [17] Moore regards this verse as belonging to the J or older + document, _op. cit._ p. 367. + + [18] Similarly in ancient Greece. See the instructive passage in + Aristotle, _Nic. Eth._ viii. 9 (4, 5), on the relation of Greek + sacrifices and festivals to [Greek: koinoniai] and politics: [Greek: + ai gar archaiai thusiai kai sunodoi phainontai gignesthai met a tas + ton karpon sugkomidas oion aparchai]; cf. Grote on Pan-Hellenic + festivals, _History of Greece_, vol. iii., ch. 28. + + [19] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentums_ (2nd ed.), p. 89. + + [20] Though this be an interpolated gloss (Thenius, Budde), it states + a significant truth as Kautzsch clearly shows, _op. cit._ p. 672. In + Micah iii. 7 the _hozeh_ is mentioned in a sense analogous to the + _ro'eh_ or "seer," and coupled with the _qosem_ or "soothsayer," viz. + as spurious; cf. Deut. xviii. 10. + + [21] No better derivation is forthcoming of the word _nabhi'_, + "prophet," than that it is a Katil form of the root _naba_ = Assyr. + _nabu_, "speak." + + [22] In Isa. iii. 2 the soothsayer is placed on a level with the + judge, prophet and elder. + + [23] Kautzsch, in his profoundly learned article on the "Religion of + Israel," to which frequent reference has been made, exhibits (pp. + 669-671) an excess of scepticism, in our opinion, towards the views + propounded by Gunkel in 1895 (_Schopfung und Chaos_) respecting the + intimate connexion between the early Hebrew cosmogonic ideas and + those of Babylonia. Stade indeed (_Z.A.T.W._, 1903, pp. 176-178) + maintained that the conception of Yahweh as creator of the world + could not have arisen till after the middle of the 8th century as the + result of prophetic teaching, and that it was not till the time of + Ezekiel that Babylonian conceptions entered the world of Hebrew + thought in any fulness. Such a theory appears to ignore the + remarkable results of archaeology since 1887. At that time Stade's + position might have appeared reasonable. It was the conclusion to + which Wellhausen's brilliant literary analysis, when not supplemented + by the discoveries at Tell el-Amarna and Tell el-Hesi, appeared to + many scholars (by no means all) inevitably to conduct us. But the + years 1887 to 1891 opened many eyes to the fact that the Hebrews + lived their life on the great highways of intercourse between Egypt + on the one hand, and Babylonia, Assyria and the N. Palestinian states + on the other, and that they could scarcely have escaped the + all-pervading Babylonian influences of 2000-1400 B.C. It is now + becoming clearer every day, especially since the discovery of the + laws of Khammurabi, that, if we are to think sanely about Hebrew + history _before_ as well as after the exile, we can only think of + Israel as part of the great complex of Semitic and especially + Canaanite humanity that lived its life in western Asia between 2000 + and 600 B.C.; and that while the Hebrew race maintained by the aid of + prophetism its own individual and exalted place, it was not less + susceptible _then_, than it has been since, to the moulding + influences of great adjacent civilizations and ideas. Cf. C. H. W. + Johns in _Interpreter_, pp. 300-304 (in April 1906), on prophetism in + Babylonia. + + [24] There is some danger in too strictly construing the language of + the prophets and also the psalmists. It is not to be supposed that + either Amos or Isaiah would have countenanced the total suppression + of all sacrificial observance. It was the existing ceremonial + observance _divorced from the ethical piety_ that they denounced. The + speech of prophecy is poetical and rhetorical, not strictly defined + and logical like that of a modern essayist. See Moore in _Encyc. + Bibl._, "Sacrifice," col. 4222. + + [25] Viz. Budde in _Die so-genannten Ebed-Jahweh Lieder u. die + Bedeutung des Knechtes Jahwehs in Jes. xl.-lv._ (Giessen, 1900); Karl + Marti in his well-known commentary on Isaiah, and F. Giesebrecht, + _Der Knecht Jahwes des Deuterojesaja_. The special servant-songs + which Duhm asserts can be readily detached from the texture of the + Deutero-Isaiah without disturbance to its integrity are Isa. xlii. + 1-4, xlix. 1-6, l. 4-9, lii. 13-liii. 12. + + [26] We have here followed Dillmann's construction of a difficult + passage which Duhm attempts to simplify by omission of the + complicating clause without altering the general sense. + + [27] Thus in comparison with the "book of the covenant," Deuteronomy + adds the stipulation in reference to the release of the slave; that + his master was to provide him liberally from his flocks, his corn and + his wine (Deut. xv. 13, 14). See Hastings's _D.B._, arts. "Servant," + "Slave," p. 464, where other examples may be found. In war + fruit-trees are to be spared (Deut. xx. 19 foll.), whereas the old + universal practice is the barbarous custom Elisha commended (2 Kings + iii. 19) of ruthlessly destroying them. + + [28] Driver, _Internat. Commentary on Deuteronomy_, Introd. p. xxx. + + [29] It should be noted that in P (Code of Holiness) Lev. xvii. 15 + foll. the resident alien (_ger_) is placed on an equality with the + Jew. + + [30] We shall have to note the emergence of the doctrine of the + _resurrection of the righteous_ in later Judaism, which is obviously + a fresh contribution of permanent value to Hebrew doctrine. On the + other hand, the doctrine of _pre-existence_ is speculative rather + than religious, and applies to institutions rather than persons. + + [31] The legislative portions are mainly comprised in Ex. xxxv.-end, + Leviticus entire and Num. i.-x. + + [32] But this term (literally the _chief_ priest) was already in use + during the regal period to designate the head priest of an important + sanctuary such as Jerusalem (2 Kings xii. 11). + + [33] Cf. the Phoenician parallel of "Face of Baal," worshipped as + Tanit, "queen of Heaven" (Bathgen, _Beitrage zur Semit. + Religionsgeschichte_, p. 55 foll.); also the place Penuel (face of + God). + + [34] Deut. xxxii. 17; Ps. cvi. 37. Baal Zebub of the Philistine Ekron + became the Beelzebub who was equivalent to Satan. + + + + +HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the books of the New Testament. In the +oldest MSS. it bears no other title than "To Hebrews." This brief +heading embraces all that on which Christian tradition from the end of +the 2nd century was unanimous; and it says no more than that the readers +addressed were Christians of Jewish extraction. This would be no +sufficient address for an epistolary writing (xiii. 22) directed to a +definite circle of readers, to whose history repeated reference is made, +and with whom the author had personal relations (xiii. 19, 23). +Probably, then, the original and limited address, or rather salutation, +was never copied when this treatise in letter form, like the epistle to +the Romans, passed into the wider circulation which its contents +merited. In any case the Roman Church, where the first traces of the +epistle occur, about A.D. 96 (1 Clement), had nothing to contribute to +the question of authorship except the negative opinion that it was not +by Paul (Euseb. _Eccl. Hist._ iii. 3): yet this central church was in +constant connexion with provincial churches. + +The earliest positive traditions belong to Alexandria and N. Africa. The +Alexandrine tradition can be traced back as far as a teacher of Clement, +presumably Pantaenus (Euseb. _Eccl. Hist._ vi. 14), who sought to +explain why Paul did not name himself as usual at the head of the +epistle. Clement himself, taking it for granted that an epistle to +Hebrews must have been written in Hebrew, supposes that Luke translated +it for the Greeks. Origen implies that "the men of old" regarded it as +Paul's, and that some churches at least in his own day shared this +opinion. But he feels that the language is un-Pauline, though the +"admirable" thoughts are not second to those of Paul's unquestioned +writings. Thus he is led to the view that the ideas were orally set +forth by Paul, but that the language and composition were due to some +one giving from memory a sort of free interpretation of his teacher's +mind. According to some this disciple was Clement of Rome; others name +Luke; but the truth, says Origen, is known to God alone (Euseb. vi. 25, +cf. iii. 38). Still from the time of Origen the opinion that Paul wrote +the epistle became prevalent in the East. The earliest African +tradition, on the other hand, preserved by Tertullian[1] (_De +pudicitia_, c. 20), but certainly not invented by him, ascribed the +epistle to Barnabas. Yet it was perhaps, like those named by Origen, +only an inference from the epistle itself, as if a "word of exhortation" +(xiii. 22) by the Son of Exhortation (Acts iv. 36; see BARNABAS). On the +whole, then, the earliest traditions in East and West alike agree in +effect, viz. that our epistle was not by Paul, but by one of his +associates. + +This is also the twofold result reached by modern scholarship with +growing clearness. The vacillation of tradition and the dissimilarity of +the epistle from those of Paul were brought out with great force by +Erasmus. Luther (who suggests Apollos) and Calvin (who thinks of Luke or +Clement) followed with the decisive argument that Paul, who lays such +stress on the fact that his gospel was not taught him by man (Gal. i.), +could not have written Heb. ii. 3. Yet the wave of reaction which soon +overwhelmed the freer tendencies of the first reformers, brought back +the old view until the revival of biblical criticism more than a century +ago. Since then the current of opinion has set irrevocably against any +form of Pauline authorship. Its type of thought is quite unique. The +Jewish Law is viewed not as a code of ethics or "works of +righteousness," as by Paul, but as a system of religious rites (vii. 11) +shadowing forth the way of access to God in worship, of which the Gospel +reveals the archetypal realities (ix. 1, 11, 15, 23 f., x. 1 ff., 19 +ff.). The Old and the New Covenants are related to one another as +imperfect (earthly) and perfect (heavenly) forms of the same method of +salvation, each with its own type of sacrifice and priesthood. Thus the +conception of Christ as High Priest emerges, for the first time, as a +central point in the author's conception of Christianity. The Old +Testament is cited after the Alexandrian version more exclusively than +by Paul, even where the Hebrew is divergent. Nor is this accidental. +There is every appearance that the author was a Hellenist who lacked +knowledge of the Hebrew text, and derived his metaphysic and his +allegorical method from the Alexandrian rather than the Palestinian +schools. Yet the epistle has manifest Pauline affinities, and can hardly +have originated beyond the Pauline circle, to which it is referred not +only by the author's friendship with Timothy (xiii. 23), but by many +echoes of the Pauline theology and even, it seems, of passages in Paul's +epistles (see Holtzmann, _Einleitung in das N. T._, 1892, p. 298). These +features early suggested Paul as the author of a book which stood in +MSS. immediately after the epistles of that apostle, and contained +nothing in its title to distinguish it from the preceding books with +like headings, "To the Romans," "To the Corinthians," and the like. A +similar history attaches to the so-called Second Epistle of Clement (see +CLEMENTINE LITERATURE). + +Everything turns, then, on internal criticism of the epistle, working on +the distinctive features already noticed, together with such personal +allusions as it affords. As to its first readers, with whom the author +stood in close relations (xiii. 19, 23, cf. vi. 10, x. 32-34), it used +generally to be agreed that they were "Hebrews" or Christians of Jewish +birth. But, for a generation or so, it has been denied that this can be +inferred simply from the fact that the epistle approaches all Christian +truth through Old Testament forms. This, it is said, was the common +method of proof, since the Jewish scriptures were the Word of God to all +Christians alike. Still it remains true that the exclusive use of the +argument from Mosaism, as itself implying the Gospel of Jesus the Christ +as final cause ([Greek: telos]), does favour the view that the readers +were of Jewish origin. Further there is no allusion to the incorporation +of "strangers and foreigners" (Eph. ii. 19) with the people of God. Yet +the readers are not to be sought in Jerusalem (see e.g. ii. 3), nor +anywhere in Judaea proper. The whole Hellenistic culture of the epistle +(let alone its language), and the personal references in it, notably +that to Timothy in xiii. 23, are against any such view: while the doubly +emphatic "all" in xiii. 24 suggests that those addressed were but part +of a community composed of both Jews and Gentiles. Caesarea, indeed, as +a city of mixed population and lying just outside Judaea proper--a +place, moreover, where Timothy might have become known during Paul's two +years' detention there--would satisfy many conditions of the problem. +Yet these very conditions are no more than might exist among intensely +Jewish members of the Dispersion, like "the Jews of Asia" (cf. Sir W. M. +Ramsay, _The Letters to the Seven Churches_, 155 f.), whose zeal for the +Temple and the Mosaic ritual customs led to Paul's arrest in Jerusalem +(Acts xix. 27 f., cf. 20 f.), in keeping both with his former +experiences at their hands and with his forebodings resulting therefrom +(xx. 19, 22-24). Our "Hebrews" had obviously high regard for the +ordinances of Temple worship. But this was the case with the dispersed +Jews generally, who kept in touch with the Temple, and its intercessory +worship for all Israel, in every possible way; in token of this they +sent with great care their annual contribution to its services, the +Temple tribute. This bond was doubtless preserved by Christian +Hellenists, and must have tended to continue their reliance on the +Temple services for the forgiveness of their recurring "sins of +ignorance"--subsequent to the great initial Messianic forgiveness coming +with faith in Jesus. Accordingly many of them, while placing their hope +for the future upon Messiah and His eagerly expected return in power, +might seek assurance of present forgiveness of daily offences and +cleansing of conscience in the old mediatorial system. In particular the +annual Day of Atonement would be relied on, and that in proportion as +the expected Parousia tarried, and the first enthusiasm of a faith that +was largely eschatological died away, while ever-present temptation +pressed the harder as disappointment and perplexity increased. + +Such was the general situation of the readers of this epistle, men who +rested partly on the Gospel and partly on Judaism. For lack of a true +theory as to the relation between the two, they were now drifting away +(ii. 1) from effective faith in the Gospel, as being mainly future in +its application, while Judaism was a very present, concrete, and +impressive system of religious aids--to which also their sacred +scriptures gave constant witness. The points at which it chiefly touched +them may be inferred from the author's counter-argument, with its +emphasis in the spiritual ineffectiveness of the whole Temple-system, +its high-priesthood and its supreme sacrifice on the Day of Atonement. +With passionate earnestness he sets over against these his constructive +theory as to the efficacy, the heavenly yet unseen reality, of the +definitive "purification of sins" (i. 3) and perfected access to God's +inmost presence, secured for Christians as such by Jesus the Son of God +(x. 9-22), and traces their moral feebleness and slackened zeal to want +of progressive insight into the essential nature of the Gospel as a +"new covenant," moving on a totally different plane of religious reality +from the now antiquated covenant given by Moses (viii. 13). + +The following plan of the epistle may help to make apparent the writer's +theory of Christianity as distinct from Judaism, which is related to it +as "shadow" to reality: + + _Thesis_: The finality of the form of religion mediated in God's Son, + i. 1-4. + + i. The supreme excellence of the Son's Person (i. 5-iii. 6), as + compared with (a) angels, (b) Moses. + + Practical exhortation, iii. 7-iv. 13, leading up to: + + ii. The corresponding efficacy of the Son's High-priesthood (iv. + 14-ix.). + + (1) The Son has the qualifications of all priesthood, especially + sympathy. + + Exhortation, raising the reader's thought to the height of the topic + reached (v. 11-vi. 20). + + (2) The Son as absolute high priest, in an order transcending the + Aaronic (vii.) and relative to a Tabernacle of ministry and a Covenant + higher than the Mosaic in point of reality and finality (viii., ix.). + + (3) His Sacrifice, then, is definitive in its effects ([Greek: + teteleioke]), and supersedes all others (x. 1-18). + + iii. Appropriation of the benefits of the Son's high-priesthood, by + steadfast faith, the paramount duty (x. 19-xii.). More personal + epilogue (xiii.). + +As lack of insight lay at the root of their troubles, it was not enough +simply to enjoin the moral fidelity to conviction which is three parts +of faith to the writer, who has but little sense of the mystical side of +faith, so marked in Paul. There was need of a positive theory based on +real insight, in order to inspire faith for more strenuous conflict with +the influences tending to produce the apostasy from Christ, and so from +"the living God," which already threatened some of them (iii. 12). Such +"apostasy" was not a formal abjuring of Jesus as Messiah, but the +subtler lapse involved in ceasing to rely on relation to Him for daily +moral and religious needs, summed up in purity of conscience and peace +before God (x. 19-23, xiii. 20 f.). This "falling aside" (vi. 5, cf. +xii. 12 f.), rather than conscious "turning back," is what is implied in +the repeated exhortations which show the intensely practical spirit of +the whole argument. These exhortations are directed chiefly against the +dullness of spirit which hinders progressive moral insight into the +genius of the New Covenant (v. 11-vi. 8), and which, in its blindness to +the full work of Jesus, amounts to counting His blood as devoid of +divine efficacy to consecrate the life (x. 26, 29), and so to a personal +"crucifying anew" of the Son of God (vi. 6). The antidote to such +"profane" negligence (ii. 1, 3, xii. 12 f., 15-17) is an earnestness +animated by a fully-assured hope, and sustained by a "faith" marked by +patient waiting ([Greek: makrothymia]) for the inheritance guaranteed by +divine promise (x. ii f.). The outward expression of such a spirit is +"bold confession," a glorying in that Hope, and mutual encouragement +therein (iii. 6, 12 f.); while the sign of its decay is neglect to +assemble together for mutual stimulus, as if it were not worth the odium +and opposition from fellow Jews called forth by a marked Christian +confession (x. 23-25, xii. 3)--a very different estimate of the new bond +from that shown by readiness in days gone by to suffer for it (x. 32 +ff.). Their special danger, then, the sin which deceived (iii. 13) the +more easily that it represented the line of least resistance (perhaps +the best paraphrase of [Greek: euperistatos hamartia] in xii. i), was +the exact opposite of "faith" as the author uses it, especially in the +chapter devoted to its illustration by Old Testament examples. His +readers needed most the moral heroism of fidelity to the Unseen, which +made men "despise shame" due to aught that sinners in their unbelief +might do to them (xii. 2-11, xiii. 5 f.)--and of which Jesus Himself was +at once the example and the inspiration. To quicken this by awakening +deeper insight into the real objects of "faith," as these bore on their +actual life, he develops his high argument on the lines already +indicated. + +Their situation was so dangerous just because it combined inward +debility and outward pressure, both tending to the same result, viz. +practical disuse of the distinctively Christian means of grace, as +compared with those recognized by Judaism, and such conformity to the +latter as would make the reproach of the Cross to cease (xiii. 13, cf. +xi. 26). This might, indeed, relieve the external strain of the contest +([Greek: agon] xii. 1), which had become well-nigh intolerable to them. +But the practical surrender of what was distinctive in their new faith +meant a theoretic surrender of the value once placed on that element, +when it was matter of a living religious experience far in advance of +what Judaism had given them (vi. 4 [ff]., x. 26-29). This twofold +infidelity, in thought and deed, God, the "living" God of progress from +the "shadow" to the substance, would require at their hands (x. 30 f., +xii. 22-29). For it meant turning away from an appeal that had been +known as "heavenly," for something inferior and earthly (xii. 25); from +a call sanctioned by the incomparable authority of Him in whom it had +reached men, a greater than Moses and all media of the Old Covenant, +even the Son of God. Thus the key of the whole exhortation is struck in +the opening words, which contrast the piecemeal revelation "to the +fathers" in the past, with the complete and final revelation to +themselves in the last stage of the existing order of the world's +history, in a Son of transcendent dignity (i. 1 ff., cf. ii. 1 ff., x. +28 f., xii. 18 ff.). This goes to the root of their difficulty, +ambiguity as to the relation of the old and the new elements in +Judaeo-Christian piety, so that there was constant danger of the old +overshadowing the new, since national Judaism remained hostile. At a +stroke the author separates the new from the old, as belonging to a new +"covenant" or order of God's revealed will. It is a confusion, resulting +in loss, not in gain, as regards spiritual power, to try to combine the +two types of piety, as his readers were more and more apt to do. There +is _no use_, religiously, in falling back upon the old forms, in order +to avoid the social penalties of a sectarian position within Judaism, +when the secret of religious "perfection" or maturity (vi. 1, cf. the +frequent use of the kindred verb) lies elsewhere. Hence the moral of his +whole argument as to the two covenants, though it is formulated only +incidentally amid final detailed counsels (xiii. 13 f.) is to leave +Judaism, and adopt a frankly Christian standing, on the same footing +with their non-Jewish brethren in the local church. For this the time +was now ripe; and in it lay the true path of safety--eternal safety as +before God, whatever man might say or do (xiii. 5 f.). + +The obscure section, xiii. 9 f., is to be taken as "only a symptom of +the general retrogression of religious energy" (Julicher), and not as +bearing directly on the main danger of these "Hebrews." The "foods" in +question probably refer neither to temple sacrifices nor to the +Levitical laws of clean and unclean foods, nor yet to ascetic scruples +(as in Rom. xiv., Col. ii. 20 ff.), but rather to some form of the idea, +found also among the Essenes, that food might so be partaken of as to +have the value of a sacrifice (see verse 15 foll.) and thus ensure +divine favour. Over against this view, which might well grow up among +the Jews of the Dispersion as a sort of substitute for the possibility +of offering sacrifices in the Temple--but which would be a lame addition +to the Christianity of their own former leaders (xiii. 7 f.)--the author +first points his readers to its refutation from experience, and then to +the fact that the Christian's "altar" or sacrifice (i.e. the supreme +sin-offering) is of the kind which the Law itself forbids to be +associated with "eating." If Christians wish to offer any special +sacrifice to God, let it be that of grateful praise or deeds of +beneficence (15 f.). + +In trying further to define the readers addressed in the epistle, one +must note the stress laid on suffering as part of the divinely appointed +discipline of sonship (ii. 10, v. 8, xii. 7 f.), and the way in which +the analogy in this respect between Jesus, as Messianic Son, and those +united to Him by faith, is set in relief. He is not only the inspiring +example for heroic faith in the face of opposition due to unbelievers +(xii. 3 ff.), but also the mediator qualified by his very experience of +suffering to sympathize with His tried followers, and so to afford them +moral aid (ii. 17 f., v. 8 f., cf. iv. 15). This means that suffering +for Christianity, at least in respect of possessions (xiii. 5 f., cf. x. +34) and social standing, was imminent for those addressed: and it seems +as if they were mostly men of wealth and position (xiii. 1-6, vi. 10 +f., x. 34), who would feel this sort of trial acutely (cf. Jas. i. 10). +Such men would also possess a superior mental culture (cf. v. 11 f.), +capable of appreciating the form of an epistle "far too learned for the +average Christian" (Julicher), yet for which its author apologizes to +them as inadequate (xiii. 22). It was now long since they themselves had +suffered seriously for their faith (x. 32 f.); but others had recently +been harassed even to the point of imprisonment (xiii. 3); and the +writer's very impatience to hurry to their side implies that the crisis +was both sudden and urgent. The finished form of the epistle's argument +is sometimes urged to prove that it was not originally an epistle at +all, written more or less on the spur of the moment, but a literary +composition, half treatise and half homily, to which its author--as an +afterthought--gave the suggestion of being a Pauline epistle by adding +the personal matter in ch. xiii. (so W. Wrede, _Das literarische Ratsel +des Hebraerbriefs_, 1906, pp. 70-73). The latter part of this theory +fails to explain why the Pauline origin was not made more obvious, e.g. +in an opening address. But even the first part of it overlooks the +probability that our author was here only fusing into a fresh form +materials often used before in his oral ministry of Christian +instruction. + +Many attempts have been made to identify the home of the Hellenistic +Christians addressed in this epistle. For Alexandria little can be urged +save a certain strain of "Alexandrine" idealism and allegorism, mingling +with the more Palestinian realism which marks the references to Christ's +sufferings, as well as the eschatology, and recalling many a passage in +Philo. But Alexandrinism was a mode of thought diffused throughout the +Eastern Mediterranean, and the divergences from Philo's spirit are as +notable as the affinities (cf. Milligan, _ut infra_, 203 ff.). For Rome +there is more to be said, in view of the references to Timothy and to +"them of Italy" (xiii. 23 f.); and the theory has found many supporters. +It usually contemplates a special Jewish-Christian house-church (so +Zahn), like those which Paul salutes at the end of Romans, e.g. that +meeting in the house of Prisca and Aquila (xvi. 5); and Harnack has gone +so far as to suggest that they, and especially Prisca, actually wrote +our epistle. There is, however, really little that points to Rome in +particular, and a good deal that points away from it. The words in xii. +4, "Not yet unto blood have ye resisted," would ill suit Rome after the +Neronian "bath of blood" in A.D. 64 (as is usually held), save at a date +too late to suit the reference to Timothy. Nor does early currency in +Rome prove that the epistle was written to Rome, any more than do the +words "they of Italy salute you." This clause must in fact be read in +the light of the reference to Timothy, which suggests that he had been +in prison in Rome and was about to return, possibly in the writer's +company, to the region which was apparently the headquarters of both. +Now this in Timothy's case, as far as we can trace his steps, was +Ephesus; and it is natural to ask whether it will not suit all the +conditions of the problem. It suits those of the readers,[2] as analysed +above; and it has the merit of suggesting to us as author the very +person of all those described in the New Testament who seems most +capable of the task, Apollos, the learned Alexandrian (Acts xviii. 24 +ff.), connected with Ephesus and with Paul and his circle (cf. 1 Cor. +xvi. 12), yet having his own distinctive manner of presenting the Gospel +(1 Cor. iv. 6). That Apollos visited Italy at any rate once during +Paul's imprisonment in Rome is a reasonable inference from Titus iii. 13 +(see Paul); and if so, it is quite natural that he should be there again +about the time of Paul's martyrdom. With that event it is again natural +to connect Timothy's imprisonment, his release from which our author +records in closing; while the news of Jewish success in Paul's case +would enhance any tendency among Asian Jewish Christians to shirk +"boldness" of confession (x. 23, 35, 38 f.), in fear of further +aggression from their compatriots. On the chronology adopted in the +article Paul, this would yield as probable date for the epistle A.D. +61-62. The place of writing would be some spot in Italy ("they of Italy +salute you") outside Rome, probably a port of embarkation for Asia, such +as Brundisium. + +Be this as it may, the epistle is of great historical importance, as +reflecting a crisis inevitable in the development of the +Jewish-Christian consciousness, when a definite choice between the old +and the new form of Israel's religion had to be made, both for internal +and external reasons. It seems to follow directly on the situation +implied by the appeal of James to Israel in dispersion, in view of +Messiah's winnowing-fan in their midst (i. 1-4, ii. 1-7, v. 1-6, and +especially v. 7-11). It may well be the immediate antecedent of that +revealed in 1 Peter, an epistle which perhaps shows traces of its +influence (e.g. in i. 2, "sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ," cf. +Heb. ix. 13 f., x. 22, xii. 24). It is also of high interest +theologically, as exhibiting, along with affinities to several types of +New Testament teaching (see Stephen), a type all its own, and one which +has had much influence on later Christian thought (cf. Milligan, _ut +infra_, ch. ix.). Indeed, it shares with Romans the right to be styled +"the first treatise of Christian theology." + + _Literature._--The older literature may be seen in the great work of + F. Bleek, _Der Brief an die Hebraer_ (1828-1840), still a valuable + storehouse of material, while Bleek's later views are to be found in a + posthumous work (Elberfeld, 1868); also in Franz Delitzsch's + _Commentary_ (Edinburgh, 1868). The more recent literature is given in + G. Milligan, _The Theology of the Epistle of the Hebrews_ (1899), a + useful summary of all bearing on the epistle, and in the large New + Testament Introductions and Biblical Theologies. See also Hastings's + _Dict. of the Bible_, the _Encycl. Biblica_ and T. Zahn's article in + Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_. (J. V. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Also in Codex Claromontanus, the _Tractatus de libris_ (x.), + Philastrius of Brescia (c. A.D. 380), and a prologue to the Catholic + Epistles (_Revue benedictine_, xxiii. 82 ff.). It is defended in a + monograph by H. H. B. Ayles (Cambridge, 1899). + + [2] i.e. a house-church of upper-class Jewish Christians, not fully + in touch with the attitude even of their own past and present + "leaders" (xiii. 7, 17), as distinct from the local church generally + (xiii. 24). The Gospel had reached them, as also the writer himself + (cf. Acts xviii. 25), through certain hearers of the Lord (ii. 3), + not necessarily apostles. + + + + +HEBRIDES, THE, or WESTERN ISLES, a group of islands off the west coast +of Scotland. They are situated between 55 deg. 35' and 58 deg. 30' N. +and 5 deg. 26' and 8 deg. 40' W. Formerly the term was held to embrace +not only all the islands off the Scottish western coast, including the +islands in the Firth of Clyde, but also the peninsula of Kintyre, the +Isle of Man and the Isle of Rathlin, off the coast of Antrim. They have +been broadly classified into the Outer Hebrides and the Inner Hebrides, +the Minch and Little Minch dividing the one group from the other. +Geologically, they have also been differentiated as the Gneiss Islands +and the Trap Islands. The Outer Hebrides being almost entirely composed +of gneiss the epithet suitably serves them, but, strictly speaking, only +the more northerly of the Inner Hebrides may be distinguished as Trap +Islands. The chief islands of the Outer Hebrides are Lewis-with-Harris +(or Long Island), North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist, Barra, the Shiants, +St Kilda and the Flannan Isles, or Seven Hunters, an uninhabited group, +about 20 m. N.W. of Gallon Head in Lewis. Of these the Lewis portion of +Long Island, the Shiants and the Flannan belong to the county of Ross +and Cromarty, and the remainder to Inverness-shire. The total length of +this group, from Barra Head to the Butt of Lewis, is 130 m., the breadth +varying from less than 1 m. to 30 m. The Inner Hebrides are much more +scattered and principally include Skye, Small Isles (Canna, Sanday, Rum, +Eigg and Muck), Coll, Tyree, Lismore, Mull, Ulva, Staffa, Iona, Kerrera, +the Slate Islands (Seil, Easdale, Luing, Shuna, Torsay), Colonsay, +Oronsay, Scarba, Jura, Islay and Gigha. Of these Skye and Small Isles +belong to Inverness-shire, and the rest to Argyllshire. The Hebridean +islands exceed 500 in number, of which one-fifth are inhabited. Of the +inhabited islands 11 belong to Ross and Cromarty, 47 to Inverness-shire, +and 44 to Argyllshire, but of this total of 102 islands, one-third have +a population of only 10 souls, or fewer, each. The population of the +Hebrides in 1901 numbered 78,947 (or 28 to the sq. m.), of whom 41,031 +were females, who thus exceeded the males by 10%, and 22,733 spoke +Gaelic only and 47,666 Gaelic and English. The most populous island is +Lewis-with-Harris (32,160), and next to it are Skye (13,883), Islay +(6857) and Mull (4334). + +Of the total area of 1,800,000 acres, or 2812 sq. m., only one-ninth is +cultivated, most of the surface being moorland and mountain. The annual +rainfall, particularly in the Inner Hebrides, is heavy (42.6 in. at +Stornoway) but the temperature is high, averaging for the year 47 deg. F. +Potatoes and turnips are the only root crops that succeed, and barley +and oats are grown in some of the islands. Sheep-farming and +cattle-raising are carried on very generally, and, with the fisheries, +provide the main occupation of the inhabitants, though they profit not a +little from the tourists who flock to many of the islands throughout the +summer. The principal industries include distilling, slate-quarrying and +the manufacture of tweeds, tartans and other woollens. There are +extensive deer forests in Lewis-with-Harris, Skye, Mull and Jura. On +many of the islands there are prehistoric remains and antiquities within +the Christian period. The more populous islands are in regular +communication with certain points of the mainland by means of steamers +from Glasgow, Oban and Mallaig. The United Free Church has a strong hold +on the people, but in a few of the islands the Roman Catholics have a +great following. In the larger inhabited islands board schools have been +established. The islands unite with the counties to which they belong in +returning members to parliament (one for each shire). + +_History._--The Hebrides are mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of +[Greek: Eboudai] and by Pliny under that of _Hebudes_, the modern +spelling having, it is said, originated in a misprint. By the Norwegians +they were called _Sudreyjar_ or Southern Islands. The Latinized form was +_Sodorenses_, preserved to modern times in the title of the bishop of +Sodor and Man. The original inhabitants seem to have been of the same +Celtic race as those settled on the mainland. In the 6th century +Scandinavian hordes poured in with their northern idolatry and lust of +plunder, but in time they adopted the language and faith of the +islanders. Mention is made of incursions of the vikings as early as 793, +but the principal immigration took place towards the end of the 9th +century in the early part of the reign of Harald Fairhair, king of +Norway, and consisted of persons driven to the Hebrides, as well as to +Orkney and Shetland, to escape from his tyrannous rule. Soon afterwards +they began to make incursions against their mother-country, and on this +account Harald fitted out an expedition against them, and placed Orkney, +Shetland, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man under Norwegian government. +The chief seat of the Norwegian sovereignty was Colonsay. About the year +1095 Godred Crovan, king of Dublin, Man and the Hebrides, died in Islay. +His third son, Olaf, succeeded to the government about 1103, and the +daughter of Olaf was married to Somerled, who became the founder of the +dynasty known as Lords of the Isles. Many efforts were made by the +Scottish monarchs to displace the Norwegians. Alexander II. led a fleet +and army to the shores of Argyllshire in 1249, but he died on the island +of Kerrera. On the other hand, Haakon IV., king of Norway, at once to +restrain the independence of his jarls and to keep in check the ambition +of the Scottish kings, set sail in 1263 on a great expedition, which, +however, ended disastrously at Largs. Magnus, son of Haakon, concluded +in 1266 a peace with the Scots, renouncing all claim to the Hebrides and +other islands except Orkney and Shetland, and Alexander III. agreed to +give him a sum of 4000 merks in four yearly payments. It was also +stipulated that Margaret, daughter of Alexander, should be betrothed to +Eric, the son of Magnus, whom she married in 1281. She died two years +later, leaving an only daughter afterwards known as the Maid of Norway. + +The race of Somerled continued to rule the islands, and from a younger +son of the same potentate sprang the lords of Lorne, who took the +patronymic of Macdougall. John Macdonald of Islay, who died about 1386, +was the first to adopt the title of Lord of the Isles. He was one of the +most potent of the island princes, and was married to a daughter of the +earl of Strathearn, afterwards Robert II. His son, Donald of the Isles, +was memorable for his rebellion in support of his claim to the earldom +of Ross, in which, however, he was unsuccessful. Alexander, son of +Donald, resumed the hereditary warfare against the Scottish crown; and +in 1462 a treaty was concluded between Alexander's son and successor +John and Edward IV. of England, by which John, his son John, and his +cousin Donald Balloch, became bound to assist King Edward and James, +earl of Douglas, in subduing the kingdom of Scotland. The alliance seems +to have led to no active operations. In the reign of James V. another +John of Islay resumed the title of Lord of the Isles, but was compelled +to surrender the dignity. The glory of the lordship of the isles--the +insular sovereignty--had departed. From the time of Bruce the Campbells +had been gaining the ascendancy in Argyll. The Macleans, Macnaughtons, +Maclachlans, Lamonts, and other ancient races had sunk before this +favoured family. The lordship of Lorne was wrested from the Macdougalls +by Robert Bruce, and their extensive possessions, with Dunstaffnage +Castle, bestowed on the king's relative, Stewart, and his descendants, +afterwards lords of Lorne. The Macdonalds of Sleat, the direct +representatives of Somerled, though driven from Islay and deprived of +supreme power by James V., still kept a sort of insular state in Skye. +There were also the Macdonalds of Clanranald and Glengarry (descendants +of Somerled), with the powerful houses of Macleod of Dunvegan and +Macleod of Harris, M'Neill of Barra and Maclean of Mull. Sanguinary +feuds continued throughout the 16th and 17th centuries among these rival +clans and their dependent tribes, and the turbulent spirit was not +subdued till a comparatively recent period. James VI. made an abortive +endeavour to colonize Lewis. William III. and Queen Anne attempted to +subsidize the chiefs in order to preserve tranquillity, but the wars of +Montrose and Dundee, and the Jacobite insurrections of 1715 and 1745, +showed how futile were all such efforts. It was not till 1748, when a +decisive blow was struck at the power of the chiefs by the abolition of +heritable jurisdictions, and the appointment of sheriffs in the +different districts, that the arts of peace and social improvement made +way in these remote regions. The change was great, and at first not +unmixed with evil. A new system of management and high rents was +imposed, in consequence of which numbers of the tacksmen, or large +tenants, emigrated to North America. The exodus continued for many +years. Sheep-farming on a large scale was next introduced, and the +crofters were thrust into villages or barren corners of the land. The +result was that, despite the numbers who entered the army or emigrated +to Canada, the standard of civilization sank lower, and the population +multiplied in the islands. The people came to subsist almost entirely on +potatoes and herrings; and in 1846, when the potato blight began its +ravages, nearly universal destitution ensued--embracing, over the +islands generally, 70% of the inhabitants. Temporary relief was +administered in the shape of employment on roads and other works; and an +emigration fund being raised, from 4000 to 5000 of the people in the +most crowded districts were removed to Australia. Matters, however, were +not really mended, and in 1884 a royal commission reported upon the +condition of the crofters of the islands and mainland. As a result of +their inquiry the Crofters' Holdings Act was passed in 1886, and in the +course of a few years some improvement was evident and has since been +sustained. + + AUTHORITIES.--Martin Martin's _Description of the Western Islands of + Scotland_ (1703); T. Pennant's _Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the + Hebrides_ (1774); James Boswell's _Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel + Johnson, LL.D._ (1898); John Macculloch's _Geological Account of the + Hebrides_ (1819); Hugh Miller's _Cruise of the "Betsy"_ (1858); W. A. + Smith's _Lewisiana, or Life in the Outer Hebrides_ (1874); Alexander + Smith, _A Summer in Skye_ (1865); Robert Buchanan, _The Hebrid Isles_ + (1883); C. F. Gordon-Cumming, _In the Hebrides_ (1883); _Report of the + Crofters' Commission_ (1884); A. Goodrich-Freer, _Outer Isles_ (1902); + and W. C. Mackenzie, _History of the Outer Hebrides_ (1903). Their + history under Norwegian rule is given in the _Chronica regum Manniae + et insularum_, edited, with learned notes, from the MS. in the British + Museum by Professor P. A. Munch of Christiania (1860). + + + + +HEBRON (mod. _Khulil er-Rahman_, i.e. "the friend of the Merciful +One"--an allusion to Abraham), a city of Palestine some 20 m. S. by S.W. +of Jerusalem. The city, which lies 3040 ft. above the sea, is of extreme +antiquity (see Num. xiii. 22, and Josephus, _War_, iv. 9, 7) and until +taken by the Calebites (Josh. xv. 13) bore the name Kirjath-Arba. +Biblical traditions connect it closely with the patriarch Abraham and +make it a "city of refuge." The town figures prominently under David as +the headquarters of his early rule, the scene of Abner's murder and the +centre of Absalom's rebellion. In later days the Edomites held it for a +time, but Judas Maccabaeus recovered it. It was destroyed in the great +war under Vespasian. In A.D. 1167 Hebron became the see of a Latin +bishop, and it was taken in 1187 by Saladin. In 1834 it joined the +rebellion against Ibrahim Pasha, who took the town and pillaged it. +Modern Hebron rises on the east slope of a shallow valley--a long narrow +town of stone houses, the flat roofs having small stone domes. The main +quarter is about 700 yds. long, and two smaller groups of houses exist +north and south of this. The hill behind is terraced, and luxuriant +vineyards and fruit plantations surround the place, which is well +watered on the north by three principal springs, including the Well +Sirah, now 'Ain Sara (2 Sam. iii. 26). Three conspicuous minarets rise, +two from the _Haram_, the other in the north quarter. The population +(10,000) includes Moslems and about 500 Jews. The Bedouins bring wool +and camel's hair to the market; and glass bracelets, lamps and leather +water-skins are manufactured in the town. The most conspicuous building +is the _Haram_ built over the supposed site of the cave of Machpelah. It +is an enclosure measuring 112 ft. east and west by 198 north and south, +surrounded with high rampart walls of masonry similar in size and +dressing to that of the Jerusalem Haram walls. These ramparts are +ascribed by architectural authorities to the Herodian period. The +interior area is partly occupied by a 12th-century Gothic church, and +contains six modern cenotaphs of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebecca +and Leah. The cave beneath the platform has probably not been entered +for at least 600 years. The numerous traditional sites now shown round +Hebron are traceable generally to medieval legendary topography; they +include the Oak of Mamre (Gen. xiii. 18 R.V.) which has at various times +been shown in different positions from 3/4 to 2 m. from the town. + +There are a British medical mission, a German Protestant mission with +church and schools, and, near Abraham's Oak, a Russian mission. Since +1880 several notices of the Haram, within which are the tombs of the +Patriarchs, have appeared. + + See C. R. Conder, Pal. Exp. Fund, _Memoirs_, iii. 333, &c.; Riant, + _Archives de l'orient latin_, ii. 411, &c.; Dalton and Chaplin, + _P.E.F. Quarterly Statement_ (1897); Goldziher, "Das Patriarchengrab + in Hebron," in _Zeitschrift d. Dn. Pal. Vereins_, xvii. + (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +HECATAEUS OF ABDERA (or of Teos), Greek historian and Sceptic +philosopher, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He accompanied Ptolemy +I. Soter in an expedition to Syria, and sailed up the Nile with him as +far as Thebes (Diogenes Laertius ix. 61). The result of his travels was +set down by him in two works--[Greek: Aiguptiaka] and [Greek: Peri +Uperboreon], which were used by Diodorus Siculus. According to Suidas, +he also wrote a treatise on the poetry of Hesiod and Homer. Regarding +his authorship of a work on the Jews (utilized by Josephus in _Contra +Apionem_), it is conjectured that portions of the [Greek: Aiguptiaka] +were revised by a Hellenistic Jew from his point of view and published +as a special work. + + Fragments in C. W. Muller's _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_. + + + + +HECATAEUS OF MILETUS (6th-5th century B.C.), Greek historian, son of +Hegesander, flourished during the time of the Persian invasion. After +having travelled extensively, he settled in his native city, where he +occupied a high position, and devoted his time to the composition of +geographical and historical works. When Aristagoras held a council of +the leading Ionians at Miletus, to organize a revolt against the Persian +rule, Hecataeus in vain tried to dissuade his countrymen from the +undertaking (Herodotus v. 36, 125). In 494, when the defeated Ionians +were obliged to sue for terms, he was one of the ambassadors to the +Persian satrap Artaphernes, whom he persuaded to restore the +constitution of the Ionic cities (Diod. Sic. x. 25). He is by some +credited with a work entitled [Greek: Ges periodos] ("Travels round the +Earth"), in two books, one on Europe, the other on Asia, in which were +described the countries and inhabitants of the known world, the account +of Egypt being especially comprehensive; the descriptive matter was +accompanied by a map, based upon Anaximander's map of the earth, which +he corrected and enlarged. The authenticity of the work is, however, +strongly attacked by J. Wells in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, +xxix. pt. i. 1909. The only certainly genuine work of Hecataeus was the +[Greek: Geneelogiai] or [Greek: Historiai], a systematic account of the +traditions and mythology of the Greeks. He was probably the first to +attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical method to +distinguish myth from historical fact, though he accepts Homer and the +other poets as trustworthy authority. Herodotus, though he once at least +controverts his statements, is indebted to Hecataeus not only for facts, +but also in regard of method and general scheme, but the extent of the +debt depends on the genuineness of the [Greek: Ges periodos]. + + See fragments in C. W. Muller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, i.; + H. Berger, _Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen_ + (1903); E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_, i.; W. Mure, + _History of Greek Literature_, iv.; especially J. V. Prasek, + _Hekataios als Herodots Quelle zur Geschichte Vorderasiens. Beitrage + zur alten Geschichte (Klio)_, iv. 193 seq. (1904), and J. Wells in + _Journ. Hell. Stud._, as above. + + + + +HECATE (Gr. [Greek: Hekate], "she who works from afar"[1]), a goddess in +Greek mythology. According to the generally accepted view, she is of +Hellenic origin, but Farnell regards her as a foreign importation from +Thrace, the home of Bendis, with whom Hecate has many points in common. +She is not mentioned in the _Iliad_ or the _Odyssey_, but in Hesiod +(_Theogony_, 409) she is the daughter of the Titan Perses and Asterie, +in a passage which may be a later interpolation by the Orphists (for +other genealogies see Steuding in Roscher's _Lexikon_). She is there +represented as a mighty goddess, having power over heaven, earth and +sea; hence she is the bestower of wealth and all the blessings of daily +life. The range of her influence is most varied, extending to war, +athletic games, the tending of cattle, hunting, the assembly of the +people and the law-courts. Hecate is frequently identified with Artemis, +an identification usually justified by the assumption that both were +moon-goddesses. Farnell, who regards Artemis as originally an +earth-goddess, while recognizing a "genuine lunar element" in Hecate +from the 5th century, considers her a chthonian rather than a lunar +divinity (see also Warr in _Classical Review_, ix. 390). He is of +opinion that neither borrowed much from, nor exercised much influence +on, the cult and character of the other. + +Hecate is the chief goddess who presides over magic arts and spells, and +in this connexion she is the mother of the sorceresses Circe and Medea. +She is constantly invoked, in the well-known idyll (ii.) of Theocritus, +in the incantation to bring back a woman's faithless lover. As a +chthonian power, she is worshipped at the Samothracian mysteries, and is +closely connected with Demeter. Alone of the gods besides Helios, she +witnessed the abduction of Persephone, and, torch in hand (a natural +symbol for the moon's light, but see Farnell), assisted Demeter in her +search for her daughter. On moonlight nights she is seen at the +cross-roads (hence her name [Greek: trioditis], Lat. _Trivia_) +accompanied by the dogs of the Styx and crowds of the dead. Here, on the +last day of the month, eggs and fish were offered to her. Black puppies +and she-lambs (black victims being offered to chthonian deities) were +also sacrificed (Schol. on Theocritus ii. 12). Pillars like the Hermae, +called Hecataea, stood, especially in Athens, at cross-roads and +doorways, perhaps to keep away the spirits of evil. Like Artemis, Hecate +is also a goddess of fertility, presiding especially over the birth and +the youth of wild animals, and over human birth and marriage. She also +attends when the soul leaves the body at death, and is found near +graves, and on the hearth, where the master of the house was formerly +buried. It is to be noted that Hecate plays little or no part in +mythological legend. Her worship seems to have flourished especially in +the wilder parts of Greece, such as Samothrace and Thessaly, in Caria +and on the coasts of Asia Minor. In Greece proper it prevailed on the +east coast and especially in Aegina, where her aid was invoked against +madness. + +In older times Hecate is represented as single-formed, clad in a long +robe, holding burning torches; later she becomes _triformis_, +"triple-formed," with three bodies standing back to back--corresponding, +according to those who regard her as a moon-goddess, to the new, the +full and the waning moon. In her six hands are torches, sometimes a +snake, a key (as wardress of the lower world), a whip or a dagger; her +favourite animal was the dog, which was sacrificed to her--an indication +of her non-Hellenic origin, since this animal very rarely fills this +part in genuine Greek ritual. + + See H. Steuding in Roscher's _Lexikon_, where the functions of Hecate + are systematically derived from the conception of her as a + moon-goddess; L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, ii., where + this view is examined; P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio's + _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, + ii. (1906) p. 1288. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] J. B. Bury, in _Classical Review_, iii. p. 416, suggests that the + name means "dog," against which see J. H. Vince, ib. iv. p. 47. G. C. + Warr, ib. ix. 390, takes the Hesiodic Hecate to be a moon-goddess, + daughter of the sun-god Perseus. + + + + +HECATOMB (Gr. [Greek: hekatombe] from [Greek: hekaton], a hundred, and +[Greek: bous], an ox), originally the sacrifice of a hundred oxen in the +religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans; later a large number of +any kind of animals devoted for sacrifice. Figuratively, "hecatomb" is +used to describe the sacrifice or destruction by fire, tempest, disease +or the sword of any large number of persons or animals; and also of the +wholesale destruction of inanimate objects, and even of mental and moral +attributes. + + + + +HECATO OF RHODES, Greek Stoic philosopher and disciple of Panaetius +(Cicero, _De officiis_, iii. 15). Nothing else is known of his life, but +it is clear that he was eminent amongst the Stoics of the period. He was +a voluminous writer, but nothing remains. A list is preserved by +Diogenes, who mentions works on _Duty_, _Good_, _Virtues_, _Ends_. The +first, dedicated to Tubero, is eulogized by Cicero in the _De officiis_, +and Seneca refers to him frequently in the _De beneficiis_. According to +Diogenes Laertius, he divided the virtues into two kinds, those founded +on scientific intellectual principles (i.e. wisdom and justice), and +those which have no such basis (e.g. temperance and the resultant health +and vigour). Cicero shows that he was much interested in casuistical +questions, as, for example, whether a good man who had received a coin +which he knew to be bad was justified in passing it on to another. On +the whole, his moral attitude is cynical, and he is inclined to regard +self-interest as the best criterion. This he modifies by explaining that +self-interest is based on the relationships of life; a man needs money +for the sake of his children, his friends and the state whose general +prosperity depends on the wealth of its citizens. Like the earlier +Stoics, Cleanthes and Chrysippus, he held that virtue may be taught. +(See STOICS and PANAETIUS.) + + + + +HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL (1811-1881), German revolutionist, was born +at Eichtersheim in the Palatinate on the 28th of September 1811, his +father being a revenue official. He studied law with the intention of +becoming an advocate, but soon became absorbed in politics. On entering +the Second Chamber of Baden in 1842, he at once began to take part in +the opposition against the government, which assumed a more and more +openly Radical character, and in the course of which his talents as an +agitator and his personal charm won him wide popularity and influence. A +speech, denouncing the projected incorporation of Schleswig and Holstein +with Denmark, delivered in the Chamber of Baden on the 6th of February +1845, spread his fame beyond the limits of his own state, and his +popularity was increased by his expulsion from Prussia on the occasion +of a journey to Stettin. After the death of his more moderate-minded +friend Adolf Sander (March 9th, 1845), Hecker's tone towards the +government became more and more bitter. In spite of the shallowness and +his culture and his extremely weak character, he enjoyed an +ever-increasing popularity. Even before the outbreak of the revolution +he included Socialistic claims in his programme. In 1847 he was +temporarily occupied with ideas of emigration, and with this object made +a journey to Algiers, but returned to Baden and resumed his former +position as the Radical champion of popular rights, later becoming +president of the _Volksverein_, where he was destined to fall still +further under the influence of the agitator Gustav von Struve. In +conjunction with Struve he drew up the Radical programme carried at the +great Liberal meeting held at Offenburg on the 12th of September 1847 +(entitled "Thirteen Claims put forward by the People of Baden"). In +addition to the Offenburg programme, the _Sturmpetition_ of the 1st of +March 1848 attempted to extort from the government the most far-reaching +concessions. But it was in vain that on becoming a deputy Hecker +endeavoured to carry out its impracticable provisions. He had to yield +to the more moderate majority, but on this account was driven still +further towards the Left. The proof lies in the new Offenburg demands of +the 19th of March, and in the resolution moved by Hecker in the +preliminary parliament of Frankfort that Germany should be declared a +republic. But neither in Baden nor Frankfort did he at any time gain his +point. + +This double failure, combined with various energetic measures of the +government, which were indirectly aimed at him (e.g. the arrest of the +editor of the _Constanzer Seeblatt_, a friend of Hecker's, in Karlsruhe +station on the 8th of April), inspired Hecker with the idea of an armed +rising under pretext of the foundation of the German republic. The 9th +to the 11th of April was secretly spent in preliminaries. On the 12th of +April Hecker and Struve sent a proclamation to the inhabitants of the +_Seekreis_ and of the Black Forest "to summon the people who can bear +arms to Donaueschingen at mid-day on the 14th, with arms, ammunition and +provisions for six days." They expected 70,000 men, but only a few +thousand appeared. The grand-ducal government of the _Seekreis_ was +dissolved, and Hecker gradually gained reinforcements. But friendly +advisers also joined him, pointing out the risks of his undertaking. +Hecker, however, was not at all ready to listen to them; on the +contrary, he added to violence an absurd defiance, and offered an +amnesty to the German princes on condition of their retiring within +fourteen days into private life. The troops of Baden and Hesse marched +against him, under the command of General Friedrich von Gagern, and on +the 20th of April they met near Kandern, where Gagern was killed, it is +true, but Hecker was completely defeated. + +Like many of the revolutionaries of that period, Hecker retired to +Switzerland. He was, it is true, again elected to the Chamber of Baden +by the circle of Thiengen, but the government, no longer willing to +respect his immunity as a deputy, refused its ratification. On this +account Hecker resolved in September 1848 to emigrate to North America, +and obtained possession of a farm near Belleville in the state of +Illinois. + +During the second rising in Baden in the spring of 1849 he again made +efforts to obtain a footing in his own state, but without success. He +only came as far as Strassburg, but had to retreat before the victories +of the Prussian troops over the Baden insurgents. + +On his return to America he won some distinction during the Civil War as +colonel of a regiment which he had himself got together on the Federal +side in 1861 and 1864. It was with great joy that he heard of the union +of Germany brought about by the victory over France in 1870-71. It was +then that he made his famous festival speech at St Louis, in which he +gave an animated expression to the enthusiasm of the German Americans +for their newly-united fatherland. He received a less favourable +impression during a journey he made in Germany in 1873. He died at St +Louis on the 24th of March 1881. + +Hecker was always very much beloved of all the German democrats. The +song and the hat named after him (the latter a broad slouch hat with a +feather) became famous as the symbols of the middle-classes in revolt. +In America, too, he had won great esteem, not only on political grounds +but also for his personal qualities. + + See F. Hecker, _Die Erhebung des Volkes in Baden fur die deutsche + Republik_ (Baden, 1848); F. Hecker, _Reden und Vorlesungen_ (Neerstadt + a. d. H., 1872); F. v. Weech, _Badische Biographien_, iv. (1891); L. + Mathy, _Aus dem Nachlasse von K. Matty, Briefe aus den Jahren + 1846-1848_ (Leipzig, 1898). (J. Hn.) + + + + +HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS (1819-1888), American Roman Catholic priest, the +founder of the "Paulist Fathers," was born in New York City, of German +immigrant parents, on the 18th of December 1819. When barely twelve +years of age, he had to go to work, and pushed a baker's cart for his +elder brothers, who had a bakery in Rutgers Street. But he studied at +every possible opportunity, becoming immersed in Kant's _Critique of +Pure Reason_, and while still a lad took part in certain politico-social +movements which aimed at the elevation of the working man. It was at +this juncture that he met Orestes Brownson, who exercised a marked +influence over him. Isaac was deeply religious, a characteristic for +which he gave much credit to his prayerful mother, and remained so amid +all the reading and agitating in which he engaged. Having grown into +young manhood, he joined the Brook Farm movement, and in that colony he +tarried some six months. Shortly after leaving it (in 1844) he was +baptized into the Roman Catholic Church by Bishop McCloskey of New York. +One year later he was entered in the novitiate of the Redemptorists in +Belgium, and there he cultivated to a high degree the spirit of lofty +mystical piety which marked him through life. + +Ordained a priest in London by Wiseman in 1849, he returned to America, +and worked until 1857 as a Redemptorist missionary. With all his +mysticism, Isaac Hecker had the wide-awake mind of the typical American, +and he perceived that the missionary activity of the Catholic Church in +the United States must remain to a large extent ineffective unless it +adopted methods suited to the country and the age. In this he had the +sympathy of four fellow Redemptorists, who like himself were of American +birth and converts from Protestantism. Acting as their agent, and with +the consent of his local superiors, Hecker went to Rome to beg of the +Rector Major of his Order that a Redemptorist novitiate might be opened +in the United States, in order thus to attract American youths to the +missionary life. In furtherance of this request, he took with him the +strong approval of some members of the American hierarchy. The Rector +Major, instead of listening to Father Hecker, expelled him from the +Order for having made the journey to Rome without sufficient +authorization. The outcome of the trouble was that Hecker and the other +four American Redemptorists were permitted by Pius IX. in 1858 to form +the separate religious community of the Paulists. Hecker trained and +governed this community in spiritual exercises and mission-preaching +until his death in New York City, after seventeen years of suffering, on +the 22nd of December 1888. He founded and was the director of the +Catholic Publication Society, was the founder, and from 1865 until his +death the editor, of the _Catholic World_, and wrote _Questions of the +Soul_ (1855), _Aspirations of Nature_ (1857), _Catholicity in the United +States_ (1879) and _The Church and the Age_ (1888). + + The name of Hecker is closely associated with that of "Americanism." + To understand this movement it is necessary to comprehend the tendency + of events in Catholic Europe rather than in America itself. The steady + decline in the power and influence of French Catholicism since shortly + after 1870 is the most remarkable feature of the history of the Third + Republic. Not only did the French State pass laws bearing more and + more stringently on the Church, under each succeeding ministry, but + the bulk of the people acquiesced in the policy of its legislators. + The clergy, if not Catholicism, was rapidly losing its hold over the + once Catholic nation. Observing this fact, and encouraged by the + action of Leo XIII., who, in 1892 called on French Catholics loyally + to accept the Republic, a body of vigorous young French priests set + themselves to check the disaster. They studied the causes which + produced it. These causes, they considered to be, first, the clergy's + predominant sympathy with the monarchists, and in its undisguised + hostility to the Republic; secondly, the Church's aloofness from + modern men, methods and thought. The progressive party believed that + there was too little cultivation of individual, independent character, + while too much stress was laid upon what might be called the + mechanical or routine side of religion. The party perceived, too, that + Catholicism was making scarcely any use of modern aggressive modes of + propaganda; that, for example, the Church took but an insignificant + part in social movements, in the organization of clubs for social + study, in the establishing of settlements and similar philanthropic + endeavour. Lack of adaptability to modern needs expresses in short the + deficiencies in Catholicism which these men endeavoured to correct. + They began a domestic apostolate which had for one of its rallying + cries, "_Allons au peuple_,"--"Let us go to the people." They agitated + for the inauguration of social works, for a more intimate mingling of + priests with the people, and for general cultivation of personal + initiative, both in clergy and in laity. + + Not unnaturally, they looked for inspiration to America. There they + saw a vigorous Church among a free people, with priests publicly + respected, and with a note of aggressive zeal in every project of + Catholic enterprise. From the American priesthood, Father Hecker stood + out conspicuous for sturdy courage, deep interior piety, an assertive + self-initiative and immense love of modern times and modern liberty. + So they took Father Hecker for a kind of patron saint. His biography + (New York, 1891), written in English by the Paulist Father Elliott, + was translated into French (1897), and speedily became the book of the + hour. Under the inspiration of Father Hecker's life and character, the + more spirited section of the French clergy undertook the task of + persuading their fellow-priests loyally to accept the actual political + establishment, and then, breaking out of their isolation, to put + themselves in touch with the intellectual life of the country, and + take an active part in the work of social amelioration. + + In 1897 the movement received an impetus--and a warning--when Mgr + O'Connell, former Rector of the American College in Rome, spoke on + behalf of Father Hecker's ideas at the Catholic Congress in Friburg. + The conservatives took alarm at what they considered to be symptoms of + pernicious modernism or "Liberalism." Did not the watchword "_Allons + au peuple_" savour of heresy? Did it not tend toward breaking down the + divinely established distinction between the priest and the layman, + and conceding something to the laity in the management of the Church? + The insistence upon individual initiative was judged to be + incompatible with the fundamental principle of Catholicism, obedience + to authority. Moreover, the conservatives were, almost to a man, + anti-republicans who distrusted and disliked the democratic abbes. + Complaints were sent to Rome. A violent polemic against the new + movement was launched in Abbe Maignan's _Le pere Hecker, est-il un + saint?_ (1898). Repugnance to American tendencies and influences had a + strong representation in the Curia and in powerful circles in Rome. + Leo XIII. was extremely reluctant to pronounce any strictures upon + American Catholics, of whose loyalty to the Roman See, and to their + faith, he had often spoken in terms of high approbation. But he + yielded, in a measure, to the pressure brought to bear upon him, and, + early in February 1899, addressed to Cardinal Gibbons the Brief + _Testem Benevolentiae_. This document contained a condemnation of the + following doctrines or tendencies: (a) undue insistence on interior + initiative in the spiritual life, as leading to disobedience; (b) + attacks on religious vows, and disparagement of the value in the + present age, of religious orders; (c) minimizing Catholic doctrine; + (d) minimizing the importance of spiritual direction. The brief did + not assert that any unsound doctrine on the above points had been held + by Hecker or existed among Americans. Its tenour was, that if such + opinions did exist, the Pope called upon the hierarchy to eradicate + the evil. Cardinal Gibbons and many other prelates replied to Rome. + With all but unanimity, they declared that the incriminated opinions + had no existence among American Catholics. It was well known that + Hecker never had countenanced the slightest departure from Catholic + principles in their fullest and most strict application. The + disturbance caused by the condemnation was slight; almost the entire + laity, and a considerable part of the clergy, never understood what + the noise was about. The affair was soon forgotten, but the result was + to strengthen the hands of the conservatives in France. (J. J. F.) + + + + +HECKMONDWIKE, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary +division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. S.S.E. of +Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Northern, and London & +North-Western railways. Pop. (1901), 9459. Like the town of Dewsbury, on +the south-east, it is an important centre of the blanket and carpet +manufactures, and there are also machine works, dye works and iron +foundries. Coal is extensively wrought in the vicinity. + + + + +HECTOR, in Greek mythology, son of Priam and Hecuba, the husband of +Andromache. Like Paris and other Trojans, he had an Oriental name, +Darius. In Homer he is represented as an ideal warrior, the champion of +the Trojans and the mainstay of the city. His character, is drawn in +most favourable colours as a good son, a loving husband and father, and +a trusty friend. His leave-taking of Andromache in the sixth book of the +_Iliad_, and his departure to meet Achilles for the last time, are most +touchingly described. He is an especial favourite of Apollo; and later +poets even describe him as son of that god. His chief exploits during +the war were his defence of the wounded Sarpedon, his fight with Ajax, +son of Telamon (his particular enemy), and the storming of the Greek +ramparts. When Achilles, enraged with Agamemnon, deserted the Greeks, +Hector drove them back to their ships, which he almost succeeded in +burning. Patroclus, the friend of Achilles, who came to the help of the +Greeks, was slain by Hector with the help of Apollo. Then Achilles, to +revenge his friend's death, returned to the war, slew Hector, dragged +his body behind his chariot to the camp, and afterwards round the tomb +of Patroclus. Aphrodite and Apollo preserved it from corruption and +mutilation. Priam, guarded by Hermes, went to Achilles and prevailed on +him to give back the body, which was buried with great honour. Hector +was afterwards worshipped in the Troad by the Boeotian tribe Gephyraei, +who offered sacrifices at his grave. + + + + +HECUBA (Gr. [Greek: Hekabe]), wife of Priam, daughter of the Phrygian +king Dymas (or of Cisseus, or of the river-god Sangarius). According to +Homer she was the mother of nineteen of Priam's fifty sons. When Troy +was captured and Priam slain, she was made prisoner by the Greeks. Her +fate is told in various ways, most of which connect her with the +promontory Cynossema, on the Thracian shore of the Hellespont. According +to Euripides (in the _Hecuba_), her youngest son Polydorus had been +placed during the siege of Troy under the care of Polymestor, king of +Thrace. When the Greeks reached the Thracian Chersonese on their way +home Hecuba discovered that her son had been murdered, and in revenge +put out the eyes of Polymestor and murdered his two sons. She was +acquitted by Agamemnon; but, as Polymestor foretold, she was turned into +a dog, and her grave became a mark for ships (Ovid, _Metam._ xiii. +399-575; Juvenal x. 271 and Mayor's note). According to another story, +she fell to the lot of Odysseus, as a slave, and in despair threw +herself into the Hellespont; or, she used such insulting language +towards her captors that they put her to death (Dictys Cretensis v. 13. +16). It is obvious from the tales of Hecuba's transformation and death +that she is a form of some goddess to whom dogs were sacred; and the +analogy with Scylla is striking. + + + + +HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ (c. 1504-c. 1670), Dutch painter, born at Haarlem, +was one of the earliest Dutchmen who devoted himself exclusively to the +painting of still life. He was the contemporary and comrade of Dirk +Hals, with whom he had in common pictorial touch and technical +execution. But Heda was more careful and finished than Hals, and showed +considerable skill and not a little taste in arranging and colouring +chased cups and beakers and tankards of precious and inferior metals. +Nothing is so appetizing as his "luncheon," with rare comestibles set +out upon rich plate, oysters--seldom without the cut lemon--bread, +champagne, olives and pastry. Even the commoner "refection" is also not +without charm, as it comprises a cut ham, bread, walnuts and beer. One +of Heda's early masterpieces, dated 1623, in the Munich Pinakothek is as +homely as a later one of 1651 in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. A +more luxurious repast is a "Luncheon in the Augsburg Gallery," dated +1644. Most of Heda's pictures are on the European continent, notably in +the galleries of Paris, Parma, Ghent, Darmstadt, Gotha, Munich and +Vienna. He was a man of repute in his native city, and filled all the +offices of dignity and trust in the gild of Haarlem. He seems to have +had considerable influence in forming the younger Frans Hals. + + + + +HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER (1828-1897), Scottish mineralogist, was born at +Hoy in Orkney on the 28th of April 1828. After receiving his early +education at the Edinburgh academy, he entered as a medical student at +the university in that city, and subsequently studied chemistry and +mineralogy at Klausthal and Freiburg. In 1851 he took his degree of M.D. +at Edinburgh, and for about five years practised there. Medical work, +however, possessed for him little attraction; he became assistant to +Prof. Connell, who held the chair of chemistry at St Andrews, and in +1862 succeeded him as professor. This post he held until in 1880 he was +invited to report on some gold mines in South Africa. On his return he +devoted himself with great assiduity to mineralogy, and formed one of +the finest collections by means of personal exploration in almost every +part of Scotland. His specimens are now in the Royal Scottish Museum at +Edinburgh. It had been his intention to publish a comprehensive work on +the mineralogy of Scotland. This he did not live to complete, but the +MSS. fell into able hands, and _The Mineralogy of Scotland_, in 2 vols., +edited by J. G. Goodchild, was issued in 1901. Heddle was one of the +founders of the Mineralogical Society, and he contributed many articles +on Scottish minerals, and on the geology of the northern parts of +Scotland, to the _Mineralogical Magazine_, as well as to the +_Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_. He died on the 19th of +November 1897. + + See _Dr Heddle and his Geological Work_ (with portrait), by J. G. + Goodchild, _Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc._ (1898) vii. 317. + + + + +HEDGEHOG, or URCHIN, a member of the mammalian order Insectivora, +remarkable for its dentition, its armature of spines and its short tail. +The upper jaw is longer than the lower, the snout is long and flexible, +with the nostrils narrow, and the claws are long but weak. The animal is +about 10 in. long, its eyes are small, and the lower surface covered +with hairs of the ordinary character. The brain is remarkable for its +low development, the cerebral hemispheres being small, and marked with +but one groove, and that a shallow one, on each side. The hedgehog has +the power of rolling itself up into a ball, from which the spines stand +out in every direction. The spines are sharp, hard and elastic, and form +so efficient a defence that there are few animals able to effect a +successful attack on this creature. The moment it is touched, or even +hears the report of a gun, it rolls itself up by the action of the +muscles beneath the skin, while this contraction effects the erection of +the spines. The most important muscle is the _orbicularis panniculi_, +which extends over the anterior region of the skull, as far down the +body as the ventral hairy region, and on to the tail, but three other +muscles aid in the contraction. + +[Illustration: The Hedgehog (_Erinaceus europaeus_).] + +Though insectivorous, the hedgehog is reported to have a liking for +mice, while frogs and toads, as well as plants and fruits, all seem to +be acceptable. It will also eat snakes, and its fondness for eggs has +caused it to meet with the enmity of game-preservers; and there is no +doubt it occasionally attacks leverets and game-chicks. In a state of +nature it does not emerge from its retreat during daylight, unless urged +by hunger or by the necessities of its young. During winter it passes +into a state of hibernation, when its temperature falls considerably; +having provided itself with a nest of dry leaves, it is well protected +from the influences of the rain, and rolling itself up, remains +undisturbed till warmer weather returns. In July or August the female +brings forth four to eight young, or, according to others, two to four +at a somewhat earlier period; at birth the spines, which in the adult +are black in the middle, are white and soft, but soon harden, though +they do not attain their full size until the succeeding spring. + +The hedgehog, which is known scientifically as _Erinaceus europaeus_, +and is the type of the family _Erinaceidae_, is found in woods and +gardens, and extends over nearly the whole of Europe; and has been found +at 6000 to 8000 ft. above the level of the sea. The adult is provided +with thirty-six teeth; in the upper jaw are 6 incisors, 2 canines and 12 +cheek-teeth, and in the lower jaw 4 incisors, 2 canines and 10 +cheek-teeth. The genus is represented by about a score of species, +ranging over Europe, Asia, except the Malay countries, and Africa. + (R. L.*) + + + + +HEDGES AND FENCES. The object of the hedge[1] or fence (abbreviation of +"defence") is to mark a boundary or to enclose an area of land on which +stock is kept. The hedge, i.e. a row of bushes or small trees, forms a +characteristic feature of the scenery of England, especially in the +midlands and south; it is more rarely found in other countries. Its +disadvantages as a fence are that it is not portable, that it requires +cutting and training while young, that it harbours weeds and vermin and +that it occupies together with the ditch which usually borders it a +considerable space of ground, the margins of which cannot be cultivated. +For these reasons it is to some extent superseded by the fence proper, +especially where shelter for cattle is not required. In Great Britain +the hawthorn (q.v.) is by far the most important of hedge plants. Holly +resembles the hawthorn in its amenability to pruning and in its prickly +nature and closeness of growth, which make it an effective barrier to, +and shelter for, stock, but it is less hardy and more slow-growing than +the hawthorn. Hornbeam, beech, myrobalan or cherry plum and blackthorn +also have their advantages, hornbeam being proof against great exposure, +blackthorn thriving on poor land and possessing great impenetrability +and so on. Box, yew, privet and many other plants are used for +ornamental hedging; in the United States the osage orange and honey +locust are favourite hedge plants. As fences, wooden posts and rails and +stone walls may be conveniently used in districts where the requisite +materials are plentiful. But the most modern form of fence is formed of +wire strands either smooth or barbed (see BARBED WIRE), strained between +iron standards or wooden or concrete posts. The wire may be interwoven +with vertical strands or, if necessary, may be kept apart by iron +droppers between the standards. Fences of a lighter description are +machine-made with pickets of split chestnut or other wood closely set, +woven with a few strands of wire; they are braced by posts at intervals. + +From the fact that tramps and vagabonds frequently sleep under hedges +the word has come to be used as a term of contempt, as in +"hedge-priest," an inferior and illiterate kind of parson at one time +existing in England and Ireland, and in "hedge-school," a low class +school held in the open air, formerly very common in Ireland. From the +sense of "hedge" as an enclosure or barrier the verb "to hedge" means to +enclose, to form a barrier or defence, to bound or limit. As a sporting +term the word is used in betting to mean protection from loss, by +betting on both sides, by "laying off" on one side, after laying odds on +another or vice versa. The word was early used figuratively in the sense +of to avoid committing oneself. + + See articles in the _Cyclopaedia of American Agriculture_, vol. i., + ed. by L. H. Bailey (New York, 1907); in the _Standard Cyclopaedia of + Modern Agriculture_, ed. by R. P. Wright (London, 1908-1909); and in + the _Encyclopaedia of Agriculture_, vol. ii., ed. by C. E. Green and + D. Young (Edinburgh, 1908). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Hedge is a Teutonic word, cf. Dutch _heg_, Ger. _Hecke_; the root + appears in other English words, e.g. "haw," as in "hawthorn." + + + + +HEDON, a municipal borough in the Holderness parliamentary division of +the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. E. of Hull by a branch of +the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 1010. It stands in a low-lying, +flat district bordering the Humber. It is 2 m. from the river, but was +formerly reached by a navigable inlet, now dry, and was a considerable +port. There is a small harbour, but the prosperity of the port has +passed to Hull. The church of St Augustine is a splendid cruciform +building with central tower. It is Early English, Decorated and +Perpendicular, the tower being of the last period. The west front is +particularly fine, and the church, with its noble proportions and lofty +clerestories, resembles a cathedral in miniature. There are a +manufacture of bricks and an agricultural trade. The corporation +consists of a mayor, 3 aldermen and 9 councillors; and possesses a +remarkable ancient mace, of 15th-century workmanship. Area, 321 acres. + +According to tradition the men of Hedon received a charter of liberties +from King Aethelstan, but there is no evidence to prove this or indeed to +prove any settlement in the town until after the Conquest. The manor is +not mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but formed part of the lordship of +Holderness which William the Conqueror granted to Odo, count of +Albemarle. A charter of Henry II., which is undated, contains the first +certain evidence of settlement. By it the king granted to William, +count of Albemarle, free borough rights in Hedon so that his burgesses +there might hold of him as freely and quietly as the burgesses of York +or Lincoln held of the king. An earlier charter granted to the +inhabitants of York shows that these rights included a trade gild and +freedom from many dues not only in England but also in France. King John +in 1200 granted a confirmation of these liberties to Baldwin, count of +Albemarle, and Hawisia his wife and for this second charter the +burgesses themselves paid 70 marks. In 1272 Henry III. granted to +Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and Avelina his wife, then lord and lady of +the manor, the right of holding a fair at Hedon on the eve, day, and +morrow of the feast of St Augustine and for five following days. After +the countess's death the manor came to the hands of Edward I. In 1280 it +was found by an inquisition that the men of Hedon "were few and poor" +and that if the town were demised at a fee-farm rent the town might +improve. The grant, however, does not appear to have been made until +1346. Besides this charter Edward III. also granted the burgesses the +privilege of electing a mayor and bailiffs every year. At that time +Hedon was one of the chief ports in the Humber, but its place was +gradually taken by Hull after that town came into the hands of the king. +Hedon was incorporated by Charles II. in 1661, and James II. in 1680 +gave the burgesses another charter granting among other privileges that +of holding two extra fairs, but of this they never appear to have taken +advantage. The burgesses returned two members to parliament in 1295, and +from 1547 to 1832 when the borough was disfranchised. + + See _Victoria County History, Yorkshire_; J. R. Boyle, _The Early + History of the Town and Port of Hedon_ (Hull and York, 1895); G. H. + Park, _History of the Ancient Borough of Hedon_ (Hull, 1895). + + + + +HEDONISM (Gr. [Greek: hedone], pleasure, from [Greek: hedys], sweet, +pleasant), in ethics, a general term for all theories of conduct in +which the criterion is pleasure of one kind or another. Hedonistic +theories of conduct have been held from the earliest times, though they +have been by no means of the same character. Moreover, hedonism has, +especially by its critics, been very much misrepresented owing mainly to +two simple misconceptions. In the first place hedonism may confine +itself to the view that, as a matter of observed fact, all men do in +practice make pleasure the criterion of action, or it may go further and +assert that men ought to seek pleasure as the sole human good. The +former statement takes no view as to whether or not there is any +absolute good: if merely denies that men aim at anything more than +pleasure. The latter statement admits an ideal, _summum bonum_--namely, +pleasure. The second confusion is the tacit assumption that the pleasure +of the hedonist is necessarily or characteristically of a purely +physical kind; this assumption is in the case of some hedonistic +theories a pure perversion of the facts. Practically all hedonists have +argued that what are known as the "lower" pleasures are not only +ephemeral in themselves but also productive of so great an amount of +consequent pain that the wise man cannot regard them as truly +pleasurable; the sane hedonist will, therefore, seek those so-called +"higher" pleasures which are at once more lasting and less likely to be +discounted by consequent pain. It should be observed, however, that this +choice of pleasures by a hedonist is conditioned not by "moral" +(absolute) but by prudential (relative) considerations. + +The earliest and the most extreme type of hedonism is that of the +Cyrenaic School as stated by Aristippus, who argued that the only good +for man is the sentient pleasure of the moment. Since (following +Protagoras) knowledge is solely of momentary sensations, it is useless +to try, as Socrates recommended, to make calculations as to future +pleasures, and to balance present enjoyment with disagreeable +consequences. The true art of life is to crowd as much enjoyment as +possible into every moment. This extreme or "pure" hedonism regarded as +a definite philosophic theory practically died with the Cyrenaics, +though the same spirit has frequently found expression in ancient and +modern, especially poetical, literature. + +The confusion already alluded to between "pure" and "rational" hedonism +is nowhere more clearly exemplified than in the misconceptions which +have arisen as to the doctrine of the Epicureans. To identify +Epicureanism with Cyrenaicism is a complete misunderstanding. It is true +that pleasure is the _summum bonum_ of Epicurus, but his conception of +that pleasure is profoundly modified by the Socratic doctrine of +prudence and the eudaemonism of Aristotle. The true hedonist will aim at +a life of enduring rational happiness; pleasure is the end of life, but +true pleasure can be obtained only under the guidance of reason. +Self-control in the choice of pleasures with a view to reducing pain to +a minimum is indispensable. "Of all this, the beginning, and the +greatest good, is prudence." The negative side of Epicurean hedonism was +developed to such an extent by some members of the school (see HEGESIAS) +that the ideal life is held to be rather indifference to pain than +positive enjoyment. This pessimistic attitude is far removed from the +positive hedonism of Aristippus. + +Between the hedonism of the ancients and that of modern philosophers +there lies a great gulf. Practically speaking ancient hedonism advocated +the happiness of the individual: the modern hedonism of Hume, Bentham +and Mill is based on a wider conception of life. The only real happiness +is the happiness of the community, or at least of the majority: the +criterion is society, not the individual. Thus we pass from Egoistic to +Universalistic hedonism, Utilitarianism, Social Ethics, more especially +in relation to the still broader theories of evolution. These theories +are confronted by the problem of reconciling and adjusting the claims of +the individual with those of society. One of the most important +contributions to the discussion is that of Sir Leslie Stephen (_Science +of Ethics_), who elaborated a theory of the "social organism" in +relation to the individual. The end of the evolution process is the +production of a "social tissue" which will be "vitally efficient." +Instead, therefore, of the criterion of "the greatest happiness of the +greatest number," Stephen has that of the "health of the organism." Life +is not "a series of detached acts, in each of which a man can calculate +the sum of happiness or misery attainable by different courses." Each +action must be regarded as directly bearing upon the structure of +society. + + A criticism of the various hedonistic theories will be found in the + article ETHICS (_ad fin._). See also, beside works quoted under + CYRENAICS, EPICURUS, &c., and the general histories of philosophy, J. + S. Mackenzie, _Manual of Ethics_ (3rd ed., 1897); J. H. Muirhead, + _Elements of Ethics_ (1892); J. Watson, _Hedonistic Theories_ (1895); + J. Martineau, _Types of Ethical Theory_ (2nd ed., 1886); F. H. + Bradley, _Ethical Studies_ (1876); H. Sidgwick, _Methods of Ethics_ + (6th ed., 1901); Jas. Seth, _Ethical Principles_ (3rd ed., 1898); + other works quoted under ETHICS. + + + + +HEEL. (1) (O. Eng. _hela_, cf. Dutch _hiel_; a derivative of O. Eng. +hoh, hough, hock), that part of the foot in man which is situated below +and behind the ankle; by analogy, the calcaneal part of the tarsus in +other vertebrates. The heel proper in digitigrades and ungulates is +raised off the ground and is commonly known as the "knee" or "hock," +while the term "heel" is applied to the hind hoofs. (2) (A variant of +the earlier _hield_; cf. Dutch _hellen_, for _helden_), to turn over to +one side, especially of a ship. It is this word probably, in the sense +of "tip-up," used particularly of the tilting or tipping of a cask or +barrel of liquor, that explains the origin of the expression "no +heel-taps," a direction to the drinkers of a toast to drain their +glasses and leave no dregs remaining. "Tap" is a common word for liquor, +and a cask is said to be "heeled" when it is tipped and only dregs or +muddy liquor are left. This suits the actual sense of the phrase better +than the explanations which connect it with tapping the "heel" or bottom +of the glass (see _Notes and Queries_, 4th series, vols. xi.-xii., and +5th series, vol. i.). + + + + +HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN (or JOHANNES DE), (c.1600-c.1683), Dutch painter. +He was, if not the first, certainly the greatest painter of still life +in Holland; no artist of his class combined more successfully perfect +reality of form and colour with brilliancy and harmony of tints. No +object of stone or silver, no flower humble or gorgeous, no fruit of +Europe or the tropics, no twig or leaf, with which he was not familiar. +Sometimes he merely represented a festoon or a nosegay. More frequently +he worked with a purpose to point a moral or illustrate a motto. Here +the snake lies coiled under the grass, there a skull rests on blooming +plants. Gold and silver tankards or cups suggest the vanity of earthly +possessions; salvation is allegorized in a chalice amidst blossoms, +death as a crucifix inside a wreath. Sometimes de Heem painted alone, +sometimes in company with men of his school, Madonnas or portraits +surrounded by festoons of fruit or flowers. At one time he signed with +initials, at others with Johannes, at others again with the name of his +father joined to his own. At rare intervals he condescended to a date, +and when he did the work was certainly of the best. De Heem entered the +gild of Antwerp in 1635-1636, and became a burgher of that city in 1637. +He steadily maintained his residence till 1667, when he moved to +Utrecht, where traces of his presence are preserved in records of 1668, +1669 and 1670. It is not known when he finally returned to Antwerp, but +his death is recorded in the gild books of that place. A very early +picture, dated 1628, in the gallery of Gotha, bearing the signature of +Johannes in full, shows that de Heem at that time was familiar with the +technical habits of execution peculiar to the youth of Albert Cuyp. In +later years he completely shook off dependence, and appears in all the +vigour of his own originality. + +Out of 100 pictures or more to be met with in European galleries +scarcely eighteen are dated. The earliest after that of Gotha is a +chased tankard, with a bottle, a silver cup, and a lemon on a marble +table, dated 1640, in the museum of Amsterdam. A similar work of 1645, +with the addition of fruit and flowers and a distant landscape, is in +Lord Radnor's collection at Longford. A chalice in a wreath, with the +radiant host amidst wheatsheaves, grapes and flowers, is a masterpiece +of 1648 in the Belvedere of Vienna. A wreath round a Madonna of life +size, dated 1650, in the museum of Berlin, shows that de Heem could +paint brightly and harmoniously on a large scale. In the Pinakothek at +Munich is the celebrated composition of 1653, in which creepers, +beautifully commingled with gourds and blackberries, twigs of orange, +myrtle and peach, are enlivened by butterflies, moths and beetles. A +landscape with a blooming rose tree, a jug of strawberries, a selection +of fruit, and a marble bust of Pan, dated 1655, is in the Hermitage at +St Petersburg; an allegory of abundance in a medallion wreathed with +fruit and flowers, in the gallery of Brussels, is inscribed with de +Heem's monogram, the date of 1668, and the name of an obscure artist +called Lambrechts. All these pieces exhibit the master in full +possession of his artistic faculties. + +CORNELIUS DE HEEM, the son of Johannes, was in practice as a flower +painter at Utrecht in 1658, and was still active in his profession in +1671 at the Hague. His pictures are not equal to those of his father, +but they are all well authenticated, and most of them in the galleries +of the Hague, Dresden, Cassel, Vienna and Berlin. In the Staedel at +Frankfort is a fruit piece, with pot-herbs and a porcelain jug, dated +1658; another, dated 1671, is in the museum of Brussels. DAVID DE HEEM, +another member of the family, entered the gild of Utrecht in 1668 and +that of Antwerp in 1693. The best piece assigned to him is a table with +a lobster, fruit and glasses, in the gallery of Amsterdam; others bear +his signature in the museums of Florence, St Petersburg and Brunswick. +It is well to guard against the fallacy that David de Heem above +mentioned is the father of Jan de Heem. We should also be careful not to +make two persons of the first artist, who sometimes signs Johannes, +sometimes Jan Davidsz or J. D. Heem. + + + + +HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN (1597-1656), Dutch poet, was born at Amsterdam in +1597. He was educated as a child at Bayonne, and entered the university +of Leiden in 1617. In 1621 he went abroad on the grand tour, leaving +behind him his first volume of poems, _Minnekunst_ (The Art of Love), +which appeared in 1622. He was absent from Holland four years. He was +made master of arts at Bourges in 1623, and in 1624 visited Hugo Grotius +in Paris. On his return in 1625 he published _Minnepligt_ (The Duty of +Love), and began to practise as an advocate in the Hague. In 1628 he was +sent to England in his legal capacity by the Dutch East India Company, +to settle the dispute respecting Amboyna. In the same year he published +the poem entitled _Minnekunde_, or the Science of Love. He proceeded to +Amsterdam in 1640, where he married Alida, sister of the statesman Van +Beuningen. In 1641 he published a Dutch version of Corneille's _The +Cid_, a tragi-comedy, and in 1647 his most famous work, the pastoral +romance of _Batavische Arcadia_, which he had written ten years before. +During the last twelve years of his life Heemskerk sat in the upper +chamber of the states-general. He died at Amsterdam on the 27th of +February 1656. + + The poetry of Heemskerk, which fell into oblivion during the 18th + century, is once more read and valued. His famous pastoral, the + _Batavische Arcadia_, which was founded on the _Astree_ of Honore + d'Urfe, enjoyed a great popularity for more than a century, and passed + through twelve editions. It provoked a host of more or less able + imitations, of which the most distinguished were the _Dordrechtsche + Arcadia_ (1663) of Lambert van den Bos (1610-1698), the _Saanlandsche + Arcadia_ (1658) of Hendrik Sooteboom (1616-1678) and the + _Rotterdamsche Arcadia_ (1703) of Willem den Elger (d. 1703). But the + original work of Heemskerk, in which a party of nymphs and shepherds + go out from the Hague to Katwijk, and there indulge in polite and + pastoral discourse, surpasses all these in brightness and versatility. + + + + +HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ (1498-1574), Dutch painter, sometimes called +Van Veen, was born at Heemskerk in Holland in 1498, and apprenticed by +his father, a small farmer, to Cornelisz Willemsz, a painter at Haarlem. +Recalled after a time to the paternal homestead and put to the plough or +the milking of cows, young Heemskerk took the first opportunity that +offered to run away, and demonstrated his wish to leave home for ever by +walking in a single day the 50 miles which separate his native hamlet +from the town of Delft. There he studied under a local master whom he +soon deserted for John Schoreel of Haarlem. At Haarlem he formed what is +known as his first manner, which is but a quaint and _gauche_ imitation +of the florid style brought from Italy by Mabuse and others. He then +started on a wandering tour, during which he visited the whole of +northern and central Italy, stopping at Rome, where he had letters for a +cardinal. It is evidence of the facility with which he acquired the +rapid execution of a scene-painter that he was selected to co-operate +with Antonio da San Gallo, Battista Franco and Francesco Salviati to +decorate the triumphal arches erected at Rome in April 1536 in honour of +Charles V. Vasari, who saw the battle-pieces which Heemskerk then +produced, says they were well composed and boldly executed. On his +return to the Netherlands he settled at Haarlem, where he soon (1540) +became president of his gild, married twice, and secured a large and +lucrative practice. In 1572 he left Haarlem for Amsterdam, to avoid the +siege which the Spaniards laid to the place, and there he made a will +which has been preserved, and shows that he had lived long enough and +prosperously enough to make a fortune. At his death, which took place on +the 1st of October 1574, he left money and land in trust to the +orphanage of Haarlem, with interest to be paid yearly to any couple who +should be willing to perform the marriage ceremony on the slab of his +tomb in the cathedral of Haarlem. It was a superstition which still +exists in Catholic Holland that a marriage so celebrated would secure +the peace of the dead within the tomb. + +The works of Heemskerk are still very numerous. "Adam and Eve," and "St +Luke painting the Likeness of the Virgin and Child" in presence of a +poet crowned with ivy leaves, and a parrot in a cage--an altar-piece in +the gallery of Haarlem, and the "Ecce Homo" in the museum of Ghent, are +characteristic works of the period preceding Heemskerk's visit to Italy. +An altar-piece executed for St Laurence of Alkmaar in 1538-1541, and +composed of at least a dozen large panels, would, if preserved, have +given us a clue to his style after his return from the south. In its +absence we have a "Crucifixion" executed for the Riches Claires at Ghent +(now in the Ghent Museum) in 1543, and the altar-piece of the Drapers +Company at Haarlem, now in the gallery of the Hague, and finished in +1546. In these we observe that Heemskerk studied and repeated the forms +which he had seen at Rome in the works of Michelangelo and Raphael, and +in Lombardy in the frescoes of Mantegna and Giulio Romano. But he never +forgot the while his Dutch origin or the models first presented to him +by Schoreel and Mabuse. As late as 1551 his memory still served him to +produce a copy from Raphael's "Madonna di Loretto" (gallery of Haarlem). +A "Judgment of Momus," dated 1561, in the Berlin Museum, proves him to +have been well acquainted with anatomy, but incapable of selection and +insensible of grace, bold of hand and prone to daring though tawdry +contrasts of colour, and fond of florid architecture. Two altar-pieces +which he finished for churches at Delft in 1551 and 1559, one complete, +the other a fragment, in the museum of Haarlem, a third of 1551 in the +Brussels Museum, representing "Golgotha," the "Crucifixion," the "Flight +into Egypt," "Christ on the Mount," and scenes from the lives of St +Bernard and St Benedict, are all fairly representative of his style. +Besides these we have the "Crucifixion" in the Hermitage of St +Petersburg, and two "Triumphs of Silenus" in the gallery of Vienna, in +which the same relation to Giulio Romano may be noted as we mark in the +canvases of Rinaldo of Mantua. Other pieces of varying importance are in +the galleries of Rotterdam, Munich, Cassel, Brunswick, Karlsruhe, Mainz +and Copenhagen. In England the master is best known by his drawings. A +comparatively feeble picture by him is the "Last Judgment" in the palace +of Hampton Court. + + + + +HEER, OSWALD (1809-1883), Swiss geologist and naturalist, was born at +Nieder-Utzwyl in Canton St Gallen on the 31st of August 1809. He was +educated as a clergyman and took holy orders, and he also graduated as +doctor of philosophy and medicine. Early in life his interest was +aroused in entomology, on which subject he acquired special knowledge, +and later he took up the study of plants and became one of the pioneers +in palaeo-botany, distinguished for his researches on the Miocene flora. +In 1851 he became professor of botany in the university of Zurich, and +he directed his attention to the Tertiary plants and insects of +Switzerland. For some time he was director of the botanic garden at +Zurich. In 1863 (with W. Pengelly, _Phil. Trans._, 1862) he investigated +the plant-remains from the lignite-deposits of Bovey Tracey in +Devonshire, regarding them as of Miocene age; but they are now classed +as Eocene. Heer also reported on the Miocene flora of Arctic regions, on +the plants of the Pleistocene lignites of Durnten on lake Zurich, and on +the cereals of some of the lake-dwellings (_Die Pflanzen der +Pfahlbauten_, 1866). During a great part of his career he was hampered +by slender means and ill-health, but his services to science were +acknowledged in 1873 when the Geological Society of London awarded to +him the Wollaston medal. Dr Heer died at Lausanne on the 27th of +September 1883. He published _Flora Tertiaria Helvetiae_ (3 vols., +1855-1859); _Die Urwelt der Schweiz_ (1865), and _Flora fossilis +Arctica_ (1868-1883). + + + + +HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG (1760-1842), German historian, was born on +the 25th of October 1760 at Arbergen, near Bremen. He studied +philosophy, theology and history at Gottingen, and thereafter travelled +in France, Italy and the Netherlands. In 1787 he was appointed one of +the professors of philosophy, and then of history at Gottingen, and he +afterwards was chosen aulic councillor, privy councillor, &c., the usual +rewards of successful German scholars. He died at Gottingen on the 6th +of March 1842. Heeren's great merit as an historian was that he regarded +the states of antiquity from an altogether fresh point of view. Instead +of limiting himself to a narration of their political events, he +examined their economic relations, their constitutions, their financial +systems, and thus was enabled to throw a new light on the development of +the old world. He possessed vast and varied learning, perfect calmness +and impartiality, and great power of historical insight, and is now +looked back to as the pioneer in the movement for the economic +interpretation of history. + + Heeren's chief works are: _Ideen uber Politik, den Verkehr, und den + Handel der vornehmsten Volker der alten Welt_ (2 vols., Gottingen, + 1793-1796; 4th ed., 6 vols., 1824-1826; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1833); + _Geschichte des Studiums der klassischen Litteratur seit dem + Wiederaufleben der Wissenschaften_ (2 vols., Gottingen, 1797-1802; new + ed., 1822); _Geschichte der Staaten des Altertums_ (Gottingen, 1799; + Eng. trans., Oxford, 1840); _Geschichte des europaischen + Staatensystems_ (Gottingen, 1800; 5th ed., 1830; Eng. trans., 1834); + _Versuch einer Entwicklung der Folgen der Kreuzzuge_ (Gottingen, 1808; + French trans., Paris, 1808), a prize essay of the Institute of + France. Besides these, Heeren wrote brief biographical sketches of + Johann von Muller (Leipzig, 1809); Ludwig Spittler (Berlin, 1812); and + Christian Heyne (Gottingen, 1813). With Friedrich August Ukert + (1780-1851) he founded the famous historical collection, _Geschichte + der europaischen Staaten_ (Gotha, 1819 seq.), and contributed many + papers to learned periodicals. + + A collection of his historical works, with autobiographical notice, + was published in 15 volumes (Gottingen, 1821-1830). + + + + +HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON (1809-1893), German theologian, was born at +Unterkochen in Wurttemberg on the 15th of March 1809, and was educated +at Tubingen, where in 1839 he became professor-ordinary of Church +history and patristics in the Roman Catholic faculty of theology. From +1842 to 1845 he sat in the National Assembly of Wurttemberg. In December +1869 he was enthroned bishop of Rottenburg. His literary activity, which +had been considerable, was in no way diminished by his elevation to the +episcopate. Among his numerous theological works may be mentioned his +well-known edition of the _Apostolic Fathers_, issued in 1839; his _Life +of Cardinal Ximenes_, published in 1844 (Eng. trans., 1860); and his +still more celebrated _History of the Councils of the Church_, in seven +volumes, which appeared between 1855 and 1874 (Eng. trans., 1871, 1882). +Hefele's theological opinions inclined towards the more liberal school +in the Roman Catholic Church, but he nevertheless received considerable +signs of favour from its authorities, and was a member of the commission +that made preparations for the Vatican Council of 1870. On the eve of +that council he published at Naples his _Causa Honorii Papae_, which +aimed at demonstrating the moral and historical impossibility of papal +infallibility. About the same time he brought out a work in German on +the same subject. He took rather a prominent part in the discussions at +the council, associating himself with Felix Dupanloup and with Georges +Darboy, archbishop of Paris, in his opposition to the doctrine of +Infallibility, and supporting their arguments from his vast knowledge of +ecclesiastical history. In the preliminary discussions he voted against +the promulgation of the dogma. He was absent from the important sitting +of the 18th of June 1870, and did not send in his submission to the +decrees until 1871, when he explained in a pastoral letter that the +dogma "referred only to doctrine given forth _ex cathedra_, and therein +to the definitions proper only, but not to its proofs or explanations." +In 1872 he took part in the congress summoned by the Ultramontanes at +Fulda, and by his judicious use of minimizing tactics he kept his +diocese free from any participation in the Old Catholic schism. The last +four volumes of the second edition of his _History of the Councils_ have +been described as skilfully adapted to the new situation created by the +Vatican decrees. During the later years of his life he undertook no +further literary efforts on behalf of his church, but retired into +comparative privacy. He died on the 6th of June 1893. + + See Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, vii. 525. + + + + +HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831), German philosopher, was born +at Stuttgart on the 27th of August 1770. His father, an official in the +fiscal service of Wurttemberg, is not otherwise known to fame; and of +his mother we hear only that she had scholarship enough to teach him the +elements of Latin. He had one sister, Christiana, who died unmarried, +and a brother Ludwig, who served in the campaigns of Napoleon. At the +grammar school of Stuttgart, where Hegel was educated between the ages +of seven and eighteen, he was not remarkable. His main productions were +a diary kept at intervals during eighteen months (1785-1787), and +translations of the _Antigone_, the _Manual_ of Epictetus, &c. But the +characteristic feature of his studies was the copious extracts which +from this time onward he unremittingly made and preserved. This +collection, alphabetically arranged, comprised annotations on classical +authors, passages from newspapers, treatises on morals and mathematics +from the standard works of the period. In this way he absorbed in their +integrity the raw materials for elaboration. Yet as evidence that he was +not merely receptive we have essays already breathing that admiration of +the classical world which he never lost. His chief amusement was cards, +and he began the habit of taking snuff. + +In the autumn of 1788 he entered at Tubingen as a student of theology; +but he showed no interest in theology: his sermons were a failure, and +he found more congenial reading in the classics, on the advantages of +studying which his first essay was written. After two years he took the +degree of Ph.D., and in the autumn of 1793 received his theological +certificate, stating him to be of good abilities, but of middling +industry and knowledge, and especially deficient in philosophy. + +As a student, his elderly appearance gained him the title "Old man," but +he took part in the walks, beer-drinking and love-making of his fellows. +He gained most from intellectual intercourse with his contemporaries, +the two best known of whom were J. C. F. Holderlin and Schelling. With +Holderlin Hegel learned to feel for the old Greeks a love which grew +stronger as the semi-Kantianized theology of his teachers more and more +failed to interest him. With Schelling like sympathies bound him. They +both protested against the political and ecclesiastical inertia of their +native state, and adopted the doctrines of freedom and reason. The story +which tells how the two went out one morning to dance round a tree of +liberty in a meadow is an anachronism, though in keeping with their +opinions. + +On leaving college, he became a private tutor at Bern and lived in +intellectual isolation. He was, however, far from inactive. He compiled +a systematic account of the fiscal system of the canton Bern, but the +main factor in his mental growth came from his study of Christianity. +Under the impulse given by Lessing and Kant he turned to the original +records of Christianity, and attempted to construe for himself the real +significance of Christ. He wrote a life of Jesus, in which Jesus was +simply the son of Joseph and Mary. He did not stop to criticize as a +philologist, and ignored the miraculous. He asked for the secret +contained in the conduct and sayings of this man which made him the hope +of the human race. Jesus appeared as revealing the unity with God in +which the Greeks in their best days unwittingly rejoiced, and as lifting +the eyes of the Jews from a lawgiver who metes out punishment on the +transgressor, to the destiny which in the Greek conception falls on the +just no less than on the unjust. + +The interest of these ideas is twofold. In Jesus Hegel finds the +expression for something higher than mere morality: he finds a noble +spirit which rises above the contrasts of virtue and vice into the +concrete life, seeing the infinite always embracing our finitude, and +proclaiming the divine which is in man and cannot be overcome by error +and evil, unless the man close his eyes and ears to the godlike presence +within him. In religious life, in short, he finds the principle which +reconciles the opposition of the temporal mind. But, secondly, the +general source of the doctrine that life is higher than all its +incidents is of interest. He does not free himself from the current +theology either by rational moralizing like Kant, or by bold speculative +synthesis like Fichte and Schelling. He finds his panacea in the +concrete life of humanity. But although he goes to the Scriptures, and +tastes the mystical spirit of the medieval saints, the Christ of his +conception has traits that seem borrowed from Socrates and from the +heroes of Attic tragedy, who suffer much and yet smile gently on a +destiny to which they were reconciled. Instead of the Hebraic doctrine +of a Jesus punished for our sins, we have the Hellenic idea of a man who +is calmly tranquil in the consciousness of his unity with God. + +During these years Hegel kept up a slack correspondence with Schelling +and Holderlin. Schelling, already on the way to fame, kept Hegel abreast +with German speculation. Both of them were intent on forcing the +theologians into the daylight, and grudged them any aid they might +expect from Kant's postulation of God and immortality to crown the +edifice of ethics. Meanwhile, Holderlin in Jena had been following +Fichte's career with an enthusiasm with which he infected Hegel. + +It is pleasing to turn from these vehement struggles of thought to a +tour which Hegel in company with three other tutors made through the +Bernese Oberland in July and August 1796. Of this tour he left a minute +diary. He was delighted with the varied play of the waterfalls, but no +glamour blinded him to the squalor of Swiss peasant life. The glaciers +and the rocks called forth no raptures. "The spectacle of these +eternally dead masses gave me nothing but the monotonous and at last +tedious idea, 'Es ist so.'" + +Towards the close of his engagement at Bern, Hegel had received hopes +from Schelling of a post at Jena. Fortunately his friend Holderlin, now +tutor in Frankfort, secured a similar situation there for Hegel in the +family of Herr Gogol, a merchant (January 1797). The new post gave him +more leisure and the society he needed. + +About this time he turned to questions of economics and government. He +had studied Gibbon, Hume and Montesquieu in Switzerland. We now find him +making extracts from the English newspapers on the Poor-Law Bill of +1796; criticising the Prussian land laws, promulgated about the same +time; and writing a commentary on Sir James Steuart's _Inquiry into the +Principles of Political Economy_. Here, as in contemporaneous criticisms +of Kant's ethical writings, Hegel aims at correcting the abstract +discussion of a topic by treating it in its systematic interconnexions. +Church and state, law and morality, commerce and art are reduced to +factors in the totality of human life, from which the specialists had +isolated them. + +But the best evidence of Hegel's attention to contemporary politics is +two unpublished essays--one of them written in 1798, "On the Internal +Condition of Wurttemberg in Recent Times, particularly on the Defects in +the Magistracy," the other a criticism on the constitution of Germany, +written, probably, not long after the peace of Luneville (1801). Both +essays are critical rather than constructive. In the first Hegel showed +how the supineness of the committee of estates in Wurttemberg had +favoured the usurpations of the superior officials in whom the court had +found compliant servants. And though he perceived the advantages of +change in the constitution of the estates, he still doubted if an +improved system could work in the actual conditions of his native +province. The main feature in the pamphlet is the recognition that a +spirit of reform is abroad. If Wurttemberg suffered from a bureaucracy +tempered by despotism, the Fatherland in general suffered no less. +"Germany," so begins the second of these unpublished papers, "is no +longer a state." Referring the collapse of the empire to the retention +of feudal forms and to the action of religious animosities, Hegel looked +forward to reorganization by a central power (Austria) wielding the +imperial army, and by a representative body elected by the geographical +districts of the empire. But such an issue, he saw well, could only be +the outcome of violence--of "blood and iron." The philosopher did not +pose as a practical statesman. He described the German empire in its +nullity as a conception without existence in fact. In such a state of +things it was the business of the philosopher to set forth the outlines +of the coming epoch, as they were already moulding themselves into +shape, amidst what the ordinary eye saw only as the disintegration of +the old forms of social life. + +His old interest in the religious question reappears, but in a more +philosophical form. Starting with the contrast between a natural and a +positive religion, he regards a positive religion as one imposed upon +the mind from without, not a natural growth crowning the round of human +life. A natural religion, on the other hand, was not, he thought, the +one universal religion of every clime and age, but rather the +spontaneous development of the national conscience varying in varying +circumstances. A people's religion completes and consecrates their whole +activity: in it the people rises above its finite life in limited +spheres to an infinite life where it feels itself all at one. Even +philosophy with Hegel at this epoch was subordinate to religion; for +philosophy must never abandon the finite in the search for the infinite. +Soon, however, Hegel adopted a view according to which philosophy is a +higher mode of apprehending the infinite than even religion. + +At Frankfort, meanwhile, the philosophic ideas of Hegel first assumed +the proper philosophic form. In a MS. of 102 quarto sheets, of which the +first three and the seventh are wanting, there is preserved the original +sketch of the Hegelian system, so far as the logic and metaphysics and +part of the philosophy of nature are concerned. The third part of the +system--the ethical theory--seems to have been composed afterwards; it +is contained in its first draft in another MS. of 30 sheets. Even these +had been preceded by earlier Pythagorean constructions envisaging the +divine life in divine triangles. + +Circumstances soon put Hegel in the way to complete these outlines. His +father died in January 1799; and the slender sum which Hegel received as +his inheritance, 3154 gulden (about L260), enabled him to think once +more of a studious life. At the close of 1800 we find him asking +Schelling for letters of introduction to Bamberg, where with cheap +living and good beer he hoped to prepare himself for the intellectual +excitement of Jena. The upshot was that Hegel arrived at Jena in January +1801. An end had already come to the brilliant epoch at Jena, when the +romantic poets, Tieck, Novalis and the Schlegels made it the +headquarters of their fantastic mysticism, and Fichte turned the results +of Kant into the banner of revolutionary ideas. Schelling was the main +philosophical lion of the time; and in some quarters Hegel was spoken of +as a new champion summoned to help him in his struggle with the more +prosaic continuators of Kant. Hegel's first performance seemed to +justify the rumour. It was an essay on the difference between the +philosophic systems of Fichte and Schelling, tending in the main to +support the latter. Still more striking was the agreement shown in the +_Critical Journal of Philosophy_, which Schelling and Hegel wrote +conjointly during the years 1802-1803. So latent was the difference +between them at this epoch that in one or two cases it is not possible +to determine by whom the essay was written. Even at a later period +foreign critics like Cousin saw much that was alike in the two +doctrines, and did not hesitate to regard Hegel as a disciple of +Schelling. The dissertation by which Hegel qualified for the position of +_Privatdozent_ (_De orbitis planetarum_) was probably chosen under the +influence of Schelling's philosophy of nature. It was an unfortunate +subject. For while Hegel, depending on a numerical proportion suggested +by Plato, hinted in a single sentence that it might be a mistake to look +for a planet between Mars and Jupiter, Giuseppe Piazzi (q.v.) had +already discovered the first of the asteroids (Ceres) on the 1st of +January 1801. Apparently in August, when Hegel qualified, the news of +the discovery had not yet reached him, but critics have made this +luckless suggestion the ground of attack on a priori philosophy. + +Hegel's lectures, in the winter of 1801-1802, on logic and metaphysics +were attended by about eleven students. Later, in 1804, we find him with +a class of about thirty, lecturing on his whole system; but his average +attendance was rather less. Besides philosophy, he once at least +lectured on mathematics. As he taught, he was led to modify his original +system, and notice after notice of his lectures promised a text-book of +philosophy--which, however, failed to appear. Meanwhile, after the +departure of Schelling from Jena in the middle of 1803, Hegel was left +to work out his own views. Besides philosophical studies, where he now +added Aristotle to Plato, he read Homer and the Greek tragedians, made +extracts from books, attended lectures on physiology, and dabbled in +other sciences. On his own representation at Weimar, he was in February +1805 made a professor extraordinarius, and in July 1806 drew his first +and only stipend--100 thalers. At Jena, though some of his hearers +became attached to him, Hegel was not a popular lecturer any more than +K. C. F. Krause (q.v.). The ordinary student found J. F. Fries (q.v.) +more intelligible. + +Of the lectures of that period there still remain considerable notes. +The language often had a theological tinge (never entirely absent), as +when the "idea" was spoken of, or "the night of the divine mystery," or +the dialectic of the absolute called the "course of the divine life." +Still his view was growing clearer, and his difference from Schelling +more palpable. Both Schelling and Hegel stand in a relation to art, but +while the aesthetic model of Schelling was found in the contemporary +world, where art was a special sphere and the artist a separate +profession in no intimate connexion with the age and nation, the model +of Hegel was found rather in those works of national art in which art +is not a part but an aspect of the common life, and the artist is not a +mere individual but a concentration of the passion and power of beauty +in the whole community. "Such art," says Hegel, "is the common good and +the work of all. Each generation hands it on beautified to the next; +each has done something to give utterance to the universal thought. +Those who are said to have genius have acquired some special aptitude by +which they render the general shapes of the nation their own work, one +in one point, another in another. What they produce is not their +invention, but the invention of the whole nation; or rather, what they +find is that the whole nation has found its true nature. Each, as it +were, piles up his stone. So too does the artist. Somehow he has the +good fortune to come last, and when he places his stone the arch stands +self-supported." Hegel, as we have already seen, was fully aware of the +change that was coming over the world. "A new epoch," he says, "has +arisen. It seems as if the world-spirit had now succeeded in freeing +itself from all foreign objective existence, and finally apprehending +itself as absolute mind." These words come from lectures on the history +of philosophy, which laid the foundation for his _Phanomenologie des +Geistes_ (Bamberg, 1807). + +On the 14th of October 1806 Napoleon was at Jena. Hegel, like Goethe, +felt no patriotic shudder at the national disaster, and in Prussia he +saw only a corrupt and conceited bureaucracy. Writing to his friend F. +J. Niethammer (1766-1848) on the day before the battle, he speaks with +admiration of the "world-soul," the emperor, and with satisfaction of +the probable overthrow of the Prussians. The scholar's wish was to see +the clouds of war pass away, and leave thinkers to their peaceful work. +His manuscripts were his main care; and doubtful of the safety of his +last despatch to Bamberg, and disturbed by the French soldiers in his +lodgings, he hurried off, with the last pages of the _Phanomenologie_, +to take refuge in the pro-rector's house. Hegel's fortunes were now at +the lowest ebb. Without means, and obliged to borrow from Niethammer, he +had no further hopes from the impoverished university. He had already +tried to get away from Jena. In 1805, when several lecturers left in +consequence of diminished classes, he had written to Johann Heinrich +Voss (q.v.), suggesting that his philosophy might find more congenial +soil in Heidelberg; but the application bore no fruit. He was, +therefore, glad to become editor of the _Bamberger Zeitung_ (1807-1808). +Of his editorial work there is little to tell; no leading articles +appeared in his columns. It was not a suitable vocation, and he gladly +accepted the rectorship of the Aegidien-gymnasium in Nuremberg, a post +which he held from December 1808 to August 1816. Bavaria at this time +was modernizing her institutions. The school system was reorganized by +new regulations, in accordance with which Hegel wrote a series of +lessons in the outlines of philosophy--ethical, logical and +psychological. They were published in 1840 by Rosenkranz from Hegel's +papers. + +As a teacher and master Hegel inspired confidence in his pupils, and +maintained discipline without pedantic interference in their +associations and sports. On prize-days his addresses summing up the +history of the school year discussed some topic of general interest. +Five of these addresses are preserved. The first is an exposition of the +advantages of a classical training, when it is not confined to mere +grammar. "The perfection and grandeur of the master-works of Greek and +Roman literature must be the intellectual bath, the secular baptism, +which gives the first and unfading tone and tincture of taste and +science." In another address, speaking of the introduction of military +exercises at school, he says: "These exercises, while not intended to +withdraw the students from their more immediate duty, so far as they +have any calling to it, still remind them of the possibility that every +one, whatever rank in society he may belong to, may one day have to +defend his country and his king, or help to that end. This duty, which +is natural to all, was formerly recognized by every citizen, though +whole ranks in the state have become strangers to the very idea of it." + +On the 16th of September 1811 Hegel married Marie von Tucher +(twenty-two years his junior) of Nuremberg. She brought her husband no +fortune, but the marriage was entirely happy. The husband kept a careful +record of income and expenditure. His income amounted at Nuremberg to +1500 gulden (L130) and a house; at Heidelberg, as professor, he received +about the same sum; at Berlin about 3000 thalers (L300). Two sons were +born to them; the elder, Karl, became eminent as a historian. The +younger, Immanuel, was born on the 24th of September 1816. Hegel's +letters to his wife, written during his solitary holiday tours to +Vienna, the Netherlands and Paris, breathe of kindly and happy +affection. Hegel the tourist--recalling happy days spent together; +confessing that, were it not because of his sense of duty as a +traveller, he would rather be at home, dividing his time between his +books and his wife; commenting on the shop windows at Vienna; describing +the straw hats of the Parisian ladies--is a contrast to the professor of +a profound philosophical system. But it shows that the enthusiasm which +in his days of courtship moved him to verse had blossomed into a later +age of domestic bliss. + +In 1812 appeared the first two volumes of his _Wissenschaft der Logik_, +and the work was completed by a third in 1816. This work, in which his +system was for the first time presented in what, with a few minor +alterations, was its ultimate shape, found some audience in the world. +Towards the close of his eighth session three professorships were almost +simultaneously put within his reach--at Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg. +The Prussian offer expressed a doubt that his long absence from +university teaching might have made him rusty, so he accepted the post +at Heidelberg, whence Fries had just gone to Jena (October 1816). Only +four hearers turned up for one of his courses. Others, however, on the +encyclopaedia of philosophy and the history of philosophy drew classes +of twenty to thirty. While he was there Cousin first made his +acquaintance, but a more intimate relation dates from Berlin. Among his +pupils was Hermann F. W. Hinrichs (q.v.), to whose _Religion in its +Inward Relation to Science_ (1822) Hegel contributed an important +preface. The strangest of his hearers was an Esthonian baron, Boris +d'Yrkull, who after serving in the Russian army came to Heidelberg to +hear the wisdom of Hegel. But his books and his lectures were alike +obscure to the baron, who betook himself by Hegel's advice to simpler +studies before he returned to the Hegelian system. + +At Heidelberg Hegel was active in a literary way also. In 1817 he +brought out the _Enzyklopadie d. philos. Wissenschaften im Grundrisse_ +(4th ed., Berlin, 1817; new ed., 1870) for use at his lectures. It is +the only exposition of the Hegelian system as a whole which we have +direct from Hegel's own hand. Besides this work he wrote two reviews for +the Heidelberg _Jahrbucher_--the first on F. H. Jacobi, the other a +political pamphlet which called forth violent criticism. It was entitled +a _Criticism on the Transactions of the Estates of Wurttemberg in +1815-1816_. On the 15th of March 1815 King Frederick of Wurttemberg, at +a meeting of the estates of his kingdom, laid before them the draft of a +new constitution, in accordance with the resolutions of the congress of +Vienna. Though an improvement on the old constitution, it was +unacceptable to the estates, jealous of their old privileges and +suspicious of the king's intentions. A decided majority demanded the +restitution of their old laws, though the kingdom now included a large +population to which the old rights were strange. Hegel in his essay, +which was republished at Stuttgart, supported the royal proposals, and +animadverted on the backwardness of the bureaucracy and the landed +interests. In the main he was right; but he forgot too much the +provocation they had received, the usurpations and selfishness of the +governing family, and the unpatriotic character of the king. + +In 1818 Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of philosophy at +Berlin, vacant since the death of Fichte. The hopes which this offer +raised of a position less precarious than that of a university teacher +of philosophy were in one sense disappointed; for more than a professor +Hegel never became. But his influence upon his pupils, and his +solidarity with the Prussian government, gave him a position such as +few professors have held. + +In 1821 Hegel published the _Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts_ +(2nd ed., 1840; ed. G. J. B. Bolland, 1901; Eng. trans., _Philosophy of +Right_, by S. W. Dyde, 1896). It is a combined system of moral and +political philosophy, or a sociology dominated by the idea of the state. +It turns away contemptuously and fiercely from the sentimental +aspirations of reformers possessed by the democratic doctrine of the +rights of the omnipotent nation. Fries is stigmatized as one of the +"ringleaders of shallowness" who were bent on substituting a fancied tie +of enthusiasm and friendship for the established order of the state. The +disciplined philosopher, who had devoted himself to the task of +comprehending the organism of the state, had no patience with feebler or +more mercurial minds who recklessly laid hands on established +ordinances, and set them aside where they contravened humanitarian +sentiments. With the principle that whatever is real is rational, and +whatever is rational is real, Hegel fancied that he had stopped the +mouths of political critics and constitution-mongers. His theory was not +a mere formulation of the Prussian state. Much that he construed as +necessary to a state was wanting in Prussia; and some of the reforms +already introduced did not find their place in his system. Yet, on the +whole, he had taken his side with the government. Altenstein even +expressed his satisfaction with the book. In his disgust at the crude +conceptions of the enthusiasts, who had hoped that the war of liberation +might end in a realm of internal liberty, Hegel had forgotten his own +youthful vows recorded in verse to Holderlin, "never, never to live in +peace with the ordinance which regulates feeling and opinion." And yet +if we look deeper we see that this is no worship of existing powers. It +is rather due to an overpowering sense of the value of organization--a +sense that liberty can never be dissevered from order, that a vital +interconnexion between all the parts of the body politic is the source +of all good, so that while he can find nothing but brute weight in an +organized public, he can compare the royal person in his ideal form of +constitutional monarchy to the dot upon the letter i. A keen sense of +how much is at stake in any alteration breeds suspicion of every reform. + +During his thirteen years at Berlin Hegel's whole soul seems to have +been in his lectures. Between 1823 and 1827 his activity reached its +maximum. His notes were subjected to perpetual revisions and additions. +We can form an idea of them from the shape in which they appear in his +published writings. Those on _Aesthetics_, on the _Philosophy of +Religion_, on the _Philosophy of History_ and on the _History of +Philosophy_, have been published by his editors, mainly from the notes +of his students, under their separate heads; while those on logic, +psychology and the philosophy of nature are appended in the form of +illustrative and explanatory notes to the sections of his +_Encyklopadie_. During these years hundreds of hearers from all parts of +Germany, and beyond, came under his influence. His fame was carried +abroad by eager or intelligent disciples. At Berlin Henning served to +prepare the intending disciple for fuller initiation by the master +himself. Edward Gans (q.v.) and Heinrich Gustav Hotho (q.v.) carried the +method into special spheres of inquiry. At Halle Hinrichs maintained the +standard of Hegelianism amid the opposition or indifference of his +colleagues. + +Three courses of lectures are especially the product of his Berlin +period: those on aesthetics, the philosophy of religion and the +philosophy of history. In the years preceding the revolution of 1830, +public interest, excluded from political life, turned to theatres, +concert-rooms and picture-galleries. At these Hegel became a frequent +and appreciative visitor and made extracts from the art-notes in the +newspapers. In his holiday excursions, the interest in the fine arts +more than once took him out of his way to see some old painting. At +Vienna in 1824 he spent every moment at the Italian opera, the ballet +and the picture-galleries. In Paris, in 1827, he saw Charles Kemble and +an English company play Shakespeare. This familiarity with the facts of +art, though neither deep nor historical, gave a freshness to his +lectures on aesthetics, which, as put together from the notes of 1820, +1823, 1826, are in many ways the most successful of his efforts. + +The lectures on the philosophy of religion are another application of +his method. Shortly before his death he had prepared for the press a +course of lectures on the proofs for the existence of God. In his +lectures on religion he dealt with Christianity, as in his philosophy of +morals he had regarded the state. On the one hand he turned his weapons +against the rationalistic school, who reduced religion to the modicum +compatible with an ordinary worldly mind. On the other hand he +criticized the school of Schleiermacher, who elevated feeling to a place +in religion above systematic theology. His middle way attempts to show +that the dogmatic creed is the rational development of what was implicit +in religious feeling. To do so, of course, philosophy becomes the +interpreter and the superior. To the new school of E. W. Hengstenberg, +which regarded Revelation itself as supreme, such interpretation was an +abomination. + +A Hegelian school began to gather. The flock included intelligent +pupils, empty-headed imitators, and romantic natures who turned +philosophy into lyric measures. Opposition and criticism only served to +define more precisely the adherents of the new doctrine. Hegel himself +grew more and more into a belief in his own doctrine as the one truth +for the world. He was in harmony with the government, and his followers +were on the winning side. Though he had soon resigned all direct +official connexion with the schools of Brandenburg, his real influence +in Prussia was considerable, and as usual was largely exaggerated in +popular estimate. In the narrower circle of his friends his birthdays +were the signal for congratulatory verses. In 1826 a formal festival was +got up by some of his admirers, one of whom, Herder, spoke of his +categories as new gods; and he was presented with much poetry and a +silver mug. In 1830 the students struck a medal in his honour, and in +1831 he was decorated by an order from Frederick William III. In 1830 he +was rector of the university; and in his speech at the tricentenary of +the Augsburg Confession in that year he charged the Catholic Church with +regarding the virtues of the pagan world as brilliant vices, and giving +the crown of perfection to poverty, continence and obedience. + +One of the last literary undertakings in which he took part was the +establishment of the Berlin _Jahrbucher fur wissenschaftliche Kritik_, +in which he assisted Edward Gans and Varnhagen von Ense. The aim of this +review was to give a critical account, certified by the names of the +contributors, of the literary and philosophical productions of the time, +in relation to the general progress of knowledge. The journal was not +solely in the Hegelian interest; and more than once, when Hegel +attempted to domineer over the other editors, he was met by vehement and +vigorous opposition. + +The revolution of 1830 was a great blow to him, and the prospect of +democratic advances almost made him ill. His last literary work, the +first part of which appeared in the _Preussische Staatszeitung_, was an +essay on the English Reform Bill of 1831. It contains primarily a +consideration of its probable effects on the character of the new +members of parliament, and the measures which they may introduce. In the +latter connexion he enlarged on several points in which England had done +less than many continental states for the abolition of monopolies and +abuses. Surveying the questions connected with landed property, with the +game laws, the poor, the Established Church, especially in Ireland, he +expressed grave doubt on the legislative capacity of the English +parliament as compared with the power of renovation manifested in other +states of western Europe. + +In 1831 cholera first entered Europe. Hegel and his family retired for +the summer to the suburbs, and there he finished the revision of the +first part of his _Science of Logic_. On the beginning of the winter +session, however, he returned to his house in the Kupfergraben. On this +occasion an altercation occurred between him and his friend Gans, who in +his notice of lectures on jurisprudence had recommended Hegel's +_Philosophy of Right_. Hegel, indignant at what he deemed patronage, +demanded that the note should be withdrawn. On the 14th of November, +after one day's illness, he died of cholera and was buried, as he had +wished, between Fichte and Solger. + +Hegel in his class-room was neither imposing nor fascinating. You saw a +plain, old-fashioned face, without life or lustre--a figure which had +never looked young, and was now prematurely aged; the furrowed face bore +witness to concentrated thought. Sitting with his snuff-box before him, +and his head bent down, he looked ill at ease, and kept turning the +folios of his notes. His utterance was interrupted by frequent coughing; +every sentence came out with a struggle. The style was no less +irregular. Sometimes in plain narrative the lecturer would be specially +awkward, while in abstruse passages he seemed specially at home, rose +into a natural eloquence, and carried away the hearer by the grandeur of +his diction. + + _Philosophy._--Hegelianism is confessedly one of the most difficult of + all philosophies. Every one has heard the legend which makes Hegel + say, "One man has understood me, and even he has not." He abruptly + hurls us into a world where old habits of thought fail us. In three + places, indeed, he has attempted to exhibit the transition to his own + system from other levels of thought; but in none with much success. In + the introductory lectures on the philosophy of religion he gives a + rationale of the difference between the modes of consciousness in + religion and philosophy (between _Vorstellung_ and _Begriff_). In the + beginning of the _Encyklopadie_ he discusses the defects of dogmatism, + empiricism, the philosophies of Kant and Jacobi. In the first case he + treats the formal or psychological aspect of the difference; in the + latter he presents his doctrine less in its essential character than + in special relations to the prominent systems of his time. The + _Phenomenology of Spirit_, regarded as an introduction, suffers from a + different fault. It is not an introduction--for the philosophy which + it was to introduce was not then fully elaborated. Even to the last + Hegel had not so externalized his system as to treat it as something + to be led up to by gradual steps. His philosophy was not one aspect of + his intellectual life, to be contemplated from others; it was the ripe + fruit of concentrated reflection, and had become the one all-embracing + form and principle of his thinking. More than most thinkers he had + quietly laid himself open to the influences of his time and the + lessons of history. + + + The Phenomenology. + + The _Phenomenology_ is the picture of the Hegelian philosophy in the + making--at the stage before the scaffolding has been removed from the + building. For this reason the book is at once the most brilliant and + the most difficult of Hegel's works--the most brilliant because it is + to some degree an autobiography of Hegel's mind--not the abstract + record of a logical evolution, but the real history of an intellectual + growth; the most difficult because, instead of treating the rise of + intelligence (from its first appearance in contrast with the real + world to its final recognition of its presence in, and rule over, all + things) as a purely subjective process, it exhibits this rise as + wrought out in historical epochs, national characteristics, forms of + culture and faith, and philosophical systems. The theme is identical + with the introduction to the _Encyklopadie_; but it is treated in a + very different style. From all periods of the world--from medieval + piety and stoical pride, Kant and Sophocles, science and art, religion + and philosophy--with disdain of mere chronology, Hegel gathers in the + vineyards of the human spirit the grapes from which he crushes the + wine of thought. The mind coming through a thousand phases of mistake + and disappointment to a sense and realization of its true position in + the universe--such is the drama which is consciously Hegel's own + history, but is represented objectively as the process of spiritual + history which the philosopher reproduces in himself. The + _Phenomenology_ stands to the _Encyklopadie_ somewhat as the dialogues + of Plato stand to the Aristotelian treatises. It contains almost all + his philosophy--but irregularly and without due proportion. The + personal element gives an undue prominence to recent phenomena of the + philosophic atmosphere. It is the account given by an inventor of his + own discovery, not the explanation of an outsider. It therefore to + some extent assumes from the first the position which it proposes + ultimately to reach, and gives not a proof of that position, but an + account of the experience (_Erfahrung_) by which consciousness is + forced from one position to another till it finds rest in _Absolutes + Wissen_. + + The _Phenomenology_ is neither mere psychology, nor logic, nor moral + philosophy, nor history, but is all of these and a great deal more. It + needs not distillation, but expansion and illustration from + contemporary and antecedent thought and literature. It treats of the + attitudes of consciousness towards reality under the six heads of + consciousness, self-consciousness, reason (_Vernunft_), spirit + (_Geist_), religion and absolute knowledge. The native attitude of + consciousness towards existence is reliance on the evidence of the + senses; but a little reflection is sufficient to show that the reality + attributed to the external world is as much due to intellectual + conceptions as to the senses, and that these conceptions elude us when + we try to fix them. If consciousness cannot detect a permanent object + outside it, so self-consciousness cannot find a permanent subject in + itself. It may, like the Stoic, assert freedom by holding aloof from + the entanglements of real life, or like the sceptic regard the world + as a delusion, or finally, as the "unhappy consciousness" + (_Ungluckliches Bewusstseyn_), may be a recurrent falling short of a + perfection which it has placed above it in the heavens. But in this + isolation from the world, self-consciousness has closed its gates + against the stream of life. The perception of this is reason. Reason + convinced that the world and the soul are alike rational observes the + external world, mental phenomena, and specially the nervous organism, + as the meeting ground of body and mind. But reason finds much in the + world recognizing no kindred with her, and so turning to practical + activity seeks in the world the realization of her own aims. Either in + a crude way she pursues her own pleasure, and finds that necessity + counteracts her cravings; or she endeavours to find the world in + harmony with the heart, and yet is unwilling to see fine aspirations + crystallized by the act of realizing them. Finally, unable to impose + upon the world either selfish or humanitarian ends, she folds her arms + in pharisaic virtue, with the hope that some hidden power will give + the victory to righteousness. But the world goes on in its life, + heedless of the demands of virtue. The principle of nature is to live + and let live. Reason abandons her efforts to mould the world, and is + content to let the aims of individuals work out their results + independently, only stepping in to lay down precepts for the cases + where individual actions conflict, and to test these precepts by the + rules of formal logic. + + So far we have seen consciousness on one hand and the real world on + the other. The stage of _Geist_ reveals the consciousness no longer as + critical and antagonistic but as the indwelling spirit of a community, + as no longer isolated from its surroundings but the union of the + single and real consciousness with the vital feeling that animates the + community. This is the lowest stage of concrete consciousness--life, + and not knowledge; the spirit inspires, but does not reflect. It is + the age of unconscious morality, when the individual's life is lost in + the society of which he is an organic member. But increasing culture + presents new ideals, and the mind, absorbing the ethical spirit of its + environment, gradually emancipates itself from conventions and + superstitions. This _Aufklarung_ prepares the way for the rule of + conscience, for the moral view of the world as subject of a moral law. + From the moral world the next step is religion; the moral law gives + place to God; but the idea of Godhead, too, as it first appears, is + imperfect, and has to pass through the forms of nature-worship and of + art before it reaches a full utterance in Christianity. Religion in + this shape is the nearest step to the stage of absolute knowledge; and + this absolute knowledge--"the spirit knowing itself as spirit"--is not + something which leaves these other forms behind but the full + comprehension of them as the organic constituents of its empire; "they + are the memory and the sepulchre of its history, and at the same time + the actuality, truth and certainty of its throne." Here, according to + Hegel, is the field of philosophy. + + The preface to the _Phenomenology_ signalled the separation from + Schelling--the adieu to romantic. It declared that a genuine + philosophy has no kindred with the mere aspirations of artistic minds, + but must earn its bread by the sweat of its brow. It sets its face + against the idealism which either thundered against the world for its + deficiencies, or sought something finer than reality. Philosophy is to + be the science of the actual world--it is the spirit comprehending + itself in its own externalizations and manifestations. The philosophy + of Hegel is idealism, but it is an idealism in which every idealistic + unification has its other face in the multiplicity of existence. It is + realism as well as idealism, and never quits its hold on facts. + Compared with Fichte and Schelling, Hegel has a sober, hard, realistic + character. At a later date, with the call of Schelling to Berlin in + 1841, it became fashionable to speak of Hegelianism as a negative + philosophy requiring to be complemented by a "positive" philosophy + which would give reality and not mere ideas. The cry was the same as + that of Krug (q.v.), asking the philosophers who expounded the + absolute to construe his pen. It was the cry of the Evangelical school + for a personal Christ and not a dialectical Logos. The claims of the + individual, the real, material and historical fact, it was said, had + been sacrificed by Hegel to the universal, the ideal, the spiritual + and the logical. + + There was a truth in these criticisms. It was the very aim of + Hegelianism to render fluid the fixed phases of reality--to show + existence not to be an immovable rock limiting the efforts of thought, + but to have thought implicit in it, waiting for release from its + petrifaction. Nature was no longer, as with Fichte, to be a mere + spring-board to evoke the latent powers of the spirit. Nor was it, as + in Schelling's earlier system, to be a collateral progeny with mind + from the same womb of indifference and identity. Nature and mind in + the Hegelian system--the external and the spiritual world--have the + same origin, but are not co-equal branches. The natural world proceeds + from the "idea," the spiritual from the idea and nature. It is + impossible, beginning with the natural world, to explain the mind by + any process of distillation or development, unless consciousness or + its potentiality has been there from the first. Reality, independent + of the individual consciousness, there must be; reality, independent + of all mind, is an impossibility. At the basis of all reality, whether + material or mental, there is thought. But the thought thus regarded as + the basis of all existence is not consciousness with its distinction + of ego and non-ego. It is rather the stuff of which both mind and + nature are made, neither extended as in the natural world, nor + self-centred as in mind. Thought in its primary form is, as it were, + thoroughly transparent and absolutely fluid, free and mutually + interpenetrable in every part--the spirit in its seraphic scientific + life, before creation had produced a natural world, and thought had + risen to independent existence in the social organism. Thought in this + primary form, when in all its parts completed, is what Hegel calls the + "idea." But the idea, though fundamental, is in another sense final, + in the process of the world. It only appears in consciousness as the + crowning development of the mind. Only with philosophy does thought + become fully conscious of itself in its origin and development. + Accordingly the history of philosophy is the pre-supposition of logic, + or the three branches of philosophy form a circle. + + + Logic. + + The exposition or constitution of the "idea" is the work of the Logic. + As the total system falls into three parts, so every part of the + system follows the triadic law. Every truth, every reality, has three + aspects or stages; it is the unification of two contradictory + elements, of two partial aspects of truth which are not merely + contrary, like black and white, but contradictory, like same and + different. The first step is a preliminary affirmation and + unification, the second a negation and differentiation, the third a + final synthesis. For example, the seed of the plant is an initial + unity of life, which when placed in its proper soil suffers + disintegration into its constitutents, and yet in virtue of its vital + unity keeps these divergent elements together, and reappears as the + plant with its members in organic union. Or again, the process of + scientific induction is a threefold chain; the original hypothesis + (the first unification of the fact) seems to melt away when confronted + with opposite facts, and yet no scientific progress is possible unless + the stimulus of the original unification is strong enough to clasp the + discordant facts and establish a reunification. Thesis, antithesis and + synthesis, a Fichtean formula, is generalized by Hegel into the + perpetual law of thought. + + In what we may call their psychological aspect these three stages are + known as the abstract stage, or that of understanding (_Verstand_), + the dialectical stage, or that of negative reason, and the speculative + stage, or that of positive reason (_Vernunft_). The first of these + attitudes taken alone is dogmatism; the second, when similarly + isolated, is scepticism; the third, when unexplained by its elements, + is mysticism. Thus Hegelianism reduces dogmatism, scepticism and + mysticism to factors in philosophy. The abstract or dogmatic thinker + believes his object to be one, simple and stationary, and intelligible + apart from its surrounding. He speaks, e.g., as if species and genera + were fixed and unchangeable; and fixing his eye on the ideal forms in + their purity and self-sameness, he scorns the phenomenal world, whence + this identity and persistence are absent. The dialectic of negative + reason rudely dispels these theories. Appealing to reality it shows + that the identity and permanence of forms are contradicted by history; + instead of unity it exhibits multiplicity, instead of identity + difference, instead of a whole, only parts. Dialectic is, therefore, a + dislocating power; it shakes the solid structures of material thought, + and exhibits the instability latent in such conceptions of the world. + It is the spirit of progress and change, the enemy of convention and + conservatism; it is absolute and universal unrest. In the realm of + abstract thought these transitions take place lightly. In the worlds + of nature and mind they are more palpable and violent. So far as this + Hegel seems on the side of revolution. But reason is not negative + only; while it disintegrates the mass or unconscious unity, it builds + up a new unity with higher organization. But this third stage is the + place of effort, requiring neither the surrender of the original unity + nor the ignoring of the diversity afterwards suggested. The stimulus + of contradiction is no doubt a strong one; but the easiest way of + escaping it is to shut our eyes to one side of the antithesis. What is + required, therefore, is to readjust our original thesis in such a way + as to include and give expression to both the elements in the process. + + The universe, then, is a process or development, to the eye of + philosophy. It is the process of the absolute--in religious language, + the manifestation of God. In the background of all the absolute is + eternally present; the rhythmic movement of thought is the + self-unfolding of the absolute. God reveals Himself in the logical + idea, in nature and in mind; but mind is not alike conscious of its + absoluteness in every stage of development. Philosophy alone sees God + revealing Himself in the ideal organism of thought as it were a + possible deity prior to the world and to any relation between God and + actuality; in the natural world, as a series of materialized forces + and forms of life; and in the spiritual world as the human soul, the + legal and moral order of society, and the creations of art, religion + and philosophy. + + This introduction of the absolute became a stumbling-block to + Feuerbach and other members of the "Left." They rejected as an + illegitimate interpolation the eternal subject of development, and, + instead of one continuing God as the subject of all the predicates by + which in the logic the absolute is defined, assumed only a series of + ideas, products of philosophic activity. They denied the theological + value of the logical forms--the development of these forms being in + their opinion due to the human thinker, not to a self-revealing + absolute. Thus they made man the creator of the absolute. But with + this modification on the system another necessarily followed; a mere + logical series could not create nature. And thus the material universe + became the real starting-point. Thought became only the result of + organic conditions--subjective and human; and the system of Hegel was + no longer an idealization of religion, but a naturalistic theory with + a prominent and peculiar logic. + + The logic of Hegel is the only rival to the logic of Aristotle. What + Aristotle did for the theory of demonstrative reasoning, Hegel + attempted to do for the whole of human knowledge. His logic is an + enumeration of the forms or categories by which our experience exists. + It carried out Kant's doctrine of the categories as a priori synthetic + principles, but removed the limitation by which Kant denied them any + constitutive value except in alliance with experience. According to + Hegel the terms in which thought exhibits itself are a system of their + own, with laws and relations which reappear in a less obvious shape in + the theories of nature and mind. Nor are they restricted to the small + number which Kant obtained by manipulating the current subdivision of + judgments. But all forms by which thought holds sensations in unity + (the formative or synthetic elements of language) had their place + assigned in a system where one leads up to and passes over into + another. + + The fact which ordinary thought ignores, and of which ordinary logic + therefore provides no account, is the presence of gradation and + continuity in the world. The general terms of language simplify the + universe by reducing its variety of individuals to a few forms, none + of which exists simply and perfectly. The method of the understanding + is to divide and then to give a separate reality to what it has thus + distinguished. It is part of Hegel's plan to remedy this one-sided + character of thought, by laying bare the gradations of ideas. He lays + special stress on the point that abstract ideas when held in their + abstraction are almost interchangeable with their opposites--that + extremes meet, and that in every true and concrete idea there is a + coincidence of opposites. + + The beginning of the logic is an illustration of this. The logical + idea is treated under the three heads of being (_Seyn_), essence + (_Wesen_) and notion (_Begriff_). The simplest term of thought is + being; we cannot think less about anything than when we merely say + that it is. Being--the abstract "is"--is _nothing_ definite, and + nothing at least is. Being and not being are thus declared + identical--a proposition which in this unqualified shape was to most + people a stumbling-block at the very door of the system. Instead of + the mere "is" which is as yet nothing, we should rather say "becomes," + and as "becomes" always implies "something," we have determinate + being--"a being" which in the next stage of definiteness becomes + "one." And in this way we pass on to the quantitative aspects of + being. + + The terms treated under the first head, in addition to those already + mentioned, are the abstract principles of quantity and number, and + their application in measure to determine the limits of being. Under + the title of essence are discussed those pairs of correlative terms + which are habitually employed in the explanation of the world--such as + law and phenomenon, cause and effect, reason and consequence, + substance and attribute. Under the head of notion are considered, + firstly, the subjective forms of conception, judgment and syllogism; + secondly, their realization in objects as mechanically, chemically or + teleologically constituted; and thirdly, the idea first of life, and + next of science, as the complete interpenetration of thought and + objectivity. The third part of logic evidently is what contains the + topics usually treated in logic-books, though even here the province + of logic in the ordinary sense is exceeded. The first two + divisions--the "objective logic"--are what is usually called + metaphysics. + + The characteristic of the system is the gradual way in which idea is + linked to idea so as to make the division into chapters only an + arrangement of convenience. The judgment is completed in the + syllogism; the syllogistic form as the perfection of subjective + thought passes into objectivity, where it first appears embodied in a + mechanical system; and the teleological object, in which the members + are as means and end, leads up to the idea of life, where the end is + means and means end indissolubly till death. In some cases these + transitions may be unsatisfactory and forced; it is apparent that the + linear development from "being" to the "idea" is got by transforming + into a logical order the sequence that has roughly prevailed in + philosophy from the Eleatics; cases might be quoted where the + reasoning seems a play upon words; and it may often be doubted whether + certain ideas do not involve extra-logical considerations. The order + of the categories is in the main outlines fixed; but in the minor + details much depends upon the philosopher, who has to fill in the gaps + between ideas, with little guidance from the data of experience, and + to assign to the stages of development names which occasionally deal + hardly with language. The merit of Hegel is to have indicated and to a + large extent displayed the filiation and mutual limitation of our + forms of thought; to have arranged them in the order of their + comparative capacity to give a satisfactory expression to truth in the + totality of its relations; and to have broken down the partition which + in Kant separated the formal logic from the transcendental analytic, + as well as the general disruption between logic and metaphysic. It + must at the same time be admitted that much of the work of weaving the + terms of thought, the categories, into a system has a hypothetical and + tentative character, and that Hegel has rather pointed out the path + which logic must follow, viz. a criticism of the terms of scientific + and ordinary thought in their filiation and interdependence, than + himself in every case kept to the right way. The day for a fuller + investigation of this problem will partly depend upon the progress of + the study of language in the direction marked out by W. von Humboldt. + + + Philosophy of nature. + + The Philosophy of Nature starts with the result of the logical + development, with the full scientific "idea." But the relations of + pure thought, losing their inwardness, appear as relations of space + and time; the abstract development of thought appears as matter and + movement. Instead of thought, we have perception; instead of + dialectic, gravitation; instead of causation, sequence in time. The + whole falls under the three heads of mechanics, physics and + "organic"--the content under each varying somewhat in the three + editions of the _Encyklopadie_. The first treats of space, time, + matter, movement; and in the solar system we have the representation + of the idea in its general and abstract material form. Under the head + of physics we have the theory of the elements, of sound, heat and + cohesion, and finally of chemical affinity--presenting the phenomena + of material change and interchange in a series of special forces which + generate the variety of the life of nature. Lastly, under the head of + "organic," come geology, botany and animal physiology--presenting the + concrete results of these processes in the three kingdoms of nature. + + The charges of superficial analogies, so freely urged against the + "Natur-philosophie" by critics who forget the impulse it gave to + physical research by the identification of forces then believed to be + radically distinct, do not particularly affect Hegel. But in general + it may be said that he looked down upon the mere natural world. The + meanest of the fancies of the mind and the most casual of its whims he + regarded as a better warrant for the being of God than any single + object of nature. Those who supposed astronomy to inspire religious + awe were horrified to hear the stars compared to eruptive spots on the + face of the sky. Even in the animal world, the highest stage of + nature, he saw a failure to reach an independent and rational system + of organization; and its feelings under the continuous violence and + menaces of the environment he described as insecure, anxious and + unhappy. + + His point of view was essentially opposed to the current views of + science. To metamorphosis he only allowed a logical value, as + explaining the natural classification; the only real, existent + metamorphosis he saw in the development of the individual from its + embryonic stage. Still more distinctly did he contravene the general + tendency of scientific explanation. "It is held the triumph of science + to recognize in the general process of the earth the same categories + as are exhibited in the processes of isolated bodies. This is, + however, an application of categories from a field where the + conditions are finite to a sphere in which the circumstances are + infinite." In astronomy he depreciates the merits of Newton and + elevates Kepler, accusing Newton particularly, a propos of the + distinction of centrifugal and centripetal forces, of leading to a + confusion between what is mathematically to be distinguished and what + is physically separate. The principles which explain the fall of an + apple will not do for the planets. As to colour, he follows Goethe, + and uses strong language against Newton's theory, for the barbarism of + the conception that light is a compound, the incorrectness of his + observations, &c. In chemistry, again, he objects to the way in which + all the chemical elements are treated as on the same level. + + + Philosophy of mind. 1. Psychology. + + The third part of the system is the Philosophy of Mind. Its three + divisions are the "subjective mind" (psychology), the "objective mind" + (philosophic jurisprudence, moral and political philosophy) and the + "absolute mind" (the philosophy of art, religion and philosophy). The + subjects of the second and third divisions have been treated by Hegel + with great detail. The "objective mind" is the topic of the + _Rechts-Philosophie_, and of the lectures on the Philosophy of + History; while on the "absolute mind" we have the lectures on + Aesthetic, on the Philosophy of Religion and on the History of + Philosophy--in short, more than one-third of his works. + + The purely psychological branch of the subject takes up half of the + space allotted to _Geist_ in the _Encyklopadie_. It falls under the + three heads of anthropology, phenomenology and psychology proper. + Anthropology treats of the mind in union with the body--of the natural + soul--and discusses the relations of the soul with the planets, the + races of mankind, the differences of age, dreams, animal magnetism, + insanity and phrenology. In this obscure region it is rich in + suggestions and rapprochements; but the ingenuity of these + speculations attracts curiosity more than it satisfies scientific + inquiry. In the Phenomenology consciousness, self-consciousness and + reason are dealt with. The title of the section and the contents + recall, though with some important variations, the earlier half of his + first work; only that here the historical background on which the + stages in the development of the ego were represented has disappeared. + Psychology, in the stricter sense, deals with the various forms of + theoretical and practical intellect, such as attention, memory, desire + and will. In this account of the development of an independent, active + and intelligent being from the stage where man like the Dryad is a + portion of the natural life around him, Hegel has combined what may be + termed a physiology and pathology of the mind--a subject far wider + than that of ordinary psychologies, and one of vast intrinsic + importance. It is, of course, easy to set aside these questions as + unanswerable, and to find artificiality in the arrangement. Still it + remains a great point to have even attempted some system in the dark + anomalies which lie under the normal consciousness, and to have traced + the genesis of the intellectual faculties from animal sensitivity. + + + 2. Law and history. + + The theory of the mind as objectified in the institutions of law, the + family and the state is discussed in the "Philosophy of Right." + Beginning with the antithesis of a legal system and morality, Hegel, + carrying out the work of Kant, presents the synthesis of these + elements in the ethical life (_Sittlichkeit_) of the family and the + state. Treating the family as an instinctive realization of the moral + life, and not as the result of contract, he shows how by the means of + wider associations due to private interests the state issues as the + full home of the moral spirit, where intimacy of interdependence is + combined with freedom of independent growth. The state is the + consummation of man as finite; it is the necessary starting-point + whence the spirit rises to an absolute existence in the spheres of + art, religion and philosophy. In the finite world or temporal state, + religion, as the finite organization of a church, is, like other + societies, subordinate to the state. But on another side, as absolute + spirit, religion, like art and philosophy, is not subject to the + state, but belongs to a higher region. + + The political state is always an individual, and the relations of + these states with each other and the "world-spirit" of which they are + the manifestations constitute the material of history. The _Lectures + on the Philosophy of History_, edited by Gans and subsequently by Karl + Hegel, is the most popular of Hegel's works. The history of the world + is a scene of judgment where one people and one alone holds for awhile + the sceptre, as the unconscious instrument of the universal spirit, + till another rises in its place, with a fuller measure of liberty--a + larger superiority to the bonds of natural and artificial + circumstance. Three main periods--the Oriental, the Classical and the + Germanic--in which respectively the single despot, the dominant order, + and the man as man possess freedom--constitute the history of the + world. Inaccuracy in detail and artifice in the arrangement of + isolated peoples are inevitable in such a scheme. A graver mistake, + according to some critics, is that Hegel, far from giving a law of + progress, seems to suggest that the history of the world is nearing an + end, and has merely reduced the past to a logical formula. The answer + to this charge is partly that such a law seems unattainable, and + partly that the idealistic content of the present which philosophy + extracts is always an advance upon actual fact, and so does throw a + light into the future. And at any rate the method is greater than + Hegel's employment of it. + + + 3. Art, religion and philosophy. + + But as with Aristotle so with Hegel--beyond the ethical and political + sphere rises the world of absolute spirit in art, religion and + philosophy. The psychological distinction between the three forms is + that sensuous perception (_Anschauung_) is the organon of the first, + presentative conception (_Vorstellung_) of the second and free thought + of the third. The work of art, the first embodiment of absolute mind, + shows a sensuous conformity between the idea and the reality in which + it is expressed. The so-called beauty of nature is for Hegel an + adventitious beauty. The beauty of art is a beauty born in the spirit + of the artist and born again in the spectator; it is not like the + beauty of natural things, an incident of their existence, but is + "essentially a question, an address to a responding breast, a call to + the heart and spirit." The perfection of art depends on the degree of + intimacy in which idea and form appear worked into each other. From + the different proportion between the idea and the shape in which it is + realized arise three different forms of art. When the idea, itself + indefinite, gets no further than a struggle and endeavour for its + appropriate expression, we have the symbolic, which is the Oriental, + form of art, which seeks to compensate its imperfect expression by + colossal and enigmatic structures. In the second or classical form of + art the idea of humanity finds an adequate sensuous representation. + But this form disappears with the decease of Greek national life, and + on its collapse follows the romantic, the third form of art; where the + harmony of form and content again grows defective, because the object + of Christian art--the infinite spirit--is a theme too high for art. + Corresponding to this division is the classification of the single + arts. First comes architecture--in the main, symbolic art; then + sculpture, the classical art _par excellence_; they are found, + however, in all three forms. Painting and music are the specially + romantic arts. Lastly, as a union of painting and music comes poetry, + where the sensuous element is more than ever subordinate to the + spirit. + + The lectures on the Philosophy of Art stray largely into the next + sphere and dwell with zest on the close connexion of art and religion; + and the discussion of the decadence and rise of religions, of the + aesthetic qualities of Christian legend, of the age of chivalry, &c., + make the _Asthetik_ a book of varied interest. + + The lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, though unequal in their + composition and belonging to different dates, serve to exhibit the + vital connexion of the system with Christianity. Religion, like art, + is inferior to philosophy as an exponent of the harmony between man + and the absolute. In it the absolute exists as the poetry and music of + the heart, in the inwardness of feeling. Hegel after expounding the + nature of religion passes on to discuss its historical phases, but in + the immature state of religious science falls into several mistakes. + At the bottom of the scale of nature-worships he places the religion + of sorcery. The gradations which follow are apportioned with some + uncertainty amongst the religions of the East. With the Persian + religion of light and the Egyptian of enigmas we pass to those faiths + where Godhead takes the form of a spiritual individuality, i.e. to the + Hebrew religion (of sublimity), the Greek (of beauty) and the Roman + (of adaptation). Last comes absolute religion, in which the mystery of + the reconciliation between God and man is an open doctrine. This is + Christianity, in which God is a Trinity, because He is a spirit. The + revelation of this truth is the subject of the Christian Scriptures. + For the Son of God, in the immediate aspect, is the finite world of + nature and man, which far from being at one with its Father is + originally in an attitude of estrangement. The history of Christ is + the visible reconciliation between man and the eternal. With the death + of Christ this union, ceasing to be a mere fact, becomes a vital + idea--the Spirit of God which dwells in the Christian community. + + The lectures on the History of Philosophy deal disproportionately with + the various epochs, and in some parts date from the beginning of + Hegel's career. In trying to subject history to the order of logic + they sometimes misconceive the filiation of ideas. But they created + the history of philosophy as a scientific study. They showed that a + philosophical theory is not an accident or whim, but an exponent of + its age determined by its antecedents and environments, and handing on + its results to the future. (W. W.; X.) + + _Hegelianism in England._--On the continent of Europe the direct + influence of Hegelianism was comparatively short-lived. This was due + among other causes to the direction of attention to the rising science + of psychology, partly to the reaction against the speculative method. + In England and Scotland it had another fate. Both in theory and + practice it here seemed to supply precisely the counter-active to + prevailing tendencies towards empiricism and individualism that was + required. In this respect it stood to philosophy in somewhat the same + relation that the influence of Goethe stood to literature. This + explains the hold which it had obtained upon both English and Scottish + thought soon after the middle of the 19th century. The first impulse + came from J. F. Ferrier and J. H. Stirling in Edinburgh, and B. Jowett + in Oxford. Already in the seventies there was a powerful school of + English thinkers under the lead of Edward Caird and T. H. Green + devoted to the study and exposition of the Hegelian system. With the + general acceptance of its main principle that the real is the + rational, there came in the eighties a more critical examination of + the precise meaning to be attached to it and its bearing on the + problems of religion. The earlier Hegelians had interpreted it in the + sense that the world in its ultimate essence was not only spiritual + but self-conscious intelligence whose nature was reflected + inadequately but truly in the finite mind. They thus seemed to come + forward in the character of exponents rather than critics of the + Western belief in God, freedom and immortality. As time went on it + became obvious that without departure from the spirit of idealism + Hegel's principle was susceptible of a different interpretation. + Granted that rationality taken in the sense of inner coherence and + self-consistency is the ultimate standard of truth and reality, does + self-consciousness itself answer to the demands of this criterion? If + not, are we not forced to deny ultimate reality to personality whether + human or divine? The question was definitely raised in F. H. Bradley's + _Appearance and Reality_ (1893; 2nd ed., 1897) and answered in the + negative. The completeness and self-consistency which our ideal + requires can be realized only in a form of being in which subject and + object, will and desire, no longer stand as exclusive opposites, from + which it seemed at once to follow that the finite self could not be a + reality nor the infinite reality a self. On this basis Bradley + developed a theory of the Absolute which, while not denying that it + must be conceived of spiritually, insisted that its spirituality is of + a kind that finds no analogy in our self-conscious experience. More + recently J. M. E. McTaggart's _Studies in Hegelian Dialectic_ (1896), + _Studies in Hegelian Cosmology_ (1901) and _Some Dogmas of Religion_ + (1906) have opened a new chapter in the interpretation of Hegelianism. + Truly perceiving that the ultimate metaphysical problem is, here as + ever, the relation of the One and the Many, McTaggart starts with a + definition of the ideal in which our thought upon it can come to rest. + He finds it where (a) the unity is for each individual, (b) the whole + nature of the individual is to be _for_ the unity. It follows from + such a conception of the relation that the whole cannot itself be an + individual apart from the individuals in whom it is realized, in other + words, the Absolute cannot be a Person. But for the same reason--viz. + that in it first and in it alone this condition is realized--the + individual soul must be held to be an ultimate reality reflecting in + its inmost nature, like the monad of Leibniz, the complete fulness and + harmony of the whole. In reply to Bradley's argument for the unreality + of the self, Hegel is interpreted as meaning that the opposition + between self and not-self on which it is founded is one that is + self-made and in being made is transcended. The fuller our knowledge + of reality the more does the object stand out as an invulnerable + system of ordered parts, but the process by which it is thus set in + opposition to the subject is also the process by which we understand + and transform it into the substance of our own thought. From this + position further consequences followed. Seeing that the individual + soul must thus be taken to stand in respect to its inmost essence in + complete harmony with the whole, it must eternally be at one with + itself: all change must be appearance. Seeing, moreover, that it is, + and is maintained in being, by a fixed relation to the Absolute, it + cannot fail of immortality. No pantheistic theory of an eternal + substance continuously expressing itself in different individuals who + fall back into its being like drops into the ocean will here be + sufficient. The ocean is the drops. "The Absolute requires each self + not to make up a sum or to maintain an average but in respect of the + self's special and unique nature." Finally as it cannot cease, neither + can the individual soul have had a beginning. Pre-existence is as + necessary and certain as a future life. If memory is lacking as a link + between the different lives, this only shows that memory is not of the + substance of the soul. + + In view of these differences (amounting almost to an antinomy of + paradoxes) in interpretation, it is not surprising to find that recent + years have witnessed a violent reaction in some quarters against + Hegelian influence. This has taken the direction on the one hand of a + revival of realism (see METAPHYSICS), on the other of a new form of + subjective idealism (see PRAGMATISM). As yet neither of these + movements has shown sufficient coherence or stability to establish + itself as a rival to the main current of philosophy in England. But + they have both been urged with sufficient ability to arrest its + progress and to call for a reconsideration and restatement of the + fundamental principle of idealist philosophy and its relation to the + fundamental problems of religion. This will probably be the main work + of the next generation of thinkers in England (see IDEALISM). + + Among Italian Hegelians are A. Vera, Raffaele Mariano and B. Spaventa + (1817-1883); see V. de Lucia, _L'Hegel in Italia_ (1891). In Sweden, + J. J. Borelius of Lund; in Norway, G. V. Lyng (d. 1884), M. J. Monrad + (1816-1897) and G. Kent (d. 1892) have adopted Hegelianism; in France, + P. Leroux and P. Prevost. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Shortly after Hegel's death his collected works were + published by a number of his friends, who combined for the purpose. + They appeared in eighteen volumes in 1832, and a second edition came + out about twelve years later. Volumes i.-viii. contain the works + published by himself; the remainder is made up of his lectures on the + Philosophy of History, Aesthetic, the Philosophy of Religion and the + History of Philosophy, besides some essays and reviews, with a few of + his letters, and the Philosophical Propaedeutic. + + For his life see K. Rosenkranz, _Leben Hegels_ (Berlin, 1844); R. R. + Haym, _Hegel und seine Zeit_ (Berlin, 1857); K. Kostlin, _Hegel in + philosophischer, politischer und nationaler Beziehung_ (Tubingen, + 1870); Rosenkranz, _Hegel als deutscher National-Philosoph_ (Berlin, + 1870), and his _Neue Studien_, vol. iv. (Berlin, 1878); Kuno Fischer, + _Hegels Leben und Werke_. + + For the philosophy see A. Ruge's _Aus fruherer Zeit_, vol. iv. + (Berlin, 1867); Haym (as above); F. A. Trendelenburg (in _Logische + Untersuchungen_); A. L. Kym (_Metaphysische Untersuchungen_) and C. + Hermann (_Hegel und die logische Frage_ and other works) are + noticeable as modern critics. Georges Noel, _La Logique de Hegel_ + (Paris, 1897); Aloys Schmid, _Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der + Hegelschen Logik_ (Regensburg, 1858). Vera has translated the + _Encyklopadie_ into French, with notes; C. Benard, the _Asthetik_. In + English J. Hutcheson Stirling's _Secret of Hegel_ (2 vols., London, + 1865) contains a translation of the beginning of the _Wissenschaft der + Logik_; the "Logic" from the _Encyklopadie_ has been translated, with + Prolegomena, by W. Wallace (Oxford, 1874). W. Wallace also translated + the third part of the _Encyklopadie in Hegel's Philosophy of Mind_ + (1894); R. B. Haldane the _History of Philosophy_ (1896); E. B. + Speirs, lectures on the _Philosophy of Religion_ (1895); J. Sibree, + lectures on _The Philosophy of History_ (1852); B. Bosanquet, + _Philosophy of Fine Art_, Introduction (1886); W. Hastie, _The + Philosophy of Art_ (1886); S. W. Dyde, _The Philosophy of Right_ + (1896). Other recent expositions and criticisms in addition to those + mentioned above are W. T. Harris, _Hegel's Logic_ (1890); J. B. + Baillie, _Origin and Significance of Hegel's Logic_ (1901), and + _Outline of the Idealistic Construction of Experience_ (1906); P. + Barth, _Die Geschichtsphilosophie Hegels_ (1890); J. A. Marrast, _La + Philosophie du droit de Hegel_ (1869); L. Miraglia, _I Principii + fondamentali e la dottrina eticogiuridica di Hegel_ (1873); _Hegel's + Philosophy of the State and History_ (Germ. Phil. Classics, 1887); G. + Bolland, _Philosophie des Rechts_ (1902), and _Hegels Philosophie der + Religion_ (1901); E. Ott, _Die Religionsphilosophie Hegels_ (1904); J. + M. Sterrett, _Studies in Hegel's Philosophy of Religion_ (1891); M. + Ehrenhauss, _Hegels Gottesbegriff_ (1880); E. Caird, Hegel (1880); A. + Seth Pringle-Pattison, _Hegelianism and Personality_ (1893); Millicent + Mackenzie, _Hegel's Educational Theory and Practice_ (1909), with + biographical sketch; J. M. E. McTaggart, _Commentary on Hegel's Logic_ + (1910). (J. H. Mu.) + + + + +HEGEMON OF THASOS, Greek writer of the old comedy, nicknamed [Greek: +Phake] from his fondness for lentils. Hardly anything is known of him, +except that he flourished during the Peloponnesian War. According to +Aristotle (_Poetics_, ii. 5) he was the inventor of a kind of parody; by +slightly altering the wording in well-known poems he transformed the +sublime into the ridiculous. When the news of the disaster in Sicily +reached Athens, his parody of the _Gigantomachia_ was being performed; +it is said that the audience were so amused by it that, instead of +leaving to show their grief, they remained in their seats. He was also +the author of a comedy called _Philinne_ (_Philine_), written in the +manner of Eupolis and Cratinus, in which he attacked a well-known +courtesan. Athenaeus (p. 698), who preserves some parodic hexameters of +his, relates other anecdotes concerning him (pp. 5, 108, 407). + + Fragments in T. Kock, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, i. (1880); B. + J. Peltzer, _De parodica Graecorum poesi_ (1855). + + + + +HEGEMONY (Gr. [Greek: hegemonia], leadership, from [Greek: hegeisthai], +to lead), the leadership especially of one particular state in a group +of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in +Greek history to the position claimed by different individual +city-states, e.g. by Athens and Sparta, at different times to a position +of predominance (_primus inter pares_) among other equal states, coupled +with individual autonomy. The reversion of this position was claimed by +Macedon (see GREECE: _Ancient History_, and DELIAN LEAGUE). + + + + +HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA (in Lydia), Greek rhetorician and historian, +flourished about 300 B.C. Strabo (xiv. 648), speaks of him as the +founder of the florid style of composition known as "Asiatic" (cf. +TIMAEUS). Agatharchides, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Cicero all speak +of him in disparaging terms, although Varro seems to have approved of +his work. He professed to imitate the simple style of Lysias, avoiding +long periods, and expressing himself in short, jerky sentences, without +modulation or finish. His vulgar affectation and bombast made his +writings a mere caricature of the old Attic. Dionysius describes his +composition as tinselled, ignoble and effeminate. It is generally +supposed, from the fragment quoted as a specimen by Dionysius, that +Hegesias is to be classed among the writers of lives of Alexander the +Great. This fragment describes the treatment of Gaza and its inhabitants +by Alexander after its conquest, but it is possible that it is only part +of an epideictic or show-speech, not of an historical work. This view is +supported by a remark of Agatharchides in Photius (_cod._ 250) that the +only aim of Hegesias was to exhibit his skill in describing sensational +events. + + See Cicero, _Brutus_ 83, _Orator_ 67, 69, with J. E. Sandys's note, + _ad Att._ xii. 6; Dion. Halic. _De verborum comp._ iv.; Aulus Gellius + ix. 4; Plutarch, _Alexander_, 3; C. W. Muller, _Scriptores rerum + Alexandri Magni_, p. 138 (appendix to Didot ed. of Arrian, 1846); + Norden, _Die antike Kunstprosa_ (1898); J. B. Bury, _Ancient Greek + Historians_ (1909), pp. 169-172, on origin and development of + "Asiatic" style, with example from Hegesias. + + + + +HEGESIPPUS, Athenian orator and statesman, nicknamed [Greek: Krobylos] +("knot"), probably from the way in which he wore his hair. He lived in +the time of Demosthenes, of whose anti-Macedonian policy he was an +enthusiastic supporter. In 343 B.C. he was one of the ambassadors sent +to Macedonia to discuss, amongst other matters, the restoration of the +island of Halonnesus, which had been seized by Philip. The mission was +unsuccessful, but soon afterwards Philip wrote to Athens, offering to +resign possession of the island or to submit to arbitration the question +of ownership. In reply to this letter the oration De _Halonneso_ was +delivered, which, although included among the speeches of Demosthenes, +is generally considered to be by Hegesippus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus +and Plutarch, however, favour the authorship of Demosthenes. + + See Demosthenes, _De falsa legatione_ 364, 447, _De corona_ 250, + _Philippica_ iii. 129; Plutarch, _Demosthenes_ 17, _Apophthegmata_, + 187D; Dionysius Halic. _ad Ammaeum_, i.; Grote, _History of Greece_, + ch. 90. + + + + +HEGESIPPUS (fl. A.D. 150-180), early Christian writer, was of +Palestinian origin, and lived under the Emperors Antoninus Pius, Marcus +Aurelius and Commodus. Like Aristo of Pella he belonged to that group of +Judaistic Christians which, while keeping the law themselves, did not +attempt to impose on others the requirements of circumcision and Sabbath +observance. He was the author of a treatise ([Greek: hypomnemata]) in +five books dealing with such subjects as Christian literature, the unity +of church doctrine, paganism, heresy and Jewish Christianity, fragments +of which are found in Eusebius, who obtained much of his information +concerning early Palestinian church history and chronology from this +source. Hegesippus was also a great traveller, and like many other +leaders of his time came to Rome (having visited Corinth on the way) +about the middle of the 2nd century. His journeyings impressed him with +the idea that the continuity of the church in the cities he visited was +a guarantee of its fidelity to apostolic orthodoxy: "in each succession +and in every city, the doctrine is in accordance with that which the Law +and the Prophets and the Lord [i.e. the Old Testament and the +evangelical tradition] proclaim." To illustrate this opinion he drew up +a list of the Roman bishops. Hegesippus is thus a significant figure +both for the type of Christianity taught in the circle to which he +belonged, and as accentuating the point of view which the church began +to assume in the presence of a developing gnosticism. + + + + +HEGESIPPUS, the supposed author of a free Latin adaptation of the +_Jewish War_ of Josephus under the title _De bello Judaico et excidio +urbis Hierosolymitanae_. The seven books of Josephus are compressed into +five, but much has been added from the Antiquities and from the works of +Roman historians, while several entirely new speeches are introduced to +suit the occasion. Internal evidence shows that the work could not have +been written before the 4th century A.D. The author, who is undoubtedly +a Christian, describes it in his preface as a kind of revised edition of +Josephus. Some authorities attribute it to Ambrose, bishop of Milan +(340-397), but there is nothing to settle the authorship definitely. The +name Hegesippus itself appears to be a corruption of Josephus, through +the stages [Greek: Iosepos], Iosippus, Egesippus, Hegesippus, unless it +was purposely adopted as reminiscent of Hegesippus, the father of +ecclesiastical history (2nd century). + + Best edition by C. F. Weber and J. Caesar (1864); authorities in E. + Schurer, _History of the Jewish People_ (Eng. trans.), i. 99 seq.; F. + Vogel, _De Hegesippo, qui dicitur, Josephi interprete_ (Erlangen, + 1881). + + + + +HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER (c. 1433-1498), German humanist, so called +from his birthplace Heek in Westphalia. In his youth he was a pupil of +Thomas a Kempis, at that time canon of the convent of St Agnes at +Zwolle. In 1474 he settled down at Deventer in Holland, where he either +founded or succeeded to the headship of a school, which became famous +for the number of its distinguished alumni. First and foremost of these +was Erasmus; others were Hermann von dem Busche, the missionary of +humanism, Conrad Goclenius (Gockelen), Conrad Mutianus (Muth von Mudt) +and pope Adrian VI. Hegius died at Deventer on the 7th of December 1498. +His writings, consisting of short poems, philosophical essays, +grammatical notes and letters, were published after his death by his +pupil Jacob Faber. They display considerable knowledge of Latin, but +less of Greek, on the value of which he strongly insisted. Hegius's +chief claim to be remembered rests not upon his published works, but +upon his services in the cause of humanism. He succeeded in abolishing +the old-fashioned medieval textbooks and methods of instruction, and led +his pupils to the study of the classical authors themselves. His +generosity in assisting poor students exhausted a considerable fortune, +and at his death he left nothing but his books and clothes. + + See D. Reichling, "Beitrage zur Charakteristik des Alex. Hegius," in + the _Monatsschrift fur Westdeutschland_ (1877); H. Hamelmann, _Opera + genealogico-historica_ (1711); H. A. Erhard, _Geschichte des + Wiederaufbluhens wissenschaftlicher Bildung_ (1826); C. Krafft and W. + Crecelius, "Alexander Hegius und seine Schuler," from the works of + Johannes Butzbach, one of Hegius's pupils, in _Zeitschrift des + bergischen Geschichtsvereins_, vii. (Bonn, 1871). + + + + +HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG (1791-1860), Danish poet and critic, son of the +political writer Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841), and of the famous +novelist, afterwards the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard, was born at +Copenhagen on the 14th of December 1791. In 1800 his father was exiled +and settled in Paris, where he was employed in the French foreign +office, retiring in 1817 with a pension. His political and satirical +writings continued to exercise great influence over his +fellow-countrymen. Johan Ludvig Heiberg was taken by K. L. Rahbek and +his wife into their house at Bakkehuset. He was educated at the +university of Copenhagen, and his first publication, entitled _The +Theatre for Marionettes_ (1814), included two romantic dramas. This was +followed by _Christmas Jokes and New Year's Tricks_ (1816), _The +Initiation of Psyche_ (1817), and _The Prophecy of Tycho Brahe_, a +satire on the eccentricities of the Romantic writers, especially on the +sentimentality of Ingemann. These works attracted attention at a time +when Baggesen, Ohlenschlager and Ingemann possessed the popular ear, and +were understood at once to be the opening of a great career. In 1817 +Heiberg took his degree, and in 1819 went abroad with a grant from +government. He proceeded to Paris, and spent the next three years there +with his father. In 1822 he published his drama of _Nina_, and was made +professor of the Danish language at the university of Kiel, where he +delivered a course of lectures, comparing the Scandinavian mythology as +found in the _Edda_ with the poems of Ohlenschlager. These lectures were +published in German in 1827. + +In 1825 Heiberg came back to Copenhagen for the purpose of introducing +the vaudeville on the Danish stage. He composed a great number of these +vaudevilles, of which the best known are _King Solomon and George the +Hatmaker_ (1825); _April Fools_ (1826); _A Story in Rosenborg Garden_ +(1827); _Kjoge Huskors_ (1831); _The Danes in Paris_ (1833); _No_ +(1836); and _Yes_ (1839). He took his models from the French theatre, +but showed extraordinary skill in blending the words and the music; but +the subjects and the humour were essentially Danish and even topical. +Meanwhile he was producing dramatic work of a more serious kind; in 1828 +he brought out the national drama of _Elverhoi_; in 1830 _The +Inseparables_; in 1835 the fairy comedy of _The Elves_, a dramatic +version of Tieck's _Elfin_; and in 1838 _Fata Morgana_. In 1841 Heiberg +published a volume of _New Poems_ containing "A Soul after Death," a +comedy which is perhaps his masterpiece, "The Newly Wedded Pair," and +other pieces. He edited from 1827 to 1830 the famous weekly, the +_Flyvende Post_ (The Flying Post), and subsequently the _Interimsblade_ +(1834-1837) and the _Intelligensblade_ (1842-1843). In his journalism he +carried on his warfare against the excessive pretensions of the +Romanticists, and produced much valuable and penetrating criticism of +art and literature. In 1831 he married the actress Johanne Louise +Paetges (1812-1890), herself the author of some popular vaudevilles. +Heiberg's scathing satires, however, made him very unpopular; and this +antagonism reached its height when, in 1845, he published his malicious +little drama of _The Nut Crackers_. Nevertheless he became in 1847 +director of the national theatre. He filled the post for seven years, +working with great zeal and conscientiousness, but was forced by +intrigues from without to resign it in 1854. Heiberg died at Bonderup, +near Ringsted, on the 25th of August 1860. His influence upon taste and +critical opinion was greater than that of any writer of his time, and +can only be compared with that of Holberg in the 18th century. Most of +the poets of the Romantic movement in Denmark were very grave and +serious; Heiberg added the element of humour, elegance and irony. He had +the genius of good taste, and his witty and delicate productions stand +almost unique in the literature of his country. + + The poetical works of Heiberg were collected, in 11 vols., in + 1861-1862, and his prose writings (11 vols.) in the same year. The + last volume of his prose works contains some fragments of + autobiography. See also G. Brandes, _Essays_ (1889). For the elder + Heiberg see monographs by Thaarup (1883) and by Schwanenflugel (1891). + + + + +HEIDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Schleswig-Holstein, on a small plateau which stands between the marshes +and moors bordering the North Sea, 35 m. N.N.W. of Gluckstadt, at the +junction of the railways Elmshorn-Hvidding and Neumunster-Tonning. Pop. +(1905), 8758. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a +high-grade school, and tobacco and cigar manufactories and breweries. +Heide in 1447 became the capital of the Ditmarsh peasant republic, but +on the 13th of June 1559 it was the scene of the complete defeat of the +peasant forces by the Danes. + + + + +HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1633-1698), Swiss theologian, was born at +Barentschweil, in the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, on the 1st of July +1633. He studied at Marburg and at Heidelberg, where he became the +friend of J. L. Fabricius (1632-1696), and was appointed _professor +extraordinarius_ of Hebrew and later of philosophy. In 1659 he was +called to Steinfurt to fill the chair of dogmatics and ecclesiastical +history, and in the same year he became doctor of theology of +Heidelberg. In 1660 he revisited Switzerland; and, after marrying, he +travelled in the following year to Holland, where he made the +acquaintance of Johannes Cocceius. He returned in 1665 to Zurich, where +he was elected professor of moral philosophy. Two years later he +succeeded J. H. Hottinger (1620-1667) in the chair of theology, which he +occupied till his death on the 18th of January 1698, having declined an +invitation in 1669 to succeed J. Cocceius at Leiden, as well as a call +to Groningen. Heidegger was the principal author of the _Formula +Consensus Helvetica_ in 1675, which was designed to unite the Swiss +Reformed churches, but had an opposite effect. W. Gass describes him as +the most notable of the Swiss theologians of the time. + +His writings are largely controversial, though without being bitter, and +are in great part levelled against the Roman Catholic Church. The chief +are _De historia sacra patriarcharum exercitationes selectae_ +(1667-1671); _Dissertatio de Peregrinationibus religiosis_ (1670); _De +ratione studiorum, opuscula aurea_, &c. (1670); _Historia papatus_ +(1684; under the name Nicander von Hohenegg); _Manuductio in viam +concordiae Protestantium ecclesiasticae_ (1686); _Tumulus concilii +Tridentini_ (1690); _Exercitationes biblicae_ (1700), with a life of the +author prefixed; _Corpus theologiae Christianae_ (1700, edited by J. H. +Schweizer); _Ethicae Christianae elementa_ (1711); and lives of J. H. +Hottinger (1667) and J. L. Fabricius (1698). His autobiography appeared +in 1698, under the title _Historia vitae J. H. Heideggeri_. + + See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ and the + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; and cf. W. Gass, _Geschichte der + protestantischen Dogmatik_, ii. 353 ff. + + + + +HEIDELBERG, a town of Germany, on the south bank of the Neckar, 12 m. +above its confluence with the Rhine, 13 m. S.E. from Mannheim and 54 m. +from Frankfort-on-Main by rail. The situation of the town, lying between +lofty hills covered with vineyards and forests, at the spot where the +rapid Neckar leaves the gorge and enters the plain of the Rhine, is one +of great natural beauty. The town itself consists practically of one +long, narrow street--the Hauptstrasse--running parallel to the river, +from the railway station on the west to the Karlstor on the east (where +there is also a local station) for a distance of 2 m. To the south of +this is the Anlage, a pleasant promenade flanked by handsome villas and +gardens, leading directly to the centre of the place. A number of +smaller streets intersect the Hauptstrasse at right angles and run down +to the river, which is crossed by two fine bridges. Of these, the old +bridge on the east, built in 1788, has a fine gateway and is adorned +with statues of Minerva and the elector Charles Theodore of the +Palatinate; the other, the lower bridge, on the west, built in 1877, +connects Heidelberg with the important suburbs of Neuenheim and +Handschuchsheim. Of recent years the town has grown largely towards the +west on both sides of the river; but the additions have been almost +entirely of the better class of residences. Heidelberg is an important +railway centre, and is connected by trunk lines with Frankfort, +Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Spires and Wurzburg. Electric trams provide for +local traffic, and there are also several light railways joining it with +the neighbouring villages. Of the churches the chief are the Protestant +Peterskirche dating from the 15th century and restored in 1873, to the +door of which Jerome of Prague in 1460 nailed his theses; the Heilige +Geist Kirche (Church of the Holy Ghost), an imposing Gothic edifice of +the 15th century; the Jesuitenkirche (Roman Catholic), with a +sumptuously decorated interior, and the new Evangelical Christuskirche. +The town hall and the university buildings, dating from 1712 and +restored in 1886, are commonplace erections; but to the south of the +Ludwigsplatz, upon which most of the academical buildings lie, stands +the new university library, a handsome structure of pink sandstone in +German Renaissance style. In addition to the Ludwigsplatz with its +equestrian statue of the emperor William I. there are other squares in +the town, among them being the Bismarckplatz with a statue of Bismarck, +and the Jubilaumsplatz. + +The chief attraction of Heidelberg is the castle, which overhangs the +east part of the town. It stands on the Jettenbuhl, a spur of the +Konigsstuhl (1800 ft.), at a height of 330 ft. above the Neckar. Though +now a ruin, yet its extent, its magnificence, its beautiful situation +and its interesting history render it by far the most noteworthy, as it +certainly is the grandest and largest, of the old castles of Germany. +The building was begun early in the 13th century. The elector palatine +and German king Rupert III. (d. 1410) greatly improved it, and built the +wing, Ruprechtsbau or Rupert's building, that bears his name. Succeeding +electors further extended and embellished it (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate +VII., figs. 78-80); notably Otto Henry "the Magnanimous" (d. 1559), who +built the beautiful early Renaissance wing known as the +Otto-Heinrichsbau (1556-1559); Frederick IV., for whom the fine late +Renaissance wing called the Friedrichsbau was built (1601-1607); and +Frederick V., the unfortunate "winter king" of Bohemia, who on the west +side added the Elisabethenbau or Englischebau (1618), named after his +wife, the daughter of James I. of Great Britain and ancestress of the +present English reigning family. In 1648, at the peace of Westphalia, +Heidelberg was given back to Frederick V.'s son, Charles Louis, who +restored the castle to its former splendour. In 1688, during Louis +XIV.'s invasion of the Palatinate, the castle was taken, after a long +siege, by the French, who blew part of it up when they found they could +not hope to hold it (March 2, 1689). In 1693 it was again captured by +them and still further wrecked. Finally, in 1764, it was struck by +lightning and reduced to its present ruinous condition. + +[Illustration: Map of Heidelberg.] + +Apart from the outworks, the castle forms an irregular square with round +towers at the angles, the principal buildings being grouped round a +central courtyard, the entrance to which is from the south through a +series of gateways. In this courtyard, besides the buildings already +mentioned, are the oldest parts of the castle, the so-called Alte Bau +(old building) and the Bandhaus. The Friedrichsbau, which is decorated +with statues of the rulers of the Palatinate, was elaborately restored +and rendered habitable between 1897 and 1903. Other noteworthy objects +in the castle are the fountain in the courtyard, decorated with four +granite columns from Charlemagne's palace at Ingelheim; the +Elisabethentor, a beautiful gateway named after the English princess; +the beautiful octagonal bell-tower at the N.E. angle; the ruins of the +Krautturm, now known as the Gesprengte Turm, or blown-up tower, and the +castle chapel and the museum of antiquities in the Friedrichsbau. In a +cellar entered from the courtyard is the famous Great Tun of Heidelberg. +This vast vat was built in 1751, but has only been used on one or two +occasions. Its capacity is 49,000 gallons, and it is 20 ft. high and 31 +ft. long. Behind the Friedrichsbau is the Altan (1610), or castle +balcony, from which is obtained a view of great beauty, extending from +the town beneath to the heights across the Neckar and over the broad +luxuriant plain of the Rhine to Mannheim and the dim contours of the +Hardt Mountains behind. On the terrace of the beautiful grounds is a +statue of Victor von Scheffel, the poet of Heidelberg. + +The university of Heidelberg was founded by the elector Rupert I., in +1385, the bull of foundation being issued by Pope Urban VI. in that +year. It was constructed after the type of Paris, had four faculties, +and possessed numerous privileges. Marselius von Inghen was its first +rector. The electors Frederick I., the Victorious, Philip the Upright +and Louis V. respectively cherished it. Otto Henry gave it a new +organization, further endowed it and founded the library. At the +Reformation it became a stronghold of Protestant learning, the +Heidelberg catechism being drawn up by its theologians. Then the tide +turned. Damaged by the Thirty Years' War, it led a struggling existence +for a century and a half. A large portion of its remaining endowments +was cut off by the peace of Luneville (1801). In 1803, however, Charles +Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, raised it anew and reconstituted it +under the name of "Ruperto-Carola." The number of professors and +teachers is at present about 150 and of students 1700. The library was +first kept in the choir of the Heilige Geist Kirche, and then consisted +of 3500 MSS. In 1623 it was sent to Rome by Maximilian I., duke of +Bavaria, and stored as the Bibliotheca Palatina in the Vatican. It was +afterwards taken to Paris, and in 1815 was restored to Heidelberg. It +has more than 500,000 volumes, besides 4000 MSS. Among the other +university institutions are the academic hospital, the maternity +hospital, the physiological institution, the chemical laboratory, the +zoological museum, the botanical garden and the observatory on the +Konigsstuhl. + +The other educational foundations are a gymnasium, a modern and a +technical school. There is a small theatre, an art and several other +scientific societies. The manufactures of Heidelberg include cigars, +leather, cement, surgical instruments and beer, but the inhabitants +chiefly support themselves by supplying the wants of a large and +increasing body of foreign permanent residents, of the considerable +number of tourists who during the summer pass through the town, and of +the university students. A funicular railway runs from the Korn-Markt up +to the level of the castle and thence to the Molkenkur (700 ft. above +the town). The town is well lighted and is supplied with excellent water +from the Wolfsbrunnen. Pop. (1885), 29,304; (1905), 49,527. + +At an early period Heidelberg was a fief of the bishop of Worms, who +entrusted it about 1225 to the count palatine of the Rhine, Louis I. It +soon became a town and the chief residence of the counts palatine. +Heidelberg was one of the great centres of the reformed teaching and was +the headquarters of the Calvinists. On this account it suffered much +during the Thirty Years' War, being captured and plundered by Count +Tilly in 1622, by the Swedes in 1633 and again by the imperialists in +1635. By the peace of Westphalia it was restored to the elector Charles +Louis. In 1688 and again in 1693 Heidelberg was sacked by the French. On +the latter occasion the work of destruction was carried out so +thoroughly that only one house escaped; this being a quaintly decorated +erection in the Marktplatz, which is now the Hotel zum Ritter. In 1720 +the elector Charles II. removed his court to Mannheim, and in 1803 the +town became part of the grand-duchy of Baden. On the 5th of March 1848 +the Heidelberg assembly was held here, and at this meeting the steps +were taken which led to the revolution in Germany in that year. + + See Oncken, _Stadt, Schloss und Hochschule Heidelberg; Bilder aus + ihrer Vergangenheit_ (Heidelberg, 1885); Ochelhauser, _Das + Heidelberger Schloss, bau- und kunstgeschichtlicher Fuhrer_ + (Heidelberg, 1902); Pfaff, _Heidelberg und Umgebung_ (Heidelberg, + 1902); Lorentzen, _Heidelberg und Umgebung_ (Stuttgart, 1902); Durm, + _Das Heidelberger Schloss, eine Studie_ (Berlin, 1884); Koch and + Seitz, _Das Heidelberger Schloss_ (Darmstadt, 1887-1891); J. F. Hautz, + _Geschickte der Universitat Heidelberg_ (1863-1864); A. Thorbecke, + _Geschichte der Universitat Heidelberg_ (Stuttgart, 1886); the + _Urkundenbuch der Universitat Heidelberg_, edited by Winkelmann + (Heidelberg, 1886); Bahr, _Die Entfuhrung der Heidelberger Bibliothek + nach Rom_ (Leipzig, 1845); and G. Weber, _Heidelberger Erinnerungen_ + (Stuttgart, 1886). + + + + +HEIDELBERG, a town and district of the Transvaal. The district is +bounded S. by the Vaal river and includes the south-eastern part of the +Witwatersrand gold-fields. The town of Heidelberg is 42 m. S.E. of +Johannesburg and 441 m. N.W. of Durban by rail. Pop. (1904), 3220, of +whom 1837 were white. It was founded in 1865, is built on the slopes of +the Rand at an elevation of 5029 ft., and is reputed the best sanatorium +in the colony. It is the centre of the eastern Rand goldmines. + + + + +HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE, the most attractive of all the catechisms of +the Reformation, was drawn up at the bidding of Frederick III., elector +of the Palatinate, and published on Tuesday the 19th of January 1563. +The new religion in the Palatinate had been largely under the guidance +of Philip Melanchthon, who had revived the old university of Heidelberg +and staffed it with sympathetic teachers. One of these, Tillemann, +Heshusius, who became general superintendent in 1558, held extreme +Lutheran views on the Real Presence, and in his desire to force the +community into his own position excommunicated his colleague Klebitz, +who held Zwinglian views. When the breach was widening Frederick, "der +fromme Kurfurst," came to the succession, dismissed the two chief +combatants and referred the trouble to Melanchthon, whose guarded +verdict was distinctly Swiss rather than Lutheran. In a decree of August +1560 the elector declared for Calvin and Zwingli, and soon after he +resolved to issue a new and unambiguous catechism of the evangelical +faith. He entrusted the task to two young men who have won deserved +remembrance by their learning and their character alike. Zacharias +Ursinus was born at Breslau in July 1534 and attained high honour in the +university of Wittenberg. In 1558 he was made rector of the gymnasium in +his native town, but the incessant strife with the extreme Lutherans +drove him to Zurich, whence Frederick, on the advice of Peter Martyr, +summoned him to be professor of theology at Heidelberg and +superintendent of the _Sapientiae Collegium_. He was a man of modest and +gentle spirit, not endowed with great preaching gifts, but unwearied in +study and consummately able to impart his learning to others. Deposed +from his chair by the elector Louis in 1576, he lived with John Casimir +at Neustadt and found a congenial sphere in the new seminary there, +dying in his 49th year, in March 1583. + +Caspar Olevianus was born at Treves in 1536. He gave up law for +theology, studied under Calvin in Geneva, Peter Martyr in Zurich, and +Beza in Lausanne. Urged by William Farel he preached the new faith in +his native city, and when banished therefrom found a home with Frederick +of Heidelberg, where he gained high renown as preacher and +administrator. His ardour and enthusiasm made him the happy complement +of Ursinus. When the reaction came under Louis he was befriended by +Ludwig von Sain, prince of Wittgenstein, and John, count of Nassau, in +whose city of Herborn he did notable work at the high school until his +death on the 15th of March 1587. The elector could have chosen no better +men, young as they were, for the task in hand. As a first step each drew +up a catechism of his own composition, that of Ursinus being naturally +of a more grave and academic turn than the freer production of +Olevianus, while each made full use of the earlier catechisms already in +use. But when the union was effected it was found that the spirits of +the two authors were most happily and harmoniously wedded, the exactness +and erudition of the one being blended with the fervency and grace of +the other. Thus the Heidelberg Catechism, which was completed within a +year of its inception, has an individuality that marks it out from all +its predecessors and successors. The Heidelberg synod unanimously +approved of it, it was published in January 1563, and in the same year +officially turned into Latin by Jos. Lagus and Lambert Pithopoeus. + +The ultra-Lutherans attacked the catechism with great bitterness, the +assault being led by Heshusius and Flacius Illyricus. Maximilian II. +remonstrated against it as an infringement of the peace of Augsburg. A +conference was held at Maulbronn in April 1564, and a personal attack +was made on the elector at the diet of Augsburg in 1566, but the defence +was well sustained, and the Heidelberg book rapidly passed beyond the +bounds of the Palatinate (where indeed it suffered eclipse from 1576 to +1583, during the electorate of Louis), and gained an abundant success +not only in Germany (Hesse, Anhalt, Brandenburg and Bremen) but also in +the Netherlands (1588), and in the Reformed churches of Hungary, +Transylvania and Poland. It was officially recognized by the synod of +Dort in 1619, passed into France, Britain and America, and probably +shares with the _De imitatione Christi_ and _The Pilgrim's Progress_ the +honour of coming next to the Bible in the number of tongues into which +it has been translated. + +This wide acceptance and high esteem are due largely to an avoidance of +polemical and controversial subjects, and even more to an absence of the +controversial spirit. There is no mistake about its Protestantism, even +when we omit the unhappy addition made to answer 80 by Frederick himself +(in indignant reply to the ban pronounced by the Council of Trent), in +which the Mass is described as "nothing else than a denial of the one +sacrifice and passion of Jesus Christ, and an accursed idolatry"--an +addition which is the one blot on the [Greek: epieikeia] of the +catechism. The work is the product of the best qualities of head and +heart, and its prose is frequently marked by all the beauty of a lyric. +It follows the plan of the epistle to the Romans (excepting chapters +ix.-xi.) and falls into three parts: Sin, Redemption and the New Life. +This arrangement alone would mark it out from the normal reformation +catechism, which runs along the stereotyped lines of Decalogue, Creed, +Lord's Prayer, Church and Sacraments. These themes are included, but are +shown as organically related. The Commandments, e.g. "belong to the +first part so far as they are a mirror of our sin and misery, but also +to the third part, as being the rule of our new obedience and Christian +life." The Creed--a panorama of the sublime facts of redemption--and the +sacraments find their place in the second part; the Lord's Prayer (with +the Decalogue) in the third. + + See _The Heidelberg Catechism_, the _German Text, with a Revised + Translation and Introduction_, edited by A. Smellie (London, 1900). + + + + +HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON (1788-1865), German architect, the son of +Victor Peter Heideloff, a painter, was born at Stuttgart. He studied at +the art academy of his native town, and after following the profession +of an architect for some time at Coburg was in 1818 appointed city +architect at Nuremberg. In 1822 he became professor at the polytechnic +school, holding his post until 1854, and some years later he was chosen +conservator of the monuments of art. Heideloff devoted his chief +attention to the Gothic style of architecture, and the buildings +restored and erected by him at Nuremberg and in its neighbourhood attest +both his original skill and his purity of taste. He also achieved some +success as a painter in watercolour. He died at Hassfurt on the 28th of +September 1865. Among his architectural works should be mentioned the +castle of Reinhardsbrunn, the Hall of the Knights in the fortress at +Coburg, the castle of Landsberg, the mortuary chapel in Meiningen, the +little castle of Rosenburg near Bonn, the chapel of the castle of +Rheinstein near Bingen, and the Catholic church in Leipzig. His powers +in restoration are shown in the castle of Lichtenstein, the cathedral of +Bamberg, and the Knights' Chapel (_Ritter Kapelle_) at Hassfurt. + + Among his writings on architecture are _Die Lehre von den + Saulenordnungen_ (1827); _Der Kleine Vignola_ (1832); _Nurnbergs + Baudenkmaler der Vorzeit_ (1838-1843, complete edition 1854); and _Die + Ornamentik des Mittelalters_ (1838-1842). + + + + +HEIDENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 31 m. by +rail north by east of Ulm. Pop. (1905), 12,173. It has an Evangelical +and a Roman Catholic church, and several schools. Its industrial +establishments include cotton, woollen, tobacco, machinery and chemical +factories, bleach-works, dye-works and breweries, and corn and cattle +markets. The town, which received municipal privileges in 1356, is +overlooked by the ruins of the castle of Hellenstein, standing on a hill +1985 ft. high. Heidenheim is also the name of a small place in Bavaria +famous on account of the Benedictine abbey which formerly stood therein. +Founded in 748 by Wilibald, bishop of Eichstatt, this was plundered by +the peasantry in 1525 and was closed in 1537. + + + + +HEIFER, a young cow that has not calved. The O. Eng. _heahfore_ or +_heafru_, from which the word is derived, is of obscure origin. It is +found in Bede's _History_ (A.D. 900) as _heahfore_, and has passed +through many forms. It is possibly derived from _heah_, high, and +_faren_ (fare), to go, meaning "high-stepper." It has also been +suggested that the derivation is from _hea_, a stall, and _fore_, a cow. + + + + +HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON (1835-1905), German novelist, was born, the son +of a _regisseur_ or stage-manager of the court theatre, on the 25th of +March 1835 at Munich. In this city he received his early schooling and +studied (1854-1858) philosophy at the university. He was then appointed +librarian to Prince Heinrich zu Carolath-Beuthen in Lower Silesia, and +accompanied the nephew of the prince on travels. In 1863 he settled in +Berlin, where from 1865 to 1875 he was engaged in journalism. He next +resided at Munich, employed in literary work for the king, Ludwig II., +who in 1881 conferred upon him a title of nobility. On the death of the +king in 1886 he removed to Riva on the Lago di Garda, where he died on +the 6th of September 1905. Karl von Heigel attained some popularity with +his novels: _Wohin?_ (1873), _Die Dame ohne Herz_ (1873), _Das Geheimnis +des Konigs_ (1891), _Der Roman einer Stadt_ (1898), _Der Maharadschah_ +(1900), _Die nervose Frau_ (1900), _Die neuen Heiligen_ (1901), and +_Bromels Gluck und Ende_ (1902). He also wrote some plays, notably +_Josephine Bonaparte_ (1892) and _Die Zarin_ (1883); and several +collections of short stories, _Neue Erzahlungen_ (1876), _Neueste +Novellen_ (1878), and _Heitere Erzahlungen_ (1893). + + + + +HEIJERMANS, HERMANN (1864- ), Dutch writer, of Jewish origin, was born +on the 3rd of December 1864 at Rotterdam. In the Amsterdam _Handelsblad_ +he published a series of sketches of Jewish family life under the +pseudonym of "Samuel Falkland," which were collected in volume form. His +novels and tales include _Trinette_ (1892), _Fles_ (1893), +_Kamertjeszonde_ (2 vols., 1896), _Interieurs_ (1897), _Diamantstadt_ (2 +vols., 1903). He created great interest by his play _Op Hoop van Zegen_ +(1900), represented at the Theatre Antoine in Paris, and in English by +the Stage Society as _The Good Hope_. His other plays are: _Dora Kremer_ +(1893), _Ghetto_ (1898), _Het zevende Gebot_ (1899), _Het Pantser_ +(1901), _Ora et labora_ (1901), and numerous one-act pieces. _A Case of +Arson_, an English version of the one-act play _Brand in de Jonge Jan_, +was notable for the impersonation (1904 and 1905) by Henri de Vries of +all the seven witnesses who appear as characters. + + + + +HEILBRONN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, situated in +a pleasant and fruitful valley on the Neckar, 33 m. by rail N. of +Stuttgart, and at the junction of lines to Jagdsfeld, Crailsheim and +Eppingen. Pop. (1905), 40,026. In the older part of the town the streets +are narrow, and contain a number of high turreted houses with quaintly +adorned gables. The old fortifications have now been demolished, and +their site is occupied by promenades, outside of which are the more +modern parts of the town with wide streets and many handsome buildings. +The principal public buildings are the church of St Kilian (restored +1886-1895) in the Gothic and Renaissance styles, begun about 1019 and +completed in 1529, with an elegant tower 210 ft. high, a beautiful +choir, and a finely carved altar; the town hall (Rathaus), founded in +1540, and possessing a curious clock made in 1580, and a collection of +interesting letters and other documents; the house of the Teutonic +knights (Deutsches Haus), now used as a court of law; the Roman Catholic +church of St Joseph, formerly the church of the Teutonic Order; the +tower (Diebsturm or Gotzens Turm) on the Neckar, in which Gotz von +Berlichingen was confined in 1519; a fine synagogue; an historical +museum and several monuments, among them those to the emperors William +I. and Frederick I., to Bismarck, to Schiller and to Robert von Mayer +(1814-1878), a native of the town, famous for his discoveries concerning +heat. The educational establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial +school and an agricultural academy. The town in a commercial point of +view is the most important in Wurttemberg, and possesses an immense +variety of manufactures, of which the principal are gold, silver, steel +and iron wares, machines, sugar of lead, white lead, vinegar, beer, +sugar, tobacco, soap, oil, cement, chemicals, artificial manure, glue, +soda, tapestry, paper and cloth. Grapes, fruit, vegetables and flowering +shrubs are largely grown in the neighbourhood, and there are large +quarries for sandstone and gypsum and extensive salt-works. By means of +the Neckar a considerable trade is carried on in wood, bark, leather, +agricultural produce, fruit and cattle. + +Heilbronn occupies the site of an old Roman settlement; it is first +mentioned in 741, and the Carolingian princes had a palace here. It owes +its name--originally Heiligbronn, or holy spring--to a spring of water +which until 1857 was to be seen issuing from under the high altar of the +church of St Kilian. Heilbronn obtained privileges from Henry IV. and +from Rudolph I. and became a free imperial city in 1360. It was +frequently besieged during the middle ages, and it suffered greatly +during the Peasants' War, the Thirty Years' War, and the various wars +with France. In April 1633 a convention was entered into here between +Oxenstierna, the Swabian and Frankish estates and the French, English +and Dutch ambassadors, as a result of which the Heilbronn treaty, for +the prosecution of the Thirty Years' War, was concluded. In 1802 +Heilbronn was annexed by Wurttemberg. + + See Jager, _Geschichte von Heilbronn_ (Heilbronn, 1828); Kuttler, + _Heilbronn, seine Umgebungen und seine Geschichte_ (Heilbronn, 1859); + Durr, _Heilbronner Chronik_ (Halle, 1896); Schliz, _Die Entstehung der + Stadtgemeinde Heilbronn_ (Leipzig, 1903); and A. Kusel, _Der + Heilbrunner Konvent_ (Halle, 1878). + + + + +HEILIGENSTADT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Leine, 32 +m. E.N.E. of Cassel, on the railway to Halle. Pop. (1905), 7955. It +possesses an old castle, formerly belonging to the electors of Mainz, +one Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, several educational +establishments, and an infirmary. The principal manufactures are cotton +goods, cigars, paper, cement and needles. Heiligenstadt is said to have +been built by the Frankish king Dagobert and was formerly the capital of +the principality of Eichsfeld. In 1022 it was acquired by the archbishop +of Mainz, and in 1103 it came into the possession of Henry the Proud, +duke of Saxony, but when his son Henry the Lion was placed under the ban +of the Empire, it again came to Mainz. It was destroyed by fire in 1333, +and was captured in 1525 by Duke Henry of Brunswick. In 1803 it came +into possession of Prussia. The Jesuits had a celebrated college here +from 1581 to 1773. + + + + +HEILSBERG, a town of Germany, in the province of East Prussia, at the +junction of the Simser and Alle, 38 m. S. of Konigsberg. Pop. (1905), +6042. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and an old +castle formerly the seat of the prince-bishops of Ermeland, but now used +as an infirmary. The principal industries are tanning, dyeing and +brewing, and there is considerable trade in grain. The castle founded at +Heilsberg by the Teutonic order in 1240 became in 1306 the seat of the +bishops of Ermeland, an honour which it retained for 500 years. On the +10th of June 1807 a battle took place at Heilsberg between the French +under Soult and Murat, and the Russians and Prussians under Bennigsen. + + + + +HEILSBRONN (or KLOSTER-HEILSBRONN), a village of Germany, in the +Bavarian province of Middle Franconia, with a station on the railway +between Nuremberg and Ansbach, has 1200 inhabitants. In the middle ages +it was the seat of one of the great monasteries of Germany. This +foundation, which belonged to the Cistercian order, owed its origin to +Bishop Otto of Bamberg in 1132, and continued to exist till 1555. Its +sepulchral monuments, many of which are figured by Hocker, +_Heilsbronnischer Antiquitatenschatz_ (Ansbach, 1731-1740), are of +exceptionally high artistic interest. It was the hereditary burial-place +of the Hohenzollern family and ten burgraves of Nuremberg, five +margraves and three electors of Brandenburg, and many other persons of +note are buried within its walls. The buildings of the monastery have +mostly disappeared, with the exception of the fine church, a Romanesque +basilica, restored between 1851 and 1866, and possessing paintings by +Albert Durer. The "Monk of Heilsbronn" is the ordinary appellation of a +didactic poet of the 14th century, whose _Sieben Graden_, _Tochter Syon_ +and _Leben des heiligen Alexius_ were published by J. F. L. T. Merzdorf +at Berlin in 1870. + + See Rehm, _Ein Gang durch und um die Munster-Kirche zu + Kloster-Heilsbronn_ (Ansbach, 1875); Stillfried, _Kloster-Heilsbronn, + ein Beitrag zu den Hohenzollernschen Forschungen_ (Berlin, 1877); + Muck, _Geschichte von Kloster-Heilsbronn_ (Nordlingen, 1879-1880); J. + Meyer, _Die Hohenzollerndenkmale in Heilsbronn_ (Ansbach, 1891); and + A. Wagner, _Uber den Monch von Heilsbronn_ (Strassburg, 1876). + + + + +HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN (1849- ), Swiss geologist, was born at +Zurich on the 12th of April 1849. He was educated at Zurich and Berlin +universities. Very early in life he became interested in the physical +features of the Alps, and at the age of sixteen he made a model of the +Todi group. This came under the notice of Arnold Escher von der Linth, +to whom Heim was indebted for much encouragement and geological +instruction in the field. In 1873 he became professor of geology in the +polytechnic school at Zurich, and in 1875 professor of geology in the +university. In 1882 he was appointed director of the Geological Survey +of Switzerland, and in 1884 the hon. degree of Ph.D. was conferred upon +him at Berne. He is especially distinguished for his researches on the +structure of the Alps and for the light thereby thrown on the structure +of mountain masses in general. He traced the plications from minor to +major stages, and illustrated the remarkable foldings and overthrust +faultings in numerous sections and with the aid of pictorial drawings. +His magnificent work, _Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung_ (1878), is now +regarded as a classic, and it served to inspire Professor C. Lapworth in +his brilliant researches on the Scottish Highlands (see _Geol. Mag._ +1883). Heim also devoted considerable attention to the glacial phenomena +of the Alpine regions. The Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1904 by +the Geological Society of London. + + + + +HEIM, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1787-1865), French painter, was born at Belfort +on the 16th of December 1787. He early distinguished himself at the +Ecole Centrale of Strassburg, and in 1803 entered the studio of Vincent +at Paris. In 1807 he obtained the first prize, and in 1812 his picture +of "The Return of Jacob" (Musee de Bordeaux) won for him a gold medal of +the first class, which he again obtained in 1817, when he exhibited, +together with other works, a St John--bought by Vivant Denon. In 1819 +the "Resurrection of Lazarus" (Cathedral Autun), the "Martyrdom of St +Cyr" (St Gervais), and two scenes from the life of Vespasian (ordered by +the king) attracted attention. In 1823 the "Re-erection of the Royal +Tombs at St Denis," the "Martyrdom of St Laurence" (Notre Dame) and +several full-length portraits increased the painter's popularity; and in +1824, when he exhibited his great canvas, the "Massacre of the Jews" +(Louvre), Heim was rewarded with the legion of honour. In 1827 appeared +the "King giving away Prizes at the Salon of 1824" (Louvre--engraved by +Jazet)--the picture by which Heim is best known--and "Saint Hyacinthe." +Heim was now commissioned to decorate the Gallery Charles X. (Louvre). +Though ridiculed by the romantists, Heim succeeded Regnault at the +Institute in 1834, shortly after which he commenced a series of drawings +of the celebrities of his day, which are of much interest. His +decorations of the Conference room of the Chamber of Deputies were +completed in 1844; and in 1847 his works at the Salon--"Champ de Mai" +and "Reading a Play at the Theatre Francais"--were the signal for +violent criticisms. Yet something like a turn of opinion in his favour +took place at the exhibition of 1851; his powers as a draughtsman and +the occasional merits of his composition were recognized, and toleration +extended even to his colour. Heim was awarded the great gold medal, and +in 1855--having sent to the Salon no less than sixteen portraits, +amongst which may be cited those of "Cuvier," "Geoffroy de St Hilaire," +and "Madame Hersent"--he was made officer of the legion of honour. In +1859 he again exhibited a curious collection of portraits, sixty-four +members of the Institute arranged in groups of four. He died on the 29th +of September 1865. Besides the paintings already mentioned, there is to +be seen in Notre Dame de Lorette (Paris) a work executed on the spot; +and the museum of Strassburg contains an excellent example of his easel +pictures, the subject of which is a "Shepherd Drinking from a Spring." + + + + +HEIMDAL, or _Heimdall_, in Scandinavian mythology, the keeper of the +gates of Heaven and the guardian of the rainbow bridge Bifrost. He is +the son of Odin by nine virgins, all sisters. He is called "the god with +the golden teeth." He lives in the stronghold of Himinsbiorg at the end +of Bifrost. His chief attribute is a vigilance which nothing can escape. +He sleeps less than a bird; sees at night and even in his sleep; can +hear the grass, and even the wool on a lamb's back grow. He is armed +with Gjallar, the magic horn, with which he will summon the gods on the +day of judgment. + + + + +HEINE, HEINRICH, (1797-1856), German poet and journalist, was born at +Dusseldorf, of Jewish parents, on the 13th of December 1797. His father, +after various vicissitudes in business, had finally settled in +Dusseldorf, and his mother, who possessed much energy of character, was +the daughter of a physician of the same place. Heinrich (or, more +exactly, Harry) was the eldest of four children, and received his +education, first in private schools, then in the Lyceum of his native +town; although not an especially apt or diligent pupil, he acquired a +knowledge of French and English, as well as some tincture of the +classics and Hebrew. His early years coincided with the most brilliant +period of Napoleon's career, and the boundless veneration which he is +never tired of expressing for the emperor throughout his writings shows +that his true schoolmasters were rather the drummers and troopers of a +victorious army than the masters of the Lyceum. By freeing the Jews from +many of the political disabilities under which they had hitherto +suffered, Napoleon became, it may be noted, the object of particular +enthusiasm in the circles amidst which Heine grew up. When he left +school in 1815, an attempt was made to engage him in business in +Frankfort, but without success. In the following year his uncle, Solomon +Heine, a wealthy banker in Hamburg, took him into his office. A passion +for his cousin Amalie Heine seems to have made the young man more +contented with his lot in Hamburg, and his success was such that his +uncle decided to set him up in business for himself. This, however, +proved too bold a step; in a very few months the firm of "Harry Heine & +Co." was insolvent. His uncle now generously provided him with money to +enable him to study at a university, with the view to entering the legal +profession, and in the spring of 1819 Heine became a student of the +university of Bonn. During his stay there he devoted himself rather to +the study of literature and history than to that of law; amongst his +teachers A. W. von Schlegel, who took a kindly interest in Heine's +poetic essays, exerted the most lasting influence on him. In the autumn +of 1820 Heine left Bonn for Gottingen, where he proposed to devote +himself more assiduously to professional studies, but in February of the +following year he challenged to a pistol duel a fellow-student who had +insulted him, and was, in consequence, rusticated for six months. The +pedantic atmosphere of the university of Gottingen was, however, little +to his taste; the news of his cousin's marriage unsettled him still +more; and he was glad of the opportunity to seek distraction in Berlin. + +In the Prussian capital a new world opened up to him; a very different +life from that of Gottingen was stirring in the new university there, +and Heine, like all his contemporaries, sat at the feet of Hegel and +imbibed from him, doubtless, those views which in later years made the +poet the apostle of an outlook upon life more modern than that of his +romantic predecessors. Heine was also fortunate in having access to the +chief literary circles of the capital; he was on terms of intimacy with +Varnhagen von Ense and his wife, the celebrated Rahel, at whose house he +frequently met such men as the Humboldts, Hegel himself and +Schleiermacher; he made the acquaintance of leading men of letters like +Fouque and Chamisso, and was on a still more familiar footing with the +most distinguished of his co-religionists in Berlin. Under such +favourable circumstances his own gifts were soon displayed. He +contributed poems to the _Berliner Gesellschafter_, many of which were +subsequently incorporated in the _Buch der Lieder_, and in December 1821 +a little volume came from the press entitled _Gedichte_, his first +avowed act of authorship. He was also employed at this time as +correspondent of a Rhenish newspaper, as well as in completing his +tragedies _Almansor_ and _William Ratcliff_, which were published in +1823 with small success. In that same year Heine, not in the most +hopeful spirits, returned to his family, who had meanwhile moved to +Luneburg. He had plans of settling in Paris, but as he was still +dependent on his uncle, the latter's consent had to be obtained. As was +to be expected, Solomon Heine did not favour the new plan, but promised +to continue his support on the condition that Harry completed his course +of legal study. He sent the young student for a six weeks' holiday at +Cuxhaven, which opened the poet's eyes to the wonders of the sea; and +three weeks spent subsequently at his uncle's county seat near Hamburg +were sufficient to awaken a new passion in Heine's breast--this time for +Amalie's sister, Therese. In January 1824 Heine returned to Gottingen, +where, with the exception of a visit to Berlin and the excursion to the +Hartz mountains in the autumn of 1824, which is immortalized in the +first volume of the _Reisebilder_, he remained until his graduation in +the summer of the following year. It was on the latter of these journeys +that he had the interview with Goethe which was so amusingly described +by him in later years. A few weeks before obtaining his degree, he took +a step which he had long meditated; he formally embraced Christianity. +This "act of apostasy," which has been dwelt upon at unnecessary length +both by Heine's enemies and admirers, was actuated wholly by practical +considerations, and did not arise from any wish on the poet's part to +deny his race. The summer months which followed his examination Heine +spent by his beloved sea in the island of Norderney, his uncle having +again generously supplied the means for this purpose. The question of +his future now became pressing, and for a time he seriously considered +the plan of settling as a solicitor in Hamburg, a plan which was +associated in his mind with the hope of marrying his cousin Therese. +Meanwhile he had made arrangements for the publication of the +_Reisebilder_, the first volume of which, _Die Harzreise_, appeared in +May 1826. The success of the book was instantaneous. Its lyric outbursts +and flashes of wit; its rapid changes from grave to gay; its flexibility +of thought and style, came as a revelation to a generation which had +grown weary of the lumbering literary methods of the later Romanticists. + +In the spring of the following year Heine paid a long planned visit to +England, where he was deeply impressed by the free and vigorous public +life, by the size and bustle of London; above all, he was filled with +admiration for Canning, whose policy had realized many a dream of the +young German idealists of that age. But the picture had also its +reverse; the sordidly commercial spirit of English life, and brutal +egotism of the ordinary Englishman, grated on Heine's sensitive nature; +he missed the finer literary and artistic tastes of the continent and +was repelled by the austerity of English religious sentiment and +observance. Unfortunately the latter aspects of English life left a +deeper mark on his memory than the bright side. In October Baron Cotta, +the well-known publisher, offered Heine--the second volume of whose +_Reisebilder_ and the _Buch der Lieder_ had meanwhile appeared and won +him fresh laurels--the joint-editorship of the _Neue allgemeine +politische Annalen_. He gladly accepted the offer and betook himself to +Munich. Heine did his best to adapt himself and his political opinions +to the new surroundings, in the hope of coming in for a share of the +good things which Ludwig I. of Bavaria was so generously distributing +among artists and men of letters. But the stings of the _Reisebilder_ +were not so easily forgotten; the clerical party in particular did not +leave him long in peace. In July 1828, the professorship on which he had +set his hopes being still not forthcoming, he left Munich for Italy, +where he remained until the following November, a holiday which provided +material for the third and part of the fourth volumes of the +_Reisebilder_. A blow more serious than the Bavarian king's refusal to +establish him in Munich awaited him on his return to Germany--the death +of his father. In the beginning of 1829 Heine took up his abode in +Berlin, where he resumed old acquaintanceships; in summer he was again +at the sea, and in autumn he returned to the city he now loathed above +all others, Hamburg, where he virtually remained until May 1831. These +years were not a happy period of the poet's life; his efforts to obtain +a position, apart from that which he owed to his literary work, met with +rebuffs on every side; his relations with his uncle were unsatisfactory +and disturbed by constant friction, and for a time he was even seriously +ill. His only consolation in these months of discontent was the +completion and publication of the _Reisebilder_. When in 1830 the news +of the July Revolution in the streets of Paris reached him, Heine hailed +it as the beginning of a new era of freedom, and his thoughts reverted +once more to his early plan of settling in Paris. All through the +following winter the plan ripened, and in May 1831 he finally said +farewell to his native land. + +Heine's first impressions of the "New Jerusalem of Liberalism" were +jubilantly favourable; Paris, he proclaimed, was the capital of the +civilized world, to be a citizen of Paris the highest of honours. He was +soon on friendly terms with many of the notabilities of the capital, and +there was every prospect of a congenial and lucrative journalistic +activity as correspondent for German newspapers. Two series of his +articles were subsequently collected and published under the titles +_Franzosische Zustande_ (1832) and _Lutezia_ (written 1840-1843, +published in the _Vermischte Schriften_, 1854). In December 1835, +however, the German Bund, incited by W. Menzel's attacks on "Young +Germany," issued its notorious decree, forbidding the publication of any +writings by the members of that coterie; the name of Heine, who had been +stigmatized as the leader of the movement headed the list. This was the +beginning of a series of literary feuds in which Heine was, from now on, +involved; but a more serious and immediate effect of the decree was to +curtail considerably his sources of income. His uncle, it is true, had +allowed him 4000 francs a year when he settled in Paris, but at this +moment he was not on the best of terms with his Hamburg relatives. Under +these circumstances he was induced to take a step which his +fellow-countrymen have found it hard to forgive; he applied to the +French government for support from a secret fund formed for the benefit +of "political refugees" who were willing to place themselves at the +service of France. From 1836 or 1837 until the Revolution of 1848 Heine +was in receipt of 4800 francs annually from this source. + +In October 1834 Heine made the acquaintance of a young Frenchwoman, +Eugenie Mirat, a saleswoman in a boot-shop in Paris, and before long had +fallen passionately in love with her. Although ill-educated, vain and +extravagant, she inspired the poet with a deep and lasting affection, +and in 1841, on the eve of a duel in which he had become involved, he +made her his wife. "Mathilde," as Heine called her, was not the comrade +to help the poet in days of adversity, or to raise him to better things, +but, in spite of passing storms, he seems to have been happy with her, +and she nursed him faithfully in his last illness. Her death occurred in +1883. His relations with Mathilde undoubtedly helped to weaken his ties +with Germany; and notwithstanding the affection he professed to cherish +for his native land, he only revisited it twice, in the autumn of 1843 +and the summer of 1847. In 1845 appeared the first unmistakable signs of +the terrible spinal disease, which, for eight years, from the spring of +1848 till his death, condemned him to a "mattress grave." These years of +suffering--suffering which left his intellect as clear and vivacious as +ever--seem to have effected what might be called a spiritual +purification in Heine's nature, and to have brought out all the good +sides of his character, whereas adversity in earlier years only +intensified his cynicism. The lyrics of the _Romanzero_ (1851) and the +collection of _Neueste Gedichte_ (1853-1854) surpass in imaginative +depth and sincerity of purpose the poetry of the _Buch der Lieder_. Most +wonderful of all are the poems inspired by Heine's strange mystic +passion for the lady he called _Die Mouche_, a countrywoman of his +own--her real name was Elise von Krienitz, but she had written in French +under the _nom de plume_ of Camille Selden--who helped to brighten the +last months of the poet's life. He died on the 17th of February 1856, +and lies buried in the cemetery of Montmartre. + +Besides the purely journalistic work of Heine's Paris years, to which +reference has already been made, he published a collection of more +serious prose writings under the title _Der Salon_ (1833-1839). In this +collection will be found, besides papers on French art and the French +stage, the essays "Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in +Deutschland," which he had written for the _Revue des deux mondes_. +Here, too, are the more characteristic productions of Heine's genius, +_Aus den Memoiren des Herrn von Schnabelewopski_, _Der Rabbi von +Bacherach_ and _Florentinische Nachte_. _Die romantische Schule_ (1836), +with its unpardonable personal attack on the elder Schlegel, is a less +creditable essay in literary criticism. In 1839 appeared _Shakespeares +Madchen und Frauen_, which, however, was merely the text to a series of +illustrations; and in 1840, the witty and trenchant satire on a writer, +who, in spite of many personal disagreements, had been Heine's +fellow-fighter in the liberal cause, Ludwig Borne. Of Heine's poetical +work in these years, his most important publications were, besides the +_Romanzero_, the two admirable satires, _Deutschland, ein Wintermarchen_ +(1844), the result of his visit to Germany, and _Atta Troll, ein +Sommernachtstraum_ (1876), an attack on the political _Tendenzliteratur_ +of the 'forties. + +In the case of no other of the greater German poets is it so hard to +arrive at a final judgment as in that of Heinrich Heine. In his _Buch +der Lieder_ he unquestionably struck a new lyric note, not merely for +Germany but for Europe. No singer before him had been so daring in the +use of nature-symbolism as he, none had given such concrete and plastic +expression to the spiritual forces of heart and soul; in this respect +Heine was clearly the descendant of the Hebrew poets of the Old +Testament. At times, it is true, his imagery is exaggerated to the +degree of absurdity, but it exercised, none the less, a fascination over +his generation. Heine combined with a spiritual delicacy, a fineness of +perception, that firm hold on reality which is so essential to the +satirist. His lyric appealed with particular force to foreign peoples, +who had little understanding for the intangible, undefinable +spirituality which the German people regard as an indispensable element +in their national lyric poetry. Thus his fame has always stood higher in +England and France than in Germany itself, where his lyric method, his +self-consciousness, his cynicism in season and out of season, were +little in harmony with the literary traditions. As far, indeed, as the +development of the German lyric is concerned, Heine's influence has been +of questionable value. But he introduced at least one new and refreshing +element into German poetry with his lyrics of the North Sea; no other +German poet has felt and expressed so well as Heine the charm of sea and +coast. + +As a prose writer, Heine's merits were very great. His work was, in the +main, journalism, but it was journalism of a high order, and, after all, +the best literature of the "Young German" school to which he belonged +was of this character. Heine's light fancy, his agile intellect, his +straightforward, clear style stood him here in excellent stead. The +prose writings of his French period mark, together with Borne's _Briefe +aus Paris_, the beginning of a new era in German journalism and a +healthy revolt against the unwieldy prose of the Romantic period. Above +all things, Heine was great as a wit and a satirist. His lyric may not +be able to assert itself beside that of the very greatest German +singers, but as a satirist he had powers of the highest order. He +combined the holy zeal and passionate earnestness of the "soldier of +humanity" with the withering scorn and ineradicable sense of justice +common to the leaders of the Jewish race. It was Heine's real mission to +be a reformer, to restore with instruments of war rather than of peace +"the interrupted order of the world." The more's the pity that his +magnificent Aristophanic genius should have had so little room for its +exercise, and have been frittered away in the petty squabbles of an +exiled journalist. + + The first collected edition of Heine's works was edited by A. + Strodtmann in 21 vols. (1861-1866), the best critical edition is the + _Samtliche Werke_, edited by E. Elster (7 vols., 1887-1890). Heine has + been more translated into other tongues than any other German writer + of his time. Mention may here be made of the French translation of his + _Oeuvres completes_ (14 vols., 1852-1868), and the English translation + (by C. G. Leland and others) recently completed, _The Works of + Heinrich Heine_ (13 vols., 1892-1905). For biography and criticism see + the following works: A. Strodtmann, _Heines Leben und Werke_ (3rd ed., + 1884); H. Hueffer, _Aus dem Leben H. Heines_ (1878); and by the same + author, _H. Heine: Gesammelte Aufsatze_ (1906); G. Karpeles, _H. Heine + und seine Zeitgenossen_ (1888), and by the same author, _H. Heine: aus + seinem Leben und aus seiner Zeit_ (1900); W. Bolsche, _H. Heine: + Versuch einer asthetischkritischen Analyse seiner Werke und seiner + Weltanschauung_ (1888); G. Brandes, _Det unge Tyskland_ (1890; Eng. + trans., 1905). An English biography by W. Stigand, _Life, Works and + Opinions of Heinrich Heine_, appeared in 1875, but it has little + value; there is also a short life by W. Sharp (1888). The essays on + Heine by George Eliot and Matthew Arnold are well known. The best + French contributions to Heine criticism are J. Legras, _H. Heine, + poete_ (1897), and H. Lichtenberger, _H. Heine, penseur_ (1905). See + also L.P. Betz, _Heine in Frankreich_ (1895). (J. W. F.; J. G. R.) + + + + +HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1681-1741), German jurist, was born on the +11th of September 1681 at Eisenberg, Altenburg. He studied theology at +Leipzig, and law at Halle; and at the latter university he was appointed +in 1713 professor of philosophy, and in 1718 professor of jurisprudence. +He subsequently filled legal chairs at Franeker in Holland and at +Frankfort, but finally returned to Halle in 1733 as professor of +philosophy and jurisprudence. He died there on the 31st of August 1741. +Heineccius belonged to the school of philosophical jurists. He +endeavoured to treat law as a rational science, and not merely as an +empirical art whose rules had no deeper source than expediency. Thus he +continually refers to first principles, and he develops his legal +doctrines as a system of philosophy. + + His chief works were _Antiquitatum Romanarum jurisprudentiam + illustrantium syntagma_ (1718), _Historia juris civilis Romani ac + Germanici_ (1733), _Elementa juris Germanici_ (1735), _Elementa juris + naturae et gentium_ (1737; Eng. trans. by Turnbull, 2 vols., London, + 1763). Besides these works he wrote on purely philosophical subjects, + and edited the works of several of the classical jurists. His _Opera + omnia_ (9 vols., Geneva, 1771, &c.) were edited by his son Johann + Christian Gottlieb Heineccius (1718-1791). + +Heineccius's brother, JOHANN MICHAEL HEINECCIUS (1674-1722), was a +well-known preacher and theologian, but is remembered more from the fact +that he was the first to make a systematic study of seals, concerning +which he left a book, _De veteribus Germanorum aliarumque nationum +sigillis_ (Leipzig, 1710; 2nd ed., 1719). + + + + +HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH (1721-1725), a child remarkable for +precocity of intellect, was born on the 6th of February 1721 at Lubeck, +where his father was a painter. Able to speak at the age of ten months, +by the time he was one year old he knew by heart the principal incidents +in the Pentateuch. At two years of age he had mastered sacred history; +at three he was intimately acquainted with history and geography, +ancient and modern, sacred and profane, besides being able to speak +French and Latin; and in his fourth year he devoted himself to the study +of religion and church history. This wonderful precocity was no mere +feat of memory, for the youthful savant could reason on and discuss the +knowledge he had acquired. Crowds of people flocked to Lubeck to see the +wonderful child; and in 1724 he was taken to Copenhagen at the desire of +the king of Denmark. On his return to Lubeck he began to learn writing, +but his sickly constitution gave way, and he died on the 22nd of June +1725. + + _The Life, Deeds, Travels and Death of the Child of Lubeck_ were + published in the following year by his tutor Schoneich. See also + _Teutsche Bibliothek_, xvii., and _Memoires de Trevoux_ (Jan. 1731). + + + + +HEINICKE, SAMUEL (1727-1790), the originator in Germany of systematic +education for the deaf and dumb, was born on the 10th of April 1727, at +Nautschutz, Germany. Entering the electoral bodyguard at Dresden, he +subsequently supported himself by teaching. About 1754 his first deaf +and dumb pupil was brought him. His success in teaching this pupil was +so great that he determined to devote himself entirely to this work. The +outbreak of the Seven Years' War upset his plans for a time. Taken +prisoner at Pirna, he was brought to Dresden, but soon made his escape. +In 1768, when living in Hamburg, he successfully taught a deaf and dumb +boy to talk, following the methods prescribed by Amman in his book +_Surdus loquens_, but improving on them. Recalled to his own country by +the elector of Saxony, he opened in Leipzig, in 1778, the first deaf and +dumb institution in Germany. This school he directed till his death, +which took place on the 30th of April 1790. He was the author of a +variety of books on the instruction of the deaf and dumb. + + + + +HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM (1749-1803), German author, was born at +Langewiesen near Ilmenau in Thuringia on the 16th of February 1749. +After attending the gymnasium at Schleusingen he studied law at Jena and +Erfurt. In Erfurt he became acquainted with Wieland and through him with +"Father" Gleim who in 1772 procured him the post of tutor in a family at +Quedlinburg. In 1774 he went to Dusseldorf, where he assisted the poet +J. G. Jacobi to edit the periodical _Iris_. Here the famous picture +gallery inspired him with a passion for art, to the study of which he +devoted himself with so much zeal and insight that Jacobi furnished him +with funds for a stay in Italy, where he remained for three years +(1780-1783), He returned to Dusseldorf in 1784, and in 1786 was +appointed reader to the elector Frederick Charles Joseph, archbishop of +Mainz, who subsequently made him his librarian at Aschaffenburg, where +he died on the 22nd of June 1803. + +The work upon which Heinse's fame mainly rests is _Ardinghello und die +gluckseligen Inseln_ (1787), a novel which forms the framework for the +exposition of his views on art and life, the plot being laid in the +Italy of the 16th century. This and his other novels _Laidion, oder die +eleusinischen Geheimnisse_ (1774) and _Hildegard von Hohenthal_ (1796) +combine the frank voluptuousness of Wieland with the enthusiasm of the +"Sturm und Drang." Both as novelist and art critic, Heinse had +considerable influence on the romantic school. + + Heinse's complete works (_Samtliche Schriften_) were published by H. + Laube in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1838). A new edition by C. Schuddekopf is + in course of publication (Leipzig, 1901 sqq.). See H. Prohle, + _Lessing, Wieland, Heinse_ (Berlin, 1877), and J. Schober, _Johann + Jacob Wilhelm Heinse, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (Leipzig, 1882); + also K. D. Jessen, _Heinses Stellung zur bildenden Kunst_ (Berlin, + 1903). + + + + +HEINSIUS (or HEINS) DANIEL (1580-1655), one of the most famous scholars +of the Dutch Renaissance, was born at Ghent on the 9th of June 1580. The +troubles of the Spanish war drove his parents to settle first at Veere +in Zeeland, then in England, next at Ryswick and lastly at Flushing. In +1594, being already remarkable for his attainments, he was sent to the +university of Franeker to perfect himself in Greek under Henricus +Schotanus. He stayed at Franeker half a year, and then settled at Leiden +for the remaining sixty years of his life. There he studied under Joseph +Scaliger, and there he found Marnix de St Aldegonde, Janus Douza, Paulus +Merula and others, and was soon taken into the society of these +celebrated men as their equal. His proficiency in the classic languages +won the praise of all the best scholars of Europe, and offers were made +to him, but in vain, to accept honourable positions outside Holland. He +soon rose in dignity at the university of Leiden. In 1602 he was made +professor of Latin, in 1605 professor of Greek, and at the death of +Merula in 1607 he succeeded that illustrious scholar as librarian to +the university. The remainder of his life is recorded in a list of his +productions. He died at the Hague on the 25th of February 1655. The +Dutch poetry of Heinsius is of the school of Roemer Visscher, but +attains no very high excellence. It was, however, greatly admired by +Martin Opitz, who was the pupil of Heinsius, and who, in translating the +poetry of the latter, introduced the German public to the use of the +rhyming alexandrine. + + He published his original Latin poems in three volumes--_Iambi_ + (1602), _Elegiae_ (1603) and _Poemata_ (1605); his _Emblemata + amatoria_, poems in Dutch and Latin, were first printed in 1604. In + the same year he edited Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, having edited + Hesiod in 1603. In 1609 he printed his Latin _Orations_. In 1610 he + edited Horace, and in 1611 Aristotle and Seneca. In 1613 appeared in + Dutch his tragedy of _The Massacre of the Innocents_; and in 1614 his + treatise _De politico sapientia_. In 1616 he collected his original + Dutch poems into a volume. He edited Terence in 1618, Livy in 1620, + published his oration _De contemptu mortis_ in 1621, and brought out + the _Epistles_ of Joseph Scaliger in 1627. + + + + +HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES (1620-1681), Dutch scholar, son of Daniel Heinsius, +was born at Leiden on the 20th of July 1620. His boyish Latin poem of +_Breda expugnata_ was printed in 1637, and attracted much attention. In +1642 he began his wanderings with a visit to England in search of MSS. +of the classics; but he met with little courtesy from the English +scholars. In 1644 he was sent to Spa to drink the waters; his health +restored, he set out once more in search of codices, passing through +Louvain, Brussels, Mechlin, Antwerp and so back to Leiden, everywhere +collating MSS. and taking philological and textual notes. Almost +immediately he set out again, and arriving in Paris was welcomed with +open arms by the French savants. After investigating all the classical +texts he could lay hands on, he proceeded southwards, and visited on the +same quest Lyons, Marseilles, Pisa, Florence (where he paused to issue a +new edition of Ovid) and Rome. Next year, 1647, found him in Naples, +from which he fled during the reign of Masaniello; he pursued his +labours in Leghorn, Bologna, Venice and Padua, at which latter city he +published in 1648 his volume of original Latin verse entitled _Italica_. +He proceeded to Milan, and worked for a considerable time in the +Ambrosian library; he was preparing to explore Switzerland in the same +patient manner, when the news of his father's illness recalled him +hurriedly to Leiden. He was soon called away to Stockholm at the +invitation of Queen Christina, at whose court he waged war with +Salmasius, who accused him of having supplied Milton with facts from the +life of that great but irritable scholar. Heinsius paid a flying visit +to Leiden in 1650, but immediately returned to Stockholm. In 1651 he +once more visited Italy; the remainder of his life was divided between +Upsala and Holland. He collected his Latin poems into a volume in 1653. +His latest labours were the editing of Velleius Paterculus in 1678, and +of Valerius Flaccus in 1680. He died at the Hague on the 7th of October +1681. Nikolaes Heinsius was one of the purest and most elegant of +Latinists, and if his scholarship was not quite so perfect as that of +his father, he displayed higher gifts as an original writer. + +His illegitimate son, NIKOLAES HEINSIUS (b. 1655), was the author of +_The Delightful Adventures and Wonderful Life of Mirandor_ (1675), the +single Dutch romance of the 17th century. He had to flee the country in +1677 for committing a murder in the streets of the Hague, and died in +obscurity. + + + + +HEIR (Lat. _heres_, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in _herus_ or +_erus_, master of a house, Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, Sans, _harana_, +hand), in law, technically one who succeeds, by descent, to an estate of +inheritance, in contradistinction to one who succeeds to personal +property, i.e. next of kin. The word is now used generally to denote the +person who is entitled by law to inherit property, titles, &c., of +another. The rules regulating the descent of property to an heir will be +found in the articles INHERITANCE, SUCCESSION, &c. + +An _heir apparent_ (Lat. _apparens_, manifest) is he whose right of +inheritance is indefeasible, provided he outlives the ancestor, e.g. an +eldest or only son. + +_Heir by custom_, or customary heir, he who inherits by a particular and +local custom, as in borough-English, whereby the youngest son inherits, +or in gavelkind, whereby all the sons inherit as parceners, and made but +one heir. + +_Heir general_, or heir at law, he who after the death of his ancestor +has, by law, the right to the inheritance. + +_Heir presumptive_, one who is next in succession, but whose right is +defeasible by the birth of a nearer heir, e.g. a brother or nephew, +whose presumptive right may be destroyed by the birth of a child, or a +daughter, whose right may be defeated by the birth of a son. + +_Special heir_, one not heir at law (i.e. at common law), but by special +custom. + +_Ultimate heir_, he to whom lands come by escheat on failure of proper +heirs. In Scots law the technical use of the word "heir" is not confined +to the succession to real property, but includes succession to personal +property as well. + + + + +HEIRLOOM, strictly so called in English law, a chattel ("loom" meaning +originally a tool) which by immemorial usage is regarded as annexed by +inheritance to a family estate. Any owner of such heirloom may dispose +of it during his lifetime, but he cannot bequeath it by will away from +the estate. If he dies intestate it goes to his heir-at-law, and if he +devises the estate it goes to the devisee. At the present time such +heirlooms are almost unknown, and the word has acquired a secondary and +popular meaning and is applied to furniture, pictures, &c., vested in +trustees to hold on trust for the person for the time being entitled to +the possession of a settled house. Such things are more properly called +settled chattels. An heirloom in the strict sense is made by family +custom, not by settlement. A settled chattel may, under the Settled Land +Act 1882, be sold under the direction of the court, and the money +arising under such sale is capital money. The court will only sanction +such a sale if it be shown that it is to the benefit of all parties +concerned; and if the article proposed to be sold is of unique or +historical character, it will have regard to the intention of the +settlor and the wishes of the remainder men (Re _Hope_, _De Cetto_ v. +_Hope_, 1899, 2 ch. 679). + + + + +HEJAZ (HIJAZ), a Turkish vilayet and a province of Western Arabia, +extending along the Red Sea coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba in +29 deg. 30' N. to the south of Taif in 20 deg. N. It is bounded N. by +Syria, E. by the Nafud desert and by Nejd and S. by Asir. Its length is +about 750 m. and its greatest breadth from the Harra east of Khaibar to +the coast is 200 m. The name Hejaz, which signifies "separating," is +sometimes limited to the region extending from Medina in the north to +Taif in the south, which separates the island province Nejd from the +Tehama (Tihama) or coastal district, but most authorities, both Arab and +European, define it in the wider sense. Though physically the most +desolate and uninviting province in Arabia, it has a special interest +and importance as containing the two sacred cities of Islam, Mecca and +Medina (q.v.), respectively the birthplace and burial-place of Mahomet, +which are visited yearly by large numbers of Moslem pilgrims from all +parts of the world. + +Hejaz is divided longitudinally by the Tehama range of mountains into +two zones, a narrow littoral and a broader upland. This range attains +its greatest height in Jebel Shar, the Mount Seir of scripture, +overlooking the Midian coast, which probably reaches 7000 ft., and Jebel +Radhwa a little N.E. of Yambu rising to 6000 ft. It is broken through by +several valleys which carry off the drainage of the inland zone; the +principal of these is the Wadi Hamd, the main source of which is on the +Harra east of Khaibar. Its northern tributary the Wadi Jizil drains the +Harrat el Awerid and a southern branch comes from the neighbourhood of +Medina. Farther south the Wadi es Safra cuts through the mountains and +affords the principal access to the valley of Medina from Yambu or +Jidda. None of the Hejaz Wadis has a perennial stream, but they are +liable to heavy floods after the winter rains, and thick groves of +date-palms and occasional settlements are met with along their courses +wherever permanent springs are found. The northern part of Hejaz +contains but few inhabited sites. Muwela, Damgha and El Wijh are small +ports used by coasting craft. The last named was formerly an important +station on the Egyptian pilgrim route, and in ancient days was a Roman +settlement, and the port of the Nabataean towns of el Hajr 150 m. to the +east. Inland the sandstone desert of El Hisma reaches from the Syrian +border at Ma'an to Jebel Awerid, where the volcanic tracts known as +_harra_ begin, and extend southwards along the western borders of the +Nejd plateau as far as the latitude of Mecca. East of Jebel Awerid lies +the oasis of Tema, identified with the Biblical Teman, which belongs to +the Shammar tribe; its fertility depends on the famous well, known as +Bir el Hudaj. Farther south and on the main pilgrim route is El 'Ala, +the principal settlement of El Hajr, the Egra of Ptolemy, to whom it was +known as an oasis town on the gold and frankincense road. Higher up the +same valley are the rock-cut tombs of Medina Salih, similar to those at +Petra and shown by the Nabataean coins and inscriptions discovered there +by Doughty and Huber to date from the beginning of the Christian era. To +the south-east again is the oasis of Khaibar, with some 2500 +inhabitants, chiefly negroes, the remnants of an earlier slave +population. The citadel, known as the Kasr el Yahudi, preserves the +tradition of its former Jewish ownership. With these exceptions there +are no settled villages between Ma'an and Medina, the stations on the +pilgrim road being merely small fortified posts with reservoirs, at +intervals of 30 or 40 m., which are kept up by the Turkish government +for the protection of the yearly caravan. + +The southern part of the province is more favoured by nature. Medina is +a city of 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, situated in a broad plain +between the coast range and the low hills across which lies the road to +Nejd. Its altitude above the sea is about 2500 ft. It is well supplied +with water and is surrounded by gardens and plantations; barley and +wheat are grown, but the staple produce, as in all the cultivated +districts of Hejaz, is dates, of which 100 different sorts are said to +grow. Yambu' has a certain importance as the port for Medina. The route +follows for part of the way along the Wadi es Safra, which contains +several small settlements with abundant date groves; from Badr Hunen, +the last of these, the route usually taken from Medina to Mecca runs +near the coast, passing villages with some cultivation at each stage. +The eastern route though more direct is less used; it passes through a +barren country described by Burton as a succession of low plains and +basins surrounded by rolling hills and intersected by torrent beds; the +predominant formation is basalt. Suwerikiya and Es Safina are the only +villages of importance on this route. + +Mecca and the holy places in its vicinity are described in a separate +article; it is about 48 m. from the port of Jidda, the most important +trade centre of the Hejaz province. The great majority of pilgrims for +Mecca arrive by sea at Jidda. Their transport and the supply of their +wants is therefore the chief business of the place; in 1904 the number +was 66,500, and the imports amounted in value to L1,400,000. + +From the hot lowland in which Mecca is situated the country rises +steeply up to the Taif plateau, some 6000 ft. above sea-level, a +district resembling in climate and physical character the highlands of +Asir and Yemen. Jebel el Kura at the northern edge of the plateau is a +fertile well-watered district, producing wheat and barley and fruit. +Taif, a day's journey farther south, lies in a sandy plain, surrounded +by low mountains. The houses, though small, are well built of stone; the +gardens for which it is celebrated lie at a distance of a mile or more +to the S.W. at the foot of the mountains. + +Hejaz, together with the other provinces of Arabia which on the +overthrow of the Bagdad Caliphate in 1258 had fallen under Egyptian +domination, became by the conquest of Egypt in 1517 a dependency of the +Ottoman empire. Beyond assuming the title of Caliph, neither Salim I. +nor his successors interfered much in the government, which remained in +the hands of the sharifs of Mecca until the religious upheaval which +culminated at the beginning of the 19th century in the pillage of the +holy cities by the Wahhabi fanatics. Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, was +entrusted by the sultan with the task of establishing order, and after +several arduous campaigns the Wahhabis were routed and their capital +Deraiya in Nejd taken by Ibrahim Pasha in 1817. Hejaz remained in +Egyptian occupation until 1845, when its administration was taken over +directly by Constantinople, and it was constituted a vilayet under a +vali or governor-general. The population is estimated at 300,000, about +half of which are inhabitants of the towns and the remainder Bedouin, +leading a nomad or pastoral life. The principal tribes are the Sherarat, +Beni Atiya and Huwetat in the north; the Juhena between Yambu' and +Medina, and the various sections of the Harb throughout the centre and +south; the Ateba also touch the Mecca border on the south-east. All +these tribes receive surra or money payments of large amount from the +Turkish government to ensure the safe conduct of the annual pilgrimage, +otherwise they are practically independent of the Turkish +administration, which is limited to the large towns and garrisons. The +troops occupying these latter belong to the 16th (Hejaz) division of the +Turkish army. + + + The Hejaz railway. + +The difficulties of communication with his Arabian provinces, and of +relieving or reinforcing the garrisons there, induced the sultan Abdul +Hamid in 1900 to undertake the construction of a railway directly +connecting the Hejaz cities with Damascus without the necessity of +leaving Turkish territory at any point, as hitherto required by the Suez +Canal. Actual construction was begun in May 1901 and on the 1st of +September 1904 the section Damascus-Ma'an (285 m.) was officially +opened. The line has a narrow gauge of 1.05 metre = 41 in., the same +gauge as that of the Damascus-Beirut line; it has a ruling gradient of 1 +in 50 and follows generally the pilgrim track, through a desert country +presenting no serious engineering difficulties. The graver difficulties +due to the scarcity of water, and the lack of fuel, supplies and labour +were successfully overcome; in 1906 the line was completed to El Akhdar, +470 m. from Damascus and 350 from Medina, In time to be used by the +pilgrim caravan of that year; and the section to Medina was opened in +1908. Its military value was shown in the previous year, when it +conveyed 28 battalions from Damascus to Ma'an, from which station the +troops marched to Akaba for embarkation _en route_ to Hodeda. The length +of the line from Damascus to Medina is approximately 820 m., and from +Medina to Mecca 280 m.; the highest level attained is about 4000 ft. at +Dar el Hamra in the section Ma'an-Medina. + + AUTHORITIES.--J. L. Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1829); + 'Ali Bey, _Travels_ (London, 1816); R. F. Burton, _Pilgrimage to + Medinah and Mecca_ (1893); _Land of Midian_ (London, 1879); J. S. + Hurgronje, _Mekka_ (Hague, 1888); C. M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_ + (Cambridge, 1888); Auler Pasha, _Die Hedschasbahn_ (Gotha, 1906). + (R. A. W.) + + + + +HEJIRA,[1] or HEGIRA (Arab. _hijra_, flight, departure from one's +country, from _hajara_, to go away), the name of the Mahommedan era. It +dates from 622, the year in which Mahomet "fled" from Mecca to Medina to +escape the persecution of his kinsmen of the Koreish tribe. The years of +this era are distinguished by the initials "A.H." (_anno hegirae_). The +Mahommedan year is a lunar one, about 11 days shorter than the +Christian; allowance must be made for this in translating _Hegira_ dates +into Christian dates; thus A.H. 1321 corresponds roughly to A.D. 1903. +The actual date of the "flight" is fixed as 8 Rabia I., i.e. 20th of +September 622, by the tradition that Mahomet arrived at Kufa on the +Hebrew Day of Atonement. Although Mahomet himself appears to have dated +events by his flight, it was not till seventeen years later that the +actual era was systematized by Omar, the second caliph (see CALIPHATE), +as beginning from the 1st day of Muharram (the first lunar month of the +year) which in that year (639) corresponded to July 16. The term +_hejira_ is also applied in its more general sense to other +"emigrations" of the faithful, e.g. to that to Abyssinia (see MAHOMET), +and to that of Mahomet's followers to Medina before the capture of +Mecca. These latter are known as _Muhajirun_. + + For the problems of Moslem chronology and comparative tables of dates + see (beside the articles CALENDAR, CHRONOLOGY and MAHOMET), + Wustenfeld, _Vergleichungstabellen der muhammedanischen und + christlichen Zeitrechnung_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1903); Mas Latrie, + _Tresor de chronologie_ (Paris, 1889); Durbaneh, _Universal Calendar_ + (Cairo, 1896); Winckler, _Altorientalische Forschungen_, ii. 326-350; + D. Nielson, _Die altarabische Mondreligion_ (Strassburg, 1904); + Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, s.v. "Hijrah." + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The _i_ in the second syllable is short. + + + + +HEL, or _Hela_, in Scandinavian mythology, the goddess of the dead. She +was a child of Loki and the giantess Angurboda, and dwelt beneath the +roots of the sacred ash, Yggdrasil. She was given dominion over the nine +worlds of Helheim. In early myth all the dead went to her: in later +legend only those who died of old age or sickness, and she then became +synonymous with suffering and horror. Her dwelling was _Elvidnir_ (dark +clouds), her dish _Hungr_ (hunger), her knife _Sullt_ (starvation), her +servants _Ganglate_ (tardy feet), her bed _Kor_ (sickness), and her +bed-curtains _Blikiandabol_ (splendid misery). + + + + +HELDENBUCH, DAS, the title under which a large body of German epic +poetry of the 13th century has come down to us. The subjects of the +individual poems are taken from national German sagas which originated +in the epoch of the Migrations (_Volkerwanderung_), although doubtless +here, as in all purely popular sagas, motives borrowed from the forces +and phenomena of nature were, in course of time, woven into events +originally historical. While the saga of the Nibelungs crystallized in +the 13th century into the _Nibelungenlied_ (q.v.), and the Low German +Hilde-saga into the epic of _Gudrun_ (q.v.) the poems of the +_Heldenbuch_, in the more restricted use of that term, belong almost +exclusively to two cycles, (1) the Ostrogothic saga of Ermanrich, +Dietrich von Bern (i.e. Dietrich of Verona, Theodorich the Great) and +Etzel (Attila), and (2) the cycle of Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and +Ortnit, which like the _Nibelungen_ saga, was probably of Franconian +origin. The romances of the _Heldenbuch_ are of varying poetic value; +only occasionally do they rise to the height of the two chief epics, the +_Nibelungenlied_ and _Gudrun_. Dietrich von Bern, the central figure of +the first and more important group, was the ideal type of German +medieval hero, and, under more favourable literary conditions, he might +have become the centre of an epic more nationally German than even the +_Nibelungenlied_ itself. Of the romances of this group, the chief are +_Biterolf und Dietlieb_, evidently the work of an Austrian poet, who +introduced many elements from the court epic of chivalry into a milieu +and amongst characters familiar to us from the _Nibelungenlied_. _Der +Rosengarten_ tells of the conflicts which took place round Kriemhild's +"rose garden" in Worms--conflicts from which Dietrich always emerges +victor, even when he is confronted by Siegfried himself. In _Laurin und +der kleine Rosengarten_, the Heldensage is mingled with elements of +popular fairy-lore; it deals with the adventures of Dietrich and his +henchman Witege with the wily dwarf Laurin, who watches over another +rose garden, that of the Tyrol. Similar in character are the adventures +of Dietrich with the giants Ecke (_Eckenlied_) and Sigenot, with the +dwarf Goldemar, and the deeds of chivalry he performs for queen Virginal +(_Dietrichs erste Ausfahrt_)--all of these romances being written in the +fresh and popular tone characteristic of the wandering singers or +_Spielleute_. Other elements of the Dietrich saga are represented by the +poems _Alpharts Tod_, _Dietrichs Flucht_ and _Die Rabenschlacht_ +("Battle of Ravenna"). Of these, the first is much the finest poem of +the entire cycle and worthy of a place beside the best popular poetry of +the Middle High German epoch. Alphart, a young hero in Dietrich's army, +goes out to fight single-handed with Witege and Heime, who had deserted +to Ermanrich, and he falls, not in fair battle, but by the treachery of +Witege whose life he had spared. The other two Dietrich epics belong to +a later period, the end of the 13th century--the author being an +Austrian, Heinrich der Vogler--and show only too plainly the decay that +had by this time set in in Middle High German poetry. + +The second cycle of sagas is represented by several long romances, all +of them unmistakably "popular" in tone--conflicts with dragons, +supernatural adventures, the wonderland of the East providing the chief +features of interest. The epics of this group are _Ortnit_, +_Hugdietrich_, _Wolfdietrich_, the latter with its pathetic episode of +the unswerving loyalty of Wolfdietrich's vassal Duke Berchtung and his +ten sons. Although many of the incidents and motives of this cycle are +drawn from the best traditions of the _Heldensage_, its literary value +is not very high. + + This collection of popular romances was one of the first German books + to be printed. The date of the first edition is unknown, but the + second edition appeared in the year 1491 and was followed by later + reprints in 1509, 1545, 1560 and 1590. The last of these forms the + basis of the text edited by A. von Keller for the Stuttgart + _Literarische Verein_ in 1867. In 1472 the _Heldenbuch_ was adapted to + the popular tastes of the time by being remodelled in rough + _Knittelvers_ or doggerel; the author, or at least copyist, of the MS. + was a certain Kaspar von dor Roen, of Munnerstadt in Franconia. This + version was printed by F. von der Hagen and S. Primisser in their + _Heldenbuch_ (1820-1825). _Das Heldenbuch_, which F. von der Hagen + published in 2 vols, in 1855, was the first attempt to reproduce the + original text by collating the MSS. A critical edition, based not + merely on the oldest printed text--the only one which has any value + for this purpose, as the others are all copies of it--but also on the + MSS., was published in 5 vols. by O. Janicke, E. Martin, A. Amelung + and J. Zupitza at Berlin (1866-1873). A selection, edited by E. + Henrici, will be found in Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, + vol. 7 (1887). Recent editions have appeared of _Der Rosengarten_ and + _Laurin_, by G. Holz (1893 and 1897). All the poems have been + translated into modern German by K. Simrock and others. See F. E. + Sandbach, _The Heroic Saga-Cycle of Dietrich of Bern_ (1906). The + literature of the _Heldensage_ is very extensive. See especially W. + Grimm, _Die deutsche Heldensage_ (3rd ed., 1889); L. Uhland, + "Geschichte der deutschen Poesie im Mittelalter," _Schriften_, vol. i. + (1866); O. L. Jiriczek, _Deutsche Heldensage_, vol. i. (1898); and + especially B. Symons, "Germanische Heldensage," in Paul's _Grundriss + der germanischen Philologie_ (2nd ed., 1898). + + + + +HELDER, a seaport town at the northern extremity of the province of +North Holland, in the kingdom of Holland, 51 m. by rail N.N.W. of +Amsterdam. Pop. (1900) 25,842. It is situated on the Marsdiep, the +channel separating the island of Texel from the mainland, and the main +entrance to the Zuider Zee, and besides being the terminus of the North +Holland canal from Amsterdam, it is an important naval and military +station. On the east side of the town, called the Nieuwe Diep, is +situated the fine harbour, which formerly served, as Ymuiden now does, +as the outer port of Amsterdam. In this neighbourhood are the naval +wharves and magazines, wet and dry docks, and the naval cadet school of +Holland, the name Willemsoord being given to the whole naval +establishment. From Nieuwe Diep to Fort Erfprins on the west side of the +town, a distance of about 5 m., stretches the great sea-dike which here +takes the place of the dunes. This dike descends at an angle of 40 deg. +for a distance of 200 ft. into the sea, and is composed of Norwegian +granite and Belgian limestone, strengthened at intervals by projecting +jetties of piles and fascines. A circle of forts and batteries defends +the town and coast, and there is a permanent garrison of 7000 to 9000 +men, while 30,000 men can be accommodated within the lines, and the +province flooded from this point. Besides several churches and a +synagogue, there are a town hall (1836), a hospital, an orphan asylum, +the "palace" of the board of marine, a meteorological observatory, a +zoological station and a lighthouse. The industries of the town are +sustained by the garrison and marine establishments. + + + + +HELEN, or HELENA (Gr. [Greek: Elene]),in Greek mythology, daughter of +Zeus by Leda (wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta), sister of Castor, +Pollux and Clytaemnestra, and wife of Menelaus. Other accounts make her +the daughter of Zeus and Nemesis, or of Oceanus and Tethys. She was the +most beautiful woman in Greece, and indirectly the cause of the Trojan +war. When a child she was carried off from Sparta by Theseus to Attica, +but was recovered and taken back by her brothers. When she grew up, the +most famous of the princes of Greece sought her hand in marriage, and +her father's choice fell upon Menelaus. During her husband's absence she +was induced by Paris, son of Priam, with the connivance of Aphrodite, to +flee with him to Troy. After the death of Paris she married his brother +Deiphobus, whom she is said to have betrayed into the hands of Menelaus +at the capture of the city (_Aeneid_, vi. 517 ff.). Menelaus thereupon +took her back, and they returned together to Sparta, where they lived +happily till their death, and were buried at Therapnae in Laconia. +According to another story, Helen survived her husband, and was driven +out by her stepsons. She fled to Rhodes, where she was hanged on a tree +by her former friend Polyxo, to avenge the loss of her husband +Tlepolemus in the Trojan War (Pausanias iii. 19). After death, Helen was +said to have married Achilles in his home in the island of Leuke. In +another version, Paris, on his voyage to Troy with Helen, was driven +ashore on the coast of Egypt, where King Proteus, upon learning the +facts of the case, detained the real Helen in Egypt, while a phantom +Helen was carried off to Troy. Menelaus on his way home was also driven +by stress of winds to Egypt, where he found his wife and took her home +(Herodotus ii. 112-120; Euripides, _Helena_). Helen was worshipped as +the goddess of beauty at Therapnae in Laconia, where a festival was held +in her honour. At Rhodes she was worshipped under the name of Dendritis +(the tree goddess), where the inhabitants built a temple in her honour +to expiate the crime of Polyxo. The Rhodian story probably contains a +reference to the worship connected with her name (cf. Theocritus xviii. +48 [Greek: sebou m', Helenas phyton eimi]). She was the subject of a +tragedy by Euripides and an epic by Colluthus. Originally, Helen was +perhaps a goddess of light, a moon-goddess, who was gradually +transformed into the beautiful heroine round whom the action of the +_Iliad_ revolves. Like her brothers, the Dioscuri, she was a patron +deity of sailors. + + See E. Oswald, _The Legend of Fair Helen_ (1905); J. A. Symonds, + _Studies of the Greek Poets_, i. (1893); F. Decker, _Die griechische + Helena in Mythos und Epos_ (1894); Andrew Lang, _Helen of Troy_ + (1883); P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des + antiquites_; the exhaustive article by R. Engelmann in Roscher's + _Lexikon der Mythologie_; and O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, i. + 163, according to whom Helen originally represented, in the + Helenephoria (a mystic festival of Artemis, Iphigeneia or Tauropolos), + the sacred basket ([Greek: helene]) in which the holy objects were + carried; and hence, as the personification of the initiation ceremony, + she was connected with or identified with the moon, the first + appearance of which probably marked the beginning of the festivity. + + + + +HELENA, ST (c. 247-c. 327) the wife of the emperor Constantius I. +Chlorus, and mother of Constantine the Great. She was a woman of humble +origin, born probably at Drepanum, a town on the Gulf of Nicomedia, +which Constantine named Helenopolis in her honour. Very little is known +of her history. It is certain that, at an advanced age, she undertook a +pilgrimage to Palestine, visited the holy places, and founded several +churches. She was still living at the time of the murder of Crispus +(326). Constantine had coins struck with the effigy of his mother. The +name of Helena is intimately connected with the commonly received story +of the discovery of the Cross. But the accounts which connect her with +the discovery are much later than the date of the event. The Pilgrim of +Bordeaux (333), Eusebius and Cyril of Jerusalem were unaware of this +important episode in the life of the empress. It was only at the end of +the 4th century and in the West that the legend appeared. The principal +centre of the cult of St Helena in the West seems to be the abbey of +Hautvilliers, near Reims, where since the 9th century they have claimed +to be in possession of her body. In England legends arose representing +her as the daughter of a prince of Britain. Following these Geoffrey of +Monmouth makes her the daughter of Coel, the king who is supposed to +have given his name to the town of Colchester. These legends have +doubtless not been without influence on the cult of the saint in +England, where a great number of churches are dedicated either to St +Helena alone, or to St Cross and St Helena. Her festival is celebrated +in the Latin Church on the 18th of August. The Greeks make no +distinction between her festival and that of Constantine, the 21st of +May. + + See _Acta sanctorum_, Augusti iii. 548-580; Tixeront, _Les Origines de + l'eglise d'Edesse_ (Paris, 1888); F. Arnold-Forster, _Studies in + Church Dedications or England's Patron Saints_, i. 181-189, iii. 16, + 365-366 (1899). (H. De.) + + + + +HELENA, a city and the county-seat of Phillips county, Arkansas, U.S.A., +situated on and at the foot of Crowly's Ridge, about 150 ft. above +sea-level, in the alluvial bottoms of the Mississippi river, about 65 m. +by rail S.W. of Memphis, Tennessee. Pop. (1890) 5189, (1900) 5550, of +whom 3400 were negroes; (1910) 8772. It is served by the Yazoo & +Mississippi Valley (Illinois Central), the St Louis, Iron Mountain & +Southern (Missouri Pacific), the Arkansas Midland, and the Missouri & +North Arkansas railways. Built in part upon "made land," well protected +by levees, and lying within the richest cotton-producing region of the +south, the rich timber country of the St Francis river, and the +Mississippi "bottom lands," Helena concentrates its economic interests +in cotton-compressing and shipping, the manufacture of cotton-seed +products, lumbering and wood-working. The city was founded about 1821, +but so late as 1860 the population was only 800. During the Civil War +the place was of considerable strategic importance. It was occupied in +July 1862 by the Union forces, who strongly fortified it to guard their +communications with the lower Mississippi; on the 4th of July 1863, when +occupied by General Benjamin M. Prentiss (1819-1901) with 4500 men, it +was attacked by a force of 9000 Confederates under General Theophilus H. +Holmes (1804-1880), who hoped to raise the siege of Vicksburg or close +the river to the Union forces. The attack was repulsed, with a loss to +the Confederates of one-fifth their numbers, the Union loss being +slight. + + + + +HELENA, a city and the county-seat of Lewis and Clark county, Montana, +U.S.A., and the capital of the state, at the E. base of the main range +of the Rocky Mountains, 80 m. N.E. of Butte, at an altitude of about +4000 ft. Pop. (1880) 3624; (1890) 13,834; (1900) 10,770, of whom 2793 +were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,515. It is served by the Great +Northern and the Northern Pacific railways. Helena is delightfully +situated with Mt Helena as a background in the hollow of the Prickly +Pear valley, a rich agricultural region surrounded by rolling hills and +lofty mountains, and contains many fine buildings, including the state +capitol, county court house, the Montana club house, high school, the +cathedral of St Helena, a federal building, and the United States assay +office. It is the seat of the Montana Wesleyan University (Methodist +Episcopal), founded in 1890; St Aloysius College and St Vincent's +Academy (Roman Catholic); and has a public library with about 35,000 +volumes, the Montana state library with about 40,000 volumes, and the +state law library with about 24,000 volumes. The city is the commercial +and financial centre of the state (Butte being the mining centre), and +is one of the richest cities in the United States in proportion to its +population. It has large railway car-shops, extensive smelters and +quartz crushers (at East Helena), and various manufacturing +establishments; the value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,309,746, +an increase of 68.7% over that of 1900. The surrounding country abounds +in gold- and silver-bearing quartz deposits, and it is estimated that +from the famous Last Chance Gulch alone, which runs across the city, +more than $40,000,000 in gold has been taken. The street railway and the +lighting system of the city are run by power generated at a plant and 40 +ft. dam at Canyon Ferry, on the Missouri river, 18 m. E. of Helena. +There is another great power plant at Hauser Plant, 20 m. N. of Helena. +Three miles W. of the city is the Broadwater Natatorium with swimming +pool, 300 ft. long and 100 ft. wide, the water for which is furnished by +hot springs with a temperature at the source of 160 deg. Fort Harrison, a +United States army post, is situated 3 m. W. of the city. Helena was +established as a placer mining camp in 1864 upon the discovery of gold +in Last Chance Gulch. The town was laid out in the same year, and after +the organization of Montana Territory it was designated as the capital. +Helena was burned down in 1869 and in 1874. It was chartered as a city +in 1881. + + + + +HELENSBURGH, a municipal and police burgh and watering-place of +Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the N. shore of the Firth of Clyde, +opposite Greenock, 24 m. N.W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. +Pop. (1901) 8554. There is a station at Upper Helensburgh on the West +Highland railway, and from the railway pier at Craigendoran there is +steamer communication with Garelochhead, Dunoon and other pleasure +resorts on the western coast. In 1776 the site began to be built upon, +and in 1802 the town, named after Lady Helen, wife of Sir James +Colquhoun of Luss, the ground landlord, was erected into a burgh of +barony, under a provost and council. The public buildings include the +burgh hall, municipal buildings, Hermitage schools and two hospitals. On +the esplanade stands an obelisk to Henry Bell, the pioneer of steam +navigation, who died at Helensburgh in 1830. + + + + +HELENUS, in Greek legend, son of Priam and Hecuba, and twin-brother of +Cassandra. He is said to have been originally called Scamandrius, and to +have received the name of Helenus from a Thracian soothsayer who +instructed him in the prophetic art. In the _Iliad_ he is described as +the prince of augurs and a brave warrior; in the _Odyssey_ he is not +mentioned at all. Various details concerning him are added by later +writers. It is related that he and his sister fell asleep in the temple +of Apollo Thymbraeus and that snakes came and cleansed their ears, +whereby they obtained the gift of prophecy and were able to understand +the language of birds. After the death of Paris, Helenus and his brother +Deiphobus became rivals for the hand of Helen. Deiphobus was preferred, +and Helenus withdrew in indignation to Mount Ida, where he was captured +by the Greeks, whom he advised to build the wooden horse and carry off +the Palladium. According to other accounts, having been made prisoner by +a stratagem of Odysseus, he declared that Philoctetes must be fetched +from Lemnos before Troy could be taken; or he surrendered to Diomedes +and Odysseus in the temple of Apollo, whither he had fled in disgust at +the sacrilegious murder of Achilles by Paris in the sanctuary. After the +capture of Troy, he and his sister-in-law Andromache accompanied +Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus) as captives to Epirus, where Helenus persuaded him +to settle. After the death of Neoptolemus, Helenus married Andromache +and became ruler of the country. He was the reputed founder of Buthrotum +and Chaonia, named after a brother or companion whom he had accidentally +slain while hunting. He was said to have been buried at Argos, where his +tomb was shown. When Aeneas, in the course of his wanderings, reached +Epirus, he was hospitably received by Helenus, who predicted his future +destiny. + + Homer, _Iliad_, vi. 76, vii. 44, xii. 94, xiii. 576; Sophocles, + _Philoctetes_, 604, who probably follows the _Little Iliad_ of + Lesches; Pausanias i. 11, ii. 23; Conon, _Narrationes_, 34; Dictys + Cretensis iv. 18; Virgil, _Aeneid_, iii. 294-490; Servius on _Aeneid_, + ii. 166, iii. 334. + + + + +HELGAUD, or HELGALDUS (d. c. 1048), French chronicler, was a monk of the +Benedictine abbey of Fleury. Little else is known about him save that he +was chaplain to the French king, Robert II. the Pious, whose life he +wrote. This _Epitoma vitae Roberti regis_, which is probably part of a +history of the abbey of Fleury, deals rather with the private than with +the public life of the king, and its value is not great either from the +literary or from the historical point of view. The only existing +manuscript is in the Vatican, and the _Epitoma_ has been printed by J. +P. Migne in the _Patrologia Latina_, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844); and by M. +Bouquet in the _Recueil des historiens des Gaules_, tome x. (Paris, +1760). + + See _Histoire litteraire de la France_, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869); + and A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_, tome ii. + (Paris, 1902). + + + + +HELGESEN, POVL,[1] Danish humanist, was born at Varberg in Halland about +1480, of a Danish father and a Swedish mother. Helgesen was educated +first at the Carmelite monastery of his native place and afterwards at +another monastery at Elsinore, where he devoted himself to humanistic +studies and adopted Erasmus as his model. None had a keener eye for the +abuses of the Church; long before the appearance of Luther, he denounced +the ignorance and immorality of the clergy, and, as lector at the +university of Copenhagen, gathered round him a band of young +enthusiasts, the future leaders of the Danish Reformation. But Helgesen +desired an orderly, methodical, rational reformation, and denounced +Luther, whose ablest opponent in Denmark he subsequently became, as a +hot-headed revolutionist. Christian II. was also an object of Helgesen's +detestation, and so boldly did he oppose that monarch's measures that, +to save his life, he had to flee to Jutland. Under Frederick I. +(1523-1533) he returned to Copenhagen and resumed his chair at the +university, becoming soon afterwards provincial of the Carmelite Order +for Scandinavia. But like all moderate men in a time of crisis, Helgesen +could gain the confidence of neither party, and was frequently attacked +as bitterly by the Catholics as by the Protestants. From 1530 to 1533 he +and the Protestant champion Hans Tausen exhausted the whole vocabulary +of vituperation in their fruitless polemics. In October 1534, however, +Helgesen issued an eirenicon in which he attempted to reconcile the two +contending confessions. After that every trace of him is lost. For a +long time he was unjustly regarded as a turn-coat, but he was too +superior to the prejudices of his age to be understood by his +contemporaries. His ideal was a moral internal reformation of the Church +on a rational basis, conducted not by ill-informed fanatics, but by an +enlightened and well-educated clergy; and from this standpoint he never +diverged. Helgesen was indisputably the greatest master of style of his +age in Denmark, and as a historian he also occupies a prominent +position. He always endeavours to probe down to the very soul of things, +though his passionate nature made it very difficult for him to be +impartial. His chief works are _Danmark's Kongers Historie_ and _Skibby +Kroniken_. + + See Ludwig Schmitt, _Der Karmeliter Paulus Helia_ (Freiburg, 1893); + _Danmarks Riges Historie_ (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. iii. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] He wrote his name Heliae or Eliae. + + + + +HELIACAL, relating to the sun ([Greek: helios]), a term applied in the +ancient astronomy to the first rising of a star which could be seen +after it emerged from the rays of the sun, or the last setting that +could be seen before it was lost from sight by proximity to the sun. + + + + +HELIAND. The 9th-century poem on the Gospel history, to which its first +editor, J. A. Schmeller, gave the appropriate name of _Heliand_ (the +word used in the text for "Saviour," answering to the O. Eng. _haelend_ +and the Ger. _Heiland_), is, with the fragments of a version of the +story of Genesis believed to be by the same author, all that remains of +the poetical literature of the old Saxons, i.e. the Saxons who continued +in their original home. It contained when entire about 6000 lines, and +portions of it are preserved in four MSS. The Cotton MS. in the British +Museum, written probably late in the 10th century, is nearly complete, +ending in the middle of the story of the journey to Emmaus. The Munich +MS., formerly at Bamberg, begins at line 85, and has many lacunae, but +continues the history down to the last verse of St Luke's Gospel, +ending, however, in the middle of a sentence. A MS. discovered at Prague +in 1881 contains lines 958-1106, and another, in the Vatican library, +discovered by K. Zangemeister in 1894, contains lines 1279-1358. The +poem is based, not directly on the New Testament, but on the +pseudo-Tatian's harmony of the Gospels, and it shows acquaintance with +the commentaries of Alcuin, Baeda and Hrabanus Maurus. + +The questions relating to the _Heliand_ cannot be adequately discussed +without considering also the poem on the history of Genesis, which, on +the grounds of similarity in style and vocabulary, and for other reasons +afterwards to be mentioned, may with some confidence be referred to the +same author. A part of this poem, as is mentioned in the article CAEDMON, +is extant only in an Old English translation. The portions that have +been preserved in the original language are contained in the same +Vatican MS. that includes the fragment of the _Heliand_ referred to +above. In the one language or the other, there are in existence the +following three fragments: (1) The passage which appears as lines +235-851 in the so-called "Caedmon's _Genesis_," on the revolt of the +angels and the temptation and fall of Adam and Eve. Of this the part +corresponding to lines 790-820 exists also in the original Old Saxon. +(2) The story of Cain and Abel, in 124 lines. (3) The account of the +destruction of Sodom, in 187 lines. The main source of the _Genesis_ is +the Bible, but Professor E. Sievers has shown that considerable use was +made of the two Latin poems by Alcimus Avitus, _De initio mundi_ and _De +peccato originali_. + +The two poems give evidence of genius and trained skill, though the +poet was no doubt hampered by the necessity of not deviating too widely +from the sacred originals. Within the limits imposed by the nature of +his task, his treatment of his sources is remarkably free, the details +unsuited for poetic handling being passed over, or, in some instances, +boldly altered. In many passages his work gives the impression of being +not so much an imitation of the ancient Germanic epic, as a genuine +example of it, though concerned with the deeds of other heroes than +those of Germanic tradition. In the _Heliand_ the Saviour and His +Apostles are conceived as a king and his faithful warriors, and the use +of the traditional epic phrases appears to be not, as with Cynewulf or +the author of _Andreas_, a mere following of accepted models, but the +spontaneous mode of expression of one accustomed to sing of heroic +themes. The _Genesis_ fragments have less of the heroic tone, except in +the splendid passage describing the rebellion of Satan and his host. It +is noteworthy that the poet, like Milton, sees in Satan no mere +personification of evil, but the fallen archangel, whose awful guilt +could not obliterate all traces of his native majesty. Somewhat +curiously, but very naturally, Enoch the son of Cain is confused with +the Enoch who was translated to heaven--an error which the author of the +Old English _Genesis_ avoids, though (according to the existing text) he +confounds the names of Enoch and Enos. + +Such external evidence as exists bearing on the origin of the _Heliand_ +and the companion poem is contained in a Latin document printed by +Flacius Illyricus in 1562. This is in two parts; the one in prose, +entitled (perhaps only by Flacius himself) "_Praefatio ad librum +antiquum in lingua Saxonica conscriptum_"; the other in verse, headed +"_Versus de poeta et Interpreta hujus codicis_." The Praefatio begins by +stating that the emperor Ludwig the Pious, desirous that his subjects +should possess the word of God in their own tongue, commanded a certain +Saxon, who was esteemed among his countrymen as an eminent poet, to +translate poetically into the German language the Old and New +Testaments. The poet willingly obeyed, all the more because he had +previously received a divine command to undertake the task. He rendered +into verse all the most important parts of the Bible with admirable +skill, dividing his work into _vitteas_, a term which, the writer says, +may be rendered by "_lectiones_" or "_sententias_." The Praefatio goes +on to say that it was reported that the poet, till then knowing nothing +of the art of poetry, had been admonished in a dream to turn into verse +the precepts of the divine law, which he did with so much skill that his +work surpasses in beauty all other German poetry (_ut cuncta Theudisca +poemata suo vincat decore_). The _Versus_ practically reproduce in +outline Baeda's account of Caedmon's dream, without mentioning the dream, +but describing the poet as a herdsman, and adding that his poems, +beginning with the creation, relate the history of the five ages of the +world down to the coming of Christ. + +The suspicion of some earlier scholars that the _Praefatio_ and the +_Versus_ might be a modern forgery is refuted by the occurrence of the +word _vitteas_, which is the Old Saxon _fittea_, corresponding to the +Old English _fitt_, which means a "canto" of a poem. It is impossible +that a scholar of the 16th century could have been acquainted with this +word, and internal evidence shows clearly that both the prose and the +verse are of early origin. The _Versus_, considered in themselves, might +very well be supposed to relate to Caedmon; but the mention of the five +ages of the world in the concluding lines is obviously due to +recollection of the opening of the _Heliand_ (lines 46-47). It is +therefore certain that the _Versus_, as well as the _Praefatio_, +attribute to the author of the _Heliand_ a poetic rendering of the Old +Testament. Their testimony, if accepted, confirms the ascription to him +of the Genesis fragments, which is further supported by the fact that +they occur in the same MS. with a portion of the _Heliand_. As the +_Praefatio_ speaks of the emperor Ludwig in the present tense, the +former part of it at least was probably written in his reign, i.e. not +later than A.D. 840. The general opinion of scholars is that the latter +part, which represents the poet as having received his vocation in a +dream, is by a later hand, and that the sentences in the earlier part +which refer to the dream are interpolations by this second author. The +date of these additions, and of the _Versus_, is of no importance, as +their statements are incredible. That the author of the _Heliand_ was, +so to speak, another Caedmon--an unlearned man who turned into poetry +what was read to him from the sacred writings--is impossible, because in +many passages the text of the sources is so closely followed that it is +clear that the poet wrote with the Latin books before him. On the other +hand, there is no reason for rejecting the almost contemporary testimony +of the first part of the _Praefatio_ that the author of the _Heliand_ +had won renown as a poet before he undertook his great task at the +emperor's command. It is certainly not impossible that a Christian +Saxon, sufficiently educated to read Latin easily, may have chosen to +follow the calling of a _scop_ or minstrel[1] instead of entering the +priesthood or the cloister; and if such a person existed, it would be +natural that he should be selected by the emperor to execute his design. +As has been said above, the tone of many portions of the _Heliand_ is +that of a man who was no mere imitator of the ancient epic, but who had +himself been accustomed to sing of heroic themes. + +The commentary on the gospel of Matthew by Hrabanus Maurus was finished +about 821, which is therefore the superior limit of date for the +composition of the _Heliand_. It is usually maintained that this work +was written before the Old Testament poems. The arguments for this view +are that the _Heliand_ contains no allusion to any foregoing poetical +treatment of the antecedent history, and that the Genesis fragments +exhibit a higher degree of poetic skill. This reasoning does not appear +conclusive, and if it be set aside, the limit of date for the beginning +of the work is carried back to A.D. 814, the year of the accession of +Ludwig. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first complete edition of the _Heliand_ was + published by J. A. Schmeller in 1830; the second volume, containing + the glossary and grammar, appeared in 1840. The standard edition is + that of E. Sievers (1877), in which the texts of the Cotton and Munich + MSS. are printed side by side. It is not provided with a glossary, but + contains an elaborate and most valuable analysis of the diction, + synonymy and syntactical features of the poem. Other useful editions + are those of M. Heyne (3rd ed., 1903), O. Behaghel (1882) and P. Piper + (1897, containing also the Genesis fragments). The fragments of the + _Heliand_ and the _Genesis_ contained in the Vatican MS. were edited + in 1894 by K. Zangemeister and W. Braune under the title _Bruchstucke + der altsachsischen Bibeldichtung_. Among the works treating of the + authorship, sources and place of origin of the poems, the most + important are the following: E. Windisch, _Der Heliand und seine + Quellen_ (1868); E. Sievers, _Der Heliand und die angelsachsische + Genesis_ (1875); R. Kogel, _Deutsche Literaturgeschichte_, Bd. i. + (1894) and _Die altsachsische Genesis_ (1895); R. Kogel and W. + Bruckner, "Althoch- und altniederdeutsche Literatur," in Paul's + _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, Bd. ii. (2nd ed., 1901), + which contains references to many other works; Hermann Collitz, _Zum + Dialekte des Heliand_ (1901). (H. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The term _Volkssanger_, commonly used in German discussions of + this question, is misleading; the audience for heroic poetry was not + "the people" in the modern sense, but the nobles. + + + + +HELICON, a mountain range, of Boeotia in ancient Greece, celebrated in +classical literature as the favourite haunt of the Muses, is situated +between Lake Copais and the Gulf of Corinth. On the fertile eastern +slopes stood a temple and grove sacred to the Muses, and adorned with +beautiful statues, which, taken by Constantine the Great to beautify his +new city, were consumed there by a fire in A.D. 404. Hard by were the +famous fountains, Aganippe and Hippocrene, the latter fabled to have +gushed from the earth at the tread of the winged horse Pegasus, whose +favourite browsing place was there. At the neighbouring Ascra dwelt the +poet Hesiod, a fact which probably enhanced the poetic fame of the +region. Pausanias, who describes Helicon in his ninth book, asserts that +it was the most fertile mountain in Greece, and that neither poisonous +plant nor serpent was to be found on it, while many of its herbs +possessed a miraculous healing virtue. The highest summit, the present +Palaeovouni (old hill), rises to the height of about 5000 ft. Modern +travellers, aided by ancient remains and inscriptions, and guided by the +local descriptions of Pausanias, have succeeded in identifying many of +the ancient classical spots, and the French excavators have discovered +the temple of the Muses and a theatre. + + See also Clarke, _Travels in Various Countries_ (vol. vii., 1818); + Dodwell, _Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece_ (1818); W. + M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (vol. ii., 1835); J. G. + Frazer's edition of _Pausanias_, v. 150. + + + + +HELICON (Fr. _helicon, bombardon circulaire_; Ger. _Helikon_), the +circular form of the B[flat] contrabass tuba used in military bands, +worn round the body, with the enormous bell resting on the left shoulder +and towering above the head of the performer. The pitch of the helicon +is an octave below that of the euphonium. The idea of winding the long +tube of the contrabass tuba and of wearing it round the shoulders was +suggested by the ancient Roman buccina and cornu, represented in mosaics +and on the sculptured reliefs surrounding Trajan's Column. The buccina +and cornu[1] differed in the diameter of their respective bores, the +former having the narrow, almost cylindrical bore and harmonic series of +the trumpet and trombone, whereas the cornu, having a bore in the form +of a wide cone, was the prototype of the bugle and tubas. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For illustrations of the cornu see the altar of Julius Victor ex + Collegio, reproduced in Bartoli, Pict. Ant. p. 76; Bellori, _Pict. + antiq. crypt. rom._ p. 76, pl. viii.; in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict. + des antiq. grecques et romaines_, under "Cornu," the buccina and + cornu have not been distinguished. + + + + +HELIGOLAND (Ger. _Helgoland_), an island of Germany, in the North Sea, +lying off the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, 28 m. from the nearest +point in the mainland. Pop. (1900) 2307. From 1807 to 1890 a British +possession, it was ceded in 1890 to Germany, and since 1892 has formed +part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It consists of two +islets, the smaller, the Dunen-Insel, a quarter of a mile E. of the +main, or Rock Island, connected until 1720, when it was severed by a +violent irruption of the sea, with the other by a neck of land, and the +main, or Rock Island. The latter is nearly triangular in shape and is +surrounded by steep red cliffs, the only beach being the sandy spit near +the south-east point, where the landing-stage is situated. The rocks +composing the cliffs are worn into caves, and around the island are many +fantastic arches and columns. The impression made by the red cliffs, +fringed by a white beach and supporting the green Oberland, is commonly +believed to have suggested the national colours, red, white and green, +or, as the old Frisian rhyme goes:-- + + "Gron is dat Land, + Rood is de Kant, + Witt is de Sand, + Dat is de Flagg vun't hillige Land." + +The lower town of Unterland, on the spit, and the upper town, or +Oberland, situated on the cliff above, are connected by a wooden stair +and a lift. There is a powerful lighthouse, and since its cession by +Great Britain to Germany, the main island has been strongly fortified, +the old English batteries being replaced by armoured turrets mounting +guns of heavy calibre. Inside the Dunen-Insel the largest ships can ride +safely at anchor, and take in coal and other supplies. The greatest +length of the main island, which slopes somewhat from west to east, is +just a mile, and the greatest breadth less than a third of a mile, its +average height 198 ft., and the highest point, crowned by the church, +with a conspicuous spire, 216 ft. The Dunen-Insel is a sand-bank +protected by groines. It is only about 200 ft. above the sea at its +highest point, but the drifting sands make the height rather variable. +The sea-bathing establishment is situated here; a shelving beach of +white sand presenting excellent facilities for bathing. Most of the +houses are built of brick, but some are of wood. There are a theatre, a +Kurhaus, and a number of hotels and restaurants. In 1892 a biological +institute, with a marine museum and aquarium (1900) attached, was +opened. + +During the summer some 20,000 people visit the island for sea-bathing. +German is the official language, though among themselves the natives +speak a dialect of Frisian, barely intelligible to the other islands of +the group. There is regular communication with Bremen and Hamburg. + +The winters are stormy. May and the early part of June are wet and +foggy, so that few visitors arrive before the middle of the latter +month. + +The generally accepted derivation of Heligoland (or Helgoland) from +_Heiligeland_, i.e. "Holy Land," seems doubtful. According to northern +mythology, Forseti, a son of Balder and Nanna, the god of justice, had a +temple on the island, which was subsequently destroyed by St Ludger. +This legend may have given rise to the derivation "Holy Land." The more +probable etymology, however, is that of Hallaglun, or Halligland, i.e. +"land of banks, which cover and uncover." Here Hertha, according to +tradition, had her great temple, and hither came from the mainland the +Angles to worship at her shrine. Here also lived King Radbod, a pagan, +and on this isle St Willibrord in the 7th century first preached +Christianity; and for its ownership, before and after that date, many +sea-rovers have fought. Finally it became a fief of the dukes of +Schleswig-Holstein, though often hypothecated for loans advanced to +these princes by the free city of Hamburg. The island was a Danish +possession in 1807, when the English seized and held it until it was +formally ceded to them in 1814. In the picturesque old church there are +still traces of a painted Dannebrog. + +In 1890 the island was ceded to Germany, and in 1892 it was incorporated +with Prussia, when it was provided that natives born before the year +1880 should be allowed to elect either for British or German +nationality, and until 1901 no additional import duties were imposed. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Von der Decken, _Philosophisch-historisch-geographische + Untersuchungen uber die Insel Helgoland, oder Heiligeland, und ihre + Bewohner_ (Hanover, 1826); Wiebel, _Die Insel Helgoland, + Untersuchungen uber deren Grosse in Vorzeit und Gegenwart vom + Standpunkte der Geschichte und Geologie_ (Hamburg, 1848); J. M. + Lappenberg, _Uber den ehemaligen Umfang und die alte Geschichte + Helgolands_ (Hamburg, 1831); F. Otker, _Helgoland. Schilderungen und + Erorterungen_ (Berlin, 1855); E. Hallier, _Helgoland, Nordseestudien_ + (Hamburg, 1893); A. W. F. Moller, _Rechtsgeschichte der Insel + Helgoland_ (Weimar, 1904); W. G. Black, _Heligoland and the Islands of + the North Sea_ (Glasgow, 1888); E. Lindermann, _Die Nordseeinsel + Helgoland in topographischer, geschichtlicher, sanitarer Beziehung_ + (Berlin, 1889); and Tittel, _Die naturlichen Veranderungen Helgolands_ + (Leipzig, 1894). + + + + +HELIOCENTRIC, i.e. referred to the centre of the sun ([Greek: helios]) +as an origin, a term designating especially co-ordinates or heavenly +bodies referred to that origin. + + + + +HELIODORUS, of Emesa in Syria, Greek writer of romance. According to his +own statement his father's name was Theodosius, and he belonged to a +family of priests of the sun. He was the author of the _Aethiopica_, the +oldest and best of the Greek romances that have come down to us. It was +first brought to light in modern times in a MS. from the library of +Matthias Corvinus, found at the sack of Buda (Ofen) in 1526, and printed +at Basel in 1534. Other codices have since been discovered. The title is +taken from the fact that the action of the beginning and end of the +story takes place in Aethiopia. The daughter of Persine, wife of +Hydaspes, king of Aethiopia, was born white through the effect of the +sight of a marble statue upon the queen during pregnancy. Fearing an +accusation of adultery, the mother gives the babe to the care of +Sisimithras, a gymnosophist, who carries her to Egypt and places her in +charge of Charicles, a Pythian priest. The child is taken to Delphi, and +made a priestess of Apollo under the name of Chariclea. Theagenes, a +noble Thessalian, comes to Delphi and the two fall in love with each +other. He carries off the priestess with the help of Calasiris, an +Egyptian, employed by Persine to seek for her daughter. Then follow many +perils from sea-rovers and others, but the chief personages ultimately +meet at Meroe at the very moment when Chariclea is about to be +sacrificed to the gods by her own father. Her birth is made known, and +the lovers are happily married. The rapid succession of events, the +variety of the characters, the graphic descriptions of manners and of +natural scenery, the simplicity and elegance of the style, give the +_Aethiopica_ great charm. As a whole it offends less against good taste +and morality than others of the same class. Homer and Euripides were the +favourite authors of Heliodorus, who in his turn was imitated by French, +Italian and Spanish writers. The early life of Clorinda in Tasso's +_Jerusalem Delivered_ (canto xii. 21 sqq.) is almost identical with that +of Chariclea; Racine meditated a drama on the same subject; and it +formed the model of the _Persiles y Sigismunda_ of Cervantes. According +to the ecclesiastical historian Socrates (_Hist. eccles._ v. 22), the +author of the _Aethiopica_ was a certain Heliodorus, bishop of Tricca in +Thessaly. It is supposed that the work was written in his early years +before he became a Christian, and that, when confronted with the +alternative of disowning it or resigning his bishopric, he preferred +resignation. But it is now generally agreed that the real author was a +sophist of the 3rd century A.D. + + The best editions are: A. Coraes (1804), G. A. Hirschig (1856); see + also M. Oeftering, _H. und seine Bedeutung fur die Literatur_, with + full bibliographies (1901); J. C. Dunlop, _History of Prose Fiction_ + (1888); and especially E. Rohde, _Der griechische Roman_ (1900). There + are translations in almost all European languages: in English, in + Bohn's _Classical Library_ and the "Tudor" series (v., 1895, + containing the old translation by T. Underdowne, 1587, with + introduction by C. Whibley); in French by Amyot and Zevort. + + + + +HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS), Roman emperor (A.D. 218-222), was born at +Emesa about 205. His real name was Varius Avitus. On the murder of +Caracalla (217), Julia Maesa, Varius's grandmother and Caracalla's aunt, +left Rome and retired to Emesa, accompanied by her grandsons (Varius and +Alexander Severus). Varius, though still only a boy, was appointed high +priest of the Syrian sun-god Elagabalus, one of the chief seats of whose +worship was Emesa (Homs). His beauty, and the splendid ceremonials at +which he presided, made him a great favourite with the troops stationed +in that part of Syria, and Maesa increased his popularity by spreading +reports that he was in reality the illegitimate son of Caracalla. +Macrinus, the successor and instigator of the murder of Caracalla, was +very unpopular with the army; an insurrection was easily set on foot, +and on the 16th of May 218 Varius was proclaimed emperor as Marcus +Aurelius Antoninus. The troops sent to quell the revolt went over to +him, and Macrinus was defeated near Antioch on the 8th of June. +Heliogabalus was at once recognized by the senate as emperor. After +spending the winter in Nicomedia, he proceeded in 219 to Rome, where he +made it his business to exalt the deity whose priest he was and whose +name he assumed. The Syrian god was proclaimed the chief deity in Rome, +and all other gods his servants; splendid ceremonies in his honour were +celebrated, at which Heliogabalus danced in public, and it was believed +that secret rites accompanied by human sacrifice were performed in his +honour. In addition to these affronts upon the state religion, he +insulted the intelligence of the community by horseplay of the wildest +description and by childish practical joking. The shameless profligacy +of the emperor's life was such as to shock even a Roman public. His +popularity with the army declined, and Maesa, perceiving that the +soldiers were in favour of Alexander Severus, persuaded Heliogabalus to +raise his cousin to the dignity of Caesar (221), a step of which he soon +repented. An attempt to murder Alexander was frustrated by the watchful +Maesa. Another attempt in 222 produced a mutiny among the praetorians, +in which Heliogabalus and his mother Soemias (Soaemias) were slain +(probably in the first half of March). + + AUTHORITIES.--Life by Aelius Lampridius in _Scriptores historiae + Augustae_; Herodian v. 3-8; Dio Cassius lxxviii. 30 sqq., lxxix. 1-21; + monograph by G. Duviquet, _Heliogabale_ (1903), containing a + translation of the various accounts of Heliogabalus in Greek and Latin + authors, notes, bibliography and illustrations; O. F. Butler, _Studies + in the Life of Heliogabalus_ (New York, 1908); Gibbon, _Decline and + Fall_, ch. 6; H. Schiller, _Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit_, i. + pt. ii. (1883), p. 759 ff. On the Syrian god see F. Cumont in + Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, v. pt. ii. (1905). + + + + +HELIOGRAPH (from Gr. [Greek: elios], sun, and [Greek: graphein] to +write), an instrument for reflecting the rays of the sun (or the light +obtained from any other source) over a considerable distance. Its main +application is in military signalling (see SIGNAL). A similar instrument +is the heliotrope, used principally for defining distant points in +geodetic surveys, such as in the triangulation of India, and in the +verification of the African arc of the meridian. It is necessary to +distinguish the method of signalling termed heliography from the +photographic process of the same name (see PHOTOGRAPHY). + + + + +HELIOMETER (from Gr. [Greek: helios], sun, and [Greek: metron], a +measure), an instrument originally designed for measuring the variation +of the sun's diameter at different seasons of the year, but applied now +to the modern form of the instrument which is capable of much wider use. +The present article also deals with other forms of double-image +micrometer. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + The discovery of the method of making measures by double images is + stated to have been first suggested by O. Roemer about 1768. But no + such suggestion occurs in the _Basis Astronomiae_ of Peter Horrebow + (Copenhagen, 1735), which contains the only works of Roemer that + remain to us. It would appear that to Servington Savary is due the + first invention of a micrometer for measurement by double image. His + heliometer (described in a paper communicated to the Royal Society in + 1743, and printed, along with a letter from James Short, in _Phil. + Trans._, 1753, p. 156) was constructed by cutting from a complete lens + abcd the equal portions aghc and acfe (fig. 1). The segments gbh and + efd so formed were then attached to the end of a tube having an + internal diameter represented by the dotted circle (fig. 2). The width + of each of the portions aghc and acfe cut away from the lens was made + slightly greater than the focal length of lens X tangent of sun's + greatest diameter. Thus at the focus two images of the sun were formed + nearly in contact as in fig. 3. The small interval between the + adjacent limbs was then measured with a wire micrometer. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + Savary also describes another form of heliometer, on the same + principle, in which the segments aghc and acfe are utilized by + cementing their edges gh and ef together (fig. 4), and covering all + except the portion indicated by the unshaded circle. Savary expresses + preference for this second plan, and makes the pertinent remark that + in both these models "the rays of red light in the two solar images + will be next to each other, which will render the sun's disk more easy + to be observed than the violet ones." This he mentions "because the + glasses in these two sorts are somewhat prismatical, but mostly those + of the first model, which could therefore bear no great charge + (magnifying power)." + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + A third model proposed by Savary consists of two complete lenses of + equal focal length, mounted in cylinders side by side, and attached to + a strong brass plate (fig. 5). Here, in order to fulfil the purposes + of the previous models, the distance of the centres of the lenses from + each other should only slightly exceed the tangent of sun's diameter X + focal length of lenses. Savary dwells on the difficulty both of + procuring lenses sufficiently equal in focus and of accurately + adjusting and centring them. + + In the _Mem. Acad. de Paris_ (1748), Pierre Bouguer describes an + instrument which he calls a heliometer. Lalande in his _Astronomie_ + (vol. ii. p. 639) mentions such a heliometer which had been in his + possession from the year 1753, and of which he gives a representation + on Plate XXVIII., fig. 186, of the same volume. Bouguer's heliometer + was in fact similar to that of Savary's third model, with the + important difference that, instead of both object-glasses being fixed, + one of them is movable by a screw provided with a divided head. No + auxiliary filar micrometer was required, as in Savary's heliometer, to + measure the interval between the limbs of two adjacent images of the + sun, it being only necessary to turn the screw with the divided head + to change the distance between the object-glasses till the two images + of the sun are in contact as in fig. 6. The differences of the + readings of the screw, when converted into arc, afford the means of + measuring the variations of the sun's apparent diameter. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + On the 4th of April 1754 John Dollond communicated a paper to the + Royal Society of London (_Phil. Trans._, vol. xlviii. p. 551) in which + he shows that a micrometer can be much more easily constructed by + dividing a single object-glass through its axis than by the employment + of two object-glasses. He points out--(1) that a telescope with an + object-glass so divided still produces a single image of any object to + which it may be directed, provided that the optical centres of the + segments are in coincidence (i.e. provided the segments retain the + same relative positions to each other as before the glass was cut); + (2) that if the segments are separated in any direction two images of + the object viewed will be produced; (3) that the most convenient + direction of separation for micrometric purposes is to slide these + straight edges one along the other as the figure on the margin (fig. + 7) represents them: "for thus they may be moved without suffering any + false light to come in between them; and by this way of removing them + the distance between their centres may be very conveniently measured, + viz. by having a vernier's division fixed to the brass work that holds + one segment, so as to slide along a scale on the plate to which the + other part of the glass is fitted." + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + Dollond then points out three different types in which a glass so + divided and mounted may be used as a micrometer:-- + + "1. It may be fixed at the end of a tube, of a suitable length to its + focal distance, as an object-glass,--the other end of the tube having + an eye-glass fitted as usual in astronomical telescopes. + + "2. It may be applied to the end of a tube much shorter than its focal + distance, by having another convex glass within the tube, to shorten + the focal distance of that which is cut in two. + + "3. It may be applied to the open end of a reflecting telescope, + either of the Newtonian or the Cassegrain construction." + + Dollond adds his opinion that the third type is "much the best and + most convenient of the three"; yet it is the first type that has + survived the test of time and experience, and which is in fact the + modern heliometer. It must be remembered, however, that when Dollond + expressed preference for this third type he had not then invented the + achromatic object-glass. + + Some excellent instruments of the second type were subsequently made + by Dollond's eldest son Peter, in which for the "convex glass within + the tube" was substituted an achromatic object-glass, and outside that + a divided negative achromatic combination of long focus. In the fine + example of this instrument at the Cape Observatory the movable + negative lenses consist of segments of the shape gach and acfe (fig. + 1) cut from a complete negative achromatic combination of 8(1/4) in. + aperture and about 41 ft. focal length, composed of a double concave + flint lens and a double convex crown. This was applied to an excellent + achromatic telescope of 3(1/4) in. aperture and 42 in. focal length. In + this instrument a considerable linear relative movement of the divided + lens corresponds with a comparatively small separation of the double + image, so that simple verniers reading to 1/1000 in. are sufficient + for measurement. + + With one of these instruments of somewhat smaller dimensions + (telescope 2(1/2) in. aperture and 3(1/2) ft. focus), Franz von Paula + Triesnecker made a series of measurements at the observatory of Vienna + which has been reduced by Dr Wilhelm Schur of Strasburg (_Nova Acta + der Ksl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Natursforscher_, 1882, + xlv. No. 3). The angle between the stars [zeta] and g Ursae maj. + (708".55) was measured on four nights; the probable error of a measure + on one night was [+-]0".44. Jupiter was measured on eleven nights in + the months of June and July 1794; from these measures Schur derives + the values 35".39 and 37".94 for the polar and equatorial diameter + respectively, at mean distance, corresponding with a compression + 1/14.44. These agree satisfactorily with the corresponding values + 35".21, 37".60, 1/15.59 afterwards obtained by F. W. Bessel + (_Konigsberger Beobachtungen_, xix. 102). From a series of measures of + the angle between Jupiter's satellites and the planet, made in June + and July 1794 and in August and September 1795, Schur finds the mass + of Jupiter = 1/1048.55 [+-] 1.45, a result which accords well within + the limits of its probable error with the received value of the mass + derived from modern researches. The probable errors for the measures + of one night are [+-]0".577, [+-]0".889, [+-]0".542, [+-]1".096, for + Satellites I., II., III. and IV. respectively. + + Considering the accuracy of these measures (an accuracy far surpassing + that of any other contemporary observations), it is somewhat + surprising that this form of micrometer was never systematically used + in any sustained or important astronomical researches, although a + number of instruments of the kind were made by Dollond. Probably the + last example of its employment is an observation of the transit of + Mercury (November 4, 1868) by Mann, at the Royal Observatory, Cape of + Good Hope (_Monthly Notices R.A.S._ vol. xxix. p. 197-209). The most + important part, however, which this type of instrument seems to have + played in the history of astronomy arises from the fact that one of + them was in the possession of Bessel at Konigsberg during the time + when his new observatory there was being built. In 1812 Bessel + measured with it the angle between the components of the double star + 61 Cygni and observed the great comet of 1811. He also observed the + eclipse of the sun on May 4, 1818. In the discussion of these + observations (_Konigsberger Beobacht_, Abt. 5, p. iv.) he found that + the index error of the scale changed systematically in different + position angles by quantities which were independent of the direction + of gravity relative to the position angle under measurement, but which + depended solely on the direction of the measured position angle + relative to a fixed radius of the object-glass. Bessel attributed this + to non-homogeneity in the object-glass, and determined with great care + the necessary corrections. But he was so delighted with the general + performance of the instrument, with the sharpness of the images and + the possibilities which a kindred construction offered for the + measurement of considerable angles with micrometric accuracy, that he + resolved, when he should have the choice of a new telescope for the + observatory, to secure some form of heliometer. + + Nor is it difficult to imagine the probable course of reasoning which + led Bessel to select the model of his new heliometer. Why, he might + ask, should he not select the simple form of Dollond's first type? + Given the achromatic object-glass, why should not it be divided? This + construction would give all the advantage of the younger Dollond's + object-glass micrometer, and more than its sharpness of definition, + without liability to the systematic errors which may be due to want of + homogeneity of the object-glass; for the lenses will not be turned + with respect to each other, but, in measurement, will always have the + same relation in position angle to the line joining the objects under + observation. It is true that the scale will require to be capable of + being read with much greater accuracy than 1/1000th of an inch--for + that, even in a telescope of 10 ft. focus, would correspond with 2" + of arc. But, after all, this is no practical difficulty, for screws + can be used to separate the lenses, and, by these screws, as in a + Gascoigne micrometer, the separation of the lenses can be measured; or + we can have scales for this purpose, read by microscopes, like the + Troughton[1] circles of Piazzi or Pond, or those of the Carey circle, + with almost any required accuracy. + + Whether Bessel communicated such a course of reasoning to Fraunhofer, + or whether that great artist arrived independently at like + conclusions, we have been unable to ascertain with certainty. The fact + remains that before 1820[2] Fraunhofer had completed one or more of + the five heliometers (3 in. aperture and 39 in. focus) which have + since become historical instruments. In 1824 the great Konigsberg + heliometer was commenced, and it was completed in 1829. + + To sum up briefly the history of the development of the heliometer. + The first application of the divided object-glass and the employment + of double images in astronomical measures is due to Savary in 1743. To + Bouguer in 1748 is due the true conception of measurement by double + image without the auxiliary aid of a filar micrometer, viz. by + changing the distance between two object-glasses of equal focus. To + Dollond in 1754 we owe the combination of Savary's idea of the divided + object-glass with Bouguer's method of measurement, and the + construction of the first really practical heliometers. To Fraunhofer, + some time not long previous to 1820, is due, so far as we can + ascertain, the construction of the first heliometer with an achromatic + divided object-glass, i.e. the first heliometer of the modern type. + + + _The Modern Heliometer._ + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + The Konigsberg heliometer is represented in fig. 8. No part of the + equatorial mounting is shown in the figure, as it resembles in every + respect the usual Fraunhofer mounting. An adapter h is fixed on a + telescope-tube, made of wood, in Fraunhofer's usual fashion. To this + adapter is attached a flat circular flange h. The slides carrying the + segments of the divided object-glass are mounted on a plate, which is + fitted and ground to rotate smoothly on the flange h. Rotation is + communicated by a pinion, turned by the handle c (concealed in the + figure), which works in teeth cut on the edge of the flange h. The + counterpoise w balances the head about its axis of rotation. The + slides are moved by the screws a and b, the divided heads of which + serve to measure the separation of the segments. These screws are + turned from the eye-end by bevelled wheels and pinions, the latter + connected with the handles a', b'. The reading micrometers e, f also + serve to measure, independently, the separation of the segments, by + scales attached to the slides; such measurements can be employed as a + check on those made by the screws. The measurement of position angles + is provided for by a graduated circle attached to the head. There is + also a position circle, attached at m to the eye-end, provided with a + slide to move the eye-piece radially from the axis of the telescope, + and with a micrometer to measure the distance of an object from that + axis. The ring c, which carries the supports of the handles a', b', is + capable of a certain amount of rotation on the tube. The weight of the + handles and their supports is balanced by the counterpoise z. This + ring is necessary in order to allow the rods to follow the micrometer + heads when the position angle is changed. Complete rotation of the + head is obviously impossible because of the interference of the + declination axis with the rods, and therefore, in some angles, objects + cannot be measured in two positions of the circle. The object-glass + has an aperture of 6(1/2) in. and 102 in. focal length. + + There are three methods in which this heliometer can be used. + + _First Method._--One of the segments is fixed in the axis of the + telescope, and the eye-piece is also placed in the axis. Measures are + made with the moving segment displaced alternately on opposite sides + of the fixed segment. + + _Second Method._--One segment is fixed, and the measures are made as + in the first method, excepting that the eye-piece is placed + symmetrically with respect to the images under measurement. For this + purpose the position angle of the eye-piece micrometer is set to that + of the head, and the eye-piece is displaced from the axis of the tube + (in the direction of the movable segment) by an amount equal to half + the angle under measurement. + + _Third Method._--The eye-piece is fixed in the axis, and the segments + are symmetrically displaced from the axis each by an amount equal to + half the angle measured. + + Of these methods Bessel generally employed the first because of its + simplicity, notwithstanding that it involved a resetting of the right + ascension and declination of the axis of the tube with each reversal + of the segments. The chief objections to the method are that, as one + star is in the axis of the telescope and the other displaced from it, + the images are not both in focus of the eye-piece,[3] and the rays + from the two stars do not make the same angle with the optical axis of + each segment. Thus the two images under measurement are not defined + with equal sharpness and symmetry. The second method is free from the + objection of non-coincidence in focus of the images, but is more + troublesome in practice from the necessity for frequent readjustment + of the position of the eye-piece. The third method is the most + symmetrical of all, both in observation and reduction; but it was not + employed by Bessel, on the ground that it involved the determination + of the errors of two screws instead of one. On the other hand it is + not necessary to reset the telescope after each reversal of the + segments.[4] + + When Bessel ordered the Konigsberg heliometer, he was anxious to have + the segments made to move in cylindrical slides, of which the radius + should be equal to the focal length of the object-glass. Fraunhofer, + however, did not execute this wish, on the ground that the mechanical + difficulties were too great. + + M. L. G. Wichmann states (_Konigsb. Beobach._ xxx. 4) that Bessel had + indicated, by notes in his handbooks, the following points which + should be kept in mind in the construction of future heliometers: (1) + The segments should move in cylindrical slides;[5] (2) the screw + should be protected from dust;[6] (3) the zero of the position circle + should not be so liable to change;[7] (4) the distance of the optical + centres of the segments should not change in different position angles + or otherwise;[8] (5) the points of the micrometer screws should rest + on ivory plates;[9] (6) there should be an apparatus for changing the + screen.[10] + + Wilhelm Struve, in describing the Pulkowa heliometer,[11] made by + Merz in 1839 on the model of Bessel's heliometer, submits the + following suggestions for its improvement:[12] (1) to give + automatically to the two segments simultaneous equal and opposite + movement;[13] and (2) to make the tube of metal instead of wood; to + attach the heliometer head firmly to this tube; to place the eye-piece + permanently in the axis of the telescope; and to fix a strong cradle + on the end of the declination axis, in which the tube, with the + attached head and eye-piece, could rotate on its axis. + + Both suggestions are important. The first is originally the idea of + Dollond; its advantages were overlooked by his son, and it seems to + have been quite forgotten till resuggested by Struve. But the method + is not available if the separation is to be measured by screws; it is + found, in that case, that the direction of the final motion of turning + of the screw must always be such as to produce motion of the segment + against gravity, otherwise the "loss of time" is apt to be variable. + Thus the simple connexion of the two screws by cog-wheels to give them + automatic opposite motion is not an available method unless the + separation of the segments is independently measured by scales. + + Struve's second suggestion has been adopted in nearly all succeeding + heliometers. It permits complete rotation of the tube and measurement + of all angles in reversed positions of the circle; the handles that + move the slides can be brought down to the eye-end, inside the tube, + and consequently made to rotate with it; and the position circle may + be placed at the end of the cradle next the eye-end where it is + convenient of access. Struve also points out that by attaching a fine + scale to the focusing slide of the eye-piece, and knowing the + coefficient of expansion of the metal tube, the means would be + provided for determining the absolute change of the focal length of + the object-glass at any time by the simple process of focusing on a + double star. This, with a knowledge of the temperature of the screw or + scale and its coefficient of expansion, would enable the change of + screw-value to be determined at any instant. + + It is probable that the Bonn heliometer was in course of construction + before these suggestions of Struve were published or discussed, since + its construction resembles that of the Konigsberg and Pulkowa + instruments. Its dimensions are similar to those of the former + instrument. Bessel, having been consulted by the celebrated statesman, + Sir Robert Peel, on behalf of the Radcliffe trustees, as to what + instrument, added to the Radcliffe Observatory, would probably most + promote the advancement of astronomy, strongly advised the selection + of a heliometer. The order for the instrument was given to the + Repsolds in 1840, but "various circumstances, for which the makers are + not responsible, contributed to delay the completion of the + instrument, which was not delivered before the winter of 1848."[14] + The building to receive it was commenced in March 1849 and completed + in the end of the same year. This instrument has a superb object-glass + of 7(1/2) in. aperture and 126 in. focal length. The makers availed + themselves of Bessel's suggestion to make the segments move in + cylindrical slides, and of Struve's to have the head attached to a + brass tube; the eye-piece is set permanently in the axis, and the + whole rotates in a cradle attached to the declination axis. They + provided a splendid, rigidly mounted, equatorial stand, fitted with + every luxury in the way of slow motion, and scales for measuring the + displacement of the segments were read by powerful micrometers from + the eye-end.[15] It is somewhat curious that, though Struve's second + suggestion was adopted, his first was overlooked by the makers. But it + is still more curious that it was not afterwards carried out, for the + communication of automatic symmetrical motion to both segments only + involves a simple alteration previously described. But, as it came + from the hands of the makers in 1849, the Oxford heliometer was + incomparably the most powerful and perfect instrument in the world for + the highest order of micrometric research. It so remained, unrivalled + in every respect, till 1873. + + As the transit of Venus of 1874 approached, preparations were set on + foot by the German Government in good time; a commission of the most + celebrated astronomers was appointed, and it was resolved that the + heliometer should be the instrument chiefly relied on. The four + long-neglected small heliometers made by Fraunhofer were brought into + requisition. Fundamental alterations were made upon them: their wooden + tubes were replaced by tubes of metal; means of measuring the focal + point were provided; symmetrical motion was given to the slides; + scales on each slide were provided instead of screws for measuring the + separation of the segments, and both scales were read by the same + micrometer microscope; a metallic thermometer was added to determine + the temperature of the scales. These small instruments have since done + admirable work in the hands of Schur, Hartwig, Kustner, Elkin, Auwers + and others. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + The Russian Government ordered three new heliometers (each of 4 in. + aperture and 5 ft. focal length) from the Repsolds, and the design for + their construction was superintended by Struve, Auwers and Winnecke, + the last-named making the necessary experiments at Carlsruhe. Fig. 9 + represents the resulting type of instrument which was finally designed + and constructed by Repsolds. The brass tube, strengthened at the + bearing points by strong truly turned collars, rotates in the cast + iron cradle q attached to the declination axis, a is the eye-piece + fixed in the optical axis, b the micrometer for reading both scales, c + and d are telescopes for reading the position circle p, e the handle + for quick motion in position angle, f the slow motion in position + angle, g the handle for changing the separation of the segments by + acting on the bevel-wheel g' (fig. 10). h is a milled head connected + by a rod with h' (fig. 10), for the purpose of interposing at pleasure + the prism [pi] in the axis of the reading micrometer; this enables the + observer to view the graduations on the face of the metallic + thermometer [tau tau] (composed of a rod of brass and a rod of zinc), + i is a milled head connected with the wheel i'i' (fig. 10), and + affords the means of placing the screen s (fig. 9), counterpoised by w + over either half of the object-glass. k clamps the telescope in + declination, n clamps it in right ascension, and the handles m and l + provide slow motion in declination and right ascension respectively. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + The details of the interior mechanism of the "head" will be almost + evident from fig. 10 without description. The screw, turned by the + wheels at g', acts in a toothed arc, whence, as shown in the figure, + equal and opposite motion is communicated to the slides by the jointed + rods v, v. The slides are kept firmly down to their bearings by the + rollers r, r, r, r, attached to axes which are, in the middle, very + strong springs. Side-shake is prevented by the screws and pieces k, k, + k, k. The scales are at n, n; they are fastened only at the middle, + and are kept down by the brass pieces t, t. + + A similar heliometer was made by the Repsolds to the order of Lord + Lindsay for his Mauritius expedition in 1874. It differed only from + the three Russian instruments in having a mounting by the Cookes in + which the declination circle reads from the eye-end.[16] This + instrument was afterwards most generously lent by Lord Lindsay to Gill + for his expedition to Ascension in 1877.[17] + + These four Repsold heliometers proved to be excellent instruments, + easy and convenient in use, and yielding results of very high + accuracy in measuring distances. Their slow motion in position angle, + however, was not all that could be desired. When small movements were + communicated to the handle e (fig. 9) by the tangent screw f, acting + on a small toothed wheel clamped to the rod connected with the driving + pinion, there was apt to be a torsion of the rod rather than an + immediate action. Thus the slow motion would take place by jerks + instead of with the necessary smoothness and certainty. When the + heliometer-part of Lord Lindsay's heliometer was acquired by Gill in + 1879, he changed the manner of imparting the motion in question. A + square toothed racked wheel was applied to the tube at r (fig. 9). + This wheel is acted on by a tangent screw whose bearings are attached + to the cradle; the screw is turned by means of a handle supported by + bearings attached to the cradle, and coming within convenient reach of + the observer's hand. The tube turns smoothly in the racked wheel, or + can be clamped to it at the will of the observer. This alteration and + the new equatorial mounting have been admirably made by Grubb; the + result is completely successful. The instrument so altered was in use + at the Cape Observatory from March 1881 till 1887 in determining the + parallax of some of the more interesting southern stars. The + instrument then passed, by purchase from Gill, to Lord McLaren, by + whom it was presented to the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.] + + Still more recently the Repsolds have completed a new heliometer for + Yale College, New Haven, United States. The object-glass is of 6 in. + aperture and 98 in. focal length. The mounting, the tube, + objective-cell, slides, &c., are all of steel.[18] The instrument is + shown in fig. 11. The circles for position angle and declination are + read by micrometer-microscopes illuminated by the lamp L; the scales + are illuminated by the lamp l. T is part of the tube proper, and turns + with the head. The tube V, on the contrary, is attached to the cradle, + and merely forms a support for the finder Q, the handles at f and p, + and the moving ring P. The latter gives quick motion in position + angle; the handles at p clamp and give slow motion in position angle, + those at f clamp and give slow motion in right ascension and + declination. a is the eye-piece, b the handle for moving the segments, + c the micrometer microscope for reading the scales and scale + micrometer, d the micrometer readers of the position and declination + circles, e the handle for rotating the large wheel E which carries the + screens. The hour circle is also read by microscopes, and the + instrument can be used in both positions (tube preceding and + following) for elimination of the effect of flexure on the position + angles. Elkin found that the chief drawbacks to speed and convenience + in working this heliometer were: (1) The loss of time involved in + entering the corresponding readings of the micrometer pointings on two + scales. (2) That an additional motion intermediate between the quick + and slow motion in position angle was necessary, because, whilst the + slow motion provided by Repsolds was admirably adapted for adjusting + the pointings in position angle, it was too slow for causing the + images to "cross through" each other in the process of measuring + distances. To remedy drawback (1) Repsolds devised the form of + printing micrometer which is shown in figs. 12 and 13. This micrometer + is provided with two pairs of parallel webs. One fixed pair of webs is + attached to the micrometer-box, the other pair is moved by the screw + S. The whole micrometer-box is moved by the screw attached to the + heads. Accordingly, in reading the scales A and B (attached to the + slides which carry the two halves of the object-glass), it is only + necessary to turn the screws until the fixed double web is pointed + symmetrically on one of the divisions of scale A, then to move the + other double web by the screw S until it is symmetrically pointed on + the adjoining division of scale B. By turning the quick acting screw P + (fig. 13) to the right, the cushion C (which is faced with + india-rubber) presses the paper ribbon (shown in fig. 13) against the + index-edge and type-wheels, and thus the beautifully cut divisions of + the micrometer-head, the numbers marking the 1/100 parts of the head, + the index and the total number of revolutions are all sharply embossed + together upon the paper ribbon. Fig. 14 shows the record of several + successive paintings on the same scale as that given by the + micrometer. The reverse motion of P automatically moves the paper + ribbon forward, ready to receive the next impression. It must be + mentioned that the pressure of the cushion C on the type-wheels has no + influence whatever upon the micrometer-screw, because the type-wheels + are mounted on a hollow cylindrical axis, concentric with the axis of + the screw, but entirely disconnected from the screw itself. The only + connexion between the type-wheel and the screw-head S is by the pin p + (which is screwed into S), the cylindrical end of which acts in a slot + cut in the type-wheel. To remedy drawback (2) Repsolds provided for + the Yale heliometer an additional handle for motion in position angle, + intermediate in velocity between the original quick and slow motions. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.] + + [Illustration: From _Engineering_, vol. xlix. + + FIG. 15.] + + In the 7-in. heliometer, completed in 1887 for the Royal Observatory + at the Cape of Good Hope, Repsolds, on Gill's suggestion, introduced + the following improvements: (a) Four different speeds of motion in + position angle were provided. The quickest movement is given by the + hand-ring, 73 (fig. 15). This ring runs between friction wheels and is + provided with teeth on its inner periphery, and these teeth transmit + motion to a pinion on a spindle having at its other end another pinion + which, through an intermediate wheel, rotates the heliometer tube. The + transmission spindle, just mentioned, carries at its end a head, 74, + which, if turned directly, gives the second speed. The slowest speed + is given by means of a tangent screw which is carried by a + ball-bearing on the flange of the telescope-sleeve, whilst its nut is + double-jointed to a ring that encircles the flange of the + heliometer-tube. This ring is provided with a clamping screw, which, + through the intervention of bevel-gear and rods, is operated by means + of the hand-wheel 78. With similar bevel-gear and rods the tangent + screw is connected to the hand-wheel, 79, by which the observer + communicates the fourth or slowest motion in position angle. Finally + the hand-wheel 80 is connected by gearing to the rod carrying the + hand-wheel 79, and it can thus be used to give the latter a more rapid + motion than if used direct; this constitutes the third speed of + movement. + + (b) In lieu of oil-lamps, small, conveniently placed incandescent + electric 6-volt lamps are employed; and these are fitted with suitable + switches and variable resistances. Thus the scales, the position- and + declination-circles, the field of view, the heads of all the + micrometer-microscopes, the focusing scale, &c., are read without the + aid of a hand-lamp and with an amount of illumination that can be + regulated at the observer's pleasure. + + (c) A button in the centre of the position-angle handle (74) connects + with a chronograph which enables the observer to record the instant of + observation. Little card-holders (81) (also illuminated) enable the + astronomer to enter beforehand the R.A. and Dec. of the object to be + observed, the scale divisions to be pointed upon, and thus, in + measures of distance, with the aid of the chronograph and printing + micrometer, enable the observer to adjust the instrument for + observation and obtain a record of his observations without the aid of + a hand-lamp or the necessity to make any records in his notebook. In + observations of position angle one of the two tablets 81 can be used + to record the readings. + + (d) The scales are made of iridio-platinum instead of silver, and the + magnifying power of the reading microscope is increased fourfold (viz. + to 100 diameters). A special microscope is introduced for determining + the division errors of the scales. It enables the observer to compare + any division-interval on one half of either scale with any + corresponding interval on the other scale. With this apparatus Gill + was enabled (_Annals Cape Obs._ vii. 29-42, and _Monthly Notices, + R.A.S._, xlix. 105-115) to determine the division error of every line + on both scales with a probable error corresponding to [+-]0".0092 arc. + + (e) A position-micrometer is attached to the finder to enable the + observer to select comparison stars for observation with some + unexpected object. Thus a comet may be encountered in the morning dawn + or evening twilight, and without such an adjunct the astronomer may + lose the whole available opportunity for observation in the vain + endeavour to find a suitable comparison-star. But with such a + position-micrometer of large field he has no difficulty. Directing the + finder to the comet, he has at once in the field of view all available + comparison stars. Having selected the most suitable one he directs the + axis of the finder to the estimated middle point between the comet and + the star, turns the finder-micrometer in position angle until the + images of comet and star lie symmetrically between the parallel + position wires, and then turns the micrometer screw (which moves the + distance-wires symmetrically from the centre in opposite directions) + till one wire bisects the comet and the other the star. The reading of + the position-circle of the finder is then the reading to which the + position-circle of the heliometer should be set, and from the readings + of the micrometer-screw he finds, by a convenient table, the proper + settings of the heliometer scales in distance. When the scales and + position-circle of the heliometer have been set to these readings, the + comet and the selected comparison-star appear together in the field of + view. + + Fig. 15 shows the very convenient arrangement of the eye-end of the + instrument. The disk, 30 with its small projecting handle enables the + 2 segments of the divided object to be moved rapidly or with any + required delicacy relative to each other. The disk 32 operates the + wire gauze screens for equalizing the brightness of the two stars + under observation. The dial between 30 and 32 indicates the screen in + use. 18 clamps and 19 gives slow motion in declination; 20 clamps and + 21 gives slow motion in right ascension. The two handles 82 serve for + manipulating the instrument. The microscopes adjoining 82 read the + position and declination circles; for, by an ingenious arrangement of + prisms and screens, the images of both circles can be read by each + single microscope as shown in fig. 16, thus avoiding the necessity for + the employment of two additional micrometers. + + Experience has shown that there is little that can be advantageously + changed to improve this instrument either in convenience or precision + of working. A series of observations can be easily and more accurately + accomplished with the Cape heliometer in half an hour; with the Oxford + heliometer it would occupy 2 hours, and with the 4 in. Repsold + heliometer (fig. 9) 1 hour. Heliometers of 6 to 8 in. aperture have + subsequently been constructed by Repsolds on these plans for + Gottingen, Bamberg, Leipzig and the Kuffner Observatory (near Vienna), + and all of them have made important contributions to astronomy of + precision. + + Heliometer observations of distance in their most refined sense cannot + be considered absolute measures of angles. Essentially the scale-value + of the instrument depends on the relation of the focal length of the + object-glass to the length of the unit of the scale. But _the eye is + tolerant of small changes in the focal adjustment which sensibly + affect the scale-value_. These changes may and do arise from the + following causes: (i.) The focal length of the object-glass and the + length of the tube are affected by temperature. (ii.) The focal length + is sensibly different for objects of different colour. (iii.) The + length of the scale is affected by temperature. (iv.) The state of + adaptation of the observer's eye is dependent on his state of health, + on a condition of greater or less fatigue, or on the inclination of + the head in consequence of the altitude of the object observed. (v.) + The temperature of the object-glass, of the scale and of the tube, + cannot be assumed to be identical. + + [Illustration: From _Engineering_, vol. xlix. + + FIG. 16.] + + Thus, for refined purposes, it cannot be assumed with any certainty + that the instantaneous scale-value of the heliometer is known, or that + it is a function of the temperature. Of course, for many purposes, + mean conditions may be adopted and mean scale-values be found which + are applicable with considerable precision to small angles or to + comparatively crude observations of large distances; but the highest + refinement is lost unless means are provided for determining the + scale-value for each observer at each epoch of observation. + + In determinations of stellar or solar parallax, comparison stars, + symmetrically situated with respect to the object whose parallax is + sought, should be employed, in which case the instantaneous + scale-value may be regarded as an unknown quantity which can be + derived in the process of the computation of the results. Examples of + this mode of procedure will be found, in the case of stellar parallax + in the _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xlviii. pp. 1-194, and in the _Annals of the + Cape Observatory_, vol. viii. parts 1 and 2; and in the case of + planetary parallax in the _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xlvi. pp. 1-171, and in + the _Annals of the Cape Observatory_, vol. vi. In other operations, + such as the triangulation of large groups of stars, it is necessary to + select a pair of standard stars, if possible near the middle of the + group, and to determine the scale-value by measures of this standard + distance at frequent intervals during the night (see _Annals of the + Cape Observatory_, vol. vi. pp. 3-224). In other cases, such as the + measurement of the mutual distances and position angles of the + satellites of Jupiter, for derivation of the elements of the orbits of + the satellites and the mass of Jupiter, reference must also be made to + measures of standard stars whose relative distance and position angle + is accurately determined by independent methods (see _Annals of the + Cape Observatory_, vol. xii. part 2). + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.] + + Gill introduced a powerful auxiliary to the accuracy of heliometer + measures in the shape of a reversing prism placed in front of the + eye-piece, between the latter and the observer's eye. If measures are + made by placing the image of a star in the centre of the disk of a + planet, the observer may have a tendency to do so systematically in + error from some acquired habit or from natural astigmatism of the eye. + But by rotating the prism 90 deg. the image is presented entirely + reversed to the eye, so that in the mean of measures made in two such + positions personal error is eliminated. Similarly the prism may be + used for the study and elimination of personal errors depending on the + angle made by a double star with the vertical. The best plan of + mounting such a prism has been found to be the following. l^1, l^2 + (fig. 17) are the eye lens and field lens respectively of a Merz + positive eye-piece. In this construction the lenses are much closer + together and the diaphragm for the eye is much farther from the lenses + than in Ramsden's eye-piece. The prism p is fitted accurately into + brass slides (care has to be taken in the construction to place the + prism so that an object in the centre of the field will so remain when + the eye-piece is rotated in its adapter). There is a collar, clamped + by the screw at S, which is so adjusted that the eye-piece is in focus + when pushed home, in its adapter, to this collar. The prism and + eye-piece are then rotated together in the adapter. + + _The Double Image Micrometer._--Thomas Clausen in 1841 (_Ast. Nach._ + No. 414) proposed a form of micrometer consisting of a divided plate + of parallel glass placed within the cone of rays from the object-glass + at right angles to the telescope axis. One-half of this plane remains + fixed, the other half is movable. When the inclination of the movable + half with respect to the axis of the telescope is changed by rotation + about an axis at right angles to the plane of division, two images are + produced. The amount of separation is very small, and depends on the + thickness of the glass, the index of refraction and the focal length + of the telescope. Angelo Secchi (_Comptes rendus_, xli., 1855, p. 906) + gives an account of some experiments with a similar micrometer; and + Ignarjio Porro (_Comptes rendus_, xli. p. 1058) claims the original + invention and construction of such a micrometer in 1842. Clausen, + however, has undoubted priority. Helmholtz in his "Ophthalmometer" has + employed Clausen's principle, but arranges the plates so that both + move symmetrically in opposite directions with respect to the + telescope axis. Should Clausen's micrometer be employed as an + astronomical instrument, it would be well to adopt the improvement of + Helmholtz. + + _Double-Image Micrometers with Divided Lenses._--Various micrometers + have been invented besides the heliometer for measuring by double + image. Ramsden's dioptric micrometer consists of a divided lens placed + in the conjugate focus of the innermost lens of the erecting eye-tube + of a terrestrial telescope. The inventor claimed that it would + supersede the heliometer, but it has never done anything for + astronomy. Dollond claims the independent invention and first + construction of a similar instrument (Pearson's _Practical Astronomy_, + ii. 182). Of these and kindred instruments only two types have proved + of practical value. G. B. Amici of Modena (_Mem. Soc. Ital._ xvii., + 1815, pp. 344-359) describes a micrometer in which a negative lens is + introduced between the eye-piece and the object-glass. This lens is + divided and mounted like a heliometer object-glass; the separation of + the lenses produces the required double image, and is measured by a + screw. W. R. Dawes very successfully used this micrometer in + conjunction with a filar micrometer, and found that the precision of + the measures was in this way greatly increased (_Monthly Notices_, + vol. xviii. p. 58, and _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xxxv. p. 147). + + In the improved form[19] of Airy's divided eye-glass micrometer (_Mem. + R.A.S._ vol. xv. pp. 199-209) the rays from the object-glass pass + successively through lenses as follows: + + +-----------------------------------+---------------+---------------+ + | Lens. | Distance from | Focal Length. | + | | next Lens. | | + +-----------------------------------+---------------+---------------+ + | a. An equiconvex lens | p | arbitrary = p | + | b. " " | 2 | 5 | + | c. Plano-convex, convex towards b | 1(3/4) | 1 | + | d. Plano-convex, convex towards c | " | 1 | + +-----------------------------------+---------------+---------------+ + + The lens b is divided, and one of the segments is moved by a + micrometer screw. The magnifying power is varied by changing the lens + a for another in which p has a different value. The magnifying power + of the eye-piece is that of a single lens of focus = 4/5p. + + In 1850 J. B. Valz pointed out that the other optical conditions could + be equally satisfied if the divided lens were made concave instead of + convex, with the advantage of giving a larger field of view (_Monthly + Notices_, vol. x. p. 160). + + The last improvement on this instrument is mentioned in the _Report_ + of the R.A.S. council, February 1865. It consists in the introduction + by Simms of a fifth lens, but no satisfactory description has ever + appeared. There is only one practical published investigation of + Airy's micrometer that is worthy of mention, viz. that of F. Kaiser + (_Annalen der Sternwarte in Leiden_, iii. 111-274). The reader is + referred to that paper for an exhaustive history and discussion of the + instrument.[20] It is somewhat surprising that, after Kaiser's + investigations, observers should continue, as many have done, to + discuss their observations with this instrument as if the screw-value + were constant for all angles. + + Steinheil (_Journal savant de Munich_, Feb. 28, 1843) describes a + "heliometre-oculaire" which he made for the great Pulkowa refractor, + the result of consultations between himself and the elder Struve. It + is essentially the same in principle as Amici's micrometer, except + that the divided lens is an achromatic positive instead of a negative + lens. Struve (_Description de l'Observatoire Central de Pulkowa_, pp. + 196, 197) adds a few remarks to Steinheil's description, in which he + states that the images have not all desirable precision--a fault + perhaps inevitable in all micrometers with divided lenses, and which + is probably in this case aggravated by the fact that the rays falling + upon the divided lens have considerable convergence. He, however, + successfully employed the instrument in measuring double stars, so + close as 1" or 2", and using a power of 300 diameters, with results + that agreed satisfactorily amongst themselves and with those obtained + with the filar micrometer. If Struve had employed a properly + proportioned double circular diaphragm, fixed symmetrically with the + axis of the telescope in front of the divided lens and turning with + the micrometer, it is probable that his report on the instrument would + have been still more favourable. This particular instrument has + historical interest, having led Struve to some of those criticisms of + the Pulkowa heliometer which ultimately bore such valuable fruit (see + _ante_). + + Ramsden (_Phil. Trans._ vol. xix. p. 419) suggested the division of + the small speculum of a Cassegrain telescope and the production of + double image by micrometric rotation of the semispecula in the plane + passing through their axis. Brewster (_Ency. Brit._ 8th ed. vol. xiv. + p. 749) proposed a plan on a like principle, by dividing the plane + mirror of a Newtonian telescope. Again, in an ocular heliometer by + Steinheil double image is similarly produced by a divided prism of + total reflection placed in parallel rays. But practically these last + three methods are failures. In the last the field is full of false + light, and it is not possible to give sufficiently minute and steady + separation to the images; and there are of necessity a collimator, two + prisms of total reflection, and a small telescope through which the + rays must pass; consequently there is great loss of light. + + _Micrometers Depending on Double Refraction._--To the Abbe Rochon + (_Jour. de phys._ liii., 1801, pp. 169-198) is due the happy idea of + applying the two images formed by double refraction to the + construction of a micrometer. He fell upon a most ingenious plan of + doubling the amount of double refraction of a prism by using two + prisms of rock-crystal, so cut out of the solid as to give each the + same quantity of double refraction, and yet to double the quantity in + the effect produced. The combination so formed is known as Rochon's + prism. Such a prism he placed between the object-glass and eye-piece + of a telescope. The separation of the images increases as the prism is + approached to the object-glass, and diminishes as it is approached + towards the eye-piece. + + D. F. J. Arago (_Comptes rendus_, xxiv., 1847, pp. 400-402) found that + in Rochon's micrometer, when the prism was approached close to the + eye-piece for the measurement of very small angles, the smallest + imperfections in the crystal or its surfaces were inconveniently + magnified. He therefore selected for any particular measurement such a + Rochon prism as when fixed between the eye and the eye-piece (i.e. + where a sunshade is usually placed) would, combined with the normal + eye-piece employed, bring the images about to be measured nearly in + contact. He then altered the magnifying power by sliding the field + lens of the eye-piece (which was fitted with a slipping tube for the + purpose) along the eye-tube, till the images were brought into + contact. By a scale attached to the sliding tube the magnifying power + of the eye-piece was deduced, and this combined with the angle of the + prism employed gave the angle measured. If p" is the refracting angle + of the prism, and n the magnifying power of the eye-piece, then p"/n + will be the distance observed. Arago made many measures of the + diameters of the planets with such a micrometer. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.] + + Dollond (_Phil. Trans._, 1821, pp. 101-103) describes a double-image + micrometer of his own invention, in which a sphere of rock-crystal is + substituted for the eye-lens of an ordinary eye-piece. In this + instrument (figs. 18, 19) a is the sphere, placed in half-holes on the + axis bb, so that when its principal axis is parallel to the axis of + the telescope it gives only one image of the object. In a direction + perpendicular to that axis it must be so placed that when it is moved + by rotation of the axis bb the separation of the images shall be + parallel to that motion. The angle of rotation is measured on the + graduated circle C. The angle between the objects measured is = r sin + 2[theta], where r is a constant to be determined for each magnifying + power employed,[21] and [theta] the angle through which the sphere has + been turned from zero (i.e. from coincidence of its principal axis + with that of the telescope). The maximum separation is consequently at + 45 deg. from zero. The measures can be made on both sides of zero for + eliminating index error. There are considerable difficulties of + construction, but these have been successfully overcome by Dollond; + and in the hands of Dawes (_Mem. R.A.S._ xxxv. p. 144 seq.) such + instruments have done valuable service. They are liable to the + objection that their employment is limited to the measurement of very + small angles, viz. 13" or 14" when the magnifying power is 100, and + varying inversely as the power. Yet the beautiful images which these + micrometers give permit the measurement of very difficult objects as a + check on measures with the parallel-wire micrometer. + + On the theory of the heliometer and its use consult Bessel, + _Astronomische Untersuchungen_, vol. i.; Hansen, _Ausfuhrliche Methode + mit dem Fraunhoferschen Heliometer anzustellen_ (Gotha, 1827); + Chauvenet, _Spherical and Practical Astronomy_, vol. ii. (Philadelphia + and London, 1876); Seeliger, _Theorie des Heliometers_ (Leipzig, + 1877); Lindsay and Gill, _Dunecht Publications_, vol. ii. (Dunecht, + for private circulation, 1877); Gill, _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. xlvi. pp. + 1-172, and references mentioned in the text. (D. Gi.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The circles by Reichenbach, then almost exclusively used in + Germany, were read by verniers only. + + [2] The diameter of Venus was measured with one of these heliometers + at the observatory of Breslau by Brandes in 1820 (_Berlin Jahrbuch_, + 1824, p. 164). + + [3] The distances of the optical centres of the segments from the + eye-piece are in this method as 1; secant of the angle under + measurement. In Bessel's heliometer this would amount to a difference + of 15/1000th of an inch when an angle of 1 deg. is measured. For 2 + deg. the difference would amount to nearly 1/10th of an inch. Bessel + confined his measures to distances considerably less than 1 deg. + + [4] In criticizing Bessel's choice of methods, and considering the + loss of time involved in each, it must be remembered that Fraunhofer + provided no means of reading the screws or even the heads from the + eye-end. Bessel's practice was to unclamp in declination, lower and + read off the head, and then restore the telescope to its former + declination reading, the clockwork meanwhile following the stars in + right ascension. The setting of both lenses symmetrically would, + under such circumstances, be very tedious. + + [5] This most important improvement would permit any two stars under + measurement each to be viewed in the optical axis of each segment. + The optical centres of the segments would also remain at the same + distance from the eye-piece at all angles of separation. Thus, in + measuring the largest as well as the smallest angles, the images of + both stars would be equally symmetrical and equally well in focus. + Modern heliometers made with cylindrical slides measure angles over + 2 deg., the images remaining as sharp and perfect as when the + smallest angles are measured. + + [6] Bessel found, in course of time, that the original corrections + for the errors of his screw were no longer applicable. He considered + that the changes were due to wear, which would be much lessened if + the screws were protected from dust. + + [7] The tube, being of wood, was probably liable to warp and twist in + a very uncertain way. + + [8] We have been unable to find any published drawing showing how the + segments are fitted in their cells. + + [9] We have been unable to ascertain the reasons which led Bessel to + choose _ivory_ planes for the end-bearings of his screws. He actually + introduced them in the Konigsberg heliometer in 1840, and they were + renewed in 1848 and 1850. + + [10] A screen of wire gauze, placed in front of the segment through + which the fainter star is viewed, was employed by Bessel to equalize + the brilliancy of the images under observation. An arrangement, + afterwards described, has been fitted in modern heliometers for + placing the screen in front of either segment by a handle at the + eye-end. + + [11] This heliometer resembles Bessel's, except that its foot is a + solid block of granite instead of the ill-conceived wooden structure + that supported his instrument. The object-glass is of 7.4 in. + aperture and 123 in. focus. + + [12] _Description de l'observatoire central de Pulkowa_, p. 208. + + [13] Steinheil applied such motion to a double-image micrometer made + for Struve. This instrument suggested to Struve the above-mentioned + idea of employing a similar motion for the heliometer. + + [14] Manuel Johnson, M.A., Radcliffe observer, _Astronomical + Observations made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the Year + 1850_, Introduction, p. iii. + + [15] The illumination of these scales is interesting as being the + first application of electricity to the illumination of astronomical + instruments. Thin platinum wire was rendered incandescent by a + voltaic current; a small incandescent electric lamp would now be + found more satisfactory. + + [16] For a detailed description of this instrument see _Dunecht + Publications_, vol. ii. + + [17] _Mem. Royal Astronomical Society_, xlvi., 1-172. + + [18] The primary object was to have the object-glass mounted in steel + cells, which more nearly correspond in expansion with glass. It + became then desirable to make the head of steel for sake of + uniformity of material, and the advantages of steel in lightness and + rigidity for the tube then became evident. + + [19] For description of the earliest form see _Cambridge Phil. + Trans._ vol. ii., and _Greenwich Observations_ (1840). + + [20] Dawes (_Monthly Notices_, January 1858, and _Mem. R.A.S._ vol. + xxxv. p. 150) suggested and used a valuable improvement for producing + round images, instead of the elongated images which are otherwise + inevitable when the rays pass through a divided lens of which the + optical centres are not in coincidence, viz. "the introduction of a + diaphragm having two circular apertures touching each other in a + point coinciding with the line of collimation of the telescope, and + the diameter of each aperture _exactly equal_ to the semidiameter of + the cone of rays at the distance of the diaphragm from the local + point of the object-glass." Practically the difficulty of making + these diaphragms for the different powers of the _exact_ required + equality is insuperable; but, if the observer is content to lose a + certain amount of light, we see no reason why they may not readily be + made slightly less. Dawes found the best method for the purpose in + question was to limit the aperture of the object-glass by a diaphragm + having a double circular aperture, placing the line joining the + centres of the circles approximately in the position angle under + measurement. Dawes successfully employed the double circular aperture + also with Amici's micrometer. The present writer has successfully + used a similar plan in measuring position angles of a Centauri with + the heliometer, viz. by placing circular diaphragms on the two + segments of the object-glass. + + [21] Dollond provides for changing the power by sliding the lens d + nearer to or farther from a. + + + + +HELIOPOLIS, one of the most ancient cities of Egypt, met with in the +Bible under its native name On. It stood 5 m. E. of the Nile at the apex +of the Delta. It was the principal seat of sun-worship, and in historic +times its importance was entirely religious. There appear to have been +two forms of the sun-god at Heliopolis in the New Kingdom--namely, +Ra-Harakht, or Re'-Harmakhis, falcon-headed, and Etom, human-headed; the +former was the sun in his mid-day strength, the latter the evening sun. +A sacred bull was worshipped here under the name Mnevis (Eg. _Mreu_), +and was especially connected with Etom. The sun-god Re' (see EGYPT: +_Religion_) was especially the royal god, the ancestor of all the +Pharaohs, who therefore held the temple of Heliopolis in great honour. +Each dynasty might give the first place to the god of its +residence--Ptah of Memphis, Ammon of Thebes, Neith of Sais, Bubastis of +Bubastis, but all alike honoured Re'. His temple became in a special +degree a depository for royal records, and Herodotus states that the +priests of Heliopolis were the best informed in matters of history of +all the Egyptians. The schools of philosophy and astronomy are said to +have been frequented by Plato and other Greek philosophers; Strabo, +however, found them deserted, and the town itself almost uninhabited, +although priests were still there, and cicerones for the curious +traveller. The Ptolemies probably took little interest in their "father" +Re', and Alexandria had eclipsed the learning of Heliopolis; thus with +the withdrawal of royal favour Heliopolis quickly dwindled, and the +students of native lore deserted it for other temples supported by a +wealthy population of pious citizens. In Roman times obelisks were taken +from its temples to adorn the northern cities of the Delta, and even +across the Mediterranean to Rome. Finally the growth of Fostat and +Cairo, only 6 m. to the S.W., caused the ruins to be ransacked for +building materials. The site was known to the Arabs as _'Ayin esh +shems_, "the fountain of the sun," more recently as Tel Hisn. It has now +been brought for the most part under cultivation, but the ancient city +walls of crude brick are to be seen in the fields on all sides, and the +position of the great temple is marked by an obelisk still standing (the +earliest known, being one of a pair set up by Senwosri I., the second +king of the Twelfth Dynasty) and a few granite blocks bearing the name +of Rameses II. + + See Strabo xvii. cap. 1. 27-28; Baedeker's _Egypt_. (F. Ll. G.) + + + + +HELIOSTAT (from Gr. [Greek: helios], the sun, [Greek: statos], fixed, +set up), an instrument which will reflect the rays of the sun in a fixed +direction notwithstanding the motion of the sun. The optical apparatus +generally consists of a mirror mounted on an axis parallel to the axis +of the earth, and rotated with the same angular velocity as the sun. +This construction assumes that the sun describes daily a small circle +about the pole of the celestial sphere, and ignores any diurnal +variation in the declination. This variation is, however, so small that +it can be neglected for most purposes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: From Jamin and Bouty, _Cours de physique_, +Gauthier-Villars. + +FIG. 3.--Silbermann's Heliostat.] + + Many forms of heliostats have been devised, the earliest having been + described by Wilhelm Jacob s' Gravesande in the 3rd edition of his + _Physices elementa_ (1742). One of the simplest consists of a plane + mirror rigidly connected with a revolving axis so that the angle + between the normal to the mirror and the axis of the instrument equals + half the sun's polar distance, the mirror being adjusted so that the + normal has the same right ascension as the sun. It is easily seen that + if the mirror be rotated at the same angular velocity as the sun the + right ascensions will remain equal throughout the day, and therefore + this device reflects the rays in the direction of the earth's axis; a + second fixed mirror reflects them in any other fixed direction. + Foucault's heliostat reflects the rays horizontally in any required + direction. The principle of the apparatus may be explained by + reference to fig. 1. The axis of rotation AB bears a rigidly attached + rod DBC inclined to it at an angle equal to the sun's polar distance. + By adjusting the right ascension of the plane ABC and rotating the + axis with the angular velocity of the sun, it follows that BC will be + the direction of the solar rays throughout the day. X is the mirror + rotating about the point E, and placed so that (if EB is the + horizontal direction in which the rays are to be reflected) (1) the + normal CE to the mirror is jointed to BC at C and is equal in length + to BE, (2) the rod DBC passes through a slot in a rod ED fixed to, and + in the plane of, the mirror. Since CE equals BE these directions are + equally inclined to, and coplanar with, the normal to the mirror. + Hence light incident along the direction BC will be reflected along + CE. Silbermann's heliostat reflects the rays in any direction. The + principle may be explained by means of fig. 2. AB is the axis of + rotation, BC an adjustable rod as in Foucault's construction, and BD + is another rod which can be set to the direction in which the rays are + to be reflected. The rods BC and DB carry two small rods EF, GF + jointed at F; at this joint there is a pin which slides in a slot on + the rod BH, which is normal to the mirror X. The rods EF, GF are such + that BEFG is a rhombus. It is easy to show that rays falling on the + mirror in the direction BC will be reflected along BD. One + construction of the instrument, described in Jamin's _Cours de + physique_, is shown in fig. 3. The mirror mm is attached to the + framework _pafe_, the members of which are parallel to the incident + and reflected rays SO, OR, and the diagonal pf is perpendicular to the + mirror. The framework is attached to two independent circular arcs Cs + and rr' having their centres at O and provided with clamps D and A on + the axis F of the instrument. The arc Cs is graduated, and is set so + that the angle COD equals the complement of the sun's declination. + This can be effected (after setting the axis) by rotating Cs until a + needle indicates true time on the hour dial B. The arc rr' is set so + as to reflect the rays in the required direction. The axis F of the + instrument is set at an angle equal to the latitude of the place of + observation and in the meridian by means of the screw K, and rotated + by clockwork contained in the barrel H. The setting in the meridian is + effected by turning the instrument after setting for latitude until a + pin-hole aperture s and a small screen P, placed so that Ps is + parallel to CO, are in a line with the sun. + + Many other forms of heliostats have been designed, the chief + difference consisting in the mechanical devices for maintaining the + constant direction of the reflecting ray. One of the most important + applications of the heliostat is as an adjunct to the newer forms of + horizontal telescopes (q.v.) and in conjunction with spectroscopic + telescopes in observations of eclipses. + + + + +HELIOTROPE, or TURNSOLE, _Heliotropium_ (Gr. [Greek: heliotropion], i.e. +a plant which follows the sun with its flowers or leaves, or, according +to Theophrastus (_Hist, plant_, vii. 15), which flowers at the summer +solstice), a genus of usually more or less hairy herbs or undershrubs of +the tribe _Heliotropieae_ of the natural order Boraginaceae, having +alternate, rarely almost opposite leaves; small white, lilac or blue +flowers, in terminal or lateral one-sided simple or once or twice forked +spikes, with a calyx of five deeply divided segments, a salver-shaped, +hypogynous, 5-lobed corolla, and entire 4-celled ovary; fruit 2- to +4-sulcate or lobed, at length separable into four 1-seeded nutlets or +into two hard 2-celled carpels. The genus contains 220 species +indigenous in the temperate and warmer parts of both hemispheres. A few +species are natives of Europe, as _H. europaeum_, which is also a +naturalized species in the southern parts of North America. + +[Illustration: _Heliotropium suaveolens._] + +The common heliotrope of English hothouses, _H. peruvianum_, popularly +known as "cherry-pie," is on account of the delicious odour of its +flowers a great favourite with florists. It was introduced into Europe +by the younger Jussieu, who sent seed of it from Peru to the royal +garden at Paris. About the year 1757 it was grown in England by Philip +Miller from seed obtained from St Germains. _H. corymbosum_ (also a +native of Peru), which was grown in Hammersmith nurseries as early as +1812, has larger but less fragant flowers than _H. peruvianum_. The +species commonly grown in Russian gardens is _H. suaveolens_, which has +white, highly fragrant flowers. + +Heliotropes may be propagated either from seed, or, as commonly, by +means of cuttings of young growths taken an inch or two in length. +Cuttings when sufficiently ripened, are struck in spring or during the +summer months; when rooted they should be potted singly into small pots, +using as a compost fibry loam, sandy peat and well-decomposed stable +manure from an old hotbed. The plants soon require to be shifted into a +pot a size larger. To secure early-flowering plants, cuttings should be +struck in August, potted off before winter sets in, and kept in a warm +greenhouse. In the spring larger pots should be given, and the plants +shortened back to make them bushy. They require frequent shiftings +during the summer, to induce them to bloom freely. + +The heliotrope makes an elegant standard. The plants must in this case +be allowed to send up a central shoot, and all the side growths must be +pinched off until the necessary height is reached, when the shoot must +be stopped and lateral growths will be produced to form the head. During +winter they should be kept somewhat dry, and in spring the ball of soil +should be reduced and the plants repotted, the shoots being slightly +pruned, so as to maintain a symmetrical head. When they are planted out +against the walls and pillars of the greenhouse or conservatory an +abundance of highly perfumed blossoms will be supplied all the year +round. From the end of May till October heliotropes are excellent for +massing in beds in the open air by themselves or with other plants. Many +florists' varieties of the common heliotrope are known in cultivation. + +Pliny (_Nat. hist._ xxii. 29) distinguishes two kinds of "heliotropium," +the _tricoccum_, and a somewhat taller plant, the _helioscopium_; the +former, it has been supposed, is _Croton tinctorium_, and the latter the +[Greek: heliotropion mikron] of Dioscorides or _Heliotropium europaeum_. +The helioscopium, according to Pliny, was variously employed in +medicine; thus the juice of the leaves with salt served for the removal +of warts, whence the term _herba verrucaria_ applied to the plant. What, +from the perfume of its flowers, is sometimes called winter heliotrope, +is the fragrant butterbur, or sweet-scented coltsfoot, _Petasites_ +(_Tussilago_) _fragrans_, a perennial Composite plant. + +HELIOTROPE, in mineralogy, is the mineral commonly called "bloodstone" +(q.v.), and sometimes termed girasol--a name applied also to fire-opal. +The name, like those of many ancient names of minerals, seems to have +had a fanciful origin. According to Pliny the stone was so called +because when thrown into the water it turned the sun's light falling +upon it into a reflection like that of blood. + + + + +HELIOZOA, in zoology, a group of the Sarcodina (q.v.) so named by E. +Haeckel, 1866. They are characterized by the radiate pseudopods, finely +tapering at the apex, springing abruptly from the superficial +protoplasm, containing a denser, rather permanent axial rod (figs. 1 +(1), 2 (2)); protoplasm without a clear ectoplasm or pellicle, often +frothy with large vacuoles, like the alveoli of Radiolaria; nucleus 1 or +numerous; skeleton absent, gelatinous or of separate siliceous fibres, +plates or spicules, rarely complete and latticed; reproduction by simple +fission or by brood-formation, often syngamous; form usually nearly +spherical, rarely changing slowly. This group was formerly included with +the Rhizopoda; but was separated from it by Haeckel on account of the +character of its pseudopods, and its general adaptation to a semipelagic +existence correlated with the frothy cytoplasm (fig. 1 (1)). +_Actinophrys sol_ and _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_ (fig. 2), known as +sun animalcules to the older microscopists, float freely in stagnant or +slow-flowing waters, and _Myriophrys_ is able by an investment of long +flagelliform cilia to swim freely. The majority, however, lurk among +confervae or the light debris of the bottom ooze; and come under the +head of "sapropelic" rather than pelagic organisms. The body is usually +of constant spherical form in relation to the floating habit. +_Nuclearia_, however, shows amoeboid changes of general outline. The +pseudopods are retractile, the axial filament being absorbed as the +filament grows shorter and thicker and disappearing when the pseudopod +merges into the ectoplasm, to be reformed at the same time with the +pseudopod. There is often a distinction, clear, but never sharp, between +the richly vacuolate, almost frothy ectoplasm and the denser endoplasm. +One or more contractile vacuoles may protrude from the ectoplasm. The +endoplasm contains the nucleus or nuclei. The nucleus when single may be +central or excentric: in the latter case, the endoplasm contains a clear +central sphere ("centrosome") on which abut the axial filaments of the +pseudopods. The ectoplasm contains, in some species, constantly +(_Raphidiophrys viridis_) or occasionally (_Actinosphaerium_), green +cells belonging to the genera _Zoochlorella_ and _Sphaerocystis_, both +probably--the latter certainly--vegetative stages of a Chlamydomonad +(FLAGELLATA, q.v.) and of symbiotic significance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Heliozoa. 1. _Actinophrys sol_, Ehrb. a, +food-particle lying in a large food-vacuole; b, deep-lying finely +granular protoplasm; c, axial filament of a pseudopodium extended +inwards to the nucleus; d, the central nucleus; e, contractile vacuole; +f, superficial much vacuolated protoplasm. 2. _Clathrulina elegans_, +Cienk. 3. _Heterophrys marina_, H. and L. a, nucleus; b, clearer +protoplasm surrounding the nucleus; c, the peculiar felted envelope. 4. +_Raphidiophrys pallida_, F. E. Schultze. a, food-particle; b, +contractile vacuole; c, the nucleus; d, central granule in which all the +axis-filaments of the pseudopodia meet. The tangentially disposed +spicules are seen arranged in masses on the surface. 5. _Acanthocystis +turfacea_, Carter. a, probably the central nucleus; b, clear protoplasm +around the nucleus; c, more superficial protoplasm with vacuoles and +chlorophyll corpuscles; d, coarser siliceous spicules; e, finer forked +siliceous spicules; f, finely granular layer of protoplasm. The long +pseudopodia reaching beyond the spicules are not lettered. 6. +Bi-flagellate "flagellula" of _Acanthocystis aculeata_. a, nucleus. 7. +Id. of _Clathrulina elegans_. a, nucleus; b, granules. 8. _Astrodisculus +ruber_, Greeff. a, red-coloured central sphere (? nucleus); b, +peripheral homogeneous envelope.] + +The Heliozoa can move by rolling over on their extended pseudopods; +_Acanthocystis ludibunda_ traversing a path of as much as twenty times +its diameter in a minute, according to Penard. Several species (e.g. +_Raphidiophrys elegans_) remain associated by the union of their +pseudopods, whether into social aggregates (due to approximation) or +"colonies" due to lack of separation after fission, is not accurately +known. The multinuclear species _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_ (fig. 2), +normally apocytial (i.e. the nuclei divide repeatedly without division +of the cytoplasm), may increase in size by the fusion ("plastogamic") +of small individuals. If a large specimen be cut up or fragment itself +under irritation, the small ones so produced soon approach one another +and fuse completely. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Heliozoa. 1. _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_, Ehr.; +a, nuclei; b, deeper protoplasm with smaller vacuoles and numerous +nuclei; c, contractile vacuoles; d, peripheral protoplasm with larger +vacuoles. 2. A portion of the same specimen more highly magnified and +seen in optical section. a, Nuclei; b, deeper protoplasm (so-called +endosarc); d, peripheral protoplasm (so-called ectosarc); e, pseudopodia +showing the granular protoplasm streaming over the stiff axial filament: +f, food-particle in a good-vacuole. 3, 4. Nuclei of _Actinosphaerium_ in +the resting condition. 5-13. Successive stages in the division of a +nucleus of _Actinosphaerium_, showing fibrillation, and in 7 and 8 +formation of an equatorial plate of chromatin substance (after Hertwig). +14. Cyst-phase of _Actinosphaerium eichhornii_, showing the protoplasm +divided into twelve chlamydospores, each of which has a siliceous coat; +a, nucleus of the spore; g, gelatinous wall of the cyst; h, siliceous +coat of the spore.] + + _Reproduction._--Binary fission has been repeatedly observed; in some + cases one or both of the daughter cells may swim for a time as a + biflagellate zoospore (fig. 1 (6, 7)). The process may take place when + the cell is naked or after preliminary encystment. Budding has been + well studied in _Acanthocystis_; the cell nucleus divides repeatedly + and most of the daughter nuclei pass to the periphery, aggregate part + of the cytoplasm, and with it are constricted off as independent + cells; one nucleus remains central and the process may be repeated. + The detached bud may assume the typical character after a short + amoeboid (lobose) stage, sometimes preceded by rest, or it may develop + 2 flagella and swim off (fig. 1 (6)). + + Brood formation is only known here in relation to a syngamic process; + this is a sharp contrast to Proteomyxa (q.v.) where brood formation is + the commonest mode of reproduction, and plasmodium-formation, rare + indeed, is the nearest approach to syngamy observed. Indeed, if we + knew the life-history of all the species this difference in the life + cycle would be a convenient critical character. + + Equal conjugation was demonstrated fully by F. Schaudinn in + _Actinophrys_; two individuals approach and enter into close contact, + and are surrounded by a common cyst wall. The nucleus of either male + divides; and one nucleus passes to the surface at either side, and is + budded off with a small portion of the cytoplasm as an abortive cell; + the two remaining nuclei which are "first cousins" in cellular + relationship now fuse, as is the case with the cytoplasts. The + resulting coupled cell or zygote divides into two, which again encyst. + + _Actinosphaerium_ (fig. 2) shows a still more remarkable process, + fully studied by R. Hertwig. The large multinucleate animal withdraws + its pseudopods, its vacuoles disappear, it encysts and its nuclei + diminish in number to about 1/20th partly by fusion, 2 and 2, probably + by digestion of the majority. Within the primary cyst the body is now + resolved into nuclear cells, which again surround themselves with + secondary cysts. The cell in each secondary cyst divides (by + karyokinesis), and these sister cells, or rather their offspring, pair + in much the same way as the individual cells of _Actinophrys_--the + chief difference is that after the first division and budding off of a + rudimentary cell, a second division of the same character takes place, + with the formation of a second rudimentary cell, which is the niece of + the first, absolutely in the same way as the 1st and 2nd polar bodies + are formed in the maturation of the ovum in Metazoa. The actual + pairing cells are thus second cousins, great-granddaughters of the + original cell of the secondary cysts. Complete fusion now takes place + to form the coupled cell, which is now contracted and forms a + gelatinous wall within the siliceous secondary cyst wall (fig. 2 + (14)), During a resting stage nuclear divisions occur and finally a + brood of young 1-nuclear _Actinosphaerium_ leave the cyst. + + + _Classification._ + + Aphrothoraca. Body naked. Actinophrys Ehrb. (fig. 1 (1)) (nucleate), + Actinosphaerium Stein plurinucleate (fig. 2 (1)), Camptonema + (plurinucleate) Schaud., Dimorpha Gruber (sometimes 2 flagellate). + + I. Chlamydophora. Investment gelatinous. Astrodiscus. + + II. Chalarothoraca. Body protected by an investment of spicules or + fibre scattered or approximated, never fused into a continuous + skeleton. + + S 1. Spicules netted or free in the protoplasm. Heterophrys Arch. + (fig. 1 (3)), Raphidiophrys Arch. (fig. 1 (4)), Pinacodocystis, + Hertw. and Less. + + S 2. Spicules approximated radially. Pinaciophora Greeff, + Pompholyxophrys Arch., Lithocolla F. E. Schultze, Elaeorhanis Greeff + (in the two foregoing genera the spicules represented by sand + granules), Acanthocystis Carter (fig. 1 (5)), Pinacocystis (?) + Hertw. and Less, Myriophrys Penard. (Astrodisculus). + + III. Desmothoraca. S 1 attached by a stalk. Clathrulina Cienk. (fig. 1 + (2, 7)), Hedriocystis, Hertw. and Less. + + S 2. Free Elaster, Grimin, Choanocystis. + + _Literature._--The most important English original papers on this + group are those by W. Archer, "On some Freshwater Rhizopoda, new, or + little known," _Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science_, N.S. + ix.-xi. (1869-1871), and "Resume of Recent Contributions to the + Knowledge of Freshwater Rhizopods," _ibid._ xvi., xvii. (1876-1877). + See also R. Hertwig and Lesser, "Uber Rhizopoda und denselben + nahestehenden Organismen," in _Archiv fur mikroscopische Anatomie_, x. + (1874), p. 35; R. Schaudinn, "Heliozoa" in _Tierreich_ (1896); E. + Penard, _Les Heliozoaires d'eau douce_ (1904); the two last named + contain full bibliographies. (M. Ha.) + + + + +HELIUM (from Gr. [Greek: helios], the sun), a gaseous chemical element, +the modern discovery of which followed closely on that of argon (q.v.). +The Investigations of Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay had shown +that indifference to chemical reagents did not sufficiently characterize +an unknown gas as nitrogen, and it became necessary to reinvestigate +other cases of the occurrence of "nitrogen" in nature. H. Miers drew +Ramsay's attention to the work of W. F. Hillebrand, who had noticed, in +examining the mineral uraninite, that an inert gas was evolved when the +mineral was decomposed with acid. Ramsay, repeating these experiments, +found that the inert gas emitted refused to oxidize when sparked with +oxygen, and on examining it spectroscopically he saw that the spectrum +was not that of argon, but was characterized by a bright yellow line +near to, but not identical with, the D line of sodium. This was +afterwards identified with the D3 line of the solar chromosphere, +observed in 1868 by Sir J. Norman Lockyer, and ascribed by him to a +hypothetical element _helium_. This name was adopted for the new gas. + +Helium is relatively abundant in many minerals, all of which are +radioactive, and contain uranium or thorium as important constituents. +(For the significance of this fact see RADIOACTIVITY.) The richest known +source is thorianite, which consists mainly of thorium oxide, and +contains 9.5 cc. of helium per gram. Monazite, a phosphate of thorium +and other rare earths, contains on the average about 1 cc. per gram. +Cleveite, samarskite and fergusonite contain a little more than +monazite. The gas also occurs in minute quantities in the common +minerals of the earth's crust. In this case too it is associated with +radioactive matter, which is almost ubiquitous. In two cases, however, +it has been found in the absence of appreciable quantities of uranium +and thorium compounds, namely in beryl, and in sylvine (potassium +chloride). Helium is contained almost universally in the gases which +bubble up with the water of thermal springs. The proportion varies +greatly. In the hot springs of Bath it amounts to about one-thousandth +part of the gas evolved. Much larger percentages have been recorded in +some French springs (_Compt. rend._, 1906, 143, p. 795, and 146, p. +435), and considerable quantities occur in some natural gas (_Journ. +Amer. Chem. Soc._ 29, p. 1524). R. J. Strutt has suggested that helium +in hot springs may be derived from the disintegration of common rocks at +great depths. + +Helium is present in the atmosphere, of which it constitutes four parts +in a million. It is conspicuous by its absorption spectrum in many of +the white stars. Certain stars and nebulae show a bright line helium +spectrum. + +Much the best practical source of helium is thorianite, a mineral +imported from Ceylon for the manufacture of thoria. It dissolves readily +in strong nitric acid, and the helium contained is thus liberated. The +gas contains a certain amount of hydrogen and oxides of carbon, also +traces of nitrogen. In order to get rid of hydrogen, some oxygen is +added to the helium, and the mixture exploded by an electric spark. All +remaining impurities, including the excess of oxygen, can then be taken +out of the gas by Sir James Dewar's ingenious method of absorption with +charcoal cooled in liquid air. Helium alone refuses to be absorbed, and +it can be pumped off from the charcoal in a state of absolute purity. In +the absence of liquid air the helium must be purified by the methods +employed for argon (q.v.). If thorianite cannot be obtained, monazite, +which is more abundant, may be utilized. A part of the helium contained +in minerals can be extracted by heat or by grinding (J. A. Gray, _Proc. +Roy. Soc._, 1909, 82A, p. 301). + +_Properties._--All attempts to make helium enter into stable chemical +union have hitherto proved unsuccessful. The gas is in all probability +only mechanically retained in the minerals in which it is found. +Jacquerod and Perrot have found that quartz-glass is freely permeable to +helium below a red-heat (_Compt. rend._, 1904, 139, p. 789). The effect +is even perceptible at a temperature as low as 220 deg. C. Hydrogen, +and, in a much less degree, oxygen and nitrogen, will also permeate +silica, but only at higher temperatures. They have made this observation +the basis of a practical method of separating helium from the other +inert gases. M. Travers has suggested that it may explain the liberation +of helium from minerals by heat, the gas being enabled to permeate the +siliceous materials in which it is enclosed. Thorianite, however, +contains no silica, and until it is shown that metallic oxides behave in +the same way this explanation must be accepted with reserve. + +The density of helium has been determined by Ramsay and Travers as 1.98. +Its ratio of specific heats has very nearly the ideal value 1.666, +appropriate to a monatomic molecule. The accepted atomic weight is +accordingly double the density, i.e. approximately four times that of +hydrogen. The refractivity of helium is 0.1238 (air = 1). The solubility +in water is the lowest known, being, at 18.2 deg., only .0073 vols. per +unit volume of water. The viscosity is .96 (air = 1). + +The spectrum of helium as observed in a discharge tube is distinguished +by a moderate number of brilliant lines, distributed over the whole +visual spectrum. The following are the approximate wave-lengths of the +most brilliant lines: + + Red 7066 + Red 6678 + Yellow 5876 + Green 4922 + Blue 4472 + Violet 4026 + +When the discharge passes through helium at a pressure of several +millimetres, the yellow line 5876 is prominent. At lower pressures the +green line 4922 becomes more conspicuous. At atmospheric pressure the +discharge is able to pass through a far greater distance in helium than +in the common gases. + +M. Travers, G. Senter and A. Jacquerod (_Phil. Trans._ A. 1903, 200, p. +105) carefully examined the behaviour of a constant volume gas +thermometer filled with helium. For the pressure coefficient per degree, +between 0 deg. and 100 deg. C., they give the value .00366255, when the +initial pressure is 700 mm. This value is indistinguishable from that +which they find for hydrogen. Thus at high temperatures a helium +thermometer is of no special advantage. At low temperatures, on the +other hand, they find, using an initial pressure of 1000 mm., that the +temperatures on the helium scale are measurably higher than on the +hydrogen scale, owing to the more perfectly gaseous condition of helium. +This difference amounts to about 1/10 deg. at the temperature of liquid +oxygen, and about 1/5 deg. at that of liquid hydrogen. + +The liquefaction of helium was achieved by H. Kamerlingh Onnes at Leiden +in 1908. According to him its boiling point is 4.3 deg. abs. (-268.7 +deg. C.), the density of the liquid 0.154, the critical temperature 5 +deg. abs., and the critical pressure 2.3 atmospheres (_Communications +from the Physical Laboratory at Leiden_, No. 108; see also LIQUID +GASES). + + REFERENCES.--A bibliography and summary of the earlier work on helium + will be found in a paper by Ramsay, _Ann. chim. phys._ (1898) [7], 13, + p. 433. See also M. Travers, _The Study of Gases_ (1901). + (R. J. S.) + + + + +HELIX (Gr. [Greek: helix], a spiral or twist), an architectural term for +the spiral tendril which is carried up to support the angles of the +abacus of the Corinthian capital; from the same stalk springs a second +helix rising to the centre of the capital, its junction with one on the +opposite side being sometimes marked by a flower. Sometimes the term +"volute" is given to the angle helix, which is incorrect, as it is of a +different design and rises from the same stalk as the central helices. +Its origin is probably metallic, that is to say, it was copied from the +conventional treatment in Corinthian bronze of the tendrils of a plant. + + + + +HELL (O. Eng. _hel_, a Teutonic word from a root meaning "to cover," cf. +Ger. _Holle_, Dutch _hel_), the word used in English both of the place +of departed spirits and of the place of torment of the wicked after +death. It is used in the Old Testament to translate the Hebrew _Sheol_, +and in the New Testament the Greek [Greek: hades], Hades, and [Greek: +geenna], Hebrew _Gehenna_ (see ESCHATOLOGY). + + + + +HELLANICUS of Lesbos, Greek logographer, flourished during the latter +half of the 5th century B.C. According to Suidas, he lived for some time +at the court of one of the kings of Macedon, and died at Perperene, a +town on the gulf of Adramyttium opposite Lesbos. Some thirty works are +attributed to him--chronological, historical and episodical. Mention may +be made of: _The Priestesses of Hera at Argos_, a chronological +compilation, arranged according to the order of succession of these +functionaries; the _Carneonikae_, a list of the victors in the Carnean +games (the chief Spartan musical festival), including notices of +literary events; an _Atthis_, giving the history of Attica from 683 to +the end of the Peloponnesian War (404), which is referred to by +Thucydides (i. 97), who says that he treated the events of the years +480-431 briefly and superficially, and with little regard to +chronological sequence: _Phoronis_, chiefly genealogical, with short +notices of events from the times of Phoroneus the Argive "first man" to +the return of the Heraclidae; _Troica_ and _Persica_, histories of Troy +and Persia. + +Hellanicus marks a real step in the development of historiography. He +transcended the narrow local limits of the older logographers, and was +not content to repeat the traditions that had gained general acceptation +through the poets. He tried to give the traditions as they were locally +current, and availed himself of the few national or priestly registers +that presented something like contemporary registration. He endeavoured +to lay the foundations of a scientific chronology, based primarily on +the list of the Argive priestesses of Hera, and secondarily on +genealogies, lists of magistrates (e.g. the archons at Athens), and +Oriental dates, in place of the old reckoning by generations. But his +materials were insufficient and he often had recourse to the older +methods. On account of his deviations from common tradition, Hellanicus +is often called an untrustworthy writer by the ancients themselves, and +it is a curious fact that he appears to have made no systematic use of +the many inscriptions which were ready to hand. Dionysius of +Halicarnassus censures him for arranging his history, not according to +the natural connexion of events, but according to the locality or the +nation he was describing; and undoubtedly he never, like his +contemporary Herodotus, rose to the conception of a single current of +events wider than the local distinction of race. His style, like that of +the older logographers, was dry and bald. + + Fragments in Muller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, i. and iv.; + see among older works L. Preller, _De Hellanico Lesbio historico_ + (1840); Mure, _History of Greek Literature_, iv.; late criticism in H. + Kullmer, "Hellanikos" in _Jahrbucher fur klass. Philologie_ + (Supplementband, xxvii. 455 sqq.) (1902), which contains new edition + and arrangement of fragments; C. F. Lehmann-Haupt, "Hellanikos, + Herodot, Thukydides," in _Klio_ vi. 127 sqq. (1906); J. B. Bury, + _Ancient Greek Historians_ (1909), pp. 27 sqq. + + + + +HELLEBORE (Gr. [Greek: helleboros]: mod. Gr. also [Greek: skaphe]: Ger. +_Nieswurz_, _Christwurz_; Fr. _hellebore_, and in the district of +Avranche, _herbe enragee_), a genus (_Helleborus_) of plants of the +natural order Ranunculaceae, natives of Europe and western Asia. They +are coarse perennial herbs with palmately or pedately lobed leaves. The +flowers have five persistent petaloid sepals, within the circle of which +are placed the minute honey-containing tubular petals of the form of a +horn with an irregular opening. The stamens are very numerous, and are +spirally arranged; and the carpels are variable in number, sessile or +stipitate and slightly united at the base and dehisce by ventral suture. + +_Helleborus niger_, black hellebore, or, as from blooming in mid-winter +it is termed the Christmas rose (Ger. _Schwarze Nieswurz_; Fr., _rose de +Noel_ or _rose d'hiver_), is found in southern and central Europe, and +with other species was cultivated in the time of Gerard (see _Herball_, +p. 977, ed. Johnson, 1633) in English gardens. Its knotty root-stock is +blackish-brown externally, and, as with other species, gives origin to +numerous straight roots. The leaves spring from the top of the +root-stock, and are smooth, distinctly pedate, dark-green above, and +lighter below, with 7 to 9 segments and long petioles. The scapes, which +end the branches of the rhizome, have a loose entire bract at the base, +and terminate in a single flower, with two bracts, from the axis of one +of which a second flower may be developed. The flowers have 5 white or +pale-rose, eventually greenish sepals, 15 to 18 lines in breadth; 8 to +13 tubular green petals containing honey; and 5 to 10 free carpels. +There are several forms, the best being _maximus_. The Christmas rose is +extensively grown in many market gardens to provide white flowers forced +in gentle heat about Christmas time for decorations, emblems, &c. + +_H. orientalis_, the Lenten rose, has given rise to several fine hybrids +with _H. niger_, some of the best forms being clear in colour and +distinctly spotted. _H. foetidus_, stinking hellebore, is a native of +England, where like _H. viridis_, it is confined chiefly to limestone +districts; it is common in France and the south of Europe. Its leaves +have 7- to 11-toothed divisions, and the flowers are in panicles, +numerous, cup-shaped and drooping, with many bracts, and green sepals +tinged with purple, alternating with the five petals. + +_H. viridis_, or green hellebore proper, is probably indigenous in some +of the southern and eastern counties of England, and occurs also in +central and southern Europe. It has bright yellowish-green flowers, 2 to +4 on a stem, with large leaf-like bracts. O. Brunfels and H. Bock (16th +century) regarded the plant as the black hellebore of the Greeks. + +_H. lividus_, holly-leaved hellebore, found in the Balearic Islands, and +in Corsica and Sardinia, is remarkable for the handsomeness of its +foliage. White hellebore is _Veratrum album_ (see VERATRUM), a +liliaceous plant. + +[Illustration: _Helleborus niger_. 1, Vertical section of flower; 2, +Nectary, side and front view.] + +Hellebores may be grown in any ordinary light garden mould, but thrive +best in a soil of about equal parts of turfy loam and well-rotted +manure, with half a part each of fibrous peat and coarse sand, and in +moist but thoroughly-drained situations, more especially where, as at +the margins of shrubberies, the plants can receive partial shade in +summer. For propagation cuttings of the rhizome may be taken in August, +and placed in pans of light soil, with a bottom heat of 60 deg. to 70 +deg. Fahr.; hellebores can also be grown from seed, which must be sown +as soon as ripe, since it quickly loses its vitality. The seedlings +usually blossom in their third year. The exclusion of frost favours the +production of flowers; but the plants, if forced, must be gradually +inured to a warm atmosphere, and a free supply of air must be afforded, +without which they are apt to become much affected by greenfly. For +potting, _H. niger_ and its varieties, and _H. orientalis_, _atrorubens_ +and _olympicus_ have been found well suited. After lifting, preferably +in September, the plants should receive plenty of light, with abundance +of water, and once a week liquid manure, not over-strong. The flowers +are improved in delicacy of hue, and are brought well up among the +leaves, by preventing access of light except to the upper part of the +plants. Of the numerous species of hellebore now grown, the +deep-purple-flowered _H. colchicus_ is one of the handsomest; by +crossing with _H. guttatus_ and other species several valuable garden +forms have been produced, having variously coloured spreading or +bell-shaped flowers, spotted with crimson, red or purple. + +The rhizome of _H. niger_ occurs in commerce in irregular and nodular +pieces, from about 1 to 3 in. in length, white and of a horny texture +within. Cut transversely it presents internally a circle of 8 to 12 +cuneiform ligneous bundles, surrounded by a thick bark. It emits a faint +odour when cut or broken, and has a bitter and slightly acrid taste. The +drug is sometimes adulterated with the rhizome of baneberry, _Actaea +spicata_, which, however, may be recognized by the distinctly cruciate +appearance of the central portion of the attached roots when cut +across, and by its decoction giving the chemical reactions for +tannin.[1] The rhizome is darker in colour in proportion to its degree +of dryness, age and richness in oil. A specimen dried by Schroff lost in +eleven days 65% of water. + + _H. niger_, _orientalis_, _viridis_, _foetidus_, and several other + species of hellebore contain the glucosides _helleborin_, C36H42O6, + and _helleborein_, C23H20O15, the former yielding glucose and + _helleboresin_, C30H38O4, and the latter glucose and a violet-coloured + substance _helleboretin_, C14H20O3. Helleborin is most abundant in _H. + viridis_. A third and volatile principle is probably present in _H. + foetidus_. Both helleborin and helleborein act poisonously on animals, + but their decomposition-products helleboresin and helleboretin seem to + be devoid of any injurious qualities. Helleborin produces excitement + and restlessness, followed by paralysis of the lower extremities or + whole body, quickened respiration, swelling and injection of the + mucous membranes, dilatation of the pupil, and, as with helleborein, + salivation, vomiting and diarrhoea. Helleborein exercises on the heart + an action similar to that of digitalis, but more powerful, accompanied + by at first quickened and then slow and laboured respiration; it + irritates the conjunctiva, and acts as a sternutatory, but less + violently than veratrine. Pliny states that horses, oxen and swine are + killed by eating "black hellebore"; and Christison (_On Poisons_, p. + 876, 11th ed., 1845) writes: "I have known severe griping produced by + merely tasting the fresh root in January." Poisonous doses of + hellebore occasion in man singing in the ears, vertigo, stupor, + thirst, with a feeling of suffocation, swelling of the tongue and + fauces, emesis and catharsis, slowing of the pulse, and finally + collapse and death from cardiac paralysis. Inspection after death + reveals much inflammation of the stomach and intestines, more + especially the rectum. The drug has been observed to exercise a + cumulative action. Its extract was an ingredient in Bacher's pills, an + empirical remedy once in great repute in France. In British medicine + the rhizome was formerly official. _H. foetidus_ was in past times + much extolled as an anthelmintic, and is recommended by Bisset (_Med. + Ess._, pp. 169 and 195, 1766) as the best vermifuge for children; J. + Cook, however, remarks of it (_Oxford Mag._, March 1769, p. 99): + "Where it killed not the patient, it would certainly kill the worms; + but the worst of it is, it will sometimes kill both." This plant, of + old termed by farriers ox-heel, setter-wort and setter-grass, as well + as _H. viridis_ (Fr. _Herbe a seton_), is employed in veterinary + surgery, to which also the use of _H. niger_ is now chiefly confined + in Britain. + + In the early days of medicine two kinds of hellebore were recognized, + the white or _Veratrum album_ (see VERATRUM), and the black, including + the various species of _Helleborus_. The former, according to + Codronchius (_Comm.... de elleb._, 1610), Castellus (_De helleb. + epist._, 1622), and others, is the drug usually signified in the + writings of Hippocrates. Among the hellebores indigenous to Greece and + Asia Minor, _H. orientalis_, the rhizome of which differs from that of + _H. niger_ and of _H. viridis_ in the bark being readily separable + from the woody axis, is the species found by Schroff to answer best to + the descriptions given by the ancients of black hellebore, the [Greek: + helleboros melas] of Dioscorides. The rhizome of this plant, if + identical, as would appear, with that obtained by Tournefort at Prusa + in Asia Minor (_Rel. d'un voy. du Levant_, ii. 189, 1718), must be a + remedy of no small toxic properties. According to an early tradition, + black hellebore administered by the soothsayer and physician Melampus + (whence its name _Melampodium_), was the means of curing the madness + of the daughters of Proetus, king of Argos. The drug was used by the + ancients in paralysis, gout and other diseases, more particularly in + insanity, a fact frequently alluded to by classical writers, e.g. + Horace (_Sat._ ii. 3. 80-83, _Ep. ad Pis._ 300). Various superstitions + were in olden times connected with the cutting of black hellebore. The + best is said by Pliny (_Nat. hist._ xxv. 21) to grow on Mt Helicon. Of + the three Anticyras that in Phocis was the most famed for its + hellebore, which, being there used combined with "sesamoides," was, + according to Pliny, taken with more safety than elsewhere. + +The British Pharmaceutical Conference has recommended the preparation +which it terms _the tinctura veratri viridis_, as the best form in which +to administer this drug. It may be given in doses of 5-15 minims. The +tincture is prepared from the dried rhizome and rootlets of green +hellebore, containing the alkaloids jervine, veratrine and veratroidine. +It is recommended as a cardiac and nervous sedative in cerebral +haemorrhage and puerperal eclampsia. Black hellebore is a purgative and +uterine stimulant. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the microscopical characters and for figures of transverse + sections of the rhizome, see Lanessan, _Hist. des drogues_, i. 6 + (1878). + + + + +HELLENISM (from Gr. [Greek: hellenizein], to imitate the Greeks, who +were known as [Greek: Hellenes], after [Greek: Hellen], the son of +Deucalion). The term "Hellenism" is ambiguous. It may be used to denote +ancient Greek culture in all its phases, and even those elements in +modern civilization which are Greek in origin or in spirit; but, while +Matthew Arnold made the term popular in the latter connexion as the +antithesis of "Hebraism," the German historian J. G. Droysen introduced +the fashion (1836) of using it to describe particularly the latter +phases of Greek culture from the conquests of Alexander to the end of +the ancient world, when those over whom this culture extended were +largely not Greek in blood, i.e. _Hellenes_, but peoples who had adopted +the Greek speech and way of life, _Hellenistai_. Greek culture had, +however, both in "Hellenic" and "Hellenistic" times, a common essence, +just as light is light whether in the original luminous body or in a +reflection, and to describe this by the term Hellenism seems most +natural. But whilst using the term in the larger sense, this article, in +deference to the associations which have come to be specially connected +with it, will devote its principal attention to Hellenism as it appeared +in the world after the Macedonian conquests. But it will be first +necessary to indicate briefly what Hellenism in itself implied. + +No verbal formula can really enclose the life of a people or an age, but +we can best understand the significance of the old Greek cities and the +life they developed, when, looking at the history of mankind as a whole, +we see the part played by reason, active and critical, in breaking down +the barriers by which custom hinders movement, in guiding movement to +definite ends, in dissipating groundless beliefs and leading onwards to +fresh scientific conquests--when we see this and then take note that +among the ancient Greeks such an activity of reason began in an entirely +novel degree and that its activity in Europe ever since is due to their +impulsion. When Hellenism came to stand in the world for something +concrete and organic, it was, of course, no mere abstract principle, but +embodied in a language, a literature, an artistic tradition. In the +earliest existing monument of the Hellenic genius, the Homeric poems, +one may already observe that regulative sense of form and proportion, +which shaped the later achievements of the race in the intellectual and +artistic spheres. It was not till the great colonizing epoch of the 8th +and 7th centuries B.C., when the name "Hellene" came into use as the +antithesis of "barbarian," that the Greek race came to be conscious of +itself as a peculiar people; it was yet some three centuries more before +Hellenism stood fully declared in art and literature, in politics and in +thought. There was now a new thing in the world, and to see how the +world was affected by it is our immediate concern. + +I. THE EXPANSION OF HELLENISM BEFORE ALEXANDER.--In the 5th century B.C. +Greek cities dotted the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea +from Spain to Egypt and the Caucasus, and already Greek culture was +beginning to pass beyond the limits of the Greek race. Already in the +7th century B.C., when Hellenism was still in a rudimentary stage, the +citizens of the Greek city-states had been known to the courts of +Babylon and Egypt as admirable soldiers, combining hardihood with +discipline, and Greek mercenaries came to be in request throughout the +Nearer East. But as Hellenism developed, its social and intellectual +life began to exercise a power of attraction. The proud old +civilizations of the Euphrates and the Nile might ignore it, but the +ruder barbarian peoples in East and West, on whose coasts the Greek +colonies had been planted, came in various degrees under its spell. In +some cases an outlying colony would coalesce with a native population, +and a fusion of Hellenism with barbarian customs take place, as at +Emporium in Spain (Strabo iii. p. 160) and at Locri in S. Italy (Polyb. +xii. 5. 10). Perinthus included a Thracian phyle. The stories of +Anacharsis and Scylas (Herod, iv. 76-80) show how the leading men of the +tribes in contact with the Greek colonies in the Black Sea might be +fascinated by the appeal which the exotic culture made to mind and to +eye. + +The great developments of the century and a half before Alexander set +the Greek people in a very different light before the world. In the +sphere of material power the repulse of Xerxes and the extension of +Athenian or Spartan supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean were large +facts patent to the most obtuse. The kings of the East leant more than +ever upon Greek mercenaries, whose superiority to barbarian levies was +sensibly brought home to them by the expedition of Cyrus. But the +developments within the Hellenic sphere itself were also of great +consequence for its expansion outwards. The political disunion of the +Greeks was to some extent neutralized by the rise of Athens to a leading +position in art, in literature and in philosophy. In Athens the Hellenic +genius was focussed, its tendencies drawn together and combined; nor was +it a circumstance of small moment that the Attic dialect attained, for +prose, a classical authority; for if Hellenism was to be propagated in +the world at large, it was obviously convenient that it should have some +one definite form of speech to be its medium. + +1. _The Persians._--The ruling race of the East, the Persian, was but +little open to the influences of the new culture. The military qualities +of the Greeks were appreciated, and so, too, was Greek science, where it +touched the immediately useful; a Greek captain was entrusted by Darius +with the exploration of the Indus; a Greek architect bridged the +Bosporus for him; Greek physicians (e.g. Democedes, Ctesias) were +retained for enormous fees at the Persian court. The brisk diplomatic +intercourse between the Great King and the Greek states in the 4th +century may have produced effects that were not merely political. We +certainly find among those members of the Persian aristocracy, who came +by residence in Asia Minor into closer contact with the Greeks, some +traces of interest in the more ideal side of Hellenism. A man like the +younger Cyrus invited Greek captains to his friendship for something +more than their utility in war, and procured Greek hetaerae for +something more than sensual pleasure. There is the Mithradates who +presented the Academy with a statue of Plato by Silanion, not improbably +identical (though the supposition implies a correction in the text of +Diogenes Laertius) with that Mithradates who, together with his father +Ariobarzanes, received the citizenship of Athens (Dem. xxiii. 141, 202). +Exactly how far Greek influence can be traced in the remains of Persian +art, such as the royal palaces of Persepolis and Susa may be doubtful +(see Gayet, _L'Art persan_; R. Phene Spiers, _Architecture East and +West_, p. 245 f.), but it is certain that the engraved gems for which +there was a demand in the Persian empire were largely the work of Greek +artists (Furtwangler, _Antike Gemmen_, iii. p. 116 f.). + +2. _The Phoenicians._--As early as the first half of the 4th century we +find communities of Phoenician traders established in the Peiraeus +(_C.I.A._ ii. 86). In Cyprus, on the frontier between the Greek and +Semitic worlds, a struggle for ascendancy went on. The Phoenician +element seems to have been dominant in the island when Evagoras made +himself king of Salamis in 412, and restored Hellenism with a strong +hand. The words of Isocrates (even allowing for their rhetorical colour) +give us a vivid insight into what such a process meant. "Before Evagoras +established his rule, they were so hostile and exclusive, that those of +their rulers were actually held to be the best who were the fiercest +adversaries of the Greeks; but now such a change has taken place, that +it is a matter of emulation who shall show himself the most ardent +phil-hellen, that for the mothers of their children most of them choose +wives from amongst us, and that they take pride in having Greek things +about rather than native, in following the Greek fashion of life, whilst +our masters of the fine arts and other branches of culture now resort to +them in greater numbers than were once to be found in those quarters +they specially frequented" (Isoc. 199 = _Evag._ SS 49, 50). Even into +the original seats of the Phoenicians Hellenism began to intrude. +Evagoras at one time (about 386) made himself master of Tyre (Isoc. +_Evag._ S 62; Diod. xv. 2, 4). His grandson Evagoras II. is found as +governor of Sidon for the Persian king 349-346. (Babelon, _Perses +Achemenides_, p. cxxii.; cf. Diod. xvi. 46, 3). + +Abdashtart, king of Sidon (374-362 B.C.), called Straton by the Greeks, +had already entered into close relations with the Greek states, and +imitated the Hellenic princes of Cyprus (_Athen._ xii. 531; _C.I.A._ ii. +86; _Corp. inscr. Semit._ i. 114). The Phoenician colonists in Sardinia +purchased or imitated the work of Greek artists (Furtwangler, _Antike +Gemmen_, iii. 109). + +3. _The Carians and Lycians._--The seats of the Greeks in the East +touched peoples more or less nearly related to the Hellenic stock, with +native traditions not so far remote from those of the Greeks in a more +primitive age, the Carians and the Lycians. It came about in the last +century preceding Alexander that the first of these peoples was +organized as a strong state under native princes, the line founded by +Hecatomnus of Mylasa. Hecatomnus made himself master of Caria in the +first decade of the 4th century, but it was under his son Mausolus, who +succeeded him in 377-376 that the house rose to its zenith. These Carian +princes ruled as satraps for the Great King, but they modelled +themselves upon the pattern of the Greek tyrant. The capital of Mausolus +was a Greek city, Halicarnassus, and all that we can still trace of his +great works of construction and adornment shows conformity to the pure +Hellenic type. His famous sepulchre, the Mausoleum (the remains of it +are now in the British Museum), was a monument upon which the most +eminent Greek sculptors of the time worked in rivalry (Plin. _N.H._ +xxxvi. 5, S 30; Vitruv. vii. 13). His court gave a welcome to the +vagrant Greek philosopher (Diog. Laert. viii. 8, S 87). Even the Carian +town of Mylasa now shows the forms of a Greek city and records its +public decrees in Greek (_C.I.G._ 2691 c, d, e = Michel 471). In Lycia, +which in spite of "the son of Harpagus" and King Pericles, had never +been brought under one man's rule, the Greek influence is more limited. +Here, for the most part in the inscriptions, the native language +maintains itself against Greek. The proper names are (if not native) +mainly Persian. But the Greek language makes an occasional appearance; +Greek names are borne by others beside Pericles. The coins are Greek in +type. And above all the monumental remains of Lycia show strong Greek +influence, especially the well-known "Nereid Monument" in the British +Museum, whose date is held to go back to the 5th century (Gardner, +_Handbook of Gk. Sculp._ p. 344). + +4. _South Russia._--Hellenic influences continued to penetrate the +Scythian peoples from the Greek colonies of the Black Sea, at any rate +in the matter of artistic fabrication. Our evidence is the actual +objects recovered from the soil. (See SCYTHIA.) + +5. _Egypt._--From the time of Psammetichus (d. 610 B.C.) Greek +mercenaries had been used to prop Pharaoh's throne. At the same time +Greek merchants had begun to find their way up the Nile and even to the +Oases. A Greek city Naucratis (q.v.) was allowed to arise at the +Bolbitinic mouth of the Nile. But the racial repugnance to the Greek, +which forbade an Egyptian even to eat an animal which had been carved +with a Greek's knife (Hdt. ii. 41), probably kept the soul of the people +more shut against Hellenic influences than was that of the other races +of the East. + +6. _Macedonia._--In Macedonia the native chiefs had been attracted by +the rich Hellenic life at any rate from the beginning of the 5th +century, when Alexander I., surnamed "Phil-hellen," persuaded the judges +at Olympia that the Temenid house was of good Argive descent (Hdt. v. +22). And, although their enemies might stigmatize them as barbarians, +the Macedonian kings maintained that they were not Macedonians, but +Greeks (cf. [Greek: aner Hellen Makedonon hyparchos], Hdt. v. 20). It +was not probably till the reorganization of the kingdom by Archelaus +(413-399) that Greek culture found any abundant entrance into Macedonia. +Now all that was most brilliant in Greek literature and Greek art was +concentrated in the court of Aegae; the palace was decorated by Zeuxis; +Euripides spent there the end of his days. From that time, no doubt, a +certain degree of literary culture was general among the Macedonian +nobility; their names in the days of Philip are largely Greek; the +Macedonian service was full of men from the Greek cities within Philip's +dominions. The values recognized at the court would naturally be +recognized in noble families generally, and Philip chose Aristotle to be +the educator of his son. How far the country generally may be regarded +as Hellenized is a problem which involves the vexed question what right +the Macedonian people itself has to be classed among the Hellenes, and +Macedonian to be considered a dialect of Greek.[1] As the literary and +official language, Greek alone would seem to have had any status. + +7. _In the West: the Native Races of Sicily._--Italy and the south of +Gaul had not remained unaffected by the neighbourhood of the Greek +colonies. Under the rule of the elder and younger Dionysius in the 4th +century, the hellenization of the Sicels in the interior of Sicily seems +to have become complete (Freeman, _History of Sicily_, ii. 387, 388, +422-424; Beloch, _Griech. Gesch._ iii. [i.] 261). + +The alphabets used by the various Italian races from the 5th century +were directly or indirectly learnt from the Greeks. The peoples of the +south (Lucanians, Bruttians, Mamertines) show a Greek principle of +nomenclature (Mommsen, _Unterital. Dialekt_, p. 240 f.). The Pythagorean +philosophy, whose seat was in southern Italy, won adherents among the +native chiefs (Cic. _De senec._ 12, cf. Dio Chrys. _Orat. Cor._ 37, S +24). From the Greeks of southern Gaul Hellenic influences penetrated the +Celtic races so far that imitations of Greek coins were struck even on +the coasts of the Atlantic. + +II. AFTER ALEXANDER THE GREAT.--When we review generally the extent to +which Hellenism had penetrated the outer world in the middle of the 4th +century B.C., it must be admitted that it had not seriously affected any +but the more primitive races which dwelt upon the borders of the +Hellenic lands, and here it would seem, with the doubtful exception of +the Macedonians, to have been an affair rather of the courts than of the +life of the people. On the other hand it must be taken into account that +Hellenism had as yet only been a very short while in the world. What +would have happened had it continued to depend upon its spiritual force +only for propagation we cannot say. Everything was changed when by the +conquests of Alexander (334-323) it suddenly rose to material supremacy +in all the East as far as India, and when cities of Greek speech and +constitution were planted by the might of kings at all the cardinal +points of intercourse within those lands. The values honoured by the +rulers of the world must naturally impress themselves upon the subject +multitudes. The Macedonian chiefs found their pride in being champions +of Hellenism. Of Alexander there is no need to speak. The courts of his +successors in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt were Greek in language and +atmosphere. All kings liked to win the good word of the Greeks by +munificence bestowed upon Greek cities and Greek institutions. All of +them in some degree patronized Greek art and letters, and some sought +fame for themselves as authors. Even the barbarian courts, their +neighbours or vassals, were swayed by the dominant fashion to imitation. +But by the courts alone Hellenism could never have been propagated far. +Greek culture had been the product of the city-state, and Hellenism +could not be dissevered from the city. It was upon the system of Greek +and Macedonian cities, planted by Alexander and his successors, that +their work rested, and though their dynasties crumbled, their work +remained. Rome, when it stepped into their place, did no more than +safeguard its continuance; in the East Rome acted as a Hellenistic +power, and if, when the legions had thundered past, the brooding East +"plunged in thought again," that thought was largely directed by the +Greek schoolmaster who followed in the legions' train. From our present +point of view we may therefore regard this work of Hellenism as one +continuous process, initiated by the Macedonians and carried on under +Roman protection, and ask in the first place what the institution of a +Greek city implied. + +_The Character of the New Greek Cities._--The citizen bodies at the +outset were really of Greek or Macedonian blood--soldiers who had served +in the royal armies, or men attracted from the older Greek cities to the +new lands thrown open to commerce. To fix their European soldiery upon +the new soil was an obvious necessity for the Macedonian chiefs who had +set up kingdoms among the barbarians, and the lots of the veterans +(except in Egypt) were naturally attached to various urban centres. The +cities, of course, drew in numbers beside of the people of the land; +Alexander is specially said to have incorporated large bodies of natives +in some of the new cities of the Eastern provinces (Arr. iv. 4, 1; Diod. +xvii. 83, 2; Curtius ix. 10, 7). It may generally be taken for granted +that the lower strata of the city-populations was mainly native; to be +included in the city population was not, however, to be included in the +citizen body, and it remains a question how far the latter admitted +members of other than European origin (Beloch iii. [i.] 414). The +statements, for instance, of Josephus that the Jews were given full +citizen rights in the new foundations are probably false (Willrich, +_Juden und Griechen vor der makkabaischen Erhebung_, 1895, p. 19 f.). +The social organization of the citizen-body conformed to the regular +Hellenic type with a division into _phylae_ and, in Egypt, at any rate, +into _demi_ (Liban. Or. xix. 62; Satyrus, frag. 21 = _F.H.G._ iii. 164; +Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics_, i. 60; Kenyon, _Archiv f. +Papyr._ ii. 74; Jonguet, _Bull. corr. hell._ xxi., 1897, 184 f.; +Liebenam, _Stadteverwaltung_, 220 f.). The cities appear equally +Hellenic in their political organs and functions with _boule_ and +_demos_ and popularly elected magistrates. Life was filled with the +universal Hellenic interests, which centred in the gymnasium and the +religious festivals, these last including, of course, not only athletic +contests but performances of the classical dramas or later imitations of +them. The wandering sophist and rhetorician would find a hearing no less +than the musical artist. The language of the upper classes was Greek; +and the material background of building and decoration, of dress and +furniture, was of Greek design. A greater regularity in the street-plans +seems to have distinguished the new cities from the older slowly grown +cities of the Greek lands, just as it distinguishes the cities of the +New World to-day from those of Europe. Alexandria and Antioch were both +traversed from end to end by one long straight street, crossed by +shorter ones at right angles; Nicaea was a square from the centre of +which all the four gates could be seen at the ends of the intersecting +thoroughfares (Strabo xii. 565); similar characteristics are noted in +the rebuilt Smyrna (ib. xiv. 646). + +Sometimes the Greek city was not an absolutely new foundation, but an +old Oriental city, re-colonized and transformed. And in such cases the +old name was often replaced by a Greek one. Thus Celaenae in Phrygia +became Apamea; Haleb (Aleppo) in Syria became Beroea; Nisibis in +Mesopotamia, Antioch; Rhagae (Rai) in Media, Europus. In some cases the +old name was left unchallenged, e.g. Thyatira, Damascus and Samaria. +Even where there was no new foundation the older cities of Phoenicia and +Syria became transformed from the overwhelming prestige of Hellenic +culture. In Tyre and Sidon, no less than in Antioch or Alexandria, Greek +literature and philosophy were seriously cultivated, as we may see by +the great names which they contributed. The process by which Hellenism +thus leavened an older city we may trace with peculiar vividness in the +case of Jerusalem; we see there the younger generation captivated by its +ideals, the appearance of gymnasium and theatre, the eager adoption of +Greek political forms (1 Macc. i. 13 f.; 2 Macc. 4., 10 f.). + +A. _Characteristics of Hellenism after Alexander._--To the number of +Greek city-states existing before Alexander were now therefore added +those which extended Hellas as far as India. With the enormous extension +of Greek territory a great shifting took place in the old centres of +gravity. What changes in the character of Greek culture did the new +conditions of the world bring about? + + + Government. + +Hellenism had been the product of the free life of the Greek city-state, +and after Chaeronea the great days of the city-state were past. Not that +all liberty was everywhere extinguished. Under Alexander himself the +Greek states were restive, and Aetolia unsubdued; and, with the break-up +of the empire at Alexander's death, there was once more scope for the +action of the individual cities among the rival great powers. In the +history of the next two or three centuries the cities are by no means +ciphers. Rhodes takes a great part in _Weltpolitik_, as a sovereign ally +of one or other of the royal courts. In Greece itself the overlordship +to which the Macedonian king aspires is imperfect in extent and only +maintained to that extent by continual wars. The Greek states on their +side show that they are capable even of progressive political +development, the needs of the time being met by the federal system, by +larger unions of equal members than the leading cities of the past would +have tolerated, with their extreme unwillingness to forego the least +shred of sovereign independence. The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues are +independent powers, which the Macedonian can indeed check by garrisons +in Corinth, Chalcis and elsewhere, but which keep a field clear for +Hellenic freedom within their borders. Sparta also is a power which can +cross swords with the Macedonian king, and Cleomenes III. aspires to +unite the Peloponnesus under his headship. As to the cities outside +Greece, within or around the royal realms, Seleucid, Ptolemaic or +Attalid, their degree of freedom probably differed widely according to +circumstances. At one end of the scale, cities of old renown, e.g. +Lampsacus or Smyrna, could still make good their independence against +Antiochus III. at the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. At the other end +of the scale the cities which were royal capitals, e.g. Alexandria, +Antioch and Pergamum, were normally controlled altogether by royal +nominees. At Pergamum indeed and (at any rate after Antiochus IV.) at +Antioch, forms of self-government subsisted upon which, of course, the +court had its hand, whilst at Alexandria even such forms were wanting. +Between the two extremes there was variation not only between city and +city, but, no doubt, in one and the same city at different times. In +Syria the independent action of the cities greatly increased during the +last weakness of the Seleucid monarchy. With the extension of the single +strong rule of Rome over this Hellenistic world, the conditions were +changed. Just as the Macedonian conquest, whilst increasing the domain +of Greek culture, had straitened Greek liberty, so Rome, whilst bringing +Hellenism finally into secure possession of the nearer East, +extinguished Greek freedom altogether. Even now the old forms were long +religiously respected. Formally, the most illustrious Greek states, +Athens, for instance, or Marseilles, or Rhodes, were not subjects of +Rome, but free allies. Even in the case of _civitates stipendiariae_ +(tribute-paying states), municipal autonomy, subject indeed to +interference on the part of the Roman governor, was allowed to go on. +_Boule_ and _demos_ long continued to function. The old catchword, +"autonomy of the Hellens," was still heard and indeed was solemnly +proclaimed by Nero at the Isthmian games of A.D. 67. But during the +first centuries of the Christian era, this municipal autonomy, by a +process which can only be imperfectly traced in detail, decayed. The +_demos_ first sank into political annihilation and the council, no +longer popularly elected but an aristocratic order, concentrated the +whole administration in its hands. By the end of the 2nd century A.D., +claims made by the imperial government upon the municipal senate are +more and more changing membership of the order from an honour into an +intolerable burden, and financial disorganization is calling on imperial +officials in one place after another to undertake the business of +government. After Diocletian and under the Eastern Empire the Greek +world is organized on the principles of a vast bureaucracy. + + + Social changes. + +With this long process of political decline from Alexander to Diocletian +correspond the inner changes in the temper of the Hellenic and +Hellenistic peoples. There were, of course, marked differences between +one region and another. But certain general characteristics +distinguished at once Greek society after the Macedonian conquests from +the society of the earlier age. When the vast field of the East was +opened to Hellenic enterprise and the bullion of its treasuries flung +abroad, fortunes were made on a scale before unparalleled. A new +standard of sumptuousness and splendour was set up in the richest +stratum of society. This material elaboration of life was furthered by +the existence of Hellenistic courts, where the great ministers amassed +fabulous riches (e.g. Dionysius, the state secretary of Antiochus IV., +Polyb. xxxi. 3, 16; Hermias, the chief minister of Seleucus III., and +Antiochus III., Polyb. v. 50. 2; cf. Plutarch, _Agis_ 9), and of huge +cities like Alexandria, Antioch and the enlarged Ephesus. It is +significant that whereas the earlier Greeks had used precious stones +only as a medium for the engraver's art, unengraven gems, valuable for +their mere material, now came to be used in profusion for adornment. +Already before Alexander pan-hellenic feeling had in various ways +overridden the internal divisions of the Greek race, but now, with the +vast mingling of Greeks of all sorts in the newly-conquered lands, a +generalized Greek culture in which the old local characteristics were +merged, came to overspread the world. The gradual supersession of the +old dialects by the Koine the common speech of the Greeks, a +modification of the Attic idiom coloured by Ionic, was one obvious sign +of the new order of things (see GREEK LANGUAGE). + + + Art and literature. + +In its artistic, its literary, its spiritual products the age after +Alexander gave evidence of the change. In no department did activity +immediately stop; but the old freshness and creative exuberance was +gone. Artistic pleasure, grown less delicate, required the stimulus of a +more sensational effect or a more striking realism, as we may see by the +Pergamene and Rhodian schools of sculpture, by the bas-reliefs with the +_genre_ subjects drawn from the life of the countryside, or, in +literature by the sort of historical writing which became popular with +Cleitarchus and Duris, by the studied emotional or rhetorical point of +Callimachus, and by the portrayal of country life in Theocritus. At the +same time, artists and men of letters were now addressing themselves in +most cases, not to their fellow-citizens in a free city, but to kings +and courtiers, or the educated class generally of the Greek world. In +those departments of intellectual activity which demand no high ideal +faculty, in the study of the world of fact, the centuries immediately +following Alexander witnessed notable advance. Scientific research might +prosper, just as poetry withered, under the patronage of kings, and such +research had now a vast amount of new material at its disposal and could +profit by the old Babylonian and Egyptian traditions. The medical +schools, especially that of Alexandria, really enlarged knowledge of the +animal frame. Knowledge of the earth gained immensely by the Macedonian +conquests. The literary schools of Alexandria and Pergamum built up +grammatical science, and brought literary and artistic criticism to a +fine point. If indeed the earlier ages had been those of creative and +spontaneous life, the Hellenistic age was that of conscious criticism +and book-learning. The classical products were registered, studied, +assorted and commented upon. Men travelled and read more. Books were in +demand and were multiplied. Libraries became a feature of the age, the +kings leading the way as collectors, of books, especially the rival +dynasties of Egypt and Pergamum. The library attached to the Museum at +Alexandria is said to have contained at the time of its destruction in +47 B.C. as many as 700,000 rolls (Aul. Gell. vi. 17. 3). Even smaller +cities, like Aphrodisias in Caria, had public libraries for the +instruction of their youth (Le Bas, III. No. 1618). + +With the general decay of ancient civilization under the Roman empire, +even scientific research ceased, and though there were literary +revivals, like that connected with the new Atticism under the Antonine +emperors, these were mainly imitative and artificial, and even learning +became at last under the Byzantine emperors a jejune and formal +tradition (see GREEK LITERATURE). + + + Religion and philosophy. + +The diffusion of the Greek race far from the former centres of its life, +the mingling of citizens of many cities, the close contact between Greek +and barbarian in the conquered lands--all this had made the old +sanctions of civic religion and civic morality of less account than +ever. New guides of life were needed. The Stoic philosophy, with its +cosmopolitan note, its fixed dogmas and plain ethical precepts, came +into the world at the time of the Macedonian conquests to meet the needs +of the new age. Its ideas became popular among ordinary men as the older +philosophies had never been. The Stoic or Cynic preacher, attacking the +ways of society, in pungent, often coarse, phrase, became a familiar +figure of the Greek market-place (P. Wendland, _Beitrage zur Gesch. d. +griech. Philosophie_, 1895). + +Although the cults of the old Greek deities in the new cities, with +their splendid apparatus of festivals and sacrifice might still hold the +multitude, men turned ever in large numbers to alien religions, felt as +more potent because strange, and the various gods of Egypt and the East +began to find larger entrance in the Greek world. Even in the old Greek +religion before Alexander there had been large elements of foreign +origin, and that the Greeks should now do honour to the gods of the +lands into which they came, as we find the Cilician and Syrian Greeks +doing to Baal-tars and Baal-marcod and the Egyptian Greeks to the gods +of Egypt, was only in accordance with the primitive way of thinking. But +it was a sign of the times when Serapis and Isis, Osiris and Anubis +began to take place among the popular deities in the old Greek lands. +The origin of the cult of Serapis, which Ptolemy I. found, or +established, in Egypt is disputed; the familiar type of the god is the +invention of a Greek artist, but the name and religion came from +somewhere in the East (see discussion under SERAPIS). Before the end of +the 2nd century B.C. there were temples of Serapis in Athens, Rhodes, +Delos and Orchomenos in Boeotia. Under the Roman empire the cult of +Isis, now furnished with an official priesthood and elaborate ritual, +became really popular in the Hellenistic world. King Asoka in the 3rd +century B.C. sent Buddhist missionaries from India to the Mediterranean +lands; their preaching has, it is true, left little or no trace in our +Western records. But other religions of Oriental origin penetrated far, +the worship of the Phrygian Great Mother, and in the 2nd century A.D. +the religion of the Mithras (Lafaye, _Culte des divinites alexandrines_, +1884; Roscher, articles "Anubis," "Isis," &c.; F. Cumont, _Mysteres de +Mithra_, Eng. trans., 1903; _Les Religions orientales dans le paganisme +romain_, 1906). + +The Jews, too, by the time of Christ were finding in many quarters an +open door. Besides those who were ready to go the whole length and +accept circumcision, numbers adopted particular Jewish practices, +observing the Sabbath, for instance, or turned from polytheism to the +doctrine of the One God. The synagogues in the Gentile cities had +generally attached to them, in more or less close connexion a multitude +of those "who feared God" and frequented the services (Schurer, _Gesch. +d. jud. Volks_, iii. 102-135). + + + Christianity. + +Among the religions which penetrated the Hellenistic world from an +Eastern source, one ultimately overpowered all the rest and made that +world its own. The inter-action of Christianity and Hellenism opens +large fields of inquiry. The teaching of Christ Himself contained, as it +is given to us, no Hellenic element; so far as He built with older +material, that material was exclusively the sacred tradition of Israel. +So soon, however, as the Gospel was carried in Greek to Greeks, Hellenic +elements began to enter into it, in the writings, for instance, of St +Paul, the appeal to what "nature" teaches would be generally admitted to +be the adoption of a Greek mode of thought. It was, of course, +impossible that speaking in Greek and living among Greeks, Christians +should not to some extent use current conceptions for the expression of +their faith. There was, at the same time, in the early Church a powerful +current of feeling hostile to Greek culture, to the wisdom of the world. +What the attitude of the New People should be to it, whether it was all +bad, or whether there were good things in it which Christians should +appropriate, was a vital question that always confronted them. The great +Christian School of Alexandria represented by Clement and Origen +effected a durable alliance between Greek education and Christian +doctrine. In proportion as the Christian Church had to go deeper into +metaphysics in the formulation of its belief as to God, as to Christ, as +to the soul, the Greek philosophical terminology, which was the only +vehicle then available for precise thought, had to become more and more +an essential part of Christianity. At the same time Christian ethics +incorporated much of the current popular philosophy, especially large +Stoical elements. In this way the Church itself, as we shall see, became +a propagator of Hellenism (see Hatch, _Hibbert Lectures_, 1888; +Wendland, "Christentum u. Hellenismus" in _Neue Jahrb. f. kl. Alt._ ix. +1902, p. 1 f.; and _Die hellenistisch-romische Kultur in ihren +Beziehungen zu Judentum u. Christentum_, 1907). + +B. _Effect upon non-Hellenic Peoples._--Hellenism secured by the +Macedonian conquest _points d'appui_ from the Mediterranean to India, +and brought the system of commerce and intercourse into Greek hands. +What effect did it produce in these various countries? What effect again +in the lands of the West which fell under the sway of Rome? + + + Greek cities. + + Greek art. + +(i.) _India._--In India (including the valleys of the Kabul and its +northern tributaries, then inhabited by an Indian, not, as now, by an +Iranian, population) Alexander planted a number of Greek towns. +Alexandria "under the Caucasus" commanded the road from Bactria over the +Hindu-Kush; it lay somewhere among the hills to the north of Kabul, +perhaps at Opian near Charikar (MacCrindle, _Ancient India_, p. 87, note +4); that it is the city meant by "Alasadda the capital of the Yona +(Greek) country" in the Buddhist Mahavanso, as is generally affirmed, +seems doubtful (Tarn, loc. cit. below, p. 269, note 7). We hear of a +Nicaea in the Kabul valley itself (near Jalalabad?), another Nicaea on +the Hydaspes (Jhelum) where Alexander crossed it, with Bucephala (see +BUCEPHALUS) opposite, a city (unnamed) on the Acesines (Chenab) (Arr. +vi. 29, 3), and a series of foundations strung along the Indus to the +sea. Soon after 321, Macedonian supremacy beyond the Indus collapsed +before the advance of the native Maurya dynasty, and about 303 even +large districts west of the Indus were ceded by Seleucus. But the +chapter of Greek rule in India was not yet closed. The Maurya dynasty +broke up about 180 B.C., and at the same time the Greek rulers of +Bactria began to lead expeditions across the Hindu-Kush. Menander in the +middle of the 2nd century B.C. extended his rule from the Hindu-Kush to +the Ganges. Then "Scythian" peoples from central Asia, Sakas and +Yue-chi, having conquered Bactria, gradually squeezed within +ever-narrowing limits the Greek power in India. The last Greek prince, +Hermaeus, seems to have succumbed about 30 B.C. It was just at this time +that the Graeco-Roman world of the West was consolidated as the Roman +Empire, and, though Greek rule in India had disappeared, active +commercial intercourse went on between India and the Hellenistic lands. +How far, through these changes, did the Greek population settled by +Alexander or his successors in India maintain their distinctive +character? What influence did Hellenism during the centuries in which it +was in contact with India exert upon the native mind? Only extremely +qualified answers can be given to these questions. Capital data are +possibly waiting there under ground--the Kabul valley for instance is +almost virgin soil for the archaeologist--and any conclusion we can +arrive at is merely provisional. If certain statements of classical +authors were true, Hellenism in India flourished exceedingly. But the +phil-hellenic Brahmins in Philostratus' life of Apollonius had no +existence outside the world of romance, and the statement of Dio +Chrysostom that the Indians were familiar with Homer in their own tongue +(_Or._ liii. 6) is a traveller's tale. India, the sceptical observe, has +yielded no Greek inscription, except, of course, on the coins of the +Greek kings and their Scythian rivals and successors. To what extent can +it be inferred from legends on coins that Greek was a living speech in +India? Perhaps to no large extent outside the Greek courts. The fact, +however, that the Greek character was still used on coins for two +centuries after the last Greek dynasty had come to an end shows that the +language had a prestige in India which any theory, to be plausible, must +account for. If we argue by probability from what we know of the +conditions, we have to consider that the Greek rule in India was all +through fighting for existence, and can have had "little time or energy +left for such things as art, science and literature" (Tarn, _loc. cit._ +p. 292), and it is pointed out that a casual reference to the Greeks in +an Indian work contemporary with Menander characterizes them as +"viciously valiant Yonas." How long is it probable that Greek colonies +planted in the midst of alien races would have remained distinct? Mr +Tarn builds much upon the fact that the descendants of the Greek +Branchidae settled by Xerxes in central Asia had become bilingual in six +generations (Curt. vii. 5, 29). But the Greek race before Alexander had +not its later prestige, and we must consider such a sentiment as leads +the Eurasian to-day to cling to his Western parentage, so that the +instance of the Branchidae cannot be used straight away for the time +after Alexander. Certainly, had the Greek colonies in India been active +political bodies, we could hardly have failed to find some trace of +them, in civic architecture or in inscriptions, by this time. Perhaps we +should rather think of them as resembling the Greeks found to-day +dispersed over the nearer East with interests mainly commercial, easily +assimilating themselves to their environment. A notice derived from +Agatharchides (about 140 B.C.) possibly refers to the activity of these +Indian Greeks in the sea-borne trade of the Indian Ocean (Muller, _Geog. +Graeci min._ i. p. 191; cf. Diod. iii. 47. 9). As to what India derived +from Greece there has been a good deal of erudite debate. That the +Indian drama took its origin from the Greek is still maintained by some +scholars, though hardly proved. There is no doubt that Indian astronomy +shows marked Hellenic features, including actual Greek words borrowed. +But by far the most signal borrowing is in the sphere of art. The stream +of Buddhist art which went out eastwards across Asia had its rise in +North-West India, and the remains of architecture and sculpture +unearthed in this region enable us to trace its development back to pure +Greek types. It remains, of course, a question whether the tradition was +transmitted by the Greek dynasties from Bactria or by intercourse with +the Roman empire; the latter seems now almost certain; but the fact of +the influence is equally striking on either theory. How far to the east +the distinctive influence of Greece went is shown by the +seal-impressions with Athena and Eros types found by Dr Stein in the +buried cities of Khotan (_Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan_, p. 396), and +according to Mr E. B. Havell, there exist "paintings treasured as the +most precious relics and rarely shown to Europeans, which closely +resemble the Graeco-Buddhist art of India" in some of the oldest temples +of Japan (_Studio_, vol. xxvii. 1903, p. 26). + + See A. A. Macdonell, _History of Sanskrit Literature_ (1900) p. 411 + f., and the references on p. 452; V. A. Smith, _Early History of + India_ (1904); Grunwedel, _Buddhist Art in India_ (Eng. trans., edited + by Dr Burgess, 1901); W. W. Tarn, "Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and + India" in _Journ. of Hell. Studies_, xxii. (1902); Foucher, _L'Art + greco-bouddhique du Gandhara_ (1905). + + + Greek cities. + +(ii.) _Iran and Babylonia._--The colonizing activity of Alexander and +his successors found a large field in Iran where, up till his time, +hardly any walled towns seem to have existed. Cities now arose in all +its provinces, superseding in many cases native market places and +villages, and holding the vantage-points of commerce. Media, Polybius +says, was defended by a chain of Greek cities from barbarian incursion +(x. 27. 3); in the neighbourhood of Teheran seem to have stood Heraclea +and Europus. In Eastern Iran the cities which are its chief places +to-day then bore Greek names, and looked upon Alexander or some other +Hellenic prince as their founder. Khojend, Herat, Kandahar were +Alexandrias, Merv was an Alexandria till it changed that name for +Antioch. When the farther provinces broke away under independent Greek +kings, a Eucratidea and a Demetrias attested their glory. Even in a town +definitely barbarian like Syrinca in 209 B.C. there was a resident +mercantile community of Greeks (Polyb. x. 31). The bulk of Greek +historical literature having perished, and in the absence of both +archaeological data from Iran, we can only speculate on the inner life +of these Greek cities under a strange sky. One precious document is the +decree of Antioch in Persis (about 206 B.C.) cited in a recently +discovered inscription (Kern, _Inschr. v. Magnesia_, No. 61; +Dittenberger, _Orient. gr. Inscr._ i. No. 233). This shows us the normal +organs of a Greek city, _boule_, _ecclesia_, _prytaneis_, &c., in full +working, with the annual election of magistrates, and ordinary forms of +public action. But more than this, it throws a remarkable light upon the +solidarity of the Hellenic Dispersion. The citizen body had been +increased some generations before by colonists from Magnesia-on-Meander +sent at the invitation of Antiochus I. The Magnesians are instigated by +pan-hellenic enthusiasm. And we see a brisk diplomatic intercourse +between the scattered Greek cities going on. It is especially the local +religious festivals which bind them together. Antioch in Persis, of +course, sends athletes to the great games of Greece, but in this decree +it determines to take part in the new festival being started in honour +of Artemis at Magnesia. The loyalty, too, expressed towards the Seleucid +king implies a predominant interest in pan-hellenic unity, natural in +colonies isolated among barbarians. A list is given (fragmentary) of +other Greek cities in Babylonia and beyond from which similar decrees +had come. + + + Greek kingdoms. + +In the middle of the 3rd century B.C. Bactria and Sogdiana broke away +from the Seleucid empire; independent Greek kings reigned there till the +country was conquered by nomads from Central Asia (Sacae and Yue-chi) a +century later. Alexander had settled large masses of Greeks in these +regions (Greeks, it would seem, not Macedonians), whose attempts to +return home in 325 and 323 had been frustrated, and it may well be that +a racial antagonism quickened the revolt against Macedonian rule in 250. +The history of these Greek dynasties is for us almost a blank, and for +estimating the amount and quality of Hellenism in Bactria during the 180 +years or so of Macedonian and Greek rule, we are reduced to building +hypotheses upon the scantiest data. Probably nothing important bearing +on the subject has been left out of view in W. W. Tarn's learned +discussion (_Journ. of Hell. Stud._ xxii., 1902, p. 268 f.), and his +result is mainly negative, that palpable evidences of an active +Hellenism have not been found; he inclines to think that the Greek +kingdoms mainly took on the native Iranian colour. The coins, of course, +are adduced on the other side, being not only Greek in type and legend, +but (in many cases) of a peculiarly fine and vigorous execution; and +excellence in one branch of art is thought to imply that other branches +flourished in the same _milieu_. Tarn suggests that they may be a +"sport," a spasmodic outbreak of genius (see BACTRIA and works there +quoted). In these outlying provinces the national Iranian sentiment +seems to have been most intense, and it is interesting to see that under +Alexander Hellenism appeared as "belligerent civilization," in the +attempt to suppress practices like the exposure of the dying to the dogs +(an exaggeration of Zoroastrianism) and, possibly also, abhorrent forms +of marriage (Strabo xi. 517; Porphyr. _De abstin._ 4. 21; Plut. _De +fort. Al._ 5). + +The west of Iran slipped from the Seleucids in the course of the 2nd +century B.C. to be joined to the Parthian kingdom, or fall under petty +native dynasties. Soon after 130 Babylonia too was conquered by the +Parthian, and Mesopotamia before 88. Then the reconquest of the nearer +East by Oriental dynasties was checked by the advance of Rome. Asia +Minor and Syria remained substantial parts of the Roman Empire till the +Mahommedan conquests of the 7th century A.D. began a new process of +recoil on the part of the Hellenistic power. In Babylonia, also, in +Susiana and Mesopotamia, Hellenism had been established in a system of +cities for 200 years before the coming of the Parthian. The greatest of +all of them stood here--almost on the site of Bagdad--Seleucia on the +Tigris. It superseded Babylon as the industrial focus of Babylonia and +counted some 600,000 inhabitants (_plebs urbana_) according to Pliny, +_N.H._ vi. S 122 (cf. Joseph. _Arch._ xviii. S 372, 374; for coins, +probably of Seleucia, with the type of Tyche issued in the years A.D. +43-44 see Wroth, _Coins of Parthia_, p. xlvi.). The list of other Greek +cities known to us in these regions is too long to give here (see +Droysen, _loc. cit._, and E. Schwartz in Kern's _Inschr. v. Magnesia_, +p. 171 f.). In Mesopotamia, Pliny especially notes how the character of +the country was changed when the old village life was broken in upon by +new centres of population in the cities of Macedonian foundation (Pliny, +_N.H._ vi. S 117; cf. K. Regling, "Histor. geog. d. mesopot. +Parallelograms," in Lehmann's _Beitrage_, i. p. 442 f.). + + + Hellenic-Iranian culture. + +We do not look in vain for notable names in Hellenistic literature and +philosophy produced on an Asiatic soil. Diogenes, the Stoic philosopher +(head of the school in 156 B.C.), was a "Babylonian," i.e. a citizen of +Seleucia on the Tigris; so too was Seleucus, the mathematician and +astronomer, being possibly a native Babylonian; Berossus, who wrote a +Babylonian history in Greek (before 261 B.C.) was a Hellenized native. +Apollodorus, Strabo's authority for Parthian history (c. 80 B.C.?), was +from the Greek city of Artemita in Assyria. When the Parthians rent away +provinces from the Seleucid empire, the Greek cities did not cease to +exist by passing under barbarian rule. Gradually no doubt the Greek +colonies were absorbed, but the process was a long one. In 140 and 130 +B.C. those of Iran were ready to rise in support of the Seleucid invader +(Joseph. _Arch._ xiii. S 184; Justin xxxviii. 10.6-8). Just so, Crassus +in 53 B.C. found a welcome in the Greek cities of Mesopotamia. Seleucia +on the Tigris is spoken of by Tacitus as being in A.D. 36 "proof against +barbarian influences and mindful of its founder Seleucus" (_Ann._ vi. +42). How important an element the Greek population of their realm seemed +to the Parthian kings we can see by the fact that they claimed to be +themselves champions of Hellenism. From the reign of Artabanus I. +(128/7-123 B.C.) they bear the epithet of "Phil-hellen" as a regular +part of their title upon the coins. Under the later reigns the Tyche +figure (the personification of a Greek city) becomes common as a coin +type (Wroth, _Coins of Parthia_, pp. liii., lxxiv.). The coinage may, of +course, give a somewhat one-sided representation of the Parthian +kingdom, being specially designed for the commercial class, in which the +population of the Greek cities was, we may guess, predominant. The state +of things which prevails in modern Afghanistan, where trade is in the +hands of a class distinct in race and speech (Persian in this case) from +the ruling race of fighters is very probably analogous to that which we +should have found in Iran under the Parthians.[2] That the Parthian +court itself was to some extent Hellenized is shown by the story, often +adduced, that a Greek company of actors was performing the _Bacchae_ +before the king when the head of Crassus was brought in. This single +instance need not, it is true, show a Hellenism of any profundity; still +it does show that certain parts of Hellenism had become so essential to +the lustre of a court that even an Arsacid could not be without them. +Artavasdes, king of Armenia (54?-34 B.C.) composed Greek tragedies and +histories (Plut. _Crass._ 33). Then the prestige of the Roman Empire, +with its prevailingly Hellenistic culture, must have told powerfully. +The Parthian princes were in many cases the children of Greek mothers +who had been taken into the royal harems (Plut. _Crass._ 32). Musa, the +queen-mother, whose head appears on the coins of Phraataces (3/2 +B.C.-A.D. 4) had been an Italian slave-girl. Many of the Parthian +princes resided temporarily, as hostages or refugees, in the Roman +Empire; but one notes that the nation at large looked with anything but +favour upon too liberal an introduction of foreign manners at the court +(Tac. _Ann._ ii. 2). + +Such slight notices in Western literature do not give us any penetrating +view into the operation of Hellenism among the Iranians. As an +expression of the Iranian mind we have the Avesta and the Pehlevi +theological literature. Unfortunately in a question of this kind the +dating of our documents is the first matter of importance, and it seems +that we can only assign dates to the different parts of the Avesta by +processes of fine-drawn conjecture. And even if we could date the Avesta +securely, we could only prove borrowing by more or less close +coincidences of idea, a tempting but uncertain method of inquiry. Taking +an opinion based on such data for what it is worth, we may note that +Darmesteter believed in the influence of the later Greek philosophy +(Philonian and Neo-platonic) as one of those which shaped the Avesta as +we have it (_Sacred Books of the East_, iv. 54 f.), but we must also +note that such an influence is emphatically denied by Dr L. Mills +(_Zarathushtra and the Greeks_, Leipzig, 1906). Outside literature, we +have to look to the artistic remains offered by the region to determine +Hellenic influence. But here, too, the preliminary classification of the +documents is beset with doubt. In the case of small objects like gems +the place of manufacture may be far from the place of discovery. The +architectural remains are solidly _in situ_, but we may have such vast +disagreement as to date as that between Dieulafoy and M. de Morgan with +respect to domed buildings of Susa, a disagreement of at least five +centuries. It is enough then here to observe that Iran and Babylonia do, +as a matter of fact, continually yield the explorer objects of +workmanship either Greek or influenced by Greek models, belonging to the +age after Alexander, and that we may hence infer at any rate such an +influence of Hellenism upon the tastes of the richer classes as would +create a demand for these things. + + For gems see "Gobineau" in the _Rev. archeol._, vols. xxvii., xxviii. + (1874); Menant, _Recherches sur la glyptique orientale_, ii. 189 f.; + E. Babelon, _Catalogue des camees de la Bibl. Nat._ (1897), p. 56; A. + Furtwangler, _Die antiken Gemmen_, pp. 165, 369 ff.; Figurines: + Heuzey, _Fig. ant. du Louvre_ (1883) p. 3; J. P. Peters, _Nippur_, ii. + 128; Military standard: Heuzey, _Comptes rendus de l'Acad. d. Inscr._ + (1895) p. 16; _Rev. d'Assyr._ v. (1903), p. 103 f. Alabaster vase: + Sykes, _Ten Thousand Miles in Persia_, p. 445. In the case of the + architectural remains, the Greek tradition is obvious at Hatra + (Jacquerel, _Rev. archeol._, 1897 [ii.], 343 f.), and in the relics of + the temple at Kingavar (Dieulafoy, _L'Art antique de la Perse_, v. p. + 10 f.). + + + Sassanian empire. + +If any vestige of Hellenism still survived under the Sassanian kings, +our records do not show it. The spirit of the Sassanian monarchy was +more jealously national than that of the Arsacid, and alien grafts could +hardly have flourished under it. Of course, if Darmesteter was right in +seeing a Greek element in Zoroastrianism, Greek influence must still +have operated under the new dynasty, which recognized the national +religion. But, as we saw, the Greek influence has been authoritatively +denied. At the court a limited recognition might be given, as fashion +veered, to the values prevalent in the Hellenistic world. The story of +Hormisdas in Zosimus is suggestive in this connexion (Zosim. _Hist. +nov._ ii. 27). Chosroes I. interested himself in Greek philosophy and +received its professors from the West with open arms (Agath. ii. 28 f.); +according to one account, he had his palace at Ctesiphon built by Greeks +(Theophylact. Simocat. v. 6). + +But the account of Chosroes' mode of action makes it plain that the +Hellenism once planted in Iran had withered away; representatives of +Greek learning and skill have all to be imported from across the +frontier. + + For Hellenism in Babylonia and Iran, see the useful article of M. + Victor Chapot in the _Bull. et memoires de la Soc. Nat. des + Antiquaires de France_ for 1902 (published 1904), p. 206 f., which + gives a conspectus of the relevant literature. + +(iii.) _Asia Minor._--Very different were the fortunes of Hellenism in +those lands which became annexed to the Roman Empire. + + + Greek cities of the Diadochi. + +In Asia Minor, we have seen how, even before Alexander, Hellenism had +begun to affect the native races and Persian nobility. During +Alexander's own reign, we cannot trace any progress in the Hellenization +of the interior, nor can we prove here his activity as a builder of +cities. But under the dynasties of his successors a great work of +city-building and colonization went on. Antigonus fixed his capital at +the old Phrygian town of Celaenae, and the famous cities of Nicaea and +Alexandria Troas owed to him their first foundation, each as an +Antigonia; they were refounded and renamed by Lysimachus (301-281 B.C.). +Then we have the great system of Seleucid foundations. Sardis, the +Seleucid capital in Asia Minor, had become a Greek city before the end +of the 3rd century B.C. The main high road between the Aegean coast and +the East was held by a series of new cities. Going west from the +Cilician Gates we have Laodicea Catacecaumene, Apamea, the Phrygian +capital which absorbed Celaenae, Laodicea on the Lycus, +Antioch-on-Meander, Antioch-Nysa, Antioch-Tralles. To the south of this +high road we have among the Seleucid foundations Antioch in Pisidia +(colonized with Magnesians from the Meander) and Stratonicea in Caria; +in the region to the north of it the most famous Seleucid colony was +Thyatira. Along the southern coast, where the houses of Seleucus and +Ptolemy strove for predominance, we find the names of Berenice, Arsinoe +and Ptolemais confronting those of Antioch and Seleucia. With the rise +of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum, a system of Pergamene foundation +begins to oppose the Seleucid in the interior, bearing such names as +Attalia, Philetaeria, Eumenia, Apollonis. Of these, one may note for +their later celebrity Philadelphia in Lydia and Attalia on the +Pamphylian coast. The native Bithynian dynasty became Hellenized in the +course of the 3rd century, and in the matter of city building Prusias +(the old Cius), Apamea (the old Myrlea), probably Prusa, and above all +Nicomedia attested its activity. While new Greek cities were rising in +the interior, the older Hellenism of the western coast grew in material +splendour under the munificence of Hellenistic kings. Its centres of +gravity to some extent shifted. There was a tendency towards +concentration in large cities of the new type, which caused many of the +lesser towns, like Lebedus, Myus or Colophon, to sink to insignificance, +while Ephesus grew in greatness and wealth, and Smyrna rose again after +an extinction of four centuries. The great importance of Rhodes belongs +to the days after Alexander, when it received the riches of the East +from the trade-routes which debouched into the Mediterranean at +Alexandria and Antioch. In Aeolis, of course, the centre of gravity +moved to the Attalid capital, Pergamum. It was the irruption of the +Celts, beginning in 278-277 B.C., which checked the Hellenization of the +interior. Not only did the Galatian tribes take large tracts towards the +north of the plateau in possession, but they were an element of +perpetual unrest, which hampered and distracted the Hellenistic +monarchies. The wars, therefore, in which the Pergamene kings in the +latter part of the 3rd century stemmed their aggressions, had the glory +of a Hellenic crusade. + + + Native dynasties. + +The minor dynasties of non-Greek origin, the native Bithynian and the +two Persian dynasties in Pontus and Cappadocia, were Hellenized before +the Romans drove the Seleucid out of the country. In Bithynia the upper +classes seem to have followed the fashion of the court (Beloch iii. [i.], +278); the dynasty of Pontus was phil-hellenic by ancestral tradition; +the dynasty of Cappadocia, the most conservative, dated its conversion +to Hellenism from the time when a Seleucid princess came to reign there +early in the 2nd century B.C. as the wife of Ariarathes V. (Diod. xxxi. +19. 8). But Hellenism in Cappadocia was for centuries to come still +confined to the castles of the king and the barons, and the few towns. + + + Hellenism under Roman sway. + +When Rome began to interfere in Asia Minor, its first action was to +break the power of the Gauls (189 B.C.). In 133 Rome entered formally +upon the heritage of the Attalid kingdom and became the dominant power +in the Anatolian peninsula for 1200 years. Under Rome the process of +Hellenization, which the divisions and weakness of the Macedonian +kingdoms had checked, went forward. The coast regions of the west and +south the Romans found already Hellenized. In Lydia "not a trace" of the +old language was left in Strabo's time (Strabo xiv. 631); in Lycia, the +old language became obsolete in the early days of Macedonian rule (see +Kalinka, _Tituli Asiae minoris_, i. 8). But inland, in Phrygia, +Hellenism had as yet made little headway outside the Greek cities. Even +the Attalids had not effected much here (Korte, _Athen. Mitth._ xxiii., +1898, p. 152), and under the Romans, the penetration of the interior by +Hellenism was slow. It was not till the reign of Hadrian that city life +on the Phrygian plateau became rich and vigorous, with its material +circumstances of temples, theatres and baths. Among the villages of the +north and east of Phrygia, Hellenism "was only beginning to make itself +felt in the middle of the 3rd century A.D." (Ramsay in Kuhn's _Zeitsch. +f. vergleich. Sprachforschung_, xxviii., 1885, p. 382). Gravestones in +this region as late as the 4th century curse violators in the old +Phrygian speech. The lower classes at Lystra in St Paul's time spoke +Lycaonian (Acts xiv. 11). In that part of Phrygia, which by the +settlement of the Celtic invaders became Galatia, the larger towns seem +to have become Hellenized by the time of the Christian era, whilst the +Celtic speech maintained itself in the country villages till the 4th +century A.D. (Jerome, Preface to Comment, in _Epist. ad Gal._ book ii.; +see J. G. C. Anderson, _Journ. of Hell. Stud._ xix., 1899, p. 312 f.). +Cappadocia at the beginning of the Christian era was still comparatively +townless (Strabo xii. 537), a country of large estates with a servile +peasantry. Even in the 4th century its Hellenization was still far from +complete; but Christianity had assimilated so much of the older Hellenic +culture that the Church was now a main propagator of Hellenism in the +backward regions. The native languages of Asia Minor all ultimately gave +way to Greek (unless Phrygian lingered on in parts till the Turkish +invasions; see Mordtmann, _Sitzungsb. d. bayer. Ak._ 1862, i. p. 30; K. +Holl in _Hermes_, xliii., 1908, p. 240 f.). The effective Hellenization +of Armenia did not take place till the 5th century, when the school of +Mesrop and Sahak gave Armenia a literature translated from, or +imitating, Greek books (Gelzer in I. v. Muller's _Handbuch_, vol. ix. +Abt. i. p. 916.) + + + Seleucid empire. + + Roman period. + +(iv.) _Syria._--In Syria, which with Cilicia and Mesopotamia, formed the +central part of the Seleucid empire, the new colonies were especially +numerous. Alexander himself had perhaps made a beginning with +Alexandria-by-Issus (mod. Alexandretta), Samaria, Pella (the later +Apamea), Carrhae, &c. Antigonus founded Antigonia, which was absorbed a +few years later by Antioch, and after the fall of Antigonus in 301, the +work of planting Syria with Greek cities was pursued effectively north +of the Lebanon by the house of Seleucus, and, less energetically, south +of the Lebanon by the house of Ptolemy. In the north of Syria four +cities stood pre-eminent above the rest, (1) Antioch on the Orontes, the +Seleucid capital; (2) Seleucia-in-Pieria near the mouth of the Orontes, +which guarded the approach to Antioch from the sea; (3) Apamea (mod. +Famia), on the middle Orontes, the military headquarters of the kingdom; +and (4) Laodicea "on sea" (_ad mare_), which had a commercial importance +in connexion with the export of Syrian wine. Of the Ptolemaic +foundations in Coele-Syria only one attained an importance comparable +with that of the larger Seleucid foundations, Ptolemais on the coast, +which was the old Semitic Acco transformed (mod. Acre). The group of +Greek cities east of the Jordan also fell within the Ptolemaic realm +during the 3rd century B.C., though their greatness belonged to a +somewhat later day. The whole of Syria was brought under the Seleucid +sceptre, together with Cilicia, by Antiochus III. the Great (223-187 +B.C.). Under his son, Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164), a fresh impulse +was given to Syrian Hellenism. In 1 Maccabees he is represented as +writing an order to all his subjects to forsake the ways of their +fathers and conform to a single prescribed pattern, and though in this +form the account can hardly be exact, it does no doubt represent the +spirit of his action. Other facts there are which point the same way. We +now find a sudden issue of bronze money by a large number of the cities +of the kingdom in their own name--an indication of liberties extended or +confirmed. Many of them exchange their existing name for that of Antioch +(Adana, Tarsus, Gadara, Ptolemais), Seleucia (Mopsuestia, Gadara) or +Epiphanea (Oeniandus, Hamath). At Antioch itself great public works were +carried out, such as were involved in the addition of a new quarter to +the city, including, we may suppose, the civic council chamber which is +afterwards spoken of as being here. With the ever-growing weakness of +the Seleucid dynasty, the independence and activity of the cities +increased, although, if, on the one hand, they were less suppressed by a +strong central government, they were less protected against military +adventurers and barbarian chieftains. Accordingly, when Pompey annexed +Syria in 64 B.C. as a Roman province, he found it a chaos of city-states +and petty principalities. The Nabataeans and the Jews above all had +encroached upon the Hellenistic domain; in the south the Jewish raids +had spread desolation and left many cities practically in ruins. Under +Roman protection, the cities were soon rebuilt and Hellenism secured +from the barbarian peril. Greek city life, with its political forms, its +complement of festivities, amusements and intellectual exercise, went on +more largely than before. The great majority of the Hellenistic remains +in Syria belong to the Roman period. Such local dynasties as were +suffered by the Romans to exist had, of course, a Hellenistic +complexion. Especially was this the case with that of the Herods. Not +only were such marks of Hellenism as a theatre introduced by Herod the +Great (37-34 B.C.) at Jerusalem, but in the work of city-building this +dynasty showed itself active. Sebaste (the old Samaria), Caesarea, +Antipatris were built by Herod the Great, Tiberias by Herod Antipas (4 +B.C.-A.D. 39). The reclaiming of the wild district of Hauran for +civilization and Hellenistic life was due in the first instance to the +house of Herod (Schurer, _Gesch. d. jud. Volk._ 3rd ed., ii. p. 12 f.). +In Syria, too, Hellenism under the Romans advanced upon new ground. +Palmyra, of which we hear nothing before Roman times, is a notable +instance. + + + Greek culture in Syria. + +As to the effect of this network of Greek cities upon the aboriginal +population of Syria, we do not find here the same disappearance of +native languages and racial characteristics as in Asia Minor. Still less +was this the case in Mesopotamia, where a strong native element in such +a city as Edessa is indicated by its epithet [Greek: mixobarbaros]. The +old cults naturally went on, and at Carrhae (Harran) even survived the +establishment of Christianity. The lower classes at Antioch, and no +doubt in the cities generally, were in speech Aramaic or bilingual; we +find Aramaic popular nicknames of the later Seleucids (K. O. Muller, +_Antiq. Ant._ p. 29). The villages, of course, spoke Aramaic. The richer +natives, on the other hand, those who made their way into the educated +classes of the towns, and attained official position, would become +Hellenized in language and manners, and the "Syrian Code" shows how far +the social structure was modified by the Hellenic tradition (Mitteis, +_Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in den ost. Provinzen des rom. +Kaiserreichs_, 1891; Arnold Meyer, _Jesu Muttersprache_, 1896). Of the +Syrians who made their mark in Greek literature, some were of native +blood, e.g. Lucian of Samosata. + +One may notice the great part taken by natives of the Phoenician cities +in the history of later Greek philosophy, and in the poetic movement of +the last century B.C., which led to fresh cultivation of the epigram. +Greek, in fact, held the field as the language of literature and polite +society. Possibly at places like Edessa, which for some 350 years (till +A.D. 216) was under a dynasty of native princes, Aramaic was cultivated +as a literary language. There was a Syriac-speaking church here as early +as the 2nd century, and with the spread of Christianity Syriac asserted +itself against Greek. The Syriac literature which we possess is all +Christian. + +_But where Greek gave place to Syriac, Hellenism was not thereby +effaced. It was to some extent the passing over of the Hellenic +tradition into a new medium._ We must remember the marked Hellenic +elements in Christian theology. The earliest Syriac work which we +possess, the book "On Fate," produced in the circle of the heretic +Bardaisan or Bardesanes (end of the 2nd century), largely follows Greek +models. There was an extensive translation of Greek works into Syriac +during the next centuries, handbooks of philosophy and science for the +most part. The version of Homer into Syriac verses made in the 8th +century has perished, all but a few lines (R. Duval, _La Litt. +syriaque_, 1900, p. 325). + + + The Jews. + +(v.) _The relation of the Jews to Hellenism_ in the first century and a +half of Macedonian rule is very obscure, since the statements made by +later writers like Josephus, as to the visit of Alexander to Jerusalem +or the privileges conferred upon the Jews in the new Macedonian realms +are justly suspected of being fiction. It has been maintained that Greek +influence is to be traced in parts of the Old Testament assigned to this +period, as, for instance, the Book of Proverbs; but even in the case of +Ecclesiastes, the canonical writing whose affinity with Greek thought is +closest, the coincidence of idea need not necessarily prove a Greek +source. The one solid fact in this connexion is the translation of the +Jewish Law into Greek in the 3rd century B.C., implying a Jewish +Diaspora at Alexandria, so far Hellenized as to have forgotten the +speech of Palestine. Early in the 2nd century B.C. we see that the +priestly aristocracy of Jerusalem had, like the well-to-do classes +everywhere in Syria, been carried away by the Hellenistic current, its +strength being evidenced no less by the intensity of the conservative +opposition embodied in the party of the "Pious" (Assideans, _Hasidim_). + +Under Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-165) the Hellenistic aristocracy +contrived to get Jerusalem converted into a Greek city; the gymnasium +appeared, and Greek dress became fashionable with the young men. But +when Antiochus, owing to political developments, interfered violently at +Jerusalem, the conservative opposition carried the nation with them. The +revolt under the Hasmonaean family (Judas Maccabaeus and his brethren) +followed, ending in 143-142 in the establishment of an independent +Jewish state under a Hasmonaean prince. But whilst the old Hellenistic +party had been crushed the Hasmonaean state was of the nature of a +compromise. The Mosaic Law was respected, but Hellenism still found an +entrance in various forms. The first Hasmonaean "king," Aristobulus I. +(104-103), was known to the Greeks as Phil-hellen. He and all later +kings of the dynasty bear Greek names as well as Hebrew ones, and after +Jannaeus Alexander (103-76) the Greek legends are common on the coins +beside the Hebrew. Herod, who supplanted the Hasmonaean dynasty (37-34 +B.C.) made, outside Judaea, a display of Phil-hellenism, building new +Greek cities and temples, or bestowing gifts upon the older ones of +fame. His court, at the same time, welcomed Greek men of letters like +Nicolaus of Damascus. Even in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, he erected +a theatre and an amphitheatre. We have already noticed the work done by +the Herodian dynasty in furthering Hellenism in Syria (see Schurer, +_Gesch. des judisch. Volkes_, vols. i. and ii.). Meanwhile a great part +of the Jewish people was living dispersed among the cities of the Greek +world, speaking Greek as their mother-tongue, and absorbing Greek +influences in much larger measure than their brethren of Palestine. +These are the Jews whom we find contrasted as "Hellenists" with the +"Hebrews" in Acts. They still kept in touch with the mother-city, and +indeed we hear of special synagogues in Jerusalem in which the +Hellenists temporarily resident there gathered (Acts vi. 9). A large +Jewish literature in Greek had grown up since the translation of the Law +in the 3rd century. Beside the other canonical books of the Old +Testament, translated in many cases with modifications or additions, it +included translations of other Hebrew books (Ecclesiasticus, Judith, +&c.), works composed originally in Greek but imitating to some extent +the Hebraic style (like Wisdom), works modelled more closely on the +Greek literary tradition, either historical, like 2 Maccabees, or +philosophical, like the productions of the Alexandrian school, +represented for us by Aristobulus and Philo, in which style and thought +are almost wholly Greek and the reference to the Old Testament a mere +pretext; or Greek poems on Jewish subjects, like the epic of the elder +Philo and Ezechiel's tragedy, _Exagoge_. It included also a number of +forgeries, circulated under the names of famous Greek authors, verses +fathered upon Aeschylus or Sophocles, or books like the false Hecataeus, +or above all the pretended prophecies of ancient Sibyls in epic verse. +These frauds were all contrived for the heathen public, as a means of +propaganda, calculated to inspire them with respect for Jewish antiquity +or turn them from idols to God. + + For Jewish Hellenism see Schurer, _op. cit._ iii.; Susemihl, _Gesch. + der griech. Lit. in der Alexandrinerzeit_, ii. 601 f.; Willrich, + _Juden und Griechen_ (1895), _Judaica_ (1900); Hastings' _Dict. of the + Bible_, art. "Greece"; _Encyclop. Biblica_, art. "Hellenism"; + Pauly-Wissowa, art. "Aristobulus (15)"; also the work of P. Wendland + cited above. + +Through the Hellenistic Jews, Greek influences reached Jerusalem itself, +though their effect upon the Aramaic-speaking Rabbinical schools was +naturally not so pronounced. The large number of Greek words, however, +in the language of the Mishnah and the Talmud is a significant +phenomenon. The attitude of the Rabbinic doctors to a Greek education +does not seem to have been hostile till the time of Hadrian. The sect of +the Essenes probably shows an intermingling of the Greek with other +lines of tradition among the Jews of Palestine. + + See Schurer ii. 42-67, 583; S. Krauss, _Griech. u. latein. Lehnworter + im Talmud_ (1898); _Jewish Encyclopedia_, art. "Greek Language." + + + Ptolemaic kingdom. + +(vi.) _In Egypt_ the Ptolemies were hindered by special considerations +from building Greek cities after the manner of the other Macedonian +houses. One Greek city they found existing, Naucratis; Alexander had +called Alexandria into being; the first Ptolemy added Ptolemais as a +Greek centre for Upper Egypt. They seem to have suffered no other +community in the Nile Valley with the independent life of a Greek city, +for the Greek and Macedonian soldier-colonies settled in the Fayum or +elsewhere had no political self-existence. And even at Alexandria +Hellenism was not allowed full development. Ptolemais, indeed, enjoyed +all the ordinary forms of self-government, but Alexandria was governed +despotically by royal officials. In its population, too, Alexandria was +only semi-Hellenic; for besides the proportion of Egyptian natives in +its lower strata, its commercial greatness drew in elements from every +quarter; the Jews, for instance, formed a majority of the population in +two out of the five divisions of the city. At the same time the +prevalent tone of the populace was, no doubt, Hellenistic, as is shown +by the fact that the Jews who settled there acquired Greek in place of +Aramaic as their mother-tongue, and in its upper circles Alexandrian +society under the Ptolemies was not only Hellenistic, but notable among +the Hellenes for its literary and artistic brilliance. The state +university, the "Museum," was in close connexion with the court, and +gave to Alexandria the same pre-eminence in natural science and literary +scholarship which Athens had in moral philosophy. + +Probably in no other country, except Judaea, did Hellenism encounter as +stubborn a national antagonism as in Egypt. The common description of +"the Oriental" as indurated in his antagonism to the alien conqueror +here perhaps has some truth in it. The assault made upon the Macedonian +devotee in the temple of Serapis at Memphis "because he was a Greek" is +significant (_Papyr. Brit. Mus._ i. No. 44; cf. Grenfell, _Amherst +Papyr._ p. 48). And yet even here one must observe qualifications The +papyri show us habitual marriage of Greeks and native women and a +frequent adoption by natives of Greek names. It has even been thought +that some developments of the Egyptian religion are due to Hellenistic +influence, such as the deification of Imhotp (Bissing, _Deutsche +Literaturzeitung_, 1902, col. 2330) or the practice of forming voluntary +religious associations (Otto, _Priester und Tempel_, i. 125). The +worship of Serapis was patronized by the court with the very object of +affording a mixed cultus in which Greek and native might unite. In +Egypt, too, the triumph of Christianity brought into being a native +Christian literature, and if this was in one way the assertion of the +native against Hellenistic predominance, one must remember that Coptic +literature, like Syriac, necessarily incorporated those Greek elements +which had become an essential part of Christian theology. + + + Ethiopia. + +From the Ptolemaic kingdom Hellenism early travelled up the Nile into +Ethiopia. Ergamenes, the king of the Ethiopians in the time of the +second Ptolemy, "who had received a Greek education and cultivated +philosophy," broke with the native priesthood (Diod. iii. 6), and from +that time traces of Greek influence continue to be found in the +monuments of the Upper Nile. When Ethiopia became a Christian country in +the 4th century, its connexion with the Hellenistic world became closer. + + + Greek culture in the Roman world. + +(vii.) _Hellenism in the West._--Whilst in the East Hellenism had been +sustained by the political supremacy of the Greeks, in Italy _Graecia +capta_ had only the inherent power and charm of her culture wherewith to +win her way. At Carthage in the 3rd century the educated classes seem +generally to have been familiar with Greek culture (Bernhardy, +_Grundriss d. griech. Lit._ S 77). The philosopher Clitomachus, who +presided over the Academy at Athens in the 2nd century, was a +Carthaginian. Even before Alexander, as we saw, Hellenism had affected +the peoples of Italy, but it was not till the Greeks of south Italy and +Sicily were brought under the supremacy of Rome in the 3rd century B.C. +that the stream of Greek influence entered Rome in any volume. It was +now that the Greek freedman, L. Livius Andronicus, laid the foundation +of a new Latin literature by his translation of the _Odyssey_, and that +the Greek dramas were recast in a Latin mould. The first Romans who set +about writing history wrote in Greek. At the end of the 3rd century +there was a circle of enthusiastic phil-hellenes among the Roman +aristocracy, led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, who in Rome's name +proclaimed the autonomy of the Greeks at the Isthmian games of 196. In +the middle of the 2nd century Roman Hellenism centred in the circle of +Scipio Aemilianus, which included men like Polybius and the philosopher +Panaetius. The visit of the three great philosophers, Diogenes the +"Babylonian," Critolaus and Carneades in 155, was an epoch-making event +in the history of Hellenism at Rome. Opposition there could not fail to +be, and in 161 a _senatus consultum_ ordered all Greek philosophers and +rhetoricians to leave the city. The effect of such measures was, of +course, transient. Even though the opposition found so doughty a +champion as the elder Cato (censor in 184), it was ultimately of no +avail. The Italians did not indeed surrender themselves passively to the +Greek tradition. In different departments of culture the degree of their +independence was different. The system of government framed by Rome was +an original creation. Even in the spheres of art and literature, the +Italians, while so largely guided by Greek canons, had something of +their own to contribute. The mere fact that they produced a literature +in Latin argues a power of creation as well as receptivity. The great +Latin poets were imitators indeed, but _mere_ imitators they were no +more than Petrarch or Milton. On the other hand, even where the creative +originality of Rome was most pronounced, as in the sphere of Law, there +were elements of Hellenic origin. It has been often pointed out how the +Stoic philosophy especially helped to shape Roman jurisprudence +(Schmekel, _Philos. d. mittl. Stoa_, p. 454 f.). + +Whilst the upper classes in Italy absorbed Greek influences by their +education, by the literary and artistic tradition, the lower strata of +the population of Rome became largely hellenized by the actual influx on +a vast scale of Greeks and hellenized Asiatics, brought in for the most +part as slaves, and coalescing as freedmen with the citizen body. Of the +Jewish inscriptions found at Rome some two-thirds are in Greek. So too +the early Christian church in Rome, to which St Paul addressed his +epistle, was Greek-speaking, and continued to be till far into the 3rd +century. + + + The middle ages. + + Islam. + +III. LATER HISTORY.--It remains only to glance at the ultimate destinies +of Hellenism in West and East. In the Latin West knowledge of Greek, +first-hand acquaintance with the Greek classics, became rarer and rarer +as general culture declined, till in the dark ages (after the 5th +century) it existed practically nowhere but in Ireland (Sandys, _History +of Classical Scholarship_, i. 438). In Latin literature, however, a +great mass of Hellenistic tradition in a derived form was maintained in +currency, wherever, that is, culture of any kind continued to exist. It +was a small number of monkish communities whose care of those narrow +channels prevented their ever drying up altogether. Then the stream +began to rise again, first with the influx of the learning of the +Spanish Moors, then with the new knowledge of Greek brought from +Constantinople in the 14th century. With the Renaissance and the new +learning, Hellenism came in again in flood, to form a chief part of that +great river on which the modern world is being carried forward into a +future, of which one can only say that it must be utterly unlike +anything that has gone before. In the East it is popularly thought that +Hellenism, as an exotic, withered altogether away. This view is +superficial. During the dark ages, in the Byzantine East, as well as in +the West, Hellenism had become little more than a dried and shrivelled +tradition, although the closer study of Byzantine culture in latter +years has seemed to discover more vitality than was once supposed. +Ultimately the Greek East was absorbed by Islam; the popular mistake +lies in supposing that the Hellenistic tradition thereby came to an end. +The Mahommedan conquerors found a considerable part of it taken over, +as we saw, by the Syrian Christians, and Greek philosophical and +scientific classics were now translated from Syriac into Arabic. These +were the starting-points for the Mahommedan schools in these subjects. +Accordingly we find that Arabian philosophy (q.v.), mathematics, +geography, medicine and philology are all based professedly upon Greek +works (Brockelmann, _Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur_, 1898, vol. i.; R. +A. Nicholson, _A Literary History of the Arabs_, 1907, pp. 358-361). +Aristotle in the East no less than in the West was the "master of them +that know"; and Moslem physicians to this day invoke the names of +Hippocrates and Galen. The Hellenistic strain in Mahommedan civilization +has, it is true, flagged and failed, but only as that civilization as a +whole has declined. It was not that the Hellenistic element failed, +whilst the native elements in the civilization prospered; the culture of +Islam has, as a whole (from whatever causes), sunk ever lower during the +centuries that have witnessed the marvellous expansion of Europe. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the inner history of Hellenism after Alexander, the + general historical literature dealing with later Greece and Rome + supplies material in various degrees. See works quoted in articles + GREECE, _History_; ROME, _History_; PTOLEMIES; SELEUCID DYNASTY; + BACTRIA, &c. + + Different elements (literature, philosophy, art, &c.) are dealt with + in works dealing specially with these subjects, among which those of + Susemihl, Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Erwin Rohde and E. Schwartz are of + especial importance for the literature; those of Schreiber and + Strzygowski for the later Greek art. + + Sketches of Hellenistic civilization generally are found in J. P. + Mahaffy's _Greek Life and Thought_ (1887), _The Greek World under + Roman Sway_ (1890); _The Silver Age of the Greek World_ (1906); Julius + Kaerst, _Gesch. d. hellenist. Zeitalters_ (Band ii., publ. 1909); and + in Beloch's _Griechische Geschichte_, vol. iii. (for the century + immediately succeeding Alexander). R. von Scala's "The Greeks after + Alexander," in Helmolt's _History of the World_ (vol. v.), covers the + whole period from Alexander to the end of the Byzantine Empire. P. + Wendland's _Hellenistisch-romische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu + Judentum u. Christentum_ (1907) is an illuminating monograph, giving a + conspectus of the material. For Hellenistic Egypt, Bouche-Leclercq, + _Histoire des Lagides_, vol. iii. (1906). (E. R. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See, among recent writers, on one side Kaerst, _Gesch. des + hellenist. Zeitalters_, pp. 97 f., and on the other Beloch, _Griech. + Gesch._, iii. [i.] 1-9; Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Gesch. d. + griech. Sprache_, p. 283 f.; O. Hoffmann, _Die Makedonen, ihre + Sprache u. ihr Volkstum_ (1906). + + [2] "Ce sont les Tadjik de l'Afghanistan qui constituent les + trente-deux corps de metier, qui tiennent boutique, expedient les + marchandises, representent, en un mot, la vie industrielle et + commerciale de la nation. Ce sont aussi les Tadjik des villes qui + forment la classe lettree, et qui ont empeche les Afghans de retomber + dans la barbarie." (Reclus, _Nouvelle Geograph. univ._ ix. p. 71.) + + + + +HELLER, STEPHEN (1815-1888), Austrian pianist and composer, was born at +Pest on the 15th of May 1815. (Fetis's dictionary says 1814, but this is +almost certainly wrong.) He was at first intended for a lawyer, but at +nine years of age performed so successfully at a concert that he was +sent to Vienna to study under Czerny. Halm was his principal master, and +from the age of twelve he gave concerts in Vienna, and made a tour +through Hungary, Poland and Germany. At Augsburg he had the good fortune +to be befriended when ill by a wealthy family, who practically adopted +him and gave him the opportunity to complete his musical education. In +1838 he went to Paris, and soon became intimate with Liszt, Chopin, +Berlioz and their set, among whom was Halle, throughout his life an +indefatigable performer of Heller's music. In 1849 he came to England +and played a few times, and in 1862 he appeared with Halle at the +Crystal Palace. He outlived the great reputation he had enjoyed among +cultivated amateurs for so many years, and was almost forgotten when he +died at Paris on the 14th of January 1888. His pianoforte pieces, almost +all of them published in sets and provided with fancy names, do not show +very startling originality, but their grace and refinement could not but +make them popular with players and listeners of all classes. + + + + +HELLESPONT (i.e. "Sea of Helle"; variously named in classical literature +[Greek: Hellespontos], [Greek: ho Helles pontos], _Hellespontum +Pelagus_, and _Fretum Hellesponticum_), the ancient name of the +Dardanelles (q.v.). It was so-called from Helle, the daughter of Athamas +(q.v.), who was drowned here. See ARGONAUTS. + + + + +HELLEVOETSLUIS, or HELVOETSLUIS, a fortified seaport in the province of +South Holland, the kingdom of Holland, on the south side of the island +of Voorne-and-Putten, on the sea-arm known as the Haringvliet, 5(1/2) m. +S. of Brielle. It has daily steamboat connexion with Rotterdam by the +Voornsche canal. Pop. (1900), 4152. Hellevoetsluis is an important naval +station, and possesses a naval arsenal, dry and wet docks, wharves and a +naval college for engineers. Among the public buildings are the +communal chambers, a Reformed church (1661), a Roman Catholic church and +a synagogue. + + + + +HELLIN, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Albacete, on +the Albacete-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 12,558. Hellin is built on the +outskirts of the low hills which line the left bank of the river Mundo. +It possesses the remains of an old Roman castle and a beautiful parish +church, the masonry and marble pavement at the entrance of which are +worthy of special notice. The surrounding country yields wine, oil and +saffron in abundance; within the town there are manufactures of coarse +cloth, leather and pottery. Sulphur is obtained from the celebrated +mining district of Minas del Mundo, 12 m. S., at the junction between +the Mundo and the Segura; and there are warm sulphurous springs in the +neighbouring village of Azaraque. Hellin was known to the Romans who +first exploited its sulphur as Illunum. + + + + +HELLO, ERNEST (1828-1885), French critic, was born at Treguier. He was +the son of a lawyer who held posts of great importance at Rennes and in +Paris, and was well educated at both places, but took to no profession +and resided much, for a time, in his father's country-house in Brittany. +A very strong Roman Catholic, he appears to have been specially excited +by his countryman Renan's attitude to religious matters, and coming +under the influence of J. A. Barbey d'Aurevilly and Louis Veuillot, the +two most brilliant crusaders of the Church in the press, he started a +newspaper of his own, _Le Croise_, in 1859; but it only lasted two +years. He wrote, however, much in other papers. He had very bad health, +suffering apparently from spinal or bone disease. But he was fortunate +enough to meet with a wife, Zoe Berthier, who, ten years older than +himself, and a friend for some years before their marriage, became his +devoted nurse, and even brought upon herself abuse from gutter +journalists of the time for the care with which she guarded him. He died +in 1885. Hello's work is somewhat varied in form but uniform in spirit. +His best-known book, _Physionomie de saints_ (1875), which has been +translated into English (1903) as _Studies in Saintship_, does not +display his qualities best. _Contes extraordinaires_, published not long +before his death, is better and more original. But the real Hello is to +be found in a series of philosophical and critical essays, from _Renan, +l'Allemagne et l'atheisme_ (1861), through _L'Homme_ (1871) and _Les +Plateaux de la balance_ (1880), perhaps his chief book, to the +posthumously published _Le Siecle_. The peculiarity of his standpoint +and the originality and vigour of his handling make his studies, of +Shakespeare, Hugo and others, of abiding importance as literary +"triangulations," results of object, subject and point of view. + + + + +HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK (1767-1813), Dutch poet, was born at Amsterdam on +the 7th of March 1767. His early poems, _Night_ (1788) and _Socrates_ +(1790), were tame and sentimental, but after 1805 he determined, in +company with his brother-in-law, Cornelis Loots (1765-1834), to rouse +national feeling by a burst of patriotic poetry. His _Poems_ (2 vols., +1809-1810), but especially his great work _The Dutch Nation_, a poem in +six cantos (1812), created great enthusiasm and enjoyed immense success. +Helmers died at Amsterdam on the 26th of February 1813. He owed his +success mainly to the integrity of his patriotism and the opportune +moment at which he sounded his counterblast to the French oppression. +His posthumous poems were collected in 1815. + + + + +HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON (1803-1885), Russian geologist, was born at +Laugut-Duckershof, near Dorpat, on the 29th of September (O.S.) 1803. He +received an engineering training and became major-general in the corps +of Mining Engineers. In 1837 he was appointed professor of geology in +the mining institute at St Petersburg. He was author of numerous memoirs +on the geology of Russia, especially on the coal and other mineral +deposits of the country; and he wrote also some explanations to +accompany separate sheets of the geological map of Russia. His +geological work was continued to an advanced age, one of the later +publications being _Studien uber die Wanderblocke und die +Diluvialgebilde Russlands_ (1869 and 1882). Most of his memoirs were +published by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg. He died +at St Petersburg on the 3rd of February (O.S.) 1885. + + + + +HELMET (from an obsolete diminutive of O. Fr. _helme_, mod. _heaume_; +the English word is "helm," as in O. Eng., Dutch and Ger.; all are from +the Teutonic base _hal_-, pre-Teut. _kal_-, to cover; cf. Lat. _celare_, +to hide, Eng. "hell," &c.), a defensive covering for the head. The +present article deals with the helmet during the middle ages down to the +close of the period when body armour was worn. For the helmet worn by +the Greeks and Romans see ARMS AND ARMOUR. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Casque with Neck-guard.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Casque with Nasal and Mail Hood.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Heaume, early 13th century.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Heaume, 15th century.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Heaume, 15th century.] + +The head-dress of the warriors of the dark ages and of the earlier +feudal period was far from being the elaborate helmet which is +associated in the imagination with the knight in armour and the tourney. +It was a mere casque, a cap with or without additional safeguards for +the ears, the nape of the neck and the nose (fig. 1). By those warriors +who possessed the means to equip themselves fully, the casque was worn +over a hood of mail, as shown in fig. 2. In manuscripts, &c., armoured +men are sometimes portrayed fighting in their hoods, without casques, +basinets or other form of helmet. The casque was, of course, normally of +plate, but in some instances it was a strong leather cap covered with +mail or imbricated plates. The most advanced form of this early helmet +is the conical steel or iron cap with nasal (fig. 2), worn in +conjunction with the hood of mail. This is the typical helmet of the +11th-century warrior, and is made familiar by the Bayeux Tapestry. From +this point however (c. 1100) the evolution of war head-gear follows two +different paths for many years. On the one hand the simple casque easily +transformed itself into the _basinet_, originally a pointed iron +skull-cap without nasal, ear-guards, &c. On the other hand the knight in +armour, especially after the fashion of the tournament set in, found the +mere cap with nasal insufficient, and the _heaume_ (or "helmet") +gradually came into vogue. This was in principle a large heavy iron pot +covering the head and neck. Often a light basinet was worn underneath +it--or rather the knight usually wore his basinet and only put the +heaume on over it at the last moment before engaging. The earlier (12th +century) war heaumes are intended to be worn with the mail hood and have +nasals (fig. 3). Towards the end of the 13th century, however, the +basinet grew in size and strength, just as the casque had grown, and +began to challenge comparison with the heavy and clumsy heaume. +Thereupon the heaume became, by degrees, the special head-dress of the +tournament, and grew heavier, larger and more elaborate, while the +basinet, reinforced with camail and vizor, was worn in battle. Types of +the later, purely tilting, heaume are shown in figs. 4 and 5. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Basinets.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Salades or Sallets.] + +The basinet, then, is the battle head-dress of nobles, knights and +sergeants in the 14th century. Its development from the 10th-century cap +to the towering helmet of 1350, with its long snouted vizor and ample +drooping "camail," is shown in fig. 6, a, b, c and d, the two latter +showing the same helmet with vizor down and up. But the tendency set in +during the earlier years of the 15th century to make all parts of the +armour thicker. Chain "mail" gradually gave way to plate on the body and +the limbs, remaining only in those parts, such as neck and elbows, where +flexibility was essential, and even there it was in the end replaced by +jointed steel bands or small plates. The final step was the discarding of +the "camail" and the introduction of the "armet." The latter will be +described later. Soon after the beginning of the 15th century the +high-crowned basinet gave place to the _salade_ or _sallet_, a helmet +with a low rounded crown and a long brim or neck-guard at the back. This +was the typical headpiece of the last half of the Hundred Years' War as +the vizored basinet had been of the first. Like the basinet it was worn +in a simple form by archers and pikemen and in a more elaborate form by +the knights and men-at-arms. The larger and heavier salades were also +often used instead of the heaume in tournaments. Here again, however, +there is a great difference between those worn by light armed men, +foot-soldiers and archers and those of the heavy cavalry. The former, +while possessing as a rule the bowl shape and the lip or brim of the +type, and always destitute of the conical point which is the +distinguishing mark of the basinet, are cut away in front of the face +(fig. 7 a). In some cases this was remedied in part by the addition of a +small pivoted vizor, which, however, could not protect the throat. In the +larger salades of the heavy cavalry the wide brim served to protect the +whole head, a slit being made in that part of the brim which came in +front of the eyes (in some examples the whole of the front part of the +brim was made movable). But the chin and neck, directly opposed to the +enemy's blows, were scarcely protected at all, and with these helmets a +large volant-piece or beaver (_mentonniere_)--usually a continuation of +the body armour up to the chin or even beyond--was worn for this purpose, +as shown in fig. 7 b. This arrangement combined, in a rough way, the +advantages of freedom of movement for the head with adequate protection +for the neck and lower part of the face. The _armet_, which came into use +about 1475-1500 and completely superseded the salade, realized these +requirements far better, and later at the zenith of the armourer's art +(about 1520) and throughout the period of the decline of armour it +remained the standard pattern of helmet, whether for war or for +tournament. It figures indeed in nearly all portraits of kings, nobles +and soldiers up to the time of Frederick the Great, either with the suit +of armour or half-armour worn by the subject of the portrait or in +allegorical trophies, &c. The armet was a fairly close-fitting rounded +shell of iron or steel, with a movable vizor in front and complete +plating over chin, ears and neck, the latter replacing the mentonniere or +beaver. The armet was connected to the rest of the suit by the gorget, +which was usually of thin laminated steel plates. With a good armet and +gorget there was no weak point for the enemy's sword to attack, a roped +lower edge of the armet generally fitting into a sort of flange round the +top of the gorget. Thus, and in other and slightly different ways, was +solved the problem which in the early days of plate armour had been +attempted by the clumsy heaume and the flexible, if tough, camail of the +vizored basinet, and still more clumsily in the succeeding period by the +salade and its grotesque mentonniere. As far as existing examples show, +the wide-brimmed salade itself first gave way to the more rounded armet, +the mentonniere being carried up to the level of the eyes. Then the use +(growing throughout the 15th century) of laminated armour for the joints +of the harness probably suggested the gorget, and once this was applied +to the lower edge of the armet by a satisfactory joint, it was an easy +step to the elaborate pivoted vizor which completed the new head-dress. +Types of armets are shown in fig. 8. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Armets.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Burgonets.] + +The _burgonet_, often confused with the armet, is the typical helmet of +the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In its simple form it was worn +by the foot and light cavalry--though the latter must not be held to +include the pistol-armed _chevaux-legers_ of the wars of religion, these +being clad in half-armour and vizored burgonet--and consisted of a +(generally rounded) cap with a projecting brim shielding the eyes, a +neck-guard and earpieces. It had almost invariably a crest or comb, as +shown in the illustrations (fig. 9). Other forms of infantry head-gear +much in vogue during the 16th century are shown in figs. 10 and 11, +which represent the _morion_ and _cabasset_ respectively. Both these +were lighter and smaller than the burgonet; indeed much of their +popularity was due to the ease with which they were worn or put on and +off, for in the matter of protection they could not compare with the +burgonet, which in one form or another was used by cavalry (and often by +pikemen) up to the final disappearance of armour from the field of +battle about 1670. Fig. 9 b gives the general outline of richly +decorated 16th-century Italian burgonet which is preserved in Vienna. +The archetype of the burgonet is perhaps the casque worn by the Swiss +infantry (fig. 9 a) at the epoch of Marignan (1515). This was probably +copied by them from their former Burgundian antagonists, whose connexion +with this helmet is sufficiently indicated by its name. The lower part +of the more elaborate burgonets worn by nobles and cavalrymen is often +formed into a complete covering for the ears, cheek and chin, and +connected closely with the gorget. They therefore resemble the armets +and have often been confused with them, but the distinguishing feature +of the burgonet is invariably the front peak. Various forms of vizor +were fitted to such helmets; these as a rule were either fixed bars +(fig. 9 c) or mere upward continuations of the chin piece. Often a nasal +was the only face protection (fig. 9 d, a Hungarian type). The latest +form of the burgonet used in active service is the familiar Cromwellian +cavalry helmet with its straight brim, from which depends the slight +vizor of three bars or stout wires joined together at the bottom. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Morion.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Cabasset.] + +The above are of course only the main types. Some writers class all +remaining examples either as casques or as "war-hats," the latter term +conveniently covering all those helmets which resemble in any way the +head-gear of civil life. For illustrations of many curiosities of this +sort, including the famous iron hat of King Charles I. of England, and +also for examples of Russian, Mongolian, Indian and Chinese helmets, the +reader is referred to pp. 262-269 and 285-286 of Demmin's _Arms and +Armour_ (English edition 1894). The helmets in brass, steel or cloth, +worn by troops since the general introduction of uniforms and the disuse +of armour, depend for their shape and material solely on considerations +of comfort and good appearance. From time to time, however, the +readoption of serviceable helmets is advocated by cavalrymen, and there +is much to be said in favour of this. The burgonet, which was the final +type of war helmet evolved by the old armourers, would certainly appear +to be by far the best head-gear to adopt should these views prevail, and +indeed it is still worn, in a modified yet perfectly recognizable form, +by the German and other cuirassiers. + + + + +HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON (1821-1894), German philosopher +and man of science, was born on the 31st of August 1821 at Potsdam, near +Berlin. His father, Ferdinand, was a teacher of philology and philosophy +in the gymnasium, while his mother was a Hanoverian lady, a lineal +descendant of the great Quaker William Penn. Delicate in early life, +Helmholtz became by habit a student, and his father at the same time +directed his thoughts to natural phenomena. He soon showed mathematical +powers, but these were not fostered by the careful training +mathematicians usually receive, and it may be said that in after years +his attention was directed to the higher mathematics mainly by force of +circumstances. As his parents were poor, and could not afford to allow +him to follow a purely scientific career, he became a surgeon of the +Prussian army. In 1842 he wrote a thesis in which he announced the +discovery of nerve-cells in ganglia. This was his first work, and from +1842 to 1894, the year of his death, scarcely a year passed without +several important, and in some cases epoch-making, papers on scientific +subjects coming from his pen. He lived in Berlin from 1842 to 1849, when +he became professor of physiology in Konigsberg. There he remained from +1849 to 1855, when he removed to the chair of physiology in Bonn. In +1858 he became professor of physiology in Heidelberg, and in 1871 he was +called to occupy the chair of physics in Berlin. To this professorship +was added in 1887 the post of director of the physico-technical +institute at Charlottenburg, near Berlin, and he held the two positions +together until his death on the 8th of September 1894. + +His investigations occupied almost the whole field of science, including +physiology, physiological optics, physiological acoustics, chemistry, +mathematics, electricity and magnetism, meteorology and theoretical +mechanics. At an early age he contributed to our knowledge of the causes +of putrefaction and fermentation. In physiological science he +investigated quantitatively the phenomena of animal heat, and he was one +of the earliest in the field of animal electricity. He studied the +nature of muscular contraction, causing a muscle to record its movements +on a smoked glass plate, and he worked out the problem of the velocity +of the nervous impulse both in the motor nerves of the frog and in the +sensory nerves of man. In 1847 Helmholtz read to the Physical Society of +Berlin a famous paper, _Uber die Erhaltung der Kraft_ (on the +conservation of force), which became one of the epoch-making papers of +the century; indeed, along with J. R. Mayer, J. P. Joule and W. Thomson +(Lord Kelvin), he may be regarded as one of the founders of the now +universally received law of the conservation of energy. The year 1851, +while he was lecturing on physiology at Konigsberg, saw the brilliant +invention of the ophthalmoscope, an instrument which has been of +inestimable value to medicine. It arose from an attempt to demonstrate +to his class the nature of the glow of reflected light sometimes seen in +the eyes of animals such as the cat. When the great ophthalmologist, A. +von Grafe, first saw the fundus of the living human eye, with its optic +disc and blood-vessels, his face flushed with excitement, and he cried, +"Helmholtz has unfolded to us a new world!" Helmholtz's contributions to +physiological optics are of great importance. He investigated the +optical constants of the eye, measured by his invention, the +ophthalmometer, the radii of curvature of the crystalline lens for near +and far vision, explained the mechanism of accommodation by which the +eye can focus within certain limits, discussed the phenomena of colour +vision, and gave a luminous account of the movements of the eyeballs so +as to secure single vision with two eyes. In particular he revived and +gave new force to the theory of colour-vision associated with the name +of Thomas Young, showing the three primary colours to be red, green and +violet, and he applied the theory to the explanation of +colour-blindness. His great work on _Physiological Optics_ (1856-1866) +is by far the most important book that has appeared on the physiology +and physics of vision. Equally distinguished were his labours in +physiological acoustics. He explained accurately the mechanism of the +bones of the ear, and he discussed the physiological action of the +cochlea on the principles of sympathetic vibration. Perhaps his greatest +contribution, however, was his attempt to account for our perception of +quality of tone. He showed, both by analysis and by synthesis, that +quality depends on the order, number and intensity of the overtones or +harmonics that may, and usually do, enter into the structure of a +musical tone. He also developed the theory of differential and of +summational tones. His work on _Sensations of Tone_ (1862) may well be +termed the _principia_ of physiological acoustics. He may also be said +to be the founder of the fixed-pitch theory of vowel tones, according to +which it is asserted that the pitch of a vowel depends on the resonance +of the mouth, according to the form of the cavity while singing it, and +this independently of the pitch of the note on which the vowel is sung. +For the later years of his life his labours may be summed up under the +following heads: (1) On the conservation of energy; (2) on +hydro-dynamics; (3) on electro-dynamics and theories of electricity; (4) +on meteorological physics; (5) on optics; and (6) on the abstract +principles of dynamics. In all these fields of labour he made important +contributions to science, and showed himself to be equally great as a +mathematician and a physicist. He studied the phenomena of electrical +oscillations from 1869 to 1871, and in the latter year he announced that +the velocity of the propagation of electromagnetic induction was about +314,000 metres per second. Faraday had shown that the passage of +electrical action involved time, and he also asserted that electrical +phenomena are brought about by changes in intervening non-conductors or +dielectric substances. This led Clerk Maxwell to frame his theory of +electro-dynamics, in which electrical impulses were assumed to be +transmitted through the ether by waves. G. F. Fitzgerald was the first +to attempt to measure the length of electric waves; Helmholtz put the +problem into the hands of his favourite pupil, Heinrich Hertz, and the +latter finally gave an experimental demonstration of electromagnetic +waves, the "Hertzian waves," on which wireless telegraphy depends, and +the velocity of which is the same as that of light. The last +investigations of Helmholtz related to problems in theoretical +mechanics, more especially as to the relations of matter to the ether, +and as to the distribution of energy in mechanical systems. In +particular he explained the principle of least action, first advanced by +P. L. M. de Maupertuis, and developed by Sir W. R. Hamilton, of +quaternion fame. Helmholtz also wrote on philosophical and aesthetic +problems. His position was that of an empiricist, denying the doctrine +of innate ideas and holding that all knowledge is founded on experience, +hereditarily transmitted or acquired. + +The life of Helmholtz was uneventful in the usual sense. He was twice +married, first, in 1849, to Olga von Velten (by whom he had two +children, a son and daughter), and secondly, in 1861, to Anna von Mohl, +of a Wurtemberg family of high social position. Two children were born +of this marriage, a son, Robert, who died in 1889, after showing in +experimental physics indications of his father's genius, and a daughter, +who married a son of Werner von Siemens. Helmholtz was a man of simple +but refined tastes, of noble carriage and somewhat austere manner. His +life from first to last was one of devotion to science, and he must be +accounted, on intellectual grounds, one of the foremost men of the 19th +century. + + See L. Konigsberger, _Hermann von Helmholtz_ (1902; English + translation by F. A. Welby, Oxford, 1906); J. G. McKendrick, _H. L. F. + von Helmholtz_ (1899). (J. G. M.) + + + + +HELMOLD, an historian of the 12th century, was a priest at Bosau near +Plon. He was a friend of the two bishops of Oldenburg, Vicelin (d. 1154) +and Gerold (d. 1163), who did much to Christianize the Slavs. At Bishop +Gerold's instigation Helmold wrote his _Chronica Slavorum_, a history of +the conquest and conversion of the Slavonic countries from the time of +Charlemagne. For the life and times of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, +Helmold's chronicle, as that of a contemporary who had exceptional means +for gaining information, is of first-rate importance. The history was +continued down to 1209 by Abbot Arnold of Lubeck. + + The _Chronica_ were first edited by Siegmund Schorkel (Frankfort a. + M., 1556). The best edition is by J. M. Lappenberg in _Mon. Germ. + hist. scriptores_, xxi. (1869). For critical works on the _Chronica_ + see A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi_, s. "Helmoldus." + + + + +HELMOND, a town in the province of North Brabant, Holland, on the small +river Aa, and on the canal (Zuid-Willems Vaart) between 's Hertogenbosch +and Maastricht, 24(1/2) m. by rail W.N.W. of Venlo. It is connected by +steam tramway with 's Hertogenbosch (21 m. N.W.), a branch line +northwards to Osch being given off at Veghel. Pop. (1900) 11,465. The +castle of Helmond, built in 1402, is a beautiful specimen of +architecture, and among the other buildings of note in the town are the +spacious church of St Lambert, the Reformed church and the town hall. +Helmond is one of the industrial centres of the province, and possesses +over a score of factories for cotton and silk weaving, cotton printing, +dyeing, iron founding, brewing, soap boiling and tobacco dressing, as +well as engine works and a margarine factory. There is an art school in +the town. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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